Development of a field petrographic analysis system and its application to the study of socioeconomic interaction networks of the early Harappan northwestern Indus valley of Pakistan 9781841711966, 9781407353487

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
PART ONE: PETROGRAPHY IN THE FIELD
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
CHAPTER TWO: DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIELD PORTABLE SYSTEM
CHAPTER THREE: FIELD TESTING, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
PART TWO: SOCIOECONOMIC INTERACTION NETWORKS OF THE EARLY HARAPPAN NORTHWESTERN INDUS VALLEY
CHAPTER FIVE: BACKGROUND AND DESCRIPTIONS
CHAPTER SIX: METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER SEVEN: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
CHAPTER EIGHT: SUMMARY OF PART TWO, AND DIRECTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
REFERENCES CITED
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX C

Citation preview

Development of a Field Petrographic Analysis System· and its Application to the Study of Socioeconomic Interaction Networks of the Early Harappan Northwestern Indus Valley of Pakistan Graham Mansfield Chandler

BAR International Series 995 2001

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 995 Development of a Field Petrographic Analysis System and its Application to the Study of Socioeconomic Interaction Networks of the Early Harappan Northwestern Indus Valley of Pakistan © Graham Mansfield Chandler and the Publisher 2001 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711966 paperback ISBN 9781407353487 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711966 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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ABSTRACT

T o m ee t ar equ i remen t f o rc onduc t ing p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s o fa r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s i n t h e f i e ld , al i gh t -we igh t , p o r tab le , a nd e a s i ly o b ta inab le k i t w h ich p e rm i t s o n s i te e xcava t ion d ec i s ion s a nd a low s a n a ly s i si nc oun t r ie s w h ich r e s t r ic t o rp roh ib i t t h e e xpor t o fc u l tu ra l a r tef ac t s w a s d eve loped . Ah i gh -qua l i ty f i e ld m ic roscope w a s m od if i ed f o r p e t rog raphy a nd t e s ted w i th al i gh twe igh t s aw a nd s e ven c o ld -cu r ing r e s in s . T he e n t i re k i t , c on ta in ing a l e qu ipmen t a nd m a te r ia l sn ece s sa ry t op r epa re a nd a na ly se 1 00 s t anda rd t h in s e c t ion s , w e ighed a bou t f i ve k i log ram s . I tw a s u sed i nf i e ld a pp l ica t ion s i nt h e N o r thwe s tF ron t ie rP rov ince a nd t h eP un jab o fP ak i s tan ; a nd K i l i se tepe , T u rkey . T he d a ta o b ta ined f r om t h e P ak i s tan e va lua t ion w e r e u sed f o r t h e s e cond p a r t o ft h e t h e s i s . T h i s i n vo lved p r epa ra t ion a nd a na ly s i so f1 7 5 t h in s e c t ion s o fE a r ly H a rappan P e r iod ( c a 3 500 t o 2 650 BC ) c e ram ic s f r om f o u r s i t e s i nP ak i s tan . S e lec t ion s w e r e m ade f r om s e ven m o rpho log ica l p o t te ry t y pe s c ommon t o E a r ly H a rappan l e ve l s a tt h e s i t e s o fR ehman D he r i , H a rappa , T a raka i Q ua a nd L ewan . K i ln w a s te r s a nd /o r l o ca l ly p roduced p o t te ry w e re e xam ined i nt h in s e c t ion f o r c ompa r i son . M ine ra l i n c lu s ion s w e re i d en t if i ed u s ing s t anda rd p e t rog raph ic t e chn ique s , a nd at e x tu ra l a na ly s i s b a sed o n t h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s w a s c onduc ted . S i ze , a ngu la r i ty , s p he r ic i ty a nd w ea the r ing o fi n c lu s ion s w e re r e co rded a nd e xam ined g r aph ica l ly a nd s t a t i s t ica l ly a nd c ompa red w i th a va i lab le l o ca l a nd r e g iona l g eo log ica l d a ta . T he r e su l t s w e re u s ed t oe xam ine l o ca l i sed c e ram ic t e chno log ie s a tt h e s i t e s a nd t h e e x ten t o f i n te r s i te i n te rac t ion w i th r e spec t t o c e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd t e chno logy a mong s t c r af t speop le a tt h e s i t e s d u r ing t h e E a r ly H a rappan p e r iod . C lose s im i la r i t ie s a mong s t m ine ra l s u i te s o b se rved a te a ch o ft h e s i t e s a nd a l a ck o f d e ta i led g eo log ica l s u rvey d a ta c omp l ica ted p r ovenance a na ly s i s , s ot h et h e s i sp r ov ide s a n e xamp le o fp e t rog raph ic t e chn ique s w h ich c a n b e e mp loyed i ns u ch s i tua t ion s . N o e v idence o f t r ade i nc e ram ic s a mong s t t h e s i t e s w a s r e vea led . R e su l t s s ugge s ted t h a t R ehman D he r i a nd H a rappa i n dependen t ly d ev e loped f a i r ly s o ph i s t ica ted c e ram ic i n du s t r ie s , a s t h e re a ppea red t o b e t wo i n dependen t g r oup s o ff a b r ic t y pe s f r om t h e t wo s i t e s . T a raka i Q ua a nd L ewan f a b r ic s f i tw i th t h ree o ft h e R ehman D he r i t y pe s , s ugge s t ing l e s s d eve loped c e ram ic i n du s t r ie s w h ich m ay h ave b een i n f luenced b y i n nova t ion s f r om R ehman D he r i . T he u s eo fd a ta f r om t h ep or tab le k i td emon s t ra ted i t se f i cacy i nf i e ld s i tua t ion s .

1

ACKNO WLEDGE MENT

T h i s t h e s is c ou ld n o t h ave b een c omp le ted w i thou t t h e i mmen se a moun t o f a s s i s tance p rov ided b y s o m any i n d iv idua l s a nd o r gan i sa t ion s . r e s ea r ch , i tc anno t b e as o lo e f or t .

A l though a P hD i si n dependen t

I ti si mpo s s ib le t o a cknow ledge t h e c on t r ibu t ion

p rov ided b y e ve ryone w ho m ade i tp o s s ib le , i n c lud ing s o m any w ho g ave m o ra l s u ppo r t a nd e n cou ragemen t w hen i ts e emed a si ft h e o n ly w ay w a s o u t , s o Ih ope t h e f o l low ing d oe sn o tl e ave t o om any u nmen t ioned .

F i r s t a nd f o remo s t , Iw ou ld l i ke t o e xp re s s m y m o s t s i nce re g r a t i tude t oD r M . R af ique Mugha l , a nd h i sp r edece s so rD rA hmed N ab iK han ,D i rec to r sG ene ra l o fA rchaeo logy a nd Mu seum s o ft h e G ove rnm en t o fP ak i s tan a nd t h e i r s t af ff o r e nab l ing m e t ou se t h e E a r ly H a rappan m a te r ia l f r om R ehman D he r i , H a rappa , L ewan a nd T a raka i Q i la .

T he i r

c on t r ibu t ion w a sm uch m o re t h an s imp le e nab lemen t , t h e i rw a rm h o sp i ta l i ty , p a t ience a nd e n cou ragemen t c on t r ibu ted i mmen se ly t o m y c onf idence e s pec ia l ly a tt h e o u t se t o ft h e p r og ramme w hen p rob lem s a lway s s e emed i n su rmoun tab le .

I n a dd i t ion , o n m any

o cca s ion s , i nt h e a b sence o ft h e D i rec to r G ene ra l , t h e D epu ty D i rec to r D r N iaz R a soo l p r ov ided i n va luab le a s s i s t ance . I n c onnec t ion w i th p e rm i s s ion t ou t i l i se c o l lec t ion s f r om R e iman Dhe r i , L ewan a n d T a raka i Q i la , e qua l ly s i nce re t h ank s a r ed ue t oD rF a rzand A l i D u r ran i , v i ce -chance l lo ro ft h eU n ive r s i ty o fP e shawa r ; D rA bdu rR ahman , t h en C ha i rman o ft h e D epa r tmen t o fA r chaeo logy , D r F a nd K han , P rof e s so r o fA rchaeo logy a nd I h san A l i , A s soc ia te P rof e s so r o f A rchaeo logy a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o f P e shawa r ; D r s R icha rd Meadow , J . Ma rk K enoy e r a nd R i ta W r igh t o ft h eH a rappa P ro jec t f o rp e rm i s s ion t ou se c e ram ic s amp le s f r om H a rappa ; D r K en T homa s o f t h e I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon a nd Mr J .R obe r t K nox o f t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum f o r t h e i r a s s i s tance w i th t h e m a te r ia l f r om L ewan a nd T a raka i Q i la .

My s t ay i nP e shawa r w a s

e n h anced b y t h e g ene ro s i ty a nd w a rm h o sp i ta l i ty o ft h e s t af fa nd MPh i l s t uden t s o ft h e D epa r tmen to fA rcha eo logy a tt h eU n ive r s i ty o fP e shawa r .

T o m y s upe rv i so r s , D r s I a n G love r a nd D a f ydd G r if f i th s , g oe s m y h ea r tf e l t g r a t i tude . T h e i rk i nd a nd g ene rou sa s s i s tance a nd e n cou ragemen tf r om t h eo u t se t , f r om h e lp w i th t h e

3

t op ic s e lec t ion a nd o b jec t ive s o f t h e r e sea rch r i gh t t h rough t o p r epa ra t ion f o r t h e e xam ina t ion , e nab led m et oa c comp l ish t h i s d r eam . Ia mg r a tef u l f o rt h e i rp rof e s s iona l ism i na low ing m e af r ee r e in i nt h er e sea rch w h i le p rov id ing j u s tt h er i gh ta moun to fg u idance w hen i tw a s n eeded . T he i r r e v iew o fe a r l ie r d r af t s o ft h i s m anu sc r ip t p rov ided p r ice le s s h e lp .

Ia m i n deb ted t o a l o f t h o se o rgan i sa t ion s w h ich p rov ided f u nd ing a s s i s tance f o r t h e r e sea rch .

T he O ve r sea s R e sea r ch S t uden t Awa rd g r an ted b y t h e C omm i t t ee o f V ice

C hance l lo r s a nd P r inc ipa l s o ft h eU n ive r s i t ie s o ft h eU n i ted K ingdom p rov ided s u bs tan t ia l h e lp w i th t h e t u i t ion f e e s .

T rave l e xpen se s f o r t h e i n i t ia l t r ip t o P ak is tan w e r e k i nd ly

p rov ided b y t h e G o rdon C h i lde R e sea r ch F und .

E qu ipmen t p u rcha se w a s g ene rou s ly

a s s i s ted b y ag ran t f r om t h e C en t ra l R e sea r ch F und o ft h e U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon . T rave l a nd a c commoda t ion e xpen se s f o r t h e m a in r e sea r ch i nP ak i s tan w e re m o s t g r a tef u l ly p rov ided b y g ran t s f r om t h e C ha r le s Wa l lace T ru s t , t h e U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon G radua te S choo l R e sea rch F und , a nd t h e A nc ien t I n d ia a nd I r an T ru s t . W i thou t t h e k i nd f i nanc ia l a s s i s tance o ft h e se o r gan i sa t ion s , t h ep r og ramme c ou ld n eve rh ave b een c omp le ted .

Ic ou ld n o t h ave m ade i tt h rough w i thou t t h e s uppor t o fa l m y f r i end s a nd f am i ly , w ho e ncou raged m et od ot h i sw i thou tw onde r ing a bou tm ym o t ive s . T he re a r es om any o t he r s a sw e l l .

T he f i rm o fK .W . K i rk & S on s , u nf o r tuna te ly n ow i nr e ce ive r sh ip , g ene rou s ly

h e lped w i th t h e d e s ign a nd m anuf ac tu r e o ft h e p ro to type r o ta t ing s t age f o rt h eM cA r thu r M ic ro scope ; e s pec ia l ly M rD av id T o l le r . K ind a s s i s tance w a sg i ven b yD rB r in ley R obe r t s o f t h e G eo log ica l S c ience s D epa r tmen t o f B i rkbeck C o l lege w ho h e lped w i th t ho se d if i cu l t t o i d en t if y m ine ra l s ; D r M . J a ved K han , S hahab D an i shwa r a nd a l o ft h e o t he r s t af fo ft h eG eo logy D epa r tmen ta tt h eU n ive r s i ty o fP e shawa rw ho p r ov ided f a c i l i t ie s a nd a s s i s tance w i th t h in s e c t ion a na ly s i s ; D r E r ic R ob in son o ft h e D epa r tmen t o fG eo log ica l S c ience s a tU n ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon w ho a s s i s ted m e i no b ta in ing a dm i s s ion t o t h e l i b ra ry o f t h e R oya l G eog raph ica l S oc ie ty o f L ondon ; l a bo ra to ry t e chn ic ian s D ebo rah L ew i s , S and ra B ond , a nd K ev in R eeve sf o rt h e i rh e lp w i th e qu ipmen t ;a nd f e l low P hD a nd MPh i l s t uden t s i nt h e r e sea rch r oom w ho k ep t u p t h e m o ra le w i th s t imu la t ing t a lk a nd l i ve ly d eba te .

4

F ina l ly , B eve r ly w a s a lway s t h e re w i th h e r u n f a i l ing e ncou ragemen t a nd m o ra l s u ppor t . T he p u r su i t o fm y d r eam g ene ra ted m any d i f f icu l t t i me s a nd s t o rm s w h ich w ou ld h ave d r iven o t he r st os h e l te red p o r t s ,b u ts h ew ea the red t h em a l .

I f Ih ave f o rgo t ten a nyone , Ia po log i se . A ny m i s take s , e r ro r s , o r o m i s s ion s i nt h i s t h e s i s a r es o le ly m yo wn d o ing . T he r ew ou ld h ave b een al o tm o re w i thou ta lo ft h o se a bove .

5

TABLE O F CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

1

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS

3

L IST O FF IGURES

9

L IST O F TABLES

1

PART ONE P ETROGRAPHY I N THE F IELD

CHAPTER ONE : 1 . 1 1 . 2 1 . 3 1 . 4

I NTRODUCT ION AND BACKGROUND

I n t roduc t ion B ackg round T he n eed f o rf i e ld -ba sed s y s tem s R equ i remen t sf o r af i e ld -po r tab le s y s tem a nd p r ev iou sr e sea rch

1 2 1 2 1 5 2 0 2 2

CHAPTER TWO : DEVELOP MENT O F THE F IELD PORTABLE S YSTEM . . . 3 1 2 . 1 T he s aw 2 . 2 C on so l ida t ion a nd a dhe s ion p roduc t s 2 . 3 T he m ic ro scope

3 1 3 6 4 1

CHAPTER THREE : F IELD T EST ING , S UM MARY AND CONCLUS IONS . . . . 5 3 3 . 1 F i e ld t e s t ing : P ak i s tan 3 . 2 F i e ld t e s t ing : T u rkey 3 . 3 R ecommenda t ion sf o rt h ef i e ld

5 3 5 7 5 9

3 . 4 S umma ry a nd c onc lu s ion s

6 1

6

PART TWO SOCIOECONO MIC I NTERACT ION NET WORKS OF THE EARLY HARAPPAN NORTH WESTERN D inu s VALLEY

CHAPTER FOUR : I NTRODUCT ION AND THEORET ICAL CONS IDERAT IONS 6 5 4 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 4 . 2 S oc ioeconom ic i n te rac t ion si np r eh i s to ry 4 . 3 U se o fp e t rog raph ic d a ta CHAPTER F IVE : BACKGROUND AND DESCR IPT IONS 5 . 1 T he I ndu sv a l ley a nd i t se nv i ron s 5 . 1 .1 G eog raphy 5 . 1 .2 C l ima te P re sen t

6 5 6 7 7 1 8 6 8 6 8 6 9 1 9 1

P a laeoc l ima te

9 2 9 4

5 . 1 .3 G eo logy 5 . 2 T he H a rappan C iv i l i sa t ion a nd i t sa n teceden t s 5 . 2 .1 B ef o re 3 500 BC 5 . 2 .2 T he E a r ly H a rappan P e r iod

1 00 1 01 1 02

5 . 3 S i te d e sc r ip t ion s 5 . 3 .1 R ehman D he r i 5 . 3 .2 H a rappa 5 . 3 .3 L ewan 5 . 3 .4 T a raka i Q ua

1 08 1 08 13 15 16

5 . 4 C e ram ic t y po log ie so ft h eE a r ly H a rappan P e r iod

18

CHAPTER S IX : METHODOLOGY

1 25

6 . 1 S e lec t ion o fs h e rd sf o ra na ly s i s

1 25

6 . 2 S amp le p repa ra t ion 6 . 3 D a ta a cqu i s i t ion

1 44 1 44

6 . 4 D a ta p roce s s ing a nd a na ly s i s

1 52

CHAPTER S EVEN : ANALYS IS AND D ISCUSS ION 7 . 1 I nd iv idua l s i t ea na ly se s 7 . 1 .1 R ehman D he r i M ine ra logy F ab r ic s

1 63 1 63 1 63 1 64 1 72

7

7 . 1 .2

B annu s i te s M ine ra logy F abr ic s

1 96 1 96 2 02

7 . 1 .3

H a rappa M ine ra logy F ab r ic s

2 08 2 08 2 11

7 . 2 I n te r s i te a na ly s is 7 . 2 .1 M ine ra logy 7 . 2 .2

2 18 2 18

T echno log ica la spec t sa nd i n nova t ion s

CHAPTER E IGHT : SU MMARY O F PART TWO , AND D IRECT IONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 8 . 1 . 8 . 2 .

S umma ry D i rec t ion sf o rf u r the rr e sea rch

2 25

2 31 2 31 2 39

REFERENCES C ITED

2 43

KEY TO DATA S HEETS I NA PPEND ICES

2 59

APPEND IX A -REH MAN DHER I DATA

2 60

APPEND IX B -BANNU S ITES DATA

3 28

A PPEND IX C -HARAPPA DATA

3 83

8

L IST OF F IGURES

F igu re 1 . 1 2 . 1 2 . 2

P o la r i s ing m ic roscope s c hema t ic r e p re sen ta t ion E van s4 " C omb i -Saw T he McA r thu rm ic roscope

1 8 3 3 4 2

2 . 3 2 . 4 2 . 5 2 . 6 2 .7 3 . 1 4 . 1

T he S w if t FM -31 m ic ro scope S chema t ic r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h e McA r thu rm ic roscope R o ta t ing s t age f o rt h e McA r thu rm ic roscope F i e ld p e t rog raphy k i tw i th c on ten t s F i e ld p e t rog raphy k i tp acked f o rt r an spor t McA r thu rm ic roscope i nu se a tP e shawa r Me thod so fg ra in s e lec t ion f o rm oda l a na ly s is

4 3 4 6 4 8 5 0 5 0 5 4 8 2

5 . 1 5 . 2 5 . 3 5 . 4

P hy s ica lm ap o fP ak is tan s t udy a r ea E x ten to ft h eE a r ly a nd Ma tu re H a rappan C iv i l i sa t ion S i te o fR ehman D he r i S i te p l an o fR ehman D he r i

8 8 1 03 1 09 11

6 . 1 6 . 2 6 . 3

S chema t ic r e p re sen ta t ion o fR ehman Dhe r i s h e rds s e lec ted f o r a na ly s is 1 28 R ehman D he r it ype A lj a rs h e rd s 1 29 R ehman D he r it y pe A I Ij a rs h e rd s 1 29

6 . 4 6 . 5 6 . 6 6 . 7 6 . 8

R ehman D he r i R ehman D he r i R ehman D he r i R ehman D he r i R ehman D he r i

6 . 9 6 . 10 6 . 11 6 . 12 6 . 13

R ehman D he r it y pe BV d i sh o ns t and s he rd s R ehman D he r it ype C I Ip o lych rome s h e rd s R ehman D he r is u r f ace w a s te rs h e rd sf r om k i ln a r ea L ewan t y pe sA la nd A I Ij a rs h e rd s L ewan t y pe sA la nd A I Ij a rs h e rd s

1 32 1 33 1 33 1 34 1 34

6 . 14 6 . 15 6 . 16 6 . 17 6 . 18 6 . 19

L ewan t y pe B Ib ow l s h e rd s L ewan t y pe B I Ib ow l s h e rd s L ewan t y pe B I I Ib ow l s h e rd s L ewan t y pe B IV b ow ls h e rd s L ewan s u rf ace w a s te rs he rd s T a raka iQ i la t y pe A lj a rs he rd s

1 35 1 35 1 36 1 36 1 37 1 37

6 . 20 6 . 21 6 . 22 6 . 23 6 . 24 6 . 25

T a raka iQ i la t y pe A I Ij a rs he rd s T a raka iQ i la t y pe B Ib ow l s h e rd s T a raka iQ i la t y pe B I Ib ow l s h e rd s T a raka i Q i la t y pe B I I Ib ow ls h e rd s T a raka iQ i la t y pe B IV b ow ls h e rd s H a rappa s i ng le -sec t ion b ang le f r agmen ts

1 38 1 38 1 39 1 39 1 40 1 40

6 . 26 6 . 27

H a rappa m u l t i sec t ion b ang le f r agmen t s H a rappa t y pe sA la nd A I Ij a rs h e rd s

1 41 1 41

6 . 28 6 . 29

H a rappa t y pe sB It o BV b ow ls h e rd s H a rappa t y pe B Ib ow l s h e rd s

1 42 1 42

t y pe B Ib ow ls h e rd s t y pe B I Ib ow ls h e rds t y pe B I I Ib ow ls h e rd s t y pe B IV b ow ls h e rd s t y pe BV d i sh o ns t and s he rd s

9

1 30 . 1 30 1 31 1 31 1 32

6 . 30 7 . 1 7 . 2

S amp le d a ta r e co rd s h ee t C a rbona te i n c lu s ion s B ioc la s ti n c lu s ion i nR ehman D he r i c e ram ic s

7 . 3 7 . 4

C ompa r i son o fm ine ra l i n c lu s ion si nR ehman D he r i s he rd s 1 70 M ine ra li n c lu s ion si nR ehman D he r i s he rd sf o rP e r iod sI ,I a nd I I 1 72 D i s t r ibu t ion o fq zi n c lu s ion sb a sed o na r ea c oun td a ta R ehman D he r i 1 73 D i s t r ibu t ion o fi n c lu s ion sb a sed o np o in tc oun td a ta -R ehman D he r i 1 75 T yp ica lq ua r tz a ngu la r i ty d i s t r ibu t ion 1 77 B imoda l q ua r tz a ngu la r i ty d i s t r ibu t ion 1 77 M icaceou sne s sa nd b i ref r ingence i nR ehman D he r if a b r ic s 1 79 D i s t r ibu t ion o ff a b r ic c o lou r so b se rved i nR ehman D he r it h in s e c t ion s 1 80 Mean d i s t r ibu t ion o fR ehman D he r iq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s> 50 m ic ron s 1 82 R ehman D he r if a b r ic t y pe X 1 1 85 R ehman D he r if a b r ic t y pe X 2 1 86 R ehman D he r if a b r ic t y pe X 3 1 87 R ehman D he r if a b r ic t y pe Y 1 1 88 R ehman D he r if a b r ic t y pe Y 2 1 89 R ehman D he r if a b r ic t y pe Y 3 1 90 D i s t r ibu t ion o fR ehman D he r if a b r ic t y pe s 1 9 1 F requency o fR ehman D he r if a b r ic t y pe s : P e r iod sI I I I 1 94 T h in s e c t ion s how ing s l i pl a ye r 1 96 C ompa ra t ive c oncen t ra t ion so fm ine ra l so b se rved i nL ewan a nd T a raka iQ ua s h e rd s ,w i th L ewan w a s te r s 2 0 1 D i s t r ibu t ion o fq zi n c lu s ion s3 0 -50 m ic ron sf r om B annu s i t e s 2 02 D i s t r ibu t ion o fq zi n c lu s ion s> 50 m ic ron sf r om B annu s i te s . .2 04 B i ref r ingence o ff a b r ic sf r om B annu s i te s 2 05 D i s t r ibu t ion o fc o lou r si nB annu s i te sf a b r ic s 2 06 D is t r ibu t ion o fq zi n c lu s ion s3 0 -50 m ic ron sf r om H a rappa 2 12 D i s t r ibu t ion o fq zi n c lu s ion s> 50 m ic ron sf r om H a rappa 2 13 B i ref r ingence o ff a b r ic sf r om H a rappa 2 16 D i s t r ibu t ion o fc o lou r so b se rved i nH a rappan f a b r ic s 2 16 C ompa ra t ive m ean c oncen t ra t ion so fp l ag ioc la se , c a rbona te s a nd m ica sf r om f i ve g roup s 2 19

7 . 5 7 . 6 7 . 7 7 . 8 7 . 9 7 . 10 7 . 11 7 . 12 7 . 13 7 . 14 7 . 15 7 . 16 7 . 17 7 . 18 7 . 19 7 . 20 7 . 21 7 . 22 7 . 23 7 . 24 7 . 25 7 . 26 7 . 27 7 . 28 7 . 29 7 . 30 7 . 31

1 54 1 67 1 69

C ompa ra t ive m ean c oncen t ra t ion so fp y roxene , e p ido te , s ch i s t a nd a mph ibo le f r om f i ve g roup s 2 20

1 0

L IST O F TABLES

T ab le

2 I 2 I I 2 I I I 2 IV 6 I 6 I I 7 I 7 I I 7 I I I 7 IV 7 -V

D iamond s aw b l ade se va lua ted S umma ry o fb l ade e va lua t ion s S umma ry o fc o ld c u r ing r e s in st e s ted F i e ld k i tc on ten t s S he rd s e lec t ion s umma ry M ine ra lc ha ra c te r i s t ic sr e co rded R ehman D he r i -M ine ra lD a ta R e lunan D he r if a b r ic o ccu r r ing b ym o rpho log ica lt y pe B annu s i t e s -M ine ra lD a ta H a rappa -M ine ra lD a ta S t anda rd e r ro r so ft h em ean f o rm ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s g i v en i nF igu re s7 . 30 a nd 7 . 31

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3 4 3 5 3 7 5 1 1 26 1 45 1 64 1 93 1 98 2 08 2 22

PART ONE PETROGRAPHY I N THE F IELD

CHAPTER 1 : I NTRODUCT ION AND BACKGROUND

1 . 1 I NTRODUCT ION " A rchaeo logy i st h es t udy o ft h eh uman c u l tu ra l a nd s o c ia lp a s tw ho se g oa l sa r et on a r ra te t h e s e quen t s t o ry o ft h a t p a s t a nd t o e xp la in t h e e ven t s t h a t c ompo sed i t . " ( W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 : 1 ) .

T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd c anno t b e p rope r ly i n te rp re t ed w i thou t

e xam ina t ion o ft h e h uman e l emen t i n vo lved i ni t s f o rma t ion .

A s a r chaeo log ica l s c ience

b ecome s e ve rm o re r i go rou sa nd l a bo ra to ry -bound , t h e re i sac on t inua lr i sk o fl o s ing s i gh t o ft h i s h uman e l emen t . A dop t ion o ft h e r i go rou s s c ien t if i c a pp roach i na r cha eo logy w a s c au s ing c once rn i ns ome c i rc le s m o re t h an t wen ty y ea r s a go ( e .g . C la rke 1 97 3 ) . A t t h a t t ime , s c ien t i f ic a r chaeo logy o r a r chaeome t ry w a s d om ina ted b y s c ien t i s t s .

W i th t h e

p os s ib le e xcep t ion o fC a rbon 14 d a t ing , i ti sn ow a r chaeo log i s t s w ho a r e p r edom inan t ly u s ing s c ien t if i ci n s t rumen t s ( Eh ren re ich 1 995 : 1 ) . T h i si s av e ry w e lcome t r end w h ich h a s a lev ia ted m uch o f t h e c once rn e xp re s sed b y C la rke s ome t wen ty two y ea r s a go .

T o

p r e se rve t h e m omen tum o ft h i s m ovemen t , ab a lance n eed st ob e m a in ta ined b e tw een t h e p u re ly s c ien t if i c a pp roach a nd t h e h and s -on a pp roa ch o ft h e f i e ld a r chaeo log i s t . T h i s c an b e a ccomp l i shed b y d eve lop ing n ew t e chn ique sw h ich p l a ce s ome e mpha s i s o n r e f inemen t o fe x i s t ing t e chn ique sa sw e l l a st h ea dvancemen to fn ew h i gh t e chno logy t e chn ique s ( T i te 1 991 : 1 48 ) .

F u r the rmo re , d eve lopmen t o fp or tab le s c ien t if i c e qu ipmen t t h a t h a s d i rec t

a pp l icab i l i ty a tt h e f i e ld s i t e b r ing s t h e t wo f a c t ion s c l o se rt o ge the r . Ar e cen t e x amp le i s d eve lopmen t o f ap o r tab le X ray s p ec t rome te r ( He lm ig e t a l . 1 989 ) .

B y p l a c ing

t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen tw i th in s o c ia l d eve lopmen t , s u ch a r chaeome t r ic s t ud ie sp e rm i ta c l ea re r p i c tu re o f t h e p r e sence a nd n a tu re o f c u l tu re c on tac t a nd t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s o f t e chn ica ld i f f u s ion o rp a ra l le ld eve lopmen t( Eh ren r e ich 1 995 : 4 ) .

T he t e chn ica l s t udy o fc e ram ic s f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i sn o e xcep t ion . I ti so ne a r ea o fa r chaeo log ica ls c ience t h a th a ss e en t h ea pp l ica t ion o fs c ien t if ic t e chn ique sg r ow b y l e ap s a nd b ound si np opu la r i ty o ve rt h ep a s tt h i r ty y ea r s . T echn ique s d eve loped f r om t h e

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1 940 ' s t o 1 960 ' s i nt h e o t he r s c ience s , s u ch a s t h e S cann ing E l ec t ron M ic ro scope , t h e E lec t ron M ic rop robe , A tom ic A b so rp t ion S pec t ro scopy , I n s t rumen ta lN eu t ron A c t iva t ion A na ly s i s , X ray D if f rac t ion , a nd o t he r s , b egan t ob e a pp l ied t ot h e s t udy o fa r chaeo log ica l a r te f a c t s .

T he s ame p e r iod s aw r e la t ive ly l i t t le d eve lopmen t a t ten t ion g i ven t o e x i s t ing

t e chn ique s i n t h e s t udy o f a r tef ac t s , m o s t n o tab ly c e ram ic p e t ro logy .

T echn ique s

d eve loped i nt h e g eo log ica l a nd s e d imen ta ry s c ience s d u r ing t h e 1 9 30 ' s a nd 1 940 ' s ( s ee C hay e s 1 956 f o r d e sc r ip t ion s ) w e re b o r rowed a nd b egan t o b e a pp l ied t o t h e s t udy o f a r cha eo log ica l c e ram ic s i nt h in s e c t ion d u r ing t h e s ame p e r iod .

B u t t h ey w e re n o t

s i gn if i can t ly d eve loped t ot a i lo rt h em t ot h e f i e ld o fa r chaeo logy . C e ram ic p e t ro logy , a nd p a r t icu la r ly a s soc ia ted f a b r ic a na ly s i s , g ene ra l ly p roduce st h e s o r t o fd a ta w h ich a r e m o re r e ad i ly i n te rp re tab le d i r ec t ly i n h uman t e rm s t h an a r e l i s t s o f e l emen t s p roduced b y c h em ica l a na ly s i sm e thod s . I nf a c t , w i th r e spec tt oc e ram ic p e t ro logy , t h em o s t s u cce s sf u l a pp l ica t ion st od a te h ave b e en s imp le o ne s( F ree s tone 1 99 1 : 3 99 ) .

Ma in ta in ing t h e b a lance b e tween t h e c omp lex a nd s oph i s t ica ted s c ien t if i c t e chn ique s a nd r aw f i e ld d a ta i nt h e s t udy o fc e ram ic s c ou ld b e e nhanced b y t h e d eve lopmen t o fs imp le p o r ta b le s c ien t if i c e qu ipmen t .

I tw ou ld p u t c e ram ic p r ovenance a nd t e chno log ica l d a ta

s q ua r e ly i nt h e h and s o ft h e f i e ld a r chaeo log i s t a nd e nab le h im o r h e r t o u se t h em t o i n te r p re t t h e s i tua t ion a tt h e s i t e a st h e e x cava t ion p rog re s se s .

T he v a lue h e re i st h a t i t

w ou ld p e rm i t t h e e xcava t ion t o b e g u ided s o a st o o p t im i se i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e h uman e l em en t , t h u s b r ing ing t h e a pp l ica t ion o fs c ien t if ic a r chaeo logy d i rec t ly i nc on tac t w i th f i e ld d i rec to r s a nd s u pe rv i so r s .

Mo reove r , t h e re a r e f u r the r b enef i t s i nt a k ing s c ience

a pp l ica t ion sd i rec t ly t ot h ef i e ld ; s u ch a sa pp l ica t ion so nl o ca t ion i nc oun t r ie sw h ich b an o r s e v e re ly r e s t r ic t t h e e xpo r t o fc u l tu ra l a r tef a c t s . T he se c on s ide ra t ion s l e d t ot h e r e sea rch a nd d eve lopmen t o f ap o r tab le s y s tem w h ich w ou ld p r ov ide t h e c a pab i l i ty f o r p r epa ra t ion a nd a na ly s i s o ft h in s e c t ion s o fa r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s o n s i t e . S ee a l so J ohn son ( 1 992 ) f o ra ne a r ly s t a temen to nt h i sa pp roach .

D e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion s o fp e t rog raphy c an b e f o und i nm o s t m onog raph s o n t h e t e chn ica l a n a ly s is o fc e ram ic so rs t one ( e .g . G r ibb le a nd H a l l 1 985 ; K e r r 1 977 ; R ice 1 987 : 3 71-82 ) . V e ry b r ie f ly , t h em e thod c on s i s t s o fc u t t ing as ma l lt h in s l i ce f r om ar o ck o rp o t she rd w i th ad i amond s aw , p o l i sh ing af l a t s i de o fi t ,m oun t ing i to n ag l a s s s l i de , t h en g r ind ing a nd

1 3

p o l i sh ing i tt o at h ickne s s o f0 . 03 mm ( 3 0 m ic ron s ) u s ing a n i n c rea s ing ly f i n e s e r ie s o f a b ra s ive p owde r s i n a n a queou s s l u r ry o n g l a s s p l a te s .

T he r e su l t ing t h in s e c t ion i s

n o rma l ly c ove r ed w i th a s l i p o f v e ry t h in g l a s s a nd e x am ined u s ing a p o la r i s ing l i gh t m ic ro scope t oi d en t if y a nd a na ly se t h e m ine ra l i n c lu s ion s p r e sen t . I na dd i t ion , at e x tu ra l a na ly s i s o ft h e f a b r ic c an b e c onduc ted . T h i s i s as t a t i s t ica l a na ly s i s o ft h e s i ze s , s hape s , o r ien ta t ion a nd f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion s o f t h e m ine ra l i n c lu s ion s .

F ind ing s f r om t h e se

p rocedu re s c an c ha rac te r i se ac e ram ic f a b r ic . I fo ne c an a c coun t f o r t h e a l te ra t ion s t o a c l ay c au sed b y a n a nc ien t p o t te r , c ompa r i son w i th l o ca l c l ay s a nd /o r ak now ledge o ft h e l o ca l g eo logy c an a s s i s t i n d e f in ing w he the r t h e c e ram ic i s o f l o ca l o r n on loca l m anuf ac tu re . E thnog raph ic a na ly se s h ave s hown t h a t 8 5 % o fp o t te r s t r ave l l e s s t h an 7 k m t o t h e i r c l ay s ou rce s ( R ice 1 987 : 16 ) .

B y c ompa r i son , f i n i shed p o t s a nd c e ram ic

p roduc t sc an b ef o und h und r ed s o fk i lome t re s f r om t h e i ro r ig ina l c l ay s ou rce , e s pec ia l ly i f t r an spo r ted b y w a te r .

T he b e s t r e su l t s o f ap rovenance a na ly s i s a r e u sua l ly o b ta ined b y

a na ly s ing a r e p re sen ta t ive c o l lec t ion o f w a s te r s h e rd s f r om a k nown k i ln .

T hu s t h e

c ha rac te r i sa t ion i sc onduc ted o nf a b r ic sa f t e ra la l te ra t ion so ft h ec l ay b yt h ep o t te r , a nd i t c an b e a s sumed w i th ah i gh d eg ree o fc onf idence t h a t t h ey a r e o fl o ca l m anuf a c tu re . I t e l im ina te s t h e c omp l ica t ion o fh av ing t oa na ly se as y s tema t ic s amp l ing o fl o c a l c l ay s , o r h av ing t om ake e x ten s ive a s sump t ion sr e ga rd ing t h ep o t te r ' st r ea tmen to ft h ec l ay s .

W i th t h i s s o r to fi n f o rma t ion o ne c an s y s tema t ica l ly d e te rm ine t h em anuf ac tu r ing l o ca t ion s o fc e ram ic s , a nd ,t h rough c ompa r i son sw i th f i nd spo t so fc e ram ic a r tef ac t s , m ak ei mpor tan t i n f e rence s a bou tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk so fc e ram ic s o rt h e i rc on ten t s . Mo reove r , i fo ne e xam ine s s t y l i s t ica l ly a nd c h rono log ica l ly s im i la r s h e rd s f r om g eog raph ica l ly s e pa ra ted s i t e s t h a t a r e n o t t r aded o rt r an spo r ted i t em s , o t he r i n f e rence s c an b e m ade .

I ft h ey a r e

s e en t o b e t e chno log ica l ly s im i la r , f o r e xamp le , o ne m igh t s ugge s t t h a t p o t te r s w e re e xchang ing t e chno log ica l i n f o rma t ion o r i n nova t ion s .

T he se i n ve s t iga t ion s a low s t udy

a nd e xam ina t ion o ft h e n a tu r e a nd e x ten t o fr e g iona l s o c ioeconom ic i n te rac t ion i na nc ien t t ime s .

S uch s t ud ie s h ave b een s u cce s sf u l ly e mp loyed b o th i nE u rope w he re i ti si nq u i te

c ommon u sage ( r ecen t e xamp le si n c lude B uko 1 984 ;E cha l l ie r 1 991 ;R igby e ta l1 9 89 )a nd i nt h eN ew Wo r ld ( e .g . I s aa c son a nd A le to 1 989 ; J one s 1 99 1 ; S t o l tman 1 991) . T h el a t te r i s ag ood e xamp le o f h ow c e ram ic p e t rog raphy c an b e u s ed i n d ocumen t ing c u l tu ra l i n te ra c t ion i n c lud ing t h e t r an spo r t o f m a te r ia l g ood s .

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A l l t o o o f t en , i n d i rec t e v idence

( mo s t c ommon ly t h e a na ly s i s o f s t y le ) i n c e ram ic s h a s b een u sed t o i n f e r m a te r ia l e xchang e .

E xam in ing s t y l i s t ic a t t r ibu te s i sv a luab le a s am ean s o fi d en t if y ing e xchanged

i d ea s , b u t t o d ocumen t t h e m ovemen t o f g ood s i tm u s t b e d one i n c on junc t ion w i th m ine ra log ica l , c hem ica l , a nd g eo log ica l a na ly se s ( Han tman a nd P l og 1 982 : 2 38 ) i no rde r t om in im ize t h el i ke l ihood o ft e n ta t ive i n f e rence sb e ing i n co r rec t .

1 . 2 BACKGROUND A s b r ie f ly o u t l ined i n t h e i n t roduc t ion , t h e p r epa ra t ion o f c e ram ic t h in s e c t ion s f o r a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s r e qu i re s as e r ie s o f s t ep s .

Wha t f o l low s i s am o r e d e ta i led

d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e se p rocedu re s , a sa n u nde r s tand ing o ft h em i si mpor tan tt oa pp rec ia t ing t h er e qu i remen t so ft h ef i e ld s y s tem u nde rd eve lopmen t .

F o l low ing t h e s e lec t ion o f s h e rd s f r om a n a r cha eo log ica l c o l lec t ion ( wh ich i si ni t se lf a c r i t ica l p roce s s a nd s hou ld b e d one w i th s ome k now ledge o fs amp l ing t h eo ry a nd ag ood u nde r s tand ing o ft h e p r ob lem t ob e e xam ined ) , t h e f i r s t s t age i st oc u t at h in s l i ce o ft h e c e ram ic m a te r ia l , a pp rox ima te ly 1t o 2mm t h ick . T he c u t s hou ld p r ef e rab ly b e m ade i na c r o s s s e c t ion o ft h e p o t , t oe n su r e i n c lu s ion o fd e ta i l sr e levan tt ot e chno log ica l a s pec t s o f t h e m anuf ac tu r ing p roc e s s s u ch a s s u r f a ce f i n i she s o r t h e c oncen t ra t ion o f h eav ie r i n c lu s ion s t owa rd t h e o u t s ide s u r f ace w h ich m ay s how t h a t t h e v e s se l w a s w hee l th rown ; o rt o r e vea l f o rm ing t e chn ique ( Cou r ty a nd R oux 1 995 ) .

T he c u t c an b e m ade w i th a

s i mp le h and s aw , b u t t h i s i ss l ow a nd l a bo r iou s a nd r e su l t s i n ap oo r s u r f ace o n w h ich t o c ommence p o l ish ing . B e s tr e su l t sa r eo b ta ined w i th ad i amond c i rcu la rb l ade i n ap owe red s aw . R equ i red r im s p eed f o r c i r cu la r s aw si sn o rma l ly d ependen t o nt h et y pe o fd i amond b l ade e mp loyed . Wa te ro rl i qu id c oo l ing i sn eeded t op r even t o ve rhea t ing a nd b u rn ing t h e s amp le a nd t oe x tend b l ade l i f e . I nm o s tc u r ren ta pp l ica t ion s , t h i si sd one i nt h el a bo ra to ry u s ing s aw s p owe red b y m o to r s e xceed ing o ne -qua r te r h o r sepowe r .

I n o rde r t o k eep

s u b sequen t g r ind ing t o am in imum , t h e s l i ce s h ou ld b e m ade a st h in a sp o s s ib le w i thou t i t b r eak ing . I ti sp o s s ib le , w i th p r a c t ice , t oa ch ieve t h ickne s se s o f1 . 0t o 1 . 5 mm . I nm any c a se s , e spec ia l ly w he re f a b r ic s a r el ow -f i red o rc oa r se a nd f r i ab le , t h i s w i l l n o tb ep os s ib le w i thou t f i r s t c on so l ida t ing t h e m a te r ia l u s ing a n i mp regna t ing o r c on so l ida t ing r e s in . D e ta i l so ft h e se a r ed i s cu s sed b e low .

1 5

A f te rt h ec u tp i ece sa r ea lowed t od r y , t h ey a r ec on sol ida ted w i th t h er e s in , i ft h i sw a sn o t d one p r io r t oc u t t ing .

T rad i t iona l ly , C anada B a l sam o rP e t ropoxy 1 54 ( at r ade n ame o f

e poxy r e s in )i su sed . T he r e s in i sm ixed w i th h a rdene r a nd /o rh ea ted , a cco rd ing t ow h ich o ne i su sed , a nd a pp l ied t ot h ec u ts l i ce so fc e ram ic m a te r ia l . T he r e s in o re poxy a bso rbed i nt h e s amp le s i st h en a lowed t o c u re o r h a rden .

F o r b o th o ft h e se c ommon ly u sed

c on sol idan t s , t h i s r e qu i re s at h e rmo s ta t ica l ly c on t ro l led h ea t ing p l a te wh ich m a in ta in s a c on s tan tt empe ra tu re o f1 20 d eg r ee sC e l s iu s . O nce t h e r e s in h a s c u red , t h e s amp le s a r e p o l i shed t o ag l o s sy f i n i sh o n o n e s i de u s ing a g r aded s e r ie s o fi n c rea s ing ly f i n e g r ind ing p owde r s . C a rbo rundum o r a l um in ium o x ide ( a lum ina ) i sn o rma l ly u sed f o r t h i s p u rpo se .

A s e quence o f t h ree d if e r en t g rade s i s

n o rma l ly u sed , s t a r t ing w i th ac oa r se g r ade ( u sua l ly 2 20 g r ade ) , t h en am ed ium ( 4 00 ) a nd f i na l ly af i ne ( 1 000 )g rade . T he p owde r sa r ep l aced o n ag l a s sp l a te a nd m ixed w i th w a te r t of o rm ac oncen t ra ted s l u r ry . T he c e ram ic s l i ce s a r ep l a ced f a ce d own i nt h e s l u r ry , a nd g round b y h and u s ing a c i rcu la r m o t ion a nd s l i gh t d ownwa rd p r e s su re u n t i l t h e d e s i red v e ry s moo th f i n i sh i so b ta ined o no ne s i de . I ti si mpo r tan tt ot h o rough ly r i n s et h es amp le s w i th c l ean w a te rb ef o re m ov ing o n t ot h e n ex t f i ne rg r ade o fg r ind ing p owde r . I ft h i s i s n eg lec ted , p a r t ic le s o ft h e c oa r se r a b ra s ive c on tam ina te t h e f i ne r p owde r a nd s c r a tch t h e s u r f a ce o ft h et h in s e c t ion w h ich w i l li n te r f e re w i th t h ei d en t if i ca t ion o fm ine ra l sa nd f a b r i c a na ly se s .

Av e ry s moo th f i n i sh i si mpo r tan t t o e n su re ap e r f ec t ly f l u sh m a t ing w i th t h e

g l a s s s l i de i nt h en ex t s t ep , a nd t oe nhan ce t h e s u r f ace o ft h em a te r ia lf o rt r an sm i t ted l i gh t t op a s sw i thou ts i gn if i can ts c a t te r ing . T he s e c t ion s a r e t h en r i n sed w i th c l ea r w a te r , a lowed t o d r y , a nd m oun ted o n to c l ean g l a s s s l i de s ( u sua l ly 7 6 x2 6 x1 . 0 -1 .2mm t h ick , l ow i r on c l ea r g l a s s ) . T he s ame r e s in o r e poxy a sw a s u sed f o r c on sol ida t ion i sn o rma l ly u sed f o r m oun t ing .

As ma l l a moun t i s

s p read o n to t h ep r epa red p o l i shed s u r f ace , a nd t h es amp le i sp l aced f a ce d own o nt h eg l a s s s l i de . T he re s hou ld b e n o b ubb le st r apped b e tween t h e s amp le a nd t h eg l a s s s l i de , a st h i s w i l l i n te rf e re w i th a na ly s i s .

I fb ubb le s a r e p r e sen t , t h ey c an b e w o rked o u t u s ing g en t le

d ownwa rd p r e s su re t oge the rw i th as l i gh tr o ta t ing m o t ion o ft h es amp le . T hey a r et h en l e f t o nt h e h ea t ing p l a te t o c u re a ga in . C u r ing t i me s o fv a r iou s e pox ie s t e s ted u nde rv a ry ing c ond i t ion s a r ed i scu s sed i nC hap te r2 . G ene ra l ly t h ey a r e o ft h eo rde ro fo ne h a lf -hou rt o t wo h ou r s .

1 6

T he m oun ted s e c t ion s a r e t h en r e ady f o r g r ind ing a nd p o l i sh ing t o at h ickne s s o f 3 0 m ic ron s ( 0 .03 mm ) 1. A p r ope r ly e qu ipped t h in s e c t ion l a bo ra to ry w i l l h ave ap owe red g r ind ing m ach ine i n w h ich t h e m oun ted s e c t ion s c an b e g round d own t o a bou t 1 00 m ic ron s o r s l i gh t ly l e s s .

T he r e a r e t h in s e c t ion p r epa ra t ion m ach ine s w h ich c omp le te

g r ind ing a nd p o l i sh ing , b u tn o rma l ly i ti sc omp le ted b yh and u s ing t h e p rocedu re o u t l ined a bove f o r t h e i n i t ia l p o l i sh ing . C a re m u s t b e t a ken t or e duce t h et h ickne s s a t ac on s tan t r a te o ve r t h e e n t i re v i ew ing a r ea o ft h e s e c t ion , o t he rw i se a s l i gh t w edge shaped t h in s e c t ion w i l l r e su l t a nd a na ly s i s w i l l b e d if i cu l t o ri mpo s s ib le . A s t h e r e qu i red 3 0 m ic ron t h ickne s s i sa pp roached , t h e s e c t ion i sf r equen t ly e xam ined u nde r ap o la r i s ing m ic ro scope t o e n su re t h a t i ti sn o t e x ceeded .

T h i s i sa c comp l i shed b y o bse rv ing t h e i n te r f e rence

c o lou r so ft h eq ua r tz i n c lu s ion su sua l ly p r e sen ti nm o s t a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic sa nd c l ay s . T he se i n c lu s ion s w i l l c hange f r om y e l low t o l i gh t g r ey o r w h i te f i r s t -o rde r i n te rf e rence c o lou r s (M iche l -Levy c ha r t ) u nde r c r o s s -po la r i sed l i gh t w hen t h e c o r rec t t h ickne s s o f3 0 m ic ron s i sa ch ieved .

I ti si mpo r tan t t h a t t h e t h ickne s s b e a s c l o se a s p o s s ib le t o 3 0

m ic ron s ; a s m o s t o ft h e s t anda rd m ine ra l i d en t if ica t ion a nd a na ly s i s t e chn ique s a r e b a sed u pon i t . T he h and p o l i sh ing s h ou ld b e c onduc ted s u ch t h a t 3 0 m ic ron s i sr e ached w hen t h e f i ne s t g r ade o fg r ind ing p owde r i su s ed ; t h i s w i l l p r ov ide t h e o p t imum s u r f ace f o r a s moo th b ond w i th t h e c ove r s l i p a nd e n su r e s u r f a ce i regu la r i t ie s w i l l n o t i n te r f e re w i th m ine ra la na ly s i s . F i na l ly , at h in g l a s s c ov e r s l i p i sn o rma l ly a pp l ied o ve r t h e f i n ished s u r f ace t o p ro tec t i t f r om s c ra tche s a nd p rov ide a ne nhanced s u r f ace f o rm ine ra l i d en t if ica t ion p u rpo se s . T hey a r eu sua l ly 2 2 x4 0 o r5 0mm , a nd o fb o ro s i l ica te g l a s s . A ga in ,t h e s ame e poxy i su sed a nd i tm u s t b e e n su red t h a t n o b ubb le s a r e t r apped b e tween t h e s amp le s u r f ace a nd t h e c ove r s l i p .

A n a l te rna t ive c ove r ing s ome t ime s u s ed b y g eo log i s t s i st r an spa ren t c e l lu lo se

l a cque r .

U se o ft h e l a cque r i sl e s s d e s i rab le b ecau se i tt e nd s t o s c ra tch e a s i ly , a nd , i f

a pp l ied v i a as p ray , b ubb le s f r om t h e p r ope l lan t c a n b ecome t r apped u pon h a rden ing ( Adam s e ta l . 1 984 : 9 8 ) . F o l low ing t i me f o rt h e r e s in t oc u re , t h e t h in s e c t ion s a r e r e ady f o re xam ina t ion .

1T he re a re s ome a dvan tages i nl o ok ing a tt h inne rs ec t ions . S ed imen to log is ts s ome t imes p r epa re 1 0 m ic ron p o l ished s ec t ions s o t h a t med ium t o f i ne s i l t i n c lus ions a re n o t u nde r rep resen ted i n moda l a na lyses . H oweve r , f o r t h e s t anda rd i d en t if ica t ion o f m ine ra l i n c lus ions , i ti sn ecessary t ha tt hey b e 3 0 m ic rons .

1 7

A p e t ro log ica l o r p o la r i s ing m ic ro scope i su sed f o r e x am in ing a nd a na ly s ing t h e t h in s e c t ion s .

I ti ss im i la r t o an o rma l t r an sm i t ted l i gh t m ic ro scope b u t h a s s ome a dd i t iona l

f e a tu re s w h ich p e rm i t i d en t if i ca t ion o f m ine ra l i n c lu s ion s i n at h in s e c t ion o f r ock o r c e ram ic .

T he se a dd i t iona l f e a tu re s i n c lude ap o la r i se r , a na ly se r , r o ta t ing s t age , B e r t rand

l e n s , a ux i l ia ry c onden se ra nd s l o t sf o ra c ce s so ry p l a te s . F i gu re 1 . 1 i s as chema t ic d i ag ram o f al a bo ra to ry m ode l o fp o la r i s ing m ic ro scope s h ow ing t h e s e quence o ft h e se f e a tu r e s . T he i r r e spec t ive f u nc t ion s a r e e xp la ined t h rough t h e f o l low ing b r ief e xp lana t ion o ft h e OCULAR B ERTRAND L ENS 1 1

A NALYSER ACCESSORY S LOT OBJECT IVES ROTATABLE S TAGE

CONDENSER 1 1

P OLAR ISER L IGHT SOURCE

F IGURE 1 . 1 POLAR IS ING M ICROSCOPE SCHEMAT IC

p roce s so fa na ly s ing t h in s e c t ion s .

T he s c ience o f a na ly s ing m ine ra l s i n t h in s e c t ion i s ah i gh ly s p ec ia l i sed f i e ld i ng eo logy , a nd f u l ld e ta i ls a r en o tp r ov ided h e r e .

F o r a n u nde rg radua te l e ve l o fu nde r s tand ing , e xce l len t c ove rage i sg i ven i nK e r r ( 1 977 ) , o rG r ibb le a nd H a l l ( 1985 ) . I na dd i t ion t oa low ing i d en t if ica t ion o fd if e ren t k i nd s o fm ine ra l i n c lu s ion s , t h e

m ic ro scope

p e rm i t s

s t udy

o f t h e i r

c oncen t ra t ion , o r ien ta t ion a nd s h ape s . d i agno s t ic

f e a tu re s

o f

c e ram ic

s i ze

d i s t r ibu t ion s ,

C ha rac te r isa t ion o ft h e se

f a b r ic s

p rov ide s

v a luab le

i n f o rma t ion r e ga rd ing c l ay s ou r ce s a nd t empe r ing m a te r ia l s . O the rt e chno log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ic ss u ch a ss u r f ace t r ea tmen t s a nd f o rm ing t e chn ique sc an a l so b ei n f e r red . I n t h e a na ly s i s o f m ine ra l s i n t h in s e c t ion w i th a p o la r i s ing m ic ro scope ,t h es e quence n orma l ly i s 1 )e xam ina t ion u nde rp l ane p o la r ised l i gh t( PPL ) ; 2 )e xam ina t ion u nde rc r o s sed p o la r i se r s( XPL ) ; a nd 3 )e xam ina t ion o fi n te r f e rence f i gu re sa nd d i rec t ion si n c r y s ta l s . B a s ica l ly , e a ch s t ep a low s t h e r e sea rche r t o p rog r e s s as t ep

f u r the r i ni d en t if y ing am ine ra l i n c lu s ion . Mo re o f t en t h an n o t , t h ef i r s t t wo s t ep s a r e t h e o n ly o ne s r e qu i red , e s pec ia l ly i ns i tua t ion s n o rma l ly e ncoun te red i na r chaeo logy .

1 8

T he

p o la r i se r ( s ee F i gu re 1 . 1) p r oduce s p l ane -po la r i sed l i gh t w h ich p a s se s t h rough t h e t h in s e c t ion o n t h e r o ta tab le s t age .

Ar o ta tab le s t age i sr e qu i red b ecau se i nm o s t m ine ra l s ,

r o ta t ing t h e s amp le u nde r P PL o r X PL p r oduce s d i agno s t ic c o lou r a nd p a t te rn c hange s d epend ing o n t h e a ng le o f t h e c r y s ta l a xe s w i th r e spec t t o t h e d i rec t ion o f l i gh t p o la r i sa t ion . T he p o la r i se ra nd t h er o ta t ing s t age a r ea lt h a ta r er e qu i red f o rt h ef i r s t s t ep . U nde r p l ane -po la r i sed l i gh t , r e l ief , c o lou r , c l eavage , s h ape , a nd t e x tu re o f m ine ra l i n c lu s ion s a r e o b se rved . C ro s sed p o la i i se r s ( s tep 2 ) a r e n ece s sa ry t o o b se rve d i agno s t ic i n t e rf e rence c o lou r s , o r t o d e te rm ine e x t inc t ion a ng le s i nm ine ra l s s u ch a s p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r s .

C ro s s -po la r i sa t ion ( o r X PL ) i sa c comp l i shed t h rough u s e o f a n a na ly se r i n

a dd i t ion t o t h e t wo f e a tu r e s d e sc r ibed a bove f o r p l ane -po la r i sed o b se rva t ion . A s s e en i n F i gu re 1 . 1 , t h e a na ly se r i si n se r ted b e tween t h e r o ta t ing s t age a nd t h e o cu la r .

I ti s

n e ce s sa ry t h a t e i the r t h e p o la r i se r o r t h e a na ly se r b e e a s i ly r emovab le a nd r e p laceab le b e cau se d u r ing a na ly s i s t h e r e sea r che r m u s t c on s tan t ly a l te rna te b e tween P PL a nd X PL . T he r ema in ing f e a tu re s , B e r t rand l e n s , a ux i l ia ry c onden se r , a nd a c ce s so ry p l a te s p e rm i t f u r the r

d i agno s t ic

t e s t s .

T he se

i n c lude

e xam ina t ion

o f i n te r f e rence

f i gu re s ,

a nd

d e te rm ina t ion o ff a s t a nd s l ow d i r ec t ion s i nm ine ra l c r y s ta l s . T he se t e s t s a r e u s ed f a r l e s s f r equen t ly t h an o b se rva t ion u nde r P PL a nd X PL , a nd a r e u sua l ly e mp loyed i ns i tua t ion s w he re f u l li d en t if ica t ion c a nno tb em ade u s ing t h ef i r s tt wo s t ep s .

H ighe r t e chno logy a pp roache s u s ing c h em ica l a na ly se s o f p o t te ry s u ch a s N eu t ron A c t iva t ion A na ly s i s ,E le c t ron M ic rop robe , S cann ing E lec t ron M ic ro scope , a nd I n duc t ive ly C oup led P l a sma Em i s s ion S pec t rog raphy a r e a l so u sed f o r p rovenance s t ud ie s .

T he se

a pp roache s p roduce l i s t s o fe l emen t s i nt h e c ompo s i t ion a nd n o t t h e m ine ra l s a s d oe s p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s .

T he l a t te r a r e m uch m o re a s s ignab le t o as ou rce l o ca t ion .

T he

p e t ro log ica l a pp roach o f e r s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t op r ed ic t t h e a r ea o rr e g ion i nw h ich af a b r ic w a s p roduced f r om i t sg eo log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ic s . K now ledge o ft h e m ine ra l s u i te i nt h e c e ram ic a low s s ome i n f e rence t o b e m ade o fp a ren t r o ck f o rma t ion s f r om w h ich t h ey c ou ld h ave b een d e r ived . T h i sd i s t ingu i she sp e t rog raph ic a na ly se sf r om c hem ica l a na ly se s , w h ich d epend o nt h e a na ly s i s o fk nown p r oduc t sf r om t h ea r ea o fo r ig in ( F ree s tone 1 99 1 : 3 99 ) . E lemen ta l a na ly s e sa r en eve r the le s sv e ry u s ef u la nd s hou ld b eu s ed t oc omp lemen ta p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s .

N e i the r c h em ica l n o r m ine ra log ica l c ha rac te r i sa t ion i si n he ren t ly

s u pe r io r ( Nef f 1 993 : 3 ) .

Whe re p o s s ib le , c omp lemen ta ry b u t i n dependen t t e chn ique s

1 9

s h ou ld b e e mp loyed b a sed o n f am i l ia r i ty a nd a va i lab i l i ty o f e qu ipmen t ( Ka tn i l l i a nd S t e inbe rg 1 985 : 3 14 ) .

E l emen ta l d a ta b ecome d ec i s ive w hen t h e re e x i s t c on s ide rab le

d if e rence s i nc l ay m a t r ice s w h ich c anno t b e d e tec ted b y p e t rog raph ic a na ly se s ( S chube r t 1 986 : 1 77 ) .

T h i s w a s o b se rved i n as t udy b y S t o l tman e ta l . ( 1 992 ) w h ich c ompa red

c onc lu s ion s b a sed o n m ine ra log ica l e xam ina t ion a l one w i th t h o se b a sed o n ac hem ica l a na ly se sa l one . T hey f o und t h a tt h et wo a pp roache sp rov ided d if e ren tp e r spec t iv e s o nt h e s ame d a ta s e ta nd w e re c omp lemen ta ry .

Ad r awback o ft h e e l emen ta l a na ly s i s m e thod s i st h a t t h ey a r e e xpen s ive a nd t h ey r e ly o n f i xed -ba se , h i gh t e chno logy , s p ec ia l i sed e qu ipmen t n o t n o rma l ly a cce s s ib le t o m o s t r e sea rche r s . D e sc r ip t ion s o ft h e p r inc ip le s , p r ac t ice a nd r e su l t s o fi n s t rumen ta l e l emen ta l a na ly s i s a r e n o t i n c luded h e re a st h e p r e sen t r e sea r ch i sc once rned w i th d eve lopmen t a nd a pp l ica t ion o fp e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s s y s tem s .

G ene ra l i n f o rma t ion o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l

a pp l ica t ion so ft h e se t e chn ique sm ay b ef o und i nR ice ( 1 987 : 3 89 -404 ) .

1 . 3 THE NEED FOR F IELD -BASED S YSTE MS A s

p r ev iou s ly

l a bo ra to ry -ba sed .

i n d ica ted ,

p e t rog raph ic

a na ly s i s

i s a t

p r e sen t

a lmo s t

e n t i re ly

T he e qu ipmen t e mp loyed i n l a bo ra to r ie s f o r b o th p r epa ra t ion a nd

a na ly s i s o fc e ram ic t h in s e c t ion s i sb y a nd l a rge m uch t oo c umbe r some a nd h a s n o t b een a dap ted f o rf i e ld u s e . T he d i amond s aw s a nd g r inde r s a r e m o s t ly s t u rdy f l oo r s tand ing o r b ench -moun ted m ode l s , a nd t h ee poxy r e s in su sed f o rc on so l ida t ion a nd a dhe s ion r e qu i re a t h e rmo s ta t ica l ly c on t ro l led h ea t s ou r ce . P o la r i s ing m ic ro scope sw e igh u pt o 1 0k g . T he re a r e a tl e a s t f o u r s i tua t ion s i na r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch , i np a r t icu la r t h e t e chn ica l s t udy o f c e ram ic s ,w h ich d i c ta te an eed f o rf i e ld -ba sed ,t r an spo r tab le , s y s tem s :

1 . Many c oun t r ie s s e ve r e ly r e s t r ic t o r p roh ib i t t h e e xpor t o fc u l tu ra l a r tef ac t s .

D ue t o

i n c rea sed i n s tance s o fi l ega l s a le o fa n t iqu i t ie s a nd c once rn sf o rt h e p ro tec t ion o fc u l tu ra l a nd a r chaeo log ica l h e r i tage , m any c oun t r ie s h ave e nac ted l e g i s la t ion t o p reven t c u l tu ra l a r tef ac t sf r om b e ing e xpor ted , e ven f o rp u rpo se so fs c ien t if i cr e sea rch ( e .g . T u rkey ,E gyp t , P ak i s tan ) . T h is t y pe o fl e g i s la t ion i sb ecom ing i n c rea s ing ly c ommon , w i th t h e r e su l t t h a t a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion i nt h e se c oun t r ie s c an b ecome f e t te red . R e sea rch m u s t t h u s b ecome m o re l o ca l ly b a sed , a s i ti si n c rea s ing ly d i f f i cu l t t o a pp ly m o re a dvanced a nd

2 0

s oph i s t ica ted a na ly t ica l t e chn ique s t o r e cove red a r tef ac t s .

Many o f t h e c oun t r ie s w ho

i mpo se t h e a bove e xpo r t r e s t r ic t ion s l a ck t h e n ece s sa ry e qu ipmen t t o c onduc t t h e a pp rop r ia te r e sea rch i nt h ec oun t ry o fo r ig in ; o rt h ef o re ign -ba sed r e sea rche rh a sn oa c ce s s t oi t . A s ar e su l ti th a sb e come n ece s sa ry t oe x t ra c ta sm uch i n f o rma t ion a sp o s s ib le f r om a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l w h i le i n t h e c oun t ry o f o r ig in .

C e ram ic p e t rog raphy a s i ti s

p r e sen t ly u sed a low s l i t t le o ppo r tun i ty f o rt e chn ica l a na ly s i s o fc e ram ic a r tef ac t s i nt h e se s i t ua t ion s . 2 . O n s i te c e ram ic c l a s s if i ca t ion s c heme s w i l l b e m o re a c cu ra te i ft h e m ine ra log ica l a nd t e x tu ra l c on ten t o ft h e s h e rd s i sk nown .

E spec ia l ly f o l low ing t h e o pen ing s t age s o fa n

e x cava t ion , w hen t h e c l a s s if i ca t ion s c heme i s b e ing d ef ined , ak now ledge o f t h e m ine ra log ica l a nd t e x tu ra lc ha ra c te r i s t ic s a low st h e se v a r iab le st ob eu sed t od ef ine f a b r ic g r oup s . U sua l ly , i ti sn e ce s sa r yt oc l a s s if yf a b r ic t y pe a tt h ei n i t ia l s o r t ing s t age b y s i mp le v i sua l e xam ina t ion o f af r e sh b r eak . T h i s r e su l t s i nv e ry g ene ra l f a b r ic c a tego r ie s s u ch a s ' c oa r se -g ra ined ' , ' m icaceou s ' , o r' s he l l tempe red 't on ame af ew s e en i nt h er e cen tl i t e ra tu re . T he se a r e o f t en n o t e a s i ly r e p l ica ted b y an ew o rf o l low -on r e sea rche r , a nd m ay b ea rl i t t le r e semb lance t o t r ue m ine ra log ica l o r t e x tu ra l c l a s s if i ca t ion s .

I n m any i n s tance s t h e

p e t ro log ica l a na ly s i s i sd one m on th s o ry ea r s a f t e rt h e e xcava t ion , n ece s s i ta t ing e x ten s ive r e ad ju s tmen t o f ac l a s s if i ca t ion s c heme a f t e r t h e s o r t ing h a s b een c omp le ted o nce . J ohn son ( 1992 ) o b ser ved t h i s w hen h e p e t rog raph ica l ly a na ly sed ac o l lec t ion o fc e ram ic m a te r ia l y ea r s a f te r t h e i n i t ia l f a b r ic c l a s s if i ca t ion c a tego r ie s w e re d one i nt h e f i e ld .

H e

f o und ag ene ra ll a ck o fc o r re la t ion b e tween t h eo r ig ina l ly d ef ined f a b r ic t y pe sa nd t h o se h e l a te rd e te rm ined v i ap e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s( i b id . : 1 84 ) . 3 . O n s i te e xcava t ion s t ra teg ie s m ay b e o p t im i sed i fi ti sk nown d u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h e e x cava t ion t h a t c e ram ic m a te r ia l c an b e m a tched t o ap a r t icu la r s ou rce l o ca t ion .

A n

a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion p r og ramme i su sua l ly a n e xpen s ive c omm i tmen t o fr e sou r ce s , p u ti n to p l ace b yd i f f icu l t to -ob ta in f u nd ing . I ti sc r i t ica lt h a tt h e se r e sou rce sb ee f ic ien t ly e mp loyed t oe x t rac tt h em o s tu sef u l d a ta i nt h es h o r te s tt i me . T he f i e ld d i rec to rm u s th ave a t h i s o r h e r d i spo sa l o ngo ing d a ta w h ich c a n e nab le o n s i te d ec is ion s t o b e m ade , p r ima r i ly t h e l o ca t ion a nd e x ten to fe xcava t ion u n i t s . S c ien t if ic f i e ld a na ly s i s s y s tem ss u ch a st h e f i e ld p e t ro logy k i t c a n p rov ide t h i s . F o r e xamp le , i fi tc an b e s hown a tt h e e a r ly s t age s o f ap rog ramme t h a t s ome e xcava ted s h e rd sm ay b eo fn on loca l o r ig in , e xcava t ion s t ra teg ie s c an b e a d ju s ted t o e mpha s i se s p ec if ic a r ea s o ft h e s i t e .

2 1

R e sou rce s c ou ld b e

d i rec ted o rc oncen t ra ted o nt h e a r ea sw h ich y i e lded t h en on loca l m a te r ia l . A l te rna t ive ly , i fs h e rd s s t y l i s t ica l ly s im i la rt ot h o se f r om ad if e ren t k nown s i t e a r e e ncoun te r ed , o n -s i te p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s c ou ld b e u s ed t o c on f i rm w he the r t h ey a r e a c tua l ly o f n on loca l o r ig in . T h i s c ou ld p r even t ar e sea r che r f r om e r roneou s ly a s sum ing t h ey a r e o fn on loca l o r ig in a nd g u id ing e xcava t ion s t ra teg ie s i nt h e w rong d i rec t ion s .

I nt h is w ay , r e sou rce s

c an b e a pp l ied i nt h e a r ea s o f m ax imum i n te re s t d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e e x cava t ion i n s tead o ft h e n ex t s e a son , a f t e rt h el a bo ra to ry a na ly s i s a si so f t en t h e c a se a tp r e sen t . I t w ou ld i nm any c a se s r e su l t i nm uch m o re e f i c ien t u se o ff u nd s a nd m in im ise i n s tance s o f m i sgu ided e xcava t ion s t ra teg ie s . 4 . S amp l ing f r om ac e ram ic s h e rd a s semb lage m ay b e o p t im i sed . I ns i tua t ion sw he re i ti s n ece s sa ry t o m in im i se t h e t r an spo r t o f a r tef ac t s , o n s i te p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s a low s s e lec t ion o ft h e o p t imum n umbe ro fs h e rd s . T ran spor ta t ion o fl a rge q uan t i t ie s o fc e ram ic s h e rd sf r om ar emo te l o ca t ion c an b ev e ry e xpen s ive a nd i so f ten i n conven ien t . S ome t ime s t h e e xcava t ion o r s u rvey i so n ao ne t ime b a s i s . s i tua t ion s i sa n i mpor tan t s e lec t ion t e chn ique .

O n s i te p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s i nt h e se I te n su r e s t h a t o n ly t ho se s h e rd s w i th

p a r t icu la r d ef ined c ha ra c te r i s t ic s a r e i d en t if ied f o r t r an spo r t .

A l te rna t ive ly , o n ly t h in

s e c t ion sm ay n eed t ob et r an spo r ted .

T he l a ck o ff i e ld p o r tab le s y s tem st oi d en t if ya nd r e co rd m ine ra li n c lu s ion s a nd t e x tu re s i n c e ram ic s h a s u ndoub ted ly r e su l ted i nm any i n s tance s i nt h e l o s s o fv a luab le d i agnos t ic i n f o rma t ion a nd m i sgu ided e xcava t ion s t ra teg ie s .

C umbe r some a nd e xpen s ive e x i s t ing

l a bo ra to ry e qu ipmen t c an o fc ou r se b e t r an spo r ted t o t h e f i e ld , a nd h a s b een i nm any c a se s . H oweve r , t r an spo r t d if i cu l t ie s a nd t h e n ece s s i ty o fh av ing d e l ica te a nd e xpen s ive a ppa ra tu s s uch a sp rof e s s iona l m ic ro scope s a way f r om l a bo ra to r ie s f o r m on th s a t at i me u sua l ly m ake st h is o p t ion u na t t rac t ive .

1 . 4

REQUIRE MENTS FOR A F IELD -BASED S YSTE M AND PREV IOUS RESEARCH

S pec if i ca t ion s f o r ac omp le te f i e ld k i t w e r e d r awn u p b y f i r s t d ef in ing t h e c on s ide ra t ion s n ece s sa ry . T he se b road ly c on s i s ted o f : 1 . S i ze a nd w e igh t : T h i s p r ima ry r e qu i r emen t i sr e la t ive ly s t ra igh tf o rwa rd a nd r e qu i re s l i t t le e l abo ra t ion . T he s y s tem n eeded t ob ev e ry e a s i ly p o r tab le , e s pec ia l ly b y c omm e r c ia l

2 2

p a s seng e r a i rt r an spo r ta t ion . I tw a sa l so p r ef e r red t h a ta l o ft h e n ece s sa ry e qu ipmen t a nd c on sumab le s t o p r epa r e a nd a na ly se a bou t o ne h und red t h in s e c t ion s c ou ld b e c a r r ied e a s i ly i no ne c a se . 2 . E a s e o fu se :

T h i s w a s a n i mpor tan t r e qu i remen t a l so .

B ecau se o ne o ft h e p r ime

o b jec t ive s o ft h e e xe rc i se w a s t o k eep t h e s y s tem i n expen s ive a nd r e ad i ly u sab le , t h e o pe ra to r s hou ld n o t b e r e qu i r ed t o p o s se s s r a r e o r e xpen s ive e xpe r t i se .

A ny r e sea rche r

w ho h a s p repa red a nd a na ly sed t h in s e c t ion s i n af i xed -ba se l a bo ra to ry s hou ld b e a b le t o d ot h es ame i n af i e ld s i tua t ion w i th t h ek i t . 3 . C omme rc ia l ly a va i lab le c omponen t s : I ft h e s y s tem w a st ob e r e ad i ly a va i lab le t om o s t p ro jec t s a nd r e sea rche r s a nd n o t f a l l i n to d i su se , i tw ou ld n o t b e w ise t o i n c lude c omponen t s w h ich a r e a v a i lab le o n ly t h rough s p ec ia l i sed s u pp l ie r s o r w h ich h ave t o b e m anuf a c tu red b y s p ec ia l i s ed w o rk shop s . I ts h ou ld b ea b le t ob ea s semb led u s ing t h eu sua l s c ien t if i c s upp ly h ou se so rl o ca l ly w i th am in imum o fp o s t -pu rcha se m od if i ca t ion s .

W i th r e spec tt oe qu ipmen t c on s ide ra t ion s , t h ep r oce s s o fp e t rog raph ic t h in s e c t ion ing c an b eb r oken d own i n to f o u rm a in s t ep s : s c on so l ida t ing ; • c u t t ing a nd g r ind ing ; • p o l i sh ing ; a nd • a na ly s i s . E qu ipmen ta nd c on sumab le sa s soc ia ted w i th e a ch o ft h e se s t ep sw a se xam ined w i th av i ew t os t r eam l in ing , m in ia tu r i s ing , a nd m in im i s ing t oa ch ieve t h et h ree i n i t ia l o b jec t ive s .

C onduc ted i n af i e ld e nv i ronmen t , c u t t ing a nd g r ind ing p rocedu re s g ene ra l ly i mpo se t h e l a rge s t w e igh t c on s ide ra t ion s .

Mo s t c omme r c ia l ly a va i lab le p owe red s aw s a nd g r inde r s

f o rc e ram ic s o rr o ck sa r e d e s igned a nd d eve loped f o ru se i n al a bo ra to ry , e i the rf i xed t oa b en ch o rf r ee f l oo r s tand ing . I na dd i t ion , t h ey a r eu sua l ly h eavy . T h i si sf o rt wo r e a son s . F i r s t ly , e spec ia l ly w i th r e spec t t op owe red g r inde r s , ar e a sonab ly p owe r f u l e l ec t r ic m o to r ( o f a tl e a s t o ne -qua r te r h o r sepowe r ) i sn e eded i no rde r t o r emove m a te r ia l e f i c ien t ly w i thou t s l ow ing . A l so , g r ind ing w hee l s a r eu sua l ly o fh eavy m a te r ia l d ue t ot h en a tu re o f t h ea b ra s ive s a nd t h er e qu i remen tf o rh i gh m omen tum i nt h ew hee l . S econd ly , t h eh eav ie r t h e w e igh t o ft h e d ev ice , t h e h i ghe r i t s s t ab i l i ty .

T h i s , e s pec ia l ly w i th r e spec t t o s aw s ,

a low s c on t ro l led a nd p r ec i se c u t s . R educ ing t h e w e igh t o fl a bo ra to ry s aw s a nd g r inde r s h a st h e ref o re n o tb een ap r ima ry c once rn i nt h e i rd e s ign a nd d eve lopmen t .

2 3

I tw a sn ece s sa ry , a so u t l ined a bove , t ou t i l i se o n ly c omponen t sa nd c on suma b le sw h ich a r e g ene ra l ly a va i lab le t h rough c omme rc ia lo u t le t s . T h i se l im ina ted d e s ign a nd m anuf ac tu re o f a ne n t i re ly n ew s aw a nd g r inde r . T he m a jo rp rob lem r e s t ed w i th t h eg r inde r . G r inde r sa r e b y f a rt h e h eav ie s t c omponen t i nt h e s e quence ; y e t a r e i mpor tan t l a bou r - a nd t i me sav ing d ev ice s i nl a bo ra to ry t h in s e c t ion p r epa ra t ion . B ecau se e f ic ien t l i gh twe igh t g r inde r s a r e n o t a va i lab le , as aw w i th w h ich v e ry t h in c e ram ic s l i ce s c ou ld b e m ade w a sn e ce s sa ry . I f v e ry t h in c r os s sec t ion s o fc on so l ida ted m a te r ia l c an b e m ade , g r ind ing w i l l b e k ep t t oa m in imum . When am in imum o fg r ind ing i sn ece s sa ry , i tc an b ed one b yh and u s ing c oa r se g r ind ing p owde r so ra b ra s ive s h ee t s( s ee f o l low ing p a rag raph s ) . T he ref o re , i mpo r tan t ly , i f a n a c cu ra te s ma l l l i gh twe igh t s aw c an b eu sed , t h e r e qu i r emen t f o r ag r inde rc a nv i r tua l ly b e e l im ina ted .

I tw a s r e a l i sed , h oweve r , t h a t u se o f s u ch a s aw wou ld n ega te t h e

a dvan tage sd i scu s sed a bove w h ich a r eg a ined b yu s ing ah eav ie rm ode l .

C e ram ic s h e rd s c an a l so b e c u t u s ing ah and s aw .

T he re a r e n ume rou s s ma l l h and s aw s

w h ich u se t i l e c u t t ing b l ade s w h ich w ou ld b e e f i c ien t i nc u t t ing c e ram ic m a te r ia l .

I ti s ,

h oweve r ,

t h in ,

l a bo r iou s

a nd

t i me -con sum ing ;

a nd

d if i cu l t

t o o b ta in

a c cu ra te ,

p a ra l le l s ided s l i ce sf r om s h e rd s . T he r e su l t i st h a t e x ten s ive g r ind ing b ecome s n e ce s sa ry , l o s ing t h ea dvan tage . F o rp r epa ra t ion o fs ma l ln umbe r so ft h in s e c t ion sw he re n op owe red s aw i sa va i lab le , h and c u t t ing m ay b e u s ef u l .

I n a dd i t ion , i tc an b e u sed w he re o n ly

p o l i shed s e c t ion sa r eb e ing p r epa red f o re xam ina t ion u nde r ar e f lec ted l i gh tm ic ro scope .

Ar e qu i remen t f o r as aw p owe red b y ar e cha rgeab le b a t te ry w a s c on s ide red .

T he re a r e

i n s tance sw he re ac o rd le s sr e cha rgeab le s aw w ou ld b ea dvan tageou s , e s pec ia l ly i na r ea sf a r a way f r om m a in s e l ec t r ica l s u pp l ie s .

A l though t h e se s i tua t ion s a r e n o t p a r t icu la r ly r a re ,

e l ec t r ica l m a in s w ou ld s t i l l b e r e qu i r ed ; f o r b a t te ry r e cha rg ing .

A p ro to type o f a

r e cha rgeab le p o r tab le s aw , d e s igned s p ec if ica l ly f o r t h in s e c t ion ing i n t h e f i e ld , w a s c on s t ruc ted a nd t e s ted b y H un t a nd G r if f i th s ( 1 989 ) .

I tw a s a dap ted u s ing aMa l c i ta

C o rd le s s T r imme ra nd f i e ld t e s ted p r epa r ing t h in s e c t ion s o fa nde s i te a t ar emo te l o ca t ion i nt h e A nde s Moun ta in s . I tw a s f o und t h a t a n a ve rage o ft h r ee s e c t ion s c ou ld b e c u t a nd g round e f i c ien t ly b ef o r e af r e sh b a t te ry p ack w a s r e qu i red . c u t t ing

s t one ,

S i nce t h e r e sea r che r s w e r e

c l ea r ly m o re c ou ld b e p r epa red c u t t ing s o f te r m a te r ia l s s u ch a s

2 4

a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s . H oweve r , i no rde rt op r epa re 5 0 t o 1 00 s e c t ion s , e i the r s e ve ra l f u l ly c ha rged b a t te ry p ack s w ou ld b e n eeded , o r o ne w ou ld h av e t o r e tu rn t o am a in s l o ca t ion t or e cha rge b a t te r ie s . P rov ided al a rge n umbe ro fs e c t ion sw e re n o t r e qu i r ed a ta r emo te s i te , ar e cha rgeab le s aw w ou ld c l ea r ly b em o s t u s ef u l , b u t n ece s sa r i ly h eav ie rt h an am a in s -powe red m ode l ( d ue t ot h e b a t te ry p ack w e igh t ) . B o th m a in s a nd r e cha rgeab le m ode l s w e re e va lua ted i nt h e l a bo ra to ry , w h i le o n ly t h e m a in s m ode l w a s f i e ld t e s ted f o r t h ep r e sen tr e sea rch .

W i th r e spec tt oa b ra s ive s , s ome c on s ide ra t ion w a s g i ven t oe mp loy ing t h e s i l icon c a rb ide a b ra s ive s f i xed t o ap ape r b ack ing , s u ch a s t h e B ueh le r -Me t Me ta l log raph ic G r ind ing P ape r . I tw a st h ough tt h i sm igh to f e r am o re c onven ien ta l te rna t ive t ot h el o ose p owde r s . T he c oa r se s tg r ade , P 120 , w ou ld i nf a c tb eu s ef u lf o ri n i t ia l c oa r se g r ind ing t os a ve u s ing e x ce s s 2 20 g r ade a l um ina p owde r . I na dd i t ion , u s e o ft h e Me ta l log raph ic G r ind ing P ape r w ou ld p robab ly c on sume l e s s w a te r w h ich w ou ld b e a n a dvan tage w he re w a te r i sa ta p r em ium . U se o ft h ef i ne rg r ade so fp ape r s , h oweve r , i sn o tr e commended d ue t op o s s ib le m ic ro scop ic d amage t ot h e s p ec imen .

Ap owde r u s ed i n as l u r ry a low s t h e a b ra s ive t o

f u nc t ion i n ar o l l ing m anne r a nd r e su l t s i nl e s s d amage t ot h e s p ec imen , e s pec ia l ly w hen w o rk ing w i th b r i t t le m a te r ia l s s u ch a s a r cha eo log ica l c e ram ic s ( Bou sf ie ld 1 992 : 3 5 -7 ) . Wh i le t h ef i xed a b ra s ive sc ou ld b eu s ed f o ri n i t ia l , c oa r se g r ind ing , f i ne a l um ina p owde r si n as l u r ry o n ag l a s s p l a te a r e t h e r ef o re r e commended f o r f i na l p o l i sh ing .

A t l e a s t o ne

c u r r en t r e sea rche rh a s u s ed t h e s i l icon c a rb ide a b ra s ive p ape r s f o r p r epa ra t ion o fc e ram ic s amp le s i n t h e f i e ld .

P r io r ( p e r s . c omm . ) r e cen t ly u s ed t h em f o r c oa r se g r ind ing i n

p r epa ra t ion o fp o l i shed s u r f ace sf o r e xam ina t ion v i ar e f l ec ted l i gh t m ic ro scope , a nd f ound t h em g ene ra l ly a c cep tab le .

O ve ra l l , t h e r ei sl i t t le s c ope f o rr e duc t ion i nw e igh t o rb u lk , o ri mp roved p or tab i l i ty i nt h e a r ea o fg r ind ing a nd p o l i sh ing p owde r s . T he a l um ina p owde r s a r er e la t ive ly d en se . S ome w e igh t s a v ing s c ou ld b e a ch ieved u s ing t h e g r ind ing p ape r s , b u t t h e re a ppea r t o b e f ew o t he r a l te rna t ive s .

As ma l l w e igh t s a v ing c a n b e a ch ieved b y u s ing c i rcu la r g l a s s p l a te s

i n s tead o fs qua re o ne s . D u r ing h and g r ind ing a nd p o l i sh ing , m o s to ft h em o t ion i sc i rcu la r , a nd t h ec o rne r so ft h ep l a te sa r en o tn o rma l ly u t i l i sed .

2 5

C on so l idan t s i nr e gu la ru s ef o ra r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic p e t ro logy r e qu i re ac on t ro l led h ea t s ou rce t ou se .

T he t wo m o s t c ommon ly u s ed , P e t ropoxy 1 54 a nd C anada B a l sam , b o th

r e qu i re at h e rmos ta t ica l ly c on t ro l led t h e rmop la te t o m a in ta in ac on s tan t t empe ra tu re o f 1 20 d eg ree s C e l s iu s .

T he t h e rmop la te u se s ah eavy i r on o r s t ee l s u rf ace t o p r ov ide a n

e ven h ea t s ou rce , r e su l t ing i nw e igh t su p t o 1 5k i log ram s . L oca l i mp rov isa t ion sc ou ld b e u sed , b u t i tw ou ld b e d if i cu l t t om a in ta in t h e c on s tan t t empe ra tu re . T o k eep w e igh t a ta m in imum , i tw a s n ece s sa r yt oe i the r l o ca te av e ry l i gh t t h e rmop la te , o rt e s t t h e s u i tab i l i ty o fu s ing c o ld c u r ing r e s in s f o r c on so l ida t ion a nd m oun t ing . p i ece o f e qu ipmen t , t h e l a t te r o p t ion w a s p r ef e r red .

