Developing People's Information Capabilities : Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts 9781781907672, 9781781907665

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DEVELOPING PEOPLE’S INFORMATION CAPABILITIES: FOSTERING INFORMATION LITERACY IN EDUCATIONAL, WORKPLACE AND COMMUNITY CONTEXTS

LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE Series Editors: Amanda Spink (Outgoing) Jens-Erik Mai (Incoming) Recent and Forthcoming Volumes Gunilla Wuff and Kim Holmberg Social Information Research Dirk Lewandowski Web Search Engine Research Donald Case Looking for Information, Third Edition Amanda Spink and Diljit Singh Trends and Research: Asia-Oceania Amanda Spink and Jannica Heinstrom New Directions in Information Behaviour Eileen G. Abels and Deborah P. Klein Business Information: Needs and Strategies Leo Egghe Power Laws in the Information Production Process: Lotkaian Informetrics Matthew Locke Saxton and John V. Richardson Understanding Reference Transactions: Turning Art into a Science Robert M. Hayes Models for Library Management, Decision-Making, and Planning Charles T. Meadow, Bert R. Boyce, and Donald H. Kraft Text Information Retrieval Systems, Second Edition A. J. Meadows Communicating Research V. Frants, J. Shiparo, and V. Votskunskii Automated Information Retrieval: Theory and Methods Harold Sackman Biomedical Information Technology: Global Social Responsibilities for the Democratic Age

LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

DEVELOPING PEOPLE’S INFORMATION CAPABILITIES: FOSTERING INFORMATION LITERACY IN EDUCATIONAL, WORKPLACE AND COMMUNITY CONTEXTS EDITED BY

MARK HEPWORTH Department of Information Science, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK

and

GEOFF WALTON Faculty of Arts & Creative Technologies, Staffordshire University, Stoke on Trent, UK

Series Editors: Amanda Spink (Outgoing) Jens-Erik Mai (Incoming)

United Kingdom  North America  Japan India  Malaysia  China

Emerald Group Publishing Limited Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK First edition 2013 Copyright r 2013 Emerald Group Publishing Limited Reprints and permission service Contact: [email protected] No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. Any opinions expressed in the chapters are those of the authors. Whilst Emerald makes every effort to ensure the quality and accuracy of its content, Emerald makes no representation implied or otherwise, as to the chapters’ suitability and application and disclaims any warranties, express or implied, to their use. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-78190-766-5 ISSN: 1876-0562 (Series)

ISOQAR certified Management System, awarded to Emerald for adherence to Environmental standard ISO 14001:2004. Certificate Number 1985 ISO 14001

Contents

List of Contributors

xiii

Editorial Advisory Board

xvii

Preface

xix

1. Introduction — Information Literacy and Information Behaviour, Complementary Approaches for Building Capability Mark Hepworth and Geoff Walton 1.1. Section 1: Strategic View 1.2. Section 2: Delivering Information Literacy Education 1.3. Section 3: The Link between University and Work 1.4. Section 4: Beyond Higher Education 1.5. Conclusion References

1 4 5 7 7 8 10

SECTION I: STRATEGIC VIEW 2. Transforming Information Literacy for Higher Education in the 21st Century: A Lifelong Learning Approach Sheila Webber and Bill Johnston 2.1. Introduction 2.1.1. The Changing HE Context 2.2. Information Literacy, LLL and Information Culture 2.2.1. The Concept of IL 2.2.2. The Information Literate Person in the Changing Information Culture and Society 2.2.3. Educating the Information Literate Person Throughout Life

15 16 17 19 19 21 22

vi

Contents 2.2.4. The Concept of Information Culture: A Focus of Curriculum Renewal 2.3. Conclusions References

24 25 27

3. Curriculum and Curriculum Integration of Information Literacy in Higher Education 31 Li Wang 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6.

Introduction Curriculum in Higher Education The Intended and Offered Curriculum in Higher Education Different Levels of Curriculum in High Education An Information Literacy Curriculum Integration Model Information Literacy Integrated into Different Levels of Curriculum 3.7. Summary Acknowledgement References 4. The Construction of Information and Media Literacy in Education Policy: A Study of Singapore Tzu-Bin Lin and Li-Yi Wang 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Information Literacy and Media Literacy: A Review of Literature 4.2.1. Information Literacy in a Global Context 4.2.2. Media Literacy in Global Context 4.3. Information Literacy and Media Literacy in Singapore: An Analysis of Policy Discourse 4.3.1. Information Literacy in Singapore 4.3.2. Media Literacy in Singapore 4.4. Concluding Remarks References

32 33 34 35 36 36 47 47 47 51 52 52 52 54 56 56 58 61 61

SECTION II: DELIVERING INFORMATION LITERACY EDUCATION 5. Information Literacy in Higher Education: Research Students’ Development in Information Search Expertise Samuel Kai-Wah Chu, Sandhya Rajagopal and Celina Wing-Yi Lee 5.1. Introduction 5.2. Literature Review

67

68 69

Contents 5.3. Methodology 5.4. Findings and Discussion 5.4.1. Research Goals 5.4.2. First Stage: Novice Level of Information Search Expertise 5.4.3. Second Stage: Advanced Beginner Level of Information Search Expertise 5.4.4. Third Stage: Competent Level of Information Search Expertise 5.4.5. Fourth Stage: Proficient Level of Information Search Expertise 5.5. Discussion 5.6. Conclusion and Recommendations References 6. Mediating Culture: Media Literacy and Cultural Awareness The Representation of Race and Ethnicity in Maya and Miguel Emily S. Kinsky and Debra C. Smith 6.1. Introduction 6.2. Literature Review 6.3. Theoretical Framework 6.3.1. Circuit of Culture 6.3.2. Media Literacy 6.4. Method 6.5. Discussion 6.5.1. The Representation of Culture through Food 6.5.2. Cultures Represented in Maya & Miguel 6.5.3. What Do these Cultural Representations Mean? 6.6. Conclusion References

vii 70 71 71 73 73 74 75 76 77 77

81 82 83 84 85 86 87 87 88 88 93 94 95

7. Empowering Professional Practices of a Community of e-Learners: Special Education Teachers in Alaska and their Information Literacy Conceptions 97 Jennifer D. Ward and Thomas S. Duke 7.1. Introduction 98 7.1.1. Community Context: Alaska, Diversity, and Indigenous Rural Communities 98 7.1.2. Teacher Education in an e-Learning Community at the University of Alaska Southeast 99 7.2. Review of the Literature 99

viii

Contents 7.2.1. Higher Education e-Learning in Alaska 7.2.2. Action-Research and Critical Library Instruction 7.2.3. Librarian and Faculty Collaboration in Teacher Education 7.3. Description of the Intervention 7.3.1. Instructional Activities 7.3.2. ED626 — Classroom Research 7.3.3. EDSE 692 — Seminar: Special Education Secondary Research Methods 7.3.4. EDSE 698 — Master’s Thesis Project 7.3.5. Data Collection — Interviews 7.3.6. Data Analysis — Themes 7.4. Results of the Intervention 7.4.1. Emergent Themes 7.5. Discussion 7.6. Reflection 7.7. Lessons Learned References

8. Information Literacy of Undergraduate Students in Thailand: A Case of the Faculty of Arts, Silpakorn University, Thailand Phussadee Dokphrom 8.1. Introduction 8.2. Rationale and Background for Research into Information Literacy 8.2.1. Conceptions of Information Literacy 8.2.2. Information Literacy Education 8.3. Methodology 8.4. Information Literacy of Undergraduate Students 8.4.1. Conceptions of Information Literacy 8.4.2. Information Literacy Education 8.5. Discussion and Conclusion References 9. Building Partnerships for Information Literacy among HE Institutions in African Universities: Opportunities and Challenges — A Case Study Edward Lumande, Babakisi Tjedombo Fidzani and Silas Oluka 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Literature Review 9.2.1. Collaboration and Partnerships 9.3. UB Library Experience 9.3.1. Course Linked Information Literacy

99 100 101 101 101 101 102 103 104 104 105 105 106 108 108 109 111 112 113 113 115 115 116 116 120 124 125

127 128 128 128 130 133

Contents 9.3.2. Learning and Teaching Policy 9.4. Delphe Project 9.4.1. Principal Stakeholders and Project Participants 9.4.2. Project Implementation 9.4.3. Conceptualizing the Project — UB Context (November 2009–August 2010) 9.4.4. Advocacy 9.4.5. Partnership Opportunities — Tapping into Emerging Synergies 9.4.6. University of Abertay Dundee 9.4.7. UNZA–IDS–INASP Workshop 9.4.8. Challenges 9.5. Conclusion References

ix 134 134 136 136 137 140 141 142 142 143 145 145

SECTION III: THE LINK BETWEEN UNIVERSITY AND WORK 10. Perspectives on Legal Education and the Role of Information Literacy in Improving Qualitative Legal Practice Vicki Lawal, Christine Stilwell, Rosemary Kuhn and Peter G. Underwood 10.1. Introduction 10.2. Information Literacy, Legal Information Literacy and the Legal Profession 10.3. Legal Information Literacy and the Context of Legal Education in South Africa and Nigeria 10.4. Theoretical Framework 10.5. Methodology 10.6. Research Objectives and Questions 10.6.1. How Have Changes in Current Legal Practice Affected Problems of Skills Deficiency in the Workplace in Nigeria? 10.6.2. What Is the Responsibility of the Legal Education System in Nigeria in Increasing the Efficiency with Which Graduate Lawyers Develop Professional Expertise for Qualitative Legal Practice? 10.6.3. What Should the Nature of a Legal Information Literacy Curriculum be in Order to Close the Gap Between Formal Legal Education and Legal Practice?

151

152 152 154 156 157 157

158

160

160

x

Contents 10.6.4. What Kind of Collaboration Is Needed Between the Legal Education System and Legal Practitioners in Order to Promote the Development of Qualitative Legal Skills for the Workplace? 161 10.7. Conclusion 162 References 163

11. Information Literacy in the Business School Context: A Story of Complexity and Success Heidi Julien, Brian Detlor and Alexander Serenko 11.1. 11.2. 11.3. 11.4.

Introduction Literature Review Methods Results 11.4.1. Environments and Programs 11.4.2. Outcomes 11.4.3. Test Results 11.5. Discussion 11.6. Conclusions and Recommendations Acknowledgements References 12. Workplace Reflections of Information Literacy Training: The Case of the Agriculture and Health Sectors in Tanzania Evans Wema 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Background to the Problem 12.3. An Overview of Agricultural and Health Information Needs in Tanzania 12.4. Objectives of the Intervention 12.5. Review of Related Literature 12.6. Information Literacy Course with Agriculturalists and Health Practitioners 12.6.1. Selection of Participants 12.6.2. Course Coverage 12.6.3. Results of the Interventions 12.7. Results from Hands-On Activities, Diagnostic Tests Presentations and Discussions 12.7.1. Challenges and Lessons Learnt 12.8. Discussions, Conclusion and Recommendations References

167 168 168 169 170 170 171 172 173 173 175 175

179 180 180 181 182 183 184 184 187 191 192 194 196 199

Contents

xi

SECTION IV: BEYOND HIGHER EDUCATION 13. Workplace Information Literacy: It’s Different Stephen Abram 13.1. Collaboration as a Principle in Institutional and Corporate Environments 13.1.1. A Few Definitions 13.1.2. Framing the Conversation 13.1.3. Technologies 13.1.4. Keep the Goal in Mind 13.1.5. Positive Questions 13.2. Differences in the Private and Public Sector Approaches 13.2.1. Private Sector 13.2.2. Public Sector 13.3. Towards Information Fluency 13.4. The Enterprise Context 13.4.1. Faculty 13.4.2. Teachers 13.4.3. The Professions 13.4.4. Engineers 13.4.5. The Creative Professions 13.4.6. Corporate Administrators and Business Decision-Makers, Professionals, Consultants 13.4.7. What is a Decision? 13.5. Conclusion 14. Diversifying Information Literacy Research: An Informed Learning Perspective Christine S. Bruce, Mary M. Somerville, Ian Stoodley and Helen Partridge 14.1. Introduction 14.2. Informed Learning: A Lens for Exploring Information Experiences in Community Settings 14.3. Informed Learning in Community Contexts 14.3.1. Older Communities: Ageing Australians 14.3.2. Digital Communities: Social Media in Times of Natural Disasters 14.3.3. Faith Communities: Church Community 14.3.4. Ethnic Communities: Hispanic Community 14.3.5. Indigenous Communities: The Native American Community

205

208 209 210 211 214 215 216 216 216 217 218 218 219 219 220 220 221 221 222

223

224 225 227 227 229 230 231 233

xii

Contents 14.4. Discussion 14.4.1. Enhancing Our Understanding of Information Literacy 14.4.2. The Importance of Inclusivity 14.4.3. Implications for Practice 14.4.4. Future Agendas 14.5. Conclusion Acknowledgements References

15. The Use of Participatory Techniques in the Communication of Information for Communities: Information Literacy and Collaborative Work for Citizenship Development Rosemeire Barbosa Tavares, Sely Maria de Souza Costa and Mark Hepworth 15.1. 15.2. 15.3. 15.4. 15.5.

Introduction Communication of Information for Citizenship Research Epistemological Background The Use of Participatory Research and Action (PRA) The Research Design: Sampling, Environment and Procedures 15.5.1. The First Meeting 15.5.2. The Second Meeting 15.5.3. The Third Meeting 15.5.4. The Fourth Meeting 15.5.5. The Fifth Meeting 15.5.6. The Sixth Meeting 15.6. Analysis and Discussion of Results 15.7. Conclusions References

234 235 236 236 237 238 238 239

241

242 242 244 246 247 250 250 251 252 252 253 253 263 264

About the Authors

267

Index

279

List of Contributors

Stephen Abram

Consultant, Lighthouse Partners

Christine S. Bruce

Information Systems School, Queensland University of Technology

Samuel Kai-Wah Chu

Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong

Sely Maria de Souza Costa

Faculty of Information Science, University of Brası´ lia

Brian Detlor

DeGroote School of Business, McMaster University

Phussadee Dokphrom

Department of Library Science, Faculty of Arts, Silpakorn University

Thomas S. Duke

School of Education, University of Alaska Southeast

Babakisi Tjedombo Fidzani

Library, University of Botswana

Mark Hepworth

Information Science, Loughborough University

Bill Johnston

University of Strathclyde

Heidi Julien

School of Library and Information Studies, University of Alabama

Emily S. Kinsky

Department of Communication, West Texas A&M University

Rosemary Kuhn

University of KwaZulu-Natal Library, University of KwaZulu-Natal

Vicki Lawal

Library, University of Jos

xiv

List of Contributors

Celina Wing-Yi Lee

Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong

Tzu-Bin Lin

Department of Education, National Taiwan Normal University

Edward Lumande

Library, University of Botswana

Silas Oluka

Centre for Academic Development, University of Botswana

Helen Partridge

Information Systems School, Queensland University of Technology

Sandhya Rajagopal

Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong

Alexander Serenko

Faculty of Business Administration, Lakehead University

Debra C. Smith

Department of Africana Studies, University of North Carolina at Charlotte

Mary M. Somerville

Auraria Library, University of Colorado Denver

Christine Stilwell

School of Social Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal

Ian Stoodley

Information Systems School, Queensland University of Technology

Rosemeire Barbosa Tavares

Associated Researcher, University of Brası´ lia

Peter G. Underwood

University of KwaZulu-Natal; University of Cape Town

Geoff Walton

Faculty of Arts & Creative Technologies, Staffordshire University

Li Wang

Learning Support Services, University of Auckland Library

Li-Yi Wang

Office of Education Research (OER), National Institute of Education Singapore

Jennifer D. Ward

Library Science and Outreach Services, University of Alaska Southeast

List of Contributors Sheila Webber

Information School, Sheffield University

Evans Wema

Information and Library Studies, University of Dar es Salaam

xv

Editorial Advisory Board

Professor Donald Case University of Kentucky, USA

Associate Professor Bonnie Mak University of Illinois, USA

Professor Schubert Foo Shou Boon Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Professor Diane Nahl University of Hawaii, USA

Professor Chun Wei Choo University of Toronto, Canada Associate Professor Ron Day Indiana University, USA Associate Professor Melanie Feinberg University of Texas, USA Associate Professor Jonathan Furner University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), USA

Professor Diane H. Sonnenwald University College Dublin, Ireland Professor Olof Sundin Lund University, Sweden Professor Elaine Toms University of Sheffield, UK Professor Dietmar Wolfram University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA Professor Christa Womser-Hacker Universitat Hildesheim, Germany

Preface

Information literacy has been at the core of both Mark Hepworth’s and Geoff Walton’s research for over 15 years. This interest stemmed from working with groups of people either as researchers in information literacy and people’s information behaviour, or as information service providers and capacity builders. This experience has focused their attention on both people’s need for information and also their ability to acquire and process information. This book is aimed at both academics who are interested in exploring the various facets of information literacy and librarians or other professionals, such as teachers or extension workers and capacity builders whose role it is to help others develop their information literacy. Our information literacy research has stemmed from an academic desire to understand this phenomena, that is ‘what is it?’, ‘what influences a person information literacy?’, ‘does it mean different things in different contexts?’ and so on. The second driver was the need to find practical ways of developing people’s information literacy, that is drawing on academic insight to help develop effective interventions that would build information literacy. Both Mark and Geoff teach information literacy to undergraduates and post-graduates as well as outside the educational environment, including the workplace and the community. This combination of research and practice is, in a sense, a necessity because information literacy and the teaching of information literacy is a relatively new phenomena and we are all still learning about the nature of information literacy and also about the ways to enable people to develop these capabilities. This book therefore reflects the embedded nature of information literacy, the significance of experience and the need to concretise the abstract often nebulous, and primarily unconscious conceptions and processes associated with information literacy. Knowledge and understanding of information literacy is still evolving, as are the methods and techniques to build information capabilities. One thing we are clear about is that information literacy is far more complex than it was conceived 15 years ago, where the focus was on discreet skills associated

xx

Preface

with using libraries and library resources. The latter is, of course, important but we now appreciate how information literacy can be tackled from various perspectives, for example, the focus may be the individual and their capabilities and their information experience, or alternatively information literacies may be related to being part of a group of people, such as a team or organisation or community group where certain behaviours and attitudes maybe particularly important, such as the sharing of information. Furthermore information literacy can be approached from different perspectives, such as, cultural, cognitive, behavioural or focusing on the information landscape and people’s knowledge of and interaction with information artefacts, people and other ways of becoming informed. To help get an overview of conceptions of information literacy today and an appreciation of its complexity we wanted to encourage contributions from authors who are recognised as making a significant contribution to the field. These included people who, over the last few years, have contributed books, journals articles, maintained Web-based resources on IL, and are regular contributors to conferences such as the Librarians Information Literacy Annual Conference (LILAC) and the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) conference. The authors were asked to contribute a chapter based on their research and/or current practice that would help readers to get a taste of recent approaches to developing people’s information literacy and also an international perspective on information literacy from authors around the world. In particular authors were encouraged who also appreciated the richness and complexity of information literacy, its socially embedded nature and the importance of context. The latter stemmed from a belief that, although at a high level, categories of information literacy phenomena are common and generalisable, such as broad processes like ‘acquiring information’ or ‘processing information’ or ‘critically evaluating information’, there are others that are more important in specific contexts, such as ‘dealing with information securely’ or may involve radically different types of information and interaction. When we first thought about this volume we agreed that it has to travel beyond higher education and the ‘northern’ perspective and to incorporate both practitioner narratives as well as theoretical. We felt that it needed to embrace the workplace, the community and involve authors who have carried out research in both the developing world and emerging economies. Capacity or capability building was another issue we wanted to address to demonstrate how information literacy is not just a set of skills but is actually a set of cognitive heuristics that can be applied to any task or context. We are delighted to say that the authors we recruited from all four continents have done a fine job in reporting and critiquing their work. The chapters contained are naturally diverse and wide ranging covering different

Preface

xxi

locations, such as Australia, Brazil, Hong Kong, Thailand, Tanzania, Malaysia, Singapore, the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States and specific contexts such as enabling Alaska’s indigenous Inuit population to develop legal information literacy. We are not aware of any previous work done on faith and information literacy and this is an example of groundbreaking work that we were delighted to include. Naturally, we also wanted a strong theoretical foundation and that has been provided in the first three chapters although theoretical assumptions are either evident or explicit in other chapters. Our opening chapter also presents an argument for bringing together the domains of information literacy and information behaviour and indicates how they are complementary and both would benefit from each other’s work. We would therefore like to thank the contributors, who sacrificed the time to write their chapters and enabled the reader to share the experience of active researchers and teachers and trainers information literacy from around the world. Several authors were brave enough to do this even though English was not their first language. It has been a privilege to be able to see information literacy through fresh eyes, either due to authors unpicking specific aspects of information literacy or showing its significance in different contexts, as well practical ideas for how to effectively foster information literacy among others and implement interventions. We would also like to thank the editorial team at Emerald for their patience and help with the production of this book. Mark Hepworth Geoff Walton Editors

Chapter 1

Introduction — Information Literacy and Information Behaviour, Complementary Approaches for Building Capability Mark Hepworth and Geoff Walton

Abstract This chapter gives a general overview of the book, indicates the rich diversity of information literacy (IL) and information behaviour (IB) work carried out and is organised into four broad areas moving from the strategic to the highly contextualised. The four areas are specifically: strategic view; delivering information literacy education; the link between university and work; beyond higher education. The approach for each chapter is summarised. This chapter also examines the inter-related nature of the concepts of information literacy and information behaviour. It shows how these ideas are contextualised, theorised and researched. The authors argue that far from being conflicting approaches to the same problem of information capability, they are, in fact, complementary. Though these are epistemologically different both have much to offer in terms of explanation and also as tools for fostering information capability. The history of information literacy and information behaviour is overviewed and their interrelation explored. It is argued that information literacy can be viewed as the practitioners’ model for delivering information capability whilst information behaviour, being more research focussed, explains

Developing People’s Information Capabilities: Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts Library and Information Science, Volume 8, 1–11 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1876-0562/doi:10.1108/S1876-0562(2013)0000008005

2

Mark Hepworth and Geoff Walton it. A diagram is presented at the end of the chapter which helps to highlight and summarise the distinctions and similarities between IB and IL research. Keywords: Information behaviour; information literacy; information capability

This book reflects the multifaceted nature of information literacy, people’s information behaviour and their information experience. People have been grappling with these topics for many years. Some, from a theoretical perspective, explore the nature of the phenomenon; ‘what is it?’, trying to identify common patterns, ‘how is it characterised?’ distinctions, ‘can it mean different things to different people or change according to context?’ and relationships between different types of associated data, such as demographics, expertise, behaviour or emotion. Researchers approach the topic from different perspectives, including individual, organisational or social. These perspectives often reflect broad epistemological orientations, such as post positivist or interpretivist, or approaches such as social constructivist. These in turn lead to the application of different methodologies, such as phenomenography, and an emphasis on different types of data, such as people’s perceptions or behaviour. Each chapter focuses on specific features or characteristics of these phenomena. This collection of chapters by authors from around the world, either explicitly or implicitly, therefore gives the opportunity to experience this diversity of views. From a practical perspective these explorations also lead to a better understanding of how to implement interventions to enhance people’s capacity consciously either individually or within an organisational or social context. One common theme that runs through these papers is the importance of context and the need to understand and develop these capabilities within a given milieu. Studies of people’s information behaviour can be seen to be a form of needs evaluation or diagnostic to help position information literacy interventions. Both, research into information literacy and people’s information behaviour, can have implications for the design of information services and products. Leaning (2009) amongst others has noted that information literacy has generated its own field of research and there have been many global pronouncements on the subject — an argument echoed by Sheila Webber and Bill Johnston in this book. Bruce (1995) identifies 1974 as the beginning of information literacy when the term was coined by Paul Zurkowski. Though it could be argued information literacy’s roots are far deeper than Zurkowski — given that a great deal of scholarship written in the 1960’s an

Introduction

3

early 1970s and identified by Lorenzen (2003) in the area of ‘library instruction’, and ‘bibliographic instruction’ (including for example, Lubans and Sharma in the UK and Fjallbrant in Europe) pre-dates and informs more recent information literacy practice. However, increasingly we see the concept taken out of the educational or library context and into the workplace, where the specific information cultures place an emphasis on skills and attitudes associated with, for example, the ability to manage information in the organisation, including the sharing of information and knowledge. In addition we see the connection made between information literacy and civil rights, empowerment and personal well-being. The latter is echoed in the context of international development (Horton, 2007), and in the Training Toolkit: Monitoring and evaluation for information literacy training initiatives in Africa: A journey approach (2013). There is a plethora of material available on how to teach information literacy (see, for example, Lloyd, 2010). Melville et al. (2009, p. 7) raises the importance of information literacy as a set of skills needed by students to operate effectively in the digital world, especially that students should ‘possess the skills and understanding to search, authenticate and critically evaluate material’. Work by Hampton-Reeves et al. (2009, p. 47) states the value of information literacy training by concluding that, ‘Many students [in HE] have developed an imperfect sense of the research environment based on past experience, the occasional input from a tutor and the student rumour mill.’ This is not news to the information profession because studies which pre-date these reports (such as Breivik & Gee, 2006) demonstrate that even though the information landscape has become an ever richer environment, the workforce has a deficit in functional information literacy leading to a demonstrable lack of efficiency. Add to this the study on young people’s information behaviour (UCL, 2008) which shows that preuniversity students are unable to construct effective searches and use the narrowest of criteria to evaluate their newly found information, and the problem is clearly revealed: there is a need for information literacy to underpin students’ intellectual development so that the successful graduate has the skills to survive not only at university, but in the workplace too. However, IL models are highly abstract ideas (Hepworth & Walton, 2009; Owusu-Ansah, 2003) and do not necessarily provide the tools for delivering the relevant skills and neither do they provide an adequate explanation of either the process of becoming information literate nor information behaviour. In general IL models appear to be prescriptive tools or manifestos for action containing common sense statements regarding how individuals should engage with the information world and structure their information seeking behaviour (Walton, 2009). What they are not are explanations of how information literacy or information behaviour takes place. IL models

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Mark Hepworth and Geoff Walton

recommend certain skills, attributes, standards that individuals must conform to or processes to be followed in order to become information literate. However, these common sense statements are often grounded in the language of the librarian, and only sporadically use the language of learning theory, pedagogy or information behaviour and are not recognised outside the information profession (Virkus, 2003). Inherent within these models is a level of abstraction which causes IL models to make assumptions about:  notions regarding the nature of information;  the context in which individuals are seeking information;  the existing knowledge that individuals bring to the information seeking process;  individuals’ approaches to finding information;  individuals’ own psychological make-up and how this affects their motivation towards engaging with information;  how individuals go about the process of engaging with information;  how individuals’ think about, analyse, evaluate and communicate information. Information behaviour research assists the grand theory of information literacy in explaining the cognitive processes, behaviours and feelings that, together, enable the information literate individual. The chapters in this book explore these issues and provide a source of ideas that both touch on people’s information behaviour and have implications for strategies for helping to develop people’s information literacy. A brief synopsis of the individual contributions is given below. They fall into 4 broad areas moving from the strategic to the highly contextualised and embedded within community settings:

1.1. Section 1: Strategic View Sheila Webber and Bill Johnston’s chapter takes a strategic approach and examines the future of information literacy in an ever changing information landscape. The term they coin for this changing landscape is ‘information culture’ which includes the economy, technology, organisational culture, civic society and personal motivations. The information literacy programme they envisage, which they argue reaches beyond notions of skills and employability, overviews capacity building in a new way which regards information literacy as a central component in a learner’s lifecourse. Interestingly they identify four critical junctures in a person’s life

Introduction

5

which suggest differing experiences of learning. They invite information professionals to recognise a need to develop a range of diverse approaches in learning provision to address changing learners’ needs as they progress through their lifecourse. Li Wang examines and analyses the process of integrating information literacy into the undergraduate curriculum. Whilst this case study is based in New Zealand the implications of the research are far reaching and applicable globally. The chapter reinforces Ward and Duke’s observation regarding the need for effective collaboration and negotiation between information literacy educators and faculty. Based on sociocultural theories, this analysis examines in depth the nature of curriculum, distinguishing three types of curriculum: ‘intended’ — the top-down element guide by university policies, accrediting organisation guidelines and so on; ‘offered’ — the bottom-up element which is what actually happened on the ground, that is what is taught and finally ‘received’ — the knowledge and skills students actually learn. Wang identifies the tension that exists between these and the need to address all three to achieve integrated and embedded information literacy. Tzu-Bin Lin and Li-Yi Wang examine the concepts of information and media literacy and how Singapore’s Ministry of Education (MOE) views their application as part of their 21st Century skills framework. The authors define very clearly these two literacies and through discourse analysis examine the ways in which the MOE wishes these concepts to be applied. Whilst information literacy is well understood in Singapore, they note a fundamental deficit in an understanding of media literacy especially around the notion of learners as producers as well as consumers of content. Interestingly, because they found that there are no clear guidelines on how to implement these literacies, the authors put forward the view that they should be merged in practice. This integrated approach, they argue, creates a new direction for Singapore and aligns practice more closely to UNESCO’s recommendations on information and media literacies.

1.2. Section 2: Delivering Information Literacy Education Samuel Kai-Wah Chu, Sandhya Rajagopal and Celina Wing-Yi Lee describe a one and a half year longitudinal study in Hong Kong, involving postgraduate students in education and engineering. This discusses the implementation of information literacy interventions relating primarily to knowledge of the information landscape and the use of information retrieval tools. Their study helps to define the development of levels of expertise among students, in terms of their information literacy. These include novice, competent, proficient and advanced. Their work also led to

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Mark Hepworth and Geoff Walton

recommendations as to how the interfaces to search tools could be modified to enable learners to be more effective. Emily S. Kinksy and Debra C. Smith’s work is primarily about using media literacy techniques to unpick media messages to young children. Their goal is to analyse the less than obvious values and viewpoints that are being promulgated by the media. This is very similar to notions of information discernment found in models of information literacy. They note a convergence between information, visual and media literacies and that they are all important in guiding young vulnerable children to interrogate what they are viewing. By doing this they explore the implications for teaching media literacy and indicate ways for children to become critical media watchers (to analyse and evaluate) and in so doing avoid being influenced by misinformation and dominant media messages. Jennifer D. Ward and Thomas S. Duke examine an e-learning information literacy programme which they devised to build capacity in learners who live in some of the remotest areas in Alaska. This chapter demonstrates that collaboration between professor and librarian has a positive influence on the learning intervention and echoes similar work done by Julien et al. published in this volume. Rural professionals face particular issues around isolation and this chapter shows how e-learning can diminish this and, at the same time, increase their personal information literacy. The e-learning intervention described is scaffolded to provide maximum guidance at the beginning of the research process — something that learners clearly found very useful and enabled them to carry out far more in-depth research than they had prior to experiencing this programme. Phussadee Dokphrom, from Thailand, explores academic staff and student’s conceptions of an information literate person in higher education in Thailand. She highlights the importance of generic skills, such as the use of the English language, as well as the disciplinary differences in terms of attitudes, research skills and knowledge. Again this chapter alludes to the importance of context and connects this to the importance of delivering, discipline-specific, information literacy interventions at the right time and place in student’s studies. Edward Lumande, Babakisi Tjedombo Fidzani and Silas Oluka discuss information literacy from an institutional perspective. The University of Botswana have gone a long way down the path of integrating information literacy into the undergraduate curriculum, partly through mobilising commitment at senior levels in the university and partnerships with colleagues in academic development, as well as outside the university — leading to an institutional ‘toolkit’. They describe an ongoing programme based on a DELPHE-funded initiative, whereby collaboration has been developed between universities in central and southern Africa and also the United Kingdom.

Introduction

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1.3. Section 3: The Link between University and Work Vicki Lawal, Christine Stilwell, Rosemary Kuhn and Peter G. Underwood examine the gap between the legal education system and the practice of law in the workplace in South Africa and Nigeria. In so doing they aim to detect the nature and transferability of graduate skills to the workplace and the role of cross-collaboration between law academics, the practising bar and academic librarians in the process. They show that, especially in the light of the growing importance of electronic information as a legal resource, there is a pressing need to close this gap by restructuring the legal education curricula by using information literacy pedagogies. They coin the term ‘legal information literacy’ as a specific subset and brand of information literacy. Heidi Julien, Brian Detlor and Alexander Serenko examine information literacy instruction in business schools in three Canadian Universities, and their data reveal convincing results regarding the positive effects of the specific pedagogical intervention of active learning. They demonstrate that fully integrated information literacy instruction is the most effective intervention and this is best realised when the collaborative relationships between librarians, administrators and academics are frequent, strong and persistent (echoing Julien et al. and Lawal et al.). They also sound a note of caution and highlight that the value of information literacy skills for the world of work is not readily recognised by students and this needs to be made more explicit in order to persuade them. Evans Wema, from Tanzania, describes the design, implementation and critically reflects on an information literacy intervention in Tanzania. The latter highlights some of the challenges associated with the workshops, including gaining high-level support, and those posed by the technological infrastructure. This chapter emphasises again the need for contextualisation and ensuring, for example, that training builds on previous knowledge, is relevant and enables people to achieve their own and their organisational goals. The people involved included academics and outreach staff working in agriculture and also health domain.

1.4. Section 4: Beyond Higher Education Stephen Abram provides an interesting perspective on information literacy and the role of librarians. He focuses, in particular, on the need for librarians to enable people to make use of technology and, in particular, social media and the ability to access information to achieve organisational goals. He emphasises the need for librarians to help people navigate and be critical and strategic in their use of new collaborative information

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technologies. He advocates that librarians should focus on their impact, that is enabling others to be creative, through the use of information technology, rather than their frequency of use of information products and resources. Christine S. Bruce, Mary M. Somerville, Ian Stoodley, Helen Partridge emphasise the need to focus on people’s information experience rather than skills or abstract conceptions of information literacy. They note the diversity of people’s information experience and the significance of the context within which people use information. Their chapter emphasises the social, rather than individualistic, dimension of information literacy, and explores these ideas in a faith community, in Australia, and also in an ethnic setting in North America. The use of phrases such as ‘compendiums of local knowledge’ to refer to, for example, collections of recipes and ‘learning about life y via participation’ reinforce the collective perspective on the information experience. Rosemeire Barbosa Tavares, Sely Maria de Souza Costa and Mark Hepworth place information literacy in the community context and the value of taking participative approaches to both explore and enable people to develop abilities and a consciousness of their own information literacy needs. This chapter describes an intervention in Brasilia where people in the community, through facilitation, explore collaboratively social issues and how information could help to address these issues. At the same time the authors make the connection between a collaborative, participative approach and the development of citizenship, civil rights and empowerment.

1.5. Conclusion The following diagram (Figure 1), developed in collaboration with Fatmah Almehmadi a Ph.D. student at the Centre for Information Management at Loughborough University, who is studying women researcher’s information behaviour in Saudi Arabia, helps to highlight and summarise the distinctions between IB and IL research. It can be seen that there are similarities. We would argue that they are complementary. To put this more forcibly to ensure that information literacy interventions relate to the needs and experience of the trainee, it is recommended that trainers should spend time understanding the information experience of the audience in same way as an IB researcher would, for example, conducting a study of current information seeking and needs, barriers etc. From a pragmatic perspective this should be seen as needs analysis or a form of diagnostics that helps to inform teaching and learning interventions or to develop theoretical approaches. Conversely, it could be argued that IB researchers should incorporate more explicitly an understanding of the respondents’ information literacy

Context

- Developing effective strategies to process and use information

- Developing effective information seeking strategies

- Using methods to foster information capabilities

- Enhancing users’ information seeking skills

Information needs (IN)

Changing information behaviour

Practical outcome System & service design

Research outcomes understanding people’s IB and factors that influence IB

Systematic training, participative approach

IB Understanding information behaviour

Information literacy programmes

Practical outcomes

IL

Information needs (IN)

Theories, models, frameworks, insight

Theoritical outcomes

- Classifying users information needs

- Identifying users’ information needs

- Understanding how information needs are developed, related to context, and expressed

Information seeking and use

Figure 1.1: A broad comparison of IB and IL studies.

Theories, models, frameworks, insight

Theoritical outcome

Research outcomes Understanding information capabilities and their development

Information seeking and use

- Helping users identify how information could help

- Helping users identify information needs associated with different environment

- Using methods to foster thinking about information needs

- Helping users analyse their information needs

- Helping users identify their information needs

- Enhancing knowledge of information landscape

Purpose/s of study mainly: vocational, instructional & beneficial

Attracts information science practitioners (e.g., librarian & information managers) as well as academics

User: learner, critical thinker & information literate

More practice (action research)

Worldwide (primarily in higher education)

Context

- Identifying factors that influence people’s information behaviour (cultural and social: e.g., norms; organisational: e.g., role & tasks as well as individual factors)

- Identifying information behaviour dimension (affective, cognitive, behavioural)

- Understanding users’ information seeking and use patterns/habits

Purpose/s of study mainly: system/service oriented, informational

Attracts information science scholars and information science practitioners

User: information seeker, library/system/service user

More theoretical

Worldwide (limited to information science departments)

Introduction 9

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and the impact this may have on the respondents’ behaviour. This would provide information that could be used to either develop or suggest information literacy interventions or to help design technical solutions that either corresponded to the skill, knowledge and motivation of the audience. Furthermore it would lead to studies that helped unpick the relationship between capability and IB. This book is perhaps the first to show that IL and IB, far from being separate disciplines, are overlapping and complementary and have much in common in not only fostering IL but also in explaining its value.

References Breivik, P. S., & Gee, E. G. (2006). Higher education in the internet age. Libraries creating a strategic edge. Westport, CT: Praeger. Bruce, C. S. (1995). Information literacy: A framework for higher education. Australian Library Journal, August, 158–170. Hampton-Reeves, S., Mashiter, C., Westaway, J., Lumsden, P., Day, H., Hewertson, H., & Hart, A. (2009). Students’ use of research content in teaching and learning: A report for the Joint Information Systems Council (JISC). [Online]. Retrieved from http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/aboutus/workinggroups/ studentsuseresearchcontent.pdf. Accessed on 10 November 2011. Hepworth, M., & Walton, G. (2009). Teaching information literacy for inquiry-based learning. Oxford: Chandos. Horton, F. W. (2007). Understanding information literacy: A primer. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. Leaning, M. (Ed.). (2009). Issues in information and media literacy: Criticism, history and policy. Santa Rosa, CA: Informing Science Press. Lloyd, A. (2010). Information literacy landscape: Information literacy in education, workplace and everyday contexts. Oxford: Chandos. Lorenzen, M. (2003). International bibliographic activities in the 20th century: A literature review. MLA Forum, II(1), n.p. [Online]. Retrieved from http://www. mlaforum.org/volumeII/issue1/InternationalBib.html. Accessed on 12 July 2008. Melville, D., et al. (2009). Higher education in a Web2.0 world: Report of an independent committee of inquiry into the impact on higher education of students’ widespread use of Web 2.0 technologies. [Online]. Retrieved from http:// www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/publications/heweb20rptv1.pdf. Accessed on 10 November 2011. Owusu-Ansah, E. K. (2003). Information literacy and the academic library: A critical look at the concept and the controversies surrounding it. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 29(4), 219–230. Training Toolkit. (2013). Training toolkit. Monitoring and evaluation for information literacy training initiatives in Africa: A journey approach. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies.

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University College London (UCL). (2008). Information behaviour of the researcher of the future: A CIBER briefing article, executive summary. [Online]. Retrieved from http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slais/research/ciber/downloads/ggexecutive.pdf. Accessed on 1 August 2010. Virkus, S. (2003). Information literacy in Europe: A literature review. Information Research, 8(4). [Online]. Retrieved from http://informationr.net/ir/8-4/paper159.html. Accessed on 8 July 2008. Walton, G. (2009). Developing a new blended approach to fostering information literacy. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Loughborough University.

SECTION I STRATEGIC VIEW

Chapter 2

Transforming Information Literacy for Higher Education in the 21st Century: A Lifelong Learning Approach Sheila Webber and Bill Johnston

Abstract In this chapter, we propose an educational framework to position Information Literacy (IL) and Higher Education (HE) in relation to Lifelong Learning (LLL): comprehensive enough to make sense of, and give educational direction to, future development of people in information literate populations. We identify crucial changes in the HE environment, particularly in the United Kingdom; analyse the concept of IL as a discipline, and situate the IL person in the changing information culture and society. In doing this we draw on our own work and that of Schuller and Watson (2009). We propose a curriculum for an information literate lifecourse, sensitive to the context of the individual within a changing information culture. The curriculum is framed, on the one hand, by the nature of the information economy, technology, organisational culture, local/national culture and society, and personal goals. It is also framed by the life stage of the individual, using the four key stages and transitional points proposed by Schuller and Watson (2009). Academics and librarians have a

Developing People’s Information Capabilities: Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts Library and Information Science, Volume 8, 15–30 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1876-0562/doi:10.1108/S1876-0562(2013)0000008006

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Sheila Webber and Bill Johnston key role in designing and facilitating these IL capabilities for the 21st century citizen. Keywords: Information literacy; higher education: knowledge society; lifelong learning

2.1. Introduction In this chapter we examine the context for Information Literacy (IL) development in Higher Education (HE), with particular focus on the United Kingdom (UK), and propose future directions for IL In a Lifelong Learning (LLL) context. We will identify major changes in the HE context and discuss how IL might develop in a period of financial crisis and economic recession. We will propose that IL should be more deeply incorporated in the HE curriculum and LLL than has been the case to date, in order to keep pace with the pervasive Information Culture of the early 21st century. In the late 20th century IL grew rapidly as a practice domain within the Library and Information Science (LIS) field. Webber (2010) has identified growth indicators such as IL-specific professional associations, conferences, courses and journals. This growth is also manifest in academics’ and librarians’ accounts of interventions to improve learners’ information capabilities. Academic research has made available new insights into the place of IL in pedagogy of teaching across the disciplines in HE (e.g. Lupton, 2008; Webber & Johnston, 2005). Amongst practitioners, there has been a notable focus on IL in relation to the enhancement of student key study skills and graduate attributes for employability (e.g. Harrop & Seddon, 2012). Pilerot and Lindberg (2011) have also identified divergence between conceptualisations of IL by researchers, and by practitioners and policy makers. Equally there has been a surge of interest in IL as it is observed outside the academy (e.g. Cheuk, 2008), with groundbreaking studies of nonacademic occupational groups such as fire fighters and paramedics (e.g. Crawford & Irving, 2009; Lloyd, 2009; Lloyd & Williamson, 2008). Taken together with the major statements from UNESCO on the importance of IL (e.g. National Forum on Information Literacy, 2006), these trends indicate that IL is coming of age as a significant aspect of what UNESCO describes as a knowledge society (Binde´, 2005). However, it is important not to overestimate the scale and range of IL development in this period, or to assume that further development will be relatively straightforward. In this chapter we, firstly, identify some crucial changes in the HE environment. We proceed to analyse the concept of IL as a discipline, and

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situate the information literate person in the changing information culture and society. Thirdly, we describe an educational framework for IL in HE for LLL, comprehensive enough to make sense of, and give educational direction to, future development of people in information literate populations. Finally we outline some directions for strategic development in the next decade and summarise our vision of IL in HE.

2.1.1.

The Changing HE Context

We would argue that IL work in HE has been influenced latterly by the dominant assumption in policy and practice, that the main purpose of degree level education is to produce human capital to contribute to economic growth and competitiveness. This is signalled, for example by the very first line on the UK Government’s web page identifying the benefits of HE. The only concrete benefit identified is that of becoming more economically productive: ‘Higher education could boost your career prospects and earning potential, while giving you the chance to immerse yourself in a subject that really interests you — and get involved in lots of other activities’ (Directgov, 2012). Similarly, the influential Browne report on HE (Browne, 2010) emphasises in the first paragraph of the foreword that ‘Graduates go on to higher paid jobs and add to the nation’s strength in the global knowledge based economy’: the sole positive outcome identified for having got a degree. This vision of the purpose of HE is arguably restricted, and has been troubled by, for example Collini (2012) and the Campaign for the Public University (2012). As noted above, LIS practitioners have seen employability as a hook for working with academics on IL. However even with this powerful employability agenda, librarians have been limited by the failure of UK governments and sector leaders to conceptualise this model of education for human capital in a way which would make the case for IL in and across the curriculum. We suggest that it is timely for IL specialists to revisit their strategic perceptions and take note of the growing critiques of the human capital model. Since the 2008 global economic crisis, economies are facing major, sustained recession with growth a long way off (Elliot & Atkinson, 2009; Stiglitz, 2010). Steeply increased costs of attending university are (with some differences between the UK’s home nations) pressurising students. The reduced graduate employment prospects challenge the policy discourse which positions the university degree as an effective individual investment. A longitudinal survey carried out in 2008–2010 (Roodhouse & Mumford, 2010, p. 325) also indicates that ‘Employees continue to see employers and professional bodies as much more credible deliverers of work-based learning

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than higher or further education institutions and the gap is progressively widening’. Taken together, these profound disturbances in the external environment challenge the ‘human capital for economic growth’ model of HE as the primary determinant of curriculum, and present both threats to established practices and opportunities for innovation, which IL specialists need to address. Within the academy there has been a noticeable resurgence in claims of values for HE beyond the purely economic, drawing on academic traditions of ‘learning for its own sake’, criticality, importance of the humanities etc. as key outcomes (Collini, 2012); challenging the corporatisation and commodification of HE (Bailey & Freedman, 2011); with academics reacting against the rise of managerialism and marketisation of academic affairs and student experience (Molesworth, Scullion, & Nixon, 2010). In addition current political interference in university autonomy to enforce prioritisation of STEM (Science Technology Engineering Mathematics) subjects at the expense of humanities and social sciences has generated opposition (e.g. Bate, 2011). The move to e-journals and the open access movement has also impacted upon the roles of academics, publishers and librarians, with profound implications for the knowledge base with which learners and educators work. The Finch report (Working Group on Expanding Access to Published Research Findings, 2012) advocates moving to an ‘author pays’ model, provoking some strong opposition from academic authors, who criticise the report for seeming anxious to protect the publishing industry. Academics identify the advantage the ‘author pays’ option will give to funded research, richer universities, larger departments, authors with established university posts, and particular subjects. Carrigan (2012) asks ‘Is it even going to be possible to be an independent researcher in any meaningful sense?’ There are also issues of who owns what in terms of teaching ‘content’ and learner-generated material. Learners and teachers need to understand what the moral and legal issues are for repurposing content, especially as academics are urged to reuse and share content online. These changes will galvanise academics to review their roles, rights and activities in relation to information, so it should be possible to stimulate a debate around IL along a number of new and perhaps more energised lines. In effect there is a crisis in the value system, which might be expressed in terms of a re-evaluation of the notion of human capital and the reassertion of more traditional ideas about the benefits of HE. IL cannot be immune from this debate. Prime foci for library and information practitioners have been employability, study skills and digital technologies themes.

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However there are obvious opportunities for a change of direction to highlight notions of IL as important to critical thinking, citizenship and LLL in a re-ordered economic system. We will outline a framework for such IL development in the next section of this chapter.

2.2. Information Literacy, LLL and Information Culture 2.2.1.

The Concept of IL

We have defined IL, at the personal level, as: the adoption of appropriate information behaviour to identify, through whatever channel or medium, information well fitted to information needs, leading to wise and ethical use of information in society. (Johnston & Webber, 2003)

This definition has much in common with other statements from LIS groups (e.g. Armstrong et al., 2005), since one clear focus is acquiring information to meet an identified need. However, it is distinctive in referring to broader information behaviour, and flagging up the requirement to look at behaviour contextually. What is ‘appropriate’ will depend on the nature of the need, and part of IL is being able to diagnose when (for example) the most appropriate behaviour is asking a trusted colleague for advice, and when the best option is a systematic search of academic databases. The remainder of the definition introduces a link to the wider socio-cultural dimension of IL. This characterises IL more as an ensemble of critical social actions influenced by cultural norms, and less as a set of discrete skills (Webber & Johnston, 2000). Becoming information literate thus entails cognitive and social development as well as practical acuity. It also may be practiced by individuals, or collaboratively. Going beyond the definition of IL in the personal context, we have outlined our case for treating IL as a discipline in its own right (Johnston & Webber, 2006). We noted that indicators and apparatus for disciplinarity are present (e.g. doctoral study, dedicated conferences and journals) and we distinguished it from the cognate subjects librarianship (where the focus is on service to specific populations and engagement with collections of information) and information science (where the prime foci are the information user and the tools that meet his/her needs). The nature of the IL discipline is emerging in the research discourse and taking curricular form in specialist modules and programmes. We suggest that developing this

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notion of IL as a discipline will be a key building block in creating the next generation of IL knowledge and activity. In common with other soft disciplines (Becher & Trowler, 2001), IL draws on theory, and research approaches from other discipline, in this case sociology, psychology, management studies and media/communication studies to illuminate needs, situations and behaviour. In particular, IL is distinguished from Librarianship and Information Science in its close relationship with educational theory and research approaches. Researchbased IL practice is increasingly intertwined with the theoretically informed academic development of pedagogy in HE. This is evidenced in, for example, the work of Christine Bruce (Bruce, 2008; Bruce & Hughes, 2010), Limberg’s (2010) reflection on the interrelationship between IL, information seeking and learning, Sundin’s (2008) critique of the pedagogic approaches embodied in IL tutorials, and the emphasis on pedagogic approach (specifically, constructive alignment of teaching, learning and assessment, as described by Biggs and Tang (2011), advocated in the ‘New Curriculum’ for IL developed by Secker and Coonan (2011)). In effect there is a greater emphasis on the disciplinary and pedagogical context of IL in devising IL interventions, and greater account taken of changes in teaching practice aimed at developing a more constructivist pattern of learning. This pedagogical trend is most obviously manifest in specific forms of the teaching and learning environment such as Problem Based Learning and Inquiry Based Learning, and in a greater emphasis on student autonomy in managing learning, both individually and collaboratively (e.g. Hepworth & Walton, 2009). We suggest that this trend should be viewed as a major driver for development over the next decade. It is important to distinguish this trend in teaching, which is based on research into pedagogy, from an early 21st century institutional enthusiasm for incorporating techno/digital systems into the learning environment. There has been a tendency to assume that technology and digital information will drive improved learning by affording greater ‘flexibility’ in ‘delivery’ of teaching. This is implicit, for example, in the very name of JISC’s Transforming Curriculum Delivery through Technology funding programme (http:// www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/elearning/curriculumdelivery.aspx). Similarly there has been a tendency to welcome social media as valuable mechanisms for communication with students. Two news stories (Swan, 2012; Tomlinson, 2012) demonstrate how discourse around social media for students is focused on its impact on students’ employability. These perspectives display a naive grasp of the nature of how technology is entailed in complex human contexts like higher education and student learning, which are themselves affected by politics, economics and culture. This complexity is illustrated in our model of the information literate person (Figure 2.1).

Transforming Information Literacy for Higher Education

Information economy: • Law • Changes in media • Pricing etc

Technical changes

21

Personal goals, values and habits, life stage, special needs

Information literate person

Organisational culture: • Mission; Values; Norms • Management style • Information strategy

Local & national culture & society

Figure 2.1: The information literate person in the changing information culture and society (Based on Webber & Johnston, 2000).

2.2.2.

The Information Literate Person in the Changing Information Culture and Society

Our analysis of the current situation is illustrated by Figure 2.1, using a construct we first presented in Webber and Johnston (2000). This locates the information literate person at the centre of five powerful social and economic vectors. In order to develop as an information literate citizen, each person needs to be able to identify changes relevant to their life path. Whilst we initially labelled this ‘The information literate person in the changing world’ we now emphasise the importance of information culture, a concept we will address at the end of this section. Firstly, the person will need to be aware of how information is created, mediated, controlled and accessed in his or her geographical, social and cultural context and be sensitive to change. Secondly, specific organisational cultures will have their own norms and values as regards information access, sharing and use. This includes the workplace, places of learning and other organisations which acquire importance at certain life stages (e.g. a benefits agency, a health service). Thirdly, technology enables new forms of content and interaction. Fourthly, information is also a commodity which is legislated for, traded, exchanged, stolen, and packaged in new ways. Finally,

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and most importantly, each person has his or her own characteristics, experience and values. As he or she goes through life, the person’s personal circumstances will change (through physical ageing, changing jobs, changing family commitments) and accordingly so will his/her needs and interests. All of these aspects must be included in a comprehensive IL for the 21st century. This portrayal of the information literate person highlights the situated, contextualised nature of IL as opposed to accounts of IL as a set of skills which an individual acquires for a specific purpose, usually educational. The information literate person is subject to constant changes in their world as technology, economic activity and organisational norms interact with each other and with the personal goals and situation of individuals. Whilst acquiring skills to access and evaluate information will help people to orientate themselves in this mix, much greater levels of cultural awareness of information are needed to survive and succeed.

2.2.3.

Educating the Information Literate Person Throughout Life

How might the information literate person engage with learning and education in order to best manage the changes to which he/she is subject over the lifecourse? Given our holistic perspective, which goes beyond HE, we suggest a comprehensive, LLL model, specifically that of Schuller and Watson (2009), to give a coherent overview. This model proposes four stages or phases in the social provision and experience of learning, distinguished by age groupings and levels of social investment. These are: 1. a ‘young people’ phase (up to 25 years of age: the focus of Schuller and Watson’s (2009) report is particularly on post-18 education); 2. a graduate/employed phase (25–50) where learning is mainly in the workplace (including Continuing Professional Development and postgraduate qualifications); 3. 50–75, including post-retirement learning activities; 4. over 75 years, when economic activity will normally have ceased. These latter two groups are of great socio/political significance given the demands of ageing populations in numerous countries, including the UK. Schuller and Watson (2009) demonstrate how social and financial investment is typically front-loaded and targeted to formal schooling/college situations, with emphasis on participants obtaining work-related credentials and basic social skills. As individuals age, investment radically declines. Running in parallel for people who do not progress through the formal levels into sustained, well paid employment, there is a patchwork of adult,

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continuing and community forms of LLL, characterised by low status and investment. These forms are often associated with measures to mitigate adverse social conditions such as unemployment, poor housing and other community problems. Schuller and Watson (2009) advocate a modest realignment of social investment to improve the funding and status of learning in later life, in order to meet the requirements of a longer-lived population. They propose the development of a context-sensitive citizens’ curriculum, built around digital, health, financial and civic capabilities, together with employability. Schuller and Watson (2009) identify 25, 50 and 75 as key transition points, and recommend that people at these transition points should be entitled to guidance and learning opportunities. Allied to this work, Field, Gallagher, and Ingram (2009), also highlight the importance of addressing transitions within LLL. There is an interesting parallel to be drawn when examining the focus for IL resources and research. Similarly, there has been a heavy bias towards formal education, and Schuller and Watson’s (2009) stage one. This has already been noted by commentators such as Lloyd and Williamson (2008), however mostly with an emphasis on the lack of evidence and investigation for stage 2. Commentary on the IL involved, as well as education and support, for those at stages 3 and 4 is sparse and tends to be framed in terms of catching-up and rectifying deficiency and disadvantage (e.g. helping old people learn how to email their grandchildren). This sidelines and marginalises the third and fourth-agers’ accumulated IL experience. We also note that while there has been increased focus in the IL literature on transition between school and HE (e.g. Burhanna & Jensen, 2006) and (though to a lesser extent) transition between HE and work, other transitions have been neglected. As well as the transition from work to retirement, there are other life-stage transitions which have implications for IL needs (e.g. starting a family, bereavement). These are all areas ripe for investigation, research and development within the discipline of IL, with a view to creating new practice applications. The Schuller and Watson (2009) model therefore provides a useful input to our discussion of how IL can support LLL by addressing a fuller and wider range of learning experiences. Some existing IL Frameworks, notably the Welsh Information Literacy Project (2011) and the Scottish IL project (Crawford & Irving, 2007), have adopted the strategy of mapping stages of IL against the relevant formal stages of primary, secondary and tertiary education, whilst current developments in IL research are exploring the workplace context and also major social contexts such as health. Therefore, an LLL frame of reference provides an educational overview and also extends the remit for a curriculum for an information literate lifecourse.

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We propose this lifecourse curriculum as a new way of looking at research and practice aimed at developing learner self-awareness, personal efficacy and civic engagement through formal education and across many other community and organisational settings. Since the focus of this chapter is on HE, we will not elaborate this construct in full. However, we contend that it should inform teaching practice in HE. Given the present imbalance in social investment in LLL, it is important to make the most of the privileged point, when people are in HE. For mature students, it would legitimise prior experience and provide a more accessible framework for developing IL in study and life. Direct entrants from school need to develop as information literate people in an Information Culture, so they are able to steer themselves through the less well supported stages of their later lives. The responsibility of educators is to bring about the curriculum renewal required to meet that need.

2.2.4.

The Concept of Information Culture: A Focus of Curriculum Renewal

The concept of Information Culture expresses our sense of the cumulative effect of several decades of developments in technology, communications, social usage and economic importance of information. These interrelated developments have a significance, which is more than the sum of their parts and therefore require to be approached as a conceptual unity in order to best understand and channel further changes. They add to the already rich mix of textual, human and physical information that is negotiated and interpreted in people’s everyday lives. Our concept of Information Culture goes beyond that of Curry and Moore (2003) and Choo, Bergeron, Detlor and Heaton (2008), who frame it in a purely organisational context, although Choo et al.’s (2008, p. 792) definition of it as ‘socially shared patterns of behaviors, norms, and values that define the significance and use of information’ surfaces some key characteristics. Our conception of Information Culture has more in common with the French idea of ‘La culture de l’information’, which Le Deuff (2011) identifies as ‘a new way to develop the civic dimension of information literacy’ and which he explores in depth in his doctoral thesis (Le Deuff, 2009). In essence, the information literate person inhabits a culture wherein he or she can use the internet and mobile technology to engage with content and connect to others in the educational, social, professional, political and economic spheres of life. Questions of freedom of information, state control and surveillance are given new focus by the pervasiveness of the technologies involved. A further impetus for questioning established norms and practices comes with the global reach of communication, connectivity and the

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potential for open engagements across national and ethnic identities, irrespective of the forms of government under which people live. The information literate citizen is also involved in the tensions arising as traditional corporate ownership and direction of mass media, with its symbiotic and at times unhealthy, relationships to politics, are challenged by mass use of social media to create alternative content and share dissenting opinion and news. Citizens can quickly spread misinformation worldwide, and quash rumours almost as quickly, although leaving a vapour trail of arguments and denials. These are the domains within which 21st century citizens live, work and, hopefully, engage in LLL. These examples and the aspects of the information environment outlined in the sections above are coalescing as defining characteristics of the socioeconomic and political context of 21st century life. Hence our use of the term Information Culture to highlight the significance of the phenomenon as a focus for debate, research and education. As the contours of the map of 21st century Information Culture become more defined, so must the implications for HE curriculum and LLL be articulated (Johnston, 2010, pp. 119–124).

2.3. Conclusions The current recession and crisis in the political economy of ‘growth’ requires a revision of the human capital account of HE, even if only to accommodate the implications of under-employment of graduates. However, we contend that this is a limited, albeit essential, form of response to the severity of the current crisis. The present period of flux should be used to debate the purposes of HE in the 21st century and to identify complementary values in the curriculum. We advocate a debate on the notion of Information Culture as one such source of value, which can be applied to the redesign of courses to balance the current emphasis on employability. The Information Culture construct at its simplest, is a holistic view of people and their information behaviour in their varied social as well as educational and economic contexts. It also invokes their status as information literate citizens and not only as producers, consumers and investors in the informational and other activities, which contribute to generating economic growth. The information literate person in an Information Culture needs a broader, more creative and critical information and media education, not only to enjoy the economic benefits of digitally based infrastructures, but to fully engage with the social, political and creative dimensions of the developing Information Culture of the 21st century. This need can be met by renewing the HE curriculum to prize

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research into, and cultural analysis of, information activity as a learning objective, in addition to developing the students’ disciplinary and other information skills. An expanded notion of IL as a discipline entailing media literacy, economic applications, personal development and citizenship provides a base for exploration of curriculum focused organisational development. This expanded notion of IL creates a ‘next generation’ IL and should make it more feasible to develop a larger-scale curriculum strategy to meet the changing circumstances of the 21st century, and progress from the reactive and relatively small-scale initiatives of the 20th. Central to this approach is the notion of a curriculum for an information literate lifecourse. At each life stage an audit of the factors identified in Figure 2.1 guides the nature of the curriculum. Whilst people are in formal education, a key organisational culture will be that of the educational establishment. In HE, this will more specifically include the academic department and the norms of thinking and practicing in the discipline being studied. However, many people will simultaneously experience other organisational cultures, for example in part time work. They can also be encouraged to look back to analyse the organisational cultures they have left behind, and look forward to the organisational cultures they aim to experience in the future. Creating and reflecting on their own ‘information literate person maps’, present, past and future, can enable learners to identify their own IL curriculum and needed capabilities. This can be shared with teachers and fellow learners, and mapped collectively, for example as part of forming a group-working team. It can also provide an alternative way of approaching diversity, since individual and group mapping will reveal more nuanced similarities and differences than are implied by talking about (for example) the ‘IL needs of international students’. Addressing all the elements in Figure 2.1 also identifies both that an academic programme of study is not the only context for IL, and that other elements in a person’s IL context will impact their approach to IL in their academic studies. In the curriculum for an information literate lifecourse an important task for IL educators is preparing people to cope with, and plan for, IL transition. There are IL transitions between each of the life stages identified by Schuller and Watson (2009), where it is important that learners are able to do an environmental scan and audit their needs and how they can meet them. As we already noted, HE and the transitions around it have already received the most attention, but without this more holistic context. Academics and librarians have to create a locus for discussion and implementation. Schuller and Watson’s (2009) proposal for a citizen’s curriculum is one starting point. Another approach is to exploit the debate in HE institutions about how to respond to recession. In the short term there

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is a focus on employability, but universities have to provide a more solid base for their students’ uncertain futures (Barnett, 2007). Allies could include those academics who possess a more holistic vision of the graduates’ future, beyond academic study, and see the university as a place of challenge and change, not a sausage-machine for employers. Tapping into international developments, notably UNESCO’s Media and Information Literacy initiatives, could also be fruitful. The IL capabilities for the 21st century citizen will be self-identified and consciously developed through life. Academics and librarians have a vital role in designing and facilitating this process.

