Devotional Hindu Dance: A Return to the Sacred 3030706184, 9783030706180

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Devotional Hindu Dance: A Return to the Sacred
 3030706184, 9783030706180

Table of contents :
Preface
References
Contents
About the Author
List of Figures
Chapter 1: Introduction
Self-Study Research
My Dance Education
Natraj Center for the Performing Arts
Sadhanalaya School of Dance
RangaPravesam
Krishnarpanam
SwarLeena School of Dance
Affordability
Academic Scholarship
Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance
Teaching Through Dance Among Hindus
Access to Hindu Dance Education
References
Chapter 2: Religion and Culture in the History of Hindu Dance Education
Creation of Hindu Dance
Guru-Shishya System
Move from Sacred Teaching of Dance to Westernized Teaching
Indian and West Indian Dance Schools Today
The Natraj Center for the Performing Arts
Sadhanalaya School of Dance
The David Ali Dance Academy
Kalai Kaviri College of Fine Arts
Religion and Culture
Religion
Culture
Religion and Culture Intertwined
Returning to Sacred Hindu Dance
References
Chapter 3: Defining Devotional Hindu Dance
Bhakti, A Form of Devotion
Bhakti and the Bhakti Movement
Shri Hanumanji
Bhakti’s Role in Devotional Hindu Dance
Goal of Devotional Hindu Dance
Devotional Hindu Dancers Preparing to Dance
The Devotional Hindu Dancer Before the Dance
The Devotional Hindu Dancer During the Dance
The Devotional Hindu Dancer After the Dance
Viewers Viewing Devotional Dances
A Review of Bhakti
References
Chapter 4: Basics of Learning Devotional Hindu Dance
Prerequisites for Being My Student
Guru Dronaacharya and Ekalavya
Critical Questions
Preparing to Study Hinduism Through Dance
Dance Students Preparing to Learn Hindu Dance
Viewers Preparing to View Hindu Dances
Main Texts of Hindu Dance
Natya Shastra
Abhinaya Darpanam
Development of Choreography
Learning Another’s Choreography
Dance with Historicity
Dance with Rhythmic Patterns
Intentional Choreography
Unintentional Choreography
Satsanghs
Virtual Satsanghs
A Call to Philosophize and De-Orientalize
References
Chapter 5: Conclusion
Research Questions
Summary of Chapters
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Religion and Culture in the History of Hindu Dance Education
Chapter 3: Defining Devotional Hindu Dance
Chapter 4: Basics of Learning Devotional Hindu Dance
Contribution of Research
Limitations of Research
Criticisms
Implications
Future Research
References
Index

Citation preview

Devotional Hindu Dance A Return to the Sacred

Sabrina D. MisirHiralall

Devotional Hindu Dance “Dr. Sabrina D. MisirHiralall is a rare combination of academically based religious studies, education, and philosophy scholar who is an accomplished practitioner of Kuchipudi Hindu dance with a faith-based approach to Hinduism. She brings these qualities to bear on the topic of restoring Hindu dance from a corruption by colonialism to a postcolonial religious and devotional experience that more closely relates to the origins of Hindu dance. Through historical recounting and self-­ study, Dr. MisirHiralall makes a case for restoring the sacred in Hindu dance. All who read this text will benefit from understanding the need for a postcolonial awareness that comprehends the complexities of religion and culture.” —Michael D. Waggoner, Professor of Postsecondary Education, University of Northern Iowa, and Editor of Religion & Education “Through a postcolonial self-study, Dr. Sabrina D. MisirHiralall challenges conceptions of Hindu dance as “culture” as she reclaims Hindu dance as a form of sacred devotional practice, with ontological rather than just epistemological implications. In this book, Devotional Hindu Dance: A Return to the Sacred, Dr. MisirHiralall also challenges Cartesian assumptions of the split between mental and physical realms. She illustrates how embodied knowledge and movement can illuminate important distinctions between religion and culture.” —Vanessa de Oliveira Andreotti, Professor and Canada Research Chair in Race, Inequalities and Global Change, The University of British Columbia, Canada “Devotional Hindu Dance: A Return to the Sacred stands at the cutting-edge of numerous directions in the study of religion and with our work as public intellectuals to cultivate the common good. Within her creative matrix, Dr. Sabrina D. MisirHiralall is part of the energy of de-colonialism which deepens and unveils the ocean of wisdom from the study of Hinduism. Indeed, she is doing something urgent and necessary: providing a pathway for all of us to follow into the work of constructive and regenerative engagement with and within the traditions of Hinduism. As a Hindu scholar/practitioner, Dr. MisirHiralall grounds this trailblazing work within her ancestral rooting as a scholar and practitioner of Hindu sacred dance. Drawing upon the theopoetics of sacred embodiment and the devotional rhythms of dancing for the Divine, in combination with a dynamic decolonial approach, Dr. MisirHiralall provides us with a text which allows the reader to encounter Hinduism in an unexpected and original fashion.” —Christopher Fici, Instructor, Religious Studies Department, Iona College, and Co-Director of Sacred Ecology Forum, USA

Sabrina D. MisirHiralall

Devotional Hindu Dance A Return to the Sacred

Sabrina D. MisirHiralall Montclair State University Montclair, NJ, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-70618-0    ISBN 978-3-030-70619-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70619-7 © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the ­publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and ­institutional affiliations. Cover pattern © Melisa Hasan This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Om Satchitananda Rupaaya I dedicate this text to the feet of Satchitanand (Supreme Being). My accomplishments are only through the blessings of Satchitanand. Matridevo Bhava I offer salutations to the feet of my mother. Pitridevo Bhava I offer salutations to the feet of my father. Acharyadevo Bhava I offer salutations to the feet of my Guru. Atithidevo Bhava I offer salutations to the feet of Guests, who are the readers of this text. —Taittiriya Upanishad I especially dedicate this text to my mother, Choondai “Sonadai” Misir Hoobraj. Mommy, may your soul always have the blessings of Satchitanand. Thank you for all of the sacrifices you made for me throughout my entire life. Please forgive me for my flaws and bless me always. I love you, mommy.

Preface

Every morning when my mother awakens, she prays to the Supreme Being. I remember being a little girl and sitting on my mother’s lap as she prayed in the morning. My mother took me to mandir (temple) every Sunday morning during my childhood. Furthermore, my mother drove from New Jersey to New York weekly to take me to and from dance classes when I began my formal Hindu dance education as a young girl. I am beyond grateful for all of the sacrifices my mother made to ensure that I know and love the Supreme Being. Overall, I grew up in a devotional home with an atmosphere of love. I remember a plaque that hung in my mother’s kitchen in my childhood home. The plaque stated, “A house is made of brick and stone but a home is made of love alone.” This best describes my home. I have always lived in a place sanctified with love for family who unite to worship the Supreme Being. The COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 caused many mandirs (temples) to close their doors to the public for the safety of devotees. Several mandirs began to hold satsanghs (religious gatherings) through a virtual platform. My brother, Pt.1 Bhisham Malcolm “Jito” Misir, held a weekly Sunday morning satsangh on YouTube. I decided to create a Facebook account, which granted me access to attend many virtual satsanghs. I soon began to attend the Dharma Vani satsanghs of the Radha Krishna Mandir in 1  This term is difficult to translate. Essentially, a pandit is a religious leader who officiates pujas (religious worship) and provides spiritual counsel to devotees. Pandits are similar to priests, ministers, and pastors, but yet these terms do not adequately define the term “pandit.”

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Georgetown, Guyana, where Pt. Rudranauth Sharma, my Raksha Bandhan2 brother, serves as the pandit. Also, I started to witness the live virtual satsanghs of the Hindu Dharmic Sabha Mandir, Inc. of the United States, where my mamoo3 Seetaram “Sonny” Ganesh along with my Raksha Bandhan brother Shakey Deo Sukhai sing bhajans. On Tuesday evenings, I would sing the Shri Hanuman Chalisa virtually with members of the Shaanti Bhavan Mandir, where Pt. Manoj Deokarran Jadubans, Pt. Dipak Rambharose, and Pt. Ravi Rattan serve as pandits. Pt. Hardat Ashwar shared 150  Days of Shanti Satsangh virtually from the Bhavani Shankar Mandir of Brampton, Ontario in Canada. I always had a desire to dance at satsanghs when I hear devotional music, particularly when the pandits chant mantras and sing with hearts of devotion. However, dance no longer occurs regularly at satsanghs, even though dance once had a crucial role. Being a virtual attendee at the satsanghs granted me the chance to dance to my heart’s content in the privacy of my own home. During the virtual satsanghs, I would dance and dance and dance. I soon began to think about the problems with dance that I encountered throughout my lifetime within a Hindu community. I danced at several religious and cultural events, where I often felt reduced to a cultural object of entertainment. It is evident to me that viewers of the dance need to develop a basic understanding of the origin and purpose of Hindu dance. Viewers ought to view Hindu dances with a sacred gaze (Morgan, 2005). Moreover, Hindu dancers must develop a framework of Hindu dance based on Hindu scriptures. I frequently see Hindu dances by dancers that habitually betray the sacredness of Hinduism, which disturbs me significantly. I acknowledge that my role as an educator is to shed light on the sacredness of Hindu dance and help individuals develop religious literacy of Hinduism. I focus primarily on teaching non-Hindus in my first text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance (MisirHiralall, 2017), which develops directly from my larger dissertation research. In this current text, Devotional Hindu Dance: A Return to the Sacred, I place attention on teaching primarily Hindus about Hinduism 2  Hindus frequently celebrate a special day called Raksha Bandhan. On this day, a sister may adopt a brother by tying a symbolic thread known as a rakhi around the brother’s wrist. A rakhi is similar to a friendship bracelet. The sister honors the brother in many ways. The brother promises to protect the sister always. 3  “Mamoo” is the term used to describe an individual’s mother’s brother. This term essentially means uncle.

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through Hindu dance. I do not mean to create a dichotomy between non-­ Hindus and Hindus. In fact, I urge non-Hindus to read this text because they will learn about Hinduism. Hindus ought to read my abovementioned text, since it provides foundational insight on Hinduism. The reason I developed these undeniably intertwining projects as separate texts is because each text has a distinct pedagogical goal. Non-Hindus do not approach the text with a theological perspective based on Hinduism. Thus, I focus on teaching Hinduism academically in Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance (MisirHiralall, 2017) as I shed light on the problems that I encountered when dancing primarily among non-Hindus. Hindus maintain a faith-­ based theological stance that stems from Hinduism. Therefore, my goal in this current project is to enrich the education and worship of faith-based Hindus while simultaneously teaching non-Hindus about Hinduism. Moreover, I focus on addressing the current problems with Hindu dance education in this text. As I wrote this text, I developed more insight into who I am, where I come from, and where I am going. These are philosophical questions that I will always ponder throughout my life’s journey. I am first and foremost a child of the Supreme Being. In my first text, I state, If asked who am I, I would answer first by saying that I am a child of a Supreme Being. For me, as I think of a Cosmic Father and a Cosmic Mother who are both Ardhanarishvar (One), I would say that I am a child of Shivaji (The Śiva-purāṇa, 1969), the Supreme Being in Hinduism who is the Cosmic Father and Durga Devi Ma (Vijnanananda, 1986) who is the Cosmic Mother. This means that everything else beyond being a cosmic human daughter is temporary for this life span. I do not aim to say that I am a celestial being but rather what I am saying is that foremost, I acknowledge that I come from a Supreme Being and hope to merge back to a Supreme Being upon death. I strongly believe that my life has a meaningful purpose that is tied to my ancestry, which is why I was born into the home chosen for me by the Supreme Being. (MisirHiralall, 2017, p. 1)

I come from the Supreme Being and hope to attain moksha (liberation) as I merge back to the Supreme Being upon death. This text is my attempt to serve as a representative of the Supreme Being. I humbly ask the Supreme Being to please bless me throughout my life. The Supreme Being guides me through the journey of life. I seek the blessings of my parents, in-laws, and my deceased father. My father’s soul always spiritually blesses

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me. I request the blessings of my brother, who is a Brahman-born pandit, and my bouji (sister-in-law). I ask for the blessings of my husband. I appeal to my ancestors and my family members to bless me. I seek the blessings of my Diksha Guru and my Gurumaa. I began to write this manuscript when I was pregnant with my first child Devin D. Hiralall. I worked on several drafts of this text during my pregnancy and also while caring for my newborn baby. I am incredibly blessed that I was able to place attention on my scholarship while being a new mommy. My son was a wonderful baby, who allowed me to pursue this text. I also had the help of my supportive husband, Dinesh R. Hiralall, who provided me with quiet time to engage in my research. I am very thankful to my husband for supporting me with my life goals. In addition, I must acknowledge my professors and colleagues who provide endless support for my scholarship. Tyson Lewis is a lifelong mentor of mine who inspires me to pursue my goals as a scholar. Even though I graduated from the doctoral program with my degree, Tyson still advises me, teaches me, and helps me to navigate academia. David Benfield, professor emeritus of the once-joint Department of Philosophy and Religion, read this manuscript in draft form. His feedback helped me significantly. David is a lifelong mentor who always asks me critical questions that help me to gain clarity on my scholarship. Krishna Kishore Dasa (Christopher Fici) conversed with me about Diksha Gurus and Siksha Gurus as we discussed the Guru-shishya educational system. I am grateful to all of my students, who endlessly encourage me to pursue my scholarship. It is rare that educators meet students who do not leave them upon graduation. I am very privileged to be a student who has lifelong mentors and also fortunate to be a lifelong mentor to many students who have not left my side. My professors display genuine care for me and I too sincerely care for my students. Life has taught me that there is a need to move past the “us” versus “them” mentality that divisions of religion and culture frequently cause. Social harmony is possible if all of humanity focuses on caring for the well-being of one another with love. Interreligious and intercultural relations play a crucial role in uniting humanity. With this in mind, I ask that you please read this text critically with a philosophical lens that aims to understand Hinduism and move beyond the illusionary boundaries of Hindus and non-Hindus plus the East and the West. I offer this text as a guide to understand Hinduism through Hindu dance in a manner that unites humanity. My hope is that this text

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will enrich the faith-based practices of Hindus and also non-Hindus will consider how they may participate in Hinduism among Hindus with sensitivity to Hinduism in mind while maintaining fidelity to their own religious and/or philosophical identity. On this note, I humbly present Devotional Hindu Dance: A Return to the Sacred with a heart filled with love and devotion. Colonia, NJ

Sabrina D. MisirHiralall

References MisirHiralall, S.  D. (2017). Confronting Orientalism: A self-study of educating through Hindu dance. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Morgan, D. (2005). The Sacred Gaze: Religious Visual Culture in Theory and Practice. Berkeley: University of California Press. The Śiva-Purāṇa. (1969). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Vijnanananda. (1986). The Srimad Devi Bhagawatam. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corp.

Contents

1 Introduction  1 2 Religion and Culture in the History of Hindu Dance Education 29 3 Defining Devotional Hindu Dance 61 4 Basics of Learning Devotional Hindu Dance 95 5 Conclusion117 Index

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About the Author

Sabrina  D.  MisirHiralall defend ed her dissertation in the Pedagogy and Philosophy program at Montclair State University. Dr. MisirHiralall published a book  entitled Confronting Orientalism: A SelfStudy of Educating Through Hindu Dance. In the text, Dr. MisirHiralall focuses on how she uses Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance to educate primarily non-­ Hindus about Hinduism with postcolonial realities in mind. Dr. MisirHiralall aims to develop a de-Orientalized postcolonial pedagogy to confront Orientalism and the long legacy of colonization. Together with Dr. Christopher Fici and Dr. Gerald Vigna, she edited Religious Studies Scholars as Public Intellectuals for the Routledge in Religion Series. In addition, Dr. MisirHiralall published several journal articles in peer-reviewed journals. The RangPravesam marked the start of her dance career. She had the lead role in Krishnarpanam and holds the title of Natya Tilakam, which was given to her by dance guru, Smt. Sadhana Paranji. She was the solo featured performer in Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance at Montclair State University in April 2013. Dr. MisirHiralall taught in elementary schools and also worked as a literacy consultant. At New Jersey City University, she taught xv

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undergraduate and graduate students in the Elementary and Secondary Education Department. She also taught for the Philosophy and Religion Department. In addition, she taught philosophy courses and student success courses part time at Middlesex County College (MCC). Dr. MisirHiralall received the Adjunct Faculty Excellence in Teaching Award in 2015 from MCC.  In the past, she has taught at several institutions, including Rutgers University, Bergen County Community College, and the University of South Carolina Aiken. She teaches as an online adjunct professor in the Educational Foundations Department and the Religion Department at Montclair State University. She also teaches philosophy and religion courses online for Three Rivers Community College and St. John’s University. She serves as an  associate editor for  the blog of the American Philosophical Association. Dr. MisirHiralall is frequently invited to lecture and dance in higher education, as she presents on Hinduism with postcolonialism in mind. She is a member of the American Education Research Association, the American Academy of Religion, and the American Philosophical Association. Books 2018 Editors, MisirHiralall, S., Fici. C., Vigna. J. Religious Studies Scholars as Public Intellectuals. New  York: Routledge Studies in Religion Series. 2017 Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles 2018 Dillard-Wright, D. and MisirHiralall, S. Too Much and Too Little: Understanding the Water Crisis in the Indian Subcontinent. Environment, Space, Place, 10/2: 128–146. 2018  (Un)Dressing to Unveil a Spiritual Self. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 52/3: 23–42 2017 The Theological Misappropriation of Christianity as a Civilizing Force. Journal of Research on Christian Education, 26/2: 79–104. 2017 The Postcolonial Pedagogical Challenge of Creativity. Religion and Education, 44/2: 1–18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1550739 4.2017.1335561

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2016 Re-Envisioning Contemplative Pedagogy Through Self-Study. Teacher Learning and Professional Development, 1/2: 84–96. 2015 Mindfulness as a Pedagogical Tool: Kuchipudi Indian Classical Hindu Dance. The Arts in Religious and Theological Studies (ARTS) Journal, 27/1: 33–39. 2014 The Postcolonial Reality of Using the Term ‘Liturgical’ to Describe Hindu Dance. Journal of Research on Christian Education, 23/2: 154–175. 2013 Dance as Portrayed in the Media. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 47/3: 72–95.

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Here, I offer devotional mantras (prayers) before engaging in Kuchipudi dance during my RangaPravesam 9 Fig. 1.2 Here, I stand in a dance pose at Bayonne High School before my RangaPravesam after engaging in the contemplative dressing process for the event. Even before I began to dance on that day, I felt that I experienced a heavenly realm. It was as if a profound sense of peace filled my entire being as I prepared for the dances 11 Fig. 3.1 My dance posture portrays my sacred Ghungaroos, which I dance with 80 Fig. 4.1 Here are a few of my dedicated philosophy students at the lecture and dance presentation at Middlesex County College in New Jersey. From left to right: Miles Firestine, Rigo Gutierrez, myself, Ben Lander, Elyse Gabel, and Shenne Dugtong 105

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Introduction

Abstract  As I embark on this self-study, I explore several research questions. How do my life experiences position me as an inevitable educator of Hinduism through Hindu dance? With postcolonialism in mind, how can I move Hindu dance back from a Westernized stage performance to a sacred, devotional art that provokes a devotional experience while keeping in mind the un-static nature of religion and culture? What are the key components of devotional Hindu dance? How can individuals engage in devotional Hindu dance to enrich worship, whether as dancers or as viewers of the dance? How can I work to develop and teach devotional Hindu dance choreography to individuals who do not have a framework of Hindu dance? These questions arise as a part of my self-study research. Keywords  Natraj Center for the Performing Arts • Sadhanalaya School of Dance • RangaPravesam • Krishnarpanam • SwarLeena School of Dance • Postcolonialism • Orientalism • Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance We live in the age of Kali Yug (Selbie & Steinmetz, 2010) where maya (illusion) is present in a heightened sense. Because of maya, people develop the vices of kaam (lust), krodh (anger), lobh (greed), moh (attachment), and ahankar (ego) (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991). These inner demons have the potential to prevent individuals from attaining moksha (liberation), © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. D. MisirHiralall, Devotional Hindu Dance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70619-7_1

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upon death, which is the ultimate goal of Hindus. Hindu dance has the power to confront maya and pave the path toward moksha for both the dancer and the viewers of the dance. For this reason, I aim to teach individuals about Hinduism through Hindu dance in a manner that helps them to connect to the Supreme Being on a trail toward moksha. In addition, I will teach dance to those who wholeheartedly wish to learn as they move toward moksha while dancing. As I embark on this ongoing self-study project, I explore several research questions. How do my life experiences position me as an inevitable educator of Hinduism through Hindu dance? The destructive tendencies of colonialism caused a shift in Hindu dance from a sacred, devotional art to a Westernized stage performance. How can I move Hindu dance back from a Westernized stage performance to a sacred, devotional art that provokes a religious, devotional experience while keeping in mind the un-static nature of religion and culture? What are the key components of devotional Hindu dance that may lead to a devotional experience? How can individuals begin to engage in devotional Hindu dance to enrich worship, whether as dancers or as viewers of the dance? How can I work to develop and teach devotional Hindu dance choreography to individuals who do not have a framework of Hindu dance? These questions arise as a part of my self-study research.

Self-Study Research Self-study research is a viable philosophical, educational research method that focuses on studying the practices of oneself with the goal of improvement-­ aimed pedagogy (LaBoskey, 2004; Loughran, 2004; Tidwell & Fitzgerald, 2004). My method for self-study develops from my initial dissertation research project, which focused on how I educate primarily non-Hindus in higher education about Hinduism with postcolonialism in mind. Essentially, I maintain a self-study journal of my dance experiences where I am very vulnerable and brutally honest with myself. For this project, I reflected on selected dance experiences where I danced primarily among Hindus. This was challenging because I developed my self-study journal for this project years after my dance experiences. In my self-study journal, I philosophize about specific questions that help me to think about how to teach primarily Hindus about Hinduism through dance. The questions include the following:

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• Who invited me to dance? • Why was I invited to dance? • Where did the dance occur? • When did I dance? • How did I prepare to dance? • Who are the viewers of the dance? • Do the viewers of the dance have background knowledge of Hinduism? • How can I build the knowledge of the viewers through the dance? • What is the length of time that I had to dance? • What did I experience as I dance? • What did I sense from the viewers? • How did a postcolonial reality influence the space in which I dance? • How did the dance influence me afterward? • What sensations did I feel after the dance? • Would I return to this space to dance again? I share my dance journal with my Peer Scholars,1 who converse with me about my reflections. I explain the term Peer Scholar in my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance as I state, I contribute terminology to the self-study literature. While the term “critical friend” is commonly used in self-study, I use the term “Peer Scholar.” The term “Peer Scholar” seems more appropriate to me than “critical friend.” “Critical friend” seems to place a power emphasis on the type of “friend” that helps with research. The term “critical” gives this “friend” power to deliberate about the research. Also, there is a hidden dynamic to what constitutes the notion of a “friend.” This implies that a “critical friend” is a “friend.” However, this may not be the case. On the contrary, “Peer Scholar” is a less combative, confrontational term that describes a trusted, scholarly colleague. I prefer to use the term “Peer Scholar(s)” to describe the individuals that I trust enough to make myself completely vulnerable with as I share all the aspects of my research. With my Peer Scholars, I do not sense a power dynamic between us but rather I feel that I am in a safe environment where I can let go of all of my concerns. I urge self-study researchers to consider the term “Peer Scholars” in future self-study research projects. (MisirHiralall, 2017, p. 170) 1  My Peer Scholars for this project choose to remain anonymous. They are academic scholars of philosophy and religion.

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The deliberations with my Peer Scholars help me to philosophize further and reflect on my research questions for this philosophical project. It is important to deliberate with others in a scholarly manner because this is a key component of self-study research that helps to prevent illusions (LaBoskey, 2004). As I mentioned in my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance (MisirHiralall, 2017), my self-study project is lifelong. It does not have an end because I will always reflect on self-improvement. However, for this particular part of my ongoing self-­ study, I must pay attention to how I develop pedagogy to teach about Hinduism through dance especially among Hindus. Furthermore, I aim to teach those who wish to learn to dance devotionally. In addition, I hope to teach viewers of the dance about Hinduism through devotional Hindu dance. While some of these individuals may wish to engage in a devotional experience, I do not demand that they have a devotional experience if they simply aspire to learn about Hinduism through dance. Ultimately, my goal is to share my identity as a devotional Hindu dancer to teach about Hinduism. With these pedagogical goals in mind, I engage in self-study research to improve my pedagogy as I teach whether in or outside of academia. When I noticed that I  dance devotional Hindu dance in my mind during satsanghs,2 I discussed this with my Peer Scholars. I began to explore the following questions in my self-study journal: • What prompted me to dance in my mind? • What did I experience as I closed my eyes and danced for the Supreme Being? • How did I develop the dances in my mind? • How could I place intention on developing choreography for the dance? • What are my goals as a Hindu dancer for my own self-development? • What are my pedagogical goals as an educator? My Peer Scholars and I essentially started to converse about how I develop the dances, what my goals are as a Hindu dancer who serves as an educator, and how I could manifest these goals. I began to place intention on 2

 Satsanghs essentially refers to communal worship.

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choreographing devotional Hindu dance. As I engaged in choreography, I deliberated with my Peer Scholars. I consider it necessary to relate parts of my life experiences throughout this chapter as I begin to explore my research questions. In Chap. 1 of my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance (MisirHiralall, 2017), I discuss who I am, my family background, and how my childhood influences my identity as a Kuchipudi Indian Classical Hindu dancer and educator. Thus, I will not repeat myself in this text with reiteration. However, I will further relate how my life experiences shape my identity. This will position myself as a self-study researcher as I share how my personal background influences this self-­study. I now turn to share the history of my dance education to shed light on my personal experiences.

My Dance Education Natraj Center for the Performing Arts I was twelve years old when I began to learn the formal art of Hindu dance. My formal dance education began when I became a student of the Natraj Dance Group, now known as the Natraj Center for the Performing Arts.3 My mother traveled from Bayonne, New Jersey each week on Saturday to Queens, New York. We often would sit in traffic on the way to and from New York for about one and a half to two hours. My class was only one hour at the time. It was very costly throughout the years because in addition to the gas and toll that were a part of the traveling expenses, the fees for the dance classes seemed to increase each year. During the early years of my dance education, I learned Bharatnatyam4 Indian classical Hindu dance (Suresh, 2006) and Bollywood dance. Bollywood (Bose, 2008) is the Indian version of Hollywood that is filled with glitz and glamour as a part of Indian pop culture. Although I did perform Bollywood dances, these dances did not appeal to me. I was always more of a spiritual dancer who enjoyed connecting to the Supreme 3  This is a West Indian dance school. By West Indian, I do not mean the Western part of India. Instead, West Indian refers to certain parts of the Caribbean, which include Guyana in South America as well as Trinidad and Tobago. In my text Confronting Orientalism: A SelfStudy of Educating Through Hindu Dance, I mention in the first chapter how indentured servitude caused many Indians, including my ancestors, to migrate from India to West Indian countries. 4  Bharatnatyam is also known as Bharata Natyam.

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Being through dance as a form of devotion. For this reason, after about three years, the administrators and my teacher at the time at Natraj, didi (sister)5 Teshrie Kalicharan, suggested to my mother that I enroll in the Sadhanalaya School of Dance.6 Smt.7 Sadhana Paranji was the Indian classical Hindu dance teacher of the teachers of Natraj at that point in time. Sadhanalaya School of Dance My mother contacted Smt. Sadhana Paranji and arranged for the first class. Smt. Sadhana Paranji explained that before the class begins, we have to perform prayers with her on that day and I have to accept her (informally)8 as my dance guru. My mother and I ventured on a longer drive to Fresh Meadows, New  York for my first one-on-one class session. When we arrived, Smt. Sadhana Paranji and I engaged in prayers to Shri Natraji9 followed by my first class. The fees were much more expensive than Natraj, but my mother made the sacrifice to pay for my dance education. RangaPravesam After several years, Smt. Sadhana Paranji informed my mother that I was ready for my RangaPravesam (MisirHiralall, 2004), which means to “ascend the stage,” A RangaPravesam is essentially a Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance graduation where the dancer debuts professionally, in the presence of her dance guru, as an educated scholar and dancer. Usually, the dancer dances several renditions to a live orchestra. The RangaPravesam is a free performance for family, friends, and the community. It is very costly to host a RangaPravesam. At the time, I was just beginning my career as an educator. I taught second grade in Bayonne,  I refer to Ms. Teshrie Kalicharan as “didi,” which means sister, as a form of respect.  This is an Indian dance school. Smt. Sadhana Paranji was born and raised in South India. She migrated to America as an adult. 7  This is the abbreviation for Srimati, which means Mrs. 8  This is not the same as the sacred Guru Diksha Sanskaar of Hinduism. Instead, this is an informal acceptance of Smt. Sadhana Paranji as my dance guru meaning that there were no sacred religious vows taken. No puja or havan was performed. Only prayers were offered. A pandit was not present. Moreover, a dance guru is not the same as the Gurus of the Guru Diksha Sanskaar. 9  There is One Supreme Being in Hinduism who manifests in many forms, at many times, and for many purposes. Shri Natraji, is the manifestation of the Supreme Being in the male form of Shiva, the deity of dance. 5 6

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New Jersey. My mother and I lived in Woodbridge, New Jersey during that time. After a long day of work, my mother and I would venture two to three times a week to New York in the late evening for two to three hours of rehearsals. It was challenging to pay the expensive traveling fees and class fees. Thankfully, my mother supported my goals and paid for the expenses. Since I was working full time as a public school teacher, I helped with the costs. Before embarking on the preparations for my RangaPravesam, Smt. Sadhana Paranji wrote a letter to my mother informing her of the fees. I consider it necessary to share some of the costs of my RangaPravesam because it points to the accessibility of a formal dance education such as this. The classes and rehearsals for a RangaPravesam usually vary from student to student depending on the dances. For my RangaPravesam, the tuition costs were thousands of dollars. The orchestra costs were intense because it included $600.00 for the vocalist, $600.00 for the mridangam (drum) player, and $350.00 for the violin player, which included both the dress rehearsals and the dance graduation. There was also a fee for the keyboard and flute player, but I did not have this as a part of my RangaPravesam due to the costs. In addition, my mother served dinner to the orchestra members during the dress rehearsals. We offered gifts to the orchestra members plus the payment on the day of the RangaPravesam. Other expenses included the theatre rental, insurance for the theatre, costumes, makeup, jewelry, flowers, photography, videography, the invitations, brochures, and other miscellaneous expenses. When done sincerely, the preparations for the RangaPravesam will bring peace and prosperity to the dancer who makes these offerings with devotion. The wealth spent on the preparations will bless the individuals who receive the monetary fees, as it will help to sustain their livelihood. The dancer, who is a devotee, will receive blessings for the sincere offering. My mother endured a great deal of expenses to ensure that I received a formal10 Indian classical Hindu dance education. I am beyond grateful for the opportunity to study Indian classical Hindu dance. My dance education elevated my spiritual level and brought me to my current scholarship. However, I do not believe that individuals who wish to study Indian classical Hindu dance should endure such expensive fees. With the 10  I use the term formal to refer to the kind of dance education that involves a dance guru who teaches traditional Indian classical Hindu dance in a formal dance school. Students who receive a formal Hindu dance education often perform on stage.

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abovementioned fees in mind, my goal is to provide access to an informal11 Indian classical Hindu dance education to individuals who wish to learn regardless of their socioeconomic background. I am not saying that a formal dance education is not valuable. What I am saying is that I wish to offer an alternative to those who desire to study Indian classical Hindu dance but might face financial difficulty to learn such an expensive art. As I mentioned, I am extremely thankful that I received a formal Indian classical Hindu dance education and embarked on the journey of my RangaPravesam. Despite the financial difficulties, it was a joyous, rewarding, spiritual experience. As I learned each dance, I moved deeper into studying the background of the dance. For instance, I ventured into comprehending the message of each verse of the sacred Shri Hanuman Ashtakam as I learned the dance. My Guruji, Pt.12 Maheshvar Tiwari taught me about Satyabhama as I learned the Bhama Kalapam dance because I had many questions about Satyabhama. Thus, I took charge of my dance education as I focused on the religious and spiritual aspect instead of the financial expenses. I did not feel pressured to perfect the technical aspects of the dances although my dance guru rehearsed me with perfection in mind. My dance guru is a stellar dancer with a remarkable technique who teaches her students to excel to be the best that they can be. On the day of the RangaPravesam, my brother, Pt. Bhisham Malcolm “Jito” Misir performed havan13 on the stage of the Alexander X.  O’Connor Auditorium at Bayonne High School in Bayonne, New Jersey before the curtains opened. The Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 11  I use the term informal to refer to the kind of dance education that does not necessarily involve a traditional dance curriculum. I teach informally to those who wish to learn Indian classical Hindu dance. As I teach, I do not necessarily focus on teaching traditional Bharatnatyam or Kuchipudi dances. Since I teach students with the goal of helping them elevate their spiritual level and helping them to connect to the Supreme Being, I focus on devotional Hindu dance, which I consider to be informal since it does not require professional training. The goal is not to be professional but rather the goal is to be devotional. For this reason, I do not teach students for the purpose of having them perform on stage. I teach for the purpose of helping students become in tune with their innermost self as they connect to the Supreme Being. 12  This term is difficult to translate. Essentially, a pandit is a religious leader who officiates pujas (religious worship) and provides spiritual counsel to devotees. Pandits are similar to priests, ministers, and pastors, but yet these terms do not adequately define the term “pandit.” 13  Havan is a Vedic ritual that is less complex than a lengthy puja. A lengthy puja includes havan but a havan does not include a lengthy puja. Instead, a havan includes slokas (prayers) and offerings to Agni Dev who Fire represents. The prayers and havan that I performed for my RangaPravesam was my puja.

