Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education: English Language Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices in China (Intercultural Communication and Language Education) [1st ed. 2023] 9819941784, 9789819941780

Table of contents :
Acknowledgments
Contents
Part I Exploring Core Issues of Global Awareness and Global Citizenship
1 Introducing the Global Awareness Study
1.1 Overview of Context
1.2 The Global Awareness Case Study
1.3 Research Methods
1.3.1 Rationale for Qualitative Approach
1.3.2 Site and Participants
1.3.3 Research Design
1.3.4 Data Collection and Analysis
1.4 Organization of the Book
References
2 Global Awareness, Intercultural Communicative Competence, and Global Citizenship
2.1 Global Awareness
2.1.1 Concept of Global Awareness
2.1.2 Empirical Research on Global Awareness
2.2 Teacher Cognition and Intercultural Communicative Competence
2.2.1 Teachers’ Beliefs About Culture and Cultural Teaching
2.2.2 Teachers’ Knowledge About Intercultural Communicative Competence
2.2.3 Teachers’ Beliefs About Intercultural Language Teaching
2.2.4 Teachers’ Intercultural Language Teaching Practices
2.3 Global Citizenship Education and Intercultural Citizenship Education
2.3.1 Global Citizenship Education
2.3.2 Intercultural Citizenship Education
2.4 Conclusion
References
3 Global Englishes, Global Learning, and Teacher Cognition
3.1 Global Englishes
3.1.1 WE, EIL, and Global Englishes
3.1.2 Studies on WE, EIL, and Global Englishes
3.2 Global Learning
3.2.1 Theory of Global Learning
3.2.2 Research on Global Learning
3.3 Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices
3.3.1 Concept of Teacher Cognition
3.3.2 Studies of Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices
3.4 Conclusion
References
4 Global Awareness and Intercultural Language Teaching in China
4.1 Global Awareness and ICC in School Curriculum in China
4.2 Chinese Perspectives on Global Awareness
4.3 Models of Intercultural Communicative Competence in China
4.4 Studies into Intercultural Communicative Competence in the Chinese Context
4.5 Global/Intercultural Citizenship Education in China
4.6 Conclusion
References
Part II Teacher Cognition about Global Awareness
5 Teachers’ Beliefs and Reported Practices Regarding Global Awareness
5.1 The Global Awareness Model
5.2 Global Awareness in the Curriculum
5.3 General Teaching Methods
5.4 Global Awareness Teaching Methods
5.5 Conclusion
References
6 Factors That Shape Teachers’ Beliefs About Global Awareness
6.1 Teacher Professional Development and Global Awareness
6.2 Students and Global Awareness
6.3 Global Awareness in Tests
6.4 Global Topics in Teaching Materials
6.5 Conclusion
References
Part III Global Awareness in Classroom Practice
7 Chinese English Teachers’ Classroom Practices
7.1 Vocabulary Lessons
7.2 Grammar Teaching
7.3 Multimedia Lessons
7.4 Teachers’ Joint Preparation for Instruction
7.5 Conclusion
References
8 Classroom Practices of Three Canadian English Teachers
8.1 Reading an English Newspaper
8.2 Christmas Class
8.3 Drama Class
8.4 Conclusion
References
Part IV Discussion and Conclusions
9 Teacher Cognition, Practice, and Global Awareness
9.1 Understanding Teachers’ Cognition About Teaching Global Awareness
9.1.1 Teachers’ Beliefs Regarding Global Awareness
9.1.2 Global Awareness in the Curriculum
9.1.3 Teachers’ Reported Practices Regarding Global Awareness
9.2 Exploring Factors Affecting Teachers’ Beliefs Regarding Global Awareness
9.2.1 Teaching Training
9.2.2 Students’ Global Awareness
9.2.3 Tests
9.2.4 Teaching Materials
9.3 Developing Global Awareness in Classroom Practice
9.3.1 Discussion of the Regular High School English Department
9.3.2 Discussion of the Sino-Canadian Program
9.4 The Relationship Between Teachers’ Beliefs and Teaching Practices
9.5 Conclusion
References
10 Preparing Language Teachers for Intercultural/Global Citizenship Education
10.1 Intercultural Teaching and Learning
10.2 Assessment of ICC
10.3 Online Intercultural Exchange
10.4 CLIL and ICC
10.5 Global Englishes and ICC
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 Conclusions
11.1 Summary of Findings from Studies on Global Awareness
11.2 Implications for Language Education
11.3 Limitations of the Study
11.4 Suggestions for Further Research
References

Citation preview

Intercultural Communication and Language Education

Hongtao Jing

Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education English Language Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices in China

Intercultural Communication and Language Education Series Editors Stephanie Ann Houghton, Saga University, Saga, Japan Melina Porto, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina

This book series publishes top quality monographs and edited volumes containing empirical research that prioritises the development of intercultural communicative competence in foreign language education as part of intercultural citizenship. It explores the development of critical cultural awareness broadly aimed at triggering and managing personal and social transformation through intercultural dialogue. Citizenship education and interculturally-oriented language education share an interest in fostering learner exploration, critical analysis and evaluation of other cultures within dynamic socio-political environments. To complement existing research on the development of intercultural communicative competence, this book series explores the techniques, processes and outcomes of intercultural language pedagogy and intercultural citizenship inside and outside the classroom. It also explores the nature, dynamics and impact of intercultural dialogue outside the classroom in real-world settings where various language codes are in use, including World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca. Further, this book series recognizes and explicitly attempts to overcome wideranging real-world barriers to intercultural dialogue and intercultural citizenship. This is especially important in the field of English language education considering the status of English as a global language and associated problems connected to linguistic imperialism, ideology and native-speakerism among others. To promote the development of deeper understandings of how such social problems connect to the use of foreign languages in general, contributions are also sought from disciplines outside foreign language education such as citizenship education, social justice, moral education, language policy and social psychology that shed light upon influential external social factors and internal psychological factors that need to be taken into account. Textbooks containing teaching materials relevant to this series are also welcome at all levels. Textbooks containing teaching materials used in the classroom research projects reported in academic monographs and edited books published in this series are especially welcome. Please contact Alice Xie (email: [email protected]) for submitting book proposals for this series.

Hongtao Jing

Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education English Language Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices in China

Hongtao Jing College of Economics Kanto Gakuin University Yokohama, Japan

ISSN 2520-1735 ISSN 2520-1743 (electronic) Intercultural Communication and Language Education ISBN 978-981-99-4178-0 ISBN 978-981-99-4179-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4179-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

To Shogo (彰悟) and Seigo (成悟)

Acknowledgments

I would like to express my gratitude to those who helped me throughout the book’s publishing process. First and foremost, I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to Emeritus Professor Nicholas Owen Jungheim from Waseda University, who has supervised my entire research. I owe most of my skills as a researcher to him. I also would like to express my sincerest thanks to Professor Lynne Parmenter (Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan), who supervised me at the beginning of this study. I wish to thank the series editors, Stephanie Ann Houghton and Melia Porto, for their support and feedback and for giving me the opportunity to publish my work in this series. My special thanks also go to Prof. Stephanie Houghton for her encouragement, expert suggestions, and guidance throughout the revision process. I am also grateful to my friend Barry Kavanagh for proofreading the last version of the book and to my colleague Yujing Ma who made many valuable suggestions. I am very grateful to Lawrence Liu, Lay Peng Ang, Melody Zhang, Sophie Li, and Jayalakshmi Raju at Springer Nature Singapore for all their work and support throughout the publication process. I also wish to thank the anonymous reviewers whose valuable feedback helped improve this book. Additionally, I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the financial support provided by the “English Academic Book Publication Support Subsidy” from Waseda University, Japan. This work was also partly supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers JP15K16807, JP19K13303. Finally, I owe a great debt of gratitude to my wife, Satsuki, for looking after the children and supporting me in writing the manuscript. Tokyo, May 2023

Hongtao Jing

vii

Contents

Part I

Exploring Core Issues of Global Awareness and Global Citizenship

1

Introducing the Global Awareness Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Overview of Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 The Global Awareness Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Rationale for Qualitative Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Site and Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.4 Data Collection and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Organization of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

Global Awareness, Intercultural Communicative Competence, and Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Global Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Concept of Global Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Empirical Research on Global Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Teacher Cognition and Intercultural Communicative Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Teachers’ Beliefs About Culture and Cultural Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Teachers’ Knowledge About Intercultural Communicative Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Teachers’ Beliefs About Intercultural Language Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4 Teachers’ Intercultural Language Teaching Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Global Citizenship Education and Intercultural Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Global Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 3 5 7 7 9 13 13 21 22 25 25 26 27 28 28 30 36 38 40 40 ix

x

Contents

2.3.2 Intercultural Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46 49 49

3

Global Englishes, Global Learning, and Teacher Cognition . . . . . . . . 3.1 Global Englishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 WE, EIL, and Global Englishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Studies on WE, EIL, and Global Englishes . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Global Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Theory of Global Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Research on Global Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Concept of Teacher Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Studies of Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55 55 56 56 57 58 60 63 63 65 69 69

4

Global Awareness and Intercultural Language Teaching in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Global Awareness and ICC in School Curriculum in China . . . . . 4.2 Chinese Perspectives on Global Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Models of Intercultural Communicative Competence in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Studies into Intercultural Communicative Competence in the Chinese Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Global/Intercultural Citizenship Education in China . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Part II

73 73 76 78 81 83 85 85

Teacher Cognition about Global Awareness

5

Teachers’ Beliefs and Reported Practices Regarding Global Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 5.1 The Global Awareness Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 5.2 Global Awareness in the Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5.3 General Teaching Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 5.4 Global Awareness Teaching Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 5.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

6

Factors That Shape Teachers’ Beliefs About Global Awareness . . . . 6.1 Teacher Professional Development and Global Awareness . . . . . . 6.2 Students and Global Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Global Awareness in Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Global Topics in Teaching Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

103 104 107 109 110 111 112

Contents

xi

Part III Global Awareness in Classroom Practice 7

Chinese English Teachers’ Classroom Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Vocabulary Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Grammar Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Multimedia Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Teachers’ Joint Preparation for Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

115 116 118 120 121 121 121

8

Classroom Practices of Three Canadian English Teachers . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Reading an English Newspaper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Christmas Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Drama Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

123 124 128 130 131 131

Part IV Discussion and Conclusions 9

Teacher Cognition, Practice, and Global Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Understanding Teachers’ Cognition About Teaching Global Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.1 Teachers’ Beliefs Regarding Global Awareness . . . . . . . . . 9.1.2 Global Awareness in the Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.3 Teachers’ Reported Practices Regarding Global Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Exploring Factors Affecting Teachers’ Beliefs Regarding Global Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.1 Teaching Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.2 Students’ Global Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.3 Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.4 Teaching Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Developing Global Awareness in Classroom Practice . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.1 Discussion of the Regular High School English Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.2 Discussion of the Sino-Canadian Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 The Relationship Between Teachers’ Beliefs and Teaching Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Preparing Language Teachers for Intercultural/Global Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Intercultural Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Assessment of ICC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Online Intercultural Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 CLIL and ICC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

135 135 135 138 140 142 142 143 145 146 146 146 149 152 154 155 159 159 163 164 166

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10.5 Global Englishes and ICC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 10.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 11 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Summary of Findings from Studies on Global Awareness . . . . . . 11.2 Implications for Language Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Suggestions for Further Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

175 175 178 179 180 181

Part I

Exploring Core Issues of Global Awareness and Global Citizenship

Chapter 1

Introducing the Global Awareness Study

This chapter begins by introducing an overview of the context for this book. I then examine a case study on researching teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding global awareness in foreign language teaching in China before discussing the research methods including the rationale for using a qualitative approach, site and participant selection, research design, data collection, and analysis. Finally, I review the organization of the book.

1.1 Overview of Context For the past ten years, the Chinese government has implemented a policy of globalization accompanied with slogans such as “China Dream”, “Go global”, “Made in China 2025”, “the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)”, otherwise known as “One Belt One Road”, and “A Community with Shared Future”. In addition, since 2004, the Chinese government has established hundreds of Confucius institutes worldwide to promote a positive national image of Chinese soft power (An et al., 2018). These national policies directly guide the education policy in China. Recently, global awareness has been emphasized in China’s national teaching guidelines. In 2001, the central government issued “the Outline of Basic Curriculum Reform (Trial Version)”, which states, “Education has to face modernization, face the world, and face the future”. In 2010, the three “faces” were mentioned again in the guidelines. According to Lee and Leung (2006), “Facing the world” can only be realized by developing a global perspective that comprises four elements: global awareness (e.g., understanding interdependence, the globe as one world, peaceful development, environmental protection, international justice, etc.), global knowledge (e.g., world geography, world history, current international issues, lingua franca,

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 H. Jing, Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education, Intercultural Communication and Language Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4179-7_1

3

4

1 Introducing the Global Awareness Study

international trade, etc.), global skills (e.g., global values, including empathy, human rights, respect for life, justice and peace, etc.), and global behavior (e.g., participating in an action that promotes world justice). On February 28, 2010, the Chinese government released a draft copy of “The National Guidelines for Medium-and Long-Term Educational Reform and Development (2010–2020)” (hereinafter referred to as “the Guidelines”). It states in Chapter 16, “To meet the requirement of opening up the Chinese economy and society to the world, large numbers of talents shall be cultivated that are imbued with a global vision, well-versed in international rules, and capable of participating in international affairs and competition”. We can see that the objective of cultivating talent is to cultivate international talents with a global vision. Furthermore, Chapter 16 states three policies to further open China’s education. The first is promoting international exchanges and cooperation, the second is introducing quality education resources abroad, and the third is upgrading exchange and cooperation. For example, in section 49, the guidelines state the policies of introducing quality education resources abroad as follows: It is necessary to seek the cooperation of renowned schools, education institutions, research institutes and companies outside this nation to establish education, teaching, training and research organizations or undertake such projects. Schools at all levels and of all varieties should be encouraged to engage in diverse forms of international exchanges and cooperation, and a good job should be done in running demonstrative joint schools or joint projects in cooperation with foreign partners. Multiple approaches to utilizing quality education resources from abroad shall be searched for. (p. 34)

In section 50, the guidelines emphasize upgrading exchanges and cooperation as follows: Exchanges and cooperation between Chinese and foreign primary and middle schools and vocational schools shall be boosted. Education aimed at enhancing international understanding shall be stepped up to promote the level of cross-cultural communication and to help students better understand different countries and cultures. (p. 34)

Influenced by the above national policy of international exchanges and cooperation, the number of Chinese studying abroad has been growing rapidly in recent years in China. According to the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, the number of Chinese studying abroad has grown by 20% each year since 2008. The number of students studying abroad was 285,000 in 2010, the number exceeded 300,000 in 2011, and the total number of Chinese students studying abroad was 703,500 in 2019. From 1978 to 2019, the total number of Chinese studying abroad was 6.5606 million (Ministry of Education, 2020). Intercultural communicative competence (ICC) has been developed in three policy documents from the Chinese Ministry of Education (Kulich & Wang, 2015). For example, the Chinese English Syllabus for English Majors emphasized cultivating English majors’ ICC. The Chinese College English Curriculum Requirements gave ICC the same important role as English knowledge and language proficiency. In addition, high school’s English curriculum standard includes intercultural knowledge, awareness, and skills.

1.2 The Global Awareness Case Study

5

1.2 The Global Awareness Case Study Developing intercultural communicative competence has been advocated in China’s English curriculum since 2001, and developing global awareness was also advocated in high school English teaching. However, the concept of global awareness has not been very well explained or explored in China. Moreover, little prior empirical research has addressed the extent of global awareness. Previous research revealed that the curriculum advocated the objectives of English teaching for intercultural communicative competence and global awareness; however, it did not explain the concepts or guidelines for teaching practice. By researching teachers’ beliefs about global awareness, we can better understand their teaching practices in the classroom. This qualitative case study aimed to explore the beliefs and practices regarding the global awareness of foreign language teachers in foreign language teaching at one senior high school in Henan Province in China. More specifically, the research questions (RQs) were: 1. What are the beliefs about global awareness of foreign language teachers at one senior high school in China? 2. What are the teachers’ reported practices about global awareness? 3. What factors affect teachers’ beliefs and practices about global awareness? 4. What are the teachers’ classroom practices about global awareness? 5. What is the relationship between teachers’ beliefs, factors, and practices regarding global awareness? The total participants in the study were 21 English language teachers, including 18 Chinese EFL teachers and three Canadian English teachers. The data collection methods consisted of in-depth interviews, focus group interviews, and classroom observation. The data were coded and organized using grounded theory based on the research questions and analyzed using the qualitative software NVivo 8. Analysis and interpretation of the findings were organized by way of five analytic categories based on the English teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding global awareness: (a) teachers’ beliefs about global awareness; (b) teachers’ reported practices about global awareness; (c) teachers’ classroom practices regarding global awareness; (d) schooling, professional coursework, and contextual factors; (e) the relationship between teachers’ beliefs, factors, and classroom practices regarding global awareness. The rationale for this study emanates from my desire to explore foreign language teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding global awareness in high school in China. I am very interested in what foreign language teachers believe about global awareness, how they teach in the classroom, and how their beliefs relate to practices. Though some studies have examined teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding intercultural communicative competence in foreign language education in China (e.g., Han, 2010; Han & Song, 2011; Zhou, 2011), all their research has been quantitative. The current research only gives us an understanding of Chinese teachers’ reported practices regarding intercultural communicative competence, but the actual

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1 Introducing the Global Awareness Study

classroom practices have not been explored. This research is based on a qualitative case study that aims to explore teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices in depth. Though the policymakers listed global awareness as a keyword in the curriculum, little is known about the teachers’ beliefs and teaching practices about global awareness. Therefore, there is a significant gap to be explored in teachers’ beliefs about the concept and aim of global awareness, its importance, and the relationship between language learning in English curricula and the teaching methods in the classroom. The present study intends to address this gap by exploring the beliefs and practices regarding the global awareness of English teachers at one senior high school in Henan Province in China. Research on teachers’ beliefs and practices has recently been popular in language education; most research is related to grammar and communicative language teaching (CLT). However, research on language teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding intercultural language teaching and global awareness is still a new area. It is hoped that this research can contribute to and develop the theory of intercultural communicative competence at the level of globalization. At the time of writing, I have not found any models of global awareness in foreign language education in China, making this a new and unexplored field. This research will also interest anyone wanting to find out how foreign language teachers at high schools in China perceive global awareness in the English classroom, and how their beliefs are related to practices. It can also help teacher trainers design education programs about intercultural and global teaching. Such programs can encourage more foreign language teachers to develop the global knowledge, global skills, and global attitudes they need to teach students. In order to understand the research terminology used in this study, I review some main definitions of key terms used in this book including teacher cognition, intercultural communicative competence, global learning, global citizenship, and case study. 1. Teacher cognition: Teacher cognition is the unobservable dimension of teaching—what teachers know, believe, and think (Borg, 2003). It includes beliefs, knowledge, theories, attitudes, assumptions, conceptions, principles, thinking, and decision-making about teaching, teachers, learners, learning, subject matter, curricula, materials, activities, self, colleagues, assessment, and context (Borg, 2006). 2. Intercultural communicative competence (ICC): Byram’s (1997) model of intercultural communicative competence or ICC requires attitudes, knowledge, and skills in addition to linguistic, sociolinguistic, strategic, and discourse competence (Byram, 1997). 3. Global learning: Think Global (the Development Education Association) defines global learning (thinking globally) as education that puts learning in a global context, learning about the wider world and our dependence on it. According to Think Global, global learning (thinking globally) fosters critical and creative thinking, self-awareness and open-mindedness toward difference, understanding of global issues and power relationships, optimism and action for a better world (Hogg & Shah, 2010, 2011).

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7

4. Global citizenship: Oxfam (1997) saw a global citizen as someone who is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own role as a world citizen, respects and values diversity; has an understanding of how the world works economically, politically, socially, culturally, technologically, and environmentally; is outraged by social injustice, participates in and contributes to the community at a range of levels from local to global; is willing to act to make the world a more sustainable place; and takes responsibility for his action (Oxfam, 1997). The key elements for developing responsible global citizenship are knowledge and understanding, skills, values, and attitudes (Oxfam, 2006). 5. Case study: Case study research is a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information (e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and reports), and reports a case description and case-based themes. For example, several programs (a multi-site study) or a single program (a within-site study) may be selected for study (Creswell, 2007) In the following section, we will discuss research methods before presenting the book’s organization.