References Armstrong, C., Boden, D., Town, S., Woolley, M., Webber, S., & Abell, A. (2005). CILIP defines information literacy for the UK. Library and Information Update, 4(1), 22–25. Bailey, M., & Freedman, D. (Eds.). (2011). The assault on universities: A manifesto for resistance. London: Pluto Press. Barnett, R. (2007). A will to learn: Being a student in an age of uncertainty. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill. Bate, J. (2011). The public value of the humanities. London: Bloomsbury. Becher, T., & Trowler, P. R. (2001). Academic tribes and territories: Intellectual enquiry and the culture of disciplines (2nd ed.). Milton Keynes: Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press. Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2011). Teaching for quality learning at university (4th ed.). Buckingham: Open University Press. Binde´, J. (2005). Towards knowledge societies. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco. org/images/0014/001418/141843e.pdf. Accessed on 10 August 2012. Browne, J. (Ed.). (2010). Securing a sustainable future for Higher Education: An independent review of higher education funding and student finance. Retrieved from http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ + /hereview.independent.gov.uk/ hereview/. Accessed on 10 August 2012. Bruce, C. (2008). Informed learning. Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries. Bruce, C., & Hughes, H. (2010). Informed learning: A pedagogical construct attending simultaneously to information use and learning. Library & Information Science Research, 32(4), A2–A8. Burhanna, K. J., & Jensen, M. L. (2006). Collaborations for success: High school to college transitions. Reference Services Review, 34(4), 509–519. Campaign for the Public University. (2012). Campaign for the public university. Retrieved from http://publicuniversity.org.uk/. Accessed on 10 August 2012. Carrigan, M. (2012, 17 July). What about the authors who can’t pay? Why the government’s embrace of gold open access isn’t something to celebrate. Retrieved

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from http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2012/07/17/finch-what-aboutauthors-who-cant-pay/#more-7168. Accessed on 10 August 2012. Cheuk, B. (2008). Delivering business value through information literacy in the workplace. Libri, 58(3), 137–143. Choo, C. W., Bergeron, P., Detlor, B., & Heaton, L. (2008). Information culture and information use: An exploratory study of three organizations. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 59(5), 792–804. Collini, S. (2012). What are universities for? (Rev. ed.). London: Penguin. Crawford, J., & Irving, C. (2007). Information literacy: The link between secondary and tertiary education project and its wider implications. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 39(1), 17–26. Crawford, J., & Irving, C. (2009). Information literacy in the workplace: A qualitative exploratory study. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 41(1), 29–38. Curry, A., & Moore, C. (2003). Assessing information culture: An exploratory model. International Journal of Information Management, 23(2), 91–110. Directgov. (2012). The benefits of higher education. Retrieved from http:// www.direct.gov.uk/en/EducationAndLearning/UniversityAndHigherEducation/ WhyGoToUniversityOrCollege/DG_4016998. Accessed on 10 August 2012. Elliot, L., & Atkinson, D. (2009). The gods that failed: How the financial elite have gambled away our futures. London: Vantage. Field, J., Gallagher, J., & Ingram, R (2009). Researching transitions in lifelong learning. London: Routledge. Harrop, C., & Seddon, L. (2012). Competent and confident. CILIP Update, January, pp. 44–45. Hepworth, M., & Walton, G. (2009). Teaching information literacy for inquiry-based learning. Oxford: Chandos. Johnston, B. (2010). The first year at university: Teaching students in transition. Maidenhead: McGraw Hill Education. Johnston, B., & Webber, S. (2003). Information literacy in higher education: A review and case study. Studies in Higher Education, 28(3), 335–352. Johnston, B., & Webber, S. (2006). As we may think: Information literacy as a discipline for the information age. Research Strategies, 20(3), 108–121. Le Deuff, O. (2009). La culture de l’information en reformation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universite de Rennes 2, Rennes. Retrieved from http://tel.archivesouvertes.fr/docs/00/42/19/28/PDF/theseLeDeuff.pdf. Accessed on 10 August, 2012. Le Deuff, O. (2011). Library 2.0 and the culture of information: New paradigms? Cadernos de Biblioteconomia, Arquivistica e Documentao, 1/2, 20–28. Limberg, L. (2010). Information literacies at the intersection between information seeking and learning: Contexts and values [online]. Paper presented at Information Literacies Research Network Seminar: COLIS 2010 Conference, London. Boras: University of Boras. Retrieved from http://bada.hb.se/bitstream/2320/6536/1/ ILRS_2010_Louise_Limberg_introductory_paper.pdf. Accessed on 8 February 2012. Lloyd, A. (2009). Informing practice: Information experiences of ambulance officers in training and on-road practice. Journal of Documentation, 65(3), 396–419.

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Lloyd, A., & Williamson, K. (2008). Towards an understanding of information literacy in context: Implications for research. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 40(1), 3–12. Lupton, M. (2008). Information literacy and learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane. Retrieved from http://eprints.qut.edu.au/16665/1/Mandy_Lupton_Thesis.pdf. Accessed on 10 August 2012. Molesworth, M., Scullion, R., & Nixon, E. (Eds.). (2010). The marketisation of Higher Education and the student as consumer. Abingdon: Routledge. National Forum on Information Literacy. (2006). Beacons of the information society: The Alexandria proclamation on information literacy and lifelong learning. Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/ Pilerot, O., & Lindberg, J. (2011). The concept of Information Literacy in policymaking texts: An imperialistic project? Library Trends, 60(2), 338–360. Roodhouse, S., & Mumford, J. (2010). HE@Work: Three year longitudinal employee learning attitudes survey of large private businesses, 2008–2010. Industrial and Commercial Training, 42(6), 319–329. Schuller, T., & Watson, D. (2009). Learning through life: Inquiry into the future for lifelong learning (IFLL). Leicester: National Institute of Adult Continuing Education (NIACE). Secker, J., & Coonan, E. (2011). A new curriculum for Information Literacy: Curriculum and supporting documents. Retrieved from http://ccfil.pbworks.com/ f/ANCIL_final.pdf. Accessed on 10 August 2012. Stiglitz, J. (2010). Freefall: Free markets and the sinking of the global economy. London: Penguin. Sundin, O. (2008). Negotiations on information seeking expertise: A study of web-based tutorials for information literacy. Journal of Documentation, 64(1), 22–44. Swan, G. (2012). Using social media to boost student employability. Guardian Professional, 18 June. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/higher-educationnetwork/blog/2012/jun/18/social-media-to-boost-student-employability. Accessed on 10 August 2012. Tomlinson, V. (2012). Are parents and universities failing our young people by ignoring social media? Huffington Post, August 6. Retrieved from http://www. huffingtonpost.co.uk/victoria-tomlinson/are-parents-and-universit_b_1746149.html. Accessed on 10 August 2012. Webber, S. (2010). La culture l’informationnelle: un domain d’etude international. In F. Chapron & E. Delamontte (Eds.), L’education a la culture informationnelle (pp. 102–113). Villerbanne: enssib. Webber, S., & Johnston, B. (2000). Conceptions of information literacy: New perspectives and implications. Journal of Information Science, 26(6), 381–397. Webber, S., & Johnston, B. (2005). Information literacy in the curriculum: Selected findings from a phenomenographic study of UK conceptions of, and pedagogy for, information literacy. In C. Rust (Ed.), Improving student learning: Diversity and inclusivity: Proceedings of the 11th ISL symposium, Birmingham, 6–8 September 2004 (pp. 212–224). Oxford: Oxford Brookes University.

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Welsh Information Literacy project. (2011). Information literacy framework for Wales: Finding and using information in 21st century Wales. Retrieved from http:// librarywales.org/uploads/media/Information_Literacy_Framework_Wales.pdf. Accessed on 10 August 2012. Working Group on Expanding Access to Published Research Findings. (2012). Accessibility, sustainability, excellence: How to expand access to research publications. Retrieved from http://www.researchinfonet.org/publish/finch/. Accessed on 10 August 2012.

Chapter 3

Curriculum and Curriculum Integration of Information Literacy in Higher Education Li Wang

Abstract Information literacy education plays a vital role in developing students’ information capabilities in higher education. Curriculum integration of information literacy is advocated by ACRL (2000) in the United States and ANZIIL (Bundy, 2004) in Australia and New Zealand. Research (Derakhshan & Singh, 2011; Dixon-Thomas, 2012) suggests that the most effective way to provide information literacy education is to integrate information literacy throughout the curriculum. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss curriculum in higher education and to introduce a model of curricular integration of information literacy. The curriculum of a university (as one form of higher education) is usually seen as an educational plan to engage learners in the acquisition of knowledge and skills leading to a degree, diploma or certificate. The curriculum can be viewed at various levels, namely: institutional, faculty, programme, course and class levels. Therefore, information literacy can be integrated at different levels: university, faculty, programme, or courses and associated classes. This chapter will explain a model of curriculum integrated information literacy developed by Wang (2010) which was based on sociocultural theories and practitioners’ experiences in information literacy curriculum integration in higher education. Explanations of how to apply it in

Developing People’s Information Capabilities: Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts Library and Information Science, Volume 8, 31–49 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1876-0562/doi:10.1108/S1876-0562(2013)0000008007

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Li Wang curriculum integration and curriculum design in higher education will also be provided. Keywords: Information literacy curriculum integration; information literacy integration model; graduate profile mapping; intended curriculum; offered curriculum; higher education

3.1. Introduction Information literacy education plays a vital role in supporting student learning in higher education. Approaches to information literacy education vary between institutions. The curricular integration or embedded approach is defined by the ALA information literacy competency standards for higher education (Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), 2000) as being ‘woven into the curriculum’s content, structure and sequence’ (p. 5). Several studies support the view that the integration of information literacy throughout curricula is the most effective way of providing information literacy education (Callison, Budny, & Thomes, 2005; Dakshinamurti & Horne, 2006; Derakhshan & Singh, 2011; Dixon-Thomas, 2012; Feldmann & Feldmann, 2000; McAdoo, 2008; Walton & Hepworth, 2011; Williams, Blowers, & Goldberg, 2004). This view is also widely endorsed by international associations such as the ACRL (2000) in the United States and ANZIIL (Bundy, 2004) in Australia and New Zealand. The curriculum integration approach involves the provision of information literacy education across an academic degree at different stages or years of study to progressively develop student information literacy capabilities. For example, the second year information literacy related assignment can be built on ‘y‘‘what was learned from the first year’’ information literacy related assignment’ (Nerz & Bullard, 2006). A practical experience of integrating information literacy into two management courses in year 2 and year 3 demonstrates that ‘The case for developing the information literate student is strong, y Consequently, it appears that the transferable skills element of the undergraduate curriculum is growing’ (Cochrane, 2006, p. 119). A survey conducted at a US university faculty (McAdoo, 2008) showed that ‘the best approach is seen as being one that is integrated into the entire curriculum’. Having analysed 12 information literacy documents from 10 different institutions in the United Kingdom, Corrall (2008) found that all these documents advocate the integration of information literacy into subject studies by interweaving information literacy into the academic curriculum.

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3.2. Curriculum in Higher Education When we talk about curriculum integration of information literacy, first of all, we need to understand the various meanings and interpretations of the word ‘curriculum’. The curriculum of a university is more than a list of courses to be studied and learnt. In understanding curriculum, Pinar, Reymolds, Slattery, and Taubman (1995) stated that ‘institutionally, curriculum defines the knowledge to be taught’ (p. 745). The term curriculum can also be referred to as the educational plan of an institution, or a department, or a programme or course. For example, Ratcliff (1997) defined the higher education curriculum as an educational plan that is focused on curricular content. He indicated that in the United States, at the programme level, undergraduate curricula typically consist of three to four components: general or liberal studies, major specialisations, minor specialisations, and elective studies. The content of general or liberal studies is often set institution-wide by the faculty, while major and minor specialisations are prescribed by the particular department or programme offering the specialisation. In professional faculties such as engineering or law, the major and minor fields may be governed by the curricular prescription of the professional field represented, or by guidelines extended by the disciplinary association, or by state licensure requirements or professional board examinations. The enrolment in elective courses is nominally left to student discretion, but a prescribed range of electives may be set by the departmental major or minor. Ratcliff’s definition of curriculum refers to an educational plan but is focused on the curricular content and what can be offered to students. It ignores curricular delivery and curricular activities, as well as what can be learnt by students. This definition focuses more on teachers than students. Recently, Awais (2011) considers curriculum ‘comprised of three elements, i- entry, ii- education event and iii- exit examination. The curriculum derives its educational ‘energy’ from the statements of learning objectives and the ‘bonding’ of its constituents from the rules and regulations’. This definition refers to a formal educational process, through education activities or events guided by the rules and regulations to achieve learning objectives. This also focuses on teachers rather than students. In contrast, Eisner (2002) defines the curriculum as a programme with an emphasis on curricular activities. The curriculum of an institution, a school, course, or classroom can be conceived of as a series of planned events that are intended to have educational consequence for one or more students. In other words, a curriculum is a programme that is intentionally designed to engage students in activities or events that will have educational benefits for them. This definition of curriculum refers not only to an educational programme, as in the above definition but also to the learning activities in

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which students are engaged. Eisner’s definition focuses on the curricular activities and what students would gain or benefit from in the educational programme. This is a student focused approach with an emphasis of student engagement. The curriculum has also been viewed as a series of courses related by themes and skill development. For example, Porter (2004) defined the curriculum as a list of courses and the level of skills developed which lead to a degree. The individual courses within the curriculum help learners to progress from basic, introductory levels of knowledge and skills to higherlevel objectives for critical thinking, mastery of skills, and demonstration of knowledge common to a discipline. The degree programme may involve courses in several different departments or disciplines. Porter’s definition of curriculum refers to a collection of courses to be completed in order to obtain a degree but it focuses on the subject and the generic skills that students should be building up from a lower level to a higher level. This is also a student focused approach, but with an emphasis on student competency. The curricular definitions and explanations provided above lead us to summarise that the curriculum in higher education is an educational plan to engage learners in the acquisition of knowledge and skills leading to a degree or certificate. It not only refers to the official list of courses and their content offered by a university, but also to its purposes, organisation, delivery and activities, and evaluation programmes developed by the institution.

3.3. The Intended and Offered Curriculum in Higher Education If curriculum can be defined as an educational plan to engage learners in the acquisition of knowledge and skills leading to a degree or certificate, curriculum in higher education can be viewed as: the intended curriculum, the offered curriculum and the students’ received curriculum. The intended curriculum here means an institution’s expectation of what is to be taught and learnt in its educational system (Codd, 1981; Preedy, 2001). The intended curriculum could include the university graduate attributes, institutional teaching and learning policies and guidelines, accrediting organisations’ requirements, and institutional or national teaching and learning related strategies. The offered curriculum or teachers’ curriculum is what teachers teach or plan to teach (Preedy, 2001). The received curriculum is the knowledge and skills that are actually learned by students via the course, or their experiences of the course (Kelly, 2009; Preedy, 2001). Understanding these interpretations of curriculum could help information literacy educators to understand that curriculum may be interpreted differently and that

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information literacy needs to be integrated into all aspects of the curriculum in order to enable students to become information literate. For example, if information literacy is only integrated into the intended curriculum without being implemented into the offered curriculum, students may not receive any information literacy education.

3.4. Different Levels of Curriculum in High Education From the understanding of curriculum above, the curriculum can also be viewed at different levels such as institutional curriculum, faculty curriculum, programme curriculum, course curriculum and class curriculum. At the institutional level, ‘curriculum’ refers to teaching and learning objectives, teaching plans or strategies, curriculum policies of the particular institution as well as to degree programmes. For example, the institutional curriculum at the University of Auckland could include the university’s graduate profiles/attributes, academic plans and university teaching and learning policies and guidelines, as well as its degree programmes. At the faculty or departmental level, ‘curriculum’ refers to the faculty or departmental teaching and learning policies which are based on the institutional teaching and learning policies and professional graduate requirements of a professional body or organisation. For example, the minimum requirements are necessary to engage in professional practice or receive professional accreditation. The faculty or departmental curriculum also includes the organisation of the programmes and courses, delivery and activities and the evaluation of student learning and the programme which is developed. At the course level, ‘curriculum’ refers to course organisation, learning outcomes, content, delivery and activities, assessment and evaluation. At the class level, ‘curriculum’ refers to class learning outcomes, content, activities and evaluation. Information literacy can be integrated into different levels of curriculum: university, faculty, course and class by negotiating with different groups of people. When the negotiation is done at the university or faculty level, it is a top-down integration approach. In this approach, information literacy can be considered to be integrated into the university curriculum or faculty curriculum by negotiating with the university teaching and learning committee or with the faculty curriculum committee. When the negotiation is done at the teaching group or individual course level, it is a bottom-up integration approach. With this approach, information literacy can be integrated into a course or a group of course curricula by negotiating with each teaching group or individual programme or course coordinators or course lecturers. When the negotiation is done at a course level, one needs to consider whether the course is compulsory or elective. The compulsory

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course content is normally out of the course lecturer’s control but they have more control over the elective courses. It might be easier to start integrating information literacy into an elective course which is normally flexible in terms of content and delivery method. The research by Wang (2010) showed that the course lecturers have full control of the course assignment, assessment and course activities for both compulsory and elective courses. When the information literacy educators work with the course lecturers there is potential for them to negotiate with lecturer(s) about course assignments, assessments or course activities. Information literacy assessment can also be negotiated as part of the course assessment. Recent research by Wang (2010) demonstrates that information literacy can be integrated into these different levels of curriculum in higher education. Information literacy integration into the curriculum is a process of collaboration and negotiation which can be done at different levels of the curriculum. The research concludes with a model of processes for the integration of information literacy across different levels of academic curriculum in higher education.

3.5. An Information Literacy Curriculum Integration Model The information literacy integration model (see Figure 3.1) represents the process, people and resources involved in the integration. The intended outcome of information literacy integration in the model is to enable students to be information literate. The two-headed arrows in the model indicate that the curriculum integration of information literacy is a continuous, interrelated and interconnected process. The model demonstrates that information literacy should be integrated into the intended curriculum, the offered curriculum as well as the students’ received curriculum. The model also reveals that a higher education curriculum can be redesigned and negotiated at different levels: the institutional level, programme level and at course or class levels.

3.6. Information Literacy Integrated into Different Levels of Curriculum Let us look at how information literacy can be integrated into different levels of curriculum in higher education. Information literacy can be integrated into the institutional curriculum by incorporating it into institutional teaching and learning policies, guidelines and graduate attributes. For example, information literacy has been integrated into institutional teaching

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Communicate and establish personal relationship Explore possibility of IL integration into identified courses Identify potential/core courses in each year

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Figure 3.1: An information literacy curricular integration model (Wang, 2010). and learning policies or guidelines at the University of Auckland (2011), the University of Wollongong (2005) and the University of Tasmania (2005). The what element of the model (see Figure 3.2) represents information literacy requirements in the intended curriculum. These include: the institutional graduate information literacy attributes/profiles, the graduate information literacy requirements as required by a professional accrediting organisation such as IPENZ (Institution of Professional Engineers NZ), the institutional or national information literacy policies such as institutionally endorsed information literacy standards, institutional information literacy policies or related national information literacy strategies. Information literacy can be integrated into faculty curriculum by integrating it into the faculty teaching and learning policies and guidelines or integrating it into faculty teaching programmes learning outcomes and assessments. The research participants indicated (Wang, 2010) that the faculty curriculum was reviewed regularly by the university or the professional organisation. The curriculum review committee members, employers, academic staff and students were involved in the review process. When reviewing the faculty curriculum, information literacy can be integrated into faculty curriculum by making it a required element.

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Institution/faculty Graduate Attributes

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Figure 3.2: The what element of the IL integration model.

For example, at the Engineering faculty of the University of Auckland, graduates are required to meet the IPENZ (Institution of Professional Engineers NZ) requirements, to obtain graduate capabilities stated in the University of Auckland graduate profiles, as well as to be empowered with the information literacy attributes stated in the ANZIIL (Australia and New Zealand Institute of Information Literacy) framework. This is the Engineering faculty’s intended curriculum. The information literacy related attributes extracted from this intended curriculum are shown in Table 3.1. Information literacy can be integrated into a course curriculum by integrating it into the course learning outcomes, course assignments and assessments, class activities, lab activities and online activities etc. Figure 3.3 shows that when integration information literacy into the course curriculum, information literacy needs to be contextualised into the course content such as: learning outcomes, assignment, course activities and assessment. Students need to be provided opportunities to interact with information on an ongoing bases, for example across curricula from week 1 to week 12 horizontally and from year 1 to year 4 vertically. When information literacy educators are working on integrating information literacy into a course curriculum, a holistic approach needs to be considered. First of all, they need to understand and analyse all the courses offered for a programme or for a degree and map against the intended curriculum to identify the potential courses which could have information literacy integrated. For example, in a four-year degree programme, all courses including core courses and electives from Year 1 to Year 4 can be analysed, and potential courses can be identified, see Figure 3.4. Figure 3.4 represents courses with potential for information literacy integration in a whole academic programme.

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Table 3.1: Information literacy related attributes chart extracted from the intended curriculum. Requirements by accrediting professional organisation, use IPENZ Engineers NZ (2009) as an example

Graduate attributes from University of Auckland (2003) graduate profile

ANZIIL information literacy Standards (2004)

2.2.2 Apply research and analytical skills to design activities.

II 5. An ability to recognise when information is needed and a capacity to locate, evaluate and use this information effectively.

1 and 2 and 3. The information literate person: recognises the need for information and determines the nature and extent of the information needed, accesses needed information effectively and efficiently, critically evaluates information and the information seeking process.

2.3.1 Integrated development of key contextual skills and knowledge that underpin professional practice, including: appropriate communication skills for engineering activities.

II 7. Ability to access, identify, organise and communicate knowledge effectively in both written and spoken English and/or Maori.

5. The information literate person: applies prior and new information to construct new concepts or create new understandings, communicates knowledge and new understandings effectively.

2.3.1 Integrated development of key contextual skills and knowledge that underpin professional practice, including: the capability to make ethical decisions and regulate one’s own professional conduct.

II 4. Intellectual integrity, respect for truth and for the ethics of research and scholarly activity.

6. The information literate person uses information with understanding and acknowledges cultural, ethical, economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use of information.

I 2. An understanding and appreciation of current issues and debates in the major fields of knowledge studied.

2.4 The information literate person keeps up to date with information sources, information technologies, information access tools and investigative methods.

II 1. A capacity for critical, conceptual and reflective thinking.

3. The information literate person critically evaluates information and the information seeking process.

2.1.4 Sufficient depth of engineering fundamentals to enable graduates to think and operate rationally and independently within and outside a chosen field of specialisation.

Li Wang Year 1 curricula

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Figure 3.3: Information literacy integrated into different levels of Curriculum (Wang, 2010).

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Elective 1

Sem 1

Core course 1

Core course 2

Core course 3

Elective 1

Elective 2

Core course 2

Core course 3

Elective 2

Figure 3.4: Mapping information literacy across an academic programme (Wang, 2010). Once the core or potential courses have been identified, information literacy educators can negotiate and work collaboratively with the course coordinators and lecturers of these potential courses who may be willing to integrate information literacy into their curriculum as shown in Figure 3.5. Please note, the names shown as course coordinators/lecturers in Figure 3.5 fictional. Negotiation and collaboration in information literacy integration course redesign can be started at stage 1 course level and gradually extended to other junior and then senior courses across a programme or degree curriculum. This approach enables information literacy to be integrated from a lower level to a higher level of curriculum. Table 3.2 shows how to integrate information literacy across programme or degree course curricula by mapping each course learning outcomes against the intended curriculum, based on Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956) to scaffold students to build on

Curriculum and Curriculum Integration of Information Literacy in HE Core courses in Semester 1 Year 1: Core course 2 (10 points) J. Smith / D. Davis Core course 1 (15) Aspects of H. Hall / J. Miller elementary Soil pressures on engineering retaining structures, surveying asbearing used capacity. for gatheringConsolidation site and settlement.

Core courses in Semester 1 Year 2: Core course 3 (15) I. Jackson/H. Holly PrinciplesCore of course 2 (15) Irvin / B. Grove physical R. and structuralFluid geology. Core course 1 (15) properties Elementary H. Roger/J. Shawn and definitions. stratigraphy. Hydrostatics and and Applied stability of Nature floatin classification of h l soils. Density, permeability, stress-strain …..

Core courses in Semester 1 Year 3:

Core courses in Semester 2 Year 1: Core course 3 (15) G. Aby / D. Zhang Core course 2 (15) Properties of steel, J. Funk / A. Black concrete, timber, Core course 1 (15) Pipe flow - fluid polymers and other J. Glyn / S. Grey materials… resistance, friction Structural forms and factor, simple pipe systems. Analysis of flow and minor determinate systems, losses, xxxxx engineering

Core courses in Semester 2 Year 2: Core course 3 (10) G. Flint / D. Core course 2 (10) Fisher J. Seeger / L.Sharp Stability analysis Core course 1 (15) Water quality, in geotechnical water and H. Upton / J.Tilden engineering; slope stability wastewater Introduction to characteristics structural design -physical, philosophy, loads, codes; design of ….

Core courses in Semester 2 Year 3:

Core course 3 (10) G. Troy / D. Todd

Core course 3 (10) G. Hale / D. Bush

Design of simple Core course 2 (15) structures in J. Taylor / A. Cook timber, concrete Highway alignment steel and masonry geometrics, aesthetics to resist gravity and location impact considerations. This element of the model represents IL guidelines

Planning for Core land course 2 (15) transport facilities J. Franklin / A.Zoe and urban development.Hydrologic Analysis Arrangementprocesses. of of atmospheric and street networks surface waters.

Core courses in Semester 1 Year 4:

Core courses in Semester 2 Year 4:

Core course 3 (10) G. Wise / D. Vogt

Core course 3 (10) G. Leo / D. King

Core course 2 (15) Research project on J. Wang / A. Bowen your own selected topic. The application of

Research projectCore course 2 (15) independent study J. Kirk / C. Blake

legal principles to problems in civil engineering and environmental engineering management.

Traffic signal timing analysis. Intersection analysis of performance…..

Figure 3.5: Analysing academic programme curricula.

41

Accrediting Professional Requirements

5(a) Respect for the ethics of research and scholarly activity.

2.1.2. A systematic coverage of the coherent body of knowledge related to a particular branch of II 4. Intellectual engineering and its integrity, respect underlying for truth and for principles and the ethics of concepts. research and (Use IPENZ scholarly Engineers NZ activity. (2009) as an (Take University example) of Auckland (2011) Graduate Profile as an example.)

University of Auckalnd Graduate Attributes

6. Use information with understanding and acknowledge cultural, ethical, economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use of information.

4.2. Organise information.

4.1. Record information and its sources. Related terms: Define, name, memorise, list, duplicate, label, order, arrange, repeat, recognise.

 Know how to use document delivery services.

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 2

Examples of Information Literacy Learning outcomes in Year 3

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 4

 Recognise other  Know of the core journals in a types of studied subject. information in addition to books  Recognise when and journals.  E-mail/ further  Be able to name download/ information is print/export needed and be able major reference information in to find it by books, academic  Be aware of the a variety of drawing journals and different types of conclusions from databases in their formats from literature all pertinent subject or field of various sources. (journal article, sources of study.  Understand reference book, information. that the World  View and save textbook) records in various  Manage wide web leads  Remember that information by formats. to some the internet does using a citation excellent  Recognise not contain management resources but important everything and system. evaluation elements within a that the quality skills are  Record all search record and of internet required. strategies, sources understand the resources varies.  Record all used, locations of significance of the sources. citation. pertinent

 Know about Knowledge library services, Remember e.g. Reference previously-learned and Lending materials by recalling services, how to facts, terms, basic get course concepts and material, where answers, e.g. recall to get help data or information.

1.2. Understand the purpose, scope and appropriateness of a variety of information sources.

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 1

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Processes

ANZIIL IL Standards (Bundy, 2004)

Table 3.2: Examples of mapping of intended curriculum, Bloom’s taxonomy and information literacy learning outcomes across a degree curriculum.

(use IPENZ Engineers NZ (2009) as an example)

 Use the Basic Application Search and Use previously Advanced learned knowledge in Search and a new situation to solve problems or to Login functions 2.1. Selects the most complete tasks, e.g. of the library appropriate methods apply what was catalogue. or tools for finding learned in the information.

1.4. Use diverse sources of information to inform decisions.

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 2

Examples of Information Literacy Learning outcomes in Year 3

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 4

 Know how to interpret references in course reading list or bibliographies.

 Use keyword and exact searching techniques (title, author, journal, subject).

citation information.

 Use previous  Demonstrate learned search competency in skills to construct using a range of and implement databases and effective search to other online tools. find a variety of  Apply database resources, e.g. search skills to any conference papers, new or unforeseen

 Acknowledge  Know when to give credit to cultural, ethical, and information and  Know how to ideas from others socioeconomic cite resources in issues related to and how to cite a preferred access to, and use resources using reference style different reference of information.  Create and and understand styles.  Understand that different manage concepts and types of bookmarks. issues relating to literature  Know what copyright, require plagiarism is and censorship, and different forms university intellectual of citation. policies on freedom. plagiarism.

2.2.2. Apply research and analytical skills to design activities.

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 1

3(b). Acapacity to locate, contextualise, critically evaluate, synthesise, and use information effectively.

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Processes

ANZIIL IL Standards (Bundy, 2004)

Accrediting Professional Requirements

University of Auckalnd Graduate Attributes

Table 3.2: (Continued )

(take University of Auckland Graduate Profile (2011) as an example.)

II 5. An ability to recognise when information is needed and a capacity to locate, evaluate and use this information effectively.

University of Auckalnd Graduate Attributes

Accrediting Professional Requirements

Table 3.2: (Continued ) Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Processes

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 1

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 2

2.2. Constructs and classroom into novel  Construct basic  Conduct advanced searches, e.g. title implements effective situations in a internet and author in search strategies. workplace. searching. thelibrary Related terms: catalogue,  Use ‘history’/ Apply, use, choose, database and ‘saved search’ solve, write, employ, internet. functions to show, demonstrate,  Understand access and illustrate, operate, modify what practice, schedule, previous information is sketch. searches. required to locate the item.  Select the  Understand a appropriate government call number and and statistical how to use it to publications locate books and that are journals in the relevant in the library. discipline.  Use the help  Check citations function for in library support and catalogues or advice. national bibliographic database to find needed items.

ANZIIL IL Standards (Bundy, 2004)

databases or search engines.

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 4

 Use the advanced  Understand how search functions, to do a literature e.g. field search, review.  Understand what set limits, and save searches. makes a good research proposal.  Use thesauri or subject headings  Know of other experts and where available. practitioners,  Limit or broaden professional search results organisations, effectively. official and business  Formulate organisations, appropriate community search strategies. resources.

patents and journal articles.

Examples of Information Literacy Learning outcomes in Year 3

3(a). A capacity for critical, conceptual, and reflective thinking.

2.3.1. integrated development of key contextual skills and knowledge that underpin professional practice, including: 3(b). A capacity appropriate to locate, communication contextualise, skills for critically engineering evaluate, activities. synthesise, and use information (use IPENZ Engineers NZ effectively.

5.2. Communicates knowledge and new understandings effectively.

 Summarise the  Recognise  Write a short  Compare Synthesis main ideas report or essay Compile information ‘knowledge interrelationships from by summarising together in a gained’ with prior between concepts information information different way by knowledge to and draw obtained. obtained. combining elements determine the conclusions based in a new pattern or value added. on information  Write an  Determine proposing alternative gathered.  Communicate effective report whether solutions, e.g. put  Apply and instruction information effectively, parts together to manual, and sought satisfies comprehending information/ form a whole, with present the original need. and writing knowledge to emphasis on creating effective oral effective reports create new a new meaning or  Choose and design understanding presentation. structure. appropriate documentation, and to solve a communication  Use a range of Related terms: create, making effective problem. media such as information develop, combine, oral presentations  PowerPoint Write the project technology compose, assemble, and giving and presentation or report by formats. construct, design, receiving clear oral report. synthesising develop, invent, plan, instructions.  Design information formulate, manage, documentation  Write an effective found from organise, propose, and give an oral research proposal, various sources, set up. presentation research report e.g. conferences, using found and present patents and information.

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 4

5.1. Compares and integrates new understandings with prior knowledge to determine the value added, contradictions, or other unique characteristics of the information.

Examples of Information Literacy Learning outcomes in Year 3

2.2.4. Integrate all aspects of the programme into developing elements, systems and processes to meet specified needs.

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 2

2(b). An ability to communicate effectively using written and spoken English and/or Ma¯ori, or where appropriate, other languages.

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 1

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Processes

ANZIIL IL Standards (Bundy, 2004)

Accrediting Professional Requirements

University of Auckalnd Graduate Attributes

Table 3.2: (Continued )

Accrediting Professional Requirements

(take University of Auckland Graduate Profile (2011) as an example.)

II 7. An ability to (2009) as an access, identify, example) organise and communicate knowledge effectively in both written and spoken English and/or Maori.

University of Auckalnd Graduate Attributes

Table 3.2: (Continued )

ANZIIL IL Standards (Bundy, 2004)

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Processes

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 1

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 2

Understand that information and concepts in any discipline are at least in part the result of social construction.

effective oral presentation and poster.

Examples of Information Literacy Learning Outcomes in Year 4

academic journals and by adding to or modifying existing personal  knowledge.

Examples of Information Literacy Learning outcomes in Year 3

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information literacy capability from junior to senior years. Based on learning outcomes for each course, the information literacy assignments, activities and assessments can be developed to integrate information literacy across curricula for an academic programme or degree.

3.7. Summary The curriculum in higher education can be viewed as an institutional, faculty, programme, course and class curriculum. Information literacy can be integrated into all of these different levels of curriculum. Curriculum integration of information literacy is a collaborative effort between information literacy educators and lecturers and it needs to be contextualised within the course learning outcomes, assignments, class activities, online activities and course assessments. It also needs to integrated across course curricula from a lower level to a higher level based on intended curriculum and learning theories, for example Bloom’s taxonomy. The purpose of curricular integration of information literacy is to enable students to be information literate and meet 21st challenges.

Acknowledgement Thank you my colleague Tricia Bingham for proofreading this chapter and also providing valuable suggestions.

References Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL). (2000). Information literacy competency standards for higher education. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/ala/ mgrps/divs/acrl/standards/standards.pdf Awais, S. M. (2011). What is curriculum? Annals, 17(2), 99. Retrieved from http:// annalskemu.org/journal/index.php/annals/article/viewFile/280/234 Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals: Handbook 1, Cognitive domain (Vol. 1). New York, NY: David McKey. Bundy, A. (2004). Australian and New Zealand information literacy framework: Principles, standards and practice. Adelaide: Australia and New Zealand Institute for IL. Callison, R., Budny, D., & Thomes, K. (2005). Library research project for first-year engineering students: Results from collaboration by teaching and library faculty. Reference Librarian (89/90), 93–106. doi:10.1300/J120v43n89_07.

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Cochrane, C. (2006). Embedding information literacy in an undergraduate management degree: Lecturers’ and students’ perspectives. Education for Information, 24(2/3), 97–123. Codd, J. (1981). The clinical interview: A holistic approach to the evaluation of learning. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 13(2), 145–150. Corrall, S. (2008). Information literacy strategy development in higher education: An exploratory study. International Journal of Information Management, 28(1), 26–37. doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2007.07.002. Dakshinamurti, G., & Horne, L. (2006, August). Integrating information literacy in a first-year university course: a case study from Canada. Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress: 72nd IFLA general conference and council, Seoul, Korea. Retrieved from http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla72/papers/ 125-Dakshinamurti_Horne-en.pdf Derakhshan, M., & Singh, D. (2011). Integration of information literacy into the curriculum: A meta-synthesis. Library Review, 60(3), 218–229. Dixon-Thomas, C. (2012). Information literacy and the 21st century academic librarian: A Delphi study. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Capella University, inneapolis, MN. Retrieved from ProQuest dissertations and thesis database. Eisner, E. W. (2002). The educational imagination: On the design and evaluation of school programs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Feldmann, L., & Feldmann, J. (2000, October). Developing information literacy skills in freshmen engineering technology students. Paper presented at the 30th Annual Frontiers in Education Conference, Kansas City, MO. doi:10.1109/ FIE.2000.896650. IPENZ Engineers NZ. (2009). Requirements for initial academic education for professional engineers. Retrieved from http://www.ipenz.org.nz/IPENZ/Forms/ pdfs/Initial_Academic_Policy_Prof_Eng.pdf Kelly, A. V. (2009). The curriculum: Theory and practice. London: Sage. McAdoo, M. L. (2008). A case study of faculty perceptions of information literacy and its integration into the curriculum. Unpublished Ed.D. thesis, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, PA. Retrieved from ProQuest dissertations and thesis database. Nerz, H., & Bullard, L. (2006, June). The literate engineer: Infusing information literacy skills throughout an engineering curriculum. Paper presented at the ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Chicago, IL. Pinar, W. F., Reymolds, W. M., Slattery, P., & Taubman, P. M. (1995). Understanding curriculum: An introduction Understanding curriculum: An introduction to the study of historical and contemporary curriculum discourses (pp. 3–65). New York, NY: Peter Lang. Porter, L. R. (2004). Developing an online curriculum technologies and techniques. Hershey, PA: Information Science. Preedy, M. (2001). Curriculum evaluation: Measuring what we value. In D. Middlewood & N. Burton (Eds.), Managing the curriculum (pp. 89–103). London, England: Paul Chapman. Ratcliff, J. L. (1997). What is a curriculum and what should it be? In J. G. Gaff, J. L. Ratcliff & Associates (Eds.), Handbook of the undergraduate curriculum: A

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comprehensive guide to purposes, structures, practices, and change (pp. 5–29). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. University of Auckland. (2003). Graduate profile. Retrieved from http://www. auckland.ac.nz/webdav/site/central/shared/about/teaching-and-learning/teachingand-learning-principles/documents/graduate-profile.pdf University of Auckland. (2011). Information literacy: Guidelines and principles. Retrieved from https://policies.auckland.ac.nz/policy-display-register/information-literacy-guidelines-and-principles.pdf University of Tasmania. (2005). Teaching and learning: Information literacy policy. Retrieved from http://www.utas.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/63324/infolit_ policy.pdf University of Wollongong. (2005). Information literacy integration policy. Retrieved from http://www.uow.edu.au/content/groups/public/@web/@gov/documents/ doc/uow026890.pdf Walton, G., & Hepworth, M. (2011). A longitudinal study of changes in learners’ cognitive states during and following an information literacy teaching intervention. Journal of Documentation, 67(3), 449–479. Wang, L. (2010). Integrating information literacy into higher education curricula- An information literacy curricular integration model. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane. Retrieved from http://eprints. qut.edu.au/41747/ Williams, B., Blowers, P., & Goldberg, J. (2004). Integrating information literacy skills into engineering courses to produce lifelong learners. Paper presented at the ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition: Staying in tune with engineering education, June, Salt Lake City, UT.

Chapter 4

The Construction of Information and Media Literacy in Education Policy: A Study of Singapore Tzu-Bin Lin and Li-Yi Wang

Abstract This chapter aims to explore representations of information literacy and media literacy in Singapore’s educational discourse as part of its 21st century skills framework. Currently, information literacy and media literacy co-exist in Singapore’s education discourse but there is no related work attempting to clarify these two concepts in Singapore or to bridge them to propose an overarching framework. In what ways are these two terminologies identical or different in the local education context? We try to answer this question through reviewing relevant official documents. We start with a review the literature on the global scale regarding information literacy and media literacy. Then, we focus on Singapore to explore how various governmental agencies defining information literacy and media literacy. This chapter, in other words, is a result from a pilot study to understand how information literacy and media literacy is defined and understood in Singapore’s education system. Keywords: Information literacy; media literacy; education policy; discourse analysis; teachers; ICT

Developing People’s Information Capabilities: Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts Library and Information Science, Volume 8, 51–64 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1876-0562/doi:10.1108/S1876-0562(2013)0000008008

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4.1. Introduction During the first decade of the 21st century, various countries are attempting to describe the required and essential skills for their citizens to survive in the new knowledge economy. Singapore is no exception and its first wave of preparation for the 21st century began in late 20th century. To equip citizens with these 21st century skills education is regarded as the natural conduit. The new education reform agenda, ‘Thinking Schools, Learning Nation’, was announced by the former Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong in 1997 (Ng, 2008). In the same year, the Ministry of Education (MOE) Singapore issued information literacy guidelines (Ministry of Education, Singapore, 1997a) and, then, the notion of 21st century skills and competences came out in 2010 (Mokhtar, 2011). Singapore’s education system has been identified as an excellent one with outstanding student outcomes. Therefore, it is chosen to represent education achievement in Asia by many researchers (Stewart, 2012) and organisations such as McKinsey (Mourshed, Chijioke, & Barber, 2010). How the MOE Singapore construct the discourse of information literacy and media literacy and how they are promoted in schools can be a meaningful case study to those who are interested in information and media literacy.

4.2. Information Literacy and Media Literacy: A Review of Literature We start with the discussion of information literacy first in this section and the move to media literacy. For each concept, we introduce it by answering three questions: What is the context of advocating this literacy concept and what is the current trend? How do researchers define the concept? What are the key purposes of this literacy practice?

4.2.1.

Information Literacy in a Global Context

The concept of information literacy, emerging with the advent of information technologies in the early 1970s, has grown, taken shape, and strengthened to become recognised as the critical foundation for learning in the 21st century (Bruce, 2004). As information is becoming increasingly digitised, organisations and countries are becoming more networked, and information and communication technologies are rapidly developing. This has resulted in a transformed information environment of increasing complexity. This escalating complexity has led to individuals being faced with diverse, abundant information choices in their studies, in the

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workplace, and in their personal lives (Association of College & Research Libraries, 2000). To respond to an ever-changing environment, individuals need more than just a knowledge base, they also need techniques for exploring it, connecting it to other knowledge bases, and making practical use of it (American Library Association (ALA), 1989). Information literacy is thus recognized as not only a necessary personal competency in order to navigate through the deluge of information that each individual faces (Mokhtar et al., 2009), but also a decisive factor in a nation’s economic success in the information age (Doyle, 1994). 4.2.1.1. Various definitions The initial use of the term ‘information literacy’ can be attributed to Zurkowski (1974), who described information literate individuals as those who are trained in the application of information resources to their work. Other descriptions of information literacy in the area of education have been derived from the one provided by the ALA, in which information literacy is defined as a set of abilities requiring individuals to ‘recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information’ (1989). In the ALA’s description, information literacy is a means of personal empowerment that allows individuals to verify or refute expert opinion and to become independent seekers of truth. It provides individuals with the ability to build their own arguments and prepares them for lifelong learning. It also deepens individuals’ capacities to understand and position themselves within larger communities of time and place (ALA, 1989). On the basis of the ALA’ definition, the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) further defined that ‘Information Literacy is a set of abilities requiring individuals to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and needed to find, retrieve, analyse, and use information’ (2000). Information literacy is also interpreted as ‘the ability to access, evaluate, and use information from a variety of sources’. An information literate person has acquired the skills to retrieve information from a variety of sources to meet his/her needs, and is able to make informed decisions and solve problems effectively (Doyle, 1992). 4.2.1.2. Purposes/Aims The complex and evolving information environment challenges educators to prepare students to cope with complex and unforeseeable changes. Educators recognise the needs for students to engage in the information environment as part of their learning processes and provide students with the attitudes, knowledge and skills they require as active members of an information society. It is through the ability of information literacy that students can learn to become dynamic and independent learners and thinkers (Mokhtar, Foo, & Majid, 2007). Hence, information literacy has been seen as an indispensible asset of

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students in the pursuit of lifelong learning, personal empowerment, and professional development. For educational systems pursuing excellent student outcomes, information literacy has become one of the essential educational goals to assess and evaluate a student’s aptitudes for critical thinking, decision making, and problem solving in this ever-changing competitive world (Li & Lester, 2009).

4.2.2.

Media Literacy in Global Context

The earliest notion of a preliminary concept on media literacy can be traced back to the discrimination approach proposed by F. R. Leavis and Denys Thompson in 1933 in the UK (Buckingham, 2003) because the growth of popular cultural forms made some people uneasy. They would like to promote high culture to fight against the increasing growth of popular culture in printing media at that time (Lin, 2010). Therefore, there is a strong cultural value flavour in its origin. In 1950s, media literacy was introduced to the United States with the acknowledgement of the increasing impact of mass media such as radio and television on people’s daily life and schooling (Schwarz, 2005). Every time there is a new media technology that causes collective anxiety in the society, the importance of media literacy is brought back to the educational agenda (see Lin, 2010). Take East Asia as an example, the growing interests in media literacy in various countries such as China (including Hong Kong), Taiwan, Japan and Korea since late 1990s (Cheung, 2009) comes from the an emerging new media technologies, the internet, that causes the cyber cafe phenomenon. In Taiwan, media literacy education is viewed as a practice with the potential to liberate and empower (Ministry of Education, Taiwan, 2002). As Cappello, Felini, and Hobbs (2011) point out, current media literacy education strikes a balance between discrimination/protection and empowerment approaches1 and the recognition of media as an aspect of social environment is a pushing force for the recent development of media literacy in the world. Three terms, media education, media literacy and media literacy education, are widely used. Some may consider that these terms are interchangeable but we would like to point out that a common understanding is that media (literacy) education refers to the process of learning about the media and media literacy is the outcome (Buckingham, 2003).

1. For a detail discussion on various approaches of media literacy education, please refer to Buckingham (2003), Leaning (2009) and Lin (2010).

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Media literacy is recommended as an essential part of modern citizenship in the Grunwald Declaration on media education (UNESCO, 1982). However, besides citizenship education (Burroughs, Brocato, Hopper, & Sanders, 2009; Lavender, 2003), media literacy in different countries may be associated with various educational practices such as civic engagement (Goodman, 2003), English/mother tongue education (Buckingham & Domaille, 2009), multicultural education (Corte´s, 2000) and media/film studies. 4.2.2.1. Various definitions Like other concepts in social science, there are various definitions of media literacy. Among them, the definitions from the Office of Communications (Ofcom) UK and the National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE) USA are popular ones. Ofcom (2004) defines media literacy as ‘the ability to access, understand and create communications in a variety of contexts’. The basic definition of media literacy by NAMLE (n.d.-b) is ‘seen to consist of a series of communication competencies, including the ability to access, analyse, evaluate and communicate information in a variety of forms, including print and nonprint messages’. Based on these two definitions, media literacy refers to a set of competencies that enable individuals to access, understand representing both analyse and evaluate, create communications in different media platforms. It is crucial to point out, as NAMLE defines, that media here covers print and non-print forms. The concept of media literacy is an expanded version of traditional literacy practice (Burn & Durran, 2007; Cappello et al., 2011). In the era of print media such as books, magazines and newspapers, a literate individual needs to know how to read as well as how to write. Therefore, mutual communication is possible. With the advent of new media and social media such as the internet, digital TV and smart phones, the media messages are no longer in written language. However, they are in ‘a combination of various languages’ such as visual images, audio and written language (Buckingham, 2003). Therefore, individuals need different competences to make mutual communication possible. Media literacy is the collective title for these competences. Media literacy has two major components: one is reading media messages and the other is writing or producing media content (Chen, Wu, & Wang, 2011). In the definitions above, across different medium, the reading media messages is related to access, understand/analyse and evaluate media information and the producing is about creating and communicating information. 4.2.2.2. Purposes/Aims NAMLE sums up the purposes of media literacy education in one sentence as ‘the purpose of media literacy education is to help individuals of all ages develop the habits of inquiry and skills of

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expression that they need to be critical thinkers, effective communicators and active citizens in today’s world’ (NAMLE, n.d.-a). Livingstone, Van Couvering, and Thumim (2004, pp. 6–7) offers a more detail set of purposes of media literacy:  Democracy, participation and active citizenship. In a democratic society, a media-literate individual is more able to gain an informed opinion on matters of the day, and to be able to express their opinion individually and collectively in public, civic and political domains. A media-literate society would thus support a sophisticated, critical and inclusive public sphere.  Knowledge economy, competitiveness and choice. In a market economy increasingly based on information, often in a complex and mediated form, a media-literate individual is likely to have more to offer and so achieve at a higher level in the workplace, and a media-literate society would be innovative and competitive, sustaining a rich array of choices for the consumer.  Lifelong learning, cultural expression and personal fulfilment. Since our heavily mediated symbolic environment informs and frames the choices, values and knowledge that give significance to everyday life, media literacy contributes to the critical and expressive skills that support a full and meaningful life, and to an informed, creative and ethical society. As we indicated above, media literacy has a close link to citizenship education and is considered as a key competence of contemporary citizen for a better engagement in the democratic process (Burroughs et al., 2009; Goodman, 2003; Hobbs, 1998). Moreover, Livingstone et al. point out another key aim of media literacy that is to be creative and innovative and link them to the need of knowledge economy in contemporary society. Living in a knowledge-based society, lifelong learning is crucial to all members within the society.

4.3. Information Literacy and Media Literacy in Singapore: An Analysis of Policy Discourse 4.3.1.

Information Literacy in Singapore

The MOE, Singapore believes that by the next century, students will live in a world characterized by change. A new set of basic learning skills will be needed to equip students to live in this changing world. Education must encourage creativity, independent learning and self-responsibilities for learning. An important facet of this goal is helping pupils to learn how to

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find the information needed to make sound decisions and to solve problems (MOE, 1997a). This shift in paradigm has been the driving force behind Singapore’s education, aiming to nurture students into active learners with critical thinking skills while developing a creative and critical thinking culture (Tan & Theng, 2006). To achieve this goal, the School Libraries Unit (SLU) of the Curriculum Planning and Development Division (CPDD) of the MOE published the information literacy guidelines (MOE, 1997a) and the Information Literacy Supplementary Materials (1997b) as the framework on teaching ‘learning how to learn and clear thinking’. These two documents provide practical instructions and specific directions for information literacy education in Singapore. The information literacy guidelines cover recommendations on how the programme could be implemented within the school curriculum, rubrics for standards on performance information literacy, sample lesson plans, and pupil performance standards for information literacy skills under specific themes for specific levels of students. The Information Literacy Supplementary Materials contains six sample lesson plans for different subjects specifically for the use of secondary school students, together with some recommended activities of how information literacy skills can be integrated into the subjects. Another relevant publication on information literacy by the MOE is the Extensive Reading and Information Literacy (ERIL) Programme, of which the focus is on the incorporation of information literacy skills in the English language curriculum in secondary school with the emphasis on reading (MOE, 1997c). Using the guidelines, the MOE proposed the Information Literacy Programme. The programme interprets information literacy as a conception comprising two major domains: Skills Domain and Attitudes Domain. Under each domain there are a number of competency areas. In each area the MOE lists certain skills and knowledge to be obtained by students at the primary, secondary and pre-university levels. The guidelines also outline 11 expected learner outcomes:  Able to recognise the need for information and define the information needed for problem solving and decision making;  Able to identify potential resources of conventional and electronic formats from the school library and from other sources outside the library;  Apply different search strategies to retrieve information using conventional aids and current technologies;  Review, select, interpret and evaluate relevant information critically and make meaning of this information;  Organize and present information effectively and creatively;  Appraise the process and product of an information research;

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 Read for information and pleasure, seeing it as enriching their learning experience;  Demonstrate initiative information problem solving and openness to learning;  Continually improve and update their knowledge;  Collaborate with others for information problem solving and  Practise responsible and ethical behaviour. The increasingly greater attention paid to information literacy education spawned the development of models and standards for the integration of information literacy skills into school curricula, by which these skills can be imparted to students effectively (Bruce, 2004; Mokhtar & Majid, 2006). Among the established models and standards, five have been proven to be particularly helpful to educators across the world to develop localised models and standards of information literacy:    

Big six information skills (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1990) Attributes of an information literate person (Doyle, 1992) Seven faces of information literacy (Bruce, 1997) The information literacy standards for student learning (ALA & AECT, 1998)  The ALA information literacy competency standards for higher education (ACRL, 2000)

By comparing five mainstream models and standards and the MOE Singapore’s information literacy guidelines shows that the MOE Singapore’s understanding about and interpretation of the main areas of information literacy competencies are, to a certain extent, highly similar but not identical to those described in the international models and standards (Table 1). In the Skills Domain, the MOE Singapore’ guidelines do not pay attention to the process of integrating the selected new information into the established knowledge base before the needed information is used, organised, and synthesised to solve a specific problem. In the Attitudes Domain, the MOE Singapore’s description about students’ responsibilities as information users highlights such as plagiarism and abuse of technologies. Instead, the ethical issue is dealt with beyond the passive restriction to a further and presented in the international models and standards.

4.3.2.

Media Literacy in Singapore

Unlike information literacy which has been in the education policy since 1997, media literacy is currently not supported by any official education

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Table 4.1: The main areas of information literacy competencies in The Five Models and Standards and Singapore’s Information Literacy Guidelines.

Skills-related domain

The five models and standards

Singapore’s information literacy guidelines

1. Identify potential

1. Define the task (including

2. 3.

information Create/Develop information-seeking strategies Locate and access information Evaluate information

4. 5. Integrate selected 6.

information into existing knowledge Use/Synthesise/Organise information to accomplish a task or purpose Reflect process and outcome

2. 3. 4.

5.

7. 8. Extend/Exploit the newly

recognising the needed information and planning search strategy) Locate and retrieve information Interpret and evaluate information Organise and present information (including developing the end product) Evaluate the information research process and product

formed knowledge Attitudes-related domain

1. Appreciate creative 2. 3.

expression of information Strive for excellence in information seeking and knowledge generation Understand the economic, legal and social issues surrounding the use of information

1. Appreciation of the value of reading

2. Activeness in problem 3. 4. 5.

solving and openness to learning Continual improvement of information problemsolving skills Collaboration and team work Sense of responsibilities as information users

policy in Singapore. Media literacy appears as one of the initiatives to make Singapore ‘a global media city’ by the Media Development Authority (MDA) of Singapore (2003). MDA of Singapore (n.d.) views media literacy as ‘a life skill that is essential for work, learning and play’. Although media literacy is not documented in education policies, it is represented in a document mapping out the 21st century teacher education in Singapore as a component of the 21st century skill sets and key development areas for students. Given its importance to students, it becomes a main consideration in the model of the 21st century teachers’ training proposed by the National

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Institute of Education (2009). NIE is the only teaching preparation higher education institute working closely with the MOE and schools in Singapore. Thus, its teacher training model has been a collaborative effort between the MOE Singapore, NIE and schools. Therefore, it can be argued that the importance of media literacy is recognised by the education system in Singapore. Media literacy is defined in Singapore by MDA (n.d.) and NIE (2009, p. 31) as follows: MDA: Media literacy refers to the ability to critically assess information that is received daily via different media platforms. When a person is media literate, he would be able to read, analyse and interpret messages, regardless of whether he is using media to gain information, for entertainment or for educational purposes. NIE: Teachers should be adept in using multiple media, such as text, video, audio and animation to facilitate effective teaching and learning. Advances in digital technologies have integrated multiple media using graphical and interactive interfaces. This necessitates new literacies to decipher, interpret and communicate using visual imagery such as icons, as well as new man–machine interactive modes such as the technology used in touch-screen handphones and interactive whiteboards. MDA’s definition on media literacy focusing solely on reading, analysing and interpreting media messages only represents the ‘reading’ part of media literacy. Following MDA’s definition, a media-literate person is an individual who can critically read, analyse and interpret media message for various purposes. This definition, compared to those by NAMLE and Ofcom, makes a two-way communication process with reading and writing in the field of media literacy to one-way which is on reading only. In the other definition, a key feature of media literacy is the multimodality of contemporary media, i.e. the various modes in modern communication. Text, video, audio and animation are mentioned although it is necessary to point out that animation is not in the same conceptual category as the rest three. Compared to MDA’s definition, this one includes more details in terms of modality. Another feature is also captured: the ‘interactive interfaces’. One of the characteristics of new media is interactivity (Lister, Dovey, Giddings, Grant, & Kelly, 2003). Otherwise, one of the major functions of media, ‘to communicate’, is mentioned in NIE’s definition. It can be viewed as moving a step further than MDA’s attempt to define media literacy. In order to communicate, an individual needs to be able to read and produce. After reviewing two definitions on media literacy from MDA and

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NIE, it can be argued that these definitions can not represent what media literacy is because an essential feature of media literacy is neglected. Both definitions focus more on the reading part of media literacy but not on producing side. In other words, the two-way communication is reduced to one-way receiving process. However, producing information as one of the two key elements in media literacy should receive, at least, the same attention as reading media messages.

4.4. Concluding Remarks From our discussion above, it can be seen that these two fields, that is information literacy and media literacy, share some commonalities between them although there are still differences. In recent years, there have been several publications attempting to merge these two traditions of research together (Leaning, 2009; Livingstone, Couvering, & Thumin, 2008; Pope & Walton, 2009). In Singapore, there is not a clear direction and definition on these two literacy practices. Therefore, we consider that it is a good opportunity for Singapore to move towards a new direction: that is to merge media and information literacy together as it is suggested by UNESCO (Grizzle & Wilson, 2011). Singapore is in a better position to develop this integrated approach to media and information literacy because there has not been a debate or attempt to distinguish these two fields. Unlike some other countries such as United Kingdom and United States, media literacy and information literacy have two groups of advocates and are viewed as different practices. Meanwhile, various governmental agencies including MOE take these two literacies as essential competences for 21st citizens. That offers a strong rationale for the future development of media and information literacy in Singapore.

References ALA & AECT. (1998). Information power: Guidelines for school library media programs. Chicago, IL: ALA & AECT. American Library Association (ALA). (1989). Presidential committee on information literacy: Final report. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/ publications/whitepapers/presidential Association of College & Research Libraries.. (2000). Information literacy competence standards for higher education. Chicago, IL: Association of College & Research Libraries.

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Bruce, C. S. (1997). Seven faces of information literacy. Adelaide: AULSIB Press. Bruce, C. S. (2004). Information literacy as a catalyst for educational change. A background paper. In P. A. Danaher (Ed.), Lifelong learning: Whose responsibility and what is your contribution? The 3rd international lifelong learning conference, 13–16 June, Yeppoon, Queensland (pp. 8–19). Buckingham, D. (2003). Media education: Literacy, learning and contemporary culture. Cambridge: Polity. Buckingham, D., & Domaille, K. (2009). Making media education happen: A global view. In C.-K. Cheung (Ed.), Media education in Asia (pp. 19–30). Dordrecht: Springer. Burn, A., & Durran, J. (2007). Media literacy in schools: Practice, production and progression. London: Paul Champman Publishing Ltd. Burroughs, S., Brocato, K., Hopper, P. F., & Sanders, A. (2009). Media literacy: A central component of democratic citizenship. The Educational Forum, 73(2), 154–167. Cappello, G., Felini, D., & Hobbs, R. (2011). Reflections on global developments in media literacy education: Bridging theory and practice. Journal of Media Literacy Education, 3(2), 66–73. Chen, V. D.-T., Wu, J., & Wang, Y.-m. (2011). Unpacking new media literacy. Journal of systemics, cybernetics and informatics, 9(2), 84–88. Cheung, C.-K. (2009). Introduction. In C.-K. Cheung (Ed.), Media education in Asia (pp. 1–12). Dordrecht: Springer. Corte´s, C. E. (2000). The children are watching: How media teach about diversity. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Doyle, C. (1992). Outcome measures for information literacy within the national education goal of 1990: Final report to national forum on information literacy. Springfield, VA: ERIC Document Reproduction services. Doyle, C. (1994). Information literacy in an information society. Eric Digests. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ ERICServlet?accno=ED372763 Eisenberg, M. B., & Berkowitz, R. E. (1990). Information problem solving: The big six approach to library and information skills instruction. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Goodman, S. (2003). Teaching youth media: A critical guide to literacy, video production, and social change. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Grizzle, A., & Wilson, C. (Eds.). (2011). Media and information literacy: Curriculum for teachers. Paris: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Hobbs, R. (1998). Building citizenship skills through media literacy education. In M. Salvador & P. Sias (Eds.), The public voice in a democracy at risk (pp. 57–76). Westport, CT: Praeger Press. Lavender, T. (2003). Curriculum and teacher training in Scotland. In T. Lavender & B. Tufte (Eds.), Global trends in media education: Policies and practices (pp. 11–36). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, Inc. Leaning, M. (2009). Theories and models of media literacy. In M. Leaning (Ed.), Issues in information and media literacy: Criticism, history and policy (pp. 1–18). Santa Rosa, CA: Informing Science Press.

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Li, L. L., & Lester, L. (2009). Rethinking information literacy instructions in the digital age. The International Journal of Learning, 16(11), 569–577. Lin, T. (2010). Conceptualising media literacy: Discourses of media education. Media Education Research Journal, 1(1), 29–42. Lister, M., Dovey, J., Giddings, S., Grant, I., & Kelly, K. (2003). New media: A critical introduction. London: Routledge. Livingstone, S., Couvering, E. V., & Thumin, N. (2008). Converging traditions of research on media and information literacies: Disciplinary, critical, and methodological issues. In J. Coiro, M. Knobel, C. Lankshear & D. J. Leu (Eds.), Handbook of research on new literacies (pp. 103–132). New York, NY: Routledge. Livingstone, S., Van Couvering, E., & Thumim, N. (2004). Adult media literacy – A review of the research literature on behalf of Ofcom (pp. 1–86): Office of Communications, UK. Media Development Authority of Singapore. (2003). Media 21: Transforming Singapore into a global media city. Singapore: Media development Authority of Singapore. Media Development Authority of Singapore. (n.d.). Media literacy. Retrieved from http://www.mda.gov.sg/Public/PublicEducation/Pages/MediaLiteracy.aspx. Accessed on February 12, 2011. Ministry of Education, Singapore. (1997a). Information literacy guidelines. Languages and Library Branch, Curriculum Planning and Development Division. Singapore: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education, Singapore. (1997b). Information literacy supplementary materials. Languages and Library Branch, Curriculum Planning and Development Division. Singapore: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education, Singapore. (1997c). The extensive reading and information literacy (ERIL) programme. Languages and Library Branch, Curriculum Planning and Development Division. Singapore: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education, Taiwan. (2002). The white paper on media literacy education. Ministry of Education, Taiwan. Mokhtar, I. (2011). Information, inquiry-based and 21st century skills: Its development in the Singapore school curricula. In W. Choy & C. Tan (Eds.), Education reform in Singapore: Critical perspectives (pp. 80–94). Singapore: Pearson. Mokhtar, I. A., Foo, S., & Majid, S. (2007). Bridging between information literacy and information technology in Singapore schools: An exploratory study. Education, Knowledge & Economy, 1(2), 185–197. Mokhtar, I. A., Foo, S., Majid, S., Theng, Y. L., Luyt, B., & Chang, Y. K. (2009). Proposing a 6 + 3 model for developing information literacy standards for schools: A case for Singapore. Education for Information, 27, 81–101. Mokhtar, I. A., & Majid, S. (2006). An exploratory study of the collaborative relationship between teachers and school librarians in Singapore primary and secondary schools. Library and Information Science Research, 28(2), 265–280. Mourshed, M., Chijioke, C., & Barber, M. (2010). How the world’s most improved school systems keep getting better. Retrieved from http://www.learningteacher.eu/ sites/learningteacher.eu/files/how-the-worlds-most-improved-school-systems-keepgetting-better_download-version_final.pdf

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NAMLE. (n.d.-a). Core principles of media literacy education. Retrieved from http:// namle.net/publications/core-principles/. Accessed on May 21, 2012. NAMLE. (n.d.-b). Media literacy defined. Retrieved from http://namle.net/ publications/media-literacy-definitions/. Accessed on May 15, 2012. National Institute of Education. (2009). TE21: A teacher education model for the 21st century: A report by the national institute of education, Singapore. Singapore: The National Institute of Education. Ng, P. T. (2008). Thinking schools, learning nation. In J. Tan & P. T. Ng (Eds.), Thinking schools, learning nation: Conntemporary issues and challenges (pp. 1–6). Singapore: Pearson. Ofcom. (2004). Ofcom’s strategy and priorities for the promotion of media literacy. Office of Communications. Retrieved from www.ofcom.org.uk. Pope, A., & Walton, G. (2009). Information and media literacies: Sharpening our vision in the twenty first century. In M. Leaning (Ed.), Issues in information and media literacy: Education, practice and pedagogy (pp. 1–29). Santa Rosa, CA: Informing Science Press. Schwarz, G. (2005). Overview: What is media literacy, who cares, and why? In G. Schwarz & P. Brown (Eds.), Media literacy: Transforming curriculum and teaching (pp. 5–17). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Stewart, V. (2012). A world-class education: Learning from international models of excellence and innovation. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Tan, H. M., Theng, Y. L. (2006). Building information literacy through project work: A case study in Singapore. In C. Khoo, D. Singh and A. S. Chaudhry (Eds.), Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific conference on library & information education & practice (pp. 198–206), April 3–6, School of Community & Information, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. UNESCO. (1982). Grunwald declaration on media education. Grunwald, Germany: UNESCO. Retrieved from www.unesco.org/education/pdf/MEDIA_E.PDF Zurkowski, P. G. (1974). The information service environment: Relationships and priorities. Washington DC: National Commission on Libraries and Information Science.