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2000), which is the Veda on the ethics of Hindu dance, states that dancers need to engage in worship on the stage before the performance: Those who offer the adoration in accordance with conventions shall definitely attain splendid wealth and heavenly pleasures later. (BharataMuni, 2000, p. 10)

Essentially, my mother, my dance guru, my brother, and I performed puja (religious worship) on the very stage that I prepared to dance on. I surrendered myself to the feet of the Supreme Being as I offered the dances humbly with love and devotion (Fig. 1.1). Fig. 1.1  Here, I offer devotional mantras (prayers) before engaging in Kuchipudi dance during my RangaPravesam

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My mother, along with several mothers from the Sadhanalaya School of Dance together with a few of my close friends, helped me to get dressed backstage for the performance. I am grateful to the individuals backstage who cared for me during the RangaPravesam as I danced eight intricate Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dances. In between dances, when I would go backstage for a few minutes, my friend had water with a straw and made sure that I was hydrated. She held the bottle of water for me and demanded that I drink the water from the straw. My mother along with the mothers who clothed me had me stand still as they took care of all of the clothing, jewelry, and dance ornaments on my body. My dearest friend, Kamla Singh, now Kamla Singh-Ramoutar, cared for my makeup. There was no commotion backstage whatsoever even though there was a great deal of intricacy to the costumes, makeup, jewelry, and dance ornaments. We engaged in mindfulness backstage although I did not know this at the time. I write about mindfulness before, during, and after the dance in my article, Mindfulness as a Pedagogical Tool: Kuchipudi Indian Classical Hindu Dance (MisirHiralall, 2015) (Fig. 1.2). When I danced, I felt that I was in a heavenly realm and not on Earth. The stage was my heavenly arena where I surrendered to the Supreme Being as I danced with a heart full of love. Katherine Zubko relates the loss of self that Hindu dancers often experiences. She writes, The cycling of perspectives between devotee and deity, and within a devotee in contact with and then longing to be near that deity, helps to blur the lines between divine and human points of view. This is a powerful experience both to the performer who embodies these shifting perspectives within herself, as well as for an audience that has an opportunity to have a vision of a manifestation of the divine danced into being. Many dancers recount performances where there is a “loss of self” through which they learned something deep about the devotee-divine relationship, which had an impact on their lives beyond the stage. (Zubko, 2016, p. 74)

Zubko eloquently expresses what I experienced. It was as if all that existed was my connection to the Supreme Being. I longed to connect to the Supreme Being and felt such an intense connection as I danced. This blurred the lines between the spirituality that I experienced in a heavenly arena and the earthly nature of the stage. I portrayed the transformation of characters that I embodied with a turn as I danced. Ultimately, I did not feel that I was “Sabrina” but rather felt that I experienced a loss of self as

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Fig. 1.2  Here, I stand in a dance pose at Bayonne High School before my RangaPravesam after engaging in the contemplative dressing process for the event. Even before I began to dance on that day, I felt that I experienced a heavenly realm. It was as if a profound sense of peace filled my entire being as I prepared for the dances

I surrendered as a devotee to the Supreme Being. For this reason, I often refer to myself as “the dancer” because I humbly surrender my entire self to the Supreme Being as I dance. I sensed that the viewers acknowledged my devotion to the Supreme Being that radiated through dance. The reaction of the viewers throughout the dances causes me to believe that they endured a religious and/or spiritual experience. They applauded not only at the end of each dance but also during particular scenes of each dance. I saw their smiles that glistened in the darkened theatre. The occurrence of my RangaPravesam stays with me regardless of my current positionality in life. When I think back to the experience, my entire being feels spiritually cleansed through the devotion that I familiarly experience. Throughout my RangaPravesam, I felt my father’s soul clothed in white garments sitting cross-legged at the top of the theatre in front of the stage. My father passed away when I was very young. Through my

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phenomenology, I sensed that my father’s soul was smiling at me, blessing me, and enjoying the dances that connected to the Supreme Being. Ironically, when my Guruji14 Pt. Maheshwar Tiwari spoke as the Chief Guest, Guruji said that he felt my father’s soul was present and smiling down at me. I remember feeling chills throughout my body coupled with a profound sense of joy to hear that my Guruji also sensed my father’s presence. The viewers of my RangaPravesam seemed to radiate happiness toward me as I danced on the stage, which was my mandir (temple). It is customary to stand during the Mangalam, also known as the aarti. This signifies the conclusion of the event. All of the attendees stood by their seats as many of them sang and clapped their hands to the melodious aarti, Jai Shiva Omkaara, that my brother sang as I danced. Zubko discusses the tendency of viewers of the dance to acknowledge the dance as an experience of darsan:15 Audience members also acknowledge that they are experiencing a type of darsan when they perform anjalis held above their heads instead of, or along with, clapping. These instances affirm devotional understandings of bhakti rasa. (Zubko, 2016, p. 74)

The “anjalis” that Zubko refers to are clasped hands that pray to the Supreme Being, which often affirms bhakti (devotion). After the Mangalam, I gave my Vote of Thanks on stage. Then, I walked to the middle of the stage to venture down the steps. My heart warmed as a long line formed with most of the attendees. They unexpectedly showered me with gifts, cards, flowers, and so much more. I experienced tears of joy because the entire event was a dream come true. It was an incredible honor to have the privilege to dance in a religious and spiritual setting as I shared Hinduism through dance with the attendees. In addition, I sensed a great deal of respect and appreciation from the attendees who showered me with love on that day. It is important to note that this was a free performance with invited guests. The attendees were family and friends who knew me personally.  I completed the sacred Guru Diksha Sanskaar with Pt. Maheshwar Tiwari.  Darsan is a complex Sanskrit term to translate. It involves beholding the Supreme Being. The devotee attains a glimpse of the Supreme Being and the Supreme Being blesses the devotee. 14 15

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My RangaPravesam was one of the most powerful religious and spiritual experiences of my life. I am blessed that the strain of the financial expenses did not taint the day of the RangaPravesam for me. I imagine that some students are not as fortunate as I was. In fact, some students may experience severe body image issues from the pressures of perfection that many dance teachers strive for. These dancers may focus so much on the technical aspects of the dance that they may miss the opportunity to delve into the philosophical study of Hindu scriptures. At any rate, my mother invited family and friends who were devotees of the Supreme Being, and I sensed that these attendees showered blessings wholeheartedly upon me. The event was not open to the general public, which I believe had an impact on the intensity of my religious and spiritual experience. As invited devotees, I sense that these individuals connected to the Supreme Being through the dances. This may not always be the case, especially if the event is open to the public at large. Krishnarpanam A few years after my RangaPravesam, I decided to present a theatrical performance for the West Indian16 Hindu community. I personally hosted Krishnarpanam (2006), at St. Peter’s College, now St. Peter’s University, in Jersey City, New Jersey. This theatrical differed from my RangaPravesam because it was open to the public and included a modest ticket fee for the sole purpose of assisting with the costs for the theatrical. Since this was a Kuchipudi dance theatrical and I was still enrolled in dance classes after my RangaPravesam, Smt. Sadhana Paranji was part of the coordination. I paid, what I consider to be, an expensive tuition for classes and dress rehearsals similar to the fees for my RangaPravesam. In addition, there were fees for the live orchestra, the rental of the theatre, insurance for the theatre, flyers for advertisements, tickets, programs, and much more. Despite the costs, I felt a sense of duty to perform for the public because I was blessed with a Hindu dance education. As a Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dancer, I believed it was my duty after my RangaPravesam, which marked the start of my dance career, to share my knowledge of dance with the community to teach them about Hinduism through Hindu dance.

 See footnote 3.

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On the day of the theatrical, I was not pleased with the setting of the theatre. The theatre at St. Peter’s University was not as clean compared to the theatre at Bayonne High School, where I had my RangaPravesam. My puja space on the stage was beautiful despite the uncleanly atmosphere that I perceived as a dancer. The dressing room was untidy to the point that I felt disgusted. In fact, there was a bathroom in the dressing room that had a clogged toilet. Before the performance began, the photographer and videographer approached me and informed me that all of their equipment was stolen from outside of the theatre as they unloaded. Thankfully, my mamoo17 Seetaram “Sonny” Ganesh recorded the entire program for me on his home video recorder. It also seems that a majority of the attendees did not pay the ticket fees since there was an entrance to the event that allowed them to enter without paying. Therefore, I did not receive any monetary fees to cover the costs of the theatrical. These circumstances did not create the best aura for positioning my mindset to dance. Nevertheless, my brother Pt. Bhisham Malcolm “Jito” Misir performed havan18 along with my mother, dance guru, and me on the stage before the curtains opened. This reminded me that the purpose of the theatrical was to serve the Supreme Being by teaching about Hinduism through Hindu dance as I shared my identity as a Hindu dancer with the community at large. I am grateful that I danced for Shri Krishna19 on that day. As I danced, despite the uncleanly aura of the setting, I felt my father’s soul once again at the top of the theatre in a crosslegged position clothed in white garments blessing me with encouragement. I also sensed the presence of my deceased grandparents. I had a religious and spiritual experience as I danced several dances for Shri Krishna. My mamoo Seetaram “Sonny” Ganesh and my mammi,20 Aunty Lily, called my mother the next day and expressed their joy in seeing me dance. They said that it seemed that I was actually the historic Princess Mira as I danced the Mira Bhajan. Also, they deeply enjoyed the Tarangam dance meditation, where I balanced a lota (pot) of water on my head while dancing on the rims of a taari (brass plate) and holding diyas (lighted candles) 17  “Mamoo” is the term used to describe an individual’s mother’s brother. This term essentially means uncle. 18  See footnote 12. 19  The One Supreme Being manifested as Shri Krishna in Dwapara Yug. 20  “Mammi” is the term used to describe an individual’s mother’s brother’s wife. This term essentially means aunt.

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in both of my hands. They expressed that the Hindu Dharmic Sabha Mandir, Inc. of the United States would welcome the opportunity to host the theatrical again because of the religious and spiritual nature of the program. At the time, I was not ready to dance publicly again because I sensed that the public that attended the event possibly did not appreciate it. It is feasible that the attendees enjoyed and learned about Hinduism through the program, but because many individuals did not help with the expenses through the modest ticket fees, and also since I did not feel the vibration of the applauses during the intricate parts of the dances, I sense that it is quite probable that the attendees might not have appreciated the program. I acknowledge that this view might be a misperception based on my limited phenomenological experience. Despite this, my mamoo and mammi made me realize that they connected to the Supreme Being through a religious and spiritual experience during Krishnarpanam. This helped me to maintain a sense of peace as I reflected on the theatrical.

SwarLeena School of Dance After my RangaPravesam and during Krishnarpanam, I taught dance as I opened the SwarLeena School of Dance, LLC. My goal was not to profiteer from the public even though the dance school was officially a small business. On the contrary, I wished to serve the public by sharing my knowledge of dance to help individuals connect to the Supreme Being through dance. I modestly requested $10.00 per class session, which was extremely cheap, compared to the fees that my mother endured for my dance education. I did not profit from the fees but rather I used the fees to purchase items for the dance school. I intended for the SwarLeena School of Dance, LLC to be an Indian classical Hindu dance school. Therefore, I did not wish to teach Bollywood21 dance. It is my contention that many, not all but many, of the class parents of the SwarLeena School of Dance, LLC, especially the mothers, did not wish for their daughters to learn Hindu dance for the purpose of connecting to the Supreme Being. They seemed to prefer a dance education that focused on stage performances. In fact, several parents withdrew their daughters from the SwarLeena School of Dance, LLC and instead enrolled them in other dance schools, where their daughters 21  As I mention earlier in the chapter, Bollywood is the Indian version of Hollywood that is filled with glitz and glamour as a part of Indian pop culture.

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regularly performed on stage. After a few years, I decided to close the SwarLeena School of Dance, LLC since I did not wish to teach my students for the sole purpose of performing on stage. Students should study Indian classical Hindu dance not because they wish to dance on stage but because they have a desire to connect to the Supreme Being through dance that has the ability to provoke a religious and spiritual experience. While I do endorse stage performances, I urge individuals to tread cautiously when encouraging youths to dance on stage. In many cases, the stress of body image coupled with the pressures of performing flawlessly could lead to severe psychological issues. In fact, during my dance education, two young girls from my dance school committed suicide due to the pressures. I will not share their names as I respect the privacy of their families. It is crucial for dance teachers and parents to be mindful of the psychological trauma that stage performances may have on youths if they are not prepared or ready. I care for the mental well-being of my students, which is why I consider how these issues could potentially impact their mental health. When my students did perform on stage, I would engage them in philosophical, dialogical discussions beforehand. We would discuss topics such as the purpose of dance, what is beauty, what is perfection, and so forth. I philosophized about these topics with my students to prepare them to dance on stage. Years later, it was evident that my concerns about the mental health of my dance students was valid. In Spring 2019, Dr. Dorothy Rogers invited me to present a virtual lecture for a Women and Religion class at Montclair State University. At the beginning of the lecture, Dr. Rogers, informed me that a few of the students knew me. This was no surprise since I teach for the Educational Foundations Department and the Religion Department at Montclair State University. I asked the students to raise their hands if they knew me from previous classes. Thus, several students who had classes with me raised their hands to remind me that they were once my students. Then, a young woman22 raised her hand and said, “Hi Dr. Sabrina. I was one of your dance students.” I taught this young woman when she was a dance student of mine at the SwarLeena School of Dance, LLC. Her parents withdrew her and enrolled her in another dance school. During the class discussion after my presentation, which focused on postcolonialism and Hindu dance, she expressed that she stopped dancing after several 22  I will not publicly state the name of this young woman due to the sensitivity of the narrative.

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years because although she learned religious Hindu dance at the traditional Indian dance school that she attended, there was so much pressure to perform with perfection. She moved deeper into this discussion in class as she expressed what I dreaded for my students. This young woman discussed the psychological toll that dancing had on her as she pointed to body image issues and the pressures from her dance teacher to dance with  perfection. As I respect her privacy, I will not share further here. However, I will say that she experienced what I feared many of my dance students who enrolled in other dance schools would experience. Essentially, they were in dance schools, albeit traditional Indian classical Hindu dance schools, that viewed dance as a stage performative business and not as a sacred, respected, divine art. Indian classical Hindu dance schools should not focus on dance as a performative business that places a great emphasis on body image. These schools should also not deny admission to students based on socioeconomic status, but rather ought to embrace students despite their socioeconomic background.

Affordability To build on the point of affordability, I turn to pandits,23 who perform pujas (religious worship), as an example. The pandits that I associate with do not demand that a devotee pays them a mandatory fee for performing puja. I am aware that there are some pandits who do mandate a specific monetary amount. Here, I ask these pandits to consider the socioeconomic status of devotees. The Supreme Being blesses pandits with the intelligence and knowledge of puja, which pandits should wholeheartedly share with devotees regardless of their socioeconomic status. It is customary for devotees performing puja to offer daan24 to pandits based on affordability. Devotees present pandits with seedhas also known as dakshinas as a form of daan. The seedhas often includes grains and other items that the pandits and their families could use for their livelihood. For instance, I frequently include rice, flour, onions, garlic, potatoes, milk, sugar, and clothing in the seedhas that I prepare for pandits. Long ago in my grandparents’ generation, devotees who did not have much money would regularly prepare a seedha to show their gratitude to their pandit. Today, a seedha still symbolizes honoring a pandit with respect, love, and gratitude.  See footnote 11.  Daan is a Sanskrit term that refers to giving generously in a manner that honors the individual. This includes the giving of money, food, and clothing, among other gifts. 23 24

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Similarly, dance students should give what they could afford to their dance guru based on affordability. Here, I am not referring to cultural dance institutions that operate as a non-profit cultural organization or as a small business. The purpose of these institutions is to provide a dance education centered on Indian culture. While Hinduism is unavoidably entangled with Indian culture, the purpose of these dance institutions is not solely to serve the Supreme Being. I am referring to dance gurus who teach Hindu dance for the purpose of helping students connect to the Supreme Being through dance as students delve deep into understanding their faith-based identity. It is my contention that teaching Hindu dance should not involve teaching for profiteering. From my perspective, Hindu dance gurus should provide an accessible, affordable dance education to students as they teach dance as a devotional art form to enrich the devotional lives of devotees. I am not saying that we should not consider the livelihood of dance gurus, dance schools, or dance teachers. What I am saying is that the socioeconomic status of individuals should not prevent them from studying Hindu dance as a sacred form of devotional worship. Individuals should not pay barely affordable or unaffordable fees to study Hindu dance. For this reason, I especially focus on providing an affordable dance education to those who wish to learn. I began to place a great emphasis on this during my academic scholarship.

Academic Scholarship During graduate school, when I pursued my doctorate degree at Montclair State University, I further studied Hindu dance theoretically coupled with my identity as a Hindu dancer. My text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-­ Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance (MisirHiralall, 2017) discusses how I educate primarily non-Hindus in higher education about Hinduism through Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance with postcolonialism in mind. It is important to note that I do not wish to create a dichotomy between Hindus and non-Hindus. I use the terms “Hindus” and “non-­ Hindus” for the purpose of discussion in this project. I explain this terminology in my abovementioned text: I do not use the terms “Hindu” and “non-Hindu” to indicate two absolute binaries. On the contrary, I acknowledge that these terms are cultural distinctions that create a dichotomy. These terms separate humanity into two

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distinct categories, which I do not endorse. However, for the purposes of this project, I will use these terms to refer to the false categories that developed in the colonial era based on the desire of colonialists to civilize “Hindus” or “non-Christians” to “Christians”. Regardless of an individual’s religious creed, these distinctions propagate division among humanity. With these illusionary distinctions in mind, I will use the term “Hindu” to refer to those who endorse a way of life according to the sacred religious scriptures of Hinduism such as the Manu Smriti (Manu & Sastri, 1952), the Vedas (Hinduism, n.d.), the Ramayana (Vālmı ̄ki & Shastri, 1952), the Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana (Goswami, Sāstrı ̄, & Prabhupāda, 1971), and the Srimad Devi Bhagavatam (Vijnanananda, 1986), to name a few, which are essentially ethical guides for humanity. I will use the term “non-­ Hindu” to refer to those who do not engage in a way of life based on the sacred religious Hindu scriptures. The religious scriptures do not label people as “Hindu” but instead, whether one identifies as “Hindu” or not, individuals who practice a “Hindu” way of life based on the religious scriptures are “Hindu.” (MisirHiralall, 2017, p. 2)

Postcolonialism, as an intellectual discourse, examines the impact of colonialism in an effort to de-colonize. Colonization transpires once individuals employ political power to overpower people to the point that often suppresses the religion and culture of the colonized. As I engage in a postcolonial intellectual discourse, I do not aim to separate Hindus and non-Hindus into distinct categories. Rather, my goal in this project focuses on developing pedagogy to teach about Hinduism through Hindu dance among Hindus to enrich their devotional lives. Furthermore, I wish to shed light on Hinduism for those who are unversed with the religion and also may have misconceptions due to unfamiliarity. Edward Said (1979) writes about Orientalism as the way the West often misrepresents the East because of the legacy of colonialism. During my graduate studies, I started to realize that Orientalism was inevitably evident in my life and dance experiences. I began an intentional lifelong journey to explore my identity as a faith-based American Hindu who engages in Hindu dance and serves as an educator primarily in the West. While my earlier scholarship at Montclair State University focused on how I educate primarily non-Hindus in higher education about Hinduism with postcolonialism in mind, I now extend my pedagogy to focus on Hindus in addition to non-Hindus. I will now turn to share my dance experiences at Montclair State University that urged me to consider pedagogy to teach non-Hindus and Hindus about Hinduism through dance.

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Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance I developed pedagogy to teach in a variety of pedagogical spaces during my graduate studies at Montclair State University (MisirHiralall, 2017). Dr. Lise Vail frequently invited me to present and dance for religious studies classes. After presenting and dancing for several classes, I realized that the classroom is a pedagogical space that warranted a particular kind of pedagogy. Dr. Dorothy Rogers invited me to present a two-hour evening lecture and dance presentation for the entire Montclair State University campus community (MisirHiralall, 2012). The lecture hall space required a specific kind of pedagogy. Although I attempted to teach about Hinduism through Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance during Krishnarpanam, I was not satisfied with the pedagogy that I implemented. I reflected on the pedagogical space of the theatre during my graduate studies and decided to develop my pedagogy to teach about Hinduism through Hindu dance in the pedagogical space of the theatre. I returned to the pedagogical space of the theatre for the theatrical, Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance, held at Memorial Auditorium at Montclair State University (MisirHiralall, 2013). Dr. Esmilda Abreu-­ Hornbostel was the Director of the Office of Equity and Diversity at the time. Dr. Abreu-Hornbostel and I discussed my pedagogical vision for the theatrical. Upon listening to my vision, The Office of Equity and Diversity, the once joint Philosophy and Religion Department, the Center for Faith and Spirituality, and Japan Club assisted me with the planning. The College of the Arts sponsored the rental of Memorial Auditorium, which is one of the largest theatres on campus that has state of the art equipment. I am grateful that the College of the Arts paid for all staff and theatre costs. I did not encounter any significant expenses for the theatrical. I only endured personal expenses for costumes, dance jewelry, makeup, programs, and a few miscellaneous expenses. Aside from the generous financial support, I received a great deal of encouragement and support from my Philosophy and Religion friends. We all studied philosophy and religion together at Montclair State University during this time. Since most of my friends were unfamiliar with Hinduism until they met me, they provided insight on my pedagogy that I hoped to employ to teach primarily non-Hindus about Hinduism through dance. The goal of the theatrical, Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance, was to teach primarily non-Hindus about Hinduism through Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance in the pedagogical space of the theatre. In my text

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Confronting Orientalism: A Self Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance, I discuss the pedagogical space of the theatre and the pedagogy that I implemented for this theatrical: Soon I felt the need to specifically think about a theatrical space. How could I teach about Hinduism in a space where I was dancing on a stage in a theatrical setting? I could not directly make contact with viewers of the dance as I could in a classroom setting, conference setting, or lecture setting. After thinking about this for months, I realized that I should develop teaching video clips to teach about the dances. The teaching video clips would play on a projector before each dance. This would give me the necessary time to change costumes when I needed to and serve to directly teach the viewers about the dances. When I engaged in this pedagogy in a theatrical setting during Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance (MisirHiralall, 2013) at Montclair State University, I felt that the pedagogical method was successful. There were many improvements to make, but I now feel that I have an appropriate pedagogical style to accompany the theatrical setting. (MisirHiralall, 2017)

I developed an introduction video to explain the origins and purpose of Hindu dance based on the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000). In addition, I filmed a series of pedagogical videos to teach about the dances. Each video included a lesson about the narrative of the dance, which centered on Hinduism. Following the narrative, I demonstrated the dance movements for the dance as I translated the meaning of the dance. After, I posed philosophical questions for attendees to ponder upon as they viewed the dance. This gave the attendees an opportunity to engage in an internal dialogue as they philosophized about the dances in an effort to learn about Hinduism. The purpose of the videos was to build the background knowledge of the viewers to ensure that they comprehended the dances. My friends Sean O’Connor, Hank Fandel, Arielle Rodriguez, Jaime Sommer, and Jocelyn Choi were instrumental in the success of the development of these pedagogical videos. They each assisted with the filming sessions that sometimes lasted for hours. I am very grateful to them for their never-ending encouragement and support. There was a modest ticket fee of $10.00 for the theatrical. However, I donated all proceeds to the Faith and Spirituality Center on campus. The theatrical was a form of puja (worship) for me and so I did not wish to profiteer from it. My young nephew, Pt. Narendra Rudra Misir, performed

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the havan25 on stage with the curtains open before the attendees filled the theatre. My mother was especially  filled with joy as she witnessed the havan on stage. The theatre was remarkably clean and there was an aura of serenity. I waited for my brother and bouji (sister-in-law) to arrive before officially starting the event. I sought the blessings of my family before beginning to dance. About seventy-five to a hundred people attended Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance. The majority of attendees were non-Hindus who I believe came to the event to learn about Hinduism through dance. I danced five dances because the pedagogical video clips took time for the viewers to view, and I did not wish to proceed past three hours. As I danced, I sensed my father’s soul sitting cross-legged above the theatre clothed in white garments. I also detected the presence of my grandparents and my Aunty Baby, my mother’s sister, who passed away a few years before the theatrical. I felt the Supreme Being manifest into three forms of the Cosmic Mother as Durga Maa, Lakshmi Maa, and Sarasvati Maa. These manifestations filled the theatre from the floor to the ceiling in front of the stage. There were shivers throughout my body as I danced to express my love for the Supreme Being. An aura of peace and joy overcame me because I felt a strong connection to the Supreme Being throughout the entire theatrical. I engaged in mindfulness before, during, and after the dance, which prevented chaos backstage (MisirHiralall, 2015). In between dances, I sat on the floor of the theatre backstage and viewed the pedagogical video clips as the attendees did since it only took a few minutes to change costumes. The attendees paid such close attention to the pedagogical videos that all you could hear in the theatre was my voice in the videos. After the event, my brother came onto the stage and had tears flowing from his eyes as he told me that he felt he was at a satsangh (religious gathering). He said he was very proud of me. In addition, my brother urged me to consider teaching Hindus about Hinduism through dance to enrich their devotional worship. My bouji also had tears in her eyes as she spoke to my mother, and said that my mother did a good job raising my brother and me. My mother too had tears in her eyes as she told me that she was proud of me. Words could not adequately express how I felt after the performance. An aura of peace filled my entire being with serenity. I was full of calmness and humility since I was not overcome with joy nor  See footnote 12.

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was I disappointed. It was as if I did what I was meant to do as I fulfilled my purpose as a faith-based Hindu dancer. Hindus and non-Hindus came together to enjoy a religious, spiritual event. My philosophy and religion friends, whom became my lifelong friends, were more than respectful of the Hindu traditions. I did not ask them to maintain a vegetarian diet or to adhere to Hindu traditions because I did not want to impose my religious beliefs onto them. However, they knew me well enough to know what my religious values, customs, and traditions are and they honored that. I felt that my friends respectfully understood my religious identity. I presented a dance demonstration in the last pedagogical video of the theatrical where I explained and taught a simple dance to the Hindu chant Hari Sundara Nanda Mukhunda. After the event, my family informed me that attendees, especially young children, followed the dance lesson as many attempted to engage in the hand gestures at their seats during the dance. Many of my friends and professors at Montclair State University sent me emails after the theatrical to express their love for the dances. I felt appreciated as a Hindu dancer because the attendees displayed respect for me. The theatrical sheds light on how to move past the “us” versus “them” mentality and instead focus on unity as human beings. A quiet solitude filled the theatre as I prepared to depart from the exquisite stage, where it was as if I danced in heaven. A peaceful satisfaction filled my being along with serene gratitude for my ancestry, family, friends, and sponsors. Montclair State University granted me an opportunity that had a profound impact on my experiences as a Hindu dancer and scholar. I became in tune with my religious identity, which I embraced as a dancer ever since.

Teaching Through Dance Among Hindus As an educator, it is crucial to acknowledge the need for particular pedagogies to teach different groups of people based on their understanding of Hinduism. My ongoing self-study that began during my doctoral studies points to the need to provide non-Hindus with a basic understanding of Hinduism. The goal in this setting is to share my identity as a faith-based Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dancer to teach about Hinduism with postcolonial realities in mind. However, Hindus already have background knowledge of Hinduism since they are practitioners. Here, there is an opportunity to engage in communal worship in a devotional manner as we honor the Supreme Being through dance. The objective in this setting is

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to partake in a communal, religious, devotional experience as we worship the Supreme Being through dance. While there are many reasons to dance, for the purposes of this project, I wish to teach students to dance for devotional purposes. Hindu dance developed with devotional intentions and deserves respect as a sacred art. One does not need to be a professional dancer to engage in Hindu dance as a form of worship. Many individuals often refer to me as professional Indian classical Hindu dancer. What does it mean to be “professional”? According to the Indian classical Hindu dance tradition, a dance student who completes the RangaPravesam or Arengetram (formal Hindu dance graduation) is considered a professional dancer who has undergone arduous dance training. However, some students who complete the formal dance graduation are not devotional dancers and some individuals who have not studied Hindu dance formally are devotional dancers. The term “professional” is irrelevant because the term is for dancers who engage in dance as a part of a business-like structure as they dance for stage purposes. Even though I do not intend to start a formal dance school again, I acknowledge that I am inevitably a teacher. This raises the question of who are my students. Those who think of me as a dance guru26 and learn from me with the intention of abiding by the ethics of Hindu dance as outlined in Hindu dance scriptures are my students. I do not accept those individuals as my students who pick and choose what to learn from me. My students must wholeheartedly devote themselves to devotional Hindu dance in a philosophical manner27 as they engage in an inner exploration to learn devotional dance as a means to connect to the Supreme Being. These individuals must attempt to adhere to the ethic of Hindu dance. Moreover, they need to maintain the guidance of a spiritual Guru28 to guide them on the path of devotional bliss. It is important to note that some students 26  Although I am a dance educator, I am not a Guru with a capital “G.” While many individuals have referred to me throughout my career as Guruji, I do not claim to be Guruji with a capital “G.” Perhaps, I am a dance guru, with a lower case “g” for my students. I consider Guruji with a capital “G” to be individuals, often male pandits, who perform the sacred Guru Diksha Sanskaar in Hinduism with their students. I do not wish to delve into the gender dynamic debate. That is not the purpose of this narrative. 27  My students should engage in constant questioning as they rethink and reevaluate their philosophy of Hindu dance. 28  I request my students to fulfill the requirements of the sacred Guru Diksha Sanskaar of Hinduism.

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desire to learn how to dance, whereas other students may wish to learn about Hinduism through Hindu dance. In other words, there are those students who will dance and other students who will view dance. Regardless, I am an educator who teaches about Hinduism through dance whether I teach how to dance or I teach about Hinduism through dance. Here are my expectations for students who wish to learn from me. First, I ask that these individuals read my published articles on Hindu dance and my book, Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance (MisirHiralall, 2017). Students should read this text in its entirety along with forthcoming publications. I realize that my publications are philosophically complex for young students. However, I urge the parents of youngsters to read my publications, comprehend the message, ask me questions, and explain to their children in a manner that philosophizes if their children are interested in learning the art of Hindu dance. If parents do not feel comfortable doing so, then they should seek the guidance of a Guru who could philosophize about my publications with them. Second, students must pay attention to how I employ the ethic of Hindu dance by observing me. It is crucial to note that observational learning is dangerous if it is not coupled with asking questions. If one observes but does not ask questions, then there is the danger that false assumptions may develop. For this reason, it is crucial to observe and ask questions about how I employ the Hindu ethic of dance. Students who not only have a desire to learn about Hinduism but also wish to learn how to dance should move to the third step. Third, students may learn how to dance through the pedagogical videos and the other pedagogical methods that I will develop as I teach Hindu dance. It is my contention that one should not learn how to dance without understanding the ethics of Hindu dance as related in the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000). Students who employ the abovementioned modes of learning with the intention of adhering to a Hindu ethic of dance will always have my blessings as a teacher. Those who wish to learn from me but belittle Hinduism as a religious tradition and also disrespect me as a teacher will not have my blessings as Hindu dancers. However, I pray for the Supreme Being to bestow light onto these individuals to help them walk a path in life toward moksha (liberation).

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Access to Hindu Dance Education In this chapter, I relate my dance education as I point to the financial expenses and travel predicaments that I encountered. I share how the profound experience of my RangaPravesam impacts me as a Hindu dancer. In addition, I discuss the lessons that I learned through my experiences during Krishnarpanam. My dance experiences prompted me to pursue Hindu dance as an area of scholarship during my doctoral studies at Montclair State University. Simultaneously, I opened and closed the SwarLeena School of Dance, LLC, which I originally began not for profiteering purposes but rather to provide students with an affordable opportunity to learn Hindu dance. Soon, I danced Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance for a primarily non-Hindu audience at Montclair State University. This helped me to further understand my identity as a faith-based American Hindu dancer of West Indian29 and Indian ancestry. My experiences shape who I am as a faith-based American Hindu dancer and educator. The struggles that I encountered during my dance education prompt me to recognize the need for an affordable access to education for those who wish to learn about Hinduism through dance and for those who wish to learn how to dance. It is my contention that the teaching of Hindu dance is a charitable act of public servitude. Students should give daan30 to Hindu dance teachers based on affordability. As an educator, I simply wish to help those who wish to learn, embrace a connection to the Supreme Being through the art of dance as they study Hinduism. In the next chapter, I explain the creation of Hindu dance, the transformation of Hindu dance education due to Western influences, and I engage on a quest to return Hindu dance back to a devotional, sacred dance form.

References BharataMuni. (2000). The Natya Sastra of Bharata Muni. Delhi: Sri Satguru. Bose, M. (2008). Bollywood: A history. New Delhi: Lotus Collection, Roli Books. Goswami, C.  L., Sāstrı ̄, M.  A., & Prabhupāda, A.  C. B.  S. (1971). Srı ̄mad-­ Bhāgavata Mahāpuran̄ a: With Sanskrit text and English Translation. Gorakhpur: Gita Press.

 See footnote 3.  See footnote 21.

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LaBoskey, V. (2004). The Methodology of Self Study and Its Theoretical Underpinnings (M.  L. Hamilton, V.  LaBoskey, & T.  Russell, Eds.). In J.  Loughran (Ed.), International Handbook of Self-Study of Teaching and Teacher Education Practices (pp. 817–869). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. Loughran, J. (2004). A History and Context of Self-Study of Teaching and Teacher Education Practices. In J. Loughran (Ed.), In International Handbook of Self-Study of Teaching and Teacher Education Practices (pp. 7–40). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. Manu, & Sastri, H. (1952). Manu Smriti: Laws of Manu. Benares: Chowkhamba Sanskrit series Office. MisirHiralall, S. (2004). Rangapravesam. Theatrical Dance. Bayonne, NJ. MisirHiralall, S. (2006). Krishnarpanam. Theatrical Dance. Jersey City, NJ. MisirHiralall, S. (2012). The Timeless Play of Krishna. Campus-wide Lecture and Dance, Department of Philosophy and Religion’s Religion and the Arts Series from Montclair State University’s Department of Philosophy and Religion, Montclair, NJ. MisirHiralall, S. (2013). Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance. Theatrical, Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance sponsored by Montclair State University’s The College of the Arts, The Office of Equity and Diversity, The Center for Faith and Spirituality, and Japan Club, Montclair, NJ. MisirHiralall, S. (2015). Mindfulness as a Pedagogical Tool: Kuchipudi Indian Classical Hindu Dance. The Arts in Religious and Theological Studies (ARTS) Journal, 27(1), 33–39. Retrieved from http://societyarts.org/arts-­journal/ online-­edition/136-­online-­edit MisirHiralall, S.  D. (2017). Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Said, E. W. (1979). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books. Selbie, J., & Steinmetz, D. (2010). The Yugas: Keys to Understanding Man’s Hidden Past, Emerging Present and Future Enlightenment: From the Teachings of Sri Yukteswar and Paramhansa Yogananda. Nevada City, CA: Crystal Clarity Publishers. Suresh, V. B. (2006). Appreciating Bharatanatyam. Chennai: Skanda Publications. Tidwell, D., & Fitzgerald, L. (2004). Self Study as Teaching (John. Loughran, Ed.). In In International Handbook of Self-study of Teaching and Teacher Education Practices (pp. 69–102). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. Tulası ̄dāsa, & Prasad, R.  C. (1991). Shri Ramacharitamanas. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Vālmı ̄ki, & Shastri, H. P. (1952). The Ramayana of Valmiki. London: Shanti Sadan. Vijnanananda. (1986). The Srimad Devi Bhagawatam. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corp. Zubko, K.  C. (2016). Dancing Bodies of Devotion: Fluid Gestures in Bharata Natyam. Lanham: Lexington Books.