1.3 Research Methods This section describes the research methodology and includes discussion of the following areas: (a) rationale for the research approach; (b) sample and site; (c) information needed; (d) research design; (e) data collection; (f) data analysis; (g) ethical considerations; (h) issues of trustworthiness; (i) limitations of the study; and (j) summary.

1.3.1 Rationale for Qualitative Approach The following is a rationale for the qualitative research approach taken in this study and a rationale for a case study and grounded theory. According to Creswell (2007), “Qualitative research begins with assumptions, a worldview, the possible use of a theoretical lens, and the study of research problems inquiring into the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem” (p. 37). Dörnyei’s (2007) preliminary working definition of qualitative research is: “Qualitative research involves data collection procedures that result primarily in open-ended, non-numerical data which is then analyzed primarily by non-statistical methods. Typical example: interview research, with the transcribed recordings analyzed by qualitative content analysis” (p. 24). Dörnyei (2007) discussed the qualitative and quantitative distinction through three lenses: “an ideological contrast”,

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1 Introducing the Global Awareness Study

“contrast in categorization”, and “contrast in the perception of individual diversity” (p. 25). Richards (2003) presented three compelling reasons to engage in qualitative inquiry: “(a) to get a first-hand-sense of what actually goes on in classrooms, schools, hospitals and communities; (b) it is above all else a person-centred enterprise and therefore particularly appropriate to our work in the field of language teaching; (c) its transformative potential for the researcher” (pp. 8–9). Since the concept has not been defined sufficiently, it needs to be researched through grounded theory to build a usable model. I suggest it is necessary to do more qualitative research through interviews and observations. Only in this way can the teachers’ beliefs be summarized from the empirical data. Furthermore, Dörnyei (2007) found the strengths of qualitative research: “exploratory nature, making sense of complexity, answering ‘why’ questions, broadening our understanding, longitudinal examination of dynamic phenomena, flexibility when things go wrong, rich material for the research report” (p. 39). Unfortunately, quantitative methods cannot elicit such rich data to address this purpose. This study explores teachers’ beliefs and teaching practices regarding global awareness at a high school in Henan Province in China. In order to determine the practical use of global awareness in English education in China, it is essential to develop a theory of teachers’ beliefs of global awareness in foreign language education. Purely quantitative methods were unlikely to elicit such rich data to address the research purpose. A qualitative research method, therefore, fits well with this study. Within the framework of a qualitative approach, this research was most suited for a case study. The case study approach was chosen because it has been productive and highly influential in applied linguistics (Dörnyei, 2007). As Creswell (2007) indicated, the case study is a methodology, a type of design in qualitative research, or an object of study, as well as a product of inquiry. Furthermore, Creswell (2007) described the case study as follows: Case study research is a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information (e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and reports), and reports a case description and casebased themes. For example, several programs (a multi-site study) or a single program (a within-site study) may be selected for study. (p. 73)

The present study fits well with Creswell’s criteria because it explored teachers’ beliefs about global awareness at a high school for half of the year’s fieldwork through interviews and observations of their classroom. The “grounded theory” tradition was chosen as the data collection and analysis method because of its potential to contribute to theory development. According to Creswell (2008), “Grounded theory design is a systematic, qualitative procedure used to generate a theory that explains, at a broad conceptual level, a process, an action, or an interaction about a substantive topic” (p. 183). There is a focus on the meanings ascribed by participants in a study, and views, values, beliefs, feelings,

1.3 Research Methods

9

assumptions, and ideologies of individuals are seen as more important than facts and acts (Charmaz, 2006; Creswell, 2008). Dörnyei (2007) noted that a significant advantage of the grounded theory is that it offers tools for providing an in-depth analysis of a phenomenon.

1.3.2 Site and Participants 1.3.2.1

The Research Site

A purposeful sampling procedure was used to select this study’s site and sample (Creswell, 2011). I chose extreme case sampling, which is a form of purposeful sampling in which the researcher studies an outlier case or one that displays extreme characteristics (Creswell, 2011). The research was performed at one of the highest-performing high schools in Henan Province, China, including the regular high school department and the International Education and Teaching Department (“International Department”). This high school was chosen because it is one of the top three in Henan Province and includes an international department. It can therefore be described as an excellent example of extreme case sampling for studying global awareness and global citizenship education. The students of the regular department take the college entrance examination, while students of the international department take international courses to study abroad. The regular high school department had 15 classes in each grade, and each class had about 60 students. There was a total of 24 English teachers. Each grade had about ten teachers. I selected 17 high school EFL teachers in the regular department to understand their beliefs about the concept of global awareness. Their participation was voluntary. I opted for a small sample size because it would allow me to get in-depth interviews as the same size is relatively small. The international department was established in 2003 to cultivate talented students who can adapt to intensive competition and enter a world-renowned educational institution. The international department includes the Sino-Canadian and the SinoJapanese programs. In 2010, these two international programs had 24 classes, 26 English-speaking teachers, and approximately 800 students. The Sino-Canadian program had 18 classes and approximately 600 students. The Sino-Japanese program had six classes and approximately 200 students. In 2003, the Canadian Nova Scotia Department of Education and the Henan Province Department of Education signed a cooperative agreement that authorized this high school to run the Sino-Canadian dual certificates and dual languages teaching program henceforth referred to as the Sino-Canadian program. The classes are taught by Canadian teachers using original textbooks from Canada. When students finish the course, they receive Canadian and Chinese diplomas, allowing them to apply for enrollment in any university in the English-speaking world. There

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1 Introducing the Global Awareness Study

were three grades, and every grade had six classes, from class A to class F. At the time of the study, every class had about 35 students. In addition, 24 Englishspeaking teachers taught four English classes weekly, and every grade had two English teachers. The participants in the study were six English-speaking teachers from the Sino-Canadian program. This research analyzes three Canadian teachers’ classroom practices. The Sino-Japanese program includes three grades and six classes. Every class has about 40 students. The students need to learn both English and Japanese. Japanese is the first foreign language, and English is the second language. The curriculum design is the same as the regular high school. Japanese classes are taught by two Japanese teachers and three Chinese teachers. Graduates from the Sino-Japanese program passed the Japanese language test and obtained visas to study in Japan. These graduates enrolled at a language institute located in Kyoto City. Some graduates enrolled at Japanese universities directly. I taught Japanese for two classes in grade one in the Sino-Japanese program, allowing me to explore their beliefs and practices regarding global awareness. I observed these English and Japanese teachers’ classes and then piloted the interviews with several teachers at the beginning of the data collection period. Through the process of working with the teachers I began to understand on a deeper level about international education in the international department and the whole high school. I conducted the case study during the first two months at the regular high school department and the Sino-Japanese program. After two months of interviews and observations, I began researching the Canadian English teachers in the Sino-Canadian program.

1.3.2.2

The Research Sample

The total number of participants in the study included 18 Chinese EFL teachers and three Canadian English teachers. Of the 18 Chinese EFL teachers, 17 teachers were interviewed, and seven teachers’ classroom practices were observed and analyzed (see Table 1.1). All of the 18 Chinese EFL teachers had a bachelor’s degree. There was a total of 45 foreign language teachers at the school. I divided them into four categories: 1. 2. 3. 4.

24 Chinese English teachers of the regular high school class; 10 Chinese English teachers of the Sino-Canadian program; 6 English-speaking teachers of the Sino-Canadian program; 5 Japanese language teachers (3 Chinese and 2 Japanese teachers) of the SinoJapanese program.

There were 24 English teachers in the regular high school department class, about eight teachers for each grade. I selected 17 high school EFL teachers for interview depending on their availability and voluntary participation. Among the 17 teachers I interviewed, 14 were female, and three were male. Their teaching experience varied, and each of them taught two classes. Most of them held at least a bachelor’s degree.

1.3 Research Methods

11

Table 1.1 Participants Teachers

Gender

Age

Grade

Years in ELT

Class period

Students number

Overseas experience

T1

Female

30–34

1

8

10

62

No

T2

Female

45–49

1

24

10

50

No

T3

Female

25–29

1

6

10

60

Yes

T4

Male

30–34

1

5

10

58

No

T5

Female

40–44

1

17

10

58

No

T6

Female

30–34

1

7

10

50

No

T7

Female

45–49

1

25

12

60

Yes

T8

Female

25–29

1

6

10

35

No

T9

Female

40–44

2

22

12

70

No

T10

Male

40–44

2

18

12

65

No

T11

Female

30–34

2

12

10

49

No

T12

Female

25–29

2

6

12

50

No

T13

Female

30–34

2

10

12

49

No

T14

Male

40–44

2

22

12

52

No

T15

Female

25–29

3

6

12

52

Yes

T16

Female

30–34

3

10

12

54

No

T17

Female

30–34

3

8

12

60

No

T18

Female

25–29

2

7

10

71

No

C1

Male

55–59

2

10

24

35

Yes

C2

Male

40–44

3

5

26

35

Yes

C3

Female

25–29

1

5

20

35

Yes

Finally, I observed seven Chinese English teachers and three Canadian teachers’ classroom practices. Of the seven Chinese English teachers I observed, six teachers were interviewed, which were included in the participants of the 17 high school EFL teachers.

1.3.2.3

Information Needed

This case study focused on 18 Chinese English teachers and three Canadian English teachers at one high school in China. To understand the teachers’ beliefs and teaching practices about global awareness, five research questions were explored to gather the necessary information (see Table 1.2). Based on the conceptual framework, the information needed to answer these research questions fell into four categories: (a) contextual, (b) perceptual, (c) demographic, and (d) theoretical (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008). These four areas of information are described below:

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1 Introducing the Global Awareness Study

Table 1.2 Overview of information needed Type of information

Researcher requirements

Method

Category1: Contextual information

Descriptive information of the high school and the different programs. The school’s history, vision, objectives, size, culture, and operating principles

Document Review, Observation

Category 2: Perceptual information

Participants’ beliefs about the concept of global Interviews, awareness and global awareness in English teaching Observation, Informal Conversation

Category 3: Demographic Descriptive information regarding participants, such Survey, information as gender, age, final educational degree, what grade Interviews they taught, teaching history and background, how many classes they taught per week, students’ numbers, and overseas experience Category 4: Theoretical information

Descriptive information from literature review about Document global awareness, global awareness and foreign Review language education, intercultural communicative competence

Research question 1: What are the beliefs about global awareness of foreign language teachers at one senior high school in China?

1. How do you perceive the objectives of foreign Interviews language education? 2. How do you define global awareness? 3. How do you perceive global awareness in foreign language curriculum? 4. What are the benefits of emphasizing global awareness in foreign language teaching?

Research question 2: What are the teachers’ reported practices about global awareness?

1. How do you describe your global teaching practices? 2. What is your teaching method? 3. What kinds of global teaching activities do you practice during classroom teaching time?

Research question 3: What factors affect teachers’ beliefs and practices about global awareness?

1. How do you perceive students’ knowledge and Interviews attitudes regarding global awareness? 2. How do you understand the role of the foreign language teacher in global civil society? 3. What global issues are you interested in? 4. Which aspects of global issues do you consider most important in teaching a foreign language? Why? 5. How do you perceive global awareness in teaching materials? 6. How do you perceive the effect of school trips and exchange projects on students’ global awareness? 7. Could you tell me how the current school system prepares students to deal with a fast-changing and globalized world?

Interviews, Observation

1.3 Research Methods

13

Contextual information means the context within which the teachers work. It is the information that describes the culture and environment of the high school and the different programs. Given the nature of contextual information, the following knowledge was needed to be provided: the school’s history, vision, objectives, size, culture, and operating principles. In addition, information on the high school’s different programs and teachers would be included. Perceptual information includes teachers’ beliefs about the concept of global awareness, global awareness and the curriculum, how they taught global awareness inside and outside the classroom, and how their students developed global awareness. The interviews were piloted with two high school English teachers, and then, I reviewed the interview questions and finished all the participants’ interviews. Demographic information describes the English teachers in this research. The basic personal information of the teachers included: gender, age, most recent educational degree, what grade they taught, teaching history and background, how many classes they taught per week, student numbers, and overseas experience. The demographic information was needed to explain individual teachers’ beliefs, as well as the similarities and differences in their beliefs. Theoretical information included information from the literature review to assess what was already known about global awareness and global awareness in foreign language education. Thus, the theoretical data can support my methodological approach by providing referential theories about the research questions and my interpretation, analysis, conclusion, and suggestions. Table 1.2 describes the type of information collected, researcher requirements, and the method used.

1.3.3 Research Design This was a qualitative case study of high school teachers’ beliefs and practices about global awareness in foreign language education. Based on the suggestion from Duff (2008, p. 100), the following procedures were used to complete the study. Table 1.3 describes the stages and contents of this study.

1.3.4 Data Collection and Analysis This study employed several data collection methods, including interviews, observations, audio materials, and documents. Chinese educational policy and foreign language curriculum related to global awareness and ICC are analyzed as documentary data in this Chapter and Chap. 4. International literature on global awareness, ICC, global citizenship, global Englishes, global learning, and teacher cognition is reviewed in Chaps. 2 and 3. The interview data are analyzed and interpreted in relation to teachers’ beliefs about global awareness in Chaps. 5 and 6. The observation

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Table 1.3 How to conduct a qualitative case study Stages

Contents

Identifying a research problem

English language teachers’ beliefs and practices about global awareness

Specifying a purpose for research

The purpose of this qualitative case study will be to explore the beliefs and practices about global awareness of English language teachers at one senior high school in China

Reviewing the literature

Global awareness Intercultural communicative competence Global/intercultural citizenship education Global Englishes, Global learning Teachers’ beliefs and practices

Methodology Pilot study

Data collection methods Sampling frames Contacting to participants

Proposal

Interview question design Questionnaire design Classroom observation design

Collecting data

Interviews Focus group interviews Questionnaires Classroom observation Analyzing policy, the curriculum, and teaching materials

Analyzing and interpreting the data

The context: the school and teachers Description of individual case Themes across the cases Analyzing teachers’ beliefs, practices, factors, and the relationships between global awareness

Reporting and evaluating research

Discussion and Conclusion Limitation Implication Suggestions

Final writing up

From Introduction to Conclusion

and audio materials data of teachers’ classes are analyzed in Chaps. 7 and 8 to explore teachers’ global awareness practices more deeply.

1.3.4.1

Data Collection Phase 1: Observation

Duff (2008) summarized some important points to consider when conducting classroom observation for a case study: • What their focus will be in the observations, besides the case itself.

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15

• How best to record the observed behaviors manually (through note-taking) and mechanically so as to capture key information and avoid mechanical dysfunction (note: have backup equipment and extra batteries). • What kinds of information will be lost if audio- or videotaping is not permitted. • Over what period of time and what schedule the observations will take place. • How researchers will elucidate participants’ perspectives of the observed actions at a later point. • How they will analyze and use the observational data in the study (p. 142). Classroom observation was the primary source of the data for this study. I conducted classroom observations of all the English teachers from the high school. I also observed English teachers’ classes for two months in the international program. I focused on regular class observations during the first two months between October and December 2010. I taught the Japanese language in the Sino-Japanese program. After I finished my daily Japanese classes, I went to the English classes to observe them. I first greeted the English teachers before their class, asked for the teacher’s permission to observe the class, and took pictures and videos. While observing the participants’ classrooms, my role was primarily as an observer. I always sat at the back of the classroom and took notes by hand. At the same time, I also recorded the teacher’s class using an IC recorder, and I took pictures or videos when class activities occurred. I did not use a camera flash to avoid influencing and interfering with the teaching process. After the class, I interviewed the participants for five to ten minutes. The interviews focused on the global awareness mentioned in the class by the teachers. I also recorded the interviews. After each interview, I analyzed one day’s observation and interview data. Every class was 40 min, and I observed two classes every day, most of which were in the morning. At the regular high school English department, I observed and audio-recorded 26 lessons of 18 different teachers from September to November 2010. Chap. 7 presents seven Chinese English teachers’ teaching practices about global awareness. I give a summary of classroom observation data in Table 1.4. I took photographs and wrote ethnographic field notes when I observed the classes. I obtained access to this school and the participants through my contacts. I wrote a letter to the school’s president to get permission to conduct this research project there in June 2010. We negotiated by telephone. They accepted me and asked me to teach Japanese in the international department. My original intention was to schedule data collection for three months, but in the end, I conducted it for six months over a full academic term, and the actual period was from September 2010 to March 2011. This is an example of the need to be flexible when conducting qualitative research (Deters, 2011). The principal informed the teachers about this research project at a school meeting and arranged for me to teach Japanese in the Sino-Japanese program. The English department heads introduced me to the teachers and assisted me in recruiting teachers and accessing classrooms. I was thus a colleague of these EFL teachers during the period of ethnographic research and conducted the participant observation for one semester. This school had a regular

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Table 1.4 Summary of classroom observation data Participant

Time

Date

T3

3

2010/10/14 2010/10/18 2010/10/28

T4

1

2010/10/29

T7

2

2010/10/18 2010/11/11

T10

1

2010/10/25

T16

1

2010/10/21

T17

2

2010/10/21 2010/10/28

T18

3

2010/10/13 2010/10/20 2010/11/10

C1

4

2010/11/25 2010/11/26 2010/11/29 2010/12/20

C2

2

2010/11/29 2010/12/1

C3

2

2010/11/29 2010/12/1

high school and an international program. I decided to observe the regular high school English classes for the first two months and then observe the international program’s English classes later for two months. Participants knew this study was about global awareness in English teaching and teachers’ beliefs and practices. They were very kind to talk with me about their teaching approaches, intercultural experiences, and their students. I observed most of the English teachers in the regular high school department. When I had time after finishing my Japanese classes, I would go to their classes and observe. After one month’s observation, this focus shifted to the analysis of seven teachers’ classes. Selecting the seven participants depended on whether I could find the contents of global awareness and intercultural communicative competence in the classroom. After the open coding analysis of all the classroom observation data, I found that cultural and global issues were embedded in the seven participants’ classroom practices and decided to explore their classroom teaching in more detail. Based on the initial 6-month classroom observation period, these teachers were the most interested in cultural and global issues. The seven teachers were T3, T4, T7, T10, T16, T17, and T18. At the Sino-Canadian program, I used classroom observation as another data collection method in addition to interviews. I also interviewed the teachers after each classroom observation. Before I observed the classroom, I always received permission for the observation. I asked permission to use a camera and an IC recorder and promised not to interrupt the teacher’s classes. I did not attend the classroom activities when I observed the Christmas, drama, and novel class. However, I attended the classroom activities when I observed one participant’s class. I listened to students’ discussions and asked them some questions. Those students were very interested in my questions and told me about their intercultural experiences. I observed classes a total of 16 times conducted by ten teachers in the international program (see Table 1.4 for the summary of classroom observation data). This

1.3 Research Methods

17

took place in November and December 2010 for all the observations of the SinoCanadian program. Every lesson was 40 min. The observation included four newspaper teaching classes and two drama classes. I also observed two Canadian English teachers in grade one, three Chinese teachers’ English classes, and two Canadian English teachers’ Christmas classes. I also observed teachers’ meetings six times in this program. I focused on three teachers for classroom observation. I coded them as C1, C2, and C3 for Canadian teacher 1, Canadian teacher 2, and Canadian teacher 3, respectively. Each teacher had a different teaching style and teaching method.