SECTION II DELIVERING INFORMATION LITERACY EDUCATION

Chapter 5

Information Literacy in Higher Education: Research Students’ Development in Information Search Expertise Samuel Kai-Wah Chu, Sandhya Rajagopal and Celina Wing-Yi Lee

Abstract A comparative analysis of the results of two longitudinal studies conducted a decade apart, among research post-graduate students, with the purpose of understanding the progress in their information literacy (IL) skills, forms the content of this report. The analysis is based on the application of the Research and Information Search Expertise (RISE) model, which traces students’ progression across four stages of expertise. Such progression was measured across two dimensions of knowledge: that of information sources/databases and that of information search skills. Both studies adopted basic interpretive qualitative methods involving direct observation, interviews, think-aloud protocols, and survey questionnaires, during each of the five interventions, which were spread over a one to one-and-half year period. Scaffolding training was provided at each meeting and data were collected to assess the influence of such training on development of search expertise. A comparison of the findings reveals that students in both studies advance in their IL skills largely in a similar manner. Scaffolding support was found to help both

Developing People’s Information Capabilities: Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts Library and Information Science, Volume 8, 67–79 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1876-0562/doi:10.1108/S1876-0562(2013)0000008009

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Samuel Kai-Wah Chu et al. dimensions of knowledge and that lack of one or the other type of knowledge could hinder their ability to find relevant sources for their research. The studies make evident the need for training programs for higher education students, to improve both their knowledge of information sources and their search techniques, tailor-made to closely correlate to their specific information needs. The studies provide insights into student behaviors in the development of IL skills, and the RISE model offers a framework for application to other similar research. Keywords: Information search skills; information literacy; novice-expert comparison; developmental studies; componential model of development; library training

5.1. Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to report the findings of two longitudinal studies, performed a decade apart, which analyzed the development of information literacy (IL) skills among post-graduate students, specifically to understand how they advance in (1) their knowledge of sources/databases and (2) their knowledge of information search skills. Information literacy in this context is defined as the ‘‘ability to find, evaluate and use information in order to complete a task’’ (Parkes & Walton, 2010, p. 34). The Research and Information Search Expertise (RISE) model, which relates development in research skills and corresponding development in information search skills, was designed during the course of the first study and subsequently applied to the second. Comparing the findings in the two studies helps in understanding the changes in approach to search expertise development, which in turn can be used to devise a mechanism for students to enhance their IL. With exponential growth in availability of information, it has become increasingly important for information seekers in research-oriented higher education programs, which demand rigorous investigations and original academic contributions, to be able to effectively identify and access pertinent material from a wide range of knowledge repositories. However, studies reveal that they are unable to perform effective information searches (Chu & Law, 2008; Fleming-May & Yuro, 2009; Green & Macauley, 2007). This makes post-graduate students ideal subjects in research that explores information search behavior. The key subjects of the investigations in both studies were a mix of post-graduate research students from the faculty of education and the

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department of engineering, and on both occasions, their information search capabilities were observed over a one to one-and-half year period with the objective of identifying critical changes that would indicate qualitative progress in their search expertise.

5.2. Literature Review According to Shen (2007) two of the main difficulties online information seekers face are compiling and focusing widely scattered information on a specific research need and in identifying and retrieving the most relevant information sources. Expert search skills are required to overcome such difficulties. Larkin, McDermott, Simon, and Simon (1980) consider expertise research as one possible method of helping novices becoming experts. They said, ‘‘Our growing understanding of an expert’s knowledge and the kinds of processes an expert uses when solving problems enables us to begin to explore the learning processes needed to acquire suitable knowledge and problem-solving processes’’ (p. 1342). General expertise studies can be classified into two categories: (i) noviceexpert comparison and (ii) developmental studies. Brand-Gruwel, Wopereis, and Vermetten (2005) identified specific traits in information experts, such as their attention to information problem-solving and assessing the quality of information, which distinguished them from novices in the search process. The exclusive manner in which expert searchers derive their search terms, for example, by better use of synonyms was revealed by Hsieh-Yee (1993). Literature is replete with studies comparing expertise of novices and experts (Chiu, Chu, Ting, & Yau, 2011; Ho¨lscher & Strube, 2000; Sihvonen & Vakkari, 2004; Tabatabai & Shore, 2005). While comparative studies differentiate the expert from the novice, it reveals little about the process of transformation of a novice to an expert. To understand this transformation, a developmental approach to the study of expertise is indispensable (Campbell & Di Bello, 1996). Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1980), in a developmental analysis of chess players, airline pilots, etc., identified five stages to describe behavioral changes as novices became experts. In their 1986 book, they named these as novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient and expert. Their model, however, is unable to explain why the changes occur and expected similar development paths across expertise areas. Campbell and others propose instead that developmental sequences are domain specific (Campbell & Bickhard, 1992; Campbell, Brown, & DiBello, 1992; Campbell & DiBello, 1996). In their study, they distinguished seven levels of development in learning and concluded that a longitudinal, developmental study has practical application for skill

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development. These and other developmental studies (Halttunen, 2003; Halttunen & Ja¨rvelin, 2005; Vakkari, Pennanen, & Serola, 2003; Yuan, 1997) show that there is progress of knowledge in learners, in all domains, which enables them to advance through ascending levels of expertise.

5.3. Methodology The two longitudinal studies were conducted, at The University of Hong Kong (HKU), in the years 2000 and 2010, consisting of 12 and 8 research post-graduate students, respectively. Data in both studies were collected through periodic survey questionnaires, notes during direct observations, recordings of think-aloud protocols, and transcriptions of participant interviews. Both studies ran over a period of 12–18 months and consisted of five interventions or meetings with a follow-up interview after the fifth meeting. During the interviews, students were encouraged to identify changes in their search methods and discuss factors that had led to improvements. This approach can hence be regarded as a basic interpretive qualitative study, described by Merriam (2002) as a type of study in which ‘‘you seek to discover and understand phenomenon, a process, the perspectives, and worldviews of the people involved or a combination of these. Data are collected through interviews, observations, or document analysis. These data are inductively analyzed to identify the recurring patterns or common themes that cut across the data’’ (pp. 6, 7). In each study, during five research meetings that were designed similarly, the students searched the search engines/databases twice on their own, followed by a 15–20 minute training session with an expert searcher. This model of intermittent training is closely modeled on Vygotsky’s (1978) idea of scaffolding in the ‘‘zone of proximal development,’’ which is the difference between what students can do with assistance and what they can accomplish on their own. Scaffolding refers to the assistance offered to students that enables them to successfully complete a task (Halttunen & Ja¨rvelin, 2005). During the first study, data gathered from the surveys, taped data from think-aloud sessions transcribed into English, written data from direct observations, and interview data were coded into Excel sheets according to a coding guide designed especially for the study. Assessments of advancement in search expertise were made using a grounded theory approach to deduce the various stages of information expertise from collected data. Grounded theory is defined by Creswell (2009) as ‘‘a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action or interaction grounded in the views of the participants’’ (p. 13). This allowed

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the identification of students at specific stages in the model, commensurate with their development in IL.

5.4. Findings and Discussion 5.4.1.

Research Goals

The primary goals of both longitudinal studies discussed in this chapter were to understand the changes in information needs of students due to (i) development in knowledge of sources/databases and (ii) the development of information search skills. Findings in both the studies indicate that the participants were initially novices in both areas of investigation, but their search skills progressed along with improved subject knowledge during the one-year course of the study. 5.4.1.1. Stages in information needs Students in the initial stage of their research sought general information sources on a subject area but were more specific in their search on gaining a better understanding of their research topic. As education student BW in the fourth meeting of the first study said: There are two steps in my information search. First, I wanted all kinds of materials on scientific literacy because I did not know what to focus on for my research. Now, I am at my second step. I know what I will research and so I only want very specific information sources. (Chu & Law, 2007a, p. 33)

Student CA in the second study, at the first meeting, posed his understanding of the search process as a question: ‘‘So the search process is that I start with broad topic and then keep narrowing down my search, is that right?’’ Students also advanced further by searching for more recent material on their research topic. At the interview after the fifth meeting, student CD in the first study regarded appreciating the significance of understanding and finding the latest information sources on her research area, as the biggest change in her information search during the entire research period (Chu, 2005). 5.4.1.2. A componential model of development in information search expertise During the first study, a componential model for RISE was constructed (see Figure 5.1). Changes in students’ information needs — from generic to specific to current — is represented within the triangle in the center of the figure. Simultaneously, their development through the four

General information on a subject area

Specific information on a topic

Newest Information In the Research areas

Research stage: changes of information needs due to the growth in students’ subject knowledge

- Used mainly one type of source/database (mostly library catalogs or web search engines)

- Use two or more types of databases

- Start to understand that there are different databases available for different purposes

- Familiar with the core types of sources/databases in the area of their research

- Familiar with many databases in the core type

- Familiar with peripheral sources/databases

Expertise on sources/databases: knowledge of and ability to distinguish among sources/databases

- Don’t understand how keyword and subject search operate though they are ‘familiar’ with these methods

- Start to use basic search operators to form search statements for keyword search (mainly the Boolean operators AND and OR)

- Familiar with the important operators for keyword search (mainly the Boolean operators AND and OR and the truncation operator)

- Familiar with a full range of keyword search operators and search features

Expertise on search skills: ability to construct appropriate search statements

Figure 5.1: Students’ growth and development in research expertise and in information expertise (Chu & Law, 2008, p. 170).

- Mostly unproductive outcomes

- Stage of confusion (confused about sources/databases and search skills)

Novice:

- Get productive search results occasionally

- Stage of understanding (begin to understand the different kinds of databases and searching skills)

Advanced Beginner:

- Get productive search outcomes on a consistent basis

- Students have become selfsufficient and are confident in information search

Competent:

Proficient: - Students are becoming efficient and effective in finding what they need

Stages of information search expertise

72 Samuel Kai-Wah Chu et al.

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stages in searching expertise — Novice to Advanced Beginner to Competent to Proficient — is represented in the column on the left of the triangle.

5.4.2.

First Stage: Novice Level of Information Search Expertise

At the start of both studies, students were either overwhelmed by the number of databases or failed to realize there were so many. Many were frustrated at their inability to identify and use search features and symbols specific to each database. These observations can be equated to Kuhlthau’s (2004) ‘‘stage of confusion,’’ in her information search process model, used to describe a student’s initial stage in the information search process. For example, in the first study, student YH at the second meeting remarked: When I first used the library system, it was very confusing to me. There were so many sources and databases available. Many seemed to be irrelevant to me. I didn’t know what contained what. (Chu & Law, 2008, p. 169)

Similar behaviors were noted in the second study. Student WM said during the first meeting: Just frustrated that every time I searched, I cannot even get one or two [results] y different databases have different kinds of tips, every time you go into the database you have to look into the tips to see if you [need to] use bracket, double quote, or what sort of subject term, or title search, or keywords.

In both studies, students’ familiarity with types of search were limited to primarily keyword and subject searches. In the first study many of them made mistakes even with these two basic search methods. For example, instead of using controlled vocabulary exclusive to the library catalog, students used phrases they considered to be indicative of subject headings when they performed subject searches, implying a lack of knowledge of the purpose of controlled vocabulary (Chu & Law, 2008).

5.4.3.

Second Stage: Advanced Beginner Level of Information Search Expertise

At this stage, which can be termed the ‘‘stage of understanding’’ (Kuhlthau, 2004), students began to gain more knowledge of available sources/ databases and acquired better search skills. In the first study, student CD at the third meeting said: I have learned how to use Dialog@Carl and ERIC to find journal articles, and the Dissertation Abstracts Online Database to locate theses. In the past,

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In the second study, when asked about important learning regarding information sources or search techniques at the end of the second meeting, CC responded with names of two databases — WorldCat and NDLTD — and explained her learning about searching on Google: Actually I have not used the advanced search of Google in the past. That was something new that I can actually search within a domain.

They also had a better understanding of the function and application of search operators and the impact this would have on kind of information they retrieved. Student HL from the first study said: In the beginning, I did not know how to use search operators like truncation, proximity, wildcards, and parentheses. y After learning the importance of these features, I used them in my search. For example, I would add/omit certain search terms and connect the terms with operators. (Chu & Law, 2007b, p. 304)

Student KR from the second study noted at the first meeting that ‘‘although I knew the Boolean Operator ‘OR’ before, I didn’t use it well.’’ According to him his learning about search operators included understanding the ‘‘OR’’ Boolean operator and the ‘‘Times cited’’ and ‘‘Related records’’ search techniques. During the first study, two distinct aspects of learning were noticeable at the second stage: (1) the distinction between keyword and subject search and (2) the basics of constructing a statement for a keyword search. An observed feature common to both studies was, in the novice stage, students used simple English words to construct search phrases and in this second stage, they constructed statements that were more sophisticated, involving linking search terms with the logical use of search operators. This improved the quality of retrievals. 5.4.4.

Third Stage: Competent Level of Information Search Expertise

At this stage, students had acquired good knowledge of the core groups of sources/databases, and knew for which purposes they should use them. In the first study student CD, at the fifth meeting, said: Because of my familiarity with many more databases than before, I now know how to access much more information than in the past. This has helped me to be more comprehensive in my information search. So it has provided much contribution to my research. (Chu & Law, 2005, p. 635)

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In the second study, student CA during the second meeting, while in this stage of learning, understood that ‘‘ProQuest is mainly for Theses y’’ and student CH during meeting three learned how to ‘‘y find more articles in ISI Web of Knowledge y’’ and hence ‘‘y use it in future for my own research.’’ Having gained an in-depth understanding of core search operators for keyword searches, students employed search operators, such as parenthesis and proximity, synonyms, and alternative terms, apart from the basic AND, OR, and truncation operators as explained by student BW during meeting five, in the first study: Commands like truncations and proximity operators are very useful. For example, a search on qualitative interview will miss a lot of records, but adding a proximity operator between the two words will find a lot more. (Chu & Law, 2008, p. 172)

Student KR from the second study at the fifth meeting expressed his initial inability to use the proximity search operator effectively and his lack of understanding that this operator is database specific, and how he had learned these during the course of the study. The finding that students in general make more use of search commands and features as their search experience increased is consistent with Vakkari et al. (2003), Halttunen (2003), and Halttunen and Jarvelin (2005). Because of self-sufficiency in constructing efficient search statements, retrievals were more relevant and they became more information literate. Student LM from the first study explained how his improvement in IL helped him make progress in his research: The improvement in my information search skills has much influence on the conceptual framework of my research. Originally my research looked at several perspectives of teacher development — critical, practical, and technical. My improved search skills have helped me find information sources on a new and emerging perspective — the learning perspective y . This new perspective encompasses the three original perspectives I have been working on. Now I have multi-perspectives from which I could look at the research findings y . The improvement in my information search skills has thus sped up the entire process of finishing my PhD research by several months. (Chu & Law, 2008, p. 172)

5.4.5.

Fourth Stage: Proficient Level of Information Search Expertise

The two main components that define this fourth level of expertise are: 1. familiarity with different types of databases and 2. familiarity with a wide range of searching features, search operators, and search methods. (Chu & Law, 2008)

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In the first research study, 5 out of the 12 students, who were considered to have reached the proficient level, distinguished themselves from the others with their ability to both find what they needed and to find it quickly. However, only one student CK exceled in both knowledge of databases and in constructing sophisticated search statements, attaining the highest level of IL according to the RISE model. In the words of this student CK, at the fifth meeting: I can search for information more accurately and efficiently now. The time spent on information search [before I can get a satisfactory result] is shorter. In the past, I thought it was good to find many articles and then try to find good ones among them. Now, I try to find relevant articles by searching more precisely. (Chu & Law, 2008, p. 173)

In the second study, student KR was one of the two students considered proficient according to the RISE model because of the significant development in both knowledge of sources/databases and in constructing effective search statements. He initially confined his searches to only two databases that he was familiar with but progressed quickly to performing simultaneous searches on five or more databases, by the end of the study, adeptly using advanced features such as ‘‘Cited search’’ and ‘‘Related records.’’ Although initially unfamiliar with search operators such as proximity and negation, by the fourth meeting student KR employed complex operators to refine his results and retrieve the most pertinent ones.

5.5. Discussion In both studies, students were at first unfamiliar with much of the searchrelated knowledge and skills. The investigations indicate that a primary factor that contributed to their growth and advancement through the four stages of search expertise was training provided by the expert searcher using scaffolding method, which was both customized and systematic. Students gained IL skills through specific scaffolding sessions and through observing and imitating the techniques that were employed by the expert in formulating query statements and his choice of databases (Chiu et al., 2011) Observations during the studies revealed that the two componential elements under analysis, namely, knowledge of sources/databases and knowledge of search skills, were both required for improvement in IL in the students. Expertise in one of these elements alone was not sufficient. Also, students were observed to develop their expertise only to a point of sufficiency. Once they had achieved a desired level of proficiency that equipped them to conduct their research, they found no reason to proceed further.

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5.6. Conclusion and Recommendations Even though the two studies were conducted a decade apart, the similarity in observed behaviors of the post-graduate students indicates that, despite dramatic developments in their technological environments, the IL of students remains a challenge. This research indicated that information search training is not only imperative at the post-graduate level but also necessary to customize such training to individual faculties or even at the departmental level to cater to varying information needs. Identification of students’ abilities as they progress through the four stages of search expertise, and catering training needs to advance them accordingly, is necessary. It may be possible to develop the two elements of knowledge of sources/databases and that of search skills independently. However, since it was found that an uneven development in the two elements could affect students’ abilities to find needed information, it is suggested that training for students should equip them with good knowledge and skills in both areas. Scaffolding support seems to have had a considerable influence in students’ improvement in their search expertise. Incorporating this aspect into student training programs can help shorten the learning curve of novices in becoming experts. These findings have implications for how technology could be improved to facilitate IL and specifically search skills. These include:  modification of the interface design to simplify subject and keyword search and  standardization of search operators across various sources and databases. The main limitations in both the studies were small sample sizes. However, the longitudinal nature of both studies and the similarities in their results indicate potential application of the RISE model to other representative groups to help in the improvement of IL.

References Brand-Gruwel, S., Wopereis, I., & Vermetten, Y. (2005). Information problem solving by experts and novices: Analysis of a complex cognitive skill. Computers in Human Behavior, 21(3), 487–508. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.chb.2004.10.005 Campbell, R. L., & Bickhard, M. H. (1992). Types of constraints on development: An interactivist approach. Developmental Review, 12(3), 311–338. doi:10.1016/ 0273-2297(92)90012-q

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Campbell, R. L., Brown, N. R., & DiBello, L. (1992). The programmer’s burden: Developing expertise in programming the psychology of expertise (pp. 269–294). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. Campbell, R. L., & Di Bello, L. (1996). Studying human expertise: Beyond the binary paradigm. Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence, 8(3–4), 277–291. Chiu, M. M. L., Chu, S. K.-W., Ting, K. K. K., & Yau, G. Y. C. (2011). A noviceexpert comparison in information search. Paper presented at the CITE Symposium 2011, Hong Kong. Retrieved from http://web.hku.hk/Bsamchu/docs/Chiu-2011A-novice-expert-comparison-in-information-search.pdf Chu, S. K.-W. (2005). Development of information search expertise: Research students’ knowledge of databases. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10722/134022 Chu, S. K.-W., & Law, N. (2005). Development of information search expertise: Research students’ knowledge of databases. Online Information Review, 29(6), 621–642. Chu, S. K.-W., & Law, N. (2007a). Development of information search expertise: Research students’ knowledge of source types. Journal of Librarianship & Information Science, 39(1), 27–40. doi:10.1177/0961000607074813 Chu, S. K.-W., & Law, N. (2007b). Development of information search expertise: Postgraduates’ knowledge of searching skills. Libraries and the Academy, 7(3), 295–316. Chu, S. K.-W., & Law, N. (2008). The development of information search expertise of research students. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 40(3), 165–177. doi:10.1177/0961000608092552 Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Dreyfus, H. L., & Dreyfus, S. E. (1980). A five-stage model of the mental activities involved in directed skill acquisition. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Operations Research Center. Fleming-May, R., & Yuro, L. (2009). From student to scholar: The academic library and social sciences PhD students’ transformation. Portal: Libraries and the Academy, 9(2), 199–221. Green, R., & Macauley, P. (2007). Doctoral students’ engagement with information: An American-Australian perspective. Portal: Libraries and the Academy, 7(3), 317–332. Halttunen, K. (2003). Students’ conceptions of information retrieval: Implications for the design of learning environments. Library & Information Science Research, 25(3), 307–332. doi:10.1016/s0740-8188(03)00032-x Halttunen, K., & Ja¨rvelin, K. (2005). Assessing learning outcomes in two information retrieval learning environments. Information Processing & Management, 41(4), 949–972. doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2004.02.004 Ho¨lscher, C., & Strube, G. (2000). Web search behavior of Internet experts and newbies. Computer Networks, 33(1–6), 337–346. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00031-1

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Hsieh-Yee, I. (1993). Effects of search experience and subject knowledge on the search tactics of novice and experienced searchers. Journal of the American Society for Information Science (1986–1998), 44(3), 161. Kuhlthau, C. C. (2004). Seeking meaning: A process approach to library and information services (2nd ed.). Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. Larkin, J., McDermott, J., Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1980). Expert and novice performance in solving physics problems. Science, 208(4450), 1335–1342. Merriam, S. B. (2002). Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Parkes, D., & Walton, G. (2010). Web 2.0 and libraries: Impacts, technologies and trends. Oxford: Chandos. Shen, Y. (2007). Information seeking in academic research: A study of the sociology faculty at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Information Technology and Libraries, 26(1), 4–13. Sihvonen, A., & Vakkari, P. (2004). Subject knowledge improves interactive query expansion assisted by a thesaurus. Journal of Documentation, 60(6), 673–690. Tabatabai, D., & Shore, B. M. (2005). How experts and novices search the Web. Library & Information Science Research, 27(2), 222–248. Retrieved from http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2005.01.005 Vakkari, P., Pennanen, M., & Serola, S. (2003). Changes of search terms and tactics while writing a research proposal: A longitudinal case study. Information Processing & Management, 39(3), 445–463. doi:10.1016/s0306-4573(02)00031-6 Vygotsky, L. S., & Cole, M. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Yuan, W. (1997). End-user searching behavior in information retrieval: A longitudinal study. Journal of the American Society for Information Science (1986–1998), 48(3), 218.

Chapter 6

Mediating Culture: Media Literacy and Cultural Awareness The Representation of Race and Ethnicity in Maya and Miguel Emily S. Kinsky and Debra C. Smith

Abstract Building on theories of adolescent learning, including cognitive, personal, social, and moral development, this chapter considers how using media literacy techniques to analyze a children’s television program can create wide-awake, active learners while dissecting media messages. By analyzing children’s television for its portrayal of race and ethnicity, this chapter will explore the role media play in children’s understanding of people and cultures outside of their own. A textual analysis of episodes of Maya & Miguel, the chapter describes the depiction of several cultures found represented on the program including White, Asian, African, Dominican, and Mexican and how race, ethnicity, and culture is framed in the television program. Some theories suggest that television is a primary tool in the socialization of children. Children are attracted to the animation in cartoons, the colors, the movement and the easy-to-follow simplicity of the dialogue. Given the impressionable nature of children, it is possible that they begin to act out the biased nature of the cartoons they watch. Thus, considering their vulnerability, information literacy is relevant to discerning media messages. In this way, information literacy converges with media literacy and visual literacy. Guiding children to interrogate what they view is critically important especially when they

Developing People’s Information Capabilities: Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts Library and Information Science, Volume 8, 81–96 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1876-0562/doi:10.1108/S1876-0562(2013)0000008010

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Emily S. Kinsky and Debra C. Smith are at an age where they can be easily influenced by misinformation or dominant messages. Additionally, the volume of information is steadily increasing in the 21st century as are the modes for accessing, creating and manipulating information. Thus, this work will demonstrate how promoting participatory learning by objectively viewing media and exercising reflective thinking will be important components of children’s education in this millennium. Keywords: Media literacy; children; television; race; ethnicity; textual analysis

6.1. Introduction Children pick up cues from their environment as to what is acceptable. Often, that training comes through the media. According to Berry (2003): there is one medium that is still a powerful audiovisual and potentially interactive communicator of both positive and negative cross-cultural attitudes, beliefs, and values for developing children. That medium, with its special power and attractiveness for children, is television. (p. 362)

Television is a common source of entertainment, education, and information and its viewing is woven into the fabric of contemporary Western society. According to Gentile and Walsh (2002), children in the United States watch an average of 25 hours of television weekly, with 19% watching more than 35 hours a week. From bedrooms to restaurants, television is ubiquitous in the United States. This qualitative study, informed by cultural studies, examines the topics of race and ethnicity as portrayed in the children’s television program Maya & Miguel (Forte, 2004). The research focuses on the representation aspect of the circuit of culture (du Gay, Hall, Janes, Mackay, & Negus, 1997) through a textual analysis of the show. Thus, this chapter will look specifically at race/ethnicity and its implications for teaching media literacy for ages 6 to 11. Maya & Miguel debuted in the autumn of 2004 on ‘‘PBS Kids Go!’’ It is the first original series produced by Scholastic Media (Cooney, 2004) and the first animated program to focus on a Latino family (Smith, 2006). To produce the series, Scholastic obtained the biggest grant the Corporation for Public Broadcasting had given, $9.2 million (Dei, 2003). Additional funds ($5 million) came from PBS and the U.S. Department of Education (Dei, 2003).

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Maya & Miguel describes the adventures of Hispanic, 10-year-old twins who speak both English and Spanish. They are shown at school, home, and in the neighborhood with their friends, who include Chrissy (AfroDominican descent), Maggie (Chinese descent), Theo (African-American), and Andy (White). Maya and Miguel live in an apartment with their parents, Santiago and Rosa, situated above the family pet store. Rosa’s mother, Elena, apparently lives in an apartment across the hall. She is very close to her grandchildren and often speaks to them of her homeland (Mexico). Cousin Tito and his parents, Ernesto and Teresa, apparently live nearby, too. Tito speaks Spanish often and has a more pronounced accent than Maya and Miguel. Storylines involving him generally teach about things specific to Mexican culture and present some of the challenges faced by immigrants. According to Smith (2006), Maya & Miguel ‘‘excels in offering a guide for children’s television producers by celebrating diverse cultures and identities and, further, by having them validated due to their very existence on our most ubiquitous popular culture form—the television show’’ (p. 110). Univision’s top anchorman, Jorge Ramos, also discussed the show’s potential impact on the Latino community. According to Ramos (2005), ‘‘Maya and Miguel emphasize three things: the importance of family, of our Latin American culture, and of being bilingual. However, they do this in a very entertaining way, without giving us moralistic affairs and without exaggerating their Hispanic pride’’ (n.p.). This program stands out from other children’s programming because of its target audience’s age, its use of Spanish within context, its educational purpose, and its portrayal of the Santos family and their friends, including various minority groups. It is worth studying such portrayals because of the impact they may have on the psyche of our children. Signorielli (2004) said, ‘‘for those who do not regularly interact with minorities, television tells its audience about these groups and how they may be similar and/or different from other people’’ (p. 297). Because of the growth in Latino-themed programming, Moran (2007) encourages media scholars to investigate this trend ‘‘in order to determine the role television may have in teaching children of all ethnicities to navigate the world in which they live’’ (p. 299).

6.2. Literature Review Previous researchers have looked at the representation of minority groups on television—from content analyses of advertisements (Mastro & Stern, 2003) to the impact of Latino portrayals on White viewers’ feelings toward themselves and others (Mastro, Behm-Morawitz, & Kopacz, 2008).

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According to Mastro et al. (2008), ‘‘media images become part of the ongoing negotiation of identity by supporting and enhancing important aspects of self-image’’ (p. 4). They also concluded: that viewers may derive normative cues from television content and use these to guide their racial expressions y Mediated interracial contact, therefore, can be seen to function in much the same way as intergroup contact by providing norms that guide racial judgments and support identity maintenance. (pp. 19–20)

Other authors have expressed similar interest in racial/cultural representations on television and how they can impact viewers. While Mandel (2006) examined the early years of Sesame Street’s development and its creation of a ‘‘beloved community’’ of equality between racial groups and sexes (p. 4), other researchers have focused on fictional families of various ethnicities/races on television (e.g., Douglas, 2003; Larson, 1993). Similar to this chapter, Ryan (2010) looked at the animated children’s program Dora the Explorer through textual analysis to examine the portrayal of Dora as an active, non-traditional, powerful figure. These studies focus on the televised representations of various races and cultures. They discuss the importance of portraying people of different groups in order to encourage prosocial behavior between the groups in real life. They also offer a glimpse at the portrayal of minorities on children’s educational television. Maya & Miguel is an ideal program to interrogate. Because of the program’s multicultural cast of characters and its focus on education, one can analyze the program for its ability to ‘‘frame’’ race, culture and ethnicity in an attempt to guide child viewers to critically watch the program as media literate viewers.

6.3. Theoretical Framework Cultural studies focuses on culture, which can be broadly described as something that ‘‘refers to a way of life, that is, to a way of understanding, structuring, conducting, and talking about human life, and encompassing all that is necessary for that purpose’’ (Parekh, 1997, p. 165). According to Parekh, there are specific components common to a culture: (1) beliefs, (2) values that regulate society, (3) traditions, (4) an understanding of the group’s origins and what makes it stand apart from other groups, and (5) a cultivated ‘‘common social character’’ (p. 166). The major group’s culture presented on Maya & Miguel is that of Hispanics. Cultural information shared on the program includes the food they eat, the clothes they wear, the words they use, and the holidays they

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celebrate. Cultural information about other groups, such as Chinese and African-Americans, is also expressed through the storylines of this program. Rather than following direct-effect conceptions of the media’s impact, according to Hall (1980), he and his colleagues ‘‘began to replace these toosimple notions with a more active conception of the ‘audience’, of ‘reading’ and of the relation between how media messages were encoded, the ‘moment’ of the encoded text and the variation of audience ‘decodings’’’ (p. 118). Using race as an example, Hall (1996) explained: I note a shift, for example, in the way in which we understand how the media construct and represent race. The earlier approach led us to ask questions about the accuracy of media representations. We wanted to know if the media were simply distorting, like a distorting mirror held up to a reality that existed outside of itself. But what cultural studies has helped me to understand is that the media play a part in the formation, in the constitution, of the things that they reflect. (p. 340)

Much research in cultural studies involves race and ethnicity. This research often discusses power and the treatment of those different from the majority — ‘‘others.’’ ‘‘Others’’ are those outside of the dominant group. Jordanova (as cited by Evans, 1999) explains: The idea of otherness is complicated, but certain themes are common: the treatment of the other as more like an object, something to be managed and possessed, and as dangerous, wild, threatening. At the same time, the other becomes an entity whose very separateness inspires curiosity, invites inquiring knowledge. (p. 274)

Edward W. Said (1978) also addressed ‘‘others’’ in his famed work, Orientalism. According to Said, ‘‘Orientalism is never far from what Denys Hay has called the idea of Europe, a collective notion identifying ‘us’ Europeans as against all ‘those’ non-Europeans’’ (p. 7). This description clearly points to the ties between the concept of ‘‘us/them’’ and race/ ethnicity. Those in the dominant group are the ones who determine the classifications. Traditionally, the group in power has been from White culture. While people may sense they are considered ‘‘others,’’ they do not put themselves in that group. They are placed there by those in power over them. The ‘‘us/them’’ relationships in Maya & Miguel will be examined in light of the representation of characters found in the textual analysis.

6.3.1.

Circuit of Culture

du Gay et al. (1997) presented the circuit of culture as a model with five processes, or moments, ‘‘through which any analysis of a cultural text or

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artifact must pass if it is to be adequately studied’’ (du Gay et al., 1997, p. 3). These moments are: representation, identity, production, consumption, and regulation. This circuit has been used to organize works from a variety of communication fields, including television (Hall, 2005) and new media (Taylor, Demont-Heinrich, Broadfoot, Dodge, & Jian, 2002). This study focuses on the representation of racial/ethnic groups in the program. According to Acosta-Alzuru and Roushanzamir (2003), representation ‘‘is an active process through which meanings are created’’ (p. 47). The authors explained that research examining representation ‘‘focuses on how language, images, and signs stand for—represent—things’’ (p. 47). Representation of race/ethnicity in this program will be studied through textual analysis. 6.3.2.

Media Literacy

The Center for Media Literacy (www.medialit.org) provides the following definition for the term: Media Literacy is a 21st century approach to education. It provides a framework to access, analyze, evaluate, create and participate with messages in a variety of forms — from print to video to the Internet. Media literacy builds an understanding of the role of media in society as well as essential skills of inquiry and self-expression necessary for citizens of a democracy.

The similarities with this definition and definition of information literacy are clear. In our study, we place heavy emphasis on the latter part of the definition in that we look at how Maya & Miguel presents multiculturalism such that its viewers understand the traditions and ideologies associated with each culture as framed by the show, the notion of ‘‘othering’’ and the viewing of dominant culture on American television that represents something other than White males. Abbott (2007) asserts that people learn from observation amongst other things like imitation and modeling Bandura, 1986. Meanwhile, Berry (1998) believes that media portrayals are among the agents that socialize children in their beliefs about their own identities as well as their perceptions of likenesses and differences between groups of people. According to Berry (1998), ‘‘television does more than simply entertain; it confers status on those it selects to serve as storytellers. Young viewers often change their attitudes about people and activities to reflect those encountered in television programs’’ (n.p.). The U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics (2012) reports more than 40% of children in grades kindergarten to 12 are culturally, linguistically, and ethnically different from the

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dominant U.S. culture. Thus, if television is a major socializing force, its representation of ethnicity and culture should be balanced. Yet, LiVollmer’s (2002) study determined that Latinos and Native Americans were overwhelmingly missing from television and when they were shown, it was in advertisements portraying them stereotypically and in roles with low prestige. Thus, children need tools at hand to critically examine the roles inhabited by different cultural groups on television. In this study, we examine episodes of Maya & Miguel and give commentary on the display of culture and ethnicity, ‘‘othering’’ and the portrayal of dominant culture.

6.4. Method This study sought to answer one two-part question by analyzing text from Maya & Miguel: How are the characters’ races and ethnicities framed on Maya & Miguel, and what tools can be used in teaching strategies to demonstrate how media shapes perceptions of race and ethnicity? Textual analysis consists of the examination of a text by a researcher. This examination is referred to as ‘‘reading,’’ whether the text involves words on paper or, as in this study, animated characters on a television screen. Researchers have performed similar textual analyses of television programs (e.g., Hall, 2005; Ryan, 2010). In this study, 12 episodes were thoroughly examined through multiple readings.

6.5. Discussion In analyzing episodes of Maya & Miguel, the goal was to find symbolic modeling, the presentation of characters and cultures. In addition, we looked at the primary text and provided commentary on the subtexts. The primary text was the actual dialogue and pictures in the show while we explained the subtext to be the underlying message. In this way, we present a valuable aspect of media literacy — looking beyond the obvious to consider the values and viewpoints that could be ascertained or that are being promulgated by the media. We looked for examples of the characters’ way of life, beliefs, traditions, and what they value. Their culture includes race, ethnicity, ways of interacting with others, as well as their language, clothing, and food. Several races/ethnicities and countries of origin are present in the storylines of Maya & Miguel, Abuela Elena, Rosa (their mother), and their cousin Tito are from Mexico. Santiago, the father, is from Puerto Rico. Maya’s friend

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Chrissy has a Dominican heritage, while her friend Maggie has a Chinese heritage. Miguel’s friend Theo is African-American, and his friend Andy is White. Other minor characters are of Jewish, African, Hispanic, and Italian descent. At school, the children’s teachers are African-American, Vietnamese, and White. Their coaches appear to be Hispanic and White. Various cultural lessons are taught throughout the series. For example, we learn about the Puerto Rican custom of parrandas in ‘‘Miguel’s Wonderful Life’’; we see chopsticks used by Maggie’s family in ‘‘After School’’; and we learn about Mexican wrestling in ‘‘A Rose is Still a Rose.’’ Several episodes teach about the customs and history of particular countries. For example, the program teaches about Puerto Rico’s landscape in ‘‘The Pen Pal’’ and about U.S. Thanksgiving customs, as well as some Puerto Rican dishes, in ‘‘The Perfect Thanksgiving.’’ 6.5.1.

The Representation of Culture through Food

Food was a central element in a number of episodes. For example, in ‘‘After School,’’ we see Maya and Miguel having an afternoon snack with Abuela. The choice of tacos and milk seems to point toward their ethnicity and also shows family members gathering around a meal. In ‘‘La Nueva Cocinita,’’ like a stereotypical abuela, Elena tries to comfort her grandchildren with hot cocoa and food. In this episode, Maya and Miguel find their grandmother’s cookbook from the Mexican restaurant she and her late husband owned. Miguel reads the recipes in Spanish and English. Not only are the dishes’ names in Spanish, but the ingredients suggest their Mexican origin (e.g., corn, shrimp, coconut, lime). In this episode, food unites the family and neighborhood as neighbors come to the children’s attempted re-creation of the restaurant. ‘‘The Perfect Thanksgiving’’ also involves food. Miguel lists traditional U.S. dishes he wants to have, including stuffing, cornbread, pumpkin pie, and yams, while his father suggests some traditional fare from Puerto Rico, including plantains, because his mother is coming to visit. While recognizing cultural differences between the U.S. and Puerto Rico, it also suggests people from both cultures can enjoy one another’s foods, and the program identifies food as something that can comfort people who are away from home. 6.5.2.

Cultures Represented in Maya & Miguel

While Hispanic culture is the most prominent on Maya & Miguel, several other cultures are represented. Some of the storylines in this textual analysis offer more cultural details than others, and there are certain cultures that are examined in more depth than others.

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6.5.2.1. ‘‘White’’ culture While there are lessons about what food, customs, and dress are historically associated with several different cultures (e.g., Mexican, Puerto Rican, Chinese, African), there is never a discussion of Andy’s cultural heritage. The erasure of White culture is not unique to Maya & Miguel, according to Dyer (1999): Trying to think about the representation of whiteness as an ethnic category in mainstream film is difficult, partly because white power secures its dominance by seeming not to be anything in particular, but also because, when whiteness qua whiteness does come into focus, it is often revealed as emptiness, absence, denial or even a kind of death. (p. 457)

Andy tells Maya and Miguel he moved there from Wisconsin. No other references are ever made to his life there other than to say he was on a baseball team. Besides Andy, there are a few other minor White characters on the show. The media literate viewer would consider that there are so many varied stories that could have been touched on related to all of the White characters’ cultures. 6.5.2.2. ‘‘Asian’’ culture In ‘‘After School,’’ we see Maggie’s home and family. She appears to be an only child, which lines up with Chinese law. At dinner, Maggie and her parents are shown eating what appears to be rice out of bowls with chopsticks. We notice Maggie’s bedroom de´cor in ‘‘A Little Culture,’’ which includes Chinese lanterns hanging from the ceiling and bamboo in a planter on her nightstand. The room also has pink hearts suggesting some acculturation of her family and a blending of the two cultures in her life. In the episode ‘‘After School,’’ Maggie pleads with her teacher, Mr. Nguyen, to not put her tardiness down in her permanent record. She brings up family honor, which seems to be culturally appropriate. Maggie also appears to fit the stereotype of an Asian-American student as intelligent and driven. At 10 years old, she has already mapped out her life through graduate school. However, rather than being unreasonable taskmasters as Asian parents are sometimes portrayed, Maggie’s parents are calm and understanding when they find out about her detention. Besides the illustration of Asian culture through Maggie and her family, two of the children’s teachers are also of Asian descent: Mr. Nguyen and Ms. Lim. Not much is shared about their culture. In ‘‘After School,’’ Mr. Nguyen is kind to Maggie, but he also holds firmly to the rules. While no glimpse is offered into their backgrounds, this seems to be a big break from typical television in that a number of Asian characters are part of the children’s lives.

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6.5.2.3. Dominican culture Chrissy has a Dominican background. Her parents also appear in at least one episode, in which her father has been told he will be transferred to Hong Kong. The majority of ‘‘Chrissy’s Big Move’’ focuses on where she is headed (China) rather than her heritage, though. In the episode ‘‘Friends Forever?’’ cultural information about Chrissy’s Dominican heritage is more evident when the three girls set up a lemonade stand. Chrissy’s ‘‘secret recipe’’ for lemonade reveals that Dominicans like limes in their lemonade. Chrissy says, ‘‘Sometimes lemons like to be with limes and their best friend: sugar!’’ Maggie, opposed, asks ‘‘Can’t we just have regular lemonade?’’ However, once she tastes it, Maggie agrees to keep the recipe and add a lime to the sign advertising their stand. Media literacy conversations could discuss the message that children should not criticize things because they are different, nor judge other cultures’ food or drink without trying them.

6.5.2.4. African/African-American culture Mrs. Langley and Mr. Shue are African-American school teachers on the show. Meanwhile, Greg and Isoka Okri are an African couple who live in the same building with Maya and Miguel. These neighbors speak with an accent and dress in Africanstyle, which seems to suggest they are recent immigrants from Africa. The text shows them as respected community members. Theo is the only African-American student portrayed on Maya & Miguel. He wears what appears to be a basketball jersey, which suggests a connection with some stereotypes of African-Americans. Other than an interest in sports, though, nothing else about him seems to fit with typical mediated portraits of the African-American male. In ‘‘A Little Culture,’’ a connection is made between Theo’s AfricanAmerican culture and his African heritage. On a trip to a museum, Theo visits the exhibit on West Africa because he says his mother’s ancestors are from there. At the exhibit, he imagines himself as Sundiata, the Lion King. The text presents a very positive characterization of an African-American boy who is intelligent, knowledgeable about technology, and admired by his friends for his inventions and analytical mind. He likes to read and is fascinated by science fiction. Theo’s portrayal breaks a number of stereotypes typically advanced by media. The text also offers a reversed image of Theo during a dream sequence in ‘‘Miguel’s Wonderful Life.’’ Maya has disappeared from Miguel’s life, and Theo is now a troublemaker blowing spit balls at Miguel. Without Maya’s encouragement, Theo evidently decided to avoid teasing from the other boys by not pursuing his studies. This illustration was likely included to challenge young viewers and their parents to think about how their words can impact someone—even someone outside their own culture.

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6.5.2.5. Puerto Rican culture This territory’s culture is characterized as almost synonymous with Mexican culture. Perhaps it is more difficult to distinguish between them when watching the program because of the mixture of these two cultures within the Santos family. Maya and Miguel’s father, Santiago, is the major character who emigrated from Puerto Rico. Santiago’s mother also appears in ‘‘The Perfect Thanksgiving,’’ and a pen pal and his grandmother show up from Puerto Rico in ‘‘The Pen Pal.’’ The text paints a portrait of Puerto Rican culture including parrandas (similar to Christmas caroling), plantains, and an outdoor wonderland with rivers, the ocean, and a rain forest. Like Mexico, Puerto Rico is also shown to have kind grandmothers who know how to solve problems and who have memorized their secret recipes. 6.5.2.6. Mexican culture Within the text, Mexican culture is portrayed through Abuela Elena, Rosa, Tito, and the twins. A number of this country’s cultural traditions are featured in the storylines, including tamales, pin˜atas, soccer, and dancing. This is the most common cultural heritage shared through the text and will be discussed in further detail in the following section. 6.5.2.7. Dominant culture In a departure from White males being viewed as dominant culture in America, the dominant, or at least most prominent, culture featured on Maya & Miguel is that of Hispanics, including the subcultures mentioned above. The text presents the binary opposition of the dominant group, Hispanics, and the ‘‘others’’ (e.g., White, AfricanAmerican, Asian). Several episodes present an ‘‘us/other’’ dichotomy involving race or ethnicity. In ‘‘After School,’’ the Hispanic Santos family and Maggie’s AsianAmerican family are central. Maggie’s teacher is also Asian-American, though his heritage is apparently Vietnamese based on his name (Nguyen), while Maggie’s heritage is Chinese. In this episode, African-Americans and Whites are in the background. ‘‘Friends Forever?’’ does not portray racial differences as plainly as other episodes, but there are at least two subtle stereotypical representations. Maggie is shown to be very intelligent having read The Three Musketeers 10 times, while Chrissy is represented as ditzy. For example, when Maggie tells Chrissy she is Aramis, Chrissy is offended. Because she had not read the book, she did not recognize the character and thought Maggie was calling her a rude name. Maggie is the dominating character in this episode. She chose the book for their report, and she complains that Chrissy is late for their meeting. Chrissy’s tardiness is evidently typical. One versed in media literacy would ask ‘‘Are these stereotypes?’’ The bossy, but brilliant Asian girl and the lazy Dominican girl with a man˜ana attitude? The text definitely

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presents a binary opposition providing us with an intelligent, ambitious character and a simple-minded, shallow character. In addition to the tale of las tres amigas in ‘‘Friends Forever?’’ there is a parallel story about the boys’ friendship. In this part of the episode, there is another subtle stereotype of the Hispanic soccer aficionado. Theo and Andy both want to try out for a forward position on the soccer team and have individually asked Miguel, a star player, to coach them. There is another dichotomy of racial representation (Black:White) shown with Andy and Theo. As each boy waits for Miguel in this episode, he spends his time differently. Theo is surrounded by books. When Miguel shows up, Theo tells him the mathematical probability of scoring a goal. Andy, on the other hand, is also reading, but he appears to be looking at magazines or comic books. Perhaps this is another case of reversing the normal representation, just as the entire series does by placing Hispanics in the dominant role. ‘‘Give me a Little Sign’’ also presents an ‘‘us/other’’ dichotomy within one particular ethnic group. Maya and Miguel are Hispanic and so is Tito, but because he has recently immigrated, Tito has a more pronounced accent. The text portrays the binary opposition of the U.S.-born Hispanic compared with the foreign-born Hispanic. None of the other characters have placed Tito into the ‘‘other’’ category, but the text depicts him feeling like an ‘‘other.’’ He is embarrassed about his pronunciation of English. Meanwhile, another traditional ‘‘other,’’ a deaf boy named Marco, comforts him by telling him he did not notice Tito’s accent. After encouraging messages from family and friends, Tito no longer seems to consider himself an ‘‘other.’’ Interrogation of the subtext can reveal a boy who goes from feeling powerless to powerful. Bilingual Hispanics are represented as people who may have trouble with an accent but who are really smart for knowing two languages. The Hispanic culture, specifically Mexican, is also portrayed very prominently in ‘‘La Nueva Cocinita.’’ Abuela is shown in a Mexican flamenco hat, and her Mexican restaurant and recipes are discussed by the twins. There are other races presented in the episode, including African, African-American, Asian-American, and White, but they have few spoken lines. Once again, the African-American boy, Theo, is portrayed as the brightest one of the group. He has invented a pen that also works as a digital camera, toothbrush, nail clipper, and gum dispenser. Even though he is represented positively, he is portrayed as subordinate to Maya and Miguel. While Mexican culture is the focus of ‘‘La Nueva Cocinita,’’ Puerto Rican culture is the dominant culture in ‘‘Miguel’s Wonderful Life.’’ Puerto Rican Christmas traditions are shared, including parrandas and certain foods. The main ‘‘other’’ represented in this episode is a Jewish neighbor Maya and Miguel see in the butcher shop. Miguel tells her ‘‘Happy Hanukah,’’ but that is all that is mentioned about her culture.

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While Puerto Rican customs are prominently featured in ‘‘Miguel’s Wonderful Life,’’ Mexican culture is still evident in Maya’s choice to bring a pin˜ata to school. It is also clear as Maya announces, ‘‘Tamales! My favorite!’’ This episode also incorporates some U.S. cultural traditions. As the children hand out Christmas gifts in the neighborhood, Miguel dresses as Santa Claus while Maya dresses as an elf. In ‘‘Role Reversal,’’ the stereotypical Hispanic love of soccer is shown as Santiago dreams of being in Miguel’s shoes and getting to play soccer all day. In this episode, the cafeteria worker is White, the dance teacher is Italian, and the school teacher is African-American. While these are authority figures in the children’s lives, the text places them in the background. This placement points to the text’s presentation of Hispanic culture as the dominant one. U.S. and Puerto Rican cultures are contrasted in ‘‘The Pen Pal.’’ When Miguel is given a Puerto Rican pen pal in this episode, we learn more about Puerto Rican culture — both from the pen pal and from Santiago, who becomes nostalgic for his homeland. We see scenes of the beach, sea, and rain forest of Puerto Rico. In comparison, Miguel begins to think the landscape of America is not as exciting.

6.5.3.

What Do these Cultural Representations Mean?

The text tells us that not all Asian-Americans are achievement driven — though it portrays that some are. Not only does the text show Maggie wanting to achieve perfection, it also shows she will be bossy to her friends to get there. In addition, it shows possible assimilation into Western culture through her interest in fashion and rock stars. The text characterizes Dominicans as the opposing image of hard-working, intelligent Asians. Chrissy is seen as a girl who does not do her homework and who is always late. The text associates Mexicans and Puerto Ricans with soccer, a focus on food, and a love of dancing. African-Americans are represented as smart people by the portrayals of Theo and two of the children’s teachers. The text does not tell us much about ‘‘White’’ culture. Andy is shown as an active, friendly boy. He plays soccer and reads comic books. The other White characters played minor roles. These supporting cast members in the analyzed episodes seemed to tell us that there are many White people in the world in various jobs — from cafeteria workers to teachers. Because of the overwhelming prominence of Hispanic characters, language, and culture, the text presents non-Hispanics as ‘‘others.’’ Whites, African-Americans, and Asians remain as ‘‘others’’ throughout the text.

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Within the Hispanic group, Dominicans appear to be ‘‘others’’ because of Chrissy’s more pronounced accent, darker skin, and silly image. Although there are a number of ‘‘others’’ in Maya & Miguel, the text tells the viewer—even if you feel like an ‘‘other’’—to remember your accent or other things that may bother you are part of who you are. People will love you even if you are—or perhaps because you are—different. Finally, these episodes with racial dichotomies seem to say that you can enjoy other people’s cultural traditions (e.g., limes in your lemonade).

6.6. Conclusion Media literacy proponents insist that viewers must understand the ways media representations help to form our perceptions of others—who is in power and who is subordinate. In Maya and Miguel, Hispanics were in the power position because of their prominence and vantage point in telling the stories. It is evident that the production team behind Maya & Miguel attempted to offer a voice for those often marginalized. By including many characters that are traditionally considered ‘‘others,’’ the show can encourage and cultivate a different attitude and treatment of ‘‘others’’ over time. Maya & Miguel is a pioneer in displaying a diverse cast of characters. Scholastic presents a culturally diverse society in Maya & Miguel represented by food, music, language/accents, clothing, holiday celebrations, and sports. A number of different races and ethnicities are portrayed in this series, including Hispanic, African-American, Asian-American, Italian, Jewish, and African. There was a lack of exploration of ‘‘White’’ culture, however, and religion is not explored in the show. Hispanic culture appeared somewhat homogeneous rather than clearly sharing the uniqueness of Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Dominican customs. In addition, Central American, South American, and Spanish cultures were not discussed. One of the most prominent binary oppositions presented in the program is Hispanic: Non-Hispanic. While the Santoses never refer to themselves as Hispanic or Latino/a within the text examined, a clear division is still present between those who are Hispanic and those who are not. These differences can be seen in their skin color, names, language use, accents, food preferences, and home de´cor. There is also a binary oppositional representation of natives vs. immigrants. The native U.S. characters include the six friends: Maya, Miguel, Andy, Theo, Maggie, and Chrissy. Maya and Miguel’s parents, grandmother, and cousins are all presented as immigrants. The immigrant characters have more pronounced accents and sometimes struggle with homesickness. They love their new country, but they also have warm feelings and memories of their homelands.

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The U.S.-born children of immigrants (Maya, Miguel, Chrissy, and Maggie) are pictured as almost fully assimilated into U.S. culture. They are star-struck by pop singers and sports heroes. They enjoy U.S. foods, but also enjoy foods from their heritage countries. While the Hispanic immigrant parents play soccer, their children have also added U.S.originated sports like basketball and baseball to their repertoire, sending a message that you can maintain your heritage while enjoying the cultural offerings of your new home. By having characters at different stages of assimilation, children are more likely to find a character with whom they can identify. Mass media, specifically television play a primary part in developing children’s understanding of people around the world. Maya & Miguel celebrates multiculturalism and offers opportunities to point out issues of ‘‘othering’’ and show differences in what is considered to be dominant culture.

References Acosta-Alzuru, C., & Roushanzamir, E. P. L. (2003). ‘‘Everything we do is a celebration of you!’’: Pleasant company constructs American girlhood. Communication Review, 6, 45–69. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Berry, G. (1998). Black family life on television and the socialization of the AfricanAmerican child: Images of marginality. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 29(2), 233–242. Berry, G. L. (2003). Developing children and multicultural attitudes: The systemic psychosocial influences of television portrayals in a multimedia society. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 9, 360–366. Cooney, J. (2004). Maya & Miguel’s mosaic. License!, 7(4), 26–38. Dei, L. (2003). PBS heads ‘‘Maya’’ way with scholastic. Daily Variety, June 3, p. 5. Douglas, W. (2003). Television families: Is something wrong in suburbia? Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. du Gay, P., Hall, S., Janes, L., Mackay, H., & Negus, K. (1997). Doing cultural studies: The story of the sony walkman. London: Sage. Dyer, R. (1999). White. In J. Evans & S. Hall (Eds.), Visual culture: The reader (pp. 457–468). London: Sage. Evans, J. (1999). Feeble monsters: Making up disabled people. In J. Evans & S. Hall (Eds.), Visual culture: The reader (pp. 274–288). London: Sage. Forte, D. (Producer). (2004). Maya & Miguel. [Television series]. New York, NY: Scholastic. Gentile, D. A., & Walsh, D. A. (2002). A normative study of family media habits. Applied Developmental Psychology, 23, 157–178. Hall, A. (2005). ‘‘Yes, I will accept this rose’’: Representation, identity, and consumption in ABC’s The Bachelor. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.

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Hall, S. (1980). Introduction to media studies at the centre (pp. 117–121). Culture, media, language: Working papers in cultural studies, 1972–1979. London: Hutchinson. Hall, S. (1996). Race, culture, and communications: Looking backward and forward at cultural studies. In J. Storey (Ed.), What is cultural studies?: A reader (pp. 336–343). London: Arnold. Larson, M. S. (1993). Family communication on prime-time television. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 37, 349–357. Li-Vollmer, M. (2002). Race representation in child-targeted cartoons. Mass Communication and Society, 5, 207–228. Mandel, J. (2006). The production of a beloved community: Sesame street’s answer to America’s inequalities. Journal of American Culture, 29, 3–13. Mastro, D. E., Behm-Morawitz, E., & Kopacz, M. A. (2008). Exposure to television portrayals of Latinos: The implications of aversive racism and social identity theory. Human Communication Research, 34, 1–27. Mastro, D. E., & Stern, S. R. (2003). Representations of race in television commercials: A content analysis of prime-time advertising. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 47, 638–647. Moran, K. C. (2007). The growth of Spanish-language and Latino-themed television programs for children in the United States. Journal of Children and Media, 1, 294–300. Parekh, B. (1997). National culture and multiculturalism. In K. Thompson (Ed.), Media and cultural regulation (pp. 164–205). London: Sage. Ramos, J. (2005, November). Maya, Miguel and the future of Latinos. Eco Latino magazine: The Northeast Georgia Bilingual Publication, 3(8). Retrieved from http:// www.athensecolatino.com/v3n8/ramos.html. Accessed on December 20, 2007. Ryan, E. L. (2010). Dora the explorer: Empowering preschoolers, girls, and Latinas. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54(1), 54–68. doi: 10.1080/ 08838150903550394. Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. New York, NY: Pantheon Books. Signorielli, N. (2004). Aging on television: Messages relating to gender, race, and occupation in prime time. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 48, 279–301. Smith, D. (2006). Cartoon culture: How Maya and Miguel excel beyond the 1990 Children’s television act. In L. Wilson (Ed.), Americana: Readings in popular culture. Hollywood: Press Americana. Taylor, B. C., Demont-Heinrich, C., Broadfoot, K. J., Dodge, J., & Jian, G. (2002). New media and the circuit of cyber-culture: Conceptualizing naptster. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 46, 607–629. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD). (2012). ‘‘State Nonfiscal Survey of Public Elementary and Secondary Education,’’ 1995–96 through 2010–11; and Projections of Education Statistics to 2021. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d12/tables/ dt12_044.asp

Chapter 7

Empowering Professional Practices of a Community of e-Learners: Special Education Teachers in Alaska and their Information Literacy Conceptions Jennifer D. Ward and Thomas S. Duke

Abstract This chapter describes a collaborative teaching and action research project undertaken by an academic librarian and education professor at the University of Alaska Southeast. The authors collaborated to develop and teach a series of three distance-delivered (i.e., e-learning) graduate-level courses designed to strengthen the information literacy and research skills of in-service teachers of grades P-12 enrolled in the M.Ed. in Special Education degree program at our university. Many of the teachers enrolled in this program lived and worked in one of the more than 200 geographically isolated, sparsely populated, and predominately Alaska Native communities that are scattered across Alaska’s vast terrain. We interviewed some of our graduate students after they completed their programs of study to evaluate the effectiveness of our instruction and to better understand the information literacy experiences and needs of teachers in rural Alaska. We discuss the theoretical context of our teaching and research, the instruction and research we conducted, and what we learned. Keywords: Alaska; rural; indigenous; e-learning; action research; teacher education

Developing People’s Information Capabilities: Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts Library and Information Science, Volume 8, 97–110 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1876-0562/doi:10.1108/S1876-0562(2013)0000008011

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7.1. Introduction 7.1.1.

Community Context: Alaska, Diversity, and Indigenous Rural Communities

Many contrasts exist in Alaska, the largest state in land mass of the United States. Alaska is referred to as the ‘‘last frontier’’ because of the rich wildlife and untouched natural beauty of the landscape. One may find bears of three kinds (black, brown, and polar), musk-ox, wolves, caribou, moose, and many other wild animals large and small. There are rushing rivers, snow-capped mountains, temperate rainforest, and arctic tundra. The total population of the state in 2011 was 722,190 and large urban areas of the state include the Municipality of Anchorage (population 296,197), Fairbanks North Star Borough (population 97,615), Matinuska-Susitna Borough (population 91,697), and Kenai Peninsula Borough (56,369) all in the interior of the state, and the capitol City and Borough of Juneau (population 32,290) in the southeast part of the state (State of Alaska, 2011). Beyond these large urban centers the state is comprised of smaller cities and towns and over 200 rural ‘‘bush’’ village communities. Most of these bush communities are remote and accessible only by air, by boat, or by snow machine during the winter months. Rural villages in Alaska are supported and served by ‘‘hub’’ communities — larger towns (though still remote) that have more infrastructure and services than the villages are able to offer. Hubs have public libraries, hospitals, and commercial jet service — where the rural bush villages do not. The hub communities serving the rural villages at the heart of this study are Juneau, Bethel, Nome, and Kotzebue. The rural nature of these communities with no roads in or out is an important aspect of the context and need for e-learning as a method of instruction for higher education in our state as well as for the need for information literacy instruction in this context. In three of the rural communities there was a school ‘‘library’’ but in all cases it had no professional librarian and out of date materials. All the schools had computers and Internet access though sometimes connection speeds were slow and could be affected by weather (e.g., high winds). Culturally Alaska is very diverse: ‘‘Alaska’s Native people are divided into eleven distinct cultures, speaking eleven different languages and twenty-two different dialects’’ (Alaska Native Heritage Center, n.d.). The public school teachers participating in this study, all women, taught children with disabilities in schools located in geographically isolated, sparsely populated, and predominately Alaska Native (indigenous Alaskan) communities in rural Alaska. One teacher was Alaska Native, one teacher was Mexican American, and two teachers were of European American ancestry. Of the four communities at the heart of this study, none had a population of more than 1000 residents; the smallest of the communities had less than 200 residents. The communities included a coastal village with no

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running water to individuals’ homes, a small high arctic community that practices a subsistence lifestyle, a Yupi’k Eskimo subsistence village, and a southeast Alaska Tlingit island community on the state ferry system with paved roads and a modern infrastructure throughout the community. 7.1.2.

Teacher Education in an e-Learning Community at the University of Alaska Southeast

Our e-learning community is the group of Masters in Special Education candidates at our institution (see Duke, Ward, & Burkert, 2010 for a detailed description of the program). We teach this community of e-learners over great distances through audio-conferencing and web-meetings. Special educators who live and work in rural Alaska encounter unique — and often daunting — challenges as they attempt to provide safe, effective, and culturally responsive instructional services to students with disabilities. Our graduate students are often the only special educators in their respective villages, and many of our candidates provide instructional services to students with a wide range of exceptional learning needs and developmental levels. (Duke et al., 2009, p. 118)

We (the authors) take pride in working with teachers facing the challenges, pleasures, and realities of Alaska’s classrooms. We taught three semesters as co-instructors of record in the program; the education professor taught additional classes in the program, and the librarian served as a reader for the Masters in Special Education Theses for this community of e-learners. Despite most of us never meeting in person, we had the opportunity to experience community and get to know each other well over the course of the program.