CHAPTER 2

Religion and Culture in the History of Hindu Dance Education

Abstract  Due to the legacy of colonialism, the educational system of Hindu dance moved from the sacred teaching of dance to a Westernized approach. Many Hindu-based dance institutions adhere to a Western educational system that dismisses the sacred ethic of Hindu dance in a manner that disregards the traditional religious-educational system of Hindu dance. Current Hindu-based dance institutions that claim to maintain a tradition of Hindu dance focus on performing for stage commitments that emphasize culture rather than dance for devotional reasons, which was the intended purpose of Hindu dance, based on Hindu dance scriptures. In turn, viewers may perceive the dance as mere cultural entertainment. I consider it necessary to confront this by de-Orientalizing Hindu dance as I dance, especially among Hindus, for this project. Keywords  Orientalism • Gurus • Natya Shastra • Aacharya • The Natraj Center for the Performing Arts • Sadhanalaya School of Dance • The David Ali Dance Academy • Kalai Kaviri College of Fine Arts • Male Gaze Due to the legacy of colonialism, the educational system of Hindu dance moved from the sacred teaching of dance to a Westernized approach. Many Hindu-based dance institutions adhere to a Western educational system that dismisses the sacred ethic of Hindu dance in a manner that © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. D. MisirHiralall, Devotional Hindu Dance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70619-7_2

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disregards the traditional religious-educational system of Hindu dance. Current Hindu-based dance institutions that claim to maintain a tradition of Hindu dance focus more on performing for stage commitments that emphasize culture rather than dance for devotional reasons, which was the intended purpose of Hindu dance, based on Hindu dance scriptures. In turn, viewers may perceive the dance as mere cultural entertainment. I consider it necessary to confront this by de-Orientalizing1 Hindu dance as I dance, especially among Hindus, for this project. As mentioned in Chap. 1, Edward Said (1979) coins the term Orientalism as he points to the way the West misrepresents the East because of misconceptions and instead develops an Eastern culture based on Western expectations of what the East should be. This is the Orientalist legacy that caused sacred Hindu dance to become a Westernized Eastern dance form. I write about the Orientalization of Hindu dance in my article The Postcolonial Reality of Using the Term Liturgical to Describe Hindu Dance. I state, The West imposed its own view of dance onto the East during colonization. This is crucial to mention because it shows how the West dominated the East by forcing the East to develop certain frameworks for dance. Even though we live in a postcolonial era today, the residual effects of colonization are evident in the East’s development of dance in Bollywood, which is an Eastern form of Hollywood. The West Orientalized the East, which in turn, caused the East to Orientalize itself. I aim to show how Hindu dance differs from Western views of dance and aim to return Hindu dance back to a divine form of dance. (MisirHiralall, 2014, p. 165)

In the article, I specifically discuss how the West transformed Hindu dance from a sacred art to profane dance by forcing sacred Hindu dancers to dance as an act of blasphemous entertainment for British soldiers during British colonial rule in India. Particularly, the British forced sacred Hindu Kathak2 dancers to dance profanely for the amusement of British soldiers. While some Hindu dancers remained devotional, others began to use 1  I write about de-Orientalism in depth in my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance. To de-Orientalize means to shed light on the misrepresentations and misconceptions that develop because of Orientalism. 2  Kathak is a type of Indian classical Hindu dance that is common in North India. Kathak derives from “katha,” which refers to the narration of religious scriptures. Kathak dances often relate scenes from religious scriptures.

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dance as a form of profane entertainment. Throughout time, dance progressed religiously and culturally as dancers moved away from the profanity that the British imposed. However, my self-study data reveals that the residual effects of colonization are evident today as many Hindus currently view Hindu dance as a performance art that culturally enriches tradition but they do not acknowledge the sacred devotional core. My goals in this chapter are threefold. First, I will relate the origin of Hindu dance to shed light on the purpose of dance. The legacy of colonialism inevitably transformed Hindu dance education, which in turn effects how viewers view dance. Second, I provide examples of West Indian and Indian dance schools that teach Hindu dance, but do so from a cultural stance. Third, I point to the unavoidable way in which religion and culture overlap in a manner that influence one another in Hindu dance. Essentially, this chapter will help individuals build their background knowledge of the origins of Hindu dance, the transformation of Hindu dance education, and the need to return Hindu dance to a devotional act of worship.

Creation of Hindu Dance It is imperative to first note that Hinduism is a monotheistic religion that believes in One Supreme Being who manifests in many different forms, at many different times, and for many different purposes. This is important to keep in mind as I relate the creation of Hindu dance. According to the Natya Shastra, which is the ancient Hindu scripture of dance penned by Sage BharataMuni, humankind started to enjoy the material aspects of this world more than the divine aspects during the age of Treta Yug3 (2000, pp. 1–12). People were intoxicated with their five senses in a manner that took them away from spiritual development. Indraji, often known as the King of Heaven, became concerned about this. With this concern in mind, Indraji approached Bramhaji, the manifestation of the Supreme Being in the form of the Creator. Indraji requested that Bramhaji create something to help detach people from their excessive attachment to the material world and instead connect individuals to the Supreme Being through spirituality.

3  The Yugas refer to the four ages of the world according to Hinduism. First is Sat Yug. Second is Treta Yug. Third is Dwapara Yug. Fourth is the age we live in, known as Kali Yug.

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While in meditation, Bramhaji extracted pathyam (recitation) from the Rig Veda, gitam (melody) from the Sama Veda, abhinaya (histrionic representation) from the Yajur Veda, and rasa (sentiments) from the Atharva Veda. Bramhaji created the Natya Veda with these components. The Natya Veda is commonly referred to as the Natya Shastra, which is essentially a Veda that relates the ethics of Hindu dance. Consequently, Bramhaji created Hindu dance to help humankind maintain the traditional aspects of Hinduism while also enjoying their five senses. Since Bramhaji asked Sage BharataMuni to complete the text, Sage BharataMuni is the credited author of the Natya Shastra. Sage BharataMuni divided the Natya Veda into four parts. Bharati Vritti involves speech, Arabhati Vritti includes arrogance, Sattvati Vritti encompasses sentiments, and Kaisiki Vritti comprises of soft, graceful movements. In addition to the Natya Shastra, Sage Nandikeshwara pens the Abhinaya Darapanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997), which is an ancient text that explains the language of Hindu dance. Sage Nandikeshwara describes the hand gestures, feet gestures, head gestures, neck gestures, and eye gestures that the dancer engages in during Hindu dance. The comprehension of these gestures helps individuals to understand the meaning of the dance. Individuals who comprehend the meaning of the dance have the opportunity to philosophize about the ethical lessons that stem from the dance. While this may seem like sign language, it is much more complex. Sign language involves the mere interpretation of hand gestures for communication purposes. Katherine Zubko states, Dance exemplifies an experience that can be felt or sensed as well as something which is communicated. Because emotion is at the center of the aesthetics of Bharata Natyam, a communication-based reading bypasses the very heart of this dance form. (Zubko, 2016, p. 16)

Aside from the need to understand the meaning of the gestures, the gestures are meant to help the dancer and the viewers of the dance engage in a phenomenological experience. The gestures are only one component of Hindu dance that incites the experience of bhakti4 (devotion) and shakti5  I will move deeper into an analysis of this term in the next chapter.  There are different kinds of shakti. Some are sacred and devotional, whereas others are demonic. Shakti, essentially is energy. Here, I refer to shakti as a powerful kind of divinity. 4 5

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(powerful divinity), which are crucial to the dance experience. Thus, the gestures are not a mere form of sign language for Hindu dancers, but rather is much more complex.

Guru-Shishya System Upon the creation of Hindu dance, Bramhaji instructed Sage BharataMuni to teach his one hundred sons dance through the Natya Shastra. Here, one hundred sons do not mean the literal, biological sons of Sage BharataMuni. Sage BharataMuni’s students were considered to be his sons. Students studied in Gurukul, which is the term used to describe the venue where Gurus6 taught students. This was usually the home of the Gurus. It was a common practice for students to live with the Guru and even adopt the Guru’s last name (BharataMuni, 2000, p.  3). Students would maintain responsibilities such as household chores during their time in Gurukul (Prickett, 2007). While Hindu dance was often taught to males, different genders also studied Hindu dance. This is evident since the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000, p.  49) discusses the grace of female dancers. In ancient times, the Guru-shishya7 tradition emerged as a historical part of Hindu dance education. Gurus at the time were educated male Brahmans8 who taught Hindu scriptures and the arts during this time. In many cases, Gurus were often selective with their students as they chose to educate worthy students: Transmission of privileged knowledge, such as a special raga, requires the student’s demonstration of worthiness, dedication and talent. Knowledge can be held back, in dance resulting in the reluctance of the guru to pass on choreography of traditional items. (Prickett, 2007, p. 27)

I maintain that individuals who have good intentions to use sacred knowledge to perform their duty and attain moksha (liberation) are worthy students who attain the Guru’s blessings. On the contrary, I do not consider 6  I use a capital “G” here to refer to the Brahmans, saints, and sages who once taught Indian classical Hindu dance. 7  Guru-shishya refers to teachers and students. The term “Guru” is very complex. The term “teacher” does not adequately describe the term “Guru.” The term “shishya” refers to students. 8  This refers to the caste system of Hinduism. Brahmans are at the top of the caste system.

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individuals who intend to misuse sacred knowledge for evil purposes as worthy of an education from a Guru. In addition, Gurus should not teach students who are not mindful of the dangers of Orientalism (Said, 1979). In these days, there was no formal syllabus or formal degree to confer upon the student. The Guru determined if the student mastered a subject or not. Once the Guru was pleased with the shishya’s knowledge of the art, the shishya often became a Guru who taught disciples. It is my contention that the ancient Gurus meant that students should share their knowledge with those worthy of learning. However, students did not differentiate between sharing their knowledge as students of dance and the weight of the term “Guru.” Students began to call themselves “Guru” once they started to teach Hindu dance. Thus, different castes9 and ­genders became “Gurus.” This began to disrupt and transform the traditional Guru-shishya system of Hindu dance. The Guru Diksha Sanskaar is a sacred Hindu sacrament that is frequently performed by a Brahman10 -born male pandit11 who has dedicated his life to serving the Supreme Being. Therefore, in ancient times and as some will argue still today, a Guru cannot simply be anyone who wishes to be a Guru. All Gurus must first dedicate their life to the Supreme Being. Hinduism points to Diksha and Siksha Gurus. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada’s translation of the tenth Canto of the Srimad-Bhagavatam relates Shri Krishna’s words. The Supreme Being manifests as Shri Krishna in Dwapara Yug:

9  The term “castes” refers to the religious Hindu caste system as opposed to the cultural caste system of India. The religious Hindu caste system does not discriminate against castes or include untouchables. Rather, the Hindu caste system involves the belief that each member of society is born with a task to perform based on their caste. In order for society to function, individuals must perform their duty. All castes are equal in the sense that the Supreme Being does not discriminate against caste. 10  Usually, Brahmans perform the sanskaar because they are from the priestly caste. However, there are several individuals who are not from the Brahman caste who have also performed the sanskaar. My goal here is not to debate whether Brahmans or non-Brahmans could be Gurus. I point out that Brahmans once solely performed the Sanskaar but today other castes perform the sanskaar as well. 11  This term is difficult to translate. Essentially, a pandit is a religious leader who officiates pujas (religious worship) and provides spiritual counsel to devotees. Pandits are similar to priests, ministers, and pastors, but yet these terms do not adequately define the term “pandit.”

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Our next spiritual master is he who initiates us into transcendental knowledge, and he is to be worshiped as much as I am. The spiritual master may be more than one. The spiritual master who instructs the disciple about spiritual matters is called the s í ks ạ ̄-guru, and the spiritual master who initiates the disciple is called the dı ̄kṣa ̄-guru. Both of them are My representatives. There may be many spiritual masters who instruct, but the initiator spiritual master is one. A human being who takes advantage of these spiritual masters and, receiving proper knowledge from them, crosses the ocean of material existence is to be understood as having properly utilized his human form of life. He has practical knowledge that the ultimate interest of life, which is to be gained only in this human form, is to achieve spiritual perfection and thus be transferred back home, back to Godhead. (Bhaktivedanta, 2011)12

Diksha Gurus are the Gurus who perform the Guru Diksha Sanskaar with students. Siksha Gurus uphold a sacred responsibility as educators of students without undergoing a formal initiation. Students may have one lifelong Diksha Guru but many Siksha Gurus. At any rate, the Guru-shishya educational system of dance shifted from male, Brahman-born Gurus who had the inner knowledge of the Supreme Being to all individuals who studied dance and wished to become a Guru. This shift demonstrates a lack of attention on the importance of a Guru who maintains spiritual knowledge and emphasizes moksha (liberation) as the main focus of Hindu dance. Instead, dance teachers, who were not spiritual teachers, came to emphasize the choreography and performance as they disregarded the importance of spirituality and moksha. Apparao and Sri point to the role of a teacher according to the Natya Shastra of BharataMuni. They interpret BharataMuni as they state, an aacaarya or a teacher should have intrinsic knowledge of vocal and instrumental music, dance, rhythm and movement. He should further have imagination, intelligence, creative faculty, memory, sharpness and capacity to shape the taught. (Apparao & Sri, 1967, p. 41)

Here, the term “aacharya”13 is used instead of Guru. Aacharya is a Sanskrit word that translates to a teacher who teaches by example through action. 12  You will find this quote in the Bhaktivedanta Vedabase. https://vedabase.io/en/ library/kb/80/ 13  I will spell this term as “Aacharya” based on how Hindi is written in English.

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An aacharya maintains knowledge of the art of dance but must also have spiritual knowledge to help students work toward moksha (liberation). Although I am a Brahman-born female from a lineage of Brahmans, I do not desire for individuals to refer to me as a Guru with a capital “G.” I do not wish to debate the gender politics here because that is not the purpose of this narrative. While some of my academic colleagues and students refer to me as a Guru, I believe this term, with a capital “G,” is an inappropriate description of me. Although I do prefer the term “aacharya” to describe me as a Hindu educator who teaches through dance, I also struggle with this term because it is sacred in the Hindu tradition and is sometimes synonymous with the term Guru. In fact, in the historical Mahabharata, Guru Drona, who was the Guruji of the Kauravas and the  Pandavas, is also known as Dronaacharya (Goswami, Sāstrı ̄, & Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, 1995). Aacharya is added at the end of Guru Drona’s name to pay homage to him as a Guru. For this reason, I struggle with using the term aacharya to describe me because I am a mere mortal human living in the age of Kali Yug who cannot even compare to the great aacharyas within the history of Hinduism. The Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000, p. 22) uses the term “Natyacharya” in a manner that indicates that dancers are inevitably teachers of dance. However, this term is rarely used today to refer to dancers as teachers. Through my self-study deliberations, I came to realize that perhaps, the English prefix “Dr.” best describes who I am as an educator despite the fact that this is a Western term. Here, it may seem like I give into a Western language system but I am a part of a Western system of academic education. I earned a doctorate degree in Pedagogy and Philosophy from Montclair State University. Thus, I have a doctorate degree that grants me the title of doctor. I embrace who I am as a Westerner and an Easterner as long as I do not engage in Orientalism but rather honor who I am as a faith-based Hindu.

Move from Sacred Teaching of Dance to Westernized Teaching To continue, Sukhatankar (2016) points to the changes in the Indian classical Hindu dance tradition that impacts teaching and learning. Originally, dancers honored the sacred context of Indian classical Hindu dance because of its origins. Indian classical dance is currently a form of cultural

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entertainment in the Bollywood14 film industry that emphasizes culture instead of Hinduism despite the origins of dance. Consequently, dance choreography now primarily focuses on pleasing the masses of people as opposed to expressing religious sentiments. Initially, dancers embraced a lifestyle that centered on the ethics of Hindu dance as they developed their spirituality and hoped to attain moksha. Dance today is no longer a lifestyle for many dancers but rather a leisurely hobby. The Guru-shishya system was once revered as a part of Hindu dance education. Now, students often study Hindu dance at Westernized dance schools that confer awards and degrees onto students. In ancient times, individuals viewed dances primarily in mandirs (temples) but today people see dances predominantly at cultural events. These changes did not happen abruptly but rather occurred throughout time. The legacy of colonialism had a profound impact on the Hindu dance tradition. I discuss this in my text Confronting Orientalism: A SelfStudy of Educating Through Hindu Dance (MisirHiralall, 2017a). During the legacy of colonialism in India, Hindu dance shifted from a sacred art infused with culture to a cultural art diffused of religion due to Western influences. The British were unaware of the historical representation, history of the dance tradition, and the depth and meaning behind the dances. Moreover, the British instead enjoyed the dances of females as foreign and exotic entertainment. Female dancers no longer danced to unite with the Supreme Being, but rather danced in servitude to the British. Indian classical dance became what the British wanted it to become. In other words, Indian classical dance was Orientalized based on the expectations of the West: For both the English missionaries and the Hindu reformist sect, Indian eroticism was the cause of immorality. All traditional cultural practices, therefore, needed to be revamped for purification and national regeneration. The banning of “indecent” literature, poetry and songs that began with Britain’s Obscenity Act of 1857 culminated in the banning of other “sinful practices” like devadasi and nautch. The banning of regimental bazaars where soldiers found pleasures from native women like the nautch girls was aided by Britain’s Contagious Disease Act of 1864 made it usual for officials to randomly harass nautch girls for medical examinations as venereal diseases rose among British soldiers during this time. The popular14  As I mention in the previous chapter, Bollywood is the Indian version of Hollywood that is filled with glitz and glamour as a part of Indian pop culture.

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ity of the nautch girls among British soldiers made the former easy targets for such harassment. One must remember that it had been an official policy after the Mutiny of 1857 to select healthy and beautiful “specimens” among the courtesans and relocate them arbitrarily for the entertainment of soldiers. (Chakravorty, 2008, p. 45)

Devadasi dancers originally danced in the mandir (temple) as they served the Supreme Being. Despite this, the British viewed these dancers as sinful. Hindu dancers moved from dancing in the mandir (temple) to entertaining British soldiers. These girls transformed from divine, healthy dancers to unhealthy girls probably because of the traumatic stress of the objectification coupled with the implied offenses of the British soldiers. Soon, these female dancers became infected with diseases. The British did not take responsibility for this but instead enforced laws that banned dance along with the so-called indecent literature that accompanied dance. It is unfortunate that the British did not take time to comprehend the history of Hindu dance and the historicity of Hinduism. Instead, the British provided Hindus in India with a great disservice as they corrupted the Hindu dance tradition with worldly pleasures.

Indian and West Indian Dance Schools Today The legacy of colonialism clearly played a role in the transformation of Indian classical Hindu dance. Western influences manifest in Indian and West Indian dance schools today. To clarify for the purposes of this project, dance schools with Indian teachers who were either born or raised in India or are first-generation Americans of direct Indian descent are Indian dance schools. Dance schools with West Indian teachers who were born or raised in Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, or the Caribbean or are first-­generation Americans of direct Caribbean descent are West Indian dance schools. As I mentioned in my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance (2017a), the British took Indians from India as indentured laborers during the era of colonialism. Indians migrated to Guyana in South America and Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean, where they worked on British plantations. West Indian culture developed especially among Guyanese and Trinidadians who migrated to the United States of America as they pursued prospects for a better life. Opportunities to study Indian classical Hindu dance developed once Indians and West Indians settled in America.

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I now turn to discuss four selected dance schools as I relate the current position of Hindu dance education. First, I discuss the Natraj Center for the Performing Arts, which is perhaps the most popular West Indian dance institution of the Mid-Atlantic region. Second, I relate insights about the Sadhanalaya School of Dance, an Indian dance school located in New York. I selected these two schools because I studied at both of these establishments. Third, I point to the David Ali Dance Academy since students from this dance school often venture to New Jersey, my home state, to perform for cultural events. Fourth, I will examine the Kalai Kaviri College of Fine Arts to point to the transformation of Indian classical Hindu dance in India. The Natraj Center for the Performing Arts The Natraj Center for the Performing Arts is known as perhaps the most prevalent West Indian dance institution of the Mid-Atlantic region. Barbara Matthews,15 along with a group of mothers, founded the establishment as the Natraj Cultural Group in 1989  in New  York. Dance always had a prominent role in the life of Barbara Matthews, who is currently still involved with the Natraj Center for the Performing Arts. She began to learn dance at about the age of ten in Guyana. During her college years in Georgetown, Guyana, she continued to study Kathak16 at the Indian Cultural Center under the tutelage of Shri Durgalall. It is important to note that she was formally trained in theatrical drama. Furthermore, she was an educator at dance schools that she founded in Guyana, where she taught mostly Kathak and Bollywood dances (Matthews and Singh, 2012a). The Natraj Cultural Group opened with the dancers Vashnie Ambu, now Vashnie Marquart, Teshrie Kalicharan, and Ramona Kalicharan. In 1987, Teshrie studied at the Padmini Institute of Fine Arts in New York, where she learned Bharatnatyam17 from Padmini Ramachandran (Matthews & Singh, 2012a). Soon, Vashnie, the daughter of Barbara Matthews, along with Ramona joined Teshrie in 1988 as classmates. Their teacher, Padmini Ramachandran, learned Kathakali18 in India from Guru  Barbara Matthews is also known as Barbara Lemoine. She is from Essequibo in Guyana.  See footnote 2. 17  Bharatnatyam is an Indian classical Hindu dance style. 18  This is a dramatic Indian classical Hindu dance style of Kerala in India. 15 16

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Gopinath. Padmini Ramachandran began to act in Bollywood films in 1948 at the age of fourteen. She founded the Padmini Institute of Fine Arts in 1971, where she focused on teaching Indian classical Hindu dance. Padmini Ramachandran was an accomplished dancer who passed away in 2006 (Manimekalai, 2019). Several individuals, including Pratiksha Gossai, daughter of the late Shri Prakash Gossai,19 joined the Natraj Cultural Group. Soon Vida Dinalal became a part of the group when she migrated from Guyana (Matthews & Singh, 2012a). Throughout her dance education (Dinalal, Kalicharan, & Ambu, 1998), Vida studied with several dance Gurus, including Shri Durgalall, Shri Ghirdhar Charan Chand, Shri Tirath Ajmani, and Smt. Reva Ajmani, who were Indian dancers from India who taught dance in Guyana. Vida graduated in 1989 from the Indian Cultural Center in Guyana as a successful student of Kathak and Odissi.20 Teshrie, Vashnie, and Vida joined the Sadhanalaya School of Dance in 1995, where they studied Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance at an intensive pace. My mother and I attended their RangaPravesam in 1998 at Queens Theatre in the Park21 (Dinalal et al., 1998). In the meantime, they served as teachers at the Natraj Cultural Group. Vida taught Kathak, Teshrie focused on Bharatnatyam, and Vashnie was known for teaching Bollywood dances (Matthews & Singh, 2012a). The Natraj Cultural Group initially developed a yearly curriculum to encourage students. Natraj holds a graduation program for students who advance through the curriculum. Upon completion, students frequently transfer to the Sadhanalaya School of Dance, where they complete their Arengetram or RangaPravesam. Afterward, they often return to Natraj to serve as teachers (Matthews & Singh, 2012a). As I mentioned earlier, I began my formal dance studies at the Natraj Cultural Group when I was about twelve years old. I learned the basics of Indian classical Hindu dance at Natraj. In fact, Teshrie, Vida, and Vashnie were my teachers. I danced at the yearly December graduation, where I received several certificates and trophies as I advanced through the curriculum. Several girls and I performed dances for many events in New York 19  Shri Prakash Gossai is known as a Hindu missionary. His teachings influenced several mandirs (temples), including the Bhuvaneshwar Mandir and the Shaanti Bhavan Mandir, both in New York. 20  Oddisi is an Indian classical Hindu dance tradition that originates in Eastern India. 21  This theatre is now known as Queens Theatre.

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and New Jersey. Despite this, I did not wish to continue at Natraj because the dance education seemed to focus a great deal on Bollywood dances and stage performances, which did not interest me. I enjoyed learning religious Hindu dances since dance always was a medium of prayer for me. My main teacher at Natraj, didi22 (sister) Teshrie, encouraged my mother to enroll me in the Sadhanalaya School of Dance because didi Teshrie noticed that I deeply enjoyed religious Hindu dances. I then transferred to the Sadhanalaya School of dance, where I intensely studied Bharatnatyam and Kuchipudi. To continue, the Natraj Cultural Group eventually became the Natraj Center for the Performing Arts, a not-for-profit organization. There are now several subgroups of Natraj, which include the Natraj Sensations, the Natraj Sapnas, the Natraj Bindiyas, the Natraj Gudiyas, the Natraj Rangeelas, and the Natraj Apsaras to name a few. A group of students begin to learn Indian classical Hindu dance together as a part of a class. They continue to learn Bollywood dance together. The students perform as a group in a debut performance during an Evening of Recognition when their teacher deems them to be ready. This signifies that Natraj considers them as formally trained to perform for weddings, parties, etc. (Matthews & Singh, 2012c). Natraj advocates for these students to continue to study Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi, Kathak, and Odissi, which are Indian classical Hindu dance styles. Natraj also encourages the study of folk and modern dance (Matthews & Singh, 2012b). Barbara Matthews stresses the importance of an academic education despite the passion for dance because she acknowledges that a dance career may not provide students with finances necessary to sustain their livelihood. She encourages students to pursue an academic education while simultaneously working to promote Indian culture. The motto of Natraj is “Dance is our passion. Culture our life (Matthews & Singh, 2012a).” As a part of supporting Indian culture, Natraj provides humanitarian aid to Guyana, Trinidad, and Jamaica. They run international youth camps free of charge for youths to learn dance. The main focus of Natraj is to promote Indian culture within and beyond the state of New York (Matthews & Singh, 2012b). My teachers at Natraj introduced me to the basics of Indian classical Hindu dance. I was unaware of the rich history of the Indian classical Hindu dance tradition prior to my enrollment in Natraj. I believe Natraj maintains  This term means “sister.” I use this term to convey respect for my dance teacher.

22

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its mission to promote Indian culture within and beyond New York. When I studied dance at Natraj, there were several non-Hindu students. Thus, I would imagine that Natraj is an interreligious institution that embraces nonHindu students.23 Hinduism is an inevitable part of Indian culture, therefore students will learn about Hinduism as they study at Natraj. However, the teachers at Natraj do not refer to themselves as Gurus. It seems that Natraj acknowledges that they are a cultural dance establishment and thus, they do not claim to be sacred Gurus of Hindu dance. If my extrapolations are correct, then Natraj reveres the pandits, saints, and sages as Gurus because of the depth of their spiritual knowledge. Thus, Natraj does not appear to use the term “Guru” lightly.24 I am grateful for the opportunity to study with the stellar teachers of Natraj who do not claim to be dance Gurus. While Natraj focuses on dance as cultural, my focus emphasizes the spiritual aspect of dance that repositions dance as a sacred art form. I mainly dance for spiritual purposes even though I embrace culture. My spirituality further developed as I studied at the Sadhanalaya School of Dance. Sadhanalaya School of Dance Smt. Sadhana Paranji began her dance education at the age of seven in New Delhi, India, where she studied Bharatnatyam under Guru25 Smt. Saroja Vaidhyanathan. After completing a six-year course of study, she 23  This topic deserves great attention but since it is not the purpose of this project, I will not delve into exploration. However, I will pose the following question. How can nonHindus engage in Hindu dance while upholding the sacredness of Hinduism and the ethics of Hindu dance without engaging in Orientalism? Is communal spiritual dance another alternative for Hindus and non-Hindus? 24  The complexity of the Guru-shishya system is evident at Natraj. During an interview on Let’s Talk With Lakshmee (Matthews & Singh, 2012a), Barbara Matthews did not refer to Padmini Ramachandran, teacher of Teshrie, Ramona, and Vashnie as Guruji even though Padmini was a learned scholar of Hindu dance. Some students do refer to Padmini as Guruji. Padmini’s teacher is referred to as Guru Gopinath. The RangaPravesam program of Vida, Teshrie, and Vashnie refers to Smt. Sadhana Paranji as their “guru.” Vida refers to Shri Durgalall, Shri Ghirdhar Charan Chand, Shri Tirath Ajmani, and Smt. Reva Ajmani as her dance “gurus” in the program. Vida, Teshrie, and Vashnie give thanks their spiritual “Gurus” Pt. R.D. Upadhyaya and Pt. Ram Hardowar in the RangaPravesam program. I do not know whether the lower case “g” and upper case “G” were intentional in the program, but I suspect that it was. 25  See http://sadhanalaya.com/Sadhana_Paranji.html. A capital “G” and lower case “g” is used to refer to the Gurus of Smt. Sadhana Paranji. It seems that a capital “G” is used when directly referring to a Guru. For this reason, I use a capital “G.”

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received a diploma for Bharatnatyam as well as a Certificate for Carnatic Music from the Tyagaraja Government School of Music and Dance in Hyderabad, India. Following this, she studied under veteran Gurus, Dr. Nataraja Ramakrishna and Dr. Uma Rama Rao, two well-known esteemed scholars, as she pursued a master’s degree in Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance at Telugu University. In October 1992, she migrated to New York, where she soon founded the Sadhanalaya School of Dance, which centers on the study of Bharatnatyam and Kuchipudi dance (Paranji, 2019). She was featured on Good Morning America and Eyewitness News. Furthermore, she performed and lectured at several Western institutions such as The American Museum of Natural History, the Queens Museum of Art, and the Brooklyn Museum of Art, to name a few. In addition, she presented and danced at several elementary schools, both public and private, as she hopes to educate Westerners about Indian culture (Paranji, 2019). Smt. Sadhana Paranji explicitly states that she aspires to teach individuals about Indian culture even though the dance styles that she engages in focuses on Hinduism. On the Sadhanalaya School of Dance’s webpage, it states that she wants to “reach out to diverse audiences and spread the rich culture and tradition of India (Paranji, 2019).” Dance is a part of Indian culture and Hinduism is a part of the origins of Indian classical Hindu dance. Unfortunately, misconceptions about Hinduism may develop in the West if Hindu dance is taught primarily as a part of Indian culture without an emphasis on Hinduism. Anderson from the New York Times writes a review of Smt. Sadhana Paranji’s performance at a program titled Indrani: Dancers and Musicians from India held at the Kay Playhouse at Hunter College in New York.26 He begins the review by stating, Although the traditional dances of India often concern gods and goddesses, they can be playful as well as solemn. (Anderson, 1997)

At a lecture and performance at Hunter College, Anderson apparently developed the misconception that Hinduism is a polytheistic religion as he refers to gods and goddesses. Hinduism is a monotheistic religion that 26  This review is from 1997. I used this review because it was the only review that I located during my research.

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believes in One Supreme Being who manifests in many different forms (MisirHiralall, 2017a). Evidently, Anderson ignores the complex nature of Hindu metaphysics, probably because of his misconceptions. Anderson writes about the dance of Smt. Sadhana Paranji as he states, Sadhana Paranji, trained in the Kuchipudi style of the south, offered a “Swarajati” notable for its firm footwork and vigorous arm movements. But she was also convincing in a dramatic piece about the slaying of a demon. (Anderson, 1997)

Smt. Sadhana Paranji offered an aesthetic experience to the audience as she shared dance as a fine art. She also dramatized a scene about the slaying of a demon. Anderson seemed to interpret this dramatization as a part of Indian culture and not Hinduism. There is no reference to Hinduism throughout the review. The earlier quote mentions gods and goddesses of India but not of Hinduism. The quote above references Kuchipudi as a South Indian dance style but not a Hindu dance style. The review provides the misconception that Hindu dance is limited to Indian culture. One does not need to be Indian to be Hindu or to be a Hindu dancer. In addition, one does not need to be Indian to enjoy the spirituality of Hindu dance. Although Hindu dance is a part of Indian culture, it is not limited to Indian culture, as the review seems to indicate. Anderson openly admits that he did not feel the performance provided a pedagogical space for education. This is evident as Anderson writes, It was a sweet program. But, without growing stuffily didactic, it could have been pedagogically enlightening, as well as entertaining. (Anderson, 1997)

Anderson viewed the program as entertainment and not educational. I do not know what the intended purpose of the program was. I speculate that the goal was to share Indian culture with a broad audience. Orientalism has the potential to occur without a strong pedagogical component, especially for a Western audience that is unfamiliar with the basic tenets of Hinduism (MisirHiralall, 2017a). On the Sadhanalaya School of Dance’s webpage, it states, Her commitment is not only to continue captivating and educating New Yorkers about Indian Classical Dance, but also to keep youngsters of Indian origin close to the “Real India” through this divine art. (Paranji, 2019)

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It seems that the “Real India” refers to the heritage of the geographical country of India that is infused with a history of Indian culture. In addition, it also appears that there is a fear of moving away from the “Real India” because this may cause disruption to Indian culture. It is apparent that Smt. Sadhana Paranji focuses on sharing Indian culture when she performs for a Western audience. However, she stresses the importance of Hinduism as she teaches her dance students. As mentioned earlier, after studying at Natraj, I enrolled in the Sadhanalaya School of Dance, where I studied Bharatnatyam and Kuchipudi dance from an authentic, traditional perspective. Smt. Sadhana Paranji delved deep into the traditional dance curriculum centered on Hinduism. My RangaPravesam was very traditional as I engaged in Hindu dances focused on spirituality. I am grateful that I had the opportunity to study with Smt. Sadhana Paranji because she taught me not only how to dance, but also about the intricate theoretical aspect of dance. She helped me to understand the complex nature of Hindu scriptures. In addition, my Guruji Pt. Maheshvar Tiwari and my brother Pt. Bhisham Malcolm “Jito” Misir supplemented my dance lessons by teaching me the depth of the complexity of the Hindu scriptures that I danced. My time at the dance institution was profound since it helped me to develop spiritually through the medium of dance. Several students of the Sadhanalaya School of Dance recognize Smt. Sadhana Paranji as their guruji. In fact, my RangaPravesam program acknowledges Smt. Sadhana Paranji as my guruji of dance. As I relate in my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Hindu Dance (MisirHiralall, 2017a), my primary Guru is Pt. Maheshwar Tiwari, who performed the Guru Diksha Sanskaar with me. However, my Guruji told me to honor my dance teacher, Smt. Sadhana Paranji, as my dance guru because she teaches me Hindu dance as a medium to attain moksha (liberation). Thus, I honor Smt. Sadhana Paranji as my dance guru. The David Ali Dance Academy As evident from the abovementioned dance establishments, there is a large emphasis on culture in Indian and West Indian dance schools today. I will now turn to discuss the David Ali Dance Academy, located in South Ozone Park in New York, since they frequently visit New Jersey, my home state, to dance in cultural programs. This dance establishment continues to provide an example of how culture infuses Indian classical dance

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education today. David Ali was the founder and lead teacher of the dance school until he passed away in 2012 (Guardian Media, 2012). His dance partner, Ms. Wendy Kamal, currently serves as the lead dance teacher and administrator of the dance school. David Ali was an accomplished cultural dancer who infused dances of many traditions. He began his dance studies in 1978 under the guidance of Rajkumar Krishna Persad at the Trinidad School of Indian Dance, where he learned Bharatnatyam. After, he studied elements of Caribbean dances at the University of the West Indies, where he absorbed various cultural dance styles. This included Indian, African, Chinese, and Spanish dances. He continued to learn Kathak and Indian folk dancing when he studied with Pradeep Shankar and Indira Mahatoo. Soon, he founded the David Ali Dance Academy in Trinidad and Tobago. When he migrated to New York, he continued the David Ali Dance Academy, where he taught dance. At the same time, he learned Manipuri, an Indian dance style, as well as salsa and meringue, which are Spanish dance styles (Guardian, 2012). It is evident that David Ali was a talented dancer who had a passion for culture. He seized every opportunity to learn each dance style that he could from a number of cultures. The dances that David Ali choreographed were infused with a variety of these dance styles, which made his dances aesthetically pleasing for the audience. In fact, David Ali is recognized as one of the most accomplished male dancers of Trinidad and Tobago. He was an entertainer who gave joy to many individuals. I had the honor of being an audience member who viewed his dances. He danced with a heart of love and a passion for culture, as he seemed to wish to bring forth joy into the world. David Ali had many dance partners throughout his dance career, but Wendy Kamal is perhaps the most well known. When venturing to New Jersey, David Ali and Wendy Kamal danced together at cultural programs. Their aesthetically pleasing cultural dances had intriguing theatrical movements. They reenacted many dances from older Bollywood films as they graced the stage with elegance. These enjoyable cultural dances often reminded individuals of West Indian culture in the Caribbean. The David Ali Dance Academy does not claim to be a Hindu dance school. The dance school acknowledges that they are a cultural dance school dedicated to promoting West Indian culture as they blend a variety of dance styles. However, the dance school does perform Hindu dances on occasion. As I mentioned though, the goal of this dance school is not to concentrate on Hinduism but rather to focus on Indian culture at large.