T o e l im ina te a n a dd i t iona l

C r i te r ia f o r a c cep tab i l i ty o f c o ld

c u r ing r e s in sw e re s e t : T he se w e re t h a t ac o ld c u r ing r e s in a c cep tab le f o rf i e ld a pp l ica t ion s s hou ld : •c u re i n< 24 h ou r sa tn o rma lr oom t empe ra tu re s( a pp rox . 2 0d eg C ) ; •f u nc t ion w i thou ta n c i l la ry e qu ipmen te . g . h ea ts ou rce ; •h ave l ow v i sco s i ty a tn o rma lr oom t empe ra tu re s ; •h ave a nI ndex o fR ef rac t ion v e ry c l o se t o1 . 54 ; •b ee f i c ien tf o rb o th c on so l ida t ion a nd a dhe s ion ; •h ave l ow s h r inkage ; •m ix b yv o lume w i th r e a sonab le l a t i tude ; •b er e ad i ly a va i lab le c omme rc ia l ly ; a nd •b es a f ef o rc omme rc ia la i rt r an spo r ta t ion . T he f i r s t c r i te r ion w a s c on s ide red a r e a sonab le f i gu re f o r e f i c ien t p roduc t ion o f t h in s e c t ion su nde rf i e ld c ond i t ion s , b a sed u pon l a bo ra to ry e xpe r ience . Ar e sea rche rm ay h av e t o m ake 3 0 t o 1 00 o r m o re s e c t ion s f o r a na ly s i s . S ec t ion s a r e n o rma l ly , f o r t h e s a ke o f e f i c iency , p r epa red v i a a n ' a s semb ly l i ne ' p rocedu re ; t h a t i s , ab a tch o f 1 5 t o 2 0 i sf i r s t c on so l ida ted a nd a lowed t o c u re . When t h e se h ave c u red , t h ey a r e t h en p o l i shed f o r m oun t ing . A no the rb a tch o fe poxy i sm ixed w i th h a rdene r , w h ich i su s ed t om oun tt h e se a nd a l so c on so l ida te an ew b a tch o f1 5o r2 0 , a nd s oo n . T hu s , o n ly t h e r e qu i red a moun t o fe poxy a nd h a rdene ri su s ed , w h ich m in im i se sw a s tage a sm o s t e pox ie s h ave l i m i t ed p o t l i ve s o nce m ixed .

T he r e sea r che r i st h u s c a r ry ing o u t t h e n ex t p ha se o ft h e p r epa ra t ion

w h i le t h e e poxy i sc u r ing i nt h e l a s t c omp le ted o ne . Am ax imum c u re t ime o f2 4 h ou r s w ou ld p rov ide a dequa te t i me f o rt h e r e sea rche rt oc omp le te o ne p ha se o ft h e p r epa ra t ion p roce s sw i thou tb e ing u ndu ly d e layed w a i t ing f o rt h er e s in t oc u re .

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T he r e qu i remen t f o r t h e e poxy t o f u nc t ion w i thou t a nc i l la ry e qu ipmen t n eed s l i t t le e l abo ra t ion . I tw ou ld e l im ina te t h en ece s s i ty o ft r an spo r t ing at h e rmop la te o ro t he ri t em o f e qu ipmen t t h u s c on t r ibu t ing t o s i gn if i can t w e igh t a nd b u lk r e duc t ion .

L ow v i scos i ty i s

a no the rp a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan to ne ;w i thou t al ow v i sco s i ty t h ee poxy w i l ln o tp ene t ra te t h e c e ram ic m ic ro s t ruc tu re a dequa te ly t o c on so l ida te i tp r io r t o c u t t ing a nd p o l ish ing .

T h i s

w i l lr e su l ti nl a ck o fc ohe s ion i nt h es e c t ion s , e s pec ia l ly i nt h ec a se o fl ow -f i red a nd f r i ab le c e ram ic m a te r ia l s , a nd i tw i l lc r umb le o rl o se i n c lu s ion sd u r ing g r ind ing . Ar e a sonab ly f a s t a nd t h o rough p ene t ra t ion i sa ni mpo r tan tf a c to ri ff a s t c u r ing t i me s a r ed e s i red . As l owe r , m o re v i scou sp ene t ran tm ay h a rden b ef o r ei th a ss uf i c ien t ly p ene t ra ted t h em ic ro s t ruc tu re . T he v i sco s i ty s hou ld b el ow a ta mb ien tt empe ra tu re so rw i th s imp le n on -con t ro l led h ea t ing b ecau se t h e re w ou ld n o tb et h eb enef i to f ac on t ro l led h ea t s ou rce a si nt h el a bo ra to ry . A n a l te rna t ive o f t en u sed i nt h e l a bo ra to ry i sv a cuum i mp regna t ion ( J im 1 985 : 5 98 ) .

T h i s

o p t ion w a s r e jec ted f o r f i e ld u s e b ecau se i tw ou ld h ave i n t roduced a n a dd i t iona l p i ece o f e qu ipmen ti n to t h es y s tem .

A nI n dex o fR ef rac t ion v e ry n ea r 1 . 54 p e rm i t sc ompa r i son o ft h in s e c t ion s p r epa red u s ing t h ef i e ld e poxy w i th t h ose p r epa red u s ing t h e e s tab l i shed l a bo ra to ry e pox ie s n o ted e a r l ie r . U s ing a n e poxy w i th a r a d ica l ly d if e r en t I n dex

o f R ef rac t ion c ou ld r e su l t i n

m i s in te rp re ta t ion o f am ine ra l i n c lu s ion i nt h eh and so f ar e sea rche rw ho w a su nawa re t h a t t h e t r ad i t iona l e pox ie s h ad n o t b een u sed , o rw a s a c cu s tomed t o a na ly s ing t h in s e c t ion s c on so l ida ted w i th t h et r ad i t iona l e pox ie sw ho se I n d ice s o fR ef ra c t ion a r e 1 . 54 . H oweve r , i ft h e I n dex o fR ef rac t ion i sn o t 1 . 54 b u t i t sv a lue i sn eve r the le s s k nown , a na ly s i s w i l l b e r e la t ive ly u naf f ec ted .

T he u se o f o ne e poxy f o r b o th c on so l ida t ion a nd a dhe s ion s i mp ly m in im i se s t h e r e qu i remen t t o t r an spo r t t wo d if e ren t c hem ica l s u b s tance s .

I ta l so e l im ina te s p o ten t ia l

p r ob lem sw h ich m igh ta r i se f r om t h ep r e sen ce o ft wo d if e ren tI n d ice so fR ef rac t ion i nt h e m a t r ix . T he r e qu i remen tt h a t t h ee pox ie sb er e ad i ly c omme rc ia l ly a va i lab le s hou ld e n su re t h a t t h e k i t r ema in s a c ce s s ib le a nd v i ab le , t h a t s p ec ia l i sed o r e xpe r imen ta l s ou r ce s o r p r oduc t s w ou ld n o t h ave t o b e r e l ied u pon .

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F i na l ly , t h e e poxy s e lec ted m u s t b e o f

s uf i c ien t ly l ow h aza rd t h a t i ti sa i r t r an spo r tab le .

Many h aza rdou s c hem ica l s a r e n o t

p e rm i t ted t ob ec a r r ied i nh and o rc hecked b aggage o nc omme rc ia la i r l ine f l i gh t s .

H un t a nd G r if f i th s ( 1 989 ) u s ed a n u l t ra v i o le t c u r ing a dhe s ive f o r m oun t ing s e c t ion s o f r o ck . T he m e thod h a sb een d eve loped f o ru s eb yp e t ro log i s t sf o rt h in s e c t ion p r epa ra t ion i nt h el a bo ra to ry ( Yangua sa nd P ax ton 1 986 : 5 39 ) . D ymax L igh t - We ld 3 04 , ar e s in w h ich c u re su nde ru l t ra v i o le t l i gh t , w a sf o und t ob ee n t i r e ly s a t i sf ac to ry f o rm oun t ing s t one t h in s e c t ion si nt h ef i e ld . I tw a sa l so c on s ide red i nt h e p r e sen tr e sea rch f o rf i e ld p r epa ra t ion o f a r chaeo log ica lc e ram ic t h in s e c t ion s . T he m a in d r awback i nc onnec t ion w i th c e ram ic si si n e f ec t ing ac u re f o ra b so rbed e poxy . T he u l t ra v i o le to n ly c u re st h ee poxy a ts u r f a ce l e ve l a nd d oe s n o t p ene t ra te i n to t h e c e ram ic w he re t h e c on so l ida t ing e poxy a l so n eed s c u r ing . T he m e thod w ou ld t h e ref o re p r obab ly b ee n t i r e ly e f ec t ive f o rm oun t ing s p ec imen st h a td o n o t r e qu i re c on so l ida t ion . H oweve r , i na no the r f i e ld a pp l ica t ion , J ohn son ( 1 992 : 1 85 ) f o und t h a t D ymax w a s n o t e f ec t ive w hen u sed w i th c e ram ic s f o r c on so l ida t ion n o r a dhe s ion , u nde r t h e h o t a nd h um id c ond i t ion s e n coun te red i n l ow land T ha i land i n A p r i l -May .

I ti sp e rhaps s e n s i t ive t o e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s .

I tw a s t h e ref o r e n o t

i n c luded i nt h ep r e sen tt e s t ing f o rf i e ld s u i tab i l i ty ;p r ima r i ly b ecau se i tw a sd e s i red t ou s ea s u b s tance t h a t d i d n o t r e qu i re a n c i l la ry e qu ipmen t a nd b ecau se o fi t sl a ck o fe f ec t iv ene s s i nc u r ing a b so rbed e poxy .

T he f i na l s t ep t ob e c on s ide red i nt h e p r oce s s i sa na ly s ing t h e p r epa red t h in s e c t ion s . I n m any c a se s , t h is c an b e l e f t f o r c omp le t ion i nt h e h ome l a bo ra to ry , e s pec ia l ly w he r e t h e h o s t c oun t ry p e rm i t s e xpo r t o ft h e p r epa red s e c t ion s a ss c ien t if i c s amp le s .

T h i s i sn o t a

r e commended p rocedu re b ecau se t h e c o r rec t t h ickne s s o f at h in s e c t ion c anno t b e d e te rm ined w i thou t e xam ina t ion o ft h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s w i th ap o la r i s ing m ic ro scope . I t i sa l so d e s i rab le t o c onduc t a t l e a s t ap r e l im ina ry o n s i te o b se rva t ion o f t h e m ine ra l i n c lu s ion s p r e sen t t o a s s i s t i n f a b r ic c a tego r i sa t ion f o r s o r t ing p u rpose s .

Mo re

i mpo r tan t ly , i ti so ne o ft h e o b jec t ive s o ft h e p r e sen tr e sea rch t od eve lop af i e ld a na ly t ica l c apab i l i ty .

E xam ina t ion o fp e t ro log ica lt h in s e c t ion si sa lway s d one u s ing ap e t rog raph ic m ic ro scope . A s p r ev iou s ly i n d ica ted , c omme rc ia l ly a va i lab le m ode l sa r e l a rge , h eavy , a nd d e s igned f o r

2 8

f i xed -ba se l a bo ra to ry u s e . I tw a st h e ref o re n ece s sa ry t ol o ca te ap o r tab le o ne o rs e lec ta nd m od if y a n a l te rna t ive ( n on -pe t rog raph ic ) t r an sm i t ted l i gh t m ic ro scope .

D e s ign a nd

m anuf a c tu re o fa ne n t i re ly n ew m ode lw a sn o tc on s ide red , f o rc o s tr e a son s , a nd b ecau se o f t h e n eed t o c onf ine t h e f i e ld k i t t oc omme rc ia l ly a va i lab le c omponen t s . Al i s t o fc r i te r ia w a sf i r s ts e tu p . T he m a in c on s ide ra t ion sw e re t h a ti tm ee tt h ef o l low ing : T o r tab i l i ty -t h e m ic ro scope m u s t b e s ma l l e nough a nd l i gh t e nough t o b e e a s i ly h and c a r r ied ; • a na ly t ica l c apab i l i ty -t h e m ic ro scope m u s t b e o fa dequa te q ua l i ty t op e r f orm a l o ft h e b a s ic a na ly se sn ece s sa ry t om ake d ec i s ion si nt h ef i e ld ;a nd . c o s t a nd a va i lab i l i ty -t h em ic ro scope m u s tb e r e la t ive ly i n expen s ive a nd r e ad i ly a va i lab le c omme rc ia l ly , a tl e a s tw i th o n ly m ino rm od if i ca t ion s .

W i th r e spec t t oa na ly t ica lc apab i l i ty , t h e m in imum r e qu i remen t sw e re t h a t t h e m ic ro scope b ea b le t ob eu s ed t op e r f o rm m ine ra li d en t if ica t ion su s ing b o th p l ane -po la r i sed l i gh t( PPL ) a nd c r os sed p o la r i se r s ( XPL ) , i n c lud ing m ea su remen t o f e x t inc t ion a ng le s i n m ine ra l c r y s ta l s . I na dd i t ion , i tm u s tb ec apab le o fm ea su r ing s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion s a nd c oncen t ra t ion s o fi n c lu s ion s f o r m oda l a n a ly s i s o ff a b r ic i n c lu s ion s .

I n o rde r t o h ave t h e c apab i l i ty t o

c a r ry o u tt h eb a s ic m ine r a li d en t if i ca t ion s , a tl e a s tt h ree o ft h ef e a tu r e su n ique t op o la r is ing m ic ro scope sw e re n eeded . T hey a r e ap o la r i se r , a na na ly se r , a nd ar o ta t ing s t age w i th 3 60 d eg re eg radua t ion s . I tw a sf e l tt h a tr e qu i r ing t h ec apab i l i ty o fs t udy ing i n te r f e rence f i gu re s a nd d i rec t ion s i nc r y s ta l sw ou ld p l ace t oo s t r ingen t ad emand o nt h e p or tab le m ic ro scope s p ec if i ca t ion s . P a r t icu la r ly t r oub le some m ine ra l i d en t if ica t ion s c ou ld b ed one a tt h e h ome l a bo ra to ry . T he v a s tm a jo r i ty o ft h em ine ra l s e ncoun te red i na r chaeo log ica l f a b r ic sc an b e i d en t if ied u s ing t h e t h r ee b a s ic f e a tu re s .

I n a dd i t ion , t o m ea su re i n c lu s ion s i ze s , a

c a l ib ra ted e yep iece g r a t icu le o r s c a le w a s n eeded .

T o d e te rm ine c oncen t ra t ion o f

i n c lu s ion s , a n e yep iece g r id o r s t age t h a t m ove s l o ng i tud ina l ly a nd l a te ra l ly i nc a l ib ra ted i n c remen t s w a s r e qu i r ed .

T h i s w ou ld p e rm i t b o th a r ea a nd p o in t c oun t ing t o b e

p e r f o rmed .

F i na l ly , t h ef i e ld m ode l s h ou ld b er e la t ive ly i n expen s ive c ompa r ed w i th l a bo ra to ry m ode l s , a nd b e

r e ad i ly

c omme r c ia l ly

a va i lab le

f o r

2 9

u se

w i thou t

e xpen s ive

o r e x ten s ive

m od i f ica t ion s .

I fi tw a s t oo e xpen s iv e o r n ece s sa ry t o m anuf ac tu re o ne f r om o b scu re ly

a va i lab le c omponen t s ,t h em ic ro scope w ou ld n o tc ome i n to g ene ra la nd r egu la ru sage .

O ve ra l l , t h e c omponen t s s h ou ld b e c onven ien t ly c on ta inab le i n ap o r tab le c a se . T he c a se s hou ld b e r ugged e nough t o w i th s tand f i e ld t r an spo r t a nd u se , c ompac t e nough t o b e c a r r ied a sh and l u ggage o n c omme rc ia l a i rc raf t , y e t l a rg e e nough t oi n c lude a l h a rdwa re a nd c on sumab le sn ece s sa ry f o rp r epa ra t ion a nd a na ly s i so fa tl e a s t 1 00 t h in s e c t ion s .

3 0

CHAPTER TWO DEVELOP MENT OF THE F IELD PORTABLE S YSTE M

O nce t h e s pec if ica t ion s h ad b een s e t f o r t h e v a r iou s c omponen t s a s d e sc r ibed i nt h e p r ev iou s c hap te r , d eve lopmen t a nd t e s t ing w a s b egun .

T he i n i t ia l s t ep w a s t o l o ca te

c omponen t s a pp roach ing t h e c r i te r ia s p ec if i ed , a nd t e s t t h em u nde r l a bo ra to ry c ond i t ion s t o d e te rm ine a ny c hange s o r m od if i ca t ion s w h ich m igh t b e n eeded t o m ee t t h e s p ec if i ca t ion f o rf i e ld u s e . F o l low ing t h i s , t h ek i tw a sr e ady f o rt e s t ing i n af i e ld s i tua t ion . F o r d i scus s ion p u rpo se s , d eve lopmen t a nd t e s t ing i s b r oken d own i n to s e c t ion s c o r r e spond ing t ot h ose u s ed i nC hap te rO ne .

2 . 1 THE S AW B eg inn ing w i th t h e s aw , l i s t ing s o fc omme r c ia l s t ock i s t s i nt h e UK . w e re r e v iewed f o r s u i ta b le l i gh twe igh t p o r tab le m ode l s , w i th t h e s p ec if ied c r i te r ia i nm ind . L og i tech , E van s L ap ida r y , B ueh le r , a nd H i l lqu i s t .

T he se i n c luded

N ume rou s e f i c ien t d i amond l a p ida r y

s aw s s u i tab le f o r t h e l a bo ra to ry w e re f o und , b u t m o s t a r e m uch t o o h eavy f o r f i e ld u s e . O n ly o ne s u i tab le l i gh twe igh t m ode l w a s f o und .

I ti st h e E van s 4 inch C omb i -Saw ,

m anuf ac tu red a nd d i s t r ibu ted b y E van s L ap ida ry Mach ine s o f D a r tf o rd , K en t , UK ( a dd re sse s o fa l s upp l ie r s u s ed a r e p r e sen ted a tt h e e nd o ft h e s e c t ion ) .

I ti ss h own i n

F i gu re 2 . 1 . P owe red b y a2 40 v o l t AC m o to rw ho se s p eed c an b ev a r ied f r om 0t o7 000 R PM , i tw e igh s a bou t 2k g c omp le te . T he u n i t a c cep t sv a r iou s 1 00mm ( 4i n ch ) d i ame te r c i rcu la rb l ade s , f r om d i amond w a f e r ing b l ade st oa b ra s ion w hee l s . I na dd i t ion t oi t sl i gh t w e igh t , i ti sr e la t ive ly c ompac t , m ea su r ing 1 8 x1 8 x9c mh i gh . T he b ody i sm anuf a c tu red o fs t a in le s ss t ee l , a nd ad i s t inc ta dvan tage w i th r e spec tt of i e ld u se i st h a ti ti s av e ry s i mp le a nd b a s ic d e s ign .

I th a s f ew e l ec t ron ic c omponen t s o r c on t ro l s , w h ich m in im i se t h e

p o ten t ia l o fb r eak ing d own i nt h ef i e ld . I t sd r awback sa r em a in ly t h a ti tl a ck sa na r bou ro r h o ld ing d ev ice w i th w h ich t oi mmob i l i se t h e s amp le d ur ing c u t t ing t of a c i l i ta te m a in ta in ing ac u tp a ra l le lt ot h ep l ane o ft h e s aw b l ade ; a nd i ti su nde rpowe red . T he l ow p owe ro ft h e m o to r i sa n a dvan tage i nk eep ing o ve ra l l w e igh t t o am in imum b u t i s ad i sadvan tage b ecause i tc anno t a dequa te ly d r ive ag r ind ing w hee l a nd r e su l t si nv e ry s l ow c u t t ing . T h i s p r ob lem i ss omewha to ve rcome b yt h eh i gh s p eed o ft h e s aw , w h ich p r ov ide s al i gh tb l ade

3 1

w i th i mp roved m omen tum .

A l so , t h e l a ck o f am a te r ia l h o ld ing a t tachmen t c au se s

d if i cu l t ie si nm a in ta in ing c u t sp a ra l le lt ot h es aw b l ade p l ane . I ft h ec u t i sn o tk ep tp a ra l le l t ot h e s aw b l ade , t h eb l ade c an b i nd i nt h em a te r ia l , w i th t h er e su l tan tr i sk o fd amag ing t h e s aw m o to r o r a n e xpen s ive d i amond c u t t ing b l ade .

I tw ou ld b e p o s s ib le t o d e s ign a nd

a dap t ah o ld ing d ev ice t ot h es aw ; b u tt h i sw ou ld e n ta i l ap o s s ib ly e xpen s ive m od if ica t ion . T he se d r awba ck s h oweve r d i d n o t p r ove t o b e i n su rmoun tab le , a nd c ou ld b e o ve rcome u s ing at e chn ique w h ich a no pe ra to rc ou ld e a s i ly l e a rn w i th as ma l la moun to fp r a c t ice .

T he E van ss aw i n c luded ag r ind ing a t tachmen ti nt h es t anda rd p u rcha se p r ice . I tc on s is ted o f ac i rcu la ra t tachmen t s im i la rt ot h es aw b l ade b u tw i th ag r ind ing f a ce o n o ne s i de . T he w hee li sf a ced w i th a na b ra s ive m a te r ia lw h ich a ppea r sn o tt ob e d e s igned f o rg r ind ing a ny h a rd m a te r ia l s s u ch a s c e ram ic s .

G r ind ing c e ram ic m a te r ia l w a s a t temp ted , u s ing a

l o ca l ly -manuf ac tu red a l um in ium p l a tf o rm u pon w h ich t o r e s t t h e m a te r ia l .

T he m a te r ia l

w a s h e ld s qua re ly a ga in s t t h e a b ra s ive w hee l u s ing d oub le s ided t a pe t o s e cu r e i tt o a h o ld ing b l ock . Two p r ob lem sa r o se w i th t h i sa r rangemen t . F i r s t ly , t h es aw m o to rw a sn o t p owe r f u l e nough t o e f i c ien t ly g r ind o f c e ram ic m a te r ia l ; a pp l ica t ion o f e v en s l igh t p r e s su re s l owed t h e m o to r a nd p l aced i tu nde r c on s ide rab le l o ad .

S econd ly , t h e a b ra s ive

o n t h e w hee l m a te r ia l q u ick ly b ecame c l ogged w i th g round c e ram ic s , t ot h e p o in t t h a t i t c ea sed t or emove f u r the rm a te r ia l u n t i l i tw a s c l eaned . Mo reove r , t h e w hee l w a s d if i cu l t t o c l ean .

S ome t hough t w a s t h en g i ven t ou t i l i s ing aw he e l o fd if e ren t m a te r ia l , b u t t h e

l a ck o fp owe r o ft h e m o to r w ou ld l i ke ly h ave a l so r e nde r ed i ti n ef f ec t ive .

R emov ing a

g i ven a moun t o fm a te r ia l w ou ld i ng ene ra l r e qu i re ag i ven a moun t o fp owe r . B ecau se o f t h e l ow p owe r o f t h e m o to r , o t he r w ay s o f r e duc ing s e c t ion t h ickne s se s h ad t o b e e xp lo red .

3 2

F IGURE 2 . 1 E VANS 4 INCH COMB I -SA W S ca le i s1 0 c m .

T he E van s s aw w a s e va lua ted w i th f i ve d if e ren t l ow -concen t ra t ion d i amond b l ade s t o s e lec t a tl e a s t o ne s u i ta b le f o r f i e ld u s e .

Ma in a c cep tab i l i ty c r i te r ia w e re a r e a sonab le

c u t t ing s p eed , r obu s t e nough t o w i th s tand m ino r m i sa l ignmen t s d u r ing c u t t ing w i thou t d amage , a b i l i ty t o f u nc t ion u s ing o n ly w a te r a s al u b r ican t , a nd ar e a sonab le c o s t . b l ade s t e s ted a r e s umma r i sed i n T ab le 2 1 .

T he

T hey w e re s e lec ted a f t e r c on su l t ing

m anuf ac tu re r ' s r e commenda t ion s f o r t h e f i e ld a pp l ica t ion u s ing t h e E van s p or tab le s aw ; w i th t h e e xcep t ion o ft h e E x tec XL 12235 d i amond b l ade . e xpen s ive b l ade d e s igned f o r l ow speed a pp l ica t ion s .

I ti s av e ry h i gh q ua l i ty a nd

A s o ne w a s a va i lab le o n l o an f o r

t e s t ing , i tw a s i n c luded i no r de rt op r ov ide aw ide rb a s i s f o r c ompa r i son . A l l f i ve o ft h e t e s tb l ade sa r ec omme rc ia l ly a va i lab le i nt h e UK .

3 3

TABLE 2 1 D IAMOND SA W B LADES EVALUATED B lade

T h ickne s s

r ice i n UK D iamond Manuf ac turer P i n c l . t axe s c oncen tra t ion

AGST

0 . 5 mm

1 00 ( l ow )

A ga te a nd G ene ra l S t onecu t te r s

£ 96 .00

E x tec XL 12235

0 . 3 mm

l ow

E xce l T ehno log ie s E nf ie ld CT

£ 140 .00

Me teo r

0 . 3 mm

l ow

14 .00 S t a r D iamond £ I ndu s t r ie s , C a r son , CA

F amad

0 . 3 mm

l ow

18 .00 S t a r D iamond £ I n du s t r ie s , C a r son , CA

E van s2 20 G r i t

0 . 3 mm

l ow

12 .00 E van sL ap ida ry £ Mach ine s , K en t , UK . ( D i s t r ibu to r )

E ach b l ade w a s m oun ted i nt h eE van sC omb i -Saw , a nd u sed t oc u t a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s amp le s . Two m ed ium h a rd g r ade s o fc e ram ic f a b r ic w e re u sed , o ne c oa r se a nd o ne f i ne . T he s h e rd sw e re h and -he ld a nd f e dt h rough t h eb l ade a t ar a te s oa sn o tt oc au se t h es peed t o r e duce e xce s s ive ly ; i . e . ar a te w h ich c ou ld b e m a in ta ined w i thou t o ve r load ing t h e s aw mo to r . A sw e l l a sd e te rm in ing t h ee a se o fm ak ing as imp le s t ra igh t c u t , t h ea b i l i ty t oc u ta s l i ce 1 . 5 t o2 . 0 mm t h ick w h i le m a in ta in ing ar e la t ive ly s moo th c u t w a s e va lua ted . Wa te r w a s u sed a s al u b r ican t a nd c oo lan t a sr e commended b y e a ch o ft h eb l ade manuf a c tu re r s . T e s t ing w a s p u re ly q ua l i ta t ive ; a nd c ommen t s w e r e r e co rded r e ga rd ing a ccep tab i l i ty o f e ach . As umma ry o ft h et e s te va lua t ion si sp r e sen ted i nT ab le 2 I I .

3 4

TABLE 2 1 1 S UMMARY OF B LADE E VALUAT IONS AGST

V e ry s l ow c u t t ing s p eed d ue t ob l ade t h ickne s s . P oo r ly b a lanced . Mode ra te ly e xpen s ive . N o tr e commended f o ru s ew i th t h eE van s s aw f o rf i e ld a pp l ica t ion s . '

E x tec XL 12235

F a s te s tc u t t ing s p eed o fa lb l ade st e s ted . Mo s te a s i ly d amaged i n u se , a sn o td e s igned f o rh i gh s p eed a pp l ica t ion s . E xpen s ive . N o t r e commended f o ru se w i th E van ss aw f o rf i e ld a pp l ica t ion s .

Me teo r

Mode ra te ly f a s t c u t t ing s p eed . R ugged ; w i th s tand s s ome f l ex ing a nd b i nd ing . I n expen s ive . G ood v a lue a nd r e commended f o r f i e ld u s ew i th t h eE van sC omb i -Saw .

F amad

Mode ra te ly f a s t c u t t ing s p eed b u t s l owe r t h an t h e Me teo r o rt h e E x tec . R ugged a nd i n expen s ive . B e s tv a lue o ft h ef i v et e s ted a nd r e commended f o rf i e ld u s ew i th t h eE van sC omb i -Saw .

E van s2 20 G r i t

Mode ra te ly f a s t c u t t ing s p eed b u t s l owe r t h an t h e Me teo r o rt h e E x tec . R ugged a nd i n expen s ive . R ea sonab le v a lue a nd r e commended f o rf i e ld u s ew i th t h eE van sC omb i -Saw .

T es t b l ade may n o t h ave b een r ep resen ta t ive o fp roduc t ion mode ls . S ee t ex t .

A s s e en i nt h e s umma ry , t h e t h ree l owe r -p r iced b l ade s , Me teo r , F amad a nd E van s 2 20 G r i t , p r oved t ob et h em o s t s u i tab le f o rf i e ld u s ei nt h eE van sC omb i -Saw f o rt h e c e ram ic f a b r ic st e s ted . A l though n o tt h em o s te f i c ien ti nt e rm so fc u t t ing s p eed , a lt h ree c omb ine l ow c o s t , r obu s tne s s a nd d u rab i l i ty , a nd a dequa te c u t t ing s p eed s w i thou t t h e n eed f o r s p ec ia l m a in tenance o r s t o rage c on s ide ra t ion s . T he t h ree a r e s im i la r i nc on s t ruc t ion a nd d i amond c oncen t ra t ion . T he f a s te s t c u t t ing b l ade w a s t h e E x tec 1 2 355 , w h ich w a s a l so t h e m o s t e xpen s ive .

A s p r ev iou s ly m en t ioned , t h i s b l ade w a s d e s igned f o r l ow speed

a pp l ica t ion s , a sw a s i n d ica ted b y t h e m anuf a c tu re r , b u t s t i l l p roved t ob ev e ry e f i c ien t a t h i gh e rr im s p eed s . E x t r eme c a r ew a sr e qu i red ,h oweve r , t om a in ta in ap a ra l le l c u tb ecau se t h eb l ade c an b e e a s i ly d amaged i ft h e s amp le i ss l i gh t ly t u rned o rt w i s ted d u r ing c u t t ing . T h i sp rob lem c ou ld b el a rge ly o ve rcome w i th t h eu s eo f av i ce o rh o ld ing d ev ice b u i l t i n to t h es aw , w h ich t h eb l ade i sp r obab ly d e s igned f o r . A si ti s av e ry e xpen s ive b l ade , i tw ou ld n o t b e p r ac t ica l t o p u r cha se t wo o r t h ree f o r u s e a s s p a re s i nt h e f i e ld .

Mo reove r , i t

r e qu i re sr e gu la rc l ean ing a nd c a ref u l s t o rage .

T he l e a s te f ec t ive o ft h ef i ve b l ade st e s ted w a st h e AGST . I t sm a in d r awback a ppea red t o b e i t st h ickne s s , 0 . 5 mm , w h ich s l owed t h e c u t t ing c on s ide rab ly .

3 5

F ur the rmo re , t h e t e s t

b l ade w a s n o t w e l l -ba lanced a nd t h e r e su l t ing v i b ra t ion s e xace rba ted t h e s l ow c u t t ing . T h i sb l ade w a s a l so r e la t ive ly v e ry e xpen s ive . H oweve r , f o l low ing t e s t ing , t h ea u tho rw a s i n f o rmed t h a tt h e b l ade t e s ted w a s a n o l de rd e s ign a nd t h a tt h e p r e sen t d e s ign h a s l a rge ly o ve r come t h e p rob lem s e ncoun te red i nt e s t ing . U nf or tuna te ly , a n e xamp le o ft h e n ew e r b l ade w a sn o ta va i lab le f o rt h ep e r iod o ft e s t ing .

T he p ro to type r e cha rgeab le s aw d ev e loped a nd u sed b yH un t a nd G r if f i th s ( 1 989 ) f o ru s e w i th s t one c u t t ing i nt h ef i e ld , e a r l ie rd e sc r ibed , w a sa l so b r ie f ly e va lua ted i nt h el a bo ra to ry f o r c u t t ing a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s . I ti sn o t t h e i n ten t o ft h e p r e sen t r e sea r ch t or e te s t t h e e f i c iency o ft h a t s y s tem , b u tt od e te rm ine w he the r o rn o t i tw ou ld b e s u i tab le f o r u s e i n t h e f i e ld f o r c e ram ic s i n p a r t icu la r .

T he b l ade s e va lua ted a bove w i th t h e E van s

C omb i -Saw w e re t o o l a rge t o b e a c commoda ted b y t h e a r bou r d e s igned b y H un t a nd G r if f i th s , s o t h e e x i s t ing b l ade ( a Mak i ta D iamond S aw B lade 7 24950 -8A , 8 . 65cm i n d i ame te r ) w a s u sed .

A ga in , o ne c oa r se a nd o ne f i ne s amp le o fa r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic

f a br ic w a su sed . T he m o re p owe r f u lm o to ra nd t h eg ea r ing w h ich r e duce st h e8 , 000 R PM m o to r s p eed r e su l ted i n ah i ghe r t o rque a nd m uch f a s te r c u t t ing s p eed t h an h ad b een o b ta ined w i th t h eE van sC omb i -Saw u t i l i s ing a ny o ft h eb l ade st e s ted . B a sed o nt h is b r ief e va lua t ion , i ta ppea r st h a t i tw ou ld b ef u l ly a c cep tab le i nt h ef i e ld f o rc u t t ing c e ram ic s . I n af i e ld s i tua t ion w i thou t a c ce s st oe l ec t r ica l m a in s , t h i sr e cha rgeab le m ode l w ou ld b e v e ry u sef u l p rov ided o ne h ad t h e f a c i l i t ie s t ot r an spo r t as uf ic ien t n umbe r o ff r e sh ly c ha rged b a t te r ie s .

O r , a l te rna t ive ly , p rov i s ion c ou ld b e m ade f o r r e cha rg ing f r om a n a u tomob i le

b a t te ry .

2 . 2 CONSOL IDAT ION AND ADHESION PRODUCTS F o l low ing e s tab l i shmen to ft h es p ec if i ca t ion ss e t o u ti nC hap te rO ne , c omme rc ia l s c ien t if i c s upp ly h ou se s ' p roduc t l i s t sw e re r e v iewed f o ra va i lab le r e s in sw h ich m e tt h eb a s ic c r i te r ia s p ec i f ied a bove . T e s t ing w a se n t i re ly q ua l i ta t ive a nd r e s t r ic ted t op r ac t ica l c on s ide ra t ion s .

T he re a r e t h ree t y pe s o fc o ld c u r ing r e s in s g ene ra l ly i nu se : e poxy , p o lye s te r , a nd a c ry l ic ( Bou sf ie ld 1 992 : 2 3 ) . E ach h a s i t sa dvan tage s a nd d i sadvan tage s . E poxy h a st h e l owe s t v i sco s i ty o ft h e t h ree , i st h e h a rde s t , a nd h a s t h e l owe s t s h r inkage .

F o r t h is r e a son , t h e

e poxy t y pe a ppea red t ob et h eb e s t o ft h et h ree u pon w h ich t oc oncen t ra te t e s t ing . T he se

3 6

t h ree a dvan tage s a r e i mpor tan t :

al ow v i sco s i ty a s su re s ef i c ien t a bso rp t ion i n to t h e

c e ram ic m ic ro s truc tu re f o r c on so l ida t ion , h a rd c u r ing a s su re s as o l id e nd p roduc t f o r g r ind ing a nd l a pp ing t o ap o l ished s u r f ace , a nd al ow s h r inkage m in im ise s s amp le

T ABLE 2 I I I S UMMARY OF COLD CUR ING R ES INS T ESTED F OR F IELD S U ITAB IL ITY S ee t ex tf o rf u r the rd e ta i ls a nd s pec i f ica t ions R e s in

T ype

A ra ld i te MY -753 '

D emo tec

e poxy

a c r y l ic

C ommen t s

M ix ing T emp . C ure R a t io ' d ime eg .C . T

C on so l .

1 0 :1

1 6 -18

4d ay s+

g ood

t oo s l ow t oc u re

5 : 1 '

1 6 -18

2d ay s+

g ood

t oo s l ow t oc u re

5 : 13

5 0

2 4 h r s+

g ood

a ccep tab le

1 : 23

1 6 -18

2 0 m in

p oo r

p oo r

Ef f i c iency

c on so l ida t ion E po -Kw ick

e poxy

5 : 13

1 6 -18

4h r s+

p oo r

p oo r c on so l ida t ion

E po -Tek 3 01 e poxy

4 : 13

1 6 -18

2 4 h r s+

e xce l len t

g ood c u r ing a nd c on so l ida t ion

4 : 13

6 0

1 . 5 h r

e xce l len t

e xce l len t c u r ing a nd c on so l ida t ion

2 . 5 :1

1 6 18

2 4 h r s+

e xce l len t

g ood c u r ing a nd c on so l ida t ion

2 . 5 :1 S cand ip la s t

p o lye s te r 2 . 5 :1 '

6 0

1 . 0 h r

e xce l len t

e xce l len t c u r ing a nd c on so l ida t ion

1 6 18

6 0 m in

p oo r

p oo r c on so l ida t ion

S cand ip lex

e poxy

2 . 5 :1 3

1 6 18

1 7 h r

p oo r

p oo r c on so l ida t ion

2 .5 :1 3

8 0

1h r

p oo r

p oo r c on so l ida t ion

S cand iqu ick

a c ry l ic

1 : 23

1 6 18

2 0 m in

1p a r ts r e s in t oh a rdene rb y v o lume , -w i th h a rdene r HY 9 56 manu fac tu rers r e commended m ix ing r a t ios

3 7

p oo r

p oo r c on so l ida t ion

d i s tu rbance d ue t om ovemen t sw i th in t h ei mp regnan t( J im 1 985 : 5 99 ) . W i th r e spec tt ot h e l a t te r c ha rac te r i s t ic , c au t ion h ad t o b e e xe rc i sed w i th q u ick se t t ing r e s in s s u ch a s t h e a c ry l ic s , b ecau se c on t ra c t ion c an a l so i n c r ea se w i th r e duced s e t t ing t ime s ( Bou sf ie ld 1 992 : 1 7 ) .

T ab le 2 I I I l i s t s s e ven c o ld c u r ing r e s in s s e lec ted f o r l a bo ra to ry t e s t ing .

T he se a r e t h e

r e s in s w hose w r i t ten s p ec if ica t ion s g ene ra l ly m e t t h o se s e t o u t i nC hap te r O ne a nd t h e f o rego ing b ef o re b e ing s u b jec ted t o t e s t ing .

T he l i s t i sn o t c on s ide red e xhau s t ive ; i ti s

p o s s ib le t h a t t h e re e x i s t o t he r s w h ich w e re n o t r e vea led i nt h e s e a rch .

H oweve r , t h e

s e a rch d i d c on s i s t o f c on su l t ing l a bo ra to r ie s a nd t e chn ic ian s i n vo lved i n m ak ing t h in s e c t ion s , a nd t h e m a jo r m anuf ac tu re r s a nd d i s t r ibu to r s o fm oun t ing s y s tem s a nd s upp l ie s . A l so , t h e s e a rch w a s l i m i ted t o UK . a v a i lab i l i ty ; f u r the r s ou r ce s m ay b e a va i lab le i no t he r c oun t r ie s .

F o r e a ch o ft h e r e s in s s h own , t h e f i r s t t e s t w a s t o d e te rm ine e a ch o ft h e i r a b so rp t ion o r c on so l ida t ing e f i c ienc ie s w hen a pp l ied t o a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s .

N o p ub l i shed

i n f o rma t ion o nt h e se c ha ra c te r is t ic sw a s a va i lab le . E ach r e s in w a sm ixed a cco rd ing t ot h e m anuf ac tu re r ' ss p ec if ica t ion s ;w i th t h ee xcep t ion t h a ta lm ea su r ing a nd m ix ing r a t io sw e r e d one b y v o lume a nd n o t b y w e igh t a sw a s r e commended b y s ome o ft h e m anuf ac tu re r s . T he r e a son f o rt h i s e xcep t ion w a st om in im i se t h ea moun t o fe qu ipmen t r e qu i red , a nd t h a t o ne w ou ld n o tw an tt ot r an spo r t ad e l ica te w e igh sca le t oa na r chaeo log ica l s i t e . E ach w a s t h o rough ly m ixed i n a1 0m 1 d i spo sab le p l a s t ic c up f o r 2 3 m inu te s t o e n su re e f ec t ive c omb ina t ion o ft h e r e s in a nd i t s h a rdene r .

Two t h in ( 2 -3 mm i nt h ickne s s ) c u t t ing s o f

c e ram ic s , o ne c oa r se a nd o ne v e ry f i ne g r a ined f a b r ic , w e r e p r epa red o n ad i amond s aw . T he se w e re e i the ri mme r sed i nt h e m ixed r e s in , o ra pp l ied t ot h e s u rf ace o ft h ec u t t ing s i n t h e m anne r n o rma l ly u s ed f o rc on so l ida t ion o fc e ram ic si np r epa ra t ion f o rt h in s e c t ion ing ; o rb o th . E ach w a s t h en a lowed t oc u re a t' r oom ' t empe ra tu re ( 1 6 t o 1 8 d eg ree s Ci nt h e I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy t h in s e c t ion ing l a bo ra to ry ) u n t i l c omp le te ly h a rd . Whe re c u r ing t i me s a tl a bo ra to ry t empe ra tu re sw e re i ne xce s s o ft h e d e s i red m ax imum o f2 4 h ou r s , t h e e xpe r imen t o n t h a t r e s in a tt h a t t empe ra tu re w a s d i scon t inued . M ix ing r a t io s w e re t h en a l te red o r h i ghe r t empe ra tu re s w e re a pp l ied a nd t h e p r oce s s r e pea ted .

A s p r ev iou s ly

d i scu s sed , i tw a s d e s i red t h a t a ux i l ia ry h ea t ing s hou ld n o tb er e qu i red f o r e f ec t ive c u r ing ;

3 8

i no rde rt o m in im i se t h e a moun t o ff i e ld e qu ipmen t n eeded . N eve r the le s s , i ns ome c a se s t e s t ing w a s c onduc ted a th i ghe r t empe ra tu re s , b ecau se o f t en i nt h e f i e ld i ti sp o s s ib le t o i n c rea se t empe ra tu re s s l i gh t ly u s ing s i mp le r oom h ea te r s o r p l ac ing s amp le s i nt h e s u n . F o l low ing c u r ing , s amp le s w e re c u t t h rough i nc r o s s s e c t ion w i th a d i amond s aw a nd e xam ined u nde r ar e f lec ted l i gh t m ic ro scope a t4 0X m agn if ica t ion t od e te rm ine t h e d ep th o fp ene t ra t ion o ft h e e poxy i n to t h ec e ram ic m a te r ia l . I ft h e d ep th o fp ene t ra t ion w a sl e s s t h an a bou t o ne m i l l ime t re , t h e r e s in w a s r e jec ted a su n su i tab le f o r u s e i nc on so l ida t ing a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s , a nd f u r the rt e s t ing w a s n o t c onduc ted . A t d ep th s l e s st h an t h i s , d if i cu l t ie s w ou ld b el i ke ly t ob e e n coun te red i no b ta in ing as l i ce t h a tw ou ld h o ld t oge the r d u r ing c u t t ing .

Q ua l i ta t ive a s pec t s o f t h e t e s t ing i n c luded r e co rd ing c ommen t s w i th

r e spec t t o e a se o fm ix ing , w he the r s p ec ia l c ond i t ion s e . g . v en t i la t ion w ou ld b e r e qu i red , e t c .

R e su l t so ft h et e s t ing a r es umma r i sed i nT ab le 2 I I I . O ft h e s e ven t e s ted , o n ly t wo p r oved t ob ea c cep tab le f o rf i e ld u s e : A ra ld i te MY 7 53 u s ed w i th H a rdene r HY 9 56 , a nd E po -Tek 3 0 1 . T he r ema inde rf a i led t op ene t ra te f a re nough i n to t h e c e ram ic m a te r ia l t oe f ec t ive ly c on so l ida te i ta nd w e re t h e r ef o re r e jec ted .

I n m o s t c a se s , p ene t ra t ion o ft h e r e s in i n to

e a ch o f t h e c e ram ic s e c t ion s w a s i mmea su rab ly s ma l l , a nd c l ea r ly i n ef f ec t ive f o r c on so l ida t ion . T he m a jo r i ty o ft h e c o ld c u r ing r e s in s o n t h e p r e sen t m a rke t a r e i n tended f o r e mbedd ing m e ta l lu rg ica l s amp le s f o r p o l i sh ing ; a pp l ica t ion s w h ich d o n o t r e qu i re t h e l owe r v i sco s i t ie s n ece s sa ry f o r c on so l ida t ing p o rou s m a te r ia l s s u ch a s a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s . T h i si se s pec ia l ly t r ue o fS cand ip la s t , S cand iqu ick , a nd S cand ip lex .

W i th r e spec tt oc u r ing t i me sa t' r oom 't empe ra tu re s( 1 6 18 d eg ree s Ci nt h el a bo ra to ry ) , i n m o s t c a se s i tw a s o b se rved t h a t c u r ing o ccu r red g ene ra l ly i na c co rdance w i th e ach r e s in ' s s p ec if i ca t ion w hen i ni t sm ix ing v e s se l , b u tn o tw hen s p read t h in ly o n ac e ram ic s amp le o r g l a s s s l i de .

When s p read t h in ly , t h e r e s in s r ema ined s t i cky t o t h e t o uch l o ng a f t e r t h e

s p ec if ied c u r ing p e r iod h ad p a s sed . I nt h ep o lyme r i sa t ion p roce s s , t h e re i sh ea t g ene ra ted w h ich p roduce st h e s o l id p l a s t ic . I ns ome o ft h ef a s t se t t ing r e s in st h i s c an b e a sh i gh a s 1 00 d eg ree s C( Bou sf ie ld 1 992 : 2 1 ) . F o rt h i s r e lea se o ft h e rma l e ne rgy t ob e e f ec t ive i n r a i s ing t h e t empe ra tu re a nd s o a c ce le ra t ing t h e p o lyme r i sa t ion r e ac t ion s , i ti sn ece s sa ry t h a t t h e r e s in m ix tu r e b e p l a ced i n am ix ing c up o rv e s se l w h ich a low s ac r i t ica l m a s s o f

3 9

m ixed r e s in t ob ec oncen t ra ted i no rde rt oc on ta in t h eh ea ta nd a low i tt ob u i ld u p . When m ixed r e s in s w e re s p read o n to ac e ram ic s amp le , t h e ref o re , t h i s r i se i nt empe ra tu re c ou ld n o tb ea t ta ined ; t h i sm ay h ave c on t r ibu ted t ot h el a ck o fe f ec t ive c u r ing i nt h e se i n s tance s . I na dd i t ion , t h el ow t empe ra tu re o ft h el a bo ra to ry m ay h ave b een af a c to r .

I nl a te r a pp l ica t ion su s ing E po -Tek 3 0 1 i nt h e h o t te rs e a son s o fP ak i s tan a nd T u rkey ( s ee f i e ld t e s t ing s e c t ion s f o l low ing ) , r e s in s s p read t h in ly o n c e ram ic c u t t ing s c u red r e ad i ly a t a mb ien t t empe ra tu re s i nm uch s h o r te r t i me p e r iod s t h an t h ose a t ta ined a tt h e l a bo ra to ry r oom t empe ra tu re s . A l so , J ohn son ( 1 992 : 1 85 ) f o und t h a t S cand ip la s t c u red s a t i sf ac to r i ly i nc ond i t ion se ncoun te red i nl ow land T ha i land i nA p r i l -May , a l though i tw a si n ef f ec t ive a s ac on so l ida t ing a gen t .

O ft h e t wo a c cep tab le e pox ie s , A ra ld i te a nd E po -Tek 3 01 , t h e

l a t te r p roved t ob e t h e m o s t e f ec t ive . T he E po -Tek 3 0 1 h ad al owe r v i sco s i ty a tr oom t empe ra tu re s , w h i le t h e A ra ld i te w a s m o s t e f ec t ive f o r c on so l ida t ion w hen h ea ted t o a bou t 4 0t o5 0d eg ree sC . H oweve r ,b o th p o s se s sed a c cep tab le a b so rp t ion c ha rac te r is t ic s i nc e ram ic s s e c t ion s , a nd , a s sum ing as i mp le l o ca l h ea t s ou rce w a s a va i lab le , t h e A ra ld i te w ou ld p robab ly b e e qua l ly a se f ec t iv e i nt h e f i e ld . A ra ld i te i sh yg ro scop ic , h oweve r( t h i s w a sn o te va lua ted ) , a nd t h e ref o r es hou ld b ef u r the re va lua ted b ef o re a t temp t ing t ou s ei ti n t h ef i e ld , p a r t icu la r ly u nde r h um id c ond i t ion s . B ecau se o ft h i s , a nd b ecau se E po -Tek 3 0 1 h ad s upe r io r c on so l ida t ion c ha rac te r i s t ic s a ta mb ien t t empe ra tu re s , i ti st h e r e commended r e s in o u to ft h es e ven t e s ted .

E po -Tek 3 01 w a s f ound t o c u re f a s te r w hen m ixed i nt h e r a t io o f2 . 5 :1 r a the r t h an t h e m anuf ac tu re r ' sr e commended r a t io o f4 . 0 :1 . A t 6 0 °C ,c u r ing t i me s i mp roved f r om 1 . 5 t o 1 . 0 h ou r s w i th t h e c hange i n m ix ing r a t io .

T he e f ec t o f t h e c hanged r a t io o n t h e

R ef rac t ive I n dex o ft h e r e su l t ing p o lyme ri sn o t k nown . R ef rac t ive I nd ice s a r e k nown t o c hange w i th m any f a c to r s , e . g . a ge ing ( Rof fa nd S co t t 1 971 , c i ted i nH o ne 1 987 : 2 7 ) .

Af t e rA ra ld i te MY 7 53 a nd E po -Tek 3 01 w e re d e te rm ined t ob em o s t s u i tab le f o rf i e ld u se w i th r e spec t t o c on so l ida t ion c ha rac te r i s t ic s , t h ey w e re f u r the r e va lua ted p r epa r ing a nd a na ly s ing t h in s e c t ion s i nt h e n o rma l m anne r .

T he r ema inde r w e re d eemed u n su i tab le i n

t h e se a s pec t s , a nd e l im ina ted f r om f u r the r e va lua t ion .

A rchaeo log ica l c e ram ic s amp le s

w e re c on so l ida ted u s ing e ach o ft h e t wo a c cep tab le r e s in s a nd p o l i shed o n g l a s s p l a te s

4 0

u s ing t h e s t anda rd t h ree g r ade s o fa l um ina p o l i sh ing p owde r s . I tw a s f ound t h a t s amp le s c on so l ida ted u s ing t h o se r e s in s w e re e qua l ly a s w o rkab le a s t h o se p r epa red u s ing t h e t r ad i t iona l r e s in s , P e t ropoxy a nd C anada B a l sam .

R equ i red l e v e l s o f p o l i sh ing w e re

a c comp l i shed w i th r e la t ive e a se . T he p r epa r ed s e c t ion sw e re t h en m oun ted o ng l a s s s l i de s u s ing t h e s ame r e s in a s w a s u sed t o c on so l ida te t h em .

T he t h in s e c t ion p r epa ra t ion

p roce s s w a s c on t inued w i th g r ind ing a nd p o l i sh ing t h e m oun ted s e c t ion s , a nd t h en m oun t ing t h e c ove rs l i p s . I tw a s f o und t h a ta l o ft h e se s t ep s c ou ld b e a c comp l i shed w i th t h es ame e a se a sw i th u s ing t h et r ad i t iona lr e s in s .

2 . 3 THE MICROSCOPE D eve lopmen t i nr e spec t o ft h e f i na l s t ep i nt h et h in s e c t ion ing p r oce s s , t h a t o fa na ly s i s , i s n ow c on s ide red . T he f i r s tt wo s t ep s e nab le t h e s e c t ion s t ob e m ade i nt h e f i e ld , w h ich i n s ome c a se sw i l l s uf i ce . I nt h em a jo r i ty o fc a se s , h ow eve r , i ti sd e s i rab le t h a t a na ly s i st a ke p l ace b o th i nt h ef i e ld a nd i nt h eh ome l a bo ra to ry , a sw a st h ec a se i nt h ep r e sen tr e sea rch .

A s i n d ica ted e a r l ie r , i n c lu s ion o f a n a na ly t ica l c a pab i l i ty f o r t h e f i e ld d emand s a f i e ld -por tab le p o la r i s ing m ic ro scope . F i e ld -por tab le p o la r i s ing m ic ro scope sa r en o tr e ad i ly f o und o n t h e c omme rc ia lm a rke t . As e a rch w a s c onduc ted w h ich r e vea led t h e re a r en one w h ich m ee tt h es p ec if i ca t ion s , a tl e a s ti nm a rke ted f o rm . T he s e a rch c on s i s ted o f ar e v iew o fs c ien t if ic s u pp ly h ou se s a nd o p t ica l s h op s , a nd c on tac t w i th o t he r u n ive r s i t ie s i n vo lved i n c e ram ic a nd g eo log ica l p e t rog raphy . U n ive r s i ty s e ve ra l y ea r s a go .

O ne p o r tab le m ode l w a s u sed b y t h e O pen

I tw a s b a sed o n t h e McA r thu r d e s ign ( s ee d e sc r ip t ion

f o l low ing ) a nd w a s i n tended f o r u se b y s t uden t s a t h ome t o g a in a n a pp rec ia t ion o f p e t rog raphy . A ppa r en t ly i tw a s s u pp l ied a sp a r t o ft h e s t udy p ackage a nd u sed w i th t h in s e c t ion st h a t w e re a l so p r ov ided . I no rde rt ok eep c o s t sv e ry l ow , b ecau se o ne h ad t ob e s u pp l ied t oe a ch s t uden t , t h eo p t ic s o ft h em ic ro scope w e re b e low p rof e s s iona l s t anda rd s . A s at oo l t oi n t roduce h ome s t uden t st ot h et e chn ique s o fp e t rog raph ic a na ly s is i to f e red a n e xce l len t c omp rom i se .

I tw a s e xam ined a nd e v a lua ted f o r t h e p r e sen t r e sea rch a nd

f o und t ob ew ho l ly i n adequa te f o rd e ta i led p r of e s s iona lp e t rog raph ic a na ly se s .

O n ly t wo p o r tab le t r an sm i t ted l i gh t m ic ro scope sw h ich c ou ld b e s a t i sf ac to r i ly m od if ied t o m ee t t h e s p ec if ica t ion s s e t o u t e a r l ie r w e re a va i lab le : t h e K i rk T echno logy McA r thu r

4 1

B io log ica l M ic ro scope , a nd t h e S w if t FM 31 F i e ld M ic ro scope .

T hey a r e s hown i n

F i gu re s 2 . 2 a nd 2 . 3 r e spec t ive ly . B o th m ode l s p o s se s s e xce l len t o p t ic s a nd a r e o fg ood q ua l i ty m anuf ac tu re . A dd i t iona l ly , b o th w e re f o und t ob er e la t ive ly e a s i ly c onve r t ib le t oa p o la r i s ing c apab i l i ty .

F IGURE 2 .2 T HE McARTHUR M ICROSCOPE W i th r o ta t ing s t age a nd p o la r ise rm od i f ica t ions i n s ta l led . G l id ing s t age i si nt he f o reg round .

R eca l l ing t h e d i scu s s ion f r om C hap te r O ne , t h e a dd i t iona l f e a tu re s o f ap o la r i s ing m ic roscope o ve r t h ose o f ar e gu la r t r an sm i t ted l i gh t m ic ro scope i n c lude i nt h e m a in a p o la r i se r , a n a na ly se r , ar o ta t ing s t age , aB e r t rand l e n s , a n a ux i l ia ry c onden se r , a nd s l o t s

4 2

f o r a c ce s so ry p l a te s . Mod if i ca t ion o f a( p o r tab le o rl a bo ra to ry ) r e gu la r t r an sm i t ted l i gh t m ic ro scope t o i n c lude a l o ft h e se f e a tu re s w ou ld h ave i n cu r red s u b s tan t ia l r e de s ign a nd c on com i tan t d eve lopmen t a nd m anuf ac tu r ing c o s t s .

E xam ina t ion o ft h e s t ruc tu re a nd

c on f igu ra t ion o fb o th o ft h e f i e ld m ic ro scope s s h owed t h a t i n s ta l la t ion o fc e r ta in o ft h e a bov e f e a tu re s w ou ld e n ta i l s i gn if i can t ly g r ea te r c o s t s a nd d i ff i cu l t ie s t h an o t he r s . C on sequen t ly , i n v i ew o f k eep ing m od if i ca t ion s t o am in imum , ac omp rom i se w a s n ece s sa ry .

I n a na ly s i s o fm ine ra l s i nt h in s e c t ion , t h e u sua l s e quence i st o e xam ine t h e

s l i de f i r s t i np l ane p o la r i sed l i gh t ( PPL ) a nd i nc r o s sed p o la r s (U 'L ) .

T he m a jo r i ty o f

i d en t if i ca t ion s r e qu i red i n af i e ld s i tua t ion c an b e a c comp l i shed b y e xam in ing t h e t h in s e c t ion wh i le r o ta t ing i to n t h e m ic ro scope s t age u nde r e a ch o ft h e se l i gh t c ond i t ion s . Mod if i ca t ion s t o at r an sm i t ted l i gh t m ic ro scope n ece s sa ry t op e rm i t t h i s a r e r e s t r ic ted t o i n s ta l la t ion o f ap o la r i se r , a na na ly se r , a nd ar o ta t ing s t age . T he r ema in ing f e a tu re s c an b e o m i t t ed w h i le s t i l l r e ta in ing t h e c apab i l i ty t o i d en t if y am a jo r i ty o f m ine ra l s .

F o r

p a r t icu la r ly t r oub le some i d en t i f ica t ion s , t h in s e c t ion s c an u sua l ly b er e -exam ined l a te ri na f u l ly -equ ipped l a bo ra to ry w i thou ts e r iou sl o s so fd i agno s t ic c apac i ty i nt h ef i e ld .

F IGURE 2 .3 T HE SW IFT FM -3 1 F IELD M ICROSCOPE

4 3

B o th t h e McA r thu r a nd t h e S w if t m ic ro scope w e re c on s ide red f o r mod if i ca t ion .

T he

McA r thu ri st h em o re e xpen s ive , a t£ 492 f o rt h eb a s ic m ode l , c ompa red w i th £ 322 f o rt h e S w if t Mode l FM -31 ( 1 994 p r ice s ) . T he McA r thu r i st h em o re c ompa c t a nd l i gh te r o ft h e t wo , a nd i th ad m o r e o p t iona l a c ce s so r ie s a va i lab le w h ich w ou ld p e rm i t u se o f t h e m ic ro scope i no the r f i e ld a pp l ica t ion s , s u ch a s a r e d i scu s sed b e low .

T hey o f e r s im i la r

m agn if i ca t ion r a nge s o fa bou t 4 0x t o 1 000x , a l though t h eu ppe r e nd o ft h a t r a nge i sn o t n o rma l ly r e qu i red f o r m ine ra l i d en t if i ca t ion .

B o th o f e r e xce l len t o p t ic s .

D e s ign a nd

i n s ta l la t ion o f ar o ta t ing s t age m od i f ica t ion o n t h e S w if t w ou ld h ave e n ta i led a m o r e s ub s tan t ia lm od if ica t ion , a st h e re i sn on a tu ra lm oun t ing p l ace f o ri t ,a si st h ec a se w i th t h e McA r thu r .

Ar o ta t ing s t age c ou ld b e i n s ta l led o n t h e s t age m oun t o ft h e S w if t u s ing

e x i s t ing m oun t ing h o le s , b u t i tw ou ld h ave t o b e ac omp le te ly n ew d e s ign t o a low f o r m a in ta in ing t h e s l i de c e n t ra l ly u nde rt h eo b jec t ive a si ti sr o ta ted u nde re xam ina t ion . T h i s i sd ue t o am a jo r d if e rence i nt h e d e s ign o ft h e p l a te u t i l i sed f o r c hang ing o b jec t ive s ; t h e McA r thu r u se s as l i d ing p l a te ( d e sc r ibed b e low ) , a nd t h e S w if t u s e s ar o ta t ing b a r r e l s im i la rt ot h el a bo ra to ry m ode l s . T he d e s ign u s ed o nt h e McA r thu rp rov ide s a ni d ea lb a se u pon w h ich t o m oun t ar o ta t ing s t age .

Af i na l c on s ide ra t ion i nt h e s e lec t ion o f t h e

McA r thu ro ve rt h e S w if tw a st h en a tu re o ft h ea r t if i c ia l l i gh tu n i t . T he McA r thu rl i gh t ing u n i t u t i l i se s ah a logen b u lb w h ich p r ov ide s a n i n ten se w h i te l i gh t , a nd t h e S w if t u se s a n o rma l i n cande scen t b u lb .

T he u s e o f a s w h i te a l i gh t a s p o s s ib le p rov ide s e a s ie r

i d en t if i ca t ion o fm ine ra l s( B . R obe r t s , p e r s . c omm . ) . Wh i le t h e S w if tc ou ld b em od if ied t o i n c lude ah a logen s ou rce , i tw ou ld h ave e n ta i led y e t af u r the rm od if i ca t ion . T he McA r thu r m ic ro scope s h own i nF i gu re 2 . 2h a st h er o ta t ing s t age m od if ica t ion i n s ta l led .

T he Mc A r thu r u n i t t e s ted w a s o b ta ined f r om t h e m anuf ac tu re r , K .W .K i rk a nd S on sL td o fM i l ton , C amb r idge . U nf o r tuna te ly , s i nce t h e d a te o fp u rcha se i nN ovembe r 1 993 , t h e f i rm h a sg one i n to r e ce ive r sh ip . A tt h et i me o fw r i t ing , t h ew ind ing u p o ft h ea f a i r so ft h e c ompany h a sn o ty e tb een c omp le ted . T he McA r thu rm ic ro scope ' sm a in d i s t r ibu to r , A ga r S c ien t i f ic L im i ted ( s ee T ab le I V a tt h e e nd o ft h i s s e c t ion f o r a dd re s s ) h a s i n d ica ted t h a t t h e l i cen se f o rm anuf a c tu re i st ob e s o ld a s ac ompany a s se t a nd t h a tt h e p u rcha se ro ft h e l i cen se a nd p a ten tw i l lb er e sum ing m anuf a c tu re i nt h en ea rf u tu re . A ga rp l an st oc on t inue t ob et h em a in d i s t r ibu to r , s of u tu re a va i lab i l i ty s hou ld n o tb ecome ap rob lem .

4 4

T he McA r thu rB io log ica l m ic ro scope w a s o r ig ina l ly d e s igned b y J ohn McA r thu r i n1 9 32 f o rp e rf orm ing m ed ica l d i agnose su nde r u nf avou rab le c ond i t ion s ( Wa t t 1 993 : 2 7 ) . I ti sa t r an sm i t ted l i gh t m ic ro scope w h ich a ch ieve s i t s c ompac tne s s b y f o ld ing t h e o p t ica l p a th i n to as ma l le r s p ace , a ss h own s c hema t ica l ly i nF i gu re 2 . 4 .

T he S w if t FM -31 u se s t h e

s ame p r inc ip le . At r ad i t iona l s i mp le m i r ro r , o r a n o p t iona l i n teg ra l l i gh t s ou rce p owe red b yt wo AA b a t te r ie sa nd f e a tu r ing ah a logen b u lb , p r ov ide si l um ina t ion . T h i s l i gh tt r ave l s d ownwa rd t h rough t h e a d ju s tab le i r i s a nd t h e c onden se r , a nd p a s se s t h rough t h e s l i de m oun ted o n t h e s t age , t h en o n t h rough o ne o ft h e o b jec t ive s , d e f lec ted b yt wo m i r ro r s i n t h eo p t ica ll i gh tt u be a nd f i na l ly u pwa rd st h rough t h eo cu la r . T h ree h i gh q ua l i ty o b jec t ive s a r em oun ted o n as l i d ing p l a te u nde rt h e s t age a nd a r e a va i lab le i nm agn if ica t ion s o f1 0x , 4 0x , a nd 1 00x . C oup led w i th t h es t anda rd 1 0x o cu la r , t h i sp rov ide so ve ra l lm agn if ica t ion s o f 1 00x , 4 00x , a nd 1 000x .

O p t iona l 5 x o r e a s i ly o b ta inab le o t he r s i ze s c an e x tend o r

m od if y t h i s r a nge . T he u n i t i sf o cu sed w i th k nu r led k nob s s i tua ted o n e i the r s i de o ft h e h ou s ing .

I n m ic roscope s , t h e i n i t ia l m agn if ica t ion ( t he m agn if i ca t ion p rov ided b y t h e o b jec t ive ) e qua l st h e o p t ica lt u be l e ng th d i v ided b yt h ef o ca l l e ng th o ft h eo b jec t ive ( Ke r r 1 977 : 2 8 ) . B e cause t h e o p t ica l t u be l e ng th h a s b een s hor tened t o a ch ieve t h e c ompac tne s s o ft h e McA r thu r r e la t ive t o l a bo ra to ry m ode l s , s h o r te r f o ca l l e ng th o b jec t ive s a r e e mp loyed t o m a in ta in c ompa rab le m agn if i ca t ion l e ve l s .

T h i s u nf or tuna te ly r e su l t s i ns hor te r w o rk ing

d i s tance s w i th t h e McA r thu r , b u t b ecau se t h e s e c t ion s a r e t h in , t h i s d oe s n o t p r e sen t a p r ob lem i na pp l ica t ion t of i e ld p e t rog raphy .

T he b a s ic McA r thu r m ic ro scope w e igh s 6 30 g r am s a nd m ea su re s 1 0 c m x9 c m x 5c m . A tt h e t ime o fp u rcha se , o p t iona l e x t ra s i n c luded t h e l i gh t u n i t d e sc r ibed e a r l ie r , ag l id ing s t age ( a s s e en i nt h e f o r eg round o fF i gu re 2 . 2 ) f o re a sy a nd a c cu ra te m ovemen t o fs l i de s w hen t he r o ta t ing s t age i sn o tb e ing u s ed , ac ame ra a t tachmen t , at r ipod , a nd ap ro tec t ive c a r ry ing c a se .

T he g l id ing s t age i s av e ry u s ef u l a dd i t ion f o r o t he r a r chaeo log ica l

a pp l ica t ion s i nt h e f i e ld s u ch a su se -wea r a na ly s i s u s ing a c e ta te p ee l r e p l ica s ( Chand le r 1 994 : 4 5 -6 )o re xam ina t ion o fi mbedded b o tan ica ls amp le s .

4 5

L IGHT SOURCE

e

POLAR ISER OCULAR

CONDENSER

ANALYSER

S TAGE V

OBJECT IVES

L IGHT TUBE

M ir ro rs

F IGURE 2 .4 SCHEMAT IC REPRESENTAT ION OF THE McARTHUR M ICROSCOPE A s mod i f ied f o rp e t rog raph ic f i e ld u se

T he McA r thu r m ode l w a s m od if ied t o i n c lude ap o la r i se r , a na ly se r , a nd r o ta t ing s t age . A dd i t ion o ft h e p o la r i se r p r e sen ted n o s e r iou s p r ob lem ; i te a s i ly f i t s i n to t h e f i l te r s l o t o n t h em ic roscope c onden se ra rm . H igh t r an sm is s ion P o la ro id s h ee t sw e re c u tt of i ti n to t h e a f o remen t ioned s l o t , e n su r ing t h a tt h e a x i s o fp o la r i sa t ion w a sp a ra l le l w i th t h e c onden se r a rm .

As e cond p i ece o fh i gh t r an sm i s s ion P o la ro id s h ee t w a s c u t t of i ti n s ide t h e o cu la r

h ou s ing t os e rve a st h e a na ly se r . I tw a si n se r ted i n s ide a tt h eb a se o ft h e o cu la rd r aw tube b e low t h e o cu la r . T h i s p o s i t ion e nab led r o ta t ion o ft h eo cu la rd r aw tube t o ap o s i t ion s u ch t h a t t h e P o la ro id a na ly se ra x i s w a s p e rpend icu la rt ot h e p o la r i sa t ion o ft h e l i gh t f r om t h e p o la r i se r , t o a ch ieve c r o s sed p o la r s .

T he a na ly se r w a s h e ld i n p l a ce w i th a s i mp le

n eop rene 0 r ing w ho se o u t s ide d i ame te r ( 2 3 mm ) w a s s l i gh t ly l a rge r t han t h e i n s ide d i ame te r o ft h e o cu la r d r aw tube .

T h i s p rov ided t h e r i gh t a moun t o ft e n s ion a ga in s t t h e

i n s ide o ft h e d r aw tube t oh o ld t h e a na ly se r i np l a ce b u t s t i l l a lowed i tt ob e r emoved o r c hanged i fr e qu i red . I th e ld t h ea na ly se ri np l a ce s ot h a t c r o s sed p o la r s c ou ld b e a c h ieved a ta n e a s i ly i d en t if iab le p o s i t ion , i . e . w hen t h ef l a tp a r t o ft h e d r aw tube w a s f l u sh w i th t h e m ic ro scope b ody . M ino r r e a l ignmen t s , i fr e qu i red , c ou ld b e a c comp l i shed v i a r o ta t ion o f

4 6

t h e d r aw tube a sd e sc r ibed a bove . T h i s e n su red t h a t u nnece s sa ry t i me w a s n o t c on sumed i ns e a r ch ing f o rt h ec o r rec tp o s i t ion e a ch t i me t h er e sea rche rc hanged f r om P PL t oX PL .

Ap ro to type r o ta t ing s t age w a s d eve loped b a sed u pon a n e a r l ie r m ode l d e s igned b y D r . D af ydd G r if f i th s o f t h e I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon .

T ha t

o r ig ina l d e s ign w a s n ece s sa r i ly l i m i ted t ol owe rm agn if i ca t ion s d ue t ot h e a f o remen t ioned r e s t r ic ted w o rk ing d i s tance si mpo sed b yt h em ic ro scope d e s ign . I tw a se f ec t ive i nm ine ra l i d en t if i ca t ion s a tm agn if i ca t ion su s ing t h e 1 0x o b jec t ive , b u tw hen u s ing o b jec t ive sg r ea te r t h an 1 0x t h e t h in s e c t ion i n te rf e red w i th t h e o b jec t ive . m ine ra l i n c lu s ion s .

T h i s r e s t r ic ted i d en t if i ca t ion o f

Mo r eove r , i td i d n o t a low a c cu ra te a r ea o r p o in t c oun t s t o b e

c onduc ted , t h u s l i m i t ing f a b r ic a na ly se s .

T he n ew p ro to type w a s m anuf ac tu red i n

c o l labo ra t ion w i th t h e m ic ro scope m anuf a c tu re rK i rk T echn o lo g y , a nd i ss hown i nF i gu re 2 . 5 .

I t i s m ade f r om a s i ng le p i ece o f a l um in ium a nd e ng raved w i th 3 60 d eg ree

g r adua t ion s , i ni n c remen t s o fo ne d eg r ee .

A n i n dex m a rke r a t tache s t o t h e m ic ro scope

b ody t op rov ide ap o in t a ga in s t w h ich t or e ad s t age p os i t ion s w hen m ea su r ing e x t inc t ion a ng le s . T he s t age m oun t s o n t h e c onden se rh ou s ing . T o i n s ta l l i t ,i ti sn ece s sa ry t of i r s t r emove t h e l amp h ou s ing , a nd t h e c onden se r . T he s t anda rd s t age m u s t a l so b e r emoved f i r s t , b yr emov ing t h et wo s c rew so ne a ch s i de w h ich h o ld t h et wo s e c t ion so ft h es t age i n p l a ce .

T h i s b ecame n e ce s sa ry t o e l im ina te t h e a bove m en t ioned p hy s ica l i n te r f e rence

p r ob lem s b e tween t h e s l i de a nd t h e o b jec t ive s . T he r o ta t ing s t age i st h en s e t u nde rnea th t h e c onden se r a rm a nd h e ld c e n t ra l ly b y r e in s ta l l ing t h e c onden se r . I ti ss e cu red i np l ace a ga in s t t h e c onden se r u s ing as e t s c rew w i th ak nu r led k nob f o r f i nge r t i gh ten ing .

T h i s

a r rangemen t c ou ld b e i mp roved u pon i nf u tu r e p roduc t ion m ode l s b y i n s ta l l ing t wo s e t s c rew s a nd u s ing r e ce s sed s l o t ted h ead s c r ew s i np l ace o ft h e s i ng le s c rew w i th k nu r led k nob . T h i s w ou ld a lev ia te s t re s s c oncen t ra ted a t as i ng le p o in t o n t h e c onden se r w he re t h e s c rew c on tac t s i t ,a nd i na dd i t ion a low m o r e f r eedom o fr o ta t ion o ft h e s t age . I nt h e p r e sen t p ro to type , t h e k nu r led k nob p r o t rude s s u ch t h a t i ti n te r f e re s w i th t h e m ic ro scope h ou s ing a nd p r even t s f u l l r o ta t ion o ft h e s t age .

Ac l ip o n t h e u nde r s ide o ft h e s t age

s u ppo r t s t h e s l ide u nde r e xam ina t ion w h i le f a c i l i ta t ing m an ipu la t ion f o r e xam ina t ion .

I n

t h e p ro to type s t age , t h i s c l i p i sm anuf a c tu red o fo ne p i ece s p r ing s t ee l w h ich h o ld s t h e s l i de t i gh t ly i np l ace , b u t s c ra tche si ts l i gh t ly w hen i ti sb e ing m an ipu la ted o nt h e s t age . A s t h e c l ip h o ld s t h e s l i de v e ry t i gh t ly , i ta l so m ake s i tm o re d if i cu l tt om ove a r ound e a s i ly

4 7

w h i le c onduc t ing a n a na ly s i s .

F u tu re p r oduc t ion m ode l s w ou ld b enef i t f r om u s ing a

t wo -p ronged c l ip m anuf a c tu red f r om s of t e r , l e s sb i nd ing m a te r ia l ;f o re xamp le ,N y lo t ron .

F IGURE 2 .5 ROTAT ING S TAGE FOR THE McARTHUR M ICROSCOPE B o t tom v i ew s hows c l ip f o rh o ld ing s l ide . S ca les a re i nc m .

A f i na l m od i f ica t ion w a s t h e i n s ta l la t ion o fa n e y ep iece g r a t icu le i nt h e o cu la r .

T h i s i s

n ece s sa ry f o r c onduc t ing f a b r ic a na ly s i s i nt h e f i e ld ; i te nab le s m ea su r ing d i ame te r s o r l e ng th so fi n c lu s ion sa nd d e te rm in ing t h e i rd en s i ty p e ru n i ta r ea . T he g r a t icu le c ho sen w a s a1 0 x1 0 g r id ' w h ich f i ls t h e e n t i r e v i ew ing a r ea a nd i n s ta l led i n a7 x f o cu s ing o cu la r , b o th o b ta ined f r om G ra t icu le s L im i ted ( a dd re s s i sg i ven i nT ab le 2 TV a tt h e e nd o ft h i s s e c t ion ) . T he f o cu s ing f e a tu re p e rm i t st h eg r a t icu le t ob em a in ta ined i nf o cu s a ta lt i me s , s ot h a ti ta ppea r so nt h e s ame v i ew ing p l ane a st h et h in s e c t ion i mage . I ta ppea r sa si fl a id o n t h e s u r f ace o f t h e s l i de i mage .

T he s e lec t ion o f a7 x f o cu s ing o cu la r w a s o n ly

o ppor tun i s t ic ; a5 x w a s n o t a va i lab le f r om G ra t icu le s L im i ted a tt h e t i me .

T he g r a t icu le

w a s c a l ib ra ted u s ing a s t age m ic rome te r o b ta ined f r om A ga r S c ien t i f ic , a t e a ch m agn if i ca t ion . Ag r id w a s c ho sen o ve r as i mp le c r o s sha i ri mage s ot h a tp o in t c oun t ing a s

1

G r id s qua re o fs i de l e ng th 1 . 0 m i l l ime t re .

4 8

w e l l a sa r ea c oun t ing c ou ld b e d one . U sua l ly , p o in t c oun t ing i sa c comp l i shed t h rough t h e u se o f at r ave l l ing s t age , w h ich m ove s t h e s l i de u nde r o b se rva t ion i n p r e -de te rm ined i n c remen t s .

T he i n c lu s ion , v o id , o r m a t r ix u nde r t h e c r o s sha i r a t e a ch i n c remen t i s

r e co rded . A s at r ave l l ing s t age w ou ld h ave b een q u i te d if i cu l ta nd e xpen s ive t oa dap tt oa s ma l l m ic ro scope , t h e a l te rna t ive i st o u s e a n e y ep iece g r id .

W i th ag r id , t h e n a tu re o f

e a ch i n c lu s ion u nde re a ch i n te r sec t ion o ft h eg r id i sr e co rded . A rea c oun t ing , t od e te rm ine d en s i t ie s o fe a ch i n c lu s ion t y pe , i sa l so e a s i ly d one u s ing ag r id .

A l l p a r t ic le s e n c lo sed

w i th in t h ep e r ime te ro ft h eg r id a r em ea su red a nd c oun ted . T he se m e thod sa r e o u t l ined i n d e ta i li nC hap te r5 .

T o d e te rm ine a ccep tab i l i ty o ft h em od i f ied McA r thu rm ic ro scope , as e r ie s o ft h in s e c t ion s o fc e ram ic s a nd as t age m ic rome te rw e re e xam ined , a nd c ompa red w i th t h e s ame i t em so n af u l l -s ize l a bo ra to ry p o la r i s ing m ic ro scope . Mode l BH2 l a bo ra to ry m ic ro scope . q ua l i ty o ft h e r e spec t iv e i mage s .

T he c ompa r i son m ode l w a s a n O lympu s

T he re w a s s e en t ob e v e ry l i t t le d if e rence i nt h e

T he a va i lab le c ame ra a t tachmen t w a s a l so e va lua ted .

T h in s e c t ion s o fa r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic sw e re p ho tog raphed a nd c ompa red w i th t h e s ame i mage s o n t h e l a bo ra to ry m ode l . T h in s e c t ion s t y p ica l ly h ave ad a rk b ackg round a ga in s t s ma l le r ,b r igh te ri n c lu s ion s . T he a r t i f ic ia ll i gh t ing a va i lab le o nt h e McA r thu rm ic ro scope i s n o t a s i n ten se a s t h e l a bo ra to ry m ode l s f o r p ho tom ic rog raphy . d i f icu l t ie s u n le s s ac ame ra w i th a u toma t ic e xpo su re i su sed .

T h is r e su l t s i n s ome O b se rva t ion s o f r e l ief ,

p l eoch ro i sm , c l eavage a nd w ea the r ing o f i n c lu s ion s a ppea r t o b e u naf f ec ted , a nd t h e m in ima l d i s tor t ion e n su re s t h a t m ea su remen t o f e x t inc t ion a ng le s w i l l b e s uf i c ien t ly a c cu ra te f o rd i agno s t ic p u rpose s .

F i na l ly , t h e s y s tem t h u s d eve loped h ad t ob ec on ta ined i n as u i tab le c a r ry ing c a se . I tw a s d e s i red t h a t a l o ft h e h a rdwa re a nd c on sumab le s r e qu i red b e c on ta ined i no ne c a se .

A

s u i tab le a l um in ium c a se w a sp rocu red f r om J e s sop ' s C ame ra S upp l ie s ( a dd re s s i sg i ven i n T ab le 2 IV a tt h ee nd o ft h i ss e c t ion ) . F i gu re 2 . 6i l u s t ra te st h ec a se a nd a l o ft h es upp l ie s a nd e qu ipmen t n eeded f o r t h e p r epa ra t ion a nd a na ly s i s o f 1 00 t h in s e c t ion s o f a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s i nt h e f i e ld . h a rdwa re a nd s upp l ie s .

F i gu re 2 . 7 s h ow s t h e s ame k i t p acked w i th t h e

C omp le te a sd e sc r ibed , i tw e ighed u nde r f i ve k i log ram s .

2 1V l i s t st h ec on ten t s , a nd s upp l ie r sa nd c o s t s( 1 994 )o fe a ch i t em .

4 9

T ab le

F IGURE 2 .6 F IELD P ETROGRAPHY K IT W ITH CONTENTS McAr thu rm ic roscope a nd a ccesso r ies a re i nc on ta ine ro n t he r i gh t

F IGURE 2 . 7 F IELD P ETROGRAPHY K IT P ACKED F OR TRANSPORT

5 0

T ABLE 2 IV F IELD K IT COMPONENTS

I t em

Q ty

S upp l ier ( s ee l i s t )

C o s t ( 1994 )1

1

E van s4 inch C omb i -Saw

1

£ 291 .00

3

4 inch F amad d i amond b l ade s

2

£ 36 .00

1

h a lf inch s panne rf o r s aw a r bou r

3

£ 7 .00

5

s pa re 0 . 7 a mpe re f u se sf o r s aw

3

£ 2 .00

1p r

s a f e ty g l a s se s

4

£ 7 .50

1

McA r thu rb i o log ica l m ic ro scope

5( a lso 4 )

1

r o ta t ing s t age mod if ica t ion

5

2

e x t ra h a logen l i gh tb u lb s

5

£ 28 .20

1 0

AA b a t te r ie sf o rl i gh tu n i t

4

£ 12 .00

1

c ame ra a t tachmen t

5

£ 88 .00

1

h i gh t r an sm is s ion p o la r is ing s hee t

4

£ 8 .00

3

s pa re 2 3mm d i a . N eop rene 0 r ing s

3

£ 1 .50

1

f ocu s ing o cu la rw i th g ra t icu le

6

£ 71 .60

2

A l len k ey sf o rl i gh tu n i t ( 1s pa re )

3

£ 2 .50

1

i n s trumen t s c rewd r ive r s e t

4

£ 16 .20

1

t r ipod

7

£ 29 .00

2

2 50m 1 E po -Tek 3 01 e poxy

8

£ 50 .50 ( bo th )

2

5 0m 1 Epo -Tek 3 0 1 h a rdene r

8

s e e l i ne a bove

2 5

1 0m 1 p l a s t ic m ix ing c up s

4

£ 3 .00

1 00

g l a s s s l ide s

4

£ 15 .00 ( e s t .) 3

1 00

g l a s s c ove r s l i ps

4

£ 10 .00 ( e s t .)

1 0m

a l um in ium f o i l

l o ca l ly p rocu red

1 20

s l ide l a be ls

4

£ 4 .00

1

d i amond m a rke rp en

4

£ 5 .50

3

5 00m 1 c on ta ine r s a l um ina p owde r s

9

£ 4 .00 ( e s t .)

3

8 inch d i ame te rg l a s s p l a te s

l o ca l ly p rocu red

1

w a te r s qu ir tb o t t le

4

£ 2 .00

I

a l um in ium c a se

7

£ 54 .00

£ 590 .00 £ 120 .00 ( e s t .) 2

TOTAL

£ 1 ,458 .50

1

I nc ludes V a lue A dded T ax o f 1 7 .5%

2

R o ta t ing s tage p ro to type w as d ona ted b y K .W . K i rk & S ons ( s ee [ 5 ] n ex t p age ; t ex t )

3

R ema inder o fe s t ima ted c os t i t ems w e re p rocured f r om l abo ra tory s tock

5 1

L i s to fS upp l ier s 1 .

E van sL ap ida ry Mach ine s 5 4B ee s f ie ld L ane F a rn ingham ,D a r tf o rd K en t DA4 O BZ

2 .

Ma lve rn L ap ida ry 3 9B road land sD r ive Ma lve rn WR 14 1 PW Manuf ac tu re r :

S t a rD iamond I ndu s t r ie s 1 7022 Mon tane ro A venue C a r son , C a l if o rn ia 9 0746

3 .

B uck a nd R yan H a rdwa re T o t tenham C ou r tR oad L ondon WC1 ( o ra ny s t anda rd h a rdwa re s hop )

4 .

A ga rS c ien t i f ic L td 6 6a C amb r idge R oad S t an s ted , E s sex CM24 8 DA

5

K .W . K i rk a nd S on sL td ( n ow i nr e ce ive r sh ip -s e et e x t ) M ic ro scope sa nd a c ce s so r ie ss oon a va i lab le f r om s upp l ie r 4a bove .

6 .

G ra t icu le sL im i ted Mo r ley R oad T onb r idge , K en t TN9 1 RN

7

J e s sop o fL e ice s te rL im i ted J e s sop Hou se S cudamo re R oad L e ice s te rL E3 1 TZ

8 .

P roma tech L td Un i t 1 ,T he E l l io t tC en t re 2 0E l l io t tR oad C i rence s te r , G louce s te r GL7 l YS

9 .

Wa sh ing ton M i l l sE lec t ro M ine ra l sL td Mo s ley R oad T raf f o rd P a rk Manche s te r M17 1 NR

I nL ondon : P ho to a nd V ideo C en t re 6 7 /69 N ew O x f o rd S t ree t L ondon WC1A 1 D

CHAPTER THREE F IELD TEST ING , S U M MARY AND CONCLUS IONS

3 . 1 F IELD TESTING : PAK ISTAN T h e a s semb led s y s tem w a s f i r s t t a ken t o P ak i s tan t o u se i n t h e i n ve s t iga t ion o f s o c ioeconom ic i n te ra c t ion n e two rk s o ft h e E a r ly H a rappan N or thwe s ter n I n du s V a l ley , d e ta i l s o f wh ich f o rm P a r t Two o ft h i s t h e s i s . I tw a s p acked a nd c a r r ied e a s i ly a sh and l u ggage a boa rd i n te rna t iona l a nd d ome s t ic c omme r c ia l a i r l ine f l i gh t s t o K a rach i a nd P e shawa r , r e spec t ive ly . A tP e shawa r , i tw a s s e t u p i n as ma l l r oom i n ar e s idence r e n ted a sa c commoda t ion b yt h e a u tho r . T he t r ip w a s u nde r taken f r om F eb rua ry t o May 1 994 , d u r ing wh ich t i me t h e w ea the r r a nged f r om r a iny , w e t , a nd 1 2 d eg r ee s Ct o s unny , d r y , a nd 4 3 d eg ree s C . T h i s r a nge o fc ond i t ion s p rov ided as o l id t e s t o ft h e s u scep t ib i l i ty o f t h e e poxy r e s in t o s ome o f t h e e x t reme s i n t empe ra tu re a nd h um id i ty t h a t c an b e e n coun te red i na r chaeo log ica lf i e ld w o rk .

2 40V 5 0Hz e l ec t r ica l p owe r w a s a va i lab le , a l be i t i n te rm i t ten t ly .

A l so , t h e f a c i l i ty h ad a

s o u rce o fr unn ing w a te r a d ja cen t t o t h e r oom b e ing u s ed a s al a bo ra to ry w h ich p roved c onven ien t f o r w a sh ing t h e s e c t ion s b e tween d if e r en t g r ade s o fa l um ina p owde r .

T he

E van s C omb i -Saw w a s s e t u p o n as ma l l b ench a nd t h e m ic ro scope i na no the r , c l eane r , r o om . F igu re 3 . 1 s how st h em ic ro scope i nu se a tt h el o ca t ion .