7.2. Review of the Literature 7.2.1.

Higher Education e-Learning in Alaska

E-learning (also referred to as distance education or correspondence education) is an important reality in Alaska. Without higher education offered by way of e-learning there would be a large population of people that would not be able to access educational opportunities in this state. Barnhardt described it as a progressive and democratic process that makes higher education accessible to individuals who live in remote, rural, and Alaska Native communities (Barnhardt, 2002; Brown & Duke, 2005). In our review we found: (a) students in remote, rural, and Alaska Native communities enroll in distance-delivered courses because they have few other options; (b) an excessive number of students fail to complete

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distance-delivered programs; (c) the lack of student support systems is a primary cause of student attrition; (d) the amount of available resources in remote, rural, and Alaska Native communities adversely impacts the learning process; and (e) it is challenging, yet important, for instructions to relate course materials to the cultural and environmental contexts of students who live in remote, rural, and Alaska Native communities (Franks, 1996; McDiarmid, Goldsmith, Hill, & Hull, 1998; Sponder, 1991 as cited in Brown & Duke, 2005). Reyes identified challenges with time and technology for rural teachers taking audio-conference classes (2002). Empirical study of the effectiveness of e-learning in the Alaska higher education context is lacking in the literature.

7.2.2.

Action-Research and Critical Library Instruction

The authors come from a theoretical perspective of training teachers as researchers (Adler, 1993; Stringer, 2008). We do action research of our own and we teach these methods to our students. We value opportunities to systematically study our teaching and student learning to improve our results. As Stringer notes, Action research enables academic and professional researchers to enhance their practice by engaging research processes that are constrained by the strictures and rigidities of experimental method, or perplexed by the complexity of multi-voiced narratives emanating from the postmodern turn in qualitative research. (Stringer, 2010, p. 317)

Cook and Farmer edited a collection of studies by librarians using qualitative methods in action research in a demonstration of ‘‘how librarians can get to the why of data’’ (2011). Ward and Duke (the authors of this study) contributed to this action research collection to report interviews with teachers in rural Alaska and detail ways in which librarians can use interviews to improve their services and practices (2011). The present chapter describes our teaching practices to a community of e-learners and our efforts as instructors to improve our understanding of the challenges and opportunities faced by this community so that we may be better prepared to meet their needs. Action research allows for this. The literature on critical theory and library instruction (i.e., critical library instruction) also informs and inspires our work with our students. The text Critical Library Instruction: Theories and Methods (Accardi, Drabinsky, & Kumbier, 2010) is a recent collection of work on critical pedagogy and library instruction and there are chapters describing theoretical models, practical advice on classroom teaching, and case studies

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(e.g., threading critical instruction and information literacy into a master’s program in special education at the University of Alaska Southeast) (Duke et al., 2010). 7.2.3.

Librarian and Faculty Collaboration in Teacher Education

A history of librarian and education faculty collaboration to improve the education of teachers is well documented in the literature. An annotated bibliography on information literacy and teacher education noted ‘‘concerns about preservice teachers who graduate with insufficient information literacy skills y unprepared to teach these skills to their future students and y do not understand the role of the school librarian as an instructional collaborator’’ (Johnson & O’English, 2003 p. 129). The authors also found examples throughout their analysis of ‘‘successful and innovative y integration of information literacy instruction y teachers y equipped to collaborate with school librarians and teach information literacy’’ (p. 129). In 2010, Duke and Ward updated and extended the work of Johnson and O’English, in conducting a meta-synthetic review of the English language literature on information literacy and teacher education, internationally, in six countries (Duke & Ward, 2009).

7.3. Description of the Intervention 7.3.1.

Instructional Activities

The classes we taught together were ED626 Classroom Research, EDSE 692 Seminar: Special Education Secondary Research Methods, and EDSE 698 Master’s Thesis Project. The classes were all writing- and research-intensive classes and all taught with a combination of audio-conference and the webinar technology Elluminate Live (eLive). Each section of the class met synchronously for 2.5 hours each week for a 14-week semester. The students we proceeded to interview were part of the e-learning community of all of these classes taught in three separate semesters.

7.3.2.

ED626 — Classroom Research

In Classroom Research we address the philosophy and methodology of classroom research, the role of classroom research within the educational profession, and the reflective nature of such research. We taught our students to do phenomenological self-studies of their classroom beliefs and

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practices as special education teachers. They learned firsthand about primary and secondary research and qualitative methods of data generation as teacher-researchers. Students were taught to write up their research report in APA publication style and this research report included: (a) an Introduction section with a context statement, statement of purpose, and a set of research questions; (b) Review of the Literature with a statement of purpose, selection criteria, search procedures, and results; (c) Methods section describing the methods used to generate and analyze primary data; (d) Results section with word tables delineating significant themes found in the primary data; (e) Discussion section connecting the author’s analysis of primary data to the literature review; and (f) References section conforming to APA publication guidelines. Each section of the report was due in a draft form once in the semester before the final report was turned in so that there was opportunity for the teachers to give students formative assessment on their progress. Students were instructed to systematically search four education databases over the first half of the semester. All had to search ERIC, and they were also required to search three other preapproved choices that differed depending on their topics. They needed to identify the best search terms on their topic (each time, with each database) and write up their most successful search procedures in a clear and organized way so that their reader would be able to reproduce the steps they took in their search process. We provided model searching strategies in class and instructional templates to help students keep detailed notes on their searches. We also met individually with each student for a brainstorming and searching session over eLive webinar system based on their research questions and searchterm generation. The individual sessions were important in both checking in with students and keeping them on task, validating the work they had completed, and helping with their search strategies if they were not finding the literature that best suited their research questions. The final product for the class was the write up of their phenomenological self-studies, including the literature review, with an analysis and discussion of their findings — connecting their own beliefs and practices to what they found in the literature. In student feedback from this class the research process was repeatedly described as transformative to teacher beliefs and practices. In their final presentations our students spoke with authority and confidence on the literature they reviewed.

7.3.3.

EDSE 692 — Seminar: Special Education Secondary Research Methods

This is a capstone for master’s in special education candidates to begin writing their thesis. We taught a meta-synthetic review of the literature in a

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two-semester project. In the first semester (EDSE 692) students conducted a more thorough review of the literature than they had in ED626. They were to review exhaustive collections of all relevant articles (based on student defined selection criteria) on their topics. Students searched, collected, evaluated, and wrote the first two sections of their Thesis (Introduction and Methods) with our guidance. The Introduction section included: (a) problem statement; (b) author’s beliefs and experiences; and (c) statement of purpose. The Methods section included the following subsections: (a) selection criteria; (b) search procedures; (c) coding procedures; (d) publication type; (e) research design; (f) participants, data sources, and findings of the studies; and (g) data analysis/emergent themes. Students were given the option to include additional subsections, but they were not required to do so. We taught the entire semester reviewing the advanced searching features of education databases through eLive. Each student was required to submit written, detailed search procedures, and the article citations they found for each database they searched at periodic points throughout the semester in order to have formative feedback on their strategies and process. We asked for a written version of their search procedures and results in a systematic, reproducible narrative to make it easy for us as instructors to see if their search process was logical and thorough; this narrative would also make it easy for any reader of their thesis to review their search procedures. Students were writing their thesis as they progressed through the semester and we scaffolded their learning. The APA Publication Manual was covered throughout the semester with feedback on student drafts and we also spent in-class time on these guidelines.

7.3.4.

EDSE 698 — Master’s Thesis Project

In EDSE 698 students complete their thesis projects by writing the Results and Discussion sections. The Results section includes three tables: (a) article and publication type; (b) research design, participants, data sources, and findings; and (c) theme clusters and formulated meanings. Students take the articles they have already collected in the previous semester and they begin to code and analyze them for their meta-synthetic reviews. We provide coding templates for the students to organize first by article authors and the publication type. We also teach students about how to understand and interpret different publication types (e.g., study, descriptive article, position paper, guide, review of the literature, or annotated bibliography). When articles are studies, students must analyze and code them further by research design. The basic requirement is that they identify whether a study is qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. Some students take this further and go into more sophisticated descriptions about the research design.

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In EDSE 698 we see students becoming experts on the literature of the special education topic they choose. It was our hope that this intense look at the research literature on special education topics would create a practice of critical teacher-researchers in villages across Alaska. They would learn to do research and find information when it wasn’t readily available and be able to interpret and apply their findings to their classroom practices.

7.3.5.

Data Collection — Interviews

Kvale and Brinkmann describe life-world interviews as ‘‘an interview with the purpose of obtaining descriptions of the life-world of the interviewee in order to interpret the meaning of the described phenomena’’ (2009, p. 3). We sought to understand teacher conceptions of information literacy skills, their value to teachers in rural Alaska settings, and the effectiveness of the distance e-learning format of teaching. Therefore, we chose criterion sampling, a purposeful sampling strategy (Creswell, 2007, p. 127). We selected four outstanding student teachers living in different but representative ‘‘bush’’ communities in rural Alaska. A fifth teacher was interviewed during our pilot though because she taught in an urban Alaskan setting the data were not included in our final analysis. Each of our participants proceeded to graduate from the Masters in Special Education program, about a month after our interviews. They all successfully completed the classes we taught together as part of their program with approximately 100 hours of library instruction through e-learning. Interviews were accomplished by recorded audio-conference. The authors sat together in an office interviewing individual participants at their home locations. We took field notes and referred to the audio-recordings to analyze the recurring themes in the data.

7.3.6.

Data Analysis — Themes

To analyze the data we employed the Stevick–Colaizzi–Keen method, a method of data analysis frequently used in phenomenological studies and previously described in Brown and Duke (2005) and Duke and Ward (2009). On reviewing our field notes and interview recordings we created more detailed transcripts. From these transcripts we isolated significant statements from our participants; significant statements were any statements that addressed the role of information literacy in participants’ lives. These statements were grouped into thematic units and the emergent themes were published in Ward and Duke (2011). In the analysis for this chapter we take our theme statements a step further. To create the essence of each theme we

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imported the published text description into Tag Crowd (http://tagcrowd. com/). From the wordcloud created we wrote the essence of each theme, using the visual word frequency and size as our guide.

7.4. Results of the Intervention The following themes emerged from the interviews: (a) issues of staying informed in a rural context; (b) challenges and opportunities for graduate student in-service teachers engaged in an e-learning community; (c) teachers’ conceptions of themselves as researchers; and (d) the ability to apply new information literacy and research skills in their lives and classrooms. 7.4.1.

Emergent Themes

7.4.1.1. Staying informed in the rural context Essence: Remote teachers need to stay informed. Villages in Alaska need special education teachers with skills to access articles and stay informed with research-based information. Special education teachers in remote places need to know how to find this information and how to interpret it for use in their classrooms and to stay informed as new issues in special education (e.g., behavioral issues) present in their classrooms. 7.4.1.2. Challenges and opportunities in an e-learning community Essence: Our teacher-researchers liked having the opportunity to learn by way of e-learning. They were able to access a ‘‘classroom’’ and ‘‘community’’ that was not otherwise open to them in any other way in their locations in remote and rural Alaska. They appreciated walking through the research process step by step. They found the format and delivery to be beneficial and convenient to their schedules. The technology platform was practical for them (audio-conference and e-learning) and they enjoyed the audiovisual, e-mail, and convenience of interlibrary loan. They missed friendships characteristic of a more traditional education but still found community with their classmates. 7.4.1.3. Teachers’ conceptions of themselves as researchers Essence: Research and information skills are important to our students. They feel empowered that they can now find articles that are more in-depth than what they were used to reading before, now it is not all ‘‘prepackaged’’ for them like in a school textbook, these articles connect them to a larger world out there, bigger than village politics. Reading research and theoretical literature

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that discusses the real problems they see in their lives and in their classes makes them feel empowered and connected to a bigger world. 7.4.1.4. Teachers applying new information literacy and research skills in their lives and classrooms Essence: Special education teachers in Alaska voiced that they need the skills to be able to research problems that present in their classrooms — like FASD (fetal alcohol spectrum disorder) or behavioral issues they may not have been prepared for in their education. One student noted: ‘‘I feel that I will be able to apply the skills learned in this class to situations in the future. I wish I had the opportunity as an undergraduate many years ago to learn the researching skills that I gained from this course.’’

7.5. Discussion In staying informed when one is in a rural context, a ‘‘big issue’’ in rural classrooms was student behavior. Teachers wanted to do research and find answers to how to deal with behavioral issues without ‘‘wasting time’’ and finding ‘‘dead ends.’’ A pressure for rural teachers was the need to stay informed and practice research-based teaching, because in the words of a participant for her classroom practices, ‘‘everything has to be research based.’’ With limited professional development opportunities it is up to the teachers to find and evaluate that research. With computers and information literacy skills the teachers recognized they could stay informed if they put in the effort. The teachers really liked interlibrary loans. The ordering and receiving of information was very important to them. Internet access and these skills represented a way of staying informed without leaving the village; according to several participants ‘‘reading scholarly articles about issues in your own life is validating.’’ Burnout is another issue with bush village teachers, yet having the tools and knowledge to do research helped them with staying ‘‘fresh’’ and ‘‘motivated’’ and ‘‘not bogged down’’ by village politics. The village teacher sees a world bigger than the self or classroom when exploring the scholarly literature. She wants more connections that are convenient and it is important to have electronic access to information. Peer-reviewed journal articles provide more depth than ready-made sources of information like textbooks; the teachers described learning of sources of information not already broken down into a textbook ‘‘not spoon-fed’’ to them. An opportunity mentioned by a participant was that e-learning in higher education was ‘‘the only game in town.’’ According to her, our focus on the mechanics of the search, modeling a database search, and walking students through every click explaining why we narrow and

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construct the search the way we did was the ‘‘ideal way to learn.’’ Using eLive as the platform was beneficial for time management and practicality. She ‘‘can’t imagine having to struggle through that — the class wouldn’t have been as effective without that technology.’’ Participants liked having 15-minute sessions to consult on their research topics individually. Being at home and school could fit more into a busy schedule and this teacher likes the convenience of electronic access to information. One participant thought she needed more experience in learning how to ‘‘read’’ different publication types, she didn’t feel as confident in that part of her learning. Participants liked the audiovisual teaching of databases in the e-learning environment, though some were intimidated by the e-learning aspect of the class at first. Our special education teachers described feeling empowered and having gone more in depth than they ever had before with their searching: ‘‘I had never done anything more than just a quick Ebsco search, and not in depth.’’ Another participant noted that her searches were now more ‘‘beneath the surface.’’ They noted that choosing their keywords when beginning a search is very important. ‘‘If I had another student come in with FASD (fetal alcohol spectrum disorder) I’d now know a more efficient and effective way to find that information. Doing the searches in depth I see the whole gamut of information and what worked y what didn’t, and with what populations y . I feel very confident after researching and writing the paper.’’ This teacher felt ‘‘well backed up’’ in what she’d learned, and empowered: ‘‘I feel empowered y reading scholarly articles about issues in your life validates them.’’ This teacher wants to practice these skills and continue to use them in her classroom practice. Another teacher expressed that without setting selection criteria she wouldn’t get anywhere. Before, she got frustrated, now her searching was more ‘‘beneath the surface’’ and ‘‘in depth.’’ Another participant went from dreading research because of bad experiences to appreciating research now that it was broken into discrete tasks. Finding the right words to search was a good skill to have. Our teachers told us how they would apply information literacy skills in their own classrooms and lives. Being led through the research process step by step had reacquainted and made these skills accessible to one teacher. She felt she could introduce these research skills (searching databases) to her students and she noted that it is important to be informed in the village, and she had never looked at information so closely. She now has more efficient and effective ways to find information and she is teaching her son how to format citations in APA style. Another participant noted that when one of her students is not getting a math problem, she can research approaches and adjust her teaching to help that student. A participant discussed helping students ‘‘filter their own info rather than have others filter it for them.’’

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7.6. Reflection Special education teachers in rural classrooms in Alaska sometimes face challenging situations that their education may not have fully prepared them for. We initiated follow-up interviews with our students in remote and rural locations because we desired to assess the impact of our teaching and how information literacy is understood and valued by rural special education teachers. We also desired to find ways we had not considered to improve teaching and learning in information literacy through e-learning for rural students. We wanted to have a direct conversation with some star students and come to a deeper awareness and understanding of the challenges and the commitment required of teachers in rural, remote, indigenous Alaskan communities. The collaborative, integrated approach to teaching information literacy was so important for both the professor and the librarian. Before these classes the librarian’s teaching was by necessity ‘‘separated’’ from the research process as a whole; one can only provide so much help not being a part of the context of the class or know the full story about the students’ research problems or background. Being a part of the entire creation of assignments and guiding student research throughout the semester as they worked on their projects we see how much each part of the research process is connected and it is a holistic educational experience — for the student and for the professor and the librarian. Database searching for appropriate peer-reviewed articles supporting the research is an important part of the process but it wasn’t until the librarian was a part of the entire process and worked with students throughout the semester surrounded by their projects in our e-learning community that she truly remembered and understood how overwhelming learning a new skill (like doing primary research and writing a large research report) can be. Knowing the students better because we met with them every week (even though it was by way of e-learning at a distance) gave us empathy and forged deeper connections. Following up with our students on their thoughts and conceptions about information literacy and the reality of their lives in rural remote Alaska Native villages we confirmed the necessity of information literacy skill building for these teachers.

7.7. Lessons Learned Hands-on action research projects are an influential way of teaching inservice teachers the usefulness of information literacy and the ability to apply these skills in their own lives. When an educator can create a project based on their immediate classroom needs and they have the structure to

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explore and answer their research questions they see the direct applicability of the skills to their lives. Action research is actively asking the teacherresearcher about their context. The challenge of learning how to collect secondary research and at the same time conducting primary research is an empowering, transformative process. Action research allows us as teachers (from preschool through higher education) to reflect and improve our teaching practices for our students. In Alaska, e-learning to remote communities is necessary for delivering higher education. Our services for developing critically reflective special educators with information literacy skills are needed and valued by teachers in these communities. It was most important to us that we empower the teaching practices of this community of e-learners and our questions were tailored around whether our participants felt if the skills would help them or not, what they thought about the skills, and where they would take these skills as they embarked on their careers as full-fledged special educators. We learned more details about their struggles and challenges, specifics about their internal thoughts about being part of our e-learning community, teachers’ identities as researchers, and how they applied their information literacy skills in their own lives and classrooms. Importantly, we learned where they needed direction and follow-up on what to do and search once their relationship with the university had ended. As a result of our inquiry we found that teachers needed direction on where they could search for peer-reviewed journal literature when they no longer had ties with the university. We created follow-up professional development materials for teachers (explicit directions on how to access library resources and services postgraduation) including a follow-up primer on a significant statewide service, the Digital Pipeline (http://sled.alaska. edu/databases) and a listing of interlibrary loan services by hub community in the state of Alaska. We identified the need to further study and coordinate the delivery of library services and information literacy instruction to rural students.

References Accardi, M. T., Drabinsky, E., & Kumbier, A. (Eds.). (2010). Critical library instruction: Theories and methods. Duluth, MN: Library Juice Press. Alaska Native Heritage Center. (n.d.). Cultures of Alaska. Retrieved from http:// www.alaskanative.net/en/main-nav/education-and-programs/cultures-of-alaska/ Adler, S. A. (1993). Teacher education: Research as reflective practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 9(2), 159–167. Barnhardt, R. (2002). Domestication of the ivory tower: Institutional adaptation to cultural distance. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 33(2), 238.

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Brown, J., & Duke, T. S. (2005). Librarian and faculty collaborative instruction: A phenomenological self-study. Research Strategies, 20(3), 171–190. doi: 10.1016/ j.resstr.2006.05.001. Cook, D., & Farmer, L. (2011). Using qualitative methods in action research: How librarians can get to the why of data. Chicago, IL: American Library Association, Association of College and Research Libraries. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Digital pipeline. State of Alaska. Retrieved from http://sled.alaska.edu/databases Duke, T. S., & Ward, J. D. (2009). Preparing information literate teachers: A metasynthesis. Library & Information Science Research, 31(4), 247–256. Duke, T. S., Ward, J. D., & Burkert, J. (2010). Preparing critically conscious, information literate special education teachers for Alaska’s schools. In M. T. Accardi, E. Drabinsky & A. Kumbier (Eds.), Critical library instruction: Theories and methods (pp. 115–131). Duluth, MN: Library Juice Press. Franks, K. (1996). Four papers on distance education. Unpublished manuscript, Center for Distance Education and Consortium for Research in Rural Alaska, University of Alaska Fairbanks, College of Rural Alaska. Johnson, C. M., & O’English, L. (2003). Information literacy in pre-service teacher education: An annotated bibliography. Behavioral & Social Sciences Librarian, 22(1), 129–139. Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. McDiarmid G. W., Goldsmith S., Hill A., Hull T. (1998). Current and future demand for distance education. Executive summary and full report, University of Alaska Anchorage, Institute of Social and Economic Research. Reyes, M. E. (2002). Reaching out to the teachers of teachers: Distance education in rural Alaska. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED477416, Alaska. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED477416). Sponder, B. M. (1991). Distance education in rural Alaska: An overview of teaching and learning practices in audioconference courses (2nd ed.). Fairbanks: University of Alaska, College of Rural Alaska. State of Alaska (2011). State of Alaska department of labor and workforce development research and analysis. Demographic profile for Alaska population estimates. Retrieved from http://labor.alaska.gov/research/pop/popest.htm Stringer, E. (2010). Action research in education. In P. Peterson, E. Baker, & B. McGaw (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (3rd ed., Vol. 6, pp. 311–319). Oxford, UK: Academic Press. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id= GALE%7CCX1504700781&v=2.1&u=june77027&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w Stringer, E. T. (2008). Action research in education. Columbus, OH: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. Ward, J. D., & Duke, T. S. (2011). Remote and rural voices: Using interviews to understand the information literacy experience of Alaskan special educators. In Douglas Cook & L. Farmer (Eds.), Using qualitative methods in action research: How librarians can get to the why of data (p. 85). Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries.

Chapter 8

Information Literacy of Undergraduate Students in Thailand: A Case of the Faculty of Arts, Silpakorn University, Thailand Phussadee Dokphrom

Abstract This chapter presents selected findings from an exploratory case study, which aimed to identify the information literacy of undergraduate students in the Faculty of Arts, Silpakorn University, Thailand. An embedded case study approach was adopted, data were gathered from academics, students, and librarians and relevant policy and curriculum documents were examined. Four departments were chosen as units of analysis within the case study to represent the different disciplines. These were Departments of Thai, Modern Eastern Languages (MEL), History and Geography. A total of 23 lecturers from these 4 departments were interviewed. A total of 35 students from the same departments and 10 librarians from the Central Library were surveyed using focus groups. For each department, the data was analysed and triangulated and the information literacy conceptions of academics and students were mapped and compared, together with a picture of the department’s goals and pedagogic approach for information literacy. Finally, findings from all four departments were brought together to provide holistic insight into the information literacy of students in the faculty.

Developing People’s Information Capabilities: Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts Library and Information Science, Volume 8, 111–126 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1876-0562/doi:10.1108/S1876-0562(2013)0000008012

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It emerged from the data that both staff and students identified a number of personal attributes that were expected of the information literate student. These were categorised into four groupings: attitude, research skills, generic skills and knowledge. The study revealed some common and distinct characteristics of different disciplines, which reflect the similarities and differences of perceptions of information literacy in this study. The key variations were: the conceptualisation and nature of ‘information’, the degree to which the outside world is of importance and the use of specialised technology. Information literacy education is perceived as a holistic approach, integrated through courses across the curriculum through formal and informal education. Students are engaged with different aspects of information literacy through different teaching, learning and assessment methods and activities. Independent learning is emphasised as a teaching and learning strategy. Discussion-based and courseworkbased instructions are identified as best methods in developing students’ information literacy. The findings also reveal that teaching and learning information literacy is deemed the responsibility of academic lecturers while librarians are not involved in information literacy education. Keywords: Information literacy; higher education; conception; pedagogy

8.1. Introduction This chapter presents results from an exploratory case study, which aimed to identify the information literacy of undergraduate students in four departments in the Faculty of Arts, Silpakorn University, Thailand. The main research questions were:  What is the perception of information literacy among students, academic lecturers and librarians in the Silpakorn University?  What is the existing state of information literacy education? Silpakorn University is one of Thailand’s state universities which initially was an Arts and Arts-related university, however it has expanded into other areas including Social Sciences and Sciences, and the Faculty of Arts offers a wide range of programmes including Languages, Humanities and Social Science. This chapter concentrates on presenting and discussing the results of an investigation into conceptions of information literacy and information

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literacy education. The following sections provide the rationale and context for the research. The chapter goes on to describe research methodology and explain the findings of the research and their contribution to the study of information literacy. .

8.2. Rationale and Background for Research into Information Literacy 8.2.1.

Conceptions of Information Literacy

Information literacy has become an internationally studied topic (Rader, 2003); however, there is no single definition of the topic. However, the most widely accepted and cited definition is that provided by the American Library Association (ALA) which defines information literacy in terms of four basic competencies possessed by an information literate individual: To be information literate, a person must be able to recognise when information is needed and have ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information y . (American Library Association, 1989)

Based on the ALA’s definition, the US Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) worked to create Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education which provides a model of the competencies of an information literate student. The standards provide the empirical necessities, educational guidelines and assessments to facilitate information education for colleges and universities in the United States. According to these standards, an information literate student 1. determines the nature and extent of the information needed 2. accesses needed information effectively and efficiently 3. evaluates information and its sources critically and incorporates selected information into his or her knowledge base and value system 4. individually or as a member of a group, uses information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose 5. understands many of the economic, legal and social issues surrounding the use of the information. (ACRL, 2000) The ACRL’s standards have been translated into many languages and used within higher educational institutions across the world including the Australian and New Zealand Information Literacy Framework: Principles, Standards and Practice (ANZIL) (Bundy, 2004).

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Whilst there are many accounts of information literacy by librarians (including frameworks such as the ACRL Standards (ACRL, 2000), a number of researchers (e.g. Boon, Webber, & Johnston, 2007) have noted that the conceptions of students and academics have not been so thoroughly investigated. Research into information literacy in English-speaking countries and Western Europe has also predominated, whereas there is increasing interest in the contextual nature of information literacy. Few attempts to research students and academics’ conceptions of information literacy have been made. Webber, Boon, and Johnston (2005), however, investigated the information literacy perceptions of English and Marketing academics. The English academics conceived information literacy as 1. Accessing and retrieving textual information 2. Using IT to access and retrieve information 3. Possessing basic research skills and knowing how and when to use them: the basic research skills are often linked to or described as bibliographic skills, research methods or library skills 4. Becoming confident autonomous learners and critical thinkers The Marketing academics conceived information literacy as 1. Accessing information quickly 2. Using IT to work with information 3. Possessing a set of information skills and applying them to the task in hand 4. Using information literacy to solve real-world problems 5. Becoming a critical thinker 6. Becoming a confident, independent practitioner This research revealed similarities and differences between conceptions. The authors conclude that disciplinary differences correlate with different perceptions of information literacy. Key variations include the types of information resources used and the extent to which the outside world is important. The influence of disciplinary differences are also clearly illustrated in later studies, for example Lupton’s (2008) research into the relationship between information literacy and learning of Australian undergraduate students. The complexity of perceptions of information literacy are also illustrated in Bent’s (2008) study of people’s perceptions of information literacy related to the transition from school to higher education using teachers and students from school and universities. Few studies have been conducted to cover the perception of information literacy in Thailand (e.g. Sawetrattanasatian, 2008). This is the first rigorous

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empirical study to investigate the conceptions of Thai university students and staff. 8.2.2.

Information Literacy Education

There is wide recognition of librarians’ involvement in information literacy education (e.g. Andretta, 2006; Ratteray, 2002; Stubbings & Franklin, 2006; Webber & Johnston, 2003), particularly the role of librarians in teaching information literacy. The literature shows that academic librarians employ different approaches to teaching information literacy, for example standalone courses, drop-in sessions, course-related instruction and disciplinespecific courses or classes, on-line tutorials, etc. (Eisenberg, Lowe, & Spitzer, 2004; Kasowitz-Scheer & Pasqualoni, 2002). Moreover, the literature reveals that librarians across the United Kingdom, United States and Canada put effort into teaching and assessing information literacy, for example by employing new ICT applications such as Web 2.0 tools, for example Wikipedia, blogs, YouTube, RSS feeds, etc. (Godwin & Parker, 2008). The establishment of Evidence Based Library and Information Practice (ELIP), an open access, peer-reviewed journal, indicates librarians’ efforts to develop and evaluate information literacy instruction. A number of commentators stress that information literacy is not just a library issue; it is an educational and pedagogical issue that affects academics and information professionals alike. According to Webber and Johnston (2003), information literacy education is not only the responsibility of librarians, but also the university stakeholders as a whole. As assessment is an integral element of courses, rapprochement between academics, librarians and students is essential. Librarians need to invest in self-development and in particular in learning more about pedagogy; academics need to recognise the complexity of information literacy and allow time for it in the curriculum; students also need to give more attention to information literacy (rather than just technology) and show a willingness to learn. Successful information literacy education must be developed through collaboration between faculties, librarians and administrators to ensure that it is fully integrated into curricula and supported by all those who are involved in its delivery (Hepworth & Wema, 2006; Ratteray, 2002; Stubbings & Franklin, 2006).

8.3. Methodology The initial aim of this study was to investigate in depth the information literacy of undergraduate students. An embedded case study approach was

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adopted, data was gathered from academics, students and librarians and relevant policy and curriculum documents were examined. Four departments were chosen as units of analysis within the case study to represent the different disciplines. The Departments of Thai and of Modern Eastern Languages (MEL) were chosen from the language discipline as national and foreign languages. The Department of History and Geography were chosen to represent Humanities and Social Science respectively. A total of 23 lecturers from these 4 departments were interviewed. A total of 35 students from the same departments and 10 librarians from the Central Library were surveyed using focus groups. For each department, the data was analysed and triangulated and the information literacy conceptions of academics and students were mapped and compared, together with a picture of the department’s goals and pedagogic approach for information literacy. Finally, findings from all four departments were brought together to provide holistic insight into the conception of information literacy of students in the faculty.

8.4. Information Literacy of Undergraduate Students 8.4.1.

Conceptions of Information Literacy

The holistic view of an information literate person which emerged is that of an active and self-directed learner who is knowledgeable and regularly acquires and understands new information. The information literate person has the ability to research and use information when required with an awareness of a variety of formats. The participants perceive that being able to research information requires regularly acquiring information. Moreover, this requires critical evaluation of the information obtained before accepting it. The participants considered this as the way an information literate person maintains their knowledge and that this contributes towards their ability to critically evaluate and analyse information when researching it. It also enables a person to be able to locate the potential sources of information. These are deemed essential for them to undertake research. The following quotes illustrate these ideas, from both students and lecturers: y is a person who search for new information and then he/she will be able to recognise where information he/she needed is. (MelStu1) y when you read, you will have some background information, some understanding, then when you want to search for further information you will recognise the methods of accessing information or the topics or keywords y (ThaLec1)

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Being active, because if you are ignorant, you won’t be able to know the information sources, y the most significant aspects are being eager to read and listen, if you don’t have these two, you won’t be able to find or know the information sources. (GeoLec3)

The conception of information literacy is illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 8.1. It emerged from the data that both staff and students identified a number of personal attributes that were expected of the information literate student. These were categorised into four groupings: attitude, research skills, generic skills and knowledge. These are listed in Table 8.1. Based on evidence, the attitudinal aspects of information literacy, particularly enthusiasm, are emphasised as vital for the information literate student. Being enthusiastic about learning at all times, this is important. Sometimes I recommend sources, but students aren’t willing to do research, the recommendation is worthless. (MelLec5) We can’t say we have a lot of work in this period because teachers issued assignments a long time ago, and when we are less enthusiastic and when we do assignments no wonder we do it poorly, copy people’s work, lack analysis, lack synthesis. It’s kind of influence. If you say y for example search skills,

Attitudes

Acquire Information

Tasks

Research Information

Academic Purposes

Personal Interests

Information Information Source

Determine

Sources

Locate

Search

Evaluate

Apply and use

Knowledge

Analyse

Attitudes

Figure 8.1: A holistic view of information literacy conceptions.

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Table 8.1: Attributes of an information literate student. Category

Information literacy attribute

Attitudes

Attitude towards obtaining information  Enthusiasm  Current awareness  Being observant and curious  Reading attitude  Determination  Open-mindedness Attitude towards creating knowledge  Well-versed attitude  Interdisciplinary approach  The ability to determine the extent of information needed  The ability to recognise the variety of information sources and locate potential sources  The ability to access information needed from those specified sources  The ability to critically evaluate and organise the information obtained and its sources  The ability to analyse and synthesise information  The ability to apply and use information effectively and ethically  Language and communication skills  Library skills  English skills  ICT skills  Third-language skills  Discipline-based knowledge  Related knowledge  General knowledge

Research skills

Generic skills

Knowledge

the ability to recognise sources, apply and use information, maintain, organise information, everyone already possesses these attributes, it is a kind of basic skill, but if you want to have a good piece of work, you need to be enthusiastic. (GeoStu3)

Despite the similarities of the attributes that the participants identified, there was variation between disciplines. The study revealed a degree of commonality and distinctiveness between different disciplines. The key variations were:  The concept and nature of ‘information’ For example, the History and Thai courses were more text-based compared to the other disciplines. The participants from both programmes often refer to the library, and when referring to ‘library skills’ they speak of being familiar with the actual library.

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Spending time in the library is to roam around, familiarise yourself with different types of information. I think this is very helpful. Instead of searching from the system, get the classification numbers then go and get the books, if you browse around bookshelves, you might get something coincidentally y and this is connected to the first attribute (the ability to locate appropriate information sources), which we must know what types of information exist, books, journals, leaflets, etc., where are they. y (HisLec1)

This is in contrast to the Department of MEL, in which staff and students refer to the internet as the primary resource. Teachers always say that if you want to know if this is the correct sentence, try to type in Google, if you get results, this means it is a correct sentence. (MelStu2)

 The degree to which the outside world is of importance It emerged that there are different ways in which the disciplines engage with the ‘outside world’. The disciplines of History and Thai take a scholarly approach and often relate information, particularly current issues, to their disciplinary knowledge. y be able to explain the incident for example, the separatist movement1 in the south which has been critical for a long period of time. A person who has no historical background will see this incident as a group of terrorists. In fact these areas have been gathering dissatisfaction over the role of the central government since the time of King Rama I. The local leaders have been extremely oppressed by the central government which caused this incident. You will understand what been happening, why and why this incident can’t be solved y (HisStu1)

In contrast, Geography and MEL place more emphasis on practical engagement with the real world. Students from these disciplines are expected to demonstrate these skills. I believe learning outside the classroom is more important than in the classroom. If students are interested in something, instead of teaching, we direct them to watch these movies, read these books or these CDs I think it is better y because students will obtain broader knowledge and when they study

1. The South Thailand insurgency is a separatist campaign by Islamic terrorists which is taking place in the predominantly Malay Pattani region, made up of the three southernmost provinces of Thailand, with violence increasingly spilling over into other provinces. Although separatist violence has occurred for decades in the region, the campaign escalated in 2004.

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by themselves, they gain experiences they will not forget and are able to extend their knowledge. (MelLec4)

 The use of specialised technology Although all the participants refer to the use of computers and the internet, analysis revealed that the perceptions of information literacy also correlate with the use of specialist technology in order for students to make sense of information; this is explicit in the Geography and MEL departments. Geography uses specialist tools such as GIS software for geographic information, while MEL regards ICT as its educational tool. The lecturers and students refer to the use of computers and the internet as part of their learning activities; they use Korean and/or Chinese search engines and instant messaging applications to practice language skills thus specific technological skills are required from the students. Students must keep up-to-date with technologies, because obtaining geographical information involves advanced technologies for example, remote sensing, GPS even satellite or aerial photos. (GeoLec6) Most students who study languages, like to chat with foreign friends y (MelStu4)

8.4.2.

Information Literacy Education

Perceptions of information literacy education in this case was different from the current practice evident in the literature. In the literature there is widespread recognition of the importance of librarians’ involvement in information literacy education particularly the role of librarians in teaching information literacy (e.g. Andretta, 2006; Ratteray, 2002; Stubbings & Franklin, 2006; Webber & Johnston, 2003). In this study, the evidence showed that there was no collaboration between the faculty and the library. Teaching and learning is deemed the responsibility of academic lecturers. Information literacy education is perceived as a holistic approach, integrated through courses across the curriculum through formal and informal education. Students are engaged with different aspects of information literacy through different teaching, learning and assessment methods and activities.  Provision of information literacy education Based on the evidence, participants across departments perceived that certain aspects of information literacy were provided to students through general education, first level and major level courses. At general and first levels, there was a focus on students’ generic skills, that is English, language

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and communication, library skills and computer skills and these were delivered as stand-alone courses. While at major levels, information literacy education was integrated through courses and focus was placed on engaging students with subject-specific knowledge and the development of higher level research skills, particularly critical and analytical thinking skills. Moreover, students related their attitudinal development to the pedagogical approach and the assessment criteria that lecturers employed. Although information literacy was encouraged throughout the curriculum, students recognised that different programmes concentrate on developing different aspects of information literacy. For example, the development of certain attitudes (e.g. current awareness, open-mindedness) can be achieved in the Social Science courses whilst information and library skills could be obtained from the LIS courses. Majority from the Social Science programme, students who didn’t take this programme have a chance to develop them from the required course in the first year such as Thai Civilisation module because we have to watch the news and read newspapers and journals to give examples, so we can get more marks. (ThaStu4) The Thai civilisation module, opened my eyes a lot because sometimes I think like this but the lecturer informed us that some people perceive things in different ways, so I recognised that different people have different opinions. (ThaStu2) Since we enter a major programme, we study the particular field, my friends who take LIS programme as a major will have opportunities to learn IL more than other students y (ThaStu4)

It is worth highlighting that information and library skills are recognised as being mainly provided once through the Information World module which is taught by a team of lecturers from the Department of Library Science and not the librarians. Although there is evidence to show that the library offers several services, such as a library induction and enquiry service, these are not recognised as a sources of library skills. This coincides with the findings from the librarians’, which revealed that they do not perceive that they made a contributions to the students’ library skills practice and perceived themselves as service providers. Regarding the Information World module, students made the criticism that they do not obtain much knowledge or skills from the course. This reflects the failure of method and time of delivery. Most students criticise lecture-based instruction; they believe it to be an inappropriate method by which to teach library skills. Moreover, they claim that it is delivered too early in the curriculum, when they do not recognise the needs of the

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knowledge and skills, and only focus on passing the requirements of the course. Students require this teaching to be offered again at a higher level when they are required to do independent coursework. I want to take the Information World module again, particularly the sections provided by the Library Science department because at that time I didn’t see its importance, I felt it was boring and I didn’t understand it. Now I see how important it is, I would attend every session. (ThaStu3) In the first year, I didn’t need it that much. (ThaStu8)

In addition to formal education, the evidence from cross-unit analysis revealed that within their university careers, students are also engaged with information literacy from extra curriculum activities, for example departmental seminars, student clubs, faculty exhibitions, etc. For example, in the Geography and MEL departments students were required to take part in these activities, and they perceived that these helped develop their information literacy, largely by enabling them to practice their research skills.  Pedagogical approaches Common to all, the lecturers emphasise the importance of independent learning as a teaching and learning strategy and they identified approaches such as discussion-based and coursework-based instruction as the best methods for developing students’ information literacy. In addition, students recognised the value of coursework as a means of learning and developing all aspects of information literacy including attitudes, knowledge, research and generic skills. Within one assignment, it requires all skills. If you asked what we have learned, it is everything. The ‘Information World’ module teaches all skills; how to cite, how to search and how to use information, but this is lecture-based. We learned few skills in the first year, later we practice all the skills when we do coursework, we will use all the skills. It is an improvement. (GeoStu3)

The findings reveal that participants, including the lecturers, across departments emphasised that developing students’ attitudes was a personal aim of the lecturers. This reflects their pedagogic approaches. For example, encouraging students to read is emphasised by the History, Thai and MEL departments and was mentioned by the Geography department. Providing students with current information was also stated as important, by the lecturers from the Departments of Geography, History and Thai. For example, I will introduce articles which I think are acceptable, useful and have issues related to students. These articles exist in different journals such as

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the Journal of Political Science, at Thammasat University. Sometimes these are not directed to our field, but I want students to recognise the viewpoints of different disciplines. (ThaLec1) When I teach I always introduce new supplementary books, or in the case of new information, I will notify them, try to find updated information for them. For example, new articles, I will inform them but not all details, to urge them to follow up which is quite effective, some issues I lectured, if they want to know more y . ‘This is the article’s name’ y some students follow up, some students come to discuss it with me y it works! (ThaLec2)

Interestingly, there is an agreement amongst all the participants that there was variation among students in terms of attitude, particularly ‘enthusiasm’ and this was influenced by their personal backgrounds, for exampe family, education, financial situation and their own interests. Changing attitudes was recognised as one of the most challenging aspects of teaching. However, they recognised that it was the responsibility of the lecturers to develop such attitudes in the students during the degree programmes. y . Sometimes I feel the rest are our responsibility to give them, but being willing to learn, willing to research comes with them, when they possess these which are in their nature, the rest, e.g. debating, questioning, answering, writing, etc., if these are low, they are our duties, as tertiary teachers, to train them. We can assign coursework y (HisLec1) It takes times to gain these skills. In short periods of time (university studies) you cannot obtain anything, even if you get them they will soon disappear. But if it is with you as habit or skill, it takes some time (to develop), you gradually gathered from schools, primary, secondary schools. (MelStu4)

The findings also reveal that the lecturers helped students with their enquiries for completing coursework: giving advice regarding the extent of the work, referring to information sources and search techniques were mentioned by all the lecturers across the disciplines. Moreover, some lecturers mentioned book introductions and the demonstration of search techniques. The students also revealed that friends were important sources of information, particularly for searching techniques and ICT practice.  Assessment The participants similarly perceive that assessment plays an important role in information literacy education, particularly summative assessment. The lecturers, librarians and students themselves perceive that grading is a tool to motivate students’ learning. Assessment methods that are generally employed are ‘class attendance’, ‘coursework’ and ‘examination’. Class

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attendance is counted as a small part of the assessment, however it was considered to be significant by participants. Since discussion-based learning is considered one of the best methods to develop students’ information literacy, this is the way to motivate students to participate in discussions. Examinations, and in particular coursework, are considered the most effective ways to assess, as well as motivate, students’ learning.

8.5. Discussion and Conclusion Similarly to the literature, information literacy is described as the ability to research information and researching information consists of a set of consecutive processes which are: determining the extent of information needed, locating the potential sources, searching for the information needed in the identified sources, critically evaluating the information obtained, analysing and synthesising the information obtained with existing knowledge and applying and using it to accomplish the task. However, the conceptions of information literacy derived from this study include more encompassing proactive behaviours. The participants prioritised being active learners and regularly obtaining new information as key features. The identification of attitudinal aspects, for example enthusiasm and generic skills, that is English and Third languages skills as being integral to information literacy, whereas previous information literacy models or frameworks do not comment on emphasising these elements. These contribute, for the first time, to a research-based framework for information literacy that is specific to the Thai Higher Education context and also confirm the importance of contextual differences of information literacy. The emphasis on the attitudinal aspects of information literacy, which were explicitly identified by students, lecturers and librarians, implicitly stated in Webber et al. (2005), for example becoming confident, independent practitioners, emphasises the need to broaden the current information literacy frameworks for higher education to include the development of key attitudes. The correlation between the distinct characteristic of different disciplines and differences of perceptions of information literacy also adds to the evidence that the nature of information literacy varies between disciplines. This study also reveals a holistic picture of information literacy education at the Faculty of Arts, Silpakorn University which exists as a holistic approach, integrated through courses across the faculty’s curriculum. Students are engaged in information literacy education through formal and informal education. Students are engaged with different aspects of information literacy through different teaching, learning and assessment

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methods and activities. Independent learning is emphasised as a teaching and learning strategy. Discussion-based and coursework-based instructions are identified as best methods in developing students’ information literacy and assessment plays important role in motivating students’ leaning. Thus, teaching and learning information literacy is deemed primarily the responsibility of academic lecturers. The findings from this study constitute a significant departure from the literature which indicates the widespread acknowledgement of librarians’ involvement in information literacy education and illustrates that librarians are key people in leading information literacy instruction. Whereas in this case, the Information World module, which explicitly includes teaching library skills, is taught by a team of lecturers from the Department of Library Science and not the librarians. Librarians are not involved in information literacy education, but are perceived as service providers. In conclusion, this study has made a new contribution to knowledge by looking at lecturers’, students’ and librarians’ perceptions of information literacy within a single study. A list of attributes associated with an information literate student was presented and the emergence of attitudinal attributes is emphasised. This provides a different perspective on information literacy which is not addressed in the existing literature. The findings from this study also confirm the contextual and disciplinary differences of information literacy. Perceptions of information literacy reflect the perception of information literacy pedagogy and thus impact on information literacy educational practice. Information literacy education not only involves library and information science professionals, but also teachers and learners. Therefore, successful implementation of information literacy education needs close corroboration between these stakeholders in order to design course curriculum and pedagogy.

References American Library Association. (1989). A progress report on information literacy: An update on the American Library Association Presidential Committee on information literacy: Final report. Chicago, IL: American Library Association. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/publications/whitepapers/progressreport. Accessed on 24 April 2007. Andretta, S. (2006). Information literacy: Challenges of implementation. Retrieved from http://www.ics.heacademy.ac.uk/italics/vol5-1/pdf/SAeditorial_final06Jan.pdf. Accessed on 15 May 2007. Association of College and Research Libraries. (2000). The information literacy competency standards for higher education. Chicago, IL: ALA. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/informationliteracycompetency. Accessed on 20 March 2007.

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Bent, M. (2008). Perceptions of information literacy in the transition to higher education. National Teaching Fellowship Project report, Newcastle University. Boon, S., Webber, S., & Johnston, B. (2007). A phenomenographic study of English faculty’s conceptions of information literacy. Journal of Documentation, 63(2), 204–228. Bundy, A. (Ed.). (2004). Australian and New Zealand information literacy framework: Principles, standards and practice. Adelaide: Australian and New Zealand Institute for Information Literacy. Retrieved from http://www.anziil.org/resources/ Info%20lit%202nd%20edition.pdf. Accessed on 5 May 2006. Eisenberg, M. B., Lowe, C. A., & Spitzer, K. L. (2004). Information literacy: Essential skills for the information age. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. Godwin, P., & Parker, J. (2008). Information literacy meets library 2.0. London: Facet Publishing. Hepworth, M., & Wema, E. (2006). The design and implementation of an information literacy training course that integrated information literacy and library science conceptions of information literacy, educational theory and information behaviour research: A Tanzanian pilot study. Retrieved from http://www.ics.heacademy. ac.uk/italics/vol5-1/pdf/hepworth-evans-final.pdf. Accessed on 13 June 2009. Kasowitz-Scheer, A., & Pasqualoni, M. (2002). Information literacy instruction in higher education: Trends and issues. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and Technology. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/ content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1a/19/45.pdf. Accessed on 3 July 2009. Lupton, M. (2008). Information literacy and learning. PhD, Queensland University of Technology. Rader, H. (2003). Information literacy — A global perspective. In A. Martin & H. Rader (Eds.), Information and IT literacy: Enabling learning in the 21 century (pp. 24–42). London: Facet Publishing. Ratteray, O. M. (2002). Integrating information literacy in lower-and upper-level courses: Developing scalable models for higher education. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 28(6), 368–375. Sawetrattanasatian, O. (2008). University library web site design: A case study of the relationship between usability and information literacy development. PhD., University of Canberra, Australia. Stubbings, R., & Franklin, G. (2006). Does advocacy help to embed information literacy into the curriculum? A case study. ITALICS, 5(1). Retrieved from http://www.ics.heacademy.ac.uk/italics/vol5-1/pdf/stubbings-franklin-final.pdf. Accessed on 19 October 2009. Webber, S, Boon, S., & Johnston, B. (2005). A comparison of UK academics’ conceptions of information literacy in two disciplines: English and marketing. Library and Information Research, 29(93), 4–15. Webber, S., & Johnston, B. (2003). Assessment for information literacy: Vision and reality. In A. Martin & H. Rader (Eds.), Information and IT literacy: Enabling learning in the 21st century (pp. 101–111). London: Facet Publishing.

Chapter 9

Building Partnerships for Information Literacy among HE Institutions in African Universities: Opportunities and Challenges — A Case Study Edward Lumande, Babakisi Tjedombo Fidzani and Silas Oluka

Abstract This case study looks at building partnerships and networking relationships that developed in the course of implementing a threeyear (August 2009–August 2012) Information Literacy (IL) in Higher education project ‘‘Developing an Information Literacy Programme for Lifelong Learning for African Universities’’ funded by Development Partners in Higher Education (DelPHE). The process leading to the end of the project has been enriching and opened windows to various professional networking relationships and institutional cooperation within the African region and with those abroad. The contacts have opened new avenues for further research and collaboration in areas such as monitoring and evaluation of the IL programs in Higher Education (HE) institutions. The University of Botswana (UB) has benefited from these collaborative initiatives and this chapter traces the partnerships that evolved in the course of institutionalizing and embedding information literacy at UB, its participation in the DelPHE project, and how the leadership took advantage of opportunities that came along in order to augment and enrich the activities and outcomes

Developing People’s Information Capabilities: Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts Library and Information Science, Volume 8, 127–147 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1876-0562/doi:10.1108/S1876-0562(2013)0000008013

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of the project as well as promote the university’s vision and mission. The chapter concludes by highlighting some of the benefits and challenges of collaboration among institutions, organizations, and individual professionals in advancing the institutional policies, strategic plans, and interests which may be at variance and how some of these challenges can be overcome. Keywords: Partnership; collaboration; information literacy; Africa; University of Botswana; DelPHE; Higher Education

9.1. Introduction This chapter does not discuss ‘‘what is information literacy’’ as there is plenty of information about its definition and content (Elisam & Keya, 2004; Ojedokun & Lumande, 2005; Oluka, 2011a, 2011b; Oluka, Fidzani, & Lumande, 2012), but rather it is a case study of how the University of Botswana (UB) became involved in the DelPHE project and what positive spin offs resulted through professional interaction within the course of the project. Literature is full of papers that points to the need for collaboration between librarians and academic staff in the integration and delivery of information literacy (IL) skills. This chapter traces the partnerships that evolved in the course of institutionalizing IL at UB and how the leadership took advantage of opportunities that came in order to augment and enrich the activities and outcomes of the project. The chapter further highlights the importance of networking among institutions and organizations in advancing the institutional policies and strategic plans. Institutions use a variety of approaches in establishing and integrating IL.

9.2. Literature Review 9.2.1.

Collaboration and Partnerships

Collaboration may take place when two institutions or people work together on a common goal. The need for this usually is to bring their separate competencies to bear on a problem and work for a solution richer in options than might have been possible working alone (Raspa & Ward, 2000). The Oxford Reference Online defines collaboration as ‘‘the action of working with someone to produce something’’ (Home Oxford Reference, n.d.). Jain on the other hand quotes Edwin S. Clay who says partnerships ‘‘y is a state

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of being a partner y and having joint interest’’ (Jain & Nfila, 2011). Bennis in his book Organizing Genius (Bennis, 1997) says that ‘‘y None of us is as smart as all of us.’’ Wilson puts the same idea differently and says collaboration brings together the widest range of talents and resources to solve a problem, build a program, or create something entirely new (Wilson, n.d.). Doug Cook quotes A. T. Himmelman (Cook, 2000) who offered three types of connections that may be associated with library partnerships:  Networking: ‘‘Exchanging information for mutual benefit.’’ This can take place at forums such as conferences, workshops, research days, and other informal connections to facilitate information sharing and exchange. This networking is by the librarian with an academic member of staff.  Coordination: is a formal process of networking dealing with a common agreed problem. In Cook’s example of this level of connection, a librarian, shares a common goal with a classroom faculty member to teach students critical thinking skills, but may work independently to develop a library instruction session for a course.  Collaboration: Collaboration Cook says is a more complex formalized structure which will involve the parties who ‘‘y meet together, plan the assignment, work out a joint presentation schedule y and evaluate the results.’’ These interactions and partnerships are not mutually exclusive as they overlap and continue to form and develop and need to be managed properly. Introducing IL is a challenging task for many Higher Education (HE) institutions (Charbonneau & Croatt-Moore, 2006). One of the challenges faced by librarians is the perceived difference between the academics and librarians. Machin, Harding, and Derbyshire (2009) quote Bowler and Street, and Webber that ‘‘y cultural differences exists that can disadvantage collaborative efforts between academic and library staff.’’ IL by its nature requires stakeholders to collaborate in an effort to accommodate each other for the benefit of student learning. Mackey says that ‘‘These challenges afford libraries exciting opportunities to be more innovative with information literacy programming and to gain new advocates or partners’’ (Mackey & Jacobson, 2005). She says that ‘‘Partners in collaboration share the risks and responsibilities, as well as resources, skills, and benefits’’ (Charbonneau & Croatt-Moore, 2006). Whereas partnerships at institutional level between academic staff and librarians is crucial, it also requires ‘‘cross institutional cooperation and collaboration’’ (Elisam & Keya, 2004). These strategic alliances, networking, and coordination are recommended, whether at an institutional or cross institutional level and requires a

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structure (Elisam & Keya, 2004) within which such activities can be promoted and developed. Librarians are well known for cooperative and collaborative efforts in their service provision. This culture is fundamental to the library and is premised on the principle that no library can be 100% self-sufficient. This has manifested itself in many long-standing resource sharing programs that libraries are involved in such as inter-library loans and consortiums. In South Africa alone there are five regional academic library consortia: Gauteng and Environs Library Consortium (GAELIC), the Free State Libraries and Information Consortium (FRELICO), Cape Libraries Cooperatives (CALICO), Eastern Seaboard Association Libraries (ESAL), and South Eastern Academic Libraries’ System (SEALS) (Ojedokun & Lumande, 2003). This applies to other regions and parts of the world.

9.3. UB Library Experience UB was established 31 years ago (Nfila, n.d.) and it has grown to include the main campus in Gaborone and the Centre for Continuing Education (CCE) in Francistown and the Okavango Research Institute in Maun. It is currently serving over 15,000 students (Nfila, n.d.) most of whom are undergraduates and some of whom attend part-time. It is the first and largest of the two public universities in Botswana. The UB Library serves seven faculties of Business, Education, Engineering & Technology, Health Sciences, Humanities, Science, and Social Sciences. UB as the largest national university in the country is tasked with providing the country with graduates who will participate in the social and economic development of the country. This responsibility is clearly stated in the institution’s mission and vision statements. A number of policy documents have also been put in place to ensure that the university is able to produce graduates who are able to make a meaningful contribution to the national economy. UB through its learning and teaching policy (University of Botswana, 2008) asserts that UB students should be independent learners and also be equipped with lifelong learning skills; one of which is IL. It is worth noting that UB library started its IL program even before the university management recognized the importance of IL in its policy documents. UB library like other academic libraries has gone through a number of stages in terms of the development of IL as an important and critical skill for lifelong learning. The evolution of IL at UB is captured in a number of papers and follows a similar pattern that has been found in most academic libraries. The University of Botswana Library (UBL) has had a long history in offering

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user education (Lamusse, 1996; Lumande, Mbambo, & Roselle, 1996; Lumande, Ojedokun, & Fidzani, 2006; Mbambo & Roselle, 1999; Roselle & Mbambo, 1996). Like most academic libraries, UBL sought to provide a welcoming library environment to new students by conducting library tours which started with the University Librarian, as the post was called then, addressing first-year students on the activities and role of the library in their learning process. The library tour or orientation formed the basic form of library instruction and focused on familiarizing the students with services and resources available but did not include teaching students skills on how they can fully utilize the resources except the use of the card catalogue and which later became the OPAC. In 1996/1997 academic year the orientation content was modified and now included information about what is available, where to find books, and whom to ask for information. Whereas library orientation was for first years, subject librarians further arranged with academic staff for time to conduct bibliographic instruction to senior students on the use of specific information tools. In this way subject librarians had started to practice the skill of networking, which is a key feature in a subject organizational structure. The librarians went beyond just giving students an overview of the library resources and services but actually taught students how to use the OPAC and other topics like searching the Internet. Among the complaints and criticisms of this activity was that students did not value it and as a result many missed these sessions particularly because there was no mark to be gained. Further, the bibliographic instruction being offered did not address the issues relating to the impact of information technology and the proliferation of both print and electronic information sources. The University library has benefited, from its set up, on a subject structure which encourages closer liaison with departments. The concept of faculty liaison, or ‘‘door to door’’ coined by the Health Sciences librarian at UBL, has been an integral part of the IL propagation. Librarians had to sell the concept of IL to the faculty through liaison relationships in the disciplines or faculties they are assigned to. The success of most IL relationships is a result of a strong relationship between the library and faculty. Mbambo (2006) in her evaluation of trends in faculty support in Southern African universities noted that good relations between the library and faculty lead to faculty support of library programs, effective utilization of library services, and improved support from librarians to researchers. McGuinness (2007) brings up a concept of ‘‘working from the top down.’’ He brings to the fore an important point that, though, ‘‘putting down roots with individual academics, librarians must view their ultimate

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objective as the full incorporation of IL as a central cog in the pedagogical wheels of their institutions.’’ McGuinness (2007) adds that y ‘‘while librarians should not completely dismiss the short-term opportunities that are created through targeting ‘academic champions,’ they should focus and direct their energy towards the development of sustainable collaborations that are mandated from the top down and resistant to changes in personnel and other environmental factors.’’ McGuinness (2007) further advances realistic and practical ‘‘strategies which take into account a long-term view of IL development in higher education,’’ as follows: i.

ii. iii. iv.

v.

Identify and exploit opportunities that arise from major restructuring initiatives in your institution: Librarians should be aware of major curriculum reforms that may offer them a chance to reposition and integrate IL on a more permanent basis within the pedagogical structure of the institution. Identify and exploit opportunities arising from innovative pedagogical initiatives. Embedding discipline-sensitive, inquiry-based learning at the heart of the learning experience. Exploiting the synergies between collaborative inquiry, information literacy development and networked learning in new and innovative ways (Levy, n.d.). Work toward the inclusion of IL modules on the roster of training courses offered to academics by institutional teaching and learning units: Rather than invest all their time and energy in the promotion of student IL training to academics, librarians should work to ensure the addition of IL to the list of professional development modules offered to academics within their institutions.

Lobby for the explicit inclusion of IL in mandates and educational directives that are issued by the highest levels of national governance: The strategic positioning of IL on national political agendas should be an ongoing objective of librarians. Therefore the library persevered in its belief for the importance of IL. UB, in time, recognized the changes brought by technology in HE and thus through a Task Force recommendation introduced general education courses (GEC). These were aimed at ensuring that the UB graduates get skills and even attributes that would equip them to function in the work environment and the society as a whole. One of these courses was Computing and Information Skills and the Task Force recommended that the library was to be part of the course. The Library in 2002 formed a partnership with the Department of Computer Science and came up

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with two courses — Computing and Information Skills GEC121 for semester 1 covering topics: Concept of information, Organization of information, Information access tools or (which later changed to ‘‘Finding information’’), Reference sources, and Periodical literature; and GEC122 for semester 2 covering topics: Periodical literature, Indexes, Abstracting indexes and full-text electronic databases, Evaluation of information sources, Legal issues of information use covering Copyright Law, citation, and referencing styles. These were credit bearing courses in which the librarians collaborated with computer science academic staff in teaching, setting of tests and examinations and marking. Computer staff taught basic computing skills and the librarians dealt with the IL content. The course made a breakthrough because for the first time there was a formal course that focused on information skills for all first-year students. However, although the content and syllabus that initially developed in preparation for the course covered upper levels, resources did not allow for this to be rolled out beyond the first-year level of undergraduates.

9.3.1.

Course Linked Information Literacy

To address the gap that developed between the first-year programme and higher levels, the library came up with a term called ‘‘course linked information literacy.’’ Subject librarians were encouraged if not expected to liaise with their assigned faculty and departments and request for time slots to teach IL skills. UBL emphasized the need for librarians to integrate IL in courses at the university but there was no formal or official notice to make the faculty aware of that requirement. At that time the university had not yet come up with policy papers like the Learning and Teaching Policy (2006) and thus it depended on the librarian’s relationship with the faculty to actually bargain the integration of IL in the upper classes. For most librarians at UBL bargaining with lecturers for slots to teach IL was met with some resistance. Academic staff felt that their courses were fully loaded. 9.3.1.1. University Teaching and Learning Policy The UB library was a step ahead of some universities in the region in that developments in the strategic direction of the university created an enabling environment for promoting IL. A strategy for excellence: UB Strategic Plan, 2016 and beyond, facilitated this process. This strategy had six priority areas:  Extending access and participation  Providing relevant and high-quality programs

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Intensifying research performance Strengthening engagement Improving the student experience Enhancing human resources

This strategy had positive impact on IL. Other institutional enabling factors included a number of policies such as Employability Strategy, the Learning and Teaching Policy, as well as the Research Strategy. In addition, the university has an academic program review process for all new courses or courses being revised. The library examined all these policies and decided to tap into them to make itself relevant in the university core business of learning, teaching, and research. 9.3.2.

Learning and Teaching Policy

What is crucial about this policy are the 12 graduate attributes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Information and communication technology knowledge and skills Self-directed, lifelong learning skills Critical and creative thinking skills Problem-solving skills Communication skills Entrepreneurship and employability skills Organizational and teamwork skills Research skills and information literacy Social responsibility and leadership skills Interpersonal skills Cross-cultural fluency Accountability and ethical standards

In these 12 attributes, the library identified numbers 2, 4, and 8 to focus on to market IL to the departments.

9.4. DelPHE Project When the DelPHE project was being put together, UB was already actively in dialog within the university on the issue of IL. As indicated above, the library has constantly been advocating for space in the courses for years with some measure of success, particularly when the general education courses were implemented. The idea that brought about the DelPHE project was first made at the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU)

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inaugural planning meeting of the Libraries and Information Network in October 2007 that was sponsored by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), hosted by UB when the network itself was established. The meeting recognized IL as an important component for effective student learning and it accepted that there were challenges to the establishment of IL in many of the HEIs, especially in Africa. They noted that the process of integrating IL within the curricula was not that straightforward and challenging. Challenges included the lack of methodologies to follow on how to integrate IL in academic programs; how to demonstrate value of the IL skills to both academic staff and students. However, the participants agreed that there was great potential for the role of the library in developing IL and that this is what the librarians should be doing particularly with graduate employability becoming an increasing concern for many institutions. They noted that IL skills add a lot to the perceived and actual value of university degree programs. Libraries might even increase their standing by offering new services, and by showing colleagues how they and their students would benefit from the skills not only to find information but also to analyze and evaluate it. The Vice Chancellor, Professor Bojosi Otlhogile from UB equally supported the presence of IL in the institutional drive for excellence, and he urged librarians to find ways of making this engagement a tangible component of academic discourse in university education. It was agreed that this might be addressed effectively by developing collaborative IL curriculum frameworks through library partnership, which could then be shared across the network and be tailored by individual institutions to fit the needs of their own courses and departments. Convinced of the importance of IL the meeting recommended that HE institutions should collaborate and form partnerships on matters relating to IL to share experience and approaches that can be transferred and adopted by other HE institutions. Thus in 2009 CBU, UB, and University of Abertay Dundee (UAD) formed a partnership to design the project and apply for funding from DelPHE. This partnership of three institutions brought together institutions that were at different levels of IL development. CBU did not have an existing IL program in place at the time, UB was in the process of expanding the program that was already unfolding, and UAD was to be the model upon which the project would be based because it already had such a program running. After a year of negotiations the project was finally approved for funding by DelPHE at the rate of d30,000 per year from 2010 to 2012 under the project title ‘‘Developing an IL Programme for Lifelong Learning in African Universities’’ and CBU library as the lead partner through whom the reporting was to be done with the funding agency.