1.3.4.2

Data Collection Phase 2: Interviews

I conducted semi-structured interviews with 17 EFL teachers of a high school in Henan Province in China to explore how they conceptualize the concept of global awareness. The interview data are presented and analyzed in the interview section in Chaps. 5 and 6. The interviews took place between October 2010 and March 2011 (see Table 1.5 for a summary of interview data). Before each interview commenced, I asked the participants for their permission to record the interviews digitally. Interviews were conducted with 17 EFL teachers at a high school in Henan Province in China. The teachers were from grade one to grade three. All the 17 teachers were interviewed by the researcher from 40 to 60 min. Participants permitted digital audio and video recordings of the interview to be taken. I made field notes during the interviews. Recordings were then transcribed, and the interviews were translated into English. I did not interview all teachers I observed. The time was decided in the interviews and observations according to the teachers’ schedules and my schedule. Because I taught two Japanese classes each week at this school during the research period, the timing was sometimes inconvenient. If convenient, after the classroom observation, follow-up interviews were held to further probe teachers’ beliefs about global awareness. These interviews lasted from 10 to 30 min. Two participants in the pilot interviews suggested that there were too many interview questions. The questions were consequently adapted into a more concise series of open-ended questions. The final interview questions included English and Chinese versions. I used this study’s five research questions as outlined in Sect. 1.2 as the framework to develop the interview questions and referred to the following sources for recommended interview question design: “The views of teachers of English and French on intercultural communicative competence in language teaching” by Aleksandrowicz-Pedich et al. (2003), and “Foreign Language Teachers and Intercultural Communication: An International Investigation” by Sercu et al. (2005). Interviews took place in the school office where the participants worked, in coffee shops, or in participants’ homes. The finished interviews were audio-recorded with the permission of the participants. Table 1.5 lists the length of the recorded portion of the interviews. In total, 25 interviews took place with a total recording time of 16.5 h. During the interviews, I also took notes by hand.

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1 Introducing the Global Awareness Study

Table 1.5 Length of the recorded portion of the interviews Participant

Division

Number of interviews

Average length of recorded portion of interviews

Date

T1

Grade 1

1

59

2011/1/4

T2

Grade 1

1

40

2011/1/12

T3

Grade 1

3

54

2010/10/16

38

2010/12/7

37

2010/12/17

T4

Grade 1

1

59

2011/1/4

T5

Grade 1

1

59

2011/1/4

T6

Grade 1

1

40

2011/1/12

T7

Grade 1

1

40

2011/1/12

T8

Grade 1

1

36

2010/12/20

T9

Grade 2

1

30

2011/1/10

T10

Grade 2

1

48

2011/1/5

T11

Grade 2

1

48

2011/1/5

T12

Grade 2

1

48

2011/1/5

T13

Grade 2

1

48

2011/1/5

T14

Grade 2

1

30

2011/1/10

T15

Grade 3

1

43

2011/1/20

T16

Grade 3

1

43

2011/1/20

T17

Grade 3

1

43

2011/1/20

1.3.4.3

Data Collection Phase 3: Focus Group Interviews

I also conducted four focus group interviews within this study. There were five participants in one group, and the remaining three groups comprised three participants each. Though the size of focus groups may range between 6 and 12 people (Dörnyei, 2007; Duff, 2008), Krueger and Casey (2000) argued that small groups of four or five (“mini focus groups”) could afford more opportunities for participants to share ideas and can easily be accommodated in restaurants, homes, and other environments. Malhotra (1996) suggests that focus groups may involve dyads, triads, mini-groups with 4–5 people, or regular groups of 8–12 participants. Because of teaching schedules, it was not possible to arrange one large focus group, so smaller groups were convened. The participants in focus group interviews were working colleagues, and they taught in the same grade, so they knew each other very well. Each grade had about 10 English teachers, teaching times were varied, and the interview schedule depended on my time and their time. It was not easy to organize most of the teachers for interviews at the same time, so smaller groups were unavoidable.

1.3 Research Methods

1.3.4.4

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Data Analysis

Rather than imposing a theoretical framework on teachers’ concepts of global awareness, grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006) was used to construct a framework from the teachers’ voices and ideas. All interview data were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim to analyze the data. All interview and audio data were coded using NVivo 8, a qualitative data analysis software program. The data were coded into different categories. Creswell (2011) recommends six steps for coding data: 1. Get a sense of the data as a whole. 2. Pick one document; go through it, asking the question “What is this person talking about?” 3. Begin the process of coding the document. 4. After coding an entire text, make a list of all code words. 5. Take this list and go back to the data. 6. Reduce the list of codes to get five to seven themes or descriptions of the setting or participants (pp. 244–245). I followed the above guidelines when coding the data. I used qualitative data analysis software NVivo 8 and analysis by hand for the observational data. In the first stage of classroom practices data analysis of the regular high school English department, I coded the classroom data based on the teaching activities, e.g., vocabulary lessons, grammar lessons, multimedia lessons, and teachers’ joint preparation for instruction. Later, I analyzed the interview data and built a model of global awareness. I used the model as the coding system for the second stage of classroom observation data analysis. I coded data as having global awareness, such as knowledge, skills, and attitudes in teachers’ classroom practices. For example, categories like culture, communication, global issues, critical awareness, and global citizenship were included in the model. In Chaps. 5 and 6, I will present the findings of teachers’ cognition about global awareness. Finally, I selected classroom observation data that related to global awareness. I also coded data based on the model of intercultural communicative competence (Byram, 1997) because it was emphasized in the English curriculum and known by teachers. My model of global awareness includes most elements of Byram’s intercultural communicative competence. Thus, when analyzing classroom observation data, I showed examples of global awareness with teachers’ regular teaching activities in the seven teachers’ classroom practices. In Chap. 7, I will present the findings of global awareness in teachers’ classroom practices. I also used grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006) to analyze classroom observation data of the Sino-Canadian program. First, I conducted open coding by reviewing all ten teachers’ classroom teaching data, including videos, audio, pictures, and field notes. Then, I created several categories to organize the open coding data. Finally, I summarized three themes about teachers’ teaching practices regarding global awareness: English newspaper reading, Christmas class, and drama class. I will introduce each theme in Chap. 8.

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1 Introducing the Global Awareness Study

Issues of Trustworthiness

Traditionally, to check their research’s accuracy, qualitative studies have been evaluated according to their validity. Creswell (2011) stated that “validating findings means that the researcher determines the accuracy or credibility of the findings through strategies such as member checking or triangulation” (p. 259). Many qualitative researchers have used different terms to describe the accuracy or credibility. Creswell (2011) stated three strategies to validate the accuracy of the findings: triangulation, member checking, and auditing. These strategies were primary forms typically used by qualitative researchers. Member checking is “a process in which the researcher asks one or more participants in the study to check the accuracy of the account. This check involves taking the findings back to participants and asking them (in writing or an interview) about the accuracy of the report” (Creswell, 2011, p. 259). In this study, I did a pilot study to interview two participants. I interviewed them and asked for their feedback about my interview question design. I wrote a short research paper and sent it to all of the participants at this school, some of whom replied with feedback. They confirmed my research paper reflected their beliefs and practices accurately. Triangulation is “the process of corroborating evidence from different individuals (e.g., a principal and a student), types of data (e.g., observational field notes and interviews), or methods of data collection (e.g., documents and interviews) in descriptions and themes in qualitative research” (Creswell, 2011, p. 259). For example, in this case study, the accuracy of findings rests upon the research design, which includes different individuals, multiple data collection methods, and data types. The individuals in this study included Chinese teachers, Canadian teachers, and students. The data collection methods included interviews, focus group interviews, classroom observation, and documents. The type of data in this study included observations, interviews, questionnaires, documents, and audiovisual materials. External audit means “a researcher hires or obtains the services of an individual outside the study to review different aspects of the research” (Creswell, 2011, p. 259). Different researchers and editors have reviewed the draft of this book, and much advice has been added to this book. To sum up, this section has presented and discussed the rationale for the research approach, sample and site, information needed, research design, data collection, and data analysis. The qualitative research design is appropriate for exploring teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices regarding global awareness in foreign language education. The case study is most suited to explore teacher cognition through interviews and classroom observation. The grounded theory for coding and analysis was described to make this study trustworthy and transparent. Interviews, focus group interviews, classroom observation, document review, and questionnaires were used as data collection methods. The strength and weaknesses of each method were discussed. Issues of trustworthiness were accounted for through different strategies such as peer review and method triangulation.

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1.4 Organization of the Book This book consists of four main parts. Part I (Chaps. 1–4) provides an overview of background to the study background and the research design, and then explores the theories of global awareness and intercultural communicative competence. In this chapter, I provide background for this study on teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding global awareness in foreign language teaching in China. I discuss the problem statement, statement of purpose and research questions, research approach, rationale and significance, definition, and organization. I then present the research design and procedures for conducting this case study in China. It shows the links between the research’s purpose, research questions, research approach, and research methods. First, it introduces the research approach and the sample and site; then, it explains the data collection methods, the data analysis procedures, and trustworthiness issues. Chapter 2 explores teachers’ beliefs and teaching practices about global awareness and intercultural communicative competence theories. It consists of the following sections: global awareness, foreign language teachers’ cognition about intercultural communicative competence, global citizenship education, and intercultural citizenship education. In Chap. 3, I review the theories of Global Englishes, global learning, and teacher cognition. Chapter 4 describes the studies of global awareness, intercultural communicative competence, and global citizenship education in the Chinese context. Part II (Chaps. 5 and 6) presents the main findings from interview data analysis, including teachers’ cognition about global awareness in terms of the model, curriculum, and teaching methods covered in Chap. 5, and factors that shape teachers’ beliefs about global awareness, such as teacher professional development, students’ attitudes, tests’ impact, and teaching materials covered in Chap. 6. In Part III (Chaps. 7 and 8), the classroom observation data display teachers’ classroom practices in the regular high school department and international department. Chapter 7 describes three Chinese English teachers’ classroom practices about global awareness. Chapter 8 explores the classroom practices about global awareness of three Canadian teachers of English. Part IV (Chapts. 9–11) includes discussion and conclusions. Chapter 9 discusses the findings in Part 2 and Part 3. It focuses on discussions about teacher cognition about global awareness, factors and classroom practices, the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and practices. Chapter 10 discusses the preparation language teachers need for intercultural/global citizenship education. Chapter 11 draws together the study’s major findings and discusses the limitations of the study, and the implications for further research. The book builds on Jing’s (2013a) case study and a range of publications I wrote from different perspectives. Part of Chaps. 2–4 is based on the following articles: Jing (2010, 2012a, 2012b), part of Chap. 5 is based on Jing (2011, 2013b, 2013c, 2013e), part of Chap. 6 is based on Jing (2013d, 2016), part of Chap. 8 is based on Jing (2015), and part of Chap. 9 is based on Jing (2013b, 2013c, 2013d, 2013e, 2015, 2016).

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References Aleksandrowicz-Pedich, L., Draghicescu, J., Issaiass, D., & Sabec, N. (2003). The views of teachers of English and French on intercultural communicative competence in language teaching. In I. Lázár (Ed.), Incorporating intercultural communicative competence in language teacher education (pp. 7–37). Council of Europe Publishing. An, R., He, G., & Chen, G. M. (2018). Intercultural communication influence of Confucius institutes: A Yin-Yang perspective. China Media Research, 14(4), 37–45. Bloomberg, L. D., & Volpe, M. (2008). Completing your qualitative dissertation: A roadmap from beginning to end. Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452226613 Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language Teaching, 36(2), 81–109. Borg, S. (2006). Teacher cognition and language education: Research and practice. Continuum. Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Multilingual Matters. Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed.). Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. Creswell, J. W. (2011). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. Deters, P. (2011). Identity, agency and the acquisition of professional language and culture. Continuum. Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methodologies. Oxford University Press. Duff, P. (2008). Case study research in applied linguistics. Lawrence Erlbaum. Han, H. (2010). An investigation on teachers’ perceptions of culture teaching in the secondary schools in Xinjiang (Doctoral dissertation). http://ethses.dur.ac.uk/109/1/HAN,_Hui_FinalVers ion.pdf Han, X. H., & Song, L. (2011). Teacher cognition of intercultural communicative competence in the Chinese ELT context. Intercultural Communication Studies, XIIX(1), 175–192. Hogg, M., & Shah, H. (2010). The impact of global learning on public attitudes and behaviours towards international development and sustainability. http://clients.squareeye.net/uploads/dea/ documents/Impact_of_global_learning_research_paper_web.pdf Hogg, M., & Shah, H. (2011). What parents want: The role of schools in teaching about the wider world. http://clients.squareeye.net/uploads/dea/documents/Parents_screen.pdf Jing, H. (2010). Why promote global citizenship education in English language teaching. Horizon (Literary Coterie HORIZON), 42, 39–48. Jing, H. (2011). Global awareness as everyday and scientific concepts: Research in one Chinese High School. PeerSpectives Online, 8, 21–23. Jing, H. (2012a). Foreign language teachers’ beliefs on intercultural language teaching. English Literature (Waseda University English Literature Society), 98, 86–96. Jing, H. (2012b). Chinese perspectives on global awareness. Horizon (Waseda University English Literature Society), 44, 65–72. Jing, H. (2013a). Foreign language teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding global awareness: A case study of one senior high school in Henan province in China (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan. Jing, H. (2013b). Chinese high school English teachers’ concept of global awareness. Bulletin of WASEDA University Institute of Teacher Education, 4, 3–16. Jing, H. (2013c). Global awareness: Foreign language teachers’ beliefs and practices. Intercultural Communication Studies, XXII(1), 95–116.

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Jing, H. (2013d). Teachers’ perceptions of students and global awareness. Bulletin of the Graduate Division of Literature of Waseda University, 58, 123–138. Jing, H. (2013e). Teachers’ perceptions of global awareness in China’s foreign language curriculum. Proceedings of the 14th Annual Temple University Applied Linguistics Colloquium (pp. 22–30). Jing, H. (2015). Teachers’ classroom practices regarding global awareness: A case study of three native speakers of English. JACET Language Teacher Cognition Research Bulletin 2015, 103– 129. Jing, H. (2016). Exploring factors affecting foreign language teachers’ beliefs about global awareness in a Chinese high school. In Y. X. Jia & G. M. Chen (Eds.), Intercultural communication research (Vol. 4, pp. 71–86). Higher Education Press. Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2000). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Sage. Kulich, S., & Wang, Y. (2015). Intercultural communication in China. The SAGE: Encyclopedia of intercultural communication (pp. 458–469). Sage. Lee, W., & Leung, S. (2006). Global citizenship education in Hong Kong and Shanghai secondary schools: Ideals, realities and expectations. Citizenship Teaching and Learning, 2(2), 68–84. Malhotra, N. K. (1996). Marketing research: An applied orientation (2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall. Ministry of Education. (2020). Statistics on study abroad students in FY2019. http://www.moe.gov. cn/jyb_xwfb/gzdt_gzdt/s5987/202012/t20201214_505447.html National Medium- and Long-Term Educational Reform and Development Guideline (2010– 20). (2010). Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium- and Long-Term Educational Reform and Development (2010–20). Beijing People’s Publishing House. Oxfam. (1997). A curriculum for global citizenship. Oxfam. Oxfam. (2006). Education for global citizenship: A guide for schools. http://www.oxfam.org.uk/ coolplanet/teachers/globciti/wholeschool/getstarted.htm Richards, K. (2003). Qualitative inquiry in TESOL. Palgrave Macmillan. Sercu, L., Bandura, E., Castro, P., Davcheva, L., Laskaridou, C., Lundgren, U., Mendez García, M., & Ryan, P. (2005). Foreign language teachers and intercultural competence: An international investigation. Multilingual Matters. Zhou, Y. (2011). A study of Chinese university EFL teachers and their intercultural competence teaching (Doctoral dissertation). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. NR77977).

Chapter 2

Global Awareness, Intercultural Communicative Competence, and Global Citizenship

In this chapter, I explore theoretical frameworks about global awareness, intercultural communicative competence (ICC), and intercultural/global citizenship education. The literature review is divided into three sections. The first section reviews the concept of global awareness. This section includes the concept of global awareness and empirical research on global awareness. The second section concerns foreign language teachers’ cognition and intercultural communicative competence. It analyzes teachers’ beliefs on intercultural teaching based on four themes: (a) teachers’ beliefs about culture, (b) teachers’ knowledge about intercultural communicative competence, (c) teachers’ beliefs about intercultural language teaching, and (d) teachers’ practices in intercultural language teaching. The third section concerns global/intercultural citizenship education in English language teaching. It will discuss the theories and practices of intercultural citizenship education and global citizenship education.

2.1 Global Awareness In order to conduct the research, it was necessary to complete a critical review of the literature. The review was ongoing throughout the study’s data collection, analysis, and synthesis phases. The literature review includes encyclopedias, handbooks, books, journal articles, and indexed publications. I used databases such as Web of Science, SciVerse Scopus, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses (PQDT), the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). The section below reviews the concept of global awareness. It includes the concept of global awareness and empirical research on global awareness.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 H. Jing, Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education, Intercultural Communication and Language Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4179-7_2

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2.1.1 Concept of Global Awareness Over the past few years, many researchers have shown interest in global awareness and global learning. “Global awareness” as a core concept has been discussed in different countries. So, what does the concept of global awareness mean exactly? I would like to introduce some literature about the concept. Hanvey (1982) was one of the first scholarly experts to define the concept of “global awareness”. He proposed five dimensions to develop students’ global awareness that include perspective consciousness, state-of-the-planet awareness, crosscultural awareness, knowledge of global dynamics, and awareness of human choices. Kirkwood (2001) described people with global awareness as “those who possess high-tech skills, broad interdisciplinary knowledge about the contemporary world, and adaptability, flexibility, and world mindedness to participate effectively in the globalized world” (p. 11). The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009) designed a Framework for 21st Century Learning which consists of core subjects and themes that revolve around three core skills: life and career skills, learning and innovation skills, and information media and technology skills. Global awareness is one of the twenty-first-century interdisciplinary themes. Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009) defined global awareness as: • Using 21st Century Skills to understand and address global issues. • Learning from and working collaboratively with individuals representing diverse cultures, religions and lifestyles in a spirit of mutual respect and open dialogue in personal, work, and community contexts. • Understanding other nations and cultures, including the use of non-English languages (p. 2). According to Dell and Wood (2010), global learning refers to “the outcomes of participation in a curriculum that is rooted in social justice and that promotes the knowledge, understanding, values and skills the learner requires as a global citizen acting both locally and globally” (p. 38). Their definition of global learning refers specifically to areas of education as denoted by the eight key concepts of the global dimension organized by the Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2005). Based on initiatives developed at Bournemouth University, Bourn and Hunt (2011) suggested a framework of global perspectives. They saw global perspectives as “understanding our situation in a wider context, making connections between local and global events, developing skills and knowledge to interpret events affecting our lives, learning from experiences elsewhere in the world and identifying common interests and exploring wider horizons” (p. 566). Having now discussed what global awareness is, in the next section we will look at some empirical studies on global awareness across the globe.

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2.1.2 Empirical Research on Global Awareness Some researchers have tried exploring global awareness in school and using different methods to develop students’ global awareness. For example, Clarke (2004) surveyed 701 college students to ascertain their global awareness and attitudes to internationalism in a world of cultural convergence. The study investigated the model of global education described by Diaz et al. (1999) as having cognitive, affective, and participatory dimensions. Global awareness represented the cognitive or knowledge aspect of students’ perceptions; internationalism represented the affective domain of the curriculum. Global awareness was measured by: (a) academic study of at least a year of a foreign language; (b) number of visits to a foreign country; (c) degree of exposure to the media through television, magazines, and journals; (d) study of a course in non-western civilization; and (e) personal involvement (the number of times the respondent had visited or entertained someone from another country). (p. 56)

Internationalism measured their attitudes and beliefs by these factors: foreign cultures as good as the USA, a study in foreign countries, work in a foreign country, global economy, US foreign involvement, and US foreign economic assistance. The research found that students had average levels of global awareness and mixed beliefs about the USA’ involvement with other countries. Clarke and Drudy (2006) used a questionnaire to measure 128 students’ attitudes toward teaching for diversity, social justice, and global awareness in Ireland. The findings showed that they would not be in a position to meet the needs of students in diverse classrooms adequately. Gibson et al. (2008) found that “the term of global awareness refers to knowledge of globalization and the resulting issues and problems that affect everyone’s lives. It refers to an understanding of the interconnectedness and interdependence of the world” (p. 15). The Development Education Association (DEA) (now called Think Global) (2009) showed that though teachers expressed confidence in discussing general global topics, many teachers were not confident in teaching about complex global issues, such as environmental sustainability or international poverty. Witte (2010) advanced a global awareness competency framework which includes knowledge, behavior, and critical analysis and discussed a curriculum for business students with a sequential land/or simultaneous implementation of these three pedagogical dispositions. Global awareness is also emphasized in companies. For example, the SANNO Institute of Management (2010) surveyed 400 regular employees’ global awareness in Japanese companies. The results showed that about 90% of the employees thought the most necessary ability to work abroad is language ability, and the most important ability and knowledge are language ability and intercultural communication competence. In the survey, global awareness was grouped into knowledge and skills. The knowledge includes knowledge of working abroad, knowledge of society, culture and history of the country, and knowledge of Japanese culture and history. The skills include language skills, intercultural communication skills, business skills, management skills, and professional work. In the seventh survey in 2017, the results showed that the top three of the most necessary abilities needed to work abroad are language

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and communication skills (74.8%), the spirit of challenge (37%), and intercultural understanding (26.5%).