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Thus, the dance school teaches about Hinduism in a cultural manner through the art of Hindu dance. It is unavoidable to teach about Hinduism when teaching Hindu dance unless if the dangers of Orientalism is strongly present (MisirHiralall, 2017a). Students of the David Ali Dance Academy use the term “teacher” and not “guruji” to refer to their dance educators. David Ali and Wendy Kamal do not claim to be Gurus of dance. David Ali taught Indian classical dance with the goal of promoting Indian culture and entertaining audiences, as does Wendy Kamal. I suspect that the David Ali Dance Academy views itself as a cultural institution and therefore, the teachers do not proclaim to be sanctified Gurus of Hindu dance. Kalai Kaviri College of Fine Arts The abovementioned dance schools are based in the United States, whereas the Kalai Kaviri College of Fine Arts is located in South India. I will discuss the Kalai Kaviri College of Fine Arts since it provides an example of how colonialism disrupted the traditional Hindu religious system of dance education. I never studied at the institution nor have I witnessed live dance events from the school. However, I explored the institution’s website in depth, reviewed educational material from the college, and studied the mission of the school. The fine arts were once considered an elite course of study solely for the privileged in India. Reverend S.M.  George founded the Kalai Kaviri College of Fine Arts in 1977 to provide a fine arts education centered on Indian culture particularly for lower income students. I suspect Reverend S.M. George, an Indian man, either converted to Christianity or his ancestral family converted to Christianity as many Indians did during the colonization of India.27 He founded the institution with the goal of surpassing the traditional religious gurukula Hindu dance education system with the intention of including all individuals regardless of their religious background and instead centering attention on culture (Zubko, 2016, p. 106): With the financial support of primarily European missionary organizations, and the blessings of a succession of chief ministers in Tamil Nadu, the communication center developed into a government-aided college, affiliated to 27  See Viswanathan, G. (1989). Masks of conquest: Literary study and British rule in India. New  York: Columbia University Press. This text describes how the British aimed to strip Hinduism from India during the era of colonization.

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Bharathidasan University. The college is composed of half Hindu and half Christian students, and both learn a performance repertoire that includes traditional Hindu and Christian themes. (Zubko, 2016, p. 105)

The college confers degrees in Indian classical music and dance to students from different religious backgrounds. Zubko (2016, pp.  105–106) describes how students danced the Gayatri mantra, which is a sacred Hindu prayer from the Vedas. Hindus danced as Hindus who worshipped the sacred sun in the form of Gayatri Maa28 and Christians danced to honor the light of the sun in the form of Jesus while dancing a sacred Hindu mantra (prayer): Even though Kalai Kaviri presents Bharata Natyam as an Indian art form first, the institution acknowledges spiritual benefits that are innately inherent in the dance, which can cross religious boundaries. In particular, a link between dancing and devotion, between culture and bhakti, is featured as part of the framing of Kalai Kaviri programs.

The institution does not teach Hindu dances as first and foremost Hindu, but rather prioritizes sacred Hindu dance as Indian. Here, sacred Hindu dances become a cultural art that the school appropriates across religious and cultural traditions. The emphasis is on spirituality rather than the sacred Hindu traditions that accompany Hindu dance. It is no surprise that institutions in India maintain a Westernized approach to Hindu dance education. During the era of colonization, the British initiated a disruption to the sacred Guru-shishya education system. The British established several schools to Christianize Indians and to reteach Indians about Indian heritage with an Orientalized pedagogy. Gauri Viswanathan writes about this in depth as she points to how Orientalism developed in India during British rule: The great scholars produced by eighteenth-century Orientalism—William Jones, Henry T.  Colebrooke, Nathaniel Halhed, and Charles Wilkins— entirely owned their reputations to a happy coincidence of pioneering achievement and official patronage. Their exhaustive research had ambitious goals, ranging from the initiation of the West to the vast literary treasures of the East to the reintroduction of the natives to their own cultural heritage, 28  One Supreme Being manifests in the form of a Cosmic Mother and Father. Here, Maa is used to acknowledge Gayatri Maa as the Cosmic Mother.

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represented by the Orientalists as being buried under the debris of foreign conquests and depredations. (Viswanathan, 1989, p. 28)

Essentially, Western scholars did not comprehend the religious epistemology of Indians, especially Hindus, who believed in the historical Ramayana and Mahabharata as a part of Hindu history (MisirHiralall, 2017a). Thus, the West aimed to re-educate Indians to view Hindu epics and the fine arts as cultural rather than religious. Missionaries specifically served to civilize so-called Indian savages to see the real “truth” within Christianity. It is my contention that Christian missionaries betrayed Christian principles because they misappropriated Christianity. I point to this in my article The Theological Misappropriation of Christianity as a Civilizing Force (MisirHiralall, 2017b). At any rate, when Alexander Duff founded the General Assembly Institution in 1830, currently known as the Scottish Church College in Calcutta, several Indian parents withdrew their children from the institution because of the Christianizing curriculum: Admittedly, many of the parents he encountered were overly consumed by suspicion of missionary intentions in forcing Bible instruction on their children. It was not uncommon for parents to withdraw their children immediately from Duff’s school wherever they sensed what they saw as the “tyranny of the Bible.” (Viswanathan, 1989, p. 58)

Parents who were aware of the concealed efforts of Western institutions protected their children from the dangers of Orientalism. Nevertheless, it is no surprise that Westernized establishments in present-day India, such as the Kalai Kaviri College of Fine Arts, still adopt an approach that strips Hinduism as the main focus of the fine arts and instead emphasizes culture as the British did in India. On the one hand, the Kalai Kaviri College of Fine Arts seems to maintain good intentions to unite students of different religions who wish to learn “Indian” fine arts. I purposely say “Indian” because the fine arts are not primarily “Indian” but rather Indian classical Hindu dance forms are fine arts of Hinduism. On the other hand, the school furthers Orientalism by teaching sacred Hindu dance to non-Hindu students without carefully considering the sacred traditions of Hindu dance. I am not condemning Hindu and Christian students who dance together. On the contrary, in future projects, I hope to explore how individuals of different religious backgrounds could come together to dance in spiritual unity. What I am

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saying is that stripping Hinduism from sacred Hindu dance in the name of inclusive culture furthers Orientalism and betrays Hinduism. Hindus, Christians, and people of different religious backgrounds must come together in the space of hybridity (Bhabha, 1994) to develop a dance form that honors the traditions of Hinduism without enforcing the traditions onto non-Hindus as individuals unite together in spiritual dance that does not Orientalize any religion. Inclusive dance deserves serious attention and therefore must not be done casually because of the dangers of Orientalism. Returning to the example of Hindus and Christians who dance the sacred Gayatri mantra, Hindus should dance this mantra religiously with devotion for the Supreme Being. Christians should develop choreography to honor the Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit through a sacred Christian hymn. Hindus and Christians may then come together in the space of hybridity to develop choreography for the Sun as each individual honors the Sun based on their religious identity. The choreography should not impose Hindu dance traditions onto Christians nor should Christians impose liturgical dance traditions onto Hindus. Instead, Hindus should maintain Hindu dance traditions based on their individual identities and Christians should maintain Christian liturgical dance traditions based on their own individual identities while coming together for a spiritual dance to honor one of the world’s ornaments that Hindus and Christians jointly love. Thus, it is possible to dance across religious boundaries and cultures but this must be done with sensitivity to prevent Orientalism from thriving. This topic deserves careful in-depth attention. However, since it is not the main focus of this project, I will move onto discuss religion and culture.

Religion and Culture The abovementioned dance schools focus on the promotion of Indian culture at large. As I mentioned, Hinduism is a part of Indian classical Hindu dance. Therefore, dance educators must teach about Hinduism if they teach Indian classical Hindu dance. If they do not, then the dangers of Orientalism are evidently present (MisirHiralall, 2017a). My self-study data points to the overarching theme of religion and culture that are undeniably entangled. For this reason, I will discuss the distinctions between religion and culture plus explain how religion and culture inevitably overlap in the Indian classical Hindu dance tradition.

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Religion Western scholarship shapes the contestable, analytical, subjective term “religion,” which transformed throughout time (Henry, 2016). The term “religion” is a modern term that was not used in ancient times. Lucas F. Johnston (2014, p. 19) quotes Jonathan Z. Smith, who asserts that “religion” is not a native term; it is a term created by scholars for their intellectual purposes and therefore it is theirs to define. (Smith, 1988, p. 233, 1998, p. 281)

Western scholars continuously debate what religion is because there is no general consensus of a definition. Essentially, individuals need to define what religion is for them as they think about the defining criteria. For the purposes of this project, I define religion as a faith-based belief in a Supreme Being. It involves a spiritual relationship of faith between an individual and the Supreme Being. As a part of this relationship, individuals do their best to live ethically based on their interpretation of religious scriptures and also engage in faith-based ritualistic worship whether alone or communally with others. For faith-based religious believers, it is not enough to simply aim to live a good life. Religious individuals honor the Divine by engaging spiritually in ritualistic worship that has moral significance for living in the world. Faith-based believers do not need tangible evidence that the Supreme Being exists. The faith of these individuals is their evidence. In my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance (MisirHiralall, 2017a), I discuss religious epistemology as a way of knowing. I center attention on esteemed professor emeritus, Dr. Michael Kogan, who taught religion for the once joint Philosophy and Religion Department at Montclair State University. Kogan declares, There is, and always must be, an irreducible element of uncertainty regarding the object of faith, the infinite pole of the relationship. But paradoxically, this necessary objective uncertainty serves to intensify the subjective certainty of the believer. Thus faith is a passionate subjective certainty regarding an objective uncertainty. (2008, p. 187)

Faith-based believers comprehend the uncertainty as certainty without tangible evidence. There is no need for logical proof that the Supreme

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Being exists. Consequently, faith-based believers maintain a subjective certainty due to the historicity of holy scriptures, religious rituals, and religious experiences. Culture Like religion, scholars continuously debate the meaning of culture. Edward Said, essentially the founding father of postcolonialism, defines culture as he states, First of all it means all those practices, like the arts of description, communication, and representation, that have relative autonomy from the economic, social, and political realms and that often exist in aesthetic forms, one of whose principal aims is pleasure….Second, and almost imperceptibly, culture is a concept that includes a refining and elevating element, each society’s reservoir of the best that has been known and thought, as Matthew Arnold put it in the 1860s. Arnold believed that culture palliates, if it does not altogether neutralize, the ravages of a modern, aggressive, mercantile, and brutalizing urban existence. (Said, 1993, pp. xii–xiii)

Said acknowledges culture as a system of practices that provide communication and representation for a group of people. Culture frequently has aesthetic elements that involve cultural norms such as dress narratives. Said elaborates as he claims, As the twentieth century moves to a close, there has been a gathering awareness nearly everywhere of the lines between cultures, the divisions and differences that not only allow us to discriminate one culture from another, but also enables us to see the extent to which cultures are humanly made structures of both authority and participation, benevolent in what they include, incorporate, and validate, less benevolent in what they exclude and demote. (Said, 1993, p. 15)

He discusses culture as a protective enclosure that people participate in as they problematically frequently view culture as divorced from the everyday world. This leads to divisions between cultures that separate from one another because of what the particular culture includes or excludes. Culture does not remain static but rather is always in a state of flux because it is constantly changing. Postcolonial scholar Homi Bhabha (1994) sheds light on the illusionary boundaries of the West and the East

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where cultural contact is inescapable. He emphasizes the need to acknowledge the hybridity of cultures without engaging in Orientalism. Hybridity is a creative space where cultures blend to develop something new. It is crucial to maintain a de-Orientalized approach in the pedagogical space of hybridity to prevent Orientalism from thriving (MisirHiralall, 2017a). It is evident that the West Indian and Indian dance schools developed a cultural approach to dance based on the merging of Western and Eastern culture. This is unavoidable because the West and the East meet in a space of hybridity where cultural contact influences dance. Indian classical Hindu dance transformed throughout history due to cultural needs and also cultural entertainment. My issue is when dance establishments engage in Orientalism that leads to misconceptions and misrepresentations of the Indian classical Hindu dance tradition. Here, I ask dance educators to approach dance with a de-Orientalized lens that serves as representative of the Indian classical Hindu dance tradition. Religion and Culture Intertwined Essentially, dance once occurred in Hindu mandirs (temples) in India as a main part of worship (Sookdeo, 1994, p. 16). This is evident in the architecture of mandirs in medieval India: Many medieval Hindu temples incorporated an area dedicated to dance performances. One of the most lavish examples can be seen in the immense ruins of the Sun Temple at Konarak, Orissa (thirteenth century CE). The dance hall faces the sanctuary and is profusely decorated with sculptures of dancing figures and musicians. The huge scale of the building emphasizes the importance attached to dance. Dance halls were also a prominent feature of South Indian temples, especially from the Chola period onward (tenth to twelfth century CE), but the dance hall was placed to the side of the main alignment of the shrine. In many cases, such as the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram, Tamil Nadu (thirteenth century CE), the dance hall was an open-sided pavilion, so that the dance would be visible to worshippers outside the shrine. (Gaston & Gaston, 2014, p. 192)

Indian classical Hindu dance once had a prominent role in worship at mandirs. The dancers were even regarded as auspicious nobility since they lived to serve the Supreme Being. However, the government eventually banned Indian classical Hindu dance in India because dance moved from a traditional art form that emphasized the worship of the Supreme Being

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to a degrading system that promoted the sexual exploitation of women (Shingal, 2015). This was in part due to extremist Muslims who destroyed Hindu temples, which caused the displacement of dancers. Also, British influence in colonial India moved Indian classical Hindu dance to a mere form of entertainment for British soldiers, who often harassed female dancers: Dancing in Hindu temples was formally banned in 1948, just after Indian independence, by various state governments of India, largely because the dedication of minors to the temple was seen as infringing their rights. At the same time, the temple-based dances, formerly hereditary, started to be studied by non-hereditary women and men. The most prominent of these “revivalists” was a non-hereditary dancer/teacher Rukmini (Devi) Arundale, who studied BharataNatyam and performed publicly for the first time in 1935. (Gaston & Gaston, 2014, p. 195)

Despite the ban, revivalists such as Rukmini (Devi) Arundale acknowledged the spiritual significance of Indian classical Hindu dance as a part of Hinduism. Thankfully, some Hindu temples in London and the UK continue to incorporate Indian classical Hindu dance as a part of worship (David, 2009). I engage in a dramatic plea to pandits29 and Hindu mandirs (temples) within the United States to return Hindu dance to a sacred form of devotional worship. As mandir coordinators construct mandirs, the architecture should include a sacred space for dancers to engage in devotional Hindu dance. Just as there is a sacred space for the puja (worship), the pandits,30 and the kirtan members,31 the architectural design ought to incorporate a space for devotional Hindu dancers. It is crucial that only devotional Hindu dancers with knowledge of dance engage in dance in this space. Essentially, this is an educational pedagogical space that teaches about Hinduism through dance while simultaneously enriching worship.

 See footnote 11.  See footnote 11. 31  Kirtan members are individuals who are part of the musical group. 29 30

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Pt. Hardat Ashwar32 provides an example of how to employ dance to enrich worship. Pt. Hardat officiated a three-day Bhagvad yagna33 at the Prem Bhakti Mandir in New York for my Aunty Gyaano Ganesh.34 The yagna occurred on Friday evening, Saturday evening, and Sunday morning. I attended the yagna on Friday evening and met with Pt. Hardat. He asked if I would dance to a bhajan (song) that he planned to sing on Saturday evening as a part of his katha.35 Furthermore, he suggested that devotees dance with me. He planned to sing Nanda ki Anand Bhayo Jai Kandaiya Lall Ki. On Saturday evening, I brought my dandiya36 sticks and began to dance as Pt. Hardat sang. I did not choreograph the dance but rather danced from my heart. Pt. Hardat invited other devotees to join in the dance. Several ladies picked up the dandiya sticks, which I laid on the floor, and danced with me in a circle. They looked at my dance moves and imitated me as they smiled with devotion. We essentially danced a Raas Leela37 together. Pt. Hardat preached that devotees should allow love for Shri Krishna38 to fill their entire being as they use their body to engage in sacred dance. Pt. Hardat understood my identity as a faith-based Hindu dancer and encouraged me to share my identity with a congregation of devotees. Moreover, he acknowledges that Hindu dance is a religious art that has the potential to enrich worship. I am very grateful that Pt. Hardat encouraged me to pursue devotional Hindu dance as a part of my identity as a faith-based Hindu. During my self-study deliberations, my Peer Scholars pushed me to think deeply about how to engage in Hindu dance to enrich devotional worship, which Pandit Hardat advocated for.

32  Pt. Hardat Ashwar is a pandit at the Bhavani Shankar Mandir of Brampton, Ontario in Canada. 33  I use the term yagna to refer to a consecutive series of devotional services. A Bhagvad yagna has particular components. 34  Aunty Gyaano is my mother’s first cousin. My naani (maternal grandmother) and Aunty Gyaano’s mother are sisters. However, Aunty Gyanno is not referred to as a cousin in our family. I know her as my mother’s elder sister. They have the relationship of siblings. This yagna occurred in July 2010. 35  The term katha is used to describe the relation of the glories of the Supreme Being. 36  Dandiya sticks are often bamboo sticks that are decorated for the purpose of dance. 37  Raas Leela refers to the dance that honors Shri Krishna. The Gopikas (maidens) dance in a circle often with dandiya sticks. Each Gopika dances with a manifestation of Shri Krishna. Shri Krishna and Radha dance in the middle of the circle. 38  The Supreme Being manifests as Shri Krishna in Dwapara Yug.

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Throughout time, dance became a cultural art form that no longer predominantly transpires as a form of worship primarily in mandirs (temples). My concern is that the sacredness of Indian classical Hindu dance is frequently ignored because viewers often view dance as a mere form of cultural entertainment. While I dance for devotional reasons, my self-­ study data conveys that I regularly feel scarred when I dance for cultural events because I recurrently sense a male gaze (Mulvey, 1989; MisirHiralall, 2017a) coupled with an imperial gaze (E. Ann Kaplan, 1997; MisirHiralall, 2017a) from the viewers, who I feel see me as a cultural, exotic female entertainer even though that is not who I am. Here, individuals view the religious dances as cultural due to Western influences. I ask that viewers view my dances with a sacred gaze (Morgan, 2005; MisirHiralall, 2017a) that acknowledges the sacredness of the dance. I consider it necessary to continue to explicitly point to the current position of Indian classical Hindu dance as cultural. I am compelled to share a troubling example based on my lived experience. This example shows how a dancer stripped Indian classical Hindu dance of its sacredness as the dancer engaged in a dance performance as a sheer cultural art. Several other females and I danced a sacred Hindu bhajan, Jai Hai Maha Latchmi Maa for a cultural religious event in New York when I was a teenager. We learned this dance from a respected dance teacher who danced with us. As my mother helped me prepare backstage, we saw one of the dancers from the group eat a meat sandwich from a fast food restaurant before getting dressed. Faith-based Hindus are often vegetarians but those who are not vegetarians respectfully maintain a vegetarian diet during religious occasions. My mother and I considered the dance to be a sacred, religious dance of Hinduism. However, another dancer who claimed to be Hindu completely disregarded the sacredness of the dance and only saw it as cultural. The dance teacher nor did the administrators of the program address this ill-mannered behavior. Hindu dancers may perform for cultural events, but they should do so as faith-based Hindus who engage in the ethics of Hindu dance (BharataMuni, 2000). Otherwise, they promote Orientalism that brazenly disregards the sacredness of the dance form. Dancers need to respect Indian classical Hindu dance by adhering to the religious tradition of Hinduism as stated in the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000). If not, then these dancers should not engage in Hindu dance if they do so only for cultural purposes because they disrespectfully betray Hinduism.

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Returning to Sacred Hindu Dance As mentioned earlier, Bramhaji created Hindu dance to help individuals detach from their disproportionate attachment to the material world and instead connect people to the Supreme Being through an art filled with spirituality. The Indian classical Hindu dance tradition transformed due to the legacy of colonialism coupled with Westernization. Currently, Indian classical Hindu dance is a part of a Westernized educational dance system that emphasizes performances on stage for the purpose of cultural entertainment. This causes many Hindus today to view Hindu dance as a cultural activity limited to stage performances at cultural shows. However, Hindu dance was not created for this purpose. Hindu dance is not primarily about cultural entertainment but rather involves the dancer connecting to the Supreme Being in a manner that radiates to the viewers and provokes a phenomenological experience. Even when mandirs39 (temples) invite dancers to dance, these dancers often dance with a performance-based approach that treats the mandir as a stage for entertainment. This may impact the spirituality of dancers who may be more concerned with body image and perfecting choreography. With the creation and purpose of Hindu dance in mind, I intend to demonstrate how the devotional art of Hindu dance could serve to enrich worship. I am on a quest to move Hindu dance back to a sacred pedagogical process and return devotional Hindu dance to the mandir (temple) setting. With this educational goal in mind, my objective is to teach individuals to respectfully embrace the sacredness of Hindu dance. Overall, I intend to return Hindu dance to a devotional art that provides a profound religious, devotional experience to the dancer and the viewers of the dance. In this chapter, I share the history of Indian classical Hindu dance as I point to the origin and purpose of Hindu dance. I express how the legacy of colonialism impacts the educational system of dance, which transformed how people view dance. I discuss the current state of Indian and West Indian dance schools that shift Hindu dance from a focus on Hinduism to an emphasis on culture. Furthermore, I consider religion and culture as I 39  Here, I specifically refer to West Indian mandirs (temples) in the United States. By West Indian, I do not mean the Western part of India. Instead, West Indian refers to certain parts of the Caribbean, which include Guyana in South America as well as Trinidad and Tobago. In my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance, I mention in Chap. 1 how indentured servitude caused many Indians, including my ancestors, to migrate from India to West Indian countries.

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point to the transformation of Indian classical Hindu dance from primarily religious to predominantly cultural. My philosophical project returns to the sacredness of Hindu dance despite the destructive tendencies of colonialism that caused a shift in the dance tradition. As I continue, I will explain what devotional dance is in the next chapter.

References Anderson, J. (1997). Tour of India’s Classical Styles. Retrieved from https:// www.nytimes.com/1997/10/02/arts/dance-review-tour-of-india-s-classicalstyles.html Apparao, P. S. R., & Sri, R. S. P. (1967). A Monograph on Bharata’s Naatya saastra: Indian Dramatology. Hyderabad: Naatya Maala Publication. Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The Location of Culture. London: Routledge. Bhaktivedanta, A. C. (2011). Krsna: The Supreme Personality of Godhead. Marina del Rey, CA: Krishna Books. BharataMuni. (2000). The Natya Sastra of Bharata Muni. Delhi: Sri Satguru. Chakravorty, P. (2008). Bells of Change: Kathak Dance, Women, and Modernity in India. Kolkata, India: Seagull Books. David, A. (2009, January 01). Performing for the Gods? Dance and Embodied Ritual in British Hindu Temples. South Asian Popular Culture, 7(3), 217–231. Dinalal, V., Kalicharan, T., & Ambu, V. (1998). Rangapravesam Brochure. NY. Gaston, A. M. (Anjali), & Gaston, T. (2014). Dance as a Way of Being Religious. Oxford University Press. Goswami, C. L., Sāstrı ̄, M. A., & Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, A. C. (1995). Srı ̄mad-Bhāgavata Mahāpura ̄na: With Sanskrit text and English translation. Gorakhpur, India: Gita Press. Guardian Media. (2012). Memorial Service for T & T Dancer Today. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.tt/article-­6.2.416800.c99b1e4f8d Henry, A. (2016, January 12). What is Religion? Religion for Breakfast. Retrieved May 25, 2020, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c5KHDR8jdbA Johnston, L.  F. (2014). Religion and Sustainability: Social Movements and the Politics of the Environment. Routledge. Kaplan, E.  A. (1997). Looking for the Other: Feminism, Film, and the Imperial Gaze. New York, NY: Routledge. Kogan, M.  S. (2008). Opening the Covenant: A Jewish Theology of Christianity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Manimekalai. (2019). Padmini Ramachandran. Retrieved from http://www. manimekalai.com/padmini.html Matthews, B., & Singh, L. (2012a). Barbara Matthews Interview on Let’s Talk With Lakshmee. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= U6HT6MhDX-­U

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Matthews, B., & Singh, L. (2012b). Natraj Interview on Let’s Talk With Lakshmee. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GYnYU3SiOUQ Matthews, B., & Singh, L. (2012c). Natraj Interview on Let’s Talk With Lakshmee Part 3. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QnoFWdeHLAk MisirHiralall, S. D. (2014, May 01). The Postcolonial Reality of Using the Term Liturgical to Describe Hindu Dance. Journal of Research on Christian Education, 23(2), 154–175. MisirHiralall, S. D. (2017a). Confronting Orientalism: A Self-study of Educating through Hindu Dance. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Sense Publishers. MisirHiralall, S.  D. (2017b, January 01). The Theological Misappropriation of Christianity as a Civilizing Force. Journal of Research on Christian Education, 26(2), 79–104. Morgan, D. (2005). The Sacred Gaze: Religious Visual Culture in Theory and Practice. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Mulvey, L. (1989). Visual and Other Pleasures. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Nandikeśvara, & Apparao, P. S. R. (1997). Abhinaya Darpaṇam of Nandikes w ́ ara. Hyderabad: P.S.R. Apparao. Paranji, S. (2019). About Sadhana Paranji. Retrieved from http://sadhanalaya. com/Sadhana_Paranji.html Prickett, S. (2007, January 01). Guru or Teacher? Shishya or Student? Pedagogic Shifts in South Asian Dance Training in India and Britain. South Asia Research, 27(1), 25–41. Said, E. W. (1979). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books. Said, E. W. (1993). Culture and Imperialism. New York, NY: Knopf. Shingal, A. (2015). The Devadasi System: Temple Prostitution in India. UCLA Women’s Law Journal, eScholarship, University of California, 22 (1). Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/37z853br Smith, J.  Z. (1988). Religion’ and ‘Religious Studies’: No Difference at All. Soundings, 71(2–3), 231–244. Smith, J. Z. (1998). Religion, Religions, Religious. In M. C. Taylor (Ed.), Critical Terms for Religious Studies (pp.  269–284). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Sookdeo, S. (1994). Indian Dance for the Carribbean. San Juan, Trinidad: Chakra Publishing House. Sukhatankar, O. (2016). Practice and Pedagogy of Indian Classical Dance (ICD): Analysis in Comparison with India’s Folk and Bollywood Dances. Chitrolekha International Magazine on Art and Design, 6(2), 11–19. Viswanathan, G. (1989). Masks of Conquest: Literary Study and British Rule in India. New York: Columbia University Press. Zubko, K.  C. (2016). Dancing Bodies of Devotion: Fluid Gestures in Bharata Natyam. Lanham: Lexington Books.

CHAPTER 3

Defining Devotional Hindu Dance

Abstract  Bhakti is a crucial concept to understand before engaging in devotional Hindu dance. In many instances, bhakti is often recognizable, since faith, love, and devotion pours from the individual’s heart frequently in thoughts plus actions. Shri Hanumanji undeniably provides a strong, extraordinary example of bhakti. Every thought and action of Hanumanji focuses on devotion for Shri Rama. Also, I point to the goals of devotional Hindu dance in this chapter. It is imperative for devotional Hindu dancers to pay attention to their way of being and interactions before, during, and after the dance. Contemplative dressing is vital as one prepares to dance. Abhinaya develops naturally through bhakti during the dance. Ethical responsibility plays a key role in the life of the dancer after the dance. Keywords  Bhakti • Shri Hanumanji • Ramayana • Contemplative Dressing • Moksha • Ethical Responsibility • Orthodox Universalist • Liberal Pragmatist Devotional Hindu dance ought to focus on the feelings that accompany religious worship. The feeling of devotion should provoke a devotional experience for the dancer and the viewers. A devotional experience is an experience that the dancer has as the dancer connects to the Supreme Being through dance. When the dancer expresses this devotional experience through dance, then chances are that faith-based viewers may also © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. D. MisirHiralall, Devotional Hindu Dance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70619-7_3

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have a devotional experience. For the purposes of this project, I will focus my attention on an explanation of devotional dance to provide clarity on how I propose Hindu dancers should dance. In addition, I shall shed light on how viewers ought to view the dance. I recall that I attended a religious cultural event that Gyaan Ka Saagar1 hosted to celebrate Navraatri.2 I sat with the viewers in theatre style seating at the Hindu Community Center’s hall that was rented for the event, which took place in New Jersey. Since the event was not held in a theatre, chairs lined each row in theatre style seating in the hall. The small stage had stairs on each side with no backstage area. The lighting was bright as the chandeliers radiated like sunbeams. I sat in a chair in one of the beginning rows in front of the stage as I listened to the musicians sing. Soon, Taran Terence Sookbir, a devotional singer, approached the stage accompanied by his brother Anand Sookbir, who played the dholak (drum). As he uttered powerful mantras (prayers) to Durga Devi Maa with sincere devotion, I closed my eyes to pray. Following this, Taran Terence Sookbir began to sing the famous Mahishasura Mardini Stotram, which began with the words, “Ai Giri Nandini” (Śaṅkarācār ya, 1994).3 My body intuitively began to move because I experienced the power of devotion. I felt that he sang with a heart full of love for the Supreme Being as devotion poured from him. As he started to sing the stotram, I stood up from my seat because I was called to dance since my body would not and could not ignore this great calling. I danced this powerful stotram many times as a Kuchipudi dance. Thus, the dance was choreographed although I did not plan to dance to this song at the event. When I stood up, I immediately began to dance through the aisle to the front of the stage. I danced barefoot on the floor in the front corner of the stage next to the Durga Devi Maa4 murti. I felt my facial expressions convey love for the great Durga Devi Maa. Tears filled my eyes as I danced intuitively to this powerful stotram. I sensed the eyes of the viewers as well as the musicians on me. They did not seem to view the dance as 1  Gyaan Ka Saagar is a West Indian Hindu mandir in New Jersey. A mandir is a place of worship. See footnote 21 for a description of “West Indian.” 2  Navraatri occurs for nine nights. Navraatri celebrates the Supreme Being’s manifestation as the great Goddess, who is the Cosmic Mother. Hindus often worship the Cosmic Mother in the manifestations of Latchmi Maa, Sarasvati Maa, and Durga Maa. 3  This is a reference to familiarize individuals with the stotram. This source does not portray Taran Terrance Sookbir singing the stotram. 4  The Supreme Being manifests as Durga Devi Maa, who is the Cosmic Mother of the universe.

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e­ntertainment probably because of the circumstances. The musicians appeared overjoyed that they prompted me to connect to the Supreme Being. They did not look arrogant but instead displayed a desire to help individuals unite with the Supreme Being through music. I detect that the viewers acknowledged the powerful connection that I had to the Supreme Being, which I expressed through dance. This may possibly have caused others to partake in a devotional religious experience. From that point, I continued to dance in an un-choreographed manner as Taran Terrance Sookbir sang song after song. Toward the end, he sang Maa Teri Mamta (Sookbir & Singh, 2017), which is a famous bhajan (song) with a powerful meaning. Because I knew the meaning of the bhajan and often pray to the bhajan, the dance flowed naturally from me. I did not have to think about the movement since each movement was very natural. It was intuitive based on the meaning of the bhajan coupled with the devotion that I felt for the Supreme Being. I often dance this bhajan at my home now as I pray to the Supreme Being through dance. After the event, several people approached me to share their sentiments on my un-planned dances. Some told me that I was very knowledgeable to have the skill to dance in such a devotional manner. Individuals expressed to me that they felt my devotion to the Supreme Being as I danced, which was powerful for them to experience. Numerous people told me that they enjoyed viewing my dances because it helped them to devotionally connect to the Supreme Being. People described the chills that ran through their body as I devotionally danced. The theme across the comments was devotion. Almost each individual that spoke to me conveyed that they felt a strong sense of devotion. The theme of devotion began to emerge in my self-study data. I began to deliberate about this with my Peer Scholars as I thought deeply about what devotional dance is. I realized that Taran Terrance Sookbir exhibited bhakti, which prompted me to express bhakti through dance, and in turn caused others to experience bhakti.