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The project was intended to bring academic staff and librarians closer together in curriculum design and program implementation in the field of IL, and to help empower libraries to fulfill their role in developing and delivering lifelong university learning strategies. Over the last three years, UB has been privileged to be part of this project. For UB this project focused on identifying strategies for bringing lecturers and library professionals closer together in curriculum design and program implementation, and ways of empowering libraries in general to fulfill their role in developing and delivering lifelong university learning strategies. The project itself also had the goal of coming up with an evidence-based framework for embedding IL into university programs as well as to provide a pedagogical training program for library professionals and academic staff.

9.4.1.

Principal Stakeholders and Project Participants

The fundamental aim of the project was to bring stakeholders to work together. Stakeholders were students, library professionals and academics, and other selected university staff and senior managers who were thought would recognize the value and role of IL in the broader institutional excellence mission and its role in enhancing academic quality and engagement goals of the university such as faculty deputy deans. It was recognized from the start of the project that CBU was behind UB and therefore was to benefit from the processes employed by UB. UB was to take the lead and then attempted to replicate all UB project activities at CBU with the hope that an active IL program would be started by the time the project came to a close.

9.4.2.

Project Implementation

The IL DelPHE project came at a critical time in the on-going institutional efforts and commitment to embed quality across program planning, design, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation, alongside human resource development which is a necessity for effective program delivery. UBL approached the Centre for Academic Development (CAD), as the center responsible for academic development, to be partners on the project. The two departments quickly identified three members of staff (the deputy director Library Services, a senior librarian, and an academic from CAD — deputy director responsible for teaching and learning) to form the core local project planning team to implement the project and collaborate

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with the other two project partners in Zambia and Abertay Dundee. Strategically, the UB project team requested the acting director for CAD to be the patron of the project and the deputy vice-chancellor (Academic Affairs) agreed to be the sponsor of IL in the university. This meant that the project had the blessing of two important departments of the university that are directly responsible for academic affairs and policies on program development. The UB project team further decided to have a group of senior academics who would be called the IL Reference group who would assist in advocacy efforts. This was done to ensure that IL was not simply a ‘‘library’’ project but to ensure that the academia understood the value of IL and to firmly root it within the university culture from the top management to the departmental and program level. CBU also formed a team of three (the university librarian, a Librarian, and an academic staff member). UAD library also had one staff member responsible for communicating and providing advice to the project team. The joint project team engagement and assessment of progress by the three institutions were quarterly. These engagements were mainly preceded by either a workshop or a conference on the subject of IL.

9.4.3.

Conceptualizing the Project — UB Context (November 2009–August 2010)

9.4.3.1. Approach Once the project was approved by DelPHE which was toward the end of 2010, the UB project planning team met and the first task of the project team was to study the project philosophy, rationale, and its goals. This is because two of the key UB staff that had drafted the request for funding had left the university. The CAD staff member also was brought into the team only after the funding had been approved. The team conducted a literature survey on the subject and examined UB policies and strategic position documentation. This process allowed for a common understanding of the existing institutional policies as well as an awareness of what current IL issues were in higher institutions of learning. At the end of this process a three-year rolling work plan with contextualized goals and outcomes that were linked or had a bearing to the university’s ‘‘A Strategy for Excellence the University of Botswana Strategic Plan to 2016 and Beyond’’ (University of Botswana Council, 2008) was drawn-up. It was important that although the project was meant to come up with tools that would be of use to other African institutions of higher learning, it was at the same time necessary that activities were practical, relevant, and promoted the UB strategic vision and goals.

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9.4.3.2. Baseline study The second task in the first year of the project work plan was to conduct a baseline study among academic staff and students. The goal of the study was to uncover the institutional context of ILS in the courses, pedagogy, and institutional support services that existed. The team had felt that the project needed to start off on a firm ground and not on speculative assumptions about the stakeholders’ perception of the importance and practice of IL at UB. The baseline proposal and survey instrument were developed and data collection was augmented by focus group discussions and interviews of some students, academics, and librarians. Distribution of the questionnaire was done with the assistance of research assistants. Data analysis of the study was undertaken using SPSS tool. A detailed report (Oluka, 2011a, 2011b) was published to be published in this book, suffice it to say that there was an appreciable convergence of understanding of what IL is, conceptually, among students and staff. Staff and student feedback indicated a significant IL absence in curriculum. In terms of learning, teaching, and assessment as a whole the study revealed specific areas of IL that present challenges across programs in ways that could impact institutional quality. The study concluded that IL frameworks and toolkits together with staff professional development and student academic support would be required in order to realize institutional goals for program quality. 9.4.3.3. Embedding IL at UB Since the start of the project, CAD and UBL have been working together to bring academic staff and library professionals to partner in curriculum design and program implementation in the field of IL, and in this process empower the library to fulfill its role in developing and delivering university lifelong learning strategic goals. Part of the first and second year of the project the team was developing an evidence-based framework for embedding IL into university programs by engaging academic staff and librarians in workshops. Some of these workshops raised awareness and highlighted the importance of IL as a critical ingredient for academic excellence among students, librarians, academic staff, and university management. Other workshops were meant to develop competencies and professional development in IL of the stakeholders. The last in this line of training was a reflective conference and hands-on workshop represented by regional partners that converged at Copperbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia in May 2011. The outcomes of these undertakings culminated in drafts of an IL framework and IL toolkits. This workshop was repeated at UB. As awareness was growing among the academic staff on IL, UB library commenced discussions with CADs Communication and Study Skills Unit (CSSU) with a view to initiating a formal process of integrating IL in the CSSU course structures. Following several joint meetings and retreats that considered the content and course outlines, an agreement was reached to

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revise CSSU courses for them to reflect IL components. The revised and IL recast courses of CSSU with a faculty discipline focus have been processed and approved by the University’s Academic Program Review Planning Committee for implementation at year-one level. For UB it was fundamental for the success of the project to partner with CAD. It would not have been easy to get the courses approved if they emanated from the library, which is not an academic department. Nevertheless, the library’s approach has not been to create a separate IL course, but rather infuse IL in existing identified programs at different levels of study. This has been achieved at first-year level. However, leaving it at year-one level is not enough since students have reported and shown to lack these skills at higher level of study because they had forgotten the skills they learnt in their first year of study. The intention is to have IL in other programs as well. To achieve this, it needed academic staff to appreciate the value of IL skills in their courses. To bring about the needed awareness, the project had to organize a series of workshops that was jointly attended by representatives from academic departments and librarians. Those who attended these workshops at UB included assistant deans and program coordinators. Some of the themes covered in the workshops included: Anchoring IL for quality learning in HE programs in Sub-Sahara Africa: frameworks, models, experiences, challenges, and opportunities; pedagogical skills and IL curriculum development skills for library staff and academics. The involvement of the deputy director and head of the Teaching and Learning Unit at CAD and a member on the project team was very critical to the success of the workshops. This was because of the way he linked IL to the Learning and Teaching Policy of the university in which the key to evaluating the quality and relevance of programs is the integration of a range of graduate attributes into the study program design and implementation. Invitations to participants came from his office. This approach was later also adopted by the project counterparts at CBU who managed to bring in the director of Academic Development Centre (ADC) to be part of their project team. 9.4.3.4. Toolkits During the second year of the project and once the training workshops that elicited ideas from academic staff and librarians on how they thought IL should be part of the academic programs, it was left to the project team to draft the ILS Toolkits. The CAD at UB was given the consultancy role to draft the toolkits because of its expertise in curriculum design. At UB, CAD is an enabler in the provision of strategic support for curriculum development and implementation for the university. It had also been a partner since the beginning of the IL project and so had an insight into the activities carried out and what was envisaged in the

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toolkits for them to be able to effectively and within the required timeframe to draft and produce toolkits. Since CAD does not have professional librarians, one of the librarians on the team was part of the drafting team (Table 9.1). A joint workshop between CBU and UB was organized to review the draft toolkits and given a final approval for publication. 9.4.4.

Advocacy

Guided by the baseline study results, the UB project team undertook a series of advocacy initiatives. These included dissemination of the baseline findings Table 9.1: Information literacy — DelPHE project journey at UB. Activity

Objectives/Content/Outcome

Stakeholders

   

Collaborators

 UBL, CAD (internal), CBU, UNZA, UM, IDS (external)

Baseline study

 Stakeholders’ perception of importance and practice of IL at UB

Policies

Strategy for excellence Learning & Teaching policy Work plan Students, academic staff, librarians, administrators

at curriculum and pedagogy level

 Study concluded that IL frameworks and toolkits together with



Workshops

staff professional development and student academic support would be required in order to realize institutional goals for academic quality Findings shared at conferences at: CBU, Zambia (August 2010); Botswana, UB ILS SCANUL ECS conference (December 2010); and LILAC, UK, (April 2011)

 Integrating information literacy in the curriculum: frameworks, models, experiences, challenges, and opportunities

 Information Literacy Pedagogy  CBU/UB joint project meetings IL course integration

CSSU communication & study skills courses

 Baseline findings shared at conferences at: CBU, Zambia (August 2010); Botswana, SCANUL Advocacy

 ECS conference, Gaborone, Botswana (December 2010); LILAC, UK, (April 2011); SCANUL ECS conference, Nairobi, Kenya (December 2012); during Information Literacy Week, September 10–14, 2012.

Source: (adapted from Machin et al., 2009).

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among a cross-section of stakeholders and partners in the project at UB, regionally and internationally. Presentations were made to an international conference that was held at CBU, Kitwe, Zambia in August 2010 that included representation from University of Malawi, University of Zambia, Copperbelt University, and UB. This interaction was significant in that it brought in two additional universities in the project activities. Other presentations were made to the UB library staff and the staff of the department of Library and Information Studies; to the UB/CBU joint meeting held in Gaborone on February 24 and 25, 2011; to the INASP Information Literacy Workshop for librarians and researchers and academics in Institutions of Higher learning and Colleges of Zambia, August 16–18, 2010. The same information was further presented to the PreSCECSAL information literacy workshop entitled ‘‘Strengthening Information Literacy Interventions; Using Creative Approaches to Teaching and Learning’’ on information skills, December 5, 2010 at which presentations were made by two members of the project team. A posting was also made on the Chat literacy web site (http://www.eldis.org/) in December 2011. At an institutional level a series of briefing meetings and presentations were carried out to library staff and faculty executives. The acting director, CAD, the project patron also made briefing presentations at the Academic Affairs Division Management Team (AADMT). This is the team whose members include all deans and chaired by the deputy vicechancellor for academic affairs. This was a strategic move on our part in order to keep the deans within the loop so that later when we decided to go down to the departmental level and talk to their staff, the HODs would be on our side or at least would have been familiar with the subject matter.

9.4.5.

Partnership Opportunities — Tapping into Emerging Synergies

Looking out for opportunities to enrich a project is always advantageous and proved useful for the UB team. Project teams need to be open to ‘‘outside’’ input and suggestions and be ready to share the progress of the work done and not wait until the end of the project as a whole. In the case of the UB, when the project team interacted with their colleagues at the different forums on the issue of IL, it was clear that there was common interest in the subject in many institutions. The process leading to the end of the DelPHE project opened windows to many potential networking relationships and institutional collaborations in the region and abroad. Such networking has had positive impact on the end result of the project as well as on the IL programming at UB. The networking contacts have opened new avenues for further research and collaboration in areas such as monitoring and evaluation of the IL programs in HE institutions.

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In many ways the UBL and CAD staff have benefited from collaborative initiatives during the life of DelPHE IL project mainly in capacity building and sharing of experiences. The contact with staff at Dundee was enriching and they provided insight into the planning of workshops and conferences held. They also provided technical support in the production of the final version of the IL toolkits.

9.4.7.

UNZA–IDS–INASP Workshop

Through professional networking, a partnership was established with the IDS staff that was facilitating INASP funded workshops. Important among them was the ‘‘Information Literacy Workshop for Librarians and Researchers and Academics in Institutions of Higher Learning and Colleges’’ from August 16 to 18, 2010 in Lusaka, Zambia. The UB DelPHE project team was invited to share its activities, particularly on how UB started integrating IL in academic programs. These contacts with IDS led to an establishment of a mutually beneficial informal partnership. The workshop in Lusaka was followed by further sharing at a UB, IDS hosted SCECSAL Pre-Conference workshop on the theme: ‘‘Strengthening Information Literacy Interventions; Using Creative Approaches to Teaching and Learning’’ on information skills, December 5, 2010. At these workshops, a collaborative network was mooted to consolidate the gains made by UB, IDS, and INASP among others in the area of IL. Specifically, the area of monitoring and evaluation was seen to be lacking in many institutional drives to introduce IL and required a collaborative effort to develop the necessary tools. The IDS facilitator was invited a few months later to facilitate at a conference UB library was organizing on behalf of the Standing Conference of Academic National University Librarians in Eastern Central Southern Africa (SCANUL ECS). These two workshops were attended by people from different institutions that had interest in IL and were interested in linking up with others with similar interests and projects. Among them were the officials from IDS, INASP, University of Loughborough, and from Electronic Information for Libraries (EIFL). As a follow-up to the pre-conference workshop, an informal meeting was held between IDS, INASP representative, and some of the UB project members. This meeting was as a result of interest triggered by the UB experiences in the DelPHE IL project. The meeting discussed a possible opportunity for a parallel project on monitoring and evaluation of IL programs. The issue was further discussed when one of the project members was invited to participate and make a

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presentation at the LILAC conference that was held in the United Kingdom in April 2011. Three institutions (University of Zambia, UB, and University of Malawi) were identified to be partners to cooperate on a project to develop monitoring and evaluation tools with the support of IDS and the University of Loughborough. From UB’s point of view, any such work on IL was to be a continuation of its own efforts in line with the institutional efforts some of which had already been undertaken under the DelPHE project. It took time to come to an understanding with the ‘‘lead’’ cooperating partner on what the objectives and the processes to take for the new project. It took a three days workshop of all UB stakeholders to find a common way forward in terms of what areas were to be addressed. This was crucial because initially the approach did not seem to be responding to the local needs. The DelPHE project also benefited further from the activities of IDS. Two of the IDS/INASP trained IL facilitators were requested and provided training at both UB and CBU training workshops on IL pedagogy. This was an important addition to the project which had not even been in the initial plan of activities. This means that projects need to be flexible to be able to adjust and accommodate relevant input from stakeholders and other interested parties within the wider profession context.

9.4.8.

Challenges

Challenges are many that will be faced by project partners. The first challenge of the UB team was the distances between the three collaborating institutions, CBU, and Abertay Dundee, which meant face-to-face meetings, would be spaced. Whereas, the two African partners where able to meet every quarter, the representative from Abertay Dundee was only able to participate by video-conferencing and e-mail communication. Apart from the common goal for the three institutions, CBU and UB were expected to each implement or develop programs of activities from which recommendations and practical experiences would emanate for the development of IL within each institution. This did not work at a fast enough pace for a number of reasons. One reason was to do with late release of funds which ate into the project period. Second, impact of IL activities at CBU and UB were not the same due to the fact that institutions were at different stages. UB was already integrating IL in programs whereas CBU was still sensitizing academics and librarians on the IL and having the IL concept paper discussed and approved by faculty boards. Other challenges were to do with the partners having or not having what Machin calls ‘‘shared meaning.’’ Machin says ‘‘y having openly shared perspectives and listened to the views of all participants, agreement needs to

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be reached on what the team is trying to achieve and how this will be articulated’’ (Machin et al., 2009). This scenario was faced by the UB team at two levels. The first was to ensure that academic staff and librarians are able to come together and look at issues from the same point of view. This was done by bringing together the two stakeholders in workshops which highlighted the clear roles and contribution each one would bring to the learning and delivery of IL. This proved useful to the development of harmonious relationships. The second was when following up on the monitoring and evaluation system that was to be developed jointly with IDS as an offshoot of DelPHE project. There was no project document agreed upon or shared among the proposed partners. UB felt that the issue of partnership should involve developing a memorandum of understanding or a project plan document which would outline who the partners are and what their role is. The project plan also should indicate the project objectives in detail. Cooperating institutions may have to agree prior to the implementation on the source of funding and have an indication of the intellectual property ownership of the proceedings or product. Unfortunately, the third part was unaware of the significance of these constraints and also because of time constraints only drafted a brief proposal. This is an example of the challenges associated with partnerships and forming partnerships. The brief proposal that was drafted for the proposed new project on monitoring and evaluation did not meet all these requirements, which fosters a common understanding of the project. In this case it should have indicated how it differs with DelPHE and how it would complement DelPHE or continue from where DelPHE would have ended. UB team was of the view that providing information or being a study object does not constitute partnership. In fact the other party was keen to be fully participative and collaborative. Whereas the initial understanding was that the next collaborative project would be a follow-up or build on the DelPHE project results but the substantive proposal from partners looked different and seemed a repetition of the DelPHE activities. In order to come up with common understanding among the involved parties a workshop was organized at UB in order to identify what it was the UB needed to do to advance IL at the university first and foremost and second to ensure that there were clear identified areas of common interest that were to be studied. The UB workshop was held from May 22 to 24, 2012 at the University of Botswana, Gabarone, was highly participative, and successful and the UB team were able to prioritize and develop their ideas further on priorities and ways to monitor and evaluate further activities. The workshop provided UB with the opportunity to reflect on the current situation at UB with regard to fostering information literate, critical

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thinking independent learners and, in particular introduced an approach that could be used to frame further monitoring and evaluation activities, and to enable ideas to be shared with regard to future plans and possible collaboration. The workshop was titled: ‘‘Exploring International Partnerships for the Development of Information Literate (IL), Critical Thinking, and Independent Learners.’’ The workshop (Hepworth & Duvigneau, 2012), funded by IDS, was organized by the University of Botswana Library and Centre for Academic development and facilitated by Dr. Mark Hepworth (Department of Information Science, Loughborough University) and Siobhan Duvigneau (The British Library for Development, the Institute of Development Studies (IDS)).

9.5. Conclusion In conclusion, the IL activities at UB have come a long way. The DelPHE IL project came at a critical time in the on-going institutional efforts and commitment to enhancing academic quality across program planning, design, implementation, and monitoring, alongside human resource development for effective delivery. With the demonstrated commitment of UB Executive Management, the capacity building activities goals initiated by DelPHE IL project are set to stay on track and contribute to enhancement of academic programs at UB. Collaboration through formal and/or informal partnerships is useful as they are a form of benchmarking and should be promoted within and across institutions. Dialogue and professional interaction among stakeholders, be it through face-to-face meetings, workshops, or by other communication means will resolve many differences for the common good.

References Bennis, W. (1997). Organizing genius: The secrets of creative collaboration. London: Nicholas Brealey. Charbonneau, D. H., & Croatt-Moore, C. F. (2006). The ABC’s of building information partnerships: Factors for success in building active and engaged partnerships. Library Scholarly Publications, Paper 30, 5pp. Retrieved from http:// digitalcommons.wayne.edu/libsp/3 Cook, D. (2000). Creating connections: A review of the literature. In D. Raspa & D. Ward (Eds.), The collaborative imperative: Librarians and faculty working together in the information universe (pp. 19–38). Chicago, IL: The American Library Association. Elisam, M., & Keya, A. P. (2004). Building information skills among undergraduate students in universities: A case of Makerele University. Makerele Journal of Higher Education, 1, 92–103.

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Hepworth, M., & Duvigneau, S. (2012). Building research capability: Enabling critical thinking through information literacy in Africa. Brighton: IDS. Home Oxford Reference. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.oxfordreference.com/. Accessed on June 8, 2013. Jain, P., & Nfila, R. B. (2011). Developing strategic partnerships for national development: A case of Botswana. Library Review, 60(5), 1–14. Lamusse, F. (1996). Report on student orientation, 1992 in take. Library plans for NDP 8: 1997–2003 (Doc. UB NDP 8/040, 26 June), 6pp., University of Botswana Library. Lumande, E., Mbambo, B., & Roselle, A. (1996). Information literacy skills programme: A report (10pp.), University of Botswana. Lumande, E., Ojedokun, A., & Fidzani, B. (2006). Information literacy skills course delivery through WebCT: The University of Botswana library experience. International Journal of Education and Development using ICT [Online], 2(1). Retrieved from http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu/viewarticle.php?id=96. Machin, A. I., Harding, A., & Derbyshire, J. (2009). Enhancing the student experience through effective collaboration: A case study. New Review of Academic Librarianship, 15, 145–159. doi: 10.1080/13614530903240437. Mackey, T. P., & Jacobson, T. E. (2005). Information literacy: A collaborative endeavor. College Teaching, 53(4), 140–144. Mbambo, B. (2006). A review of international trends in library faculty support in higher education: A special focus on Southern African university libraries. In Subject librarians: Engaging with the learning and teaching environment (pp. 175–187). Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. Mbambo, B., & Roselle, A. (1999). Integrating information literacy skills instruction into the curriculum: Comparison of two approaches. In A. Kari, et al. (Eds.), LOEX of the west: Collaboration and instructional design in a virtual environment (pp. 145–158). New York, NY: JAI Press. McGuinness, C. (2007). ‘‘Exploring strategies for integrated information literacy: From academic champions’’ to institution-wide change. Communications in Information Literacy, 1(1), 26–38. Nfila, R. B. (n.d.) Academic libraries support for e-learning: Initiatives and opportunities — The case of University of Botswana Library. Ojedokun, A. A., & Lumande, E. (2003). Cooperative electronic networks of academic libraries in Southern Africa. Information Development, 21(1), 66–73. Ojedokun, A. A., & Lumande, E. (2005). The integration of information literacy skills into a credit earning programme at the University of Botswana. African Journal of Library, Archives, and Information Science, 15(2), 17–124. Oluka, S. (2011a). Strengthening institutional capacity in information literacy: UB DELPHE project experience, University of Botswana. Oluka, S. (2011b). Strengthening institutional capacity in information literacy: UB DeLPHE project: Baseline study of the University of Botswana experience. Gaborone, DeLPHE Team, University of Botswana. Oluka, S., Fidzani, B., & Lumande, E. (2012). Developing an information literacy programme in higher education: A University of Botswana environmental scan. Paper presented at a joint University of Botswana, Copperbelt University and University of Abertay Dundee conference, Kitwe, Zambia, March (13pp.).

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Raspa, D., & Ward, D. (2000). Listening for collaboration faculty and librarians: Faculty and librarians working together. In D. Raspa & D. Ward (Eds.), Collaborative imperative: Librarians and faculty working together in the information universe. Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries. Roselle, A., & Mbambo, B. (1996). Partners in education: The faculty and the library. Higher Education Development Unit Bulletin, No. 14, pp. 14–15. University of Botswana. (2008). Learning and teaching policy. Retrieved from http:// www.ub.bw/documents/Learning%20and%20Teaching%20Policy.pdf. Accessed on July 1, 2012. University of Botswana Council. (2008). A strategy for excellence: The University of Botswana strategic plan to 2016 and beyond. To be a leading centre of academic excellence. Retrieved from http://www.ub.bw/documents/strategic%20plan%20 approved%20by%20council%20june%202008%20final%20closed.pdf. Accessed on July 1, 2012.

SECTION III THE LINK BETWEEN UNIVERSITY AND WORK

Chapter 10

Perspectives on Legal Education and the Role of Information Literacy in Improving Qualitative Legal Practice Vicki Lawal, Christine Stilwell, Rosemary Kuhn and Peter G. Underwood

Abstract This chapter examines the efforts undertaken to restructure the legal education system in South Africa and Nigeria. It investigates the connection between contextual influences and professional development, particularly with respect to the concept of legal information literacy and the value of acquired educational skills in the context of legal practice. The chapter provides insights to the needs and challenges for graduate requirement for legal information literacy skills in the effort to ensure productivity in the legal education system in Africa. Data were obtained using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Outcomes from the study were supportive of the importance of information literacy as central to the development of professional competence. Findings also point to a need for greater collaboration between the legal education system and the legal profession in narrowing the gap between the teaching and practice of law specifically in the design and implementation of an information literacy framework for the legal education system. Keywords: Information literacy; legal education; legal practice; South Africa; Nigeria

Developing People’s Information Capabilities: Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts Library and Information Science, Volume 8, 151–166 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1876-0562/doi:10.1108/S1876-0562(2013)0000008014

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10.1. Introduction The impact of globalisation has brought about changes to the context of legal practice particularly with respect to developments in legal information provision and the need for increased specialisation in the various aspects of law. Observations by some commentators have indicated that successful legal practice is increasingly dependent on practical knowledge of information skills and its effective application to the context of the workplace (Kuhlthau & Tama, 2001, pp. 27, 30; Otike & Matthews, 2000, p. 242; Wall & Johnston, 1997, p. 98). Also, studies in the workplace have shown that the globalised economy of the future requires people who are skilled and innovative in handling information in various formats (Cheuk, 2002, p. 2). This perspective further re-affirms the importance of information literacy skills as the most important skills set for knowledge workers in the information age (Bruce & Candy, 2000, pp. 4, 5). In the practice of law, changes in the structure of the legal profession have highlighted the need to restructure the legal education system in order to produce graduates who can work well in a globalised and knowledge driven economy and who are creative and flexible learners in the workplace (Mamman, 2009, p. 2; Owasanoye, 2000, p. 175). These changes have also highlighted the need to reconstitute the legal education system by paying greater attention to the critical value of skills training and other clinical experiences that can transform law graduates into effective legal practitioners in the workplace (Konefsky & Sullivan, 2011). In the light of these challenges, the role of formal legal education in instilling generic and specific skills for qualitative legal practice has become an area of focus among legal academics and the practicing bar particularly with regard to the need to facilitate the development of job-specific skills that are transferable to the workplace in order to meet the demands of the twenty-first century.

10.2. Information Literacy, Legal Information Literacy and the Legal Profession Kuhn (2008, p. 486) defines information literacy as an active problemsolving process and an amalgam of skills and knowledge concerned with identifying an information need, finding, evaluating and using a range of information to answer a particular need in an appropriate way. In the educational system, information literacy constitutes an important tool for facilitating and enhancing teaching and learning. Definitions of the concept within the educational context which emphasise the user’s ability to locate, evaluate and use information resources have increasingly fortified the active

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teaching and learning process as a holistic approach for developing knowledge and skills (Association of College and Research Libraries [ACRL], 2000; Warmkessel & McCade, 1997, p. 81). The importance of information literacy can be measured by the attention it has received at the global level as a fundamental factor in improving teaching and learning in higher education, improving professional skills in the workplace and encouraging an informed citizenry and governance in a democratic society. Current research in information literacy skills training is exploring how learning in the workplace environment can be more contextualised to reflect professional skills demand. Experiences of the impact of information literacy in the workplace indicate a greater need for professional skills to meet new and undefined situations. In the knowledgebased economy, employees are not only required to have job-related skills but also the ability to work collectively, share information and create knowledge for problem-solving and effective decision-making (Correia & Teixeira 2002, pp. 3, 10–11). In the legal field, the peculiarities of legal information resources require a skilful approach by the user in the ability to locate a variety of primary and secondary sources and to evaluate their relevance and applicability to problem-solving. In legal practice, studies in the information behaviour of lawyers have shown that the pattern of their information-seeking behaviour, as with other professions, is informed by the kind of work they do (Otike & Matthews, 2000, p. 242). Legal practice is, however, more information intensive in the sense that a considerable amount of information is required in order to accomplish a given task. Legal cases usually include such responsibilities as advising clients on their rights and liabilities, drafting conveyances and leases of property, deeds of partnerships and other commercial agreements, wills, client representations in court cases, and so on, all of which require the practical application of legal theory and knowledge and an effective legal research skills in problem-solving (Leckie, Pettigrew & Sylvain, 1996, p. 173; Tuhumwire & Okello-Obura, 2010, p. 1). Consequently, technological developments and the expanding array of legal electronic databases have indicated that successful legal practice in the information technology age will depend on the level of acquired information literacy skills and their applicability to the techniques of legal research in the legal profession (Du Plessis & Du Toit, 2006, p. 369). It is in this regard that the concept of legal information literacy has become relevant to the context of legal practice as well as the best instructional approach to teaching legal research and writing in the legal education system. The uniqueness of the concept lies within the disciplinary context of the legal profession itself, that is, the form, organisation, access and distribution of legal materials, which has been central to the development of law as a discipline and has currently redefined legal research with a focus on and about the use of legal materials

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(Hanson 2002, pp. 572–577). With the changing legal information environment, complex tasks in legal research now require formulating new approaches and creating ways of looking at the evidence in a case in order to solve a given problem (Shavers, 2001, p. 411). The prospects of developing qualitative legal skills for legal practice have therefore placed a greater responsibility on the legal education system in Africa to focus more on the quality of teaching and the value of information skills acquisition for effective legal practice (Wall & Johnston, 1997, p. 98). The concept of legal information literacy has challenged the role of legal education systems towards fostering the development of students’ abilities in conducting independent research especially in the electronic environment and has served as a basis for restructuring the legal education curricula through information literacy (Bintliff, 2007, p. 263; Keefe, 2005, p. 121; Peoples, 2005, p. 678).

10.3. Legal Information Literacy and the Context of Legal Education in South Africa and Nigeria The system of legal education in any country constitutes the most critical component for the development of a sound legal profession. The effectiveness of its practical skills training forms the necessary foundation for the development of expert skills within any field of law. An analysis of the context of the legal education system in South Africa and Nigeria has shown that various efforts have been undertaken towards encouraging the inculcation of legal information skills. Iya (2000: Introduction) notes that with the restoration of democracy in 1994 considerable changes had been undertaken to incorporate equality in the legal education system in South Africa. Kuhn (2008, p. iii) also noted that as part of the efforts towards redressing the level of preparedness of undergraduate law students at the university level, changes to the new national qualification requirements emphasised the development of a range of skills such as problem-solving, numeracy, computer skills, and writing for effective legal practice. Currently, the challenge faced by the legal education system in South Africa is that of implementing changes that reflect domestic needs as well as tackling issues of a global nature. In Nigeria, the impact of globalisation and advances in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the past few years has challenged the legal education system to produce more highly qualified and skilled legal practitioners who can practice beyond the local domain. One of the most important areas of consideration in this regard is the curriculum and content of legal education and teaching methods at the university level and the

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Nigerian Law School (NLS) (Mamman, 2009, pp. 4, 5). Changes advocated for curriculum reform were aimed at giving more attention to skills-based programmes and the need to alter teaching methods towards more participatory learning processes at both the university and the Law School levels. The increasing challenge of these changes has intensified the demand among legal academics and practitioners for a more standardised legal education system in Nigeria in order to ensure the development of practical skills that are transferable to the workplace (Network of University Legal Aid and Institutions (NULAI), 2006, pp. 4, 5; Grimes, 2009: The reforms). Attempts at reforming legal education have been undertaken in various countries such as Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States with the aim of revitalizing effective teaching and learning methods in ways that enhance practical experiences in the study of law. Legal educational reforms in the United States, for example, formed the basis for the development of the MacCrate Report of 1992 (American Bar Association, 1992). The efforts towards such reforms are motivated by the need to renew professionalism and develop a new framework in legal education that would ensure a transition from content-based to outcome-based method of instruction in the study of law. Such developments in any law school help to reshape the practice of law especially with respect to the achievement of qualitative professional legal skills (Garth & Martin, 1993, p. 469; Kuhn, 2008, p. 97; Montgomery, 2008, p. 324; Stuckey & The Clinical Association, 2007, p. 45). In South Africa and Nigeria, it is noted that changes to the curriculum in the legal education system have indicated the efforts so far undertaken to include such courses that will enable graduate lawyers apply their skills to complex legal systems. However, a persistent problem observed is the gap between the skills acquired during legal training at the educational level and the extent to which they are effectively transferred to the workplace. Lawal’s (2009) study, which investigated the relevance of information literacy in the context of legal education, specifically as it affects issues on the conduct of the legal research skills of undergraduate law students at the University of Cape Town, South Africa and the University of Jos, Nigeria, has shown that the legal curricula, particularly in Nigeria, has not succeeded in the task of educating students to be effective in developing information skills that are critical for the legal workplace. Findings of the study provided insight on the need for core standards and competencies for legal information literacy to be integrated into basic research instruction in the legal education system. Findings also contributed to an understanding to the conceptual development of legal information literacy, particularly in Africa where it has not received much scholarly attention. The study upon which this chapter is based set out to investigate the connection between formal legal education and work-related information literacy skills and practices. It examined the responsibility of legal education

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institutions in Nigeria in increasing the efficiency with which professional expertise is developed for the legal workplace. Based on the findings of the study, this chapter analyses the educational underpinnings involved in implementing an integrated information literacy programme for legal education in Nigeria and contributes to an understanding of the concept of legal information literacy and its relevance to the development of professional competence for qualitative legal practice.

10.4. Theoretical Framework In undertaking the study, Kuhlthau’s Information Search Process (ISP) model was employed. Kuhlthau’s ISP model presents an iterative aspect of the information-seeking process of users through the various stages which include Initiation, Selection, Exploration, Formulation, Collection and Presentation. The model describes the feelings, thoughts and actions of the user in an information-seeking task starting with the Initiation to the Presentation stage (Kuhlthau, 2004, p. 185). Each of the stages of the model provides an opportunity to test how theoretical knowledge can be transferred to practical situations through the search process. The model is a synthesis of cognitive information science and constructivist learning theory which emphasises the ability of the individual to construct meaning in a given situation. It is this ability for creative thinking that leads to an awareness of need for information in problemsolving. Accordingly, the progressive nature in the practical application of each of the stages indicates a gradual advancement by the user from the state of being a novice to an expert in the effort towards attaining a ‘‘sense of ownership’’ in the search process (Kuhlthau, 1989: Summary of the five studies). In conducting the study of legal practitioners in Nigeria, the model was useful for investigating the adequacy of information literacy skills training received during undergraduate legal education and at the NLS and to determine the level of preparedness and competency of the law graduates known as ‘‘aspirant barristers’’ for legal practice. Through the model, investigations of the aspects of the affective dimension associated with information seeking were also found to be linked to the perceived level of task complexity experienced by the aspirant barristers. These findings confirm that emotions are directly relevant to learning and can either facilitate or block learning activity (Moon, 2004, pp. 53, 54). In the legal profession, the cognitive and affective domains constitute the centre of professional development with respect to the acquisition of intellectual skills and the development of analytical and evaluative skills (Nichols, 2005, pp. 441, 442). The ISP model thus provided a framework for the study by

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which the connection between learning, experience and the development of expertise among the aspirant barristers in the legal workplace could be assessed.

10.5. Methodology The study employed a case study method which provided an opportunity for rich descriptions and an in-depth analysis of the complexity and social context of the case under study (Punch 1998, p. 150). The first group of the sampled population for the study comprised the aspirant barristers who are law graduates undertaking bar examinations to qualify to practice as lawyers under the Nigerian legal system. The choice of this category of law graduates was for the purpose of determining the extent to which they are able to transfer and apply recently acquired information literacy skills from the educational environment to the workplace, having recently concluded their undergraduate studies at the university. The second group comprised a group of law firms which were selected as areas of placement training for the aspirant barristers. The process of data collection was undertaken through the administration of separate questionnaires to the two groups of respondents. A total of 620 copies of the questionnaire were administered to the graduate lawyers of the NLS of which 515, representing 83% of the total questionnaires responses, were completed and returned. Total responses obtained from the law firms were 202 out of the 341; this figure represents 59% of the total responses received. Both quantitative and qualitative data were used in the process of data collection and analysis (Putney 2010, p. 118). In applying mixed methods to the study, qualitative methods were used in addressing contextual issues in the study which enabled the researcher to provide a rich description and explanation of the processes of the local context being explored. Quantitative methods were then used for measuring certain factors considered important in the relevant research literature which helped in complementing the findings obtained through qualitative methods (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004, p. 19; Ngulube, Mokwatlo & Ndwandwe, 2009, p. 107; Tashakkori & Teddlie 2009, p. 283).

10.6. Research Objectives and Questions The objectives of the study included, among other things, the need to examine evidence of information literacy-related practices in the legal workplace in Nigeria and to investigate outcomes of information literacy

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training in relation to current legal practice. It also aimed to identify the extent to which professional legal training by the NLS equips aspirant barristers with competencies for the legal workplace and to assess the level of transferability of professional legal training to the workplace in Nigeria. The main focus of the study was to investigate the connection between formal legal education and work-related information literacy skills and practices, with the aim of ascertaining the nature of transferability of graduate skills to the workplace. Among the research questions for the study, this chapter seeks to address the following questions: 1. How have changes in current legal practice affected problems of skills deficiency in the workplace in Nigeria? 2. What is the responsibility of the legal education system in Nigeria in increasing the efficiency with which graduate lawyers develop professional expertise for qualitative legal practice? 3. What should the nature of a legal information literacy curriculum be in order to close the gap between formal legal education and legal practice? 4. What kind of collaboration is needed between the legal education system and legal practitioners in order to promote the development of qualitative legal skills for the workplace?

10.6.1. How Have Changes in Current Legal Practice Affected Problems of Skills Deficiency in the Workplace in Nigeria? The issue of skills deficiency in legal practice predates the current reforms at the NLS; the legal education system in Nigeria has been faced with complex problems of skills training which had given greater urgency to the calls for reform in the educational system. These problems have been further aggravated by developments in ICT and the accompanying changes in the context of legal practice in Nigeria which require better strategies and techniques in legal practice (Okwonkwo, 2000, pp. 21, 30; Owasanoye, 2000, p. 175; Popoola, 2000, p. 233). Findings from the data in Table 10.1 show that 70% of the law firms have access to the Internet which facilitates access to online resources and other electronic databases, both foreign and local. Responses to the questionnaire in which the law firms were asked to indicate the areas in which ICT is employed in the activities of their firm show that ICT is used by law firms in Nigeria in conducting legal research (71%), sending and receiving e-mails (69%), preparation of court cases (65%), improving legal knowledge (60%) and communicating with other lawyers (48%). This analysis provides a general picture of the context of the applicability of ICT legal practitioners in Nigeria which, to some extent, suggests a gradual shift in the conduct of legal practice in Nigeria. The availability of these resources has enhanced the

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Table 10.1: Tasks related to the use of ICT in the law firms.a Task Conducting legal research Sending and receiving e-mail Preparation of court cases and enhancing work and professional productivity Improving legal knowledge Communicating with other law firms Accessing the current decisions of the Supreme Court of Nigeria Drafting of legal reports Accessing state statutes amendments and national acts Accessing electronic journals, books and other resources International transactions and electronic business Accessing the current decisions of the High Courts in Nigeria Not used at all Advertising

Yes

No

Don’t know

143 (71%) 135 (69%) 132 (65%) 121 (60%) 97 (48%) 80 (40%) 72 (36%) 73 (36%) 69 (34%) 62 (31%) 45 (22%) 11 (5%) 6 (3%)

41 (20%) 48 (24%) 47 (23%) 57 (28%) 84 (42%) 94 (47%) 109 (54%) 98 (49%) 104 (52%) 111 (55%) 129 (64%) 0 – 173 (86%)

1 (0%) 0 – 2 (1%) 2 (1%) 0 – 2 (1%) 2 (1%) 5 (3%) 2 (1%) 6 (3%) 2 (1%) 0 – 7 (4%)

a

In responding to the question, multiple-choice options were given to the respondents. ‘‘Non responses’’ have been omitted from the table but included in calculating the percentages. N ¼ 202.

speed and efficiency by which legal practice is conducted and given a global outlook to the legal profession in Nigeria. The implications of these changes is that the changing complexity of the content and procedure of law has made law firms require that graduate lawyers come to them already equipped with client-servicing skills (Davis, 2008: Foundations for improved legal education; Meyer, 2009, p. 301). Current changes in the context of legal practice in Nigeria therefore emphasise the need for the NLS to ensure that legal education in Nigeria develops in consonance with these changes. This objective can be achieved by developing the legal education curricula in such a way as to align the influence of formal legal education and workplace learning in order to bridge the gap between analytical and practical knowledge and provide the aspirant barristers with a strategic advantage for continuous learning in the legal profession.

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10.6.2. What Is the Responsibility of the Legal Education System in Nigeria in Increasing the Efficiency with Which Graduate Lawyers Develop Professional Expertise for Qualitative Legal Practice? Developing professional expertise emphasises the need to inculcate the necessary legal skills in law students before graduation from the law school. Even though changes have been implemented to the content and structure of the courses at the NLS by the adoption of a skills-based curriculum, it is noted that there is still the need to reconceptualise aspects of the law school curricula that relate to skills development, particularly legal research, by integrating it into a more coherent framework within which generic and specific skills can be taught. Such a conceptual framework will also help facilitate the development of transferable skills. Findings from the study have indicated that the information literacy skills demands by law firms for legal practice in Nigeria include proficiency in such vital skills as oral and written communication skills, problem-solving skills, critical thinking and evaluative skills and legal research skills. Currently, the response of the NLS with regard to the implementation of legal information literacy instruction so far has been insufficient in terms of dealing with problems of skills deficiency and equipping aspirant barristers with the needed competency skills for the workplace. Consequently, the major responsibility of the legal education system in this regard is that of ensuring the development of skills competences through the general curriculum and facilitating better practical learning experiences through clinical programmes. This process will help prepare law students to learn to use acquired knowledge in solving complex legal problems within the workplace (Sullivan et al., 2007, pp. 27–29). Since the ultimate aim of legal education is to foster the development of legal expertise and sound professional skills, it is imperative that the curriculum and teaching methods in the law school are conceived and carried out with the intentional goal of promoting growth in expertise (Sullivan et al., 2007, p. 116). A balance in the legal education system can be achieved by ensuring that the curriculum design and teaching methods of the legal education system are developed in consonance with the changing context of legal practice.

10.6.3. What Should the Nature of a Legal Information Literacy Curriculum be in Order to Close the Gap Between Formal Legal Education and Legal Practice? Information literacy plays an important role in the learning process by way of enhancing the curricula and educational mission of higher education institutions (Snavely & Cooper, 1997, p. 9). The need to address problems of skills deficiency has necessitated the integration of information literacy skills

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into the curriculum of higher education institutions in the effort to equip graduates with the needed conceptual, intellectual and educational framework with which to understand and interpret various sources of information (Rader, 1995, p. 271). This effort has also compelled the restructuring of programmes of curricula aimed at impacting the learning process more effectively (Rockman, 2002, pp. 186, 187). However, despite the increasing importance of information literacy, only a few legal education institutions in Africa have been able to articulate competencies and learning outcomes that are relevant to legal information literacy. The nature of an information literacy curriculum should incorporate the abilities for reasoning and critical thinking in such a way as to help the user construct a framework for learning in any given context. In legal education, the conceptual understandings of legal information literacy is rooted in studies which have highlighted students’ learning experiences in the use of legal information resources in various institutions and the contributions of their findings to issues of curriculum development and the promotion of lifelong learning (Andretta, 2001; Cuffe, 2002; Kuhn, 2008). In designing a legal information literacy curriculum, therefore, it is important to determine the nature of information literacy skills required which will then inform the aspects of the curriculum that need to be reconceptualised and integrated into a more coherent framework within which generic and specific skills can be taught. The adoption of a legal information literacy paradigm in the legal education system will promote the teaching and learning of knowledge, skills and attitudes within the curriculum and facilitate deep learning among graduate lawyers. It will also provide them with the opportunity to engage in critical thinking and reflective practice in learning and in the use and application of legal information resources. The Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) Competency Standard (2000) has provided a baseline for implementing concepts of information literacy into the higher education curriculum. The components of the standards provide a structured approach for teaching the basic techniques of information use which can enable students to engage in the use of a variety of information sources, thereby sharpening their critical thinking and evaluative skills (Eisenberg, Lowe, & Spitzer, 2004, p. 130).

10.6.4. What Kind of Collaboration Is Needed Between the Legal Education System and Legal Practitioners in Order to Promote the Development of Qualitative Legal Skills for the Workplace? In order to limit the gap between legal education and practice, collaboration between the legal education system, legal academics, the practicing bar and academic librarians is needed, particularly in the design of the curriculum

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and teaching methods at the university and the law school levels. The adoption of more innovative approaches that are student centred has greater potential in ensuring the development of competent skills that are transferable to the workplace. Similarly, current trends in globalisation demands that graduate lawyers are trained with a level of competence and specialisation in international law to enable them compete at the global level and this can only be achieved if the curriculum of legal education incorporates aspects of international law in such areas as human rights, labour law, ICT, environmental law, intellectual property and so on for effective legal practice (Mamman, 2009, pp. 17, 18). The importance of collaborative action has been an issue of paramount importance in the integration of information literacy. In educational institutions, the growth in collaborative endeavours between librarians and teaching faculty has been the primary key to integrating information literacy into the curriculum as this has had far-reaching effects on the extent to which success in implementation can be achieved (Rockman, 2002, p. 187). Librarians as information professionals play an important role in creating awareness of the issues around information literacy: their knowledge of a wide range of legal resources and research tools is instructive in the area of developing legal information skills which can be integrated into the curriculum. It is in this regard also that this study makes a vital contribution as the findings have suggested several considerations that can provide guidance on the importance of the role of legal information literacy in the curriculum of legal education in Nigeria. Consequently, the responsibility for the development of legal information literacy in the legal education system in Nigeria must be shared within strategic partnerships at various levels, that is with respect to curriculum design, policy development and teaching, which will help foster the development of critical and evaluative skills among law graduates in ways that are transferable to the workplace.

10.7. Conclusion The conceptual understanding of legal information literacy emphasises the unique nature of legal information resources as intrinsic to the disciplinary context of law and the legal profession. Analyses from findings of the study have indicated the need for reforms at the NLS to focus more on qualitative methods of teaching and learning in order to develop practical skills for the workplace. Findings have also suggested that by focusing instructional efforts on the development of lawyering skills and professional values through information literacy, the NLS can establish a legal education system in Nigeria in a way that uniquely prepares aspirant barristers for the legal

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profession. Findings have equally pointed to a number of issues that are relevant to legal education and the context of legal practice, including the need to narrow the gap in skills development in order to transform the teaching and practice of law in Nigeria. The summary of the findings in relation to the research questions of the study demonstrates its contributions to research in legal information literacy. Specifically, it points to the fact that, as a consequence of the rapid increase in ICT and the growth in legal information resources, greater commitment is required in the legal education system towards the development of qualitative skills in the legal profession, particularly in emerging economies like Africa. Manteaw (2008, p. 937) argues the need for reforms in the legal education system in Africa, specifically to focus more on meeting local challenges by encouraging skills specialisation in various aspects of legal practice while, at the same time, creating greater interest in African legal systems as they relate to the global legal order. The role of information literacy within the context of such reforms in the education system is that the principles of information literacy as reflected in the ACRL Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education (2000) are useful for informing the design of the curriculum and content of legal education at the undergraduate, postgraduate as well as professional levels. From this study, it is seen that explorations of the value of information literacy to the legal education systems in South Africa and Nigeria have positively supplemented previous studies and contributed to the existing body of knowledge by assessing how the integration of information literacy into the curriculum of the legal education system can help in addressing problems of skills deficiency among graduate lawyers for qualitative legal practice.

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Kuhlthau, C. C. (2004). Seeking meaning: A process approach to library and information services (2nd ed.). London: Libraries Unlimited. Kuhlthau, C. C., & Tama, S. L. (2001). Information search process, a call for ‘‘just for me’’ information services. Journal of Documentation, 57(1), 25–43. Kuhn, R. J. (2008). Designing and assessing the feasibility of an active learning approach to the teaching of legal research. Ph.D. thesis (Unpublished). University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg. Lawal, V. (2009). Aspects of information literacy with regards to the use of legal resources: Case study of third year undergraduate law students of the University of Cape Town, South Africa and University of Jos, Nigeria. M.Phil. thesis (Unpublished). University of Cape Town. Leckie, G. J., Pettigrew, K., & Sylvain, C. (1996). Modelling the information seeking of professionals: A general model derived from research on engineers, healthcare professionals and lawyers. The Library Quarterly, 66(2), 161–193. Mamman, T. (2009, November 19). The globalisation of legal practice: The challenges for legal education in Nigeria. Paper delivered at the 2nd Annual Business luncheon of S. P. A. Ajibade and Co., legal practitioners. Retrieved from http:// www.spaajibade.com/admintoolnew/uploads/2nd_annual_business_luncheon,_ d.g’s_paper.pdf. Accessed on 24 July 2012. Manteaw, S. O. (2008). Legal education in Africa: What type of lawyer does Africa need? McGeorge Law Review, 39(4), 903–976. Retrieved from http:// www.mcgeorge.edu/documents/publications/mlr/Vol_39_4/02_Manteaw_Master. pdf. Accessed on 24 July 2012. Meyer, P. (2009). Law firm legal research requirements for new attorneys. Law Library Journal, 101(3), 298–329. Montgomery, J. E. (2008). Incorporating emotional intelligence concepts into legal education: Strengthening the professionalism of law students. University of Toledo Law Review, 39(2), 323–352. Retrieved from http://law.utoledo.edu/students/ lawreview/volumes/V39n2/Montgomery%20Corr%20Final.pdf. Accessed on 24 July 2012. Moon, J. A. (2004). Handbook of reflective and experiential learning. London: Routledge-Falmer. Ngulube, P., Mokwatlo, K., & Ndwandwe, S. (2009). Utilisation and prevalence of mixed methods research in library and information research in South Africa 2002–2008. South African Journal of Libraries and Information Science, 75(2), 105–116. Nichols, N. C. (2005). Modelling professionalism: The process from a clinical perspective. Widener Law Journal, 14(2), 441–448. Retrieved from http://works. bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=nathaniel_nichols. Accessed on 24 July 2012. NULAI (Network of University Legal Aid Institutions). (2006). Clinical legal education for Nigerian university law faculties/clinics. Retrieved from http:// www.fupp.org.pl/down/Nigerian_Universities_Law_Faculties_Clinics.doc. Accessed on 24 July 2012. Okwonkwo, C. O. (2000). A historical overview of legal education in Nigeria. In I. A. Ayua & D. A. Goubadia. (Eds.), Legal education for the 21st century Nigeria (pp. pp. 1–37). Lagos: Nigerian Institute of Advanced Legal Studies.

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Otike, J., & Matthews, G. (2000). Legal information needs of lawyers in Kenya: A case study. Library Management, 21(5), 241–251. Owasanoye, B. (2000). Technology and legal education in Nigeria. In I. A. Ayua & D. A. Goubadia. (Eds.), Legal education for the 21st century Nigeria (pp. 160–178). Lagos: Nigerian Institute of Advanced Legal Studies. Peoples, L. F. (2005). The death of digest and the pitfalls of electronic research: What is the modern legal researcher to do? Law Library Journal, 97(4), 661–679. Retrieved from http://www.aallnet.org/main-menu/Publications/llj/LLJ-Archives/ Vol-97/pub_llj_v97n04/2005-41.pdf. Accessed on 24 July 2012. Popoola, A. O. (2000). Restructuring legal education in Nigeria: Challenges and options. In I. A. Ayua & D. A. Goubadia. (Eds.), Legal education for the 21st century Nigeria (pp. 233–260). Lagos: Nigerian Institute of Advanced Legal Studies. Punch, K. F. (1998). Introduction to social research qualitative and quantitative approaches. London: Sage. Putney, L. G. (2010). Case study. In A. J. Mills, G. Durepos & E. Wiebe. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of case study research (Vol. 1, pp. 115–119). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Rader, H. (1995). Information literacy and the undergraduate curriculum. Library Trends, 44(2), 270–278. Rockman, I. F. (2002). Strengthening connections between information literacy, general education and assessment efforts. Library Trends, 51(2), 185–198. Shavers, A. W. (2001). The impact of technology on legal education. Journal of Legal Education, 21(3), 407–622. Snavely, L, & Cooper, N. (1997). The information literacy debate. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 23(1), 9–13. Stuckey, R. & The Clinical Association. (2007). Best practices for legal education. New York, NY: Clinical Legal Education Association. Sullivan, W. M., Colby, A., Wegner, J. W., Bond, L., & Shulman, L. S. (2007). Educating lawyers: The Carnegie foundation for the advancement of teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (2009). Integrating qualitative approaches to research. In L. Bickman & D. J. Rog. (Eds.), The Sage handbook of applied social research methods (2nd ed., pp. 283–292). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Tuhumwire, I., & Okello-Obura, C. (2010). Sources and means of access to legal information by lawyers in Uganda. Library philosophy and practice Paper 382. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1394 &context=libphilprac. Accessed on 24 July 2012. Wall, D. S., & Johnston, J. (1997). The industrialization of legal practice and the rise of the new electric lawyer: The impact of IT in the legal practice in the UK. International Journal of the Sociology of Law, 25(2), 95–116. Warmkessel, M. M., & McCade, J. M. (1997). Integrating information literacy into the curriculum. Research Strategies, 15(2), 80–88.

Chapter 11

Information Literacy in the Business School Context: A Story of Complexity and Success Heidi Julien, Brian Detlor and Alexander Serenko

Abstract This chapter addresses information literacy instruction (ILI) in business schools, where learning outcomes receive considerable emphasis due to accreditation requirements, and where information literacy outcomes are increasingly being recognized as critical to graduates’ success in the workplace. We report a study examining ILI practices and program components against the background of student demographics and factors in the learning environment. The outcomes of those instructional experiences for students are analyzed, including psychological, behavioral and benefit outcomes. Data were collected via student skills testing; interviews with students, teaching faculty, librarians, and school administrators; and a web survey of students. Taken together, the results convincingly demonstrate that ILI is a complex undertaking with diverse perceived outcomes. Some success is evident, and verifiable outcomes include increased student self-efficacy; positive perceptions of libraries, librarians, and online library resources; improved and increased use of librarians and online library resources; and increased efficiency and effectiveness of conducting information research. The results demonstrate the value of pedagogical approaches such as active learning, just-in-time instruction, and integration of information literacy instruction with course

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curricula, as well as the importance of marketing efforts to manage students’ expectations of instructional benefits. Although instruction remains uneven and complex due to divergent expectations and assumptions by different stakeholders (students, librarians, and administrators), successful learning outcomes are possible. Keywords: Information literacy; business schools; learning outcomes; research

11.1. Introduction Accreditation processes are increasingly relevant to academic programs in a world focused so intently on assessment. In schools of business, that assessment focus has had a long tradition. For example, established in 1916, the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), which currently accredits 672 member institutions in nearly 50 countries and territories, ensures that business programs articulate and measure student learning outcomes. Among those outcomes is the skill set variously labeled ‘‘information literacy,’’ ‘‘digital literacy,’’ or ‘‘research skills.’’ Regardless of the label applied, graduates’ ability to identify the information they need, to locate it efficiently and effectively, and to use it ethically is critical in a twenty-first century workplace. That skill set is also increasingly recognized as essential for digital and democratic citizenship, and success in daily life decision-making, related to health and other personal matters. It is within the context of an assessment culture, program accreditation, and increasing recognition of the value of information literacy skills that we explored information literacy instruction (ILI) in business schools. The cooperation of teaching faculty, administration, librarians, and students assures effective learning outcomes and is critical to the success of graduates throughout their careers.

11.2. Literature Review Information is a critical asset and information handling skills are core to the success of business school graduates (Detlor, 2010). Therefore, business schools increasingly focus curricular attention on information literacy outcomes for their graduates (Bowers et al., 2009; Detlor, Julien, Willson, Serenko, & Lavallee, 2011; Hawes, 1994; Jacobson, 1993; Malu & Yuhfen, 2004; Rutledge & Maehler, 2003; Taylor, 2008). Those outcomes are typically achieved through some cooperative instructions delivered by

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teaching faculty and library staff. Librarians historically have played a role in training clients to find and use information effectively and efficiently; in recent years, that role has intensified and the skill set of interest has been expanded to a broad concept of information literacy. The outcomes of those training efforts are often not systematically assessed (Julien 1998, 2000, 2006; Julien & Boon, 2004), and instruction in business schools has been described as ‘‘evolving’’ (Cooney, 2005). The lack of data addressing outcomes is a gap which demands attention. Assessment literature is vast, so a focused approach was appropriate for the study. Lindauer, Arp, and Woodard’s (2004) assessment framework, specific to ILI, provided an elegant theoretical lens through which to examine the variables appropriate for analysis. The framework is tripartite, suggesting that information literacy assessment should include examination of (1) the learning environment (curriculum, co-curricular learning opportunities, independent learning opportunities); (2) information literacy program components (courses, workshops, reference desk encounters, instructional learning opportunities by appointment, independent learning opportunities); and (3) student learning outcomes (performance measures on course tests, course-embedded assignments, program portfolios, course grades, selfassessment, surveys of attitudes about the learning environment).

11.3. Methods The study explored the interplay between factors of the learning environment and information literacy program components and their impact on business student learning outcomes. Those outcomes were analyzed from the points of view of students, librarians, and teaching faculty. The study aimed to uncover the salient elements of the learning environment which affect business student information literacy learning outcomes. The study was conducted at three Canadian universities of varying size and geographical location. Two of the schools were AACSB accredited; one was seeking accreditation. At each school, data were collected via skills testing of undergraduate students using the SAILS test, which is based on the five ACRL Information Literacy Standards (Association of College and Research Libraries, 2010), and tests students on their knowledge in those content areas. In addition, 79 interviews were conducted at the three schools, including 7 librarians, 4 administrators, 16 course instructors (teaching faculty), and 52 students; all participants provided informed consent. Interview questions were focused on ILI experiences and outcomes (students interviews), on instructional work with business students (librarians interviews), on students’ information literacy skills (teaching

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faculty interviews), and on the place of ILI within the institution (administrators interviews). Based on results of that data set, a web survey of 372 students was conducted at one of the participating business schools. This survey tested the cause and effect relationships among the outcomes identified from the interview data. Full details of methods may be found in Julien, Detlor, Serenko, Willson, and Lavallee (2011), Detlor et al. (2011), and Serenko, Detlor, Julien, and Booker (2011).

11.4. Results 11.4.1. Environments and Programs The learning environments differed considerably among the three participating business schools. School A was relatively newly accredited when the study took place. It is hosted in a research-intensive university of medium size. There is a history of close collaboration between librarians and teaching faculty at that school, and ILI is integrated into several undergraduate courses. ILI is delivered via a diverse array of methods, including an online tutorial that was developed using funding provided centrally by the university (demonstrating commitment to ILI goals). Significant library staff resources have been dedicated to ILI at School A, and SAILS testing had been conducted prior to our study, providing evidence of a concern for assessment. School A has also invested in skill training for librarians. School B has had AACSB accreditation for over 40 years, and is located in a large, research-intensive university. There has been less focus on ILI in that context, but mandatory ILI was incorporated into an undergraduate course required for all students. Librarians deliver ILI through a range of approaches, including course research guides that are integrated into the teaching faculty’s course management systems. School C is located in a small, undergraduate-focused university, and remains unaccredited. Two required undergraduate courses include some information literacy components. Assessment efforts at Schools B and C were, and remain, informal in nature, and neither allocates specific funding for ILI. In addition, few students knew about ILI opportunities at School C, and there appeared to be a lack of communication about ILI between library administrators and teaching faculty. At Schools A and B, interaction between librarians and teaching faculty was emphasized on both sides; at School C there was little interaction, and, not surprisingly, little demand for ILI by teaching faculty. The relationship between students and librarians was a point of pride for librarians at Schools A and B. The learning environments in the three participating schools differ on a number of aspects. ILI is a particular emphasis at School A, and

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investments are being made to achieve success. These efforts have translated into significant demand from teaching faculty for ILI. The focus on personal relationships between librarians and faculty, and librarians and students, is a hallmark of School B. The environment at School C is murky, ILI is not emphasized, and success remains elusive (at least at the time of the study). There are also discernible differences in the teaching environments of these schools. A consistent philosophical approach was reported by librarians at all three schools, focusing on practical and relevant skill development, the need to appeal to different learning styles, and the value of active learning. Librarians at School A, however, are explicitly committed to pedagogical innovation, which complements their ILI resource allocation and focus on assessment.

11.4.2. Outcomes Key results from the interviews suggest that ILI leads to a number of psychological outcomes, including decreased anxiety using online resources provided through the library, increased self-efficacy with respect to using these online resources, improved perceptions of the librarians’ value and helpfulness, as well as improved perceptions of the value of online library resources and of the physical library. ILI also leads to behavioral outcomes, such as students selecting better resources, better use of online resource features, better searching techniques, better evaluation of retrieved information including assessment of citations, and better understanding of economic, legal, and social issues associated with information. Additional outcomes included increased use and more efficient and effective use of the physical library. Benefit outcomes included time savings and reduction of effort, higher grades, and greater workforce preparation (Detlor et al., 2011). Interestingly, but perhaps not surprisingly, positive benefits accrued mostly from active learning experiences than from passive pedagogical approaches (Detlor, Booker, Serenko, & Julien, 2012). The role of active ILI was not apparently modified by relative frequency or intensity of active learning opportunities; even one ILI experience that was characterized by an active approach led to positive learning outcomes (Booker, Detlor, & Serenko, 2012). Based on expectation disconfirmation theory, a model of cause and effect was drawn from these outcomes (Bhattacherjee, 2001). The structural equation modeling test (PLS — partial least squares) demonstrated that when students receive instruction that meets or exceeds their expectations, their perceptions of the quality of, and satisfaction with, that instruction increases. Various psychological outcomes associated with those positive effects were observed, with the exception of increased positive perception of

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the physical library. The positive behavioral outcomes articulated above also accrue from expectations that are exceeded and from increased satisfaction; those behavioral outcomes affect benefit outcomes. Especially relevant benefit outcomes include more efficient and effective information finding, improved course grades, and time savings. When students’ expectations are not met, their perceptions of quality are low and satisfaction is decreased. One of the concerning findings arising from the interview data was that perspectives among the stakeholder groups differed on several points. Several gaps were identified between perceptions of librarians and teaching faculty, and those of students. Students reported general confidence in their information literacy skills, which was not shared by their instructors. In addition, librarians’ and library administrators’ high expectations for the learning outcomes associated with ILI are not shared by students. Students report wanting more instruction on search skills, while teaching faculty prefer to focus on evaluation skills and believe that ILI develops those skills; students are less sanguine about that outcome. Students are also less certain that ILI develops their database searching skills, an outcome that is assumed by librarians, library administrators, and teaching faculty. Of further concern was that few students, other than those focused on marketing careers, could make a connection between the ILI they received as students, and the application of those outcomes in the workplace. Teaching faculty, librarians, and library administrators all believe that ILI will transfer beyond the academy. If the point of ILI is to develop skills that will transfer beyond the classroom, then perhaps those connections need to be made much more explicit than is the case currently. ILI outcomes also appear to vary according to student demographics and other factors. For example, more senior students report more positive outcomes and benefits, suggesting a role for repetition of instruction, as well as a possible role for developmental maturity in students. Another finding suggests that female students emphasize time savings over other benefits, which may reflect females’ generally more comprehensive searching style (Hupfer & Detlor, 2006). International students more appreciated the need for and value of ILI, and reported greater benefits than domestic students. Students who strongly prefer to use convenient and simple resources such as Google and Wikipedia were likely to express negative attitudes toward more complex sources provided by the library, and toward ILI. Finally, students who perform better academically were more likely to report positive outcomes of ILI.