F o l low ing s e lec t ion o f as u i tab le c o l lec t ion o fs h e rd s f r om e a ch l o ca t ion s t ud ied ( d e ta i l s a r e p rov ided i nP a r t Two ) , t h ey w e re w a shed a nd p r ope r ly r e co rded a nd p ho tog raphed . T hey w e re t h en c u t i n to v e ry t h in s e c t ion s u s ing t h e E van s s aw a nd o ne o f t h e r e commended l e s s c o s t ly , l ow c oncen t ra t ion d i amond b l ade s , i . e . t h eE van s 2 20 G r i t , t h e Me teo r , o r t h e F amad , a l o fw h ich f u nc t ioned a dequa te ly i nt h e p r ev iou s t e s t ing i nt h e l a bo ra to ry . T he AGSC b l ade w a s a l so a ga in e va lua ted u nde r t h e se c ond i t ion s b u t i tw a s v e ry s l ow c u t t ing , o u to fb a lance , a nd c au sed t h es aw t oo ve rhea td ue t ot h ee x t ra m a te r ia l t h a tt h e0 . 5n lm b l ade t h ickne s sh ad t or emove . A no the rp rob lem e xpe r ienced i nu s ing t h e E van s s aw w a st h a t i ft h em o to rw a s o ve r loaded e ven s l i gh t ly b yf o rc ing t h em a te r ia l i n to

5 3

t h e c u t t ing b l ade s u ch t h a tt h em o to rs p eed r e duced , t h em o to rw ou ld c u t o u t a f t e r 5o r6 s e c t ion s h ad b een c u t .

I tw ou ld t h en n o t r e s ta r t f o r a r ound 3 0 m inu te s , a nd o n t wo

o cca s ion si tc au sed t h ei n te rna ls aw f u se t ob l ow . T he p r ob lem w a se xpe r ienced u s ing a ny o ne o ft h e d i amond b l ade s .

T h i s w a s p robab ly d ue t o o ve rhea t ing ; h oweve r , i th ad n o t

b een e xpe r ienced i nt h e l a bo ra to ry t r i a l s i nL ondon . T he p r ob lem c ou ld b e o ve r come b y f e ed ing t h e m a te r ia l i n to t h e b l ade v e ry s l ow ly , e n su r ing t h a t t h e m o to r s peed d i d n o t r e duce .

T h i s r e su l ted i ns ome v e ry s l ow , b u t e f ec t ive , c u t t ing s p eeds .

When a l a rge

n umbe ro fc u t sh ad t ob em ade ,t h e ref o re , s ome p a t ience w a sn eeded .

F IGURE 3 . 1 McARTHUR M ICROSCOPE I N U SE A T P ESHA WAR

T he m o s ts i gn if ican tp rob lem , a l though n o ti n su rmoun tab le , w a st h ec u r ing o ft h eE po -Tek 3 01 e poxy i nt h e e a r l ie rp a r t o ft h e s e a son w hen t h ew ea the rw a sw e t te r a nd c o lde r . T he m ix tur e w a s p r epa red i n a2 . 5 :1 r e s in t oh a rdene r r a t io a sh ad b een d e te rm ined t ob e t h e m o s te f ec t ive i nt h el a bo ra to ry t e s t ing . T he f i r s tt i me t h i sw a sa t temp ted ,t h ew ea the rw a s v e ry h um id a nd r a iny , a nd t h et empe ra tu re w a sa bou t 1 4d eg ree sC . T he p repa ra t ion r oom

5 4

w a sn o th ea ted . U nde rt h e se c ond i t ion s , t h em ixed e poxy d i d n o t c u re e ven w hen l e f tf o r 3 -4 d ay s .

I ti sn o t k nown i ft h i s w a s i np a r t d ue t ot h e w e t c ond i t ion s ' , t o t h e c o lde r

t empe ra tu re s , o rb o th . L ondon .

T empe ra tu re s t h i s l ow w e re n o t e xpe r ienced i nt h e l a bo ra to ry i n

B ecau se t h e se c u r ing t i me s w e r e u na ccep tab le , h ea t ing t h e t wo c on s t i tuen t s

b ef o r em ix ing w a s a t temp ted . B o th i n g red ien t sw e re h ea ted t oa pp rox ima te ly 4 0 d eg ree s Co n an a tu ra l g a s r oom h e a te r , t h en m ixed a nd a pp l ied t ot h e s amp le s . T h i s r e duced i t s v i sco s i ty a nd c on sequen t ly i mp roved i t s a b so rp t ion . F o l low ing a pp l ica t ion o ft h e m ixed r e s in , t h e s amp le sw e re p l aced o n a l um in ium f o i l o nt h e s ame h ea te r a nd a lowed t oc u re . U nde r t h e se c ond i t ion s , t h e E po -Tek c u r ed i na bou t 3h ou r s .

A s t h e s e a son b ecame

s u nn ie r a nd w a rme r , a no the rt e chn ique t os p eed t h ec u r ing p roce s sw a sd i scove r ed w h ich p r oved q u i te s u cce s sf u l . A f t e rc on so l ida t ion u s ing t h e a ux i l ia ry h ea te r , w hen t h e s amp le s w e re m oun ted o n g l a s s s l i de s , t h ey w e re p l a ced i nd i rec t s un l igh t t oc u re .

A l though a i r

t empe ra tu re sw e re o n ly i nt h el ow 2 0 ' sC ,c u r ing w a se f ec ted i na r ound 2h ou r s . I ti sn o t k nown i ft h e c u r ing w a s s p eeded b y u l t ra -v io le t l i gh t i nt h e s un l igh t , o ri fi tw a s d ue t o d i r ec t r a d ian t h ea t ing b y t h e s u n .

I n a ny e v en t , t h e t e chn ique p roved e f ec t ive o n m any

o cca s ion s .

T owa rd t h e h o t te r p a r t o ft h e s e a son , a mb ien t t empe ra tu re s a pp roa ched 4 2 d eg r ee s C . U nde rt h e se t empe ra tu r e si tw a sf o und t h a tt h ee poxy , w hen u sed a t ar a t io o f2 . 5 :1 , c u red i no n ly 1 . 5 t o2 . 0 h ou r s , e v en w hen s p read v e ry t h in ly o ns l i de s . O no ne o cca s ion a tt h e se t empe ra tu re s , m oun ted s e c t ion s w e re p l aced i n t h e d i rec t s un l igh t .

T he r e su l t w a s

f o rma t ion o fv e ry s ma l l b ubb le s o fg a s w h ich b e came t r apped i nt h e e poxy b e tween t h e c ov e r s l ip a nd t h e t h in s e c t ion o fc e ram ic .

T he se b ubb le s u nf or tuna te ly r ema ined a st h e

e poxy c u red . T he ref o r e , p l a c ing s amp le s i nt h e s un t oc u re s hou ld n o t b e u nde r taken a t t empe ra tu re s t h i s h i gh .

I ta ppea r s t h a t i ta s s i s t s i n c u r ing a t t empe ra tu re s u p t o t h e

m id -20 's C ,b u ta th i ghe rt empe ra tu re st h ea dvan tage i sl o s t .

T h e s e c t ion s p r epa red a sa bove w e re h and -g round a nd p o l i shed , a sn o p owe red g r inde r w a s a va i lab le .

I n o rde r t o r emove a s m uch m a te r ia l a s p o s s ib le a tt h e o u t se t , t h e 2 20

g r ade a l um ina p owde rw a su s ed . I tw a sf o und t h a ti ft h ea l um ina p owde rw a sc hanged t o af r e sh a moun t a f t e r g r ind ing 3 o r 4s e c t ion s , m a te r ia l r emova l w a s m o re e f i c ien t . 1M any

e poxy c onso l idan ts a re h yg roscop ic ( s ee J im 1 985 : 5 98 ) .

5 5

H oweve r , i tw a s n o ted t h a t h ad a l a rge r s u pp ly o f 2 20 g r ade a l um ina p owde r b een a va i lab le , i tc ou ld h ave b een c hanged m o re o f t en , w h ich w ou ld h ave s p eeded t h ep roce s s . B ecau se o f t h e r i sk o f c on sum ing a l o f t h e c oa r se g r ind ing p owde r b ef o r e s uf i c ien t s e c t ion s h ad b een p r epa red , c hange s w e re l i m i ted t o e ve ry 4 s e c t ion s .

Ef i c iency w a s

n o t iceab ly r e duced a f t e r 2s l i de s , a nd t i me s r e qu i r ed t or e duce t h e s e c t ion f r om t h e i n i t ia l s aw c u tt h ickne s so fa bou t2 mm d own t o4 0o r5 0m ic ron s( when t h e4 00 g rade p owde ri s u sed ) l e ng thened f r om 5 o r 6m inu te s t o a bou t 1 0 o r 1 2 m inu te s o f l a bo r iou s h and g r ind ing p e r s e c t ion .

I n i t ia l s l i ce s w e re c u t a st h in ly a sp o s s ib le s o t h a t t h e a moun t o f

m a te r ia lw h ich h ad t ob er emoved w a sk ep tt o am in imum .

O nce t h e t h in s e c t ion s h ad b een p r epa red a s a bove , t h ey w e re a na ly sed u s ing t h e McA r thu rm ic ro scope a sm od if i ed a nd d i scu s sed i nC hap te r Two . B ecause t h ec omp le ted t h in s e c t ion s w e re p e rm i t ted t o b e b r ough t o u t o ft h e c oun t ry , i tw a s n o t n ece s sa ry t o c omp le te af u l l m ine ra log ica l a nd t e x tu ra l a na ly s i s o n s i t e . H oweve r , i tw a s d e s i rab le t o c a r ry o u t t h e a na ly s i s a sf a r a sp o s s ib le s u ch t h a t ar e a sonab le f i e ld e va lua t ion c ou ld b e m ade o nt h em ic ro scope w h ich w ou ld b eu s ef u lf o rf u tu re s t ud ie s .

T he m ic roscope w a sm oun ted o nt h e s h o r tt a b le t r i pod , a ss h own i nF igu re 3 . 1 . T he f i r s t e xam ina t ion o ft h et h in s e c t ion s w a s d u r ing t h e f i na l p o l i sh ing . A s t h e r e qu i red t h ickne s s o f3 0 m ic ron s w a s a pp roached , t h e s l i de s w e re e xam ined u nde r c r o s sed p o la r s ( XPL ) t o o b se rve t h e i n te r f e rence c o lou ro ft h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s . N o d if i cu l t ie s w e re e n coun te red i nt h i so pe ra t ion , b u ti th ad t ob ee n su red t h a tt h es e c t ion sw e re d r yb ef o re moun t ing t h em o nt h er o ta t ing s t age b ecau se e xce s sw a te ri n te r f e red w i th t h ev i ew ing . A l so , a ny m o is tu re i nt h e l i gh t u n i t m ay p romo te c o r ro s ion .

F o l low ing m oun t ing o ft h e c ove r s l ip s , m o r e

d e ta i led a na ly s i s w a s c onduc ted w i th t h e m ic ro scope .

T h i s i n c luded i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e

m a in m ine ra l g roup s i ne a ch a nd e n su r ing t h a t t h e re w a s as uf i c ien t a moun t o fd a ta t o c omp le te t h ei n ve s t iga t ion c on temp la ted . I tw a sf o und t h a tt h e McA r thu rm ic ro scope w a s a s e f ec t ive i n t h i s t a sk a s i n t h e l a bo ra to ry e va lua t ion .

N o n ew p rob lem s w e re

e ncoun te red w i th t h e f i e ld a pp l ica t ion . I tw a s n o ted h oweve r , b ecau se l o nge r p e r iod s o f t i me w e re s p en tv i ew ing t h in s e c t ion t h rough t h em ic ro scope , t h a te ye f a t igue c a nb ecome ap rob lem w i th p ro longed u se .

A l though e y e f a t igue i sa l so ap rob lem w i th l a bo ra to ry

m ode l s , i ti sl i ke ly t ob em o re o f ap r ob lem w i th t h e McA r thu rb ecau se o ft h e s ma l ls i ze o f

5 6

t h e o cu la r , a nd b ecau se i ti s am onocu la r i n s t rumen t .

A b i nocu la r a t tachmen t w a s

a dve r t i sed a sb e ing a va i lab le f r om t h e m anuf a c tu re r , K i rk T echno logy , b u t a tt h e t i me o f e va lua t ion n one w e re a va i lab le t ob et e s ted .

O ve ra l l , i nt h e P ak i s tan a pp l ica t ion , t h e f i e ld k i t g ene ra l ly p e rf o rmed a se xpec ted a nd n o s e r iou s p rob lem s w e r e e n coun te red .

A t o ta l o f 1 70 t h in s e c t ion s w e re p r epa red a t

P e shawa r . R ecommenda t ion sa r es umma r i sed a f t e rt h ef o l low ing s e c t ion .

3 . 2 F IELD TEST ING : TURKEY T he s e cond f i e ld a pp l ica t ion o ft h e k i t w a s i nT u rkey .

A s w i th P ak i s tan , T u rkey a l so

d i sa l low s t h e e xpo r t o f c u l tu ra l a r tef a c t s , w h ich i n c lude s c e ram ic s h e rd s .

T he s ame

e qu ipmen t a nd s u pp l ie s w e re t a ken a sw i th t h e P ak i s tan e va lua t ion , w i th t h e e xcep t ion t h a t , b a sed t h e o n t h e e xpe r ience g a ined a tP e shawa r , a n a dd i t iona l 2 50m 1 o f2 20 g r ade a l um ina p owde rw a si n c luded ,b u tt h e AGSC d i amond s aw b l ade w a sa bandoned .

T he e va lua t ion i nT u rkey w a sp a r t o ft h ei n ve s t iga t ion sa tK i l i se tepe ( o r ig ina l ly n amed t h e Ma l tepe A rchaeo log ica l P ro jec t ) , ar e scue p ro jec t o n t h e G ök su R ive r n ea r Mü t , i n s ou thwe s te rn T u rkey .

I t s d u ra t ion w a s l a te J u ly t o m id -Sep tembe r 1 994 , a nd c l ima t ic

c ond i t ion s w e re m uch d if e ren t t h an t h o se e ncoun te red d u r ing t h e e a r l ie r p a r t o f t h e P ak i s tan p ro jec t .

T empe r a tu re s r e a ched ah i gh o f 4 7 d eg ree s Ci nA ugu s t a nd d ay t ime

h i gh s w e re r ou t ine ly a bove 3 6 d eg ree s C . T he h um id i ty w a s e x t reme ly l ow , a st h e s i t e w a s l o ca ted j u s t o n t h e i n land s i de o ft h e s ou th c oa s ta l m oun ta in r a nge i nt h e s ou th . A s w i th t h eP ak i s tan e va lua t ion , as i mp le r oom w a sa va i lab le t ob eu s ed a s ac r ude l a bo ra to ry . T he b u i ld ing d i d n o t h ave r unn ing w a te r , b u t a n u n l im i ted s u pp ly w a s a va i lab le f r om a s t andp ipe o u t s ide . A2 40V 5 0Hz p owe rs u pp ly w a sa va i lab le .

N o f u r the r p rob lem s w e re e xpe r ienced w i th t h e E van s s aw .

T he t e chn ique o ff e ed ing

m a te r ia l t ot h eb l ade v e r y s l ow ly e n su red t h a t t h e m o to r d i d n o t c u t o u t u nde rl o ad . F o r m o s to ft h ec u t t ing ,t h eF amad d i amond b l ade w a su s ed .

5 7

E nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s a tK i l i se tepe p r oved t ob e t h e b e s t o fa l t h ose t e s ted f o r t h e E po -Tek 3 01 e poxy . I tr ema ined a t av e ry l ow v i sco s i ty , a nd u sua l ly c u red i na bou t 1 . 5 h ou r sw hen l e f t a ta mb ien tt empe ra tu re s . O n n o o cca s ion w a s a ux i l ia ry h ea t ing n ece s sa ry t o s p eed c u r ing ; n o r w a s i tn e ce s sa ry t op l a ce s amp le s i ns un l igh t . w a s a ga in u sed , w i th e xce l len t r e su l t s .

A2 . 5 :1 m ix ing r a t io

B e s t r e su l t s w e r e o b ta ined w hen i tw a s u s ed

m id -day t ol a te a f t e rnoon w hen t h et empe ra tu re w a st h e h o t te s t . E v iden t ly E po -Tek 3 01 e poxy i ss e n s i t ive t o c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s , a nd a ppea r s t o f u nc t ion b e s t u nde r h o t , d r y c ond i t ion s .

When h and g r ind ing t h e s e c t ion s t o3 0 m ic ron s , t h e p r oce s s w a s s p eeded s i gn i f ican t ly b y u s ing a f r e sh b a tch o f 2 20 g r ade a l um ina g r ind ing p owde r a pp rox ima te ly e ve ry t wo s e c t ion s .

When t h i s w a s d one , e a ch s e c t ion t o ok a bou t 5m inu te s o fh and g r ind ing t o

r e duce t h e t h ickne s s f r om 2 nun d own t o a bou t 5 0 m ic ron s .

H oweve r , t h i s c on sum ed

a pp rox ima te ly 5 00m 1 o f 2 20 g r ade g r ind ing p owde r i n p r epa r ing 6 0 s e c t ion s , a s i gn if i can t ly h i ghe r r a te t h an t h a t e xpe r ienced i nt h eP ak i s tan e va lua t ion .

T he a dvan tage

g a ined w a s a5 0t o 1 00% i mp rovemen ti nt i me t a ken f o r e a ch s e c t ion p r epa ra t ion . T h r ee s e pa ra te b ucke t s o fw a te rw e re u sed f o rr i n s ing t h e s l i de s , o ne f o r e a ch g rade o fg r ind ing p owde r . I tw a sf o und t h a tu s ing b ucke t sw a sn o ta se f ic ien ta sr u nn ing w a te r , b ecau se i n o rde rt oa vo id c on tam ina t ion , i tw a sn ece s sa ry t oc hange t h ew a te ro f t en .

F o l low -on a na ly s i sw a s s im i la rt ot h eP ak i s tan e va lua t ion u s ing t h e McA r thu rm ic ro scope . I tw a su sed i nt h es ame c onf igu ra t ion . N on ew p r ob lem sw e re e ncoun te red .

O ve ra l l , t h et wo f i e ld a pp l ica t ion s o ft h e s y s tem r e vea led s ome p r ob lem s n o t e ncoun te r ed i nt h e l a bo ra to ry t e s t ing . T ho se i d en t i f ied d u r ing t h e i n i ta l f i e ld t e s t ing i nP ak i s tan w e re l a rge ly o ve rcome i nt h e s e cond e va lua t ion . T he f i e ld t r i a l s d emon s t ra ted i t s f l ex ib i l i ty a nd u sef u lne s s a s af i e ld a na ly s i s t o o l . R ecommenda t ion s f o r f i e ld u se a r e s umma r i sed i nt h e f o l low ing s e c t ion .

5 8

3 . 3 RECO M MENDAT IONS FOR THE F IELD A s ar e su l to ft h el a bo ra to ry a nd p r ac t ica lf i e ld e v a lua t ion s , s ome r e commenda t ion sc an b e m ade . T he re a r et wo g ene ra l r e commenda t ion s . F i r s t ly , a nd m o s t i mpor tan t ly , a dequa te p r ac t ice s hou ld b em ade w i th t h em a te r ia l sa nd c omponen t sb ef o re u s ing t h em i nt h ef i e ld . I ti sv e ry i mpor tan tt h a tt h er e sea rche ro rt e chn ic ian b ecome f am i l ia rw i th a l m a te r ia l sa nd e qu ipmen t p r io rt of i e ld w o rk . T h i sw i l l s u b s tan t ia l ly r e duce t h ep o ten t ia l f o r a ny th ing t o g ow rong f a ra way f r om s o u r ce so fm a te r ia lo ra dv ice . S econd ly , u n le s so ne i sc omp le te ly f am i l ia rw i th t h el o ca lm a rke t s , i ts hou ld n o tb ea s sumed t h a tm a te r ia l so rc omponen t sc an b e p rocu red n ea r t h e s i t e l o ca t ion .

Mak ing s u ch a s sump t ion s o f t en r e su l t s i ne x ten s ive

r unn ing a r ound o r d e lay s w h i le a n i t em i so r de red o r s h ipped i n ; o r h av ing t o u t i l i se m a te r ia l s o fi n f e r io r q ua l i ty .

T h i s i se s pec ia l ly t r ue o fm a te r ia l s s u ch a s g l a s s o r s aw

b l ade s , w h ich a r e o f t en o fi n f e r io r q ua l i ty .

F o r b o th o ft h e f i e ld e va lua t ion s , t o e n su re

s uf i c ien t ly f l a tg l a s s , h i gh q ua l i ty p l a te sw e re o b ta ined b ef o re l e av ing . T he f i e ld k i ts h ou ld b e p r epa red w i th a l m a te r ia l s a nd c omponen t s n ece s sa ry , w i th o n ly p os s ib le m ino r e xcep t ion s s u ch a se l ec t r ica l m a in s p l ug s t oc on f o rm t ol o ca l s t anda rd s w h ich a r e u sua l ly e a s ie rt oo b ta in i nt h eh o s tc oun t ry .

W i th r e spec tt o s aw ing t h e s h e rd s , o ne s moo th c u t s hou ld f i r s t b e m ade t op rov ide af l a t e dge .

T h i s s hou ld t h en b e c on so l ida ted a nd a lowed t o h a rden .

T h i s w i l l p e rm i t t h e

s e cond c u tt ob em ade v e ry t h in , a nd s u b s tan t ia l ly r e duce t h ea moun to fg r ind ing r e qu i red . T he p rocedu re o ugh t t ob e p r ac t i sed p r io r t ot h e f i e ld a pp l ica t ion , a s i tc an t a ke s ome e xpe r ience t o p e r f ec t .

I fi tc an b e d one e f i c ien t ly o n l o ca t ion , t h e m in imum a moun t o f

e poxy a nd c oa r se g r ind ing p owde r s w i l l b e n e eded .

A s a l c oa r se g r ind ing i sd one b y

h and , w h ich i s av e ry l a bo r iou sa nd t i me -con sum ing p roce s s , e ve ry e f o r tn eed st ob em ade t om in im i se i t .

I fp o s s ib le , af a c i l i ty w i th r unn ing w a te r a va i lab le s hou ld b e u sed . T h i s e n su re s c omp le te r i n s ing b e tween g r ade s o f g r ind ing p owde r s a nd w i l l

r e duce t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f

c on tam ina t ing t h e f i ne rg r ind ing p owde r s a nd s c ra tch ing t h e s u r f ace o ft h e s e c t ion s . I ti s r e a l i sed , h oweve r ,t h a ti nm any c a se st h i sw i l lb e al u xu ry ; i n deed i ns ome c a se sw a te rm ay b e al u xu ry . T he a l te rna t ive i st ou se b ucke t s o fw a te r , a sw a sd one i nt h ef i e ld e va lua t ion

5 9

i n T u rkey .

I ft h e w a te r s u pp ly i sn o t l i m i ted , i ti sr e commended t h a t t h ree s e pa ra te

b ucke t s b e u sed ; o ne f o r e a ch g r ade o fg r ind ing p owde r . O the rw i se , p a r t ic le s o fc oa r se a l um ina w h ich r ema in i ns u spen s ion i nt h e r i n se w a te r m ay b e p i cked u p o n t h e s l i de a nd t r an sf e r red t o t h e n ex t f i ne r g r ade o f p owde r .

I f w a te r i s i n s ho r t s u pp ly , a

r e commenda t ion i st ou s ej u s t o ne b ucke t , a nd c omp le te as e t o fs l i de s , s a y 5o r 6a ta t i me , o n o ne g r ade o f p owde r b ef o re g o ing o n t o t h e n ex t f i ne r g r ade .

T h i s w ou ld

c on se rve w a te rw h i le s t i l lm in im is ing t h er i sk o fc oa r se p owde rc on tam ina t ion .

When h and g r ind ing t h e s e c t ion s f r om 2 mm d own t o a bou t 5 0 m ic ron s , i . e . w hen t h e m ax imum a moun t o fm a te r ia l h ad t ob e r emoved , i tw a s f o und t h a t t h e 2 20 g r i t a l um ina p owde r b ecame d u l l a nd l o s t i t s c u t t ing e f i c iency a f te r a bou t t wo s l i de s . e s pec ia l ly t r ue o ft h o se s e c t ion s w i th ah i gh c u red r e s in c on ten t .

T h i s w a s

T o o ve rcome t h i s , a nd

s u b s tan t ia l ly r e duce f a t igue , i ti sr e commended t h a t t h e p owde r b e c hanged e ve ry t wo s l i de so rs o . T he ref o r e , al a rge ra moun to ft h e2 20 g r ade a l um ina p owde rs hou ld b et a ken , o r t h e c oa r se m e ta l log raph ic g r ind ing p ape r s s hou ld b e u s ed .

I ti se s t ima ted t h a t a n

a dd i t iona l 2 50m 1 o f 20 g r ade a l um ina , o r at o ta l o f7 50m 1 , b e m ade a va i lab le i fo ne i s e xpec t ing t om ake a bou t 1 00 t h in s e c t ion s . A l though t h i s a dd sw e igh tt ot h e k i t , i ti sw e l l w o r th t h ei n ve s tmen ti nr e duc t ion o ft i me a nd e ne rgy i np r epa r ing t h es e c t ion s .

W i th r e spec t t ot h e e pox ie s , u s e o fE po -Tek 3 0 1 i sh i gh ly r e commended , a tl e a s t f o rt h e c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s o ft h e a r ea s w he re t e s t ing w a s c onduc ted .

B a sed o n t h e l a bo ra to ry

t e s t ing , i ti se xpec ted t h a t i tw ou ld a l so b et h eb e s t i no t he rc ond i t ion s . H oweve r , i fv e ry h um id c ond i t ion s a r e t ob e e n coun te red i nt h e f i e ld , i ti sr e commended t h a t s ome t e s t ing b e f i r s t c onduc ted i na n e nv i ronmen ta l c hambe r i fp o s s ib le .

I ft h e t h in s e c t ion s w i l l b e

p r epa red a tt empe ra tu re sl e s st h an a bou t2 5 d eg C , as ou r ce o fa ux i l ia ry h ea t ing s h ou ld b e c on s ide red t o k eep c u r ing t i me s t o am in imum .

T he t e s t ing s howed t h a t c on s tancy o f

t empe ra tu re w a s n o t c r i t ica l ; a ny d ev ice t h a t c an p rov ide t empe ra tu re s a r ound 3 0 t o4 0 d eg C w i l l s uf i ce . T he t empe ra tu r e s h ou ld n o tb e a bove t h i s h oweve r , a si tm ay r e su l ti n b ubb le s f o rm ing u nde rt h e s l i de o rc ove rg l a s s . A l te rna t ive ly , t h in s e c t ion s c an b e p l aced i nd i rec t s un l igh tt oa i di nc u r ing . F o ra mb ien tt empe ra tu r e sa bove 3 0 d eg C , n o a ux i l ia ry h ea t ing s hou ld b e u sed ; n o r i ss u n l igh t c u r ing a dv i sed .

F o r b e s t c u r ing t i me s , i ti s

r e commended t h a tt h er a t io o fe poxy t oh a rdene rb e2 . 5 :1 . A bove a l , a sr e commended i n

6 0

t h e i n i t ia l p a rag raph o ft h i s s e c t ion , i ti si mpo r ta n t t h a t o ne i sf am i l ia r w i th t h e e poxy ' s c ha ra c te r i s t ic s

u nde r

v a ry ing

t empe ra tu re

c ond i t ion s .

Mo reove r ,

f u r the r

i n i t ia l

e xpe r imen ta t ion s hou ld b e d one o n s i t e , u s ing d i sca rded s h e rd s , t od e te rm ine t h e e poxy ' s r e spon se t o l o ca l c ond i t ion s b ef o re c ommenc ing a ny w o rk o n r e sea rch m a te r ia l .

A l l

c ond i t ion sc anno tb es i mu la ted i nt h el a bo ra to ry b ef o re d epa r tu re . D e te rm in ing a b so rp t ion a nd c u r ing c ha rac te r i s t ic su nde rt h el o ca l c ond i t ion si na dvan ce w i l l e n su re t h a tc u t sm ade o n r a re c e ram ic m a te r ia l a r e k ep t t o am in imum .

Of t en , i ti st h e l a rge r , m o re c omp le te

v e s se l s , o rt h em o s t d eco ra ted , t h a ta r es e lec ted f o rt h in s e c t ion ing , a nd i nt h e se c a se ss aw c u t s n eed t o b e k ep t v e ry s ma l l a nd f ew i nn umbe r . F i na l ly , i nr e spec t o ft h e e pox ie s , a c opy o f t h e s p ec if i ca t ion s o f t h e E po -Tek 3 0 1 s h ou ld b e c a r r ied w hen b oa rd ing c omme rc ia l a i r l ine r s .

A l though i tw a s n o t e xpe r ienced b y t h e a u tho r , i n spec to r s m ay

d i sa l low o nb oa rd a ny c h em ica l s u b s tance st h a tc anno tb e s hown t ob en on -haza rdou s f o r f l i gh t .

When v i ew ing a nd a na ly s ing s l i de s , t h e u s e o fs ma l l t a b le t r ipod i sr e commended .

T he

m ic ro scope i sv e ry c ompac t , a nd i fu s ed d i rec t ly o n at a b le top , f a t igue q u ick ly b ecome s a p r ob lem .

T he t r ipod m ay t h en a l so b e u s ed f o r p ho tog raph ing t h e s h e rd s , a n i mpo r tan t

f i r s t s t ep b ef o re s aw ing t h em i n to s e c t ion s .

At r ipod w i th e x tend ib le l e g s c ou ld a l so

d oub le f o ro t he ru se sa tt h es i t e .

A pa r t f r om t h e f o rego ing c on s ide ra t ion s , p r epa ra t ion a nd a na ly s i s o ft h in s e c t ion s i nt h e f i e ld i sm uch t h e s ame a si nt h e l a bo ra to ry .

Wh i le c ond i t ion s a r e o f t en n o t a s c l ean o r

c omf or tab le a s t h e l a bo ra to ry , o ne c a n u sua l ly o ve r come t h e se a nd i mp rov i se w he r e n ece s sa ry .

3 . 4 SU M MARY AND CONCLUS IONS A t t h e o u t se t , an eed f o r c l o se r l i a i son b e tween f i e ld a nd s c ien t if i c a r chaeo logy w a s r e cogn ised i n o rde r t o m a in ta in t h e h uman e l emen t i nt h e d i sc ip l ine .

S imp le r , m o r e

a c ce s s ib le , a nd m o re p o r tab le s c ience -ba sed a na ly s i s s y s tem s w e re i d en t if i ed a sp o ten t ia l c onnec to r sb e tween t h et wo . T he f o rego ing d eve lopmen t o f af i e ld -po r tab le p e t rog raph ic a n a ly s is s y s tem h a sb een l a rge ly s u cce s s f u li nh e lp ing t ob r idge t h i sg ap .

6 1

T o m ake s c ience -ba sed a r chaeo logy c l o se r a nd m o re u s ef u l t o t h e f i e ld a r chaeo log is t , a n eed f o r s y s tem st h a t c ou ld a lev ia te t h e se s h o r tcom ing sw a s i d en t i f ied . I np a r t icu la r , t h e a b i l i ty t o c onduc t o n s i te c e ram ic p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s w a s s e en t o f i l t h i s g ap w i th r e spec t t o t h e s t udy o f c e ram ic p r ov enance a nd t e chno logy .

I ta l so f i l led a n eed f o r

c onduc t ing p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s i nl o ca t ion s w he re s amp le s m ay n o t b e e xpo r tab le ; a nd a lowed o n s i te d ec i s ion m ak ing .

G ene ra l ised p a rame te r sf o rt h e r e qu i remen t s o f af i e ld -ba sed p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s s y s tem w e re d ef ined t o b e p or tab i l i ty , e a se o f u se , a nd r e ady c omme rc ia l a va i lab i l i ty o f c omponen t s .

A s t ep -w ise d e sc r ip t ion a nd r e v iew o f t h e p r epa ra t ion o f c e ram ic t h in

s e c t ion sa nd t h e i ra na ly s i sa si th a st r ad i t iona l ly b een c a r r ied o u tw a sd one . T h i si d en t if ied m a in o b s tac le a r ea s t oc onduc t ing p e t rog raphy i nt h e f i e ld . Ma jo r o b s tac le s w e r e i nt h e g r ind ing p roce s s , t h e n eed f o r ac on s tan t h ea t s ou rce f o r e f ec t ing r e s in c u re s , a nd t h e h eavy ,b u lky n a tu re o fl a bo ra to ry p e t rog raph ic m ic ro scope s .

E ach o ft h e se w a ss t ud ied w i th av i ew t oe l im ina t ion o rr e duc t ion i nw e igh ta nd s i ze . W i th r e spec tt oc u t t ing a nd g r ind ing c e ram ic s amp le s , i tw a sf o und t h a t c a ref u l a nd d i l igen tu se o f al i gh twe igh t p o r tab le s aw c ou ld p r oduce v e ry t h in s l i ce s o f p rope r ly c on so l ida ted c e ram ic m a te r ia l t h a t n eed l i t t le f o l low -on g r ind ing .

R e la t ive ly i n expen s ive b u t r u gged

d i amond b l ade sm ay b eu sed t op rov ide as e c t ion w i th s moo th c u t sf r om p r e -con so l ida ted c e ram ic s .

T he se c ou ld t h en b e g round t o t h e r e qu i red t h ickne s s b y h and u s ing 2 20

a l um ina g r ind ing p owde ro rc oa r se g r i tm e ta l log raph ic g r ind ing p ape r s . T he se s t ep sc ou ld e l im ina te t h e n eed f o r ah eavy p owe r g r inde r .

F o r c on so l ida t ion a nd a dhe s ion o ft h e

c e ram ic s t o g l a s s s l i de s a nd c ove r s l ip s , u s e o fc o ld m oun t ing r e s in s c ou ld e l im ina te t h e r e qu i remen tf o r ah eavy t h e rmo s ta t ica l ly -con t ro l led h ea t ing p l a te . F i na l ly , d eve lopmen t o f ac ompac t f i e ld -po r tab le p e t rog raph ic m ic ro scope w i th m os t o f t h e c apab i l i t ie s o f a l a bo ra to ry m ode lw ou ld s i gn if ican t ly r e duce t h ew e igh ta nd b u lk p rob lem s a s soc ia ted w i th s t anda rd l a bo ra to ry m ode l s .

I ft h e se c ou ld b e m ade a c cep tab le f o r f i e ld u se , af u l ly

p o r tab le s y s tem c ou ld b er e a l i sed .

6 2

S pec if i ca t ion s t h a t w ou ld e n su re a n a c cep tab le a nd a c cu ra te s t anda rd o f t h in s e c t ion p r epa ra t ion a nd a na ly s i s w e re t h en s e t f o r e a ch .

A s o ne o f t h e o r ig ina l s y s tem

s p ec if i ca t ion s w a s t h a t a l c omponen t s a nd c on sumab le s b e r e ad i ly a va i lab le c omme rc ia l p r oduc t s , s t anda rd s t ock i s t sa nd s upp l ie r s ' o f e r ing s w e re r e v iewed f o ra c cep tab i l i ty . T h i s w a sf o l lowed b yl a bo ra to ry t e s t ing , a nd f i na l ly a c tua lf i e ld t e s t ing a nd u se .

O ne s u i tab le p or tab le s aw w a s l o ca ted , a nd t e s ted o n a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s u s ing f i ve d if e ren t

d i amond b l ade s .

A l though s omewha t u nde rpow e red , t h e E van s 4 inch

C omb i -Saw w a s f o und t o b e e n t i r e ly a dequa te w hen u s ed w i th t h e m o re i n expen s ive d i amond b l ade s s u ch a st h eF amad , u s ing at e chn ique e a s i ly m a s te r ed w i th p r ac t ice . S even c o ld -cu r ing r e s in sw e r ee v a lua ted u nde rv a ry ing c omb ina t ion so fm ix tu re r a t io s a nd c u r ing t empe ra tu re s . Two o ft h em , A ra ld i te a nd E po -Tek 3 0 1 , w e re f o und t ob e a c cep tab le f o r f i e ld u se . B o th h ave e x ce l len t c on so l ida t ion a nd c u r ing c ha rac te r i s t ic s , b u t E po -Tek w a s t h em o re e f ec t ive o ft h et wo a tl owe ra mb ien tt empe ra tu re s .

T he re w a sf o und t ob en o f i e ld -po r tab le p e t rog raph ic m ic ro scope sc omme rc ia l ly a va i lab le , b u t t wo c ompac t t r an sm i t ted l i gh t m ic ro scope s w e re l o ca ted t h a t c ou ld b e r e ad i ly a nd i n expen s ive ly m od if i ed . T he McA r thu rb i o log ica l m ic roscope a nd t h e S w if t FM -31 w e re e x am ined a nd b o th f o und t ob e a dap tab le t ot h e a dd i t ion o f ap o la r i se r , a n a na ly se r , a nd a r o ta t ing s t age . T he se m od if i ca t ion sw e re c a r r ied o u t o nt h e McA r thu rm ic ro scope a nd t h e u n i t t e s ted .

I tw a s f o und t h a t , d e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t t h ey r e p re sen t o n ly s ome o f t h e

f e a tu re s o ff u l l s ized l a bo ra to ry p e t rog raph ic m ic ro scope s , t h e se t h ree b a s ic m od if i ca t ion s p e rm i t ted t h e McA r thu r m ic ro scope t o b e u s ed t o i d en t if y m o s t m ine ra l s a tt h e l e ve l r e qu i red f o rf i e ld w o rk . I na dd i t ion , a n e y ep iece g r a t icu le i n s ta l led i nt h eo cu la rp e rm i t ted f a b r ic a na ly se s t ob e c onduc ted i nt h e f i e ld .

A l though n o t c ho sen f o r t e s t ing b ecau se i t

w a s s l igh t ly h eav ie r a nd l e s s a dap tab le t o ar o ta t ing s t age m od if i ca t ion , t h e S w if t FM -31 c ou ld a l so b em ade e n t i r e ly a dequa te .

As t anda rd a l um in ium p ho tog raph ic e qu ipmen t c a r ry ing c a se w a s a dap ted t o h ou se t h i s r e la t ive ly l i gh t w e igh t c omb ina t ion o f m a te r ia l s a nd c omponen t s .

I tw a s c a r r ied i n

c omme rc ia l a i r l ine h and l u ggage a nd u s ed o n l o ca t ion i n P ak i s tan a nd T u rkey , t wo

6 3

c oun t r ie sw h ich p roh ib i tt h e e xpo r t o fa r chaeo log ica l a r tef a c t s . T he s y s tem w a s s e t u p a s ac r ude l a bo ra to ry i nb a s ic r o om s , o ne w i th r unn ing w a te r , a nd o ne w i thou t . E a r ly i nt h e s e a son i nn o r thwe s te rn P ak i s tan , a tt empe ra tu re s a r ound 1 2 d eg C i nd amp c ond i t ion s , i t w a s f ound t h a tt h e E po -Tek 3 0 1 e poxy w a sv e ry s l ow t oc u re . T he p rob lem w a s s o lved b ya pp ly ing h ea t f r om ab a s ic g a sr oom h ea te r . T h i s , a pa r t f r om h av ing t ou se t h ec oa r se a l um ina p owde rv e ry s p a r ing ly , w a st h e o n ly d if i cu l ty e ncoun te red i nt h ef i e ld t e s t ing . I n t h e h o t te r s e a son s i nb o th c oun t r ie s , w hen d ay t ime t empe ra tu re s w e re i nt h e r a nge 3 8 t o 4 5 d eg C ,t h ee poxy c u red w i th in o ne h ou rw i thou ta ux i l ia ry h ea t ing a pp l ied .

O ve ra l l , t h ef o rego ing d eve lopmen t , t e s t ing a nd e va lua t ion o ft h ef i e ld p e t rog raphy k i tw a s g ene ra l ly s u cce s sf u l .

I tm ay b e c onc luded t h a t t h e o r ig ina l p rob lem , t h a t o fl a ck o f a

c omp le te s y s tem c apab le o f a low ing b o th p r epa ra t ion a nd a na ly s i s o f a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s i nt h in s e c t ion a way f r om t h e l a bo ra to ry , h a s b e en l a rge ly o ve rcome .

T he k i t

d eve loped p roved t h is i nt wo i n dependen ta pp l ica t ion sm i le sa way f r om ah ome l a bo ra to ry . I ti sr e la t ive ly i n expen s ive , c omponen t s a r ea va i lab le c omme rc ia l ly , a nd i ti sv e ry p o r tab le . T he m a in d r awback a tt h e p r e sen t t i me i st h e n on -ava i lab i l i ty o ft h e McA r thu rB io log ica l m ic ro scope ; h oweve r , i ti se xpec ted t h a t m anuf ac tu re w i l l b e r e sumed i nt h e n ea r f u tu re . I fn o t , t h e a l te rna t ive f i e ld m ic ro scope e a r l ie r d i scu s sed , t h e S w if t Mode l FM -31 , c ou ld q u i te e a s i ly b em od if i ed t op e r f o rm a na ly se s .

6 4

PART TWO SOCIOECONO M IC I NTERACT ION NET WORKS OF THE EARLY HARAPPAN NORTH WESTERN I NDUS VALLEY

CHAPTER FOUR : I NTRODUCT ION AND THEORET ICAL CONS IDERAT IONS

4 . 1 I NTRODUCT ION T he H a rappan , o rI ndu s C iv i l i sa t ion , i sa n a dvanced a nd c omp lex u r ban c i v i l i sa t ion w h ich f l ou r i shed i nt h e I ndu s R ive r v a l ley r e g ion o fp r e sen t -day P ak i s tan , n or thwe s te rn I n d ia , a nd p a r to fA f ghan i s tan d u r ing t h ep e r iod c a . 2 650 t o1 850 BC . G ene ra l ly a ccep ted a st h e t h i rd e a r l ie s t o ft h ew o r ld ' s c i v i l i sa t ion sb eh ind t h e Me sopo tam ian a nd t h eE gyp t ian , i th a s b een m uch l e s s s t ud ied t h an t h e o t he r t wo .

I tm ee t s t h e c l a s s ic " t en r a the r a b s t rac t

c r i te r ia " a sd ef ined b yC h i lde t h a t q ua l if yi ta sa nu r ban c i v i l i sa t ion ( Ch i lde 1 950 : 9 ) . O ne o ft h o se c r i te r ia , aw r i t ing s y s tem , h a s b een as ou rce o fl a ck o fp rog re s s i ns t udy ing t h e n a tu re o ft h e c i v i l i sa t ion , b ecau se i th a s n o t y e t b een f u l ly d ec iphe red .

A l though m uch

p rog re s s h a s b een m ade ( s ee P a rpo la 1 994 f o r ar e cen t s umma ry ) , ac omp le te d ec iphe rmen t h a s e l uded r e sea rche r s s of a r . T he a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd h a st h e ref o re b een t h ep r ima ry s ou rce o fi n f o rma t ion t od a te . N ume rou sp uzz le s e x i s t , o ne o ft h em a jo ro ne s b e ing t h e r a p id r a te o ft h e c i v i l i sa t ion ' s i n c rea se i nc omp lex i ty f r om av i l lage f a rm ing a nd p a s to ra l e conomy t o af u l l -f ledged u r ban i sed s t a te , m uch u n l ike t h e r i se o f t h e Me sopo tam ian o r E gyp t ian u r ban s t a te s .

I n c on t ra s t t o t h e I n du s , t h e Me sopo tam ian

c i v i l i sa t ion d eve loped o ve r t h e c ou r se o fr ough ly t h ree m i l lenn ia ( Koh l 1 987 : 1 5 ) .

T he

I ndu s c i v i l i sa t ion ' s r a p id t r an s i t ion t o u r ban i sa t ion o f o n ly 1 00 -150 y ea r s p r e sen t s a r chaeo log i s t s w i th ac h a l lenge t ot h e ' u n if o rm i ta r ian ' m ode l o fc u l tu ra l c hange .

R a the r

t h an e me rg ing f r om al o ng , s l ow p e r iod o f g r adua l a nd c on s tan t c u l tu ra l g row th a nd m od if ica t ion l e ad ing t o as l ow ly e me rg ing p a t te rn o fu r ban i sa t ion a nd s oc ia l c omp lex i ty , t h e H a rappan C iv i l i sa t ion s e em s t o h ave r e su l ted f r om a v e ry s hor t p e r iod o f t r an sf o rma t ion , a" v e r i tab le r e vo lu t ion w i th in t h e u r ban i sa t ion p roce s s " ( Po s seh l 1 990 : 2 61) . T o s h ed l i gh to nt h en a tu re o ft h i sc hange ,m uch m o re r e sea rch i sn eeded i no rde rt o d ef ine a s pec t s o fH a rappan l i f el e ad ing u pt oa nd d u r ing t h et r an s i t ion t oa nu r ban s o c ie ty .

6 5

Af u l le rp i c tu re w ou ld a s s i s t a r chaeo log i s t sa nd s o c ia lt h eo r i s t si ne xp la in ing t h eH a rappan u r ban i sa t ion p henomenon . O ne o ft h e se a s pec t si st h en a tu re o fs oc ioeconom ic i n te rac t ion b e tween s i t e sd u r ing t h ef o rma t ive y ea r s .

A f u l ly u r ban i sed s o c ie ty s u ch a s t h e I n du s C iv i l i sa t ion m u s t a c commoda te f u l l t ime s p ec ia l i s t c r af t smen a nd m echan i sm s f o r d i s t r ibu t ion o fp r oduced s u rp lu se s ( Ch i lde 1 9 50 : 1 ) .

I n o rde r f o r t h i s t o b e a c comp l i shed o ve r a n a r ea a sv a s t a st h a t c ove red b y t h e

H a rappan C iv i l i sa t ion , s ome s o r t o fs t ruc tu r ed c ommun ica t ion a nd e x change s y s tem s a nd p roce s se sn eeded t ob ei np l a ce . I ti sw e l lk nown a mong s tH a rappan s c ho la r st h a ts t y l i s t ic a nd

m o rpho log ica l

s im i la r i t ie s i n c e ram ic s e x i s ted g eog raph ica l ly a nd

t empo ra l ly

t h roughou t t h e Ma tu re H a rappan a nd , r e g iona l ly , t h roughou t t h e E a r ly H a rappan p e r iod ( s ee d e sc r ip t ion si nC hap te rF i ve ) . T h i sa l one , h oweve r , t e l l su sl i t t le a bou tt h en a tu re a nd e x ten t o ft h e i n te rac t ion n e two rk st h a tw e re i ne x i s tence t om a in ta in t h i sc ommona l i ty a nd u n if o rm i ty o fs t y le .

Wa s e a ch p roduc t ion a r ea a c t ing i n dependen t ly t o p roduce p o t te ry

w i th s im i la rv i sua l c ha rac te r i s t ic s , o rw a s p o t te ry b e ing p r oduced , t r an spor ted a nd t r aded p u re ly a s ac omme rc ia l a c t iv i ty ?

O r , s ome th ing i n b e tween ?

E xam ina t ion o f t h e se

q ue s t ion s c an p rov ide u sw i th ap i c tu re o ft h et y pe o fi n te r s i te s oc ioeconom ic a c t iv i ty t h a t w a sp r e sen t , a nd h e lp t od ef ine t h ec omp lex i ty o ft h es o c ia ls t ruc tu re o ft h et i me . As t udy t o d e te rm ine t h e e x ten t t o w h ich p o t te ry w a s b e ing t r an spor ted o r t h e e x ten t t h a t t e chno log ica l i n f o rma t ion a nd i n nova t ion s w e r eb e ing e xchanged a mong s t s i te s d u r ing t h e E a r ly H a rappan p e r iod w ou ld p rov ide s ome o f t h e n e ce s sa ry i n s igh t .

T h is t h e s is

u nde r take s t o e xam ine t h a t , b y s e lec t ing s amp le s o fE a r ly H a rappan c e ram ic s f r om f o u r I n du s v a l ley s i t e s , a nd c ompa r ing a nd c on t ra s t ing t h e i r r e spec t ive m ine ra log ica l a nd t e x tu ra lc ompo s i t ion s .

T h i s c hap te r p rov ide s t h e b a ckg round a nd d i scu s se s s ome t h eo re t ica l c on s ide ra t ion s a nd m ode l sr e ga rd ing t h en a tu re a nd u nde r s tand ing o fs o c ioeconom ic i n te ra c t ion si np r eh i s to ry i n ag ene ra l s e n se , a nd h ow t h e i r s t udy c an h e lp t oa dd re s st h ep rob lem o fe xam in ing h ow t h e I ndu s C iv i l i sa t ion r o se t o ac omp lex l e ve l i ns u ch as h o r t p e r iod o ft i me . I ti ss h own h ow p e t rog raph ic d a ta d e r ived f r om a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s c an b e a pp l ied a nd u s ed t o a dd re s st h e p rob lem . C hap te rF i ve t h en p r e sen t s ad e sc r ip t ion o ft h e I n du sV a l ley a nd i t s e nv i ron s b o th p r e sen t -day a nd d u r ing t h e H a rappan p e r iod , a nd a d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e

6 6

H a rappan C iv i l i sa t ion a n d a s soc ia ted r e sea rch . D e sc r ip t ion s o ft h e f o u r s i te s u nde r s t udy a r e p r ov ided , f o l low ed b y ad e sc r ip t ion o f t h e E a r ly H a rappan c e ram ic t y po log ie s . C hap te r S i x d e sc r ibe s t h e m e thodo logy e mp loyed , f r om s amp le s e lec t ion t o m e thod s o f a na ly s i s o ft h e c e ram ic t h in s e c t ion s . C hap te r S even p r e sen t s a nd d i scu s se st h e r e su l t s o f t h e a na ly se s a nd t h e i ri mp l ica t ion s . C hap te rE igh t t h en p r e sen t s as umma ry o ft h e t h e s i s a nd c onc lu s ion s t o b e d r awn f r om t h e r e sea rch , t oge the r w i th s ugge s t ion s f o r f u r the r r e sea r ch .

4 . 2 S OCIOECONO M IC I NTERACT IONS I N PREH ISTORY B ecau se s t anda rd s t y le s o f c e ram ic d eco ra t ion a nd m o rpho logy o ccu r t h roughou t t h e g eog raph ica l e x ten t o ft h e H a rappan C iv i l i sa t ion , o u r s t a r t ing p o in t i st o a s k w ha t t h i s m ean s . Wha tc an i tt e l lu sa bou tt h en a tu re o fH a rappan s o c ia la nd e conom ic o rgan i sa t ion a nd c omp lex i ty d u r ing t h e e a r l ie r p e r iod s w he re i ti sf i r s t o b se rved?

T he p r e sence o f

s t y l i s t ic a nd m o rpho log ica l s im i la r i t ie s d emon s t ra te s t h a t t h e re w a s s ome f o rm o f c ommun ica t ion i n te ra c t ion . O bv iou s ly , af i r s te xp lana t ion c ou ld b et h a tt h e c e ram ic sw e re p r oduced i n ar e la t ive ly f ew l a rge p roduc t ion c e n t re s a nd , t h rough ah i gh ly o rgan i sed a nd e l abo ra te d i s t r ibu t ion s y s tem , r e -d i s t r ibu ted t h roughou t t h e e n t i r e r e g ion . O r , t h e g roup s m ay h ave s imp ly p roduc ed p o t te ry o f as im i la r s t y le l o ca l ly t os h ow t h e i r af i l ia t ion w i th a b r oade r rang ing c u l tu r e .

A c on s ide rab le a moun t o f r e sea rch a nd s t udy h a s b een c onduc ted o n t h e s u b jec t o f p r eh i s to r ic e xchange . T h i sr e sea rch a ppea red t or e ach i t sp eak i nt h el a te 1 970 ' s a nd e a r ly 1 980 ' s . I nm any o ft h e s es t ud ie s , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h ec a se o fc e ram ic s , i n d i rec te v idence h a s b een u sed t o i n f e r p hy s ica l e xchange o f g ood s .

F o r e xamp le , J a cob sen ( 1984 ) u sed

e t hnog raph ic o b se rva t ion s , C o rde l l a nd P l og ( 1 979 ) u sed t h e p r e sence o f s t y l i s t ic s im i la r i t ie s t o i n f e r t h e e x change o fg ood s .

T he re a r e n ume rou s o t he r s t ud ie s o ft h e se

t y pe s s e en i nt h e l i t e ra tu re . I tb egan t ob er e a l i sed t h a tt h e s p a t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s o fs t y l i s t ic c ha rac te r is t ic s t h a t w e r e a s sumed i ns ome s t ud ie s t o b e c au sed b y e xchange a l so c ou ld h ave b een p roduced b y an umbe ro fo t he rp r oce s se s .

6 7

T he r e l iance o ne xchange t oe xp la in p a t te rn si nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fs p ec if i cs t y le si si np a r ta r e ac t ion t o t h e l a ck o fr e cogn i t ion o ft h i s p henomenon i nm any o ft h e c l a s s ic s t y l i s t ic s t ud ie s o ft h e 1 960 ' s ( Han tman a nd P l og 1 982 : 2 38 ) .

A c co rd ing t oH an tman a nd P l og ,

t h e se a na ly se sw e r ec ha rac te r i s t ica l ly b a sed o n as o c ia ll e a rn ing -encu l tu ra t ion m ode l o ft h e f a c to r s u nde r ly ing s t y l i s t ic b ehav iou r . I nt h i s f o rmu la t ion , a r tef ac tua l s t y le w a sv i ewed a s ap a s s ive e p iphenomenon r e f l ec t ing t h e i n ten s i ty o f s oc ia l i n te rac t ion b e tween s p a t ia l ly d ef ined s o c ia l u n i t s .

I n te ra c t ion i nt h e se s t ud ie s w a s ap oo r ly d ef ined t e rm , a l though i t

m os t o f t en r e f e r red t or e con s t ruc ted p a t ter n s o fk i n sh ip a nd r e s iden t ia l d escen t s y s tem s . S t y le , p a r t icu la r ly o n p o t te ry v e s se l s , w a s v i ewed a s l e a rned b ehav iou r t ha t w a s l a rge ly u n in teg ra ted w i th o t he ra s pec t so fp r eh i s to r ic s o c ia ls y s tem s .

A n a l te rna t ive m ode l t o e xp la in s t y l i s t ic d i s t r ibu t ion s w a s p r opo sed b y Wob s t ( 1 977 ) , d e sc r ibed i nH an tman a nd P l og ( 1 982 : 2 39 ) . H ec on s ide r ss t y le a sf u nc t ion ing t om a in ta in s oc ia l s y s tem s , a nd a l so a s a n i n d ica to r o f s o c ia l i n te ra c t ion , b u t n o t r e s t r ic ted b y t h e c oncep t o fs t y le a ss o le ly al e a rned b ehav iou r . I n Wobs t ' sm ode l , s t y le i si n te rp re ted a sa d ynam ic v a r iab le , s e rv ing s p ec if i ca l ly i n t h e p roce s se s o f i n f o rma t ion e xchange a nd b ounda ry m a in tenance . T h i s i n f o rma t ion -exchange m ode l p o s i t st h a t z one s o fi n te ra c t ing i n d iv idua l s c an b e d ef ined b y a n a na ly s i s o fs t y l i s t ic d i s t r ibu t ion s , a nd t h a t t h e r e cogn i t ion o f v a r iab i l i ty o f t h e se z one s r e f l ec t s d i rec t ly o n p a t te rn s o f c hange i n r eg iona l s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion ( W i lm sen 1 973 : 2 4 ) . C lo se ly a k in i nt h e s t udy o fc u l tu ra l d if u s ion p r oc e s se s t ot h e c oncep t o ft h e i n t e rac t ion s phe r e o fC a ldwe l l ( 1965 ) , i th a s b een a dop ted b y m any a r chaeo log i s t s .

T he c ommun ica t ion o f i n f o rma t ion p r e s en ted i n t h i s mode l d oe s n o t ,

h oweve r , a lway sf l ow f r ee ly , a nd t h e re a r em any s o c ioeconom ic f a c to r st h a t c an a f ec tt h e r e g iona l p a t te rn o fi n f o rma t ion f l ow , a s d e l inea ted b y H an tman a nd P log ( 1 982 : 2 39 ) . P opu la t ion s i ze a nd d en s i ty , v a r ia t ion i ns e t t lemen t p a t te rn s , t h e d eg ree o f p opu la t ion d i spe r sa l , a nd , m o s t i mpo r tan t ly , t h e d eg ree o fs o c ia l d if e ren t ia t ion w i th in ar e g ion w i l l a f ec t i n f o rma t ion e x change . I n as o c ia l ly - o r s p a t ia l ly -d if f e r en t ia ted s o c ie ty , i n f o rma t ion w ou ld b e e xpec ted t ob e p r oce s sed i n ah i e ra rch ica l f a sh ion . T he re a r e m any a s pec t s o f s oc ia l d if e ren t ia t ion t h a t m ay i n f luence t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fs t y le s i n c lud ing s o c ia l s t a tu s , p o l i t ica l a f i l ia t ion s , e n t rep reneu r ia lb ehav iou r , a nd e conom ic s p ec ia l i sa t ion . G eog raph ica l o r p hy s ica l b a r r ie r s c a n a l so i n h ib i t o r f o s te r t h e e xchange o f i n f o rma t ion a nd s t y l is t ic

6 8

f a c to r s . A ny o ft h e se c a ns e rv et oa c ce le ra te i n f o rma t ion s h a r ing b e tween s ome s u b se t so f t h ep opu la t ion , w h i le d e te r r ing t h ep roce s si no t he r s .

H an tman a nd P log ( 1 982 )t h e ref o r e e xpand o nt h e Wob s tm ode lb yi n co rpo ra t ing s ome o f t h e se f a c tor st h a t c an p r oduce d if e ren t ia l p a t te rn s o fi n f o rma t ion e xchange . B y d ef in ing s t y le a s ' a c o r re la ted c l u s te r o f a t t r ibu te s ' , t h ey a r gue t h a t s y s tema t ic c hange i n c omb ina t ion so ft h e se a t t r ibu te sm ay b et r ea ted a ss t y l i s t ic i nnova t ions . T hey p ropose t h a t a n a ly s ing t h e d i s t r ibu t iona l p a t te rn s o f c e ram ic s t y le s a s r e g iona l f o rm s o f t h e c ommun ica t ion a nd a dop t ion o f i n nova t ion s c a n p rov ide a s a t i sf ac to ry f r amewo rk t o u nde r s tand d i s t r ibu t ion s n o t e xp la ined b y c ommod i ty e xchange a l one ( i b id .

2 40 ) .

H oweve r , m o s t a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s o ft h e a dop t ion o fi n nova t ion h ave n o t r e cogn i sed t h e w ay i nw h ich s o c ia l f a c to r s i n f luence t h e s p a t ia l c ommun ica t ion o fi n nova t ion s . Two f u ndamen ta l m ode l s u s ed t o d e sc r ibe i n f o rma t ion d i f f u s ion a r e ( a ) t h e c on tag iou s w ave m ode l ( Hage r s t rand 1 967 ) a nd ( b ) t h e h i e ra rch ica l d i f f u s ion m ode l ( Hud son 1 969 ) .

T he

c on tag ious w ave m ode l f o cu se s p r ima r i ly o n h ou seho ld a dop t ion o f i n nova t ion s t h a t d i f f u se a mong h ou seho ld s o r i n d iv idua l s a nd a r e p robab ly a c cep ted b y a l m embe r s t h a t h ave ' c er ta in c ha rac te r i s t ic s ' ( P ede r sen 1 970 : 2 05 ) .

T h i s m ode l f a i l s t o r e cogn i se t h e

p o ten t ia l e f ec t s o fs o c ia l d if e ren t ia t ion a nd c omp lex p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic s y s tem s o n t h e s p a t ia l p a t te rn o f i n f o rma t ion c ommun ica t ion .

H an tman a nd P l og ( 1 982 : 2 4 1)

c ommen tt h a tH ud son ( 1 969 )p r ov ided am ode lw h ich l a rge ly o ve r come st h i sp rob lem a nd d oe s t a ke i n to a c coun t s o c ia l ly a nd s p a t ia l ly d if e ren t ia ted s o c ie t ie s .

H ud son ' s m ode l

s t a te s t h a t , r a the r t h an s i mp ly s p read ing o u t a c ro s s ar e g ion ( a s w ou ld h appen w i th t h e c on tag ious w ave m ode l , i nt h ea b sence o fs o c ia l ly induced b a r r ie r s ) ,g ood sa nd i d ea sm ove d ownwa rd t h rough ac e n t ra l -p lace s y s tem w i th ar a nk s ize h i e ra rch ica l s t ruc tu re . m ode l f ocu se s o n e n t rep reneu r ia l i n nova t ion ( P ede r sen 1 970 : 2 05 ) .

T h i s

H an tman a nd P l og

s t a te t h a t i ni n nova t ion d i f f u s ion o ft h i s t y pe , t h e i n nova t ion i sl i ke ly t oo ccu r f i r s t i nt h e s e t t lemen t t h a t h a s t h e g r ea te s t a moun t o f i n t ra reg iona l a nd i n te r reg iona l i n te rac t ion , u sua l ly t he l a rge s t s e t t lemen t o rp o l i t ica l c en t re . H age r s t rand ' s ( 1 966 ) m ode l a ppea r s t o s t radd le b o th a nd m ode l s b y c omb in ing t h e h i e ra rch ica l d i f f u s ion a pp roach w i th t h e w ave e f ec t

a pp roach

t o p r oduce

a c omp rehen s ive

s y n the s i s

o f h ow

i n f o rma t ion

i s

c ommun ica ted t h roughou t ar e g iona l s y s tem . I n f o rma t ion i ss p read i n i t ia l ly t h rough t h e

6 9

u rban h i e ra rchy , f o l lowed b y c en t re s n ex t i nr a nk , t h en f i na l ly b r eak ing u p a nd b e ing r e p laced b yt h ew ave e f ec t .

T he re

a r e

m any

s oc ioeconom ic

f a c to r s

t h a t

n onh ie ra rch ica l p a t te rn s o fi n f o rma t ion d if u s ion .

c an

c r ea te

b o th

h i e ra rch ica l

a nd

O ne t h a t c an a f ec t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f

c e ram ic s t y le si st h ed i v i s ion o fs o c ia lg roup si n to v a ry ing s t a tu sl e ve l s( Han tman a nd P log 1 982 : 2 42 ) .

S t a tu s a nd p r e s t ige a r e c ogn i t ive c on s t ruc t s t h a t , t h ough b a sed o n m a te r ia l

e conom ic a dvan tage , a r e o f t en s i gna l led t h rough a s pec t s o f a r t a nd o the r s ymbo l ic s y s tem s .

N ume rou s r e sea rche r s h ave o b se rved c o r re la t ion s b e tween g roup s o fc e ram ic

a r tef a c t s a nd s o c ia l s t a tu s ( e .g . M i l le r 1 980 ; R ube r tone 1 978 ) .

T h i s c oncep t o fc e ram ic

s t y le a ss ymbo l o fs o c ioeconom ic s t a tu s c an b e e x tended t o ac oncep t o fc e ram ic s t y le a s f u nc t ion ing t o d e s igna te b e long ing t o ap a r t icu la r g roup , a pa r t f r om i t s f u n c t ion o f d e s igna t ing a n i n d iv idua l ' s s t a tu s . T hu s i tc an b e c once ived t oe x i s t a sa n i n d ica to ri nl e s s s t ra t if i ed s o c ie t ie s a sw e l l a st h o se w i th s h a rp s o c ia l s t a tu s d if e rence s .

S ty le h e r ew ou ld

i d en t if y w i th a p a r t icu la r c u l tu re g r oup r a the r t h an ap a r t icu la r s t a tu s g roup .

I nt h e se

i n s tance s , s t y l i s t ic s im i la r i ty i sn o t ar e su l t o ft h e i n ten s i ty o fi n te rac t ion , b u t r a the r i t f u nc t ion s a s as ymbo l o fa f i l ia t ion w i th in ar e g iona l p o l i t ica l s y s tem . Mo reove r , c e r ta in s ymbo l s m ay a c t r e g iona l ly a sb o th s ymbo l s o fa l iance a nd o fs t a tu s , a si nt h e c a se o ft h e O lmec ( F lanne ry 1 967 ) .

T he i n f o rma t ion e xchange m ode l , a st r ad i t iona l ly a pp l ied i nn on s t ra t if ied s oc ie t ie s , r e l ie s o n t h e c oncep t o fs t y l i s t ic s im i la r i ty a s af u nc t ion p r ima r i ly o ft h e s i ze o ft e r r i to r ia l m a te a nd m a te r ia l e xchange s y s tem s . I nm o re c omp lex s y s tem sw he re p roduc t ion i si mpa c ted b yp o l i t ica l d e te rm inan t s , c e ram ic sa nd t h ea dop t ion o fs t y l i s t ic i n nova t ion s w i l l o f t en p l ay a n i n c rea s ing ly p o l i t ica l r o le ( Han tman a nd P l og 1 982 : 2 43 ) .

Whe re t h e p roduc t ion o f

c e ram ic si s af u nc t ion o fr e g iona lp o l i t ica lc ompe t i t ion , t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fr eg iona lc e ram ic s t y le s s hou ld b e e xpec ted t o v a r y p r ima r i ly i n a c co rdance w i th c hange i n t h e s i ze o f p o l i t ie s .

I n t h e se s y s tem s , i ts h ou ld b e e xpec ted a l so t h a t a l iance s b e tween p o l i t ica l

l e ade r sw ou ld b es i gna l led s t y l i s t ica l ly .

7 0

V a r ia t ion i nt h em ode o fc e ram ic p roduc t ion c an a l so d r ama t ica l ly a f ec tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o f c e ram ic s t y le s . F ocu s ing o n p a t te rn s o fd i s t r ibu t ion a sw e l l a sc on sump t ion , ac onven ien t c l a s s if i ca t ion s y s tem d i v ide s p r oduc t ion m ode s i n to s i x c a tego r ie s : h ou seho ld p roduc t ion , h ou seho ld

i n du s t ry ,

i n d iv idua l

i n du s t ry ,

w o rk shop

l a rge sca le i n du s t ry ( Van d e rL eeuw 1 977 ) .

i n du s t ry ,

v i l lage i n du s t ry ,

a nd

T he se , r e spec t ive ly , a r e m a rke ted f o r : o wn

u s e , g roup u se , r e g iona lu s e , v i l lage u se , w ide reg iona l u se , a nd r e g iona l a nd e xpo r t . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fs t y le sp r oduced w i th in t h e se l e ve l s o fp r oduc t ive m ode s s hou ld b ee xpec ted t o v a ry a cco rd ing ly .

F o r i n s tance , w he re p roduc t ion i s s p ec ia l i sed a nd d i s t r ibu t ion

w ide sp read , ap a t te rn o f r e g iona l h omogene i ty w ou ld b e e xpec ted i n c e ram ic s t y le . C onve r se ly , h ou seho ld p r oduc t ion a nd l o ca l d i s t r ibu t ion m ay p roduce p a t te rn s o fe x t reme s t y l i s t ic d i ve r s i ty ( Han tman a nd P log 1 9 82 : 2 45 ) .

A l though o t he r s o c ia l f a c to r s a s

d i scu s sed a bove m ay u l t ima te ly a f ec t t h e se d i s t r ibu t ion s , i d en t if y ing t h e l e ve l o f p r oduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion h e lp s t o e s tab l i sh a b a se l ine f r om w h ich t o e va lua te t h e se f a c to r s .

4 . 3 U SE OF P ETROGRAPH IC DATA At r ad i t iona l w ay o fd e te rm in ing t h e g eog raph ica l s ou rce o fp o t te ry p roduc t ion h a s b een t on o te s pa t ia l o ccu r rence o fp o t te ry s t y le s ,t h en a pp ly t h e' c r i te r ion o fa bundance 'c oncep t w h ich p l ace st h e l o cu so fm anuf a c tu re i nt h e z one w he re t h e s t y le m o s t f r equen t ly o ccu r s ( R ice 1 987 : 1 77 ; R app 1 985 ) . H owev e r , t h i s c oncep t c an o n ly b e e f ec t ive i ns i tua t ion s w he r e o ne c an a s sume t h a t a l ( o r ar e p re sen ta t ive s e lec t ion ) o f t h e p os s ib le s i t e s c on ta in ing t h e w a r e h ave b een f u l ly o r r e p re sen ta t ive ly e xcava ted , a nd t h a t p o t te ry p r oduc t ion i si nf a c t b e ing t r an spor ted o r t r aded t o n e ighbou r ing s i t e s .

Mo reove r , i t

a s sume st h a tc ommona l i ty i np o t te ry s t y le si mp l ie s ac ommona l i ty o fm anuf ac tu re l o ca t ion , w h ich o fc ou r se i sn o t a lway s t h e c a se .

Mo re e f ec t ive m e thod s u se m ine ra log ica l a nd

c hem ica l d a ta t o a pp ly t h e ' p roven ience p o s tu la te ' , w h ich s t a te s t h a t d if e rence s b e tween s ou rce s o fr aw m a te r ia l s c an b e r e cogn i sed a na ly t ica l ly a nd p o s i t iona l v a r ia t ion s w i l l b e g r ea te rb e tween t h an w i th in s ou r ce s( R ice 1 987 : 4 13 ) . T he t wo m e thod si n vo lve d if e ren t d a ta s ou rce s a nd a na ly se s .

M ine ra log ica l o r p e t ro log ica l a na ly s i s i d en t if ie s m ine ra l

i n c lu s ion s i n c e ram ic p a s te s w h i le c hem ica l a na ly se s p rov ide l i s t s o f e l emen t s p r e sen t . N e i the ri si n he ren t ly s u pe r io r . R e sea r che r sh ave u sed e i the r , o rb o th i nc omb ina t ion , m o s t s u cce s sf u l ly .

7 1

B a s ic d e sc r ip t ion so ft h ev a r iou s c hem ica l m e thod sc an b ef o und i nR ice ( 1 987 : 3 7 1-404 ) , O r ton e ta t . ( 1993 : 1 44 -151) , K am i l l i a nd S t e inbe rg ( 1 985 ) , o rR app ( 1985 ) . T he m a jo r a dvan tage o ft h e c hem ica l m e thod si st h a t o fr e pea tab i l i ty . B ecau se t h em e thod s a r ef u l ly i n s t rumen ta l , t h e s u b jec t ive c omponen t i s v i r tua l ly e l im ina ted .

V a r iab i l i ty d ue t o

d if e rence s i nr e sea r che r o r t e chn ic ian i n te rp re ta t ion o rj u dgemen t i sm in im i sed a nd t h i s a low s m o re m ean ing f u l i n te r labo ra to ry c ompa r i son st ob e m ade . T he c hem ica l m e thod s a l so h ave ad i s t inc t a dvan tage f o rt h e a na ly s i s o fc l ay s ou rce s . B ecau se c l ay p a r t ic le s a r e m uch t oo s ma l l t ob ei d en t if ied w i th ap e t rog raph ic m ic ro scope , a nd t h e c l ay m ine ra l s a r e a l te red d u r ing t h e v i t r if ica t ion p roce s s , c hem ica l m e thod s a r e t h e m o s t o f t en u sed t o i d en t if y c l ay t y pe s .

T h i s h a s b een e f ec t ive ly d emon s t ra ted b y T opp ing a nd Ma ckenz ie

( 1 988 ) a nd A dan -Bay ew i tz a nd P e r lman ( 1 985 ) . H owev e r , o ne m u s t b e c a r ef u l i nt h e se c a se st oe n su re t h a tt h e c l ay sa na ly sed h ave b een m od if ied i na ni d en t ica lw ay t ot h a t u s ed f o rt h e a nc ien t c e ram ic u nde r c on s ide ra t ion b ecau se t h e se a l te ra t ion s h ave b een s hown t o h ave a s i gn if ican t i n f luence o n c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion ( K i l ikog lou e ta l1 988 ) .

C lay s a s

u s ed b y p o t te r s a r e b y n a tu re n o t h omogeneou s a nd l e ve l s o fe l emen t s c an b e a l te red b y h uman i n te rven t ion a sw e l la sb yp o s t -depo s i t iona lp r oce s se s . F o re xamp le , a sp o in ted o u t b y N ef f e t a l . ( 1 988 :

1 60 ) , t h e a dd i t ion o f t empe r m ay e n r ich s ome e l emen ta l

c oncen t ra t ion s w h i le d i lu t ing o t he r s , a nd t h a t t h e m agn i tude o fe n r ichmen t o r d i lu t ion i s n o t l i ke ly t o b e u n if o rm o ve r a l e l emen t s ( s ee a l so B i shop 1 980 ; B i shop , R and s e ta l . 1 982 ; B ishop , S t e in e ta l . 1 982 ; a nd N ef fe ta l . 1 989 ) .

A l l t oo o f t en , r e sea rche r s h ave

e mb raced t h e m ode rn c hem ica l m e thod s w h i le o ve r look ing t h e i mmen se v a lue o f a c company ing i tw i th ap e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s . E l emen ta l d a ta o n ly b ecome d ec i s ive w hen t h e re e x is t c on s ide rab le d if e rence s i nt h e e l emen ta l c ompo s i t ion o ft h e c l ay m a t r ix w h ich c anno tb e d e tec ted b yp e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s ( S chube r t 1 986 ) . Mo s t i mpor tan t ly , c hem ica l a na ly se s a l one c an t e nd t o i g no re o r d r if t a way f r om t h e a l impor tan t h uman e l emen t i n vo lved i n t h e p o t ' s m anuf ac tu re , o r s o f a i l t o c on t r ibu te t o a t temp t s t o u nde r s tand ' r ea l l if e ' p o t te ry -mak ing b ehav iou r .

I ti sm o s t u n l ike ly t h a t a nc ien t p o t te r s c ho se a

p a r t icu la r c l ay c omb ina t ion b ecau se i tc on ta ined c e r ta in c oncen t ra t ion s o fr a re e l emen t s . Af u r the rm a jo rd i sadvan tage o ft h ec hem ica lm e thod si st h e i rr e s t r ic ted a va i lab i l i ty a nd t h e c o s to ft h ef a c i l i t ie sn ece s sa ry ;t h i sw a so u t l ined i nP a r tO ne .

7 2

N ume rou s r e sea rch p ro jec t s o n t h e s t udy o f a nc ien t t r ade a nd c omme rce h ave b een s u cce s sf u l ly c onduc ted u s ing p e t rog raph ic d a ta a l one .

S ome o ft h e m o re r e cen t i n c lude

J one s( 1986 ) , w ho c onduc ted a n e x ten s ive p e t ro log ica la na ly s i s o fl ow land Maya w a re st o s t udy t empe r t y pe s i n u s e ; I s aac son a nd A le to ( 1 989 ) d emon s t ra ted t h e v a lue o f p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s i n c onduc t ing p r ovenance s t ud ie s o f c e ram ic s f r om E cuado r ; S t o l tman ( 1991) u s ed t h e m e thod a s at e chn ique f o r d ocumen t ing c u l tu ra l i n te ra c t ion i n t h e M i s s i s s ipp ian ; G e r ra rd a nd G u t ie r rez ( 1 99 1) d ef ined i n t ra - a nd i n te r -k i ln v a r ia t ion s i n S pan i sh m ed ieva l p o t te ry ; a nd D onahue e ta l( 1 990 ) e xam ined s ou rce s o ft empe r i nt h e i s l and s o ft h e n o r the rn L e s se r A n t i l le s . N um e rou s o t he r s m ay b e f o und i nt h e l i t e ra tu r e . T he se a nd o t he r r e sea rche r s h ave d emon s t ra ted i t s v a lue a s ac onven ien t , l ow -co s t , a c ce s s ib le t oo l f o rt h e s t udy o fi n te rac t ion n e two rk s . I ti sn o tt h ep u rpo se h e re t op r ov ide d e ta i l so ft h em e thodo logy n o ru nde r ly ing t h eo r ie s ;m uch o ft h i sh a sb een d i scu s sed i nP a r t O ne .

P e t ro log ica l a na ly s i s i n vo lve s m ak ing t h in s e c t ion s o ft h e p o t te ry , i d en t if y ing t h e m ine r a l i n c lu s ion s , a nd m a tch ing t h em t o ag eo log ica l f o rma t ion s ou rce .

I tf u nc t ion s b e s t i n

r e g ion s w he re r e su l t s o fe x ten s ive g eo log ica l m app ing a r e a va i lab le t o p rov ide d e ta i l s o f m ine ra logy a nd g eo log ica l f o rma t ion s t o m a tch t h o se i n c lu s ion s o b se rved i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic u nde rs t udy , a nd w he r eg eo log ica lf o rma t ion s a nd m ine ra logy v a ry s i gn i f ican t ly w i th in l o ca lr e g ion s . H oweve r , t h i si sn o ta lway st h ec a se . F o re xamp le , v a s t a r ea s o ft h e N or thwe s t F ron t ie r P rov ince o fP ak i s tan w he re t h ree o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l s i t e s o ft h e p r e sen t s t udy a r e l o ca ted s uf e r f r om al a ck o fd e ta i led g eo log ica l s t ud ie s . A l so , t h e B annu B a s in a nd t h e G oma l P l a in , t wo o ft h e g eo log ica l f o rma t ion s c on ta in ing s i t e so ft h e p r e sen t s t udy , s h ow l i m i ted m ine ra log ica l d if e r ence s ( s ee C hap te r 5 ) . I d ea l ly , as y s tema t ic s amp l ing o ft h el o ca lc l ay s , i fp r ope r ly d one ,w i l lp rov ide t h eb e s tc ompa ra t iv e d a ta .

B u t b ecau se c l ay s , a nd t h e i n c lu s ion s w h ich c ha rac te r i se t h e i r s ou rce s , c an v a ry

w ide ly w i th in ar e g ion , a nd a n c ien t c l ay s ou r ce s c an b ecome e xhau s ted o rb u r ied , e . g . b y r i ve rc ou r se c hange s , t h i sc an b en o to n ly al a bo r iou sa nd t i me -con sum ing p roce s sb u tm ay e ven b e m i s lead ing .

F o r t h e s ame r e a son s , i ti s n o t g ood p r ac t ice t o r e ly o n

n on sy s tema t ic , o ppo r tun i s t ic l o ca l c l ay s amp l ing a si so f t en d one i np rovenance s t ud ie s . S t ud ie s d one i nE ng land o f t en s uf e red f r om l a ck o fg eo log ica l d i ve r s i ty i ns ome r e g ion s . I tl a rge ly b ecau se o ft h e l a t te r c a se t h a tt e x tu ra l a na ly s i sw a s i n t roduced i n to t h e s t udy o f

7 3

a r chaeo log ica l c e ram ic s i nB r i ta in i nt h e e a r ly 1 960 ' s ( P eacock 1 97 1) .

T he p e t rog raph ic

m e thod t h e ref o re c an e n ta i l m o re t h an s i mp le m ine ra l i d en t if ica t ion s a nd m a tch ing t o a s ou rce l i t ho logy t od e te rm ine p rovenance . I tc an b ea pp l ied t ot h es t udy o ff a b r ic t e x tu re s , i . e . a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e s h ape s a nd s i ze f r equenc ie s o f i n c lu s ion s p r e sen t . m e thod s a r e d i scu s sed l a te r i nt h e s e c t ion .

T he se

I tc an a l so b e u sed t o s t udy t h e t e chno logy

u sed b y a nc ien t p o t te r s , f r om t h e t y pe o f t empe r c ho sen t o d e te rm ina t ion o f f i r ing t empe ra tu re r a nge s . B ef o r ed i scu s s ing i t su s ef o rd e r iv ing t e chno log ica l i n f o rma t ion , s ome d i scu s s ion f o l low so nt h eu s eo ft h in sec t ion p e t rog raphy f o rt e x tu ra la na ly s is .

B ef o re e mba rk ing o n ad i scu s s ion o ft h e u s e o fp e t rog raphy f o r t e x tu ra l a na ly s i s , i ti s i mpo r tan t t o u nde r s tand t empe r .

T he i n c lu s ion s w h ich a r e s t ud ied c an v e ry s imp ly b e

c l a s sed i n to t wo s ou rce s : n a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing , o ra dded b yt h ep o t te r . T he t e rm ' t empe r 'i n a r chaeo logy i sg ene ra l ly u s ed t od eno te t h e a dd i t ion o fc oa r se c omponen t st o ac l ay p a s te b yt h ep o t te rt om od if yt h e p r ope r t ie s o ft h e c l ay ( R ice 1 987 : 4 06 ) . B u t m uch o fw ha t i s c a l led t empe ri nt h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re m ay c on s t i tu te i n c lu s ion s n a tu ra l ly p r e sen ti n t h e o r ig ina l c l ay m a te r ia l , n o t a dded i n dependen t ly a ta l .

I n deed , t h e p o t te r m ay h ave

s e lec ted ap a r t icu la rc l ay s o u rce b ecau se o fi t sn a tu ra l i n c lu s ion s . T he d i s t inc t ion b e tween n a tu ra l a nd a dded t empe r i sd if i cu l t t om ake , p a r t icu la r ly i ft h e i n c lu s ion s a r e t h o se t h a t o f t en o ccu r n a tu ra l ly i nc l ay s s u ch a sq ua r tz , c a lc i te , m ica , a nd s ome t ime s s h e l l .

" The

g r ea te s t p rob lem i nd i s t ingu i sh ing a dded t empe rf r om n a tu ra l i n c lu s ion s i st h e p r e sence o f q ua r tz s a nd .

T yp ica l ly t h e s h ape o f t h e g r a in s i s t h e b a s i s f o r s u ch d i s t inc t ion s .

P ronounced a ngu la r i ty o ft h e g r a in s i si n te rp re ted a s m ean ing a r o ck w a s c r u sh ed a nd h ence t h a t t h e q ua r tz w a s a dded , w he rea s r ounded g r a in s a r e t a ken a s e v idence o f a l te ra t ion d u r ing t r an spo r t a s p a r t o f as e d imen ta ry c l ay d epo s i t ." ( R ice 1 987 : 4 10 ) . S t o l tman ( 1991) , L omba rd ( 1 987 ) a nd o t he rr e sea rche r sh ave t e nded t ou se t h i sm e thod o f d i s t inc t ion i ng ranu lome t r ic a na ly s i s . H oweve r , i ti sn o t a lway s al o g ica l a s sump t ion t h a t h i gh ly a ngu la r i n c lu s ion s , e s pec ia l ly o fq ua r tz , s e ldom o ccu r n a tu ra l ly i nd epo s i t s s u ch a s c l ay b ank s .

Whe re q ua r tz o ccu r s i np r ima ry c l ay d epos i t s , i tm ay b e a ngu la r .

Whe r e i t

o ccu r si ns e conda ry c l ay d epo s i t s ,t h ea s sump t ion w ou ld g ene ra l ly b e as a f e ro ne . T he i mp l ica t ion s o f t h i s a s sump t ion a r e t h a t v e ry a ngu la r q ua r tz i sa lway s t empe r . H oweve r , o fc ou r se t h e c onve r se i sn o t a lway s t r ue . I no t he r w o rd s , o ne c anno t a lway s a s sume t h a tt h el a ck o fc r u shed q ua r tz i n d ica te s al a ck o fa dded s a nd o rq ua r tz t empe r . I f

7 4

ap o t te r h ad a c ce s s t o as a t i sf a c to ry n a tu ra l s a nd d epo s i t ( a s i so f t en t h e c a se n ea r r i ve r c l ay d epos i t s ) , h e o r s h e w ou ld n a tu ra l ly c hoo se t o e xp lo i t t h i s s ou rce r a the r t h an g o t h rough t h et i me -con sum ing a nd l a bo r iou sp roce s so fc r u sh ing r o ck f o rt empe r . I ti st r ue h oweve r t h a t t h e m o re a ngu la r t h e s a nd s ize q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s a r e , t h e s t ronge r t h e i n te r lock ing f r amewo rk s i tw i l l p r ov ide a s at empe r ( R ice 1 987 : 7 3 -4 ) ; a nd t h e r ef o re p o t te r s wou ld p robab ly s e ek t oi n c lude a ngu la r o r s u bangu la r q ua r tz .

I fn a tu ra l s ou rce s

p o s se s s ing a ccep tab le a ngu la r i ty a r ea c ce s s ib le t h ey w ou ld l i ke ly b e c ho sen o ve rc r u sh ing . A eo l ian

a nd

r i ve r ine

s a nd

d epo s i t s

a r e

g ene ra l ly

m uch

m o re

s u bangu la r

t h an

f r e sh ly -c rushed m a te r ia l a s ar e su l t o ft h et r an spo r ta t ion p roce s s . I ti so f t en t h e c a se t h a t n a tu ra l s and s , a eo l ian , l a cu s t r ine o rr i ve r , h ave a c cep tab le a ngu la r i ty , a nd a r e e xp lo i ted f o r u s e a st empe r . T hey a r e u s ed e i the r i nt h e i r n a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing g r a in s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o r s i eved t o o b ta in t h e d e s i r ed t empe r g r a in s i ze r a nge .

B o th h ave b een e t hnog raph ica l ly

r e co rded i nt h e a r ea so fn o r thwe s tP ak i s tan o ft h e p r e sen t s t udy . I nw o rk shop s o b se rved i nK a rma thu , n or th o fB annu d i s t r ic t , l o ca l p o t te r s u se s i eved a eo l ian s a nd d epo s i t s f o r t empe r ( Rye a nd E van s 1 9 76 : 3 9 ) . I n S wa t , t ot h e n o r th o ft h e s t udy a r ea , p o t te r s h ave b een o bserved u s ing s i ev ed s a nd o b ta ined f r om r i ve r d epo s i t s ( i b id . : 2 8 ) ; i nD e ra I sma i l K han a nd i nP an jab , n ea rt h e s i t e o fH a rappa , n a tu ra l ly -occu r r ing i n c lu s ion s a r el e f ti nt h e c l ay s b ecau se t h ey p r oduce t h e d e s i red c ha ra c te r i s t ic s ( i b id . : 5 0 -51 ,55 ) .

U se o fn a tu ra l

r i ve r s and d epos i t s a st empe r h a s a l so b een o b se rved a tS ha ikhan D he r i ( Hu sa in 1 992 : 1 72 ) .

T he re a r e t h e ref o re a v a r ie ty o f s i tua t ion s , a tl e a s t w i th r e spec t t o t h e p r e sen t

r e sea rch , t o b e c on s ide r ed a sw e l l a st h e a s sump t ion s g ene ra l ly m ade b y p a s t r e sea r che r s t h a to n ly v e ry a ngu la ri n c lu s ion ss h ou ld b ec on s ide red a st empe r( i nt h ec a se o fq ua r tz ) .

Whe re n a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing q ua r tz s a nd d epo s i t s a r eb e ing e xp lo i ted f o rt empe r , i ti sm uch m o re d if i cu l t t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h e n a tu ra l a nd p o t te r -added i n c lu s ion s i n t h in s e c t ion .