2.2 Teacher Cognition and Intercultural Communicative Competence So far, this review has focused on the concept and research of global awareness. In this section, we will now explore foreign language teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding intercultural language teaching. Though some studies have investigated foreign language teachers’ perceptions of culture and cultural teaching, far fewer studies have focused on foreign language teachers’ beliefs about intercultural language teaching. This review aims to investigate the empirical research about foreign language teachers’ beliefs about the concept of intercultural communicative competence and their practical intercultural teaching in the classroom. The study aims to analyze teachers’ beliefs about intercultural teaching based on four themes: (1) teachers’ beliefs about culture and cultural teaching; (2) teachers’ knowledge about intercultural communicative competence; (3) teachers’ reported beliefs about intercultural language teaching; and (4) teachers’ practices in intercultural language teaching.

2.2.1 Teachers’ Beliefs About Culture and Cultural Teaching The first theme deals with studies examining teachers’ beliefs about culture and cultural teaching. Paige et al. (2015) defined culture learning as the content and process of learning about a culture other than one’s own. Five dimensions of culture learning are introduced: (1) the elements of culture, (2) cultural self-awareness, (3) culture-general learning, (4) culture-specific learning, and (5) learning how to learn the culture. In more detail, learning how to learn culture involves six different meanings: (1) reflecting on experience; (2) knowing how to learn from cultural informants; (3) careful observation of daily life; (4) careful listening to what people say in different types of situations; (5) approaching learning in a provisional, hypothesistesting manner, such as treating initial observations and understanding as preliminary and incomplete at best; and (6) taking an experiential approach and trying out cultural behaviors in various situations. Many researchers explore whether the aim of foreign language teaching is language teaching or cultural teaching. For example, Lessard-Clouston (1996) used a survey to measure Chinese teachers’ views of culture. Key findings were that the teachers gave very broad definitions of culture that included all aspects of daily life. The teachers also reported that they taught culture both explicitly and implicitly in the classroom. Ryan (1998) used interviews and observations to examine

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teachers’ beliefs about cultural aspects in language learning and studied the relationship of these perceptions to classroom instruction in Mexico. Findings showed that teachers’ expressed beliefs were more closely related to their interaction with students; teachers and students need intercultural competence. Castro et al. (2004) conducted a study to investigate Spanish teachers’ perceptions of the objectives of foreign language education. Results showed that teachers were willing to support the new objectives, but they experienced cultural conflict when prioritizing the language teaching and cultural teaching objective. Spanish foreign language teachers prioritized language teaching objectives over cultural teaching objectives. Another major study of teachers’ perceptions of intercultural teaching is by Önalan (2005). Results showed that teachers mostly defined culture in the sociological sense, such as values and beliefs. Their definitions of culture shifts tend to be more visible, such as food and clothing. Sercu et al. (2005) used a web-based questionnaire with both open and closed questions to examine Spanish foreign language teachers’ perceptions of cultural teaching. It investigated to what extent present-day teaching practice reflected constructivist approaches. The results showed that teaching practice only partially reflects constructivist convictions on the teachers’ side. Another analysis of teachers’ perspectives on culture was provided by a semistructured interview by Bayyurt (2006). Twelve English language teachers participated in the study in Turkey. The results showed that “international culture” had a special emphasis on English-speaking Anglo-American cultures, and that teachers dealt with issues related to culture in their English language classrooms varying from using elements of the local culture to using elements of the international culture and/ or the target language culture. Based on the findings, the authors recommended that it is necessary to train qualified English-speaking teachers. Larzén-Östermark (2009) conducted a questionnaire to examine how effectively pre-service teachers are trained to deal with cultural dimension effectively and insightfully. Results showed that students’ perceptions seemed to vary depending on the extent to which they had experienced first-hand contact with other cultures. As a group, the studies of this section were similar in purpose: they all focused on measuring teachers’ beliefs about culture in language teaching. From the above review, we can see four arguments about the teachers beliefs. Firstly, their concepts of culture were varied. Secondly, their definitions of culture are broad. Thirdly, some teachers defined culture from a social perspective. Finally, many teachers argued that the objective of foreign language teaching is not culture but language. The research also suggested that English teachers need more cultural training.

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2.2.2 Teachers’ Knowledge About Intercultural Communicative Competence The second theme focuses on the theory of intercultural communicative competence (ICC) and empirical research in foreign language teaching. Some concepts are used interchangeably with intercultural communication competence, such as cultural competence, intercultural effectiveness, acculturation, multiculturalism, and global citizenship. Some concepts are related to understanding intercultural competence: identity, culture, intercultural encounter, and competence. For example, Deardorff (2015) pointed out that intercultural competence is similar to other concepts like global competence, cultural competence, cultural intelligence, international mindedness, multicultural competence, global citizenship, global learning, global talent, and global human resources development. To understand the concept of intercultural competence better, it is helpful to understand some related concepts that are already widely accepted, such as culture, cultural identity, cultural diversity, values, beliefs, attitudes, communication, competence, communicative competence, language, dialogue, intercultural dialogue, universality, and intercultural citizenship. In addition, some other terms are related to intercultural competencies but are less often used: intercultural literacy, intercultural responsibility, reflexivity, liquidity, creativity, cultural shifting, disposition, semantic availability, conviviality, resilience, etc. Byram and Peiser (2015) argued that the role of foreign language learning in fostering intercultural competence had been echoed in international and national education policy documents. For example, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, UNESCO’s document Intercultural Competences: Conceptual and Operational Framework, 5 Cs model (communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and communities) represented in the USA as the Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the twenty-first century, and in China as the Compulsory Education Curriculum Standards for English. In its conceptual and operational framework of intercultural competencies, UNESCO (2013) defines the concept of intercultural competencies as the ability to adeptly navigate complex environments marked by a growing diversity of peoples, cultures, and lifestyles; in other words, the ability to perform “effectively and appropriately when interacting with others who are linguistically and culturally different from oneself” (Fantini & Tirmizi, 2006). Moreover, UNESCO (2013) created an “Intercultural Competences Tree” to offer a visual conceptualization of intercultural competencies. The Tree’s roots are Culture and Communication as its roots, its trunk is Cultural Diversity, Human Rights and Intercultural Dialogue, and its branches are five operational steps. In detail, the roots include Culture (Identity, Values, Attitudes, Beliefs, etc.) and Communication (Language, Dialogue, Nonverbal behavior, etc.), the trunk includes Cultural Diversity, Human Rights, and Intercultural Dialogue, the branches have five operational steps (Clarifying, Teaching, Promoting, Supporting, and Enacting Intercultural Competences), the leaves represent the various manners:

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intercultural responsibility, intercultural literacy, resilience, cultural shifting, intercultural citizenship, conviviality, reflexivity, creativity, liquidity, contextualization cues, transvaluation, ubuntu, semantic availability, warm ideas, skills, uchi-soto, multilingualism, disposition, emotions, knowledge, translation, and intercultural communicative competence. In Europe, some substantial work in education was carried out in collaboration between the academy and the Council of Europe, namely by Michael Byram, Geneviève Zarate, César Birzea, and others. Furthermore, language education in Europe adopted and developed a taxonomy of saviors proposed by Byram and Zarate in the Common European Framework of Reference for Language, namely savoir, savoir-être, savoir-faire, savoir-comprendre, and savoir-s’engager, the latter accounting for full civic and democratic participation. This discussion initially began to expand with Byram and Zarate’s contribution to the Council of Europe’s Common European Framework of Reference for Languages with a new concept, the intercultural speaker, whom the authors have described as someone who displays the motivation and competencies for relating interculturally through the use of one or more languages. Following this, much research has been carried out throughout Europe on developing intercultural competence in language education. Twenty-five years ago, language and educational theorists and researchers explored the concept of intercultural competence. The most influential definitions of intercultural competence are Mike Byram’s intercultural communicative competence (1997, 2021), Milton Bennett’s (1993) developmental model of intercultural sensitivity, and Darla Deardorff’s (2006) process model of intercultural competence. The definition of intercultural competence often resulted in lists of KSA (knowledge, skills, and attitudes). Byram and Deardorff’s intercultural competence definitions are based on KSA, UNESCO’s global citizenship framework, which also follows KSA. Intercultural communicative competence or ICC is most clearly described by Michael Byram (1997, 2021). ICC requires that students acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and critical cultural awareness for intercultural communication. According to Byram et al. (2002), real cosmopolitan citizens should develop intercultural communicative competence in its five spheres: • Intercultural attitudes: Curiosity, openness, the affective ability to “decenter”, which implies abandoning ethnocentric attitudes and relativizing one’s own values, beliefs, and behaviors. • Knowledge: Of one’s own culture and of the interlocutor’s culture and of how human beings interact and perceive each other. • Skills of interpreting and relating: Ability to interpret a document or event from another culture and relate it to similar documents or events in one’s culture. • Skills of discovery and interaction: Ability to acquire new knowledge of a culture and cultural practices; ability to operate knowledge, attitudes, and skills under the constraints of real-time communication and interaction.

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• Critical cultural awareness: The critical evaluation of practices, perspectives, and products in one’s and the other’s culture and countries (Byram, 1997, pp. 11–13). Furthermore, Byram (2012) distinguished “intercultural competence” from “intercultural communicative competence” by pointing out that the latter refers to “mediation between mutually incomprehensible languages” (p. 87), combining communicative competence and intercultural competence and emphasizing the important relationship between language and culture. Sharifian (2012) pointed out that in Byram’s conception of ICC, which combines attitudes, knowledge, skills, and critical awareness, intercultural attitude is “the most essential requirement necessary to facilitate cross-cultural understanding and sympathy. And perhaps it is the most difficult to gain” (p. 318). Deardorff (2015) reviewed various definitions and defined intercultural competence as “communication and behavior that are both effective and appropriate in intercultural interactions” (p. 218). Specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes frequently emerge when defining intercultural competence. Knowledge includes (1) cultural self-knowledge and awareness, (2) knowledge of other cultures, (3) knowledge of other languages, and (4) contextual knowledge. Skills include listening attentiveness, observing thoughtfully, reflecting or mindfulness, perspective-taking, and communicating. Finally, attitudes include open-mindedness, curiosity, respect, and tolerance. Other scholars also discussed the definitions of intercultural competence. For example, Spitzberg and Chagnon (2009) defined intercultural competence as “the appropriate and effective management of interaction between people who, to some degree or another, represent different or divergent affective, cognitive, and behavioural orientations to the world” (p. 7). Sharifian (2012) argued that successful intercultural communication in a globalized world needs communicative competence and other competences such as multidialectal competence, intercultural competence, and metacultural competence. According to Barrett et al. (2014), the concept of intercultural competence is a combination of attitudes, knowledge, understanding, and skills applied through action which enables one, either singly or together with others, to: • understand and respect people who are perceived to have different cultural affiliations from oneself, • respond appropriately, effectively, and respectfully when interacting and communicating with such people, • establish positive and constructive relationships with such people, and • understand oneself and one’s own multiple cultural affiliations through encounters with cultural “difference” (Barrett et al., 2014, pp. 16–17). Arasaratnam-Smith (2017) argued that intercultural communication competence is commonly understood as effective and appropriate communication between persons of different cultural worldviews. As stated above, most of the research on intercultural competence has been carried out in education and, more recently, with a great emphasis on language education and

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the development of plurilingualism. At the policy level, both the European Commission and the Council of Europe have provided guidelines, recommendations, and funding to help member countries tackle cultural diversity in their societies, in general, and their education systems. However, existing research in intercultural competence has ignored the Eastern point of view. As Arasaratnam-Smith (2017) argued, the majority of research in ICC so far has been done in Western contexts. Existing definitions and models of ICC are from a Western point of view. Wider research from other cultural perspectives could further enhance our present understanding of ICC. Hence, to help fill this gap in our knowledge, this book explored Chinese language teachers’ cognition of global awareness. The literature review presented above has outlined the different theories of intercultural competence defined by scholars. Next, I will introduce some empirical studies that have investigated teachers’ cognition of intercultural competence. For example, Parmenter (2010) examined intercultural dimensions in 65 national education policies and curriculum documents. She used the qualitative data analysis method to analyze the data and grouped them into five major themes: whether to be intercultural, why to be intercultural, the scope of being intercultural, what being intercultural involves, and teaching approaches to becoming intercultural. The results showed that the concept of becoming intercultural was embraced wholeheartedly as positive and necessary in the policies and curricula of the majority of countries. Interculturality is defined and provided four rationales: social ideals, political ideals, individual identity development, and national interests. The term intercultural is related to national cultural diversity and transnational identity. Being intercultural includes five distinct categories of skills, knowledge, values, and attitudes key to the development of an intercultural person. They are recognizing sameness, tolerance/respect for otherness, engaging with otherness, learning to live together, transformation, and action. The first category is recognition of sameness across cultures that included an awareness of the commonality of being human, recognition of human rights, dignity, solidarity, connectedness, sympathy, commonality of cultures, and appeal to universal or transcultural values. The second category covers a range of desired attitudes toward otherness: openness, tolerance, respect, and appreciation. The third category is engagement with otherness. It covers knowledge, interpersonal and communication skills, affective involvement, and action. The fourth category is learning to live together. This covers coexistence, cooperation, and harmony at interpersonal, intercultural, and international levels. The last category is transformation and action. It includes two forms of transformation, one is selftransformation and the other is social transformation. Self-transformation includes internalization, use of attitudes, and values developed through intercultural learning and lifelong learning. The social transformation is related to social responsibility, social justice and social agency, and making a difference. Regarding a teaching approach to becoming intercultural, Parmenter (2010) found that most policy and curriculum documents outside Latin America did not provide any explanation of how to teach for interculturality and critical awareness. Jokikokko (2005) explored interculturally trained Finnish teachers’ conceptions of diversity and intercultural competence. The findings showed that teachers perceived

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visible and invisible differences at group and individual levels. Conceptions of intercultural competence were divided into three categories: ethical orientation, efficiency orientation, and pedagogical orientation. Byram’s (1997) model of intercultural commutative competence was the theoretical foundation of intercultural language education. However, Byram (2009) pointed out that the model does not suggest “links of dependency or interdependency among the competences” and “does not specify in every detail the intercultural speaker, the prescription of how learners should develop is limited” (p. 325). Furthermore, Houghton (2010) explained that “the model was generated by theory and has not been reconsidered and revised in the light of empirical studies based on teaching practices that were inspired by or build upon the original concepts presented in the model” (pp. 197–198). Consequently, Houghton (2010) pointed out that the teachers who wanted to develop intercultural competence in language classrooms did not know how to teach intercultural competence and organize intercultural activities to meet the intercultural objectives. Based on the gap between theory and practices, Houghton (2007, 2010, 2012) conducted action research to explore critical awareness in foreign language education in Japan. In Houghton’s (2010) research, she explored the management of value differences in foreign language education. More specially, the action research was conducted to “explore and reflect upon the kinds of learning objectives that can and should be set when foreign language teachers attempt to manage the issue of evaluation, or judgments, in foreign language education, in recognition of the complex relationship between values, prejudice and evaluative processed more generally” (Houghton, 2010, p. 198). The participants included 36 students who were in three separate groups. Qualitative data included the audio recording of lessons, students’ work, post-class students, and teacher diaries. She gathered the data in three courses in one academic year. Her research design included three different teaching approaches, which were referred to as courses 1, 2, and 3. The three teaching approaches were described as the following: • Course 1: Teachers should train learners to adopt a non-judgmental stance toward differences and engage in intellectual empathy to take the perspective of others. • Course 2: Teachers should train learners to focus their attention squarely back on themselves to develop critical awareness of their own evaluative processes and biases to control them, but teachers should not try to change learner values. • Course 3: Teachers should basically follow the course 2 approach but should also aim to bring student values into line with democratic principles and human rights promoting social justices and changing learner values if necessary (Houghton, 2010, pp. 199–200). In the data interpretation, Houghton (2010) developed the intercultural dialogue model to structure the course of learning to promote intercultural dialogue in foreign language education. The course of learning can be broken down into five steps

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involving different meta-levels: development of awareness, self-awareness, metacognitive awareness, and meta-affective awareness. The five steps in the course of learning include: 1. Student analysis of own value system (VS1). 2. Student analysis of the value system of another person (VS2) having gathered information through empathy-oriented communication. 3. Juxtaposition, comparison, and contrast of the two value system (VS1 and VS2) to identify similarities and differences. 4. Student evaluation of the value systems of self and other (VS1 and VS2) with reference to a standard. 5. Student orientation of self to others by selecting standards and evaluative tendencies (Houghton, 2010, p. 211). She compared her Intercultural Development Model (Houghton, 2007), Byram’s (1997) model of intercultural communicative competence, and Barnett’s (1997) levels of critical reflection. She concluded that the concept of savoir se transformer should be added to Byram’s (1997, 2008) models to supplement attitudes, knowledge, skills, and critical cultural awareness/political education, and it should also be recognized in the Common European Framework of Reference for Language (Council of Europe, 2001) to supplement declarative knowledge, skills and know-how, existential competence, and the ability to learn. Luk (2012) reported a study of 12 English teachers’ beliefs and practices about integration of culture with Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) in Hong Kong. Interviews were used as the data collection method. The participants included 12 secondary school English teachers. The findings showed that teachers held unanimously positive attitudes toward the integration of culture and language teaching; they were also ambivalent about the means and ends of culture integration, the connectivity between cultural components and examinations, and the role of teachers. For example, the teachers were unanimously positive in their attitudes whether the purpose of integrating culture should be the acquisition of exam-oriented skills and the development of critical thinking and intercultural awareness. The author suggested that teachers review their understanding of culture and consider cultural pedagogy. The teacher also needed closer collaboration from different socio-cultural backgrounds. Lázár (2015) explored EFL learners’ intercultural competence development and their perceptions of the usefulness of an international web collaboration project. Seventy-eight learners and four English teachers from Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy, and Turkey participated in a five-month project. Through analysis of 16 learners’ posts, team lesson observations, and two group interviews, the results found that most students benefited from the online collaboration project and acquired intercultural knowledge and skills. In addition, the project team and the participating English teachers found that the project was a unique learning experience that developed the learners’ intercultural skills, attitudes, and critical awareness (Byram, 1997). The findings suggest that the international web collaboration project can benefit exchange trips, study abroad programs, and other face-to-face encounters.

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Holmes et al. (2015) explored students’ and teachers’ perspectives on predeparture materials of a programmer designed to develop Erasmus students’ intercultural understanding before going abroad. The findings suggest that pre-departure materials helped students understand interculturality and intercultural encounters. The study recommends three key pedagogical directions. First, students’ primary needs for practical information studying abroad should be previously satisfied. Second, exchanging information, feelings, emotions, and the accompanying selfreflection were crucial in understanding self and other identities. Finally, students indicated they needed more coaching and scaffolding activities; the teachers described the challenge of presenting and explaining clearly without simplifying theoretical concepts on interculturality. Brunsmeier (2017) interviewed 19 primary teachers in Germany to explore their understanding of ICC. Employing Byram’s (1997) ICC model as a theoretical framework, the findings of the attitudes dimension showed that 14 teachers believed that certain attitudes like openness, interest, and excitement were preconditions for developing ICC. The finding of the knowledge dimension showed that teachers chose topics that convey cultural information. For the skills of interpreting and relating dimensions, only half of the teachers thought it necessary to work out similarities and differences between self and others. As for skills of discovering and interaction, teachers used tasks and activities like talking about cultures, storybooks, songs, and projects. The research concluded that although teachers believed in the importance of ICC, it was not consistently put into practice. The teachers were unfamiliar with the concept of ICC and how to implement it. Research on ICC in the primary EFL context was lacking. Mostafaei Alaei and Nosrati (2018) explored Iranian EFL teachers’ levels of ICC and intercultural sensitivity (IS). The ICC questionnaire and IS scale of 167 EFL teachers showed high levels of ICC and IS. The results of correlational analysis of teachers’ ICC and IS showed significant relationships except for the relationship between the knowledge dimension of ICC and respecting other cultures and interaction enjoyment dimensions of IS. The authors suggested ways to develop teachers’ cultural knowledge and interaction confidence. For example, overseas exchange programs can provide chances to invite international scholars to participate in joint seminars and workshops.