11.4.3. Test Results The SAILS test data revealed relatively modest skill levels at all three participating institutions. On a scale from 0 to 1,000, most students scored

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between 530 and 580. The only statistically significant differences among the institutions were on two measures. At School A, students demonstrated better proficiency at ‘‘using finding tool features’’ than participants at the other two schools. In addition, students at School B scored better than those at School A at ‘‘understanding economic, legal, and social issues.’’ These differences undoubtedly reflect different content emphases in ILI in these schools. The relatively low scores overall are consistent with results of standardized testing conducted in other contexts and with other tests (Gross & Latham, 2007, 2012; Smith, De Long, Given, Julien, & Ouellette, 2012).

11.5. Discussion One of the hallmarks of educational settings is their complexity. Multiple variables are associated with positive outcomes; this study examined only a handful, including aspects of the learning environment, program components, and learning outcomes. It is notoriously difficult to disaggregate variables of interest, but this study demonstrates some statistically significant causes and effects, which have important potential to inform expectations of ILI outcomes and to inform approaches to ILI. In addition to the quantitative results, the qualitative results can improve understanding of what stakeholders’ perceptions might be, what assumptions are being brought to ILI, and how varying levels of commitment to, and investment in, ILI can influence success. School A, in particular, provides a benchmark for commitment and investment, and should be held up for emulation. Similarly, this study reaffirmed the value of good practices such as applying active learning techniques, integrating instruction into courses, and fostering positive communication among stakeholders. One of the encouraging findings from the study was the fact that specific forms of success were evident in the outcomes for students. Students can and do learn specific and useful skills as a result of ILI, and they can learn to appreciate the value that librarians and libraries bring to their information environments. In addition, concrete benefits arising from ILI were also identified, including improvements in academic standing. This is not to suggest that no potential for enhancement remains. It is evident, for example, that the transferability of information literacy skills to the workplace requires explicit attention.

11.6. Conclusions and Recommendations An axiom of pedagogy, the value of active learning, was demonstrated. Students’ active engagement in learning led to positive outcomes. Also fully

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consistent with previous work in several disciplines, such as Library and Information Science, Education, and Information Systems, our line of research demonstrated that to be highly effective, ILI should be integrated with course curricula. However, the degree to which integration is possible in any single setting is very much dependent on the place of librarians within the institution, on their perceived role in instruction, and ultimately on campus politics and power relations (Julien & Pecoskie, 2009). Librarians may know perfectly well how best to develop information literacy skills and when to ideally time instruction; seizing an opportunity to capitalize on that understanding may be very challenging. A significant literature exists on the complex relationship between academic librarians and other teaching faculty, and recent work on the instructional roles of librarians focuses on the key impacts of those relationships on librarians’ instructional work (Julien & Pecoskie, 2009; Julien & Genuis, 2009, 2011). Nevertheless, the degree to which ILI can be delivered in the context of student learning more generally will significantly affect its perceived outcomes. The value of connections between librarians and teaching faculty was highlighted well by our study results. The learning environments of the three participating schools differed significantly in terms of that connection, but success was certainly more evident where connections were frequent, strong, and positive. Integrated instruction and connection beyond the classroom are also intimately tied to the quality of communication among stakeholders. When librarians make the case for the value of their subject expertise for students’ learning, and when teaching faculty can be helped to understand the value of that expertise, collaboration and connection can begin. Additionally, if students can be helped to understand the value of the information literacy skill set for their future career success, beyond the immediate value to their academic performance, positive student expectations for ILI could be translated into greater learning and benefit outcomes. All of these positive results depend on improved communication among librarians, teaching faculty, library administrators, and students. The assumptions that each group brings to their mutual interactions need to be examined and untangled (Julien & Given, 2003). Perhaps the results of this study can be useful to show the gaps, opportunities, and potential for positive difference in students’ lives. Recommendations for practice flow quite logically from this study’s results. Ideally, ILI should be integrated with course curricula, and delivered using active methods. The most successful ILI appears to occur in contexts where ILI is resourced and encouraged, where librarians are provided with development opportunities and where emphasis is placed on strong, professional, and mutually respectful relationships with teaching faculty. ILI opportunities should be marketed strongly to students, and the

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connections between the value of information literacy skills in academia and their application in the workplace need to be made more explicit for students. Teaching faculty need to understand the relationship between perceived quality and satisfaction with ILI and their effects on outcomes for students, since the teaching faculty could have a significant role in strengthening positive attitudes toward ILI and librarians. Librarians, too, need to carefully manage student expectations, and then deliver instruction of excellent quality. This last point is of particular concern and requires increased attention to preparation for instructional roles, to marketing, to instructional design, to good pedagogy, and to myriad other aspects of instruction that affect its success. There is agreement about the importance of information literacy, particularly in the business school context; the path to successfully developing that skill set is perhaps made clearer through this study.

Acknowledgements Sincere thanks to our study participants — institutions, libraries, teaching faculty, librarians, and students. We appreciated the terrific efforts of our assistants Lorne Booker, Kristen Holm, Maegan Lavallee, and Rebekah Willson. We are grateful to our funder, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for Standard Research Grant 410-07-2289.

References Association of College and Research Libraries. (2010). Information literacy competency standards. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/informa tionliteracycompetency. Bhattacherjee, A. (2001). Understanding information systems continuance: An expectation-confirmation model. MIS Quarterly, 25(3), 351–370. Booker, L., Detlor, B., & Serenko, A. (2012). Factors affecting the adoption of online library resources by business students. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 63(12), 2503–2520. Bowers, C. V. M., Chew, B., Bowers, M. R., Ford, C. E., Smith, C., & Herrington, C. (2009). Interdisciplinary synergy: A partnership between business and library faculty and its effects of students’ information literacy. Journal of Business & Finance Librarianship, 14(2), 110–127. Cooney, M. (2005). Business information literacy instruction: A survey and progress report. Journal of Business & Finance Librarianship, 11(1), 3–25. Detlor, B. (2010). Information management. International Journal of Information Management, 30(2), 103–108.

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Detlor, B., Booker, L., Serenko, A., & Julien, H. (2012). Student perceptions of information literacy instruction: The importance of active learning. Education for Information, 29(2), 147–161. Detlor, B., Julien, H., Willson, R., Serenko, A., & Lavallee, M. (2011). Learning outcomes of information literacy instruction at business schools. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 62(3), 572–585. Gross, M., & Latham, D. (2007). Attaining information literacy: An investigation of the relationship between skill level, self-estimates of skill, and library anxiety. Library & Information Science Research, 29(3), 332–353. Gross, M., & Latham, D. (2012). What’s skill got to do with it?: Information literacy skills and self-views of ability among first year college students. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 63(3), 574–583. Hawes, D. K. (1994). Information literacy and the business schools. Journal of Education for Business, 70(1), 54–61. Hupfer, M. E., & Detlor, B. (2006). Gender and web information seeking: A self-concept orientation model. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 57(8), 1105–1115. Jacobson, T. E. (1993). Another look at bibliographic instruction for business students. Journal of Business & Finance Librarianship, 1(4), 17–29. Julien, H. (1998). User education in New Zealand tertiary libraries: An international comparison. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 24(4), 304–313. Julien, H. (2000). Information literacy instruction in Canadian academic libraries: Longitudinal trends and international comparisons. College and Research Libraries, 61(6), 510–523. Julien, H. (2006). A longitudinal analysis of information literacy instruction in Canadian academic libraries. Canadian Journal of Information and Library Science, 29(3), 289–313. Julien, H., & Boon, S. (2004). Assessing instructional outcomes in Canadian academic libraries. Library & Information Science Research, 26(2), 121–139. Julien, H., Detlor, B., Serenko, A., Willson, R., & Lavallee, M. (2011). Preparing tomorrow’s decision makers: Learning environments and outcomes of information literacy instruction in business schools. Journal of Business & Finance Librarianship, 16(4), 348–367. Julien, H., & Genuis, S. K. (2009). Emotional labour in librarians’ instructional work. Journal of Documentation, 65(6), 926–937. Julien, H., & Genuis, S. K. (2011). Librarians’ experiences of the teaching role: A national survey of librarians. Library & Information Science Research, 33(2), 103–111. Julien, H., & Given, L. (2003). Faculty-librarian relationships in the information literacy context: A content analysis of librarians’ expressed attitudes and experiences. Canadian Journal of Information and Library Science, 27(3), 65–87. Julien, H., & Pecoskie, J. L. (2009). Librarians’ experiences of the teaching role: Grounded in campus relationships. Library & Information Science Research, 31(3), 149–154. Lindauer, B. G., Arp, L., & Woodard, B. (2004). The three arenas of information literacy assessment. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 44(2), 122–129.

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Malu, R., & Yuhfen, D. W. (2004). Building context-based library instruction. Journal of Education for Business, 79(6), 323–327. Rutledge, D. P., & Maehler, A. (2003). An assessment of library education contributions to business and student learning: A case study. Journal of Business & Finance Librarianship, 9(1), 3–19. Serenko, A., Detlor, B., Julien, H., & Booker, L. D. (2011). A model of student learning outcomes of information literacy instruction in a business school. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 63(4), 671–686. Smith, J., De Long, K., Given, L., Julien, H., & Ouellette, D. (2012). Information literacy proficiency: Assessing the gap in high school students’ readiness for undergraduate academic work. Library and Information Science Research (In Press). Taylor, L. H. (2008). Information literacy is subject-specific vocabularies: A path to critical thinking. College & Undergraduate Libraries, 15(1), 141–158.

Chapter 12

Workplace Reflections of Information Literacy Training: The Case of the Agriculture and Health Sectors in Tanzania Evans Wema

Abstract This is a review of information literacy interventions which focused on fostering information literacy skills for agriculturalists and health practitioners in Tanzania. The purpose of the intervention was to impart information literacy skills to agriculturalists and health professionals based on problem-solving and collaborative approaches through pedagogical theories of Kolb and Vygotsky which emphasize experiential and reflective learning as well as mediated communication. The interventions were based on an integration of knowledge from information behaviour research and educational theory and current Information and library science perspectives of information literacy. This was preceded by a survey which collected data on information literacy needs of agriculturalists and health practitioners in order to determine what should be taught in information literacy courses for both categories of professionals. The interventions were evaluated through exercises, reflective discussions and observations of activities. Diagnostic tests were also carried out before and after the interventions to provide an indication of knowledge changes. It was generally discovered that both categories of practitioners lacked information literacy skills and had a dire need for the same to effectively perform their work. Work experiences of participants as well as problems

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associated with lack of information to perform assigned tasks in their occupations were motivational factors for their active participation in the courses. Judging from participants’ feedback, the courses were effective. Participants were able to demonstrate their abilities to solve a particular information-related problem through collaborative learning and work experience. It is recommended that information literacy courses in work places should focus on work-related information problems and active participation. Keywords: Experiential learning; active participation; problem-based learning information literacy; mediated communication; reflective discussions

12.1. Introduction The effectiveness of information literacy training courses at work places is highly dependent on a proper course design. Recent developments due to the information explosion has made it necessary for professionals in various disciplines to possess information skills to effectively identify, search, retrieve and use information. In addition, library and information services worldwide incur significant costs due to increased use of online resources and supporting ICT facilities, and there is a need to make the most effective use of these resources. These conditions require an information literacy programme which is designed in a way that equips learners with lifelong learning skills. These skills should be acquired through learning approaches that encourage critical thinking and independent learning.

12.2. Background to the Problem Studies that have been carried out in the information seeking and behaviour field focused on different categories of users, such as academicians, scientists, lawyers, engineers and many others (Majid & Tan, 2002). Many of such studies dealt with different problems. These included the improvement of the information systems and information retrieval systems. There is abundant literature on information literacy worldwide that has paid attention to people in specific fields. Such studies include Bruce (1999), O’Sullivan (2002), Travis (2011) and Crawford and Irving (2012), all these and other similar studies dealt with information literacy skills in the work place. The literature outlined above demonstrates various initiatives that have taken place in developed countries. Such initiatives are, however, few in Africa, and yet the

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need for professionals to acquire information literacy skills is fundamental for socio-economic development. Various standards and models of information literacy have been developed and widely used by higher education institutions as well as in specific fields to support teaching, learning and executions of particular activities in work environments. With the launch of problem-based and project-based learning as the principal study method, group-based learning, experiential and reflective approaches to the information literacy education process have been employed by various institutions in Europe, Australia and the United States (Denis, 2001; Edward & Bruce, 2002; Oliver & McLaughlin, 1999; Skov & Skærbak, 2003). These and various other approaches to teaching and learning information literacy courses have resulted in positive changes in improved work performances and there has been a significant increase in the levels of confidence of the learners in performing those skills. However, it is challenging for trainers in information literacy ‘‘to provide proof that the skills make a difference to short and long term learning outcomes’’ (Bundy, 1998, p. 9).

12.3. An Overview of Agricultural and Health Information Needs in Tanzania The agricultural sector has been the major contributor to the Tanzanian economy over decades and has continued to remain so. Major food production in Tanzania relies on its agricultural output, and is the main source of income and employment for its citizens. Most raw materials for industries also come from agriculture and it accounts for 75% of foreign exchange earnings. In Tanzania, agriculture is dominated by small-scale farmers, with a few larger scale farmers in a number of regions including Arusha, Iringa, Mbeya and Morogoro. Studies have revealed that improvements in agriculture can be achieved when practitioners are aware of information sources and are able to apply this knowledge for competitive advantage in the agricultural industry (Ogunlade, Oladele, & Falaki, 2006). According to Matovelo (2008), information has played a significant role in improving agricultural practices in Tanzania, yet agriculturalists’ information illiteracy can be a barrier and there is a need for this category of information users, in general, to acquire information literacy skills in order to acquire the right information to make the right decisions. Tanzania has achieved a considerable expansion of health services since independence in 1961. The health sector reforms initiated in 1993 have made remarkable progress in improving health services. However, concerns about the quality of health services have become common in the country, specifically among the public and the Ministry of Health (MoH) and health

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professionals. Tanzania does not have a comprehensive nation-wide information system that can monitor or report on the state of health care quality. Similarly, few health institutions (public or private) have established a system of health information to inform them about the quality of health care services they provide. As a result of this the MoH and other players in the health services have developed and implemented a countrywide initiative to improve the quality of health care as a matter of priority (Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, 2004). Despite the establishment of health information systems such as MTUHA by the MoH (Mukama, 2003), very few health practitioners are aware of them. This is attributed to a lack of information literacy skills and the ability to recognize the existence and importance of information resources. In Tanzania, health professionals include nurses, medical doctors, midwives, dentists and pharmacists to mention but a few. Apart from providing health services in hospitals and the related health institutions, they perform various administrative duties. These include formulating healthrelated policies and guidelines and coordinating, monitoring and evaluating health services delivery in the country. They also coordinate research and training within and outside the country; they represent the country on international health activities and provide decisions on health-related national and international matters. Studies in Tanzania’s health sector revealed that health practitioners in Tanzania lack information literacy skills to effectively identify, search, evaluate and use health information. Most of them rely on their education and experience and what they have learned from their training, from their colleagues, and from diagnosing and treating people with similar problems. They sometimes, however, read medical books and journals, consult with colleagues, and refer to other resources, such as authoritative health sites on the Internet, for more information on specific problems and to keep up with new information generated by medical research. They also review recommendations (practice guidelines) published by groups of experts (James, 2010). Most of their practice, however, is based on their experiences and common practices; they are not necessarily a result of an information intervention that would enable them to decide on the appropriate information and sources to help solve a particular healthrelated problem. Hence, there is a need for medical practitioners to acquire information literacy training.

12.4. Objectives of the Intervention The purpose of the intervention was to impart information literacy skills to agriculturalists and health professionals who work at decision-making

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levels. Due to the importance of the two sectors in Tanzania, it was thought that imparting information literacy skills to agriculturalists and health practitioners who work mostly at a decision-making levels would assist wellinformed decisions in the two sectors. The importance of information literacy skills for agriculturalists has been realized as a result of various studies that revealed poor information search skills among professionals in the field of agriculture (Angelo & Wema, 2010; Malekani, 2005). The lack of information literacy skills further affects agriculturalists in failing to identify, select and use appropriate sources of information to make decisions on agriculture-related issues. In addition, studies have revealed that health practitioners especially those working at decision-making levels such as the MoH have a limited choice of appropriate sources of information to make decisions on issues such as formulating health-related policies and coordinating, monitoring and evaluating health services delivery in the country and others (Haruna, 2011). It was due to these deficiencies that interventions were planned for the above target groups. It was also intended to determine whether information literacy training based on problem-solving and collaborative approaches through pedagogical theories of Kolb and Vygotsky would help foster critical thinking skills among the trainees.

12.5. Review of Related Literature In order to develop theoretical grounding in planning the interventions, a review of literature based on pedagogical skills that encourage experiential and reflective learning as well as mediated communication was carried out. According to Kolb (1984), ideas are produced and reproduced incessantly through experience and that people bring their own ideas and notions to differing levels of elaborations in an iterative fashion. Kolb developed a four-stage learning cycle which is being applied to work-based learning, the teaching laboratory and practical work (such as information literacy handson activities), action learning, role play and small group teaching. Kolb’s learning cycle consists of the following:  Concrete experience: Learners should be fully and freely involved in the new learning experience (doing and experiencing).  Reflective observation: Learner needs time to reflect on new learning experiences from different perspectives (observe and reflect — closely linked to feedback).  Abstract conceptualization: Learners are able to form and reform, process, take ownership and integrate their ideas into sound logical theories (understanding underlying reasons, concepts and relationships).

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 Active experimentation: Learner uses theories to make problem-solving decisions and tests implications in new situations (trying things to see if they work out). This cycle involves the following fundamental aspects: doing, reflecting, processing, thinking and understanding, which are in accordance with the learner’s needs and goals. This approach assumes that learners become more skilful, notice more, make better connections, understand more and make more informed decisions regarding what to do next, as they continue around, and eventually complete the cycle. (Gibbs, Morgan, & Northedge, 1998). The cycle assumes that learners develop concepts and learn the requisite skills as they work on a problem (learning by doing), rather than learning how to do it (Gibbs et al., 1998). In addition, more cycles may develop in the cases where people learn practical skills such as information searching, creating a learning spiral, with each loop more advanced than the previous one, which implies that the learning process is long and complex. Reflection is considered as both a pedagogical method (Kolb, Rubin, & Osland, 1991) and a learning outcome (Mayes & de Freitas, 2004). Reflection is useful for building on previous understanding of phenomena (Jonassen, Davidson, Collins, Campbell, & Haag, 1995). It also assists learners in a meta-cognitive process which provides a form of self-regulation that causes the learner to internalize learning from the social to the individual dimension (Hung & Chen, 2001). Vygotsky (1978) believes that social interaction among learners enables them to construct meaning from what they learn. This means that when learners interact with each other through reflecting on what they learn, they realize the importance of what they do, which occurs and made explicit when they communicate their experiences and feelings with each other. Having considered the significance of two aspects of learning through experience and reflections, this intervention decided to adopt the above theories for the purpose of making the learning process more meaningful and enable people to deal with future similar experiences.

12.6. Information Literacy Course with Agriculturalists and Health Practitioners 12.6.1. Selection of Participants Two interventions were planned among agriculturalists and medical practitioners. While all agriculturalists were in the category of extension

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workers working at ward and village levels, medical practitioners included doctors, nurses, dentists, laboratory technicians and nutritionists. The decision to carry out the interventions with the two categories of professionals was reached after considering their interests in acquiring information literacy skills. Agriculturalists showed interest in information literacy skills due to their involvement in supporting decisions at ward and village levels while handling agriculture and related issues with village and ward executives, ward committee members, members of parliament and district commissioners. They realized that most of the information acquired to support decisions on aspects of agriculture was not well researched and lacked the required evidence to support decisions made at meetings and during budgetary preparations prior to presenting the same in the House at parliamentary sessions. Many extension workers felt that they lacked the knowledge of identifying, locating, searching, accessing and evaluating appropriate sources. Their decisions were mainly based on personal experiences and sometimes influence. A number of comments raised by a few extension officers when approached individually cited their inability to provide figures on types of diseases affecting crops in their localities, locations where infections were considered very severe or information on basic farm implements. On the other hand, medical practitioners showed interest in acquiring information literacy due to various reasons. One was the fact that information literacy skills were considered important to medical students, hence their desire to incorporate the skills into a medical curriculum. The decision to incorporate information literacy into the medical curriculum came as a result of various reports and comments raised by trainers in medical institutions on cases of plagiarism and failure to use numerous sources of information by students in assignments and research projects. In order to set an example for other trainers in various medical institutions, it was felt appropriate that the acquisition of such skills should start from medical practitioners working at the ministerial and regional levels. Hence, the Directorate of Training at the Ministry proposed for an information literacy intervention for all those working at the above-mentioned levels so as to influence other medical practitioners the need for these capabilities to be incorporated in the medical curriculum. Another reason for showing interest in information literacy skills was the same observations as the agriculturalists that these skills were important in enabling a medical practitioner to make proper decisions based on researchable facts rather than relying on experience and common practice. While supporting decisions made at the ministry level, medical practitioners realized that information literacy skills played an important role in equipping medical practitioners with critical thinking skills which were vital in arriving at appropriate decisions.

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Apart from selecting this category of learners based on their interests in information literacy and their involvement in decision-making processes, it was also considered necessary to bring the interventions to professionals who would work on specific problems in groups. Extension workers normally worked in teams during field operations and in meetings with villagers, ward and district officials as well as farmers in villages. They worked collaboratively during educational programmes in villages, farm preparations, harvesting seasons as well as during natural disasters and impelementation of pests and diseases control programmes. Medical practitioners worked similarly in teams while performing their duties. In addition, the two professionals were considered important into the intervention owing to the introduction of important national programmes in the agricultural and health sectors by the Ministry of Agriculture Food Security and Cooperatives (MAFSC) and the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MoHSW). In the effort to fight against hunger and starvation, the Tanzanian government through the MAFSC launched the ‘‘Kilimo Kwanza’’ policy (in English — Agriculture First). The main purpose of the policy was to ‘‘enable farmers to have better access to and use of agricultural knowledge, technologies, marketing systems and infrastructure, all of which contribute to high productivity, profitability and farm incomes; and promoting private investment based on improved regulatory and policy environment’’ (MAFSC, 2011, p. 2). The launching of the policy has been one of the government’s national priorities and substantial amounts of funds and other support have been directed towards it. It was found important that in order for the farmers to have access to knowledge, technologies and marketing systems, information literacy skills should be given a priority. The MoHSW, on the other hand, had recommended and implemented a number of policies and programmes. A malaria control programme was launched in 2010 under the national logo called ‘‘Zinduka — Malaria Haikubaliki’’ (in English — Wake Up — Malaria Is Unacceptable). This was a malaria campaign with the aim of spreading information to citizens on the importance of mosquito nets and other means to fight the spread of malaria in Tanzania (La Toile, 2010). Together with the malaria campaign, a special campaign against HIV/AIDS was also launched in 2008 and was given a slogan namely ‘‘Tanzania Bila Ukimwi Inawezekana’’ (in English — Tanzania Without AIDS Is Possible). The purpose of this campaign was to spread information on ways to fight against the HIV/AIDS pandemic. What was noted was that information literacy skills would be important in making all the above national campaigns a success through enabling agriculturalists and medical practitioners access and use relevant information in facilitating these programmes. As a result of the above reasons, the lead facilitator approached the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and MoHWS to request for financial and material

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support to facilitate information literacy training for extension workers and medical practitioners in the MAFSC and MoHWS respectively. With regard to extension workers, emphasis was put on those working at village, ward and district levels, which had direct contacts with other stakeholders such as village, ward and district executives, members of various local committees and members of parliament in local constituents. Under the consultations with officials in the Ministry, it was decided that the training for extension workers should take place in Dodoma region, located in the Central Tanzania where most official business was carried out at the country’s capital city. Dodoma region was also chosen due to its central location of the most agriculturally productive region in Tanzania. These included Tabora, Singida, Morogoro, Iringa and Mbeya. Hence, all participants in the intervention were drawn from the above-mentioned regions. UNESCO extended an invitation to all extension workers in the regions for participation into the course. Fifty participants confirmed their participation into the course. The training took place in March 2012 and was facilitated by three persons: an agricultural information specialist and senior lecturer from Sokoine University of Agriculture, a lecturer from Tumaini University who was a specialist in Web 2.0 technologies and one, the author, from University of Dar es Salaam who was responsible for designing the course materials and the structure of the intervention. Similarly, the MoHWS provided financial and material support to facilitate the intervention for medical practitioners at the Ministry and regional training centres. The selection of participants was made by the Assistant Director of Continuing Education in the Department of Human Resources Development. He made a selection of 30 participants — 5 participants from the Ministry’s departments and 25 from health colleges in various regions. Participants from regional centres consisted of college principals/associate principals as well as 10 librarians. The MoHWS provided financial and material support for the intervention. The course was run in Morogoro region; it was chosen because it was convenient for participants coming from various regions in the country. The training took place in August 2011 and was facilitated by a facilitator from the MoHSW, a specialist in health information management and one from the University of Dar es Salaam who was also responsible for the course design and preparation of course materials.

12.6.2. Course Coverage The course assumed that participants were working on particular problems related to their field of work. Hence the prerequisites for attending the courses included the ability for participants to identify and work on

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particular problem for which information was needed. Participants were expected to use a range of information sources to work on their problems through making choices of print and web-based resources. Both training centres (Dodoma and Morogoro) had Internet connectivity and libraries from which some print and other information sources could be obtained. Prior to the interventions, pre-diagnostic tests were carried out to help design the course and determine whether the skills learned brought significant changes to learners’ understanding of information literacy at the end of the training. The tests were, however, only carried out with extension officers only because medical practitioners failed to do so due to an administrative error. Both training courses were carried out using the following structure and in the following order. 12.6.2.1. Defining the problem As stated above, participants were expected to attend the courses with problems/topics at hand. The purpose was to ensure the intervention was meaningful and relevant and to help ensure engagement. Topics ranged from subject-specific to general ones. A few headings for such topics included ‘‘causes of malaria infections’’, ‘‘nutritional requirements for local miners’’, ‘‘traditional medicine and its impact on malaria infection’’, ‘‘pest management practices of cotton whitefly’’, ‘‘pest management of the potato tuber moth Phthorimaea operculella’’ and ‘‘comparisons of pure zebu cattle and other crosses’’. However, other participants had more general topics on cross-cutting issues such as ‘‘land management for farm use in rural districts’’, ‘‘farming systems and effects in socio-economic development’’, ‘‘the role of the Ministry in the development of agriculture systems’’, ‘‘the impact of HIV on agricultural production’’, ‘‘malaria intervention measures and reduction in rural areas’’ and many others. Learners were given time to arrange themselves in groups based on their areas of interest. This was followed by brief presentation on the importance of defining an information problem, ways to articulate information needs and the purpose of the needed information. It was considered important to give learners brief lectures on the above aspects because, as has been noted in other studies, lectures are an effective means of disseminating information to model and ‘scaffold’ problem-solving, to elucidate difficult theories and to organize concepts (Biggs, 1999). This was followed by a hands-on activity focusing on their particular questions and included articulating the purpose of retrieving information, categories of information needed, information already known, information not known and the categories of sources they could use to find background knowledge about their topics. These exercises helped learners to build on the existing knowledge about their topics and eventually being able to evaluate the needed information (Bruce, 1995; Fitzgerald, 1999; Irving, 1985). This enabled them to expand, reframe or create new knowledge by

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integrating what they knew before and develop new understandings (CAUL, 2001; Halttunen, 2003). Presentations of the tasks assigned were made at the end of the session in order to encourage the spirit of learning from each other, engage learners through discussions and help them reflect on what they learned. Reflective questions were asked at the end of the session. This also occurred throughout the training in order to help the facilitators determine what went well, and whether modifications were needed in order to make the intervention more effective.

12.6.2.2. Locate and access sources This event took place on the second day of training. Its purpose was to introduce to learners to a wide range of sources of information, the ways search tools worked and different ways of utilizing the available tools to facilitate information searching. This was done by providing learners with hands-on activities to identify different ways by which information in their areas of expertise was produced, sources from which they could find information needed and methods they could use to search for information either in print or from Internet resources. This gave learners time to reflect on sources of information and methods of searching for it. The exercise helped learners to be aware of the challenges associated with the feelings of confusion and uncertainties caused by exposure to too many categories of sources and complicated methods of searching and retrieving information from the sources (Kuhlthau, 1993). Short demonstrations were then carried out by facilitators to demonstrate effective information search and retrieval methods. Unlike previous intervention with librarians and students (Hepworth & Wema, 2006), the course with agriculturalists and medical practitioners was different in terms of learners prior knowledge on sources of information relevant to their fields. A number of learners came to the course already with ideas of resources commonly used at their work places. For example several extension officers were aware of electronic databases such as Agora, OARE and Agricola. Medical practitioners indicated prior knowledge of electronic databases such as Medline, Pubmed, Hinari and CAB Abstracts, epidemiology lectures Supercourse and Scopus. They also indicated their knowledge of several print sources in the form of books and journals. Building on this prior knowledge on information sources reinforced the importance of of experiential and self-directed learning concepts in relation to problem-solving skills of learners (Butcher & Sumner, 2011). During the two interventions, it was observed that learners used their prior knowledge to consult familiar sources they considered relevant in answering questions related to their topics/problems. This enabled facilitators to introduce other new sources to learners who were interested in these new resources and were able to incorporate them into their knowledge bases of the already known

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resources. This helped to further arouse interest among learners who treated the entire exercise as useful and engaging. 12.6.2.3. Synthesizing and evaluating information Many participants into the interventions were quite familiar with a number of techniques used to capture information from sources. These included summarizing material in notebooks, capturing snapshots of species and specimens on screens and using video/audiovisual tools and equipment. However, learners were impressed by other techniques used to capture and store information through the use of tools such as social bookmarks (Delicious, Stumble upon, Flickr and Library thing). They applied this new knowledge to search and store important URLs, pictures and lecture notes from various Internet resources. Learners were provided with articles which were drawn from various sources including chapters of books, journal articles, newspaper articles and documents from websites in order to evaluate them based on criteria for evaluating information and sources like authority, content, relevance, timeliness, reliability and validity. The topics to be evaluated were on environmental pollution (extension officers) and the origins of AIDS and HIV and the first cases of AIDS in Africa (medical practitioners). Presentations from groups helped to engage learners who demonstrated their ability to apply their knowledge in terms of identifying the most authentic sources such as books to less authentic like newspapers articles and Internet websites. This exercise helped to engage the learners and encouraged them to learn from each others’ experiences. As was the case with other stages of the course, reflective questions were asked to learners to further identify what was learned and where more efforts should be put to improve their learning. 12.6.2.4. Communicating and using information Participants were well versed with various methods of communicating information to others. Quick exercises on different ways for presenting information revealed this. To a larger extent, this was based on the nature of their jobs where agriculturalists would present various issues to farmers and other stakeholders at village, district and regional levels. Medical practitioners would do the same to patients and other stakeholders. Research in communication studies reveals that practitioners in the medical field need to be well equipped with requisite skills to communicate with patients in order to establish dialogue between the two parties (Dyche, 2007). Therefore, more emphasis was put on ways of presenting and sharing information. Brief presentations on various techniques to communicate and share information were demonstrated to learners. These included the use of Social Book marking tools such as Delicious, Library Thing, Flickr and

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a brief introduction of Google Documents and Sites was also done. These methods seemed new to participants, who were very interested in learning ways of sharing information to colleagues and other stakeholders in the form of URLs, files and pictures. Participants were given hands-on activities to identify text that was plagiarized. The purpose was to find out whether or not they were aware of different acts of plagiarism. This exercise helped participants to find common mistakes that are committed while using information without acknowledging sources. This was followed by brief presentations on citation styles and other aspects of copyright and intellectual property. Finally a post-diagnostic text was carried out to find out whether there were any significant changes in learners knowledge as a result of the intervention. Reflective questions were asked on all aspects learned during the training. Questions were centred on the usefulness of the skills acquired, problems encountered during the interventions, major achievements after attending the courses and future plans in utilizing the acquired knowledge.

12.6.3. Results of the Interventions The outcome of the interventions was determined through evaluation of the data gathered through the pre/post-diagnostic tests, reflective questions, hands-on activities, presentations and discussions. Results from reflective questions revealed different comments as follows. 12.6.3.1.

Defining the problem

‘I gained an understanding about narrowing a topic and the importance of determining the purpose of the information needed’. (Extension Officer, Morogoro District Council) ‘It was very important for me to work in a group to discuss our understanding of the topic chosen. This helped me to realize the importance of sharing ideas with each other when defining an information problem’. (Tutor, Pharmacology, Mbeya Referral Hospital)

12.6.3.2.

Locate and access information

‘It was very important for me to discuss about how information is generated in the society. This is important because it helped me to figure out where to go to find information’. (Extension Officer, Mufindi District, Iringa) ‘I was always aware of sources such as PuMed and Hinari databases. Today I have learned [about other] important sources which will be relevant to me and my students’. (Medical Officer, Monduli District Hospital, Arusha)

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‘Primary sources are very important during decision-making processes. People make a rich source of information that can be useful in providing a direction of what decisions to make because they are the ones who are eventually affected by decisions made’. (Personnel Officer — MoHSW — Dar es Salaam)

12.6.3.3.

Synthesis and evaluation of information

‘It was my first time to evaluate informational materials by looking at the aspect of viewpoint as I always considered the relevance of a document by looking at the time when it was written and who wrote it only. These other evaluation criteria were just news to me’. (Senior Tutor, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre) ‘The sources we were given to evaluate on environmental pollution consisted of a book chapter, journal article, a newspaper article and information from a website. It was a bit tricky to realize that the newspaper article represented the views of the writer although information in it was very persuasive to someone who might not look at other criteria of evaluating information’. (Extension Officer, Kilolo District Council, Iringa) ‘The evaluation about the history of HIV/AIDS in Africa revealed that the book chapter and article from a journal had met more criteria than the newspaper article and Internet web page. This taught me a very important lesson to evaluate information based on a number of criteria, not just timeliness, relevance and who created this information’. (Nursing Officer, MoHSW, Dar es Salaam)

12.6.3.4.

Communicating and using information

‘The exercise on plagiarism was very important to me because this is exactly what students in our medical colleges do to fool us’. (Senior Tutor, Bugando Hospital, Mwanza) ‘The use of Google Sites to share information with each other is very important. I will implement this once I go back to my regional library’. (Librarian, Maweni Hospital, Kigoma) ‘I liked very much Flickr as it will be a very useful tool to share photographs with my fellow Extension Officers especially on taking and sharing pictures about drought and diseases affecting crops in villages and show this as evidence to our Member of Parliament’. (Extension Officer, Singida District Council)

12.7. Results from Hands-On Activities, Diagnostic Tests Presentations and Discussions Presentations and discussions helped learners to demonstrate what they knew prior to attending the courses as well as their application of the newly acquired knowledge. For example, medical practitioners demonstrated their skills of using Google Maps to locate their work stations as well as areas

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infected by particular diseases such as malaria and measles (in certain parts of Morogoro region). These skills became more important to them when they later demonstrated ways of sharing maps with each other, something that they seemed not to know before. Also presentations helped participants to successfully demonstrate the knowledge they acquired in the course and their levels of engagement in information-seeking activities. This was stimulated to some extent by the competitive nature of the presentation where each group aimed to make a better presentation than others; therefore, each learner was prompted to work hard to achieve this objective. Eventually it also helped to facilitate peer-to-peer shared learning. Presentations also helped learners to feel obliged to support group work by providing answers to the questions raised by the trainers and fellow participants. In addition, new skills of presenting information through tools such as social media motivated participants to learn new ways of presenting and sharing information, which they perceived as generally useful. In general, presentations and discussions helped to improve the learning process. Hands-on activities were important in demonstrating whether learners could apply what was taught/discussed in the course. For example, participants from the medical field demonstrated ways by which they could apply certain search techniques such as Boolean logic, truncation and other ways to narrow or broaden search within medical databases such as PubMed Central and Hinari. On the other hand, extension officers utilized social media tools to demonstrate different methods of sharing information in the form of pictures and files through Flickr and Google Documents. Hands-on activities further helped facilitators to plan modifications of the approaches used to demonstrate certain aspects. For example, facilitators learned that some participants went ahead and searched for information rather than familiarizing with an information problem first. Thus they had to demonstrate to participants on sources to familiarize with their topics. Following these observations, facilitators learned to plan well in advance the type of activities that participants would be assigned as part of hands-on exercises. Diagnostic tests (pre/post) demonstrated an increase in extension officers’ information literacy skills. Diagnostic tests were used to compare pre- and post-training results as a way of evaluating a training course to identify the strengths or weaknesses of students in order to make improvements on programs, a fact that is also echoed by Miller, Imrie, and Cox (1998). Results from the pre-diagnostic test revealed that more than half of the learners provided incorrect answers to questions provided. However, the post-diagnostic test results registered improvements in learners’ skills since the majority of them provided the right results to most questions. Below is a summary of learners’ performance in the tests.

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Summary of participants’ performances in diagnostic tests by average IL skills

Defining a problem Information sources Internet and databases Information search Synthesizing and evaluating information Information presentation

Pre-diagnostic test

Post-diagnostic test

Correct answers

Incorrect answers

Correct answers

Incorrect answers

10 18 11 13 9

40 32 39 37 41

44 35 41 42 39

6 15 9 8 11

22

28

45

5

Source: IL survey, 2012.

Diagnostic tests revealed that some participants had possessed certain skills such as presentation and information sources. However, at the end of the post-diagnostic test it was generally felt that information literacy skills for most participants showed some remarkable improvements.

12.7.1. Challenges and Lessons Learnt The interventions with agriculturalists and medical practitioners did not happen without challenges. The most difficult challenges was setting up the interventions. Much as the MAFIS as well as the MoHSW showed the need for their employees to acquire information literacy skills, the initiatives to carry out the interventions came mainly from the lead facilitator with the support from the country coordinator for UNESCO and librarians working in the two ministries. However, this initiative did not stem from the authorities in the two ministries. Although a lot of advocacy work was carried out to convince the authorities to allow extension officers attend the training. This made it difficult for authorities, in particular MAFIS, to recognize the need for information literacy interventions for their respective employees. Because of the advocacy the MoHSW realized the need for information literacy skills and championed its introduction into the Clinical Medicine Diploma and First Degree courses. It was later learned that the MoHSW officers including the Assistant Director of Continuing Education

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in the Department of Human Resources Development with a few more principals in various colleges had realized the need for medical practitioners to acquire such skills, hence their support contributed towards the success of the intervention. The initiative to carry out the interventions among the agriculturalists came mainly from UNESCO with very little support from the MAFIS. There was therefore no guarantee of the continuation of such interventions with other agriculturalists throughout the country. This was not the case with MoHSW who planned several information literacy programmes with medical practitioners throughout the country; some of them were to be carried out in August and September 2012. Moreover, as was the case with many of such programmes carried out in developing countries (such as Saleh, 2012), the organization of interventions was hampered by problems of poor Internet connectivity and insufficient computers and other training facilities. In this case, trainers had to utilize morning hours for Internetrelated activities, leaving afternoons for activities that did not need much use of the Internet. Despite the challenges encountered, the interventions seemed to work as expected, and were highly appreciated by participants. A few comments captured from extension officers highlighted a number of ways of applying the acquired skills such as: ‘I am a Radio Extension Officer in Ulanga District. What I got out of this course is very important to me as an information person whose work is to inform rural populations on issues associated with agriculture. I will use radio to promote the importance of information literacy skills to rural farmers’. (Extensions Officer, Ulanga District — Morogoro) ‘I will make use of the skills I got about search engines to download information materials on aspects such as prices or varieties of different commodities and disseminate it to farmers’. (Extensions Officer, Kondoa District — Dodoma) ‘The skills I have acquired from this training are very important in my job. I will use it to meet information needs of farmers who want to know about certain things for example diseases or pests affecting sorghum; I will be in a better position to tell them what it is by searching from ask.com or Google images and show them how sorghum disease and pests look like’. (Extensions Officer, Singida District Council) ‘I am happy to be here and acquire these skills. I will be able to search for reliable information about prevailing crop prices and outbreak of diseases and disseminate it to researchers I work with and bosses at the Council for supporting decisions’. (Extensions Officer, Dodoma Municipal Council)

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A few extensions officers indicated the extent to which their future expectations would be met after attending the course: ‘This course has really changed my future work routine. Immediately after this course I will get a laptop and modem and every morning before going to work I will spend some time surfing the Internet to find out new information on agriculture as well as familiarizing myself with more search engines’. (Extension Officer, Iringa Municipal Council) ‘I always intended to become a teacher in agriculture in secondary schools but could not have relevant information materials. Now with the new skills I have acquired, I will confidently go to teach and demonstrate to students the power of information literacy skills’. (Extension Officer, Kilombero District, Morogoro) ‘My plans were to convince the District Commissioner in Singida to equip our resource centre with modern computers but this has been in vain since people do not see why computers should be brought there. Now after this course, I will purchase my personal laptop and go to carry out a demonstration that will hopefully change their mindsets and decide to buy the computers for our centre’. (Extension Officer, Singida Municipal Council)

From the comments above, there was an indication that the course was beneficial to participants.

12.8. Discussions, Conclusion and Recommendations Results from the two interventions help to demonstrate the need to design information literacy interventions for people at work places, and that problem-solving and collaborative approaches building on the pedagogical theories of Kolb and Vygotsky which put emphasis on experiential and reflective learning as well as mediated communication do seem to be effective. This was true in the sense that the training among medical practitioners were stimulated by the need to introduce information literacy as a course in the medical curriculum. This motivated participants to seriously follow what was taught in order to be able to teach it to students when it became a full-fledged course. Therefore, most topics or problems presented by them reflected specific aspects that were expected to be included into their curriculum including ways by which information on forensic medicine is generated, disseminated and shared, designing mindmaps for gathering information on counselling and case management for STIs and HIV screening and several others. Information search techniques focused on finding relevant information focusing on salient topical issues including maternal deaths, malaria, HIV/AIDS, cancer and other chronic diseases. The importance of problem-based learning was further reflected by

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the Assistant Director of Continuing Education in the Department of Human Resources Development during his workshop opening remarks. The director argued that information literacy skills were important to medical practitioners as it enables learners to develop critical thinking skills which are important in the medical field. The director gave a reference to a research by Eskola (2005) in Finland who discovered that students who learned information literacy well were those who had used a problem-based approach to learning, hence the need to introduce information literacy courses into the medical curriculum that encouraged group work and sharing of experiences. On the other hand, extension officers realized the need to acquire information literacy skills using a problem-based approach due to their involvement in supporting decisions while working with village, ward and district executive officers at council levels. They encountered challenges associated with acquiring relevant agricultural information to support decisions on farm statistics, farm implements, pests and diseases and others. Many participants came into the course with specific information problems at hand. During the reflective exercises one participant from Mvomero District (Dodoma) commented as follows: I very much appreciate for the skills I acquired especially on how to use Wikimapia. I always wanted to know how to locate areas infected with diseases and pests that attack sunflowers and sorghum. Now with Wikimapia I can mark and show it to Executive Officers during meetings the areas infected in order for them to determine the magnitude of the problem and find appropriate solutions.

Teaching extension officers information literacy using an experiential learning approach helped to make the course more focused and meaningful. Many participants seemed experienced with a number of search tools and databases such as HINARI, Agricola and OARE. They helped to make facilitators more focused on specific examples based on particular problems. These included searching for information on topics such as sisal waste (Agave sisalana) for farmers based in Morogoro region, issues of pyrethrins toxicity for pyrethrum producers in Singida region, crossing of Zebu cattle with their hybrids for pastoralists in Dodoma region, pest management on Irish potatoes for farmers in Iringa region as well as rural banking schemes to local populations in Mbeya region. The learning exercise to them was more practical-based because most problems they presented were met with the appropriate informational solutions. As such, problem-based learning through experience and reflection helped learners to gain an understanding of contemporary issues in crop production and animal husbandry in Tanzania. It gave them the opportunity to gain

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experience based on shared knowledge in their field of expertise (Bethel & Morgan, 2011). In addition to the above, the combination of reflective exercises, group presentations and reflections, together with brief lecture presentations, improved the teaching/learning process. Lectures, for example, assumed that certain skills needed to be taught and demonstrated. Much as participants were aware of a number of search tools and databases, aspects such as the importance of articulating information problems, mind-mapping and psychological feelings associated with too many results or irrelevant information needed to be stressed through brief lecture presentations. This recognizes that even in a working environment, short lecture presentations are important when conducting information literacy interventions. Lectures are an effective means of disseminating information; they help to model problem-solving, to elucidate difficult theories and to organize concepts. Therefore lectures not only helped to disseminate information and clarify difficult aspects, they assisted in making learners aware of what they were doing and the importance of knowing what they did, that is scaffolding (Biggs, 1999). The interventions among agriculturalists and medical practitioners brought new challenge on how to teach these and other professionals in the work places. These interventions received special funding; it was not clear as to how other professionals in other fields would learn information literacy skills. Of course one approach as planned by medical practitioners was to integrate information literacy skills into the medical curriculum. The challenge remains however as to how those who had already passed formal college education would learn these important skills. On one hand students who undertook agriculture and related studies mainly at Sokoine University of Agriculture would learn information literacy skills while at the university (Sife, 2005). However, this might not be the case for others who never went through such a training system. To help ensure that information literacy skills would be taught to different professionals in work places, the Tanzania Public Services College initiated a pilot programme on teaching information literacy skills for decision-makers/influencers. This was expected to be a training programme involving civil servants who were trained at the college for various certificate, ordinary diploma and postgraduate diploma courses. The pilot programme would result into an integrated information literacy course into the college’s curriculum. The pilot was launched in June 2012 and was expected to last for one semester (until December 2012). Perhaps this and other similar efforts would help to promote the teaching of information literacy courses to professionals at work places. Therefore, owing to the importance of this kind of information literacy training, it is highly recommended that mechanisms be put in place to ensure that courses such

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as the ones outlined in this study be initiated to various professionals in order to instil critical thinking and independent learning among people working at decision-making/influencing levels.

References Angello, C., & Wema, E. (2010). The role of livestock research institutes in promoting access and use of e-resources by livestock researchers in Tanzania. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology, 1(1), 53–65. Bethell, S., & Morgan, K. (2011). Problem-based and experiential learning: Engaging students in an undergraduate physical education module. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 10(1), 128–134. Biggs, J. B. (1999). What the student does: Teaching for enhanced learning. Higher Education Research & Development, 18(1), 57–75. Bruce, C. (1995). Information literacy: A framework for higher education. Australian Library Journal, 44(3), 158–170. Bruce, C. (1999). Workplace experiences of information literacy. International Journal of Information Management, 19(1), 33–47. Bundy, A. (1998, June). Information literacy: The key competency for the 21st century. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the International Association of Technological University Libraries held in Pretoria South Africa. Retrieved from http://www.library.unisa.edu.au/about/papers/inlit21.pdf. Accessed on 17 June 2012. Butcher, K. R., & Sumner, T. (2011). How does prior knowledge impact students’ online learning behaviors? International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and Learning, 1(4), 1–18. Council of Australian University Librarians (CAUL) (2001). Information literacy standards. Retrieved from http://www.caul.edu.au/caul-doc/InfoLitStandards 2001.doc. Accessed on 28 June 2012. Crawford, J., & Irving, C. (2012). Information literacy in employability training: The experience of Inverclyde libraries. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 44(1), 79–89. Dennis, N. (2001). Using inquiry methods to foster information literacy partnerships. Reference Services Review, 29(2), 122–131. Dyche, L. (2007). Interpersonal skill in medicine: The essential partner of verbal communication. Journal of General Internet Medicine, 22(7), 1035–1039. Edwards, S. L., & Bruce, C. (2002). Reflective internet searching: An action research model. The Learning Organization, 9(4), 180–188. Eskola, E. (2005). Information literacy of medical students studying in the problembased and traditional curriculum. Information Research, 10(2), 36–43. Fitzgerald, M. A. (1999). Evaluating information: An information literacy challenge. School Library Media Research, 2(1). Retrieved from http://oldweb.ala.org/aasl/ SLMR/vol2/evaluating.html. Accessed on 25 June 2012.

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Gibbs, G., Morgan, A., & Northedge, A. (1998). Teaching in higher education: Theory and evidence, how students learn. Milton Keynes: Open University. Halttunen, K. (2003). Students’ conceptions of information retrieval: Implications for the design of learning environments. Library and Information Science Research, 25(3), 307–332. Haruna, H. (2011). Health information needs by health professionals for decision making at central level. The case of the ministry of health and social welfare headquarters, Dar es salaam Tanzania. Masters dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam. Hepworth, M., & Wema, E. (2006). The design and implementation of an information literacy training course that integrated information and library science conceptions of information literacy, educational theory and information behaviour research: A Tanzanian pilot study. ITALICS, 5(1). Retrieved from http://www.ics.heacademy.ac.uk/italics/vol5-1/pdf/hepworth-evans-final.pdf. Accessed on 25 June 2012. Hung, D. W. L., & Chen, D. (2001). Situated cognition, Vygotskian thought and learning from the communities of practice perspective: Implications for the design of web-based e-learning. Education Media International, 38(1), 3–12. Irving, A. (1985). Study and information skills across the curriculum. London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. James, B. (2010). Health information seeking behavior, health indicators and health risks. American Journal of Public health, 100(8), 1520–1525. Jonassen, D., Davidson, M., Collins, M., Campbell, J., & Haag, B. B. (1995). Constructivism and computer-mediated communication in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 9(2), 7–26. Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. New Jersey, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Kolb, D. A., Rubin, I. M., & Osland, J. (1991). Organizational behavior: An experiential approach. New Jersey, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Kuhlthau, C. C. (1993). A principle of uncertainty for information seeking. Journal of Documentation, 49(4), 339–355. La Toile. (2010). Tanzania hosts world malaria day for Africa. WHO/AFRO Malaria Newsletter, 2(2), 1–4. Majid, S., & Tan, Ai Tee. (2002). Usage of information resources by computer engineering students: A case study of Nanyang technological university, Singapore. Online Information Review, 26(5), 318–325. Malekani, A. W. (2005). A review of problems affecting promotion of information literacy in Tanzania and the potential role of information and library professions in alleviating the situation. University of Dar es Salaam Library Journal, 7(1), 57–70. Matovelo, D. S. (2008). Enhancing farmers’ access to and use of agricultural information for empowerment and improved livelihood. Ph.D. thesis, University of Dar es Salaam. Mayes, T., & De Freitas, S. (2004). Review of e-learning theories, frameworks and models. Commissioned review report as part of the JISC-funded e-pedagogy desk study on e-learning models. Retrieved from http://www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_ documents/Stage2LearningModels(Version1).pdf. Accessed on 18 June 2012.

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Miller, A. H., Imrie, B. W., & Cox, K. (1998). Student assessment in higher education: A handbook for assessing performance. London: Kogan Page. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Cooperatives (MAFIS). (2011). Creating an enabling agricultural policy environment. Retrieved from http://www.kilimo.go.tz/ CAADP/Brief%20No%20%201%20%20%282%29.pdf. Accessed on 25 June 2012. Ministry of Health and Social Welfare. (2004). Proposal to strengthen health information system. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Ministry of Health and Social Welfare. Mukama, F. (2003). A study of health information systems at local levels: Improving the levels and management of information at district levels. Masters dissertation, University of Oslo. O’sullivan, C. (2002). Is information literacy relevant in the real world? Reference Services Review, 30(1), 7–14. Ogunlade, I., Oladele, O. I., & Falaki, A. A. (2006). Information needs and seekingbehaviour among urban farmers in Kwara State, Nigeria. University of Dar es Salaam Journal, 8(1&2), 73–87. Oliver, R., & McLaughlin, C. (1999). Using web and problem-based learning environments to support the development of key skills. Retrieved from https:// secure.ascilite.org.au/conferences/brisbane99/papers/olivermcloughlin.pdf. Accessed on 21 July 2012. Saleh, I. (2012). Media and information literacy in South Africa: Goals and tools. Communicator. Retrieved from http://www.revistacomunicar.com/pdf/preprint/ 39/en-C39-03-PRE-15730-SALEH.pdf. Accessed on 18 July 2012. Sife, A. S. (2005). Information literacy programme at Sokoine National Agriculture library. In E. Kiondo & J. Msuya (Eds.), User information literacy: Case studies from university library programmes in the SCANUL-ECS region (pp. 179–186). Oxford, UK: INASP. Skov, A., & Skaerbak, H. (2003). Fighting an uphill battle: Teaching information literacy in Danish institutions of higher education. Library Review, 52(7), 326–332. Travis, T. (2011). From the classroom to the boardroom: The impact of information literacy instruction on workplace research skills. Education Libraries, 34(2), 19–31. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

SECTION IV BEYOND HIGHER EDUCATION

Chapter 13

Workplace Information Literacy: It’s Different Stephen Abram

Abstract The aim of this chapter is to frame the key issues in workplace information literacy. This chapter is the personal experiences and observations of the author with over 30 years of experience in intranets, corporate libraries and product development. The workplace is not a single or uniform population, as can be said broadly about mass markets like consumers, K-12 students, or undergraduate scholars. Workplaces are defined as the workers in both not-for-profit and for-profit sectors who are tasked with running the organization and delivering services to end users like learners, customers, clients, patients, etc. This chapter explores these issues and frameworks through key target audiences in commercial and institutional workplace environments such as:  Teachers (as opposed to students)  Faculty (professors as opposed to young scholars)  Corporate administrators and business decision-makers, executive, professionals, consultants, accountants, auditors, MBAs, managers  Medical professionals such as doctors, nurses, pharmacists  Lawyers (in both private practice and internal corporate and government work)

Developing People’s Information Capabilities: Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts Library and Information Science, Volume 8, 205–222 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1876-0562/doi:10.1108/S1876-0562(2013)0000008017

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 Engineers  Creative professions (artists, advertisers, marketers, etc.) Keywords: Workplace literacy; information literacy; work environments; employment literacy; professional literacy

With workplace audiences there are key differentiations from the more common focus of librarians on the broad information literacy needs of end user populations in public library, school, college and university sectors. These key differences are as follows:  There is a wider range of and need for partnerships with other stakeholder groups in the host organization such as human resources professionals, training departments, executive champions, quality leaders, financial leaders.  There are stronger and more clearly defined strategic goals that are managed, targeted and measured, such as improvements in productivity, efficiency and effectiveness, revenue growth, cost control, process and technological change, etc. that are built into position performance contracts and compensation. There may also be cultural and environmental issues related to unionization.  There are key measurements that predominate decision-making in this sector that include return on investment, return on effort, revenue growth/ cost savings, and strategic alignment with long-term and operational goals.  There are strong institutional and cultural considerations around how ‘things are done here’ and alignment with the cultural and learning values of the dominant profession or industry and commercial norms.  There are often strong differences between public sector and private sector value systems and the articulation of benefits. Communication of these in the language of the workplace audience is key.  The work product tends to be ongoing and has an arc that transcends the project and covers years as opposed to the work of students, for example, that tends to have a defined beginning and end and a specific deliverable; while teamwork may be present in some projects, the commercial environment has teamwork as the norm.  Lastly, the training and development opportunities provided by an employer may not be by choice or voluntary, alternatively not all target audiences choose to attend, engage, learn or adopt. The chapter concludes with recommendations for successful framing of information literacy interventions in a workplace context.

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I take the broader view of information literacy and subscribe to the emerging discussion about ‘transliteracy’. I believe that these skills will be essential in the 21st century. Here’s the definition of transliteracy from Wikipedia [http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Transliteracy]: ‘Transliteracy is the ability to read, write and interact across a range of platforms, tools and media from signing and orality through handwriting, print, TV, radio and film, to digital social networks. The modern meaning of the term combines literacy with the prefix trans-, which means ‘‘across; through’’, so a transliterate person is one who is literate across multiple media’. Transliteracy can comprise any and all of the following skills and competencies in an enterprise environment:                       

Reading literacy Numeracy Critical literacy Learning system and collaboration literacy Social literacy Search literacy Computer literacy Intranet literacy Web literacy Content literacy Written literacy Mobile literacy News literacy Technology literacy Information literacy Media literacy Adaptive literacy Research literacy Academic literacy Confidentiality, privacy, corporate policy Legal and regulatory literacy Reputation management, etc. Cultural literacy (i.e. corporate culture or global initiatives)

In the workplace each of these must be viewed in the context of the enterprise mission, as opposed to a community, learning or societal research goal. That difference is the key to understanding the key challenge of focusing on workplace literacy. This definition nicely frames the challenge of workplace literacy where the ability to search, retrieve and use information is rarely sufficient to be

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a competent and successful employee. Success in the workplace requires people to be able to integrate specific software, network environments, collaboration tools, learning tools, multiple content formats and more. And it’s incumbent on both the employer and the employee to keep up to date with the changes in the technical and content environment as well as their profession, sector and industry. The need for continuous learning is more than just a personal value; it’s a matter of competitive advantage and survival. Sometimes lives depend on progress being made and adaptations spreading throughout the enterprise.

13.1. Collaboration as a Principle in Institutional and Corporate Environments One of the great stereotypical myths of our society is that of the solitary genius that invents or creates something out of the ether. It is a myth. We human beings are social animals. We point to such geniuses as Amadeus Mozart who created brilliant symphonies but it would have been all for naught without the teamwork of the orchestra (and by extension the opera houses and symphony halls and the modern broadcast, technology, and recording industries that keep the music alive). We can point to Ernest Hemingway and Margaret Atwood as great authors but without editors, publishers, researchers, retailers, reviewers, teachers, critics and readers their works would be akin to trees falling in a forest with no one there. Stephen Hawking is perhaps the most verifiable living genius and yet his magnificent intelligence is trapped in a body wracked by disease and atrophy. Without the talents and skills of his collaborators, publishers, university, family and caregivers, we would know nothing of his insights and lose the human potential he exemplifies. Individual genius is not a myth but invention in solitude is. We not only stand on the shoulders of those who’ve gone before us, we depend for success on the support and collaboration of talents and teams that expand our own capability. And it almost (just almost) goes without saying that libraries and librarians play a huge role in conserving and providing access to recorded knowledge — the proverbial shoulders of those who’ve gone before us. As information professionals who work in environments where we support the special needs of work teams, businesses and institutions, we are well advised to focus on the relationships we need to work with people over their longitudinal projects and enterprise goals. We are also challenged by connecting with these work teams and individuals as we try to connect through and to their social networks. Many, and probably most of our clients, have many networks that extend beyond the organization’s

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boundaries. These networks have both strong and weak ties. By connecting to our clients’ networks, we connect to the ethos of their collaborative efforts. At our best, we become part of the team and network. Again, we are challenged by how these networks are changing in recent years with the advent of enterprise intranets, expertise networks, social networks like Facebook or business networks like LinkedIn. We ignore these changes at our peril. In order to make information literacy advances in the workplace we must connect to these networks, manage communication through them and ensure that we harness the power of these networks to train the trainer and ensure that word-of-mouth succeeds in transferring the important and critical skills for success in our organizations. Many of our interactions as information professionals, and indeed a great deal of our true impact, involves tending and nurturing the development of broad information literacy competencies that lead to successful collaboration, project success, innovation, insight and creativity. This fact can often be lost in traditional library strategies that overly focus on statistics about deliverables and effort (like website hits, reference queries, meetings, etc.) and counting these transactions. These too often take a blinkered view of just one small section of the client’s experience and ignores the real and measurable impact on the success of the organization and the individuals therein. Transformational librarianship is far more about relationships than the statistics that emphasize transactional librarianship. It focuses on workflow and the ultimate desired results rather than the transaction. Social institutions like businesses, associations, academe, government and, indeed, libraries are an aggregation of individual effort but keeping score on individual transactions devalues the ultimate value in collaboration. One plus one can equal three! Recognizing that our society, and indeed all societies, since time immemorial are comprised of a diversity of individuals interdependent on each other for survival and progress is essential to frame the goal of making progress as enterprises and as a society. So, let’s consider the points of intersection between information professionals and our clients, teams and groups, the value we deliver, and the impact we have in a transformational context.

13.1.1. A Few Definitions Simply collaboration is, ‘‘The action of working with someone to produce or create something’’. More specifically, Collaboration is working together to achieve a goal. It is a recursive process where two or more people or organizations work together to realize shared goals, this is more than

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the intersection of common goals seen in co-operative ventures, but a deep, collective, determination to reach an identical objective for example, an intriguing endeavor that is creative in nature by sharing knowledge, learning and building consensus. Most collaboration requires leadership, although the form of leadership can be social within a decentralized and egalitarian group. In particular, teams that work collaboratively can obtain greater resources, recognition and reward when facing competition for finite resources’’. [Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboration] Cooperation is the, ‘‘act or instance of working or acting together for a common purpose or benefit; joint action, the more or less active assistance from a person, organization, etc., a willingness to cooperate in activities for shared for mutual benefit’’. [Dictionary.com] Teamwork is the, ‘‘cooperative or coordinated effort on the part of a group of persons acting together as a team or in the interests of a common cause’’. [Dictionary.com] Social is an adjective meaning of or relating to society or its organization. Libraries are social institutions. So are governments, schools, colleges, businesses, churches and indeed nearly any human enterprise — formally organized or not. Social life is the basic way we humans achieve things. Therefore the social technology tools represent huge opportunities for social professions.

13.1.2. Framing the Conversation There have been some pressures on the context of social collaboration in the past few decades. Disruptive innovations in technology have taken technology from a mechanical retrieval and workflow context to one that is socially aligned with human needs and behaviours in a societal context. This has become more important as we experience the real emergence of a global information and knowledge-based economy. This has resulted in pressures on social institutions to reimagine the ways their people — employees, learners, inventors, customers, etc. — interact, live, work and play. With the emerging alignment of collaboration technologies with the goals of society, human engagement and work, librarians must evolve along with these technologies and prepare for a world where we can enlarge our impact on client and organizational success with less focus on the face-to-face and physical colocation. This ironically might move us back in time to where librarianship had a greater focus on relationships and professional service and less on accessing information using technology and digital content. Rising above the stressors and disruptors that are affecting some of our professional foundations — access, content, resources, packaging — and renewing our emphasis on improving our users in their context can serve to

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be a key building block for increasing our value, sustaining our success, and surviving and thriving.