Bhakti, A Form of Devotion Bhakti and the Bhakti Movement Since bhakti is a key component of devotional Hindu dance, I must discuss bhakti in Hinduism. Bhakti is an intricate Sanskrit term, which is difficult to translate. Essentially, bhakti is a feeling a devotee has that is often recognizably seen in the individual. A person who has bhakti is full of

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unquestionable faith in the Supreme Being’s existence. This indisputable faith incites an intense love for the Supreme Being. Consequently, the devotee engages in actions throughout life that center on devotion for the Supreme Being. Bhakti helps an individual walk a path in life toward moksha (liberation). John Stratton Hawley states bhakti is usually translated as devotion but the term connotes more. Hawley asserts, Bhakti is heart religion, sometimes cool and quiescent but sometimes hot— the religion of participation, community, enthusiasm, song, and often of personal challenge, the sort of thing that coursed through the Protestant Great Awakenings in the history of the United States. It evokes the idea of a widely shared religiosity for which institutional superstructures weren’t all that relevant, and which, once activated, could be historically contagious—a glorious disease of the collective heart. It implies direct divine encounter, experienced in the lives of individual people. These people, moved by that encounter, turn to poetry, which is the natural vehicle for bhakti, and poetry expresses itself just as naturally in song. (Hawley, 2015, p. 2)

Hawley discusses bhakti as a religion of love that people embrace with a collective heart as they experience a direct encounter with the Supreme Being. Following this, Hawley discusses the bhakti movement that occurred in medieval India during 500–1700 CE (Hawley, 2015, p. 3). Saints once only consisted of individuals born into the Brahman5 caste. However, during the bhakti movement, non-Brahman saint-poets embraced their divinity as they lived lives of devotion often performing acts of Brahmans despite their caste status in society. Some scholars (Prentiss, 2000) point to the bhakti movement as a rebellion of tradition, whereas others claim that it was a reform. This is because the bhakti movement challenged the duties of individuals within the caste system and especially contested the status of Brahmans. Hawley states, The guiding themes of the bhakti movement are believed to present a formidable challenge to the ritually oriented Vedic traditions preserved by the Brahman caste that have so often been seen as lying at the core of Hindu religion. (2015, p. 6) 5  This refers to the caste system of Hinduism. Brahmans are a part of the priestly caste at the top of the caste system. Here, the term “priest” is used for a lack of a better term.

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Essentially, people did not adhere to the caste system or seek education solely from Brahmans. Instead, saint-poets who felt compelled to serve the Supreme Being embraced their calling by performing religious actions similar to the duties of Brahmans. Hawley outlines the guiding criteria of the bhakti movement: 1. The bhakti movement is characterized by the singing of devotional songs composed in vernacular languages by poets who have attained the status of saints. 2. It celebrates a sense of the mutual companionship on the part of many of these saint-poets. 3. It displays a tendency to consider both sexes and all strata of society as potential devotees. (Hawley, 2015, p. 6)

Saint-poets sang devotional songs in  local languages as they inclusively spoke to masses of people. They embraced people of all genders and castes who wished to become saint-poets who serve the Supreme Being with devotion. The sixteenth century saint-poet Ravidas, also known as Raidas, was a bhakta (devotee) who was the Guruji of Mirabai6 even though he was not a Brahman (Bahadur, 2002; Mukta, 1994). In addition to Raidas and Mirabai, the bhakti movement developed with many saint poets such as Kabir, Surdas, and Tulası ̄dāsa to name a few (Myers, 2020; Subramanian, 2020). While I acknowledge the pertinence of the bhakti movement as a part of Hindu history, I place attention on the term “bhakti.” I discuss the term as a part of Sanaatan Dharma. Vidyarthi (1988) describes Sanataan Dharma as he writes, Hindu Dharma has no beginning. It is “Sanaatan” (=eternal). Its originator is God and its principles are related to life and the universe. These principles or laws, exist eternally. They are not man-made, so to speak, but have always been in operation from creation. Hindu Dharma is an inheritance of thought and aspiration, living and moving with the movement of life itself. It is like a circle with no beginning, and as life-principles it has always existed and will never cease to exist. (Vidyarthi, 1988, p. 2)

6

 Mirabai is a Hindu princess who is famous for her devotional songs and dances.

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Sanaatan dharma is an eternal religion with timeless ethical discourse. As I continue, my discussion of bhakti will shed light on the term as a principle of Sanataan Dharma. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that the term moved across religious boundaries. Katherine Zubko points to this as she writes, Historically, by the twentieth century, the Indian language word bhakti is used in Muslim, Christian, and Buddhist traditions in South Asia. (Zubko, 2016, p. 85)

As individuals of different religious traditions learned about bhakti, they began to use the term to describe their own feelings of devotion. The term bhakti transformed to have many connotations depending on who employs the term. I use the term bhakti as a Sanskrit word that stems from Hinduism. For this reason, I now turn to discuss Shri Hanumanji to spotlight the term as a main component of Sanataan Dharma. Shri Hanumanji The greatest devotee of Hinduism who provides an example of the embodiment of bhakti is Shri7 Hanumanji.8 Hanumanji is the manifestation of the Supreme Being, who reveals Himself as Shivaji. Shivaji is Hanumanji and Hanumanji is Shivaji. Shivaji manifested as Hanumanji in Treta Yuga to serve Shri Rama, who is the manifestation of the Supreme Being who came in Treta Yuga to teach humankind about the nature of duty. As I mentioned earlier, Hinduism is a monotheistic religion that believes in One Supreme Being who manifests in many different forms at many different times for many different purposes. This is important to keep in mind as I relate the devotion of Hanumanji to Shri Rama. The historical epic of the Ramayana (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991) recounts the glories of Shri Rama. I must express that the Ramayana as a text is in and of itself historical. However, the Ramayana conveys Hindu history, as I discuss in my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance (2017). In my text, I point to archaeological evidence that the Ramayana did occur, although my goal was not to prove that the Ramayana is part of Hindu history. As a faith-based 7 8

 “Shri” is an honorific term used to show respect.  The suffix “ji” is added to the ending of Shri Hanuman’s name to show honorific respect.

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Hindu, I do not need to prove the Ramayana is history since my faith is unquestionable. The Ramayana relates how Shri Rama was exiled for fourteen years in the forest region due to his mother’s9 request to King Dasharatha, Shri Rama’s father, who was king of Ayodhya. Lakshmana, Shri Rama’s younger brother, willingly accompanied Shri Rama to the forest region. In addition, Sita Maa,10 Shri Rama’s wife, went to the forest region with him. One day, Sita Maa saw a golden deer that enticed her. She asked Shri Rama to bring her the deer. Shri Rama instructed Lakshmana to guard Sita Maa. When Sita Maa heard a false illusion of Shri Rama screaming for help, Sita Maa asked Lakshmana to help Shri Rama. Lakshmana was reluctant because Shri Rama asked him to protect Sita Maa. Despite this, Sita Maa demanded insistently that Lakshmana help his brother. Lakshmana drew a protective circle around Sita Maa and asked her not to leave the circle. Following this, he went to help Shri Rama. During that time, the demon king Ravana from Lanka approached Sita Maa. Sita Maa came out of the circle to offer Ravana some grains because he was disguised as a Brahman.11 At that time, Ravana revealed his true self and kidnapped Sita Maa. Shri Rama and Lakshmana began to search for her. Garuda, a bird, informed Shri Rama and Lakshmana that the demon king Ravana kidnapped Sita Maa. Eventually, Shri Rama and Lakshmana met with the pious devotee Shabari,12 who instructed them to seek the alliance of King Sugriv. Shri Rama and Lakshmana wandered at the foot of the Rishyamuk Mountain 9  Kausalya was Shri Rama’s mother. He had three mothers because his father married other women. At the time, it was a common practice to marry more than one woman for childrearing purposes. Particularly, kings who could not have sons with their queens were permitted to marry another queen and attempt to have a son. However, Hindus do not practice polygamy. Shri Rama sets the example of a husband’s duty to a wife. Sita Maa sets the example of a wife’s duty to a husband. They were a monogamous couple. Kaikeyi was the mother who requested to King Dasharatha, Shri Rama’s father, that Shri Rama be exiled. This was because she wished for her son, Bharat to be king. King Dasharatha was reluctant to grant this request. However, Shri Rama, being a dutiful son, wished to comply despite his father’s broken heart. 10  Sita Maa is considered to be a manifestation of the Supreme Being in female form. For this reason, she is known as the Cosmic Mother. Thus, “Maa” is added to Sita’s name to convey that Sita is the Mother of the World. 11  See footnote 4. 12  Shabari provides exemplary examples of devotion in the Ramayana (see Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991, pp. 498–501).

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as they looked for King Sugriv. The guards informed King Sugriv that there were two men wandering at the foot of the mountain, who looked like warriors but were dressed like ascetics. King Sugriv and his ministers went to find Hanumanji, who was meditating. They asked Hanumanji to see who the wanderers at the foot of the mountain were. Hanumanji disguised himself as a Brahman.13 He used his knowledge and scholarship of the Vedas to talk in riddles as he asked questions to the wanderers. When they identified themselves as Shri Rama and Lakshmana, Hanumanji immediately lovingly apologized for not recognizing them because of course Hanumanji knew who they were. Hanumanji revealed himself and embraced them with a heart filled with love. Tulası ̄dāsa poetically conveys the emotional embrace of Shri Rama and Hanumanji: Now Hanuman recognized the Lord and falling to the ground, clasped his feet. That joy, Uma, no tongue could tell. A thrill ran through his body and all words failed his tongue as he gazed on the form of their ravishing disguise. Then collecting himself, he hymned his praises and was glad to have found his Lord. “Master,” said Hanuman, “for me it was fitting to inquire, but why should you ask, as though you were a mere man? I have been wandering in error under the influence of your illusive power and that is why I failed to recognize my Lord. In the first place, I am dull-witted and deluded, perverse of heart and ignorant, and then you, too, my Blessed Lord, friend of the humble, forgot me ….” So saying, he fell at the Lord’s feet much agitated; his heart was overwhelmed with love and he revealed his natural (monkey) form. Raghunatha then raised him and clasped him to his bosom, and soothed him with streams of tears from his own eyes. (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991, p. 511)

Hanumanji knew Shri Rama was a manifestation of the Supreme Being. It is evident that he felt incredible, intense devotion for Shri Rama. Here, devotion is expressed through actions permeated with love. Hanumanji clasped the feet of Shri Rama with an overflowing heart of love that caused every pore of his body to radiate with adoration for Shri Rama. This prompted Shri Rama to embrace Hanumanji as Shri Rama’s tears soothed him. To continue, King Sugriv, his army, and Hanumanji helped Shri Rama on the quest to rescue Sita Maa. Hanumanji leaped across an ocean to  See footnote 4.

13

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warn the demon king Ravana in Lanka to release Sita Maa from captivity. When in Lanka, Hanumanji comforted Sita Maa with a loving heart as a son would. Furthermore, Hanumanji gave Sita Maa the ring of Shri Rama. Tulası ̄dāsa expressively writes, Upon hearing the monkey’s loving speech, her heart trusted him, and she recognized him as a servant of the all-merciful Lord in thought, word, and deed. Recognizing him to be a devotee of Hari, she developed an intense affection for him. Her eyes filled with tears and a thrill ran through her body. “To me,” she said, “who was sinking in the ocean of bereavement, Hanuman, dear friend, you have come like a ship to save me.” (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991, p. 545)

Hanumanji’s devotion for Shri Rama shined like rays of the sun as he spoke to Sita Maa. Thus, Sita Maa trusted Hanumanji because she knew he was a divine servant of Shri Rama. Hanumanji expressed sincere devotion to Shri Rama, which caused Sita Maa to also experience devotion since she too loved Shri Rama. Hanumanji promised Sita Maa that Shri Rama would save her. When Ravana refused to release Sita Maa, Hanumanji’s tale caught on fire and he consequently burned the demonic areas of Lanka. He leaped back across the ocean and informed Shri Rama of Sita Maa’s location. Hanumanji directed the construction of the famous Rama Setu Bridge14 that allowed Shri Rama’s army to enter Lanka. Tulası ̄dāsa eloquently writes, Next, he summoned the monkey troops and said, “Hear, all of you, this prayer of mine; enshrine in your hearts the lotus feet of Rama and, bears and monkeys, engage yourself in this sportive toil.” (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991, p. 580)

Hanumanji does not demand that the troops build the bridge but rather with humility requests the troops to hear his prayer. This indicates that building the bridge was a form of worship to the Supreme Being for Hanumanji. Thus, he asks the troops to engage in the sacred task with a heart filled with love for Shri Rama, a manifestation of the Supreme Being. Hanumanji teaches that devotion involves performing one’s sacred duty with a heart of love.  This bridge has several names (see MisirHiralall, 2017, p. 155–156).

14

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When Ravana’s son, Indrajit, wounded Lakshmana during the war between Shri Rama and the demon king Ravana, Hanumanji quickly traveled to the Gandhamadana Mountain located in the Himalayas. He uprooted the entire mountain because he did not know which herb the physician Susena needed to heal Lakshmana. Tulası ̄dāsa gracefully writes, He saw the mountain but failed to identify the herb; so he lost no time in tearing the mountain up by the roots. With the mountain in his grasp, Hanuman darted through the night air and passed over the city of Ayodhya. (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991, p. 623)

Hanumanji knew the love between Shri Rama and Lakshmana, and thus Hanumanji engaged in devotional service to them. He did not hesitate to bring medicinal herbs to save Lakshmana. For this reason, the famous Shri Hanuman Chalisa states, Laaya Samjiivana Lakhana Jiyaaye Sriraghubiira Harasi Ura Laaye Raghupati Kiinhii Bahuta BaRaaii Tuma Mama Priya Bharatahi Sama Bhaaii You brought the life-giving herb and Lakshmana to life; Joyously then Rama clasped you to his bosom And your praises sang. “You’re as dear to me as Bharata,” he said. (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991, p. 854)

These verses lyrically describe how Shri Rama embraced Hanumanji when Lakshmana lived because of the Sanjivani herb that Hanumanji brought from the mountain. Shri Rama said that he loves Hanumanji just as he does his dear brother Bharat. Furthermore, Shri Rama expressed deep love and affection for Hanumanji, who has endless devotion. If a devotee conveys sincere, deep love for Shri Rama, then Shri Rama will also express love and affection for the devotee. The relationship of bhakti, if sincere, is reciprocal. After Hanumanji informed Sita Maa that Shri Rama killed Ravana, Hanumanji took Sita Maa to meet Shri Rama. Her heart was overjoyed, the hair of her body bristled with delight and with eyes full of tears she said again and again, “What can I give you, Hanuman?

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There is nothing in all the three worlds to be compared to your tidings.” “Listen, mother,” Hanuman replied, “assuredly today I have attained the sovereignty of the whole world when I behold the unblemished Rama and his brother triumphant over the ranks of the enemy.” (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991, p. 669)

Sita Maa’s heart filled with love for Hanumanji because she knew of his devotion to Shri Rama. She desired to give Hanumanji a token of appreciation, but Hanumanji did not yearn for a gift. If a devotee maintains devotion for the Supreme Being, then the Supreme Being will bless the devotee even if the devotee does not desire anything. After fourteen years of exile, Shri Rama, Lakshmana, Sita Maa, and Hanumanji traveled to Ayodhya. Shri Rama received many gifts at his coronation as king upon his return to Ayodhya. Sita Maa wished to honor the devotion of Hanumanji. Shri Rama announced that Sita Maa had a special gift to bestow upon Hanumanji. Sita Maa had a desire to give Hanumanji an exquisite, radiant pearl necklace. However, Hanumanji did not wish for any gifts. His devotion ran so deep that he only craved to faithfully serve Shri Rama and Sita Maa without any reward. Hanumanji said that he could not disobey Sita Maa. Thus, Hanumanji accepted the necklace from Shri Rama as instructed by Sita Maa. Nonetheless, Hanumanji asked Sita Maa to grant Him a boon upon accepting the necklace. Hanumanji requested that no exquisite gems adorn his chest. Instead, he asked for Shri Rama and Sita Maa to be imprinted onto his heart. He also wished to be Shri Rama and Sita Maa’s greatest, eternal devotee. Shri Rama responded by saying that devotees are not servants. Instead, Shri Rama said he is a servant to his devotees. Shri Rama knew the intense depth of Hanumanji’s faithful devotion that caused Hanumanji to become emotional at receiving this gift that he deemed unnecessary. Hanumanji’s devotion for Shri Rama and Sita Maa radiated more than the pearl necklace. This is where the famous scene in the Ramayana (Sagar, 2005) occurs where Hanumanji metaphorically opens his chest to show how his eternal love for Shri Rama and Sita Maa radiates like the rays of the sun. Here, devotion is not based solely on duty but rather is infused with love and faith. Every action of Hanumanji throughout the Ramayana (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991) is saturated with love for Shri Rama. He performs his duty without hesitation with a heart filled with eternal unquestionable love.

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Bhakti’s Role in Devotional Hindu Dance Hanumanji provides exemplary examples that inspire devotees to think deeply about devotion. Absolute faith, infinite love, and boundless devotion to Shri Rama filled every action of Hanumanji, who displayed bhakti. I began to think about bhakti’s role in devotional Hindu dance as I pursued my self-study. It is my contention that devotional Hindu dance infused with bhakti comprises of unquestionable faith, eternal love, and endless devotion from the dancer to the Supreme Being. For this reason, I will point to faith, love, and devotion as components of bhakti in devotional Hindu dance. To begin with, the devotional Hindu dancer maintains a theological perspective of Hinduism. The dancer has indisputable faith in the existence of the Supreme Being. While some may need proof for the existence of the Supreme Being, the dancer does not need proof. This is because the dancer understands the incomprehensible nature of the Supreme Being’s existence. The dancer who maintains faith is enthusiastically subjectively certain about the reality of the Supreme Being. Faith is about believing in what you cannot physically prove but you know in your heart exists. The faith of the devotional Hindu dancer prompts the expression of eternal love for the Supreme Being. The dancer develops an unfathomable depth of love for the Supreme Being because of the intensity of faith. This love is not a delusional love that causes hallucinations of fantasy like creations as the dancer dances nor is it an unhealthy love that develops based on an obsession that discards care for the self and others. On the contrary, this love is based on faith that understands the history of Hinduism despite Orientalists who portray Hindu history as mere fantasy (MisirHiralall, 2017). It is a healthy love that forms as the dancer depicts everlasting love for the Supreme Being not just through dance but also as the dancer lives a life that pays attention to self-care and relationships with others since the self and others are a part of the Supreme Being. Faith coupled with love leads the devotional Hindu dancer to dance with endless devotion. The dancer conveys faith and love as bhakti radiates through dance filled with expressive and rhythmic movements. The facial expressions develop effortlessly as the dancer dances due to the bhakti of the dancer. If one has faith and love for the Supreme Being, then devotion naturally manifests. In other words, dance educators cannot demand that students maintain bhakti because bhakti must develop organically with faith, love, and devotion for the Supreme Being. However, bhakti is a key

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component of devotional Hindu dance. Therefore, dancers who dance without bhakti will not maximally succeed in engaging in devotional Hindu dance. Perhaps, dancing without bhakti may lead dancers to eventually develop bhakti if they arrive at the realization of irrefutable faith in the Supreme Being that causes boundless love to form. Thus, I encourage dancers who do not have bhakti to philosophize and build bhakti as they dance. For the abovementioned reason, sacred dances may not be devotional dances if the dancer is not devoted to the Supreme Being. I make a distinction between sacred compositions, sacred dance, and devotional dance. Sacred compositions refer to songs or choreography that developed with a sacred intention. The song or the choreography itself is sacred regardless of the individual singing the song or dancing the choreography. In other words, a dance is sacred if the choreography is sacred despite who the dancer is. If the dancer attempts to engage in sacred dance but does not develop choreography in a sacred manner that honors sacredness, then the dancer fails to choreograph sacred dance. Devotional dance occurs when the choreography is sacred, the composition is sacred, and the dancer dances with bhakti infused with faith, love, and devotion. As I mentioned, dancers who dance to sacred songs with sacred choreography may not necessarily be devotional dancers if they lack bhakti. The Shri Hanuman Chalisa (Sharan & Sharan, 1996), for example, is a sacred composition that describes the revered glories of Hanumanji. If dancers dance to choreography that does not tell the glories of Hanumanji through dance, then dancers fail to engage in sacred dance because sacred dance involves honoring the sacred composition through descriptive movement. To develop choreography solely based on rhythmic movement is to ignore the glories of Hanumanji since the emphasis is on the musical patterns of the music. If the dancer dances to choreography that expresses the glories of Hanumanji, then the dance is sacred because the dancer honors the sacred composition of the Shri Hanuman Chalisa. This is where dancers may engage in sacred dance but not devotional dance. On the one hand, if dancers employ choreography that honors the sacredness of the composition, then the dance is a sacred dance that honors Hanumanji. However, the dance is not devotional if the dancers do not maintain bhakti. On the other hand, if bhakti radiates through the dance from the dancers, then the dance is devotional.

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Goal of Devotional Hindu Dance The goal of devotional Hindu dance is to help the dancer walk a path in life toward moksha (liberation). A devotional Hindu dancer not only dances with bhakti, but also lives a life permeated with bhakti for the Supreme Being. This may cause the dancer to attain moksha in this lifetime because the dancer attempts to live a heavenly-like life despite the chaos of the world. Devotees who view the dance have the opportunity to connect to the Supreme Being through dance, which helps devotees tread a trail in life toward moksha. Non-Hindus who view the dance may have a phenomenological experience that causes them to become in tune with their innermost self as they explore their spirituality and religious as well as ethical perspective. In addition, devotional Hindu dance helps the dancer to live contemplatively. When the dancer dances devotionally and connects to the Supreme Being, the dancer soothes the soul due to the devotion that fills the spiritual body. Here, devotional Hindu dance becomes a transformative contemplative practice (Center for Contemplative Mind in Society, 2008) as the dancer develops a capacity for focusing solely on the devotion of the dance and not the distractions of the world. Devotional Hindu dance, as a contemplative practice, helps the dancer to improve concentration in general because the dancer maintains a sense of clarity, which reduces stress and helps the dancer to lead a life of contemplation. Overall, the purpose of devotional Hindu dance is to bring the dancer and the viewers of the dance closer to the Supreme Being. The devotional Hindu dancer connects to the Supreme Being through dance. If the dancer unites with the Supreme Being and the viewers become linked to the dancer, then the viewers also have an opportunity to connect to the Supreme Being through the dancer. Zubko refers to the sentiment of bhakti as she points to the relationship between the dancer and the viewers of the dance: In distinction, it is a mark of performative interpretations of rasa that the dancer self-identifies with bhakti rasa in her own connection to the divine through dance. Only secondarily does the dancer then ideally hope that the audience receives the performance as a devotional offering that enhances the observers’ own religious experience. (Zubko, 2016, p. 38)

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The dancer first and foremost aims to connect to the Supreme Being through dance. This is the primary reason for devotional Hindu dance. A connection to the Supreme Being helps the dancer and the viewers of the dance move toward moksha. The goal of Hindus is to merge with the Supreme Being through moksha upon death. Hindus do not ultimately seek reincarnation but instead yearn to return to the Supreme Being. The devotional Hindu dancer experiences a state of peaceful contentment. Peace is a virtue in the sense that the dancer is not boastful of the ability to dance or in denial of the capacity to dance. Also, the dancer is not overwhelmed with unbearable joy or heartbrokenly saddened because of disappointment. Keep in mind that I refer to these emotions in terms of the overall dance experience of the dancer and not the occurrences conveyed during the dance. The difference is that the overall dance experience centers on what the dance means for the dancer, whereas the occurrences during the dance reflect the emotions of the historical Hindu pieces or devotional pieces that the dancer may dance. With the goals of devotional Hindu dance in mind, I now turn to discuss how devotional Hindu dancers may maintain bhakti before, during, and after the dance.

Devotional Hindu Dancers Preparing to Dance The Devotional Hindu Dancer Before the Dance First, it is imperative that the dancer understands what bhakti is before engaging in devotional Hindu dance. As mentioned earlier, it is my contention that bhakti comprises of undeniable faith, infinite love, and never-­ ending devotion. One develops bhakti by associating in satsanghs (holy company) and participating in the worship of the Supreme Being. Bhakti is a religious concept that involves continuous religious development. One may develop bhakti by listening to religious music in a meditative manner, conversing with pandits15 and holy individuals while philosophizing, and performing daily religious worship at home with love for the Supreme Being. In addition, an individual may display bhakti when engaging in

15  This term is difficult to translate. Essentially, a pandit is a religious leader who officiates pujas (religious worship) and provides spiritual counsel to devotees. Pandits are similar to priests, ministers, and pastors, but yet these terms do not adequately define the term “pandit.”

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conflict resolution. Developing bhakti helps to prepare the whole being of the dancer to engage in devotional Hindu dance. As the dancer prepares for devotional Hindu dance, the dancer must not become consumed with a superficial notion of beauty during the dressing process. In my article Mindfulness as a Pedagogical Tool: Kuchipudi Indian Classical Hindu Dance (2015), I elaborate on how I engage in contemplative dressing before I dance. I also relate how to engage in mindfulness before, during, and after the dance. At any rate, devotional Hindu dancers should not concern themselves with looking superficially beautiful. I do not dress with a phony sense of beauty to please the viewers with my appearance. The dancer’s beauty is the natural devotion that emanates through bhakti during the dance. The devotional Hindu dancer peacefully contemplates the Supreme Being with a focused mind full of bhakti while contemplatively getting dressed. Contemplative dressing became a theme in my self-study. When I engage in contemplative dressing before I dance, I listen to bhajans (songs) and kirtans (chants). In fact, I often listen to the Krishna Das (2018) Internet radio station, which frequently plays musical compositions of Western Hindus. The vocals and instrumentals blend Eastern and Western musical traditions that resonate with me as a Western woman of Eastern descent. The soothing meditative music helps me to maintain a focused mind with bhakti as I contemplatively dress with the Supreme Being in my thoughts. It is difficult to maintain a state of serenity when in a chaotic backstage dressing room. Individuals here might worry about a superficial sense of beauty and perfecting a performance or may not care about the presentation. This atmosphere potentially disrupts the dancer from maintaining focus on the Supreme Being. It is feasible for the dancer to concentrate on the Supreme Being in a chaotic backstage dressing area, but it is not ideal. My self-study conveys that coordinators of religious and cultural programs do not often consider the impact of a chaotic dressing area or acknowledge the need for a contemplative dressing space that endorses bhakti. Therefore, it is imperative for Hindu devotional dancers to pay close attention to this when agreeing to dance at events. For this reason, I request a contemplative dressing space as I collaborate with the theatrical staff when I dance for solo performances where I am the sole dancer. When colleges and universities invite me to present on Hinduism and dance, the administrators usually grant me a contemplative dressing space to prepare. In many cases, I contemplatively dress at home

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when invited to dance in a religious or cultural program where I anticipate a potentially chaotic backstage dressing area. If I engage in multiple dances at a religious or cultural event where I anticipate a chaotic backstage setting, then I avoid changing costumes or I think about how to create a contemplative dressing space for myself that allows me to remain mindful of bhakti. I learned these lessons from my lived experience after years of dancing and centering attention on my self-study. When I performed on stage as a youngster, I sometimes felt overwhelmed. The intense pressure to look beautiful, perform to perfection, and please the viewers regularly infiltrated the culture of the backstage dressing area. However, there were times when this was not the case. I danced a Bharatnatyam Indian classical Hindu dance at the American Sevashram Sangha in Jamaica, New  York when I was teenager. An aura of peace filled the contemplative backstage dressing area, where all participants seemed focused on uniting with the Supreme Being through devotional music for the religious and cultural program. I intensely experienced contemplative dressing backstage during my RangaPravesam16 when several individuals helped me to peacefully and gracefully dress throughout the dance graduation. As mentioned in Chap. 2, Bramhaji created Hindu dance to tame the senses and endorse spirituality. This is crucial to keep in mind while contemplatively dressing to engage in devotional Hindu dance. The dancer ought to dress in a manner that aesthetically provokes spirituality and serves as a reminder of bhakti. Traditional Hindu dance attire centers on the divinity of the dancer’s ornaments. The sun and moon jewelry, as symbols of the Supreme Being, adorns the top of the hair. The third eye jewelry is symbolic of the metaphorical third eye of clarity. The dancer’s belt often has symbols of the Divine, which remind the dancer that the dancer is a representative of the Supreme Being. The garb of the devotional Hindu dancer should aesthetically provoke spirituality just as traditional Hindu dance attire does. Despite the efforts of the dancer, some may exoticize the dancer’s contemplatively clothed body. The dancer cannot prevent this but should guard against it as I explain in my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance (2017).

16  As mentioned in the first chapter, a RangaPravesam is essentially a Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance graduation where the dancer debuts professionally, in the presence of her dance guru, as an educated scholar and dancer.

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Once the dancer develops bhakti and contemplatively dresses to dance, then the dancer must seek the blessings of the Supreme Being before dancing. This is crucial as stated in the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000, p. 30): The worship of the stage should be performed by the Natyacarya who is humble, pure and conversant with the theoretical texts, who is well trained and initiated into the art and who is always cool and calm.

Depending on circumstances, I pray in my sacred space at home before venturing to the dance site. Other times, I pray at the dance venue in a contemplative dressing area. I perform havan17 on stage before the program commences at solo theatrical dance events. I pray for One Supreme Being to manifest in several different forms to protect me, as the dancer, and guard the sacred stage. Although I pray before I dance, I also bow to the stage upon entrance before I dance at religious and cultural events where I am not the sole dancer. This humble gesture acknowledges that I worship the stage and seek the blessings of the Supreme Being. In addition, the dancer should attain the blessings of the Gurus, parents, and elders before dancing. This shows respect for holy knowledge and for the devotional Hindu dancer’s ancestry. The dancer requests blessings to dance humbly with bhakti to honor the Supreme Being. If the Gurus, parents, and elders are not present, then the dancer may pray for the blessings of these individuals. When present, I seek the blessings of these people as I touch their feet18 before I dance. Dancers usually wear sacred Ghungaroos (bells) on their feet when they dance. When I studied Indian classical Hindu dance at the Natraj Cultural Group, now known as the Natraj Center for the Performing Arts, I participated in Ghungaroo Ceremonies, where students honor the sacred Ghungaroos as they essentially perform puja. My teachers at the time at Natraj would not allow students to wear Ghungaroos and walk with shoes 17  Havan is a Vedic ritual that is less complex than a lengthy puja. A lengthy puja includes havan but a havan does not include a lengthy puja. Instead, a havan includes slokas (prayers) and offerings to Agni Dev, whom Fire represents. The prayers and havan that I performed for my RangaPravesam was my puja. 18  It is common to seek the blessings of individuals by standing before them with clasped hands and then kneeling down to touch their feet with both hands. After touching the feet of the individuals, touch your forehead and then clasp your hands as you depart from the individual.

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because they humbly acknowledge the sacredness of the Ghungaroos. Furthermore, we only wore sacred Ghungaroos for Indian classical Hindu dances, whereas we wore anklets with bells for Bollywood dances. To continue, I clasp my hands with my Ghungaroos and I pray as I seek the blessings of the Supreme Being. Then, I adorn my feet with the sacred Ghungaroos usually right before I dance. Unfortunately, Bollywood frequently strips Ghungaroos of sacredness. In the song Mohe Aaye Na Jag Se Laaj from the 1987 film Param Dharam (Kumar, 1987), the dancer dances with sacred Ghungaroos without care. In fact, the dancer embraces the imperial gaze (Kaplan, 1997) and the male gaze (Mulvey, 1989) while dancing in a congregation of men. A dancer may feasibly dance this song as a composition that honors Ghungaroos. However, this was not the case with the dancer in the film. The dancers of the modern day song Ghungaroo Toot Gayee from the movie War (Anand, 2019) did not use Ghungaroos even though the song refers to Ghungaroos. I suspect that the Ghungaroos did not work well with the contemporary Western dance style coupled with the shoes that the modern day dancers wore. Despite the presentation of Ghungaroos in Bollywood, it is imperative that devotional Hindu dancers acknowledge the sacredness of Ghungaroos. My Ghungaroos reside in a sacred space at home where I pay homage to them. I bless each new pair of Ghungaroos as I invoke the Supreme Being’s presence. Before I adorn my feet with Ghungaroos, I always bow and utter mantras (prayers) asking the Supreme Being to guide my body to dance as the Supreme Being wills. Likewise, I bow and pray to my Ghungaroos after I dance because I acknowledge that I only dance with bhakti because of the Supreme Being (Fig. 3.1). The dancer must also perform Namaskaram before and after engaging in any dances whether in class, at home, or at a performance. Namaskaram is a sacred dance ritual where the dancer humbly seeks the blessings of the Supreme Being, Gurus, viewers of the dance, and Dharati Maa19 (Mother Earth) during rhythmic movement. This is vital because the dancer requests the blessings of Dharati Maa but also asks Dharati Maa for forgiveness if the dancer’s movements feel harsh. The dancer connects to Dharati Maa through the stage, which stands on the sacred Earth. When I studied Indian classical Hindu dance, my teachers at Natraj and my dance guru Smt. Sadhana Paranji started and concluded every class session  Dharati Maa has many names, which includes Prithvi and Bhumi.