2.2.3 Teachers’ Beliefs About Intercultural Language Teaching In the third theme, I discuss studies about teachers’ beliefs about intercultural language teaching. Most of the following studies were conducted with pre-service and in-service teachers in different countries. For example, Sercu (2002) investigated how Flemish English, French, and German teachers’ current professional self-concepts and teaching practices related to intercultural foreign language teachers. The findings

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showed that the teachers were willing to support intercultural objectives, but their teaching practices could not attain intercultural communicative competence. Sercu (2006) conducted another study to investigate how and to what extent teachers’ current professional profiles met the specifications formulated in the theoretical literature regarding the foreign language and interculturally competent teacher. The author tested Byram’s definition of ICC. The participants were 424 teachers. The data collection method was a web-based questionnaire. The qualitative data were analyzed by hand. Since the questionnaire contained closed and open questions, quantitative and qualitative data analysis procedures were used. The findings suggested that teachers’ current foreign language-and-culture teaching profiles do not yet meet those of the envisaged foreign language and intercultural competence teacher, and that teacher thinking and teaching practice patterns appear to exist within and across the participating countries. Pino and Pino (2009) used a questionnaire to investigate the level of a crosscultural awareness of 20 Hispanic pre-service teachers of Spanish at the end of their preparation at a large university in Southwest Spanish. Results showed that the group of students was not fully prepared in cross-cultural awareness. The results further suggest that intercultural awareness training is required to help students become better communicators and teachers. Hosoya and Talib (2010) used a questionnaire to investigate pre-service teachers’ attitudes, intercultural sensibility, and values toward teaching in diverse classrooms in Japan and Finland. Participants were teacher education students; 162 were in Finland and 192 in Japan. The results showed that Finnish and Japanese pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward diversity differed enormously. Only a few of the Japanese students had a diversity-oriented approach to teaching. The Finnish pre-service teachers seemed to show more distinct attitudes of tolerance of differences than their Japanese counterparts. Young and Sachdev (2011) investigated the beliefs and practices of experienced teachers in the USA, the U.K., and France that emerged by applying Byram’s ICC model to English language programs. The participants were a total of 36 experienced teachers of English, 12 in each country. The data collection method combined quantitative and qualitative methodologies. The investigation was multi-methodological, combining diaries, focus groups, and questionnaires. Results showed that most participants reported beliefs supported the relevance of interculturality to their works, emphasizing that “good” learners and teachers tended to exhibit high intercultural competence. However, they also suggested that ICC was given relatively little emphasis in the syllabi which were negotiated with learners. Participants also identified and discussed a lack of support for effective and appropriate approaches to “culture learning” and interculturality in testing, textbooks, and institutional syllabi. The results showed that the problem was a lack of teacher training. An intercultural approach may be considered successful and appropriate, but they seemed unable or unwilling to put it into practice. The stated reasons for this were related to a lack of learner interest, a lack of curricular support, a lack of suitable textbook material, and concern about engaging with controversy.

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The third theme I have reviewed concerns teachers’ beliefs about intercultural language teaching. Again, I can summarize the findings as (a) the teachers lack of understanding about the meaning of intercultural awareness; (b) the teachers cannot meet the needs of an intercultural teacher; and (c) they need more intercultural teaching training.

2.2.4 Teachers’ Intercultural Language Teaching Practices The last theme focuses on studies about teachers’ intercultural language teaching practices. The teachers’ intercultural activities inside and outside the classroom will be introduced in this section. One major study of teachers’ perceptions of intercultural teaching was conducted by Forsman (2010), who promoted awareness of difference and diversity to help prevent and modify stereotypical views. He found that many students seemed to have modified at least some of their previous stereotyped images, and that the insights gained through this process could be used to reflect on how to further apply their new insights in other contexts. Göbel and Helmke (2010) used a questionnaire and videos to measure 11,000 students from 9th-grade classes and their 460 EFL German teachers in Germany. The questionnaire aimed to explore the impact of intercultural experience on intercultural instruction. Key findings were that teachers with higher than average intercultural contact experience tend to integrate cultural and intercultural topics more explicitly into their lessons than those with less current intercultural experience. In addition, teachers with greater intercultural experience seemed to use language to talk about cultural differences than those with less intercultural experience. This study also advanced that the choice of content and topics seemed to play a major role. Baker (2015) reviewed cultural awareness and intercultural awareness in classroom practice and then pointed out that although many researchers had developed many productive and flexible approaches to intercultural competence, they were not mainstream approaches. The last group of the studies was about teachers’ practices in intercultural language teaching. The teachers found that the students’ stereotypes influence their intercultural understanding from intercultural teaching practices. Some teachers who had intercultural experience could help them to teach culture in the classroom. To sum up, foreign language teachers’ beliefs and practices in intercultural language teaching have been investigated in many contexts as outlined above in relation to four themes. Having reviewed teachers’ beliefs about cultural teaching, intercultural language teaching, and intercultural communicative competence, I reviewed teachers’ practices in intercultural language teaching. There are three main points that emerge. The first point is that very little empirical research concerning teachers’ beliefs about intercultural language teaching has been done using qualitative methods.

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Because of the predominant use of questionnaires, teachers’ beliefs about intercultural language teaching research have focused on reported intercultural language teaching rather than actual classroom practices. Qualitative research can explore teachers’ views in depth through interviews and focus group interviews, and it can also interpret the teachers’ teaching in the classroom through observation. Since qualitative research such as case studies and ethnography studies needs more time in the field, it is very hard for researchers to spend several months or years doing such research. Most researchers of intercultural language teaching are university teachers; they have school administration duties, teaching, and research. The lack of research funding may also be a limiting factor. These issues present difficulties for researchers in conducting qualitative research. The second point is that intercultural teacher training is necessary. In this section, I have attempted to show that although most English teachers believe culture is important in language teaching, they do not know how to teach in practice, so they need more intercultural training. The teachers’ professional knowledge influences their teaching. An intercultural experience like studying abroad or taking part in a short-term overseas exchange program can develop their intercultural commutative competence. Intercultural learning theory is necessary for them. If the teachers can develop their professional abilities, they can teach culture more effectively in the classroom. The third point is that wider research from Asian countries could further enhance our present understanding of ICC. From the research context, we can see that most samples in the intercultural teaching research come from European and American contexts. Few researchers have addressed intercultural language teaching in Asian countries. English as an international language is stressed in Asian countries such as China, Japan, and South Korea. However, these countries have not yet accepted intercultural language teaching more broadly. Intercultural teaching theory has not become popular enough, partly because they still emphasize exam-centered education. These countries need more intercultural researchers and intercultural teacher training. We can try to do some research from different perspectives in the future by conducting qualitative research, perhaps with research samples focused on foreign education in Asian countries. Student perspectives can provide good feedback for teachers, intercultural research can connect global learning and teaching, and the integration of intercultural teaching and testing also presents itself as an important research area for the future. How to integrate intercultural learning into the four skills remains a practical problem. Some crucial trends that intercultural awareness will develop in the foreign language classroom are literature teaching, citizenship education, and multilingual and transnational aspects of language teaching (Fenner, 2017).

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To conclude this section, here is a quote from Arasaratnam-Smith (2017) which points out what future research on intercultural communication competence should entail: 1. Future research in ICC must engage with the multicultural nature of national groups and the blended nature of many people’s individual cultural identity. 2. ICC must be studied from different cultural points of view in different cultural contexts. 3. There is room to build on existing theories and models of ICC, further testing of ICC among a variety of participants would add valuable new knowledge. 4. There is room to study ICC in light of the accessibility of personal communication devices and social network services that, in some way, provide a sense of global connectivity. 5. There is vast room for improvement in cross-disciplinary engagement with discipline-specific findings. Having now discussed the concept of global awareness and intercultural communicative competence in the last two sections, in the next section we will turn our attention to global citizenship and intercultural citizenship education.

2.3 Global Citizenship Education and Intercultural Citizenship Education 2.3.1 Global Citizenship Education This section explores why global citizenship education should be promoted in English language teaching. To begin with, definitions of global citizenship education will be explored before the relationships between global citizenship education, intercultural communicative competence, and English language teaching are discussed. With the development of the new information revolution and globalization in various fields of the economy and society, our world is changing faster and becoming smaller than before, and each individual has become more active on a global level. Thus, to live in our global village, the development of global citizenship awareness is increasing in importance. More countries and regions have embarked on educational initiatives for global citizenship in schools, such as Great Britain, France, the USA, China, and Hong Kong. Most writers hold a concept of citizenship that contains the common elements of “knowledge, skills, values, and participation” (Marker & Mehlinger, 1992, p. 835). Byram (2008) argued that “citizenship” is a term that conveniently embodies the issues that arise: the need for self-aware judgment, the willingness to become engaged, and the skills and knowledge which facilitate engagement. Citizenship education is teaching and developing the values, knowledge, and skills that citizens participate in the administration of social and public affairs. It includes ethical

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and national education, rights and duty education, moral and civilization education, democracy and legal education, and equality and justice education. Huddleston and Kerr (2006) argued that citizenship education prepares individuals to participate as active and responsible citizens in a democracy. Citizenship education involves a wide range of different elements of learning, including knowledge and understanding, skills and aptitudes, and values and dispositions. Citizenship education aims to help people become active, informed, and responsible citizens. More specifically, it aims to prepare them for life as citizens of a democracy. According to Oxfam (2006), global citizenship education aims to develop citizens with the knowledge and understanding, skills, values and attitudes, and behavior and enable them to live responsibly in a globalized world. Global citizenship is about understanding the need to tackle injustice and inequality and having the desire and ability to work actively to do so. It is about valuing the earth as precious and unique and safeguarding the future for those coming after us. Global citizenship is a way of thinking and behaving. It is an outlook on life, a belief that we can make a difference. Oxfam (2006) saw the global citizen as someone who: is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own role as a world citizen; respects and values diversity; has an understanding of how the world works economically, politically, socially, culturally, technologically and environmentally; is outraged by social injustice; participates in and contributes to the community at a range of levels from local to global; is willing to act to make the world a more sustainable place; takes responsibility for their actions. (p. 3)

Education for global citizenship is: asking questions and developing critical thinking skills; equipping young people with knowledge, skills and values to participate as active citizens; acknowledging the complexity of global issues; revealing the global as part of everyday local life, whether in a small village or a large city; understanding how we relate to the environment and to each other as human beings. (Oxfam, 2006, p. 3)

The key elements for developing responsible global citizenship are identified as: knowledge and understanding; skills; values and attitudes: • Knowledge and understanding: Social justice and equity; diversity; globalization and interdependence; sustainable development; peace and conflict. • Skills: Critical thinking; ability to argue effectively; ability to challenge injustice and inequalities; respect for people and things; cooperation and conflict resolution. • Values and attitudes: Sense of identity and self-esteem; empathy; commitment to social justice and equity; value and respect for diversity; concern for the environment and commitment to sustainable development; belief that people can make a difference (Oxfam, 2006, p. 4). UNESCO (2014) defined global citizenship as a sense of belonging to a broader community and common humanity. It emphasizes political, economic, social, and cultural interdependency and interconnectedness between the local, the national, and the global. Global citizenship education entails three core conceptual dimensions: cognitive, socio-emotional, and behavioral. The cognitive dimension refers

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to “acquire knowledge, understanding and critical thinking about global, regional, national and local issues and the interconnectedness and interdependency of different countries and populations”. Socio-emotional refers to “having a sense of belonging to a common humanity, sharing values and responsibilities, empathy, solidarity and respect for differences and diversity”. Finally, the behavioral dimension refers to: “act effectively and responsibly at local, national and global levels for a more peaceful and sustainable world” (UNECSO, 2015, p. 15). UNESCO (2015) framed the global citizenship education guidance in three learning domains, key learning outcomes, key learner attributes, topics, and learning objectives. Citizenship education and global citizenship education are intricately intertwined. Global citizenship education is a new development of citizenship education in the background of globalization, and citizenship education is the base of global citizenship education. Global citizenship is the concept of citizenship on a global level. Global citizenship education can improve citizenship education centered on the nation and ethnicity. Intercultural communicative competence and global citizenship education have some similarities. Their goals require the competence to examine beliefs and behaviors about social identities, to be sensitive to different values and identities, and to communicate effectively with people of different cultural backgrounds. Global citizenship education underlines active engagement in public life and global society and shapes a responsible attitude to their societies. In order to make people live in a global society responsibly and actively, critical cultural awareness is very necessary. Education for global citizenship enables students to develop knowledge, skills, and values. Oxfam (2006) showed why education for global citizenship is essential in the twenty-first century. Global citizenship education gives students knowledge, understanding, skills, and values and engages them in critical thinking, intercultural communication, and conflict resolution skill development. Global citizenship education encourages students to care about the earth and recognize our responsibilities toward each other in our own society and beyond. There are many benefits to teaching about global citizenship. As Andrzejewski and Alessio (1999) argued: Studying global problems and the various strategies for addressing them can generate a renewed sense of hope and optimism. Practicing active citizenship whether through personal changes, service learning, grassroots organizing, or a myriad of other activities, can provide meaning to the curriculum. Students will feel comfortable interacting with diverse groups of people. Students and teachers alike can see that they can make an impact to make the world a better place, far beyond the individualistic goal of getting a job. Students will understand more clearly what citizenship means and feel ready to make significant contributions for humankind in a sustainable environment. (p. 12)

In Japan, some universities’ mission is to develop global citizens by providing global human resources development programs. Waseda University’s mission is to educate global citizens “with sufficient knowledge, moral character, and courage—as well as physical strength and flexible sensitivity—to be able to overcome any challenge, no matter how difficult and no matter where they are in the world, through their own will and in cooperation with those around them” (Waseda University, 2023). According to the Mission Statement of Soka University, the three elements of global citizenship

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are wisdom, courage, and compassion. A global citizen may also be characterized as an individual who possesses to a high standard the three “Ss”: Spirit, Skill, and Service (Soka University 2023). Soka University develops global citizens through the Global Citizenship Program, English for Study Abroad Program, and English for Career Development Program. Kanto Gakuin University’s motto is “Be human and serve the world”, which means “to improve one’s character with the teachings of Christ and to serve society with the love of Christ” (Kanto Gakuin University 2023). Kanto Gakuin University’s global policy is to develop global human resources who have the ability to understand Japanese culture and other countries’ culture, understand others (sympathy), learn in cooperation with others (coexistence), and create new value together (cocreation). Furthermore, the Global Program aims to develop students’ intercultural communicative competence, and the Global Awareness Program aims to develop students’ advanced English communication skills, intercultural knowledge, motivation to proactively work on problem-solving, and intercultural competence (Kanto Gakuin University 2023). Sophia University, as Japan’s pioneer in global education, provides an excellent global educational environment for cultivating global human resources. Based on the education mission of “for Others, with Others”, Sophia University delivers Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL) which is “the pedagogy to connect with overseas universities online and provide an interactive and collaborative learning environment in and outside class. COIL improves students’ leadership skills, project planning, management skills, and ICT literacy” (Sophia University 2023). Parmenter (2011) investigated 642 university students’ conceptualizations of global citizenship education and their views of themselves as global citizens. The results revealed that the students’ conceptions of global citizenship included four core concepts: human-beingness, connectedness, engagement, and transformation. Human-beingness included notions such as “the sanctity of life, respect for humanity as a whole, awareness of the diversity and essential similarities of all human beings, awareness of humanity in relation to the earth and gods/God, identity and, only occasionally, human rights” (p. 373). Connectedness covered notions of “empathy and compassion, a sense of shared responsibility and shared destiny, recognition of interdependence, openness, intercultural interest, curiosity, acceptance of diversity, willingness to cooperate and collaborate with others, and a commitment to peace, as well as actual intercultural activities and experiences” (p. 374). Engagement referred to “communication skills, critical thinking skills, learning about global issues, involvement in voluntary activities, advocacy, intercultural friendships and participation in online discussion groups” (p. 374). Translation involved “the idea of social change and the idea of transformation of the self” (p. 374). Gordon and Yemini (2016) explored teachers’ perceptions about global citizenship education through interviews at one local and one international school in Israel. The findings confirmed that teachers perceive global citizenship differently along three significant axes: boundaries of global citizenship, practical aspects of global citizenship education (GCE), and the effect of Israel’s context. They found that teachers at both schools believe that GCE is better suited for students from strong

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socioeconomic backgrounds; the Israel context and the Palestinian-Israeli conflict were considered overall as an abstract to GCE. The results also showed that teachers at both schools did not promote any critical reflection upon the distribution of power or topics such as human rights. Instead, teachers at both schools seemed to feel that GCE should provide their students with global competencies. Parmenter and Byram (2015) pointed out that the research on global citizenship education takes several different directions, including focusing on: • education policy and the ways in which national governments and transnational organizations shape education policy; • education curricula and the ways in which a “global dimension” can be effectively introduced to school and university curricula to develop awareness, knowledge, and skills relevant to global citizenship; • defining knowledge, skills, and attitudes, or competences such as intercultural communicative competence, critical literacy, and empathy; • global competitiveness and the role of world-class education in developing global citizens; • global mobility and its impact on staff and students as global citizens; and • critical analysis of the existing paradigm and research on global citizenship education (p. 348). They also argued that there are some gaps in current research. There is a lack of teacher and student perspective, and research on the role of the English language in global citizenship education and its impact on students is scarce. Further, other concepts such as the African idea of Ubuntu or the notion of human-beingness should be enriched. Jackson (2020) offered several suggestions for enhancing intercultural communicative competence and global citizenship: 1. Become more self-aware. One must understand their strengths and weaknesses to know what to work on. 2. Demonstrate mindfulness and flexibility. Focus on your interlocutors’ intercultural attitudes, viewpoints, emotions, communication styles, and context. 3. Observe and actively listen. Observe your communication partners’ verbal and nonverbal behaviors. 4. Cultivate openness. All citizens must overcome ethnocentrism and develop an intercultural attitude. 5. Display respect. 6. Be empathetic. Consider your communication partner’s needs and feelings. 7. Learn another language. 8. Seek feedback. Pay attention to their reactions to assess your verbal and nonverbal communication. 9. Be engaged in the world. Watch global news or read newspapers. Discuss global issues with international students. Volunteer, intern, study abroad, or do service learning in another language/culture.