13.1.3. Technologies Technology is, in and of itself, neutral. However, when humans engage with technologies, then the world gets messy. All of us can point to instances and events of content spam, digital junk, cyber-bullying, online fraud, spam, phishing, loss of privacy and identity theft that have been facilitated by new technology on scales that were not possible in the old paradigm. We can also point to the role that social technologies and digital content have played in increasing invention and discovery, making hidden content visible, reuniting families, Arab Spring and democracy movements, along with the WikiLeaks government transparency movement. On a more pedestrian basis the social web has increased access to both good and bad information, increased and/ or changed our perceptions of other people and cultures, and connected people, teams and classrooms on a scale that was unimaginable even a few years ago. While we often discuss knowledge management as a technological intervention in organizations, we know that one can’t manage actual knowledge since that can only exist in the human mind. We can manage the knowledge ecology and recorded knowledge is merely information until it enters the minds of decision-makers and learners. We can perform the interventions of training, development, technology and culture that move organizations forward towards their goals. Our organizations are deeply challenged to balance access to people, information and recorded knowledge with the need to protect privacy and corporate secrets, all while sharing safely. Mining the power of social technologies and digital content is a minefield requiring teams of professionals including us. We can’t prepare our organizations for a future where employees, customers, users, researchers, partners and learners are connected at exponentially higher rates by banning or over-controlling access without damaging our own organization’s potential for success. At this point in history, we struggle with finding the appropriate balance and that balance will be different for different organizational and industrial contexts. What is right for consumer agencies might not apply to medical records, public versus private sector, might not be best for military intelligence versus food safety companies. If this was easy, it wouldn’t require information professionals! The potential and emerging proofs that the social web and collaboration tools improve work environments, increase learning and mitigate the disadvantageous effects of ability differences, necessitates that we focus on

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continuing our approach of using pilots, prudent risk, and trial and error to explore the potential of these environments to improve expertise networking, knowledge sharing, learning and alignment with organization goals. If there’s anything that’s clear, social and collaborative, technologies will play an even larger role in every aspect of our work and personal lives. I believe that it’s clear that those organizations that choose to ignore this, or not engage, are choosing to damage their own progress, relevance and success. Since we are always set in the present, we are being challenged to learn and teach the techno-enhanced social collaboration and learning skills with the emerging puzzle pieces of the future ecosystem. I suspect that most of the current crop of tools and environments will either not exist by 2025 or will have changed radically by that date. That’s OK. They represent the features and functions of an emerging ecosystem of collaborative learning, work and play that is assembling itself on the fly. The skills are the social skills we’ve always known. Many of us have traversed through a me´lange of social environments in the past few decades such as Lotus Notes, SharePoint and Yammer. All gave glimpses into a great deal of potential, and from most of our experiences, left a lot of room for improvement. The change is in the scale, price and the patina of risk each tool carries with it. The biggest challenge has been in moving organizational cultures to one where technologically enhanced sharing and collaboration are adopted as a cultural norm, and where coding and storing data associated with the transactions that underpin the success of the organization. What are the major puzzle pieces and how have they changed? How do we influence cultural change? Many of us in the information profession participate in the success of our intranet, learning and website environments. Over the next few years I predict that these environments will start to look less and less like traditional websites and more and more like the social networks that are becoming the norm for the digital and mobile experience. Developing digitally enhanced collaborative experiences and creating ‘experience portals’ beyond our current information portals will underpin greater enterprise success. Currently an information portal merely provides access to information objects (like articles, books, websites, etc.) that can be counted whereas an experience portal creates an experience that can have a measurable, positive impact on key organizational decisions. For example, does it increase sales success or learner engagement or patient health? My standard analogy is that librarian strategies are more about verbs like informing, reading, learning, relating and deciding than about our foundations in nouns like content, books, databases and records. The focus will be on balancing the human interactions with the provision of quality content, all the while supporting the organization’s real goals and mission. Over my career communication has changed from the simple memos, letters and phone calls of the 1980s. At very tiny cost, environments like

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Skype, Facebook and texting (and even old-style e-mail) are changing the one-to-one and group cohort communication dynamic. The removal of barriers like the cost of long-distance calls and the expense of multiple devices could change the economic and digital divides and could lead to a situation where ability and talent are the primary concerns. Collaboration systems like Yammer and SharePoint are rapidly becoming the norm for business and government. Our clients are encountering a world where the employer has an expectation that new hires arrive with abilities that are quite different from the model office of the last century. People will be working virtually and globally as access to talent and your team is no longer constrained by geography. Access has moved from one where the mere retrieval of known items like information and documents has shifted to one where sifting the good from the bad, the authoritative from the popular, consumer from professional, is a critical competency. Physical access is not enough. Intellectual and critical thinking skills are essential and evolving in the context of a variety of search tool options. Presentation systems like WebEx and Adobe are progressing from broadcast to interactive and this changes everything from education through entertainment and business to politics. Making progress on learning, information and media literacy must be stressed as an HR goal to endow employees with advanced credulity and transliteracy skills. Learning management systems and personal learning networks have such great potential that the opportunities are largely underexploited so far. This will change in the next five years as we can see that the Blackboards, Moodles, MindTap and D2Ls that are evolving to support seamlessly the asynchronous needs, multiple languages, learning styles, disabilities, learner potentials and developmental differences of employees aligned with the enterprise goals. The emerging potential for adaptation to user behaviours, history, special needs and learning styles will materially change the dynamics of information engagement as we move forward. As change increases its pace, these provide one of the greatest opportunities for learning and address the organization’s need to adapt to a rapidly changing workplace and workforce. Sharing and rating systems have the potential to crowdsource opinion and expert knowledge, even within a corporate context, quickly. The neotonous systems in Amazon, YouTube and scholarly rating services are moving inexorably to having a greater impact, especially in expert or enterprise networks focused on team or market success. Will all of us participate as team members or will we be standing outside looking in? Will we be part of the team that ensures our users are able to process the difference between consumer, algorithmic and expert recommendations? Will we be positioned as trusted advisors and team members?

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Creativity is moving to a new level. If your organization creates things, (and who doesn’t?), then we must pay attention to ‘inventing’. iTunes style music and podcasts, YouTube or Netflix streaming, personal and group blogging and personal publishing show just the tip of the iceberg of a world where there is the opportunity for more people to present their creations and points of view. Affordable 3D printing, for example, is just starting! We are starting to see the emergence of databases of key 3D objects like museum pieces. These are driving new and exciting competitive pressures. With more people tapping into a World Wide Web where diversity of creativity and access to the global marketplace and distribution systems we may see the emergence of a new Renaissance — as well as threats to industry and employees unable or incapable of adapting. All of the above are enhanced by the content systems and advanced access tools that are emerging in a circa 2012 post-Google world. Our users and organizations will have too much access and not enough quality content. Indeed it is the classic best of times, worst of times. We can be key players in preparing our organizations for success. As more and more of the corpus of historical and current print, audio and video content becomes accessible through digitization, the content fire hose demands higher order skills — in all employees and not just information service professionals. These social and technological changes will challenge our organizations. It has happened before. The Renaissance challenged intellectual understanding of our world and led to fundamental changes in society and the structuring of nations. The Industrial Revolution had a similar impact on a scale similar to what is happening today. In both instances there was extreme resistance from those who had a vested interest and comfort with the old ways. Sometimes we saw societal disruptions like war, revolution, Luddites and social protest movements. Many of us, and our colleagues, are successful and have a vested interest in the status quo and yet we are all entering a period of increased transformational and disruptive change — at a faster pace than even the last few decades. In order to thrive, survive and evolve in a positive way, we will need to adapt and use our critical thinking skills and values to question the change, adjust the sails and invest in our own development. How can we do this?

13.1.4. Keep the Goal in Mind The best way to adapt to disruptive and transformational change is to always keep the goal in mind. What are the goals, in our industry, sector, library or learning context, that are related to these developments in social and collaborative technology?

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First, focus on empowering our organizations with the decision support, question improvement, quality content, skills and competencies they need to succeed in our society. To that end, we must ask ourselves — about every new information technology — ‘‘Does this tool allow us to improve our colleagues and prepare them for the world they are encountering, in a scalable fashion?’’ We should ask ourselves a number of questions:  Can we play with these tools in order to understand their potential better?  Can we ensure that these tools are worth adding to our pilots and trials to see if they show potential for improving learning and teaching?  Can we first take prudent risks and delay judgment until we take a professional view of the potential and the risk in a timely fashion?  Can we monitor their potential and not make premature judgments? To use an analogy, we can’t determine a great doctor or accountant by looking at an infant. Do these environments show support for lifelong learning, collaboration and social skills and perspectives that people will need in order to be successful in the community and workplace world of 2025? Will the world be a better place? Does the social glue, the relationships and the skills that bind, get better through their adoption and use? Are we creating a more tolerant, open and engaging society or are we risking too many negative consequences and a greater divisiveness? What will be the impacts on our institutional culture? Do these tools support the best of society — the world where new discoveries, inventions and creations are widely made, disseminated, enjoyed and used? Will greater progress to a more perfect world be supported? What are the inherent risks of these tools and how do we mitigate those risks? As information professionals, what is our best advice?

13.1.5. Positive Questions These are the types of questions that we should be regularly asking at our institutions and our professional organizations and conferences. These kinds of questions can focus us in challenging times. ‘‘We need better questions:  How can we create amazing experiences every day for our users?  How can we develop our clients into expert questions-askers?  How can we make our libraries invaluable and irreplaceable in our communities?  How can we nurture abundant curiosity?’’ [http://andyburkhardt.com/ 2012/05/24/ask-the-right-questions/]

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It is questions like these that can guide our thinking to do extraordinary things and meet the challenge of change and the future. These questions paint a vision of the future that is aligned with our goals and values and allows us create the future rather than to just have it happen to us and our clients. We can make a choice to merely stay afloat or we can ask questions and actively seek to create the kind of future we want. ‘‘What questions are you asking? What questions do you want to be asking?’’ Libraryland would be a happier place and we’d frame our challenges better using this approach more often.

13.2. Differences in the Private and Public Sector Approaches There are differences and similarities between the public and private sectors. Both contain humans although a strong argument can be made for differences in the value systems of these employees. On the other hand, both sectors must adapt to environmental changes such as demography and technology, and both must make progress on behalf of their constituents and customers. Both must evolve. I’ve found this comparison below helpful over the years in understanding both sectors.

13.2.1. Private Sector           

Competitive advantage is the ideal Innovation is key to long-term existence Focus on clients and marketshare Business strategies Responsibility to shareholders or owner/investors Increasing revenue Risk oriented Economic success is a prime personal motivator Competitors, partners and allies e-Business is the challenge Focus on ‘‘results’’

13.2.2. Public Sector  Collaborative advantage is the ideal  Good service is the key to long-term existence

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Focus on citizens and social contract Political agendas and government imperatives Responsibility to parliament and to citizens Wise use of tax dollars Risk averse Making a positive impact on society is a strong motivator Other departments, levels of government, unions e-Government is the challenge Focus on ‘‘process’’

Both sectors have identifiable, strong information needs and both are facing challenges with adopting social and information technologies to serve their missions and meet their goals. With the selected professional environments below, I’ll explore these from the perspective of the strategies that work in helping to meet the challenges of using information to support decision-making as well as to adapt to and adopt social, collaboration and information technologies. Training a critical mass of workers, in any environments, on a scalable basis, is a real mountain to climb. Combined with the challenge of differing professional and institutional cultures it becomes evident that there is a need for a focused strategy on the part of the information professional and professional librarianship.

13.3. Towards Information Fluency So what does all this mean? I believe in the concept of information fluency. Information fluency is the ability to find, evaluate and use digital information effectively, efficiently and ethically in the context of your personal and work goals and environment. Fluency implies that the skills of using information more effectively to make decisions that are seamlessly and comfortably adapted by the user population. In this chapter I’ve outlined some of the specifics and context of serving the information fluency needs of professionals and workers in specific work environments. Information fluency is the end result of information literacy and transliteracy interventions in the work context. In order to be successful, we must acknowledge the following underpinnings to an information fluency strategy:  Clearly articulate an alignment with the enterprise goals and mission.  Align with the learning styles and the adult learning modes of the target population(s).  Encourage an executive champion to give visible support.  Encourage word-of-mouth support and communicate testimonials.

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 Differentiate between those transliteracy skills for the entire population and those that should be targeted at a specific population or accomplished by librarians and information professionals.  Develop scalable solutions that transcend one-on-one as the sole training and development strategy.  Build deep personal relationships with co-workers, especially in critical departments and units.  Build quantitative and qualitative measurements as well as story collections to prove the impact and worth of the information literacy and fluency programmes.  Align all measurements with measures that align with core goals of the organization as opposed to mere statistics that communicate effort out of context.  Position the information professional as a trusted advisor and team member on content quality and selection, research tools and approaches, social media applications, and research and development.  Choose a limited range of technologies and resources that simplify the process and reduce complexity in the institutional context. Continuously evaluate these technologies and resources and adapt and upgrade as needed.  Balance physical and digital resources as appropriate in a hybrid strategy.

13.4. The Enterprise Context The enterprise environment can be confusing. Some people see business workplaces as the model for the workplace but it is clear that educational institutions are also workplaces and valid targets for employee information literacy training as well. Indeed the training of employees in the not-forprofit worlds of academe and teaching is poorly done and a key opportunity for improvement of results. The for-profit world is investing in information literacy in the context of their mandates, but again, there is a lot of work to be done. Let’s review a few key sectors.

13.4.1. Faculty In many universities and colleges, the teaching and research employees sometimes get lost in the shuffle with respect to information literacy training as the focus is on endowing undergraduates with information literacy competencies. In most respects, focusing on the professors and lecturers can have a greater impact on more students than other strategies while improving research output as well. A hybrid model is obviously far better,

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but in times of restricted budgets sometimes choices about priorities must be made. When faculty is not prioritized, things are left up to chance and there is fragmented implementation of teaching and research literacy strategies. Too often too little investments are made in the teaching skills of those who are tasked with delivering the programme. One success factor for libraries is that when professors and lecturers are trained in the modern information literacy options available through the library and the network, then library use can increase and the work product of students improves as well. This train the trainer strategy is tried and true but still underutilized. Some research shows that even drop-out rates (retention rates) fall precipitously among those students that use the library versus those that don’t. One successful hybrid programme for both students and faculty is that employed by the fully online information science and librarianship degree at the School of Information Studies at San Jose´ State University [SJSU] in California. [http://slisapps.sjsu.edu/gss/ajax/showSheet.php?id=4655]

13.4.2. Teachers Teachers in the K-12 space are a special group. They are tasked with delivering a broad programme that is undergoing dynamic change at the same time as the technology framework and environment is changing rapidly. At the same time there are more opportunities to deal more effectively with the broad population of learners than ever before and those learners can often be ahead of the teachers technologically. Combined with a trend that shows an aging population of teachers as well as new entrants to the profession we see opportunity challenged by the huge scale of the change. One interesting initiative is that undertaken by INFOhio, which is a state cooperative delivering shared services such as OPAC/ILS management, database licensing and training. Their programme to invest in direct training of teachers, principals and administrators in addition to the library staff in almost 2600 libraries. One challenge has been to align the various schools with the principles of the Partnership for 21st Century Skills [http:// www.p21.org/]. The challenge of meeting the P21 goals largely starts with preparing the teachers to deliver on the vision. [http://learningcommons. infohio.org/]

13.4.3. The Professions There is a cadre of key professions that have specific information needs that differ when they are in research or teaching practice as opposed to when they are practicing their profession. Here are four groups of professions that have very specific needs and impacts and where the results of a bad decision

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can have far reaching and even fatal consequences: medicine, law, engineering and the creative professions. Doctors and nurses make decisions based on training and information. As a workplace, research shows that using the library has a proven effect on patient mortality and treatment. Focusing on the effective use of information and endowing medical teams with the needed skills would have a positive effect. Lawyers again have very specific needs. Generally, they have some skills in searching legal databases but can often benefit from the experience and competencies of trained legal researchers like librarians and professional legal researchers. Legal searching is quite complex. It also changes dynamically and the digital revolution in the law has made the practice of legal research event more challenging. Lawyers demand that they have complete confidence in the comprehensiveness and authority of the decisions and precedents that they are citing. It’s a professional responsibility and can have effects as far as malpractice concerns. New rulings, statutes, regulations and rules have the potential to change advice and arguments every day. As with any workplace environment there are consequences, sometimes dire, to poor information and decisions including malpractice. As such, training lawyers for high levels of information literacy is a key to the success of quality firms.

13.4.4. Engineers The field of engineering is filled with professionals who accredited in their field as individual professionals and licensed by the authorities to practice. Like medicine and the law, lives are at stake and the consequences of poor performance rise to a societal issue. If bridges or buildings collapse, or hardware fails, we look to engineers to both blame and sort out the causes. Engineering is based on information. As such, there are key information literacy skills required by engineers, including, first and foremost, knowing when and where to look for a standard, patent or code and how to apply it. Combine this with the general information needs for inventions, creativity or business needs, and you have a complex information ecology. Again, specialist engineering librarians play a key role in this sector as they train end users in these important skills as well as perform complex searches for research and development teams.

13.4.5. The Creative Professions This segment of professionals includes artists, advertisers, game developers, marketers, writers, and more. There are specialized information literacy

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issues that some into play here. These professionals can be ultra-creative and use many, sometimes random, sources for inspiration. They can often be visual leaners and find text not as satisfying as visual and graphic results like pictures and video. On the other hand, they can be quite data and research driven as they seek the right solution, plan or image to meet their or their client’s goals. As such, there are a number of specific information tools that can support their work and align with their needs. I include this often visually oriented group of professionals to highlight that there is a wide range of people in the workplace who may or may not have skills that are needed to use all forms of information, text, image, graphic, audio or video and librarians can either teach, develop or perform these skills for the organization.

13.4.6. Corporate Administrators and Business Decision-Makers, Professionals, Consultants Previous sections discussed information literacy initiatives and strategies for employees in learning and research environments. In those environments the goal is to meet the institutional needs to create new knowledge and to create new knowledge workers. Often these environments prepare people to achieve in the for-profit space where supporting quality decision-making with quality information has been a continuing challenge for special librarians to support the specialized needs of workers and professionals in the context of business decision-making.

13.4.7. What is a Decision? A decision is the act or process of deciding, a determination arrived at after consideration, and promptness and firmness in deciding is an important attribute. According to Wikipedia, ‘‘Decision making can be regarded as the mental processes (cognitive process) resulting in the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios. Every decision making process produces a final choice. The output can be an action or an opinion of choice’’. ‘‘It is important to differentiate between problem analysis and decision making. The concepts are completely separate from one another. Traditionally it is argued that problem analysis must be done first, so that the information gathered in that process may be used towards decision making’’. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_making] Aligning workplace literacy strategies with the ultimate decision-making capacity of the host organizations is key to the success of information literacy strategies in this context. Librarians play key roles in almost every

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step of the problem analysis and decision-making processes in enterprise environments especially in training employees to use information effectively in these stages. The opportunity for information professionals can be quite large and have an enterprise-wide impact in ensuring that the end users in the organization can:  Use information effectively to underpin decisions and can separate quality information from bad or suspect information;  Have confidence in their decisions;  Make the right decisions in a timely fashion;  Can adjust processes as new information becomes available;  Speak and act with authority;  Make decisions in a cost-effective manner;  Make fewer errors and be as efficient as possible, time is money.

13.5. Conclusion Workplace literacy is different. It builds on the skills we see taught and experienced in the consumer and education space but it focuses on the needs of the enterprise and aligns with the mission of the organization to succeed. In short, it is more narrowly focused and may indeed focus beyond just the context of the enterprise but focus just on tools, technology, policies, and content that are licensed or available to the organization. Therefore, in these work environments information literacy is quite different. It is: 1. Highly targeted to just those employees who are involved in the decisions being made in the context of the workplace goals including profit or other measurements of output and success. 2. In the context of the organization, it is framed in the technological framework of that enterprise and on the approved tools (mobile device, intranet, licensed e-resources, etc.) that are emphasized, taught or permitted. 3. Likely to be mandated from the top with an internal champion to be successful. 4. Involve real business issues and focus more on the practical uses and less on theoretical frameworks. 5. Likely to focus on compliance with regulatory frameworks such as Sarbanes-Oxley, the SEC, medical or legal policies, or other rules, confidentiality and trade secret concerns.

Chapter 14

Diversifying Information Literacy Research: An Informed Learning Perspective Christine S. Bruce, Mary M. Somerville, Ian Stoodley and Helen Partridge

Abstract This article uses the idea of informed learning, an interpretation of information literacy that focuses on people’s information experiences rather than their skills or attributes, to analyse the character of using information to learn in diverse communities and settings, including digital, faith, indigenous and ethnic communities. While researchers of information behaviour or information seeking and use have investigated people’s information worlds in diverse contexts, this work is still at its earliest stages in the information literacy domain. To date, information literacy research has largely occurred in what might be considered mainstream educational and workplace contexts, with some emerging work in community settings. These have been mostly in academic libraries, schools and government workplaces. What does information literacy look like beyond these environments? How might we understand the experience of effective information use in a range of community settings, from the perspective of empirical research and other sources? The article concludes by commenting on

Developing People’s Information Capabilities: Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts Library and Information Science, Volume 8, 223–240 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1876-0562/doi:10.1108/S1876-0562(2013)0000008018

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the significance of diversifying the range of information experience contexts, for information literacy research and professional practice. Keywords: Informed learning; information experience; community information literacy; religious information literacy; health information literacy

14.1. Introduction To date, information literacy research has largely occurred in what might be considered mainstream educational and workplace contexts, with some emerging work in community settings. The dominance of attention to college and university libraries, schools, government and corporate workplaces has led to an assumption that research skills, deductive approaches to problem solving, and information processes in different contexts, are central to information literacy and information literacy research (Lin, 2010). Research that has focussed on the experience of information literacy (Bruce, 1997), however, has explored people’s experiences of effective information use; and while the context in which this work was done was clearly mainstream, the experiences identified revealed textures and patterns in the character of effective information use that had previously not been accounted for. This focus on people’s experience of information use in information literacy research has led to a range of understandings of information literacy in broad academic (e.g. Edwards, 2006; Maybee, 2007) or discipline-based (e.g. Boon, Johnston, & Webber, 2007; Lupton, 2008), and workplace (e.g. Lloyd, 2007; Kirk, 2004) settings. Insights from this work have made two important contributions. The first is the theorising of an experientially grounded, phenomenographic, approach to information literacy, as informed learning or using information to learn (Bruce, 2008; Bruce & Hughes, 2010; Bruce, Hughes, & Somerville, 2012). The second and newer influence derives from more recent attention to informed learning in community settings (Harlan, Bruce, & Lupton, 2012; Gunton, Bruce, & Stoodley, 2012; Yates, Partridge, & Bruce, 2008; Yates et al., 2012). It leads us to ask: What does people’s information experience look like beyond the traditionally researched environments, in spaces where people are potentially less constrained by academic and scientific values and processes? We need to understand the experience of information use in diverse contexts to ensure the breadth of information experiences (i.e. experiences with information, of information and in information environments) are acknowledged, understood and esteemed in our information and knowledge rich society.

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How might we then understand the collective experience of using information to learn in community contexts? Informed learning is an interpretation of information literacy that focuses on people’s experiences of information use, rather than their skills or attributes, to explore the character of information literacy in a range of contexts. We may expect to gain enhanced insight into the experience of informed learning from settings that admit ways of thinking about knowledge which differs from dominant scientific and socio-economic values, thus opening up windows into the experience of a greater diversity of communities. Such insight will allow us to nurture what are presently less recognised approaches to information use, as well as develop understandings which will at least begin to take into account the diversity of experience, which enriches our society. Understanding diversity in informed learning experiences serves to acknowledge both content (since the information itself is embraced as an object of research) and context (because informed learning takes into account the interrelationships between people and their environment). In this chapter we discuss the nature of informed learning in community settings. We then explore the potential of using an informed learning lens to explore community information literacy, through analysing research generated frameworks derived from Australian and North American research in terms of their illustration of information and learning experiences. These examples indicate the value of this approach for appreciating (and rediscovering) textured, contextualised and collective information and learning experiences, particularly those often overlooked due to the prevalence of individualistic values. Finally, we discuss how understanding informed learning in community settings may enrich our prevailing views of information literacy, building our appreciation for variation in being, seeing and knowing (ways of experiencing) the world, others and self.

14.2. Informed Learning: A Lens for Exploring Information Experiences in Community Settings Informed learning attends to variation in peoples’ information experiences rather than their skills or attributes. Within the framework of informed learning, information literacy is usually described as the experience of ‘using information to learn’, and information literacy education as changing awareness of people’s experiences of using information to learn. Fundamentally, a focus on variation enables us to be able to work effectively with or serve particular groups, perhaps in heightening or widening their experience, and, in a reciprocal fashion, heightening or widening our own information experience (Somerville & EchoHawk, 2011).

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Informed learning embraces rich experiential ‘story’ as a focal strategy for interpreting and understanding experience. The experiential research frame underpinning informed learning offers a holistic approach to understanding information use that contrasts with the conventional skills and competency based approaches, because it takes into account the interrelations between people and their environment. The emphasis on experience also embraces awareness of information as a principal object of research, involving both what people experience as information, and how they experience that information. For example, artists or weather forecasters may or may not experience snow as information, and the way in which they experience that information may also differ, for example as inspiration or evidence. Informed learning (Bruce, 2008) seeks to understand the experience of information use for learning. Information is interpreted as that which is experienced as informing (Bruce, 2008; Lupton, 2008), and learning is interpreted as becoming aware of or experiencing aspects of the world differently (Marton & Booth, 1997). For example, information is understood from the perspective of users and learners which takes different forms and varies with the discipline or community of practice (Lupton & Bruce, 2010). Somerville & Lloyd (2006) note that firefighters consider both their bodies and the fire itself to be information; also, while academics might consider books, journals, newspapers, archives and broadcasts to constitute information (Boon et al., 2007), construction workers identify drawings, email correspondence, minutes of meetings, workflow and contracts as information (Magub, 2006). The phrase ‘information use’ is intended as a broad representation of people’s experience of information literacy, rather than as a single phase in an information process. Informed learning also acknowledges that information may be experienced in many ways, including subjective, situated and transformational (Bruce & Hughes, 2010; Lupton & Bruce, 2010; Somerville & EchoHawk, 2011). It thus departs from conventional educational approaches which emphasise objective content divorced from primary sources and experiences through inclusively encouraging awareness of the cultural and social dimensions of learning contexts, as well as simultaneously promoting sharing of varied knowledge and experiences (Bruce & Hughes, 2010; Cajete, 1994). Key principles underpinning the development of informed learning include:  Looking at the world through the eyes of the people engaged with the world, thus understanding the experience of using information to learn from the viewpoint of the learners.  Focusing on more than one aspect of a phenomenon at a time, thus simultaneous attention to information use and discipline content.

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 Emphasising learners’ awareness, either of different aspects of how they use information to learn, or of different facets of one aspect of their use of information to learn.  Recognising the inseparable connection between people and their world, thus focusing on content or context, as well as becoming aware of something in a different way. (Marton & Booth, 1997; adapted from Bruce & Hughes, 2010, pp. 4–5)

14.3. Informed Learning in Community Contexts We now turn to examine the experience of using information to learn across several community contexts. The idea of community here refers to everyday life settings removed from the formal, institutionalised educational and workplace environments typically studied in information literacy (IL) research. In this paper we focus on research into people’s experience of using information to learn in digital communities, faith communities, indigenous communities and ethnic communities. The research highlighted below adopts an interpretive experiential paradigm. Relational informed learning theory (Bruce, 1997) guides the authors’ explorations of rich and holistic information experiences. The research examples represent five very different communities: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Older communities: ageing Australians Digital communities: Australians in disasters Faith communities: Church community Ethnic communities: Hispanic community Indigenous communities: Native American community

The Native American and Hispanic communities referred to above were located in North America, and the remainder in Australian settings.

14.3.1. Older Communities: Ageing Australians A study of ageing Australians (65–79 years olds) found that they experience health information literacy (HIL) as (see also Table 14.1): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Absorbing Targeting Journeying Liberating Collaborating

Personal, discovering unanticipated destinations Entrepreneurial, taking decisions about your lifestyle Collaborative, influencing each others’ health

3. Journeying

5. Collaborating

4. Liberating

2. Targeting

Intuitive, taking in information for possible future use Strategically procedural, organising information

HIL is y

1. Absorbing

Category

Changing the health of the whole community

Deciding about your health

Trusting your own experience of health

Managing information

Filling a personal reservoir

Focus

Learning is about connecting with fellow learners.

Learning is about assembling and managing information. Learning is about taking your own experience seriously. Learning is about becoming able to carry out change.

Learning is about memory and recall.

Learning

Table 14.1: Ageing Australians’ experience of health information literacy.

Information is powerful, changing the community, and is relevant across a wide context.

Information is influential, helping with lifestyle decisions.

Information is sourced internally as well as externally.

Information is complex, an object in its own right and needs to be governed.

Information is stable and meaningful across time.

Information

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When ageing Australians experience HIL as absorbing, learning is about intuitively and spontaneously accumulating external information, which is potentially useful to them, trusting they will remember what’s important at the point of need. Information is sourced externally, and is meaningful and useful across time. When ageing Australians experience HIL as targeting, learning is about organising information strategically, trusting a methodical process will consistently lead to a defensible conclusion. Information is complex and must be managed to be useful. When ageing Australians experience HIL as journeying, learning is about personal discovery. Information sourced internally is useful and valid, including tuning in to their own bodies. When ageing Australians experience HIL as liberating, learning is entrepreneurial, to do with achieving control over their circumstances. Information enables them to act more freely and independently, helping them make individual decisions about their lifestyle. When ageing Australians experience HIL as collaborating, learning is achieved in association with others, to mutual benefit. Information is powerful to instigate change in the wider community. These experiences indicate an expanding awareness that increasingly acknowledges learning as: a. Contextualised — information is applicable to a widening environment b. Controlled — information is an object in its own right c. Personal — information is sourced not just externally but also from within d. Powerful — information is useful to instigate change e. Communal — information is a force for change in the community 14.3.2. Digital Communities: Social Media in Times of Natural Disasters A study exploring the information experiences of people using social media during the Brisbane floods in 2011 suggested that there were four categories that depicted the ways people used social media to be informed during a natural disaster (Bunce, Partridge, & Davis, 2012). In the first category, monitoring information, the information experience involved the ongoing monitoring of news regarding the flooding event for the purpose of staying informed. This was experienced in a solitary manner, in that it did not facilitate or involve communication to others outside of the social network itself. The monitoring experience occurs in social media networks that enable the posting of small chunks of information that could be immediately consumed or re-posted. In the second category, community and communication, the information experience was necessitated by the need to communicate with individuals or organisations in matters relating to the flooding event. Although the

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communication would most frequently take place within the social media spaces it could also involve communicating physically with others, using information that had been sources from a social media platform. This category frequently involved reliance on an individual’s established social media networking communities. Communication with these communities involved harnessing expertise from members within the community itself or from an extension of that community. The very nature of this category necessitated that individuals engaged in the practice of information sharing, either as a recipient or the ‘holder’ of information. Affirmation is the third category of experience. In this category individual’s information experience involved the seeking of affirmation or assurance. Individuals would use the information obtained through social media to obtain or give assurance in regards the safety and/or location of family or friends or in relation to property. In this category individuals may experience the practice of information sharing through the posting of verbal updates or photographs. Alternatively, in this category individuals would actively seek information to share with others rather than simply sharing the information that they already know. The fourth category is awareness. In this category the individual’s information experience involved the development or expansion of their awareness of the flooding event. This need for greater awareness was governed by the individual’s particular expectations and information requirements and, as such was unique to each individual. Although the desire to expand awareness was not always a conscious one, specific reasons for using social media for this purpose including how the flooding has affected the individual’s workplace and therefore their ability to go to work. In this category, individuals will actively seek new visual or text-based information, or they may encounter the information through browsing comments posted on social media platforms. Through adopting an experiential approach to exploring people’s information literacy during a time of crisis, this research has provided new insights and deeper understandings about how people engage with information for learning in everyday life. 14.3.3. Faith Communities: Church Community Informed learning in the Uniting Church of Australia community is experienced as using information to learn in five different ways: 1. Growing faith: understanding and interpreting communication inspired by God to develop a personal faith journey 2. Developing relationships: using information generated through social and pastoral interactions to grow relationships

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3. Managing the church: using collaborative approaches to engage with corporate information to develop administrative functions 4. Serving the community: using personal interpretations of gifts and talents in response to needs within the community 5. Outreaching beyond the community: using personal interpretations of gifts and talents in response to needs beyond the Church community The particular meaning associated with each experience is reflected in its category name. Each also involves a depiction of what constitutes information in that experience and an indication of how the information is used in learning. Details of these categories are summarised in Table 14.2. In the table we can observe a shift in focus of awareness from ‘God and personal faith’ in the first category to ‘service beyond’ in the fifth category. This shifting focus is an important aspect of understanding the variation in informed learning experiences. At the same time, aspects that are not considered, or that we say are in the margin of awareness, widen across categories from relationships in the first category to proactivity and interest in other faiths in the fifth category. Also, across the categories, both information and learning are experienced differently (Gunton et al., 2012).

14.3.4. Ethnic Communities: Hispanic Community At the Center for Colorado & the West at Auraria Library (CC&W), researchers are exploring these questions in the Hispanic and Native American communities: ‘‘What constitutes information?’’ and ‘‘How is information experienced and used for learning?’’ The Hispanics in Colorado project demonstrates the application of a multifaceted ‘informed learning’ lens to appreciating the experiences of a distributed cultural community engaged in a digital ‘memories’ project (Somerville & EchoHawk, 2011). The initiative originated when community members discovered that few images in the Denver Public Library Western Division collection represented a Hispanic experience. Only 136 of the 100,000 photographs were deemed relevant, and metadata for these photographs provided little information, typically noting ‘‘unnamed person’’ or ‘‘may be Hispanic or may be Italian’’. In response, CC&W researchers invited the Hispanic community to contribute personal photographs from scrapbooks and shoe boxes. This resulted in the creation of a 600-image online collection with community-generated metadata. While working with CC&W staff on the project, Hispanic community members gained new appreciation for their history and culture, and became familiar with the concept of informed learning. Hispanic community

Growing faith

Developing relationships

Managing the church

Serving the community

Outreaching beyond the community

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Category

Service beyond

Service within

Business operations

Relationships

God and personal faith

Focus of awareness

Personalised: applied beyond the community

Personalised: responsive within the community

Corporate systematic

Relational shared

Received Personalised

Information experience

Reflective, solitary (personal reflection, peer discussion, formal education) Communal (social interactions, community worship, personal support, social media) Evidence based (group based, interactive sharing) Kinaesthetic (learning by doing, putting learning into practice, acts of service) Kinaesthetic: responsible (as above)

Learning experience

Table 14.2: Varying aspects of experiences of using information to learn in Church community.

Proactivity, other faiths

Own service role Issues beyond

Management issues

Relationships

Margin

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members decided to produce a culturally authentic video promoting awareness of their digital heritage memories. They wrote and rewrote a script expressing informed learning through their cultural lens. Then community members produced a promotional video that advises Hispanic students about locally available college scholarships so that, informed through successful graduates’ testimonials, students will seek the financial aid necessary to attain higher education. In addition, they produced four videos on Hispanic culture and contributions for school children, in fulfilment of a recently enacted (but unfunded) State of Colorado mandate to deliver a more culturally inclusive social studies curriculum (adapted from Bruce et al., 2012). This two-year study demonstrated that authentic community-generated digital curation and knowledge production activities must be informed by community members’ expressions of their contexts, concepts and truths. In particular, this project demonstrated that the concept of ‘significance’ — which conveys importance and consequence — must be negotiated and expressed with and for members of cultural community members. This requires appreciating information formats traditionally disregarded by the larger society — for instance, folk art, storytelling, community dance, cooking and cultural music. In the words of noted Hispanic scholar, ‘‘archives exist in multiple forms. People have collected a compendium of embodied knowledge — information that is passed on by the body through rituals, cooking, dancing and oratory y It is an image bank of sources, concerns, and aspirations. In addition, many groups have established oral and written archives by collecting the stories of ordinary folk, asking them about their experiences and y traditions, particularly the vernacular expressions’’ (Ybarra-Frausto & Mesa-Bains, 2005, p. 10).

14.3.5. Indigenous Communities: The Native American Community Researchers at the Center for Colorado & the West at Auraria Library (CC&W) have also explored the questions: ‘‘What constitutes information?’’ and ‘‘How is information experienced and used for learning?’’ with members of Native American communities in the Western United States. Since 2009, two community-generated digital projects have expressed traditional ways of knowing, seeing and being in the world. Dr. Gregory Cajete in his classic book, Look to the Mountain: An Ecology of Indigenous Education, describes ‘‘the recognition that there is a knowing Center in all human beings that reflects the knowing Center of the Earth and other living thingsy This recognition led to ceremonies, rituals, songs, dances, works of art, stories and traditions to assist individual access and use [of] the healing and whole-making power in each person’’ (1994, pp. 211–212). Therefore,

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for indigenous peoples learning reflects ‘‘a way of perception and creative thought’’ (Cajete, 1994, p. 23) guided by ideas of spiritual ecology, environmental foundation, mythic foundation, visionary, artistic foundation and affective communicative that produces symbiotic relationships (Barnhardt & Kawagley, 2005). The communal nature of shared information experience informs the traditional Native American learning system, which has ‘‘historically occurred in a holistic social context that developed the importance of each individual as a contributing member of the social group. Tribal education sustained a wholesome life process. It was an educational process that unfolded through mutual reciprocal relationships between one’s social groups and the natural world. This relationship involved all dimensions of one’s being while providing both personal development and technical skills through participation in community life. It was essentially a community integrated expression of environmental education’’ (Cajete, 1994, p. 26). Traditional tribal learning reflects the understanding that lives are truly and profoundly connected to other people and the physical world, reflecting a deep relationality. Knowledge gained from first-hand experience in the world is transmitted or explored through ritual, ceremony, art and appropriate technology, for use in everyday living. Cajete observes, ‘‘learning about life [occurs] through participation and relationship in community, including not only people, but plants, animals, and the whole of Nature’’ (1994, p. 26), reflecting extensive simultaneity of awareness. ‘‘Much of indigenous education can be called ‘endogenous’ education; it revolves around a transformational process of learning by bringing forth illumination from one’s ego centre. Educating and enlivening the inner self is the imperative of indigenous education, embodied in the metaphor ‘seeking life’ or for ‘life’s sake’. Inherent in this metaphor is the realisation that ritual, myth, vision, art and learning the art of relationship in a particular environment, facilitate the health and wholeness of the individual, family and community’’ (Cajete, 1994, p. 209). As Cajete says, ‘‘In its most natural dimension, all true education is transformative’’ (1994, p. 209). Such a framework suggests a way of being in the world, as well as experiencing the world, in which learning is cultivated within a community culture that values information and knowledge closely intertwined with the experience of using information to learn. This approach to learning departs significantly from Western societies’ assumptions about information and learning.

14.4. Discussion Information literacy research is currently largely formed in two parts, the behavioural and the interpretive. Behavioural studies tend to see

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information literacy in terms of skills, knowledge and attitudes, measuring or developing models of the cognitive, sensorimotor and affective dimensions of the phenomenon. In the interpretive tradition, it is people’s information and learning experiences that are privileged. The research object may differ, for example some researchers focus on variation in experience, others on information practices and others on the way in which people in different contexts build meaning together; however, the interest in peoples’ experience, and especially their information experience is common. Through the informed learning lens, people’s information experiences are viewed in terms of their experience of using information to learn. Exploring informed learning in community settings enriches our understanding of the character of information literacy.

14.4.1. Enhancing Our Understanding of Information Literacy Each of the community contexts addressed above reveals a wide array of meanings associated with using information to learn, and also considerable diversity in the experience of information and learning. This both reinforces and complements emerging insights into the diverse character of information literacy from sociocultural information literacy research. As the examples illustrate many of the meanings associated with information literacy are not individualistic or grounded in skills, but rather often involve learning groups or communities and are grounded in specific contexts. Significant diversity exists in the kind of information or knowledge that is valued in different communities — received, collaborative, individual or scientifically verified information all contribute to the spectrum, suggesting that our tendency to classify information as, for example, textual, aural, visual or digital may be insufficient. In some cultures, there is strong emphasis on seeing information as objective, with only some attention to the subjective experience of information and even less to the transformational. In spiritually grounded cultures, the experience is likely to be the opposite, with emphasis lying on experiencing information as transformational and subjective, and less or not at all on the objective approach. Studies such as these move us beyond merely understanding information use in context, to understanding how collective relationships in intensive learning environments assume importance. Information in the indigenous and ethnic CC&W communities is experienced as that which is informing and can be subjective or transformational. This affirms the evolving theoretical perspective of informed learning. Information in these cultures appears also as purposeful and intentional. It is not passive; it has an active role to play. The informed learning understanding that people’s experience ‘‘fuses traditional

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separations between data, information and knowledge; recorded and unrecorded knowledge or information y In informing, information makes a contribution to something larger — it becomes part of a process that determines action, enables insights, creates a work of art’’ (Bruce, 2008, p. 101) is affirmed in the experience of the communities contributing to Center for Colorado & the West research projects.

14.4.2. The Importance of Inclusivity The diverse findings around people’s community experiences of using information to learn serve as a timely reminder of the importance of ‘inclusive informed learning’, which simultaneously raises people’s awareness of the cultural and social dimensions of their learning context. Valuing the social and cultural dimensions of learning might encourage people to share their varied knowledge and experiences (Bruce & Hughes, 2010, p. 9). Inclusivity applies to both conceptual and practical aspects of informed learning, for example on a conceptual level, inclusivity implies awareness of the diversity of information users, and their learning and cultural experiences. On a practical level, inclusivity implies professional responses that respond to people’s diverse contexts and needs (adapted from Bruce & Hughes, 2010, pp. 8–9). The intrinsically empathetic and respectful nature of building inclusive informed learning constructs and conceptions honours the experiences of community members and supports their collaborative expression of systems of belief and patterns of experience through which collective cultural differences may be understood. In so doing, researchers working collaboratively with communities ‘‘shape interpretations and narratives of the past and present, thereby influencing construction of the future, as community members express their contexts, concepts, and truths’’ (Wurl, 2005).

14.4.3. Implications for Practice In different communities, we anticipate communication might be assisted and learning opportunities strengthened by insights from such studies as those described here. Leaders will gain insight into ways of working with their communities, and specialised libraries and community archives will gain insight into ways of supporting their client bases. Such insights highlight the need for educators and other professionals to ensure that they understand the information experience of the communities they serve instead of assuming the validity of pre-existing information literacy standards and models.

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It is also important to appreciate that it may not be useful to continue to treat academic, workplace and community settings as separated (Lloyd, 2010). Some of the contexts for this study, for example the indigenous and ethnic faith communities, are places where workplace, academic and everyday life perspectives intermingle. For some, these communities are purely a social environment, for others they ensure connection with eternal sacred principles. For yet others, they are places of formal or informal study, and for others they form spaces where members work, either paid or as volunteers. Further, understanding of indigenous and spiritual perspectives are likely to inform appreciative enquiry into nuanced elements of educational and workplace settings. Understanding information experience from multiple perspectives as revealed in this paper has the potential to guide key stakeholders, both researchers and practitioners, in refining their practice, since the experience of information use is pervasive across settings.

14.4.4. Future Agendas The information literacy research agenda must continue down this path if we wish to build our understanding of users, rather than imposing on them preconceived notions and standardised practices that dominate information literacy programs. Some issues that arise include: a. The need to continue to challenge ourselves about how we avoid or limit the influence of existing or dominant understandings of information and learning when researching under-represented communities and contexts. b. The need to explore a wide range of research approaches to offer further insights into information experience. Thus far, the experience of informed learning has been investigated using grounded theory, phenomenography and ethnography, confirming the value of these approaches to researching informed learning in community settings (Harlan, Bruce, & Lupton, 2012; Bunce et al., 2012). c. The need to understand more deeply how the authority of information is derived in different communities. d. The need to enquire into whether the language of informed learning counters the dominating assumption that information literacy is comprised of skills and behaviours to be learned. It is notable that the Displaced Aurarians of Denver, Colorado were able to embrace the idea of informed learning, including its affirmative language, and make it their own. e. The need to deepen our understanding of experience as a frame for information literacy research.

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14.5. Conclusion In this chapter, to illustrate the promise of experientially grounded research into people’s experiences of information and learning in specific community contexts, we have highlighted studies adopting the lens of informed learning. These examples complement contemporary research paradigms by newly asking: ‘‘What constitutes information?’’ and ‘‘How is information experienced and used for learning?’’ The findings illustrate a sharp contrast with research outcomes from perspectives that see information as objective, with only minor attention to the subjective experience of information and even less consideration of its power to transform. The study of faith communities, for example, reveals the importance of attending to the information experience in contexts less influenced by the socially dominant interpretations of (1) information as objective, external and technicised, rather than subjective or transforming; and (2) information use which is controlled and correct, rather than creative, transformational and collectively achieved. Threads that might be explored in subsequent studies include socially grounded ways of understanding information, constructed in and through relationships; spiritual information and spiritual experiences as different from conventional understandings; and ways in which information is used and identified as authoritative. In the light of these results, further work on understanding information experiences and informed learning in under-represented environments becomes an imperative. Adopting information experience as a theoretical lens where people are characteristically less constrained by academic and scientific values and processes is demonstrably able to yield rich data. Certainly, this includes collaborative studies with traditional and indigenous communities holding varying spiritual, ecological and mythical beliefs and practices, which promise to yield new models of information experiences — emergent in self and with others within social and environmental contexts. In other words, in the future: Researching informed learning must take us across a wide range of spaces, understanding the rich and the poor, the digitally enabled and the digitally disabled, the psychologically empowered, and the psychologically disempoweredy [to explore:] How do people use information to learn in their many and varied circumstances and contexts? (Bruce, 2008, p. 187)

Acknowledgements The preparation of this chapter was made possible through an Australian Research Council Linkage Grant focussed on health information literacy,

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two Institute of Museum and Library Services Awards, and the University of Colorado President’s Initiative Fund for Diversity and Excellence. The Native American video projects were funded by The Kenneth King Foundation in Denver, Colorado. We are also indebted to Ben Sherman, Dana Echohawk, Lyndelle Gunton and Sharon Bunce for their critical insights that have assisted in the writing of this chapter.

References Barnhardt, R., & Kawagley, A. O. (2005). Indigenous knowledge systems and Alaska native ways of knowing. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 36(1), 8–23. Boon, S., Johnston, B., & Webber, S. (2007). A phenomenographic study of English faculty’s conceptions of information literacy. Journal of Documentation, 63(2), 204–228. Bruce, C. (1997). The seven faces of information literacy. Adelaide: Auslib Press. Bruce, C. (2008). Informed learning. Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries. Bruce, C. S., & Hughes, H. (2010). Informed learning: A pedagogical construct connecting information and learning. Library and Information Science Research, 32(4), 2–8. Bruce, C. S., Hughes, H., & Somerville, M. M. (2012). Supporting informed learners in the 21st century. Library Trends, 60(3), 522–545. Bunce, S., Partridge, H., & Davis, K. (2012). Exploring information experience using social media during the 2011 Queensland floods: A pilot study. Australian Library Journal, 61(1), 34–45. Cajete, G. (1994). Look to the mountain: An ecology of indigenous education. Durango, CO: Kivakı´ Press. Edwards, S. (2006). Panning for gold: Information literacy and the Net Lenses Model. Adelaide: Auslib Press. Gunton, L., Bruce, C., & Stoodley, I. (2012). Experiencing religious information literacy: Informed learning in church communities. Australian Library Journal, 61(2), 119. Harlan, M., Bruce, C., & Lupton, M. (2012). Teen content creators: Experiences of using information to learn. Library Trends, 69(3), 569–587. Kirk, J. (2004). Tumble dryers and Juggernauts: Information use processes in organisations. In Lifelong learning: Whose responsibility and what is your contribution? Refereed papers from the 3rd lifelong learning conference, Yeppoon, Australia, 13–16 June (pp. 192–197). Retrieved from http://lifelonglearning.cqu. edu.au/2004/papers Lin, P. (2010). Information literacy barriers: Language use and social structure. Library Hi-Tech, 4, 548–568. Lloyd, A. (2007). Understanding information literacy in the workplace: Using a constructivist grounded theory approach. In S. Lipu, K. Williamson & A. Lloyd (Eds.), Exploring methods in information literacy research: Examples from

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Australasia (pp. 68–86). Wagga Wagga, NSW: Centre for Information Studies, Charles Sturt University. Lloyd, A. (2010). Information literacy landscapes: Information literacy in education, workplace and everyday contexts. Oxford: Chandos. Lupton, M. (2008). Information literacy and learning. Adelaide: Auslib Press. Lupton, M., & Bruce, C. (2010). Windows on information literacy worlds: Generic, situated and transformative perspectives (pp. 4–27). Practising information literacy: Bringing theories of learning, practice and information literacy together. Wagga Wagga, NSW: Centre for Information Studies, Charles Sturt University. Magub, A. T. (2006). Experiences of the phenomenon of Internet use for information sharing on construction projects and skills set identification for effective project participation. PhD thesis. Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. Marton, F., & Booth, S. (1997). Learning and awareness. Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates. Maybee, C. (2007). Understanding our student learners. Reference Services Review, 35(3), 452–462. Somerville, M. M., & EchoHawk, D. (2011). Recuerdos hablados/memories spoken: Toward the co-creation of digital knowledge with community significance. Library Trends, 59(4), 650–662. Somerville, M., & Lloyd, A. (2006). Codified knowledge and embodied learning: the problem of safety training. Studies in Continuing Education, 28(3), 279–289. Wurl, J. (2005). Ethnicity as provenance: In search of values and principles for documenting the immigrant experience. Archival Issues, 29(8), 65–76. Yates, C., Bruce, C. S., Partridge, H., Edwards, S. L., Cooper, H., & Day, G. (2012). Health information literacy: Exploring health information use within everyday life. Library Trends, 60(3), 460–478. Yates, C., Partridge, H., & Bruce, C. S. (2008). Learning wellness: How ageing Australians experience health information literacy. The Australian Library Journal, 58(3), 269–285. Ybarra-Frausto, T., & Mesa-Bains, A. (2005). A critical discourse for within. Art Journal, 64(4), 91–93.

Chapter 15

The Use of Participatory Techniques in the Communication of Information for Communities: Information Literacy and Collaborative Work for Citizenship Development Rosemeire Barbosa Tavares, Sely Maria de Souza Costa and Mark Hepworth

Abstract This qualitative study was carried out in Candangolaˆndia, in Brasilia’s surroundings, Brazil. It comprised procedures that aimed to test the use of participatory research and action (PRA) in interactive and multidirectional communication amongst community members, in order to enable them to work together in the identification, access and use of information to solve social problems. The assumption behind this proposal was that as doing so, citizens develop abilities of information literacy and capabilities of collaborative work. The research tested the efficacy of PRA specifically in information science, using principles of critical thinking and participatory techniques within an epistemological interpretative approach in the identification of community information needs, access and use. Specific techniques such as oral presentation, people introduction, cards, games, brainstorm, workgroups, discussion, and question and answer were applied in 24 activities performed during six meetings with an intentionally selected group of citizens. The set of activities in each meeting was

Developing People’s Information Capabilities: Fostering Information Literacy in Educational, Workplace and Community Contexts Library and Information Science, Volume 8, 241–265 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1876-0562/doi:10.1108/S1876-0562(2013)0000008019

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related to the meeting objective. Data analysis was based on grounded theory principles, particularly the coding process. Findings confirmed that PRA is a suitable methodology to explore abilities of information literacy and attitudes of collaborative work as a result of an interactive and multidirectional communication. In fact, community participants were able to identify, classify and prioritise information needs, as well as use information solutions for a selected social problem. Ultimately, these actions have proved to be helpful for participants to develop a heightened sense of citizenship. Keywords: Information literacy; collaborative work; participatory research and action (PRA); critical enquire; interpretativism epistemological approach; Brazil; citizenship

15.1. Introduction The main aim of this research was to demonstrate that multidirectional and interactive communication that uses participatory techniques contributes to enable people to develop information literacy abilities and work collaboratively. Moreover, both information literacy and collaborative work, when put together, are of particular importance to help people to develop a heightened sense of citizenship. The chapter begins by presenting a discussion about information literacy and collaborative work within a multidirectional and interactive communication process as an option to help people heighten the sense of citizenship. It follows by presenting a participative methodology used to enable people to work collaboratively in handling information in order to make decisions and solve social problems. Results are then analysed and findings are discussed, followed by conclusions met.

15.2. Communication of Information for Citizenship Citizens are free members of any society, integrated in it through either birth or adoption. They are also ‘political beings’ who have potential to make their own individual and social history. Through learning and understanding process, as well as through accessing information, citizens are able to interfere in their destiny, improving their quality of life (Demo, 2002). It is important to note that citizens have civil, political and social rights. While civil rights are connected with birth recognition, political rights are

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linked with the right to vote and to be voted. Both of them are easily assured for all citizens equally. On the other hand, social rights are not given in an equal and fair way for all citizens, since they are connected with education, housing and employment that are difficult to share uniformly in any society (Demo, 2002; Marshall, 1964). In the analysis about who is responsible to guarantee social rights for all citizens, history has shown that the State has not always assumed this duty properly, since it requires building a wide structure, which is hard to be efficiently managed and controlled. On the other hand, many researchers and experts have pointed to the possibility of having citizens assuming this responsibility, therefore indicating the end of the Welfare State. Societies are seeking a minimal social pattern in which all citizens may be included (Dean, 2004). It means that all people could have available high-quality education, adequate public health systems and necessary technological resources, from which they could themselves have a chance to achieve autonomy, emancipation and dignity. With this idea in mind, it is possible to re-establish citizens’ social rights through information access (Calabrese & Burgelman, 1999). In reality, in an information era, information literacy is fundamental to help people to be inserted into the labour market. It is because information literacy is an ability that helps people to conquer better jobs and, as a result, reach an appropriated quality of life for themselves and their family, meaning health and social welfare (Freire, 2007). More recently, the enquiry-based learning has presented an approach in which people are encouraged to become active learners rather than passive recipients of information. It is to encourage people ‘to make critical and systematic use of information, helping them to deal with new and complex situation’ (Hepworth & Walton, 2009, p. 7). As a consequence, particular attention has been paid to people’s information capabilities, that is their information literacy, which can be defined as A complex set of abilities, which enable individuals to engage critically with and make sense of the world and its knowledge, to participate effectively in learning and to make use of and contribute to the information landscape. (2009, p. 10)

Additionally, for developing citizenship it is also necessary to enable people to work together in a collaborative way. If the proposition is to get communities’ growth, collaborative work has shown to be a helpful alternative to make people become engaged and committed with their social problems. It actually promotes personal and communities empowerment, as well as develops a heightened sense of citizenship through intensification of critical awareness. Interactions obtained by collaborative work support the duty of involving, besides encouraging people to get

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consensus. ‘Through these interactions, individuals assume equal responsibility for both their successes and failures’ (Duvall, 1999, p. 204), and it is, in thesis, engagement and commitment. The author adds that when an organisation (public, private or nongovernmental) creates an environment in which its members choose empowerment as a way of being, the probability success is increased because the efforts of individuals are focused toward the same goals. There is personal commitment to and ownership of outcomes. (1999, p. 208)

Multidirectionality and interactiveness are important requirements for communication in communities. Communication is multidirectional when it allows a number of possibilities for representing message exchange from many to many (Gomes, Rodrigues, Gamez, & Barcia, 2007). Likewise, it is interactive when it involves mutual action and reaction between community members. It is not important to know who begins the communication process, but it is significant to understand that in the communication process, when a person speaks, others listen and observe behaviour and reactions. As Tubbs and Moss (2003) assert, this is interaction. Using participatory techniques in this kind of communication, abilities of information literacy and attitudes for collaborative work can certainly be developed. As a result, community members will become more confident to act. In other words, techniques can be applied in the development of both individual freedom and collective awareness, with the objective of promoting citizenship. These concepts have shaped the theoretical background used in the present study. It consequently guided the research conceptual model depicted in Figure 15.1. The intrinsic theory of this model recognises that effective communication of information between community members contributes to citizenship development. Whenever people use participatory techniques to handle information, they will be able to develop information literacy abilities and collaborative work capabilities. A combination of abilities and capabilities can help people to commit with social issues within communities as well as contribute for people’s autonomy, emancipation and dignity through enhanced capabilities to be inserted in an information era as well as engaged with their community causes.

15.3. Research Epistemological Background According to Bryman (1996), there are three epistemological approaches presented in all sciences, yet more especially in social approaches, named objectivism, constructivism and interpretativism. While reality is unique and

Use of Participatory Techniques in the Communication Inside the multidirectional and interactive communication process

Information Management

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Enable people to handle information (Information literacy)

Meeting with members of a community Applying participatory techniques

Enable people to work together (collaborative work)

Repository of information Libraries Computers

Result in better working conditions and commitment with social issues

Bookstores TV Digital medias Videos

Information Management

CRITICAL ENGAGEMENT AND CITIZENSHIP AUTONOMY, EMANCIPATION, AND DIGNITY

Figure 15.1: Research conceptual model.

singular for the objectivism, it is multiple in the subjectivism approach. Objectivism rejects or confirms hypothesis while subjectivism provides support to illustrate different visions and interpretations. On the other hand, in the interpretativism approach, reality is political and it is understood by discussion and negotiation. The objectivist researchers keep themselves far from the studied object, while constructivists stay close to their object, discussing, listening and printing different interpretations. In the interpretativism approach, researcher and participants work together. There are not hypotheses or perspective, but a problem to be understood and analysed. The positivism is an epistemology of response, the constructivism is an epistemology of built and the interpretativism is an epistemology of negotiation and learning. The research described here adopts the interpretativism approach. Interpretativism emerged as a revolutionary approach to mix research with political and social issues in order to contemplate values like justice and inclusion. As observed by Creswell (2007) researchers are concerned with rescuing marginalised people through participation, letting researcher and participants work together and negotiate knowledge. Postmodernism, realism and critical thinking are some of theoretical perspectives of the interpretativism epistemological approach. Critical

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enquiry has been adopted as the theoretical perspective of this study, with the aim of establishing its basis, particularly because:  The study is focused on the development of critical awareness of participants and researcher, as well as is concerned with problem solutions that also represent characteristics of the critical enquire perspective. Situations, phenomena, problems or issues constitute only a motivation for research, with participants working together to analyse problems (Brookfield, 1987).  The study is concerned with learning issues and knowledge exchange and sharing, which are the two most important issues of the critical enquire perspective. Therefore, involvement, engagement and participation are taken as useful instruments to develop critical thinking and awareness (Chambers, 2005).  The research is carried out in discussion forums or other environments where people can teach, learn and present their ideas simultaneously. Critical enquiry is a set of strategies of action-report that allow people to respond and to begin a new discussion upon those answers (Hawkins, 2003, p. 27). The interpretativism epistemology seems to be adequate to ascertain that multidirectional and interactive communication should adopt participative techniques, as it follows the way to learn and develop critical awareness, which is important for citizenship development.

15.4. The Use of Participatory Research and Action (PRA) van der Riet (2008) defined participatory research (PR) as an ‘umbrella term for different methods of participatory enquiry that emerged out of disenchantment with the positivist research paradigm, and a critique of the role of the researcher in the developing world’ (p. 550). According to him, participatory research keeps a deep concern with transformation and social justice, which, as a result, has the objective to create an environment of transformation, where the living condition of people can be changed. PRA is one of these approaches. On the other hand, critical enquiry shares many characteristics with PRA, providing the methodological framework and influencing the design of the intervention. According to Chambers (2005) PRA is ‘a family of approaches, behaviour and methods for enabling people to do their own appraisal, analysis and planning, take their own action, and do their own monitoring and evaluation’ (p. 3). PRA showed to be the adequate methodological approach.

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According to Freire (2007), competences, skills and attitudes can be developed through participatory work and it tends to promote both interaction between community members and engagement in activities towards community welfare. Recognising this, the use of PRA appeared to be adequate to allow people to participate in investigative processes and develop critical ways of approaching information, an ingredient shared with information literacy and problem solving. The research design was, therefore, entirely guided by critical enquiry and PRA, as described in the next section.

15.5. The Research Design: Sampling, Environment and Procedures Key concepts of this investigation are information literacy and collaborative work. With these concepts in mind, activities were planned as shown in Figure 15.2. About information literacy, activities were planned in order to achieve specific outcomes, such as a social problem selected, information needs identified, information behaviour patterns surveyed, information accessed and understood, social problem analysed and information solutions drawn.

Effective communication of information inside communities

Developing information literacy abilities

Developing attitudes toward at collaborative work

Activities to select a social problem to study

To share information, experience and knowledge during all activities

Activities to identify information needs and analyse the social problems Activities to classify information and seek information landscape

To work in groups during all activities

To listen, talk and discuss during all activities

Activities to identify information behaviour patterns Activities to analyse information and solutions for the social problems

To talk about commitment and social issues during all activities

Critical awareness and citizenship

Figure 15.2: Plan of actions in participatory research.

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Likewise, about collaborative work, all activities developed previously were planned keeping a deep concern with behaviour or attitudes like commitment, engagement, solidarity working, participation, learning and negotiation. This means that all of participatory activities applied in the investigation must focus on building collaborative behaviour. In order to conduct the investigation, an intervention in a community ought to be done. The target audience of this research were Brasilia’s citizens, which totalized 2,255,900 people. The Federal District (DF) — of which Brasilia is the capital, as it is of Brazil, too — is organised in 30 Administrative Regions (AR), where its population live. In order to select a community to be studied, it was necessary to sort out ARs by clusters of economic level. The assumption behind this procedure was that a community of medium economic level would fit better the research purposes; therefore, it should be selected from this group. In fact, people from high economic level communities tend to show a privileged condition, as they are expectedly aware of citizenship, have social rights assured and can pay for what they need. On the other hand, people from low economic level communities presented basic needs that could prevent them to give importance for social development, meaning that people in this level tend to focus their attention in individual issues more than community or social issues. From all the 30 ARs, Candangolaˆndia, in Brasilia’s neighbourhood, was the community chosen, taking into account three favourable assumptions. First, and more important, it is a medium economic level community (Group II). Second, there were two major favourable conditions for the researcher to approach the community and conduct the investigation, such as easy contact and local availability. Easy contact refers to previous acquaintance with a community member, which, in its turn, resulted in sense of safety, confidence and collaboration amongst community members. Local availability refers to an appropriate local available to conduct meetings. Third, the heterogeneousness found within the community, which brought about health diversity to the study. A family and its neighbours constituted, therefore, an intentional and non-probabilistic final sample of 15 community members. This sample also strongly resulted from previous achievements during the first intervention, that is, the pilot study. Such achievements were the learning process and critical awareness developed by people who were intentionally selected to take part in the major, second intervention. Chambers (2005) recommends inviting not many participants for the meetings. He also suggests a payment for participation, in order to guarantee attendance and show respect for the participants’ time. Therefore, the decision of selecting 15 people and paying them for their collaboration was based on Chambers’ recommendation, aiming at better outcomes. The local set aside for the meetings comprises two plots of housing, each one with ca. 240 to 400 m2. On each plot, there is a main house owned by

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the plots’ owners and very small flats in their backyards — six flats in one and seven in the other — to let, in order for owners to gain extra income. In total, there are 15 families living on the two plots (Figure 15.3). In almost all of them there are two or three children. Men work in a variety of activities in restaurants and bars, civil construction and the commerce. Women worked in residences as housemaids or at nearby motels, as cleaners. To conduct the investigation, six meetings were planned and carried out. In each of them, which lasted between two to three hours in the evening, activities were performed and a variety of techniques applied, according to the meeting objective (Table 15.1). In total, there were 25 activities throughout the six meetings. The variety of techniques was necessary for three reasons. First, specific techniques were required to investigate different topics and support different activities. Secondly, using a variety of techniques was more likely to lead to active engagement, bearing in mind that most participants had had a long working day. Thirdly, performing a number of activities and using a variety of techniques gave time for reflection. Each meeting, activity and technique is described below.