N a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing s a nd s h ave u sua l ly s uf e red s ome e r os ion t h rough

t r an spor ta t ion o rc hem ica lw ea the r ing a nd a r en o ta sa ngu la ra s an ew ly -c ru shed q ua r tz . I f t h e re i sn o s t rong ly a ngu la r q ua r tz f r a c t ion p r e sen t , b u t t h e r e i s ad e te rm inab le s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o r ab imoda l s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s , i tm ay w e l l b e a s sumed t h a t p a r t o ft h a t q ua r tz f r a c t ion c ou ld b e a dded t empe r ' .

I nt h e se c a se s w he re t h e v e ry

N a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing q uar tz i n c lus ions i np r ima r yc l ay d epos i ts m ay b ea ngu la r . T hese c an b ecome m ixed i n ap as te p r epa ra t ion w i th l e ss a ngu la r r i ve r o r l a cus t r ine s ands a dded a s t empe r . T h is w ou ld a l so r e su l t i n ab imoda l a ngu la r i ty d i s t r ibu t ion .

7 5

a ngu la r f r ac t ion i sn o t p r e sen t , i tm ay b e a s sumed t h a t t empe r , i fa dded , w a s f r om l o ca l s ou rce s . I th a s b een s h own t h a t i na dd i t ion t oc l ay s ou rc ing , p o t te r s s e ldom t r av e l m o re t h an 6 k m t o s a nd t empe r s ou rce s ( A rno ld 1 980 : 1 49 ; c i ted i nR ice 1 987 : 16 ) ; i ft h e s a nd sa r ef u r the ra way t h an t h i s , i tw ou ld l i ke ly b em o re e f ic ien tt oc r u sh s ome l o ca lr o ck .

A dd i t iona l ly , o ne c an m ake a c a se t h a t i td oe s n o t m a t te r w he the r o r n o t t h e q ua r tz f r ac t ion w a s i n ten t iona l ly a dded .

A p o t te r o f t en p r epa re s c l ay b y r emov ing s ome

i n c lu s ion s ( e .g . b y l e v iga t ion ) ; a nd b y a dd ing s ome ( e .g . t empe r ) .

T he se p roce s se s a r e

d e s igned t op roduce t h ed e s i red c ha rac te r i s t ic si nt h ec l ay b ody . We c an t h e ref o re a s sume t h e i n c lu s ion s t h a t a r e p r es en t w e re i n ten t iona l , i nt h a t t h e p o t te r w a s s a t i sf ied , b ef o re f o rm ing t h e v e s se l s , t h a t a l n ece s sa ry i n c lu s ion s w e r e t h e r e r e ga rd le s s o fh ow t h ey c ame t ob e t h e re . T h i s i ss of o r p u rpo se s o fp rovenance s t ud ie s a tl e a s t . T o m ake b ehav iou ra l i n f e rence sr e ga rd ing c l ay a nd t empe rs ou rc ing b a sed o nt h i sl i ne o fr e a son ing m igh tr e qu i re ad if e ren t a pp roach . T he ref o re , a n a na ly s i s o ft h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s i ne ach t h in s e c t ion c an b e e x t reme ly u s ef u l f o r p rovenance s t ud ie s e v en i fo ne c anno t d i s t ingu i sh n a tu ra l i n c lu s ion s f r om t h o se i n ten t iona l ly a dded b y t h e p o t te r .

I tc an b e u s ed t o c ha ra c te r i se a

c e am ic f a br ic . I fo ne m ake s t h e a s sump t ion t h a t a l q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s , b o th n a tu ra l ly a nd i n ten t iona l ly a dded , a r e f r om l o ca l s ou rce s , a nd t h a t q ua r tz p a r t ic le s c an b e p rovenanced a st ot y pe o f s ou rce e nv i ronmen t b y t h e i r c ha rac te r i s t ic s , t h en a n a na ly s i s o ft h em c an b e h e lpf u l i n d if e ren t ia t ing p o t te ry s ou rce s . T he a pp roa ch h a s b een u sed o n ly r a re ly i na r chaeo log ica l p rovenance s t ud ie s , p e rhap s b ecau se i ti sp r ima r i ly a m e thod u sed b y g eo log i s t s a nd s e d imen to log i s t s a nd s o r e qu i re s ar e a sonab le u nde r s tand ing o fs e d imen to logy . Ar e cen t i n nova t ive a t temp t i na r chaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion w a sc onduc ted b y Ma son ( 1995 ) . H e( o r s h e ) d emon s t ra ted t h a t p rovenance o fI s lam ic s t onepa s te c e ram ic s o ft h eN ea rE a s t c ou ld b e i n f e r red b y a na ly s ing t h e d eg ree o fc l oud ine s s o fq ua r tz a sc au sed b y f l u id i n c lu s ion s . L omba rd ( 1 987 ) u s ed c ompo s i t ion o f s a nd t empe r i n s h e rd s t o e s tab l i sh p r obab le g eog raph ic l o ca t ion o fp o t te ry m anuf a c tu r ing r e g ion , b y c ompa r ing t h em t o s amp le s o f s a nd sc o l lec ted f r om t h e s ame r e g ion . H e ( o r s h e ) h oweve rm ade t h ea s sump t ion t h a tt h e o n ly t empe r a dded w a s t h e c oa r se g ne i s s ic f r ac t ion p r e sen t ( i b id . : 1 05 ) ; a nd t h a t a l r ema in ing , m o re r ounded q ua r tz i n c lu s ion sw e re n a tu ra l ly p r e sen ti nt h e o r ig ina lc l ay s ;t h i s m ade i te a s ie rt om a tch t h em t ol o ca l c l ay d epo s i t s . T h i s i s ar i sky a s sump t ion b ecau se i t

7 6

a s sume st h a tt h ep o t te rd i dn o ta dd a ny n a tu ra l s a nd sa st empe rn o rd i dt h ep o t te ra l te rt h e c l ay v i a l e v iga t ion . D ick in son a nd S hu t le r ( 1 97 1) s t ud ied t h e n a tu re o ft empe r s a nd s o f P ac if i c i s land p o t te ry s h e rd s a nd i n f e r red t h e i r o r ig in s f r om ak now ledge o ft h e v a ry ing c ompo s i t ion o fs a nd sb a sed o nb ed rock g eo logy o fs ome o ft h ei s l and s . A ga in , t h e a bove a s sump t ion sh ad t ob em ade r e ga rd ing t h ep o t te r ' sp r epa ra t ion o ft h ec l ay m ix tu re .

E x ten s ive r e sea rch h a sb een c a r r ied o u tb ys e d imen to log i s t st h a tc an b eu sed t oa dvan tage i na r chaeo logy t oa s s i s t i ns ou rc ing o fq ua r tz s a nd t empe r s . T he b a s i s o ft h e r e sea rch i s t h a t p a r t icu la te m a t te r , i n c lud ing q ua r tz , i ss u b jec t t o a b ra s ion a nd w ea the r ing f r om v a r iou s i n f luence s i nt h e i r p o lycyc l ic h i s to ry ( Se l ley 1 988 ) . T h i s a f ec t s t h e i r s i ze , s h ape a nd o t he r c ha rac te r i s t ic s .

Wh i le o ne m u s t b e v e ry c a ref u l i ni n f e r r ing t h e d epo s i t iona l

e nv i ronmen t o fa nc ien t s e d imen t s f r om t h e i r g r anu lome t ry , i th a s b een s hown t h a t s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion c ha rac te r i s t ic s c an b e u s ed t o m ake s u ch i n f e rence s .

S t ud ie s o f t h e

c h a rac te r is t ic p a rame te r so ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion so fs a nd p a r t ic le so f as e d imen ta s so r tmen th a s b een s hown t ob e r e vea l ing a st ot h e n a tu re o ft h e d epo s i t iona l e nv i ronmen t . T he e a r l ie r s t ud ie s b y F r iedman ( 1 96 1 : 5 24 ; 1 967 ) d emon s t ra ted t h a t r i ve r s a nd s a nd d une s a nd s g ene ra l ly h ave p o s i t ive ly skewed d i s t r ibu t ion s b ecau se r i ve r w a te r n o rma l ly c on ta in s a f a i r ly h i gh c oncen t ra t ion o fs u spended c l ay a nd s i l t ( B la t t e ta l . 1 980 : 7 3 ) . B each s a nd s t e nd t ob e b e t te r s o r ted t h an r i ve r s a nd sb ecau se o fw innow ing b yw ind a nd w ave a c t ion , a nd t h us t e nd t oh ave l owe r n ume r ica l s t anda rd d ev ia t ion v a lue s . I nman , h oweve r , i na n e a r l ie r s t udy ( 1 952 : 1 26 ) , s t a ted t h a tm any s i ze -f requency d i s t r ibu t ion c urve so fs e d imen t s a pp roach n o rma l d i s t r ibu t ion s , a nd c on s ide red t h i s a n a dvan tage i nt h a t i ta lowed t h e p r ope r t ie s o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion t ob e d e sc r ibed i nt e rm s o fd ev ia t ion s o ra noma l ie sf r om t h e n o rma l . F o lk a nd Wa rd ( 1 957 : 2 5 ) s howed t h a te x t reme h i gh o rl ow v a lue s o fk u r to s i si n s a nd p a r t ic le s ize d i s t r ibu t ion s i mp ly t h a t p a r t o f t h e s e d imen t a ch ieved i t s s o r t ing e l sewhe re i n ah i gh -ene rgy e nv i ronmen t , a nd t h a ti tw a st r an spo r ted e s sen t ia l ly u nmod if ied i n to a no the r e nv i ronmen t w he re i tw a s m ixed w i th a no the rt y pe o fm a te r ia l . I nt h i s c a se t h et wo d i s t r ibu t ion sw i l l r e ta in t h e i ro r ig ina l c ha rac te r i s t ic s , i . e . s t rong ly b imoda l . B u l le r a nd Mc Manu s ( 1 972 ) e xam ined g r a in s ize d a ta f r om n on -b iogen ic s e d imen t s f r om a v a r ie ty o f e nv i ronmen t s a nd f o und a l so t h a t s o r t ing i s af u nc t ion o f d epo s i t iona l e nv i ronmen t . T hey f o und t h a t q u ie t -wa te r s e d imen t s e xh ib i ted s o r t ing r e la t ive ly c on s tan t o ve r aw ide rr a nge o fm ed ian g r a in s i ze s t h an o t he r e nv i ronmen t s ; t h a t b ea che s r e p re sen t

7 7

e nv i ronmen t s o f m ax imum e ne rgy ; a nd t h a t s h a l low m a r ine d epo s i t s f a l l s omewhe re i n b e tween a nd s o e xpe r ience a w ide r s p ec t rum o f s o r t ing g r ad ien t s ( i b id . : 1 6 ) .

T he se

o bse rva t ion sh ave b een c or robo ra ted b yF r iedman ( 1 979 : 5 6 ) . T he se s o r t s o f s t ud ie sa r e u sef u l i n a r chaeo log ica l t empe r p r ovenance s t ud ie s o n ly i ft h e b ehav iou ra l a s pec t o f p o t te r s i st a ken i n to a c coun t . T ha t i s ,e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s o fp r e sen t d ay p o t te r s i nt h e a r ea h ave s hown t h a t p o t te r s e mp loy ing r i ve r s a nd t empe r s s ome t ime s s i eve t h e s a nd b ef o re m ix ing i ti n to t h e c l ay i no rde rt h a t o n ly t h e l a rge r s i ze f r ac t ion i su sed a st empe r ( s ee p r ev iou s ) . T h i sa c t ion w ou ld c on f ound u se o fn a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion st o i n f e rd epo s i t iona l s ou rce . H oweve r , i f ,o nt h e b a s i s o ft h e s u bangu la rn a tu re o ft h el a rge r q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s , i ta ppea r s t h a t n a tu ra l ly -occu r r ing s a nd s ou rce s a r e b e ing u sed ( i . e . n o t c r u shed ) , i tc an b e i n f e r red b y t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h e c e r am ic w he the r o r n o t t h ey w e re s i eved b ef o re u se .

I n a dd i t ion t o t h e a bove e f ec t s o n t h e s o r t ing , o r s i ze f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion , o fq ua r tz p a r t ic le s , m uch c an b ei n f e r red f r om t h e i ra ngu la r i ty a nd s p he r ic i ty . Q ua r tz g ra in sb ecome w ea the red a c co rd ing t ot h e i rd epos i t iona l a nd t r an spor t h i s to ry a sd i scu s sed a bove ; i th a s a l so b een s hown t h a t t h ey c an b ecome s i gn if i can t ly w ea the red i n p o s tdepo s i t iona l e nv i ronmen t s ( B la t t e ta l . 1 980 : 2 46 ; C rook 1 968 ) . P ye a nd Mazze l lo ( 1994 : 5 06 ) c a r r ied o u t s t ud ie s w h ich d emon s t ra ted t h a t t h i s c an o ccu r b y c h em ica l p roce s se s i np e r iod s a s s ho r t a s af ew t h ou sand y ea r s a f t e r d epo s i t ion , v i a s i l ica d i s so lu t ion a nd g r a in e t ch ing . T he se s o r t s o f i n f luence s , o ccu r r ing a t d if e ren t r a te s i n d if e ren t p o s tdepo s i t iona l e nv i ronmen t s , c an r e su l t i nd if e ren t d eg ree s o fw ea the r ing .

I n t h e c a se o ft h e p r e sen t

r e sea rch , t h i s w a s e xp lo red b ecau se o ft h e w ide p o s s ib le d if e rence s i nt h e i r r e spec t ive t r an spor ta t iona l a nd d epo s i t iona l e nv i ronmen t s a nd t h a t af ew t h ou sand y ea r s i nd if e ren t e nv i ronmen t s c ou ld h ave p roduced d i s t inc t ive ly d if e ren t w ea the r ing e f ec t s .

Mo s t

s p ec if ica l ly , t h o se w h ich w ea the r ed o n t h e G oma l P l a in a r ound t h e s i t e o fR ehman D he r i w ou ld p robab ly h ave s p en t m o re t i me a nd d i s tance i n af l uv ia t i le e nv i ronmen t t h an t h o se f r om t h e B annu B a s in ; d ue t o t h e i r r e spec t ive d i s tance s f r om t h e i r p robab le o r ig ina l m oun ta in s ou rce s . T he w ea the r ing i n f luence s s o f a r d i scu s sed h ave r e la ted o n ly t o t h e i r e f ec t o n q ua r tz p a r t ic le s a nd i n c lu s ion s .

O the r c ommon ly o ccu r r ing i n c lu s ion s i nc l ay s s u ch a sb i o t i te ,

7 8

m u scov i te , a nd f e ld spa r sa r ee ven m o re s u scep t ib le t ot h ei n f luence so fw ea the r ing , b o th i n t r an spor t a nd i np o s tdepo s i t iona l s i tua t ion s ( B la t t e ta l . 1 980 : 2 50 -65 ) .

B ecau se o ft h e

d if e rence s i n g eo log ica l h i s to ry b e tween t h e G oma l P l a in a nd t h e B annu B a s in ( s ee C hap te r 6 ) , i tw a s e xpec ted t h a t d if e rence s c ou ld e x i s t i nt h e w ea the r ing h i s to ry o ft h e se n on -qua r tz i n c lu s ion st h a t c ou ld a i d i nd i s t ingu i sh ing c l ay s ou rce s o ft h et wo a r ea s . S i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a na ly s i s i sr a the r m o re d if i cu l t a nd m uch l e s s r e l iab le a s a pp l ied t o t h e se i n c lu s ion s . p a r t ic le s .

T he m ica s , f o r e xamp le , t y p ica l ly o ccu r b o th i nd e t r i ta l f o rm a nd i nl a rge r I ft h e l a rge r l a th s a r e r a ndom ly o r ien ted i n at h in s e c t ion , t h e p robab i l i ty t h a t

t h ey w ou ld a l b e c u t s oa st om ake ar e pea tab le l o ng -ax i s m ea su remen t p os s ib le i sq u i te m inu scu le .

T he d e t r i ta l m ica s a r e t o o s ma l l t ob e a c cu ra te ly m ea su red u s ing a n o p t ica l

m ic ro scope ; m o reove r , i fm any o ft h e s ma l le r p a r t ic le s a r e l e s s t h an 3 0 m ic ron s , i ti s p o in t le s st oe ven a t temp t as i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a na ly s i su s ing a3 0m ic ron t h in s e c t ion b ecau se m any o f t h em w ou ld b e h i dden w i th in t h e t h ickne s s a nd e s cape m ea su remen t .

( The

d i agnos t ic v a lue o ft h e d e t r i ta l m ica s h oweve r i sn o t l o s t i nt h e p r e sen t r e sea rch .

T he i r

i n f luence c an b e m ea su r ed t h rough t h e b i ref r ingence o ft h e c l ay m a t r ix a s s e en i nt h in s e c t ion . T h i s i sd i scu s sed i nC hap te r6 . ) T he l a rge rm ica p a r t ic le s , t h o se g r ea te rt h an 3 0 m ic ron s , c an b e o b se rved e a s i ly i nt h in s e c t ion a nd aq uan t i ta t ive v a lue p l a ced o n t h e i r d eg ree o f w ea the r ing .

T h i s f a c to r c a n b e o f d i agno s t ic v a lue i n d if e ren t ia t ing c l ay

s o u r ce s . F i na l ly , f e ld spa r s a r e v e ry s u b jec t t o t h e i n f luence s o f w ea the r ing .

T h i s m ine ra l i s

c on s tan t ly b e ing e r oded a nd b rok en d own b o th d u r ing t r an spor t a nd i ns i tu . T he e ven tua l r e s idua o ff e ld spa r s i nf a c t a r e c l ay m ine ra l s . F o r e xamp le , t h e c l ay m ine ra l k ao l in i te i s f o rmed f r om t h e d eg rada t ion o fK -f e ld spa r s t h rough d i agene t ic p roce s se s , e s pec ia l ly i n m a r ine e nv i ronmen t s( M i l lo t 1 970 : 2 40 ; C ham ley 1 989 : 2 9 ) . T he d eg ree o fw ea the r ing i n f e ld spa r sc an t h en o f t en b eu s ed a s at o o lt od if e ren t ia te s ou rce s . T he f o rego ing c on s ide ra t ion s w e re d i scu s sed t op rov ide a n a pp rec ia t ion o ft h e c ho ice o f m e thodo logy u sed i nt h e p r ovenance a n a ly s i s .

Af u r the r a s pec t o f a r chaeo log ica l t h in

s e c t ion a na ly s is i n vo lve s r e sea r ch i n to t h e t e chno log ica l a t t r ibu te s o f p o t te ry -mak ing . S ome o ft h e se a r e : 1 .d e te rm ina t ion o ft h ev o lume o ft empe r su t i l i sed f o rc e r ta in f a b r ic t y pe s ; 2 .d e te rm ina t ion o ft h ep r ef e r red t empe rg r a in s i ze ; 3 .o b se rva t ion o fs l i p sa nd s u r f a ce f i n i she s ;

7 9

4 .d e te rm ina t ion o ff i r ing t empe ra tu r e s ; a nd 5 .f o rm ing t e chn ique s . S t udy o f t h e se a t t r ibu te s o f p o t te ry -mak ing , a nd m ak ing c ompa r i son s o f t e chno logy b e tween s i te s o ra r ea so fo r ig in c an p rov ide c l ue s a st ot h en a tu re a nd i n ten s i ty o fi n te r s i te o r i n te r reg iona l i n te rac t ion n e two rk s .

A s o u t l ined i n S ec t ion 4 . 2 , s oc ioeconom ic

i n te ra c t ion i n p r eh i s to ry c an b e a t v a r y ing l e ve l s :

e xchange o f s t y l is t ic i n f o rma t ion ,

e xchange o f t e chno log ica l a nd c r af t s p ec ia l i sa t ion i n f o rma t ion ( o r i n nova t ion s ) , o r e xchange a ta ne conom ic l e ve l o fa c tua lp r oduc t s . E ven i fp r ovenance a na ly s i s s h ow st h a t a c tua l t r ade m ay n o t h ave b een o ccu r r ing , s t udy o ft h e t e chno log ica l a t t r ibu te s f r om t h in s e c t ion s o fp o t te ry f r om s i t e s o fd if e ren t r e g ion s c an p r ov ide c l ue s a s t o t h e n a tu re o f i n te ra c t ion . F o r i n s tance , i fs t anda rd i sa t ion i ss e en w i th in t e chno log ica l p a rame te r s f r om s i t et os i t e , i tm igh tb ei n f e r red t h a tp o t te r sw e re e x chang ing t e chno log ica l i n f o rma t ion a nd i n nova t ion s .

T h i s c ou ld s how t h a t t h e o b se rved s im i la r i t ie s i ns t y le a nd d eco ra t ion w e re

m o re t h an o n ly i n d ica to r s o fc u l tu ra l i d en t i ty ; t h a t t h e re e x i s ted n e two rk s f o re xchange o f i n f o rma t ion a nd i n nova t ion s a sw e l l .

S t anda rd i sa t ion ( t echno log ica l o r c ompo s i t iona l ) i n

c e ram ic si so f t en u sed a se v idence f o r s p ec ia l i sed c r af tp roduc t ion a sb e ing ak ey f a c to ri n t h e p o l i t ica l

e conomy

o f c omp lex

s o c ie t ie s ( e .g .

C l a rk a nd P a r ry

1 990 :

2 90 ) .

S t anda rd i sa t ion i s ar e la t ive c oncep tt h a tc a no n ly b ei d en t if ied t h rough c ompa r i son o ft wo o r m o r e a r tef ac t a s semb lage s w i th d if e r ing d eg ree s o fh omogene i ty ( Cos t in 1 9 91 : 3 5 ; c i ted i nB lackman e ta l1 993 : 6 1 ) . V a r ia t ion s i nh omogen e i ty , o rt h e l a ck o ft h em , f r om s i t et os i t e , c an b eu sed t om ake s ome i n f e r ence sr e ga rd ing t r an sf e ro ft e chno logy b e tween r e g ion s . D if f e ren t t y pe s o fd a ta a cqu i s i t ion a nd p r e sen ta t ion a r e r e qu i red f o r t h e t wo p u r po se s o f p rovenance a na ly s i s a nd e v idence o ft e chno log ica l s im i la r i t ie s . F o r p rovenance a n a ly s i s , a n e xam ina t ion o ft h e s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd m o rpho log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h ei n c lus ion s i sr e vea l ing a s i tc an s e rve t o c ha rac te r i se t h e s ou rce o ft h e se i n c lu s ion s .

O n t h e o t he r

h and , i no rde r t o o b se rve a nd a na ly se t e chno log ica l a t t r ibu te s , i ti sr e vea l ing t ok now , i n a dd i t ion t ot h e c ha rac te r i s t ic so ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion s a nd m o rpho log ie so ft h ei n c lu s ion s , h ow t h e se d i s t r ibu t ion sr e la te , i nt e rm so fv o lume , t ot h ec l ay m a t r ix . T ha ti s ,i ti si mpo r tan tt o k now t h e c oncen t ra t ion s o r d en s i t ie s o ft h ev a r iou s s i ze s o fi n c lu s ion s i nt h e c l ay m a t r ix ; e i the ra s ap e rcen tage o ft h e w ho le o ri na b so lu te t e rm s o fn umbe r s p e ru n i t v o lume . A s p r ev iou s ly m en t ioned , t h e p o t te r m o s t p r obab ly s u b t rac ted o r a dded i n c lu s ion s a c co rd ing

8 0

t ov o lume s r e la t ive t ot h ev o lume o fp a s te . A n a c cu ra te m ea su re o ft h e se d en s i t ie s f r om s i t et os i te w i l lr e vea la n ys t anda rd i sa t ion p r e sen ti nt h ep a s te m ixe s . T he re i s much d eba te i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd s e d imen to log ica l l i t e ra tu re o nt h e r e la t ive a dvan tage s a nd d i sadvan tage s o fd if e ren t m e thod s o ft e x tu ra l a na ly s i s , i np a r t icu la r t h e m e thod o fc oun t ing t ob ee mp loyed . T he b a s ic s a r et h a ti ti sr e qu i red t oo b ta in ap a r t ic le c oun t t h a t i sr e p re sen ta t ive o ft h e p a r t ic le d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e e n t i re c e ram ic v e s se l .

T he

s i mp le s t a pp roach i st oj u s tm ea su re t h e s ma l le s ta nd t h el a rge s tg r a in i ne a ch t h in s e c t ion ( O r ton e ta l1 993 : 1 4 1) . A no the r s i mp le m e thod w h ich i su sed o f t en i st or e po r tj u s t t h e a ve rage g ra in s i ze o rt oe s t ima te s i ze s a nd d i s t r ibu t ion s u s ing v i sua l c ha r t s o fk nown o r p r epa red s t anda rd s ( e .g . Ma t thew e ta l . 1 99 1) .

T he se a pp roache s a r e g ene ra l ly m o r e

e xped ien t a nd p rov ide a ne s t ima t ion o fg r a in s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion s , b u t t h ey l a ck t h ep r ec is ion a nd r i gou r o f a c tua l ly c oun t ing a nd m ea su r ing t h e g r a in s , a nd e xam in ing t h e i r s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion c ha rac te r i s t i c s .

T he l a t te r i st h e m o re a c cu ra te a pp roach , a s t h e d a ta a r e

a menab le t o s t a t i s t ica l s t udy a nd a na ly s i s .

I mpor tan t ly , i tp e rm i t s t e chno log ica l ly

i mpor tan t i n f o rma t ion s u ch a s b imoda l i ty i n s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion s t o b e d e tec ted b y e xam ina t ion o ft h ed a ta i ng r aph ica lf o rm ( F ree s tone 1 991 : 4 06 ) . I to f e r sv a ry ing d eg ree s o f a c cu racy d epend ing o n t h e s e lec t ion o f s amp l ing m e thod .

T he r e a r e b a s ica l ly f o u r

s amp l ing s t ra teg ie s : s i mp le r a ndom , s t ra t if i ed r a ndom , s y s tema t ic , o r c l u s te red ( Shennan 1 988 : 3 14 -320 ) .

I ft h e p opu la t ion h a s a n i n he ren t p a t te rn ing , as y s tema t ic s amp le w i l l

p r ov ide t h eb e s te s t ima t ion o ft h ea c tua lp opu la t ion .

P o in t c oun t ing i s as y s t ema t ic s amp l ing p r ocedu re b y w h ich t h in sec t ion c on s t i tuen t s a r e e s t ima ted f r om as e r ie so fo b se rva t ion sm ade a tf i xed i n te rva l sa c ro s st h ee n t i re a r ea o ft h e t h in s e c t ion .

E i the r am echan ica l ly -d r iven s t age w h ich m ove s a tp r e se t i n te rva l s o r a n

e y ep iece g ra t icu le i sn o rma l ly u s ed f o rt h ep u rpo se . As t a t i s t ica l ly v a l id n umbe ro fp o in t s i sc oun ted ( s ee V an d e rP l a s a nd T ob i 1 965 ; C haye s 1 965 ) , e a ch i sc l a s s if i ed a c co rd ing t o i t s p roper t ie s d epend ing o n t h e n a tu re o f t h e i n ve s t iga t ion , a nd u sua l ly b a r cha r t s , p i e c ha r t s , o r t e rna ry d i ag r am s a r e u s ed f o r p r e sen ta t ion o ft h e r e la t ive c oncen t ra t ion s o ft h e v a r iou s i n c lu s ion s . T hu s c l a s s if i ca t ion i n to f a b r ic t y pe s i sm ade p o s s ib le a nd c ompa ra t ive g roup ing sf a c i l i ta ted .

8 1

F o rt h e s t udy o fg ra in s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a l one ( i . e . i re spec t ive o fi t sd en s i ty w i th r e spec tt o t h e c l ay m a t r ix ) , v a r iou s c oun t ing m e thod s a r ei nu se . T h i s c ommon ly e n ta i l s ac ho ice o f f ou r m e thod s o f s e lec t ing p o in t s t o c oun t :

p o in t , l i n e , r i bbon , o r a r ea -coun t ing

( M idd le ton e ta l . 1 985 : 6) . F i gu re 4 . 1 i l u s t ra te s t h e f o u r m e thod s . I n p o in t -coun t ing , s e lec t ion o fi n c lu s ion si sm ade s y s tema t ica l ly b ym ea su r ing a nd c oun t ing o n ly t h o se w h ich f a l lu nde rt h ei n te r sec t ion o fg r id l i ne s . Av a r ia t ion o ft h ep o in t -coun t ing m e thod w a su sed b y S t ree ten ( 1 982 ) , i nt h e c a se w he re t h e re w a s al ow d en s i ty o fi n c lu s ion s i nt h e s h e rd s . T h i s w a s t h e ' n ea re s t g r a in ' m e thod w he reby ag r a in i sm ea su red f o r e ve ry g r id -po in t , b y t a k ing t h e g r a in n ea re s t t h e g r id -po in t .

T h i s m e thod e f e c t ive ly a bandon s t h e u se o fa

s t anda rd i sed g r id ( M idd le ton e ta l . 1 985 : 7 1 ) . I ti sn o t c l ea r w hy t h e a r ea c oun t m e thod w a sn o tu sed i nt h i sc a se , h oweve r , a si ti sm uch m o re a pp l icab le t ot h ec a se o fs h e rd sw i th

2 / 7 1 3 7

w (Z ?

I r

‚ ' ° . ) $ 0/ \ < 7 GU

i ) d i3 7 4 , ... w 9 i . , ./ ) .

d i4 1• Z ?

r

• d i / P / /

F IGURE 4 . 1 METHODS OF GRA IN S ELECT ION FOR MODAL ANALYS IS a = p o in t , b = l i ne , c =a rea , d = r i bbon . B lack g ra ins a r et hose n o tc oun ted . ( M idd le ton e ta l . 1 985 )

l ow d en s i t ie s o fi n c lus ion s . I nl i ne c oun t ing , a lt h o se w h ich a r e c on ta c ted b yt h e l i ne a r e c oun ted . I nr i bbon c oun t ing , a l t h o se w h ich f a l l w i th in ap r e -de te rm ined b and o rr i bbon

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a r e i n c luded ; a nd i na r ea c oun t ing , a l i n c lu s ion s f a l l ing w i th in ad ef ined a r ea o ft h e t h in s e c t ion a r ec oun ted . I th a sb een g ene ra l ly f o und t h a t a r ea a nd r i bbon c oun t ing p rov ide t h e m o s t a ccu ra te e s t ima t ion o ft h e a c tua l d i s t r ibu t ion ( M idd le ton e ta l . 1 985 : 6 8 , 7 1 ; B e t t s 1 982 ) .

S ome c r i t ic i sm s a ga in s t p o in t -coun t ing a r e p r e sen ted i nt h e f o l low ing p a rag raph .

T he u se o f a r ea c oun t ing m ake s i tp o s s ib le t o d educe t h e v o lume t r ic p ropor t ion o f i n c lu s ion s a s w e l l a s d e t e rm in ing t h e i r s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion s .

T h i s i sd one b y c oun t ing t h e

i n c lu s ion si n ak nown a r ea ;t h en u s ing t h ea b so lu te n umbe rp e rs qua re u n i to fa r ea ( u sua l ly m i l l ime t re s ) a s ad i rec t f u nc t ion o fn umbe rp e ru n i t v o lume o fp a s te . Wh i le t h i s d oe s n o t d i rec t ly p rov ide t h e n umbe r p e r u n i t v o lume , c ompa r i son o ft wo o r m o re f a b r ic s o n t h e b a s i s o fn umbe rp e ru n i ta r ea c a np rov ide ad i rec t c ompa r i son . I ta l so r e la te sm o re t ot h e ' h uman f a c to r ' i nc e ram ic t e x tu ra l s t ud ie s , i . e . t h e p o t te ra dd s ap r e -de te rm ined a moun t o f ap a r t icu la r s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o ft empe r u sua l ly b a sed o n p a s te v o lume .

P o in t -coun t ing

p r oduce s as im i la r c oncep t ; i nt h a t i ti sa c tua l ly a n a r ea m ea su remen t , p roduc ing f i gu re s t h a tr e p re sen tw ha ta r ea o ft h es l i de i sc ove r ed b yp a r t icu la rc a tego r ie s . H oweve r , b ecau se o ft h e s upe r io r a c cu ra cy o fa r ea -coun t ing o ve rp o in t -coun t ing ( i tr e duce s t h eb i a s a ga in s t t h e s ma l le r i n c lu s ion s s ee f o l low ing p a rag raph ) , v o lume t r ic re la ted r e su l t s d e r ived f r om a r ea c oun t s /a rea a r e m o r e i n d ica t ive o f t h e a c tua l d i s t r ibu t ion .

Mo reove r , f o r s i ze

d i s t r ibu t ion a na ly s i s a r ea -coun t ing a low st h ec oun t ing o f af ewe rn umbe ro fp o in t sf o rt h e s ame a ccu racy b ecau se o n ly i n c lu s ion s a r e c oun ted , a nd n o t m a t r ix ( s ee d i scu s s ion i n S ec t ion 6 . 4 ) .

S hor tcom ing s o f t h e p o in t - a nd l i ne -coun t ing m e thod s w e re p o in ted o u t e a r ly i n t h e s e d imen to log ica l l i t e ra tu re ( e .g . Sm i th son 1 9 39 : 3 50 ) , a nd V an d e rP l a s a dvoca ted r i bbon s amp l ing b ecau se " t he u s e o fl i ne a nd p o in t c oun t ing m e thod s i ng r anu lome t r ic a na ly s i s l e ad s t o r e su l t s i n w h ich t h e i n f luence o f t h e s amp l ing m e thod i ss o s t rong t h a t t h e p r ac t ica l v a lue o ft h e se t e chn ique s i sd oub tf u l . " ( 1 962 : 1 4 5 ) . T he m a in r e a son f o r t h e se c r i t ic i sm s o fp o in t - a nd l i ne -coun t ing m e thod si st h a t ( s ee F i gu re 4 . 1) t h e p robab i l i ty o fa p a r t ic le b e ing c oun ted d ec rea se s i n i n d i rec t p ropo r t ion t o i t s s i ze .

Ma thema t ica l ly

e xp re s sed , a s p a r t ic le s i ze a pp roa che s z e ro , t h e p robab i l i ty o f i tn o t b e ing c oun ted a pp roache s 1 . 0 . O ne w ou ld e xpec tt h e r ef o re t h a tt h e u t i l i ty o ft h e a r ea -coun t ing m e thod r e la t ive t ot h e o t he r sw ou ld i n c rea se a st h ed en s i ty o fs ma l le rp a r t ic le si n c rea se sr e la t ive t o t h el a rge ro ne s .

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F o rp e rcen t c oun t sw i th r e spec t t ot h e d en s i ty w i th in t h e c l ay m a t r ix , av a r ia t ion o n p o in t c oun t ing i s b e s t u sed ; h e re , c l ay m a t r ix i s c oun ted a s ap o in t .

T h is m e thod i s

w e l l -de sc r ibed a nd c hamp ioned b y S t o l tman ( 1 989 , 1 99 1 ) w ho u sed i ts ucce s sf u l ly t o d ocumen t c u l tu ra l i n te ra c t ion i nt h eM idd le -M i s s i s s ipp ian . T he m e thod i si nc ommon u se a mong g eo log i s t s f o r e s t ima t ing r o ck c ompo s i t ion i nt h in s e c t ion .

O the r a pp l ica t ion s t o

a r chaeo logy h ave i n c luded B raun ( 1 982 ) , H an tman a nd P l og ( 1 982 ) , P log ( 1 980 ) a nd T anke r s ley a nd Me inha r t( 1 982 ) .

S l ip a nd s u rf ace f i n i she s c a n b e o b se rved a nd a na ly sed i nt h in s e c t ion .

Of ten , o ne c an

m ea su re t h ickne s so fa pp l ied s l i p sf o ri n te r -ve s se l c ompa r i son . O r , t h en a tu re o fi n c lu s ion s i nt h es l i pc an b ed e te rm ined .

P e t rog raph ic t h in s e c t ion d a ta h a s b een u s ed b y s ome r e sea r che r s t o e s t ima te r a nge s o f f i r ing t empe ra tu re so fa n c ien tc e ram ic s . T empe ra tu re sa bov ea bou t 1 , 000 d eg ree s Cc au se d ef ec t s s u ch a se xf o l ia t ion ( s epa ra t ion a l ong c l eavage p l ane s ) w i th in p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r s a nd b i o t i te ( Kapu re ta l . 1 992 ; S aka rya e ta l . 1 990 ) . P o ra te ta l .( 1 99 1) r e por t e s t ima t ion o ff i r ing t empe ra tu re s o fE a r ly B ronze A ge E gyp t ian p o t te ry b y o bse rv ing m ine ra log ica l c hange s w h ich t ook p l a ce u nde r f i r ing .

T hey o b served d ecompo s i t ion o f c a lc i te a nd

r e ac t ion o ft h e p roduc t s w i th t h e c l ay m ine ra l s b e tween 7 50 a nd 8 50 d eg ree s Cw h ich c au sed v i t r if ica t ion o ft h e m a t r ix ( b u t s e e F ea the r s 1 989 f o l low ing ) .

A lso , o x ida t ion o f

g r een h o rnb lende t o ad eep r e d o xyho rnb lende o ccu r red b e tween 8 00 a nd 8 50 d eg ree s . T hey r e po r ted t h a t f i r ing t empe ra tu re s o f 8 50 t o 9 50 d eg ree s c an b e i n d ica ted b y c omp le te ly d ecompo sed l i me s tone a nd ah i gh ly v i t r if ied , m i lky m a t r ix .

F ea the r s ( 1 989 :

5 81) r e po r t st h a t r a te a nd d u ra t ion o ff i r ing a r e a si mpo r tan t a sm ax imum t empe ra tu re i n d e te rm in ing w ha t p hy s ica l c hange s o ccu r d u r ing f i r ing . F o r e xamp le , w i th al ow r a te o f h ea t ing , c a lc i te d ecompo s i t ion c an b eg in a t7 00 d eg r ee sC ;a t af a s te rr a te i tm ay n o tb eg in u n t i l 8 00 d eg ree s C .

C hange s i ns ome a mph ibo le s c an s ome t ime s b e u sed a s af i r ing

t empe ra tu re i n d ica to r ,b u tt h ey c an o ccu ra sl ow a s6 00 d eg ree s C( M idd lemos t 1 9 85 ) ;t oo l ow t o b e ar e l iab le i n d ica to r o ft e r ra co t ta t empe ra tu re s .

R i ce ( 1 987 : 4 31) r e po r t s t h a t

g reen h o rnb lende sb ecome b rown a tt empe ra tu re s o fa bou t6 50 d eg ree s . S ee a l so f u r the r d i scu s s ion i nS ec t ion 7 . 1 .1 .

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F i na l ly , c l ue s a s t o f o rm ing t e chn ique s e mp loyed c an b e i n f e r red f r om t h in s e c t ion o b se rva t ion s ( R ice 1 987 : 3 80 ) .

Of t en , i n te r f a ce s b e tween c o i l s c an b e n o ted w he re t h e

c o i l c on s t ruc t ion m e thod h a s b een u s ed ( Cou r ty a nd R oux 1 995 ) .

T he se r e sea rch e r s

r e cen t ly c onduc ted s ome e xpe r imen ta l a r cha eo logy i n ve s t iga t ion s w h ich t h ey c l a imed c an s h ow t h a t t h e o b se rva t ion o fs u rf a ce f e a tu re s a l one c anno t a lway sb e r e l ied u pon t oi n f e r t h a t p o t s w e re w hee l th rown .

T h in s e c t ion e xam ina t ion o f t h e i r e xpe r imen ta l s h e rd s

c ompa red w i th e xcava ted m a te r ia l ( i nc lud ing s ome H a rappan m a te r ia l ) s howed t h a t a c omb ina t ion o fc o i l ing a nd w hee l f in i sh ing c ou ld h ave b een e mp loyed . A l so , c ha rac te r i s t ic a l ignmen t o fi n c lu s ion si nt h ef a b r ic o b ser ved i nt h in s e c t ion c an r e vea l d i rec t ion so fs t r e s s d e f o rma t ion a nd t h u sa ni n d ica t ion o ff o rm ing t e chn ique s . F u r the rd i scu s s ion i sp r e sen ted i nS ec t ion 7 . 1 .1 u nde r ' F ab r ic ' , w he r e o b se r va t ion s m ade i nt h e R ehman D he r i s h e rd s a r e d i scu s sed .

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CHAPTER F IVE : BACKGROUND AND DESCR IPT IONS

5 . 1 THE I NDUS VALLEY AND I TS ENVIRONS 5 . 1 .1 G eography T he r e g ion e n compa s s ing t h e e x ten t o ft h e H a r appan c i v i l i sa t ion a nd i t s p rog en i to r s i s l o ca ted i nt h e S ou th A s ian c on t in en ta l a r ea .

T h e f o l low ing g eog raph ic d e s c r ip t ion i s

d r awn f r om A hmad ( 1969 ) , e x cep t w he r e n o ted o t he rw i s e .

T h i s a r ea i n c lude s p a r t o fa

s y s tem o ff o ld m oun ta in s t h a t s t re tch f r om t h e Med i te r ran em t ot h e P ac if i c c oa s t .

T he

H ima laya s a nd t h e i r o f shoo t s a r e p a r t o ft h i s s y s tem o fm oun ta in s w h ich d om in a te t h e c on t in en t o fA s ia a nd h i s to r ica l ly h ave p rov ided af o rm idab le b a r r ie r t o c ommun ica t ion b e tween C en t ra lA s ia a nd S ou th a nd S ou th ea s tA s ia . T ot h es ou th o ft h i sc omp lex o ff o ld m oun ta in s l a y a no the r b l ock o fa n c ien t , h a rd r o ck w h ich o n ce e x tended f r om B ra z i l t o A u s t r a l ia , k nown a s G ondwana land .

A l though s t i l l d i spu ted b y s ome ( e .g . C r aw f o rd

1 979 ) , i ti sg ene ra l ly a ccep ted t h a t t h i s o nce f o rm ed p a r t o f w ha t i sn ow k nown a st h e A n ta r c t i c p en in su la .

B e twe en t h i s n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn b l ock , t h e re w a s a n a n c ien t

s h a l low s e a d u r ing t h e P a laeocene E poch . T he f o ld m oun ta in s w h i ch n ow d om in a te t h e c en t r e o fA s ia e me rged f r om t h i s s e a .

T he s a ndy m a te r ia l b rough t d own b y t h e r i v e r s

a c cumu la ted o nt h eb o t tom i nl a ye r sw h ich , w h en c omp re s sed b yt h ew e igh t o fs e d im en t , b ecam e s a nd s tone . I no t he rp a r t s o ft h e s h a l low s e a , t h e s h e l l s a nd b one s o fs e a a n ima l s a c cumu la ted a nd l i me s ton e w a s f o rmed .

I nt h i s w ay at h ick l a ye r o fs ed im en ta r y r o ck

a c cumu la ted b e tween t h e t wo c on t inen ta l b l ock s o f a nc i en t , h a rd r o ck .

A s t h e e a r th

c on t ra c ted u pon c oo l ing , t h e se t wo b l ock sw e r ed r awn t og e the ra nd t h e s ed imen ta ry r o ck b e tween w a sc omp r e s sed a nd d i s to r ted t of o rm t h em oun ta in f o ld s . O ve rt h em i l lenn ia t h e e xpo sed r o ck sh ave w ea th e r ed a nd d epo s i ted t h er e su l t ing m a te r ia l o nt h e s unk en p l a teau k nown a st h e I ndo -Gange t ic p l a in , w h ich n ow h a s a luv ia l d epo s i t s o ve r 2 , 000 m e t r e s t h ick . T h ea r ea i ss t i l lt e c ton ica l ly u n s tab le a nd h a se xpe r ien ced an umbe ro fe a r thquak e s . T he p r e sen tc oun t ry o fP ak i s tan s p an st h e se r e g ion so ff o ld m oun ta in sa nd r e cen td epo s i t s . A bou t f o r ty p e r cen t o ft h e c oun t ry c on s i s t s o f ap l a in w h i ch i sd r a ined b y t h er i v e rI n du s a nd i t st r i bu ta r ie s , w i th m oun ta in s o nt h en o r th a nd w e s t a nd ap l a teau i nt h e s o u th w e s t . T he c oun t ry c an b ed i v ided i n to s i xm a jo rp hy s ica lr e g ion s :

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1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .

T he N o r ther n Moun ta in s T he We s te rn B o rde r ing Moun ta in s T he S a l tR ange a nd t h eP o twa rP l a teau T he U ppe rI n du sP l a in T he L ow e rI n du sP l a in T he B a luch i s tan P l a teau

1 . T he Nor the rn Moun ta in s c on s i s t o ft h e H ima laya s a nd t h e T ran s -H ima layan R ange s . T he H ima laya s a r ed i v ided i n to f o u rr a nge s : T he O u te rmos t , o rs ub -H ima laya s c on s i s t ing o fl ow h i l l s k nown a l so a st h e S iwa l ik s ; t h e O u te r , o r L e s se r H ima laya s f u r the r t o t h e n o r th w h ich i n c lude s t h e P i r P an ja l w i th a l t i tude s a ve rag ing a bou t 5 , 000 m e t re s ; t h e C en t ra l , o r G rea t S nowy H ima laya s a ve rag ing 6 , 000 t o 7 , 000 m e t re s w i th s ome o ft h e h i ghe s t p eak s i nt h ew o r ld ; a nd t h e L adakh R ange , a l so c a l led t h eI n ne rH ima laya s . T he T ran s -H ima layan R ange s l i et ot h e n or th o ft h eH ima laya s a nd i n c lude t h eK a rako rum i n N o r ther nK a shm i r a nd G i lg i t , a nd t h e H indu K u sh r a nge i nt h e N o r thwe s t o ft h e c oun t ry w h ich r un si n to n e ighbou r ing A f ghan i s tan . T he i mpor tance o ft h e se N o r ther n r a nge s i st h a t t h ey h ave h i s to r ica l ly f o rmed ag r ea t b a r r ie r t o m ovemen t f r om C en t ra l A s ia i n to t h e p l a in s o f p r e sen t -day P ak is tan .

T h i s

p hy s ica l i s o la t ion i sb r oken b y o n ly af ew p a s se s . T hey a l so i n te rcep t t h ew ind s f r om t h e A rab ian S ea a nd t h eB ay o fB enga l t oc a u se a nd d ef ine p a t te rn s o fr a in f a l l . T h i s r a inf a l l , c omb ined w i th t h e m e l t ing s n ow s f r om t h e r a nge s i nt h e s p r ing a nd s umme r , f e ed s t h e r i ve rs y s tem so ft h ea r ea i n c lud ing t h eg r ea ts y s tem o ft h eI ndu s . 2 . T he We s ter nB o rde r ing Moun ta in sb ound t h eI n du sP l a in t ot h e w e s t . R eg iona l ly t h e w ho le a r ea f a l l s i n to t h ree m a in d i v i s ion s ( Spa te e t a l . 1 972 : 4 80 ) :

t h e h i l ls o f t h e

N o r thwe s tF ron t ie r ;t h es u b -mon tane I n du sr e g ion , i n c lud ing t h eV a le o fP e shawa ra nd t h e B annu P l a in ( Ba s in ) , t h eP o twa rP l a teau a nd t h e S a l tR ange ; a nd B a luch i s tan . P o l i t ica l ly , i tl i e sw i th in t h eP e shawa ra nd D e ra I sma i lK han D iv i s ion s( No r thwe s tF ron t ie rP rov ince ) , a nd t h eQ ue t ta a nd K a la tD iv i s ion s( Ba luch i s tan P rov ince ) .

8 7

• Reh man Dheri

F IGURE 5 . 1 PHYS ICAL MAP OF P AK ISTAN S TUDY AREA S haded a reas i n d ica te ma in moun ta in r e g ions

8 8

T h r ee m ino rr a nge sr u n s o u th f r om t h eH indu K u sh t ot h eK abu lr i ve r , a nd b e tween t h e se r a nge sf l ow t h e S wa t , t h eP an jko ra a nd t h eC h i t ra l -Kuna rr i ve r s . S ou th o ft h eK abu lr i ve r l i e st h e Khybe rP a s sw h ich c onnec t sP e shawa rw i th K abu l . A l so s ou th o ft h eK abu l r i ve r i st h e S af ed K oh R ange w h ich r u n s e a s t a nd w e s t , a nd h a s a n a ve rage h e igh t o f4 , 000 m e t re s . T ot h es ou th o ft h i sr a nge i st h er i ve rK u r ram w h ich c u t st h rough t h eB annu B a s in n ea r t h e s i te s o fL ewan a nd T a raka i Q ua ( s ee F i gu re 5 . 1) . T he K u r ram P a s s p r ov ide s a r ou te i n to A f ghan i s tan . B e tween t h e K u r ram a nd t h e G oma l r i ve r s i st h e Wa z i r i s tan h i l l a r ea .

T he G oma l r i se s i nA f ghan i s tan a nd j o in s t h e I n du s n ea r D e ra I sma i l K han , t h e

c l o se s t l a rge c i ty t ot h e m a jo r E a r ly H a rappan s i t e o fR ehman D he r i , w h ich i so fm a jo r i n te re s t t o t h i s r e sea r ch . T he G oma l P a s s i ni t s v a l ley h a s t r ad i t iona l ly b een u s ed b y t h e P ow indah s , an omad ic t r i be , f o rm ov emen tb e tween p r e sen t -day A f ghan i s tan a nd P ak i s tan ( Du r ran i 1 988 : 7 ) .

J o in ing B annu , i nt h e B annu B a s in , a nd D e ra I sma i l K han , i nt h e

G oma l P la in , i st h e P ezu G ap , w h ich n ea r ly c onnec t s t h e B h i t tann i a nd Ma rwa t R ange s ( Spa te e t a l . 1 972 : 4 90 ) .

T h i s g ap p robab ly p rov ided c ommun ica t ion b e tween t h e t wo

a r ea si np reh i s to ry ( Kenoye r 1 991 : 3 0 ) . S ou th o ft h eG oma lr i ve r ,t h eS u la iman m oun ta in s r un s ou thwa rd s f o r a bou t 5 00 k i lome t re st oc onnec tw i th t h eB ug t i a nd Ma r r i h i l l sw h ich r un f r om t h e s ou thea s t t ot h e n o r thwe s t ( S cho lz 1 983 : 1 3 ) . T he B o lan r i ve r i st h e m a in o ne o ft h is r e g ion a l ong t h ev a l ley o fw h ich l i e st h eB o lan P a s s . T he w e s te rn b ounda ry o f t h eI n du s p l a in i sc omp le ted b yt h el ow K i r tha rh i l l sw h ich a r e d r a ined i nt h e s ou th b yt h e H ab a nd L ya r ir i ve r sf l ow ing i n to t h eA rab ian S ea n ea rK a ra ch i . U n l ike t h e H ima laya s , m o s t o ft h e se r a nge s l i e o u t s ide t h e p a th o ft h e m on soon s ( s ee C l ima te t h i sc hap te r )a nd s ot h er a in f a l li sl ow a nd t h ey a r ea lmo s tb a r eo fv ege ta t ion . T he r i ve r b ed s a r e u sua l ly d r y b u t o cca s iona l h eavy r a in s i nt h e m oun ta in s c au se d e s t ruc t ive t o r r en t sa nd f l ood s . 3 . T he S a l tR ange e a s to ft h eI n du ss t a r t si nt h eJ og iT i l la a nd B ak ra la r i dge sn ea rJ h e lum a nd r un s s ou thwe s tt ot h en o r th o ft h er i ve rJ h e lum t h en t ur n sn o r thwe s tt oc r o s st h eI ndu s n ea rK a labagh . We s t o ft h eI n du s , i tc on t inue s s ou th i n to t h e d i s t r ic t s o fB annu a nd D e ra I sma i l K han . I tc on s i s t s o ft wo p a ra l le l r i dge s w i th a n e l eva ted f e r t i le p l a teau i n te r sec ted b y r a v ine s a nd p eak s i n b e tween .

T h i s a r ea p r e sen t s t h e m o s t c omp le te g eo log ica l

s e quence i nt h ew o r ld f r om t h eC amb r ian t ot h eP l e i s tocene .

8 9

N o r th o ft h e S a l t R ange l i e s t h e P o twa r P l a teau , v a ry ing f r om 3 00 t o 6 00 m a bove s e a l e ve l . Al a rge p a r to fi th a sb een d i s sec ted a nd e r oded b yr u nn ing w a te rr e su l t ing i nr i dge s a nd t r ough s , a nd b a s in p l a in s .

T he se e xpo su re s h ave p rov ided au n ique o ppo r tun i ty t o

o b se rve e x ten s iv e f l uv ia l s u cce s s ion s w h ich h a s g r ea t ly a s s i s ted r e sea rch i n to f l oodp la in a gg rada t ion o ft h ea r ea ( W i l l i sa nd B eh ren smeye r 1 994 : 6 3 ) . R emnan t so ft h ei c ea ge h e re c on s i s to fr e s idua lh i l l sa nd h i l lock so fg l ac ia ld eb r i s . 4 . T he U ppe r I n du s P l a in i ss i tua ted s ou th o ft h e H ima lay a s a nd i sd r a ined b y t h e I n du s a nd i t sn or the rn t r i bu ta r ie s : t h e S u t le j , B ea s , R av i , C henab a nd J he lum r i ve r s . I ti sm ade u p l a rge ly o ff e r t i le a luv ium d epo s i ted b yt h e se r i ve r s , t h em a jo rp a r to fw h ich c on s t i tu te s t h e r i ch , a g r icu l tu ra l p r ov ince o f t h e P un jab .

T he p a s t t wo c en tu r ie s h ave s e en t h e

e x ten s ive c on s t ruc t ion o fc ana l s a nd i r iga t ion s y s tem s t od eve lop t h e r e g ion t owa rd s i t s f u l l p o ten t ia l . T he b r oad r i ve r v a l ley s o ft h e u ppe r I n du s P l a in h ave b een f o rmed b y t h e e r o s ive a c t ion o ft h er i ve r sw h ich m eande ro ve r al a rge a r ea . T he a c t ive f l ood p l a in so ft h e r i ve r s a r e t y p ica l ly i n unda ted s e a sona l ly b y s umme r f l ood s . I nm any p a r t s , e mbankmen t s h ave b een c on s t ruc ted t o c on ta in t h e se f l ood s .

T he d epo s i t s a r e c ompo sed o f t h e

y ounge s t a luv ium , p r edom inan t ly c oa r se i nt e x tu re a nd f i n e ly s t ra t if ied .

Away f r om t h e

r i ve r s a nd f l oodp la in s t h e l a nd r i se s t o t h e o l d f l ood p l a in s w h ich t h e r i ve r s h ave n ow a bandoned t h rough t h e i r m eande r ing ( t he m eande r f l ood p l a in s ) . T he o l d f l ood p l a in s c on ta in t h eo l de s ta luv ium . T he s u b -mon tane p l a in a r ea w e s to ft h eI n du si sk nown a st h e D e ra ja to rt h e S u la iman p i edmon ta nd i sd i v ided i n to t h e d i s t r ic t so fD e ra G haz iK han a nd D e ra I sma i lK han . N o r th o fD e ra I sma i lK han ,t wo a r ea so fl ow land r e a ch i n to t h ew e s ter nm oun ta in s . T he se a r e t h e p l a in s o fB annu a nd P e shawa r .

T he f o rme r , c on ta in ing t h e s i t e s o fL ewan a nd

T a raka i Q i la , i sa n a luv ia l b a s in d r a ined b yt h eK u r ram a nd T och i r i ve r s .

T he b o rde r ing

m oun ta in s r i se a b rup t ly f r om t h e b a s in e dge a nd c omp le te ly i s o la te i tf r om t h e P un jab p l a in s . I t s o n ly e a sy a c ce s si sb yt h eP ezu g ap b e tween t h eB h i t tan i a nd Ma rwa tR ange s . T he b a s in s how st h en o rma ld epo s i t iona l s e quence f r om c oa r se t e x tu red a luv ia lf a n sa tt h e b a se o ft h em oun ta in st om ode ra te ly f i ne a nd f i ne d epo s i t si nt h el owe s tp a r to ft h eb a s in . 5 . T he L owe r I n du s P l a in s a r e m o s t ly d ef ined b y t h e p r e sen t p rov ince o fS i nd .

I nt h is

a r ea , t h e I ndu s i sa ti t s l a rge s t ; i nf l ood s e a son , i ti ss e v e ra l k i lome t re s w ide .

I ti sa n

9 0

a gg rad ing r i ve r , d ue t ot h e h eavy s i l tl o ad i tc a r r ie s . F requen t ly c hang ing c ou r se o ve rt h e l a s tm i l lenn ia , i th a sf o rmed t h eg r ea t S i nd p l a in b yt h i sa luv ia l a nd m eande r ing a c t ion . A n e xce l len tr e cen ts t udy o ft h i sa c t ion i sp r e sen ted b yF l am ( 1 993 ) . 6 . T he B a luch i s tan P l a teau , w h ich i sm o re t h an 7 00 m e t re s a bove s e a l e ve l , l i e s t ot h e w e s t o ft h e S u la iman a nd K i r tha r Moun ta in s . T he T oba K aka r a nd C haga i r a nge s i nt h e n o r th s e pa ra te i tf r om A f ghan i s tan . T he c oa s ta l Mak ran r a nge s k i r t st h es ou th .

T he f o rego ing h a s b een ag ene ra l d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e m a in g eog raph ica l f e a tu re s o ft h e o ve ra l l a r ea , t o p rov ide a n a pp rec ia t ion o ft h e s e t t ing o ft h e r e g ion s u nde r t h e p r e sen t s t udy . Whe re r e qu i red , m o re s p ec if ic i n f o rma t ion p e r t inen tt ot h el o ca lg eog raph ie so ft h e s i t ea r ea si sp r e sen ted i nS ec t ion 5 . 3 . b e low .

5 . 1 .2 . C l ima te P re sen t T he f o l low ing d e sc r ip t ion i sd r awn f r om A hmad ( 1 969 ) e xcep t w he re o t he r a u tho r s a r e c i ted .

T he c l ima te o fP ak i s tan i s , o n t h e w ho le , a r id a nd e x t reme o r c on t inen ta l .

T he

r a in f a l li sg ene ra l ly l ow , w i th h o t s umme r sa nd q u i te c o ld w in te r s . I nt h e l a t te rp a r t o ft h e s umme r s e a son m on soon r a in s a r e g ene ra l t h roughou t t h e c oun t ry .

T he p r inc ipa l r a iny

s e a son l a s t sf r om J u ly t oS ep tembe r . T he c oun t ry c an b ed i v ided i n to f o u rm a in t empe ra tu re r e g ion s : 1 . T he n or the rn a nd n o r thwe s te rn m oun ta in s w h ich e xpe r ience v e ry c o ld w in te r s w i th f r equen tf r o s t sa nd h eavy f a l l so fs n ow , a nd h av em i ld s umme r s . 2 . T he u ppe r I n du s p l a in s t ot h e s ou th o fr e g ion ( 1 ) h ave at y p ica l ly c on t inen ta l t y pe o f c l ima te .

S umme r s h ave h i gh t empe ra tu re s d ue t o t h e l ow a l t i tude a nd l a ck o fc oo l ing

b r eeze s f r om t h e s e a . T h i s a r ea i sv e ry d r y a nd d u s t -b lown . J une i st h e h o t te s t m on th i n t h i s r e g ion , w hen t empe ra tu re s s e ldom f a l l b e low 2 8 d eg ree s C e l s iu s , a nd h i gh s a r e g ene ra l ly i nt h em id -40 's . 3 . T he l owe rI ndu s p l a in n ea rt h e s e ad oe s n o t e xpe r ience s u ch e x t reme s o ft empe ra tu r e , b u t t h e p rox im i ty o f t h e s e a p r oduce s h i gh l e ve l s o f h um id i ty w h ich m ake s t h e h ea t

9 1

o pp re s s ive i ns u inme r .

T yp ica l h i gh t empe ra tu re s i nt h i s r e g ion r a nge f r om 3 5 d eg ree s

C e l s iu si nt h es umme rt ot h el ow 2 0 ' si nt h ew in te r . 4 . T he B a luch i s tan p l a teau h a s c ond i t ion s s im i la r t ot h e n or ther nr e g ion b u t w i th h i ghe r s umme ra nd w in te rt empe ra tu re s . P ak i s tan i sd om ina ted b ym on soon w ind s . Mon soon sa r es e a sona lw ind sb l ow ing f r om s e a t o l a nd i nt h e s umme r a nd f r om l a nd t o s e a i nt h e w in te r . T he s umme r mon soon s e n te r P ak i s tan f r om t h e A rab ian S ea i nt h e s ou th a nd a st h ey b l ow i n to t h e h o t d ry l a nd o ft h e I n du sv a l ley t ot h e n o r th , c au se r a in o n t h eH ima layan s l ope s a nd t h e w e s te rn m oun ta in s . T h i s s umme r m on soon i sc r i t ica l i nt h e n on i r r iga ted a g r icu l tu ra l a r ea s o ft h e c oun t ry , h ow eve r i to f t en c au se s d i sa s t rou s f l ood ing .

I na u tumn t h e s umme r m on soon g r adua l ly

r e t rea t s a nd i sr e p la ced b yt h e w in te r m on soon s b l ow ing f r om t h e l a nd .

T he se a r e l i gh t ,

d r yw ind se x tend ing d own t h eI n du sp l a in . T he I n du s a r ea i sg ene ra l ly a r id w i th l ow r a inf a l l .

L eve l s o fr a inf a l l d ec rea se f r om t h e

H ima laya s s ou thwa rd s , r a ng ing f r om am ean a nnua l o f8 0 c m a tS i a lko t a tt h e f o o t o ft h e H ima laya s t o4 9 c m a tL aho re t o o n ly 2 0 c m a tK a rach i . H a lf t o t h ree -qua r te r s o ft h e a nnua lr a inf a l l o ccu r sd u r ing t h e s umme rm on soon . A ne xcep t ion t ot h i si s i nt h ew e s ter n p a r t o ft h e p l a in , w h ich r e ce ive s s l i gh t ly m o r e r a in i nt h e w in te r m on soon s e a son , e . g . P e shawa r , w h ich r e ce ive s a n a nnua l r a inf a l l o f3 4 c m , r e ce ive s a bou t 1 8 c m d u r ing t h e w in te rm on soon a nd 1 6c md u r ing t h es umme rm on soon . P a laeoc l ima te E a r ly a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rche r s o ft h e I n du s v a l ley w e re u nde rt h e i mp re s s ion t h a t t h e re h ad b een as i gn if i can t d ec rea se i nr a in f a l l i nt h e a r ea s i nce p r eh i s to r ic t ime s ( Ra ik e s a nd D y son 1 961 : 2 65 ) . T h i sw a sb a sed o nt h e o r ig ina l o b se rva t ion s o fS i rA u re l S t e in ( 1 931 : c i ted i nR a ike s a nd D y son 1 961 ) w ho c ame t o t h i s c onc lu s ion a f t e r o b se rv ing c e r ta in a r chaeo log ica l e v idence .

T he e v idence w a s b a sed p r ima r i ly u pon t h ree f a c to r s :

( 1 ) t h e

p r e sence o fg aba rband so rs t one -f aced d am sp r e sumab ly t oc on t ro l s u rf ace w a te r( s ee a l so H a r vey e ta l . 1 993 )

( 2 ) t h e l o ca t ion a nd n umbe r o fp r eh i s to r ic m ound s i nc on t ra s t t o

p r e sen t -day s e t t lemen t s , a nd ( 3 ) t h e d ep th o ft h e m ound s a nd s h a rp ly d ef ined c u l tu ra l a r ea s , i n d ica t ive o f c u l tu ra l s t ab i l i ty a nd l a ck o f m ovemen t .

T he se o b se rva t ion s a l so

s uppor ted t h e i n te rp re ta t ion s o fs u b sequen t r e sea rche r s ( Ma r sha l l 1 931 : 2 ;V a t s 1 940 : 4 ;

9 2

P iggo t t 1 950 : 1 34 -135 ; Whee le r 1 953 : 5 6 ) . T h i se s tab l i shed v i ew w a st h en b rough ti n to q ue s t ion b yR a ike sa nd D y son ( 1 96 1) , w ho c l o se ly e xam ined a nd r e in te rp re ted t h e se l i ne s o f e v idence .

T hey f o und t h a t i n a lmo s t e v e ry c a se t h e e v idence - h yd rog raph ica l ,

z oo log ica l , b o tan ica l , a r cha eo log ica l , a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l -f a i led t o s ub s tan t ia te t h e h ypo the s i s t h a t c l ima t ic c hange o fa ny m a jo r p r opo r t ion h a s o ccu r red .

C o inc iden ta l ly ,

F a i r se rv is e xam ined t h e s ame e v idence i n dependen t ly a nd r e a ched a s im i la r c onc lu s ion ( Fa i r se rv is 1 961 ; c i ted i nM i s ra 1 984 : 4 6 1) . L a te r s t ud ie s s ummed u p t h eg eomo rph ic a nd g eo log ica l e v idence . G oud ie ( 1 973 ) b a sed h i s e v idence o n s a nd d une a c cumu la t ion sw h ich a r ei n d ica t ion s o fa r id p e r iod sb ecau se o f t h er e qu i remen t o fl ow p r ec ip i ta t ion f o rt h e i rf o rma t ion . H i s s t udy o fs a nd d une s i na r ea s o fh i ghe r p r e sen t r a in f a l l i nR a ja s than p u rpor ted t o i n f e r t h a t a r id c ond i t ion s i nt h e a r ea c ame t o a n e nd b e tween 9 250 a nd 5 000 B P .

T he l a t te r d a te ( Ve r s tappen 1 970 ) w a s

s omewha t t e nuou s , a si tw a s b a sed o n e x i s tence o fs a nd d une s ; a nd n o t s t ab i l i sa t ion o f d une s wh ich w ou ld b e ab e t te ri n d ica to r . P a lyno log ica l s t ud ie s h ave c onf i rmed a r id c ond i t ion s e x i s ted b ef o re 1 0 ,000 B P . I n 1 97 1 , S i ngh r ev ived t h e t h eo ry o f am o re w e t c l ima te f o l low ing t h i s f r om h i s i n te rp re ta t ion o f p a lyno log ica l d a ta f r om t h ree s a l tl a ke s a nd o ne f r e shwa te rl a ke i nR a ja s than ( S ingh 1 97 1 a nd S i ngh e t a l . 1 974 , c i ted i nM i s ra 1 984 : 4 6 1) .

H a sh im i a nd N a i r ( 1 980 ) d r ew

i n f e rence sb a sed o nd if e rence si na bundance o fc a rbona te s e d imen t sa nd d if e rence si ns i ze o fq ua r tz g ra in s f r om t h e i n ne ra nd o u te rc on t inen ta l s h e lf o fw e s te rn I n d ia , t os how t h a t p en in su la rI nd ia h ad as em i -a r id c l ima te i nt h el a te P l e i s tocene . L a te rr e sea rch b yt h es ame a u tho r s ( Ha sh im i a nd N a i r 1 986 ) c oncen t ra ted o nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ff e ld spa r si nt h e s ame c on t inen ta l s h e lf d epo s i t st oc o r robo ra te t h e i r e a r l ie rw o rk . S i n ce f e ld spa r i sa n a logen ic m ine ra l d e r ived f r om t h e w ea the r ing o f r o ck s o n a d ja cen t l a nd a r ea s , i t s p r e sence i n c on t inen ta l s h e lf d epo s i t s r e f lec t s t h e v a r ia t ion i nw ea the r ing r a te a nd t h u s i s as e n s i t ive c l ima t ic i n d ica to r .

I n ag i ven b a s in o fd epo s i t ion , a n i n c rea se i nf e ld spa r c on ten t w ou ld

i n d ica te c l ima t ic a r id i ty .

T h i s w o rk p o in ted t o t h e p r eva lence o f as em i -a r id c l ima te

1 ,000 y ea r sa go .

9 3

O ve ra l l , t h e se s t ud ie s h ave s ugge s ted t h a t a pp rox ima te ly 1 0 ,000 t o 1 ,000 y ea r s a go , t h e c l ima te o fs ou th A s ia c hanged f r om a r id t os em i -a r id . T he se c ond i t ion sh ave c hanged l i t t le o ve rt h a tp e r iod a nd a r em uch t h es ame a st h o se p r eva i l ing i nt h ea r ea t oday .

T he f o rego ing d i scu s s ion o nt h ep r e sen tc l ima te a nd p a laeoc l ima te sh a sc ove red i ng ene ra l t h e o ve ra l l I ndu s a r ea . I nt h e r e g ion s o ft h e p r e sen t s t udy , s p ec if i ca l ly t h e B annu B a s in , t h e G oma l P l a in , a nd t h e w e s te rn P un jab , s ome m ic roc l ima te s d ev ia te f r om t h e g ene ra l d e sc r ip t ion s . T he se a r ec ove red b e low i nS ec t ion 5 . 3 .

5 . 1 .3 G eo logy G ene ra l ly s p eak ing , t h e I n d ian s u bcon t inen t c omp r i se s t wo m a in p hy s iog raph ic o r g eo log ica lp a r t sk nown a st h eP en in su la ra nd t h ee x t ra -Pen in su la rr e g ion s ( Hun t ing S u rvey C o rpo ra t ion 1 960 : 1 ) : 1 . P en in su la r I n d ia i s ag r ea tt r i angu la r r e g ion o fr e la t ive ly l ow r e l ief , wh ich i n c lude st h e We s te rn a nd E a s te rn G ha t s ,t h eD eccan p l a teau ,t h e Ma lwa p l a teau , a nd n ume rou sl ow h i l l r a nge s .

I t s r o ck s a r e m a in ly P recambr ian t o C r e ta ceou s b u t i n c lude C enozo ic s t ra ta i n

s ma l l a r ea s a r ound t h e p e r iphe ry o ft h e m a in m a s s if .

T he P recamb r ian p or t ion c on ta in s

t wo m a in s e r ie s o fr o ck s , t h e o l de r c on s i s t ing o fm e tamo rph ic a nd i g neou s r ock s r e f e r red t o a s t h e A rchean s e r ie s .

T he y ounge r , o r L a te P recamb r ian s e r ie s i sg ene ra l ly l e s s

m e tamo rpho sed a nd c on ta in s s e d imen ta ry a nd i g neou s r o ck s ; i ti sk nown a s t h e P u rana s e r ie s . T he P a laeozo ic r o ck sa r er e p re sen ted b yt h eV indhyan a nd K u rnoo l s y s tem s ,w h ich a r el a rge ly c o r re la t ive , a nd b yt h el owe rp a r to ft h eG ondwana s y s tem . 2 .

T he e x t ra -pen in su la r r e g ion i s c omp r i sed o f t wo s u b reg ion s ( Hun t ing S ur vey

C o rpo ra t ion 1 960 : 2 , Wad ia 1 966 : 1 ) . T he se a r ea sf o l low s : ( a ) T he m oun ta inou s r e g ion o ft h eH ima laya sw h ich b o rde r sI n d ia t ot h e w e s t , n o r th a nd e a s t ; a nd ( b ) T he g r ea t I n do -Gange t ic p l a in o ft h eP un jab a nd B enga l , w h ich s e pa ra te s t h e f o lded m oun ta in sf r om t h ep en in su la rr e g ion .

9 4

T he g eo logy o ft h e H ima laya s f a l l s i n to t h ree b r oad s t ra t ig raph ica l z one s o r b e l t s .

T hey

a r e( Wad ia 1 966 : 1 0 ) : 1 . T he Nor the rn , o rT i be tan Z one , l y ing b eh ind t h el i ne o fh i ghe s te l eva t ion . T h i sz one i s c omposed o f ac on t inuou s s e r ie s o fh i gh ly f o s s i l if e rou sm a r ine s e d imen ta ry r o ck s , r a ng ing i na ge f r om t h ee a r l ie s tP a laeozo ic t ot h eE ocene a ge . 2 . T he C en t ra l , o rH ima layan Z one , c omp r i s ing m o s t o ft h e L e s se r o rM idd le H ima laya s t o ge the r w i th t h e G rea t H ima laya . I ti sm o s t ly c ompo sed o fc r y s ta l l ine a nd m e tamo rph ic r o ck s -g ran i te s , g ne i s se s a nd s c h i s t s , w i th u nf o s s i l if e rou s s e d imen ta ry r o ck s o f v e ry a n c ien t( Pu rana )a ge . 3 . T he O u te r , o r S ub -H ima layan Z one , c o r r e spond ing t o t h e S iwa lak r a nge s , a nd c omposed a lmo s t e n t i re ly o fT e r t ia ry , a nd p r inc ipa l ly o fU ppe rT e r t ia ry , s e d imen ta ry r i ve r d epo s i t s . T he d epos i t iona l h i s to ry d u r ing t h e P a laeocene o f t h e l a t te r a r ea c on s i s t s o f t h ree d epo s i t iona lp rov ince so ft h eI n du sB a s in t ot h e e a s ta nd t wo d epo s i t iona lp rov ince si nt h e B a luch is tan B a s in t ot h ew e s t . T he t h ree p rov ince so ft h eI n du sB a s in , w h ich i so fc u r ren t i n te re s t , a r e c a l led t h e P o twa r -Koha t , t h e S u la iman , a nd t h e K ir tha r . L i thof a c ie s c on tou r m ap s o fP a laeocene r o ck s r e vea l h i gh c l a s t ic a nd h i gh s a nd s tone sha le r a t io s a l ong t h e e a s te rn s i de o ft h eI n du sB a s in , g ene ra l ly p a ra l le lt ot h eP recamb r ian I n d ian S h ie ld . T he se h i gh r a t io ss ugge s tt h a tt h em a in i n f lux o fs e d imen t si n to t h eI n du sB a s in w a sf r om t h ee a s t ( M e i s sne r a nd R ahman 1 973 : 4 ) . T he re e v iden t ly w e re a r ea s o fc a lm c l ea r w a te r s a l ong t h e w e s te rn s i de o ft h e b a s in , w he re o rgan ic l i f e t h r ived a nd l i me s tone a nd c a lca reou s s a nd s tone a nd s h a le w e r ed epo s i ted .

Two o ft h ea r ea so fp r ime g eo log ica li n te re s ti nt h ep r e sen ts t udy a r e s hown i nF igu re 5 . 1 . T he se a r e t h e B annu a nd D e ra I sma i l K han q uad rang le s , b e tween l a t i tude 3 1 a nd 3 d eg r ee sNa nd l o ng i tude 7 0a nd 7 1 d eg ree sE . D e ta i led s u r vey so ft h e se q uad rang le sw e re c onduc ted b y t h e U .S . G eo log ica l S u rvey a nd t h e G eo log ica l S u rvey o fP ak i s tan i nt h e 1 960 ' s t o e xam ine e xp lo i tab le h yd roca rbon p o ten t ia l ( Hemph i l l a nd K idwa i

1 973 ) .

I mmed ia te ly t ot h e n or th o ft h e se l i et h eP a rach ina rq uad rang le , f r om l a t i tude 3 d eg ree s t o 3 4 d eg ree s N .

T h i s a r ea w a s p a r t o f t h e s ame s u rvey , b u t c on ta in s l e s s f i e ld

o b se rva t ion s ( Me i s sne r e ta l . 1 975 ) .

T h i s w a s d ue t o t h e f a c t t h a t a pp rox ima te ly 8 0

p e rcen t o ft h e q uad rang le i sw i th in t r i ba l a r ea sw he re i ti sd if i cu l t o ri mpo s s ib le t oo b ta in

9 5

p e rm i s s ion t o e n te r .

A s ar e su l t , t h e m a jo r i ty o fi ti sb a sed o n a e r ia l s u rvey s a nd s o i t

c on ta in sm uch l e s sm ine ra log ica ld e ta i l .

T he se s u rvey s h ave p rov ided t h e o n ly c omp le te d e sc r ip t ion s o ft h e g eo logy a nd h ave p roven v e ry u sef u l f o r t h e p r e sen t s t udy .

I n t h e b roade r s c heme , t h e se s t ud ie s a r e

i mpo r tan t b ecau se t h ey a r e s t ra teg ica l ly l o ca ted b e tween t h e S a l t R ange -Po twa r P l a teau r e g ion w he re s ome o ft h e e a r l ie s t s t ra t ig raph ic s t ud ie s i nP ak i s tan w e re m ade ( Wynne 1 878 a nd Waagen 1 889 ,

1 891 ; c i ted i n H emph i l l a nd K idwa i 1 973 : 4 ) a nd t h e

B a luch i s tan -S ind r e g ion w he re c omp rehen s ive r e conna i s sance g eo log ic a nd s t ra t ig raph ic s t ud ie sw e re c a r r ied o u tb yH un t ing S u rvey C o rpo ra t ion L td ( 1 960 ) .

T he K h i so r , Ma rwa t , B h i t ta im i ( t he se t h ree f o rm ing t h e T ran s Indu sr a nge ) , a nd S u la iman R ange s , a sw e l l a st h e h i gh land s o f Waz i r i s tan f o rm an ea r ly c on t inuou s m oun ta in s y s tem b e tween t h e se t wo r e g ion s . U p l if ti ss t i l l a na c t ive p r oce s si nt h eT ran s Indus r a nge ( Khan 1 987 : 1 39 ) . R ock so fl a te T e r t ia ry a ge a r en ea r ly u nb roken i nt h e i ro u tc rop f o rm o re t h an 3 00 m i le s f r om t h e P o twa r P l a teau t ot h e f oo th i l l s o ft h e s ou the rn S u la iman R ange a nd b eyond .

T he G oma l P l a in a r ea , w he r e t h e s i t e o fR ehman D he r i i ss i tua ted , c on s i s t s o f

p i edmon t d epo s i t s o fc oa r se d e t r i ta l m a te r ia l d e r ived f r om t h e a d jacen t h i gh land s ( U .S . G eo log ica l S urvey a nd G eo log ica l S u rvey o fP ak i s tan 1 964 ) . I fl o ca l c l ay s w e r e u t i l ised b yE a r ly H a rappan p o t te r s a tt h e s i t e s o fL ewan a nd T a raka i Q i la i nt h eB annu B a s in a nd R ehman D he r i i nt h e G oma l P l a in , d e t r i ta l m a te r ia l d e r ived f r om a d jacen t m oun ta in s a nd h i gh land s w ou ld b e e xpec ted t o b e f o und i nt h em .

T he s i t e s a r e s i tua ted i na r ea s o f

Q ua te rna ry s e d imen ta ry r o ck s c ove r ed b y w ide sp read u ncon so l ida ted s u rf ic ia l d epo s i t s . T he w ho le a r ea b e tween t h e S a f ed K oh a nd t h e T och i R ive r l a rge ly c on s i s t s o fE ocene n ummu l i t ic l i me s tone s a nd S iwa l ik s a nd s tone s ( Spa te e ta l . 1 972 : 4 90 ) . T he B annu B a s in i s ad i s t inc t g eomo rpho log ic u n i t t h a t i sa lmo s t c omp le te ly s u r rounded b y f o lded a nd f a u l ted P l io -P le i s tocene r o ck s o f t h e S iwa l ik S e r ie s , a nd i sb ounded t o t h e w e s t b y a n o r th sou th w rench f a u l t ( R ende l l 1 981 : 2 19 ) .

T he a d ja cen t a r ea s f r om wh ich d e t r i ta l s

c ou ld h ave b een d e r ived i n c lude , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , t h e B h i t tann i a nd Ma rwa t R ange s s e pa ra t ing t h e B annu a nd G oma l a r ea s , t h e Waz i r i s tan h i gh land s t o t h e w e s t , a nd t h e S u la iman R ange t ot h e w e s t a nd e x tend ing s ou th t owa rd st h eB a luch i s tan p l a teau . F rom t h e n or thwe s t , t h e K u r ram r i ve r d r a in s t h e e n t i re P a ra ch ina r a r ea b ef o re e n te r ing t h e

9 6

B annu B a s in a nd m uch o ft h e d e t r i ta l m a te r ia l t o b e f o und i nt h e c l ay s t h e re w ou ld b e e xpe c ted t o h ave b een d e r ived f r om t h e f o rma t ion s i nt h e d r a inage a r ea .

S ome d e t r i ta l

m a te r ia l sf ound i nt h eG oma lP l a in c ou ld a dd i t iona l ly h ave b een d e r ived f r om f o rma t ion si n t h eK h i so rR ange , w h ich p a ra l le l st h e Ma rwa tR ange t ot h es ou thea s t .

T he B h i t tann i a nd Ma rwa tR ange sc on s i s t o fU ppe rT e r t ia ry s e d imen ta ry r o ck s c on ta in ing t h ick c l a s t ic d epo s i t s m o s t ly o fc on t inen ta l o r ig in . O nt h e s ou thwa rd s i de o ft h e Ma rwa t r a nge a nd i nt h e a d jacen t K h i so r e r a nge , e x ten s ive s i l ica s a nd d epo s i t s a r e f ound i nt h e b a sa l p a r t o ft h e D a t ta f o rma t ion n ea r t h et own s o fP ezu a nd P an ia la . A na ly s i s o ft h e se h a s s h own s ome i r on o x ide c on ten tb u tt h ey a r e c omme rc ia l ly e xp lo i tab le ( A laudd in e ta l . 1 993 ; H us sa in 1 975 ) . 9 4 , 9 7 ) .

S ome m u scov i te a nd e p ido te h a s b een f o und t h e re ( Ma l le t t 1 887 :

T he a d jacen t K h i so r R ange i sc ompo sed o fP a laeozo ic , Me sozo ic , a nd U ppe r

T e r t ia ry s ed imen ta ry r o ck s , u nde r la in b y t h e S a l t R ange F o rma t ion o f C amb r ian o r P r ecamb r ian a ge .

A n i n te re s t ing g eo log ica l f e a tu re a m id s t t h e P l io -P le i s tocene s e quence

e xpo sed i n t h e B h i t tann i r a nge i s t h e B a in d i am ic t i te , o r ig ina l ly t e rmed t h e B a in B ou lde r -bed ( Mo r r i s 1 9 38 ) . T he o u tc rop sa nd l i t ho logy o ft h i su n i ta r eu n ique i nt h ea r ea , a nd c on t ra s t w i th t h e s a nd s tone / s i l t s tone o ft h e u nde r ly ing a nd o ve r ly ing f l uv ia l d epo s i t s ( Khan e t a l . 1 985 : 5 3 ) .

I t h a s r emnan t s t h roughou t t h e B annu B a s in .

C ommon

s e d imen ta ry r o ck f r agmen t si n c lude q ua rz i te s , g r aywacke s , s h a le sa nd m ud s tone s , g yp sum a nd a nhyd r i te , a nd l i me s tone .

Among t h e i g neou s r o ck f r agmen t s a r e g r an i te , d i o r i te ,

g abb ro , d o le r i te , b a sa l t a nd p um ice f r agmen t s . m ica s ch is t ,

Me tamo rph ic r o ck f r agmen t s a r e g ne i s s ,

s e rpen t ine , g r een a nd b l a ck s l a te s a nd j a spe r .

T he l i t ho logy a nd

s e d imen to logy o f t h i s u nu sua l f o rma t ion a r e c ompa t ib le w i th a v o lcan ic l a ha r o r ig in , p r obab ly t h eD a sh t i -Nawa rc a lde ra t ot h e WNW i nA f ghan i s tan ( i b id . : 6 1 ) .

T h e Waz i r i s tan h i gh land s a r e c ompo sed o f Me sozo ic s e d imen ta ry r o ck s , m o s t ly o fm a r ine o r ig in ; L owe r T e r t ia ry s e d imen ta ry r o ck s , m o s t ly o f m a r ine o r d e l ta ic o r ig in ; U ppe r T e r t ia ry s ed imen ta ry r o ck s , m o s t ly o fc on t inen ta l o r ig in ; a nd L owe r T er t ia ry a nd U ppe r C r e ta ceous i n t ru s ive r o ck s c on s i s t ing o fm af i c a nd u l t ramaf i c r o ck s a nd m e tamo rpho sed s e d imen t s i nc en t ra l Waz i r i s tan . T o t h e n o r thwe s t , w he re t h e B h i t tann i R ange m ee t s t h e Waz i r i s tan h i gh land s , d epo s i t s c on s i s t o ft h e C haudwan F o rma t ion ( l ime s tone , q ua r tz i te a nd s a nds tone ) a nd t h e N ag r i a nd C h in j i F o rma t ion s ( s and s tone , c l ay s tone , s i l t s tone a nd

9 7

t h e B a in d i am ic t i te w h ich i n c lude s s ma l le r f r agmen t s o f s e d imen ta ry , i g neou s a nd m e tamo rph ic r o ck s ) . T he S u la iman R ange , b o rde r ing t h ew e s t a nd r unn ing a pp rox ima te ly n o r th sou th , i sc omposed m a in ly o fU ppe ra nd L owe rT e r t ia ry s e d imen ta ry r o ck s o fb o th c on t inen ta l a nd m a r ine o rd e l ta ic o r ig in . F u r the rt ot h ew e s t , n o t c ove red b yt h eH emph i l l a nd K idwa i s t udy o f1 973 , r o ck so ft h e a mph ibo l i te f a c ie sa ch ieve w ide sp read d i s t r ibu t ion i ne a s te rn A f ghan i s tan a nd n o r the rn P ak i s tan . f a c ie s

o f

t h e

N u r is tan

C omp lex

g a rne t -b io t i te s i l l iman i te g ne i s se s ;

I n e a s ter n A f ghan is tan , t h e a mph ibo l i te

c on s is t

g ar n e t -b io t i te ,

o f

b i o t i te ,

g a rne t -b io t i te

s t au ro l i te -ga rne t -b io t i te

a nd

a nd b i o t i te

s c h i s t s , q u a r t z i t e s a nd q ua r tz i t ic g ne i s se s , m a rb le s , a mph ibo l i te s a nd p y roxene -amph ibo le g ne i s se s( Pe rv i l 'ev 1 982 : 2 60 ) .

T he P a ra ch ina r a r ea t ot h e n o r thwe s t c on s i s t s o fi n ten se ly f o lded a nd f a u l ted s e d imen ta ry r o ck s w h ich a r e p a r t ia l ly m e tamo rpho sed a nd m ine ra l i sed ( Me i s sne r e ta l . 1 975 : 3 ) . T he n o r ther np a r t o ft h er e g ion i su nde r la in b yJ u ra s s ic , C re ta ceou s , a nd P a laeocene l i me s tone , s a nd s tone , a nd s h a le . T ot h e s ou th , E ocen e , M iocene , P l iocene r o ck s o ccupy m o s t o ft h e l owe rt r ac t s . T he E ocene r o ck s c on s i s t o fl i me s tone , c l ay , s h a le , s a nd s tone , g yp sum , a nd r o ck s a l t .