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10. Be patient. Developing intercultural competencies takes time, commitment, and energy. Through the practice of the above steps, students can become more globally minded and interculturally competent. Developing global citizenship through English language teaching is important and necessary. Globalization is deeply intertwined with the spread of English. English as an international language in the world plays an important role in developing global citizenship. Learning English can enhance the development of global citizenship, which has become one of the most important issues for English language teachers worldwide. Through global citizenship activities in the English language class, English teachers can develop students’ global citizenship awareness. English language teachers are in a unique position to promote the idea of global citizenship. Researchers in different countries and regions have integrated global citizenship education into English language teaching. In Europe, the British Council published the book: “Global Citizenship in the English Language Classroom” (Gimenez & Sheehan, 2008). In this book, the seven chapters explored global citizenship in the English language classroom from the curricula, materials, English courses, teacher and student attitudes, methodology, and activities. Byram (2008) argued some theories about intercultural citizenship in foreign language education in his two books: “Education for Intercultural Citizenship: Concepts and Comparisons” (Alred et al., 2006) and “From Foreign Language Education to Education for Intercultural Citizenship: Essays and Reflection” (Byram, 2008). In Japan, Nakamura (2004) has shown how to foster global literacy among Japanese university students through global citizenship education. Parmenter (2005) analyzed intercultural citizenship education in Japan. Teaching for intercultural communicative competence may complement global citizenship education in foreign language teaching. Byram (2008) argued that education for citizenship has to engage with people with other lifestyles or cultures along with their language and language games. Therefore, language teaching must take intercultural competence as one of its aims. Language teachers and those who teach citizenship education are pursuing the same goals according to Byram (2008) who stated: It is the notion of taking action that links the concept of intercultural communicative competence with education for citizenship. My argument is that it is the purpose of foreign language teaching (FLT) and the duty of teachers, not only to combine utility and educational value, but also to show learners how they and should engage with the international globalised world in which they participate. That is a move ‘from’ FLT within education ‘to’ FLT that brings a specific additional contribution to education for citizenship. (p. 229)

To sum up, I have studied three important notions in this section: English language teaching, ICC, and global citizenship education. Can they be combined effectively? By integrating intercultural communicative competence and global citizenship education into English language education, I would like to explore the possibilities of developing learners’ ICC and educating English language learners to become

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global citizens. As a result, I hope that EFL teaching, intercultural communicative competence, and global citizenship education can be mutually beneficial. In the next section, the term “intercultural citizenship education” is reviewed and some empirical studies about practice in education for intercultural citizenship will be explored.

2.3.2 Intercultural Citizenship Education Byram (2006, 2008) developed a theory of intercultural citizenship education based on his 1997’s model of intercultural communicative competence, which combines the knowledge, skills, and attitudes learners need to act as “intercultural speakers”. The concept of “intercultural citizenship” (Byram, 2008) is the combination of skills, knowledge, and attitudes necessary for a person to engage in social action based on an awareness of other perspectives on the objects and aims of that action, where “other” refers to different cultural groups normally with different languages. It is parallel to other concepts such as “global citizenship”, “intercultural competence”, or “cultural awareness”. Examples of learners’ “action in the community” include writing articles in local newspapers, presenting videos on YouTube, presentations in school settings, and interviews with people in the street (Byram et al., 2017). Byram (2006) stated the “axioms and characteristics” of education for intercultural citizenship: Axioms: • Intercultural experience takes place when people from different social groups with different cultures (values, beliefs, and behaviors) meet. • “Being intercultural” involves analysis and reflection about intercultural experience and acting on that reflection. • Intercultural citizenship experience takes place when people of different social groups and cultures engage in social and political activity. • Intercultural democratic experience takes place when people of different social groups and cultures engage in democratic social and political activity—not avoiding values and judgments. • Intercultural citizenship education involves: – causing/facilitating intercultural citizenship experience, and analysis and reflection on it (and on the possibility of further social and/or political activity, where “political” is taken in broad sense to mean activity which involves working with others to achieve an agreed end). – creating learning/change in the individual: cognitive, attitudinal, behavioral change; change in self-perception/spirituality; change in relationships with

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Others, i.e., people of different social groups; change which is based in the particular but is related to the universal. Characteristics of education for intercultural citizenship: • A comparative (juxtaposition) orientation in activities of teaching and learning, e.g., juxtaposition of political processes (in the classroom, school …country…) and a critical perspective which questions assumptions through the process of juxtaposition. • Emphasis on becoming conscious of working with Others (of a different group and culture) through (a) processes of comparison/juxtaposition and (b) communication in a language (L1 or L2/3/…) which influences perceptions and which emphasizes the importance of learners becoming conscious of multiple identities. • Creating a community of action and communication which is supra-national and/or composed of people of different beliefs values and behaviors which are potentially in conflict—without expecting conformity and easy, harmonious solutions. • Having a focus and range of action which is different from that which is available when not working with Others, where “Others” refers to all those of whatever social group who are initially perceived as different, members of an out-group. • Emphasizing becoming aware of one’s existing identities and opening options for social identities additional to the national and regional, etc. (e.g., the formation of perhaps temporary supra-national group identities through interaction with Others). • Paying equal attention to cognition/knowledge, affect/attitude, and behaviors/ skill. • All of the above with a conscious commitment to values (i.e., rejecting relativism), being aware that values sometimes conflict and are differently interpreted, but being committed, as citizens in a community, to cooperation (pp. 233–234). Wagner and Byram (2017) argued that the framework of intercultural citizenship differs from other models of citizenship because very few models in their classification consider the importance of linguistic skills. Other models focus on psychological traits or processes of intercultural communication, while intercultural citizenship deals with learning outcomes. It requires students to apply what they learn to intercultural interactions with people of another culture in another language. The concept of intercultural citizenship has appeared mainly in EU and Council of Europe related work (e.g., Byram, 2006, 2008), but the concept was not well known in Asian quarters. Parmenter (2004) studied Japanese university students’ attitudes toward the concept of intercultural citizenship to understand how intercultural citizenship is understood in Asia. The participants were over 600 university students in Japan. The data collection methods included a questionnaire, four focus group interviews, and 20 individual interviews. She used grounded theory to analyze the data. The findings showed that students had three definitions. The first and most common category was people of various cultures living together in society, for example, in America, where people of different cultures exist together.

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The second definition was a foreigner or someone with parents of different nationalities, such as people of various nationalities living in Japan, with their own cultures and lifestyles. The third definition was someone who has the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to interact with and live with people of different cultures, regardless of the location of self or others. An example of this definition is: “I think an intercultural citizen is someone who tries to know about the world, and who tries to understand people of other cultures” (Parmenter, 2004, p. 7). This definition is similar to Byram’s concept. They all thought that intercultural citizenship exists in contemporary Japan, and they were all in favor of strengthening intercultural citizenship in the future. They also expressed a desire to become intercultural citizens themselves. The findings also showed the influences on the development of intercultural citizenship. The most significant influence factor was students’ families. The next most significant influence factor was education. The media had less influence on students. Television was seen to have the greatest influence. The Internet was seen as having the least influence, with many students admitting that they had never used it before starting university. The concept of intercultural citizenship education seems unknown to language teachers beyond Europe. Byram (2012, 2021) argued that one main reason is the lack of teacher training in intercultural citizenship; most teachers have not received the theory and practice of intercultural citizenship education in pre-service education or in-service programs. Byram et al. (2017) conducted a collaborative project about developing intercultural citizenship education in the foreign language classroom in ten universities in Europe, East Asia, and Latin America (Argentina, China, Denmark, Hungary, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Sweden, Taiwan, U.K., USA). Each project is an empirical classroom study integrating intercultural communicative competence and civic action in the intercultural citizenship community. The theoretical foundations of the project are Byram’s (1997) intercultural communicative competence model, Barnett’s (1997) classification of criticality in education systems, and Byram’s (2008) framework for intercultural citizenship education. The project (Byram et al., 2017) includes three sections: learners’ and teachers’ perceptions of intercultural citizenship, teachers’ cooperation, and learners’ cooperation. The project following the criteria: • Creates a sense of international identification with learners in the international project, • Challenge the “common sense” of each national group within the international project, • Develop a new “international” way of thinking and acting, and • Apply that new way to “knowledge”, to “self”, and to “the world” (Byram et al., 2017). The project members have presented the research at international conferences, and the audiences found the work innovative and exciting. However, Byram concluded that it had challenged the teachers to think about their classrooms. In 2018, the Journal of Language Teaching Research published a special issue (Vol. 22[5]) dedicated to the theory and practice of intercultural citizenship education.

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In this special issue, Porto et al. (2018) argued that intercultural citizenship education needs to consider criticality, native-speakerism, the intercultural speaker, nation-state loyalty, internationalism, and action in the community. For example, Yulita (2017) tested the council of Europe’s conceptual model of “Competences for Democractical Culture (CDC)” (Council of Europe, 2016) to demonstrate and analyze how foreign language teaching can address human rights issues in practice as part of intercultural citizenship education (Byram, 2008). Ninetynine participants, including 23 U.K.-based and 76 Argentinian students, participated in the project. These participants cooperated through Skype to design a leaflet that addressed the issue: the Argentinian military dictatorship and its manipulation of the 1978 Football World Cup. The findings showed that the design of the leaflet provided the students with a forum to examine peaceful ways of dealing with past injustices. The learners also developed a set of competencies of CDC like co-cooperation skills, autonomous learning skills, linguistic, communicative, and plurilingual skills. In addition, the task of designing a leaflet encouraged learners to take action in their community.

2.4 Conclusion In this chapter, we explored the core theoretical frameworks and empirical research regarding global awareness, ICC, and intercultural citizenship/global citizenship education. We began with the concept of global awareness and then examined empirical research. We then examined teacher cognition and practices on cultural teaching, ICC, and intercultural language teaching. The results demonstrated that qualitative research is insufficient, that intercultural teacher training is required, and that broader research from Asian countries could further expand our understanding of ICC. Finally, we examined the fundamental theoretical principles of global citizenship and intercultural citizenship education and then explored how to integrate them into foreign language education. In Chapter 3, we will look at Global Englishes, global learning, and teacher cognition.

References Alred, G., Byram, M., & Fleming, M. (2006). Education for intercultural citizenship: Concepts and comparisons. Multilingual Matters. Andrzejewski, J., & Alessio, J. (1999). Education for global citizenship and social responsibility. Progressive Perspectives, 1(2), 2–15. Arasaratnam-Smith, L. A. (2017). Intercultural communication competence. In K. Young Yun (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of intercultural communication. Wiley Online Library and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Baker, W. (2015). Research into practice: Cultural and intercultural awareness. Language Teaching, 48(1), 130–141.

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Barnett, R. (1997). Higher education: A critical business. Buckingham: Open University Press. Barrett, M., Byram, M., Lázár, I., Mompoint-Gaillard, P., & Philippou, S. (2014). Developing intercultural competence through education. Council of Europe. Bayyurt, Y. (2006). Non-native English language teachers’ perspective on culture in English as a foreign language classrooms. Teacher Development, 10(2), 233–247. Bennett, M. J. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience. Intercultural Press. Bourn, D., & Hunt, F. (2011). Global dimension in secondary schools. DERC Research Paper, No. 1. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/nscentre/ge/GE_Newsletter/GEN76-ResearchReport1-DERC.pdf Brunsmeier, S. (2017). Primary teachers’ knowledge when initiating intercultural communicative competence. TESOL Quarterly, 51(1), 143–155. Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Multilingual Matters. Byram, M. (2006). Developing a concept of intercultural citizenship. In G. Alred, M. Byram, & M. Fleming (Eds.), Education for intercultural citizenship: Concepts and comparisons (pp. 109– 129). Multilingual Matters. Byram, M. (2008). From foreign language education to education for intercultural citizenship: Essays and reflections. Multilingual Matters. Byram, M. (2009). Intercultural competence in foreign language: The intercultural speaker and the pedagogy of foreign language education. In D. K. Deardorff (Ed.), The Sage handbook of intercultural competence (pp. 321–333). Sage. Byram, M. (2012). Conceptualising intercultural (communicative) competence and intercultural citizenship. In J. Jackson (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of language and intercultural communication (pp. 85–98). Routledge. Byram, M. (2021). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence: Revisited (2nd ed.). Multilingual Matters. Byram, M., Golubeva, I., Han, H., & Wagner, M. (2017). From principles to practice in education for intercultural citizenship. Multilingual Matters. Byram, M., Gribkova, B., & Starkey, H. (2002). Developing the intercultural dimension in language teaching: A practical introduction for teachers. The Council of Europe. http://lrc.cornell.edu/ director/intercultural.pdf Byram, M., & Peiser, G. (2015). Culture learning in the language classroom. In J. M. Bennett (Ed.), The Sage encyclopedia of intercultural competence (pp. 205–208). Sage. Castro, P., Sercu, L., & Méndez García, M. C. (2004). Integrating language-and-culture teaching: An investigation of Spanish teachers’ perceptions of the objectives of foreign language education. Intercultural Education, 15(1), 91–104. Clarke, M., & Drudy, S. (2006). Teaching for diversity, social justice and global awareness. European Journal of Teacher Education, 29(3), 371–386. Clarke, V. (2004). Students’ global awareness and attitudes to internationalism in a world of cultural convergence. Journal of Research in International Education, 3(1), 51–70. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Council of Europe. Council of Europe. (2016). Competences for democratic culture: Living together as equals in culturally diverse democratic societies. Council of Europe Publishing. Deardorff, D. K. (2006). Identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 241–266. Deardorff, D. K. (2015). Intercultural competence: Mapping the future research agenda. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 48, 3–5. Dell, C., & Wood, M. (2010). Developing students as critical thinkers through global learning using Enquiry-Based Learning (EBL) pedagogic principles. In M. Cooper (Ed.), Changing the culture of the campus: Towards an inclusive higher education-ten years on (pp. 35–49). European Access Network.

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Luk, J. (2012). Teachers’ ambivalence in integrating culture with EFL teaching in Hong Kong. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 25(3), 249–264. Marker, G., & Mehlinger, H. (1992). Social studies. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of research on curriculum (pp. 830–851). Macmillan. Mostafaei Alaei, M., & Nosrati, F. (2018). Research into EFL teachers’ intercultural communicative competence and intercultural sensitivity. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 47(2), 73–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2018.1424020 Nakamura, K. (2004). Fostering global literacy among Japanese university students through global citizenship education. The Journal of the Institute for Language and Culture, 8, 1–29. Önalan, O. (2005). EFL teachers’ perceptions of the place of culture in ELT: A survey study at four universities in Ankara/Turkey. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 1(2), 215–235. Oxfam. (2006). Education for global citizenship: A guide for schools. http://www.oxfam.org.uk/ coolplanet/teachers/globciti/wholeschool/getstarted.htm Paige, R. M., Jorstad, J., Paulson, L., & Colby, J. (2015). Culture learning. In J. M. Bennett (Ed.), The Sage encyclopedia of intercultural competence (pp. 200–203). Sage. Parmenter, L. (2004, December). Interculturalism in Japan: An analysis of the negotiation of cultural citizenship among students in Japanese universities. Paper presented at the Interculturalism: 2nd Global Conference, Vienna, Austria. http://inter-disciplinary.net/ati/diversity/interculturalism/ ic2/parmenter%201.pdf Parmenter, L. (2005). Interculturalism in Japan? An analysis of the negotiation of cultural citizenship among students in Japanese universities. In J. Irwin (Ed.), Interculturalism. Rodopi. Parmenter, L. (2010). Becoming intercultural: A comparative analysis of national education policies. In Y. Tsai & S. Houghton (Eds.), Being intercultural: Inside and outside the classroom (pp. 66– 88). Cambridge Scholars. Parmenter, L. (2011). Power and place in the discourse of global citizenship education. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 9(3–4), 367–380. Parmenter, L., & Byram, M. (2015). Global citizenship. In J. M. Bennett (Ed.), The Sage encyclopedia of intercultural competence (pp. 347–350). Sage. Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2009). P21 framework definitions document. http://www.21s tcenturyskills.org/ Pino, B. G., & Pino, F. (2009). The cross-cultural awareness of pre-service Spanish teachers. Hispania, 92(2), 303–308. Porto, M., Houghton, S. A., & Byram, M. (2018). Intercultural citizenship in the (foreign) language classroom. Language Teaching Research, 22(5), 484–498. Ryan, P. M. (1998). Cultural knowledge and foreign language teachers: A case study of a native speaker of English and a native speaker of Spanish. Language Culture and Curriculum, 11(2), 135–153. Sercu, L. (2002). Implementing intercultural foreign language education: Belgian, Danish and British teachers’ professional self-concepts and teaching practices compared. Evaluation & Research in Education, 16(3), 150–165. Sercu, L. (2006). The foreign language and intercultural competence teacher: The acquisition of a new professional identity. Intercultural Education, 17(1), 55–72. Sercu, L., Méndez García, M. C., & Castro Prieto, P. (2005). Culture learning from a constructivist perspective: An investigation of Spanish foreign language teachers’ views. Language and Education, 19(6), 483–495. Sharifian, F. (2012). World Englishes, intercultural communication and requisite competences. In The Routledge handbook of language and intercultural communication (pp. 310–322). Routledge. Spitzberg, B. H., & Changnon, G. (2009). Conceptualizing intercultural competence. In D. K. Deardorff (Ed.), The Sage handbook of intercultural competence (pp. 2–52). Sage. The SANNO Institute of Management. (2010). Global awareness survey of the business person. http://www.sanno.ac.jp/research/globalbp.html

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Chapter 3

Global Englishes, Global Learning, and Teacher Cognition

This chapter begins by describing the theories of World Englishes (WE), English as an International Language (EIL), and Global Englishes. The first section briefly discusses the relationship between World Englishes and intercultural communication and then examines some recent studies about teachers’ attitudes to World English, students’ perceptions of Global English, and teacher education program. The second section is about the theory and practical research of global learning. It starts by describing some concepts about global learning and the global dimension before introducing some empirical research about global learning from the perspectives of teachers, young people, the general public, parents, and business leaders. The third section is about models of teachers’ beliefs and practices. It focuses on introducing the concept of teacher cognition and also reviews some important empirical research about teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding communicative language teaching.

3.1 Global Englishes There has been growing interest in WE, EIL, and Global Englishes in recent years. In this section, I will first briefly discuss their relationship with intercultural communication and then examine some recent studies.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 H. Jing, Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education, Intercultural Communication and Language Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4179-7_3

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3.1.1 WE, EIL, and Global Englishes Kachru (1992) proposed a three-circle model of World Englishes, with Inner Circle, Outer Circle, and Expanding Circle. The countries of the Inner Circle— the USA, the U.K., Canada, Australia, and New Zealand—all use English as their primary language. India, Malaysia, and Singapore are Outer Circle countries where English is spoken as a second language. Finally, the Expanding Circle of countries where English is used as a foreign language includes China, Japan, and Korea. The studies of World English have shown that English is not the primary language of 80% of English speakers, and their English is classified as an Outer Circle or Expanding Circle variety of English (Kachru et al., 2006). In addition, Sharifian (2015a) found that it is now widely acknowledged that intercultural communication in English is frequent across World Englishes. Sharifian (2015b) pointed out the relationship between World English, ELF, and intercultural competence. Findings from ELF research are beginning to shed significant light on the nature of intercultural competence that would be required for successful international/ intercultural communication in English in the globalised world. (p. 291)

Intercultural awareness (ICA) is an approach that has been specifically developed with Global Englishes and ELF (Baker & Ishikawa, 2021). Baker (2015) defined intercultural awareness as “a conscious understanding of the role culturally based forms, practices and frames of reference can have in intercultural communication, and an ability to put these conceptions into practice in a flexible and context specific manner in communication” (p. 163). Transcultural communication is one of the most recent approaches to understanding intercultural interaction (Baker & Ishikawa, 2021). It focuses on how participants move through and across cultures and languages. Transcultural communication is defined as: Communication where interactants move through and across, rather than in between, cultural and linguistic boundaries, and named languages and cultures can no longer be taken for granted, and in the process cultural and linguistic borders become blurred, transgressed, and transcended. (Baker & Ishikawa, 2021, p. 182)

Furthermore, according to Baker (2022), transcultural communication perspectives build on intercultural communication research, and transcultural communication research should be transdisciplinary and holistic.

3.1.2 Studies on WE, EIL, and Global Englishes In this section, I review studies about teachers’ attitudes to World English (Sadeghpour & Sharifian, 2017), students’ perceptions of Global Englishes (Fang & Ren, 2018), and teacher education programs (Kang, 2017).