19

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Fig. 3.1  My dance posture portrays my sacred Ghungaroos, which I dance with

with Namaskaram. They consistently remind students to perform Namaskaram at home and at performances prior to and after dancing. Dancers who do not habitually perform Namaskaram disregard the Supreme Being and furthermore disrespect Gurus, viewers of the dance, the stage, and Dharati Maa. To press this point, I turn to share an example from Tulası ̄dāsa. After Tulası ̄dāsa reveres the Supreme Being with sacred mantras, he begins the Ramayana (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991) by paying homage to his Guru. The famous verse from the Ramayana Sumiran of the Ramayana states, Bamdaum Gurupada Kamja Krpaasimdhu Nararuupa Hari Mahaamoha Tama Pumja Jaasu Bacana Rabikara Nikara I reverence the lotus feet of my guru, ocean of grace, Hari in human form, whose words are like a flood of sunlight on the deep darkness of powerful ignorance. (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991, p. 2)

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Following this verse, Tulası ̄dāsa goes on to describe and praise his Guru. Likewise, Tulası ̄dāsa begins the Shri Hanuman Chalisa with the illustrious doha, Sriguru Carana Saroja Raja Nija Manu Mukuru Sudhaari Barana-um Raghubara Bimala Jasu Jo Daayaku Phala Caari. Having cleansed the mirror of my soul with the dust of the guru’s lotus feet, I describe Raghuvara’s spotless glory, the bestower of life’s four fruits. (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991, p. 853)

Here, Tulası ̄dāsa once again seeks the blessings of the Supreme Being and his Guru before continuing the Shri Hanuman Chalisa. Dancers must follow Tulası ̄dāsa’s example as they perform Namaskaram each time they dance. While Tulası ̄dāsa poetically uses words to convey his sentiments, the dancer portrays dispositions through rhythmic movement during Namaskaram. Like Tulası ̄dāsa, dancers must also maintain a heart filled with bhakti. The Devotional Hindu Dancer During the Dance The dancer communicates to the viewers through abhinaya, which is a combination of angika abhinaya (bodily movement), vacika abhinaya (speech), aharya abhinaya (appearance), and sattvika abhinaya (emotions) (NandikeŚvara & Apparao, 1997, p. 10). The display of abhinaya is similar across Indian classical Hindu dance traditions with variations. For instance, Bharatnatyam often requires subtle abhinaya that focuses on relating a narrative. Kuchipudi frequently necessitates dramatic abhinaya where the dancer transforms into the characters of the dance. The dancer does not just tell the narrative in Kuchipudi but rather dramatically becomes the characters within the dance. For this reason, I frequently feel that I embody the characters within the dance drama as I dance Kuchipudi. Hindu dance education teaches students about angika abhinaya that involves communication through symbolic bodily gestures. Students learn about speech through vacika abhinaya. In fact, several Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dances have dialogues that the dancer speaks during the dance. Aharya abhinaya focuses on the expression that occurs through the dress narrative coupled with the appearance of the dance site.

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Sattvika abhinaya emphasizes the dancer’s innermost, deepest emotional expressions. Devotional Hindu dance is not about perfecting movement or expressional communication but rather is about dancing with devotion in a manner that honors the Supreme Being. The dancer needs to understand the choreography to the point that it is intuitive. Choreographed movement should flow naturally without thinking about it. The body will intuitively know how to dance un-choreographed pieces if the dancer maintains knowledge of dance theory and gestures coupled with bhakti. Un-choreographed devotional Hindu dance does not develop with the need to please viewers but instead progresses for the purpose of connecting to the Supreme Being through dance filled with bhakti. The dancer’s speech is part of the abhinaya during the dance. I often dance Bhama Kalapam, a Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance that has several parts. One segment involves spoken dialogues where I speak as Satyabhama (Goswami, Sāstrı ̄, & Prabhupāda, 1995), the divine woman who adored Shri Krishna.20 Facial expressions combined with speech helps to communicate the disposition of Satyabhama to viewers of the dance. When I danced Bhama Kalapam during my RangaPravesam,21 I spoke dialogues that engaged in the histrionic representation of Satyabhama. My dance guru, Smt. Sadhana Paranji, played the role of Madhavi. As Satyabhama, I attempted to describe Shri Krishna to Madhavi but Madhavi did not understand the description. Satyabhama is shy to say the name of Shri Krishna. She eventually gives up on the conversation with Madhavi and leaves the scene. The dialogue in the dance plays a vital role in the abhinaya that provokes a phenomenological experience for the dancer and the viewers. Through my self-study, I acknowledge that my dress narrative as a dancer communicates a statement to the viewers before I even begin to dance. The dancer portrays characters through the costume, make-up, and dance ornaments. For this reason, the dancer needs to dress appropriately22 to depict the characters of the dance drama. Even in a dance of pure nritta (rhythmic sequences), the dancer dresses as a representative of the Supreme Being. The dancer ought to engage in mindfulness during the dance despite the malfunction of wardrobe. During my RangaPravesam, a  The Supreme Being manifests as Shri Krishna in Dwapara Yug.  See footnote 15. 22  Here, I use the term “appropriately” to refer to formal dance performed on stage. 20 21

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part of my earring fell on the stage during the Tarangam dance. However, I kept dancing since my focus was on the dance meditation as opposed to how I looked on stage without my earring. I did not even know that my earring fell until after the dance. The presentation of the dance site also conveys a message to the viewers. Thus, coordinators should prepare the dance site with the dancer and the dances in mind. When the dancer enters the stage to dance, the dancer should radiate a sense of bhakti that brightens the stage. The dancer is a representative of the Supreme Being, and thus should enter the stage with this in mind. Viewers should acknowledge the dancer as a representative of the Supreme Being as the dancer begins to dance. Sattvika abhinaya is often known as the most difficult type of abhinaya because the dancer must search deep within the soul to convey the innermost, emotional sentiments. However, facial and emotional expressions should form naturally due to the bhakti of the dancer. Bhakti radiates through the facial expressions and movement of the dancer regardless if the dancer dances a choreographed or un-choreographed piece. The dancer can only portray abhinaya with the blessings of Shivaji, also known as Natraj, the manifestation of the Supreme Being as the Cosmic dancer. The famous revered dance sloka (prayer) states, Om Aangikam Bhuvanam Yasya Vaacikam Sarwa Vaanmayam Aahaaryam Candrataaraadi Tam Vande Saatwikam Sivam (NandikeŚvara & Apparao, 1997, p. v)

The dancer bows to Shivaji, whose body is the entire universe, whose speech is the whole universe, and whose ornaments consist of the moon and stars. I utter this powerful sloka (prayer) before I adorn my feet with the sacred Ghungaroos. I pray for Shivaji to manifest and guide my entire being to dance as I wish to express bhakti for the Supreme Being through dance. The Devotional Hindu Dancer After the Dance After the dancer dances, the dancer may feel spiritually cleansed. The bhakti that pours from the dancer is like a spiritual bath for the dancer’s soul. This may cause the dancer to feel purified due to the holiness that accompanies devotional Hindu dance. The body becomes sacred for the

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dancer because it plays an instrumental role in engaging in devotional dance. Thus, the dancer should treat the body as a sacred mandir (temple) where the Supreme Being dwells. Bhakti ought to help the dancer recognize the need to be ethically responsible as the dancer lives life after the dance. Devotional Hindu dance moves beyond the dance as the dancer becomes devoted to a way of life that serves the Supreme Being. This is a crucial part of devotional Hindu dance because this art is not a mere performative aesthetic. Devotional Hindu dance prompts the dancer to develop bhakti, which leads the dancer to serve the Supreme Being by attempting to live an ethically responsible life that causes the dancer to tread a path in life toward moksha (liberation). Zubko uses the terms ethics and dharma interchangeably. Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores morality to think about one’s concept of right and wrong: Within this devotional perspective, a dancer’s dharma entails building embodied intimacies of divine-devotee relationships, enabling a deep contemplation on the divine forms and narratives as part of a devotional mood. For others, the act of dancing as a worshipful offering also creates bhakti rasa, regardless of the specific theme. To these articulations of devotion, some dancers expand bhakti yoga to include an educational objective. (Zubko, 2016, p. 127)

My educational objective as I dance involves pondering upon my ethical responsibility in my life, which is part of my dharma. I build my relationship with the Supreme Being through contemplation on Hindu history and engagement in dance as a contemplative practice. Bhakti for me not only involves the phenomenological feeling of devotion but also consists of an exploration of ethical responsibility. The dancer should engage in constant questioning philosophically as the dancer thinks about what an ethically responsible moral life is. In this complicated age of Kali Yug (Selbie & Steinmetz, 2010), right and wrong is not black or white. Every situation has its own particular set of circumstances that each individual must ponder upon. For this reason, it is imperative to philosophize about the teachings within Hindu history, which may be found in Hindu scriptures, because this helps with ethical development. My own experiences of the struggle between being an ethical American Hindu of Eastern descent who lives in a Western world among

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Westerners while maintaining the traditional aspects of Hinduism and Eastern culture in a pragmatic manner inspires this discourse. I will now turn to discuss the concept of orthodox universalist and liberal pragmatist along with the notion of corrupting tradition vs. representing tradition, which are a part of my own contemporary reality. These conceptual frameworks develop through my ongoing self-study. I propose several Hindus may fall under these descriptions depending upon how the individual practices Hinduism. These terms portray different types of epistemology in access to knowledge and knowledge construction. Consequently, this will regulate the ethical manner in which individuals live their lives. Just because Hindus have different perspectives about Hinduism does not mean that some Hindus are right and some are wrong. It is up to each individual to maintain good intentions and determine what it means to live an ethically responsible life according to Hinduism. There is a constant debate among Hindus about the controversial topics within Hinduism, such as the issue of the caste system (Woodburne, 1922), the manner in which to perform puja (worship) along with who can conduct puja (Jaiswal, 2000), and the performance of ethical duties (Widgery, 1930). It is not my aim to discuss these controversial topics from a right vs. wrong perspective, but rather to point to the complexity of ethical responsibility. First, I use the term orthodox universalist to refer to an individual who believes in a strict form of Hinduism that teaches universal beliefs linked to ethical practices that are timeless and never changing. An orthodox universalist develops ethical practices based on what the individual believes to be the ultimate truth according to Hindu scriptures. Furthermore, ethical practices for an orthodox universalist apply to everyone regardless of another individual’s religion and culture. The orthodox universalist may view themselves as representing tradition and others outside of this epistemological framework as corrupting tradition. Said (1979) would agree that this traditional form of Hinduism misses a vital point that is relevant to the practice. For Said, there is no pure religion and culture that is timeless and a-historical, because society is based on the messiness of religions and cultures with histories that intertwine and thus form a constant need for a new transformation of religion and culture. Homi Bhabha (1994) furthermore indicates that cultures are always reinventing themselves because culture does not remain static. Second, I use the term liberal pragmatist to refer to a person who believes in a form of Hinduism where each individual seeks to understand

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the ethics of Hinduism that constantly undergoes reevaluation based on every individual’s interpretation and personal circumstances. A liberal pragmatist forms ethics based on various interpretations of Hindu scriptures as opposed to an ultimate, absolute truth. Moreover, ethical practices for the liberal pragmatist do not apply to everyone because the liberal pragmatist acknowledges the differing subjective views of individuals that develop uniquely for each person. Again, Said (1979) would concur with this view because he is a pragmatist who believes that the current nature of society forms the basis of the development of culture. I will offer the example of vegetarianism to press this point. While some individuals define vegetarianism as solely refraining from eating meat, the majority of Hindus point to vegetarianism as abstaining from consuming meat, seafood, and eggs. An orthodox universalist may deem it unethical to eat meat, seafood, and eggs for all individuals. Even if an orthodox universalist respects those who do dine on meat, seafood, and eggs, their ethical stance is unchanging. Consequently, an orthodox universalist will not serve these meals to anyone nor will they condone dining with those who maintain a non-vegetarian diet. A liberal pragmatist might believe it is unethical for the individual to personally eat meat, seafood, and eggs. However, a liberal pragmatist considers the ethical views of those who do maintain a non-vegetarian diet. A liberal pragmatist may reflect on the following questions from a philosophical stance. What is the individual’s subjective philosophy of dining? Why does the individual view the self as a faith-­ based and/or ethical person despite a non-vegetarian diet? While a liberal pragmatist may engage in an unwavering vegetarian diet, a liberal pragmatist will not demand that everyone arrives at this belief. Subsequently, a liberal pragmatist may still serve these meals and dine with individuals who have a non-vegetarian diet. One may maintain both an orthodox universalist and a liberal pragmatist stance simultaneously. While a liberal pragmatist might dine with non-­ vegetarians and serve non-vegetarian meals despite being a vegetarian, the liberal pragmatist may uphold an orthodox universalist view regarding strictly forbidden meats in Hinduism, such as beef. Here the liberal pragmatist is simultaneously an orthodox universalist who believes all individuals should refrain from the consumption of beef. The cow represents Dharati Maa,23 the sacred earth, according to Hinduism. Just as infants

 See footnote 17.

23

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often drink milk from their mother’s bosom, humankind frequently drinks milk from sacred cows, which represents Mother Earth. One should maintain an open mind and not group orthodox universalists and liberal pragmatists into neat categories of right or wrong. Instead, it is vital to engage in a dialogical discussion to understand how each individual arrives at personal beliefs that influences epistemology. Individuals of both stances, which may overlap at times, may convey bhakti for the Supreme Being. Instead of trying to infuse superiority and bias on each other and view one another as corrupting the tradition either as an orthodox universalist or as a liberal pragmatist, it is important to seek to understand how we each can be representative of the tradition from a dialectical perspective. We often fail to respect one another for beliefs that are based on each individual’s contemporary reality even though personal choices develop with each person’s current actuality in mind. As Said (1979) would acknowledge, there is a need to think about these perspectives and how these viewpoints intertwine with one another. Indian classical Hindu dance inspires me to do my best to live an ethically responsible life. I ask all Hindu dancers to consider how dance prompts ethical responsibility. Life is not full of neat compartments where everyone maintains the same religious and cultural views. I live among a diverse community with individuals from distinctive religious and cultural backgrounds. As I live, I attempt to embrace people from different religions and cultures while maintaining fidelity to my identity as an American faith-based Hindu of West Indian24 and Indian descent. I am bound to make mistakes as a mere mortal living in Kali Yug (Selbie & Steinmetz, 2010). However, I do not believe anyone has the absolute right to religiously and spiritually judge me for my well-intentioned choices or to criticize anyone for their choices. The Supreme Being is the ultimate judge who by nature forgives well-meaning errors of judgment, especially when the individual maintains bhakti. It is my contention that the Supreme Being will forgive the dancer and the viewers of the dance for goodhearted mistakes.

24  As I mentioned in the first chapter, by West Indian, I do not mean the Western part of India. Instead, West Indian refers to certain parts of the Caribbean, which include Guyana in South America as well as Trinidad and Tobago. In my text Confronting Orientalism: A SelfStudy of Educating Through Hindu Dance (2017), I mention how indentured servitude caused many Indians, including my ancestors, to migrate from India to West Indian countries.

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Viewers Viewing Devotional Dances In my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance (2017), I write about gaze theory as I explain Laura Mulvey’s (1989) relation of the male gaze, E.  Ann Kaplan’s (1997) description of the imperial gaze, and David Morgan’s (2005) analysis of the sacred gaze. Overall, I point to the need to beware of the male gaze and the imperial gaze. Viewers of Hindu dance should embrace a sacred gaze when viewing Hindu dance. It does not matter whether a viewer is Hindu or non-Hindu. Individuals do not primarily employ the sacred gaze to develop faith in Hinduism but instead engage in the sacred gaze to comprehend how I express my faith as a Hindu dancer. Morgan (2005) discusses the need for those who maintain a sacred gaze to enter a covenant, which is an agreement that the viewer will make an attempt to understand the intended meaning of the religious object or art form as they pay attention to what the image reveals. The viewers aim to comprehend the religious and cultural history that accompanies the image. It is of the utmost importance to view Hindu dance with a sacred gaze because it pays respect to the dancer, the art form, and Hinduism. My abovementioned text also sheds light on my notion of a de-­ Orientalized educational gaze that views Hindu dance with an enlightening desire to learn from un-Orientalized sources. A de-Orientalized educational gaze does not attempt to provoke exoticism through the male gaze or the imperial gaze that often incites exoticism. In my text, I share how I block any exoticism from gazes through my notion of a shield when I explain how I feel as a spiritual other or an exotic other based on how I interpret the perception of the viewers, which once had a profound impact on me as a dancer. This is crucial because it prevents the viewers from interfering with my devotional experience as I dance. Viewers must not treat devotional Hindu dance as a sheer performance. The dance is not a mere performance where the dancer serves to entertain an audience. I attempt to avoid using the term “audience” for this reason. The term “audience” seems to indicate that there is a group of people entertained by a show. Hindu dance is much more than a performance because it is not intended to solely entertain. While naturally entertaining, the main purpose of Hindu dance is not to entertain but to serve as a source of devotion in a manner that helps individuals, regardless of their religious background, walk a path toward moksha (liberation).

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Although I discuss Hindus and non-Hindus, I do not mean to create a dichotomy as I write about these illusionary divisions. I use the term “Hindus” to place attention on individuals who embrace Hinduism explicitly as a way of life. Likewise, I use the term “non-Hindus” to focus on people who are unfamiliar with the history and philosophy of Hinduism. If misinterpreted, these terms could create a dangerous “us” vs. “them” mentality, which is not my intention. On the contrary, Hindus and non-­ Hindus are people who live together in this world often embracing one another as a part of humanity. I believe that non-Hindus who unknowingly practice a Hindu way of life based on Hindu philosophy are Hindus even if they do not recognize themselves as such. Hinduism is more than a religion since it is a way of being in the world religiously and spiritually as a part of humanity. While there are rituals, traditions, and customs in Hinduism, the purpose of these encounters is to live life with respect for humanity because to respect humanity is to honor the Supreme Being. Hindus ought to consider devotional Hindu dance as a form of puja (worship). Thus, Hindus need to adhere to a strict vegetarian diet, prepare the mind to view the sacred devotional dances by letting go of all distractions, and dress appropriately when attending a devotional Hindu dance event. An appropriate form of dress may help the viewers connect to the dancer and to the Supreme Being. I do not mean to serve as the dress police who demands a certain dress narrative from viewers. In fact, in my article Un-Dressing to Unveil a Spiritual Self (MisirHiralall, 2018), I propose the theory of Cultural Becoming as I acknowledge my identity as a Western woman of Eastern descent. Even when I wear daring Western clothing, I still am a faith-based Hindu. Each individual will need to determine the appropriate clothing choice that will help to provoke a sense of spirituality as they view the dance. Most importantly, viewers should attend a devotional Hindu dance event with a heart full of love and good intentions if the individual aspires to connect to the Supreme Being through the dancer’s devotional dance. Hindus must not force non-Hindus who view Hindu dances to adhere to Hindu traditions. While Hindus begin from a theological stance that the Supreme Being exists as the Cosmic Force, some non-Hindus might be atheists or agnostics. However, non-Hindus ought to be respectful of Hindu traditions if attending a devotional Hindu dance event. I ask non-­ Hindus to embrace a sacred gaze, as mentioned above, as I dance. Non-­ Hindus may not necessarily have a devotional experience during the dance. Nevertheless, they need to understand how I as a devotional Hindu dancer

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express faith through dance. Non-Hindus should allow themselves to have a phenomenological experience, which may include a spiritual experience or an aesthetic experience. Regardless of religious background, viewers of devotional Hindu dance should focus attention on the dance with two concepts in mind. First, Hindu dance regularly serves as a stimulus for philosophical inquiry because the dance often prompts questions about ethics. As viewers view the dance, I ask viewers to ponder upon meaningful questions that the dance incites as they consider an ethical way of life. Second, Hindu dance frequently has an intense rhythmic movement component. Viewers ought to embrace the phenomenological experience that the rhythmic movement provokes. Hindus may have a religious, devotional experience, whereas non-Hindus may embrace a spiritual experience or an aesthetic experience.

A Review of Bhakti In this chapter, I share how my previous dance experiences particularly among faith-based Hindus provoke me to think deeply through an ongoing self-study about what devotional Hindu dance is and the ability it has to transform the dancer plus viewers of the dance. Bhakti is a crucial concept to first understand before engaging in devotional Hindu dance. In many instances, bhakti is often recognizable since faith, love, and devotion pours from the individual’s heart frequently in thoughts plus actions. Here, bhakti is rightfully seen and acknowledged by others. While some perceive bhakti from the dancer, only the dancer knows if the dancer maintains bhakti. This is because bhakti is a personal concept that develops as a person connects to the Supreme Being. Aside from devotional Hindu dancers, Hindus should develop a sense of bhakti that fosters a connection to the Supreme Being. The development of bhakti helps devotional Hindu dancers and faith-based believers walk a path toward moksha. As I express, Shri Hanumanji undeniably provides a strong, extraordinary example of bhakti. Every thought and action of Hanumanji focuses on devotion for Shri Rama. To continue, I share the distinctions between sacred songs, sacred dance, and devotional dance to clarify what I mean by devotional. After, I point to the goals of devotional Hindu dance. It is imperative for devotional Hindu dancers to pay attention to their way of being and interactions before, during, and after the dance. Contemplative dressing is vital

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as one prepares to dance. Abhinaya develops naturally through bhakti during the dance. Ethical responsibility plays a key role in the life of the dancer after the dance. In addition, viewers viewing devotional Hindu dances should maintain an awareness of how to view the dances with a sacred gaze (Morgan, 2005). Non-Hindus who view devotional Hindu dances may ponder upon the role of bhakti. Some non-Hindus believe in the power of the Supreme Being, whereas others are atheists or skeptical agnostics. Regardless, non-Hindus ought to employ a sacred gaze (Morgan, 2005) to view devotional Hindu dances and allow a phenomenological experience to occur. I ask non-Hindus not merely to observe devotional Hindu dances but instead attempt to understand Hinduism as a way of life that has implications for humanity. Hindu dances often relate Hindu history, which grants viewers the opportunity to philosophize about ethics. Overall, this chapter presents a working definition of devotional Hindu dance with bhakti as the main component. I offer this suggestive definition of devotional Hindu dance, which may transform throughout time. Said (1979) and Bhabha (1994) will concur that religion and culture is always in a state of flux since it does not remain static. With an understanding of devotional Hindu dance in mind, I now turn to discuss how to prepare to study and engage in devotional Hindu dance.

References Anand, S. (Director), Roshan, H., Shroff, T., Kapoor, V. (Actors). (2019). War. India. Bahadur, K. (2002). Mirabai and Her Padas. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The Location of Culture. London: Routledge. BharataMuni. (2000). The Natya Sastra of Bharata Muni. Delhi: Sri Satguru. Center for Contemplative Mind in Society. (2008). Contemplative Practices in Higher Education: A Handbook of Classroom Practices. Northampton, MA: Center for Contemplative Mind in Society. Das, K. (2018). Chants of a Lifetime: Searching for a Heart of Gold. Carlsbad, CA: HAY House INC. Goswami, C.  L., Sāstrı ̄, M.  A., & Prabhupāda, A.  C. B.  S. (1995). Srı ̄mad-­ Bha ̄gavata Mahāpuran̄ a: With Sanskrit Text and English Translation. Gorakhpur: Gita Press. Hawley, J. S. (2015). A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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Jaiswal, S. (2000). Change and Continuity in Brahmanical Religion with Particular Reference to “Vaisnava”. Social Scientist, 28(5/6), 3–23. Retrieved August 15, 2011, from JSTOR. Kaplan, E.  A. (1997). Looking for the Other: Feminism, Film, and the Imperial Gaze. New York: Routledge. Kumar, S. (Director), Bedi, R., Chakraborty, M., Chatterjee, M. (Actors), Ramdayal, D. (Producer). (1987). Param Dharam. India. MisirHiralall, S. (2015). Mindfulness as a Pedagogical Tool: Kuchipudi Indian Classical Hindu Dance. The Arts in Religious and Theological Studies (ARTS) Journal, 27(1), 33–39. MisirHiralall, S.  D. (2017). Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. MisirHiralall, S.  D. (2018). (Un)Dressing to Unveil a Spiritual Self. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 52, 3, 23–42. Morgan, D. (2005). The Sacred Gaze: Religious Visual Culture in Theory and Practice. Berkeley: University of California Press. Mukta, P. (1994). Gender Studies Upholding the Common Life The Community of Mirabai (pp. 1–269). Delhi: Oxford University Press. Mulvey, L. (1989). Visual and Other Pleasures. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Myers, J. (2020). Devotional Bhakti Traditions. Salem Press Encyclopedia. ́ NandikeŚvara, & Apparao, P. S. R. (1997). Abhinaya Darpaṇam of NandikeSwara. Hyderabad: P.S.R. Apparao. Prentiss, K.  P. (2000). The Embodiment of Bhakti. New  York: Oxford University Press. Sagar, R. (Director). (2005). Ramayana: The Complete Series. Mumbai: Sagar Group. Said, E. W. (1979). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books. Śaṅkarācār ya, G, R.  T. K., & Bombay Sisters (Musical group). (1994). Sri Adi Shankaracharya’s Mahishasura Mardhini. Madras, India?: Sangeetha. Selbie, J., & Steinmetz, D. (2010). The Yugas: Keys to Understanding Man’s Hidden Past, Emerging Present and Future Enlightenment: From the Teachings of Sri Yukteswar and Paramhansa Yogananda. Nevada City, CA: Crystal Clarity Publishers. Sharan, H.  O., & Sharan, N. (1996). Shree Hanuman Chalisa: Jai Jai Shree Hanuman. Noida: Super Cassettes Industries. Sookbir, T., & Singh, V. (2017). Maa Teri Mamta. Shaktishali Devi: The Powerful Goddess[CD]. Subramanian, L. C. (2020). Seven Bhakti Saints of North India. Hinduism Today, 42(2), 34–49. Tulası ̄dāsa, & Prasad, R.  C. (1991). Shri Ramacharitamanas. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

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Vidyarthi, D.  N. (1988). What Every Hindu Must Know. St. Augustine: Vidyarthi Nivaas. Widgery, A.  G. (1930, January). The Principles of Hindu Ethics. International Journal of Ethics, 40(2), 232–245. Retrieved August 15, 2011, from JSTOR. Woodburne, A.  S. (1922, September). Can India’s Caste System Survive in Modern Life? The Journal of Religion, 2(5), 525–537. Retrieved August 15, 2011, from JSTOR. Zubko, K.  C. (2016). Dancing bodies of devotion: Fluid gestures in Bharata Natyam. Lanham: Lexington Books.

CHAPTER 4

Basics of Learning Devotional Hindu Dance

Abstract  I present prerequisites for individuals who wish to be my students. These prerequisites develop from my ongoing self-study that explores pedagogy to teach about Hinduism through Hindu dance. Ekalavya and Guru Dronaacharya, in the historical Mahabharata (Chopra and Chopra, 2001; Dharma, 1999), provide an example of the importance of prerequisites. In addition, I discuss how dance students should prepare to learn Hindu dance, whereas viewers ought to prepare to view Hindu dances. Following this, I relate an introduction to the ethics of Hindu dance based on the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000) and introduce the language of Hindu dance as conveyed in the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikesvar and Apparao, 1997). Dancers may ponder upon developing dance choreography with this basic knowledge of Hindu dance in mind. Keywords  Orientalism • Mahabharata • Gurus • Guru Dronaacharya • Ekalavya • Natya Shastra • Abhinaya Darpanam • Satsanghs

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. D. MisirHiralall, Devotional Hindu Dance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70619-7_4

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To begin with, I present prerequisites for individuals who wish to be my students. These prerequisites develop from my ongoing self-study that explores pedagogy to teach about Hinduism through Hindu dance. Ekalavya and Guru Dronaacharya, in the historical Mahabharata1 (Chopra & Chopra, 2001; Dharma, 1999), provide an example of the importance of prerequisites. In addition, I discuss how dance students should prepare to learn Hindu dance, whereas viewers ought to prepare to view Hindu dances. Following this, I relate an introduction to the ethics of Hindu dance based on the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000) and introduce the language of Hindu dance as conveyed in the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997). Dancers may ponder upon developing dance choreography with this basic knowledge of Hindu dance in mind. Hindu dances are traditionally passed down from dance guru to student as I mentioned in an earlier chapter. While this has some benefits, it is necessary to move forward with developing dance choreography based on creativity that considers the Natya Shastra and the Abhinaya Darpanam. It is crucial to note that creativity is dangerous when it Orientalizes (Said, 1979) Hinduism through misrepresentation. I write about this in my article The Postcolonial Pedagogical Challenge of Creativity (MisirHiralall, 2017b). With the dangers of Orientalism (Said, 1979) in mind, I point to how to engage in devotional Hindu dance when learning choreography from another individual. Then, I concentrate on how to develop devotional Hindu dance choreography when choreographing a dance piece with intention. After, I explain how to foster devotional Hindu dance choreography unintentionally but then with intention. While this might seem paradoxical, I will specifically share my experience with unintentionally developing devotional Hindu dance choreography, which led me to place intention on the choreography. My goal is to help dancers move away from dance choreography that emphasizes the technical movements of dance and instead move toward choreography that provokes the dancer to express bhakti2 from the heart. In turn, this should help dancers connect to a Supreme Being and by extension also grant viewers of the dance the chance to link to a Supreme Being. My hope is that this avenue leads individuals toward moksha (liberation) upon death. 1  I point to the Mahabharata (Chopra & Chopra, 2001; Dharma, 1999) as a historic part of Hindu history. The Mahabharata is not mythological. 2  See Chap. 3.

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Prerequisites for Being My Student It is my contention that Hindu dance gurus3 need to be selective of students that they teach. Through my self-study, I came to realize that students should clearly express their intentions for studying Hindu dance before embarking on the educational journey. Pupils who wish to learn Hindu dance for sheer physical fitness or solely to perform on stage run the risk of carelessly misusing knowledge of the sacred art. Furthermore, students who ignore the religious core of Hindu dance may engage in Orientalism (Said, 1979) that misrepresents Hinduism and spreads misconceptions. As I mentioned in Chap. 3, a student should express bhakti that develops with faith, love, and devotion for the Supreme Being. Students with bhakti-infused intentions are worthy of studying Hindu dance because they will not carelessly nor intentionally engage in Orientalism (Said, 1979). To press the point of the importance of the prerequisites that I ask of my students, I now turn to relate the narrative of Guru Dronaacharya and Ekalavya from the historical Mahabharata (Chopra & Chopra, 2001; Dharma, 1999). Guru Dronaacharya and Ekalavya In the historical Mahabharata (Chopra & Chopra, 2001; Dharma, 1999), Guru Dronaacharya points to the need to acquire a teacher’s permission before learning. The Pandavas4 and the Kauravas,5 who were first cousins and also the royal princes of Hastinapur, were students of Guru Dronaacharya. Ekalavya was the son of Hiranyadhanu, who was a general in the army of the King of Magadh. At any rate, Ekalavya wished to study archery with Guru Dronaacharya. However, when Ekalavya approached Guru Dronaacharya with the request to study archery, Guru Dronaacharya refused to teach Ekalavya. This was because Guru Dronaacharya took an 3  As I state in Chap. 1, although I am a dance educator, I am not a Guru with a capital “G.” While many individuals have referred to me throughout my career as Guruji, I do not claim to be Guruji with a capital “G.” Perhaps, I am a dance guru, with a lower case “g” for my students. I consider Guruji with a capital “G” to be individuals, often male pandits, who perform the sacred Guru Diksha Sanskaar in Hinduism with their students. I do not wish to delve into the gender dynamic debate. That is not the purpose of this narrative. 4  The Pandava princes include Yudhisthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva. These are the sons of Pandu. 5  Duryodhana and his younger brother Dushasana are two famous Kaurava princes. These are the sons of Dhritarashtra.

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oath to teach only ksatriyas6 (warriors). Furthermore, Guru Dronaacharya feared that Ekalavya would misuse sacred knowledge since Ekalavya was from an uneducated caste.7 Nevertheless, Ekalavya still accepted Guru Dronaacharya as his Guruji. Ekalavya constructed a murti (statue-like image) of Guru Dronaacharya. Each day, Ekalavya performed puja (worship) to the murti before he practiced archery. One day, a barking dog disturbed Ekalavya during his archery practice. Consequently, Ekalavya shot several arrows into the dog’s mouth. Guru Dronaacharya and his students saw the arrows in the dog’s mouth. They searched for the individual who shot the arrows. Soon, they met Ekalavya, who bowed to Guru Dronaacharya in the manner in which a shishya (student) honors a Guru. Guru  Dronaacharya stated that he never taught Ekalavya. Thus, Guru Dronaacharya asked Ekalavya to explain why he honors Guru Dronaacharya as a Guru. Guru Dronaacharya along with the princes accompanied Ekalavya to a place in the forest where Ekalavya had a murti (statue-like image) of Guru Dronaacharya. Ekalavya expressed that he honors the murti as his Guruji. Furthermore, Ekalavya admits that he hides in the forest and watches Guru Dronaacharya instruct the royal princes. Guru Dronaacharya tells Ekalavya that he is an extraordinary warrior. However, Guru Dronaacharya informs Ekalavya that he must seek permission from a Guru before learning from that Guru. Ekalavya cleverly expresses that the murti of Guru Dronaacharya gave permission: Drona looked with surprise at Ekalavya and at his own effigy nearby. He recalled the day the forest prince had come to him and been turned away. Drona was angered that he was now claiming to be his student. The Kuru preceptor had not desired to impart any martial skills to Ekalavya. Generally the lower caste tribespeople lacked the virtuous qualities of royalty, and they did not follow the Vedic religion. To give a low-class man great martial power could be dangerous. Drona had especially been concerned about Ekalavya, as the Nishadha tribe did not cooperate with the Kuru’s [sic] virtuous rule. Drona would not accept any princes into his school if they belonged to races antagonistic to the Kurus. (Dharma, 1999, p. 54)

Guru Dronaacharya did not wish for Ekalavya to study archery for several reasons. To begin with, Ekalavya was from an uneducated lower caste  This refers to the caste system. Ksatriyas are warriors in the caste system.  Ekalavya was from the Nishadha forest tribe, which was considered to be an uneducated low caste. 6 7

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and tribe that did not follow Hindu teachings. While this might seem like discrimination merely because of caste, that is not the case. It is dangerous to educate people who do not display a potential for critical thinking because these individuals may misuse knowledge. When Ekalavya originally approached Guru Dronaacharya, Ekalavya did not display the ability to engage in critical thinking. Here, knowledge is not just about the physical art of archery, but rather is additionally about the philosophy of archery. Ekalavya needed to convey the ability to philosophically think about when to engage in archery. Despite this, Ekalavya moves forward with secretly learning from Guru Dronaacharya without regard for Guru Dronaacharya’s initial request: Drona stood thinking for some time. His first assessment of Ekalavya had obviously been correct. The Nishadha had shown himself to be lacking in virtue by falsely posing as his disciple. Clearly he desired only to be great, known as a student of the famous teacher, but not to actually obey him. (Dharma, 1999, p. 54).