T he M iocene a nd P l iocene s e quence c on s i s t o f s a nd s tone , s ha le , s i l t s tone ,

c ong lome ra te a nd c obb le b ed s . T he J u ra s s ic s y s tem f o rma t ion s i n c lude b ed s o fm odu la r m a r l , c a lca reou s s h a le , a nd q ua r tzo se , f e r rug inou s , a nd c a lca reou s s and s tone .

T he

l i me s tone s a r e f i ne t o c oa r se c r y s ta l l ine a nd c on ta in s c a t te red , s a ndy , o o l i t ic , a nd f o s s i l she l lb ed s . T he C re taceou s s y s tem q ua r tz i te si n c lude m af i c i g neou s i n t ru s ive r o ck s , s a nd s tone s a nd s h a le s c on ta in b e lemn i te s a nd a mmon i te s , a nd l i me s tone s c on ta in t h ick b ed so fs h a le a nd m a r la nd s h a le ( i b id . : 4 ) .

T he B annu B a s in o we s i t so r ig in t ot h e f o ld ing a nd u pwa rp ing o fS iwa l ik d epo s i t s d u r ing t h eL a te P l e i s tocene . T he a n t ic l ina lr i dge st h u sf o rmed e f ec t ive ly s e a led t h e a r ea o ff r om b o th t h e G oma l B a s in t o t h e s ou th a nd t h e I n du s f l oodp la in t o t h e e a s t .

T he L a te

P l e i s tocene a nd H o locene s e d imen ta ry h i s to ry o f t h e b a s in h a s b een o ne o f a lmo s t c on t inuou s d epo s i t ion a s t h e l a rge ( a pp rox ima te ly 5 , 000 s q . k m ) s t ruc tu ra l d ep re s s ion g r adua l ly f i led w i th s e d imen t s s upp l ied b yr i ve r s a nd t o r ren t st h a t d r a ined i n to i t( Rende l l 1 986 : 1 ) .

T he d ep th o fs e d imen t s i se no rmou s , h av ing b een e s t ima ted t o e xceed 9 00m

( Mo r r i s 1 938 ) . T he t o ta l c a tchmen ta r ea o ft h eb a s in i sa bou t 1 5 ,000 s q . km a nd t h eb a s in

9 8

s e d imen t sa r et h e ref o re d e r ived l o ca l ly f r om t h el a rge ly u ncemen ted S iwa l ik so rf r om o l de r r o ck si nt h eu ppe rc a tchmen t so ft h eK u r ram , T och i ,B ha ran , K ha i so ra , S hak tu a nd K a shu A lgad r i ve r s a nd t o r ren t s . F i ne rg r a ined s e d imen t s h ave b een s u b jec t t or e d i s t r ibu t ion b y w ind a c t ion .

S eve ra l d if e ren t t y pe s o f d epo s i t m ay b e r e cogn i sed w i th in t h e b a s in .

F ragmen t s o f o l de r t e r ra ce h av e b een i d en t if i ed a l ong t h e w e s te rn e dge o f t h e b a s in ( H emph i l l a nd K idwa i 1 973 ) , w h i le as e quence o fc u t t e r race i sp r e sen t i nt h eP ezu G ap . As e r ie s o fl ow -ang le b ou lde r f a n s a nd g r av e l s p read s m a rk t h e m ou th s o ft h e K ha i so ra a nd S hak tu t o r ren t s , b u t m uch o ft h e b a s in i sc ove red b y a luv ia l s a nd s a nd s i l t s a nd b y w ind -b lown s a nd s( Rende l l 1 986 : 3 ) .

I nm a rked c on t ra s tt ot h eG oma l a r ea i mmed ia te ly t ot h e s ou th , t h eB annu b a s in d oe sn o t p o s se s s a ny a luv ia l f a n s . T he r a te o fs e d imen ta t ion w i th in t h e b a s in w ou ld h ave h ad t h e e f ec t o f' d rown ing ' a ny a luv ia l f a n s , h ad t h ey e x i s ted .

T he e x ten t t o w h ich t h e B annu

b a s in h a s f i l led u p w i th s e d imen t s w hen c ompa r ed t ot h e G oma l s y s tem i sa t te s ted b yt h e r e la t ive b a s in l e ve l s o n e i the r s i de o ft h e P ezu G ap w he re t h e l e ve l o ft h e B annu b a s in i s 1 04m h i ghe rt h an t h eG oma la r ea ( Rende l l 1 9 86 : 5 ) .

T he f o rego ing d emon s t ra te st h er a nge a nd c ha ra c te r i s t ic so fm ine ra l sa nd r o ck s o ne w ou ld e xpec t t o f i nd a si n c lu s ion s o fd e t r i ta l m a te r ia l s i nc l ay s o ft h eB annu a nd G oma l r e g ion s . A dd i t iona l ly , i tp o in t s o u t t h a t d if i cu l t ie s c ou ld b e e xpec ted i na t temp t ing t od if e ren t ia te c l ay s ou rce s f r om t h e t wo r e g ion s b a sed o n t h e i r r e spec t ive m ine ra l s u i te s , b ecau se m ine ra ls f r om t h e t wo a r ea s w ou ld b e e xpec ted t o b e s im i la r .

T o ad eg ree , t h i s w a s

p r oven t ob et h ec a se i nt h ep r e sen ts t udy ( s ee C hap te r7 ) .

S im i la r d if i cu l t ie s w ou ld n o t b e e xpec ted i n d i sc r im ina t ing b e tween t h e c l ay s f r om H a rappa a nd t h o se f r om t h e B annu a nd G oma l a r ea s .

T he I n do -Gange t ic P l a in i s

c omp r i sed p a r t ly o ft h e I n du s P l a in . E xcep t f o r t h e h i l l s o fK ha i rpu r , t h e I n du s P l a in i s d evo id o fm a jo rr e l ief a nd i se s sen t ia l ly ab r oad , s h a l low b a s in b o rde red o nt h ee a s tb yt h e r a nge s o f B a luch i s tan a nd We s te rn S i nd ( Hun t ing S u rvey C o rpo ra t ion 1 960 : 3 )

T he

c en t ra l p a r t i sb u i l t u p w i th f l oodp la in m a te r ia l o ft h e I ndu s R ive r , i t s s u rf ace m a rked b y m eande r s c a r s a nd o l d r i ve r c hanne l s . T he w e s te rn p a r t o ft h e b a s in i s ap i edmon t p l a in t h a t s l ope sg en t ly u pt ot h em oun ta in sa nd i ss u rf aced w i th o u twa sh m a te r ia l d e r ived f r om

9 9

t h em a s d e sc r ibed a bove . T he I n du s R ive r d e r ive s m o s t o fi t s w a te r f r om t h e H ima laya a nd H indu K u sh r a nge s o fn or the rn P ak i s tan , I n d ia , a nd A f ghan i s tan .

Mos t s t ream s a r e

c ompa ra t ive ly s ma l la nd a r ei n te rm i t ten to w ing t ot h el ow a nnua lp r ec ip i ta t ion . T he H a rappa a r ea c on s i s t sm a in ly o fs t ream a nd b r a ided s t r eam d epo s i t so fs ed imen t sf r om t h e u p l if t o ft h e H ima laya s ( U .S . G eo log ica l S u rvey a nd G eo log ica l S urvey o fP ak i s tan 1 964 ) . T he a d jacen tR av i R ive r , o ne o ft h em a in t r i bu ta r ie so ft h eI ndu s , i s am eande r ing r i ve r o f l ow v e loc i ty w h ich c a r r ie s s u spended s i l t a nd c l ay t h rough g en t ly s l op ing f l oodp la in s ( Penda l l a nd Amund son 1 990a : 3 04 ) .

T he l owe r r e ache s o ft h e R av i n ea r

H a rappa , w he re t h e r i ve rj o in s w i th t h e C henab , P l e i s tocene -age a luv ium i so ve r la in b y m o re r e cen ta luv ium o fH o locene a ge . R ewo rked s e d imen t sf r om g l ac ia ll o e s sa tt h eb a se o fm oun ta in s2 00 k mn o r thea s to fH a rappa a r et h ough tt ob et h e s ou rce o ft h ef i ne -g ra ined a luv ium o ft h e H o locene ( M ian a nd S ya l 1 986 ; c i ted i nP enda l l a nd Amund son 1 990a : 3 02 ) .

T he o l de r a luv ium c on ta in s p r om inen t c oncen t ra t ion s o f c a lc ium c a rbona te

( Amund son a nd P enda l l 1 991 : 1 4 ) . H ow eve r , s u b sequen t a luv ia l a c t iv i ty h a s c r ea ted l e s s d i s t inc tH o locene d epo s i t sa nd t e r race sw h ich l i eb e tween t h eP l e i s tocene t e r race sa nd t h e c u r ren t ly a c t ive f l oodp la in s .

T hey e xh ib i t e v idence o f s e ve ra l d epo s i t iona l c y c le s , a nd

p edogen ic c a rbona te i sS t age 1o r a b sen t ( S ehga l a nd S t oop s 1 972 ; c i ted i nP enda l l a nd Amund son 1 990a : 3 04 ) . M ine ra logy o fa lt h ree a luv ia i sd om ina ted b y q ua r tz , f e ldspa r s , m ica , a nd c a rbona te ( Penda l la nd Amund son 1 990b ) . 5 . 2 THE HARAPPAN C IVIL ISAT ION AND I TS ANTECEDENTS T he H a rappan C iv i l i sa t ion w a sk nown i nt h ew e s ter nw o r ld a se a r ly a st h em id 1800 's , b u t i t s s i gn if i cance a ppea r s n o t t o h ave b e come e v iden t u n t i l t h e e a r ly 1 920 ' s w hen t h e d i scove ry a nd i n i t ia l e xcava t ion s o f Mohen jo -Da ro w e re f i r s t p ub l i shed ( Ma r sha l l 1 924 ) . S i nce t h en , ac on s ide rab le n umbe r o fr e sea rche r s h ave u nder taken e xcava t ion s a nd s t udy a nd o u r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e n a tu re o ft h e c i v i l i sa t ion h a s b een g r ea t ly e nhanced . Wha t f o l low s i nt h e s ub sequen t s e c t ion s i s at h ree -pha se o u t l ine s umma ry o ft h e p re sen ts t a te o f k now ledge a bou t i t . Much o ft h e b a s ic i n f orma t ion h a s b een g l eaned f r om t wo w o rk s w h ich a r e g ene ra l ly c on s ide red a u tho r i ta t ive c ompend ia o n t h e H a rappan C iv i l i sa t ion : A l lch in a nd A l lch in ( 1 982 ) a nd S haf f e r ( 1 992 ) .

S haf f e r ' s a r t ic le , a l though p ub l i shed i n

1 992 , c on ta in s o n ly m a te r ia l u p t o 1 985 . Whe r e o t he r r e sea r che r s a nd s ou rce s a r e u sed , t h ey a r ec i ted .

1 00

S haf f e r u se s t h e n omen c la tu r e a nd c a tego r i sa t ion s y s tem p opu la r i nN or th Ame r ica o f d i v id ing c u l tu re s a nd t h e i r s e quence s i n to c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion sw h ich a r e f u r the r s ubd iv ided i n to e ra s a nd p ha s es .

T he s y s tem w a s d ef ined b y W i l ley a nd P h i l l ip s ( 1958 : 3 7 ) .

T he

c e n t ra l c oncep t o ft h e t r ad i t ion f a c i l i ta te s as t y l i s t ic g roup ing o fd i ve r se a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage si n to as i ng le a na ly t ica lu n i t , w h i le l i m i t ing t h en eed f o re s tab l i sh ing t h ep r ec i se n a tu re o fc u l tu ra l a nd c h rono log ica l r e la t ion sh ip st h a tl i nk a s semb lage s . T he c oncep t d oe s h oweve ri mp ly t h a t s u ch r e la t ion sh ip se x i s t . S haf f e rd ef ine st h ree c u l tu ra lt r ad i t ion si nt h e H a rappan : t h o se o fB a luch i s tan , H e lmand , a nd t h e I n du s V a l ley . B ecau se i ti st h er e g ion o fi n te re s t o ft h e p r e sen t r e sea rch , t h i s t h e s i s c oncen t ra te s o nt h e I n du s V a l ley T rad i t ion . T rad i t ion s a r e d i v ided i n to e r a s w h ich g roup a r chaeo log ica l u n i t s , o rp ha se s , t h a t s h a re a f ew , v e ry g ene ra l c u l tu r a l c ha rac te r i s t ic s w h ich d o n o t h av e f i xed b ounda r ie s i nt i me o r s p a ce . F ina l ly , e r a sm ay h ave o ne o rm o re p ha se s . Ap ha se r e p re sen t s " a n a r chaeo log ica l u n i t p os se s s ing t r a i t s s uf i c ien t ly c ha rac te r i s t ic t o d i s t ingu i sh i tf r om a l o t he r u n i t s s i m i la r ly c once ived . . ." ( W i l ley a nd P h i l l ip s 1 9 58 : 2 2 ) .

A t p r e sen t , ad i agno s t ic c e ram ic

s t y le l o ca ted a to ne o rm o re s i t e si st h em a jo rc ha rac te r i s t ic o f ap ha se ( Shaf f e ra nd T hapa r 1 9 92 : 2 47 ) . Af i na lc on cep tu s ed b yS haf f e r ,w h ich i sp a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan tt ot h ep r e sen t s t udy , i st h a t o f t h e i n t erac t ion s y s t em ( B in f o rd 1 965 ) .

I n te rac t ion s y s tem s r e f e r t o

v a r iou s a venue s o fc ommun ica t ion e x i s t ing w i th in a nd b e tween s o c ia l g roup s w h ich m ay c r o s scu t b o th t r ad i t ion s a nd p ha se s .

T h i s c ommun ica t ion i sr e f l ec ted i n aw ide sp read

d i s t r ibu t ion o f s im i la r c u l tu ra l t r a i t s a nd a r tef a c t s , i n t ru s ive a nd i n d igenou s w i th in a r e la t ive ly b r ief t i me p e r iod .

T he p r e sen t ly k nown e x ten t o ft h e E a r ly a nd Ma tu re H a rappan C iv i l i sa t ion i ss hown i n F i gu re 5 . 2 . T he c i v i l i sa t ion a ti t sp eak e ncompa s sed o ve ro ne m i l l ion s qua re k i lome t re so f t h e n or thwe s te rn r e g ion o ft h e I n d ian s u bcon t inen t , a nd w a s m o s t ly c en t red a r ound t h e I n du sR ive rs y s tem d r a inage t o ge the rw i th c oa s ta la r ea sb o rde r ing t h eI nd ian O cean .

5 . 2 .1 B ef or e3 500 B .C . T he I ndu s V a l ley T rad i t ion d a te s f r om p r e -6000 BC .

T he E a r ly F ood -P roduc ing E ra i s

m a in ly d ef ined b yt h e Meh rga rh P ha se . P e r iod I Aa tt h et y pe s i te o f Meh rga rh i sd a ted b y

1 0 1

t h e e xcava to r s t o t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e s e ven th m i l lenn ium ( J a r r ige 1 986 ) a nd w a s a ce ram ic . T he f i r s t o ccupa t ion c on ta in sf i r ep la ce sa nd e v idence f o rb o th d ome s t ica ted a nd w i ld b a r ley a l ong w i th d ome s t ica ted w hea t . T he a n ima l e c onomy i si n i t ia l ly d om ina ted b y a bou t t we lve s p ec ie s o f w i ld ' b ig g ame ' ( Meadow 1 984 : 3 5 ) , i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e e a r ly p opu la t ion e xp lo i ted t h eK ach i P l a in a nd h i l l s s u r round ing i t . B yt h e e nd o ft h e a c e ram ic p e r iod , t h e f a una l a s semb lage c on s i s ted a lmo s t e n t i re ly o fd ome s t ica ted s heep , g oa t a nd c a t t le ( Meadow 1 984 ; 1 989 ) .

E xcep t f o r t h e l o ca l e xp lo i ta t ion o f r i ve r ine a nd m a r ine

r e sou rce s , t h e i mpor tance o f h un t ing a nd g a the r ing t h e r ef o re d ec l ined t h rough t i me . S eden ta ry s e t t lemen t s c on s is ted o f s imp le , m u l t i roomed b u i ld ing s w i th s pace b e tween t h em w h ich w a s u s ed f o r d ome s t ic p u rpo se s a nd b u r ia l s ( L echava l l ie r a nd Q u iv ron 1 981 : 7 2 -85 ) . S ome d if e ren t ia ls o c ia ls t a tu si si n d ica ted b yf u ne ra ry i t em sf o und w i th t h eb u r ia ls ( Samzun a nd S e l l ie r 1 9 85 ) , a nd t h e e x i s tence o f l o ng d i s tance t r ade n e two rk s o r i n te rac t ion w i th o t he rg roup si ss ugge s ted b yt h ep r e sence o fm a r ine s h e l l s , l a p i sl a z u l ia nd t u rquo i se , i t em s w h ich a r e n o t a va i lab le l o ca l ly .

R ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om t h e a c e r am ic

p e r iod r a nge b e tween 9 385 ± 1 20 b p a nd 530 ± 1 80 b p ; a nd a ve rage t o ac a l ib ra t ed d a te o f5 225 BC . T he se d a te sc on f iden t ly p l ace t h eb eg inn ing o ft h ef ood -p roduc ing e c onomy w i th in t h e s e ven th m i l lenn ium , a nd o f e r s av e ry s t rong c a se f o r a n i n d igenou s p r oce s s o f d ome s t ica t ion w i th in t h e g r ea te rI n d ian s u bcon t inen t ( Po s seh l 1 990 : 2 65 ) . C on t inu i ty a nd c hange a r em a rked a tt h es i t ew i th t h ei n t roduc t ion o fs of t , b uf , c haf f tempe red p o t te ry i n t h e f o l low ing p e r iod , c a 500 BC .

Many e s sen t ia l t r a i t s o ft h e I n du s V a l ley T r ad i t ion

b ecome e s tab l i shed d u r ing t h i sp ha se . T he m o s ti mpor tan to ft h e se w e re af ood -p roduc ing e conomy , s e den ta ry v i l lage s w i th m ud -b r ick a r ch i tec tu re , a nd t h e d eve lopmen t o fc r af t s . Mo reove r , t h e u se o fi mpo r ted m a te r ia l s m ay s how l i m i ted i n te rac t ion w i th o t he r s o c ia l g roup s .

5 . 2 .2 T he E ar ly H arappan P er iod T he E a r ly H a rappan P e r iod w a s i n i t ia l ly d ef ined b y Mugha l ( 1 970 ; 1 990 ) i no r de r t o r e cogn i se t h e e x i s tence o fc on t inu i ty b e tween w ha t h ad b een t e rmed t h e p re -Ha r appan , a nd t h eH a rappan . H i se a r l ie rw o rk ( 1 970 )h ad s h own t h a tm o s to ft h ec ha rac te r i s t ic st h a t d ef ine t h eH a rappan p e r iod , n ow c a l led t h e Ma tu re H a rappan , w e re a l ready l a rge ly e v iden t d u r ing t h ep e r iod 3 500 t o2 500 BC ;j u s tp r io rt ot h eu r ban i sa t ion p e r iod . O the rp r om inen t

1 02

H a r appan r e sea rche r s , m o s t n o tab ly P o s seh l ( 1 990 ) , u se t h e t e rm s P re -u rban P ha se a nd U rban P ha se t od e sc r ibe Mugha l ' sE a r ly a nd Ma tu r eH a rappan p e r iod s . B o th s e t s o f

F IGURE 5 .2 EXTENT OF THE E ARLY AND MATURE HARAPPAN C IV IL ISAT ION ( Adap ted f r o m Mugha l 1 990 : 1 88 -9 )

a . S ara i K ho la b . R ehman D he r i c . Gum la d . P e r iano G hunda i e . R hana G hunda i f . Meh rga rh g . K a la t h . A n j i ra i . Mohen jo D aro j . K o t D i j i k . Am r i I .B a lako t m . L o tha l n . Ganwa r iwa la o . H arappa

n omenc la tu re t e nd t oe mpha s i se t h a t t h e re w a s ac on t inu i ty o fs o r t s t h roughou t ; Mugha l ' s d e sc r ibe s as moo the r t r an s i t ion , b u t P o s seh l ' s d ep ic t s a n a b rup t c hange t o u r ban i sa t ion w h ich o ccu r red a tt h e e nd o ft h e E a r ly H a rappan . t e rm ino logy , w h ich i si nm o r ec ommon u sage .

1 0 3

T he p r e sen t t h e s i s w i l l u se Mugha l ' s

S haf f e r d e sc r ibe st h e p e r iod 4 000 BC t oa bou t2 350 BC b yf o u rp ha se s ( h e d ef ine s ag ap i ns i t e s b e tween 5 000 a nd 4 000 BC ) : t h eB a lako t , Am r i , H ak ra a nd K o tD i j i ( 1 992 : 4 26 ) . T he f o u r o ve r lap s omewha t a s t h ey a r e d ef ined a s g r adua l c hange s , a nd t h ey o ccu r i n d if e ren t g eog raph ica l a r ea s .

T he H a rappan ( o r Ma tu re H a rappan ) c ommence s a t2 650

BC i nm o s t o ft h e I n du s a r ea , o ve r lapp ing t h e e nd o ft h eK o tD i j i P ha se b y 3 00 y ea r s i n S haf f e r ' s i n te rp re ta t ion . D ef in ing e a ch o ft h e p ha se s a nd h ow t h ey d if e r i sn o tw i th in t h e s c ope o ft h i s c hap te r ; n o r i si tn ece s sa ry f o r a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e r e sea r ch a nd i t s i n te rp re ta t ion . T he s a l ien t f e a tu re s o ft h eE a r ly H a rappan p e r iod a r e d e sc r ibed ; a nd t h en t h el a s t o fS haf f e r ' sp ha se s , t h eK o tD i j ian , i sc ove r ed i nm o re d e ta i lb ecau se i tc on s t i tu te s t h e p ha se a nd c h rono log ica l p e r iod o f t h e m a te r ia l u nde r s t udy f r om R ehman D he r i , L ewan , T a raka iQ ua a nd H a rappa .

T he E a r ly H a rappan p e r iod d emon s t ra te s c on t inu i ty f r om t h e b eg inn ing s o ft h e v i l lage f a rm ing s e t t lemen t s d e sc r ibed f r om t h ee a r ly l e ve l s a t Meh rga rh , t ot h e Ma tu re H a rappan . S ome o ft h i s c on t inu i ty i ss t ruc tu red b y t h e e nv i ronmen t a nd e co logy .

T he p a t te rn s o f

f ood p roduc t ion , i n c lud ing t h e p l an t s a nd a n ima l s u t i l i sed , a s w e l l a s s ome a s pec t s o f a r ch i tec tu re r ema in r e la t ive ly l i t t le c hanged o ve r t h e p e r iod .

O the r c ha rac te r i s t ic s , n o t

d ependen t o n e nv i ronmen t o re co logy , s u ch a sw o rked s t one , t e r raco t ta s a nd s om e s h e l l a nd b ead -mak ing , s h ow c on t inu i ty a l so ( Mugha l 1 990 : 1 85 ) .

T he E a r ly H a rappan p e r iod , o n t h e o t he r h and , a l so s aw t h e e me rgence o fs e v e ra l o ft h e f e a tu re s o ft h e u r ban Ma tu re H a rappan .

T he r e a ppea r a tp r e sen t t o b e t wo s c hoo l s o f

t h ough t o n t h i s ; t h o se o ft h e t wo p rom inen t r e sea r che r s n o ted a bove , i . e . Mugha l a nd P o s seh l . T he i rp o s i t ion sa r e i l u s t ra ted b yt h e i rt e rm ino log ie sa sn o ted a bove . O nt h eo ne h and , Mugha l a s se r t s t h e ' c on t inu i ty p o s i t ion ' w he re m o s t o ft h e f e a tu re s o fu r ban i sa t ion w e re p r e sen t i nt h e i n i t ia l s t age s o ft h e E a r ly H a rappan p e r iod , w h i le P os seh l t a ke s t h e ' d i scon t inu i ty ' v i ew t h a t s ome o ft h em d i d n o t b ecome e v iden t u n t i l t h e v e ry e nd o ft h e E a r ly H a rappan p e r iod , i fa ta l . A st h ef e a tu r e st h a t a r ed if e r en t ly v i ewed b yt h et wo a r e s omewha tc en t ra lt ot h ep r e sen tr e sea r ch ,t h eb a ckg round t ot h em i sd i scus sed b e low .

1 04

F o l low ing t h e i n i t ia l e xcava t ion s o ft h e m a jo rH a rappan s i t e s o f Mohen jo -Da ro ( Ma r sha l l 1 931 , Mackay 1 937 ) a nd H a rappa ( Va t s 1 940 , Whee le r 1 947 ) , i tw a s h ypo the s i sed t h a t t h e I ndus

C iv i l i sa t ion h ad d i f f u sed f r om e l sewhe re , p e rhap s Me sopo tam ia , i n i t s

f u l ly -deve loped f o rm . I n f a c t , t h e o b jec t ive o fm uch o ft h e e a r ly r e sea rch w a s t o t r ace whe re i td i f f u sed f r om ( e .g . S t e in 1 9 31 : 1 84 ) a nd i n f luenced t h e c ho ice o fm any o ft h e s i t e a r ea s t h a t w e re e xcava ted .

T h i s r e sea r ch o r ien ta t ion p e r s i s ted u n t i l w e l l i n to t h e 1 950 ' s

a nd 1 960 's . B eg inn ing i nt h e 1 950 ' s , i n te re s t w a s b eg inn ing t ob e g ene ra ted i ns e a rch ing f o r e v idence o fa ni n d igenou s s t a r tt ot h eH a rappan c i v i l i sa t ion . Much o ft h er e sea rch w a sc onduc ted i n t h e w e s te rn b o rde r land s w i th A f ghan i s tan a nd I r an .

F a i r se rv i s ( 1956 , 1 959 , 1 96 1)

c onduc ted s eve ra l s u rvey s a nd l i m i ted e xcava t ion s i n Q ue t ta , P i sh in , C haga i , n o r the rn K a la t , Z hob a nd L o ra la i . B ea t r ice d eC a rd i c onduc ted e xcava t ion s i nt h e S u rab a nd K a la t r eg ion s ( 1965 , 1 983 ) , a nd R a ike s( 1 968 ) e xp lo red s i t e s i nt h eK a la t d i s t r ic t . D a le s ( 1962 ) e xp lo red t h e Mak ran c oa s t t o t h e s ou th , a nd e xcava ted a t B a lako t ( 1979 ) .

F u r the r

e xcava t ion s w e re c a r r ied o u t t o t h e w e s te rn b o rde r land s i n t h e Q ue t ta a r ea w he re s i gn i f ican t e v idence o f i n d igenou s d eve lopmen t w e re u nea r thed ( J a r r ige 1 979 , 1 98 1 , 1 989 ) . T he n ew e v idence f r om t h e se s u rvey s a nd e xcava t ion s d r a s t ica l ly c hanged p e r cep t ion s o f c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t s l e ad ing u p t o t h e Ma tu re H a rappan .

A n umbe r o f n ew a nd

i mpo r tan t s yn the se s e me rged i nt h e m id t o l a te 1960 's w h ich e xpounded t h e se . ( 1965 ) wa s o ne o f t h e e a r l ie s t .

D a le s '

D a le s o u t l ined s i x p ha se s o f d eve lopmen t , e ach

h i gh l igh t ing s oc ia l , p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic d eve lopmen t s i nA f ghan i s tan a nd B a luch i s tan . H e s ugge s ted t h a t t h e se d eve lopmen t s p r ov ided t h e a n teceden t s t o t h e r i se o ft h e I ndu s c i v i l i sa t ion . R af ique Mugha l ( 1 970 , 1 990 ) r e v iewed a l o ft h e e xcava t ion a nd s u rvey d a ta o ft h e e a r ly o ccupa t ion s t o d a te , i nt h e G rea te r I ndu s V a l ley a nd n o r the rn B a luch i s tan , w h ich d emon s t ra ted av e ry h i gh d eg ree o fc on t inu i ty b e tween d eve lopmen t s d u r ing t h e p e r iod 3 , 000 t o 2 , 600 BC , a nd t h e n a tu r e o ft h e f u l ly d eve loped c i v i l i sa t ion a f t e r 2 , 600 BC .

H e c onc luded t h a t t h e se i n d igenou s d eve lopmen t s w e re t h e r oo t s o f t h e I ndu s

c i v i l i sa t ion . H e p opu la r i sed t h eu se o ft h et e rm E a r ly H a rappan t o d e sc r ibe t h e p e r iod c a 3 , 500 BC . t o 2 , 500 BC . i nt h e G r ea te r I n du s V a l ley . T h i s n ew t e rm ino logy r e f lec ted t h e

1 05

t r end i n v i ew ing t h e c i v i l i sa t ion a s ac on t inuou s e vo lu t ion o f c u l tu ra l c ha rac te r i s t ic s g r adua l ly l e ad ing u pt ot h e Ma tu re H a rappan . O u r k now ledge o ft h e E a r ly H a rappan c u l tu re o ft h e G rea te r I ndu s V a l ley h a s i mp roved v a s t ly s i nce Mugha l ' s p i onee r ing w o rk i n 1 970 .

Much f u r the r r e sea rch h a s s i nce b een

c onduc ted ( Mugha l 1 990 p rov ide s a n e x ce l len t s umma ry ) .

C onn ec t ion s h ave b een

d emon s t ra ted f o r e xamp le i nt h e w e s te rn b o rde r land s w i th t h e I r an ian P la teau ( W r igh t 1 984 ) .

H oweve r , t h e c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t o f t h e c i v i l i sa t ion s t i l l c on ta in s n ume rou s

p uzz le sw i th r e spec t t ot h e n a tu re o fi t sr i se i nt h e l a te 4 t h a nd e a r ly 3 rd m i l lenn ium B C . , w h ich s e em t oc ha l lenge t h e ' u n if o rm i ta r ian ' m ode l o fc u l tu ra l c hange ( Pos seh l 1 990 ) . I t c on ta in si d en t if ied c on t inu i t ie sa nd d i scon t inu i t ie sw i th r e spec tt oi t sd eve lopmen tt owa rd s af u l ly u rban i sed c i v i l i sa t ion .

C on t inu i t ie s t h a t l i nk t h e P r e -U rban a nd U rban p ha se s ( a s

d ef ined b y P o s seh l 1 990 ) a r e e v idenced i ni t em s r e la t ing t o s u b s i s tence a nd e xp r e s s ion s h av ing t o d o w i th s t y le .

D i scon t inu i t ie s b e tween t h e t wo r e la te t o t h ose f e a tu re s o fa

s o c iocu l tu ra l s y s tem t h a t m ake i t d i s t inc t ive ly u rban i n c ha rac te r s uch a s s o c ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion a nd c r af ts p ec ia l i sa t ion ( i b id . : 2 69 -70 ) . S haf f e r ( 1992 ) n o te s t h a t d u r ing t h e E a r ly H a rappan p e r iod , t h e re w a s ad i s t inc t h omogene i ty o fs t y le , e s pec ia l ly i nt h e c e r am ic a s semb lage s , o ve r t h e e n t i re d i s t r ibu t ion a r ea .

T h i s w a s m an if e s ted i n m a s s p roduced c e ram ic s i n s t anda rd i sed s h ape s , w h ich

a ppea red t o b e d i s t r ibu ted i nw ide r i n te ra c t ion s phe re s .

F o r e xamp le , R ehman D he r i

a ppea r s t o h ave s e rved a s ar e g ion a l p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion c en t re ( Du r ran i 1 988 ) . S im i la r ly , e v idence f r om Meh rga rh I I( c a4 , 000 t o3 , 400 BC ) s howed t h a t c e ram ic sb egan t ob em a s s p roduced i ns t anda rd i sed s h ape sa nd m ay h ave b een d i s t r ibu ted i nm uch w ide r i n te rac t ion s phe re s ( J a r r ige 1 979 ) .

T he s e a nd m o s t o t he r i n s tance s o f e v idence o f

i n te ra c t ion a r eb a sed o ns t y le c on s ide ra t ion sa l one , a sv e ry l i t t le d i rec te v idence o fp roduc t d i s t r ibu t ion e x i s t s i nt h e l i t e ra tu re .

A n e xcep t ion i s Wr igh t ( 1 984 ) who c onduc ted a

c hem ica l a n lay s i s ( n eu t ron a c t iva t ion ) a nd p e t rog raph ic s t udy o ft wo c l a s se s o fc e ram ic s f r om I r an a nd t h e I ndo I ran ian b o rde r land s t o t h e s ou th o ft h e p r e sen t s t udy a r ea .

H e r

c on c lu s ion s ( mo s t ly b a sed u pon t h e c hem ica l a na ly s i s ) s ugge s ted t h a t d i s t r ibu t iona l i n f e rence s b a sed o n s t y l i s t ic g round s a l on e h ad b een m i s lead ing ; t h a t a c tua l p roduc t d i s t r ibu t ion h ad am uch l e s se r e x ten t .

A no the r e xamp le , b u t f r om t h e Ma tu re H a rappan

p e r iod , c ome s f r om B la ckman a nd V ida le ( 1992 ) , w ho c a r r ied o u t an eu t ron a c t iva t ion

1 06

a na ly s i s o fs t onewa re b ang le s f r om t h e s i t e s o fH a rappa a nd Mohen jo -Da ro . T he i r s t udy p rov ided d i rec t e v idenc e o f i n te r s i te m ovemen t o f m anuf a c tu red s t onewa re b ang le s b e tween H a rappa a nd Mohen jo -Da ro d u r ing t h e Ma tu re H a rappan P e r iod . Ap o in t t ob e m ade h e re i st h a t i ti sn e ce s sa ry t od emon s t ra te t h e n a tu r e o fe x change o r m ovemen t o f g ood so ri n f o rma t ion i no r de rt os h ow t h ee x ten to fe conom ic i n te ra c t ion b e tween r e g ion s o r s i t e s .

T he a f o r emen t ioned h omogene i ty i n s t y le p r e sen t i n t h e E a r ly H a rappan

a s semb lage s w ou ld h av e r e qu i red e x ten s ive c ommun ica t ion a nd i n te rac t ion n e two rk s . H oweve r , o ne c an s a yr e la t ive ly l i t t le a bou tt h en a tu re a nd e x ten to ft h e se n e two rk su n le s s d e ta i l s o f a ny a c tua l p r oduc t o r i n f o rma t ion e x change c a n b e k nown w i th ar e a sonab le d eg ree o fc e r ta in ty . C e ram ic a nd a r tef a c tua l l i nk s p rov ide f u r the r e v idence o f t h e n a tu re o f i n te ra c t ion n e two rk s d u r ing t h eE a r ly H a rappan p e r iod . I nt h e a r ea o fi n te r e s t t ot h e p r e sen t s t udy , t h e I n du s S ub -Mon tane T rac t i sd ef ined b y L ah i r i ( 1 992 : 3 0 ) f o r i n te rac t ion a nd t r ade p u rpo se s a si n c lud ing p a r t s o ft h e S a l tR ange a nd , w e s t o ft h eI n du s , t h e l a rge s e c t ion s o f h i l l s s u ch a st h e K oha t e n c los ing t h eB annu l ow land a sw e l l a st h e Waz i r is tan h i l l s t ot h e w e s t o fD e ra ja t .

T he D e ra ja t , w h ich i n c lude s t h e G oma l P l a in , i sa n i n teg ra l p a r t o ft h e

m a in I ndu s v a l ley ( s ee a l so S ec t ion 5 . 1 a bove f o rg eog raph ic a nd g eo log ica l d e sc r ip t ion s o ft h e se a r ea s ) .

T he B annu B a s in s h a r ed c e ram ic a nd a r tef ac tua l l i nk s w i th t h e D e ra ja t

r e g ion , t h eK o tD i j ian h o r izon so fu ppe r S i nd a nd t h eK aach ip l a in . Af r i eze o ff o u rf i she s s h ow ing b o th e ye s , a si ff o s s i l i sed , o n ab ow l f r om L ewan e xh ib i t s as t r ik ing r e semb lance t o o ne f ound a t R ehman D he r i ( Du r ran i 1 988 : 2 02 ; K nox 1 9 86 : 2 15 -6 ) .

A l so , a s

d i s cu s sed i nS ec t ion 5 . 4 o nE a r ly H a rappan c e ram ic sb e low , o t he rs t rong l i nk sa r e s e en i n t h e c e ram ic s o f L ewan , T a raka i Q i la , a nd R ehman D he r i .

B road s im i la r i t ie s i n

m o rpho logy , s u r f ace t r ea tmen t sa nd d eco ra t ion sa r es e en .

T he b ead -mak ing i n du s t r ie s e v idenced a tR ehman D he r i ( Du r ran i e t a l . 1 994 ) s howed i n ten s ive a c t iv i ty a nd t e chno log ie s w h ich w e re s e en t ob e v e ry s im i la rt ot h o se a tL ewan ( A l lch in a nd R ende l l 1 9 86 : 8 1 -7 ) . T he m ic rob lade s , m ic rod r i l l s , a nd o t he r t oo l s u sed i n b ead m anuf ac tu r es h ow ed t h a tt e chno log ie sa ppea rt oh ave b een s h a red b e tween t h e s i t e s . Mo reove r , m any o ft h er aw m a te r ia l su s ed , s u ch a sa ga te , c a rne l ian , l a p i s l a zu l i , q ua r tz i te , a nd s t ea t i te a r e c ommon a tb o th s i t e s . L e s s e x ten s ive e xcava t ion s c onduc ted a tT a raka i Q ua , 1 4 .5 k mf r om L ewan , r e vea led e v idence o f ab ead -mak ing i n du s t ry a l so ( A l lch in a nd

1 07

K nox 1 981 : 2 49 ) .

F i na l ly , t h e t e r raco t ta h uman f i gu r ine s f ound a t R ehman D he r i

" . .exh ib i tn ume rou sp a ra l le l sw i th t h ef i gu r ine sf ound i nt h e n ea rby s i t e o fG um la , a sw e l l a sw i th f i gu r ine sf r om L ewan i nt h eB annu b a s in . S ome o ft h et y pe sm ay a l so b ef o und i n t h eP an jab , i nt h e l owe rl e ve l s o fS a ra iK ho la , J a l i lpu r , a nd H a rappa ." ( F lav in e ta l . 1 994 : 8 3 ) . Much o ft h e p r e sen t r e sea rch i nt h e I n du s V a l ley i sf o cu s ing u pon e xam ina t ion o ft h e d i scon t inu i t ie s a s d ef ined b y P o s seh l ( 1 990 ) .

A t N au sha ro , t h e F rench A rchaeo log ica l

M i s s ion i si n c lud ing i ni t sa na ly se st e chn ica la nd p rovenan ce s t ud ie so ft h ec e ram ic so ft h e E a r ly H a rappan p e r iod t od e te rm ine t h en a tu re a nd i n ten s i ty o ft h ea ppa ren ti n te ra c t ion si n t h eK ach i P l a in a r ea c u r ren t ly s hown b y s t y l i s t ic s im i la r i t ie s o n ly ( S . Me ry , p e r s . c omm .) . T he p r e sen t w o rk o ft h e H a rappa A rchaeo log ica l P ro jec t i se xam in ing t h e t r an s i t ion i n d e ta i l b e tween l e ve l s 1a nd 2 , w h ich i s t h e c h rono log ica l p e r iod r e la t ing t o t h e E a r ly /Ma tu re H a rappan t r an s i t ion ( J .K enoye r , p e r s . c omm . ) .

5 . 3 S ITE DESCRIPT IONS

5 . 3 .1 . R ehman D her i T he f o l low ing d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e s i t e o fR ehman D he r i h a s b een g l eaned f r om t h e f i r s t e xcava t ion r e po r t ( Du r ran i 1 988 ) e xcep tw he re o t he rs ou rce sa r ec i ted . Du r ran id e sc r ibe s t h e i n i t ia l e xcava t ion w o rk w h ich w a s u nde r taken i nt h e s e a son s 1 976 t o 1 980 .

T he

s e cond p ub l i shed e xcava t ion w a sc onduc ted i n1 991 , t oc on t inue t h ew o rk a tt h e s i t e a nd s u r round ing a r ea s ( Du r ran i e t a l . 1 99 1) .

A t l e a s t t wo o t he r e xcava t ion s h av e b een

c onduc ted a tt h es i t e ,b yt h eU n ive r s i ty o fP e shawa r ,b u tt h e se h ave n o tb een p ub l i shed .

Ar e cen t p ho tog raph o ft h e s i te i ss hown i nF i gu re 5 . 3 .

R ehman D he r i w a s o ne o fa

n umbe r o f a r chaeo log ica l s i t e s d i scove red i n 1 971 b y D r . A .H . D an i , w ho w a s t h en c onduc t ing t h ee xcava t ion sa tn ea rby G um la ( Dam 1 971) . T he s i t et a k e si t sn am ef r om t h e v i l lage o fR ehman , 5k m . a way . T he s i t ew a s o r ig ina l ly n o ted f o ri t s r ough ly r e c tangu la r s h ape i n co rpo ra t ing w ha t a ppea red t o b e w el -de s igned s t r ee t s a nd c i ty p l ann ing ( s ee D u r ran i 1 988 : P l a te VA ) . A l so , i t s s i ze w a s i mp re s s ive , a ta bou t 50 m . b y 3 70 m . I ti s s i tua ted a bou tt wen ty k m . f r om t h ep r e sen tb ank s o ft h eI n du sR ive r . I t s p r e sen tl o ca t ion i sa bou t 3 . 5 km . f r om t h em a in m e ta l led r o ad b e tween t h et own o fD e ra I sma i lK han a nd ,

1 08

t ot h en or th , P ezu , v e ry n e a rt ot h e o l db ank s o ft h eI ndu sR ive r a ss hown b yt h e p r e sen t w e s te rn l i m i t o ft e r race d epo s i t s( Hemph i l la nd K idwa i 1 973 : P l a te 1 ) . I ti sn o ted a l so t h a t t h i s l i m i t o ft e r race d epo s i t s s k i r t s t h e s ou the rn t i p o ft h e K h i so re R ange t o t h e n o r th . D e t r i ta l s f r om t h e se d epo s i t s c ou ld h ave f o und t h e i rw ay i n to t h e c l ay d epo s i t su t i l i sed b y t h eE a r ly H a rappan p o t te r so fR e lunan D he r i .

F IGURE 5 .3 S ITE OF REHMAN DHER I

T he s i t e i sl o ca ted i nt h e l owe r b a s in f o rmed b y t h e p i edmon t f l ood p l a in w h ich s l ope s g r adua l ly f r om t h e S u la iman R ange t owa rd st h e I n du sR ive r . T he p l a in a r ound t h e s i t e i s o fu nd if f e ren t ia ted s u rf i c ia ld epo s i t s , w i th b ou lde rf a n sf u r the rt ot h ew e s ta pp roa ch ing t h e f o o th i l ls o ft h e S u la iman . T he p l a in h a s as u b t rop ica l , c on t inen ta l a r id c l ima te . Ow ing t o a na nnua lr a inf a l l o fl e s st h an 1 0i n che sa nd ah i gh r a te o fe vapo ra t ion ,v ege ta t ion i ss p a r se a nd r e s t r ic ted t o s t and s o fL ana t r ee s a nd s a l ine b u she s . T h i s p l a in i se xpo sed t o m uch s h ee tf l ood ing a nd i si r iga ted w i th b a ran id agga rm e thod s . U sed d u r ing p e r iod so fh eavy r a in , t h is m e thod c on s i s t so fe mbank ing t h et h ree s i de s o f af i e ld d own s t ream o ft h e s h ee t f l ood ing w h ich a r re s t st h ew a te rf l ow a nd c oncen t ra te si ti nt h ef i e ld . I ti st h en a lowed t o p e rmea te t h e f i e ld w h ich i st h en p l oughed a nd s own . Mo re r e cen t ly , t h e i n t roduc t ion o f t u be w e l l sh a sm ade t h ea r ea m o re a menab le t oc r opp ing .

1 09

R ehman D he r i i se x t reme ly r i ch i nc e ram ic w a s te o nt h e s u r f a ce . A l though n o te x cava ted , e x ten s ive k i ln w o rk s a r e e v iden t o n t h e w e s t s i de o ft h e s i t e , w he re t h e p reva i l ing w ind s i mp inge o n t h e e dge o ft h e m ound . K i ln w a l l m a te r ia l c an b e o b se rved e r od ing t h rough t h e s u r f ace .

Ad i sh , t h ough t t ob e f o r h o ld ing p a in t , a nd at e r raco t ta s t oppe r h ave b een

f o und t h e re ( Du r ran i e ta l . 1 99 1 : 6 7 , 7 8 ) . A dd i t iona l ly , n ume rou s w a s te r s a r e s e en i nt h e i mmed ia te a r ea o f t h e k i ln s .

S ome o f t h e se w e re c o l lec ted b y t h e a u tho r f o r

t h in sec t ion ing t oo b se rve i n c lu s ion sp r e sen ti ns amp le st h a tm ay b ea s sumed t ob eo fl o ca l c l ay s . B one ' s , a s h , a nd c ha r coa l c an b e e a s i ly c o l lec ted o nt h e s u rf ace , a sc an b ead s , l a p i s l a zu l i , b ang le s , t e r raco t ta c a r t f r ame s , p a in ted a nd u npa in ted p o t te ry a nd b one t oo l s . T he l a you t i se x t reme ly i n te re s t ing . I ta ppea r s f r om t h e a e r ia l p ho tog raph , e a r l ie r r e f e r red t o , t oh ave b een o rgan i sed i n ar e c tangu la rf a sh ion , w i th an o r thwe s tt os ou thea s t o r ien ta t ion . Wha t a ppea r s t ob e am a in s t ree t , o r ien ted a pp rox ima te ly NW -SE , c u t s t h e s e t t lemen t i n t wo a pp rox ima te h a lve s , a nd s i de l a ne s m ee t t h e m a in s t r ee t f r om e i the r s i de , s omewha t r em in i scen to ft h em a jo r Ma tu re H a r appan s i t eo f Mohen jo -Da ro . A e r ia l p ho tog raph sa l so s how a p os s ib le e nc lo su re w a l l a r ound t h e w ho le s e t t lemen t w i th p os s ib le t owe r s o r b a s t ion s a t r e gu la r i n ter va l s .

A l though i th a s n o t b een e xcava ted , t h e w a l l i sa l so

e v idenced b y r e gu la r , s t ra igh t s u r f a ce d i sco lo ra t ion s p a r t icu la r ly v i s ib le i n t h e e a r ly m o rn ing . S ome d eg ree o fo ccupa t ion a ppea r s t oh ave b een p r e sen t t ot h e s ou th , o u t s ide t h e w a l l . T he s i te a ppea r st oh ave b een am a jo r c en t re d u r ing i t s h e igh t i nt h eE a r ly a nd Ma tu re H a rappan ,w i th e x ten s ive c r af tm anuf ac tu r ing .

T he s i t e p l an o fR ehman D he r i i ss h own a tF i gu r e 5 . 4 .

Ad if e ren t p l an w a s u s ed f o r

s ub sequen t e xcava t ion s ( Du r ran i e ta t . 1 991) , b u t t h e o r ig ina l i ss hown h e re b ecau se i t i n d ica te st h e a r ea sf r om w h ich e xcava ted m a te r ia lw a s s ou r ced f o rt h ep r e sen t r e sea rch . I t i ss e en t h a tf o u r m a in e xcava t iona l u n i t sw e re e xp lo red : A , B , C , a nd D . Un i t s A , B , a nd Cw e re l o ca ted a tt h eh i gh p o in t so ft h em ound a nd e xcava ted t ov i rg in s o i l , a nd U n i t Do n t h e Ma in S t r ee t . U n i t Dw a sn o tc omp le ted . I tw a si n tended t oe xp lo re t h e r e la t ion sh ip o f h ou se u n i t so ne i the rs i de o ft h es t ree tt ot h em a in s t ree t .

10

H

10

6 15

6 6 30

F IGURE 5 . 4 S ITE P LAN O F R EHMAN DHER I ( A f te rD u r ran i 1 988 : 1 33 ) 0

1 00

2 00

FE E T

11

3 00

T he i n i t ia le xcava t ion sa tt h es i t ee nab led as e quen ce o ft h r ee m a in p e r iod st ob ed i s ce rned :

P e r iod RHD I : R ad ioca rbon d a ted t o c a 340 t o 2 850 B .C . , t h i s w a s i d en t if i ed a st h e e a r l ie s t p e r iod o f o ccupa t ion a tt h e s i t e . D u r ran i ( 1 988 ) d i v ided t h i s p e r iod i n to t wo s ub -pe r iod s , RHD I A ( 3 340 t o 3 100 B .C . ) a nd RED L 1 3 ( 3 100 t o 2 850 B .C . ) .

F o r p u rpo se s o ft h e p r e sen t

r e sea rch , t h e se a r ec onden sed i n to as i ng le d i scu s s ion . A r ch i tec tu ra lf e a tu re sf o rt h ew ho le p e r iod i n c luded s t ruc tu re s o f p acked m ud , b r ick shaped c l ay s l ab s a nd c l ay b l ock s . E v idence o fs e ve ra l r oom s w a s i d en t if i ed b u t t h e l i m i ted e x ten t o fh o r izon ta l e xcava t ion s d i d n o t p e rm i t d ef in i t ion o ft h e n umbe r a nd n a tu re o fr oom s i ne a ch h ou se u n i t . a ppea red t o r un p e rpend icu la r t ot h e c i ty w a l l . 1 35 c m , w a s l o ca ted i no ne r oom .

Wa l l s

Ac i rcu la r g r a in s i l o , w i th ad i ame te r o f

O the r a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu re s i n c lude c i rcu la r o ven s

a bou t 3 0 c m i n d i am e te r , o pen o n o ne s i de .

T he se w e re i n a dd i t ion t o al a rge r ,

r e c tangu la r , f i r ep lace i nt h e r oom s . C e ram ic f i nd s a r e c ov e r ed i nt h e n ex t s e c t ion . P l an t r ema in s i n c luded e v idence o f c ha r red g r a in , p r edom inan t ly w hea t a nd b a r ley , f r om t h e g r a in s i los . F auna lr ema in sw e re b uf f a lo , c a t t le , s h eep , g oa t , a nd f i sh b one s . As i gn if i can t s ma l l f i nd , f r om P e r iod I 1 3 , w a s au n ique i v o ry s e a l m ea su r ing 3 x 2 . 7 x. 0 2 c m . ( s ic , D u r ran i 1 988 : 2 8 ) d i sp lay ing e x t rao rd ina ry c r af t sman sh ip . I td ep ic ted t wo moun ta in g oa ts w i th w avy h or n s , a nd t wo s c o rp ion sf l anked b y af r og o nt h eo t he rs i de . I ti ss i gn if i can ti n t h a ti ts how ss ome c on t inu i ty w i th Ma tu re H a rappan i d ea sa nd d e s ign s .

P e r iod RHD I T h i sp e r iod w a s d a ted i nt h er a nge 2 850 t o2 500 B .C . A r ch i tec tu ra lf e a tu re sr e p re sen t ing ap e r iod o fp l a tf o rm b u i ld ing a nd l e vel ing w h ich s e a led a ll owe rl a ye r s d ef ined t h eb r eak w i th P e r iod I . C on s t ruc t ion m e thod s s how c on t inu i ty w i th t h e e a r l ie r p e r iod . F ea tu re s r e p re sen t ing d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie s c on t inued t o b e r e c tangu la r h ea r th s a nd c i rcu la r o ven s . H oweve r , o n en o tab le c hange i si nt h eg r a in s t o rage t e chn ique s , w h ich c hanged t ot h eu se o fl a rge s t o rage j a r s h a lf b u r ied i n to t h e h ab i ta t ion f l oo r s .

C e ram ic s o ft h e p e r iod a r e

t r ea ted i nS ec t ion 5 . 4b e low . P l an tr ema in sw e re u n changed , a nd f a una lr ema in sc on s i s ted o fc a t t le , s h eep , g oa t s , f i sh , a nd b i rd s .

12

P e r iod RHD I I A l so d i v ided i n to t wo s u b -pe r iod s , t h i s p e r iod i s d a ted 2 500 B .C . t o 1 900 B .C . , c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e Ma tu r e H a rappan P e r iod .

C e ram ic s t y le s c on t inued r e la t ive ly

u nchanged a t R e i tman D he r i , a nd t h e s i t e a ppea red n o t t o h ave d eve loped a l o f t h e s t y l i s t ic c hange ss e en a to t he rs i t e so ft h e Ma tu re H a rappan . A na na ly s i so ft h i si sg i v en b y C hao long ( 1990 ) .

I tr e p re sen t s at h i rd m a jo r p ha se a nd i n vo lved p l a tf o rm b u i ld ing a nd

l e ve l l ing wh ich s e a led a lp r ev iou sl a ye r s . I th ad n os i gn if ican ts t ruc tu ra lr ema in sd ue t oi t s p r ox im i ty t ot h e s u r f a ce a nd r e la ted e r o s ion . S ome r e c tangu la rr oom s w i th s ma l l c ub ic le s w e re i d en t if ied .

G ra in s i l o s w e re n o t p r e sen t b u t l a rge s t o rage j a r s f o r g r a in a nd w a te r

s t o rage c on t inued . R ec tangu la r h ea r th s , o pen o n o ne s i de , c on t inued a sd i d t h e c i r cu la r o ven s b u t r e c tangu la r f i r ep lace s w i th ac en t ra l p i t a s i n RHD I ,d i d n o t o ccu r .

Tw in

h ea r th s w e re f i r s t s e en a s am a jo rf e a tu r e o fP e r iod I IB . Wa l l s c on t inued t or u n p a ra l le l a nd p e rpend icu la rt ot h ec i ty w a l la si ne a r l ie rp ha se s . Am a jo rf e a tu re o ft h i sp e r iod i st h e p r ov i s ion o fn a r row a ley sb e tween d if e ren th ou se u n i t s . A ga in , c e ram ic s a r ec ove red i na s u b sequen t s e c t ion . P l an t a nd f a una l r ema in s c on t inued t h e s ame a se a r l ie r p e r iod s , w i th t h ee xcep t ion t h a t av a r ie ty o fw i ld g r a s se sa nd a g r icu l tu ra lw eed sw e re i d en t if ied .

W i th r e spec tt oe x ter n a lt r ade a nd t r an spo r ta t ion r ou te s , t h es i t eo fR ehman D he r il i e so na p r obab le a nc ien t t r ade r o u te r u nn ing a pp rox ima te ly n o r th sou th b e tween Mohen jo -Da ro a nd t h ef a rn or ther ns i t eo fS ho r tuga i , d u r ing t h e Ma tu re H a rappan a nd p o s s ib ly t h eE a r ly H a rappan p e r iod s ( Kenoye r 1 991 : 3 0 ) .

T ha t i tw a s l i k e ly a t r ade r ou te i nt h e E a r ly

H a rappan i s r e in f o rced b y t h e a r tef ac tua l c ommona l i t ie s a nd i n du s t r ia l / techno log ica l s im i la r i t ie s s e en b e tween s i t e s o f t h e B annu B a s in , R eh rnan D he r i , a nd H a rappa a s d i scu s sed e a r l ie ri nt h ec h ap te r .

5 . 3 .2 . Harappa T he s i te o fH a rappa i st h e m o s t -excava ted o fa l o ft h e I n du s C iv i l i sa t ion s i t e s ( Po s seh l 1 991 : 6 ) a nd a ss u ch n e ed s l i t t le i n t roduc t ion . F u l l d e ta i l s o ft h e s i t e e xcava t ion s a r e f a r o u t s ide t h e s c ope o f t h e p r e sen t r e sea r ch a nd a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly r e qu i red f o r a n a pp rec ia t ion o ft h e t e chn ica l a na ly s i s o ft h e c e ram ic s .

N ume rou s s umma r ie s h ave b een

p r ov ided b yt h e e xcava t ion t e am , a nd t h e se s h ou ld b e r e f e r red t of o r af u l l p i c tu re o ft h e s i t e( e .g . Meadow 1 99 1 ) . F i r s tr e po r ted a s as i t eo fa r cha eo log ica l s i gn if icance b yC ha r le s

13

Ma s son ( Ma s son 1 844 : 4 52 ) , t h e m o s t e x ten s ive e xcava t ion s w e re c onduc ted b y M .S . V a t si n1 926 a nd b e tween 1 9 34 -1940 ( Va t s 1 940 ) . R .E .M . Whee le rc onduc ted i mpo r tan t e xcava t ion s i nt h e c eme te ry a nd o n t h e C i tade l Mound i n1 946 ( Whee le r 1 947 ) .

Mo s t

r e cen t ly , i th a s b een e xcava ted e a ch s e a son s i nce 1 986 b y t h e i n te r -d i sc ip l ina ry t e am c u r ren t ly u nde rt h ed i rec t ion o fD r . R icha rd Meadow .

H a rappa l i e si nD i s t r ic t S ah iwa l , P un jab , a bou t 1 75 k mw e s t o ft h ep r e sen tc i ty o fL aho re . I ti ss i tua ted s ome 1 2 k m f r om t h e p r e sen t R av i r i ve r , w h ich s t i l l r un s a pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame c ou r se a sd u r ing t h ee a r ly o ccupa t ion sa tt h es i t e ( Amund son a nd P enda l l 1 99 1 : 1 6 ) . H oweve r ,t h e re i sac on sp icuou st r ibu ta ry c hanne lt h a to f t en c a r r ie sw a te rd u r ing m on soon s e a son . I ti sn o t k nown w hen t h em a in r i ve rb i f u rca ted f r om t h i s c hanne l , b u tt h e c h anne l m ay a c tua l ly h ave b een t h e m a in r i ve r d u r ing t h e o ccupa t ion p e r iod o f t h e s i t e .

T he

e a r l ie s t o ccupa t ion h a s b een r a d ioca rbon d a ted t oa bou t 3 200 B .C . ( Pe r iod I ) . P e r iod I d a te sr a nge f r om 2 470 t o2 405 B .C . a nd o ve r lap w i th t h ed a te so ft h ef o l low ing P e r iod I I , w h ich r a nge f r om 2 9 13 t o2 047 B .C . ( Kenoy e r 1 99 1 : 3 8 ) . I th a s b een s hown t oc on ta in s e v e ra lp ha se so ff u l lu r ban a nd p o s t -u rban o ccupa t ion , i n c lud ing m a jo ra r ch i tec tu re , a nd i s o ne o ft h e l a rge s t a nd m o s t a dvanced o fa l k nown H a rappan s i t e s .

Ma jo r a r ch i tec tu re

i n c lude sl a rge p ub l ic s t ruc tu re st h a th ave o pen a c ce s s , l a rge o pen c ou r tya rd s , a nd s o -ca l led ' g rana r ie s ' .

I mpor tan t f e a tu re s i n c lude c a ref u l ly d e s igned a nd w e l l -ma in ta ined d r a inage

s y s tem s , w e l ls a nd b a th ing p l a tf o rm s , a nd s ump p i t s . H a rappa i so ne o fo n ly t h ree c i t ie so f t h eI ndu s C iv i l i sa t ion s of a r e xcava ted t h a t s h ow a' t yp ica l ' H a rappan c i ty l a you t , n ame ly a ni s o la ted w e s te rn c i tade l a nd al owe r c i ty w ho se a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu re s a r e o r ien ted w i th t h ec a rd ina ld i rec t ion sw i th t h o rough f a re sr unn ing n o r th sou th a ti n ter va ls . T he o t he r sa r e Mohen jo -Da ro a nd K a l ibangan ( J an sen 1 993 : 4 6 ) .

Am a s s ive w a l l s u r round s t h e s i t e .

H ab i ta t ion s t ruc tu re s f o l low as im i la r p a t ter n t ot h o se d e sc r ibed f o r t h e s i te o fR eh rnan D he r ia bove .

P r ima ry o ccupa t ion l e ve l s o ft h eE a r ly H a rappan p e r iod i n c lude t r ace s o fm ud -b r ick w a l l s , h ea r th s , c e ram ic s s im i la rt ot h o se f o und a tR ehman D he r i , f i r ed b ang le s , b l ade s f r om d a rk g r ey -b lack c he r t , b ead s a nd h uman f i gu r ine s a l t oo n ume rou s t o e l abo ra te o n i nt h i s r e por t . E v idence o fe x ten s ive c e ram ic p r oduc t ion c ome s f r om t h e p r e sence o f ak i ln w i th

14

m any v i t r if ied s h e rd s a nd k i ln w a s te r s t h a t i n d ica te l o ng te rm c e ram ic p roduc t ion .

T he

c e ram ic c orpu sf r om t h es i t ei sf u r the rd i scu s sed i nt h es e c t ion f o l low ing s i t ed e sc r ip t ion s .

T he t o pog raphy a r ound H a rappa i sr e la t ive ly f l a t a nd s u bdued , a nd t h e c l ima te o ft h e r e g ion i ss em i -a r id t oa r id a nd h o t , w i th s umme rm on soon r a in s t h e p r edom inan tf o rm o f p r ec ip i ta t ion .

Mean a nnua l t empe ra tu re i sa bou t 2 6 d eg ree s C .

N a tu ra l v ege ta t ion i s

s em i -a r id t oa r id , s u b t rop ica lt h or nf o re s t( Dak sh in i 1 985 ; c i ted i nP enda l l a nd Amund son 1 9 90a : 3 02 ) . T he n a tu ra lv ege ta t ion h a sb een s e ve re ly a l te red b yg r az ing a nd c u l t iva t ion , b r ough to nb ya ne x ten s iv ec ana ln e two rk c on s t ruc ted b yt h eB r i t i sh i nt h e 1 920 ' s .

5 . 3 .3 . L ewan

T he s i t e o fL ewan i sl o ca ted i nt h e B annu B a s in a bou t 1 2 k m f r om t h e p r e sen t t own o f B annu .

I tl i e s o n af r agmen t o fd eg raded r i ve r t e r ra ce m ea su r ing a pp rox ima te ly 4 50 b y

3 25m a nd w a s p robab ly o r ig ina l ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h eT och i r i ve r , w h ich h a s s i nce s h if t ed i t s c ou r se ( A l lch in a nd A l lch in 1 992 : 5 26 ) .

W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f ag r ave l l e n s 2 . 4m

b e low s u rf ace i nt r ench LWN I V ,t h eL ewan t e r race i sc ompo sed o ff i ne -g ra ined o ve rbank d epo s i t s , p robab ly l a id d own b y t h e T och i r i ve r ( A l lch in a nd R ende l l 1 986 : 3 5 ) .

T he

s u r f a ce o ft h es i t ei sc ov e red w i th s t one s ,p a r t ia l ly d ue t oi t sn a tu re a s as t one t oo lw o rk ing s i t e , a nd p a r t ia l ly d ue t os i gn if i can t d e f la t ion w h ich h a s o ccu r red s i nce a bandonmen t . T he s i t e a ppea r s t o h ave b een t h e l o ca t ion o fa n e x ten s ive s t one -wo rk ing i n du s t ry , i n c lud ing m ic ro l i th ic ; a nd a l so o f ap rom inen t b ead -wo rk ing i n du s t ry ( A l lch in a nd R ende l l 1 986 ; A l lch in 1 992 ) . T he p o t te ry f r om L ewan w a s d a ted b y t h e e xcava to r s b y i t s s im i la r i ty t o t h e s e quence f r om R ehman D he r i .

I tw a s o b se rved t h a t a l o ft h e p o t te ry f r om L ewan

b e longed t o as i ng le m a in c r af t t r ad i t ion , a nd " h ad a c e r ta in h omogene i ty w h ich i mmed ia te ly d i sc lo se s t h a t i tc ou ld n o t b e long t o al a te rp e r iod " ( A l lch in a nd K nox 1 986 : 1 0 3 ) .

E xcava ted d u r ing 1 977 -8 , t h es i t ec ove r sa bou t 1 2h ec ta re s . E igh t s e pa ra te t r enche sw e re o pened , r evea l ing t wo h ou se s a nd n i ne p i t s .

Mo s t o ft h e p o t te ry u sed f o r t h e p r e sen t

r e sea rch w a s r e cove red f r om t h e h ou se a r ea s . S ec t ion 5 . 4 b e low .

P o t te ry d e sc r ip t ion s a r e p r e sen ted i n

S he rd s l i t te r t h e s u r f a ce , a nd t h e p r e sence o fk i ln w a s te r s a tt h e s i t e

15

a t te s t s t o ah i gh p robab i l i ty t h a t s ome o ft h e p o t te ry w a s m anuf ac tu red a tt h e s i t e .

A

s amp le o ft h e se w a sc o l lec ted b yt h ea u tho rf o rc ompa ra t ive m a te r ia l .

T he c l ima te o ft h e B annu b a s in i ss em -a r id , w i th l i t t le o rn o r a inf a l l i nt h e p e r iod f r om O c tobe r t o F ebrua ry , b u t w i th o cca s iona l p e r iod s o f h eavy r a inf a l l d u r ing t h e s umme r m on th s .

T he r a inf a l l d i s t r ibu t ion i sh i gh ly v a r iab le b o th f r om m on th t o mon th a nd f r om

y ea rt oy ea r( Rende l l 1 986 : 5 ) . A s ar e su l t , t h ed i scha rge r e g ime o ft h eK u r ram a nd T och i r i ve r s i st o r ren t ia l w i th t h e m ax imum f l ow si nt h e s umme rm on th s . T he a r ea b e tw een t h e r i ve r si sn ow i n ten s ive ly i r iga ted .

T he v ege ta t ion o ft h eB annu B a s in i sh i gh ly d eg raded , d ue t op r e s su re f r om t h eh uman a nd a n ima l p opu la t ion , b u tf a l l s w i th in t h et r op ica lt h o rn f o re s tz one ( a s d ef ined b yB eg 1 975 ; c i ted i nT homa s 1 986 : 1 9 ) . A s ar e su l t o ft h e se p r e s su r e s , t h e n a tu ra l v ege ta t ion i sn ow r e s t r ic ted t o o n ly a f ew a r ea s w h ich a r e e i the r i n acce s s ib le , o r p ro tec ted .

T he n a tu ra l

v ege ta t ion i n c lude s c ommon p l an t s t o le ran t o f s a l ine a r ea s a nd s a ndy a r ea s o ft r op ica l p l a in s a nd t r op ica l i n land t h o rn f o re s t s .

D ue t o ac omb ina t ion o f e nv i ronmen ta l

c ond i t ion s , i n ten s ive a g r icu l tu re , c ompe t i t ion w i th m an ' s d ome s t ic a n ima ls , a nd h un t ing , t h ev er teb ra te f a una o ft h eb a s in i sn o tr i ch ( Thoma s 1 983 : 1 32 ) .

5 . 3 .4 . T araka iQ ua T he s e cond o ft h e B annu B a s in s i t e s , t h e m a te r ia l o fw h ich i su nde r i n ve s t iga t ion i nt h e p r e sen t r e sea rch , T a raka i Q ua i ss ome 1 4 .5 k m t o t h e n or thwe s t o f L ewan .

I tw a s

c on tempo ra ry w i th t h el a te rl e ve l s o fL ewan ( A l lch in a nd A l lch in 1 986 : 2 00 ) . I ti so nt h e r i gh t b ank o ft h e T och i r i ve r s ome 1 k m w e s t o fB annu C i ty a nd t h e u ppe r s u r f ace i s a bou t 1 0m a bove t h e p r e sen tb ed o ft h er i ve r . I ti sl o ca ted o n am ound o fa bou t4 00m b y 3 00m b u t a ppea r st oh ave b een l a rge ri nt h ep a s t . T o ta lt h ickne s s o fo ccupa t ion h or izon s e xceed 6 m . I tw a s e xcava ted i n1 978 -9 . S i xC 14 d a te sf r om e xcava ted l e ve l sg i v e at ime s p an r a ng ing f r om c . 2 800 t o c . 2 040 B .C . , c a lcu la ted a c co rd ing t o t h e MASCA c a l ib ra t ion ( Khan 1 986 : 1 94 ) .

T he se d a te s c o r re spond t o l a te r s t age s o f t h e E a r ly

H a rappan t ot h e Ma tu re H a rappan .

16

N o c omp le te h ou se o rr o om p l an s w e r e u ncove red , b u t e x ten s ive s t one f ounda t ion s w e re e x cava ted , a nd a s soc ia ted w i th t h e K o t D i j ian p e r iod .

T he o ccupa t ion w a s a ppa ren t ly

c on t inuou s a sn o b r eak s i nt h e s e quence w e re r e cogn i sed a pa r t f r om o ne o rt wo l e ve l s o f m ino rb u rn ing ( A l lch in a nd K nox 1 981 : 2 46 ) . T he h ou se r ema in s i n c luded s ome h ea r th s , f l oo r s , p i t s , a nd r u bb i sh d epo s i t s w h ich p e rm i t ted r e cove ry o f s ome b i oa rchaeo log ica l r ema in s . T he se i n c luded c ha r red r ema in so fb a r ley , w hea t a nd l e n t i l ( Thoma s 1 983 : 1 39 ) . A n ima l r ema in s w e re d om ina ted b y d ome s t ica ted c a t t le , s h eep , g oa t a nd w a te r b uf f a lo . T he c a t t le a nd w a te r b uf f a lo a r e o n ly r e p re sen ted b y a du l t i n d iv idua l s ; t h i s l e d t h e r e sea r che r t o i n f e r t h a t t h e i r i mpo r tance w a s f o r n on -mea t p u rpo se s s u ch a s m i lk p r oduc t ion o r t r ac t ion .

B y c on t ra s t , s ome 3 0 p e r c en t o ft h e s h eep a nd g oa t s w e re o f

j u v en i le s , p robab ly i n d ica t ing t h e i r e xp lo i ta t ion f o r m ea t .

R ema in s o fw i ld a n ima l s w e re

f ew i nn umbe r . E xp lo i ta t ion o fr i ve rr e sou r ce si si n d ica ted b yr ema in so fc a tf i sh a nd s h e l l s o fb i va lve m o l lu sc s .

O v e ra l l , t h e w ho le a s semb lage o fd ome s t ica ted a n ima l s a nd p l an t s

f r om T a raka i Q ua s ugge s t s a n e conomy f o unded o n p a s to ra l a nd a r ab le e l emen t s , w i th m a rk ed s e a sona l i ty i nt h el a t te r .

C ompa red w i th L ewan , t h e re w a s ap auc i ty o fm a te r ia lc u l tu re r e vea led b yt h ee xcava t ion s ( A l lch in a nd K nox 1 981 : 2 49 ) . A pa r tf r om t h ep o t te ry , w h ich i sd e sc r ibed i nt h ef o l low ing s e c t ion , mos to ft h ef i nd sw e r eo f as t r ic t ly u t i l i ta r ian n a tu re . T he r ew e re s ma l ln umbe r so f b ead s , i n c lud ing s ome o fl a p i s l a zu l i , a nd t o y c a r t w hee l s o ft e r raco t ta . i n c luded f ou r s ma l l s t one s e a l s .

I mpor tan t f i nd s

T e r ra co t ta g odde s se s , s u ch a sw e re f o und a tt h e e a r ly

l e ve l s o fL ewan , w e re n o tf o und a tT a raka iQ ua . T he s t one t oo li n du s t ry , a l though n o t a s e x ten s ive a s t h a t f o und a tL ewan , a ppea r ed t o b e f a i r ly w e l l d ev e loped ( A l lch in 1 981 : 2 34 ) . I tw a s n o ted t h a tm any o ft h el u na te sw e r ef o und t oh ave g l o s s e x tend ing o ve rp a r t o ft h e s u rf ace o n ly a nd t h a t t h ey a ppea r ed t o h ave b een h af t ed d i agona l ly , l e ad ing t h e r e sea rche rt os p ecu la te t h a tt h ey h ad b een e mp loyed e mbedded i n am a t r ix s oa st of o rm a c ompo s i te s aw l ike c u t t ing e dge .

T h i s , t o ge the r w i th f i nd s o f s a dd le q ue rn s u sed f o r

g r ind ing c e rea l s a nd o t he r s e ed s , a nd t h e p r e sence o fw hea t , b a r ley a nd l e n t i l s f u r the r s u ppo r tt h eh ypo the s i st h a tT a raka iQ ua w a sv e ry m uch a na g r icu l tu ra lc ommun i ty .

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5 . 4 CERA MIC TYPOLOGIES OF THE EARLY HARAPPAN P ER IOD B ecau se o ft h es im i la r i t ie si nt h ec e ram ic t y po log ie so ft h eE a r ly H a rappan a tt h ef o u rs i t e s f r om w h ich m a te r ia li sb e ing i n ve s t iga ted f o rt h ep r e sen tr e sea rch ,t h ey a r eb e ing t r ea ted i n t h i s s e pa ra te s e c t ion .

I n deed , i ti sd ue t o t h e se s im i la r i t ie s o ccu r r ing a tg eog raph ica l ly

s e pa ra ted s i t e s t h a t t h e r e sea rch w a s c ommenced . B ecau se t h e l a rge r p a r t o ft h e s amp le s e lec t ion w a sm ade f r om R ehman D he r i , t h et y po logy e mp loyed b yD u r ran i ( 1988 )i su s ed f o r a l f o u r c o l lec t ion s . T he c e ram ic s f r om t h eE a r ly H a rappan p e r iod a tt h e s i t e o fS a ra i K ho la , n ea r t h e p r e sen t c i ty o fT ax i la , h ave c l o se a f in i t ie s ( Mugha l a nd H a leem 1 972 ) . T he se a r em en t ioned h e re b ecau se i tw a s i n tended a tt h e o u t se t o ft h e r e sea rch t oi n c lude m a te r ia l f r om t h a t s i t ef o r c ompa r i son w i th t h e o t he r s . F u tu re r e sea rch i n to t h e n e two rk s o fi n te ra c t ion o ft h eE a r ly H a rappan s h ou ld i n co rpo ra te t h i sc ompa r i son ( s ee C hap te r8 ) .

D u r ran i( 1 988 : 3 1 -2 )d i v ided t h ep o t te ry i n to t h ree w a re s : 1 . G rey w a re : E xamp le s o ft h e se w e re e x t reme ly r a re a nd c on f ined t ot h e t o p l e ve l s o f p e r iod R E ID I I . O n ly s i x e xamp le s w e re r e cove red i nt h e e xcava t ion . A s n one o ft h e se w a ss amp led f o rt h ep r e sen tr e sea rch ,t h e i rd e sc r ip t ion sa r eo m i t ted h e re . 2 . R ed w a re :

T h i s w a re w a s p r edom inan t .

I th ad ag r ea t d ea l o fv a r ia t ion i nt y pe s ,

t e x tu re , a nd d eco ra t ion ,w h ich a r eo u t l ined f o l low ing . 3 . B uf fw a r e : Al e s se rn umbe ro ft h e se o ccu r red .

T he t y po logy u sed b yD u r ran i ( 1 988 )f i r s tg roup sv e s se l so nt h eb a s i s o f morpho logy , a nd s ubd iv ide st h em u s ing r i mf o rm s a nd d eco ra t ion / su r f ace t r ea tmen t . T he s ame a pp roa ch i s c u r ren t ly u sed f o rc l a s s if y ing t h ec e ram ic s e quence s a tH a rappa ( J enk in s 1 994 : 3 20 ) . T he c a tego r ie sa st h ey a r ed ef ined a r ep o ly the t ic ;t h a ti s , av e s se l' may b ea s s igned t o at y pe i fi t e xh ib i t s al a rge n umbe r , b u t n o t a l , o ft h e d ef in ing a t t r ibu te s o ft h e t y pe ' ( Adam s a nd A dam s 1 99 1 : 3 55 ) .

D u r ran i ( 1 988 ) f i r s t d i v ided t h e s h e rd s a nd v e s se ls i n to t wo b a s ic

m o rpho log ica l c l a s se s :j a r s a nd b ow l s . T he se t wo c l a s se sw e re t h en f u r the rb rok en d own , m o rpho log ica l ly , i n to t h ree t y pe so fj a r sa nd s i xt y pe so fb ow l sa sf o l low s : J a r s : T ype sA T , A I I , a nd A I I I B ow l s :

T ype s B I , B I I , B I I I , B IV , By , a nd BW .

g eome t r ic h e igh to ft h ev e s se lw a l l s .

18

T he se b ow l t y pe s a r e b a sed o n t h e

T he se morpho log ica lt y pe sa r ed e sc r ibed i nt h ef o l low ing p a rag raph s . F o rp u rpo se so ft h e p r e sen t r e sea rch , d eco ra t ion a nd s u r f ace t r ea tmen t w e re n o t c on s ide red a s av a r iab le ( s ee C hap te r 6f o rd i scu s s ion ) . H oweve r , t h ey w e re r e co rded f o rt h e s h e rd st h a tw e re s t ud ied . T he s y s tem u sed a tH a rappa a l so d i d n o t u s e s e conda ry c ha rac te r i s t ic s s uch a s s u rf a ce t r ea tmen t s a sd ef in ing c r i te r ia , h oweve r , a l a r er e co rded b ecau se t h e' p re sence o ra b sence o fv a r ious a t t r ibu te sa nd c h ange si nt h e i rf r equency a r eu sef u li nd ef in ing t ow h ich p e r iod a g i ven e xcava t ion u n i t s h ou ld b e a s s igned ' ( J enk in s 1 994 : 3 20 ) .

A t S a ra i K ho la ,

w hee l -made v e s se l sw e r ec a tego r i sed a st ot y pe b yb o th m o rpho logy a nd s u r f ace t r ea tmen t ( Mugha l a nd H a leem 1 9 72 : 4 5 -110 ) . Wh i le a lo ft h es ame t y pe sw e re p r e sen t , t h e s y s tem d oe s n o t l e nd i t se lf e f i c ien t ly t o d i rec t o ne to -on e c r o s s ref e renc ing t o t h e o t he r s i t e s ' d ef in ed t ype s . T he f o l low ing d e sc r ip t ion i n c lude s d i scu s s ion o nv a r ia t ion so b se rved i nt h e m o rpho log ie s w i th r e spec t t o r i m t y pe , e t c . a nd s ome l i m i ted d i scu s s ion s o n s u rf ace t r ea tmen tw he re i ti sd e emed i mpor tan tt ot h ep r e sen tr e sea rch .

T ype A lJ a r

T h e t y pe A l j a r i si l u s t ra ted a bove .

I ti sd e sc r ibed a s o vo id i nc r os s s e c t ion ( Du r ran i

1 988 : 3 2 , e xamp le s p1 50 ) , a nd i sf u r the r s u bd iv ided i n to r i m t y pe s :

( a ) w i th p l a in ,

e v e r ted , o rf l a r ing r i m s ;a nd ( b )w i th f l anged r i m s . T he se c a tego r ie sa r et h en b roken d own i n to 1 7 v a r ie t ie s , b a sed p r ima r i ly u pon ab r oad d i ve r s i ty o fs u r f ace d eco ra t ion .

S u r f ace

t r ea tmen t s r a nge f r om s l i pped t o u n s l ipped , i n c i sed , c ombed , a nd r oughened .

P a in ted

d e s ign s i n c lude h o r izon ta l r e d , w h i te , a nd b l a ck b and s ; g eome t r ic , f l o ra l , o r z oomo rph ic m o t if s ; a nd p ane l s f o rmed b y w h i te a nd c r eam b and s .

S im i la r s u rf ace t r ea tmen t s w e re

r e co rded f o r t h e c u r ren t e x cava t ion s a tH a rappa ( J enk in s 1 994 : 3 21-24 ) .

B a se s w e re

r ound o r f l a t , a nd n o t u s ed f o rt y po logy t y pe . T h i sj a r t y pe i sv e ry c ommon i nt h e E a r ly H a r appan , a nd i sf o und i nt h ee a r ly a nd t r an s i t iona ll e ve l s a tH a rappa , w he re i si tt e rmed a

19

' j a rpo t ' ( J enk in s 1 994 : 3 22 -3 ; r im a nd b a se f o rm s i l u s t ra ted p3 18 ) , L ewan ( Knox 1 986 : 2 09 -51) , a nd T a raka iQ ua ( A l lch in a nd K nox 1 981 : 2 49 ) . A t S a ra iK ho la , i ti sc l a s sed a sa T ype V I I , V I I I , o rI X , d epend ing o n s u r f ace t r ea tmen t a nd r im t ype ( Mugha l a nd H a leem 1 972 : 6 0 -70 ) .

T ype An J a r

T ype A I I i sd e sc r ibed a s as phe r ica l j a r ( Du r ran i 1 988 : 3 2 ) .

A s w i th t he A l , t h e se a r e

s ubd iv ided o nt h e b a s i s o fr im t y pe : ( a ) p l a in , e ve r ted , o rf l a r ing r im ; a nd ( b ) f l anged r im . T he s ame 1 7 s u r f ace d eco ra t ion c a tego r ie s a r eu sed , a nd t h e se a r e a l so f ound a tH a rappa , whe re i ti sa l so t e rmed a' j a rpo t ' ( J enk in s 1 994 : 3 22 -3 ; r im t y pe s d e sc r ibed p 3 18 ) , L ewan ( Knox 1 986 : 2 09 ) a nd T a raka i Q ua ( A l lch in a nd K nox 1 98 1 : 2 89 ) . A t S a ra iK ho la , i th a s b een t e rmed T ype V I I , V I I I , o rI Xd epend ing o ns u r f ace d eco ra t ion a nd r im t y pe ( Mugha l a nd H a leem 1 972 : 6 0 -70 ) .

T ype A I I IJ a r

T ype A I I Ij a r i sd e sc r ibed m o rpho log ica l ly a si n ve r ted , t r unca ted , c on ica l ( Du rann i 1 988 : 3 2 ) .

T hey a r e n o t b roken d own f u r the r .

T he se h ave n o t b een r e po r ted f r om r e cen t

e xcava t ion s a tt h e e a r ly a nd t r an s i t iona l l e ve l s o fH a rappa , b u t m ay h ave b een f ound . N o

1 20

i d en t ica l t y pe s w e re r e por ted f r om L ewan , a l though s im i la r m o rpho log ie s w e re f ound , t e rm ed a' w ide m ou th ed b ow l w i th s l i gh t ly w a i s ted s i de s ' ( Knox 1 986 : 2 09 ) . P o s s ib ly d ue t o i n comp le te p ub l i sh ing , T ype A I I I w a s n o t r e po r ted f r om T a raka i Q i la .

I tw a s n o t

r e po r ted f r om S a ra iK ho la ( Mugha l a nd H a leem 1 972 ) . T h i st y pe w a s n o ts amp led f o rt h e p r e s en tr e sea rch .

T ype B IB ow l

T he t y pe B I i st e rmed ah o r izon ta l , c y l ind r ica l b ow l ( Du rann i 1 988 : 3 3 ) . R im t y pe s , n o t u sed t o f u r the r s ub -c la s s if y , a r e p l a in o r f l a r ing w i th s ome v e r t ica l e xamp le s .

Wa l l s a r e

c a r ina ted w i th t h e a ng le u sua l ly f o rmed i nt h e l owe r t h i rd o f t h e v e s se l .

B a se s a r e

p r edom inan t ly r i ng .

T he B I t y pe i sb roken d own i n to 5 v a r ie t ie s a cco rd ing t o s u r f ace

d eco ra t ion : p l a in o r u n s l ipped ; b u rn i shed ; h o r izon ta l p a in ted b and s o r i n c i sed l i ne s o ve r r e d s l i p ; s imp le b l ack o r w h i te p a in ted g eome t r ic d e s ign s o ve r h o r izon ta l b and s ; a nd c omp lex g eome t r ic , f l o ra l o r z oomo rph ic m o t if s i np ane l s f o rmed b y h o r izon ta l b and s . T ype B I i sc ommon ly f o und i n t h e E a r ly H a rappan a nd i sp r e sen t i n t h e e a r ly a nd t r an s i t iona l l e ve l s a tH a rappa ( J enk in s 1 994 : 3 22 ; s u rf ace d eco ra t ion s p3 2 1) , a tL ewan ( Knox 1 986 : 2 20 , 2 28 , 2 38 ) , a nd T a raka i Q ua ( p e r sona l e xam ina t ion o f c o l lec t ion b y a u tho r 1 994 ) . A t S a ra iK ho la , t h e se a r e c l a s sed a sT ype X I c a r ina ted b ow ls ( Mugha l a nd H a le em 1 972 : 7 2 ) .

1 2 1

T ype B I TB ow l

T ype B I I i st e rmed a ni n ve r ted , t r unca ted , c on ica l b ow l ( Du rann i 1 988 : 3 4 ) . P redom inan t r im t y pe s a r e p l a in o rf l a r ing . Wa l l s a r e p r edom inan t ly c oncave o r s t ra igh t . A l l b a se s a r e f l a t .

S ubd iv ided i n to 3 v a r ie t ie s a cco rd ing t o s u r f a ce d eco ra t ion : p l a in , s l i pped o r

u n s l ipped ; h o r izon ta l p a in ted b and s o ni n te r io ra nd e x te r io r ; a nd i s o la ted p a in ted f l o ra l a nd z oomo rph ic mo t if s o ve r h o r izon ta l b and s .

F ound i n e a r ly a nd t r an s i t iona l l e ve l s a t

H a rappa ( J enk in s , p e r s . c omm . ) , a tL ewan ( Knox 1 986 : 2 16 , 2 20 1 , 2 32 -4 , 2 40 ) , a nd T a raka i Q i la ( p e r sona l e xam ina t ion o fc o l lec t ion b y a u tho r 1 994 ) . T hey a r e t e rmed T ype X I Ip an so rd i she sa tS a ra iK ho la ( Mugha la nd H a leem 1 972 : 7 3 ) .

T ype BM B ow l

T ype B I I I i st e rmed as em i sphe r ica l b ow l ( Du rann i 1 988 : 3 4 ) .

T he se a r e b r oken d own

i n to t wo s ub type s : ( a ) c onvex s ided ; a nd ( b ) c a r ina ted w a l l s w i th e ve r ted r im s . T he B I I I ( a ) r im s a r e p l a in , s l op ing r im s p r edom inan t ly a nd b a se s a r em os t ly f l a t , o r r i ng . T hey a r e s ubd iv ided i n to 3v a r ie t ie s a cco rd ing t o s u r f a ce d eco ra t ion . T he B I I I ( b ) r im s a r e mos t ly e ve r ted , w a l l sa r em i ld ly c a r ina ted , a nd b a se sa r ep r ima r i ly r i ng t y pe . T hey a r ec a tego r i sed i n to 3s u rf ace d eco ra t ion t y pe s , i d en t ica lt ot h o se a bove f o rT ype B I I . T hey a r ea l so f ound a tH a rappa ( J enk in s 1 994 : 3 23 ) , L ewan ( Knox 1 986 : 2 28 -31 , 2 40 , 2 44 , 2 52 ) , a nd T a raka i

1 22

Q ua ( pe r sona l e xam ina t ion o fc o l lec t ion b y a u tho r 1 994 ) . T hey w e re r e por ted a sT ype X b ow l sa tS a ra iK ho la ( Mugha la nd H a leem 1 972 : 7 1 ) .