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Sadeghpour and Sharifian (2017) investigated the attitudes of 27 English language teachers in Australia about the existence and legitimacy of World Englishes (WE). According to the interview results, while most participants recognized the existence of some new varieties of World Englishes, many participants did not recognize the legitimacy of Expanding Circle Englishes, particularly Asian Englishes. The findings also revealed that teachers’ perceptions of WE are more influenced by their formal education. As a result, they advocated for in-service English language teacher education to focus on broadening teachers’ perceptions of WE, EIL, and English as a lingua franca paradigm (ELF). By taking an English as a World Language course, Fang and Ren (2018) investigated Chinese university students’ perceptions of their own English and Global Englishes. According to the findings of the interviews, students gained an understanding of the diversity of English and Global Englishes after taking the course. This course challenges traditional ELT’s deeply ingrained concepts. This study assisted teachers in understanding that the “Native stand” of ELT should be reconsidered. Teachers should develop a Global Englishes-oriented approach and create a curriculum that emphasizes it. Kang (2017) described a US-based TICKET teacher education program for English teachers from China and Korea. The goal is to help teachers to gain confidence in teaching EIL and raise awareness of the diversity of English. For example, one core course, “TICKET 540 cultural and communication”, provided a task-based “Lost-in-New York” intercultural activity. Before their visits, the EIL teachers study intercultural knowledge about New York City; they must complete the assigned tasks during their visits. After their visits, they review the assigned tasks and reflect on their intercultural experience with other teachers. As a result, the “Lost-in-New York” activities effectively develop teachers’ communicative competence and intercultural communicative competence. Rose et al. (2021) conducted a review of Global Englishes pedagogical research in English language education. They examined 38 empirical articles published between 2010 and 2020, and the findings revealed that most research came from Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and the USA. However, further study is needed in China because of the country’s large number of English language learners. They also recommended that future studies on Global Englishes emphasize the impact on students’ beliefs, teachers’ beliefs, and classroom practice. This review has focused on theories and studies on WE, EIL, and Global Englishes from intercultural communication orientation. In the next section, we will look briefly at global learning.

3.2 Global Learning The second section is about the theory and practical research of global learning. This section first describes some concepts about global learning and the global dimension. Then, it introduces some empirical research about global learning from the

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perspectives of teachers, young people, the general public, parents, and business leaders.

3.2.1 Theory of Global Learning According to Guilberme (2015), global learning refers to the contemporary expansion, beyond national borders, of the scope, nature, and role of educational systems due to globalization. It focuses more on the educational practice and the values, attitudes, and skills that intersect with the curriculum. PISA’s conceptual framework for global competence includes knowledge, cognitive skills, social skills, attitudes, and values (OECD, 2018). Hicks (2003) highlighted some key principles and precedents of global education in the U.K. and North America. He identified the “core elements” of “global education” and concluded with a note on the appropriate use of “global” terminology. He pointed out that the key terms about global terminology have different histories and thus distinctly different meanings as outlined here (see Table 3.1). Some studies (e.g., DfES, 2005; Oxfam, 2006) of global awareness have reported evidence that the content of global awareness is related to the global dimension, global learning, and global citizenship education. DfES (2005) provided a framework for the global dimension, which includes eight key concepts: global citizenship, conflict resolution, diversity, human rights, interdependence, social justice, sustainable development, and values and perceptions. The global dimension explores “the interconnections between the local and the global. It builds knowledge and understanding, as well as developing skills and attitudes” (DfES, 2005, p. 1). DfES (2005) described the global dimension’s eight key concepts: • Global Citizenship—Gaining the knowledge, skills, and understanding necessary to become informed, active, responsible citizens; • Social Justice—Understanding the importance of social justice as an element in both sustainable development and the improved welfare of all people; • Sustainable Development—Understanding the need to maintain and improve the quality of life now without damaging the planet for future generations; • Diversity—Understanding and respecting differences and relating these to our common humanity; • Values and Perceptions—Developing a critical evaluation of images of the developing world and an appreciation of the effect these have on people’s attitudes and values; • Interdependence—Understanding how people, places, and environments are all inextricably interrelated and that local events can have repercussions on a global scale; • Conflict Resolution—Understanding how conflicts are a barrier to development and why there is a need for their resolution and the promotion of harmony; and

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Table 3.1 Key terms about global terminology Global education The term used internationally to designate the academic field concerned with teaching and learning about global issues, events, and perspectives. Note: during the 1970s–1980s, this field was known as world studies in the U.K Development education

Originated with the work of NGOs that were concerned about issues of development and north–south relationships. Focus of concern has widened to embrace other global issues but development remains the core concept

Global dimension

Refers to the curriculum taken as a whole and the ethos of a school; those subject elements and cross-curricular concerns that focus on global interdependence, issues, and events

Global perspective(s)

What we want students to achieve as a result of having a global dimension in the curriculum; in the plural refers to the fact that there are different cultural and political perspectives on global matters

International dimension

Literally “between countries”—as in international relationships; also refers to the study of a particular concern, e.g., education, as it manifests in different countries. Note: international refers to the “parts” and “global” to the whole

Global citizenship

That part of the citizenship curriculum which refers to global issues, events, and perspectives; also being or feeling a citizen of the global community (as well as cultural or national communities)

Globalization

The innumerable interconnections—economic, cultural, technological, political—which bind the local and national into a global community; the consequence of neo-liberal economic policies which see everything, including education, as a commodity to be sold in the global marketplace

• Human Rights—Knowing about human rights including the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (pp. 12–13). Oxfam (2008) has argued that the global dimension (DfES, 2005) and global citizenship have the same key elements but with different ways of expressing them. The global dimension usually refers to the eight key concepts in education (i.e., social justice, human rights, conflict, diversity, interdependence, values and perceptions, sustainable development, and global citizenship), whereas global citizenship concerns outcomes in the individual (Oxfam, 2008). In 2007, the Development Education Association (DEA) (now called Think Global) changed the concept of “global dimension” to “global learning”. In the U.K., Think Global promotes global learning, a membership charity that works to educate and engage people about global issues. DEA’s website has defined global learning (thinking globally) as education that puts learning in a global context, learning about the wider world and our dependence on it. Think Global defines global learning as education that puts learning in a global context, fostering: • • • •

critical and creative thinking; self-awareness and open-mindedness toward difference; understanding of global issues and power relationships; and optimism and action for a better world (Hogg & Shah, 2010, p. 2).

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3.2.2 Research on Global Learning In this section, global learning studies are classified into five groups: teachers, young people, the general public, parents, and business leaders. First, several studies have been carried out on teachers’ attitudes to global learning (e.g., Clarke & Drudy, 2006; DEA, 2009; Ipsos MORI, 2009; McCutcheon et al., 2008). Clarke and Drudy (2006) administered a questionnaire to measure 128 pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward teaching for diversity, social justice, and global awareness in Ireland. The findings showed that they would not be able to adequately meet students’ needs in diverse classrooms. McCutcheon et al. (2008) used a questionnaire to explore teachers’ knowledge and attitudes about the global dimension in education at 11 post-primary schools in Northern Ireland. The global dimension in this research can be understood through the eight concepts of global citizenship, conflict resolution, diversity, human rights, interdependence, social justice, sustainable development, values, and perceptions (DfES, 2005). The results showed that most teachers agreed that it is important for pupils to learn about the global dimension in school, and three-quarters of the teachers reported that they were aware of aspects of the global dimension in the revised Northern Ireland Curriculum. Bourn and Hunt (2011) used interviews to explore how 12 teachers in England perceived the term “Global Dimension” and the contribution it makes to their school life. The teachers believed the “Global Dimension” has some common themes: cultural awareness, broadening horizons and equipping pupils with skills, and a values base, to engage critically with global issues. The school introduced the “Global Dimension” in various ways, including school assemblies, curriculum initiatives, out of school clubs, and award programs. In addition, Ipsos MORI (2009) surveyed to investigate teachers’ attitudes to global learning and their confidence in teaching it in the U.K. In particular, the research addressed the following areas: “(a) opinions on the importance of teaching about a range of global issues; (b) opinions on how well the current school system provides global learning; and (c) teachers’ confidence in addressing global issues such as climate change, interdependence between countries and emerging economies” (p. 3). The sample of 3991 teachers included primary and secondary school teachers in England and Wales. A total of 848 participants in England were interviewed. The findings showed that teachers believed it is important to teach global learning in schools, and the school should prepare pupils to deal with a fast-changing and globalized world. Furthermore, most of the teachers agreed that thinking about how teaching contributes to making the world a better place motivates them to stay in teaching. Teachers expressed a strong appetite for developing global learning in school. Ipsos MORI (2009) found that most teachers in England saw global learning as an important aspect of teaching in schools: 94% felt that schools should prepare pupils to deal with a fast-changing and globalized world. In addition, four in five teachers (80%) agreed that thinking about how teaching contributes to making the world a better place motivates them to stay in teaching. Younger, less-established teachers (85% of age 34 and younger) are more likely than older colleagues (77% of age

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45 and older) to express this view. Agreement with this statement is 10% higher than average among teachers in London. Tapping into this sentiment by highlighting and supporting the place of global learning in their day-to-day work may play an important part in attracting people into the profession and in the retention of teachers in the early stages of their careers. However, Ipsos MORI (2009) argued there was a gap between “ideal” and “actual” global learning because some teachers were not confident in teaching complex global issues, such as environmental sustainability or international poverty. The finding showed a large gap between teachers who thought schools should prepare pupils to deal with a fast-changing and globalized world (94%) and those who believed the current school system did this (58%). Only 53% of secondary school teachers agreed that the current system prepared pupils for global learning, and almost a third of teachers (31%) disagreed that the current school system prepared pupils to deal with a fast-changing and globalized world. The reason for the big gap was because of a lack of confidence among teachers in teaching specific global issues. When the teacher discussed global issues, such as the interdependent nature of the world and value differences in the world, they showed less confidence in teaching these specific global issues. For example, only 42% said they were confident in teaching about the impact of emerging economies on life in the U.K., even though 81% thought schools should do this. Recent research has shown that not only teachers supported global learning in schools, but also young people, the general public, parents, and business leaders in the U.K. agreed with teachers about the importance of global learning (e.g., Hogg & Shah, 2010, 2011; ICM, 2011; Ipsos MORI, 2008). Second, global learning can have an impact on young people at school. For example, a survey of young people’s attitudes toward global learning was conducted by Ipsos MORI on behalf of Think Global (Ipsos MORI, 2008). The sample included 315 middle and secondary state school pupils in England, and the age groups in the survey were 11–16 years old. In particular, the survey focused on the following key issues: whether pupils are experiencing global learning in school; whether pupils feel it is important to experience global learning at school; whether pupils believe they have an impact on the world; and whether they do take action to make the world a better place. Findings suggested that experiencing global learning at school impacted young people’s attitudes to global issues in general. In addition, findings suggested that those who have experienced global learning in school are keen to understand more about the problems in the world and believe that what they do in their daily lives can affect those in other countries. They also appear to be more open to people of different backgrounds than those who have not experienced global learning in school and are more likely than average to say that they try to do things to make the world a better place. There is some evidence about young people’s demand for global learning. The findings showed that half of the students had experienced global learning in school, and most of the pupils believed global learning is more important in school. In addition, two-thirds of school children felt they could do something to make the world a better place.

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Third, global learning influences the general public’s attitudes. For example, Hogg and Shah (2010) conducted survey research on behalf of the DEA from Ipsos MORI. The research presented evidence of how global learning can change public attitudes and behaviors toward international development and sustainability in the U.K. The findings showed that the general public agreed that it was important for schools to teach about the wider world. Almost nine in ten (86%) of the British public agreed that global learning in school is crucial if global issues are to be tackled in the future. Fourth, parents support global learning. For example, Hogg and Shah (2011) reported that parents agreed that it is important for the school to help young people to think globally and be responsible global citizens. Hogg and Shah (2011) conducted a YouGov survey of parents’ attitudes toward global learning for their children in school education. It explored 481 parents’ understanding of the role of schools in teaching about global learning. The findings showed that the parents had strong demand for global learning for their children. Parents believed that schools had a crucial role in preparing young people to live in a globalized world. Almost three-quarters of parents agreed that it was important for schools to develop young people’s abilities to think globally (71%) and be responsible global citizens (72%). In addition, parents believed schools should be doing more to prepare young people to think globally and live in a globalized world (49%). Parents saw global citizenship as important to their children’s identities. Threequarters of parents thought it was important for young people to develop the capabilities they would need to live and work in a globalized world. In addition, the parents were concerned about the future of the country. In the survey, the parents were asked questions about what the world would be like in 2050. They responded that the wealth gap between rich and poor would be wider than it was now (76%); the world would have been seriously affected by climate change (58%); there would be more racism in the world (43%); and Britain would be less welcoming to immigrants (67%). The parents were also concerned about the impact of climate change on the world. Two-fifths (40%) of parents were concerned that their children would not be prepared for working in a global economy with the rise of China and India. This research showed that parents of children under 18 in the U.K. wanted the school to prepare them to think globally and be global citizens. The researchers concluded that the parents’ views provided compelling support for schools focusing on teaching and learning about the wider world. The authors hoped that the findings could support schools and teachers in teaching about the emerging world. Finally, business leaders emphasize the importance of global learning. A survey of about 500 senior business leaders indicated that they viewed global thinking as an important skill for young people to acquire. ICM Research conducted the study on behalf of Think Global and the British Council (ICM, 2011). The study aimed to gauge the extent to which business leaders see global thinking as an important skill. Further findings include: • For job seekers, knowledge and awareness of the wider world are more important than degree classification or A-levels.

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• Three-quarters of businesses think we are in danger of being left behind by emerging countries unless young people learn to think more globally and are worried that many young people’s horizons are not broad enough to operate in a globalized and multicultural economy. • The vast majority of businesses think it is important for schools to be helping young people to think more globally and lead more sustainable lives, and four-fifths think schools should be doing more. • Those businesses for which at least three-quarters of their trade is with people from another culture find it significantly harder to recruit employees with the right skill sets than less globally-oriented businesses (ICM, 2011, p. 3). The authors concluded that the global economy demands global thinking. The research suggested that schools require coordinated support from business, government, and civil society. Business and civil society should invest in school-based programs to encourage global thinking. In summary, the evidence highlighted above from teachers, young people, the general public, parents, and business leaders suggests that global learning for young people is an important component of school education. Schools should prepare young people to become global citizens. In the above two sections, we have reviewed global Englishes and global learning from theories to practice. In the following section, the concept of teacher cognition is reviewed and empirical studies about teachers’ classroom practices are explored.

3.3 Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices In this section, we focus on introducing the concept of teacher cognition. We introduce Borg’s (2003) conceptual framework of teacher cognition. We also review important empirical research about teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding language teaching.

3.3.1 Concept of Teacher Cognition Borg (2006) argued that teacher cognition concerns understanding what teachers think, know, and believe, and how these relate to what teachers do. Borg’s (2003) conceptual framework of teacher cognition (Fig. 3.1) consisted of five factors: teacher cognition, schooling, professional coursework, contextual factors, and classroom practices. First, “teacher cognition” was defined as an “unobservable dimension of teaching—what teachers know, believe, and think” (Borg, 2003, p. 81). Teacher cognition includes “beliefs, knowledge, theories, attitudes, images, assumptions, metaphors, conceptions, and perspectives” (Borg, 2003, p. 82).

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3 Global Englishes, Global Learning, and Teacher Cognition Schooling

Professional

TEACHER COGNITION

Contextual Factors

Classroom Practice

Fig. 3.1 Teacher cognition, schooling, professional education, and classroom practice (Borg, 2003, p. 82)

Second, “schooling” refers to “extensive experience of classroom which defines early cognitions and shapes teachers’ perceptions of initial training” (Borg, 2003, p. 82). Borg mentioned that “teachers’ prior language learning experiences establish cognitions about learning and language learning which form the bases of their initial conceptualizations of L2 teaching during teacher education, and which may continue to be influential throughout their professional lives” (p. 88). Third, “professional coursework” refers to the experience in both pre- and inservice teacher training programs. Professional coursework “may affect existing cognitions although especially when unacknowledged, these may limit its impact” (Borg, 2003, p. 82). Fourth, “contextual factors” can be defined as school and classroom conditions and conditions of the society or the community in which the school is situated. Contextual factors “influence practice either by modifying cognitions or else directly, in which case incongruence between cognition and practice may result” (Borg, 2003, p. 82). Fifth, “classroom practice” refers to teaching experiences that include practice teaching. Borg (2003) mentioned that classroom practice is “defined by the interaction of cognitions and contextual factors”, and “classroom experience influences cognitions unconsciously and/or through conscious reflection” (p. 82). Based on Borg’s (2003) conceptual framework of teacher cognition, Nishino (2012) tested a path model called “the Conceptual Model of Teacher Beliefs and Practices” in Japan. Nishino (2012) investigated the relationship between Japanese high school teachers’ beliefs, their practices, and socio-educational factors regarding communicative language teaching (CLT) using a multi-method approach including a survey, interviews, and class observation. The Final Path Model of Teacher Beliefs and Practices indicated that “Student-Related Communicative Conditions directly impacted Classroom Practices, Positive CLT Beliefs indirectly influenced Classroom Practices via CLT Self-Efficacy, and Exam-Related Expectations both directly and indirectly affected Classroom Practices” (Nishino, 2012, p. 380). Qualitative findings

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from the interviews and observations revealed that “the participants’ learning experiences, in-service training, and contextual factors (e.g., college entrance examination) influenced their beliefs and practices” (Nishino, 2012, p. 380). Borg (2009) summarized the nature of teacher cognition and its relationship to what teachers do: • Teachers’ cognitions can be powerfully influenced by their own experiences as learners; • These cognitions influence what and how teachers learn during teacher education; • They act as a filter through which teachers interpret new information and experience; • They may outweigh the effects of teacher education in influencing what teachers do in the classroom; • They can be deep-rooted and resistant to change; • They can exert a persistent long-term influence on teachers’ instructional practices; • They are, at the same time, not always reflected in what teachers do in the classroom; • They interact bi-directionally with experience (i.e., beliefs influence practices but practices can also lead to changes in beliefs) (p. 3).