Guru Dronaacharya evidently accepts Ekalavya as a disciple because Guru Dronaacharya then asks for a Guru dakshina.8 Ekalavya eagerly agrees to give Guru Dronaacharya a Guru dakshina.9 Guru Dronaacharya asks for the thumb on the right hand of Ekalavya. This shocks the disciplines of Guru Dronaacharya since archers need their thumb to practice archery: The loss of his thumb would impair his skill at bowmanship. But if he wanted to be known as Drona’s disciple, he could not refuse. Drona also wanted to show that one cannot please his teacher and achieve perfection by dishonest means. By taking Ekalavya’s thumb, he was also removing any threat he or his race might pose to the Kurus. (Dharma, 1999, p. 54)

Ekalavya gave Guru Dronaacharya the requested Guru dakshina10 because Ekalavya did not wish to disobey his Guru again. This historical scene teaches individuals that students must loyally honor their Guru whether the Guru teaches them directly or indirectly. Ekalavya 8  In Chap. 1, I discuss seedhas and dakshinas. I point to seedhas and dakshinas as an offering especially for pandits. However, here, Guru Dronaacharya specifically asks for a Guru dakshina. This essentially is a request from the Guru to the student. The Guru asks the student for a payment for teachings. The payment is in the form of a Guru dakshina. 9  See footnote 8. 10  See footnote 8.

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still learned from Guru Dronaacharya even though Guru Dronaacharya did not directly teach Ekalavya. Students should offer a Guru dakshina11 to their Guru. Overall, Shri Krishna,12 the Ultimate Guru, blessed Ekalavya with knowledge of archery, but also taught Ekalavya a lesson about acquiring an education through dishonesty. Ekalavya engaged in self-mentoring with self-determination as he carefully studied archery through Guru Dronaacharaya. On the one hand, the murti (statue-like image) of Guru Dronaacharya gave Ekalavya permission to learn from Guru Dronaacharya but on the other hand, perhaps Ekalavya stole knowledge. Nevertheless, Guru Dronaacharya, through the blessings of the Supreme Being, rectifies this act of Ekalavya by requesting Ekalavya’s right thumb as a Guru dakshina13 to ensure that Ekalavya would not misuse his knowledge of archery. With the historical scene of Guru Dronaacharya and Ekalavya in mind, I ask my students to learn from me with good intentions through honest means as they ponder upon the forthcoming critical questions. Critical Questions I request students who wish to learn Hindu dance from me to think about these vital questions that I will now pose. These questions develop with my ongoing self-study in mind. Each individual may have a unique response.14 I shall further philosophize about these questions with students who approach me personally. While some students may reach different conclusions, I request that students respect the conclusions I reach as a Hindu dance educator. Students who do not agree with my responses should not learn from me because they may misuse sacred knowledge of Hindu dance for their own agendas. Individuals that disregard this request and learn from me without adhering to my requirements will not have my blessings as their teacher. Moreover, the Ultimate Guru, Shri Krishna,15 will reprimand these students if they steal knowledge with the intention of misusing sacred teachings.16 An individual steals knowledge if they take knowledge without permission.

 See footnote 8.  The Supreme Being manifests as Shri Krishna in Dwapara Yug. 13  See footnote 8. 14  My students should engage in constant questioning as they rethink and reevaluate their philosophy of Hindu dance. 15  The One Supreme Being manifested as Shri Krishna in Dwapara Yug. 16  See the historical narrative of Ekalavya in the Mahabharata (Chopra & Chopra, 2001; Dharma, 1999). 11 12

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To continue, I ask students to critically think about the following questions: • Why do you wish to learn Hindu dance? • Are your parents pressuring you to study Hindu dance? • Do you aspire to learn Hindu dance solely to perform on stage? • Who do you hope to dance for? • Where do you desire to dance? • What will you do with the knowledge that you develop of Hindu dance? Students should learn Hindu dance to become closer to the Supreme Being. I do not approve of teaching students because they wish to become famous as the next top Bollywood17 dancer or perform solely on stage. Hindu dance is a sacred art form that is brought to life by devotional Hindu dancers who form a connection to the Supreme Being. The goal of Hindu dance is to walk a path toward moksha (liberation), which helps Hindu dancers merge back to the Supreme Being upon death. For this reason, students need to maintain a desire to study Hindu dance once they develop love for the Supreme Being. Parents should not pressure their children to absorb Hindu dance because they cannot force their children to maintain bhakti18 filled with love, faith, and devotion. Students ought to have a desire to dance for the Supreme Being to express bhakti, as explained in the previous chapter. While these dancers may dance on stage, their dances are not solely for the viewers but rather are ultimately for the Supreme Being as an expression of bhakti. Viewers have the opportunity to connect to the dancer and the Supreme Being by extension. I explain this in depth as I analyze gaze theory in my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance (MisirHiralall, 2017a). Devotional Hindu dancers dance with dedication as a form of worship. They may devotionally dance daily in their homes. These dancers do not need a stage to dance on or people to view them dance because these dancers dance for the Supreme Being. It is imperative for students to acknowledge the sacredness of the knowledge that they gain about Hindu dance. Orientalists (Said, 1979) 17  As I mention in an earlier chapter, Bollywood is the Indian version of Hollywood that is filled with glitz and glamour as a part of Indian pop culture. 18  See Chap. 3.

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misrepresented Hinduism through Hindu dance as they exploited knowledge of Hindu dance for Western agendas. I write about the creativity of American dance pioneers who Orientalized Hindu dances in my article The Postcolonial Pedagogical Challenge of Creativity (MisirHiralall, 2017b), which I mentioned earlier. In particular, Ruth St. Denis (1879–1968) and Ted Shawn (1891–1972) studied Indian classical Hindu dance but then Orientalized the sacred dance tradition. Consequently, some Hindus distort sacred knowledge of Hindu dance as an effect of Orientalism (Said, 1979). Hindu dancers ought to understand what Orientalism is and attempt to confront Orientalism as they dance. Dancers who study Hindu dance must promise to honor Hinduism and should never intentionally misuse sacred knowledge of Hindu dance.

Preparing to Study Hinduism Through Dance Dance Students Preparing to Learn Hindu Dance Once students comprehend and adhere to these requests, then students need to understand the role of a Diksha Guru.19 In Chap. 2, I relate the importance of Diksha and Siksha Gurus. While studying Hindu dance, students will inevitably learn about the history of Hinduism through the dances. The Diksha Guru should help students grasp the hidden lessons within the scriptures as students learn to think and explore beliefs. It is my contention that Diksha Gurus should not explicitly tell students what they must think. Instead, students need to learn to philosophize and think deeply about the ethics of Hindu philosophy that is related through Hindu history and recorded in Hindu scriptures. This will help students walk a path toward moksha (liberation) as they develop a sense of Hindu ethics, which they convey through dance. Furthermore, an understanding of Hindu history as related in Hindu scriptures will help students to bring the history and scriptures alive through abhinaya,20 which I discussed in Chap. 3. Students should seek the blessings of their Diksha Guru before ­beginning to study Hindu dance. I request that my students perform  See Chap. 2.  Abhinaya is a combination of angika abhinaya (bodily movement), vacika abhinaya (speech), aharya abhinaya (appearance), and sattvika abhinaya (emotions) (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997, p. 10). See Chap. 3. 19 20

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puja (religious worship) or havan21 with their Diksha Guru because they must gain the blessings of the Supreme Being before beginning their educational dance journey. The blessings of the Supreme Being will guide students as they embark on the expedition of learning. In addition, students ought to seek the blessings of their parents and respected elders. Students who wish to learn from me should seek my blessings as their dance guru.22 I do not aim to merely transfer knowledge from me to my students. Instead, I hope to help my students develop bhakti23 as devotional Hindu dancers who wish to attain moksha (liberation). My goal is to teach students to dance through life with graceful strokes evident in their thoughts and actions. While students learn the art of dance, the dance is much more than the actual dance filled with bodily movement. Students apply what they learn from Hindu philosophy through dance to live with ethical responsibility24 and move gracefully through the dance of life. Viewers Preparing to View Hindu Dances Aside from dance students who study dance, viewers of the dance are also learners. I serve as an educator for many pupils who wish to learn about Hinduism through Hindu dance. Essentially, all viewers should employ a sacred gaze (Morgan, 2005) and a de-Orientalized educational gaze (MisirHiralall, 2017a), as mentioned in Chap. 3, to view Hindu dance with the dangers of Orientalism (Said, 1979) in mind. Hindus should especially view the dance as a form of worship to the Supreme Being coupled with the educational opportunity to further their knowledge of Hinduism. Regardless of religious beliefs, viewers should not merely observe the dance but rather participate whether as faith-based Hindus who engage in worship through the dance or as non-Hindus who open themselves up to a phenomenological experience as they learn about Hinduism through dance. My philosophy students provide an exemplary example that prompts me to think deeply about teaching non-Hindus about Hinduism through  A havan is a Vedic ritual that is less complex than a lengthy puja. A lengthy puja includes havan but a havan does not include a lengthy puja. Instead, a havan includes mantras (prayers) and offerings to Agni Dev, whom Fire represents. The prayers and havan that I performed for my RangaPravesam were my puja. 22  See footnote 2. 23  See Chap. 3. 24  See Chap. 3. 21

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Hindu dance as a part of my self-study. When Dr. Kathleen Pearle25 invited me to present an evening lecture and dance at Middlesex County College in New Jersey, my undergraduate philosophy students honored me with the utmost respect. I taught philosophy courses at Middlesex County College during that time. Several students were no longer in my classes, but still held me in high regard as their professor. I hosted Philosophical Conversations weekly, which was an informal philosophy and religion club that allowed my students to stay connected to each other and me. When I announced the event, my enthusiastic students volunteered to coordinate the logistics. One student had access to a printer and composed large flyers to post around the campus. Students volunteered to usher guests into the amphitheater. A group of students offered to help me prepare the lecture space. Thus, I explained the sensitivity of the Hindu traditions that accompany the dance. I was careful to maintain fidelity to Hindu traditions without imposing the traditions onto my students. My student Miles Firestine helped significantly before the program with the preparations. Shenne Dugtong operated the PowerPoint presentation and the music. Rigo Gutierrez and Bavandeep Singh rigorously assisted with promoting the event. Several other students, too many to name, helped to prepare for the event. The lecture and dance dedicated to Shri Krishna26 was an incredible success. It was one of the most profound lectures and dance presentations that I presented in academia. I recall my lifelong mentors Fran Wien (formerly Doyle), Dr. David Benfield, and Dr. Steve Sandler attended along with their respective spouses. I felt exceedingly blessed to have my mentors, who taught and cared for me, present. My students stayed to help clean up the lecture hall space after the event. Two of my very close students, Ben Lander and Elyse Gabel helped with my personal luggage. Ben and Elyse were students of mine from several semesters back. However, they maintained a relationship with me throughout their academic studies. In fact, they transferred from Middlesex County College to Montclair State University (MSU) and majored in philosophy. Our relationship is unique because I was a graduate student of the Pedagogy and Philosophy program and also an adjunct professor at Montclair State University simultaneously. Ben and Elyse studied in classes with me during their time at MSU. At any rate, Elyse expressed to me after 25  Dr. Kathleen Pearle no longer serves as Chair of the History and Social Science Department at Middlesex County College in New Jersey. She currently is the Dean of Behavioral and Social Sciences at Bristol Community College in Massachusetts. 26  See footnote 4.

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the event that she and Ben kept a strict vegetarian fast in honor of me for the event. At that point, I was teary eyed because my students showed the utmost respect for me that extended far beyond the classroom. I expect non-Hindus to view Hindu dances with a sacred gaze (Morgan, 2005) along with a de-Orientalized educational gaze (MisirHiralall, 2017a), but I do not anticipate that they will maintain a strict vegetarian fast and uphold Hindu traditions. Many of my non-Hindu friends do uphold Hindu traditions when I dance even though I do not ask them to because I do not wish to impose my religious epistemological stance onto them. They do so to honor my beliefs as their friend. I never thought my students would also do the same. However, my students did and by doing so, they unimaginably touched my heart. It is evident that my students employed a sacred gaze and a de-Orientalized educational gaze as they learned about Hinduism through Hindu dance (Fig. 4.1).

Fig. 4.1  Here are a few of my dedicated philosophy students at the lecture and dance presentation at Middlesex County College in New Jersey. From left to right: Miles Firestine, Rigo Gutierrez, myself, Ben Lander, Elyse Gabel, and Shenne Dugtong

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Once students, whether dance students or viewers, prepare to learn about Hinduism through Hindu dance, then these individuals may begin to study the two main texts of Hindu dance.

Main Texts of Hindu Dance Natya Shastra Students must honor the sacred Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000), also known as the Natya Veda, by maintaining a vegetarian fast as they study this sacred text. Keeping a certain diet, according to Hinduism, helps the body prepare to engage in worship. I will not elaborate on this further since it is not my main focus here. I am merely pointing out that the Natya Shastra ought to be honored according to Hindu traditions because they are Hindu scriptures. I ask non-Hindus who study directly from the Natya Shastra to consider the dangers of Orientalism (Said, 1979) that occurs if they disregard sacred Hindu traditions, such as the dietary request. While I do not wish to impose Hindu traditions onto non-Hindus who wish to study Hindu dance, I do ask non-Hindus to think deeply about how they preserve their own identity while simultaneously conveying respect for the sacred traditions of Hinduism. The dance guru is responsible for teaching students the ethics of Hindu dance according to the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000). In this sacred text, Sage BharataMuni teaches about the history, philosophy, and ethics of Hindu dance. First, it is crucial for students to comprehend the origin of Hindu dance. After, students will learn about the importance of the stage preparation and the worship of the stage as a sacred space. BharataMuni then presents the Tandava Dance of Shivaji. Following this, BharataMuni relates the distinction between sentimental and emotional expressions. Students will learn the bhavas (moods) of Hindu dance along with an explanation of a variety of dance gestures. There is a discussion on the types of drama and dance styles that Hindu dancers participate in. BharataMuni explains the costumes and makeup of Hindu dancers and expounds on how to recognize success of the dancer. In addition, BharataMuni moves into an in depth analysis of music. I suggest that students read this text closely with their respective educators who maintain knowledge of the text. Students who study this text in solitude run the risk of misguidance because they might lack the capacity to comprehend the intended meaning. For example, the Natya Shastra

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(BharataMuni, 2000) discusses the worship of the stage. The text states that individuals should offer sweet meats during worship. Here, sweet meats do not mean animal meats. On the contrary, sweet meats refer to sweets such as laddu, gulab jamun, and other traditional Indian sweets. It is crucial to especially seek the blessings and guidance of a dance guru along with a Diksha Guru to prevent misinterpretation. The Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000) provides an opportunity for students to explore the questions that I posed earlier in this chapter. I expect my students to employ the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000) to philosophize about the ethics of Hindu dance. This text will prompt students to engage in ethical responsibility27 as they dance and throughout life. Viewers may study this text to comprehend the ethics of Hindu dance, which will help them understand Hindu dance philosophy. Abhinaya Darpanam In addition to the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000), students ought to study the Abhinaya Darpanam written by Sage Nandikeshvara (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997). This text expounds on the bodily movement of the Hindu dancer’s body. Students will learn about natya (dance drama), nritta (rhythmic movements), and nritya (mood and emotions). The Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997) also intensely spotlights the gestures of Hindu dance as Sage Nandikeshvara elaborates on appropriate and inappropriate dance gestures. Essentially, the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997) teaches dancers to speak the language of Hindu dance and instructs viewers to understand the language of Hindu dance. Dancers should not simply make up their own gestures but instead must learn the gestures of Hindu dance that have specific meanings. It is my contention that studying the gestures is essentially learning the ABCs of Hindu dance. Dancers who study the gestures use the gestures to develop sentences through dance. While this may seem like sign language, it is much more complicated because hand gestures are a small part of Hindu dance. The language of Hindu dance is not just based on hand gestures but rather develops from the entirety of bodily movement, including facial expressions. Furthermore, bodily movement, coupled with facial expressions, should provoke a phenomenological sensation for the dancer  See Chap. 3.

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and the viewers, which points to dance as much more complex than mere sign language. In addition to bodily movement, dancers will learn facial expressions from the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997) that relates the bhavas of Hindu dance. Bhavas are emotions that the dancer experiences during the dance. The dancer learns how to create the mood and express the sentiments of the dance. This in turn creates rasa, the experience of the sentiments of dance. Without rasa, dance is just plain bodily movement to technical choreography stripped of emotion. The dancer must not only engage in bodily movement, but needs to focus emotionally on the dance. Overall, I expect my students to maintain knowledge of the hand gestures, feet gestures, head gestures, neck gestures, and eye gestures along with the bhavas and rasas that the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997) teaches. This will help students learn to develop choreography that stems from the language of Hindu dance. Viewers who study the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997) may comprehend dance choreography, which will help them engage in ethical discourse.28

Development of Choreography Once Hindu dancers understand the ethics of Hindu dance as related in the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000) and the language of Hindu dance as conveyed in the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997), then dancers may ponder upon the development of dance choreography. Earlier I mention that Hindu dances are traditionally passed down from dance guru to student. While this has some benefits, it is necessary to move forward with developing dance choreography with creativity that considers the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000) and the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997). As I mentioned earlier, creativity is dangerous when it Orientalizes (Said, 1979) Hinduism. Thus, dancers must not intentionally misuse creativity during the composition of dance choreography. Bhakti29 infuses devotional Hindu dance choreography because the devotional Hindu dancer choreographs with feelings of faith, love, and devotion. Devotional Hindu dance choreography develops in a manner  See Chap. 3.  See Chap. 3.

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that concentrates on the Supreme Being and not on the technical movements of dance. The choreography centers on emotional expression for the Supreme Being through the dancer’s whole self. The goal is to develop choreography that provides a religious and spiritual experience, which allows the dancer and the viewers of the dance to connect to the Supreme Being.

Learning Another’s Choreography Dance with Historicity I studied many dances that centered on Hindu history throughout my dance education. Before beginning to learn the dances, I would build my prior knowledge of the historical background of the dance drama. This granted me the opportunity to understand the historical characters that were part of the dance drama, which is crucial because in Kuchipudi dance, the dancer must convey the emotions of the historical characters. After studying, I would discuss my interpretations in a community of inquiry.30 In fact, I would reach out to my Diksha Guru, Pt. Maheshwar Tiwari, who is always available to teach me. Then, I would philosophize about Hindu ethics within the dance drama based on a pragmatic view of what it means for me as a Hindu today. For instance, I studied the history of the Ramayana (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991) when I learned the Ramayana Shabdam dance. I read parts of the Ramayana, engaged in research about the Ramayana, and viewed Ramanand Sagar’s (2005) complete DVD series, which includes sixteen lengthy discs. I must point out that some individuals consider the Ramayana mythological. However, in my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance (2017a), I point to the Ramayana as part of Hindu history. Moreover, whether or not it is history is not the point. What matters is that the Ramayana in and of itself is historical. By extension, the character of Hanumanji is in and of itself historical. Tulası ̄dāsa conveys the glories of Hanumanji in the Ramayana. I further studied all the stanzas of the Shri Hanuman Ashtakam before learning the dance. My dance guru and I discussed each stanza of the sacred Shri Hanuman Ashtakam to reveal the concealed lessons that Hanumanji teaches. This 30  This phrase is used to describe a group of individuals who philosophize critically about a topic.

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helped me to understand the emotional expressions of the historical characters that came to life through dance. A profound devotional feeling fills my body each time I dance the Shri Hanuman Ashtakam. I first danced the Shri Hanuman Ashtakam to a live orchestra at the Alexander X.  O’Connor Auditorium in Bayonne High School during my RangaPravesam. The sounds of the orchestra filled the auditorium with a spiritual vibration. I entered the stage in a playful monkey pose with a being filled with joy as Smt. Saavitri Ramanand sang, “Jai Hanuman!” There is a scene where Sita Maa, who was kidnapped by the demon king Ravana, sat under the ashoka tree in Ravana’s garden. Hanumanji quietly gave Sita Maa the ring of Shri Rama and related a message from Shri Rama. As I danced this historical scene, I felt the distress of Sita Maa and the humility of Hanumanji. My hands physically shook intensely as I cried with tears running down my face upon the acceptance of Shri Rama’s ring. I did not plan to cry or for my hands to shake during the dance. Evidently, I conveyed this scene in this manner because I understood the emotions and experienced the history of the dance drama. It is crucial for the dancer to develop abhinaya, as mentioned in the previous chapter, when learning choreography from a dance guru. Abhinaya develops naturally once the dancer understands the depth of the emotions of the historical characters. Dance with Rhythmic Patterns I learned jathis (rhythmic patterns) during the beginning level of my Kuchipudi dance education. Before learning a dance with solely rhythmic patterns, I ask myself what do I hope to experience through the dance. During the dance, I often let myself get lost in the aesthetics of the choreography since the dance becomes meditative for me. I reflect on the phenomenological experience after I dance as I think about whether the dance provided me with an aesthetic, religious, and/or spiritual experience. Overall, rhythmic patterns provide me with an opportunity to enjoy a meditative dance experience. The Kuchipudi dance Tarijem is a composition filled solely with rhythmic patterns. The dance combines bodily movement along with head gestures, eye gestures, and neck gestures to rhythmic patterns. In addition, the dancer learns to foster facial expressions. This dance may seem like a robotic dance if the dancer does not learn to develop unique abhinaya that brings the dance to life. When I dance Tarijem, I frequently enjoy a

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devotional aesthetic experience. I focus on the enjoyment of the meditative rhythmic patterns, as I trust my body to dance intuitively. Throughout the dance, my facial expressions reveal my engrossment in the aesthetics of the dance. I repeatedly feel that I connect to the Supreme Being as I dance the rhythmic patterns. For me, the dance is devotional because it develops out of my love for the Supreme Being, which I express through dance. Essentially, each student ought to develop bhakti31 that centers attention on the Supreme Being when learning choreography. I now turn to relate the process for developing personal choreography with intention.

Intentional Choreography Through my ongoing self-study, I came to realize that I engage in several steps as I develop intentional choreography for dances with a specific meaning. First, I listen to the musical composition to determine if the music resonates devotionally with me. If not, then I select another composition that speaks to me devotionally. Next, I comprehend the meaning of the musical piece and delve deep into studies. The lyrics provide an opportunity for me to philosophize about Hinduism. Once I understand the meaning of the lyrics, I develop a series of hand gestures based on the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997) to convey the meaning. After, I combine the hand gestures with feet gestures. Following this, I consider how the appropriate bhavas and rasas32 develop through the dance choreography. I often listen to the rhythmic patterns, which do not have lyrics, and let the choreography manifest instinctively. My goal is to feel the sentiments of the dance when I dance the rhythmic patterns. Sometimes, I intertwine all of these components as I choreograph dances. After I choreograph a dance, I frequently repeatedly dance the choreography with a focus on the lyrics and rhythmic patterns until I feel that the dance is intuitive. Occasionally, I choreograph Indian classical Hindu dances comprised solely of rhythmic patterns. Since I am an expressive devotional Hindu dancer, I do not usually choreograph these dances with only technical movements. Instead, I integrate my own spiritual vision for the dance to develop the choreography. To begin with, I let myself become immersed in spirituality as I envision myself dancing for the Supreme Being. Then, I attempt to bring the dance to life with my spiritual vision in mind.  See Chap. 3.  See Chap. 3.

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Unintentional Choreography Satsanghs The abovementioned procedure may seem somewhat methodological for the development of devotional Hindu dance choreography. I admit that I did not engage in a particular method when I developed dances that I did not intend to choreograph. Instead, the choreography for the devotional compositions naturally came to me during satsanghs33 that I attended while I prayed to the Supreme Being. I sat cross-legged on the floor with my hands clasped and my eyes closed as I prayed. It is as if my third eye chakra opens up when I pray causing me to enter a meditative state filled with spiritual bliss. I frequently feel the presence of the Supreme Being all around me. During the chanting of mantras (prayers), bhajans (songs), and kirtans (chants), I naturally envision myself dancing to express devotion for the Supreme Being. Thus, I did not intend to choreograph the dances but instead the choreography developed unintentionally. Once I realized that I instinctively danced the mantras (prayers), bhajans (songs), and kirtans (chants), that I regularly heard, I decided to place intention on the choreography. This was difficult because I did not wish to change the organic choreography that I already developed in my mind. I danced naturally to the mantras (prayers), bhajans (songs), and kirtans (chants), at home as I prayed to the Supreme Being through dance. I used my Apple MacBook to visually record me dancing, which allowed me to review the dances and polish the choreography with intention. The process was devotional for me because even during the choreography, I maintained a prayerful stance with my focus on the Supreme Being. Virtual Satsanghs During the COVID-19 pandemic, I began to attend many virtual satsanghs.34 Several mandirs35 (temples) began to host a livestream Sunday morning satsangh. The Shaanti Bhavan Mandir36 in Queens, New York and the  Satsanghs essentially refers to communal worship.  Satsanghs essentially refers to communal worship. 35  See Preface. 36  This is a mandir (temple) in Queens, New York where Pt. Manoj Deokarran Jadubans and Pt. Dipak Rambharose lead religious services in addition to humanitarian services. See https://shaantibhavanmandir.com for more information. 33 34

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Bhavani Shankar Mandir37 in Brampton, Ontario repeatedly chants the Shri Hanuman Chalisa (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, R.  C., 1991) weekly on Tuesday nights during a livestream satsangh dedicated to Shri Hanuman. Aside from the livestream satsanghs, I started to listen to recorded satsanghs on YouTube. The bhakti38 of many pandits inspired me to dance daily mantras (prayers). As the pandits recite the mantras, I naturally dance the prayers in my mind as my third eye chakra opens and provides me with clarity for the unintended choreography. In addition to mantras (prayers), I began to dance bhajans (songs) and kirtans (chants) that I heard pandits sing during virtual satsanghs. Soon, I noticed that dance filled my day as I danced to mantras (prayers), bhajans (songs), and kirtans (chants). I soon felt moved to study the meaning of the mantras (prayers) and place intention on the choreography that developed unintentionally at first. To begin with, I study the pronunciation of the mantras (prayers) even though I know many of the mantras instinctively from my childhood. Following this, I study the connotation of the mantras (prayers) as I develop choreography to convey the meaning. It is important to note that the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997) has certain hand gestures and movements for specific deities. For example, there are particular hand gestures to convey Nav Graha Devata.39 Thus, I carefully study the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997) as I develop intentional choreography. I repeat this process for bhajans (songs) and kirtans (chants). I always have a desire to express my devotion through dance at satsanghs40 when I attend. However, my self-study reveals that many individuals do not see dance as a religious art that dancers regularly engage in during worship at mandirs (temples), even though this is why Bramhaji41 created dance. Instead, people42 habitually view dance as a cultural art meant for stage performances at cultural programs, even when the dance  This is a mandir (temple) in Brampton, Ontario in Canada where Pt. Hardat Ashwar leads religious services in addition to humanitarian services. See https://www.bhavanishankarmandir.com for more information. 38  See Chap. 3. 39  Nav Graha Devata refers to the nine planetary system. Essentially, One Supreme Being manifests in nine forms to govern the planets. 40  Satsanghs essentially refers to communal worship. 41  See Chap. 2. 42  Here, I specifically refer to West Indian people. By West Indian, I do not mean the Western part of India. Instead, West Indian refers to certain parts of the Caribbean, which include Guyana in South America as well as Trinidad and Tobago. In my text Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance, I mention in the first chapter 37

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has a religious connotation. Thus, I am left to dance in my mind as my third eye chakra opens to provide me with clarity on the choreography during satsanghs that I attend. However, virtual satsanghs provide me with the opportunity to dance freely at home during satsanghs.

A Call to Philosophize and De-Orientalize It is vital for students to think about their intention for learning Hindu dance. For this reason, I pose several questions for students to contemplate in the beginning of this chapter. I ask students to ponder upon why they hope to learn Hindu dance. Students who learn from me through the text and learn from me personally need to adhere to my requests that I present at the beginning of this chapter. Students who learn from me but do not respect my requests will not have my blessings as their dance guru. These students steal knowledge that I share, and thus, they will not succeed to their maximum potential. Guru Dronaacharya and Ekalavya press this point as they illustrate several lessons for teachers and students to consider in the historical Mahabharata (Chopra & Chopra, 2001; Dharma, 1999). In this chapter, I present a foundation to help students prepare to study Hindu dance based on my self-study. I point to the two main texts of Hindu dance that are of the utmost importance. The Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000) focuses on the ethics of Hindu dance. The Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997) concentrates on the language of Hindu dance. My main goal in this chapter was to provide an introduction to devotional Hindu dance for dancers and viewers of the dance. In addition, I point to learning to dance devotionally while learning another individual’s choreography. I also shed light on how to develop choreography with intention. My experiences prompt me to share how I engaged in unintentional dance choreography and then placed intention on the choreography. Devotional Hindu dancers should not focus on the technical aspects of choreography but instead ought to place intention on dancing with bhakti43 that maintains a heart filled with love. This will help dancers connect to the Supreme Being, and by extension, viewers may connect to the Supreme Being. Furthermore, dancers and viewers will have the opportunity to move toward moksha (liberation) upon death. how indentured servitude caused many Indians, including my ancestors, to migrate from India to West Indian countries. 43  See Chap. 3.

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References BharataMuni. (2000). The Natya Sastra of Bharata Muni. Delhi: Sri Satguru. Chopra, B. R., & Chopra, R. (Director). (2001). Mahabharat. Harrison, NJ: Indo American Video Corp. Dharma, K. (1999). Mahabharata: The Greatest Spiritual Epic of All Time. Badger, California: Torchlight Publishing, Inc.. MisirHiralall, S. D. (2017a). Confronting Orientalism: A Self-study of Educating through Hindu Dance. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. MisirHiralall, S.  D. (2017b, September 02). The Postcolonial Pedagogical Challenge of Creativity. Religion & Education, 44(3), 286–303. Morgan, D. (2005). The Sacred Gaze: Religious Visual Culture in Theory and Practice. Berkeley: University of California Press. Nandikeśvara, & Apparao, P. S. R. (1997). Abhinaya Darpaṇam of Nandikeswara. ́ Hyderabad: P.S.R. Apparao. Sagar, R. (Director). (2005). Ramayana: The Complete Series. Mumbai: Sagar Group. Said, E. W. (1979). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books. Tulası ̄dāsa, & Prasad, R.  C. (1991). Shri Ramacharitamanas. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

CHAPTER 5

Conclusion

Abstract  I aim to provoke a devotional experience for Hindu dancers and viewers of the dance. Specifically, I hope to move the cultural gaze of Hindus to an educational gaze, which seeks to learn about Hindu philosophy in a manner that considers the component of devotion. In this self-­ study project, I explicitly focus my attention on devotion as a part of Hindu dance because I sense that Indian classical Hindu dancers today often dance without devotion. Consequentially, Hindu dance is repeatedly reduced to a phenomenon of cultural entertainment that denies the dancer and the viewers a devotional experience. In this chapter, I return to my original research questions as I stress the need to consider devotion as a part of Hindu dance. Keywords  Cultural Gaze • Educational Gaze • Self-Study • Orientalism • Guru • Natya Shastra • Abhinaya Darpanam

Research Questions I aim to provoke a devotional experience for Hindu dancers and viewers of the dance. Specifically, I hope to move the cultural gaze of Hindus to an educational gaze, which seeks to learn about Hindu philosophy in a manner that considers the component of devotion. This will help to reposition Hinduism as a religion and not just culture. In this self-study project, I © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. D. MisirHiralall, Devotional Hindu Dance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70619-7_5

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explicitly focus my attention on devotion as a part of Hindu dance because I sense that Indian classical Hindu dancers today often dance without devotion. Consequentially, Hindu dance is repeatedly reduced to a phenomenon of cultural entertainment that denies the dancer and the viewers a devotional experience. In this chapter, I return to my original research questions as I stress the need to consider devotion as a part of Hindu dance. I provide an overarching summary in this chapter to sum up this project. This philosophical self-study project moves in the intersecting fields of philosophy, religion, and education in academia. I admit that there are limitations to this project, as with nearly all research projects. However, I consider these limitations as I move forward with my life-long ongoing self-study research. In the introduction of this text, I shared a series of intertwining questions about devotional Hindu dance. My self-study research questions focus on how to engage in devotional Hindu dance and participate in a devotional religious experience. The main question is how can I engage in devotional Hindu dance and teach others to engage in devotional Hindu dance in a manner that provokes a devotional experience for both the dancer and the viewers of the dance? Essentially, I must maintain bhakti1 and teach others about bhakti to provoke a bhakti-infused experience throughout the dance. How do my life experiences position me as an inevitable educator of Hinduism through Hindu dance? My Hindu dance education causes me to acknowledge how the legacy of colonialism moved sacred, religious Hindu dance to a Westernized art that reduces Hindu dance to a cultural object of entertainment. As a scholar of Hinduism and Hindu dance, I am in a unique position to confront the legacy of colonialism in a postcolonial era as I teach about Hinduism through Hindu dance and return Hindu dance to a religious, sacred, devotional art. The destructive tendencies of colonialism caused a shift in Hindu dance from a sacred, devotional art to a Westernized stage performance. How can I move Hindu dance back from a Westernized stage performance to a sacred, devotional art that provokes a religious, devotional experience? The first step is to teach about Hindu dance as a religious, sacred art that warrants a sacred gaze (Morgan, 2005). I essentially need to de-­ Orientalize (MisirHiralall, 2017) Hindu dance so that it is first viewed as a religious art. Once I accomplish this, then the dancer and the viewers of the dance can open themselves up to the possibility of a religious, devotional experience. 1

 See Chap. 3.

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What are the key components of devotional Hindu dance that may lead to a devotional experience for the dancer and the viewers? The dancer should first understand the ethics of dance as conveyed in the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000) and the language of dance as related in the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997). A Diksha Guru2 should serve as a guide to help educate the dancer on Hinduism and by extension, Hindu dance. It is also crucial for the dancer to respect the dance guru3 who teaches the philosophy of Hindu dance. Once the dancer accomplishes this, then the dancer is in a position to develop bhakti as the dancer maintains a devotional experience and provokes a devotional experience from viewers of the dance. How can I work to develop and teach devotional Hindu dance choreography? For me, I believe unintentional dance choreography develops as I listen to and experience devotional Hindu music. I then place intention on developing the unintentional choreography. I focus on teaching devotional Hindu dance as I place an emphasis on dancing with bhakti. These overarching questions develop in my self-study from my problem of being reduced to a cultural object of entertainment who wishes to return Hindu dance to a sacred, devotional art.