T ype B IV B ow l

T ype B IV i sd e sc r ibed a s aq uad r i sphe r ica l b ow l ( Du rann i 1 988 : 3 5 ) . Two s ub type s a r e c l a s sed a cco rd ing t ow a l lm o rpho logy : ( a )w i th c onvex w a l l s ; a nd ( b )w i th c a r ina ted w a l l s . T ype B IV (a )h a s p r edom inan t ly p l a in , v e r t ica l r i m s , c onvex w a l l s , a nd r ound o rd i sc b a se s . T ype B IV (b ) h a s p r edom inan t ly e ve r ted r im s , m i ld t o s h a rp ly c a r ina ted w a l l s , a nd mo s t ly d i s c b a se s . T h ree v a r ie t ie s o fs u r f a ce d eco ra t ion a r e d e sc r ibed : p l a in , n o d eco ra t ion , w i th o r w i thou t

s l i p ;

s imp le g eome t r ic d eco ra t ion ; a nd c omp lex g eome t r ic ,

f l o ra l ,

o r

z oomo rph ic d e s ign sp a in ted i nb l a ck o rr e do ve rw h i te o rc r eam p ane l s . F ound a tH a rappa ( J enk in s

1 994 : 3 23 ) , L ewan ( Knox 1 983 : 2 30 , 2 34 ) , a nd T a raka i Q ua ( p e r sona l

e x am ina t ion o fc o l lec t ion b y a u tho r 1 994 ) . A t S a ra i K ho la , t h ey w e re t e rmed T ype XV p l a te so rd i she s( Mugha la nd H a leem 1 972 : 7 6 ) .

i 7 T ype BV B ow lo n S t and

T ype BV i sd e sc r ibed a sb ow l -on s tand ( Du rann i 1 988 : 3 5 ) . T he s t and a nd b a se a r e o ne p i e ce , b u t a r e u sua l ly m anuf a c tu red a si n d iv idua l s e c t ion s . T h ree s ub type s a r e d e sc r ibed :

1 23

( a ) s em i sphe r ica l b ow l s o n p rom inen t ,

h o l low ,

c oncave s ided

s t and s ;

( b ) d eepe r

s em i sphe r ica l b ow ls w i th c onvex s i de s a nd e x te rna l ly th ickened r i m s o n l ow h o l low , c oncave s ided s t em s ; a nd ( c ) s h a l low o rq uad r i sphe r ica l b ow l s o n m ed ium o rt a l l s t em s , u sua l ly r e f e r red t o a s' d i sh -on s tand ' i nS ou th A s ian a r chaeo logy . D eco ra t ion i sn o t u sed t os u b -c la s s if y . C ommon t h roughou tt h eE a r ly t o Ma tu re H a rappan , t h ey a r ef o und i nt h e e a r ly t o t r an s i t iona l l e ve l s a tH a rappa ( J enk in s 1 994 : 3 23 ) , L ewan ( Knox 1 986 : 2 15-6 , 2 30 , 2 40 , 2 50 ) , a nd T a raka i Q ua ( p e r sona l e xam ina t ion o f c o l lec t ion b y a u tho r 1 994 ) . T hey a r ef ound a tS a ra iK ho la a nd t e rmed T ype X IV o f e r ing s t and s ( Mugha l a nd H a leem 1 972 : 7 5 ) .

T ype BW B ow l

IN T ype BW i s t e rmed a n i n ve r se , t r apezo ida l b ow l ( Du rann i 1 988 : 3 6 ) .

I ti s n o t

s ub -c la s s if ied . R im s a r ep l a in o rf l a r ing , w a l l s a r e c oncav e , a nd b a se s a r e c oncave . T hey m ay h ave b een f ound a tH a rappa , b u tw e re n o tr e po r ted f r om t h ec u r ren t e xcava t ion sa sa c ommon t y pe ( J enk in s 1 994 ) . T hey w e re n o tr e po r ted f r om L ewan ( Knox 1 986 ) o rS a ra i K ho la ( Mugha l a nd H a leem 1 972 ) , n o r o b se rved b y t h e a u tho r i nt h e c o l le c t ion f r om T a raka iQ ua . T h i st y pe w a sn o ts amp led f o rt h ep r e sen tr e sea rch .

Af u r the r t y pe w h ich w a s s amp led i nt h e p r e sen t r e sea r ch w a s t e rmed C I I b y D u r ran i ( 1 988 : 3 6 , 11) .

T h i s w a s at e rm g i ven t o p o lych rome e xamp le s , u sua l ly b ody s h e rd s ,

r e ga rd le s so fp a ren tv e s se lm o rpho logy .

1 24

CHAPTER S IX METHODOLOGY

6 . 1 S e lec t ion o fs herd sf o ra na ly s i s I ns e lec t ing t h e s amp le o fs h e rd s f o r t h in sec t ion ing , c e ram ic s f r om t h e s i te o fR ehman D he r iw e re u sed a st h eb a s i sf o rt y po logy . A so u t l ined e a r l ie r ,R ehman D he r ip rov ided t h e l a rge s t s amp le o f t h e f o u r s i t e s e xam ined , i ta ppea r s t o h ave h ad a m a jo r c e ram ic p r oduc t ion i n du s t ry , a nd i tc on ta in s aw ide v a r ie ty o fd eco ra t ive t y pe sw h ich a l so a ppea ra t m any o the rE a r ly H a rappan s i t e s . I ta l so h a sm any o ft h ed i s t inc t ive f e a tu re so fH a rappan c i t ie s , a nd i n d ica t ion s t h a t i tc ou ld h ave b een ac en t re f o r t h e p roduc t ion a nd t r ade i n c e r am ic s a nd o t he rc r af t s( s ee C hap te r5 ) . T he o r ig ina l r e a son f o rs e lec t ion o ft h i s s i t ea s t h eb a s is w a st h a ti fc e ram ic p roduc t s , o rt h e i rc on ten t s , w e re b e ing t r aded , R ehman D he r i a ppea red t ob e t h e m o s t l i ke ly c e n t re f o rt h e r e g ion . I ti sl o ca ted o n m any o ft h e e a r ly t r ade r ou te s , b o th t ot h e n or th a nd s ou th , a nd t ot h ew e s t t h rough t h e G oma lP a s s . T he s i t e h a s b een e xcava ted t o s t e r i le l e ve l s i n m o re t h an o ne a r ea , a nd s o ac omp le te c h rono log ica l s e quence w a s a va i lab le . T h i s p e rm i t ted as i ng le s i te s t udy o ft e chno log ica l d ev e lopmen t s a nd c hange s i nc e ram ic c r af t s f r om t h e E a r ly H a rappan p e r iod t h rough t o t h e Ma tu re H a rappan .

Mo reove r , t h e e xcava ted m a te r ia l w a s s e cu re ly s t ra t if i ed a s t o

l e v e l s , c a rbon d a te s w e r e a va i lab le , a nd s e quence s w e r e s u ch t h a t t h ey c ou ld b e d i rec t ly c ompa red t o l e ve l s o fs i m i la r d a te a tt h e o t he r s i t e s .

T he l a rge s t p o r t ion o ft h e s h e rd s

s amp led t h e ref o r ec ame f r om t h i ss i t e .

T ab le 6 . 1 s umma r i se s t h e n umbe r o f s amp le s , l i s ted b y m o rpho log ica l t y pe a nd s i t e . S e lec t ion w a s g ene ra l ly s i mp le r a ndom s amp l ing f r om m o rpho log ica l t y pe g roup s i ne a ch o ft h es i te c o l lec t ion s . T he r a ndom s amp l ing w a sn o tm ade w i th t h ei n ten t ion o fr e f lec t ing t h e r a t ios o ft y pe s f o und i nt h e p a ren t p opu la t ion ; i tw a s n o t t h e a im f o r e xamp le t o d e te rm ine t h e p e r cen tag e o fA lj a r s o rB I I I b ow l s i nt h e e n t i re s h e rd p opu la t ion o fe a ch s i t e .

T he o b jec t ive w a s s imp ly t o p r ov ide ar e p re sen ta t ive s amp le o fe a ch o ft h e m o s t

c ommon m o rpho log ica l t y pe s f o und a te a ch o ft h e t h ree c h rono log ica l ly d ef ined l e ve l s a t R ehman D he r i a nd s e le c t s im i la r s amp le s f r om t h e o t he r s i t e s .

1 25

I nt h i s w ay , f a b r ic s a nd

t e chno log ie s c ou ld b e c ompa red f r om s i t e t os i te o n ac ommon b a s i s a nd i n f e r ence s made w i th r e spec tt op rovenance a nd e xchange o ft e chno log ica li n f o rma t ion .

TABLE 6 . 1 SHERD S ELECT ION SUMMARY N umbe ro fs he rds s e lec ted b y s i te a nd mo rpho log ica l t ype F o rt y pe d esc r ip t ions , s ee S ec t ion 5 . 4 . S i te l e gend : RHD = R ehman D he r i ; HRP = H a rappa ; LWN =L ewan ; T RQ =T a raka i Q i la

RHD

TYPE

7

A IJ a r

TOTAL

TRQ

LWN

HRP 4

5

5

2 1

A I IJ a r

1 0

5

3

4

2 2

B IB ow l

1 2

5

4

2

2 3 8

B I IB ow l

3

1

0

4

B i l lB ow l

6

4

5

5

2 0

B IV B ow l

7

3

3

1

1 4

BV D i sh o n S t and

6

1

0

C I IP o lych rome

5

0

0

0

32

6

0

2 0

1 8

0

0

1 8

Wa s te r s B ang le s TOTALS

1 0 6 7

4 4

2 6

7

2 8

1 4

. _

5

1 65

Mos to ft hese w e re r i m s he rds , t h e re fo re i tc ou ld n o tb e c e r ta in t h a tt he p a ren t v esse lw as t ype B y . B ased u pon r i m m o rpho logy , s ome c ou ld b et ype B IV b ow l s he rds . 2

P o t te ry m ade f r om l o ca l c l ays w as e xam ined i nl i eu o fw as te r s

T he s e lec t ion f r om t h e R ehman D he r i c o l lec t ion w a s m ade s o a s t o p r ov ide a r e p re sen ta t ive s amp le , c ommen su ra te w i th t ime a nd s c ope c on s t ra in ts , o f e a ch o f t h e c ommon m o rpho log ica l t y pe s .

I n a dd i t ion , t h e s amp le w a s t o p rov ide c h rono log ica l

r e p re sen ta t ion f r om P e r iod It oP e r iod I I ;w i th ad i s t inc tc on cen t ra t ion o nP e r iod s Ia nd I ( t he E a r ly H a rappan l e ve l s ) . S e lec t ion o fs ome s amp le s f r om t h e Ma tu re H a rappan l e ve l s

1 26

w ou ld p rov ide a b a s ic l o ok a ta ny c hange s i nf a b r ic o r o t he r c ha rac te r i s t ic s b e tween P e r iod s Ia nd I I .

T he c oncen t ra t ion o n E a r ly H a rappan l e ve l s w a s d e s igned t op rov ide

i n te r s i te c ompa r i son s w i th H a rappa a nd t h e B annu s i t e s f o r t h a t p e r iod .

T he p r ima ry

i n ve s t iga t ion o ft h e t h e s i s i st oe xam ine i n te r s i te i n te rac t ion s d u r ing t h e E a r ly H a rappan p e r iod .

T he s e lec t ion m ade f r om t h eR ehman D he r i c o l lec t ion i ss hown s c hema t ica l ly i n

F i gu r e6 . 1 .

T he r ew e re f o u r e xcava t ion u n i t s a tR e i tman D he r i ( s ee F i gu re 5 . 4 ) . Ma te r ia l f r om B IV ( Un i t A ) w a s c ho sen , b ecau se i tw a s e xcava ted d own t o s t e r i le l e ve l s a nd c on ta ined a c omp le te s equence f r om P e r iod I At of l uB . As i ng le u n i tw a sc ho sen s oa st oe l im ina te t h e i n f luence s o fp o s s ib le v a r ia t ion w i th r e spec tt oh o r izon ta l s p ac ing a tt h e s i t e ' . O n ly s h e rd s t h a tc ou ld b ei d en t if i ed a st op a ren tv e s se lt y pe w e re s e lec ted , s ot h a tp o s s ib le c o r re la t ion s b e tw een f a b r ic t y pe s a nd m o rpho log ica l t y pe s c ou ld b e e xam ined . O ne e xcep t ion t ot h i s w a s i nt h e c a se o fT ype C I I ( s ee C hap te r 5 ) . T h ree o ft h e se w e r e c ho sen f o r a na ly s i s t o a s ce r ta in i ft h ey h ad a ny s i gn if i can t d if e ren ce s f r om t h e o t he r s .

O therw i se , s u rf ace

d e co ra t ion w a sn o t af a c to ri ns amp le s e lec t ion . P rope r ly s amp l ing e a ch o ft h e d eco ra t ive t y pe g r oups w ou ld h av e r e su l ted i nm uch t o o l a rge as amp le t o b e c on ta ined w i th in t h e t i me c ons t ra in t sa nd s c ope o ft h ep r e sen tr e sea r ch .

T he r e w e re n o t s u f f i c ien t s amp le s o fc e r ta in o ft h e m o rpho log ica l t y pe s a va i lab le i nt h e R ehman Dhe r i c o l lec t ion t h a t w e r e p rope r ly l a be l led a st op rovenance . I tw a s i mpor tan t t h a t e a ch o ft h e s h e rd s s e lec ted h ad ak nown p r ovenance b ef o re t h ey c ou ld b e u s ed i nt h e a na ly s i s .

I n o r de r t o e xam in e f o r c hange s o ccu r r ing f r om t h e E a r ly t o t h e Ma tu re

H a rappan p e r iod s , d a t ing o fe a ch s h e rd i sc r i t ica l . T he s e lec t ion p roce s st ook c on s ide rab le t i me a s ar e su l t o ft h e s t a te o fs t o rage o ft h e s h e rd s a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o fP e shawa r i n a n t ic ipa t ion o fm ov ing t h em t ot h en ew m u seum s t o rage a r ea s .

F i gu r e 6 . 1 s how st h a tt h em a jo r i ty o fs amp le s ( 7 3 % ) w e re c hosen f r om P e r iod s Ia nd I , t h eE a r ly H a rappan p e r iod a tR ehman D he r i . I na dd i t ion t ot h ee xcava ted s h e rd s s e lec ted f o r a n a ly s is , t h e s i te w a s v i s i ted a nd 1 2 w a s te r s h e rd s c o l lec ted f r om t h e s u r f ace , i nt h e I nd o ing t h is , i ti sr e a l ised t h a ti fs uch av a r ia t ion w e re f ound t oe x is t , ab i as w ou ld h ave b een i mposed o n t he p resen t s e lec t ion . T he p oss ib i l i ty o ft h is v ar ia t ion s hou ld b e i n ves t iga ted a s am a t te r o f u r gency , a s i sr e commended i nC hap te r 8 . L im i ted t ime a nd s amp le a va i lab i l i ty p r ec luded t he b r oade rs amp le s e lec t ion f o rt he p r esen t r e sea rch .

1 27

v i c in i ty o ft h e u nexcava ted k i ln s d e sc r ibed i nt h e p r ev iou s c hap te r .

Af u l l l i s t ing o ft h e

s h e rd s a nd t h e i r m e t r ic d e sc r ip t ion s i si n c luded w i th d a ta a tA ppend ix A . F i gu re s 6 . 2 t o 6 . 11

i l u s t ra te t h e e n t i r e s amp le s e lec ted f r om t h e R ehman D he r i c o l lec t ion f o r

t h in sec t ion ing .

P er iod

A l _J ar

A ll J ar

B I B ow l

C I E

BY D i sh

B IV B ow l

BM B ow l

B II B ow l

T o ta l s

P o ly .

I IB ( Uppe r )

2

2

3

0

1

3

2

0

I IA

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

I

1

2

3

1

1

1

2

0

1

L B

1

3

3

0

3

2

2

2

1 6

I A ( Lowe r )

3

3

3

2

1

1

0

1

1 4

T o ta l s

7

3

6

7

6

5

5 6

1 0

1 2

1 3 2

F IGURE 6 . 1 SCHEMAT IC REPRESENTAT ION OF EXCAVATED SHERDS SAMPLED FROM REHMAN DHER I N umbe ro fs he rds s e lec ted b yt y pe a nd p e r iod F o ra n e xp lana t ion o fp e r iods , s ee S ec t ion 5 . 3 ; t y pe d esc r ip t ions a r eg i ven i nS ec t ion 5 . 4

I n t h e c a se o ft h e L ewan m a te r ia l , t h e e xcava ted s h e rd s h ad b een s t ored i nt h in c o t ton s a ck s w i th o n ly al a be l i n s ide t h e b ag i d en t if y ing t h e c on ten t s a st o p rovenance .

T he se

s a ck s h ad b een s t o red i n ab a semen t a r ea o ft h e n ew U n ive r s i ty o fP e shawa r m u seum b u i ld ing w h ich w a s u nde r c on s t ruc t ion d u r ing 1 994 . U n f or tuna te ly , m any o ft h e se b ag s w e re i n ad e te r io ra ted c ond i t ion w hen p l aced t h e re , h ad b roken o pen f o l low ing af l ood i n t h e s t o rage a r ea , a nd b ecome i n te rm ixed .

T he m a jo r i ty o ft h e s h e rd s w e re t h e ref o re n o

l o nge r i d en t if iab le a s t o p r ovenance a nd c ou ld n o t b e u s ed f o r t h e p re sen t r e sea r ch . H oweve r , s ome o ft h e s h e rd sh ad o r ig ina l ly b een l a be l led d i rec t ly o nt h ea r tef a c t , a nd t h e se w e re t h e o n ly o ne s c ho sen f o r e xam ina t ion . e xamp le s o fc e r ta in m o rpho log ie s .

T h i s f a c to r r e s t r ic ted t h e s e le c t ion t o f ew

At o ta l o f2 2 s h e rd s w a s s e lec ted f r om t h e L ewan

m a te r ia l . I na dd i t ion , t h e a u tho rv i s i ted t h e s i t e a nd c o l lec ted 6c e ram ic w a s te r s f r om t h e

1 28

s u r f ace i no rde r t oc ha ra c te r i se t h e l o ca l c l ay s . F i gu r e s 6 . 12 t o6 . 17 s how t h e s e lec t ion o f s h e rd s m ade f r om L ew an , a nd F i gu r e 6 . 18 i l u s t ra te s t h e w a s te r s c o l lec ted f r om t h e s u r f ace .

F IGURE 6 .2 REHMAN DHER I TYPE A l J AR SHERDS C lockw ise f r om t op l e f t : RHD 3 6 , 4 1 , 3 7 , 3 9 , 3 5 , 4 0 . C en t re : RHD 3 8 .

F IGURE 6 .3 R EHMAN DHER I TYPE A l l J AR SHERDS C lockw ise f r om t op l ef t : RHD 4 9 , 5 6 , 5 3 , 4 7 , 5 5 , 5 4 , 5 0 , 5 2 , 4 8 . C en t re : RHD 5 1 .

1 29

F IGURE 6 .4 R EHMAN DHER I T YPE B I BO WL S HERDS T op r ow : RHD 1 2 , 7 ,8 ,1 5 . M idd le r ow : RHD 9 ,1 0 , 1 8 , 1 3 . B o t tom r ow : RHD 1 2 , 1 6 , 1 , 1 7 .

F IGURE 6 .5 R EHMAN DHER I TYPE B I I BO WL SHERDS C lockw ise f r om l e f t : RHD 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7 .

1 30

F IGURE 6 .6 R EHMAN D HER I T YPE B i l l BO WL S HERDS C lockw ise f r om l ef t : RHD 6 ,2 ,5 ,1 ,3 ,4 .

F IGURE 6 .7 R EHMAN D HER I T YPE B IV BO WL S HERDS C lockw ise f r om t op l ef t : RHD 3 1 , 3 0 , 2 8 , 3 2 , 3 3 , 2 9 . C en t re : RHD 3 4 .

1 31

F IGURE 6 .8 R EHMAN DHER I T YPE B V D ISH ON S TAND S HERDS T op r ow : RHD 2 2 , 2 3 . B o t tom : RHD 2 4 .

. m r •

F IGURE 6 .9 R EHMAN DHER I T YPE B V D ISH ON S TAND S HERDS F rom l e f t : RHD 1 9 , 2 0 , 2 1 .

1 32

F IGURE 6 . 10 R EHMAN DHER I T YPE C I I POLYCHROME S HERDS C lockw ise f r om t op l e f t : RHD 4 4 , 4 6 , 4 5 , 4 2 , 4 3 .

F IGURE 6 . 11 REHMAN DHER I S URFACE WASTER S HERDS F ROM K ILN AREA T op r ow : RHD 6 2 , 6 9 , 6 5 . M idd le r ow : RHD 6 5 , 6 3 , 7 1 . B o t tom r ow : RHD 6 4 , 6 1 , 6 7 , 6 6 , 6 0 .

1 33

F IGURE 6 . 12 L E WAN TYPES A lA ND A l l J AR S HERDS F rom l e f t : L VVN 2 16 , 2 19 , 2 15 .

F IGURE 6 . 13 L E WAN TYPES A lA ND A l l J AR S HERDS C lockw ise f r om t op l e f t : L VVN 2 10 , 2 09 , 2 07 , 2 18 .

1 34

F IGURE 6 . 14 L E WAN T YPE B I BO WL SHERDS T op : LWN 2 0 1 . B o t tom , f r om l e f t : LWN 2 11 , 2 13 , 2 00 .

F IGURE 6 . 15 L E WAN T YPE B l l BO WL S HERDS F rom l e f t : LWN 2 02 , 2 06 .

1 35

F IGURE 6 . 16 L E WAN T YPE B i l l BO WL S HERDS T op : LWN 2 08 , 2 04 . B o t tom : 2 17 , 2 05 .

F IGURE 6 . 17 L E WAN T YPE B IV BO WL S HERDS F rom l e f t : LWN 2 14 , 2 12 , 2 03 .

1 36

F IGURE 6 . 18 L E WAN WASTER SHERDS T op : LWN 2 51 , 2 49 , 2 53 . B o t tom : LWN 2 52 , 2 49 ( s ame a st op r ow ) , 2 50 , 2 48 .

F IGURE 6 . 19 T ARA I

350 m ic ron s i ns i ze .

T he m e thod e s pec ia l ly f a c i l i ta ted c oun t ing o ft h e s ma l le r

i n c lu s ion s w he re c oun t s w e re h i gh a nd i tw ou ld o t he rw i se h ave b een e a sy t o l o se o ne ' s p l a ce o nt h eg r a t icu le a r ea .

A s l i gh t d if i cu l ty w a s e n coun te red w he re a q ua r tz i n c lu s ion w a s i n e x t inc t ion u nde r c r o s sed p o la r s a t t h e s t age p o s i t ion u s ed f o r c oun t ing .

B ecau se t h e i n c lu s ion w a s i n

e x t inc t ion , i tc ou ld h ave b een o ve r looked a nd n o t c oun ted . I no rde rt oi n c lude t h e se f o r m ea su remen t , i tw a s n ece s sa ry t or o ta te t h e s t age a bou t 5d eg r ee s s ot h a tt h e i n c lu s ion i n q ue s t ion wou ld c ome o u to fe x t inc t ion . T he p r ob lem w i th d o ing t h i sw a si ne n su r ing t h a t t h e s t age w a s r e tu rned t oi t so r ig ina l p o s i t ion t or e sume t h e c oun t . T he r o ta t ing s t age o f t h e l a bo ra to ry p e t rog raph ic m ic ro scope h a s ad e ten t p o s i t ion i nw h ich i tc an b e s e t a tt h e b eg inn ing o f ac oun t . When i tw a s n ece s sa ry t od ev ia te f r om p o s i t ion , i tc ou ld b e e a s i ly r e ga ined t o r e sume t h e c oun t . p o s s ib le .

F o r t h e McA r thu r m ic ro scope h oweve r , t h i s w a s n o t

When u s ing t h e McA r thu r m ic ro scope , t h e p o s i t ion o ft h e s t age w a s n o ted

b e f o re ac oun t w a s c ommenced ; t h i s e n su red t h a tt h e s ame p o s i t ion c ou ld b e r e tu rned t o . T he p rob lem w a s n o t e n coun te red i nq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s w he re u ndu lo se e x t inc t ion w a s p r e sen t , wh ich w a s ac ommon o ccu r rence , b ecau se p a r to ft h ei n c lu s ion w a s a lway sv i s ib le r e ga rd le s so ft h ep o s i t ion o ft h er o ta t ing s t age .

N o d i s t inc t ion b e tween m onoc ry s ta l l ine a nd p o ly c ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz w a s m ade i n t h e m ea su r ing a nd c oun t ing . B o th w e re p r e sen t i na l o ft h e s e c t ion s o b se rved ( s ee C hap te r 7 ) . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t c ha rac te r i sa t ion o rp r ovenanc ing o ff a b r ic sc ou ld h ave b een a s s i s ted b y r e co rd ing t h e se s e pa ra te ly a nd o b se rv ing a ny d i s t ingu i sh ing d if e rence s i nr a t io s o r s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion sb e tw een s i t e s . T he o p t ion w a ss e r iou s ly c on s ide red ;b u t , i nl i gh to ft h el e ng th o ft i me i n vo lved , i tw a sr e jec ted . E ach s e c t ion t ook a pp rox ima te ly 4 5 m inu te st oc omp le te t h ec oun t ing p roce s s , o nce t h el e a rn ing c u rve w a sc omp le te . T o c oun t as t a t i s t ica l ly v a l id n umbe r o f e a ch o f t h e t wo g roup s w ou ld h ave d oub led t h i s o b se rva t ion t i me . A dd i t iona l ly , o n ly t h o se q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s t h a t w e re p u re ly q ua r tz w e re i n c luded f o r t h e a r ea c oun t . Many o ft h e s e c t ion s c on ta ined q ua r tz i n c lu s ion sw h ich t h em se lve s c on ta ined o t he r m ine ra ls s u ch a s m ica s , e p ido te , a mph ibo le , o r f e ld spa r s .

1 51

T he se w e re g ene ra l ly

c l a s sed a s q ua r tz s c h i s t o r g ne i s s , a c co rd ing t o t e x tu re ; i nt h o se i n s tance s w he r e q ua r tz w a st h ed om inan tm ine ra l .

A l l m ea su red a nd c oun ted q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s g r ea te rt h an 3 0 m ic ron s w e re p l aced i n to o ne o fs i x s i ze i n te rva l s : 3 0 -50 , 5 0 -125 , 1 2 5 -200 , 2 00 -275 , 2 75 -350 , o r >3 50 m ic ron s . T he t o ta ln umbe ro fi n c lu s ion st h a tf e l li n to e a ch o ft h es i xc a tego r ie sw a sr e co rded o nt h ed a ta s h ee t . I ft h e t o ta l n umbe r o fi n c lu s ion s d i d n o t e xceed 2 50 i nt h e f i r s t a r ea c oun ted , t h e g r a t icu le w a s m oved t o an ew l o ca t ion o n t h e s e c t ion a nd t h e p roce s s r e pea ted . I ne ach i n s tance , a lg ra in st h a tf e l lw i th in t h ea r ea w e re c oun ted . T h is w a sc on t inued u n t i la tl e a s t 2 50 g r a in sw e re c oun ted i nt o ta lf o re a ch s e c t ion . I nt h em a jo r i ty o fc a se s , o ve r3 00 g r a in s w e re c oun ted , a nd i nm any , o ve r 5 00 . T h i s n umbe rw a s c ho sen i no rde rt o e n su r et h a t a s t a t i s t ica l ly v a l id n umbe r o fp o in t s w e re c oun ted s u ch t h a t t h e s ma l le r p e rcen tage s w e re a dequa te ly r e p re sen ted a tt h e l e ve l o ft wo s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s ( s ee S ec t ion 6 . 4 ) .

O n ly

t h o se i n c lu s ion s t h a t f e l l f u l ly w i th in t h e g r a t icu le a r ea w e re c oun ted ; t hose t h a t h ad a ny p a r t o ft h e i rp e r ime te ro u t s ide w e r en o tc oun ted . As ma l ln umbe ro ft h es e c t ion sw e re t oo s ma l l o r c on ta ined t o o f ew q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s t o a t ta in t h i s l e ve l o f c onf idence , e . g . a m ax imum o fo n ly 1 80 -200 g r a in s w e r e a va i lab le t ob e c oun ted . I nt h e se c a se s , a sm any p o in t s a sp o s s ib le w e re i n c luded . T he c o r re spond ing c onf idence i n terva lw a sg i ven b yt h e p roce s s o u t l ined i n S ec t ion 6 . 4 .

S i x o ft h e s amp le s d i d n o t e ven c on ta in 1 50 u s ab le

c oun t s ; i nt h e se c a se s , c oun t s w e re n o t m ade , a nd t h ey w e r en o ti n c luded i nt h e s t a t is t ica l b a se . A l l n umbe r s w e re e n te red i n to t h e c ompu te r d a taba s e f o r p roce s s ing , a na ly s i s , a nd d a ta p r e sen ta t ion , d e sc r ibed i nt h ef o l low ing s e c t ion .

6 . 4 D a ta p roce s s ing a nd a na ly s i s A l l d a ta r e co rded w e re t r an sc r ibed f r om t h e h and reco rded s h ee t s i n to aL o tu s 1 2 3R 5 d a taba se o n aZ en i th D a ta S y s tem sZ -S ta r4 33VL c ompu te r . T h i s e nab led t h e d a ta t ob e o rgan i sed o n to c ompu te rd a ta shee t s , a na ly sed a nd p l a ced i ns u i tab le f o rm f o r a na ly s i s a nd p r e sen ta t ion . As i ng le L o tu s 1 2 3 w o rk shee t w a s u s ed f o r e a ch t h in s e c t ion , a nd e a ch s i t e w a sm ade as e pa ra te f i l e . As amp le o f aw o rk shee ti sp rov ided a tF i gu re 6 . 30 .

1 52

F o r e a ch w o rk shee t , o rgan i sa t ion o fd a ta w a s a sf o l low s ' ( r ef e rt oF i gu re 6 . 30 ) : F i r s t ly , t h e t op l ef t b l ock o f d a ta c on ta ined t h e t h in s e c t ion n umbe r , i n t h i s c a se RHD 2 3 , i n d ica t ing i tw a sf r om t h es i t eo fR ehman D he r ia nd w a sn umbe r ed 2 3 i nt h es e r ie s . T h i si s f o l lowed i nt h e s ame a r ea b y s h e rd i d en t if i ca t ion o r a r tef ac t n umbe r , p e r iod a nd l e ve l ( p rovenance ) , m o rpho log ica l t y pe , r i m d i ame te r i nc en t ime t re s , t h ickne s s i nm i l l ime t re s , a nd f i na l ly t h ea r ea o fm ea su r emen to ft h et h in s e c t ion , i ns qua re m i l l ime t re s( s qnun ) , u sed f o rt h ea r ea c oun to fq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s .

T he b l ock o fd a ta i mmed ia te ly t ot h er i gh to ft h i sc on ta in sa lo ft h eq ua r tz s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion d a ta .

T he t o p r ow l a be l s e a ch s i ze r a nge c o lumn , i nm ic ron s , f i n i sh ing w i th ' n ump t s ' ,

w h ich i st h e t o ta l n umbe r o fq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s c oun ted f o rt h a t s e c t ion . T he s e cond r ow c on ta in st h e a b so lu te n umbe ri ne a ch s i ze r a nge c oun ted , e nd ing w i th t h et o ta li nt h ef i na l c o lumn .

T he r ema in ing r ow s i nt h is d a ta b l ock a r e v a lue s c a lcu la ted f r om t h e a b so lu te

n umbe r s i ne a ch s i ze r a nge b y u s ing f o rmu lae e n te r ed i n to e a ch c e l l .

F o r e xamp le , t h e

t h i rd r ow i st h e c a lcu la ted p e rcen tage o ft h e t o ta l i ne a ch s i ze r a nge .

I ti sc a lcu la ted b y

a pp ly ing as imp le s u b rou t ine i nt h e 1 2 3 s of twa re u s ing t h e a b so lu te n umbe ri ne a ch s i ze r a nge d i v ided b yt h et o ta ln umbe ro fp o in t sa nd m u l t ip ly ing b y 1 00 .

1

Ak ey t ot he w o rkshee td a ta i sa l so p r ov ided i ns umma ry o nt he f i r s t p age o fA ppend ix A .

1 53

F IGURE 6 .30 S AMPLE OF DATA R ECORD S HEET S ee n ex t p age f o r ak ey t ot h e a bb rev ia t ions u sed ; a nd t he t ex tf o rd e ta i ls N C ON C ONO 0 1 7 )N C D ( . ) ▪ s p a ( \IN : c o L U

C

C UV 0 0

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50 m ic ron s . F i na l ly , t h e l owe r t wo e n t r ie s s h ow t h e se a s p e rcen tage s .

A l l o ft h e se w e re s e pa ra te ly

p l aced o n t h e d a ta s h ee t s ot h a tt h ep r og ram c ou ld r e ad t h ew o rk shee t s i n3 -D r a nge sf o r s umma r i s ing a nd a v e rag ing t e x tu ra l d a ta f o r t h e w ho le s i t e , a nd f a c i l i ta t ing f a b r ic c l a s s if ica t ion s . T he se p r oce s se sa r ed i scu s sed b e low .

C ha r t s w e re t h en p r oduced b y t h e L o tu s 1 2 3R5 p rog ram .

T he t h ree c ha r t s d e r ived f o r

e a ch t h in s e c t ion w e r e : q ua r tz s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion , c oncen t ra t ion o f q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s , a nd f a br ic c ompos i t ion .

T h i s s e lec t ion w a s p r oduced b ecau se t h e i r c omb ina t ion e nab le s t h e

t e x tu ra l n a tu re o ft h e f a b r ic t ob e d e te rm ined a t ag l ance . T he v i sua l i mpac t p e rm i t s a n i mmed ia te c ompa r i son o fa ny t wo o rm o re o ft h e t h in s e c t ion s w i thou t h av ing t ow ade t h rough n umbe r s a nd a t temp tt ov i sua l i se d i s t r ibu t ion s . I mpo r tan t ly , i nc a se o ft h eq ua r tz s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion c ha r t , i ta lowed i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h e m oda l i ty w h ich s howed t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fp o t te r m an ipu la t ion o ft h e r aw c l ay v i a l e v iga t ion o r t empe r a dd i t ion . T h i s w a sp a r t icu la r ly u sef u lb ecau se i nm o s tc a se st h el a rge rp a r t ic le sw e re o fs im i la ra ngu la r i ty a nd s phe r ic i ty a st h e s ma l le ro ne s , r e su l t ing i nl i t t le d i sc r im ina t ion f o ri d en t if y ing t empe r s . I ti sr e a l i sed t h a tt h e se q ua r tz s i ze d a ta s h ou ld p rope r ly b ep r e sen ted a sh i s tog ram s ,b u tt h e l i ne g raph s p rov ided as t ronge r v i sua l t o o l f o r d ef in ing f a b r ic t y pe s . s u b rou t ine s w e re r e co rded a nd u s ed t o p r oduce e a ch g r aph .

L o tu s 1 2 3 m a c ro

T h is f e a tu re p r ov ided a

c onven ien t a nd t i me sav ing m e thod f o rp r oduc ing c ha r t s . F o rt h e q ua r tz s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion c ha r t , v a lue s f r om t h e % r ow , t h e ' p 2 s igma ' a nd t h e 1m 2 s igma ' r ow s i nt h e q ua r tz s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion d a ta b l ock w e re p l o t ted t o ge the ro no ne g r aph f o re a ch s e c t ion . T h i sp r ov ided ap r e sen ta t ion w h ich s h owed t h e s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion t oge the r w i th a n i mmed ia te v i sua l i d en t i f ica t ion o ft h ec on f idence i n te rva l .

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T he q ua r tz s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion p r ov ide s ar e ady p r e sen ta t ion o ft h e r e la t ive d en s i t ie s o ft h e d if e ren t s i ze r a nge s p r e sen t i nt h e t h in s e c t ion s , b u t i td oe s n o t g i ve a n i n d ica t ion o f i n d iv idua l d en s i t ie s .

T o p r ov ide d en s i ty i n f o rma t ion , as e cond g r aph o fq ua r tz s i ze d a ta

w a s p roduced f o r e ach s e c t ion .

T h i s h i s tog ram s how s t h e c oncen t ra t ion o f e a ch s i ze

g roup o fq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s . I ti sp l o t ted u s ing t h ec oncen t ra t ion d en s i t ie so ft h el a s tr ow o f t h eq ua r tz d a ta b l ock , a nd p r e sen t s q ua r tz c oncen t ra t ion b y s i ze r a nge i nt e rm s o fn umbe r p e r s qua re m i l l ime t re o ft h in s e c t ion s u r f a ce a r ea . I tp rov ide s a t ag l ance t h e d en s i t ie s o f e a ch s i ze r a nge , a nd i sv e ry u s ef u lt ou s ea s ar e ady c ompa r i son b e tween f a b r ic t y pe so ra s ad ef in ing f a c to rf o rf a b r ic t y pe s . T he s ame o r d ina te s c a le ( 0t o6 0p e r spun )w a su s ed i n e a ch t of a c i l i ta te c ompa r i son s a mong s t s h e rd s . F i na l ly , ap i e c ha r t o ff a b r ic c ompo s i t ion d a ta w a s p roduced u s ing d a ta f r om t h e p o in t c oun t .

T h i s p r e sen t s t h e c ompo s i t ion ( a l l

i n c lu s ion s ) o fe ach s h e rd i nt e rm s o fp e rcen tage o ft h e t h ree c a tego r ie s : m a t r ix , s a nd o r s i l t .

T he f o rego ing p rov ided s umma r ie s o fr aw d a ta f o r e a ch t h in s e c t ion . T he se a r e i n c luded a sA ppend ice s At oC ,a nd i nt h i sf o rm c a nb eu s ed b yf u tu re r e sea r che r s a s ab a se l ine f o r b u i ld ing ar e g iona le xpan s ion . F u r the rd a ta a na ly s i sw a sc onduc ted u s ing t h eL o tu s 1 2 3R 5 d a taba se .

3 -D r a nge s a r e r a nge s o f d a ta s p ann ing a n umbe r o f d if e ren t w o rk shee t s

c on ta ined i nt h e d a taba se . w o rk shee t .

T he n o rma l t wo d imen s ion s a r e r ow a nd c o lumn i n as i ng le

T he t h i rd p e rm i t s as i ng le c e l l o r c o l lec t ion o fc e l l s i nt wo d imen s ion s t o

b ecome ar a nge i nt h ree d imen s ion s . F o re xamp le , t oo b ta in t h ea ve rage c oncen t ra t ion o f p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r s i na lo ft h e s h e rd s e x am ined f r om t h e s i t e o fR ehman D he r i , ar a nge s p ann ing t h e c e l l w he r et h e c oncen t ra t ion v a lue w a s r e co rded o ve r a l o ft h e w o rk shee t s f o r t h a t s i t e i st a ken f o r a na ly s i s .

T h i s s e lec t s t h a t v a lue f o r a l s h ee t s s o t h a t t h e

p r og ramme c ou ld b ei n s t ruc ted t op er f o rm as t a t i s t ica l a na ly s i s o ve rt h a t r a nge t op r ov ide am ea su r e o ft h e a ve rag ec oncen t ra t ion so fp l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r si nR ehman D he r i p o t te ry , t o ge the r w i th o t he r s t a t i s t ica l i n f o rma t ion .

S im i la r a na ly se s c a n b e p e rf o rmed f o r o t he r

v a r iab le s a nd f u nc t ion s . B y p e r f o rm ing a na ly se s f o r i n d iv idua l s i t e s , a nd t h en c omb in ing t h em , s i t e c ompa r i son c h a r t s c ou ld b e p r epa red f o r e a ch v a r iab le .

T h i s p r oce s s w a s

c a r r ied o u t t o d e te rm ine t h e a ve rage v a lue s f o r e ach o f t h e v a r iab le s r e co rded i nt h e m ine ra l s d a ta b l ock , u s ing t h ep r e reco rded @ f u nc t ion so ft h ep r og ramme . T he r e su l t ing

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s umma ry o fc omb ined d a ta w a sp l aced i n an ew w o rk shee ta tt h ee nd o fe ach s i t ef i l e , t h en c op ied o n to an ew f i l ew h ich c omb ined t h ei n d iv idua l s i t ed a ta . As im i la r p roce s se nab led ac ompa r i son o fv a r iab le sb e tween c h rono log ica ll e ve l sa tR ehman D he r i .

I na dd i t ion , f o r t h e v a lue s o fm ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s , t h e s t anda rd e r ro r o ft h e m ean w a s c a lcu la ted , u s ing t h e p rog ramme a va i lab le w i th L o tu s 1 2 3R 5 . T h is g ave am ea su r eo ft h e l e ve l o fd i spe r s ion i nt h ev a lue sr e co rded f o re a ch p a rame te r( Shennan 1 988 : 3 02 -3 ) . F o r p u rpo se s o ft h i s s t anda rd e r ro ro ft h em ean c a lcu la t ion , t h e e s t ima te sm ade o fe a ch o ft h e c oncen t ra t ion si ne a ch t h in s e c t ion w a st r ea ted a s am ea su r eo ft h em ean c oncen t ra t ion f o r t h a t s e c t ion .

C ha r t s w e re t h en p r epa red o fe a ch o ft h e se a ve rage v a lue s f o r e a ch o ft h e

s i t e s , u s ing b ang le s a s as e pa ra te c a tego ry i nt h e c a se o fH a rappa . T h is p rov ided c ha r t s o f e a ch w i th f i ve c a tego r ie s , a nd p e rm i t ted av i sua l c ompa r i son o ft h e v a r ia t ion s o b se rved s i t e to s i te .

F o r e xamp le , o ne c ha r t w ou ld i n c lude t h e a ve rage c oncen t ra t ion o f

p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r s f o ra l f i ve c a tego r ie s a sb a r s o n ab a r cha r t . T h i s a lowed i mmed ia te c ompa r i son o ft h e d if e ren t c oncen t ra t ion s o fp l ag ioc la se o b se rved a mong s t t h e s i t e s a nd s i t ea r ea s .

P lo t s w e re p r epa red o ft h e r e la t ive o ccu r rence s o fc oncen t ra t ion s o fq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s i n t h e3 0 -50 m ic ron s i ze r a nge a nd f o rt h e> 50 m ic ron s i ze r a nge f o re a ch s i te , a ga in t r ea t ing t h e d a ta f r om t h e H a rappa b ang le s e lec t ion a s as e pa ra te c a tego ry .

T h is w a s d one b y

p rog ramm ing t h e L o tu s 1 2 3R5 t o p rov ide t h e n umbe r o fs amp le s i ne a ch t h a t f e l l i n to p r e -de te rm ined c oncen t ra t ion i n te rva l s . T he r a nge s w e re s e t a ti n te rva l s o f 1 0 i n c lu s ion s p e r s qua re m i l l ime t re , a nd s p anned t h e r a nge 0 t o 7 0 p e r s qua re m i l l ime t re , f o r t h e i n c lu s ion s< 50 m ic ron s ; a nd i n te rva l so ft wo i n c lu s ion sp e rs q ua re m i l l ime t re , f r om 0t o 1 2 p e rs qua re m i l l ime t re , f o ri n c lu s ion s> 50 m ic ron s . T he p r og ramme s imp ly d e te rm ined h ow m any s e c t ion s f e l l i n to e a ch r a nge .

When p l o t ted , t h e se c ha r t s w e re u sed t o s h ow t h e

m ean a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fe a ch c a tego ry .

A ga in , t h i s p e rm i t ted i n te r s i te c ompa r i son s ; b y

a low ing e xam ina t ion o f d if e rence s i n m ean s a nd d i s t r ibu t ion c ha rac te r is t ic s s u ch a s s k ewne s sa nd k u r to s i s .

Af u r the r a na ly s i s w a s m ade o f t h e q ua r tz s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion d a ta f r om t h e > 50 m ic ron r a nge . F ou r o ft h e f i ve s i ze c a tego r ie s c on ta ined t h e re in , i . e . 5 0 -125 , 1 25 -200 , 2 00 -275 ,

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a nd 2 75 -350 m ic ron s w e re s u b jec ted t ot h e s ame a na ly s i s a si nt h e f o rego ing p a rag raph . T he f i f th , > 350 m ic ron s , w a sn o t c on s ide red b ecau se t h ev e ry l ow n umbe r o fo ccu r rence s i nt h i s s i ze r a nge d i d n o t a low a ny m ean ingf u l s i t e to s i te d if e rence s t ob e o b se rved . I t w a s u sed h oweve r f o r o t he r p u rpo se s s u ch a s e xam ina t ion o f t e chno log ica l d a ta a nd g roup ing i n to f a b r ic c l a s s if i ca t ion s . T he n umbe ro fo ccu r rence s o fc oncen t ra t ion s o fe a ch o ft h e f ou r s i ze r a nge sw a st o ta l led b ys i t e , u s ing i n c remen t s o fo ne p e r s qua re m i l l ime t re f r om 1t o 7 . T he n umbe r f a l l ing i n to e a ch o ft h e se i n c r emen t s w a s t o ta l led a nd p l o t ted ; o ne c har t f o r e a ch s i ze r a nge . T h i s p r oduced f o u rg r aph s f o r e a ch s i t e ( a nd f o u r f o rt h e H a rappa b ang le s amp le ) .

T he se w e r e t h en e xam ined f o r d if e rence s i n d i s t r ibu t ion

c ha rac te r i s t ic s .

F rom t h ef a b r ic c ompo s i t ion d a ta , o rt h er e su l t so ft h ep o in tc oun t , s im i la rs umma r ie sw e re m ade o f e ach c a tego ry .

C oncen t ra t ion s o f s i l t s ize a nd o f s a nd s ize i n c lu s ion s w e r e

p r epa red o n a c ha r t a nd e xam ined a s t o d i s t r ibu t ion c ha rac te r i s t ic s .

T h i s w a s

a c comp l ished b yc r ea t ing p e rcen tage i n te r va l so ff i ve p e rcen t a nd d e te rm in ing t h e n umbe r o fo ccu r rence si ne a ch . I tp roduced af u r the rt wo c ha r t sp e rs i t e( a nd t wo f o rt h eH a rappa b ang le s amp le ) .

P l o t t ing t h e se p r ov ided a v i sua l i n d ica t ion o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion m ean ,

s k ewne s sa nd k u r to s i s . T he se w e re c ompa red s i t e to s i te .

T he r e su l t s o f t h e m in e ra log ica l e xam ina t ion a nd t h e s i ze d a ta c ha r t s p roduced w e re v i sua l ly e xam ined a nd c ompa red , t of o rm g r oup ing s w h ich w i l l b e t e rmed ' f a b r ic t y pe s ' . V a r ia t ion s i n m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s , p e rcen tag e o f s i l t - a nd s a nd s ize i n c lu s ion s , a nd c ha rac te r i s t ic so ft h eq ua r tz s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion d a ta w e re c on s ide red a st h eb a s i so ft h ef a b r ic g roup ing s .

T he p u rpo se o ft h e f a b r ic g r oup ing s w a s t o f i r s t d ef ine ag roup o ff a b r ic s

m anuf ac tu red a tR ehman D he r i ; a nd t h en , u s ing t h e se a s' ma s te rf a b r ic s ' , c ompa re t h em t o f a b r ic s p roduced a tt h e o t he r s i t e s . I nt h i s w ay , i tw a st h ough t , ad e te rm ina t ion c ou ld b e m ade a s t o w he the r o r n o t t e chno log ica l i n nova t ion s f r om am a in p roduc t ion s i t e w e re b e ing c ommun ica ted t o t h e s ma l le r s i t e s , p r ima r i ly L ewan a nd T a raka i Q ua .

I tw a s

e xpec ted t h a t H a rappa , b e ing am a jo r s i t e o fi t s o wn a c co rd , m ay o r m ay n o t h ave h ad s i m i la rf a b r ic sa sR ehman D he r iu nde rt h i sa s sump t ion . T h i sw a s d i scu s sed i nS ec t ion 4 . 2 . C hap te r 7d i scu s se st h ea na ly s i sa nd i n te rp re ta t ion . 1 T he t e rm ' f ab r ic t y pe ' makes a n i mp l ic i t a ssump t ion t ha tt he p o t te r (s ) i n tended t oc r ea te t hem . T h is o f c ou rse m ay n o t h ave b een t h e c ase a t a l .l ti so n ly a v a lue c r ea ted b y t he r e searche r . F ur the rd i scuss ion i sc on ta ined i nC hap te r7 .

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A l l o ft h ef o rego ing d a ta w e re u s ed t od ef ine t h ec ha rac te r i s t ic s o ff a b r ic sf r om e a ch o ft h e s i t e s a nd t h e b ang le s f r om H a rappa , f o r p rovenance s t ud ie s . V a r ia t ion s i nc oncen t ra t ion s o fe a ch o ft h e m ine ra l s o b se rved w e re s u b jec ted t o ao ne -way a na ly s i s o fv a r ian ce t e s t t o d e te rm ine t h e d eg ree o f c on f idence w h ich c ou ld b e p l a ced o n t h e h ypo the s i s t h a t t h ey c ame f r om d if e ren t p opu la t ion s . T h i s w a s c onduc ted f o r e a ch o ft h e m ine ra l c a tego r ie s t h a t w e re m ea su red o n t h e 1t o 4s c a le d i scu s sed e a r l ie r i nt h e c hap te r .

T he se f i nd ing s

w e re u sed t om ake i n f e rence sr e ga rd ing p rovenance o fs h e rd s .

I n a dd i t ion t o f a c i l i ta t ing f a b r ic g roup ing s ,

e xam ina t ion

o f t h e

s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion

c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s a lowed s ome a s se s smen t o fc e ram ic t e chno log ie s e mp loyed b yp o t te r sa tt h er e spec t ive s i t e s . I np a r t icu la r , i tp e rm i t ted t h en a tu re o ft empe r u sage t ob e a s se s sed . I n f e rence s c ou ld b em ade a bou tt h e a moun t s o ft empe ru t i l i sed , t h e s ou rce s , a nd t h et y pe .

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CHAPTER S EVEN ANALYS IS AND D ISCUSS ION

T h i s c hap te r p r e sen t st h em a in a na ly s i s a nd d i scu s s ion o ft h e d a ta . I ti sd i v ided i n to t wo p r in c ipa ls e c t ion s : i n d iv idua ls i t ea na ly s i s ;a nd i n te r s i te a na ly s i s . F i r s t ly , d a ta f r om R ehman D he r i i sp re sen ted a nd d i scu s sed .

T h i s s i t e h ad t h e l a rge s t s amp le ; a nd , b ecau se t h e

s amp le s w e re s e lec ted t or e p re sen t t h e s ame t y pe s f r om a l t h ree p e r iod s , i tp rov ided t h e o ppo r tun i ty t oe xam ine v a r ia t ion si nc e ram ic t e chno logy t h rough t i me a sw e l l a sf r om t y pe t ot y pe .

T h i s i sf o l lowed b y s im i la r a na ly se s o fo t he r s i t e d a ta .

S omewha t l e s s s p ace i s

d evo ted t o t h e o t he r i n d iv idua l s i t e s , a s t h i s s o r t o f r e p r e sen ta t ive s amp l ing w a s n o t a v a i lab le f r om a l o ft h e s i t e s . F o l low ing t h e s t ud ie so ft h ec e ram ic sf r om i n d iv idua l s i t e s , t h es e cond s e c t ion c ompa re st h em f r om s i t et os i t e , a s se s s ing t h ed eg ree o fc ompos i t iona l a nd t e chno log ica l s im i la r i ty o r d i s s im i la r i ty .

F rom t h i s e xam ina t ion , i n f e rence s a nd

s u gge s t ion s a r em ade w i th r e spec tt ot h el e ve l o fi n te rac t ion t h a tw a sp r e sen t a mong s tt h e f o u rs i t e s .

7 . 1 I NDIVIDUAL S ITE ANALYSES

7 . 1 .1 . R ehman D her i R aw d a ta f o r s h e rd s s amp led f r om R ehman D he r i a r e p r e sen ted i nA ppend ix A .

A s

d e s c r ibed i nt h el a s tc hap te r ,t h e se d a ta s h ee t sp r ov ide p rovenance a nd m e t r ic i n f o rma t ion ; q ua r tz s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd f a b r ic t e x tu ra l d a ta ; m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion sa nd c ha rac te r i s t ic s ; a nd g raph s /cha r t s o f t h e se t o f a c i l i ta te v i sua l c ompa r i son s .

A k ey d e ta i l ing t h e

a bb rev ia t ion s u sed i nt h e s h ee t s i sp r ov ided o n t h ep age i mmed ia te ly b ef o re A ppend ix A . D e ta i led e xp lana t ion s o ft h e d a ta a r e p r e sen ted i nS ec t ion s 6 . 3 a nd 6 . 4 .

O ne i n d iv idua l

s h ee t i sp r e sen ted f o re a ch t h in s e c t ion a n a ly sed . T he re a r et h ree c a se sw he re t h e s amp le w a st oo s ma l lo ro ft o op oo r aq ua l i ty t oc omp le te au s ef u la na ly s i sw i th r e spec tt ot e x tu ra l d a ta ;t h e se p age sp r e sen to n ly p rovenance ,m e t r ic a nd m ine ra log ica li n f o rma t ion .

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Minera logy Mean c oncen t ra t ion s o ft h e m ine ra l s o b se rved i nt h in s e c t ion s f r om R ehman D he r i a r e s umma r i sed i nT ab le 7 I . T he t a b le u se st h ea u tho r ' ss c a le d e sc r ibed i nS ec t ion 6 . 3 , whe r e 1 =a b sen t

2 =t r a ce

3 =r a r e

4 =c ommon

D a ta s hown i n t a b le 7 I w e re o b ta ined b y t a k ing t h e m ean s o f e ach o ft h e i n d iv idua l m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s r e co rded o n t h i s s c a le . S t anda rd e r ro r o ft h e m ean i sa sd e sc r ibed b y S hennan ( 1988 : 3 02 -3 ) , a nd t h ev a lue r e co rded f o r e a ch m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion i su sed a s t h e i n d iv idua l m ean o f e a ch t h in s e c t ion . p a r t icu la r ly

u sef u l

f o r

m ak ing

i n te r s i te

T h i s p rov ide s ag ood e s t ima te w h ich i s c ompa r i son s

w he re

m ine ra l

s u i te s

a r e

u nd if f e ren t ia ted a st ot y pe b u tn o ta st oc oncen t ra t ion s , a si sd i scu s sed i nS ec t ion 7 . 2 . T he d a ta r e p re sen t sa l s h e rd sf r om t h es i t e ,b o th e xcava ted a nd w a s te rs h e rd s .

TABLE 7 1 REHMAN DHER I M INERAL CONCENTRAT ION DATA •E xc ludes q ua r tz

•s ee t ex tf o re xp lana t ion o fc oncen t ra t ion s ca le u sed •

M inera l

C oncen tra t ion

S .E . Mean 1

P lag ioc la se F e ld spa r

2 . 73

0 . 13

M ic roc l ine F e ld spa r

1 . 19

0 . 05

B io t i te

2 . 38

0 . 10

Mu scov i te

3 . 63

0 . 08

Amph ibo le

2 . 24

0 . 13

C a rbona te

3 . 14

0 . 10

P y roxene

1 . 35

0 . 06

E p ido te

1 . 60

0 . 06

S ch i s t

2 . 16

0 . 11

S tanda rd e r ro ro ft h e mean

Q ua r tz c oncen t ra t ion d a ta h ave n o t b een i n c luded i n t h e t a b le , a s t h ey a r e t r ea ted s e pa ra te ly v i at h e a r ea c oun t d a ta , w h ich i sd i scu s sed i nf u l l u nde r ' F ab r ic ' i nt he f o l low ing

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s e c t ion .

Q ua r tz w a s t h e m o s t a bundan t m ine ra l p r e sen t i na l o f t h e s e c t ion s .

B o th

m onoc ry s ta l l ine a nd p o lyc ry s ta l l ine g r a in s w e re p r e sen t , i na n e s t ima ted r a t io o f8 0 :20 . T h e p o lyc ry s ta l l ine g r a in b ounda r ie s w e re g ene ra l ly s u tu red , w h ich i sc ha ra c te r i s t ic o f q ua r tz f r om am e tamo rph i c s o u rce ( Adam s e ta l . 1 984 : 5 ) . o fm ic roc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz .

S ome g r a in sw e re c ompo sed

I n s tance s o fs h ea r ed o r s t re tched m e tamo rph ic q ua r tz w e re

o b se rved i n t h o se p o ly c ry s ta l l ine g r a in s w i th s u tu red b ounda r ie s .

Many o fb o th t y pe s

e xh ib i ted u ndu lo se e x t inc t ion , d ef ined a st h eg r a in e x t ingu i sh ing o ve r ar a nge o fa tl e a s t 5 d eg r ee so nr o ta t ion o ft h es t age . T h i s i sc ha rac te r i s t ic o fq ua r tz g r a in sf r om b o th i g neou s a nd m e tamo rph ic s ou r ce s .

F u r the r p hy s ica l d e sc r ip t ion a nd d i scu s s ion o f t h e q ua r tz

i n c lu s ion s , i n c lud ing a ngu la r i ty a nd s phe r ic i ty , i sp r e sen ted u nde r' F ab r ic 'f o l low ing .

F e ld spa r i n c lu s ion s w e r e g ene ra l ly o f s im i la r a ngu la r i ty a nd s p he r ic i ty a s t h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s .

T hey w e r e m o s t ly f r e sh t o m ode ra te ly w ea the red p l ag ioc la se .

M ic roc l ine

f e ld spa r sw e re r e la t iv e ly r a re , a nd o n ly o ccu r red i ns ome o ft h es amp le s . Whe re t h ey w e re p r e sen t , i tw a s i nt r ac e c oncen t ra t ion s , i . e . n o m o re t h an o ne o ccu r rence p e rt h in s e c t ion . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e p l ag ioc la se i n c lu s ion s g ene ra l ly s howed t wo o r t h ree , a nd o cca s iona l ly f ou ro rf i ve o ccu r r ence si na ni n d iv idua ls amp le .

C oncen t ra t ion o f m u scov i te a ve raged 3 . 63 ,

o r r e la t ive ly ' c ommon ' ,

w h i le b i o t i te

c oncen t ra t ion w a s s omewha tl e s s , w i th a na ve rage o f2 . 37 , o rb e tween ' t r ace 'a nd ' r a re ' . I t w a sn o ted t h a t i nm o s to ft h es e c t ion st h e r ea ppea r ed t ob et wo s e pa ra te s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion s ( s ub jec t ive ly o b se rved o n ly ) i nm o s t o ft h em ica s , e s pec ia l ly m u scov i te . O ne c on s i s ted o f t h e v e ry f i ne d e t r i ta l p a r t ic le s w h ich a r e t oo s ma l l t ob e m ea su red w i th t h e p e t rog raph ic m ic roscope , a nd al a rg e r , m ea su rab le , p opu la t ion c on s i s t ing o fl a th s . A tt h e o u t se t o ft h e a n a ly s i s , a n a t temp tw a sm ade t om ea su re t h e s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h el a rge rp opu la t ion , a s i tw a st h ough tt h i sm ay h ave p r ov ided s ome c l ue sf o rr e g iona l o rs i t ed if e ren t ia t ion . T h i s w a s a bandoned p a r t w ay t h rough t h e R ehman D he r i a na ly s i s b ecau se i tb ecame e v iden t t h a tt h et wo p opu la t ion sw e r en o ts e pa rab le e nough t ow a r ran tc on t inu ing . T he v e ry s ma l l e nd (

50 m ic ron s .

T h i s a nd t h e c oncen t ra t ion d a ta ( F igu re 7 . 5 ) s h ow t h e

d i s t r ibu t ion o fa l s i ze r a nge s > 50 m ic ron s a s ac o l lec t ive g roup , b u t t h ey a r e n o t v e ry i n f o rma t ive w i th r e spec t t oc oa r sene s s o ft empe r , o rt h en a tu re o ft h e l a rge rp a r t ic le st h a t m ay h ave b een u s ed a st empe r . T he ref o re , w i th in e a ch o ft h et wo g r oups m ade u p o nt h e b a s i s o ft h e i n c lu s ion s 3 0 -50 m ic ron s d e sc r ibed p r ev iou s ly , d a ta w e r e f u r the r s u b -d iv ided b a sed u pon t h ed if e rence so b se rved i nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fi n c lu s ion s> 50 m ic ron s .

A l lo ft h e s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion c ha r t sw e re v i sua l ly e xam ined a nd c ompa r ed T h i sr e vea led t h a t t h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s > 50 m ic ron s , w ho se m ean d i s t r ibu t ion i ss hown i nF igu re 7 . 11 , f e l l i n to t h ree q u i te d i s t inc ts u bg roup sw i th in e a ch o ft h et wo s i l t s ize c a tego r ie sa l ready m ade . T he s u bg roup s a r eb a sed o n o b ser ved c on s i s tenc ie s i nt h e q ua r tz s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion c u rve s , a nd g ene ra l ly i n d ica te t h r ee l e ve l s o fc oa r sene s sw i th in t h i s l a rge r s i ze g roup . T he se m ay o r m ay n o t r e p re sen t t h e n a tu re o f s a nd t empe r s , b u t i te nab led a t o ta l o f s i x f a b r ic c a tego r ie s t o b e f o rmed , a cco rd ing t o c omb ina t ion s o fq ua r tz s i ze i n c lu s ion s . c a tego r ie s a r e t e rmed X l , X 2 , X 3 ; a nd Y l , Y 2 , Y 3 .

T he se s i x

T he f i r s t l e t te r d e s igna te s t h e

c oncen t ra t ion o fq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s 50 m ic ron s i ns i ze , w h ich i st h e m o re l i k e ly t oi n d ica te t h en a tu re o ft empe r s a nd s . T he se a r e s hown g r aph ica l ly i n F i gu re s 7 . 12 t o7 . 17 . A sw i th F i gu re 7 . 11 , t h e se a r e p r e sen ted a sl i ne g r aph s r a the rt h an F igu re 7 . 11 s hou ld p rope r ly b e ah i s tog ram . l ti sp r esen ted a s al i ne g raph i no rde rt o g i ve av i sua l i mp ress ion t o ma tch t he f ab r ic t ype p r esen ta t ions i nF i gu res 7 . 12 t h rough 7 . 17 .

1 83

h i s tog ram st oc onvey av i sua li mp re s s ion o ft h em ean c oncen t ra t ion o fq ua r tz i n c lu s ion si n e a ch f a b r ic .

I n t h e a b sence o fd if e rence s i nt h e a moun t s o fo t he r m ine ra l s i nt h e c l ay m ix tu re s , t h e n a tu re o ft h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s i st h e o n ly v a r iab le s how ing s i gn if i can t d if e r ence s w i th in t h e s i t e c o l lec t ion .

T he ref o re , i tm igh t q u i te s a f e ly b e a s sumed t h a t t h e p o t te r s w e re

m an ipu la t ing t h ec l ay m ix tu re sw i th r e spec tt ot h es a nd i n c lu s ion s . T he v a r ia t ion ss e en a nd t h ef a b r ic g roup ing s o b se rved a r e u n l ik e ly t oh ave b een p r e sen t i nt h e n a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing c l ay s . W i th r e spec tt oo t he rv a r iab le sr e co rded , g roup ing o nt h e b a s i s o ft h e se c ou ld n o t c on s ide r v a r ia t ion s i n t h e s a nd c on ten t .

F o r e xamp le , d if e rence s o b se rved i n t h e

b i ref r ingence o ft h e m a t r ice s c ou ld g ene ra l ly b e a s s igned av a lue f r om 1t o 4 ,b u t t h e re a ppea red t o b e n o c o r r e la t ion o ft h i s v a r iab le w i th t e x tu ra l v a r iab le s .

A l so , i ti sm o re

d if i cu l t t o m an ipu la te f i r ing t empe ra tu r e s ( o fw h ich m a t r ix b i ref r ingence i sa n i n d ica to r ) t h an c l ay p a s te p r epa ra t ion , a nd t h e ref o re i n ten to ft h ep o t te rw ou ld b el e s so f af a c to r .

F ab r ic t y pe s a s d ef ined a r e s h own i nF i gu re s 7 . 12 t o 7 . 17 .

E xam ina t ion o ft h e c ha r t s

a ccompany ing e a ch o f t h e f i gu re s d e sc r ib ing t h e f a b r ic s g ene ra l ly s how s ad if e ren t c oa r sene s s g rad ing w i th in e a ch o ft h e m a in g roup s , f r om l ow t o h i gh .

I n t h e X -g roup ,

w he re t h e c l ay s m ay n o t h ave b een l e v iga ted , t h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s > 50 m ic ron s r a nge f r om a lmo s tn on -ex i s ten tt o ac oncen t ra t ion i nt h el owe re nd o ft h es i ze r a nge . T ha ti s ,t h e l a rge rf r ac t ion h a s ad i s t r ibu t ion w h ich i sp os i t ive ly s k ewed b u t h a si t sm ed ian c l o se t ot h e 5 0 -125 m ic ron e nd o ft h e r a nge .

O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e Y -g roup , w he re t h e c l ay s m ay

h ave b een l e v iga ted a nd s a nd t empe r a dded , e xh ib i t s ag r ad ing w i th in t h e c oa r se f r ac t ion w h ich v a r ie sw i th in am uch c oa r se rr a nge . I ti sa l so s k ewed p o s i t ive ly , b u th a si t sm ed ian c l o se rt ot h e 1 25 -200 m ic ron r a nge . A l lo ft h e se d i s t r ibu t ion sa r eg ene ra l ly c on s i s ten tw i th t ho se f o und i nr i ve r s a nd s .

T he d i s t r ibu t ion c ha r t s a c company ing f a br ic s Y 2 a nd Y 3

a ppea r t ob e s im i la r , b u t a n i mpo r tan t d i s t ingu i sh ing d if e r ence i si nt h e c oncen t ra t ion o f t h eq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s> 275 m ic ron s , a ss e en i nt h ea c company ing p ho tom ic rog raph s .

1 84

RHD44 . C ro s sed p o la r s . Magn if ica t ion 4 0X . F i e ld w id th 2 . 50 mm .

F ab r ic X i : Q z > 50 m ic rons ' A3 0 U )

. N

0-

2 2 20 5. 5M 2 5 .9 6

25

2 0

T o 4 8 1 5 1 0 C J )

5 2 C L

o 5 0 125

1 25 -200

2 00 -275

2 75 -350

> 350

S ize i nm icrons

Mean c oncen t ra t ion o fQ zi n c lu s ion s 3 0 -50 m ic ron s =3 2 .8 p e r mm 2

F IGURE 7 . 12 R EHMAN DHER I F ABR IC T YPE X I

1 8 5

R FD 5 0 . C ro s sed p o la r s . 4 0X m agn if ica t ion . F i e ld w id th 2 . 50 mm .

F ab r ic X 2 : Q z > 50 m ic rons

+• . 40 1

« 3

2 5 0 125

1 25 -200

2 03275

2 75 -350

> 350

S ize i nm ic rons

Mean c oncen t ra t ion o fQ zi n c lu s ion s3 0 -50 m ic ron s =3 4 .7 p e r mm 2

F IGURE 7 . 13 REHMAN DHER I F ABR IC TYPE X 2

1 86

RHD 3 8 . C ro s sed p o la r s . 4 0X m agn if ica t ion . F ie ld w id th 2 . 50 mm .

Mean c oncen t ra t ion o fQ zi n c lu s ion s 3 0 -50 m ic ron s =1 3 .3 p e r mm 2

F IGURE 7 . 14 R EHMAN DHER I F ABR IC T YPE X3

1 87

R IM 4 3 . C ros sed p o la r s . 4 0X m agn if ica t ion . F i e ld w id th 2 . 50 mm .

Mean c oncen t ra t ion o fQ zi n c lu s ion s3 0 -50 m ic ron s =5 . 5 p e r mm 2

F IGURE 7 . 15 R EHMAN DHER I F ABR IC T YPE Y 1

1 88

R I ID 1 9 . C ro s sed p o la r s . 4 0X m agn if ica t ion . F i e ld w id th 2 . 50 mm .

Mean c oncen t ra t ion o fQ zi n c lu s ion s3 0 -50 m ic ron s =3 . 4p e r mm 2

F IGURE 7 . 16 REHMAN DHER I F ABR IC TYPE Y 2

1 89

RHD 2 1 . C ro s sed p o la r s . 4 0X m agn if i ca t ion . F i e ld w id th 2 . 50 mm .

Mean c oncen t ra t ion o fQ zi n c lu s ion s3 0 -50 m ic ron s =2 . 0p e r mm2

F IGURE 7 . 17 R EHMAN DHER I F ABR IC T YPE Y 3

1 90

T he m os t c ommon f a b r ic t y pe s w e r e Y 1 a nd Y 2 , w h ich t o ge the r c on s t i tu ted 6 2% o ft h e t o ta l . F igu re 7 . 18 s h ow st h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ff a b r ic t y pe s a tR ehman D he r i a nd T ab le 7 4 1 s how sf a b r ic t y pe so ccu r r ing b ym o rpho log ica lt y pe . T ype X 1 i ss e en t ob er e la t ive ly r a r e . I nt h o se i n s tance sw he re t y pe X 1 f a b r ic w a su s ed ,t wo o ccu r rence so fu se o nB Ib ow l sa nd o ne C I Ip o lych rome w e re r e co rded . T ype X 2w a sa l so r e la t ive ly r a re , a nd o n ly s e en u sed f o rA I Ij a r s ,B I I Ib ow l sa nd o ne BV d i sh o ns t and . F ab r ic t y pe X 3 ,t h em os tc oa r se o ft h e p o s s ib ly u n lev iga ted c l ay s , w a s s omewha tm o re c ommon a nd w a s i nt h em a jo r i ty o fc a se s u sed f o r B I b ow l s , w h ich r e p re sen ted 5o ft h e 9o ccu r rence s o ft h a t f a b r ic n o ted .

N o

i n s tance s o ff a b r ic t y pe X 3 w e re e n coun te red i nB I I I , B IV o r BV m o rpho log ica l t y pe s . T he Y 1 f a b r ic o ccu r r ed i na l m o rpho log ica l t y pe s e xcep t B I I b ow l s .

F ab r ic t y pe Y 2

o ccu r red i na l m o rpho log ica l t y pe sw i th t h ee xcep t ion o fB I I I b ow l s . F i na l ly , f a b r ic t y pe Y 3 w a s i n ac l ea r m ino r i ty w i th in t h e Yf a b r ic s , w i th o n ly 4 o ccu r rence s . T h i s t y pe h ad t h e m os t c oa r se o ft h e s a nd t empe r s , w i th as i gn i f ican t p or t ion o ft h e l a rge r i n c lu s ion s > 275 m ic ron s . B ecau se t h et h in s e c t ion s amp l ing p rog ramme w a sn o t d e s igned f o ri t ,t h e r a nge o fv a r ia t ion o ff a b r ic w i th in as i ng le v e s se lw a sn o te s tab l i shed .

F IGURE 7 . 18 D ISTR IBUT ION OF R EHMAN DHER I F ABR IC TYPES

S ome s ugge s t ion s c a n b e m ade w i th r e spec t t o t e chno logy a nd p o t te r b ehav iou r b y c on s ide r ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se f a b r ic g r oup s . F i r s t ly ,t h e re d oe sn o ta ppea rt ob ea ny

1 9 1

s i gn if i can t c o r re la t ion b e tween t h e d ef ined f a b r ic g roup s a nd m o rpho log ica l t y pe s .

I ti s

n o ta ppa ren tf r om t h e se d a ta t h a td if e ren tf a b r ic g roup sw e re f o rm ing d if e ren tr e c ipe sf o r m anuf ac tu re o f c e r ta in t y pe s o fj a r s o r b ow l s .

E a ch m o rpho log ica l t y pe s amp led w a s

r e p re sen ted b y t h ree o r m o re d if e ren t f a b r ic t y pe s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f B I I b ow l s . H oweve r , o n ly t h ree B I Ib ow l sw e r ea na ly sed , t h e r ef o re t h i sm o rpho log ica lg roup m ay n o t b e r e p re sen ta t ive o f t h e r a nge o f f a b r ic t y pe s .

T he r e i s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e

m e thodo logy u sed i ng roup ing t h ef a b r ic s d i d n o t r e vea l d e l ibe ra te a t temp t sb yt h e p o t te r t o v a ry t h e r e c ipe s .

B u t , a s d i scu s sed a bove , t h e f a b r ic s w e re g rouped o n t h e m a in

o b se rved d if e rence si nc ompo s i t ion .

S econd ly , t h e re w a s n o c o r re la t ion o b se rved b e tween t h o se s e c t ion s w he re a s e pa ra te d i s t r ibu t ion w a s s e en i nt h e a ngu la r i ty o ft h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s , a sd i scu s sed e a r l ie r i nt h e c hap te r , a nd e i the rf a b r ic t y pe o rm o rpho log ica lt y pe . T ho se w h ich c on ta ined , i na dd i t ion t o s u bangu la r t o s u b rounded q ua r tz g r a in s , a ngu la r ( 4 o n t h e a u tho r ' s a ngu la r i ty s c a le ) g r a in s , o ccu r red a t l e a s t o nce w i th in e a ch o f t h e f a b r ic g roup s .

W i th r e spec t t o

m o rpho log ica lg roup s ,t h ey o ccu r red o nce i nA I Ij a r s ;f o u rt i me si nB Ib ow l s ; o nce i ne ach o fB I I b ow l s , B I I I b ow l s a nd B IV b ow l s ; a nd t h ree t i me s i nw a s te r s h e rd s . T he a ngu la r i n c lu s ion s , s ugge s t ive o fc r u shed s a nd o rp r ima ry d epo s i t q ua r tz t empe r , a ppea rr a ndom ly d i s t r ibu ted t h roughou tf a b r ic a nd m o rpho log ica lt y pe s .

T h i rd ly , t h e re w a s n o c o r re la t ion o b se rved b e tween t h e d ef ined f a b r ic t y pe s a nd t h e m ea su red t h ickne s s o ft h e s h e rd s .

I tc ou ld b e e xpec ted t h a t , i ng ene ra l , am o re c oa r se

f a b r ic w ou ld b e a s soc ia ted w i th at h icke r -wa l led v e s se l . r e qu i re s g r ea te r s t reng th i ni t s f a b r ic .

At h icke r -wa l led , l a rge r v e s se l

C o r re la t ion w i th r e spec t t o r im d i ame te r w a s n o t

a t temp ted , a st h eK o tD i j ian c e ram ic s( e spec ia l ly t h e A I a nd A I Ij a r s ) h ave w ide ly v a ry ing r i md i ame te r sa s soc ia ted w i th g i ven b ody d i ame te r sb ecau se o ft h ed if e ren tm ou th a nd r i m s h ape s .

1 92

TABLE 7 1 1 R EHMAN DHER I F ABR IC TYPES OCCURR ING BY MORPHOLOG ICAL TYPE

F abr ic A lJ ar T ype

A I IJ ar

B IB ow l

BB B ow l BM B ow l

B IV B ow l

al P o lych

BV D i sh

X 1

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

1

X 2

0

3

0

0

3

0

1

0

X 3

1

1

5

2

0

0

0

0

Y 1

2

4

4

0

3

3

3

Y 2

2

3

2

1

1 _ 0

3

1

1

Y 3

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

V a r ia t ion s i nf a b r ic t y pe s c an b e a t t r ibu ted t oo t he r s ou rce s . B ecau se t h ey a r e i d en t if ied b y d if e rence s i ns a nd i n c lu s ion s , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e v a r ia t ion s a r e c au sed b y u s e o f d if e r en ts a nd t empe rs o u rce s . T h i si su n l ik e ly , b ecau se o ve r ab r oad a r ea l e xpan se s u ch a s t h e G oma l p l a in i tw ou ld b e e xpec ted t h a t s a nd f o und i no ne c ompa ra t ive ly s ma l l a r ea , s u ch a s t h e s i t e o f R ehman D he r i , w ou ld b e o f q u i te u n if o rm a ngu la r i ty a nd s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion , h av ing b een s u b jec ted t os i m i la re r o s iona li n f luence sa nd s ou rce e nv i ronmen t s r e spec t ive ly .

A no the r p o s s ib le s ou rce o ff a b r ic v a r ia t ion i st h a t e a ch p o t te r o rg roup s o fp o t te r s m ay h ave h ad t h e i r o wn d i s t inc t ive f a b r ic r e c ipe .

T h i s p henomenon h a s b een o b se rved i n

e t hnog ragh ic s t ud ie s . D ay ( 1 995 ) r e po r ted t h a t p o t te r s f r om C r e te o f t en r ema ined w i th o n ep a s te r e c ipe o n ly , r e ga rd le s so fp o tt y pe . When t h ey c hanged l o ca t ion s , m ine ra log ica l c hang e si nt h e i rp roduc t c ou ld b eo b se rved , b u tp a s te r e c ipe sr ema ined t h e s ame , p o s s ib ly a s as ymbo l o fg r oup c ohe s ion . H i sr e sea r ch t r aced t h e se o b se rva t ion sb ack t o2 000 BC . I ne t hnog raph ic s t ud ie so fp o t te r sf r om t h eN o r thwe s tF ron t ie rP rov ince o fP ak i s tan , m any f am i ly o r k i n sh ip g roup s o fp o t te r s h ave t h e i r o wn c l ay m ix tu re r e c ipe s ( Rye a nd E van s 1 976 ) .

T he se c a se s c ou ld a l so r e p re sen t s i mp ly t h a t g roup s o f p o t te r s l e a rned o ne

p a r t icu la r r e c ipe a nd c on t inued w o rk ing w i th i tt h roughou t t h e i r c a ree r s , a nd p a s sed t h e s ame o ne o nt ot h e i rt r a inee s ; a nd n o tn ece s sa r i ly as ymbo lo fg r oup c ohe s ion .

1 93

F IGURE 7 . 19 FREQUENCY OF R EHMAN DHER I F ABR IC T YPES : P ER IODS I I I

F i gu re 7 . 19 s how s t h e v a r ia t ion i nf a b r ic t y pe d i s t r ibu t ion f o rP e r iod s It o I I a tR ehman D he r i .

T he m a in o b se rva t ion t o b e m ade f r om t h i s r e la t ion sh ip i st h a t P e r iod Ih ad

g ene ra l ly m o re o ft h e f i ne r f a b r ic s , a nd b y P e r iod I I f a b r ic s g ene ra l ly w e re t owa rd s t h e c oa r se r e nd o ft h e s p ec t rum .

P e r iod I a ppea red t ol i e s omewhe re i nb e tw een t h e t wo ;

h oweve r , t h e s ma l le r n umbe r o f s amp le s t a ken f r om P e r iod I d oe s n o t p rov ide av e ry s ound b a s i sf o rt h i so b se rva t ion . T he g r adua lc hange f r om f i ne rt oc oa r se rf a b r ic sm ay n o t n ece s sa r i ly i mp ly ; h a t a t ten t ion t o t e chno log ica l d e ta i l w a s l e s sen ing , a l though t h i s h a s b een o b se rved a s ag r adua l c hange w h ich o ccu r red b e tween t h e E a r ly a nd Ma tu re H a rappan p e r iod s a tH a rappa ( J enk in s 1 992 : 3 27 ) . J enk in s n o ted a tH a rappa t h a t t h e re w a sa ni n c rea se i nt h eq uan t i ty o fp l a in w a re sa nd ad ec rea se i nt h eq uan t i ty o fs l i pped a nd p a in ted w a re s t owa rd s t h e Ma tu re H a rappan p e r iod .

I n t h e p r e sen t s t udy , P e r iod I

c on ta ined t h e b r oade s t n umbe r o fd if e ren t f a b r ic g r oup s , b e ing t h e o n ly p e r iod w he re a l s i x o ccu r red .

I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t a st h e q uan t i ty o f s l i pped a nd p a in ted w a re s d ec l ined

t owa rd s t h e l a te r p e r iod , t h e r e qu i remen t f o r t h e f i ne r f a b r ic s d ec l ined w i th i t . A l ter na t ive ly , i nt h e e a r l ie r p ha se s o f o ccupa t ion a tt h e s i t e t h e re w e re p e rhaps m o re d if e ren t p o t te r g roup s p r oduc ing c e ram ic s .

I fe a ch h ad a n i n d iv idua l f a b r ic r e c ipe ( s ee

p r ev iou sp a rag raph ) a nd t h en umbe ro fs e pa ra te g roup s d ec l ined a st h e s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion

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b ecame m o re c omp lex t owa rd P e r iod I I , t h e n umbe r o fs e pa ra te ly d ef inab le f a b r ic t y pe s m ay h ave d ec l ined .

As h if t i ns o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion m ay b e c o r re la ted w i th a n i n c rea s ing

m a s s p roduc t ion o fc e ram ic s .

T h i s p henomena h a s b een s ugge s ted t o e xp la in c hange s

o b se rved f r om t h eE a r ly t ot h e Ma tu re p e r iod a tH a rappa ( W r igh t 1 991) .

F ur the r s ugge s t ion s o ff a b r ic t e chno log ie s a r e p r ov ided b y t h e R ehman D he r i s amp le . T he re a r e s ome o b se r va t ion s m ade i nt h e t h in s e c t ion s w h ich s h ed l i gh t o n f o rm ing m e thod s .

A d i s t inc t ive a l ignmen t o f t h e i n c lu s ion s w a s s e en i n m o s t o f t h e s h e rd s ,

p a r t icu la r ly w i th r e spec tt ot h o se p a r t ic le s w i th ah i gh a s pec t r a t io s u ch a st h e m ica s a nd s ome o ft h e c oa r se r q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s . R ea r rangemen t o fp a r t ic le s i n ap l a s t ic c l ay o ccu r s u nde r s t re s s d ef o rma t ion .

C omp re s s ion s t re s s r e su l t s i nc l ay p a r t ic le s a l igned n o rma l t o

t h e m a jo r c omp re s s ive s t re s s , w h i le s h ea r s t re s s r e su l t s i nc l ay p a r t ic le s a l igned a l ong t h e d i r ec t ion o f s h ea r ( K i rby a nd B lunden 1 991 , c i ted i n C ou r ty a nd R oux 1 995 : 2 6 ) . A bundance o fr i g id s i l t s ize m ica g r a in s i n duce s t h e s ame m echan ica l b ehav iou r a sc oa r se k ao l in i te w i th f o rma t ion o f ap r ef e ren t ia l p a ra l le l a r rangemen t u nde r h yd r ic o rm echan ica l s t re s s ( Te s s ie r , p e r s . c omm . , c i ted i n C ou r ty a nd R oux 1 995 : 2 6 ) .

T he m a jo r i ty o f

t h in sec t ion sw he re t h i sf e a tu re w a so b se rved e xh ib i ted p r ef e ren t ia lm ica p a r t ic le a l ignmen t w i th t h e l e ng th o ft h e s e c t ion . Mo s t o ft h e s e c t ion sw e re c u t p a ra l le l t o ap l ane b i sec t ing t h ev e s se l p e rpend icu la r ly , a nd a tr i gh t a ng le st ot h e w a l l s u r f a ce s . T he o b se rved p a r t ic le o r ien ta t ion t h e ref o r e s t rong ly s ugge s t s ad r aw ing o r p u l l ing o f t h e p l a s t ic f a b r ic i n a d i rec t ion v e r t ica l t ot h ev e s se l ' s b a se ; o r , a l te rna t ive ly , t h e v e s se l s m ay h ave b een t h rown ( Rye 1 977 a nd 1 981 , C an 1 990 ; c i ted i nC our ty a nd R oux 1 995 : 2 1) . N oi n d ica t ion ss u ch a st h o se o bse rved b y C ou r ty a nd R oux ( 1 995 ) t oi n d ica te t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fc omb ined c o i l a nd s moo th ing t e chn ique si ns ome H a rappan w a re s w e re s e en i na ny o ft h e t h in s e c t ion s e xam ined .

I n o r de r t o e f ec t ive ly s amp le a v e s se l t o e xam ine f o rm ing t e chn ique v i a

t h in sec t ion ing , h oweve r , i ti sn ece s sa ry t os e lec tt h ree o rf o u rs h e rd sf r om t h es ame v e s se l w a l l . O ne c an t h en b em o r e c e r ta in t h a t al o ca t ion w he re ac o i lj o in ing o ccu r si ss amp led .

S pec if i c s u rf ace t r ea tmen t s a r e s ugge s ted b y o t he r t h in s e c t ion f e a tu re s . C omp re s s ion o r c oncen t ra t ion o fm ica i n c lu s ion s n ea r t h e o u te r s u rf ace o ft h e v e s se l s w a s o b se rved i n s ome o ft h e t h in s e c t ion s . T h i s m ay b e a n i n d ica t ion o fb u rn i sh ing , w h ich p r obab ly t o ok p l a ce a f te r d r y ing b u t b e f o re f i r ing .

B u rn i sh ing c ompac t s a nd r e o r ien t s t h e f i ne c l ay

1 95

p a r t ic le s , a nd i sd one o n l e a the r -ha rd o rd r y c l ay s ( R ice 1 987 : 1 38 ) .

T he p a ra l le l f a ce t s

o bse rved o n t h e s u r f ace o fs ome o ft h e s h e rd s b ef o re s aw ing i n to t h in s e c t ion s s u ppo r t t h e se i n d ica t ion s . Mo reove r , c r o s s sec t ion s o fm icaceou s s l i p s w e re o bse rved , s h own i n F igu re 7 . 20 .

I tc ou ld n o t b e c on c lu s ive ly t o ld f r om t h e i mage s w he the r t he s l i p w a s

a pp l ied b ef o re o r a f t e r t h e b u rn i sh ing .

E i the r t e chn ique i se f ec t ive , b u t mos t s l i p s a r e

b u rn i shed o r p o l i shed w i th as t one a f t e r a pp l ica t ion , t o c ompac t a nd o r ien t t h e p a r t ic le s a nd i mpa r t al u s t re ( R ice 1 987 : 1 50 ) . C o r re la t ion w i th c h rono log ica l p e r iods a tt h e s i te w a sn o to b se rved .

F IGURE 7 .20 TH IN S ECT ION S HO W ING S L IP L AYER RHD 5 3 . C rossed p o la r s , 4 0X , F i e ld w id th 2 . 5 mm .