Figure 15.3: Plots of housing in Candangolaˆndia, Brası´ lia-DF, Brazil. Table 15.1: Outline of meetings and their objectives. Meeting First meeting Second meeting Third meeting Fourth meeting Fifth meeting Sixth meeting

Main objectives To present the research proposal, introduce people and select a social problem to study To survey information needs To analyse information needs To analyse information needs and information-seeking behaviour To access and use information, to understand its content, to share information with others To discuss and suggest solutions to the social problem selected

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15.5.1. The First Meeting The first meeting consisted of six activities, namely presentation of the research and PRA, people introduction, definition of values and rules, refresh activity, election of a social problem/situation and meeting evaluation. The main objective of this meeting was to choose a social problem to be studied by research participants, that is the researcher and members of the community. The presentation of the research proposal by the researcher along with her expectations showed to be important to encourage participants to reflect about what would occur during future meetings and to focus on the topic to be studied. Moreover, it was essential to a warm atmosphere, giving opportunity to conversation and interactions amongst all participants. Another equally important achievement during the first meeting was the negotiation of an agreement in which norms of behaviour and conduct were assured. After free discussion, four norms were approved, namely respect differences, treat each other with love and care, be responsible and be punctual. The focus of the meeting then shifted to the selection of a social problem to be studied. Using cards for that, participants finally voted for public transportation. It has been observed that participants were capable to negotiate throughout the discussion, with agreements and disagreements and finally a collective decision was made. An evaluation of the meeting was also performed, and showed to be important to the learning process and to critical awareness development. Besides being a participant, the researcher also acted as an observer, taking notes of all occurrences during the meeting.

15.5.2. The Second Meeting The second meeting involved a set of five activities, namely recalls of the first meeting, refresh activity, analysis of the social problem, survey of the information needs and meeting evaluation. The main aim was to identify information needs. Using the cause and effect diagram,1 people were able to explore and share their views about public transportation, especially in terms of problems that affect their community. This view was built through

1. Also known as Ishikawa’s diagram, as has been developed by Kaoru Ishikawa, from the University of Tokyo in 1943, with the aim of explaining to a group of engineers from Kawasaki Steel how a variety of factors can be sorted out and correlated.

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participants’ contributions and reflected their understanding of the problem. Closing this stage, they could survey a set of information that they need to access and use in order to well understand the problem.

15.5.3. The Third Meeting The third meeting involved a set of four activities, namely reflection on the second meeting, refresh activity, categorisation of information (having the information landscape in mind), meeting evaluation. The main aim of this meeting was to categorise information. This categorization has been important to organize the information according to the information landscape where it can be found. Classifying information needs provided material for the next step, when participants and the researcher looked for information sources that would help satisfy the information needs identified. This enabled participants to become familiar with the information landscape. They defined four categories of information, namely buses (cost, routes, situation, timetable, option); responsibilities (from government, owners and drivers); passengers’ rights and debts; and new public transportation projects. The first one could be sought at the web page of the Transportation Secretariat; the second, in a database of laws; the third at the Justice and Citizenship Secretariat; the last in the Governo do Distrito Federal (local government). Figure 15.4 shows people working and discussing about information landscape versus information needs.

Figure 15.4: Photograph print of the third meeting (manuscripts on photographs are in Portuguese, the participant’s original language).2

2. Manuscripts on photographs are in Portuguese, the participant’s original language.

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15.5.4. The Fourth Meeting The fourth meeting involved a set of three activities, namely classification of information needs by importance and accessibility, survey of informationseeking behaviour and meeting evaluation. The main aim, following on the previous meeting, was to classify information in accordance with its importance (much or less important) and access (easy or difficult to access). This procedure was very important to eliminate redundancies and prioritise information. Last but not least, information behaviour patterns were surveyed from participants, essentially for getting preferences and limitations. At this point, information was surveyed, categorised and classified. Afterwards, the information landscape was mapped.

15.5.5. The Fifth Meeting The fifth meeting involved a set of three activities, namely refresh activity, analysis of a set of information and meeting evaluation. The main aim was to enable people to handle information. Participants could work in small groups in order to format information according to their own information behaviour patterns. All participants could access and use the entire set of information. Working in small groups showed to be essential for participants to share information, knowledge and experience. At the end of these activities, they were able not only to understand the content of information, but also to explain it for others (Figure 15.5).

Figure 15.5: Photograph print of the third meeting (manuscripts on photographs are in Portuguese, the participant’s original language).3

3. Manuscripts on photographs are in Portuguese, the participant’s original language.

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Figure 15.6: Photographs of the third meeting (manuscripts on photographs are in Portuguese, the participant’s original language).4

15.5.6. The Sixth Meeting The sixth meeting involved a set of three activities, namely reflection on the fifty meeting, analysis of the social problem and intervention evaluation, the latter for evaluating the total of activities and techniques. Its main aim was to suggest solutions to the problem chosen to study. Because this meeting was the last one, additional time was spent in the evaluation of the entire intervention, activities and techniques. Participants could work in small groups, accessing and using information. They brought back the chosen social problem, and effectively used information to analyse it and point solutions (Figure 15.6). All of them recognised the importance of information to build knowledge and improve experience. All research findings emerged from these meetings. The researcher’s role was essential to provide room and mechanism so that meetings could take place. It was also crucial to help highlight key topics, to encourage people to explore topics in depth and to ensure that experiences and thoughts were shared.

15.6. Analysis and Discussion of Results The communication of information in communities is considered an approach that enables people to act on their own benefit and on the benefit of their communities (Hepworth & Walton, 2009). Taking this assumption into account, the investigation applied discussion and negotiation during the data gathering process, which brought about a huge amount of raw data.

4. Manuscripts on photographs are in Portuguese, the participant’s original language.

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In order to analyse all these data, a codification process was required. Therefore, data transcription, coding and analysis were carried out in accordance with grounded theory principles, as suggested by Bryman (2008). Grounded theory has been defined as ‘theory that was derived from data, systematically gathered and analysed through the research process. In this method, data collection, analysis and eventual theory stand in close relationship to one another’ (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 12). Thus, two central features of grounded theory are that it is concerned with the development of theory out of data and that the approach is interactive, or recursive, as it is sometimes called, meaning that data collection and analysis proceed in tandem, repeatedly referring back to each other. (Bryman, 2008, p. 541)

The present investigation did not rigorously adopt grounded theory as a research method. It actually applied its principles to the data analysis only. This decision was made because participatory research usually leaves data collection on the participants’ hands, so that they decide when to stop discussion and negotiation. It does not foresee a recurrent data collection process, neither theory building as grounded theory does. Nevertheless, under the codification principles of the grounded theory an analysis model to participatory research was built (Figure 15.7). As stated before, coding was used in the analysis of data gathered in the present investigation. According to Bryman (2008): Coding is one of the most central processes in grounded theory. It entails reviewing transcripts and/or field notes and giving labels (names) to component parts that seem to be of potential theoretical significance and/or that appear to be particularly salient within the social worlds of those being studied y The data are treated as potential indicator of concepts and the indicator are constantly compared y to see which concepts they best fit with. (Bryman, 2008, p. 550)

It is important to highlight that the objective of codification is to transform original data in research concepts. Coding served to label, separate, compile and organise data (Bryman, 2008), which showed to be important to understand data and create a connection between original data and research concepts. For that, it was necessary to use three code levels in order to make this association. Table 15.2 highlights the three codification levels that emerged in the analysis, as they showed to be enough for remitting data from participant’s work, in terms of speech and material building, to research concepts. It means that all data gathered were transcribed to a unique text that had its different components coded, from the beginning to the end. At the first level, codes are deeply close to speeches and research material. At the second level,

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Analysis in PRA

Information literacy capabilities

Collaborative working capabilities

Identifying information needs

Activities 04, 05, 08

Accessing and using information

Activities 11,14, 18

Analysing the chosen social problem

Activity 18

Engagement

Commitment

Identifying potential solutions

Activities 14, 15, 18

Taking decisions

Activity 18

Pointing solutions

Activity 18

Learning

Awareness

Citizenship

Figure 15.7: Data analysis in participatory research. previous codes were associated. Likewise, at the third level, new associations were made until research concepts are finally reached. Content analysis of the research data by means of codification proved to be very important to both examine data and discuss findings, since it created a reference to remit researcher from raw data to research concepts. Research findings are presented in line with research questions. Can abilities of information literacy be developed through multidirectional and interactive communication that takes into account participatory research techniques?

According to Nicholas and Herman (2009), people do not have their basic needs mapped clearly, and, consequently, they cannot identify information they need to supply their lack of knowledge. It begins to be clear when people face problems or difficult situations, or are under some kind of pressure. In such occasions, it is easily possible to identify cognitive and emotional needs because of information needs emerge in that context. With these authors’ idea in mind, this investigation began by setting a social problem that constitutes a basic community need, given that it was

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Table 15.2: Data analysis in participatory research. First level of codification

Second level of codification

Third level of codification

How to use y How to do y

Instruction

How to define y

Learning

How to act y Exchange knowledge and experience Do something in a different way Do activities and tasks Be present

Sharing Change behaviour Participation

Commitment

Attendance

Define roles Define schedule Start new activities

Organisation

Introduce to each other Engagement

Present research work Suggest changes and improvements Discuss in activity context Negotiate and seek consensus

Work as a team

Know how to listen, talk and discuss Include people in discussions Give/accept/respect opinions Present and/or summarise work Present positive criticisms Use information critically to take decision or to solve problems

Autonomy, emancipation and dignity Citizenship

Request/recognise rights Discuss in community context Perceive/discuss results and findings Evaluate activities and learning Reflect and give feedbacks

Critical awareness

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common for all participants and was pointed as relevant by them. Participants were submitted to a set of activities needed to answer this question, allowing them, therefore, to able to develop five abilities:  to identify a problem situation (activity 5);  to identify information they need to supply their lack of knowledge about it (activities 9 and 10);  to access and use information to both better understand and handle it (activity 20);  to analyse information content and to point solution for the selected problem (activity 23). Activity 5 identified the problem situation (basic need), which was written by each participant on cards. Then, participants stick their cards in a long large sheet of paper on the floor. Cards were then organised by participants by subject. The topic first chosen for further discussion by the group was local commerce and entertainment. However, after a long discussion public transport was their last decision. Activity 9 had the objective of analysing the chosen social problem in order to identify information needs. Both causes and effects associated with the problem were pointed by participants, and listed on a long large sheet where the problem was written in the middle, causes on its left and effects on its right. As regard causes, four groups of problems were pointed. The first was related to drivers, the second was related to government policies, the third related to transportation companies and the last was concerned with transportation customers. As concerned with effects, participants mostly pointed economic issues, constant delays, heavy traffic and road damages. They also referred to drivers’ health problems as an important issue. Activity 10 had the objective of identifying information needs based on the cause and effect diagram that result from activity 9. Each item in the cause and effect diagram was analysed in order to identify information needs. For instance, when people said that old buses are the cause of delays, they identified size of bus fleets, frequency of buses maintenance, rules to renew bus fleets and norms and rules to which owners are submitted as information that would help them to understand and confront the issue. Following in this way, participants identified 28 kinds of information that they judged necessary to help address the problem. Activity 20 was concerned with linking information needs with information seek and use. As Choo (2006) and Freire (2007) previously asserted, the three strategic use of information — to create meaning, to build knowledge and to make decision — could be achieved through participatory meetings, where people had opportunity to convert information to knowledge and make decisions regarding the chosen problem.

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Activity 23 had the objective of using information to propose solutions to the problem chosen. Findings have shown that by working in small groups participants were able to understand the information content so that they were able to share it with others. Abilities to critically discuss and analyse the situation, as well as get consensus were also achieved. As a result, participants could handle information in order to point a set of solutions to improve public transportation — especially in Candangolaˆndia — as cited below:  More comprehensive public biddings with the aim of guaranteeing better contracts  Authorisation for taxes and minivans to officially provide low capacity public transportation  Continuing training for drivers  Better income distribution through tax incentive  All buses equipped for the handicapped  Information available in texts, sound and images  Popular deliberation about prices of bus tickets and bus lines and routes  Car rotation and toll  New buses circulating mostly in peak hours Hepworth and Walton (2009) define information literacy as ‘a complex set of abilities, which enable individuals to engage critically with and make sense of the world and its knowledge, to participate effectively in learning and to make use of and contribute to the information landscape’ (p. 10). With this idea in mind, all activities in the present participatory research were carried out with the intention of making possible the development of participants’ information literacy capabilities. Participatory techniques led people to learn through experiences and knowledge exchange. In truth, participants of the present research were able to analyse their reality and, more importantly, they showed committed to the solution pointed. Chambers (2002) emphasises that people — mainly poor or marginalised — are capable of analysing their own realities, and they can and should be empowered to that. Gonzales Rey (2005) adds that the reality is political and complex, and it is understood through discussion and negotiation. Brookfield (1987) complements these thoughts with the idea that critical enquiry is concerned with critical awareness. In fact, the analysis and discussion of the social problem was a motivation to put researcher and participants together, consequently enabling them to critically handle information. It is actually creation of information literacy abilities. Can attitudes towards collaborative work be developed through multidirectional and interactive communication that takes into account participatory research techniques?

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All activities explored in this investigation allowed developing attitudes towards collaborative work. Participants worked in small groups all the time. They discussed and both prepared and presented their results. They had also opportunity to know and explore their reality, by analysing situations and pointing solutions for a social problem chosen. When they did it in groups through discussing and getting consensus, they worked as a team, and became committed and engaged with their social situation. Examples of speeches that both summarise discussions and illustrate the collaborative work development are presented in Table 15.3, along with the code that represents the achievement. A not foresaw finding was obtained from the participation of an illiterate person. In the evaluation of the fourth meeting, the participant said: ‘I liked this work a lot. Firstly, because I had fun. Secondly, because I learnt a great deal about public transportation. I appreciated knowing about my rights and duties and how to act when my rights are not respected.’ Asked about her illiteracy condition, the participant answered: The fact of not knowing how to read or write did not prevent me of learning. People read to me all the time. Furthermore, we discussed about problems in my community, where I have lived for 30 years and I know about these problems more than almost everyone here. Asked about benefits of receiving information in other formats, participant answered: I do not think so, because I liked to have people available to read to me. They could explain aspects I did not understand, which cannot be done by using video, for example. I got everything that was discussed here; everything that all of you learnt, I also did. It seems that an appropriate code for this participant speech would be ‘overcoming barriers’. As regards these results, it is interesting to recall Chambers’ (2005) ideas, according to which people, even poor and marginalised, are able to analyse their realities. Gonzales Rey (2005) added that the reality can be understood through discussion and negotiation. This critical thinking process is, per se, connected with critical awareness that emerge from practices of solving problems in a collaborative way (Brookfield, 1987). These authors’ ideas were, therefore, the foundation that sustains this investigation, as findings showed it is possible to use participatory techniques to enable people to develop attitudes towards collaborative work. Through the findings, it was observed that people could be training to reflect, evaluate, argue, discuss and get consensus. Can citizenship be developed by mixing both abilities of information literacy and attitudes towards collaborative work through a multidirectional and interactive communication that takes into account participatory research techniques?

Citizenship was understood in this research in two perspectives. The first is concerned with social rights that can be acquired by citizens themselves when

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Table 15.3: Examples of Participants’ Speech Illustrating Collaborative Work, and the Corresponding Code. Participants speech In the process of choosing a social problem to be studied, one participant said that ‘the most voted problem was trade and entertainment, and I am not interested to study it, because I disagree with people who asked for discos in Candangolaˆndia. Actually, I think we do not need discos, we need churches.’ Other three participants protested saying that young people need to have fun and it is not fair going to other places to get entertainment. A fifth participant tried to ease the discussion stating ‘we can study another social problem, the second most voted, for instance. Entertainment is not a subject that all of us are interested, but transportation (the second one) is.’ Everybody immediately agreed. In a discussion about all the activities, one participant said: ‘I noted all activities were a continuation of the previous ones. Besides, I do not know if everybody agrees with me, but when doing one activity I could understand the previous one much better. So, I felt able to add something about the previous activity in the next day, even though it was late.’ In a presentation about the information content, participants talked about what they learnt from information they accessed. Accordingly, they said:  ‘I would like to present what I read about a kind of transportation that the government is implementing, namely light rail. It is important to know the project costs, who will pay for it, who the beneficiaries are, and when it will be done.’  ‘Well, in accordance with I have read articulated buses are much bigger than the conventional ones because they comprise two buses coupled to each other. This kind of transportation is efficient mainly in case of lines with high demand, because buses capacity is increased and costs, on contrary, are decreased. The first plan of the government is to use articulated buses in three most populated regions of the Federal District.’  ‘About free tickets, all workers have the right of spending only 6% of their earning with transportation. The difference, when exist, is paid by the employer. Likewise, students have 50% off and the elderly do not pay for transportation. There is a telephone number through which complaint and grievance can be done in case of bad treatment.’

Code Getting consensus through discussing in groups

Evaluating activities through discussion

Learning through information content accessed

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they are well inserted in the labour market. In this way, this research exploited abilities of information literacy to enable people to act in the information age. The second perspective is concerned with critical awareness development that is achieved with the engagement and commitment of citizens with solution of problems faced by their communities. It was exploited through collaborative work when participants could share experiences, information and knowledge in order to point solutions for social problems. Both information literacy and collaborative work are approached in the results presented to the two previous research questions above. In fact, the techniques adopted in this investigation showed to be useful to help people develop critical awareness relating to both activities carried out and discussions. It is important to note that critical awareness is crucial to improve the sense of citizenship. It is also important to highlight that the same group of people participated in the pilot study and the major investigation, with very little variation of people, as the initial group was 20% bigger. The researcher observed that there was a progress from the pilot study to the major study. In order to illustrate this progress, results of the second meeting carried out in both interventions are presented in Table 15.4. The present research findings showed that through evaluation and reflection, collaborative work by means of multidirectional and interactive communication within a community contributes to citizenship development. People also become engaged with problem solution and community development. This is in accordance with Audard (2006), who asserts that people with access to information and with capability to discuss are able to interpret their obligations and duties as a public gesture, with good consequences for all. In fact, information literacy contributes for promoting citizen’s emancipation, autonomy and dignity, given better chances for people to be inserted in the information age. This research has shown that people learnt how to identify information needs, to access and to use information. As Demo (2002) emphasised, it is impossible to think in a total autonomy without information and knowledge access, in the extent to which wellinformed people become independent and contribute to build an equalitarian society. When information literacy is associated with collaborative work, it contributes to promote citizenship through participation that allows both interaction and structural changes. These, when well handled, become important tools to guide people towards aims and changes (Maturana & Varela, 2001). The setting created for carrying out this research took into account participation and interaction, as well as information and knowledge sharing, and these did contribute for the growth of citizenship awareness.

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Table 15.4: Comparative results of the evaluation made by participants during the second meeting. Evaluations during the second meeting

Results from the pilot study

Results from the major study

First evaluation question: ‘what did you like in this meeting, and why?’

Almost all participants answered using expressions like ‘it was good’, ‘I liked it all’, with no justifications.

Second evaluation question: ‘what do you did not like and why?’

Almost all participants (93%) answered with words like ‘Nothing’ or ‘I did like everything’. Only one criticism was made by one participant about too long meetings. Nobody suggested anything, seeming that people were not comfortable to criticise, as they always praised things even when they clearly did not like them.

A number of participants (33%) point out activities in group and discussion. The justification was that these activities allowed them to know each other and to learn how to listen, talk and accept different opinions. Other 33% said that adopting values and rules for meetings was a great idea to keep focused and to respect people. The majority of participants (ca. 70%) criticised people who talked too much, did not give time for others to talk and did not respect different opinions.

Third evaluation question: ‘what could we do to correct things that you do not like?’

Forth evaluation question: ‘what did you learn today?’

Answers were almost unanimous, as 93% said they learnt to work together.

Suggestions came from eight participants (ca. 55%) as changes like signing or standing up for talking, and to read values and rules for meetings before talking. Other 33% suggested that people should be more punctual in order to not disturb the meetings. How to listen and talk, as well as how to get a consensus were the answers of ca. 55% of the participants. Another ca. 20% commented that the work flowed better when they respect others and are engaged.

According to Freire (2007), for citizenship development, individual changes are required. Such changes are based on ethics, respect of dignity and autonomy. In fact, autonomous citizens have abilities to make choices, to make decisions and to criticise processes, as well as to actively interfere

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in social order to change and to guide it to their welfare. Brookfield (1987) adds that the reality is understood through discussion and negotiation (critical thinking) that emerge from practices of problem solution.

15.7. Conclusions The main aim of this study was to demonstrate that a multidirectional and interactive communication that takes into account participatory techniques is appropriated to enable people to develop information literacy abilities and attitudes towards collaborative work. Moreover, both information literacy and collaborative work together can be helpful to develop a heightened sense of citizenship. Results showed that it is possible to enable people to critically and systematically handle information, and this is citizenship development. In order to achieve this main aim, three objectives were proposed, and conclusions drawn from each of them are presented as follows. As regard the first objective, the use of PRA within a multidirectional and interactive communication process allows people to exploit situations through which abilities of information literacy are developed. Indeed, it is possible to conclude that community members, properly guided and instructed, can develop abilities of information literacy. According to the results found, people are able to survey and handle information to make decisions and solve problems. Additionally, and more important, they are able to act actively inside their community without interferences from politicians and experts. Concerning the second objective, the use of PRA within a multidirectional and interactive communication process allows people to develop attitudes towards collaborative work. According to the results found, participatory techniques used in a collaborative work with the aim of solving social problems help people to adopt new social behaviour, such as to pay attention to what others say, to accept different opinions and to share knowledge and experiences. It is also useful to motivate people to be engaged and committed to their community. In relation to the third objective, citizenship can be developed by means of the association between information literacy and collaborative work, through the use of participatory techniques within a multidirectional and interactive communication process. In the present research context, it is possible to conclude that citizenship can be achieved whenever people act critically and effectively inside their communities, as well as when they take more opportunities to conquer social rights (autonomy, emancipation and dignity) through information literacy. Critical awareness, as an important

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attribute of citizenship, is developed when people discuss, present ideas and opinions, and develop capacity to analyse social problems. From the theoretical point of view, it is important to emphasise that information science benefits from results such as the ones found in this investigation. Traditionally, the field of information science has focused on communication of information in science and technology. A discussion that focuses on communication of information inside communities certainly casts more light on the field. As a practical application, results of this research are useful to give insights for government policies and programmes related to citizenship. The Federal District government in Brazil do not have an effective channel to communicate with citizens, meaning that the communication seems to happen in a linear way more than multidirectional and interactive. Therefore, the investigation brought about new alternatives of citizen participation, which can be helpful to guarantee autonomy, emancipation and dignity for all citizens. It can be done by using the methodology applied in this participatory research.

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Duvall, C. K. (1999). Developing individual freedom to act: Empowerment in the knowledge organization. Participation and Empowerment: An International Journal, 7(8), 204–212. Freire, P. (2007). Pedagogia da autonomia: Saberes necessa´rios a` pra´tica educativa (Edic- a˜o Especial). Sa˜o Paulo, Brasil: Paz e Terra. Gomes, R. C., Rodrigues, R. S., Gamez, L., & Barcia, R. M. (2007). Comunicac- a˜o Multidirecional: Um ambiente de aprendizagem na Educac- a˜o a` Distaˆncia. Retrieved from http://www.abed.org.br/cgi/cgilua.exe/sys. Accessed on September 28, 2007. Gonzales Rey, F. (2005). Pesquisa qualitativa e subjetividade: Os processos de construc- a˜o da informac- a˜o. Sa˜o Paulo, Brasil: Pioneira Thomson Learning. Habermas, J. (2001). The postnational constellation: Political essays. Cambridge: Polity. Hawkins, J. (2003). Critical inquiry and the urban multicultural population. The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 69, 29–33. Hepworth, M., & Walton, G. (2009). Teaching information literacy for inquiry-based learning. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing. Marshall, T. H. Class (1964). Citizenship and social development: Essays. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Maturana, H., & Varela, F. (2001). A a´rvore do conhecimento: As bases biolo´gicas do conhecimento. Sa˜o Paulo, Brasil: Pals Athena. Nicholas, D., & Herman, E. (2009). Assessing information needs in the age of the digital consumer (3rd ed.). London: Routledge (Taylor & Francis Group). Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Tubbs, S. L., & Moss, S. (2003). Human communication: Principles and contexts (9a Edic- a˜o). Boston, MA: McGraw. % Riet, M. (2008). Participatory research and the philosophy of social science van der beyond the moral imperative. Qualitative Inquiry, 14(4), 546–565.

About the Authors

Stephen Abram, MLS, is a strategy and direction planning consultant for libraries and the information industry as managing principal at Lighthouse Partners. He is a renowned library trend watcher and innovator and author of Stephen’s Lighthouse blog, one of the most popular blogs in librarianship. He has been president of the Ontario Library Association, the Canadian Library Association and the Special Libraries Association. He received the 2011 CLA Outstanding Service to Librarianship Award in June 2011. He has been in executive leadership positions at Cengage Learning (Gale), SirsiDynix, Thomson, ProQuest Micromedia and IHS. He has led several libraries and served on the advisory boards of six LIS schools. He was listed by Library Journal as one of the top 50 people influencing the future of libraries as one of the first LJ ‘Movers and Shakers’. He has been awarded the SLA’s John Cotton Dana Award as well as being a Fellow of the SLA. He was Canadian Special Librarian of the Year and Alumni of the Year for the Faculty of Information iSchool at the University of Toronto where he received the 2010 Outstanding Teaching Award. He received the AIIP Roger Summit Awardin 2009. He speaks internationally on innovation, technology, marketing and strategic success in libraries and is the author of hundreds of articles and ALA Editions’ bestselling Out Front with Stephen Abram. Christine S. Bruce, BA, Grad Dip Lib Sc MEd (Res), PhD, is Professor in the Information Systems School at the Queensland University of Technology, Australia. Christine is interested in the experience of information literacy, with particular emphasis on the relational approach, and regularly contributes keynote addresses in this area. She has developed key models including the Seven Faces of Information Literacy, and the Six Frames for Information Literacy Education. Christine’s research interests incorporate workplace, community and academic information literacy, including contexts such as health, faith and content creation. She is also extensively involved in higher education research, incorporating teaching and learning in a range of contexts including higher degree research and supervision.

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About the Authors

Christine has attended most recently, to working with her research team on developing the pedagogical framework of informed learning, and also on information experience as a research focus. Christine has published extensively on information literacy and related topics. In 2010 she received an award from the State Library of Queensland Board for contribution to information literacy research and education. She is presently Higher Degree Research Director for the School of Information Systems, convener of the QUT Higher Education Research, a member of US National Forum for Information Literacy Board of Directors and an Australian Teaching Fellow. Samuel Kai-Wah Chu, PhD, is an Associate Professor (Division of Information & Technology Studies) and the Deputy Director (Centre for Information Technology in Education) in the Faculty of Education, the University of Hong Kong. He has published over 100 articles and books including key journals in the area of information and library science, IT in education, school librarianship, academic librarianship and knowledge management. Dr Chu is the Associate Editor (Asia) for Online Information Review. He is also the Asia Regional Editor for Journal of Information & Knowledge Management and an Editorial Board Member for the journal School Libraries Worldwide. He holds many research grants including a 3 million Hong Kong dollar (USD$381,270) Quality Education Fund and is a recipient of his Faculty’s Early Career Research Output Award. Sely Maria de Souza Costa, PhD, is a newly retired senior lecturer from the Faculty of Information Science at the University of Brası´ lia, Brazil. She has got her PhD in information science from Loughborough University, England. Her major research interests are on scholarly communication, with focus on electronic publishing. Sely has extended her research topics into organization communication, as well as into other communication contexts, including business and communities. Sely has also carried out studies on information and knowledge management, as well as on soft system methodology. Sely leads a research group in electronic publishing in Brazil. She has contributed to a number of journals and conferences with results of her research work. These contributions comprise journal articles, conference papers, books and book chapters. Sely has contributed as referee for a variety of national scholarly journals in Brazil and also for national and international conferences to which she has also contributed as member of both organization and programme committees. Brian Detlor, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Information Systems at the DeGroote School of Business and Chair of the McMaster Research Ethics Board at McMaster University in Hamilton, Canada. Brian’s research

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269

interests lie at the intersection of users, information and information systems. His current and future projects pertain to digital literacy in academic and public library settings, electronic research ethics board systems and personal information management tools. Past research projects have investigated topics such as information literacy in business schools, web information seeking, and the adoption and use of library, government, and corporate websites. He currently teaches courses at the undergraduate level in electronic business at McMaster and at the graduate level in library administration and leadership at the Marshall School of Business at the University of Southern California. Dr Detlor has published several peer-reviewed journals and books, presented at domestic and international conferences and garnered grant awards from national funding agencies. He has over 10 years work experience consulting, designing and managing information systems. Phussadee Dokphrom, BA (Geography), MSc (Information Systems), PhD (Information Studies), is a senior lecturer at the Department of Library Science, Faculty of Arts, Silpakorn University. Phussadee is interested in information literacy, educational informatics and knowledge management. Phussadee has contributed to a number of peer-reviewed journals and book chapters in these areas both in Thai and international versions. Thomas S. Duke, PhD, is Professor of Education at the University of Alaska Southeast, where he coordinates graduate programmes in special education and teaches courses in special education, multicultural education and qualitative research methods. Babakisi Tjedombo Fidzani, BEd (Bachelor of Education), MLIS is Deputy Director responsible for information and research services at the University of Botswana Library. Babakisi is very passionate about information literacy (IL) and advocate for its institutionalization in Higher Education Institutions and Public Library programmes. To this end she has participated in a number of information literacy training programmes and projects locally and internationally. The latest project the product of which is a co-authored publication entitled ‘Developing an Information Literacy Programme for Lifelong Learning: Information Literacy Toolkits for African Universities’ highlights the basic elements to be considered in institutionalizing IL and have it embedded in the institutions’ programmes. Babakisi is extending her research interest to monitoring and evaluations of IL programmes and IL and e-learning initiatives. Babakisi has contributed to a number of peer-reviewed journals on the same subject. Mark Hepworth, PhD, is Reader in People’s Information Behaviour Leader, People centred design and capability building research group at

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About the Authors

Loughborough University. He is particularly interested in how we can help to develop peoples’ capabilities in exploiting knowledge and information both as individuals and also within an organizational or community context. Mark’s research reflects this interest and includes: developing theoretical frameworks and applied methodologies in information literacy; e-literacy; information needs analysis; people’s information seeking and use behaviour; learning and pedagogy; people centred design; participative design; community engagement and monitoring and evaluation. He teaches in the areas of: defining information needs and requirements for information services and products; teaching information literacy and i-capability building; people centred design; people centred service delivery; the evaluation of information systems, services and i-capabilities. Bill Johnston, BA, Dip Ed Tech, Fellow of the Higher Education Academy, Honorary Research Fellow, University of Strathclyde, is a retired Senior Lecturer in the Centre for Academic Practice and Learning Enhancement at the University of Strathclyde, Scotland. He taught core modules on the PGCert for new academics, and was also responsible for devising and executing large-scale, institutional pedagogical enhancement projects. He has undertaken extensive research on curriculum development (including projects funded by the UK’s Arts and Humanities Research Council, the Scottish Quality Assurance Agency and the Australian Learning and Teaching Council) and has published widely. Bill has been invited keynote speaker at international conferences on the first year experience of HE and on information literacy. Since retiring Bill has remained academically active and is currently researching the information literacy experiences of adult learners on a university pre-entry course. He is also a UK contributor to a current European project DIALOGUE (http://dialogue.eucen.eu/) which aims at bridging the gap between academic research on University Lifelong Learning (ULLL) and professional practice. Heidi Julien, BEd, MLIS, PhD, is Professor and Director at the School of Library and Information Studies at The University of Alabama. She has taught at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand, at Dalhousie University in Canada and at the University of Alberta in Canada. Her research interests are in the areas of information literacy and information behaviour. She has examined information literacy instructional practices in Canadian academic and public libraries, and explored the experience of librarians in their teaching roles. She also is interested in people’s information behaviour in their everyday lives, especially the role of affect in their information-related experiences. Heidi has published widely, and presented at conferences around the world. She has been a Visiting Expert at Beijing Normal University, and a Visiting Professor at Charles Sturt

About the Authors

271

University. She has served as Editor of the Canadian Journal of Information and Library Science, and currently serves on the Boards of Library & Information Science Research and Cosmopolitan Civil Societies. Heidi has also served on the Board of the American Society for Library and Information Science Education, and has chaired SIG USE in the American Society for Information Science & Technology. Emily S. Kinsky, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at West Texas A&M University where she teaches courses related to advertising, public relations, design and research. She serves as the adviser of the college’s National Broadcasting Society and assists the university Ad/PR Society. She earned her doctorate and master’s in mass communications from Texas Tech University and her bachelor’s degree from Baylor University in the University Scholar programme. Besides her passion for children’s media, her other research areas of interest include crisis communication, social media and the portrayal of public relations in the media. She currently serves as the teaching research co-chair for the Public Relations Division of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication and the division’s newsletter editor. Rosemary Kuhn is a senior librarian in the subject librarian cohort in the Cecil Renaud main library of the Pietermaritzburg campus of the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Her responsibilities include collection development and organisation, academic liaison and user education for a range of disciplines including the campus law library. She does part time lecturing in the Department of Information Studies at undergraduate, diploma and postgraduate level as well as the compulsory undergraduate law degree module called Legal Research Writing and Reasoning. She has a particular interest in information literacy. Vicki Lawal, BLIS, MA (Law and Diplomacy), MPhil (LIS), PhD, CLN, is the Law librarian at the University of Jos, Nigeria. Her area of research interests include information literacy, human information behaviour, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), legal education and legal research and copyright and intellectual property and has also published in these areas. Vicki is a member of various professional associations local and international including the Nigerian Library Association (NLA), Library Association of South Africa (LIASA) and the International Association of Law Libraries (IALL). Celina Wing-Yi Lee, BA (Hons), PGDE (expecting: 2013) is a graduate from The University of Hong Kong and is pursuing her Postgraduate Diploma of Education in English for Secondary School in the institution. Ms Lee has

272

About the Authors

been involved in conducting research in the field of IT in Education, inquiry learning and development of 21st century skills. She is the first author of a conference paper titled ‘Inquiry Project-Based Learning and Web 2.0 Technologies: 21st Century Skills Education’ and a co-author of a published book on inquiry learning and three other conference papers. Tzu-Bin Lin, BA, MA, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Education at National Taiwan Normal University. His research focuses on education policy and leadership, media and Information literacy, multicultural education and English teaching. His most recent research was to develop a framework and instrument to investigate new media literacy among Singapore students. Prior to his current post, he worked for the Media School in Bournemouth University UK as researcher and the Policy and Leadership Studies Academic Group in National Institute of Education Singapore as assistant professor. He serves in the editorial board for the Journal of Media Literacy Education (JMLE) and the TESOL Journal. He has published more than 20 papers on peer-reviewed journals and books. He is currently co-editing a Springer book on new media and learning in East Asia. Edward Lumande has a Masters of Library Science (MLS), Bachelor Arts (BA) and an Agricultural Information Specialist (AIS) certificate. He is a Senior Librarian at the University of Botswana, coordinating faculty out reach for Science and recently for Health Sciences and Engineering and Technology. Edward is interested in a variety of subject areas including information seeking behaviour and imparting of information literacy skills to students. He has been involved in the development and institutionalization of information literacy programmes at the University of Botswana and he has been involved in the organization and training programmes of the library for both library staff and academic staff and in pedagogical workshops with stakeholders. Recently he was a member of the DELPHE Project: ‘Developing an Information Literacy Programme for Lifelong Learning in African Universities (2009–2012)’ under the auspices of Development Partners in Higher Education (UK). The project developed a set of toolkits on establishing information literacy programmes in Higher Education Institutions (HEI) of which he was one of the co-authors of the reports. Edward has contributed to a number of peer-reviewed journals on the same subject and he hopes to continue to extend the experience gained in the establishment and infusion of IL programmes in HE institutions. Silas Oluka received bachelor’s and master’s degrees in physics at Makerere University in 1988 and 1992, the latter through sandwich programmes with King’s College London and the University of Bergen, Norway. His PhD degree in science and development education is from the University of

About the Authors

273

Alberta, 1997. Silas has spent his early career as a science educator at Makerere University — Kampala, Uganda, where he immersed himself into the balancing act of teaching and researching medical physics, alongside curriculum and pedagogy professional development practices. Due to the latter capabilities, Dr Oluka was able to shift into academic development in June 2008 at the University of Botswana where to date he is deputy director in charge of learning and teaching development. As an academic development scholar, bolstered by a 2005/2006 Fulbright Scholar residency at University of Massachusetts, Amherst, his goal is to apply his expertise and experience as an educator, academic, curriculum developer and evaluator, research scholar and a higher education facilitator in professional development to advance higher education goals of engagement. A three-year central role in the Information Literacy project ‘Developing an Information Literacy Programme for Lifelong Learning for African Universities (2009– 2012)’ under the auspices of Development Partners in Higher Education (UK) championed his pathway to enhancement of quality of student learning through instructional design and implementation anchored in analytical skills that are best facilitated through an information-literacy streamed programmes of study. Helen Partridge, BA, GradCertEd (HigherEd), PgDipPscyh, MIT, PhD, FALIA, is a Professor in the Information Systems School at Queensland University of Technology, Australia. She is the coordinator of the School’s library and information science education programme and has received a number of teaching awards including a Teaching Fellowship in 2008 from the Australian Learning and Teaching Council. Helen was elected to the Board of Directors of the Australian Library and Information Association in 2006 and again in 2008, and was appointed a Fellow of the Association in 2012. She is the secretary for the Library Theory and Research Standing Committee of the International Federation of Library and Information Associations, and coordinated the committee’s recent project, Research Librarian Partnership, a mentoring programme aimed at helping new professionals in the library sector develop their knowledge, skill and experience in undertaking research. She has received over $1million in research funding; her work focuses on the interplay between information, learning and technology. In 2011 she was a visiting fellow at the Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford, where she undertook a study exploring people’s information experiences in Twitter. Sandhya Rajagopal, MSc (Librarianship), MBA (MIS), MSc (Physics), firstyear PhD student at the Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong (HKU). Her research interests are in information retrieval and information management particularly in Academic libraries. She has authored two

274

About the Authors

conference papers and published one in the faculty’s e-journal (iTec), on topics relating to enhancing library functions and services. Prior to entering academia she worked as a technical writer for commercial software applications in internationally reputed technology companies, for over eight years. Alexander Serenko, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Management Information Systems in the Faculty of Business Administration at Lakehead University, Canada. Dr Serenko holds a PhD in Management Information Systems from McMaster University. His research interests pertain to scientometrics, knowledge management and technology addiction. Alexander has published over 60 articles in refereed journals, including MIS Quarterly, Information & Management, Communications of the ACM, Journal of Informetrics and Journal of Knowledge Management. He has also won awards at several Canadian, American and international conferences. In 2007, Dr Serenko received the Lakehead Contribution to Research Award which recognizes him as one of the university’s leading researchers. Debra C. Smith, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Africana Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte where she teaches courses in media, film, health and environment and education. She earned her doctorate from The University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Her research and teaching interest include e-Black Studies, AfricanAmericans in communication and popular culture, minority images in the media, contemporary African-American folklore and developing teaching strategies that incorporate popular culture, language and power. Mary M. Somerville, BA, MA, MLS, CAS, PhD, Professor, serves as the University Librarian and Library Director at the Auraria Library, which serves the University of Colorado Denver, Metropolitan State University of Denver and Community College of Denver in Denver, Colorado, USA. Her leadership approach applies participatory co-design principles and practices to further workplace information sharing and knowledge creation. Complementary frameworks of appreciative inquiry, action research, shared leadership and informed learning advance organizational capacity for learning enabled through purposeful communication, decision-making and planning systems. A monograph, Working Together: Collaborative Information Practices for Organizational Learning (Association of College & Research Libraries, 2009), discusses highlights of the initial three-year implementation study at California Polytechnic State University in San Luis Obispo, California, USA. In 2012, insights gained from a decade of implementation and evaluation in three North American organizations supported articulation with international colleagues of an Informed Systems

About the Authors

275

Approach, which promotes workplace learning through contextualized information experiences. Christine Stilwell is Professor of Information Studies in the School of Social Sciences, Pietermaritzburg Campus. She is a National Research Foundation-rated researcher and has published numerous journal articles, a co-edited book, a directory of South African resource centres and chapters in books. She serves on the Editorial Boards of several journals both international and local. She participated in a Carnegie funded Library Leadership Academy, a University of Pretoria-based collaborative initiative with the University of Cape Town and UKZN which has produced some 120 young library leaders for the South African profession. She was Head of the Information Studies Programme from 2003 to 2007 and is currently Acting Director of the Centre for African Literary Studies on the Pietermaritzburg Campus. She serves on the Advisory Board of the Alan Paton Centre and Struggle Archives. Her research interests are public libraries and their role in addressing poverty and social exclusion, and information behaviour. Ian Stoodley, DipTeach, BEd, GradDipLib&InfoStudies, PhD, is a researcher at the Queensland University of Technology. His work includes qualitative research into information use, specializing in the investigation of people’s experience. His research has embraced the experience of professional ethics, information technology research and higher degree research supervision. Out of this research, Ian has published a number of high ranking peer-reviewed journal articles. He was conferred an IT Faculty Dean’s Award for Excellence for his doctoral work on professional ethics. Ian is currently involved in an Australian Office for Learning and Teaching funded project to assist institutions in managing and improving their student retention activities, which is constructing a Maturity Model for Student Success, Engagement and Retention. He is engaged in an Australian Research Council Linkage Grant project investigating ageing Australians’ experience of health information literacy. He is also active in the development of a Higher Education Research Network, which aims to champion and embed high quality higher education research at QUT. Rosemeire Barbosa Tavares, PhD, is an Associate Researcher at the University of Brasilia, Brazil and works as a Support Lecturer in the Information Communication and Media subject area. Rosemeire is interested in the cognitive processes involved in becoming information literate particularly concerned with ordinary people inside their communities. She works at State Government of Brasilia, as a Tax Auditor since

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About the Authors

1984, where she has developed a sort of projects related with information management including digital literacy and how information behaviours can have an effect on information system design. In this way, she is also interested in identifying processes of information management inside public organizations which take into account information behaviour patterns. Rosemeire, joined with Hepworth and Costa, has written a paper in which the findings of her pilot research are presented (http://idv.sagepub. com/content/27/2/125), and also participated of the Enancib/2012 Forum (http://www.enancib2012.icict.fiocruz.br/) where the comparative study between findings from pilot and principal investigation were presented in order to show how the learning process inside communities could be explored. Peter G. Underwood is Honorary Professor of the University of KwaZuluNatal and Emeritus Professor of the University of Cape Town, having occupied the Chair of Librarianship there from 1992 to 2010. He is the author of Managing Change in Libraries and Information Services: A Systems Approach and Soft Systems Analysis and the Management of Libraries, Information Services and Resource Centres, and co-author of Basics of Data Management for Information Services. In 2010, with Dr Colin Darch, he published Freedom of Information in the Developing World: Demand, Compliance and Democratic Behaviour (Woodhead/Chandos, 2010). His teaching and research focuses on information literacy, information systems management and organizational behaviour in the context of libraries and information services. He is also Senior Associate with a consulting group, Knowledge Leadership Associates (www.knowlead.co.za). Geoff Walton, BA (Joint Hons), MA, PgCHPE, PhD, FHEA, MCLIP, Learning Excellence Fellow, is a Senior Researcher and Academic Skills Tutor: Librarian at Staffordshire University. Geoff is interested in the cognitive and metacognitive processes involved in becoming information literate and how information behaviour theory and research can help understand these. He contributes to the working group which develops the Assignment Survival Kit or ASK (www.staffs.ac.uk/ask). Geoff is extending his research interests into bibliometrics, social media and digital literacy, and is also interested in identifying synergies between information literacy, e-learning and inquiry-based learning. He was SLA Europe Information Professional 2010. He is joint managing editor of the online journal Innovative Practice in Higher Education (www.staffs.ac.uk/ipihe) and member of the Research Information Network (RIN) Information Handling Group (soon to be rebranded the Research, Information & Digital Literacies Coalition — RiDLS).

About the Authors

277

Li Wang, BE, MLIS, PhD, is the Learning Support Services Manager at the University of Auckland Library, New Zealand. Li has been working in the area of information literacy education since late 1980s, as a higher educator, a library practitioner, a researcher and a developer. Li is interested in the areas of information literacy and academic literacy education, curriculum integration of information literacy and academic literacy in higher education, information literacy and academic literacy curriculum design and development, student-centred approach learning theories and how theories can be applied in information literacy and academic literacy teaching as well as staff development in higher education in both class and e-learning environment. Li’s doctoral research (http://eprints.qut.edu.au/41747/) focused on how to integrate information literacy across course curricula in higher education. She has developed an information literacy curricular integration model. The model has been applied in curricular integration of information literacy and academic literacy in various subject areas in higher education such as engineering, education, planning and arts. The model has also been applied in curricular analysis across a subject or programme curriculum as well as in staff development and training programme on curriculum integration of information and academic literacy. Li has contributed to a number of peerreviewed information literacy related journals and professional conferences. Li has been invited as a keynote speaker in international conferences. She was a recent participant in the Harvard/ACRL Leadership Institute for Academic Librarians. Li-Yi Wang, BA, MSc, PhD, is a Research Scientist in the Office of Education Research (OER), National Institute of Education Singapore. He started his research career by looking into the transmission of professional identity of non-native English speaking teachers in the context of teaching English as a foreign language (EFL). After joining the OER, He has extended his research interests into a number of different areas including school-based curriculum innovation, media literacy, information literacy and education policy. He is also involved in the discussion of education inequality with the focus on strategies and practices at different levels in social psychology frameworks in relation to the pedagogical and affective needs of academically at-risk and low-achieving students. He has also been actively participating in academic communities by sharing his research findings with education practitioners in a number of international conferences and peer-reviewed journals. Jennifer D. Ward, MLIS, is an Associate Professor of Library Science and Outreach Services Librarian at the University of Alaska Southeast in

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About the Authors

Juneau, Alaska. Currently she is on sabbatical studying academic librarian teaching practices in Finland. Sheila Webber, BA, PgDip, FHEA, FCLIP, is a Senior Lecturer in the Information School, Sheffield University, UK, where she is Director of the Centre for Information Literacy Research and Head of the Libraries and Information Society Research Group. Previous jobs include teaching at Strathclyde University, Scotland, and heading the Business Information Service at the British Library. Her core areas of interest in teaching and research are information literacy, information behaviour and educational informatics. Sheila is a committee member of the IFLA Information Literacy Section and a past member of the SCONUL Working Group on Information Literacy and the CILIP Information Literacy Group. She has also contributed to the development of the UNESCO Media and Information Literacy indicators. She is an invited speaker on information literacy internationally, for example in 2011–2013 invited to speak in Canada, Poland, Turkey, Sweden and Estonia. She has maintained the Information Literacy Weblog since 2005 at http://information-literacy. blogspot.com (which has had over a million page views) and is the author of over 100 publications. Evans Wema, BLIS (Makerere), MA IS (UDSM), PGCE (UWC), PGMeM (Stellenbosch), PhD (Loughborough), is a Researcher and Lecturer in Information and Library studies: Information Studies Programme, University of Dar es Salaam. Wema is interested in developing information literacy curricula through the integration of Information and Library Science conceptions of information literacy, educational theories and information behaviour research. He contributes to the working group which develops Health Information Literacy Toolkit with the Tanzania Ministry of Health and Social Work. Wema is extending his research interests into a number of different areas including Web 2.0 technologies, digital repositories and monitoring and evaluation methods for teaching information literacy. He is also interested in assessing information behaviour of students when accessing and using electronic theses and dissertation databases to find ways of improving such information retrieval systems. Wema has contributed to a number of peer-reviewed journals and is currently working on developing an information literacy curriculum for the Tanzania Public Services Commission College.

Index Absorbing, ageing Australians experience HIL as, 229 Abstract conceptualization, Kolb’s learning cycle stage, 183 Academic Affairs Division Management Team (AADMT), 141 Academics’ conceptions of information literacy, 114 Accreditation processes, 168 Action-research and critical library instruction, 100–101 Active experimentation, Kolb’s learning cycle stage, 184 Administrative Regions (AR), 248 Advocacy, DelPHE project, 140–141 Affirmation, as information experience category, 230 African-American culture, in Maya & Miguel, 90 Ageing Australians and health information literacy, 227–229 Agriculturalists, in Tanzania, 179–196 information literacy course with, 184–196 information need, 181–182 ALA. See American Library Association (ALA) Alaska, 98 bush communities in, 98 cultural diversity, 98–99

higher education e-Learning in, 99–100 Native communities, 99–100 American Library Association (ALA) information literacy definition, 53, 113 ANZIIL (Australia and New Zealand Institute of Information Literacy) framework, 38, 113 AR. See Administrative Regions (AR) Asian culture, in Maya & Miguel, 89 Aspirant barristers, 156 Assessment literature, ILI, 168–169 Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), 161 Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education, 113 information literacy definition, 53 Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), 168 Attitudes Domain, Information Literacy Programme, 57, 58 Attributes, information literacy, 118 Atwood, Margaret, 208 Awareness, as information experience category, 230

280 Index Bloom’s taxonomy, 40, 42–46 Bruce, Christine S., 8 Bush communities, Alaska, 98 Business schools information literacy in, 167–173 Cape Libraries Cooperatives (CALICO), 130 Center for Colorado & the West at Auraria Library (CC&W), 231 Children, 82, 87 Chu, Samuel Kai-Wah, 5 Circuit of culture, 82, 85–86 Citizenship, communication of information for, 242–244 Clay, Edwin S., 128 Collaborating, ageing Australians experience HIL as, 229 Collaboration, 128–130, 161–162 conversation and, 210–211 defined, 128, 209–210 goal of, 214–215 as principle in institutional/ corporate environments, 208–216 questions, 215–216 technology, 211–214 Communication and Study Skills Unit (CSSU), 138–139 Communication of information for citizenship, 242–244 epistemological approaches, 244–246 participatory techniques in, 241–263 results, analysis of, 253–263 Communities, and informed learning, 227–237 digital, 229–230 faith, 230–231 Hispanic, 231, 233

Native American, 233–234 older, 227–229 Concrete experience, Kolb’s learning cycle stage, 183 Constructivism, 245 Cooperation, defined, 210 Correspondence education. See e-learning Course curriculum, 35 information literacy integration in, 38–47 Creativity, 214 Critical library instruction, actionresearch and, 100–101 CSSU. See Communication and Study Skills Unit (CSSU) Cultural diversity, Alaska, 98–99 Culture circuit of culture, 82, 85–86 defined, 84 representation in Maya & Miguel, 88–93 (See also specific cultures) meaning of, 93–94 through food, 88 Curriculum course level, 35 defined, 33–34 faculty/departmental level, 35 in higher education, 33–34 institutional level, 35 information literacy integration in, 37 intended, 34 legal information literacy, 161 offered, 34–35 Decision, defined, 221–222 DelPHE project. See Development Partners in Higher Education (DelPHE) project

Index Departmental curriculum, 35 De Souza Costa, Sely Maria, 8 Detlor, Brian, 7 Developmental study, expertise study, 68–69 goals of, 71 Development Partners in Higher Education (DelPHE) project, 128, 134–145 advocacy, 140–141 challenges, 143–145 implementation, 136–137 participants, 136 principal stakeholders, 136 toolkits, 139–140 Diagnostic tests, 193–194 Digital communities, and informed learning, 229–230 Distance education. See e-learning Dokphrom, Phussadee, 6 Dominant culture, in America, 91–93 Dominican culture, in Maya & Miguel, 90 Duke, Thomas S., 6 Eastern Seaboard Association Libraries (ESAL), 130 ED626 Classroom Research, 101–102 EDSE 698 Master’s Thesis Project, 103–104 EDSE 692 Seminar, 102–103 Education, IL delivering, 5–6 role in higher education, 32 Education faculty collaboration with librarians, 101 E-learning community, 99 defined, 99 higher education, in Alaska, 99–100 programme, IL, 6

281

Electronic Information for Libraries (EIFL), 142 ELIP. See Evidence Based Library and Information Practice (ELIP) ERIL Programme. See Extensive Reading and Information Literacy (ERIL) Programme Evidence Based Library and Information Practice (ELIP), 115 Extensive Reading and Information Literacy (ERIL) Programme, 57 Faculty curriculum, 35 information literacy integration in, 37 Faith communities, and informed learning, 230–231 Fidzani, Babakisi Tjedombo, 6 Fifth meeting, 252 Finch report, 18 First meeting, 250 Fourth meeting, 252 Free State Libraries and Information Consortium (FRELICO), 130 Gauteng and Environs Library Consortium (GAELIC), 130 General education courses (GEC), 132 Global economic crisis, 17 Globalisation, impact of, 152 in Nigeria, 154–155 Grounded theory, defined, 70, 254 Grunwald Declaration on media education, 55 Hands-on activities, 193 Hawking, Stephen, 208

282 Index Health information literacy (HIL) ageing Australians and, 227–229 Health practitioners, in Tanzania, 179–196 information literacy course with, 184–196 information need, 181–182 Hemingway, Ernest, 208 Hepworth, Mark, 8 Higher education (HE) Browne report on, 17 changes in, 17–19 curriculum in (See curriculum) e-learning, in Alaska, 99–100 Finch report, 18 IL as challenging task for, 129 IL development in, 15–25 information literacy education role in, 32 and lifelong learning approach, 15–25 purpose of, 17 HIL. See health information literacy (HIL) Hispanics, 231, 233 culture, 92 IB. See information behaviour (IB) IL. See information literacy (IL) ILI. See information literacy instruction (ILI) Inclusivity, importance of, 236 Independent learning, importance of, 122 Information and Communication Technology (ICT), 154, 158 usage in law firms, 159 Information behaviour (IB) information literacy vs., 9 overview, 2–4 Information Culture concept of, 24–25 importance of, 21–22

information literate person in changing, 21–22 Information experts traits in, 69 Information literacy (IL), 217–218 assessment, 36 attributes, 118 in business schools, 167–173 as challenging task for HE, 129 competencies, 59 conceptions of, 113–115, 116–120 course linked, 133–134 curriculum integration approach, 32 (See also curriculum) defined, 19, 53, 113, 152, 243, 258 as discipline, 18–19 education, 5–6, 32 e-learning programme, 6 in global context, 52–53 growth indicators, 16 importance of, 3, 16, 153 information behaviour vs., 9 integration, and curriculum levels, 35–47 as knowledge society, 16 legal, 7 librarians and, 7–8 Library and Information Science vs., 20 and lifelong learning approach, 15–25 models, 3–4 overview, 2–4 pedagogical trend, 20 purposes/aims of, 53–54 in Singapore, 56–58 strategic approach, 4–5 training, value of, 3 training courses at work places, 179–196

Index of undergraduate students in Thailand, 111–124 understanding of, enhancing, 235–236 at University of Botswana (UB) (See University of Botswana (UB)) workplace (See workplace information literacy) Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education (ACRL), 113 Information literacy curricular integration model, 36–47 what element of, 37, 38 Information literacy education, 120–124 librarians’ involvement in, 115 provision of, 120–122 Information literacy instruction (ILI), 167–173 assessment literature, 168–169 librarians and, 170–171 methods, 169–170 outcomes, 171–172 overview, 168 Information literate person in changing information culture/society, 21–22 LLL model for, 22–24 Information search expertise advanced beginner level of, 73–74 competent level of, 74–75 novice level of, 73 proficient level of, 75–76 Information Search Process (ISP), 156–157 Information World module, 121 Informed learning, 223–237 in community contexts, 227–237 development of, principles for, 226–227

283

overview, 224–225 Institutional curriculum, 35 information literacy integration in, 37 Intended curriculum, 34 IL related attributes chart extracted from, 39 Interpretativism, 245 Interviews emergent themes, 105–106 life-world, 104 IPENZ (Institution of Professional Engineers NZ), 37, 38 ISP. See Information Search Process (ISP) Johnston, Bill, 2 Journeying, ageing Australians experience HIL as, 229 Julien, Heidi, 7 Kinksy, Emily S., 6 Knowledge management, 211 Knowledge society, IL as, 16 Kuhn, Rosemary, 7 Lawal, Vicki, 7 Learning cycle, Kolb, 183–184 Lee, Celina Wing-Yi, 5 Legal education system responsibility of, 160 in South Africa/Nigeria, 151–162 legal information literacy and, 154–156 Legal information literacy, 7, 153–154 curriculum, 161 Legal practice, 153 skills deficiency in, 158 Liberating, ageing Australians experience HIL as, 229 Librarians collaboration with education faculty, 101

284 Index conceptions of information literacy, 114 and information literacy, 7–8 and information literacy education, 115 and information literacy instruction, 170–171 Library and Information Science (LIS), 16 IL vs., 20 Library partnerships connections associated with, 129 Lifelong learning (LLL) approach, 15–25 for information literate person, 22–24 Life-world interviews, 104 Lin, Tzu-Bin, 5 LIS. See Library and Information Science (LIS) LLL approach. See lifelong learning (LLL) approach Lotus Notes, 212 Lumande, Edward, 6

Media Development Authority (MDA) of Singapore, 59 media literacy definition, 60–61 Media literacy, 86–87 defined, 55, 86 in global context, 54–56 importance of, 60 purpose of, 55–56 in Singapore, 58–61 Mexican culture, in Maya & Miguel, 91, 92 Ministry of Agriculture Food Security and Cooperatives (MAFSC), 186, 187 Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore, 5, 52, 56 guidelines, 57–58 Information Literacy Programme by, 57 Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MoHSW), 186, 187, 194–195 Mozart, Amadeus, 208 Multiculturalism Maya & Miguel and, 86

MacCrate Report of 1992, 155 MAFIS, 194, 195 MAFSC. See Ministry of Agriculture Food Security and Cooperatives (MAFSC) Maya & Miguel, 82–83 African-American culture in, 90 Asian culture in, 89 Dominican culture in, 90 group’s culture, 84–87 literature review, 83–84 Mexican culture in, 91 and multiculturalism, 86 Puerto Rican culture in, 91 textual analysis, 87 White culture in, 89

National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE) media literacy definition, 55 National Institute of Education (NIE) media literacy definition, 60–61 Native Americans, 233–234 learning system, 234 Native communities, Alaska, 99–100 Negotiations, information literacy integration, 35–36 Nigeria legal education system in, 151–162 legal information literacy and, 154–155

Index

285

Nigerian Law School (NLS), 155 Novice-expert comparison, expertise study, 68 goals of, 71

Puerto Rican culture, in Maya & Miguel, 91, 93 Questioning, collaboration, 215–216

Objectivism, 244–245 Ofcom. See Office of Communications (Ofcom) Offered curriculum, 34–35 Office of Communications (Ofcom) media literacy definition, 55 Older communities, and informed learning, 227–229 Oluka, Silas, 6 Organizing Genius (Bennis), 129 Orientalism, 85 Otlhogile, Bojosi, 135

Race, 85 Rajagopal, Sandhya, 5 Ramos, Jorge, 83 Reflection, as pedagogical method/ learning outcome, 184 Reflective observation, Kolb’s learning cycle stage, 183 Research and Information Search Expertise (RISE) model, 68 componential model for, 71–73 Rey, Gonzales, 258 RISE model. See Research and Information Search Expertise (RISE) model

Participatory research (PR) defined, 246 design, 247–253 Participatory research and action (PRA), 241, 242 data analysis in, 253–263 usage of, 246–247 Partnerships defined, 128–129 library, connections associated with, 129 Partridge, Helen, 8 PR. See participatory research (PR) PRA. See participatory research and action (PRA) Private sector, workplace information literacy approach, 216–217 Problem-based learning, 181 Project-based learning, 181 Public sector, workplace information literacy approach, 216–217

Said, Edward W., 85 SAILS test, 169, 170 results of, 172–173 Scaffolding defined, 70 SCANUL ECS. See Standing Conference of Academic National University Librarians in Eastern Central Southern Africa (SCANUL ECS) Scottish IL project, 23 Second meeting, 250–251 Separatist movement, 119 Serenko, Alexander, 7 SharePoint, 212, 213 Silpakorn University, Thailand case study, 111–124 Singapore information literacy in, 56–58 media literacy in, 58–61

286 Index MOE, 5, 52 Sixth meeting, 253 Skills Domain, Information Literacy Programme, 57, 58 Smith, Debra C., 6 Social, defined, 210 Social media, and information experiences, 229–230 Somerville, Mary M., 8 South Africa, 130 legal education system in, 151–162 legal information literacy and, 154–155 South Eastern Academic Libraries’ System (SEALS), 130 Stage of confusion, 73 Stage of understanding, 73–74 Standing Conference of Academic National University Librarians in Eastern Central Southern Africa (SCANUL ECS), 142 Stevick–Colaizzi–Keen method, 104 Stilwell, Christine, 7 Stoodley, Ian, 8 Taiwan media literacy education in, 54 Tanzania agriculture and health sectors in, 179–196 Targeting, ageing Australians experience HIL as, 229 Tavares, Rosemeire Barbosa, 8 Teamwork, 210 Television, 82 as socializing force, 87 Thailand information literacy of undergraduate students in, 111–124

Third meeting, 251 Transliteracy, defined, 207 UB. See University of Botswana (UB) Undergraduate students, Thailand information literacy of, 111–124 Underwood, Peter G., 7 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 16, 135, 186–187 Uniting Church of Australia community, informed learning in, 230–231 University of Abertay Dundee, 135, 142 University of Botswana (UB), 128 CAD at, 139 DelPHE project (See Development Partners in Higher Education (DelPHE) project) graduate attributes, 134 IL at collaboration/partnerships, 128–130 embedding, 138–139 library experience, 130–133 Strategic Plan, 2016, 133–134 University of Botswana Library (UBL), 130–133 UNZA–IDS–INASP Workshop, 142–143 Wang, Li-Yi, 5 Ward, Jennifer D., 6 Webber, Sheila, 2 Welsh Information Literacy Project, 23 Wema, Evans, 7 What element, IL curricular integration model, 37, 38

Index White culture, in Maya & Miguel, 89 Workplace information literacy, 205–222 challenge of, 207–208 enterprise context, 218–221 public vs. private sectors approach, 216–217

287

Workplaces, information literacy training courses at, 179–196 Yammer, 212, 213 ‘‘Zinduka — Malaria Haikubaliki’’, 186 Zurkowski, Paul, 2