Summary of Chapters Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 1 focuses on a narrative of my dance education as I point to financial and travel struggles. My dance studies began at the Natraj Cultural Group, which is now the Natraj Center for the Performing Arts and continued at the Sadhanalaya School of Dance. I share how the profound experience of my RangaPravesam (MisirHiralall, 2004) impacts me as a Hindu dancer. My dance studies continued throughout the Krishnarpanam (MisirHiralall, 2006) theatrical. During my doctoral studies at Montclair State University, I pursued the pedagogy of Hindu dance as an area of my scholarship. Additionally, I opened and closed the SwarLeena School of  See Chap. 2.  A dance guru is not simply a dance teacher. A dance guru is an educator who is well versed in the theory and praxis of Hindu dance. Thus, a dance teacher and a dance guru are not always the same. A dance guru is a dance teacher but a dance teacher may not necessarily be a dance guru. 2 3

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Dance, LLC. I originally opened the SwarLeena School of Dance, LLC to provide students with an affordable opportunity to learn Hindu dance. As I continued with my scholarship at Montclair State University, I danced Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance (MisirHiralall, 2013) for a primarily non-Hindu audience. This helped me to further understand my identity as a faith-based American Hindu dancer. All of these experiences lead me to understand that Hindu dance is a devotional art form that needs to be respected as a form of worship to the Supreme Being. However, my self-study data reveals that many individuals do not view Hindu dance in this manner because they are unfamiliar with the sacredness of the art. This reduces Hindu dance to a cultural phenomenon since individuals lack the knowledge of Hindu dance as sacred. The struggles that I encountered during my Hindu dance education prompt me to recognize the need for an affordable access to a Hindu dance education for those who wish to study the art in a manner that worships the Supreme Being. I wish to provide a Hindu dance education, despite geographical distance, for students who have a desire to honor the Supreme Being through Hindu dance. Overall, I propose a Hindu dance education that returns Hindu dance to a sacred art. Chapter 2: Religion and Culture in the History of Hindu Dance Education I share the history of Hindu dance as I point to the origin and purpose of Hindu dance (BharataMuni, 2000) in Chap. 2. Furthermore, I express how the legacy of colonialism impacts the educational system of dance, which transforms how people view dance. I discuss the current state of Indian and West Indian dance schools that shift Hindu dance from an emphasis on Hinduism to a focus on culture. In addition, I specifically examine the Natraj Center for the Performing Arts, the Sadhanalaya School of Dance, the David Ali Dance Academy, and the Kalai Kaviri College of Fine Arts. These establishments convey how Hindu dance often becomes a form of culture. While religion and culture frequently overlap, there are important distinctions between religion and culture. My philosophical self-study project returns to the sacredness of Hindu dance despite the destructive tendencies of colonialism that caused a shift in the tradition. Due to the legacy of colonialism, the educational system of Hindu dance moved from the sacred teaching of dance through the Guru-shishya

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system to a Westernized educational approach. Many Hindu-based dance institutions adhere to a Western educational system that dismisses the sacred ethic of Hindu dance. This disregards the traditional religious-­ educational system of Hindu dance based on Hindu dance scriptures. Current Hindu-based dance institutions that claim to maintain a tradition of Hindu dance focus more on performing for stage commitments that emphasize culture rather than dance for devotional reasons, which was the intended purpose of Hindu dance, based on the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000). This causes an impact on the viewers who have come to view Hindu dance as cultural entertainment. I consider it necessary to confront this by de-Orientalizing (MisirHiralall, 2017) Hindu dance as I dance among Hindus. Chapter 3: Defining Devotional Hindu Dance Hindu dance provides an opportunity for the dancer and the viewers to engage in a devotional experience. Here, by devotional, I mean that the dance ought to focus on the holy feelings that accompany religious worship. The feeling of devotion should incite a devotional experience for the dancer. A devotional experience is an experience that the dancer has as the dancer connects to the Supreme Being through dance. When the dancer expresses this devotional experience through dance, then chances are that the viewers of the dance, who are tuned in, may also have a devotional experience. In Chap. 3, I share key experiences within my self-study that lead me to place an emphasis on devotional Hindu dance. My dance experiences provoke me to think deeply about what devotional Hindu dance is and the ability it has to transform the dancer plus the viewers of the dance. Bhakti is a crucial concept to first understand before engaging in devotional Hindu dance because it plays a vital role in the dance. For this reason, I discuss the bhakti movement and the term bhakti. As I express in Chap. 3, Shri Hanumanji (Tulası ̄dāsa & Prasad, 1991) provides a strong exemplary example of what bhakti is. To clarify what I mean by devotional Hindu dance, I move onto share the distinctions between sacred songs, sacred dance, and devotional dance. After, I point to the goals of devotional Hindu dance. It is imperative for devotional Hindu dancers to understand how to prepare to engage in devotional Hindu dance. They must pay attention to their way of being and interactions throughout the entire dance experience. Devotional

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Hindu dancers must display mindfulness with the contemplative dressing process and before-the-dance rituals such as Namaskaram and the recitation of mantras (prayers). Abhinaya (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997) plays a vital role during the dance because the dancer conveys movement coupled with expression. After the dance, the dancer needs to display ethical responsibility. I shed light on the ethical approaches of an orthodox universalist and a liberal pragmatist who have particular ethical frameworks. I develop these concepts through my self-study. Aside from the dancer, viewers viewing devotional Hindu dances should maintain an awareness of how to view the dances with a sacred gaze (Morgan, 2005). Chapter 4: Basics of Learning Devotional Hindu Dance It is crucial for individuals to explore why they wish to learn Hindu dance, regardless of the Indian classical Hindu dance style, before embarking on the educational journey. Individuals must promise to honor the Supreme Being and not intentionally misuse sacred Hindu dance. For this reason, I pose several questions for students to think about as I request them to ponder upon why they hope to learn Hindu dance. My self-study prompts me to present a foundation that helps students prepare to study Hindu dance. I point to the two main texts of Hindu dance that I ask my students to comprehend. The Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000) focuses on the ethics of Hindu dance. The Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997) concentrates on the language of Hindu dance and dance expression. I also focus attention on how viewers should prepare to view Hindu dance with these two texts in mind. In Chap. 4, I share how I engage in choreographing devotional Hindu dances based on my self-study. I point to dancing devotionally while learning another individual’s choreography. In addition, I shed light on how to develop choreography with intention. My experiences prompt me to relate how I engage in unintentional dance choreography and then place intention on the choreography. Devotional Hindu dancers should not focus on the technical aspects of choreography but instead should place intention on dancing with bhakti, which is essentially devotion with a heart filled with faith and love. Through bhakti, dancers connect to the Supreme Being. Viewers also have the opportunity to connect to the Supreme Being through the devotional Hindu dancer. This will help individuals move toward moksha (liberation) upon death. My goal in Chap. 4 is to provide a foundation to build knowledge of an introduction to devotional Hindu dance for dancers and viewers of the dance.

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Contribution of Research This educational philosophical self-study project contributes to several intersecting academic disciplines. The legacy of colonialism (Said, 1979) caused Hindu dance to move toward a Westernized art that became entangled in exoticism and sensuality. I contribute to the field of postcolonialism as I de-Orientalize (MisirHiralall, 2017) Hindu dance in a manner that transforms Hindu dance from an exotic object of cultural entertainment to a devotional sacred art. Essentially, this project develops and implements a postcolonial pedagogy. This is principally a teaching methodology that confronts the legacy of colonialism, which prompted Hindus to misunderstand and misrepresent Hinduism through Hindu dance. Postcolonial scholars could use this project as an example of de-­ Orientalization that calls for a postcolonial pedagogy. In short, this project may serve to motivate postcolonial scholars to continue the development of postcolonial pedagogy to combat the residual effects of colonization. I also contribute to the methodology of self-study as I provide an example of how to engage in ongoing self-study research. My lived experiences are essentially my research data. I record specific dance experiences in my self-study journal. Then, I code these journals to explore the overarching themes. Following this, I deliberate with my Peer Scholars, which prompts me to reevaluate my lived experiences and further reflect on my self-study journals. My Peer Scholars and I continue to deliberate until we feel ready to move to the next topic. As I mentioned in Chap. 1, I develop the term “Peer Scholar,” which contributes terminology to the self-study research methodology. In addition, this project intersects with the academic fields of philosophy and religion. Philosophers may continue to think about the role of phenomenology and ethics in Hindu dance as the dancer dances and the viewers experience the dance. Religious studies scholars may focus on religious experiences and spiritual experiences that the dance prompts. Moreover, religious studies scholars might engage with this text as they teach about Hinduism in a de-Orientalized manner. Perhaps the most significant contribution of this project is that it sheds light on the origin and purpose of Hindu dance. This text offers a pedagogy for a de-Orientalized Hindu dance education, plus it provides an avenue to return Hindu dance to mandirs (temples). Those who read this text may advocate for devotional Hindu dance to be part of satsanghs (religious gatherings) on a regular basis. Dance here does not need to be technically filled with intricate choreography. Instead, I advocate for

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simple choreography that devotees may join in as dancers dance with bhakti from their heart. Here, dance becomes educational because it teaches devotees the meaning of mantras (prayers), bhajans (songs), and kirtans (chants). Thus, aside from the enrichment of devotional worship, dance also provides an education about Hinduism. This may in turn cause individuals to build religious literacy about Hinduism through Hindu dance.

Limitations of Research It is my contention that individuals who wish to engage in Hindu dance should practice Hindu philosophy and Hinduism. Hindu philosophy is a vital part of Hindu dance. However, I worry that those who wish to engage in Hindu dance but are not Hindus may feel turned away. I acknowledge that many individuals who wish to learn Indian classical Hindu dance do not understand the essence of Hinduism as a part of the art. Because of the desire to engage in inclusivity that includes students of different religious and cultural backgrounds, several dance institutions teach Hindu dance to non-Hindus, which has the potential to Orientalize (Said, 1979) Hinduism and Indian classical Hindu dance. Inclusivity is crucial because there are a variety of religions and cultures in our global society. Nevertheless, it is vital to beware of the dangers of Orientalism. Hindus and non-Hindus may dance together, regardless of religious and cultural backgrounds, but these individuals must convey respect for Hinduism if they engage in Hindu dance. For this reason, I encourage non-Hindus who wish to learn Indian classical Hindu dance to philosophize about engaging in Hindu dance as non-Hindus with Orientalism in mind. In addition, I also propose spiritual dance as an alternative. I begin to explore spiritual dance in my article The Postcolonial Reality of Using the Term Liturgical to Define Hindu Dance (MisirHiralall, 2014) and hope to continue to explore spiritual dance in the future. I developed this self-study project based on my experiences dancing among Hindus throughout my lifetime. Unfortunately, I did not have the opportunity to dance among Hindus with this project in mind because the COVID-19 pandemic forced a global shutdown. Due to the pandemic, I cancelled several devotional Hindu dance recitals among primarily Hindus. Therefore, my self-study took an unexpected turn. I originally planned to engage in devotional Hindu dance among Hindus and develop a postcolonial pedagogy with attention to the unforeseen issues that arise throughout my experiences. I suspect there is a need to engage in different types

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of pedagogy as I dance among primarily Hindus in specific settings. For example, a dance recital in the mandir (temple) may require different pedagogy than an invitation to dance at a cultural program centered on Hinduism. Dance during traditional satsanghs4 may require specific pedagogy since this typically does not occur in today’s society. Although I had to modify my self-study due to the pandemic, I still developed a postcolonial pedagogy for teaching devotional Hindu dance.

Criticisms My project is a philosophical self-study based on the self-study methodology (LaBoskey, 2004; Loughran, 2004; Tidwell & Fitzgerald, 2004). Ken Zeichner (2007) is a popular critic of self-study who urges self-study researchers to express self-study as a feasible research methodology. It is problematic that the research world acknowledges qualitative and quantitative research but often ignores philosophical research. This is evident in the submission requirements of many academic conferences. Submission requirements should acknowledge the components of philosophical research in addition to quantitative and qualitative research. Philosophical research promotes an exploration of questions in a manner that moves beyond generalizations. Some scholars may see my project as an irrational subjective undertaking that centers on illusion. I do not aim to impose religious epistemology onto any individuals. On the contrary, I am a faith-based American Hindu who wishes to share my religious epistemology as a way of knowing. I hope to teach about Hinduism with religious epistemology in mind. However, I understand that atheists and agnostics may not concur with my philosophical approach to religious epistemology. There is a need to understand non-faith-based approaches to epistemology and spirituality. What I am saying is that there is no need for a battle-fueled debate here, but rather an opportunity to discuss different approaches to epistemology to help individuals understand one another and live harmoniously in the world. For me, this is important because Hinduism is not merely a ritualistic religion but rather is a way of life. In addition, cultural dance institutions and cultural dancers may criticize my project for the steadfast focus on Hinduism as a part of Hindu dance. However, if individuals strip Hinduism from Hindu dance, then the dance is no longer Hindu but rather is reduced to a mere cultural art 4

 Satsanghs essentially refers to communal worship.

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that dishonors Hinduism. Non-Hindus who do not respect Hindu traditions or Hindu scriptures should not engage in Hindu dance. I am not saying that non-Hindus should never partake in Hindu dance as dancers. What I am saying is that non-Hindus must not participate in Hindu dance as dancers without careful consideration of the dangers of Orientalism (Said, 1979) that disrespectfully disregards Hindu dance traditions.

Implications The legacy of colonizing ideologies (Said, 1979) caused Hindus to misunderstand and misrepresent Hinduism. This is particularly evident when thinking of Hindu dance. The current state of Hindu dance education is infused with a Western pedagogical approach to teaching a religious dance curriculum. This is problematic because it often moves the dance away from a spiritual art to a cultural exotic art that places more attention on perfection rather than spirituality. There is a need to shed light on the colonizing legacies that caused Hindu dance to move away from dance as devotional and toward stage performance dance pervaded with cultural entertainment. A postcolonial focus acknowledges the role of colonialism in the shift of Hindu dance and presents further questions for thinking about how to fuse Eastern and Western approaches to dance. Although my self-study research is ongoing, I have come to some initial conclusions about devotional Hindu dance. First, it is imperative to dance to devotional music that provokes a sense of devotion within the dancer. For me, I feel that satsanghs5 (religious gatherings), both in person and through a virtual sphere, creates an atmosphere that incites devotion within me, which causes me to dance within my mind’s eye. I am grateful that I was able to extend that devotion outward through choreography. Second, it is crucial for the dancer to maintain a state of bhakti while dancing. The devotional Hindu dancer dances with bhakti-infused faith, love, and devotion for the Supreme Being. While devotional Hindu dancers may dance on stage, the dancer does not need a stage to dance. Instead, the dancer may dance in the privacy of a personal residence to express bhakti for the Supreme Being. I acknowledge the implications for teaching devotional Hindu dance. Dance gurus should ensure that dance students recognize the importance of a Diksha Guru. Also, it is crucial to teach about the philosophy of dance 5

 See footnote 4.

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as presented in the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000) and the language of dance as discussed in the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997). Teachers ought to help students understand and develop bhakti to guide them on the journey of experiencing devotional Hindu dance. It is essential for dance gurus to stress the importance of spirituality as opposed to choreography with perfection when teaching students devotional Hindu dance. Hindu dancers whose main goal is to engage in stage performances as a part of cultural entertainment may miss the opportunity to participate in sacred, devotional Hindu dance, which may help them to develop a sense of spirituality. Individuals should not employ Hindu dance as a mere cultural art because that betrays the sacredness of Hindu dance. Moreover, these dancers may miss the chance to develop spirituality that creates a sense of inner peace. I urge Hindu dancers to place attention on dancing with devotion that provokes spirituality as opposed to dancing as a cultural entertainer. Dancers who wish to dance as cultural entertainers should dance cultural compositions instead of Hindu compositions. At any rate, devotional Hindu dance helps to return Hindu dance to a sacred art used to tame the senses of the dancers and the viewers. Aside from the dancer, the viewers of the dance benefit from understanding how the legacy of colonialism caused Hindu dance to shift. A postcolonial lens helps to grasp the current state of Hindu dance. Viewers who comprehend the philosophy of Hindu dance as presented in the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000) and the language of Hindu dance as conveyed in the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997) may experience devotional Hindu dance to the fullest. Nevertheless, as long as viewers maintain a sacred gaze (Morgan, 2005), they open themselves up to participation in a devotional experience of Hindu dance that provokes a sense of spirituality.

Future Research In my previous monograph, I wrote the following about my future research: As I continue with my self-study research, I feel inspired to think about how to use Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance to educate Hindus about Hinduism with postcolonialism in mind. The Orientalist legacy moved the ancient form of Hindu dance to a Westernized Eastern dance form. Many

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Hindus have come to believe in Hindu dance as a performance art that enriches the tradition, but does not maintain a sacred core. Several Hindu-­ based dance schools move Hindu dance to a Western educational system that dismisses the sacred ethic and traditional religious-educational system of Hindu dance. For this reason, I consider it necessary to move to de-­ Orientalize Hinduism through Hindu dance among Hindus. (MisirHiralall, 2017, p. 175–176)

I am pleased that I worked on the above goal as I thought about educating primarily Hindus about Hinduism through Hindu dance throughout this text. In the above quote, I point to employing Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance to teach Hindus about Hinduism. However, Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance is a technical, traditional South Indian dance style that is considered to be a very formal art. Thus, I chose to engage in devotional Hindu dance to teach Hindus about Hinduism because it is not very technical and is a very informal dance genre. Once Hindus comprehend the nature of devotional Hindu dance, then they will have a strong foundation if they turn to Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance to learn about Hinduism. This project provides a foundation for devotional Hindu dance. I explain the problem with the current state of Hindu dance as a cultural art that often strips Hindu dance of its sacred core. This frequently occurs through a Westernized education of dance that moves away from a religious dance education. In future projects, I hope to continue to provide a religious dance education to Hindus who wish to display devotion through dance. This includes teaching the Natya Shastra (BharataMuni, 2000), the Abhinaya Darpanam (Nandikeśvara & Apparao, 1997), and devotional choreography for mantras (prayers), bhajans (songs), and kirtans (chants). I also aspire to focus attention on spiritual dance that embraces Hindus and non-Hindus through a postcolonial contemplative dance form that maintains mindfulness of the dangers of Orientalism (Said, 1979). Katherine Zubko points to dance across religious borders as she writes, At its profound core, dancing across religious boundaries is possible, I contend, because of the universalizing tendency of rasa (aesthetic mood) repersonalized by bhakti (devotion) via the site of the body. The dynamically shifting interpretative framework of bhakti rasa transforms and displays dancing bodies that enact a range of devotional identities. (Zubko, 2016, p. 2)

It is feasible to dance across religious borders, but individuals must acknowledge the dangers of Orientalism (Said, 1979) and consider the

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complexity of culture that is often intertwined with religion. Zubko throughout her text points to Indian classical Hindu dance that moves across religious boundaries to the point that the dance form becomes cultural depending on the identity of the dancer. However, as I shed light on throughout this text, there is a dilemma with stripping Hinduism from Hindu dance regardless of the dancer’s identity. For this reason, I hope to explore a postcolonial contemplative dance form that does not disband Hinduism from Hindu dance but rather conveys respect for Hinduism as a part of Hindu dance while inclusively embracing all individuals, including atheists and agnostics. To continue, I plan to engage in devotional Hindu dance not only primarily among Hindus but also among non-Hindus. This project specifically focuses on sharing devotional Hindu dance among Hindus who wish to engage in communal worship. I also pay attention to non-­Hindus who frequently view the dance. Throughout my career, I danced at several venues in academia as I primarily taught non-Hindus about Hinduism through Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance. During this time, I learned that my dances, although classical, was at many times devotional because of my identity as a faith-based Hindu dancer. I never wish to impose my faith onto others when I teach in academia. On the contrary, I hope to share Hinduism through Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance. I believe that I can also present devotional Hindu dance in academia as an educational opportunity for individuals to witness my identity as a faith-based Hindu dancer who believes in the epistemological framework of Hinduism. I can bring Hinduism to life for those in academia who wish to pursue Hindu studies. It is important to note that the boundaries of the East and the West are illusionary. For this reason, it is crucial to acknowledge the diasporic aspect of religion and culture. Hinduism is not limited to a particular geographical area for a specific group of people. While the term “Hinduism” refers to a world religion, it is much more than a religion. As I wrote in my previous text, Although the term “Hinduism” refers to a particular religion, the term cloaks the humanitarian way of life that Hinduism endorses. Hinduism is one path of humanitarianism up the mountain that leads to eternal bliss. There are several religions and secular modes of living that embrace different epistemological frameworks. Based on my epistemological framework that is influenced by Hinduism, I hope to stimulate philosophical inquiry through Hindu dance to think about what it means to live as a human in the world. I maintain a faith-based Hindu epistemological framework that I

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develop through Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance as my road up the mountain towards moksha because I aim to fulfill my purpose as a human on earth. (MisirHiralall, 2017, p. 176)

I would add that I aim to teach not just specifically though Kuchipudi Indian classical Hindu dance, but Hindu dance in a broader sense. Devotional Hindu dance provides an opportunity to share in a very personal manner as I engage in a non-technical dance genre that calls for a vulnerability to openly express myself to the Supreme Being through dance. Others may witness and participate in the dance while simultaneously adhering to Hindu dance scriptures. I plan to teach individuals, Hindus and non-Hindus, who wish to grasp the educational opportunity to learn about Hinduism and be a part of my spiritual journey. In addition, I have a desire to learn from others because I hope to understand different epistemological systems, which include secular and non-secular approaches. The Supreme Being inspires me to write this text as a part of my dharma (ethical duty). I believe that I am first and foremost a child of the Supreme Being. The Supreme Being in the manifestation of Shivaji (The Śiva-­ purāṇa, 1969) is my Cosmic Father, and the Supreme Being in the form of Durga Maa (Vijnanananda, 1986) is my Cosmic Mother. I come from the Supreme Being and hope to attain moksha (liberation) upon death as I merge back to the Supreme Being. I wish to live a life that explores the messiness of religion and culture because the disarray pushes the exploration of ethics with religious epistemology and all of humanity in mind. I felt called to pen this text because it will hopefully help faith-based Hindus learn to employ devotional Hindu dance to enrich worship. Furthermore, this text shall teach non-Hindus about the need to consider Hindu dance with sensitivity for Hinduism in mind. Together, we can walk a path toward moksha (liberation) upon death. Even atheists and agnostics, who do not believe in the Supreme Being, may display ethical responsibility throughout life and walk a path toward moksha. I will conclude my ongoing project in the same manner in which I concluded my first text as I share the following questions that I constantly ponder: Who are you? Who are we? Where do you come from? Where do we come from? Where are you going? Where are we going?

Aum Shanti6 Aum. 6

 Shanti translates as peace.

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References BharataMuni. (2000). The Natya Sastra of Bharata Muni. Delhi: Sri Satguru. LaBoskey, V. (2004). The Methodology of Self study and Its Theoretical Underpinnings (M.  L. Hamilton, V.  LaBoskey, & T.  Russell, Eds.). In J.  Loughran (Ed.), International Handbook of Self-study of Teaching and Teacher Education Practices (pp. 817–869). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. Loughran, J. (2004). A History and Context of Self-Study of Teaching and Teacher Education Practices. In J. Loughran (Ed.), In International Handbook of Self-study of Teaching and Teacher education Practices (pp. 7–40). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. MisirHiralall, S. (2004). Rangapravesam. Theatrical Dance. Bayonne, New Jersey. MisirHiralall, S. (2006). Krishnarpanam. Theatrical Dance. Jersey City, New Jersey. MisirHiralall, S. (2013). Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance. Theatrical, Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance sponsored by Montclair State University’s The College of the Arts, The Office of Equity and Diversity, The Center for Faith and Spirituality, and Japan Club, Montclair, New Jersey. MisirHiralall, S.  D. (2014, January 01). The Postcolonial Reality of Using the Term “Liturgical” to Describe Hindu Dance. Journal of Research on Christian Education, 23(2), 154–175. MisirHiralall, S.  D. (2017). Confronting Orientalism: A Self-study of Educating through Hindu Dance. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Morgan, D. (2005). The Sacred Gaze: Religious Visual Culture in Theory and Practice. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Nandikeśvara, & Apparao, P. S. R. (1997). Abhinaya Darpaṇam of Nandikeswara. ́ Hyderabad: P.S.R. Apparao. Said, E. W. (1979). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books. The Śiva-Purāṇa. (1969). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Tidwell, D., & Fitzgerald, L. (2004). Self Study as Teaching (John. Loughran, Ed.). In In International Handbook of Self-study of Teaching and Teacher Education Practices (pp. 69–102). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. Tulası ̄dāsa, & Prasad, R.  C. (1991). Shri Ramacharitamanas. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Vijnanananda. (1986). The Srimad Devi Bhagawatam. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corp. Zeichner, K. (2007, January 01). Accumulating Knowledge Across Self-studies in Teacher Education. Journal of Teacher Education, 58(1), 36–46. Zubko, K.  C. (2016). Dancing Bodies of Devotion: Fluid Gestures in Bharata Natyam. Lanham: Lexington Books.

Index1

A Aacharya, 35, 35n13, 36 Abhinaya, 32, 81–83, 91, 102, 102n20, 110, 122 Abhinaya Darapanam, 32 Abreu-Hornbostel, Esmilda, 20 American Sevashram Sangha, 77 B Bhabha, Homi, 50, 52, 85, 91 Bhakti, 12, 32, 48, 63–79, 81–84, 87, 90–91, 96, 97, 101, 108, 111, 113, 114, 118, 119, 121, 122, 124, 126–128 Bhakti movement, 64, 65, 121 Bhama Kalapam, 8, 82 BharataMuni, 9, 21, 25, 31–33, 35, 36, 56, 78, 96, 106–108, 114, 119–122, 127, 128

Bharatnatyam, 5, 8n10, 39–43, 39n17, 45, 46, 77, 81 Bollywood, 5, 15, 15n20, 30, 37, 37n14, 39–41, 46, 79, 101, 101n17 Brahman(s), x, 33–36, 33n6, 33n8, 34n10, 64, 64n5, 65, 67, 68 Bramhaji, 31–33, 57, 77, 113 British, 30, 31, 37, 38, 47n27, 48, 49, 54 C Choreography, 2, 4, 5, 33, 35, 37, 50, 57, 73, 82, 96, 108–112, 114, 119, 122–124, 126–128 Christianize, 48 Colonialism, 2, 19, 29, 31, 37, 38, 47, 57, 58, 118, 120, 123, 126, 127

 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes.

1

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. D. MisirHiralall, Devotional Hindu Dance, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70619-7

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INDEX

Confronting Orientalism: A Self-Study of Educating Through Hindu Dance, viii, ix, 3–5, 5n3, 18, 21, 25, 30n1, 37, 38, 45, 51, 57n39, 66, 77, 87n24, 88, 101, 109, 113n42 Contemplative dressing, 11, 76–78, 90, 122 Contemplative Kuchipudi Dance, 20–23, 26, 120 Creation of Hindu dance, 26, 31–33 Cultural gaze, 117 Culture, x, 2, 5, 15n20, 18, 19, 29–58, 77, 85–87, 91, 101n17, 117, 120–121, 124, 129, 130 D Daan, 17, 17n23, 26 Dakshina, 17, 99, 99n8, 100 Dance guru, 6, 6n7, 7n9, 8, 9, 14, 18, 24, 24n25, 45, 77n16, 79, 82, 96, 97, 97n3, 106–110, 114, 119, 126, 127 De-Orientalization, 123 De-Orientalize, 123, 128 De-Orientalized, 123 De-Orientalized educational gaze, 88, 103, 105 David Ali, 46, 47 The David Ali Dance Academy, 39, 45–47, 120 Devadasi, 37, 38 Dharati Maa, 79, 79n19, 80, 86 Diksha Gurus, x, 34, 35, 102, 103, 107, 109, 119, 126 Drona, 36, 98, 99 Dronaacharya, 36, 96–100, 99n8, 114

Durga Maa, 22, 62n2, 130 Dwapara Yug, 14n18, 31n3, 34, 55n38, 82n20, 100n12, 100n15 E Ekalavya, 96–100, 98n7, 100n16, 114 Ethical responsibility, 84, 85, 87, 91, 107, 122, 130 G Ghungaroos, 78–80, 83 Guru Diksha Sanskaar, 6n7, 12n13, 24n25, 24n27, 34, 35, 45, 97n3 Guru, Guruji, 8, 12, 24, 24n25, 25, 33–36, 33n7, 40, 42, 42n24, 42n25, 43, 45, 47, 65, 78–81, 97–100, 97n3, 99n8, 102, 103 Guru-Shishya, 33–37, 33n7, 42n24, 48, 120 Guyana, viii, 5n3, 38–41, 39n15, 57n39, 87n24, 113n42 H Hanumanji, 66, 68–73, 90, 109, 110 Hari Sundara Nanda Mukhunda, 23 Havan, 6n7, 8, 8n12, 14, 22, 78, 78n17, 103, 103n21 Hindu Dharmic Sabha Mandir, viii, 15 Hybridity, 50, 53 I Imperial gaze, 56, 79, 88 Indraji, 31

 INDEX 

J Jai Hai Maha Latchmi Maa, 56 Jai Shiva Omkaara, 12 K Kalai Kaviri College of Fine Arts, 39, 47–50, 120 Kali Yug, 1, 31n3, 84, 87 Kauravas, 36, 97 Kogan, Michael, 51 Krishnarpanam, 13–15, 20, 26, 119 Kuchipudi, 5, 6, 8n10, 9, 10, 13, 18, 20–23, 26, 40, 41, 43–45, 62, 77n16, 81, 82, 109, 110, 120, 127–130 L Lakshmana, 67, 68, 70, 71 Liberal pragmatist, 85–87, 122 M Mahabharata, 36, 49, 96, 96n1, 97, 100n16, 114 Mahishasura Mardini Stotram, 62 Male gaze, 56, 79, 88 Mandir, vii, 12, 37, 38, 40n19, 53, 54, 56, 57, 57n39, 62n1, 84, 112, 112n36, 113, 123, 125 Mangalam, 12 Matthews, Barbara, 39–41, 39n15, 42n24 Middlesex County College, 104, 104n25, 105 Mindfulness, 10, 22, 76, 82, 122, 128 Mirabai, 65, 65n6

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Mira Bhajan, 14 Moksha, ix, 1, 2, 25, 33, 35–37, 45, 64, 74, 75, 84, 88, 90, 96, 101, 102, 114, 122, 130 Montclair State University, 16, 18–21, 23, 26, 36, 51, 104, 119, 120 N Nanda ki Anand Bhayo Jai Kandaiya Lall Ki, 55 Natraj, 6, 40–42, 42n24, 45, 78, 79, 83 Natraj Center for the Performing Arts, 5–6, 39–42, 78, 119, 120 Natraj Dance Group, 5 Natyacharya, 36 Natya Shastra, 8, 21, 25, 31–33, 35, 36, 56, 78, 96, 106–108, 114, 119, 121, 122, 127, 128 Natya Veda, 32, 106 Navraatri, 62n2 O Orientalism, 19, 30, 30n1, 34, 36, 42n23, 44, 47–50, 53, 56, 96, 97, 102, 103, 106, 124, 126, 128 Orthodox universalist, 85–87, 122 P Pandavas, 36, 97 Pandit(s), viin1, viii, x, 6n7, 8n11, 17, 24n25, 34, 34n11, 42, 54, 55n32, 75, 75n15, 97n3, 99n8, 113 Peer Scholar(s), 3–5, 3n1, 55, 63, 123

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Postcolonialism, 2, 16, 18, 19, 52, 123, 127 Prerequisites, 96, 97 Pt. Bhisham Malcolm “Jito” Misir, vii, 8, 14, 45 Pt. Hardat Ashwar, viii, 55, 55n32 Pt. Maheshvar Tiwari, 8, 45 Puja, viin1, 6n7, 8n11, 8n12, 9, 14, 17, 21, 34n11, 54, 75n15, 78, 78n17, 85, 89, 98, 103, 103n21 R Ramayana, 19, 49, 66, 67, 67n12, 71, 80, 109 Ramayana Shabdam, 109 RangaPravesam, 6–15, 24, 26, 40, 42n24, 45, 77, 77n16, 78n17, 82, 103n21, 110, 119 Ravana, 67, 69, 70, 110 Religion, x, 2, 3n1, 16, 19, 20, 23, 29–58, 64, 66, 85, 87, 89, 91, 98, 104, 117, 118, 120–121, 124, 125, 129, 130 S Sacred gaze, viii, 56, 88, 89, 91, 103, 105, 118, 122, 127 Sadhanalaya School of Dance, 6, 10, 39–45, 119 Said, Edward, 19, 30, 34, 52, 85–87, 91, 96, 97, 101–103, 106, 108, 123, 124, 126, 128 Satsangh, vii, viii, 4, 4n2, 22, 75, 112–114, 112n33, 112n34, 113n40, 123, 125, 126 Satyabhama, 8, 82 Seedha, 17, 99n8

Self-study, 2–5, 23, 31, 36, 50, 55, 56, 63, 72, 76, 77, 82, 90, 96, 97, 100, 104, 111, 113, 114, 117–127 Shivaji, ix, 66, 83, 106, 130 Shri Hanuman Ashtakam, 8, 109, 110 Shri Hanuman Chalisa, viii, 70, 73, 81, 113 Shri Krishna, 14, 14n18, 34, 55, 55n37, 55n38, 82, 82n20, 100, 100n12, 100n15, 104 Shri Rama, 66–72, 67n9, 90, 110 Siksha Gurus, x, 34, 35, 102 Sita Maa, 67–71, 67n9, 67n10, 110 Sookbir, Taran Terence, 62, 62n3, 63 Srimad-Bhagavatam, 34 Supreme Being, vii, ix, 2, 4, 5, 6n8, 8n10, 9–18, 12n14, 22–26, 31, 34, 34n9, 35, 37, 38, 44, 48n28, 50, 51, 53, 55n35, 55n38, 57, 61–66, 62n2, 62n4, 67n10, 68, 69, 71–84, 82n20, 87, 89–91, 96, 97, 100, 101, 103, 109, 111, 112, 114, 120–122, 126, 130 SwarLeena School of Dance, 15–17, 26, 119–120 T Tarangam, 14, 83 Tarijem, 110 Treta Yug, 31, 31n3, 66 Tulası ̄dāsa, 1, 65, 66, 68–71, 80, 81, 109, 113, 121 V Virtual Satsanghs, vii, viii, 112–114