7 . 1 .2 . B annu s i te s D a ta o b ta ined f r om t h et wo s i t e sl o ca ted i nt h eB annu b a s in , L ewan a nd T a raka iQ ua , a r e d i scu s sed t oge the r i nt h i s s e c t ion , b ecau se t h ey a r e s i tua ted i nc l ose p rox im i ty t o e ach o t he r( a bou t 1 3k ma pa r t ) . A td i s tance ss u ch a st h e se , t h ep r e sence o fi n te r s i te i n te rac t ion m ay a lmo s tb ea s sumed ;w i thou tr e so r t ing t oa r tef ac tua lo rd a ta a na ly s i s . I ndeed , i tw ou ld b e m o re o f at a sk t o d emon s t ra te t h e a bs ence o fi n te r s i te i n te rac t ion .

L ewan p roduced

c e ram ic s , w h i le n o e v idence f o r p o t te ry m anuf ac tu re w a s f ound a tT a raka i Q ua b y t h e e xcava to r s ( s ee d i scu s s ion C hap te r 5 ) . T he m ine ra l s u i te s o ft h e t wo s i te s a r e e s sen t ia l ly t h es ame ;h oweve r , d i s t inc td if e rence sw e re n o ted i nt h es i ze d i s t r ibu t ion c ha rac te r i s t ic so f

1 96

t h e i rr e spec t ive i n c lu s ion s . B ecau se t h es i m i la r i t ie sa r eg r ea te rt h an t h ed i s s im i la r i t ie s , d a ta f r om t h e t wo s i t e s a r e d i scu s sed h e re i nt h e s ame s e c t ion .

I mpo r tan t ly , h oweve r , t h e

r e spec t ive d a ta a r e s h own a nd d i scu s sed i n dependen t ly . D if f e rence s n o ted i nt e chno logy b e tween s i te ss i tua ted i ns u ch c l o se p rox im i ty c an b er e vea l ing i nt e rm so fs i te i n te rac t ion s .

R aw d a ta f r om L ewan a nd T a raka iQ i la a r ep r e sen ted a tA ppend ix B , r e spec t ive ly . F o r a d e ta i led e xp lana t ion o ft h ei n f orma t ion p r e sen ted , t h er e ade ri sr e f e r red t o S ec t ion 6 . 4 a nd t h e i n t roduc to ry p age t o A ppend ix A .

O ne i n d iv idua l s h ee t i sp r e sen ted f o r e a ch t h in

s e c t ion a na ly sed . T he re a r e s e ven c a se s w he re t h e s amp le w a s t oo s ma l l o r o ft o o p oo r q ua l i ty t oc omp le te au s e f u la na ly s i sw i th r e spec tt ot e x tu ra ld a ta ;t h e se p age sp r e sen to n ly p r ovenance , m e t r ic a nd m ine ra log ica li n f o rma t ion .

M inera logy C oncen t ra t ion so ft h em ine ra l s o b se rved i nt h et h in s e c t ion sf r om L ewan a nd T a raka i Q i la a r e s umma r i sed i nT ab le 7 I I I . T he t a b le u s e st h e a u tho r ' s s c a le d e sc r ibed i nS ec t ion 6 . 3 , w he re 1 =a b sen t

2 =t r ace

3 =r a re

4 =c ommon

D a ta s hown i nt a b le 7 I I Iw e re o b ta ined b yt a k ing t h e m ean so ft h e e a ch o ft h e i n d iv idua l m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion sr e co rded o nt h i s s c a le . S t anda rd e r ro ro ft h e m ean i sa sd e sc r ibed b yS hennan ( 1988 : 3 02 -3 ) ,u s ing e a ch e s t ima te f r om t h ea bove s c a le a st h ei n d iv idua lm ean o fe a ch t h in s e c t ion . T h i s p rov ide s ar e a sonab le e s t ima te w h ich i sp a r t icu la r ly u s ef u l f o r m ak ing i n te r s i te c ompa r i son s w he r e m ine ra l s u i te s a r e u nd if f e ren t ia ted a st ot y pe b u t n o t a st o c oncen t ra t ion s , a si sd i scu s sed i nS ec t ion 7 . 2 . e a ch s i te , b o th e x cava ted a nd w a s te r s h e rd s .

T he t a b le a ve rage s a l s h e rd s f r om

D a ta f o r t h e q ua r tz g r a in s h a s n o t b een

i n c luded o nt h et a b le ,b ecau se t h ey w e re i nh i gh c oncen t ra t ion si na l o ft h e s h e rd s ; a nd , a s w i th R e lunan D he r i , t h ey a r e t h e s u b jec t o f as e pa ra te i n ve s t iga t ion , d e sc r ibed u nde r ' F ab r ic 'b e low .

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TABLE 7 I l l M INERAL CONCENTRAT ION DATA -BANNU S ITES •E xc ludes q ua r tz

M inera l

.E . Mean /Lewan 2 C onc / TRQ C onc /L ewan 1 S

S .E . Mean /TRQ

P lag ioc la se f e ld spa r

1 . 85

0 . 07

1 . 71

0 . 10

M ic roc l ine f e ld spa r

1 . 08

0 . 05 -

1 . 04 -

0 . 04

B io t i te

1 . 85

0 . 14

2 . 00

0 . 12

Mu scov i te

3 . 62

0 . 11

3 . 89

0 . 06

Amph ibo le

1 . 35

0 . 10

1 . 32

0 . 09

C a rbona te

3 . 15

0 . 18

3 . 32

0 . 10

P y roxene

1 . 54

0 . 10

1 . 50

0 . 10

E p ido te

1 . 46

0 . 10

1 . 39

0 . 09

S ch i s t

1 . 58

0 . 11

1 . 50

0 . 11

C oncen t ra t ion 2

S tanda rd e r ro ro ft h e m ean

P hy s ica l c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s f r om b o th o ft h eB annu s i te s a r eg ene ra l ly t h es ame a st ho se d e sc r ibed f r om R ehman D he r ii nS ec t ion 7 . 1 .1 , s ot h e i rd e ta i l sa r en o tb e r e pea ted i nt h i s s e c t ion .

T he i r c ha ra c te r i s t ic s a r e , a s w i th t h e R ehman Dhe r i m a te r ia l ,

t y p ica l o fs ed imen ta ry , i g neou sa nd m e tamo rph ic s ou rce s .

M ine ra l s r e co rded i n T ab le

7 1 1 1 s how t h a t a c l o se c o r re la t ion

e x i s t s b e tween

c oncen t ra t ion s o fe a ch o ft h e m ine ra l s o ft h e t wo s i t e s , i n d ica t ing ah i gh p robab i l i ty t h a t t h ey a r e f r om t h e s ame s ou rce g eo logy .

Mo reove r , t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f e ach m ine ra l

f r om e ach s i te a r ec l o se ly s im i la r . T he d e sc r ip t ion so fe a ch m ine ra lt y pe a r ev e ry s im i la rt o t h o se m ade f o rt h eR ehman D he r i s amp le s ( bu t n o tt h e i r c oncen t ra t ion s , wh ich d if e red i n s ome r e spec t s , a nd a r e d i scu s sed u nde r ' I n te r s i te a na ly s i s ' ) , a nd s o w i l l n o t b e r e pea ted h e re .

O ne e xcep t ion t ot h i s i sw ea the r ing o fb i o t i te a nd m u scov i te i n c lu s ion s . B o th b i o t i te a nd m u scov i te g ra in s e xh ib i ted am uch l e s se r a moun t o fw ea the r ing t h an t h a t o b se r ved o n t h e R ehman Dhe r i m a te r ia l .

Wea the r ing o ft h e b i o t i te i n c lu s ion s , u s ing t h e a u tho r ' s s c a le a s

1 98

d e s r ibed i nC hap te r6 ,a ve raged 2 . 10 a nd 2 . 13 , r e spec t ive ly ,f o rt h eL ewan a nd t h eT a raka i Q ua s h e rd s . T h i sm ean st h a tt h ey a r ei nt h em a jo r i ty f r e sh t oo n ly s l i gh t ly w ea the red . T h i s i sc ompa red w i th 2 . 98 o b se rved i n t h e R ehman D he r i m a te r ia l .

Wea the r ing o f t h e

m u scov i te i n c lu s ion s a ve raged 2 . 15 a nd 2 . 00 f o r L ewan a nd T a raka i Q i la , r e spec t ive ly , a bou t t h e s ame a st h e o b se rva t ion s o n b i o t i te . T h i s c ompa re s w i th 2 . 74 o b ser ved i nt h e R ehman D he r i s amp le s .

Wh i le i n te r s i te c ompa r i son s a r e d i scu s sed i nS ec t ion 7 . 2 , s u ch

d if e rence sb e tween t h eB annu b a s in a nd t h eG oma l p l a in m ay b e e xpec ted b ecau se o ft h e g r ea te ra ge o ft h e s e d imen ta ry d epo s i t si nt h e G oma l c ompa red w i th t h eB annu b a s in ( M . J a ved K han ,p e r s . c omm . ) .

W i th r e spec t t o t h e n a tu re o ft h e c a rbona te i n c lu s ion s o b se rved i nt h e s amp le f r om t h e B annu b a s in , t h ey w e re s e en t ob ev e r y s i m i la rt ot h o se s e en i nt h eR ehman D he r i s amp le . C a rbona te s o ft h e o o l i t ic t y pe w e r e p r e sen t i n9 0% o ft h e s h e rd s f r om L ewan ,9 6% o f t h o se f r om T a raka i Q ua , a nd i n8 3% o ft h ew a s te r s . I na s soc ia t ion w i th t h e se t h e re w a s a m uch h i ghe r i n c idence o ft h e t y pe ' 3 ' , o rt h e t y pe w h ich w a s u n iden t if i ed f r om R ehman D he r i . T he se w e re p r e sen t i n7 6% o ft h eL ewan s h e rd s , 7 9% o ft h e T a raka i Q ua s h e rd s , a nd i n5 0% o ft h ew a s te r s . ( The l owe ri n c idence s e en i nt h ew a s te r s m ay b e a t t r ibu ted t o t h e h i ghe r f i r ing t empe ra tu r e s t h ey p r obab ly w e r e s u b jec ted t o -s e e d i scu s s ion b e low o n i mp l ied f i r ing t empe ra tu r e s ) . T he re w a so ne o b se rva t ion o f ab i oc la s ti nt h eL ewan s h e rd s , t wo i nt h eT a raka iQ ua c o l lec t ion a nd o ne i nt h eL ewan w a s te rs e lec t ion . T he se w e r en o t i d en t if i ed b u tw e re o fs im i la rs k e le ta l s t ruc tu re a st h o se s e en i nt h eR ehman D he r is h e rd s .

Mo s t o f t ho se o o l i t ic t y pe o f c a rbona te s t h a t w e re p r e sen t e xh ib i ted m ode ra te d ecompo s i t ion , a nd w e r e s u b jec t ive ly r a ted a s t h e s ame s e en i n t h e Re iman D he r i c o l lec t ion .

T h i s w ou ld i mp ly t h a t t h e r a nge o ff i r ing t empe ra tu re s a ve raged a r ound 8 50

d eg ree s C . T he s t a te o fd ecompo s i t ion w a s t r an s i to ry , t h a t i s ,m o s t e xh ib i ted s ome l e ve l o fd ecompo s i t ion , b u t n one e x cep tt h ree o ft h ew a s te r s w a s i na n a dvanced s t a te . T he se t h ree w a s te r s s howed s p a l l ing a nd b l i s te r ing o nt h e i r s u r f ace s , a sd i d t hose f r om R ehman D he r i , i n d ica t ing f i r ing t empe ra tu re s i ne x ce s s o f8 50 d eg ree s C . F u r the r d a ta a r e g i ven u nde r ' F ab r ic s 'b e low , i nd i scu s s ion o ft h e t empe ra tu re s a si mp l ied b yb i ref r ingence o ft h e m a t r ix .

1 99

No t i n c luded i nt h e c oncen t ra t ion t a b le , b ecau se t h e i r s p ec if i c c oncen t ra t ion s w e re n o t r e co rded , w e re v o lcan ic r o ck f r agmen t s .

T he se w e re o b se rved i nb o th t h e L ewan a nd

T a raka i Q ua t h in s e c t ion sa sw e l la st h eL ewan w a s te r s . T hey w e re g ene ra l ly i nt h ef i ne t o v e ry f i ne s a nd s i ze r a nge o n t h e U dden -Wen two r th s c a le ( 6 2 .5 t o 2 50 m ic ron s ) .

T he i r

i n d iv idua l c on s t i tuen t s c ou ld n o t b e r e ad i ly i d en t if ied , b u t p l ag ioc la se l a th s c ou ld u sua l ly b e o b se rved s e ti na na l te red g roundma s s ,v e ry s im i la rt oa ne xamp le i l u s t ra ted i nA dam s , e ta l .( 1 984 : f i gu re 2 4 ) . T hey w e re o b se rved i n1 5o ft h eL ewan s h e rd s ( 7 1% ) , 1 7 o ft h e T a raka i ( ) Ha . s h e rd s ( 6 1% ) , a nd 4o ft h e L ewan w a s te r s ( 6 7% ) . I nt h e se , c oncen t ra t ion s r a nged f r om o ne p a r t ic le t ot h ree p a r t ic le s i ne a ch s e c t ion . T he se c oncen t ra t ion s , a sw e l l a st h e p a r t ic le s ' i n d iv idua l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s , a r e s e en t ob e c on s i s ten t f r om g roup t og roup , a nd w e re p r e sen to n ly i ns h e rd sf r om t h eB annu b a s in .

O the ri n c lu s ion so b se rved a nd p l aced i nt h e' O the r 'c a tego ry i n c lude o ne i n c iden to fg a rne t . T h i sw a ss e en i nt h in s e c t ion n umbe r LWN 2 02 , a ne xcava ted s h e rd f r om L ewan . G a rne t s c an o ccu r i n av a r ie ty o f r o ck t y pe s , f r om m ed ium -g rade m e tamo rph ic s ( s ch i s t s a nd g ne i s se s ) a nd i g neou s r o ck s t o m e tamo rpho sed l i me s tone s ( Ru t ley 1 988 : 3 55 -6 ) , a l o f w h ich a r e p r e sen t i nt h e B annu d r a inage b a s in . P o s s ib le g rog w a s o b se rved i n 3o ft h e L ewan s e c t ion s ( 1 4% ) , n one o ft h e w a s te r s f r om L ewan , a nd i no ne o ft h e T a raka i Q ua s e c t ion s .

T he g rog l ike i n c lu s ion s a ppea red t ob e o fc l ay , b u t d i d n o t c on ta in i n c lu s ion s

w i th in t h e i r i n d iv idua l g r a in s , n o rv o id s . T he ref o re t h ey m ay b e s ome o t he r a r g i l laceou s i n c lu s ion ss u ch a sn a tu ra lc l ay c oncen t ra t ion s , a nd n o tn ece s sa r i ly g rog .

2 00

F IGURE 7 .21 COMPARAT IVE MEAN CONCENTRAT IONS OF M INERALS OBSERVED I N L E WAN AND TARAKA I Q ILA SHERDS , W ITH L E WAN WASTERS PFs= p l ag ioc lase f e ldspar Amph= amph ibo le E p id= e p ido te

MFs= m ic roc l ine f e ldspar Musc= muscov i te C arb= c arbona te P y rox= p y roxene v r f rag= v o lcan ic r ock f r agmen t

T he w a s te r s c o l lec ted f r om t h e s u r f a ce o f L ewan , w h ich a r e a s sumed t o h ave b een m anuf ac tu red a tt h e s i t e , s how am ine ra l s u i te v e ry s im i la rt ot h a t o fb o th t h e L ewan a nd t h e T a raka i Q ua e xcava ted m a te r ia l . W i th t wo e xcep t ion s , a l o ft h e m ine ra l s a r e p r e sen t i na pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame c oncen t ra t ion s . O ne o ft h e se , a mph ibo le , w a s n o t o b se rved i n t h e s amp le o f L ewan w a s te r s .

B ecau se t h e s amp le o f w a s te r s i ss ma l l ( s ix ) a nd t h e

s t anda rd e r ro ro ft h em ean o ft h ea mph ibo le c oncen t ra t ion s i nt h e e xcava ted s h e rd s i s0 . 09 t o0 . 10 , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t aw a s te r s h e rd c on ta in ing o ne w a sn o t s e lec ted . Amph ibo le s a r e r e la t ive ly r a re i nt h eB annu m a te r ia l . T he o t he re xcep t ion i sm ic roc l ine f e ld spa r s . A sw i th t h e a mph ibo le s , t h e se i n c lu s ion s a r e r a re i nt h e m a te r ia l f r om t h e B annu s i t e s , a nd i ti s p robab le t h a t t h e w a s te r s h e rd c o l lec t ion m i s sed a n e xamp le w i th a m ic roc l ine f e ld spa r V _ i n c lus ion .

T he h i gh d eg ree o fs im i la r i ty i nt h e m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s a nd t h e i r c ha rac te r i s t ic s , a nd t h e i r r e spec t ive s im i la r i ty w i th t h e w a s te r s , s ugge s t s t h a t t h e L ewan a nd T a raka i Q ua

2 0 1

s h e rd s a r e s ou rced f r om t h e s ame g eo logy .

Mo reove r , t h a t g eo logy i sc on s i s ten t w i th

a d jacen tg eo log ica lf o rma t ion sf e ed ing d e t r i ta lm a te r ia li n to t h eB annu b a s in . A sd e s c r ibed i nS ec t ion 5 . 1 .3 , t h eB h i t tann i a nd Ma rwa t r a nge s , t h e Waz i r i s tan h i gh land s , t h e S u la iman r a nge a nd t h e P a ra ch ina r a r ea a l f o rm p a r t o ft h e d r a inage b a s in .

T he se f o rma t ion s

p rov ide ( no t a n a l inc lu s ive l i s t ing ) c ommon s e d imen ta ry r o ck s a nd f r agmen t s i n c lud ing q ua r tz i te s a nd l i me s tone s ; i g neou s r o ck s i n c lud ing b a sa l t a nd p um ice ; a nd m e tamo rph ic s i n c lud ing g ne i s s , m ica s c h i s t , a nd h o rnb lende . V o lcan ic r o ck f r agmen t su n ique ly p r e sen ti n t h eB annu b a s in s amp le s m ay h ave b een d e r ived f r om c l a s t s p r e sen ti nt h eB a in d i am ic t i te ( Khan e t . a l . 1 985 : 6 1 ) . O ve ra l l ,t h e re i sn o e v idence i nt h em ine ra logy t h a tw ou ld s ugge s t t h es h e rd sa r ed e r ived f r om c e ram ic sp roduced a nywhe re o t he rt h an t h eB annu b a s in .

F abr ic s T he s ame p rocedu re a sw a s u sed f o rt h eR ehman D he r i i n c lu s ion s i ze d a ta w a s e mp loyed o nt h e B annu s i te s d a ta . B ecau se t h e f a b r ic s i nt h a t c a se w e re c l a s s if ied p r ima r i ly o n t h e b a s i s o f q ua r tz s i ze d a ta , t h i s w a s u s ed a ga in f o r L ewan a nd T a raka i Q ua s o t h a t a c ompa r i son b e tween t h et wo c e ram ic p r oduc t ion a r ea sw a sf a c i l i ta ted . F igu re 7 . 22 s h ow s r e la t ive s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion so fq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s3 0 -50 m ic ron sf r om t h et wo s i te s .

N o . o fo ccu r rences

' 6

1 2

8

4

0 1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

Qz i n c lus ions 3 0 -50 m ic rons , p er s qmm

W iTa ra l c a i Q i la ( N=25 )

L ew a n ( N=22 )

F IGURE 7 .22 D ISTR IBUT ION OF QZ I NCLUS IONS 3 0 -50 M ICRONS : BANNU S ITES

2 02

F ig u re 7 . 22 s how s t h a t t h e L ewan s h e rd q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s o f t h e s ma l le r s i ze r a nge c on cen t ra te a r ound t h e 3 0 p e r s q mm v a lue ; a nd e xh ib i t ap l a tyku r t ic d i spe r s ion w h ich i s t os ome e x ten tp o s i t ive ly s k ewed . T he r ei s ap o s s ib i l i ty t h a ta no the rm ode e x i s t sf u r the rt o t h er i gh t , a r ound t h e6 0 p e rs q mm c on cen t ra t ion l e ve l . I fo ne d oe se x i s t , al a rge rs amp le w ou ld b e r equ i red t os h ow i t ,a si ta ppea r s t h a t i tw ou ld b e av e ry s ma l l s e gmen t o ft h e p opu la t ion s amp led . T he T a raka i Q ua d a ta o ft h e s ame c ha r t s h ow st h a tt h e s ma l l q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s t h e re a l so h av e am ean a ta r ound t h e 3 0 p e r s q mm l e ve l .

T h e se d a ta a l so

a ppea r t o b e a pp rox ima te ly p o s i t ive ly s k ewed , b u t a r e m uch m o re l e p toku r t ic i n d i s t r ibu t ion t h an t h e L ewan d a ta .

T he p o s s ib i l i ty o f as e cond m ode i sa l so s e en i nt h e

T a raka i Q ua d a ta . As e cond p eak i ss e en a tt h e 5 0 p e r s q mm l e ve l w h ich m ay i n d ica te a s e cond mode ; o rj u s t s ome m i s s ing d a ta a r ound t h e 4 0 p e r s q mm l e ve l . A s t h e s amp le s i z e i s r e a sonab le t o d ef ine t h e d i s t r ibu t ion , i ti s m o r e l i ke ly t h a t t h e re e x i s t t wo d i s t r ibu t ion s .

T hu s , i ti ss e en t h a t t h e r e spec t iv e d i s t r ibu t ion s o ft h e t wo s i t e s a r e v e ry

s i m i la ri ns ome r e spec t sa nd q u i te d i s s im i la ri no t he r s .

T h e se s im i la r i t ie s a nd d if e rence s c an b e e xam ined i nt e rm s o f t e chno logy a nd p o t te r b ehav iou r .

T he f a c to r o ft wo i n dependen t d i s t r ibu t ion s p r e sen t i nt h e m a te r ia l s ugge s t s

t h a t t h e c l ay m ay h ave b een l e v iga ted t o a ch ieve t wo d if e ren t f a b r ic s .

T he d if e rence s

n o ted i nt h e d i spe r s ion s o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion s f r om t h et wo s i t e s m ay s how t h a t b o th c l ay s w e re b e ing l e v iga ted ,b u tt h ep o t te r sm ak ing t h eT a raka iQ i la v e s se l sw e re p e rhap sd o ing a ' b e t te rj ob ' o fi t ;w i th m o re s h e rd si nt h el owe rc oncen t ra t ion r a nge s . A tL ewan , t h em o s t c ommon o ccu r rence w a sa l so a tt h e3 0 p e r s q mm r a nge , b u tw i th m uch f ewe r o ccu r r ing b e low i t . T h i s m ay s u gge s t e i the rn o l e v iga t ion , o rl e v iga t ion t o ap o in tw h ich i n c lude s a l a rge r c oncen t ra t ion o ft h ef i ne rp a r t ic le s . I nt h e i rs t udy o fP ak i s tan r i ve ra nd l o e s s s a nd s , R y e a nd E van s ( 1 974 : 1 28 -9 ) f o und t h a t t h e p a r t ic le s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o fs a nd s f r om t h e B annu r eg ion ( Shahba z A h rnad K he l v i l lage ) h ad b y f a r t h e h i ghe s t c oncen t ra t ion s o f p a r t ic le s i nt h e s i l t s ize r a nge o fe i gh t t e s ted f r om v a r iou s r e g ion s o ft h e c oun t ry .

I n a

s i eve t e s t t h ey w e r e f o und t o c on ta in 2 0% s i l t s ize p a r t ic le s , c ompa red w i th 0 t o 2% s i l t s ize p a r t ic le sf o rt h eo t he r s . T hu s i ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h e s a nd s f o und n ea rt h e s i t e s a r e a l r eady r e la t ive ly h i gh i nt h es ma l le rp a r t ic le s i ze r a nge .

2 03

A l though n o e v idence o f al o ca l p o t te ry i n du s t ry w a s r e po r ted a tt h e s i te o fT a r aka i Q ua , t h e re m ay h ave b een o ne . A s s e en a bov e , t h e c l o se s im i la r i t ie si nt h em ine ra l s u i te so ft h e t wo s i t e s i n d ica te s t h a tt h e i rr e spec t ive c l ay s ou r ce s a r e i np r ox im i ty ; p robab ly t h e B annu b a s in .

T he d if e rence s n o ted i nt h e r e spec t ive d i s t r ibu t ion s o ft h e s ma l le r s i z ed q ua r tz

i n c lu s ion sd i scu s sed a bove a r es i gn if i can ti nt h a ti ti n d ica te s ad if e ren ti n du s t ry , o ra tl e a s t ad if e ren t m ix tu re r e c ipe , p e rhap s i n d iv idua l p o t te r g roup s e a ch w i th t h e i r o wn r e c ipe . A l te rna t ive ly , p o t te ry m anuf a c tu red a tL ewan , w he re t h e re i s ak nown c e ram ic i n du s t ry , m ay h ave s upp l ied t h e n eed s o fT a raka i Q i la . I ft h e l a t te ri st h e c a se , p o t te ry t r an spor ted t ot h a t s i t e w a s o f al e s se rq ua l i ty , a tl e a s t i nr e spec t t op r epa ra t ion b y l e v iga t ion . I tw a s n o ted i nS ec t ion 5 . 3 .4 t h a t T a raka i Q ua w a s m uch l e s s d eve loped t e chno log ica l ly t h an L ewan , a nd w a s v e ry m uch a n a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i ty f o unded o n p a s to ra l a n d a r ab le e l emen t s .

F u r the r d i scu s s ion c an b e p r ov ided f o l low ing e x am ina t ion o ft h e q ua r tz s i ze

c omponen t> 50 m ic ron s ,w he r et empe r ,i fu s ed ,w ou ld b ec l a s s i f ied .

4

6

8

1 0

Q z i n c lus ions > 50m , p er s q mm I W ITaraka iQ i la ( N=25 ) i l lLewan ( N=22 )

F IGURE 7 .23 CONCENTRAT IONS OF QZ I NCLUS IONS > 50 M ICRONS : BANNU S ITES

F igu re 7 . 23 s how s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s > 50 m ic ron s f o r b o th s i t e s .

A s

w i th t h e s ma l le r i n c lu s ion c omponen t d e sc r ibed a bove , b o th e xh ib i t a pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame m ode ( 4p e rs q mm , i nt h i sc a se ) . B o th a r er ough ly p o s i t ive ly s k ewed , a nd u n l ike t h e s ma l le r s e t o f i n c lu s ion s , s h ow s im i la r d i spe r s ion s .

2 04

T he T a raka i Q ua d a ta a r e s t r ic t ly

u n imoda l , wh i le t h o se f r om L ewan i n d ica te s ome s ma l lp o s s ib i l i ty o f as e cond d i s t r ibu t ion . I tc anno t , h oweve r ,b ec onf i rmed b yt h e se d a ta .

O n ly o ne o ft h e s h e rd s s amp led f r om t h eB annu s i t e s , TRQ 2 22 , s h owed e v idence o ft h e d if e ren t a ngu la r i ty d i s t r ibu t ion s i nt h e f r ac t ion > 50 m ic ron s s e en i nm any o ft h e R ehman D he r i s h e rd s ( s ee d i scu s s ion f o r R ehman D he r i ) .

A t R ehman D he r i , t h e se s ugge s ted

l i m i ted u se o fc r u shed q ua r tz t empe r . N one w a so b se rved i nt h eL ewan s amp le .

T he f a b r ic s f r om L ewan a nd T a raka i Q ua s howed c l o se s im i la r i t ie s w i th , a nd f i ti n to , t h e c a tego r ie s d ef ined a bove f o r t h e R ehman D he r i f a b r ic s .

U nde r t h i s s c heme , t h e L ewan

f a b r ic s a l f e l l i n to t h e Xc a tego ry , i . e . t h ey a l h ad ac oncen t ra t ion o fq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s 3 0 -50 m ic ron s o fg r ea te r t h an 1 0 p e r s q mm .

O ft h e se , 1 7 ( 7 7 .3% ) w e re X l , h av ing a

d i s t r ibu t ion o fq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s> 50 m ic ron sa ss h own i nF i gu re 7 . 12 ; 4( 1 8 .2% )w e re X 2 , h av ing a d i s t r ibu t ion a s s h own i n F i gu re 7 . 13 ; a nd o ne ( 4 .5% ) w a s X 3 , h av ing a d i s t r ibu t ion a ss h own i nF i gu re 7 . 14 . T he T a raka i Q i la f a b r ic s g r ouped s im i la r ly , w i th 2 0 ( 8 0 .0% ) X1 , 3( 1 2 .0% )X 2 , b u tw i th 2( 8 .0% )n o tf i t t ing a ny o ft h es i xd ef ined c a tego r ie s . I nt h el a t te rt wo , t h e l a rge rf r a c t ion f i t ted t h e X 1 d i s t r ibu t ion , b u t h ad ac oncen t ra t ion o f t h es ma l le rf r a c t ion o fl e s st h an 1 0p e rs q mm .

F IGURE 7 .24 B IREFR INGENCE OF F ABR ICS FROM BANNU S ITES

2 05

A sw a ss e en w i th t h eR ehman D he r ic o l lec t ion , n oc o r re la t ion o ff a b r ic t y pe sw a so b se rved w i th v e s se lm o rpho logy , o rw a l lt h ickne s s . T he v a r ia t ion i nf a b r ic g roups m ay h ave b een a f u nc t ion o fp o t te rg roup s ,t h eb a s is o fw h ich w a sd i scu s sed i nt h eR ehman Dhe r is e c t ion .

R e la t ive b i ref r ingence s e en i nt h in s e c t ion s f r om t h eB annu s i t e s i ss hown i nF igu re 7 . 24 . B o th s i te sh ave am ean b i ref r ingence i nt h e 2t o 3r a nge , w i th t h eL ewan m a te r ia l s h ow ing ab roade r d i s t r ibu t ion a nd g ene ra l ly h i ghe r v a lue s .

5 4 .2% o fT a raka i Q ua t h in s e c t ion s

e xh ib i tl ow b i ref r ingence ( 1t o2 ) ,w h i le t h er ema inde rs how i n te rmed ia te ( 3 )l e ve l s . B a sed u pon t h e r e sea r ch d i scu s sed i nt h e R ehman D he r i s e c t ion , t h i s w ou ld s ugge s t t h a t t h e l owe r s e gmen t w e re s u b jec ted t o f i r ing t empe ra tu re s a bove 8 50 d eg ree s C , a nd t h e r ema inde rp robab ly l e s st h an t h ev i t r if i ca t ion p o in t . T he L ewan s h e rd s s howed ab r oade r d i s t r ibu t ion , s i gn if i can t ly s k ewed t owa rd s t h e h i ghe r b i ref r ingence l e ve l s .

T h i s s ugge s t s

t h a t f i r ing t empe ra tu re s w e r e l e s s c on s i s ten t a nd g ene ra l ly l owe r t h an 8 50 d eg r ee s Ca t L ewan ; a l though t h i s t r end w a s n o t s ugge s ted f r om o b se rva t ion o f t h e c a rbona te d ecompo s i t ion l e ve l si nt h es ame s e c t ion s .

F IGURE 7 .25 D ISTR IBUT ION OF COLOURS I N BANNU S ITES F ABR ICS

2 06

F igu re 7 . 25 p r e sen t s as umma ry o ft h e c o lou r s o b se rved i nt h e f a b r ic s f r om T a raka i Q ua a nd L ewan i nt h in s e c t ion . Mo s t o ft h o se f r om T a raka i Q i la ( 6 7% ) w e r e m ed ium b rown , a sw e re 5 8% f r om L ewan . T he g r ey so b se rved i nt h eL ewan s e c t ion sw e re m o s t ly s e en i n t h ew a s te rc o l lec t ion ,w he r e ah i gh p ropo r t ion w e re f i r ed i n ar e duc ing a tmosphe re .

F i na l ly , t h in s e c t ion o b se rved f r om t h e B annu s i t e s r e vea led m uch t h e s ame c l ue s a st o o t he rc e ram ic t e chno log ie s . T he s ame i n d ica t ion s o fb u rn i sh ing a nd s l i pp ing a sd e sc r ibed f o r t h o se s e c t ion s w e re o b se rved i nm uch o ft h e m a te r ia l f r om b o th T a raka i Q ua a nd L ewan .

A dd i t iona l ly , b a sed o n o b se rva t ion s o fp a r t ic le a l ignmen t i nt h e t h in s e c t ion s ,

f o rm ing t e chn ique sa ppea red t ob ev e ry s im i la rt ot h o se s e en f r om R ehman D he r i .

2 07

7 . 1 .3 . Harappa R aw d a ta f o rt h e s h e rd s a nd b ang le s s amp led f r om H a rappa a r e p re sen ted a tA ppend ix C . A sd e sc r ibed f o rt h e s i t e sa bove , a ne xp lana t ion o ft h ei n f o rma t ion p r e sen ted o ne a ch s hee t i sg i ven i nS ec t ion 6 . 4 a nd t h e i n t roduc to ry p age t oA ppend ix A . T he re i so ne s h e rd a nd f ou rb ang le t h in s e c t ion s wh ich w e re t oo s ma l l o ro ft oo p oo rq ua l i ty f o r a ccu ra te p o in t o r a r ea c oun t s ; o n ly b a s ic a nd m ine ra log ica li n f o rma t ion i sr e co rded f o rt h e se . I nt h ec a se o f t h e b ang le s , t h ey w e re p a r t icu la r ly v u lne rab le t o d if i cu l t ie s c au sed b y s i ze b ecau se o ft h e v e ry s ma l lc ro s s s e c t ion so ft h e se a r tef a c t s .

M inera logy C oncen t ra t ion so ft h em ine ra l so b se rv ed i nt h et h in s e c t ion sf r om H a rappa a r e s umma r ised i nT ab le 7 IV .

T he c oncen t ra t ion s c a le a s u sed f o r t h e p r ev iou s s i t e s , a nd d i scu s sed i n

S ec t ion 6 . 3 , i su sed .

TABLE 7 IV HARAPPA MEAN M INERAL CONCENTRAT ION DATA •E xc ludes q ua r tz •s ee t ex tf o re xp lana t ion o fc oncen t ra t ion s ca le •

M inera l

C onc / s herd s

S .E . Mean i / s herd s

S .E . Mean i / bang le s

C one / bang le s

P lag ioc la se F e ld spa r

2 . 13

0 . 11

1 . 59

0 . 12

M ic roc l ine F e ld spa r

1 . 00

0 . 00

1 . 00

0 . 00

B io t i te

2 . 78

0 . 13

2 . 06

0 . 13

Mu scov i te

4 . 00

0 . 00

4 . 00

0 . 00

Amph ibo le

1 . 35

0 . 10

1 . 06

0 . 06

C a rbona te

1 . 33

0 . 11

1 . 18

0 . 10

P y roxene

1 . 04

0 . 04

1 . 12

0 . 08

E p ido te

1 . 43

0 . 11

1 . 24

0 . 11

S ch i s t

2 . 70

0 . 12

1 . 47

0 . 12

S tanda rd e r ro ro ft he mean

Q ua r tz c oncen t ra t ion d a ta h ave n o t b een i n c luded i n t h e t a b le , a s t h ey a r e t r ea ted s e pa ra te ly u nde rt h e s e c t ion ' F ab r ic s ' b e low . A s w i th t h e o t he r s i t e s , q ua r tz w a st h e mos t a bundan t m ine ra l p r e sen t i na l o ft h e s e c t ion s . B o th m onoc ry s ta l l ine a nd p o lyc ry s ta l l ine g r a in t y pe s w e re o b se rved ; i na n e s t ima ted r a t io o f7 5 :25 r e spec t ive ly . O bse rva t ion sw i th

2 08

r e spec t t o t h e p hy s ica l n a tu r e o f t h e g r a in s ( t ype o f s u tu re s , e x t inc t ion e t c . ) w e re e s sen t ia l ly t h e s ame a st h o se r e po r ted f o rt h e R ehman D he r i t h in s e c t ion s , s ow i l l n o t b e r e pea ted h e re .

I ti sn o ted t h a t i na l o ft h em ine ra l c a tego r ie s o b se rved , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fp y roxene , c oncen t ra t ion s a r ec on s i s ten t ly h i ghe ri nt h eH a rappa s h e rd t h in s e c t ion st h an t h eH a rappa b ang le t h in s e c t ion s . Ac on t r ibu t ing f a c to rt ot h i si st h a tt h ea ve rage a r ea o ft h es h e rd t h in s e c t ion si sm uch l a rge rt h an t h a t o ft h eb ang le t h in s e c t ion s , g ene ra l ly a bou tf ou rt i me st h e s i ze o ft h eb ang le t h in s e c t ion a r ea s . T he m e thodo logy u sed t oe s t ima te t h ec oncen t ra t ion s o fm ine ra l s i ne a ch w a s s u b jec t ive ( w i th t h ee x cep t ion o fq ua r tz ) a nd d i d n o t d i rec t ly t a ke i n to a c coun t m ea su red a r ea . Ac oncen t ra t ion e s t ima te w a sm ade b a sed u pon t h e a b so lu te n umbe r o f i n c lu s ion s o f ag i ven m ine ra l r a the r t h an t h e n umbe r p e r u n i t a r ea .

T he

t e chn ique w a s u sed b ecau se t h e v e ry l ow c on cen t ra t ion s o fm any o ft h e m ine ra l s w ou ld n o t h ave a lowed d i s t ingu i sh ing d if e ren ta r ea sb yd if e rence s i nm ean c oncen t ra t ion l e ve l s w i thou tp roh ib i t ive ly h i gh p o in tc oun t s . O f t en ,i nt h ep o t te ry t h in s e c t ion st h e re w e re o n ly o ne o rt wo i n c lu s ion s o f ag i ven m ine ra l s u ch a sa mph ibo le . When at h in s e c t ion a bou t o ne -qua r te r t o o ne -e igh th t h e s i ze i se xam ined , s u ch a sw a s t h e c a se w i th t h e b ang le s , t h e re i s ah i gh p robab i l i ty t h a tt h eg i ven m ine ra l c ou ld b e a b sen ti nt h a t p a r t icu la r s e c t ion . T he m e thod i sv a l id f o r s e r ie s o ft h in s e c t ion s w h ich a r e a pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame s i ze a s w a st h ec a se w i th p o t te ry t h in s e c t ion s ,b u tl e s ss of o rc ompa r i son w i th ag roup o fs e c t ion s w h ich w a s o rde r s o fm agn i tude s ma l le r s u ch a st h e b ang le s . B ecau se o ft h i s , t h e m ean c oncen t ra t ion o f am o r er a re m ine ra lm ay a ppea rh i ghe rf o r ag r oup o fl a rge ra r ea s e c t ion s t h an s ma l le r o ne s . T h i s i st r ue f o ra l t h in s e c t ion s e xam ined i nt h ep r e sen t r e sea rch , b u t , a st h e n umbe r o fp o t te ry t h in s e c t ion s i sl a rge a nd t h ey a r e w i th in af a i r ly s t anda rd s i ze r a nge ,t h ee f ec ti sl owe r . T h i si sb o rne i nm ind t h roughou tt h ea na ly s i s .

O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e d if e rence s s e en i nt h e m ean m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s b e tween t h e p o t te ry a nd t h e b ang le g r oup s f r om H a rappa c ou ld s i gn if y d if e ren t c l ay s ou rce s f o r t h e t wo . R ef e r r ing a ga in t oT ab le 7 1V , p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r , b i o t i te , a nd s c h i s ta r e s e en t ob e c omp le te ly i n dependen tf r om o ne a no the rw i th in ± t wo s t anda rd e r ro r s o ft h e m ean ( 9 5% c onf idence i n te rva l ) . T h i s m ay b e d ue t om o re e x ten s ive l e v iga t ion o ft h e c l ay s u sed f o r t h e b ang le s . F o rt h e r ema inde r o ft h e m ine ra l s , c oncen t ra t ion s s h own b y t h et wo g roup s

2 09

o ve r lap a tt h e s ame c on f idence i n te rva l . T he se d if e rence s m ay b e s i gn if ican t , b u t , u s ing t h e p r e sen t m e thodo logy , a s d i scu s sed i nt h e l a s t p a rag raph , t h e e f ec t o f t h e s i ze o f s amp le c anno t b e e l im ina ted a s af a c to r , t h e ref o re al e s s s u b jec t ive m e thod o fm ea su r ing t h e m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s w ou ld b e n eeded t o a na ly se t h o se d if e rence s .

A t t h i s p o in t ,

t h e ref o re , t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h eb ang le sh ave o r ig ina ted f r om ad if e ren t c l ay s ou rce t h an t h e p o t te ry s h e rd s c a nno t b e r u led o u t .

S ome s uppo r t f o r t h e s ugge s t ion t h a t e xcava ted

b ang le s w e re m anuf a c tu red f r om l o ca l c l ay s i so b ta ined f r om t h e o b se rva t ion t h a tb ang le s o fl o ca l R av i R ive r c l ay s m ade b y t h e e xpe r imen ta l p o t te r a tt h e H a rappa P ro jec t ( HRP 1 48 ) c on ta ined t h e s ame m ine ra l s u i te a nd c oncen t ra t ion s , w i th in t h e ± 2a ( p lu s o rm inu s t wo s t anda rd e r ro r so ft h em ean )c onf idence i n te rva l , a st h ee xcava ted b ang le s amp le .

F e ld spa r i n c lu s ion s w e re m o s t ly p l ag ioc la se , a nd u sua l ly o f t h e s ame a ngu la r i ty a nd s phe r ic i ty

a s t h e

q ua r tz .

T hey

w e re

m o s t ly

f r e sh

t o

m ode ra te ly

w ea the red .

C oncen t ra t ion sw e re s l i gh t ly h i ghe ri nt h es h e rd f a b r ic st h an i nt h eb ang le s ( bu ts e ea bove ) . N o m ic roc l ine f e ld spa r s w e re o b se rved i n t h e H a rappa f a b r ic s .

C oncen t ra t ion s o f

m u scov i te w e re h i gh i na l o ft h e s amp le s , a nd b i o t i te sw e re g ene ra l ly b e tween ' t r a ce ' a nd ' r a re ' .

M ine ra l s o ft h e a mph ibo le g r oup w e re r a re o ccu r r ence s i nt h e H a rappa m a t e r ia l ,

a nd w hen p r e sen tw e re u sua l ly b r own h o rnb lende s s u ch a sw e re s e en i nt h eR ehman D he r i s h e rd s .

C a rbona te s w e re p r e sen t i nm uch l owe r c oncen t ra t ion s t h an s e en i nt h e s amp le s f r om t h e p r ev iou s ly a na ly sed s i t e s , w e s t o f t h e I n du s R ive r . o b se rved

a r ound t h e

s i t e o f H a rappa

( s ee

D e sp i te t h e s o i l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s

d i scu s s ion C hap te r

5 ) w h ich

s h ow

c oncen t ra t ion s o f p edogen ic c a rbona te s , i n s tance s o f c a rbona te s o b se rved i n t h e t h in s e c t ion s w e re f ew .

I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t c a rbona te s w e re p r e sen t , b u t i n v e ry m inu te

i n c lu s ion s wh ich a r en o tv i s ib le i nt h et h in s e c t ion s . A l te rna t ive ly , c omp le te d ecompo s i t ion m ay h ave o ccu r red f r om h i gh f i r ing t empe ra tu re s ; h oweve r , a no the r i n d ica to r o ff i r ing t empe ra tu re s , t h e f a b r ic b i ref r ingence , d oe s n o t c o r robo ra te t h i s ( s ee d i scu s s ion u nde r ' F ab r ic ' ) .

T he s o i l s o ft h e a r ea m ay b e r i ch i nc a rbona te s , b u t t h e c l ay s a s p r epa r ed f o r

m ak ing c e ram ic s a ppea r n o t t o h ave b een .

R ive r s a nd s u s ed a s t empe r b y p r e sen t -day

p o t te r s a t Mu l tan ( n ea r H a rappa ) h ave b een f ound n o t t o c on ta in c a rbona te s ( Rye a nd E van s 1 974 : 1 28 ) .

A l so , p r e sen t -day p o t te r s n ea r H a rappa , a s w e l l a s al o ca l p o t te r

2 10

c a r ry ing o u t e xpe r imen ta l c e ram ic s a tt h e H a rappa P ro jec t ( Kenoye r 1 994 : 3 48 ) , r emove c a lc ium c a rbona te n odu le sd u r ing c l ay p r epa ra t ion . E a r ly H a rappan p o t te r sa tt h es i t em ay h ave a l so d one t h i s . When o b se rved ,t h eg r a in t y pe w a ss im i la rt ot h eo o l i t ic s h ape s e en i n t h eR ehman D he r i a nd B annu m a te r ia l s . T hey e xh ib i ted m i ld d ecompo s i t ion o n ly i ns ome c a se s , a nd n one i n o t he r s .

A lone , t h i s f a c to r s ugge s t s t h a t f i r ing t empe ra tu re s w e re

p r obab ly n o t o f t en i ne x ce s s o f8 50 d eg ree s C( b u t s e ed i scu s s ion i nS ec t ion 7 . 1 .1 . ) . O n ly o ne o ccu r rence o fb i oc la s tw a so b se rved , a nd n one o ft h et h i rd t y pe o fc a rbona te d e sc r ibed f o rt h eR ehman D he r ia nd B annu s amp le sw a ss e en . T h i sl a t te rt y pe w a sf u l ly d e sc r ibed i n S ec t ion 7 . 1 .1 ( R ehman D he r i )u nde r' M ine ra logy ' .

S ch i s t o ccu red r e la t ive ly o f t en i nt h e H a rappa s h e rd s , b u t w a s n o t a s c ommon i nt h e b ang le t h in s e c t ion s . A pa r tf r om t h et h in s e c t ion s i ze d if e rence sd i scu s sed a bove ,t h i sm ay b e a t t r ibu tab le t ot h e f i ne r f a b r ic t e x tu re s s e en i nt h e b ang le s e lec t ion . T he s c h i s t g r a in s w e r e g ene ra l ly i nt h e l a rge r , s a nd s ize c a tego r ie s w h ich m ay h ave b een r emoved v i a l e v iga t ion t o a ch ieve t h e f i ne i n c lu s ion s i ze s n eeded f o r s ma l l a r tef ac t s s u ch a sb ang le s . S ch i s t s w e re g ene ra l ly m u scov i te w i th p o lyc ry s ta l l ine q ua r tz o r p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r s ; o r e p ido te s ch i s t s .

F abr ic As umma ry o ft h e c on cen t ra t ion o fq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s 3 0 -50 m ic ron s f o rb o th b ang le s a nd s h e rd sf r om H a rappa i sp r e sen ted i nF i gu re 7 . 26 . T he c oncen t ra t ion i nt h eb ang le s s h ow s ab road ly d i spe r sed d i s t r ibu t ion b e tween 2 0a nd 6 0p e rs q mm . A l though t h es amp le i sn o t l a rge ( N =1 5 ) , t wo m ax ima a r es e en ,t h ef i r s ta t2 0p e rs q mm , a nd t h es e cond a t4 0 . T he s h e rd d i s t r ibu t ion d a ta ( N =2 2 ) s h ow a c oncen t ra t ion a r ound 3 0 p e r s q mm , w i th a p o s i t ive s k ewne s s .

As ma l le r , p o s s ib ly s e pa ra te , d i s t r ibu t ion i ss e en a t 5 0 p e r s q mm .

R ive r s and s u s ed a st empe r s b y p r e sen t -day p o t te r s a t Mu l tan , n ea r H a rappa , h ave b een s h own t o c on ta in o n ly 2% p a r t ic le s o fs i l t s ize o r l e s s (

50 m ic ron s f o r t h e H a rappa b ang le s a nd s h e rd s i ss h own i nF i gu re 7 . 27 . T he b ang le s s h ow am ode a round 4p e r s q mm , w i th e i the r av e ry p o s i t ive s k ewne s so r as e cond , s ma l le r , m ode i nt h e 1 0t o 1 2p e rs q mm r a nge . A st h e s e cond g r oup c on s i s ted o fo n ly t wo s amp le s , i tc anno tb e c onc lu s ive ly d e te rm ined w he the r o rn o tt wo s e pa ra te d i s t r ibu t ion s e x i s t . T he d a ta a r e c on s i s ten t w i th t h ea dd i t ion o fs a nd t empe r st oa ch ieve ap a r t icu la rc oncen t ra t ion l e ve lo fa round 4p e r s q mm , w i th p o s s ib ly a no the rg roup o fb ang le sd e s igned t oh ave ah i ghe r c oncen t ra t ion l e ve l o f 1 0 t o 1 2 p e r s q mm .

Al a rge r s amp le w ou ld h ave t o b e s t ud ied t o mo re a c cu ra te ly

i n d ica te t h ee x i s tence o f as e cond m ode .

T he s h e rd d a ta i nF i gu re 7 . 27 m ay a l so c on ta in t wo s e pa ra te d i s t r ibu t ion s , o ne w i th a m ode o f 4p e rs q mm a nd a no the ro f 8p e rs q mm . S epa ra t ing t h et wo a nd d e sc r ib ing e a ch o ft h e i r i n d iv idua l d i s t r ibu t ion c ha ra c te r i s t ic s w ou ld e n ta i l s amp l ing al a rge r n umbe r o f s h e rd s . B o th a r ep o s i t ive ly s k ewed . T he se d a ta a r ec on s i s ten tw i th t h ose wh ich w ou ld b e o b served i n ag roup o fs h e rd s c on ta in ing t wo s e pa ra te f a b r ic s , o ne w i th a dded r i v e r s a nd t empe r s d e s igned t oa ch ieve ac oncen t ra t ion l e ve lo fa pp rox ima te ly 4q ua r tz i n c lu s ion sp e r s q mm , a nd a no the rd e s igned t oa ch ieve ac oncen t ra t ion l e ve l o fa bou t 8q uar tz i n c lu s ion s

2 12

p e r s q mm . T h i s s p l i t w ou ld b ec on s i s ten tw i th ap o t te rh av ing a' b a s ic ' f a b r ic a nd s imp ly d oub l ing t h e a moun to fr i ve r s a nd t empe ra dded t oa ch ieve t h e s e cond f a b r ic m ix . W i th in t h i s f a b r ic s i ze g roup , o n ly o ne s h e rd ( 5% ) w a s o b se rved t o c on ta in t h e v e ry a ngu la r q ua r tz d e sc r ibed f o rs ome o ft h eR ehman D he r i s h e rd se a r l ie r . F i ve ( 2 3% ) c on ta ined g rog t empe ro rc l ay p e l le t s .

F IGURE 7 .27 D ISTR IBUT ION OF QZ I NCLUS IONS > 50 M ICRONS FROM HARAPPA

T he s h e rd d a ta a ppea r t of a l l i n to f o u r i d en t if iab le f a b r ic g roup s b a sed o n t h e f o rego ing o b se rva t ion s . T he se g r oup ing sa r ed ef ined b y , f i r s t ly ,t h et wo g roup si nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o f q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s 3 0 -50 m ic ron s , w h ich i sc on s i s ten t w i th t wo d if e ren t l e ve l s o f c l ay l e v iga t ion . T he se t wo c oncen t ra t ion s a r e a t2 0 p e r s q mm a nd 4 0 p e r s q mm . S econd ly , t wo d i s t r ibu t ion s s e en i nt h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s> 50 m ic ron s c ha r t ( F igu re 7 . 27 ) c an d ef ine t wo g roup s c on s i s ten t w i th t h e a dd i t ion o f c oa r se r q ua r tz t empe r s .

T he se t wo

c oncen t ra t ion sa r e a t 4a nd 8p e rs q mm . I ti si mpo r tan tt on o te h e re t h a tt h e se g roup ing s m ay n o t b e c omp le te n o r s a id t ob e r e p r e sen ta t ive o ft h e e n t i re E a r ly H a rappan c e ram ic i n du s t ry a tt h e s i t e o fH a rappa . N o r i sa ny r e p re sen ta t ion i mp l ied t h a t t h e se w e re f a b r ic g r oup ing st h a tt h ep o t te r ss e to u tt oa ch ieve . T hey a r eo n ly c onven ien t c a tego r i sa t ion s o f t h ef a b r ic so ft h e s h e rd se xam ined w h ich f i t ap l au s ib le s c ena r io . As amp le o ft h e s i ze a nd r e p re sen ta t ivene s s a st h a tt a ken a tR ehman D he r i w ou ld b em o re a pp rop r ia te o n w h ich t o d r aw s u ch i n f e rence s . T he f o r ego ing f o u rf a b r ic g roup ing s a r e , h oweve r , m o re r e la tab le

2 13

t op o t te rb ehav iou rt h an t h o se g roup ing sf o rmed f o rt h eR ehman D he r i f a b r ic s . T he m a i r p a r t o ft h a t c ompa ra t ive d i scu s s ion i si n c luded w i th S e c t ion 7 . 2 b e low , b u t i ti sm o r e r e a sonab le t o e xpec t p o t te r s t o c r ea te f a b r ic g roup ing s b a sed u pon c oncen t ra t ion s 0 1 c oa r se t empe rt h an u pon s e lec t ion o f ap a r t icu la rs i ze d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h et empe r .

T he H a rappa s h e rd f a b r ic s d o n o t f i t i n to t h e c a tego r ie s w h ich w e re d ef ined f o r t h e R ehman D he r i m a te r ia l . T he s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o fq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s i nt h eH a rappa s amp l e d oe s n o t c l o se ly m a tch t h o se u pon w h ich t h e o r ig ina lR ehman D he r i g roups w e r eb a sed . A n o bv iou s r e a son i st h a t t h o se o r ig ina l g roups w e re d ef ined b a sed u pon g roup ing o i s im i la r i t ie s s e en i nt h e R ehman D he r i s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion s .

T he f o rc ing o f t h e H a rappa r

f a b r ic s i n to as u ch ac l a s s if i ca t ion s y s tem w ou ld n o t b e au sef u l e xe rc i se . Howeve r , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e H a rappan s h e rd s f o rm t h e i r o wn d i s t inc t ive f a b r ic g roups a nd d o n o t g r ou r n a tu ra l ly i n to t h e s ame c l a s s if i ca t ion s a st h o se p roduced a tR ehman D he r i p rov ide s s om e i n d ica t ion o ft h e n a tu re o fi n te r s i te t e chno log ica l i n f o rma t ion e xchange d u r ing t h e E a r l y H a rappan p e r iod . T ha td i scu s s ion i sp r e sen ted b e low i nS ec t ion 7 . 2 .

W i th r e spec t t o t h e b ang le s , t h e d a ta a r e c on s i s ten t w i th a c r af t spe r son a t temp t ing t o a ch ieve a s t a te o f l e v iga t ion w h ich w ou ld g i ve a c oncen t ra t ion o f f i ne q ua r tz o r s a n d i n c lu s ion s r e p re sen ted b y a pp rox ima te ly 2 0 p a r t ic le s p e r s q mm , w i th t h e o cca s iona l n e ed f o r ah i ghe r c oncen t ra t ion l e ve l o fa bou t 5 0 . T he l e ve l o fl a rge r q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s , t h o s e > 50 m ic ron s ,t ob ea ch ieved a ppea rt ob ea bou t 4p e rs q mm , w i th t h eo cca s iona ln e ed f o r ah i ghe rc oncen t ra t ion o f1 0 -1 2 p e r s q mm . Ac ompa r i son o ft h e se d a ta w i th t h eq ua r t z s i ze a nd c oncen t ra t ion d a ta o b se rved i nt h eb ang le m ade b yt h e e xpe r imen ta l p o t te r a tt h e H a rappa P ro jec t s h owed r ema rkab le c on s i s tency w i th s ome o f t h e e xcava ted b ang l e f r agmen t s .

C ompa r ing t h e c oncen t ra t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f q ua r tz i n c lus ion s i nt h e

e xpe r imen ta l b ang le t h in s e c t ion , HRP 1 48 ( Append ix C ) , w i th t h o se o f e xcava ted e xamp le s HRP 1 40 a nd 1 44 f o re xamp le , s h ow st h a tt h e e xpe r imen ta l p o t te r h a s a ch ieve d ac l o se c opy o fo ne o ft h ea nc ien tb ang le f a b r ic r e c ipe s . T he p o t te ra tt h eH a rappa P ro jec t p r epa red t h ec l ay u s ed f o rt h ee xpe r imen ta lb ang le sb yl e v iga t ing i ts e ve ra lt ime s( Kenoye r 1 994 : 3 48 ) .

T hu s w e h ave a g r aph ica l r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h e c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f q ua r t z

i n c lu s ion so f af i ne f a b r ic w h ich h a sb een p r epa red b yl e v iga t ion ; a nd s ome f u r the rs u ppor t f o rt h es ugge s t ion t h a tE a r ly H a rappan c l ay sw e re m e t icu lou s ly l e v iga ted .

2 14

I tw ou ld b e e xpec ted t h a t ar e la t ion sh ip b e tween b ang le t h ickne s s a nd f a b r ic c oa r sene s s w ou ld e x i s t . H oweve r , w hen p l o t ted a ss c a t te rd i ag ram s , n o c l ea rc o r re la t ion w a se v iden t b e tween b ang le c r o s s sec t iona l a r ea a nd c oa r sene s s o f f a b r ic m ea su red e i the r a s c oncen t ra t ion o fq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s3 0 -50 m ic ron so r> 50 m ic ron s . I ti sn o ted , i mpo r tan t ly , t h a tt h e s amp le o fb ang le sw a st o o s ma l l ( on ly 1 5w e re s u b jec ted t ot h et e x tu ra l a na ly s is ) t o m ak e u sef u l s t a t i s t ica l i n f e rence r e ga rd ing t h e n umbe r s a nd c ha rac te r i s t ic s o fd if e ren t f a b r ic t y pe s . Ap rope r s amp l ing w ou ld c on s ide r ar e p re sen ta t ive s e lec t ion o ft h ev a r iou s b ang le t y pe sf o und a tt h es i t e . N eve r the le s s ,t h ep r e sen t s amp le p rov ide sm uch i n s igh ta nd p e rm i t s c ompa r i son s t o b e m ade w i th t h e s h e rd f a b r ic s .

A l so , s ome t e chno log ica l

i n f o rma t ion c an b ed e r ived .

B i r ef r ingence o b se rved i nt h e H a rappan f a b r ic s i ss umma r i sed i nF i gu r e 7 . 28 .

I ts how s

t h a t t h em a jo r i ty ( 8 9% ) o ft h eb ang le f a b r ic s e xh ib i ted am ed ium t oh i gh b i ref r ingence , a s w e l l a st h em a jo r i ty ( 8 6% ) o ft h e s h e rd f a b r ic s . Two o ft h eb ang le f a b r ic s , HRP 1 42 a nd 1 47 , w e re s o h i gh ly b i ref r ingen t i n t h in s e c t ion t h a t t h e f a b r ic c o lou r w a s b a re ly d i sce rnab le .

B a sed u pon t h e d i scu s s ion p r e sen ted e a r l ie r w i th r e spec t t o t h e R eh rnan

D he r i f a b r ic s , t h i s w ou ld s ugge s t t h a t m o s t o ft h e b ang le s a nd s h e rd s e xam ined f r om H a rappa w e re f i r ed t ot empe ra tu re s l ow e rt h an 8 50 d eg r ee s C . H oweve r , t h i s c anno t b e c onc lu s ive w i thou t s ome o t he ri n d ica to r st oc o r robo ra te i t . B i ref r ingence a l one c anno tb e r e l ied u pon t op rov ide ad ef in i t ive m ea su re o ff i r ing t empe ra tu re . A si n d ica ted a bove , t h e a b sence o f s i gn if i can t a moun t s o f c a rbona te i n t h e f a b r ic s d i d n o t a low t h e i r d ecompos i t ion t ob eu s ed a sa ni n d ica to r , a sw a sp o s s ib le w i th t h eR ehman D h e r i f a b r ic s . Mo s t o ft h eb ang le s s amp led w e r e c l a s s if i ed a st e r raco t ta b yt h e e xcava to r s . Many o ft h e b ang le s f r om t h e Ma tu r e H a rappan P e r iod a r e o fs t onewa re ( S chne ide r 1 987 ) w h ich i s t y p ica l ly f i r ed a tt empe ra tu r e sh i ghe rt h an 100 d eg ree s C( R ice 1 987 : 5 ) , b u t n one o ft h e p r e sen ts amp le sw a so ft h i st y pe .

2 15

F IGURE 7 .28 B IREFR INGENCE OBSERVED I N HARAPPAN F ABR ICS

C o lou r so b se rved i nt h ef a b r ic s( i nt h in s e c t ion )f r om H a rappa a r e p r e sen ted i nF i gu re 7 . 29 f o r b o th b ang le s a nd s h e rd s .

I ti ss e en t h a t t h e b ang le s e xh ib i t ab road r ange o fc o lou r s ,

w i th t h e m o s t c ommon b e ing m ed ium b r own . T he s h e rd s w e re a l m ed ium t od a rk b rown i nt h in s e c t ion , w i th t h em ode ( mo s tc ommon )b e ing m ed ium b rown .

F IGURE 7 .29 D ISTR IBUT ION OF COLOURS OBSERVED I N HARAPPA SECT IONS

2 16

C lo se s im i la r i t ie s w e re s e en b e tween t e chno log ie s e v idenced i nt h e H a rappan s h e rd t h in s e c t ion s a nd t h o se s e en i nt h e R ehman D he r i t h in s e c t ion s .

E v idence w i th r e spec t t o

p a r t ic le a l ignmen t a nd o r ien ta t ion , b u rn i sh ing a nd s l i pp ing w e re a l s e en i nt h e H a rappan s h e rd s e c t ion s .

T he r e ade r i sr e f e r red t o t h e d i scu s s ion c on ta ined i nS ec t ion 7 . 1 .1 . f o r

d e ta i ls o ft h e se .

S ome t e chno log ica l a s pec t s o fH a rappa b ang le m anuf ac tu re w e re s e en i nt h e b ang le t h in s e c t ion s . Many o ft h eb ang le s amp le sw e re e xam ined i nt wo o r ien ta t ion s : o ne c u tt h rough t h e c r os s sec t ion , a nd o ne i n ap l ane p a ra l le l t o t h e b ang le ' s c i r cumf e rence .

T he

c r o s s sec t ion i ns ome i n s tance ss h owed a na mo rph ic v o id a pp rox ima te ly i ni t sc en t re , w i th as l i gh t ly d i sce rnab le a l ignmen t o fi n c lu s ion s ( p r ima r i ly t h e m u scov i te s ) i n ac oncen t r ic p a t ter n a r ound i t .

I n t h e l o ng i tud ina l s e c t ion , ap r ef e r red o r ien ta t ion o f t h e s ame

i n c lu s ion sw a s e v iden t p a ra l le lt ot h e c i r cumf e rence o ft h eb ang le . R ef e r r ing a ga in t ot h e d i scu s s ion i nS ec t ion 7 . 1 .1 , t h e se t wo o b se rva t ion s s ugge s t t h a tt h e se b ang le s w e re m ade b y r o l l ing t h e c l ay , w h i le p l a s t ic , b e tween t wo s u r f ace s . A st h e c l ay i sf o rmed i n to at h in t u be l ike f o rm , i tb ecame l o nge r , c au s ing t h e i n c lu s ion s t o a l ign w i th t h e d i rec t ion o f f o rm ing . T he se o b se rva t ion sw e re s e en o n ly i nb ang le s c i r cu la ri nc r o s s sec t ion . I nm any o t he r s , i n c lud ing t h e r e c tangu la r c r o s s sec t ion a nd m u l t i -p iece b ang le s , al o ng i tud ina l a l ignmen t o fp a r t ic le s w a s s e en b u t n o t t h e c i rcum f e ren t ia l a l ignmen t .

I n c r o s s -sec t ion ,

t h e se e xh ib i ted a l ignmen t b u t i tw a s a ngu la r , f r om o ne s i de t o t h e o t he r .

E xpe r imen ta l

s t ud ie s c a r r ied o u t a t t h e H a rappa P ro jec t h ave s ugge s ted t h a t b ang le m anuf ac tu re c on s i s ted o fs t a r t ing w i th ah o l low c l ay c o lumn o n aw hee la nd r emov ing as e r ie so fb l ank s w i th a c o rd ( Kenoye r 1 994 : 3 49 -51 ) . c on s i s ten t w i th t h i s m e thodo logy .

T he a ngu la r a l ignmen t o f i n c lu s ion s w ou ld b e

I ti ss u gge s ted t h a t t h e E a r ly H a rappan c r af t speop le

e mp loyed a tl e a s tt wo d if e ren tm e thod so ff o rm ing b ang le s .

T he m u l t i sec t ion b ang le s a ppea r t oh av e b een m anuf ac tu red b y m ak ing as e r ie s o ft h e se t h inne rb ang le s , a nd t h en p r e s s ing t h em t o ge the r s i de b y s i de . T h i sw a s e v idenced b yt h e j o in t so b se rved i nt h ec r o s s sec t ion so ft h e se b ang le sw he re t h ef l a ts i de so fe ach i n d iv idua l b ang le m e t . N one o ft h e c i rcu la rc r o s s sec t ion b ang le f r agmen t st h in s e c t ioned c on ta ined a n e nd to -end j o in , h oweve r , s oi tc anno t b et o ld f r om t h e t h in s e c t ion s h ow t h e l e ng th s , o nce r o l led o u t , w e r ej o ined t of o rm t h e c i rcu la r s h ape . A no the r c ommon o b se rva t ion i n

2 17

t h eb ang le t h in s e c t ion sw a s as l i gh tv a r ia t ion i nc o lou r ( ad a rken ing ) e x tend ing a bou t 0 . 5 t o 1 . 0 mm i n to t h e i n s ide s u rf ace o ft h eb ang le . T h i sm ay h ave b een c au sed b yb ody o i l s f r om t h ew ea re rb e ing a b so rbed i n to t h ec e ram ic f a b r ic .

7 . 2 . I NTERSITE ANALYSIS W i th t h e a na ly se s o f t h e i n d iv idua l s i t e s a nd a r ea s n ow c omp le te , t h e i r r e spec t ive s im i la r i t ie s a nd d i s s im i la r i t ie s a r e n ow e x am ined . A l l o ft h ev a r iab le s n o ted a nd r e co rded f o re a ch o ft h et h in s e c t ion sf r om e a ch o ft h es i t e sa r ec on s ide red . F i r s t ly ,t h em ine ra log ie s o fe a ch o ft h e c o l lec t ion s a r e c on s ide r ed i no r de r t o d e te rm ine t h e p robab i l i ty o ft h e i r b e ing s ou rced f r om d if e ren tp opu la t ion s . T h i sp r ov ide ss u gge s t ion sa st ot h el i ke l ihood o f p o t te ry b e ing m oved f r om s i t e t os i t e . A sw a s d i scu s sed i nS ec t ion 4 . 2 , t h e n ex t l e ve l o f i n te rac t ion i se xchange o ft e chno log ica l i n f o rma t ion , o r i n nova t ion s .

E xam ina t ion a nd

c ompa r i son o ft e chno log ica l a t t r ibu te s a si n f e r red b yt h e i n d iv idua l s i t e a na ly se s a r e u s ed t od e te rm ine t h ed eg ree o ft h i se xchange a mong s tt h es i t e ss amp led .

7 . 2 .1 . M inera logy I tw a so b served t h a ta lo ft h et h in s e c t ion sa na ly sed i nt h i sr e sea rch c on ta ined b a s ica l ly t h e s ame m ine ra l s u i te .

S ome s i gn if ican t d if e rence s w e re s e en , h oweve r , i nt h e i r r e spec t ive

c oncen t ra t ion sf r om s i t et os i t eo rf r om a r ea t oa r ea .

2 18

C oncen t ra t ion o fC a rbona tes • absen t 3 = ra re

2 — t race 3 =co mmon 4

2 RHD HRP HRP b ang les L IM TRQ

C oncen t ra t ion o fM uscov i te *-a bsen t 3 = ra re

2 — t race 4 =co mmon

RHO HRP HRP b ang les LWJ

F IGURE 7 .30 COMPARAT IVE MEAN CONCENTRAT IONS OF P LAG IOCLASE , CARBONATE AND M ICAS FROM F IVE GROUPS RHD= R ehman D he r i

HRP =H a rappa

LWN= L ewan

T RQ= T a raka i Q ua

F igu re s 7 . 30 a nd 7 . 31 p r e sen t c ompa ra t ive c on cen t ra t ion s o f e i gh t o f t h e m ine ra l s o b se rved i nt h e f i ve d if e ren t s i t e a nd t y pe g roup ing s , t r ea t ing H a rappan b ang le s a s a s e pa ra te g roup . N o t i n c luded i ne i the r o ft h e f i gu re s a r e q ua r tz a nd m ic roc l ine f e ld spa r c oncen t ra t ion d a ta .

Q ua r tz w a s c ommon i n a l o f t h e f a b r ic s a nd h a s b een t r ea ted

i n dependen t ly v i at h ef a b r ic a na ly s i s . M ic roc l ine f e ld spa r sw e re e x t reme ly r a re i na l o ft h e s i t e sa nd n o tu sef u l a s ap r ovenanc ing t oo l .

2 19

*absen t 3 = ra re

2 — t race 4 =co mmo 3

4

RHO HRP HRP b ang les LWN TRO

F IGURE 7 .31 COMPA *ZAT IVE MEAN CONCENTRAT IONS OF PYROXENE , E P IDOTE , SCH IST AND AMPH IBOLE FOR F IVE GROUPS RHD= R ehman D he r i

HRP= H a rappa

!MN= L ewan

TRQ= T a raka i Q ua

E xam ina t ion o f t h e se c ha r t s s h ow s t h a t c e r ta in o f t h e m ine ra l s o ccu r i n s uf i c ien t d if e rence s o f c oncen t ra t ion s s o a s t o d emon s t ra te w i th r e a sonab le c onf idence t h a t t h e g roup s a r ef r om d if e ren t s ou rce s . O the r sa r ep r e sen t i ns im i la rc oncen t ra t ion sf r om s i t et o s i t e .

I n o rde r t o e xam ine a nd c ompa re t h e se i n av a l id s e n se , s ome s o r t o f c onf idence

i n te rva l n eed st ob ec on s ide red f o re a ch c oncen t ra t ion l e ve l .

An o te t ob e m ade h e re f i r s t i st h a t t h e c oncen t ra t ion s p r e sen ted f o r t h e H a rappan b ang le s e c t ion s c anno t , s t r ic t ly s p eak ing , b e c ompa red o n t h e s ame b a s i s a s t h e p o t te ry t h in s e c t ion s .

A s d i scu s sed i nS ec t ion 7 . 1 .3 a bove , m o s t o ft h e t h in s e c t ion s m ade f r om t h e

H a rappan b ang le s w e re s i gn if ican t ly s ma l le r i n c r o s s sec t iona l a r ea t h an t h e o t he r s .

2 20

B ecau se o ft h e m e thodo logy e mp loyed , t h e i r m ean c oncen t ra t ion s , m ay a ppea r r e la t ive ly l e s s . T he s ame e f ec ti sr e duced c on s ide rab ly i nt h e s h e rd t h in s e c t ion sb ecau se i ng ene ra l t h e re i sn o t ac on s i s ten td if e r ence i ns i ze f r om g r oup t og roup .

T he s t anda rd e r ro r o ft h e m ean d ef ine s t h e c on f idence i n te rva l .

V a lue s f o r t h e s t anda rd

e r ro ro ft h em ean f o rt h ec oncen t ra t ion so fe a ch m ine ra lf o re ach o ft h eg roup sw e re g i ven i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h e i n d iv idua l s i t e a na ly se s . T ab le 7 I c on ta in s s t anda rd e r ro r s o ft h e m ean f o r c oncen t ra t ion s o ft h e m ine ra l s f o und a tR ehman D he r i , 7 I I 1 f o r L ewan a nd T a raka i Q ua ( t he B annu B a s in s i t e s ) a nd 7 IV f o r H a rappa .

F o r c onven ience w h i le

r e f e r r ing t oF igu r e s 7 . 30 a nd 7 . 31 , t h es t anda rd e r ro r s o ft h e m ean f o re a ch c oncen t ra t ion a te a ch s i t e a r e r e p roduced i nT ab le 7 -V .

A s e xp la ined i nC hap te r 6 ,t h e c oncen t ra t ion

v a lue f o r e a ch m ine ra l o b ta ined f r om e a ch t h in s e c t ion w a s t r ea ted a st h e m ean o ft h a t c oncen t ra t ion f o rt h a tt h in s e c t ion . A l though t h i si sa na pp rox ima t ion o ft h em ean ,t h eu s e o ft h e s t anda rd e r ro r o ft h e m ean i ss t i l l v a l id ( C . O r ton , p e r s . c omm .) . T he a c tua l m ean c ou ld b e d e te rm ined b y c oun t ing a l p a r t ic le s i n t h e s e c t ion , a nd d e te rm in ing t h e p e r cen tage o ft h e t o ta l t h a t e a ch i n d iv idua l m ine ra l r e p re sen ted . A l te rna t ive ly , o ne c ou ld a c cu ra te ly m ea su re t h e a r ea o ft h e t h in s e c t ion a nd d e te rm ine t h e c oncen t ra t ion o ft h e m ine ra l p e r u n i t a r ea .

B ecau se t h e se c on cen t ra t ion s a r e s o l ow ( l e s s t h an 1 % i nm any

c a se s ) , t h e n umbe r o fp o in t s w h ich w ou ld n eed t ob e c oun ted w ou ld a pp roach 2 000 o r 3 000 , a ss hown i nS ec t ion 6 . 4 .

I tc a n b e s h own h oweve r , t h a t t h e m e thod u sed w ou ld

p r ov ide ar e a sonab ly g ood a pp rox ima t ion o ft h e a c tua l m ean c oncen t ra t ion s . U s ing t h e se a pp rox ima t ion so ft h em ean ,t h e re i sal a rge e nough s amp le t a ken f r om e a ch s i t et ou se t h e s t anda rd e r ro r o ft h e m ean f o r e a ch . T h i s s t a t i s t ic i se s sen t ia l ly t h e s t anda rd d ev ia t ion o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e i n d iv idua l m ean s t a k en f r om e a ch g roup .

T he ref o re i nu s ing t wo

s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s ( ± 2) a st h e c on f iden ce i n te rva l , w e c an b e c e r ta in t h a t , i n av e ry l a rge e xpe r imen t , t h es ame c oncen t ra t ion sw ou ld r e su l ti na bou t9 5 c a se so u to f1 00 . T h i s c on f idence i n te rva lh a sb een c ho sen f o rt h ed i scu s s ion st h a tf o l low .

2 2 1

TABLE 7 -V S TANDARD ERROR OF THE MEAN FOR M INERAL CONCENTRAT IONS G IVEN I N F IGURES 7 .30 AND 7 .31 RHD

M inera l

LWN

TRQ

HRP

HRP ( bang le s )

P l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r

0 . 14

0 . 07

0 . 10

0 . 11

0 . 12

M ic roc l ine f e ld spa r

0 . 05

0 . 05

0 . 04

0 . 00

0 . 00

B io t i te

0 . 11

0 . 14

0 . 12

0 . 13

0 . 13

Mu scov i te

0 . 08

0 . 11

0 . 06

0 . 00

0 . 00

Amph ibo le

0 . 13

0 . 10

0 . 09

0 . 10

0 . 06

C a rbona te

0 . 10

0 . 18

0 . 10

0 . 11

0 . 10

P y roxene

0 . 06

0 . 10

0 . 10

0 . 04

0 . 08

E p ido te

0 . 06

0 . 10

0 . 09

0 . 11

0 . 11

S ch i s t

0 . 11

0 . 11

0 . 11

0 . 12

0 . 12

I f F igu re s 7 . 30 a nd 7 . 31 a r e e xam ined w h i le g i v ing c on s ide ra t ion t o t h e r e spec t ive s t anda rd e r ro r s o ft h e m ean , i ti ss e en t h a t s ome c oncen t ra t ion s a r e c on s i s ten t ly d if e ren t f r om g roup t o g roup .

( The H a rappa b ang le g roup w i l l n o t b e i n c luded i nt h e f o l low ing

d i scu s s ion b ecau se o ft h e b i a s i n t roduced b y t h e i r s ma l le rt h in s e c t ion s i ze . ) T he L ewan a nd T a raka i Q ua g roup s , t h eB annu s i t e s , a r e c l ea r ly n o t d i s t ingu i shab le f r om e ach o t he r b a sed o n t h e i r r e spec t ive m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s . o ve r lap o ne a no the r a tt h e 2 a l e ve l .

I n a l c a se s , t h e i r c oncen t ra t ion v a lue s

T h i s s how s t h a t i n9 5% o fc a se s , w e c ou ld n o t b e

c onf iden tt h a tt h et wo c ome f r om d if e ren t p opu la t ion s . T he se s im i la r i t ie sw e re d i scu s sed i nS ec t ion 7 . 1 .2 .

T he m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s c an t h en b e d i v ided i n to t h ree s ou rce g roup s ( i n i t ia l ly f o r d i scu s s ion p u rpo se s o n ly ) : R ehman D he r i , B annu , a nd H a rappa . S i gn if ican t d if e r ence s a t t h e 2 a c onf idence l e ve l a r e s e en a mong s t t h e se t h ree g roup s i ns ome m ine ra l s , w h i le i n o t he r s , d if e rence s a r e e v iden t b e tween t wo o ft h e a r ea s b u t n o t a l t h ree o ft h em .

F o r

e xamp le , l e s se r d if e rence s a r e s e en b e tween R ehman D he r i a nd t h e B annu s i te s i nt h e

2 22

c oncen t ra t ion s o fc a rbona te s t h an b e tween e i the r o ft h em a nd H a rappa . A l so , s ome a r e n o t s i gn if ican t a tt h e 2 a l e ve l , b u t a r e a tt h e l a l e ve l ( r epea tab le a bou t 6 7 t i me s o u t o f 1 00 , o r6 7% c onf idence i n te rva l ) . T he l al e ve l i st oo s ma l l ac onf idence i n terva l f o rt h e p r e sen t p u rpo se s b ecau se o ft h e a f o remen t ioned m e thod f o r e s t ima t ing t h e m ean .

B y

r e s t r ic t ing t h e d i scu s s ion t ot h e2 ac on f idence i n te rva l , t h e e nd r e su l t o ft h e i n te rp re ta t ion i sm o r ev a l id .

F i r s t ly ,

e ach

o f t h e i n d iv idua l

c ha r t s i n F i gu re s

7 . 30

a nd

7 . 31

a r e

d i scu s sed .

C oncen t ra t ion s o f p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r s a r e s e en t o d i s t ingu i sh R ehman D he r i m a te r ia l f r om b o th t h e B annu s i t e s a nd H a rappa a t t h e 2 a l e ve l .

H a rappa m a te r ia l i so n ly

d i s t ingu ishab le f r om t h eB annu s i t e sm a te r ia la tt h e l al e ve l .

C oncen t ra t ion s o fc a rbona te s o f e r t h e m o s t s i gn if i can t d i sc r im ina to r o fs ou rce b e tween R heman Dhe r i a nd H a rappa , o rb e tween t h e B annu s i t e s a nd H a rappa . C a rbona te s w e re o f t en v e ry c ommon i nt h es h e rd sf r om s i t e sw e s t o ft h eI n du s , a nd u sua l ly o n ly i nt r a ce si n H a rappa s h e rd s .

H oweve r , t h e re i sn o t as i gn if i can t d if e rence a t e ven t h e 1 a l e ve l

b e tween R ehman D he r i a nd t h e B annu s i t e s w i th r e spec t t ot h i s m ine ra l .

T he i n d iv idua l

s i t e d i scu s s ion s o f t h e R ehman D he r i a nd t h e B annu s h e rd s n o ted t h e s i m i la r i t ie s i n l i me s tone c oncen t ra t ion si nt h eg eo log ica ls ou r ce f o rma t ion ss u r round ing b o th a r ea s .

W i th r e spec t t o t h e m ica s , b i o t i te c oncen t ra t ion s d i d n o t o f e r a ny d if e rence s a tt h e 2 a l e ve l b e tween R ehman D he r i a nd H a rappa , b u t w e re s i gn if ican t b e tween t h e B annu s i t e s a nd H a rappa . Mu scov i te w a sc ommon i nm o s t o ft h e s h e rd sf r om a la r ea s , a nd c ou ld n o t b er e l ied u pon t op rov ide a ny d i sc r im ina t ion a mong s tg roup s .

P y roxene sw e re m o s t ly r a re i nt h eH a rappan m a te r ia l , a nd a tt h e2 al e ve l c ou ld b eu s ed t o d i s t ingu i sh i tf r om R ehman D he r i o rB annu . H oweve r , d if e rence sw e re n o t s i gn if i can t a t t h i s l e ve l b e tween R ehman D he r i a nd t h e B annu s i t e s f o r c oncen t ra t ion s o f p y roxene . E p ido te d i d n o t p rove t ob e u sef u l d if e r ence i n d ica to r o fd if e rence a mong s t a ny o ft h e s i t e s .

Mo s t o ft h e e p ido te s o b se rved w e re c l inozo i s i te ( e spec ia l ly t h o se f r om R ehman

D he r i a nd t h e B annu s i t e s ) , w h ich o ccu r s i nl ow -g rade r e g iona l ly m e tamo rpho sed r o ck s

2 23

f o rm ing f r om m icaceou s m ine ra l s , s o s im i la r i t ie s c ou ld b e e xpec ted a mong s t t h e t h ree g roup s .

C oncen t ra t ion so fs c h i s t s howed s i gn i f ican td if e rence sa mong s ta lt h ree s i te g roup s a tt h e 2 a c on f idence l e ve l .

T he p o t te ry f r om R ehman D he r i w a s d if e ren t f r om t h e H a rappan ,

w h ich i nt u rn w a s d if e ren t f r om t h e B annu s i t e s .

T he B annu s i t e c oncen t ra t ion s w e re

s i gn if i can t ly d if e ren tf r om t h eR ehman D he r i c oncen t ra t ion s . T h i s , a tf i r s t c on s ide ra t ion , m ay i n d ica te t h a t i tm igh tb e u sef u l t od if e ren t ia te t h e r e spec t ive s i t e a r ea s . H oweve r , i t s hou ld b e u sed w i th s ome c au t ion .

A s p r ev iou s ly d i s cu s sed , t h e c a tego ry o f s c h i s t

i n c luded m uch o fw ha t m ay b e t e rmed a s g ne i s s .

S ome i n c lu s ion s w h ich w e re m o s t ly

q ua r tz b u tc on ta ined as ma l la moun to fm ica o re p ido te w e r eo f t en t e rmed s c h i s t .

Amph ibo le c oncen t ra t ion d if e rence s w e re s i gn i f ican t a t t h e 2 a. l e ve l t o d if e ren t ia te b e tween R ehman D he r i s h e rd s a nd e i the r H a rappa o r B annu .

T he h i gh c oncen t ra t ion s

e v iden t i nt h e R ehman D he r i p o t te ry w e re n o t s e en i nt h e B annu o r H a rappa s h e rd s . D if f e rence s i na mph ibo le c oncen t ra t ion s b e tween H a rappa a nd B annu m a te r ia l w e re n o t s i gn if i can ta tt h e2 al e ve l .

F i na l ly , o ne c oncen t ra t ion w h ich i sn o t i n c luded o n t h e c oncen t ra t ion c ha r t s d i scu s sed a bove i st h a t o ft h e v o lcan ic r o ck f r agmen t s w h ich w e re o b se rved i nt h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e B annu s h e rd s . T he se w e re p r e sen t i n7 1% o ft h eL ewan s h e rd s a nd 6 1% o ft h e T a raka i Q ua s h e rd s ; a nd w e r en o ts e en i na ny f r om t h eo t he rs i t e s . T hu st h e i ru n ique p r e sence c an b e a n i mpor tan t f a c to r i nd i sc r im ina t ing t h em f r om t h e R ehman D he r i a nd t h e H a rappa m a te r ia l .

C on s ide ra t ion o ft h ef o rego ing s im i la r i t ie s a nd d i s s im i la r i t ie s s h ow st h a tt h e d if e rence s i n c oncen t ra t ion s a tt h e2 a c onf idence l e ve l c an b eu s ed t os u gge s tt h a t t h e g roup s a r ef r om d if e ren t p opu la t ion s .

A pa r t f r om t h e v o lcan ic r o ck f r agmen t s s e en i nt h e B annu s h e rd s

t h e re w e re n o m ine ra l s o r r o ck s p r e sen t i na ny o ft h e g r oup s w h ich wou ld i mmed ia te ly l a be lt h em a s' f o re ign ' o ru n ique . T he ref o re , i fa ny o ne o ft h e s h e rd si nt h e s amp le f r om a g i ven s i t e w a s a c tua l ly a n i n t ru s ive s h e rd f r om o ne o ft h e o t he r s i t e s , i tw ou ld n o t b e d e tec ted a ss u ch . T he c oncen t ra t ion v a lue so fi t sm ine ra l sw ou ld b el o s ti nt h ec a lcu la t ion

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o ft h em ean f o rt h a t s i t e . D if e r ence sc a no n ly b et o ld o nt h eb a s i s o fm ean c oncen t ra t ion l e ve l s o fe ach m ine ra l . T h e ref o re , i no r de rt od e te rm ine w he the ro rn o t ap a r t icu la r s e t o f s h e rd si si n t ru s ive , i ti sr e qu i red t h a t as t a t i s t ica l ly v a l id s amp le o ft h em b e t h in s e c t ioned a nd a na ly sed .

7 . 2 .2 . T echno log ica la spec t sa nd i nnova t ion s E xam ina t ion o fs im i la r i t ie s a nd d i s s im i la r i t ie s s e en i na s pec t s o ft e chno logy a mong s t t h e s i t e si sn ow d i scu s sed . A sw i th t h em ine ra lc oncen t ra t ion sd a ta , t h e re w e re m any o fe a ch . T he t e chno log ica l d i scu s s ion i sd i v ided i n to s e c t ion s i nt h e s ame o rde r a s t h e c e ram ic p roce s s ing : c l ay p r epa ra t ion ,v e s se lf o rm ing , a nd f i r ing .

D a ta f r om a l o ft h es i t e sa r ec on s i s ten tw i th c l ay l e v iga t ion . I ta ppea red t oh ave o ccu r red w i th ah i gh d eg ree o fs k i l l a tR e lunan D he r i .

S he rd d a ta f r om t h e B annu s i t e s w e r e l e s s

s ugge s t ive o fe i the rl e v iga t ion o rt h ea b sence o fi t . T ho se c l ay sm ay o rm ay n o th ave b een l e v iga ted , a st h ey r e co rded ah i ghe r l e ve l o ff i ne ( 3 0 -50 m ic ron ) s a nd r ema in ing i nt h e m ix tu re .

I ft h ey w e r e l e v iga ted , i tw a s d one t o ac oa r se r l e ve l .

A t H a rappa , s i ze

d i s t r ibu t ion d a ta i nt h ec l ay sw e re a l so c on s i s ten tw i th t h e i rb e ing l e v iga ted t oh i ghe rl e ve l s o f r ema in ing f i ne q ua r tz s a nd i n c lu s ion s t h an R ehman D he r i .

A t R ehman D he r i , d a ta

s u gge s t t h e u s e o fr i ve r s a nd s p r ima r i ly a st empe r , w i th o cca s iona l c r u shed q ua r tz a nd g r og . T he B annu s i t e s a ppea red a l so t oh ave e mp loyed r i ve r s a nd t empe r s , b u t s howed a v e ry l ow i n c idence o fc r u shed q ua r tz o rg r og . T he H a rappa d a ta s ugge s ted t h a t p o t te r s t h e re w e re a l so u s ing s a nd t empe r sp r ima r i ly ;w i th r a re c r u shed q ua r tz a nd a bou tt h es ame i n c idence o fg rog u sage a st h a ts e en a tR ehman D he r i .

S i x d if e ren t f a b r ic t y pe s w e r e o b se rv ed a tR ehman D h e r i ; b a sed o n s ugge s ted l e v iga t ion l e ve l s a nd t h e n a tu re a nd c oncen t ra t ion s o fq ua r tz s a nd t empe r s s e en i nt h e f a b r ic s .

A t

T a raka i Q ua a nd L ewan , a l o f t h e f a b r ic s e xcep t t wo f i t ted i n to t h ree o f t h e se c l a s s if ica t ion s . T he H a rappa f a b r ic sf o rmed a n e n t i re ly d if e ren t s e t o fg roup s f r om t h o se o ft h eR ehman D he r io rt h eB annu s h e rd s . N one o ft h es i t e ss howed ac o r re la t ion b e tween f a b r ic g roup s a nd m o r pho log ica l v e s se l t y pe ; n o r b e tween t h e o ccu r rence o f c r u shed q ua r tz t empe r /g rog w i th v e s se l t y pe .

T he re w a s a l so n o c o r re la t ion o b se rved b e tween

f a b r ic t y pe a nd v e s se lw a l lt h ickne s s .

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W i th r e spec t t of o rm ing t e chn ique s , a l o ft h e s h e rd s f r om a l o ft h e s i t e s s howed s im i la r e v idence o ff o rm ing m e thod s . A l lg ene ra l ly e xh ib i ted t h e s ame c ha rac te r is t ic a l ignmen t o f i n c lu s ion s i n d ica t ive o fd r aw ing t h e f a b r ic i n ad i rec t ion v e r t ica l t o t h e v e s se l ' s b a se , o r w hee l th rown . O cca s iona le v idence o fb u rn i sh ing w a ss e en i ns h e rd sf r om a l o ft h es i te s .

A l though n o t c onc lu s ive , i n d ica t ion s o ff i r ing t empe ra tu re r a nge sv a r ied f r om s i t et o s i te . E v idence f r om t h eR ehman D he r i s h e rd sw a ss ugge s t ive o ff i r ing t empe ra tu re sc on s i s ten t ly v e ry n ea r o ra bove 8 50 d eg ree sC . A l though f i r ing t empe ra tu re d a ta f r om t h eB annu s i te s w e re l e s s c on s i s ten t , t h es h e rd sf r om T a raka i Q ua a ppea red t oa ch ieve t h is f i gu re i na bou t h a lf o ft h e s amp le s . F i r ing t empe ra tu re si nt h eL ewan s h e rd sa ppea red l e s s c on s i s ten t , b u t g ene ra l ly l e s s t h an 8 50 d eg ree s .

A t H a rappa , t h e i n d iv idua l s amp le s w e re s ma l le r , b u t

b a sed o n b i ref r ingence a s a n i n d ica to r o f f i r ing t empe ra tu re s ( f ew c a rbona te s w e re p r e sen t ) , t h ed a ta s ugge s tt h a tm o s to ft h eb ang le sa nd s h e rd ss amp led m ay h ave b een f i red t ol e s s t h an 8 50 d eg ree s C . A s m en t ioned a bove , h oweve r , t h is i sn o t c on s ide r ed t ob e a r e l iab le i n d ica t ion o ni t so wn .

O ve ra l l , t h e f o rego ing i n te r s i te c ompa r i son o fs im i la r i t ie s a nd d i s s im i la r i t ie s s ugge s t s t h a t , a l though t h e re w a s n o e v idence t o i mp ly i n te r s i te t r an spo r ta t ion o fc e ram ic s , t h e re w a s s ome c ommun ica t ion w i th r e spec t t o c e ram ic t e chno log ie s .

D ea l ing f i r s t ly w i th t h e

i n te rac t ion s b e tween R ehman D he r i a nd t h e B annu s i t e s t h a t t h e d a ta s ugge s t , i tc an b e i n f e r red t h a t t h e c e ram ic i n du s t ry a tR e i man D he r i w a s m o re a dvanced a nd s oph i s t ica ted t h an a t t h e l a t te r t wo s i t e s .

A p o s s ib ly f i ne r d eg ree o f , a nd s t anda rd isa t ion i n , c l ay

l e v iga t ion ; ab roade r r a nge o fs e pa ra te f a b r ic t y pe s ; w ide r u se o fd if e ren t t empe rt y pe s ; a nd m o re c on s i s ten t a nd h i ghe r f i r ing t empe ra tu re s w ou ld s uppor t t h i s .

T he s ame

p roce s se s w e r e l i ke ly b e ing u s ed a tL ewan a nd T a raka i Q ua b u t t o al e s s s oph i s t ica ted d eg ree . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a ta tt h e se B annu s i t e st h ec l ay sw e re a l so b e ing l e v iga ted ,b u tt o al e s s m e t icu lou s l e ve l ; s im i la r f a b r ic t y pe s w e re b e ing p r oduced , b u t as ma l le r r a nge o f t h em ; s im i la r t empe r s w e re b e ing a dded , b u t c r u shed q ua r tz a nd g rog w e r e u s ed o n ly r a re ly ; a nd f i r ing t empe ra tu re s g ene ra l ly a pp roached 8 50 d eg ree s , b u t l e s s c on s i s ten t ly a ch ieved i t . T he l ow e r c on s i s tency i nf i r ing t empe ra tu re s i n f e r red f r om t h e d a ta f r om t h e

2 26

B annu s i t e sm ay s ugge s tt h a tt h ep o t te r s a tt h o se s i t e sw e re u s ing o pen b onf i re t e chn ique s a nd n o tk i ln s . N oe v idence o fk i ln sw a sr e co rded b yt h er e sea rche r st h e re .

I fw e t a ke i n to a c coun t t h e g r ea te r s i ze o f t h e s i t e o f R ehman D he r i , t h e e x ten s ive e v idence o fe a r ly u r ban i sa t ion a nd c i ty f e a tu re sa nd o t he re v idence o fa dvanced s y s tem sa s c ompa r ed t o t h e B annu s i t e s ( s ee S ec t ion 5 . 3 ) , t h e a bove c an f i t i n to s ome o f t h e i n f o rma t ion e xchange m ode l sd i scu s sed i nS ec t ion 4 . 2 . I np a r t icu la r , i tw i l lb er e ca l led t h a t H ud son ( 1969 ) p r ov ided am ode l w h ich s t a te s t h a t g ood s a nd i d ea s m ove d ownwa rd t h rough ac en t ra l -p lace s y s tem w i th ar a nk s ize h i e ra r ch ica l s t ruc tu re . H an tman a nd P l og ( 1 982 : 2 41) s t a te t h a t i ni n nova t ion d i f f u s ion o ft h i st y pe , t h ei n nova t ion i sl i ke ly t oo ccu r f i r s t i nt h e s e t t lemen t t h a t h a s t h e g r ea te s t a moun t o f i n t ra reg iona l a nd i n te r reg iona l i n te rac t ion , u sua l ly t h e l a rge s t s e t t lemen t o r p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu r e .

I n t h i s m ode l , t h e

i n nova t ion s w ou ld h av e o ccu r r ed a tR ehman D he r i ( t he l a rge s t s e t t lemen t o r p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu re )a nd d if u sed t ot h es i t e so fL ewan a nd T a raka iQ ua . T he d i rec t ion o fi n nova t ion f l ow f i t sw i th t h ed if e r ence si nl e ve l so fs o ph i s t ica t ion o ft h er e spec t ive c e ram ic i n du s t r ie s s e en b e tween t h er e g ion s .

C ompa r ing p o s s ib le e x change o f t e chno log ica l i n f o rma t ion a nd i n nova t ion s b e tween R ehman D he r i a nd H a rappa , t h e s ame r e la t ion sh ip i sn o t s ugge s ted b y t h e d a ta .

T he i r

r e spec t ive s i te t y pe s a nd n a tu re s w e r e m uch m o re s im i la r i nt e rm s o fe v idence o fe a r ly u r ban i sa t ion a nd c i ty l ik e f e a tu re s ; a nd s o ph i s t ica t ion s e en i n t h e i r r e spec t ive c e ram ic i n du s t r ie s .

T hey w e r e b o th l a rge s e t t lemen t s a nd p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu re s .

H a rappa a l so

a ppea red t o b e u s ing l e v iga t ion a s ac l ay p r epa ra t ion t e chn ique ( a s w e l l a s r emov ing c a rbona te i n c lu s ion s ) ; t h e i r p o t te r s w e re r e gu la r ly u s ing ab roade r r a nge o ft empe rt y pe s s u ch a sg rog ; a nd t h e i r f a b r ic s f o rmed s t anda rd i sed g roup s b u t i n ad if e ren t m anne r t o t h o se f r om R ehman D he r i ( t hey h ad t h e i r o wn f a b r ic g roup s ) , s ugge s t ing p a ra l le l d eve lopmen t o ft h er e spec t ive c e ram ic i n du s t r ie s . W i th r e spec tt of i r ing t empe ra tu r e s , t h e d a ta a r e l e s s c onc lu s ive b u t t h ey m ay n o t h av e a ch ieved t h e s ame l e ve l s o fs oph i s t ica t ion a se i the rR ehman D he r i o rt h eB annu s i t e s , a tl e a s ti nt h eE a r ly H a rappan p e r iod s amp led . T hu s , i tw ou ld s e em t h a t t h e re w a s m uch l e s s t e chno log ica l i n f o rma t ion a nd i n nova t ion s b e ing d i f f u sed b e tween R ehman D he r i a nd H a rappa a tt h et i me . A cco rd ing t ot h e m ode l s j u s t d i scu s sed , a sm uch i n f o rma t ion d i f f u s ion w ou ld n o t b e e xpec ted b e tween t h e se t wo

2 27

s i t e s , a tl e a s t b a sed o n t h e i r s im i la r i ty i ns i ze o fp o l i t ica l c en t re . Mo reove r , a l though t h e m ode l s d i d n o t c on s ide r g eog raph ica l d i s tance s s e pa ra t ing t h e c en t re s , H a rappa i sm o re t h an 2 40 k i lome t re s i n as t ra igh t l i ne a way f r om R ehman D he r i , w h i le t h eB annu s i te s a r e a bou t 10 k i lome t re s f r om R ehman D he r i , t h rough an a tu ra l p a s s ( t he P ezu G ap ) . T hu s m o r ei n ten se i n f o rma t ion e xhange a nd d i f f u s ion o fi n nova t ion sw ou ld b ee xpec ted b e tween R ehman D he r i a nd B annu t h an b e tween R ehman D he r i a nd H a rappa . E qu iva len t l e ve l s o f c omp lex i ty a nd s oph is t ica t ion i nt h ec e ram ic i n du s t r ie sm ay w e l l e x i s ti ne ach o ft h e se t wo l a rge rc en t re s ,b u tw ou ld n o tn ece s sa r i ly b ee xpec ted t ob ed i f f u sed b e tween t h em . O nt h e o t he r h and , L ewan a nd T a raka i Q ua , b e ing s ma l le r a nd l e s s u r ban i sed s i t e s , w ou ld b e e xpec ted t oe mu la te t h ei n du s t ry o ft h el a rge rc en t re n ea re s tt oi t .

I nnova t ion s w h ich m ay h ave d i f f u sed f r om R ehman D he r i t ot h e B annu s i te s , i ft h ey d i d t a ke p l ace , h ave b een a l te red i ns ome w ay . T ha ti s ,t h ei n nova t ion sr e p re sen t s ome o ft h e s im i la r i t ie s o b se rved b e tween t h er e g ion s , b u tt h ey a r en o ti d en t ica l b e tween r e g ion s . I ti s d i f f icu l tt om ake aj udgmen to nj u s tw ha tt y pe so fi n f o rma t ion w e re b e ing e xchanged f r om s i t e t o s i te .

S ome t e chn ica l k now ledge s u ch a s m e thodo logy w ou ld b e t h e m o s t l i ke ly

i n f o rma t ion e xchanged .

T he r e ce ive r s i t e o f t h e i n nova t ion e i the r p rac t i sed t h e n ew

t e chno logy b u t d i dn ' t q u i te a c h ieve t h e s ame r e su l t a st h e s i t e i n i t ia t ing t h e i n nova t ion , o r e l se m od if ied i tt o s u i t t h e i r p a r t icu la r ( u ndef ined ) r e qu i r emen t s . E i the r w ay , t e chn ique s c ou ld b e e xpec ted t o d if e r f r om s i t e t os i t e e ven w hen i n nova t ion s h ave d i f f u sed .

F o r

i n s tance , i nt h e c a se o f c l ay l e v iga t ion , i tw a s i n f e r red t h a t t h e R ehman D he r i p o t te r s a c comp l i shed ah i gh d eg ree o fs oph i s t ica t ion i nt h e t e chn ique . T he d a ta f r om t h eB annu s i t e s , o nt h eo t he rh and , s ugge s ted t h e r em ay h ave b een l e s sa t ten t ion p a id t oa ch iev ing t h e s ame c oncen t ra t ion s o ff i ne q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s a sR ehman D he r i . T h i s m ay h ave b een t r ue , b u ti ta l so m ay h ave b een t h ec a se t h a tt h eB annu p o t te r sa dap ted t h el e v iga t ion t e chn ique t o s u i t t h e i r o wn p a r t icu la r r e qu i remen t s a nd d i dn ' t w i sh t o a ch ieve e xa c t ly t h e s ame c oncen t ra t ion o ff i ne q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s a st h e i rc oun te rpa r t sa tR ehman Dhe r i . T he B annu p o t te r s a l so p roduced t h e s ame r a nge o fm o rpho log ica l t y pe s , b u t u sed as ma l le r n umbe r o fd if e ren t f a b r ic t y pe s . N one o ft h ec oa r se r tex tu red f a b r ic sw e re o b se rved i nt h eB annu s amp le s .

I fi n nova t ion s w e r e d if u s ing u nchanged f r om R ehman D he r i t o B annu a s t h e

m ode l d e sc r ibed i nS ec t ion 2 . 2 s ugge s ted ( wh ich i sh i gh ly u n l ike ly ) , i twou ld b e e xpec ted t h a tt h es ame r a nge o ff a b r ic sw ou ld h ave b een e ncoun te red a tt h el a t te rs i te s .

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Af u r the re xp lana t ion f o rs t anda rd isa t ion i ns ome a r ea s a nd t h e l a ck o fi ti no t he r s m ay i np o l i t ica l c on t ro l .

A l though h i s t h eo r i s ing i sb a sed u pon o b ser va t ion s m ade f r om t h l

Ma tu r eH a rappan p e r iod o n ly ,K enoye r( 1 992 )d i v ided H a rappan c r af t si n to 4c a tego r ie s : 1 .L oca lr aw m a te r ia la nd s i mp le t e chno log ie s 2 .N on loca lr aw m a te r ia la nd s i mp le t e chno log ie s 3 .L oca lr aw m a te r ia la nd c omp lex t e chno log ie s( i nc lude s' e l abo ra ted 'c e ram ic s )

4 .N on loca lr aw m a te r ia la nd c omp lex t e chno log ie s( b ead s , s e a l s , m e ta l lu rgy , e t c . )

C a tego r ie s 3a nd 4w ou ld i n vo lve s t anda rd i sa t ion , w h i le t h e o t he r c a tego r ie sw ou ld s how h i ghe r d eg ree s o fr e g iona l v a r ia t ion . R eg iona l v a r ia t ion i nc a tego r ie s 3a nd 4 ,h ow eve r c ou ld b e c au sed b y p o l i t ica l c on t ro l o fc r af t p r oduc t ion a s sum ing t h e f o rm o fc on t ro l o t e chno log ica l k now -how , a c co rd ing t o p a t te rn s t o b e c on tex tua l ly i n ve s t iga ted i n t h ( a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ( Bhan e ta l . 1 994 : 1 4 3 ) . Mo r eh i gh ly s p ec ia l i sed c r af t s i nc i t ie s a n ( t own s r ef lec t c en t ra l i sed p o l i t ica l c on t ro l o f p r oduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion ( i b id . : 1 42 ) A dap t ing t h i s a r gumen t t o t h e E a r ly H a rappan i n v e s t iga t ion j u s t c omp le ted , o ne c ou l ( m ake ap o in t t h a t t h e s i t e s o fR ehman D he r i a nd H a rappa w e re b o th l a rge c en t re s w i t ' i n dependen tp o l i t ica l c on t ro l a nd t h e ref o re i n f luenced e a ch o t he r ' s c e ram ic p roduc t ion a n ( t e chno logy t oo n ly as ma l l d eg r ee .

O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e t wo B annu s i te s i n ve s t iga te (

w e re s ma l le r c en t re s w h ich m ay h ave b een s u b jec ted t o s ome p o l i t ica l c on t ro l o fc r a f p r oduc t ion f r om t h e i r n ea re s t l a rge c e n t r e , w h ich w a s R e lunan D he r i .

T h i s p o l i t ica

c on t ro l wou ld h ave b een i nt h ef o rm o fc r af tp r oduc t ion , a nd p robab ly n o t o ft e chno logy b ecau se i n a n e conom i c s e n se c on t ro l o f p r oduc t ion i sg ene ra l ly m o re e f ec t ive t h a t c on t ro lo ft e chno log ica li n f o rma t ion .

S ome o ft h eo b se rva t ion sm ade i nt h ep r e sen tr e sea r ch p r ov ide s uppor t ing e v idence o ft h ( d i scon t inu i ty i nc r af t s p ec ia l i sa t ion b e tween t h eE a r ly H a rappan a nd t h e Ma tu re H a rappa r p e r iod si d en t if i ed b yP o s seh l( 1 990 : 2 69 -70 )a nd d i scu s sed i nS ec t ion 5 . 2 . P o s seh l ' sa r t ick d i d n o t e l abo ra te o n w h ich p a r t icu la r a s pec t s o f c r af t s p ec ia l i sa t ion w e re s e en t o b d i scon t inuou s . T he p r e sen t o b se rva t ion s f r om R ehman D he r i w i th r e spec t t ot h e Ma tu r ( H a rappan a r e l i m i ted , b u t i tw a s s e en t h a t t h e n umbe r o fd if e ren t f a b r ic t y pe s o b se rve c d ec r ea sed f r om p e r iod t op e r iod f o rt h ed a ta s t ud ied . A l though t h i sm ay b ea t t r ibu tab le t c

2 29

t h e f ewe r n umbe r o f s amp le s s e lec ted f r om t h e Ma tu re H a rappan , ar e duc t ion i n s oph is t ica t ion h a s b een o b se rved i nH a rappa c e ram ic t e chno logy f r om t h e E a r ly t o t h e Ma tu re H a rappan a sw e l l( s ee d i scu s s ion S ec t ion 7 . 1 .1) .

T hu s , i nt e rm s o ft h e o b jec t ive o ft h e t h e s i s , i ti ss e en t h a t s o c ioeconom ic i n te rac t ion a mong s t t h e E a r ly H a rappan s i t e s e xam ined m ay h ave b een r e s t r ic ted t o t h e e xchange o f t e chn ica l i n f o rma t ion a nd i n nova t ion s , a tl e a s t t o t h e e x ten t o f w ha t c an b e t o ld f r om p e t rog raph ic a nd t e x tu ra l a na ly s i s o fc e ram ic s h e rd s . S ma l le r , l i gh te rc r af ti t em sm ay h ave b een t r aded , h oweve r . B ang le sw e r e s h own t oh ave b een t r aded i nt h e Ma tu re H a rappan p e r iod b e tween H a rappa a nd Mohen jo -Da ro ( B lackman a nd V ida le 1 990 ) . O the r s ma l le r a r tef ac t s s u ch a ss h e l l , b ead s , o rf i gu r ine s m ay a l so h ave b een e xchanged , b u t t h e re h ave b een n o p rovenanc ing s t ud ie sy e tp ub l i shed o nt h e se i t em sf o rt h eE a r ly H a rappan P e r iod .

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CHAPTER E IGHT S U M MARY OF PART TWO , AND D IRECT IONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

8 . 1 S U M MARY A tt h e o u t se t , o ne o b je c t ive o fP a r t Two w a st od emon s t ra te t h a t d a ta o b ta ined f r om t h e f i e ld p o r tab le p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i ss y s tem d eve loped i nP a r tO ne c ou ld b eu sed e f ec t ive ly t oe xam ine a n a r chaeo log ica l p rob lem . A no the rw a st oe xam ine t h e n a tu re a nd e x ten t o f i n te r s i te s oc ia l a nd e conom ic i n te ra c t ion s o ft h e E a r ly H a rappan P e r iod i nN o r thwe s te rn P ak i s tan u s ing t h e d a ta . B o th o b jec t ive s w e re a c comp l i shed t o al a rge d eg ree . T he f i r s t w a s a ch ieved b y u s ing t h e d a ta t oa ch ieve t h e s e cond .

T he r e su l t s s howed n o e v idence

t h a t p o t te ry w a s b e ing t r aded a mong s tR ehman D he r i , H a rappa , T a raka i Q ua a nd L ewan d u r ing t h e E a r ly H a rappan p e r iod . T hey s ugge s ted t h a t R ehman D he r i a nd H a rappa i n dependen t ly d eve loped f a i r ly s oph i s t ica ted c e ram ic i n du s t r ie sd u r ing t h ep e r iod ; a nd t h a t T a raka i Q i la a nd L ewan h ad l e s s d eve loped c e ram ic i n du s t r ie s w h ich w e re p robab ly i n f luenced b yi n nova t ion sf r om R ehman D he r i .

T he E a r ly H a rappan P e r iod w a s c ho sen a s t h e a pp l ica t ion o ft h e f i e ld a na ly s i s s y s tem b ecau se e x ten s ive s t y l i s t ic a nd m o rpho log ica l s im i la r i t ie s s e en i nE a r ly H a rappan p o t te ry o ve r ab road g eog raph ica l a r ea h ad p romp ted r e sea rche r s t o s ugge s t t h a t i tw a s b e ing t r aded o r e xchanged t h roughou t t h e r e g ion .

L a rge c r af t p r oduc t ion c en t re s s u ch a s

R ehman Dhe r i h ave b een s ugge s ted a st h e s ou rce s o ft h e p o t te ry .

H oweve r , t h e re h ad

b een n o p rovenance s t ud ie s c onduc ted t o e xam ine s ou rce s o f t h e s t y l i s t ica l ly s i m i la r p o t te ry t o c o r robo ra te t h e h ypo the s i s .

T h i s t h e s i s t h e ref o re s e t o u t t o c onduc t a

p e t rog raph ic f i e ld s t udy o fc e ram ic s h e rd sf r om f o u rs i t e sw he r ee x cava ted E a r ly H a rappan p o t te ry h ad d emon s t ra ted s t y l i s t ic a nd m o rpho log ica l s im i la r i t ie s .

C hap te r F ou r f i r s t r e v iewed t h eo ry a nd m ode l s o f s o c ioeconom ic i n te ra c t ion s i n p r eh i s to ry , t og a in a n a pp rec ia t ion a nd u nde r s tand ing o ft h ef o r ce sw h ich s h aped i n te r s i te a nd i n te r reg iona l b eh av iou r .

F a c to r s i n f luenc ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f s t y le s , a nd

2 31

i n f o rma t ion a nd i n nova t ion d i f f u s ion , w e re e xam ined i n t h e c on tex t o f t h e mode l s p ropo sed b yp rom inen tt h eo r i s t s . I tw a s s e en t h a tt h ee x i s tence o f ac ommon s t y le o ve ra b road g eog raph ica l e x ten t c an b e c au sed a nd i n f luen ced b y av a r ie ty o f f a c to r s .

T o

r e cap i tu la te , H an tman a nd P l og ( 1 982 )t h eo r i se t h a t as p e c if i c s t y le c an e x i s t s i mp ly a sa n i n d ica to r o f s o c ioeconom ic s t a tu s o r o fb e long ing t o ap a r t icu la r g roup .

I n nova t ion s ,

s t y l i s t ic o r t e chno log ica l , o ccu r r ing i ns o c ia l ly a nd s p a t ia l ly d if e ren t ia ted s o c ie t ie s a r e l i ke ly t o o ccu r f i r s t i nt h e s e t t lemen t t h a t h a s t h e g r ea te s t a moun t o f i n t ra reg iona l a nd i n te r reg iona l i n te ra c t ion , u sua l ly t h el a rge s t s e t t lemen t o rp o l i t ica l c en t re . T hey t h en m ove d ownwa rd t h rough t h e c e n t ra l h i e ra rchy , f o l lowed b y c e n t re s n ex t i n r ank , a nd f i na l ly d i f f u se a mong h ou seho ld so ri n d iv idua l s .

T he u se o fc hem ica l a nd p e t rog raph ic d a ta t o s t udy p a t t e rn s o fs t y l i s t ic d i s t r ibu t ion w a s r e v iewed .

T he se w e re s e en t o b e m o re a c cu ra te t h an t h e t r ad i t iona l ' c r i te r ion o f

a bundance ' c oncep t f o r d e te rm in ing p r ovenance o f e x cava ted p o t te ry .

R e spec t ive

a dvan tage s a nd d i sadvan tage s o f c hem ica l a nd p e t rog r aph ic m e thod s w e re d i scu s sed . N e i the r i si n he ren t ly s u pe r io r ; t h ey a r e c omp lemen ta ry m e thod s . c oncen t ra ted o n d e sc r ib ing t h e u se o fp e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s .

T he d i scu s s ion t h en

I tw a s s e en h ow m ine ra l

i n c lu s ion si d en t if i ed i na r chaeo log ica lc e ram ic t h in s e c t ion sc an o f ten b em a tched t os ou rce l i t ho log ie s t od e te rm ine p r ovenance , p r ov ided s uf i c ien tv a r ia t ion s e x i s t i nt h eg eo logy o f t h e d if e ren t r e g ion s b e ing c ompa red .

Whe re t h e se d if e rence s a r e n o t a dequa te t o

d if e r en t ia te s ou rce s , o t he r a na ly se s m ay b e u sed t o c omp lemen t t h e m ine ra log ica l d a ta . T he se i n c lude t e x tu ra l a na ly s i s , s t udy o f r e la t ive m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s , o b se rva t ion o f c ha rac te r i s t ic s s u ch a s m o rpho logy o r w ea the r ing o f t h e m ine ra l i n c lu s ion s , e xam ina t ion o ft e chno log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ic s .

a nd

I nt e x tu ra l a n a ly s i s , d a ta c an s ome t ime s b e

u sed t o m a tch t empe r s ( e spec ia l ly q ua r tz s a nd s ) t o l o ca l s ou rce s .

A s ho r tcom ing o f

r e l iance o n t e x tu ra l d a ta t o s ou rce c e ram ic s w a s s e en t o r e su l t f r om t h e n e ce s sa ry a s sump t ion s a st ot h ep o t te r s 't r ea tmen t so ft h en a tu ra l c l ay sb ef o re f o rm ing a nd f i r ing t h e v e s se l s .

F o r e xamp le , m o s t r e sea rche r s u s ing t h i s m e thod h ave t e nded t o a s sume t h a t

c oa r se r , m o re a ngu la ri n c lu s ion sa lway sr e p re sen ted a dded t empe r .

A s w e l l a s u s ing p e t rog raph ic d a ta f o r p r ovenanc ing , t e chno log ica l a t t r ibu te s o fp o t te r y c an b e e xam ined v i a t h in s e c t ion ing .

T h i s i sa n i mpo r tan t p a r t o fe xam in ing i n t ra - a n d

2 32

i n te r s i te i n te rac t ion s .

I fp e t rog raphy c a n s h ow t h a t s t y l i s t ica l ly a nd m o rpho log ica l ly

s im i la r p o t te ry w a s n o t b e ing t r aded o re x changed , t h en i ti si mpo r tan t t o d e te rm ine t h e n a tu re a nd e x ten to fc ommun ica t ion w h ich e x i s ted w i th r e spec tt oi n nova t ion s a nd a s pec t s o f at e chno log ica l n a tu re .

P a ra l le l s i nt h e m anuf ac tu r ing p roce s s f r om s i t e t o s i t e , f o r

e x amp le , m igh t s ugge s t t h a t t e chno log ica l i n f o rma t ion w a s b e ing e xchanged a mong s t t h e p o t te r s ; a nd t h a t t h e c ommon s t y le s i gna l led m o re t h an g roup i d en t i ty .

T echno log ica l

a tr ibu te s w h ich c an b ee xam ined v i at h in s e c t ion ing i n c lude a moun t s a nd t y pe so ft empe r u s ed , i n c lud ing p r ef e r red q ua r tz s a nd t empe r s i ze s , o bse rva t ion o f s l i p s a nd s u r f ace f i n i she s , i n f e rence o ff i r ing t empe ra tu re a nd f o rm ing t e chn ique s .

C hap te r F i ve p r e sen ted t h e b a ckg round t ot h e p rob lem b e ing s t ud ied .

T he g eog raphy ,

c l ima te a nd g eo logy o ft h eI n du sV a l ley a nd i t sa d ja cen ta r ea sw e re d e sc r ibed . I na dd i t ion t o d esc r ib ing t h e p r e sen t c l ima te o f t h e r e g ion , r e sea rch i n to t h e n a tu re o f t h e p a laeoc l ima te w a s r e v iewed .

T ho se s t ud ie s s ugge s ted t h a t a pp rox ima te ly 1 0 ,000 y ea r s

a go , t h e c l ima te o f t h e a r ea c hanged f r om a r id t o s em i -a r id , a nd s i nce t h a t t i me h a s r ema ined m uch t h es ame a st h a tp r eva i l ing t o day .

T h e g eo logy o ft h e I n d ian s u bcon t inen t f a l l s i n to t wo m a in p a r t s : P en in su la r I n d ia , w i th r o ck s m a in ly o f P recamb r ian t o C re ta ceou s a ge , a nd s ome C enozo ic s t ra ta ; a nd t h e e x t ra -pen in su la rr e g ion , w h ich c on s i s t so f ac on t inuou ss e r ie so fh i gh ly f o s s i l if e rou sm a r ine s e d imen ta ry r o ck s r a ng ing i na ge f r om e a r ly P a laeozo ic t oE ocene , a nd az one c ompo sed a lmos t e n t i re ly o fT e r t ia ry s e d imen ta ry r i ve r d epo s i t s .

T he d epo s i t iona l h i s to r ie s o ft h e

s i t e a r ea s w e re r e v iewed a nd i tw a s s e en t h a t t h e G oma l P l a in ( whe re R ehman D he r i i s l o ca ted ) a nd t h eB annu B a s in ( whe re T a raka i Q ua a nd L ewan a r el o ca ted ) d e r ive a ni n f lux o fd e t r i ta lm a te r ia la nd s e d imen t sf r om l a rge ly s im i la ra d jacen tg eo log ica lf o rma t ion st ot h e w e s t a nd n o r thwe s t o ft h e t wo a r ea s .

D e t r i ta l a nd s e d imen ta ry m a te r ia l t ob e f o und i n

H a rappan c l ay s , o nt h e o t he rh and , a r et h ough tt ob em o re r e cen tm a te r ia lb r ough t b yt h e R av iR ive rf r om m oun ta in s2 00 k mt ot h en o r thea s t .

T he H a rappan C iv i l i sa t ion a nd i t s a n teceden t s w e re t h en d e sc r ibed , b eg inn ing w i th t h c E a r ly F ood -P roduc ing E ra a sd ef ined b yt h e a c e ram ic Meh rga rh P ha se a tt h eb eg inn ing o i t h e s even th m i l lenn ium . R e sea rch h a s s u gge s ted t h a t s e t t lemen t s o ft h i s p ha se w e re t h (

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e a r l ie s t s e den ta ry s e t t lemen t s o ft h e I n du s V a l ley T rad i t ion .

D ome s t ica ted a n ima l s a nd

c r op s g r adua l ly r e p laced t h e i mpo r tance o f h un t ing a nd g a the r ing o n l o ca l e c onom ie s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod , a nd t h e se f a c to r s o f e r as t rong c a se f o r a n i n d igenou s p r oce s s o f d ome s t ica t ion w i th in t h e I n d ian s u bcon t inen t .

T he e a r l ie s t p o t te ry w a s r e co rded f r om

a r ound 500 BC . E a r ly i n te rac t ion w i th o t he r s o c ia lg roup sw a se v idenced b yt h el i m i ted u se o fi mpo r ted c r af tm a te r ia l s .

C on t inu i t ie s a nd d i scon t inu i t ie s i n d eve lopmen t s l e ad ing u p t o t h e Ma tu re H a rappan P e r iod w e re e xam ined f r om t h e v i ewpo in t s o ft wo o ft h e m o re p rom inen t r e sea r che r s i n H a rappan a r chaeo logy , Mugha l a nd P o s seh l . Ad i scu s s ion o fb o th w a s c en t ra l t op l ac ing t h e p r e sen t r e sea rch i n to i t s p e r spec t ive .

Mugha l , . w ho i n t roduced t h e t e rm E a r ly

H a rappan i n to t h e l i t e ra tu re , s aw i nt h e e v idence a s moo th t r an s i t ion f r om s e den ta ry v i l lage f a rm ing l i f e t o ac omp lex u r ban c i v i l i sa t ion .

P o s seh l 's i n te rp re ta t ion i sa l so

r e f lec ted i nh i s t e rm ino logy ; h eu se st h et e rm p r e -U rban t od e sc r ibe t h e p e r iod l e ad ing u p t ot h et r an s i t ion t ot h eU rban P ha se . P o s seh l i n te rp re t s t h e d a ta t os ugge s t am uch m o re a b rup t c hange w i th s ome c on t inu i t ie s a nd s ome d i scon t inu i t ie s . C on t inu i t ie s s e en b yb o th i n c lude

i t em s

r e la ted

t o s u b s i s tence

a nd

e xp re s s ion s

h av ing t o d o

w i th

s t y le .

D i scon t inu i t ie s s e en b y P o s seh l i n c lude t h o se f e a tu re s t h a t m ake i td i s t inc t ive ly u r ban i n c ha ra c te rs u ch a ss o c ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion a nd c r af ts p ec ia l i sa t ion .

T he s i t e s f r om w h ich s amp le s w e re s e lec ted w e re d e sc r ibed , w i th a c oncen t ra t ion o n R ehman D he r i .

R ehman D he r i h a s p r ov ided e v idence s u gge s t ing s ome o f t h e e a r l ie s t

d eve lopmen t s t owa rd s u r ban i sm a ss e en a t Mohen jo -Da ro a nd H a rappa , a nd a ppea red t o h ave b een am a jo r c e ram ic a nd c r af t p r oduc t ion c en t re d u r ing t h e E a r ly H a rappan . T h i s e v idence w a sr e v iewed , a nd c ha rac te r i s t ic so ft h et h ree m a jo rp e r iod sa tt h e s i te d e sc r ibed . T he e a r ly l e ve l s a tH a rappa h ave a l so s h own e v idence o fe a r ly u r ban i sa t ion , a nd t h e s i te a ppea red t oh ave b een am a jo r c e ram ic a nd c r af t p roduc t ion c en t re , o n as c a le s i m i la r t o t h a t o fR ehman D he r i .

T he t wo s i t e s s i tua ted i nt h e B annu B a s in , L ewan a nd T a raka i

Q ua , a ppea red t oh ave h ad al e s s s oph i s t ica ted c r af t a nd c e ram ic i n du s t ry t han t h e o t he r t wo s i t e s . C e ram ic sf r om a lf o u r s i t e s s h owed r ema rkab le s t anda rd i sa t ion a mong s tt h em . Morpho log ica lt y pe sc ou ld b ep l aced i n to t h es ame c l a s s if i ca t ion sa nd t y po log ie s .

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F o l low ing ad e sc r ip t ion o ft h et y po log ie sf i r s td ef ined b yt h eo r ig ina le x cava to ra tR ehman D h e r i , c e ram ic m o rpho log ie sw e r e g r ouped f r om a lf o u r s i t e s . T he s e v en m o s t c ommon t y pe sw e re t h en c ho sen f o r s amp l ing f r om e a ch s i t e . T h i s i n c luded t wo t y pe s o fj a r s : A l a nd A I I ; f ou r t y pe s o f b ow l s : B I , B I I , B I I I a nd B 1V ; a nd t h e BY d i sh -on s tand . A dd i t iona l ly , C I I t y pe ( p o lych rom e s , o fn o p a r t i cu la r m o rpho logy ) w e r e s amp led f r om R ehm an D he r i .

I nC hap te r S i x , t h e m e thodo logy w a s d e sc r ibed a nd d i scu s sed .

T h e l a rge s t s amp le w a s

t a k en f r om R ehman D he r i b e cau se o fi t s s t a tu s a s al a rg e r c en t r e a nd e v idence f o r a n e x ten s ive c e ram ic a nd c r af t i n du s t ry .

I tw a s w e l l -excava ted a nd p rov ided a c omp le te

s e quen ce f r om t h e e a r l ie s t p a r t o ft h eE a r ly H a rappan P e r iod t ol e ve l s c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e Ma tu re H a rappan P e r iod ( P e r iod I I ) . S amp l ing w a s d e s ign ed t op rov ide ac omp le te r e p r e sen ta t ion o f e a ch o f t h e s e v en m o rpho log ica l t y pe s f r om e a ch o f t h e t h r ee c h rono log ica l p e r iod s a tt h e s i t e ; w i th ac on cen t r a t ion o nt h e E a r ly H a r appan l e v e l s , A l l w e r e r a ndom ly s e lec ted f r om p rov enanced m a te r ia l .

S ma l le r s amp le s r e p re sen t ing t h e

s am e t y pe s w e r e c ho s en f r om t h e r ema in ing t h r ee s i t e s .

F rom H a rappa , as e le c t ion o f

b ang l e sw a sa l so s amp l ed f o rt h in se c t ion ing .

O n e h und red a nd s i x ty -f ive t h in s e c t ion s w e re p r epa r ed f r om t h e s amp le s a tP e shawa r , u s ing t h ef i e ld k i td ev e loped i nP a r tO n e . T h ey w e r ee xam in ed a nd a na ly sed u s ing t h ef i e ld m i c ro scope d ev e loped a sp a r t o ft h ek i t . M in e ra li n c lu s ion si nt h e s e c t ion sw e re i d en t if i ed a nd r e co rded u s ing s t anda rd p e t rog raph ic t e chn ique s . I na dd i t ion , o t he rc ha ra c te r i s t ic so f t h e m ine ra l s s u ch a sc on cen t ra t ion , m o rpho log ica l d a ta , a nd w ea th e r ing c ond i t ion w e re r e co rded . C on cen t ra t ion d a ta r e levan tt oa lo ft h e m ine ra l s e x cep t q ua r tz w e re r e co rded o n as c a le o f 1t o 4 ,r e p r e sen t ing ' a b sen t ' t o ' c ommon ' r e spec t ive ly .

A n a r ea c oun t t o

d ef in e t h e s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s a nd ap o in t c oun t t o d e te rm in e t h e c h a r a c te r i s t i c s o ft h e m a t r ix w i th r e spe c t t oa li n c lu s ion s ( c la s sed a ss a nd , s i l t , o rm a t r ix ) w e r ec onduc ted o ne a ch o ft h es e c t ion s . T h i se n ta i led c oun t ing 2 50 t o 50 p o in t sf o re a ch s h e rd i nt h e a r ea c oun t , a nd , i na dd i t ion , a pp rox ima te ly 4 00 p e r s l i d e f o rt h e p o in t c oun t . T h e s e c oun t ing l e ve l s w e r e d e s ign ed t o p r ov ide a 9 5% c onf iden ce i n te rva l w h ich w a s a c cep tab le a tt h e2 al e v e l . A l ld a ta w e r et h en e n te r ed i n to aL o tu s 1 2 3R 5 d a taba se u s ing a Z en i th Z -S ta r4 33VL p e r sona lc ompu te r .

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T he d a taba se p rov ided a u toma t ion , m an ipu la t ion a nd s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s is o ft h e r e co rded d a ta .

I te nab led c ha r t ing o ft h e f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e s i ze r a nge s o ft h e q ua r tz

i n c lu s ion s w i th ac onf idence i n te rva l , c oncen t ra t ion l e ve l s o fe a ch s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd p e rcen tage c ompo s i t ion c ha r t s o f s a nd , s i l t a nd m a t r ix i ne a ch c e ram ic s amp le .

T he se

c ha r t s p roved t o b e p owe r f u l t oo l s f o r g r oup ing a nd c l a s s if y ing f a b r ic s b a sed o n c oncen t ra t ion c ha rac te r i s t ic s o fq ua r tz s a nd i n c lu s ion s . I na dd i t ion , m ean c oncen t ra t ion s o f e a ch o ft h e m ine ra l s r e co rded w e re p l o t ted f o r s i t e to s i te c ompa r ison s .

S t anda rd

e r ro r so ft h e m ean w e re c a lcu la ted f o rt h e se c oncen t ra t ion c ha r t st op rov ide am ea su re o f c onf idence i nd if e r en t ia t ing s ou rce sb a sed o nt h ed a ta .
50 m ic ron s .

T he n umbe r o f o ccu r rence s f a l l ing i n to e a ch r a nge s how ed a h i gh

f r equency o f s h e rd s w i th v e ry l ow c oncen t ra t ion s o f t h e s ma l le r q ua r tz i n c lus ion s , s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e c l ay s m ay h ave b een m e t icu lou s ly l e v iga ted .

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C ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h e

f r equency o ft h el a rge r s i ze r a nge w e re c on s i s ten tw i th u se o fr i ve rs a nd sa nd o cca s iona l ly c r u shed q ua r tz o r q ua r tz f r om ap r ima ry s ou rce a st empe r .

O n t h e b a s i s o ft h e se s i ze

d i s t r ibu t ion c ha ra c te r i s t ic s , t h e R ehman D he r i f a b r ic s f e l l i n to s i x s e pa ra te f a b r ic t y pe s , a c co rd ing t ot h ec oncen t ra t ion o fi n c lu s ion s3 0 -5 0 m ic ron si ns i ze , a nd t h en a tu r e o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h o se q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s> 50 m ic ron si ns i ze . T he r e su l t ing f a b r ic g roup ing s s h owed n o c o r re la t ion w i th m o rpho log ica l v e s se l t y pe s , o r w i th s h e rd t h ickne s s . O ccu r rence s o ff a b r ic t y pe s a ppea red t o c hange b e tween P e r iod s Ia nd I I , l e s sen ing i n n umbe rp r e sen ta nd t e nd ing t owa rd sm o re o ft h ec oa r se rf a b r ic s . F i na l ly , s ome i n d ica t ion s o ff o rm ing t e chn ique s a nd f i n i she s e mp loyed a tR ehman D he r i w e re p rov ided b y t h e t h in s e c t ion e xam ina t ion s .

M ine ra l s o b se rved i nt h e t h in s e c t ion s f r om L ewan a nd T a raka i Q ua w e re t h e s ame a s t h o se s e en i nt h e R ehman D he r i s amp le s . I n d iv idua l m ine ra l s v a r ied i nc oncen t ra t ion b u t e xh ib i ted g ene ra l ly t h e s ame c ha ra c te r i s t ic s . T he p r e sence o fv o lcan ic r o ck f r agmen t s i n t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e s amp le s f r om t h e B annu B a s in , w h ich w e re n o t p r e sen t i na ny o ft h e s amp le sf r om t h eo t he rt wo s i t e s , p r ov ided ad i s t ingu i sh ing a s pec t o ft h ep o t te ry f r om t h a t a r ea .

T he re w a s ac l o se c o r re la t ion o b se rved i nt h e m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s b e tween t h e

t wo s i te s o ft h eb a s in , a nd t h o se s e en i nt h e w a s te r s c o l lec ted f r om t h e s u r f ace a tL ewan . B a sed o n c ha ra c te r i s t ic so ft h ec a rbona te i n c lu s ion s , f i r ing t empe ra tu re sw e re e s t ima ted t o b e a r ound 8 50 d eg ree s C , a s i n t h e R ehman D he r i s h e rd s , b u t a ppea red t o b e l e s s c on s i s ten tt h an t h o se f r om t h e l a t te r s i t e . B i ref r ingence o ft h em a t r ice s , h oweve r , d i d n o t c o r robo ra te t h i s ; t h i s i n d ica to r s ugge s ted t h a t f i r ing t empe ra tu re s w e re g ene ra l ly l owe r t h an 8 50 d eg r ee s .

A na ly s i so ft h es i ze d i s t r ibu t ion c ha ra c te r i s t ic so ft h eq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s i nt h e s amp le sf r om t h eB annu B a s in r e vea led a lb u tt wo f i ti n to t h e f a b r ic g roup s d ef ined o n t h eb a s i s o ft h e R ehman D he r i s h e rd s .

T he l a rge m a jo r i ty f r om b o th t h e B annu s i t e s m a tched as i ng le

R ehman D he r i f a b r ic t y pe . T he r ema inde r , a pa r t f r om t h et wo m en t ioned a bove , f e l l i n to t wo o the rR ehman D he r if a b r ic t y pe s .

M ine ra l s u i te s o b se rved i nt h e H a rappa t h in s e c t ion s w e re a ga in g ene ra l ly t h e s ame a s t h o se o b se rved i nt h e s i t e s w e s t o ft h e I n du s R ive r . T he m o s t s i gn if ican t d if e rence s e en

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w a st h em uch l owe rc oncen t ra t ion so fc a rbona te s , w h ich m ay b ea t t r ibu tab le t or emova l o f t h e se m ine ra ls i nc l ay p r epa ra t ion . M ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s i nt h e b ang le s w e re g ene ra l ly s ma l le r t h an t ho se s e en i nt h e s h e rd s amp le s . T h i s w a s a t t r ibu ted p a r t ly t ot h e c ho ice o f m e thodo logy i nr e co rd ing t h em ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s , b u t t h eu se o fd if e ren t c l ay s ou rce s f o r t h e b ang le s c ou ld n o t b e r u led o u t .

S t udy o f t h e f a b r ic s t h rough q ua r tz s i ze

c oncen t ra t ion d a ta s ugge s ted t h a t t h e r e e x i s t t wo b a s ic b ang le f a b r ic g roup s a nd f o u r i d en t if iab le p o t te ry f a b r ic g roup s . T he c e ram ic f a b r ic g roup s d i d n o t m a tch t ho se d ef ined f o rt h eR ehman D he r ip o t te ry s amp le s .

T he v e ry l ow i n c idence o fc a rbona te i n c lu s ion s n o ted i nt h e H a rappa s amp le s p r ec luded u se o ft h e i r c ha rac te r i s t ic s a s a n i n d ica to r o f f i r ing t empe ra tu re r a nge s .

B i ref r ingence

o b se rved i nt h ef a b r ic s s ugge s ted t h a tm o s tw e re f i r ed t ol e s st h an 8 50 d eg ree sC ,b u tt h i s w a s n o t s e en a s ap a r t icu la r ly r e l iab le i n d ica to r . E xam ina t ion o ft h e i n c lus ion a l ignmen t p a t te rn i nt h e b ang le s amp le s s u gge s ted t wo d if e ren t f o rm ing t e chn ique s m ay h ave b een u sed i nm anuf ac tu r ing t h eb ang le s .

M ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion sf r om e a ch o ft h e f o u r s i t e s w e re e xam ined a nd c ompa red . I tw a s s e en t h a t d if e rence s o b se rved i nc e r ta in o ft h e m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s w e re s i gn if i can t a t t h e 9 5% c on f idence l e ve l s u ch t h a t t h ey c ou ld b e r e l iab ly u s ed t od if e ren t ia te s ou rce s o f m a te r ia l .

T he e xcep t ion w a s i nd if e rence s b e tween c oncen t ra t ion s s e en w i th in t h e t wo

B annu B a s in s i t e s , w h ich w e re n o t d i s t ingu i shab le o nt h i sb a s i s . U s ing t h e s t anda rd e r ro r o f t h e m ean a s t h e c onf idence i n te rva l , s i gn if i can t d if e rence s i n s ome o f t h e m ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s e x i s ted t of o rm t h ree s ou rce g roup s : R ehman D he r i , B annu a nd H a rappa . T h i s r e su l t s ugge s ted t h a t m a te r ia l f r om e a ch o ft h e a r ea s w a s s ou rced f r om w i th in t h a t a r ea .

A pa r t f r om t h e u n ique o ccu r r ence o fv o lcan ic r o ck f r agmen t s i nt h e B annu B a s in

s h e rd s , t h e re w e re n om ine ra l so rr o ck so b se rved t h a tc ou ld b eu sed t oi d en t if ya ni n t ru s ive s h e rd i na ny o ft h eg roup s . Al a rge ri n t ru s ive g roup m ay b ea b le t ob ei d en t if ied , h oweve r , o nt h eb a s is o fr e la t ive c oncen t ra t ion so fc on s t i tuen tm ine ra l s .

W i th r e spec t t o t e chno log ica l a s pec t s , d a ta w e re c on s i s ten t w i th c l ay l e v iga t ion a ta l o f t h e s i t e s .

A t R ehman D he r i , i tm ay h ave o ccu r red w i th a h i ghe r d eg ree o f s k i l l a nd

s t anda rd i sa t ion t h an t h a t i n f e r red f r om d a ta f r om t h e B annu s i t e s . H a rappa a ppea red t o

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a ch ieve ad if e ren t l e ve l o fl e v iga t ion , b u t w i th c on s i s tency c ompa rab le w i th t h a t s e en a t R ehman Dhe r i .

R ive r s a nd s w e re s ugge s ted t o b e t h e p r ima ry t empe r e mp loyed , w i th

a dd i t iona l u se o fc r u shed q ua r tz o r g r og m o re c ommon a tR ehman D he r i a nd H a rappa . S i x d if e ren t f a b r ic t y pe s w e re o b se rved a tR ehman D he r i w i th t h e B annu d a ta f i t t ing p r ima r i ly i n to t h ree o ft h e se . T he H a rappa d a ta s ugge s ted f o u r f a b r ic t y pe s ; a t as im i la r l e v e lo fs oph i s t ica t ion b u td if e ren tf r om t h eR ehman D he r ig roup s .

O ve ra l l , i n te r s i te c ompa r i son o fs im i la r i t ie s a nd d i s s im i la r i t ie s s ugge s ted t h a t , a l though n o e v idence o fi n te r s i te c e ram ic s t r an spo r t w a s s e en , t h e re w a s a n e xchange o ft e chno logy a n d i n nova t ion s .

I ti ss u gge s ted t h a t t h e c e ram ic i n du s t ry a tR ehman D he r i w a s m o re

a dvanced a nd s oph i s t ica ted t h an a tt h e B annu s i t e s . T h i s w a s s h own b y ap o s s ib ly f i ne r d eg r ee o f , a nd s t anda rd i sa t ion i n , c l ay l e v iga t ion ; ab roade r r a nge o ff a b r ic t y pe s ; w ide r u s eo fd if e ren tt empe r s ; a nd m o re c on s i s ten ta nd h i ghe rf i r ing t empe ra tu re s . B a sed u pon t h e r e la t ive s i ze s o ft h e r e spec t ive s i t e s , t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion i sc on s is ten t w i th i n f o rma t ion e x change t h eo r ie se a r l ie rr e v iewed .

B e tween R ehman D he r ia nd H a rappa ,t h es ame r e la t ion sh ip w a sn o t s ugge s ted b yt h ed a ta . B o th w e re l a rge , s t ruc tu red u r ban s e t t lemen t s .

A s im i la r d eg ree o f s oph i s t ica t ion i n

c e ram ic t e chno logy w a s f o und a tb o th s i t e s , b u t b ecau se t h ey d if e r ed i na b so lu te f o rm , p a ra l le l d eve lopmen t o f t h e r e spec t ive t e chno log ie s i si n f e r red , r a the r t h an e x ten s ive e x change o fi n f o rma t ion a nd i n nova t ion s . T he l ow i n c idence o fc a rbona te i n c lu s ion si nt h e H a rappa m a te r ia l m ay s u gge s t am o re a dvanced t e chno logy ; i nt h a t t h e se i n c lu s ion s w e re r emoved d u r ing c l ay p r epa ra t ion .

8 . 2 . DIRECT IONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH T he f o rego ing p rog ramme o fr e sea r ch h a sa c comp l i shed t h e o b jec t ive s s e t o u t i n i t ia l ly . I t h a s p rov ided s ome b a s ic u nde r s tand ing o f t h e n a tu r e o f i n te r s i te s o c ioeconom ic c ommun ica t ion i no ne a r ea o ft h e I n du s V a l ley d u r ing t h e E a r ly H a rappan P e r iod .

I n

d o ing s o , f u r the rq ue s t ion sh ave a r i sen .

F i r s t ly , a st h e r e sea r ch h a s r e vea led n o e v idence t os ugge s t t h a t a ny e xchange o fc e ram ic p r oduc t sw a st a k ing p l a ce a mong s tt h et h ree r e g ion se xam ined , s ome c o r robo ra t ion o ft h i s

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i sn eeded f r om l a rge r s amp le s a nd w i th o t he r c r af t p r oduc t s .

T he i n f e rence w a s m ade

b a sed u pon m ean c oncen t ra t ion so fm ine ra l so b se r ved i nt h in s e c t ion so fp o t te ry f r om e ach s i t e .

A l though t h e o r ig ina l o b jec t ive w a s t o u t i l i se o n ly d a ta o b ta ined b y w ay o f t h e

p or tab le p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s k i t , f u r the r d e l inea t ion c ou ld b e d e r ived f r om c h em ica l a na ly s i s o f as im i la r s amp le s e t . I d en t ica l m ine ra l s u i te s o ccu r r ing a te ach o ft h er e g ion s , e s pec ia l ly b e tween R ehman D he r i a nd t h eB annu B a s in s i t e s , d i d n o t a low d if e r en t ia t ion t ob eb a sed u pon m ine ra log ica ld if e rence s ; o n ly o nd if e ren ce si nc oncen t ra t ion so fc e r ta in m ine ra l s . C hem ica lc ha rac te r i sa t ion o ft h ec l ay so rc e r ta in o ft h em ine ra l sm ay r e v ea lm o re d i s t inc t ive d if e rence s .

K on ta ( 1 985 , c i ted i n C ham ley 1 9 89 : 6 5 ) o b se rved t h a t I ndu s

R ive r s i l t s c on ta in c oncen t ra t ion s o f b o th k ao l in i te a nd m ica i l l i te c l ay s .

C hem ica l

c ha rac te r i sa t ion m ay t h e ref o re b e a b le t o r e vea l d if e ren ce s i nt h e i r r e spec t ive s o u rce s . F u r the rmo re , c h em ica l c ha ra c te r i sa t ion o ft h e p l ag ioc la se f e ld spa r i n c lu s ion s o b s e rved i n t h e t h in s e c t ion s v i a S cann ing E lec t ron M ic ro scope o rE l ec t ron M ic rop robe m ay r e vea l c ompo s i t iona ld a ta t h a tm igh ta s s i s ti nt h e i rs ou rc ing .

C hem ica l c ha rac te r i sa t ion m ay a l so a s s i s t i n m o re a c cu ra te ly d ef in ing t h e a moun t o f c a lc ium c a rbona te r emoved b y t h e E a r ly H a rappan p o t te r s a t H a rappa .

T he p r e sen t

r e sea rch r e vea led v e ry l ow l e ve l so ft h i sm ine ra l i nt h eH a rappan c e ram ic s , d e sp i te t h ea r ea s o i l s b e ing r i ch i ni t . T he l a ck o fc a rbona te s w h ich c a n b e i d en t if ied b y p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i si nt h em a te r ia l c ou ld b ec o r robo ra ted v i a ac hem ica la na ly s i s , a st h ei n c lu s ion sm ay h ave b een t oo s ma l l t od e tec t e a s i ly v i a p e t rog raphy . R emova l o fs i gn if ican t a moun t s o f c a rbona te sc ou ld s i gn if y am o re c omp lex c e ram ic i n du s t ry a tt h es i t e .

A s t h e s amp l ing f r om t h e p roduc t ion s i t e o f R ehman D he r i w a s r e s t r ic ted t o o ne e xcava t ion t r ench i no rde r t o k eep t h e s amp le s i ze a t aw o rkab le l e ve l , i tc a nno t b e a s sumed t h a t t h i s t r ench i sr e p re sen ta t ive o ft h e s i t e a s aw ho le .

I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t a

p rog ramme o fs amp l ing t h a t e ncompa s se s a tl e a s tt h ree o ft h e e xcava ted a r ea s a tt h e s i te b e i mp lemen ted .

T he s ame m e thodo logy s hou ld b e u s ed t oe xam ine t h e se a nd c ompa re

t h em w i th t h ep r e sen tr e su l t s .

A p rog ramme o f r e sea r ch , e i the r p e t rog raph ica l o r c h em ica l , b u t p r ef e rab ly b o th , c onduc ted o nb ang le se xcava ted f r om t h es ame f o u rs i t e sm ay r e vea l m uch m o re e x ten s ive

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i n f o rma t ion w i th r e spec t t o i n te r s i te p roduc t e xchange . I th a s b een s h own t h a t b ang le s w e r et r aded b e tween Moh en jo -Da ro a nd H a rappa d u r ing t h e Ma tu r eH a rappan ( B la ckman a nd V ida le 1 992 ) . B ang le s a r ef o und i nl a rge q uan t i t ie sa tt h e e a r ly a nd t r an s i t iona ll e ve l s a ta lf ou ro ft h e s i t e s e xam ined . B ang le s a sp e r sona l a do rnmen t sm ay b em o re s i gn if i can t i n d ica to r s o fg roup a f i l ia t ion t h an p o t te ry . A l though t h e p r e sen t s t udy i si n conc lu s ive i n t h i s r e spec t , d if e rence s w e re s u spec ted i nm ine ra l c oncen t ra t ion s b e tween p o t te ry s h e rd s a nd b ang le f r agmen t sf r om E a r ly H a rappan c on tex t s a tH a rappa . S im i la r s t ud ie s c ou ld b e c onduc ted o n c e ram ic f i gu r ine sw h ich w e re c ommon i nf o rm a nd s t y le a mong s tt h e s ame s i t e s . F igu r ine sm ay h av ef u nc t ioned a si c on si nc u l t sw ide sp read i nt h eH a rappan s y s tem a n d t h u s m ay h ave m oved f r om s i t e t os i t e . D emon s t ra t ion o ft h e e xchange o ff i gu r ine s h oweve r , w ou ld l i ke ly h ave d if e ren t i mp l ica t ion s w i th r e spec t t o s o c ia l b ehav iou r t h an p o t te ry .

Aw ide r s amp l ing o fs im i la r p o t te ry w ou ld a s s i s t i nd ef in ing t h e e x ten t o ft h e i n te ra c t ion s t h a t h ave b een s ugge s ted b y t h e p r e sen t r e sea rch .

I np a r t icu la r , p o t te ry e xcava ted f r om

S a r a iK ho la , n ea rT ax i la ,i ss t y l i s t ica l ly , m o rpho log ica l ly a nd c h rono log ica l ly s im i la rt ot h a t e x am ined h e re . I th ad b een p a r t o ft h e o r ig ina l i n ten tt oi n c lude s amp le s o ft h i sp o t te ry i n t h e p r e sen t r e sea rch , b u t of i c ia l p e rm i s s ion w a s n o t o b ta ined i n t i me .

A s im i la r

e x am ina t ion o f as amp le o ft h i s p o t te ry m ay r e vea l w he the r o r n o t S a ra i K ho la w a s a ' s a t e l l i te 'r e g ion w i th r e spec tt ot e chno log ica la nd i n nova t ion d i f f u s ion f r om al a rge rs i t e , o r i fi ta ppea red t od eve lop i n ap a ra l le ls e n se a sh a sb een s u gge s ted a tH a rappa a nd R ehman D he r i .

F i na l ly , s ome f u r the r s t ud ie s s ugge s ted b y t h e p r e sen t r e su l t s c ou ld a s se s s t h e i mpo r tan t d if e rence s b e tween t h e t wo s c hoo l s o ft h ough t o n t h e c on t inu i ty /d i scon t inu i ty a r gumen t f o rt h et r an s i t ion f r om t h eE a r ly t ot h e Ma tu re H a rappan . A sd i scu s sed i nS ec t ion 5 . 2 , t h e d i s con t inu i t ie s r e la te t o s o c ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion a nd c r af t s p ec ia l i sa t ion .

Al a rge r s amp l ing

f r om t h e Ma tu re H a rappan l e ve l s a t R ehman D he r i w ou ld b e t te r d ef ine t h e c hange s o b se rved i n t h e n umbe r o f f a b r ic t y pe s f r om t h e e a r ly t o t h e l a te r l e ve l s .

A s im i la r

p r og ramme i su nde rw ay a tH a rappa . S i nce H a rappa i sa l so am a jo r c e ram ic p r oduc t ion c e n t re , ap rog ramme u nde r taken t o a s se s s t e chno log ica l c hange s f r om t h e e a r l ie s t t ot h e l a t e s t l e ve l s t h e re w ou ld a l so b e m o s t i n f orma t ive w hen c ompa red w i th R ehman D he r i

2 4 1

t e chno log ica l

c hange s t h roughou t t h e

s ame p e r iod .

A dd i t iona l ly ,

t h e H a rappan

C iv i l i sa t ion i sf r equen t ly i n te rp re ted a sh av ing b een am a jo rt r ad ing c i v i l isa t ion d u r ing t h e Ma tu re P e r iod a nd p o t te ry , c l a imed t ob e H a rappan , h a s b een r e cogn i sed a sf a r a f i e ld a s Oman a nd S ho r tuga i o n t h e e dge o fC en t ra l A s ia .

T he se a r gumen t s h ave b een t y p ica l ly

b a sed u pon s im i la r i t ie si ns t y le a nd m o rpho logy . W i th r e spec tt op o t te ry , t h e re h ave b een n o p rovenance s t ud ie s p ub l i shed s how ing t h e Ma tu re H a rappan P e r iod t o h ave b een c ha rac te r i sed b y e x ten s ive t r ade i n p o t te ry .

S i nce t h e p r e sen t s t udy h a s r e vea led n o

e v idence o fc e ram ic e xchange d u r ing t h eE a r ly H a rappan , i tw ou ld b ev a luab le t oe xam ine w he the r o r n o t l o ng d i s tance t r ade o r e x change i nc e ram ic p roduc t s w a s t a k ing p l ace d u r ing t h e Ma tu re H a rappan P e r iod .

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E cha l l ie r , J .C . 1 991 . C ommon a nd p seudo Ion ian w a re f r om L eP egue ( D rome ,F rance ) : A na na ly t ica la nd a r chaeo log ica lp rob lem . I nM idd le ton , A . a nd I .F ree s tone ( e d s . ) , R ec en tD ev e lopmen t si nC eram ic P e t ro log yp p 1 7 -37 . B r i t i sh Mu seum O cca s iona lP ape r N o . 8 1 . E h r en re ich ,R .M . 1 995 . A rchaeome t ry i n to a r chaeo logy . J ou rna lo fA rcha eo log ica l Me thod a nd T h eo ry 2 ( 1) : 1 6 . F a i r se rv i s ,W .A . 1 956 . E xca va t ion si nt h eQ ue t ta V a l l ey , W es tP ak i s tan . A n th ropo log ica lP ape r so ft h e Ame r ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH i s to ry , V o l XLV , P a r t2 ,p p 1 69 -402 . N ew Y o rk . F a i r se rv i s , W .A . 1 959 . A r cha eo log ica lS ur v ey si nt h eZ hob a nd L o ra la iD is t r ic t s , W es t P ak is tan . A n th ropo log ica lP ape r so ft h e Ame r ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH i s to ry , V o l . XLV I I , P a r t2 . N ew Y o rk . F a i r se rv i s , W .A . 1 96 1 . T he H a rappan C iv i l iza t ion : N ew E v idence a nd Mo re T heo ry . N ov i ta t es 2 055 : 1 35 . N ew Y o rk : Ame r ican Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH i s to ry . F ea the r s , J .K . 1 989 . Ef ec t so ft empe ro ns t reng th o fc e ram ic s : r e spon se t oB ron i t sky a nd H ame r . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 4 ( 3 ) : 5 79 -88 . F l am , L . 1 993 . F luv ia lg eomo rpho logy o ft h el owe rI ndu sb a s in ( S indh , P ak i s tan ) a nd t h e I n du s c i v i l iza t ion . I nS h rode r , J . F . J r . ( e d . ) ,H ima laya t ot h eS ea . L ondon a nd N ew Y o rk : R ou t ledge . F l anne ry ,K .V . 1 967 . T he O lmec a nd t h eV a l ley o fO axaca : am ode lf o ri n te r reg iona l i n te rac t ion i nF o rma t ive t i me s . I n B en son ,E .P . ( e d . ) , Dumba r ton O ak sC onf er enc eo n t h eO lmec , p p 7 9 110 . Wa sh ing ton : D umba r ton O ak sR e sea rch L ib ra ry a nd C o l lec t ion . F l av in , K . , I .A l i , a nd G . E rdo sy 1 994 . T he t e r raco t ta h uman f i gu r ine so fR e i man D he r i . A nc ien tP ak i s tan 1 0 : 8 2 -133 . F o lk , R .L . a nd W .C . Wa rd 1 957 . B razo sR iv e rb a r : as t udy i nt h e s i gn if icance o fg ra in s i ze p a rame te r s . J ou rna lo fS ed imen ta ry P e t ro lo gy 2 7 ( 1 ) : 3 26 . F r ees tone , I . C . 1 99 1 . E x tend ing C e ram ic P e t ro logy . I nM idd le ton , A . a nd I .F ree s tone ( e d s .) ,R ecen tD ev e lopmen t si nC eram ic P e t ro lo gy p p3 99 -4 10 . B r i t i sh Mu seum O cca s iona lP ape rN o . 8 1 . F r iedman , G .M . 1 961 . D i s t inc t ion b e tween d une , b each , a nd r i ve rs a nd sf r om t h e i r t e x tu ra lc ha rac te r i s t ic s . J ou rna lo fS ed imen ta ry P e t ro lo gy 3 1(4 ) : 5 14 -29 . F r iedman , G .M . 1 967 . D ynam ic p roce s s e sa nd s t a t i s t ica lp a rame te r sc ompa red f o rs i ze f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion o fb each a nd r i ve rs a nd s . J ou rna lo fS ed imen ta ry P e t ro lo gy 3 7 (2 ) : 3 27 -54 . F r iedman , G .M . 1 979 . D if f e rence si ns i ze d i s t r ibu t ion so fp opu la t ion so fp a r t ic le sa mong s a nds o fv a r iou so r ig in s . S ed imen to lo gy 2 6 : 3 32 .

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G e r ra rd , C . a nd A . G u t ie r rez 1 99 1 . T he t h in sec t ion a na ly s i sa nd m ac ro scop ic c ha rac te r iza t ion o fs ome m ed ieva la nd p o s t -med ieva lp o t te ry f r om n or the rn S pa in . I n M idd le ton , A . a nd I .F ree s tone ( e d s . ) ,R ecen tD ev e lopmen t si nC eram ic P e t ro logy p p 13 -35 . B r i t i sh Mu seum O cca s iona lP ape r No . 8 1 . G oud ie , A . 1 973 . T he e nv i ronmen ta lb ackg round t oe a r ly m an i nt h ed ry z one o f Nor th - We s te rn I nd ia : T he g eomo rph ic e v iden ce f o rc l ima t ic c hange . I nH ammond ,N . ( e d . ) , S ou th A s ian A r cha eo lo gy , p p2 9 -37 . L ondon : D uckwo r th . G r ibb le , C .D . a nd H a l l , A .J . 1 985 . AP rac t ica lG u id et oO p t ica lM inera logy . L ondon : A l len & U nw in . H age r s t rand , T . 1 966 . A spec t so ft h es p a t ia l s t ruc tu re o fs oc ia l c ommun ica t ion a nd t h e d i f f u s ion o fi n f o rma t ion . P aper so ft h eR eg iona lS c ience A s soc ia t ion 1 6 . ( C racow C ong re s s 1 965 ) H age r s t rand , T . 1 967 . I nnova t ion D if f u s ion a s aS pa t ia lP roces s . T ran s la ted b yA .R . P red . C h icago : U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s . H an tman , J . L . a nd S .P l og 1 982 . T he r e la t ion sh ip o fs t y l i s t ic s im i la r i ty t op a t te rn so f m a te r ia le xchange . I nE r ic son , J .E .a nd T .J .E a r le ( e d s . ) , C on t ex t sf o rP r eh is to r ic E xchang e , p p 2 37 -63 . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s . H a rvey , M .D . a nd L F l am 1 993 . P reh i s to r ic s o i l a nd w a te rd e ten t ion s t ruc tu re s ( g aba rband s ) a tP hang , S i ndh K oh i s tan , P ak is tan : a na dap ta t ion t oe nv i ronmen ta lc hange ? G eoa rcha eo log y :A nI n t erna t iona lJ ourna l 8( 2 ) : 1 09 -26 . H a sh im i ,H .H . a nd R .R .N a i r 1 980 . H o locene c l ima t ic i n f e rence sf r om t h e s ed imen t so f t h ew e s te rn I nd ian c on t inen ta l s h e lf P roc eed ing so ft h eI nd ian A cad emy o fS c i enc es ( Ea r th P lane tS c ience ) 8 9 : 2 29 -315 . H a sh im i , H .H . a nd R .R . N a i r 1 986 . C l ima t ic a r id i ty o ve rI nd ia 1 ,000 y ea r sa go : e v idence f r om f e ld spa rd i s t r ibu t ion i ns h e lf s e d imen t s . P a laeog eog rapy , P a la eoc l ima to logy , a nd P a la eoeco logy 5 3 ( 2 /4 ) : 3 09 -19 . H e lm ig , D . ,E .J a ckwo r th a nd A H aup tmann 1 989 . A r cha eome ta l lu rg ica lf i e ldwo rk a nd t h eu se o f ap or tab le X ray s p ec t rome te r . A rcha eome t ry 3 1 ( 2 ) : 1 81-91 . H emph i l l , W .R . a nd A .H . K idwa i 1 973 . S t ra t ig raphy o ft h eB annu a nd D e ra I sma i lK han a r ea s , P ak i s tan . U .S .G eo log ica lS ur v ey /G eo log ica lS urv ey o fP ak i s tan P rof e s s iona l P aper 7 16 -B . Wa sh ing ton : U n i ted S t a te sG ove rnmen tP r in t ing Of f i ce . H o ne , C .V . 1 987 . Ma t er ia l sf o rC on s erva t ion . L ondon : B u t te rwor th s . H ud son , J . C . 1 969 . D if f u s ion i n ac en t ra lp l a ce s y s tem . G eog raph ica lA na ly s i s 1 :4 5 -58 . H un t , P .N . a nd D .R . G r if f i th s 1 989 . O p t ica lp e t ro logy i nt h ef i e ld . W o r ld A rcha eo logy 2 1( 1) : 1 63 -72 .

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Hun t ing S urvey C o rpo ra t ion ,L im i ted 1 960 . R econna i s sance G eo logy o fP a r to fW es t P ak i s tan . O shawa : Ma ra c le P re s sL im i ted . Hu sa in , J . 1 992 . P o t te r ' sc r af ta tS ha ikhan D he r i : a ne t hnoa rchaeo log ica lr e con s t ruc t ion . P ak i s tan A rcha eo lo gy 2 7 : 1 7 1-95 . H u s sa in , A . 1 975 . S i l ica s a nd d epo s i t so fK h i so re a nd Ma rwa tr a nge s ,D .I . K han , NWFP , P ak i s tan . G eo log ica lS u rv ey o fP ak i s tan I nf o rma t ion R e l ea s e No . 9 1 . Q ue t ta . I nman ,D .L . 1 952 . Mea su re sf o rd e sc r ib ing t h e s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o fs e d imen t s . J ou rna lo f S ed imen ta ry P e t ro logy 2 2 (3 ) : 1 25 -45 . I s aac son , J . S . a nd T .F . A le to 1 989 . P e t rog raph ic a na ly s i so fc e ram ic t h in s e c t ion sf r om L aP una I s land ,E cuado r . A rcha eoma t e r ia l s3 :6 1-7 . J a cob sen , T .W . 1 984 . S ea sona lp a s to ra l i sm i ns ou the rn G reece : ac on s ide ra t ion o ft h e e co logy o fN eo l i th ic U r f i rn i sp o t te ry . I nR ice ,P .M . ( e d . )P o t sa nd P o t t er s : C u r r en t A pp roaches i nC eram ic A rcha eo lo gy . L ondon : I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy Monog raph . J a n sen , M . 1 992 . Non -con tempo rane i ty o ft h ec on tempo raneou si nt h eI ndu sc u l tu re . I n P o s seh l , G .L . ( e d . ) , S ou th A s ian A r cha eo log yS t ud ies p p209 -22 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd a nd I BH P ub l ish ing . J an sen ,M .R .N . 1 993 . Mohen jo -Da ro : t y pe s i t eo ft h ee a r l ie s tu rban iza t ion p roce s si n s ou th A s ia . I nS podek ,H . a nd D .M . S r in iva san ( e d s . ) , U rban F orm a nd Mean ing i n S ou th A s ia : T he S hap ing o fC i t ie sf rom P r eh i s to r ic t oP r eco lon ia lT imes p p 3 5 -51 . N a t iona l G a l le ry o fA r t , Wa sh ing ton . C onnec t icu t : H e r l in P re s s . J a r r ige , J . -F . 1 979 . E conomy a nd s o c ie ty i nt h ee a r ly C ha lco l i th ic /B ronze A ge o f B a luch i s tan : n ew p e r spec t ive sf r om r e cen te xcava t ion sa t Meh rga rh . I nH a r te ! ,H . ( e d . ) , S ou th A s ian A rcha eo lo gy 1 979 : 9 3 114 . B e r l in : D ie t r ich R e ime rV e r lag . J a r r ige , J . -F . 1 981 . C h rono logy o ft h ee a r l ie rp e r iod so ft h eg r ea te rI ndu sa ss e en f r om Meh rga rh , P ak i s tan . I nA l lch in ,B . ( e d . ) ,S ou th A s ian A rcha eo logy 1 981 , p p2 1-8 . C amb r idge : U n ive r s i ty P re s s . J a r r ige , J . -F . 1 986 . E xcava t ion sa t Meh rga rh -Nau sha ro . P ak i s tan A rcha eo logy 1 0 -22 : 6 3 131 . J a r r ige , J . -F . 1 989 . E xcava t ion sa tN au sha ro 1 987 -88 . P ak is tan A r cha eo log y2 4 : 2 1-67 . J enk in s ,P .C . 1 994 . C on t inu i ty a nd c hange i nt h ec e ram ic s e quence a tH a rappa . I n P a rpo la , A . a nd P .K o sk ika l l io ( e d s . ) ,S ou th A s ian A rcha eo log y1 993 ( I ) : 3 15 -28 . H e l s ink i : S uoma la inen T i edeaka tem ia . J im , C .Y . 1 985 . I mp regna t ion o fm o i s ta nd d r yu ncon so l ida ted c l ay s amp le su s ing S pu r r r e s in f o rm ic ro s t ruc tu ra ls t ud ie s . J ourna lo fS ed imen ta ry P e t ro log y8 5 ( 1) : 5 97 -99 .

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J ohn son , J .M . 1 992 . T he c e ram ic sa tB an D on T aP he t : Ap r e l im ina ry r e por tw i th s pec ia lr e f e rence t ot h ec l a s s if ica t ion o fc e ram ic f a b r ic s . I nG love r , I . C . ( e d . ) , S ou thea s t A s ian A rcha eo logy 1 990 , p p 1 79 -86 . U n ive r s i ty o fH u l l : C en t re f o r S ou th -Ea s tA s ian S tud ie s . J one s ,L .D . 1 986 . L ow land Maya p o t te ry : t h ep l ace o fp e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s . B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epor t sI n t erna t iona lS e r ies 2 88 . O xf o rd . J one s ,L .D . 1 99 1 . T empe r ing t r end si nl ow land Maya p o t te ry . I nM idd le ton , A . a nd I . F ree s tone ( e d s . ) ,R ecen tD ev e lopmen t si nC eram ic P e t ro logy , p p 1 65 -83 . B r i t i sh Mu seum O cca s iona lP ape r No . 8 1 . K apu r , S . ,N . S aka rya a nd E .A . F i tzPa t r ick 1 992 . M ine ra logy a nd r i l ic romo rpho logy o f C ha lco l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge I k iz tepe c e ram ic s . G eoa rcha eo log y7 (4 ) : 3 27 -37 . K am i l l i , D .C . , a nd A . S t e inbe rg 1 985 . N ew a pp roache st om ine ra l a na ly s is o fa nc ien t c e ram ic s . I nR app , G . a nd J .G if f o rd ( e d s . ) ,A rcha eo log ica lG eo log y . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s . K enoye r , J .M . 1 99 1 . U rban p roce s si nt h eI ndu st r ad i t ion : ap re l im ina ry mode lf r om H a rappa . I n Meadow , RH . ( e d .) , Ha rappa E x ca va t ion s1 986 -1990 Monog raph si n Wo r ld A rchaeo logy N o . 3 ,p p2 9 -60 . Mad i son : P reh i s to ry P re s s . K enoye r , J .M . 1 992 . H a rappan c r af ts p e c ia l i sa t ion a nd t h eq ue s t ion o fu rban s e g rega t ion a nd s t ra t if ica t ion . T he E a s t ern A n th ropo log i s t4 5 ( 1-2 ) : 3 9 -54 . K enoye r , J .M . 1 994 . E xpe r imen ta l s t ud ie so fI n du sv a l ley t e chno logy a tH a rappa . I n P a rpo la , A . a nd P .K o sk ika l l io ( e d s . ) ,S ou th A s ian A rcha eo logy 1 993 ( I ) : 3 45 -62 . H e l s ink i : S uoma la inen T iedeaka tem ia . K e r r ,P .F . 1 977 . O p t ica lM inera log y . F ou r th e d i t ion . S an F ranc i sco : McG raw H i l l . K han , M .F . 1 986 . A rchaeo log ica l s i t e si nt h eB annu b a s in . I nA l lch in ,F .R . , B . M lch in , F .A . D u r ran i a nd M .F . K han ( e d s . ) ,L ewan a nd t h eB annu B a s in p p 1 83 -195 . BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s3 10 . C amb r idge . K han , M .J . 1 987 . S ed imen ta t ion a nd t e c ton ic so ft h e S iwa l ik g roup o ft h eT ran s Indu s S a l tr a nge , n or thwe s te rn P ak i s tan . G eo log ica lB u l l e t in o ft h e U n iv er s i ty o fP e shawa r2 0 : 1 29 -41 . K han , M .J . ,N .D . O pdyke , a nd J . F . S h rode r , J r . 1 985 . B a in d i am ic t i te : l i t ho logy , a ge a nd o r ig in . G eo log ica lB u l l e t in o ft h e U n iv e r s i ty o fP e shawa r 1 8 : 5 3 -64 . K i l ikog lou , V . , Y . Man ia t i s , a nd A .P . G r iman i s 1 988 . T he e f ec to fp u r if ica t ion a nd f i r ing o fc l ay so nt r ace e l emen tp rovenance s t ud ie s . A rcha eome t ry 3 0 ( 1) : 3 7 -46 . K inge ry , W .D . 1 987 . M ic ros t ruc tu re a na ly s i sa sp a r to f ah o l i s t ic i n te rp re ta t ion o f c e ram ic a r ta nd a chaeo log ica l a r tef ac t s . A rcha eoma t er ia l s 1 :9 1-9 .

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T homa s , K .D . 1 986 . E nv i ronmen ta nd s u b s i s tence i nt h eB annu b a s in . I nA l lch in ,F .R . , B . A l lch in , F .A . Du r ran i , a nd M .F . K han ( e d s . ) ,L ewan a nd t h eB annu B a s in , p p 1 3 -33 . C amb r idge : BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s3 10 . T i te ,M .S . 1 99 1 . A rchaeo log ica l s c ience : p a s ta ch ievemen t sa nd f u tu re p ro spec t s . A r cha eome t ry 3 3 ( 2 ) : 1 39 -51 . T opp ing , P .G . , a nd A .B . Mackenz ie 1 988 . At e s to ft h eu se o fn eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i s f o rc l ay s ou rce c ha rac te r iza t ion . A rcha eome t ry 3 0 ( 1) : 9 2 101 . U .S . G eo log ica l S u rvey a nd G eo log ica l S u rvey o fP ak i s tan 1 964 . G eo log ica l Map o f P ak i s tan . 1 : 2 ,000 ,000 . G ove rnmen to fP ak i s tan . V an d e rL eeuw , S . 1 977 . T owa rd s as t udy o ft h ee conom ic so fp o t te ry m ak ing . E x H o r r eo . C ingv la I V . A lbe r tE gge sv an G if en I n s t i tu te o fP reh i s to ry ,U n ive r s i ty o f Am s te rdam . V an d e rP la s , L . 1 962 . P re l im ina ry n o te o nt h eg r anu lome t r ic a na ly s i so fs e d imen ta ry r o ck s . S ed imen to log y 1 :1 45 -57 . V an d e rP la s , L .a nd A .C . T ob i 1 965 . Ac ha r tf o rj udg ing t h er e l iab i l i ty o fp o in tc oun t ing r e su l t s . Amer ican J ou rna lo fS c ience 2 63 : 8 7 -90 . V a t s ,M .S . 1 940 . E xca va t ion sa t Ha rappa . D e lh i : G ove rnmen to fI nd ia P re s s . V e r s tappen , H .T . 1 970 . A eo l ian g eomo rpho logy o ft h eT ha rD e se r ta nd p a laeoc l ima te s . Z e i t schr if tf u rG eomo rpho log i eS upp l emen tand 1 0 : 1 04 -20 . Waagen , W . 1 889 . S a l tR ange f o s s i l s ;g eo log ica lr e su l t s . P a la eon t . I nd ica . 1 3( 4 )P t 1 . Waagen , W . 1 891 . S a l tR ange f o s s i l s ;g eo log ica lr e su l t s . P a la eon t . I nd ica . 1 3( 4 )P t2 . Wad ia , D .N . 1 966 . G eo logy o fI nd ia . L ondon : MacM i l lan a nd C ompany L td Wa t t , I . 1 993 . L igh tm ic ro scope sf o ru s ei nu nor thodox s i tua t ion s . M ic ro scopy a nd A na ly s is 3 8 : 2 7 -9 . Whee le r , R .E .M . 1 947 . H a rappa 1 946 : T he d ef en se sa nd c eme te ry R -37 . A nc ien tI nd ia 3 :5 8 -130 . Whee le r , S i r Mo r t ime r 1 953 . T he C amb r idg eH i s tor yo fI nd ia : T he I nd us C iv i l i za t ion . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Wh i tb read , I .K . 1 986 . T he c ha rac te r i sa t ion o fa r g i l laceou si n c lu s ion si nc e ram ic t h in s e c t ion s . A rcha eome t r y2 8 ( 1) : 7 9 -88 . W i l ley , G .R . a nd P .P h i l l ip s 1 958 . Me thod a nd T heor yi n Ame r ican A rchaeo lo gy . C h icago : Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s .

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W i l ley , G .R . a nd J .R . S ab lof f 1 980 . AH i s to ry o f Amer ican A rcha eo logy . S econd E d i t ion . N ew Y o rk : W .H . F reeman a nd C ompany . W i l l i s , B .J . a nd A .K . B eh r en smeye r 1 994 . A rch i tec tu re o fM iocene o ve rbank d epo s i t si n n or the rn P ak i s tan . J ou rna lo fS ed imen ta r yR es ea rch B 64 ( 1 ) : 6 0 -7 . W i lm sen , E .N . 1 973 . L ind enme i r : AP l e i s tocene h un t ing s oc ie ty . N ew Yo rk : H a rpe r a nd R ow . Wob s t ,H .M . 1 977 . S ty l i s t ic b ehav io ra nd i n f o rma t ion e xchange . Mich igan A n th ropo log ica lP aper s6 1 : 3 17 -42 . Wr igh t , R .P . 1 984 . T echno lo gy , S t y l e , a nd C raf tS pec ia l i za t ion : S pheres o fI n t erac t ion a nd E xchang ei nt h eI ndo I ran ian B o rd e r land s , T h i rd M i l l enn ium B .C . Unpub l i shed P h .D . T he s i s , H a r va rd Un ive r s i ty . U n ive r s i ty M ic ro f i lm sI n te rna t iona l . Wr igh t , R .P . 1 99 1 . P a t te rn so ft e chno logy a nd t h eo rgan iza t ion o fp roduc t ion a t H a rappa . I n Meadow ,R .H . ( e d . ) , Ha rappa E xcava t ion s1 986 -1990 : A Mu l t id i s c ip l inary A pp roach t oT h i rd M i l l enn ium U rban i sm . Monog raph si n Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 3 :7 1-88 . Mad i son , W iscon s in . Wynne , A .B . 1 878 . O nt h eg eo logy o ft h e S a l tR ange i nt h eP un jab . I nd ia G eo log ica l S ur v ey Memo i r s 1 4 . Y a rd ley ,B .W .D . ,W .S . Ma ck enz ie , a nd C .G u i lf o rd 1 990 . A t la so fMe tamorph ic R ock s a nd t h e i r T ex tur es . N ew Y o rk : J ohn W i ley & S on s . Y angua s , J .E . a nd S .T . P ax ton 1 986 . An ew t e chn ique f o rp r epa ra t ion o fp e t rog raph ic t h in s e c t ion su s ing u l t ra -v io le tc u r ing a dhe s ive . J ou rna lo fS ed imen ta ry P e t ro logy 5 6 (1) : 5 39 -40 .

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