3.3.2 Studies of Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices In the following section, I review some empirical research about language teachers’ beliefs and practices. The review themes included grammatical teaching, communicative competence, communicative language teaching (CLT), and other topics in language education. Then, I examine the relationship between teachers’ beliefs, practices, and other factors. Borg (2011a) reviewed the field of language teacher education (LTE) through an analysis of research published in six applied linguistics journals from 2005 to 2009. He found six themes which currently characterize language teacher education: teacher cognition, the knowledge base for language teacher education, knowledge about language, reflective practice, the practicum, and teacher research. He also highlighted three additional themes in language teacher education that merit further attention: teacher educator development, novice teachers, and teacher expertise. He concluded that research outputs about language teacher education were not currently particularly high. Furthermore, he gave two suggestions about future directions: “One is the need for an international cross-sector review of what is known about language teacher education, the second called for the development and implementation of systematic programmers of language teacher education (LTE) research on a broad range of fundamental issues” (pp. 223–224). Farrell and Patricia (2005) conducted a case study to investigate teachers’ beliefs and practices about grammar teaching in a primary school in Singapore. Research questions addressed the two teachers’ beliefs about the way grammar should be taught

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and their actual classroom practices of teaching grammar. The participants were two experienced English language teachers. The data collection of the qualitative case study included interviews, observations, and students’ written work. The findings suggested that “teachers do indeed have a set of complex belief systems that are sometimes not reflected in their classroom practices for various complicated reasons, some directly related to context of teaching” (p. 10). External factors can mediate language teachers’ beliefs about learning and teaching. Teachers’ beliefs can also affect how they acquire new knowledge. It can help to understand teachers’ teaching process to research the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and practices. Phipps and Borg (2009) explored tensions in the grammar teaching beliefs and practices of teachers in Turkey. The authors found that there were tensions between teachers’ beliefs and practices. Three main concepts were found to lead to the tension: presenting grammar, controlled grammar practice, and group work for grammar practice. Teachers’ reasons for the disconnect between their beliefs and practices included students’ expectations, ideal ways to promote students’ paying attention, and classroom management issues. The findings showed that teachers’ core beliefs were most influential in shaping teachers’ instructional decisions, and it allowed for more complex understandings of tensions in teachers’ work. The authors concluded that it was not enough for teacher cognition research to identify differences, or tensions, between teachers’ beliefs and practices. Qualitative research methods would be more productive in exploring the relationship between language teachers’ beliefs and actual practices. They suggested that teacher education programs would do well if participants could be encouraged to explore their beliefs, practices, and the links between them. Though teachers’ beliefs have impacted their pedagogical practices in the classroom, not a single in-depth study about teachers’ cognition has ever been conducted in Vietnamese state secondary schools. In order to bridge this research gap, Le (2011) conducted a qualitative case study to explore the beliefs of eight teachers and their practices regarding grammar instruction at Vietnamese state secondary schools. The findings showed that teachers had a strong interest in adopting a deductive approach to grammar with students memorizing grammatical rules and terminology through doing controlled grammar exercises in a textbook as the best way of learning grammar. However, neither teachers’ beliefs nor practices were related to the theory of second language acquisition research or the methodology promoted in the prescribed curriculum. Findings also suggested that while teachers’ beliefs were affected by multiple contextual factors, teachers’ teaching experiences played the most influential role. Teachers’ beliefs constituted their theories for practice, shaping teaching contents and methods. The author concluded that this case study significantly contributed to understanding the beliefs and practices of the teachers. Nazari (2007) researched three EFL teachers’ perceptions of the concept of communicative competence at a high school in Iran. The author found that some high school EFL teachers had an indistinct view of the concept of communicative competence and did not seem to distinguish between the border and narrower meaning. The observation data showed that teachers’ teaching practices tended toward narrow views. The teachers’ beliefs were affected by institutional constraints and teachers’

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lack of distinction between the two concepts of communicative competence. The author concluded that the study could raise high school EFL teachers’ awareness of different meanings and dimensions of communicative competence and improve teachers’ teaching practices. Nishino (2009) investigated 139 Japanese high teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding communicative language teaching (CLT). The results showed that the participants held positive beliefs about CLT. The types of schools did not significantly influence the teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding CLT. The qualitative results showed that participants held multiple beliefs about the educational goals of the English course and superficially conflicting beliefs about teaching methodologies. The classroom practices reflected various beliefs; the teachers occasionally provided communicative activities in translation. The teacher belief path model showed that CLT beliefs had a weak effect in the classroom. Nishino (2009) gave some implications for teacher educators and MEXT: the need to understand the high school teachers’ teaching context should not require teachers to completely change their practices and reconsider the second stage examination system. There was a gap between teachers’ beliefs and practices. Nishino (2009) suggested that the educational context and in-service teacher education need to be re-examined for CLT to become a more widely implemented practice in Japanese high schools. Nagamine (2012) researched a junior high school teacher’s perceptions of CLT through a grounded theory approach in Japan. The findings showed that the participant felt that the students’ and their parents’ expectations were not to improve communicative competence but to raise scores on written exams. The school did not support young teachers in employing CLT. The participant could not tell what CLT was, and he did not know how to conduct classes communicatively. The author suggested that pre-service and in-service teachers should be allowed to have authentic communicative competence. Most educators in Singapore believe that using Singlish in the class should not be encouraged, but they might not be a reliable guide to what happens in the classroom. Farrell and Kun (2008) researched the impact of language policy on the beliefs and practices of three primary school teachers concerning the use of Singlish. The findings showed that all three teachers were confused about the language policies advocating Standard Singapore English. The study indicated that teachers’ reactions to language policy are complex, and it is critical to understand the role teachers play in language policy implementation. They advised that Singapore’s language policymakers should offer clear guidelines to trainee teachers on implementing Standard English practically in all Singapore classrooms. Using questionnaires and interviews, Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012) conducted a project to study the beliefs and reported practices regarding learner autonomy of 61 teachers of English at a large university language center in Oman. Most of these teachers conceptualized learner autonomy as it involved learners having the freedom and/or ability to make choices and decisions. Teachers agreed that learner autonomy positively affects success as a language learner, and learner autonomy allows language learners to learn more effectively. Teachers were more positive about the desirability of student involvement than they were about its feasibility. 79.6%

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of teachers felt they promoted learner autonomy with their students. The challenges identified by teachers in promoting learner autonomy can be grouped into learner factors, institutional factors, and teacher factors. Sato and Kleinsasser (2004) researched teachers’ beliefs, practices, and interactions in an English department at a Japanese school. The participants said examination-oriented English influenced learners’ learning and teachers’ teaching methods. Most of the teachers emphasized grammar explanation and JapaneseEnglish translations. Although some teachers tried new teaching ideas and assessments, their few innovative teaching experiences were little shared with other teachers. The findings showed that most teachers had no recent experiences with workshops and lacked learning opportunities. The findings further showed that the school’s culture influences an individual’s beliefs, practices, and interactions more than an individual’s beliefs, practices, and interactions influence a school’s culture. The author suggested that teachers’ learning environment influenced their beliefs and practice of teaching. Teacher education impacts teachers’ beliefs: however, the research on in-service teacher education was less explored. Therefore, Borg (2011b) conducted a qualitative longitudinal study to examine the impact of in-service teacher education programs in the U.K. on the beliefs of six English language teachers. The data collection method was semi-structured interviews, coursework, and tutor feedback. The finding showed that the program considerably impacted the teachers’ beliefs. It was also possible for the teachers to be engaged in a more sustained and productive examination of their beliefs. The author gave eight recommendations for in-service teacher education. Through observation and semi-structured interviews, Zheng and Borg (2013) explored three Chinese secondary school teachers of English’s beliefs and practices about task-based language teaching (TBLT). The findings showed that the common understanding of tasks involved communicative works, especially speaking activities in pairs or groups. The findings also showed that two more experienced teachers introduced a more vital grammar work element than recommended by the curriculum. The study examined the factors which shaped the teacher’s implementation of TBLT, and all the teachers were influenced by curriculum materials and guided by their teachers’ books. Their beliefs about language teaching and learning aspects like the importance of grammar or speaking also shaped teachers’ decisions about implementing the curriculum. In addition, contextual factors influence teachers, such as large classes, low proficiency or mixed ability students, time pressures, and examinations. Based on the findings, the authors suggested that teachers of English in secondary schools in China may benefit from opportunities to deepen their understanding of TBLT. Farrell and Bennis (2013) presented a case study to investigate and compare ESL teacher beliefs and classroom practice regarding grammar teaching. One experienced and one novice English language teacher in a private language academy in Canada participated in the study. The survey, interview, and classroom observation were used in this study. The findings showed that teachers possess a set of complex beliefs that are not always realized in classroom practices for some potential reasons. In addition, the study showed that language teachers’ need to be challenged to reflect on their existing beliefs and classroom teaching practices.

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Farrell and Ives (2015) conducted a case study to examine the relationships between one ESL teacher’s beliefs and practices about L2 reading. The participant is a novice male ESL teacher in a university language school in Canada. The findings suggest that the teacher’s beliefs mainly converged with his classroom practices. The findings also indicate that talking, writing, and observing classes contribute to his exploration of teacher beliefs and classroom practices. Borg and Alshumaimeri (2017) conducted a questionnaire to examine teachers’ beliefs and practices about language learner autonomy. 359 teachers of English working on a preparatory year English language program at a university in Saudi Arabia participated in this study. The study showed that teachers associated learner autonomy with notions of independence and control; they believed it was a desirable goal to promote learner autonomy, and they tried to achieve this goal in teaching practices. Based on the findings, the authors recommended using mixed research methods to analyze teachers’ beliefs and practices in broader social-culture, intercultural, professional, occupational, and institutional contexts for teaching and learning.

3.4 Conclusion In this chapter, we focused on global Englishes, global learning, and teacher cognition’s concepts and studies. We began with the concepts of WE, EIL, and Global Englishes and then looked at how they relate to intercultural communication. We also examined several empirical studies on teacher and student perspectives, as well as teacher education programs. We then turned our attention to global learning. According to the findings of the studies on teachers, young people, the general public, parents, and business leaders, global learning is an important component of school education for preparing young people to become global citizens. Finally, we discussed Borg’s (2003) conceptual framework of teacher cognition and how it applies to research in grammatical teaching, communicative competence, and CLT. In Chapter 4, we will explore studies on global awareness, intercultural communicative competence (ICC), and global citizenship in the context of Chinese foreign language education.

References Baker, W. (2015). Culture and identity through English as a Lingua Franca: Rethinking concepts and goals in intercultural communication. De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/978150 1502149 Baker, W. (2022). From intercultural to transcultural communication. Language and Intercultural Communication, 22(3), 280–293. Baker, W., & Ishikawa, T. (2021). Transcultural communication through Global Englishes: An advanced textbook for students. Routledge.

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Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language Teaching, 36(2), 81–109. Borg, S. (2006). Teacher cognition and language education: Research and practice. Continuum. Borg, S. (2009). Introducing language teacher cognition. http://www.education.leeds.ac.uk/res earch/files/145.pdf Borg, S. (2011a). Language teacher education. In J. Simpson (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of applied linguistics (pp. 215–228). Routledge. Borg, S. (2011b). The impact of in-service teacher education on language teachers’ beliefs. System, 39(3), 370–380. Borg, S., & Al-Busaidi, S. (2012). Learner autonomy: English language teachers’ beliefs and practices. The British Council. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/publications Borg, S., & Alshumaimeri, Y. (2017). Language learner autonomy in a tertiary context: Teachers’ beliefs and practices. Language Teaching Research, 23(1), 9–38. Bourn, D., & Hunt, F. (2011). Global dimension in secondary schools (DERC Research Paper, No. 1). http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/nscentre/ge/GE_Newsletter/GEN76-ResearchReport1-DERC.pdf Clarke, M., & Drudy, S. (2006). Teaching for diversity, social justice and global awareness. European Journal of Teacher Education, 29(3), 371–386. Department for Education and Skills (DfES). (2005). Developing a global dimension in the school curriculum. DfES Publications. Development Education Association (DEA). (2009). Teachers’ attitudes to global learning: An Ipsos MORI research study on behalf of DEA. DEA. Fang, F., & Ren, W. (2018). Developing students’ awareness of Global Englishes. ELT Journal, 72(4), 384–394. Farrell, T. S. C., & Bennis, K. (2013). Reflecting on ESL teacher beliefs and classroom practices: A case study. RELC Journal, 44(2), 163–176. Farrell, T. S. C., & Ives, J. (2015). Exploring teacher beliefs and classroom practices through reflective practice: A case study. Language Teaching Research, 19(5), 594–610. Farrell, T. S. C., & Kun, S. T. K. (2008). Language policy, language teachers’ beliefs, and classroom practices. Applied Linguistics, 29(3), 381–403. Farrell, T., & Patricia, L. (2005). Conceptions of grammar teaching: A case study of teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices. TESL-EJ, 9(2), 1–13. Guilherme, M. (2015). Global learning. In J. Bennett (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of intercultural competence (pp. 361–362). Sage. Hicks, D. (2003). Thirty years of global education: A reminder of key principles and precedents. Educational Review, 55(3), 265–275. Hogg, M., & Shah, H. (2010). The impact of global learning on public attitudes and behaviours towards international development and sustainability. http://clients.squareeye.net/uploads/dea/ documents/Impact_of_global_learning_research_paper_web.pdf Hogg, M., & Shah, H. (2011). What parents want: The role of schools in teaching about the wider world. http://clients.squareeye.net/uploads/dea/documents/Parents_screen.pdf ICM. (2011). The global skills gap: Preparing young people for the new global economy. http://cli ents.squareeye.net/uploads/dea/documents/BusinessPoll_online_TG.pdf Ipsos MORI. (2008). Young people’s experiences of global learning. http://clients.squareeye.net/ uploads/dea/documents/Ipsos_MORI.pdf Ipsos MORI. (2009). Teachers’ attitudes to global learning. http://clients.squareeye.net/uploads/ dea/documents/dea_teachers_MORI_mar_09.pdf Kachru, B. (1992). The other tongue: English across cultures. University of Illinois Press. Kachru, B. B., Kachru, Y., & Nelson, C. L. (Eds.). (2006). The handbook of world Englishes. Blackwell. Kang, S. Y. (2017). US-based teacher education program for ‘local’ EIL teachers. Preparing teachers to teach English as an international language. In A. Matsuda (Ed.), Preparing teachers to teach English as an international language (pp. 51–68). Multilingual Matters.

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Chapter 4

Global Awareness and Intercultural Language Teaching in China

In Chapters 2 and 3, I examined the theoretical foundations of global awareness, intercultural communicative competence (ICC), and global citizenship in language education, with a particular emphasis on language teacher cognition. In this chapter, I look at studies on the above theories in the Chinese setting. I begin by looking at global awareness and ICC in the Chinese school curriculum. In section two, I investigate Chinese perspectives on global awareness from several study fields, including theory research, economic development, political theory education, and historical research. Section three focuses on contemporary ICC models in foreign language instruction. In section four, I explore language teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding intercultural language teaching in the Chinese setting after reviewing ICC models. Finally, I will examine Chinese research on citizenship education, global citizenship education, and intercultural citizenship education.

4.1 Global Awareness and ICC in School Curriculum in China The new Chinese College English Curriculum Guidance was published in 2017. It aims to educate students to become people with Chinese identity, global awareness, and intercultural communicative competence. It states that the objective of College English is to develop students’ ability to use English, enhance their intercultural awareness and communicative competence, and at the same time develop their ability to study independently and improve their general cultural awareness so that they can meet the needs of their country and society. The curriculum includes three parts: English for General Purposes, English for Specific Purposes, and Intercultural

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 H. Jing, Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education, Intercultural Communication and Language Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4179-7_4

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Communication. This new guidance will influence Chinese high schools’ curriculum standards and English teaching. In the 2020 vision of Chinese College English Curriculum Guidance (MOE, 2020), intercultural communicative competence (ICC) is defined as: Respect for the world’s cultural diversity, having intercultural empathy and critical cultural awareness; having basic knowledge of intercultural theories and analytical methods, understanding the basic characteristics and similarities as well as differences between Chinese and foreign cultures; being able to interpret and evaluate different cultural phenomena, texts and artefacts; being able to communicate effectively and appropriately across cultures; being able to help people from different cultural backgrounds to communicate effectively. (Holmes et al., 2022, p. 3)

Furthermore, critical thinking was added as one objective in addition to language knowledge and skills, learning strategies, and intercultural communicative competence. Although the definition of ICC is defined in the curriculum guidelines, Holmes et al. (2022) are critical of it because it lacks the theoretical framework, and “the local operation of these official policies depends largely on the stakeholders’ own understanding and experiences of interculturality in the context of Chinese higher education” (p. 4). In 2001, senior and junior middle school English curriculum standards emphasized global awareness and intercultural communicative competence. According to the Chinese Ministry of Education’s (MOE, 2001) National English Curriculum Standards for Full-time Nine-Year Compulsory Education and Senior Middle Schools (Experimental Version), the goal of English education at the basic stage is to develop students’ comprehensive language competence, which includes language skills, language knowledge, emotion and attitudes, learning strategy, and cultural awareness. Cultural awareness was discussed in greater depth at each level. According to the documents, the eighth level of cultural awareness is to develop global awareness through learning English and world culture. The total descriptions of the eighth and ninth level objectives are: to know cultural concepts and background in communication; to have respect and tolerant attitudes to other countries’ cultures; to be concerned about current events; and to have stronger global awareness. In addition, the curriculum aims to develop intercultural awareness and basic intercultural communicative competence and to broaden international perspectives. The international perspective is one aspect of emotions and attitudes. The curriculum goal is the same in the following two editions of English curriculum standards: Senior Middle School English Curriculum Standards (For Experiment) (MOE, 2003) and English Curriculum Standards for Nine-Year Compulsory Education (2011 Edition) (MOE, 2012). MOE (2018) published the 2017 edition’s Senior Middle School English Curriculum Standards. The general goals of high school English subjects are “to fully apply the government’s guidelines for whole-person education, to practice the socialist core values, to implement the mission of fostering virtue through education, to help students become responsible citizens with cross-cultural competence, global vision along with passion for the local, and to enable all students to become qualified socialist builders and successors” (Wang & Luo, 2019, p. 8).

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The special goal of English as a subject is set as four core competencies: language ability, cultural awareness, thinking skills, and learning capacity. Cultural awareness is described as follows: Cultural awareness consists of an understanding of Chinese and foreign cultures, recognition of cultures of excellence. It also includes their cross-cultural cognition, attitudes and behaviors which students demonstrate in the globalized world. Cultural awareness reflects value orientation of the English subject core competencies. The development of cultural awareness helps students to enhance their national identity and patriotism, increase their cultural confidence, cultivate a sense of a community with shared future for mankind, learn to enhance self-cultivation and function properly in society, and thus become educated and responsible persons. (Wang & Luo, 2019, p. 8)

The course content includes six elements in the 2017 edition’s English curriculum standards. They are (1) theme contexts; (2) text types; (3) language knowledge; (4) cultural knowledge; (5) language skills; (6) learning strategies. The content of cultural knowledge is described as follows: Cultural knowledge refers to the material and spiritual aspects of different cultures, also including wisdoms and values both at home and abroad. To acquire cultural knowledge, students need not only to obtain the knowledge but also to understand its cultural connotations, and compare cultural differences while exploring cultural origins and contexts in one’s own culture and in other cultures. Cultural knowledge fosters a better sense of identity and helps students develop cultural understandings in the process of language learning. Cultural knowledge covers both material and nonmaterial aspects. The material aspect includes food, clothes, architecture, infrastructure, and technological inventions, while the nonmaterial aspect includes philosophy, science, education, history, literature, art, values, morality, aesthetic taste, social conventions, and customs. A good understanding of different cultures is a core competence that enables students to spread Chinese culture and promote intercultural communication. The aim of cultural knowledge learning is to strengthen the understanding of Chinese culture, to foster virtue and correct values, and to help students become well-cultured citizens with knowledge and social responsibility (Wang & Luo, 2019, p. 15).

In the statements about cultural knowledge, the benefits of cultural learning are connected to spreading Chinese culture, developing intercultural communication, and then educating students to be responsible citizens. We can see that the curriculum in the 2017 edition is different from the previous three editions in 2001, 2003, and 2011. However, cultural awareness is still one crucial component in all the editions’ English curriculum standards. In addition, in the 2022 edition’s Middle School English Curriculum Standard (MOE, 2022), the four core competencies are the English subject’s goals. Global awareness is one particular goal in the development of cultural awareness. Global awareness is also mentioned in Hong Kong’s educational curriculum. Lee and Leung (2006) pointed out that in more recent curriculum reforms in Hong Kong, various newly developed curriculum documents invariably mentioned the need to cultivate global awareness. For example, the reform blueprint document “Learning for Life, Learning through Life” mentions it. In addition, the cultivation of global

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awareness is suggested in “A Message from the Chairman of the Curriculum Development Council” in the document “Learning to Learn” and is also highlighted in the Summary Section.

4.2 Chinese Perspectives on Global Awareness “Global awareness” was mentioned in different fields of human science, such as economy, history, geography, and literature in China. The importance of global awareness has recently been stressed in these different fields in China. However, what is global awareness? There is no unified framework or model. This section aims to critically review Chinese perspectives on global awareness. “Global awareness” can be translated into different terms in Chinese, such as “world awareness” and “international awareness”. “Global awareness” is often used more than other terms. Many scholars have explained their perspectives on global awareness from different research fields, such as theory research, economic development, political theory education, and historical research. First, Chinese researchers have explored the concept of global awareness and expressed their understanding of the term. For example, Qiu (1994) stated that global awareness includes coexistence consciousness, living consciousness, peace awareness, development, and cooperation awareness. He also pointed out the practical significance of global awareness. Global awareness can guide people to recognize and reform correctly. Zhang (2004) asserted that global awareness includes all people’s concerted awareness, human living consciousness, human international peace awareness, and human development awareness. Feng (2006) noted that the content of global awareness includes (a) knowing international society, (b) major countries’ national conditions, (c) China’s position in international society, and (d) Chinese citizens’ behavior and attitude in international communication. Wang (2009) claimed that global awareness is to recognize and understand transnational and international business. One needs to understand international conditions, the development tendency of the world, the different countries’ characters, cultural backgrounds, and development conditions; one needs to know how to live in harmony with different countries. Wang remarked that international awareness includes how China sees the world and how to make the world understand China better. Many scholars have stated their perspectives on global awareness. They have described it from the concept, content, significance, and development. From the scholars’ definitions of global awareness, we can see that the concept of global awareness is based on China’s national situation. They have considered the relationship between China and the world. However, these articles are mainly essays and library research. They need more empirical data to support their arguments. Second, global awareness can be linked with economic development. Many scholars have stated that enhancing global awareness can develop China’s economic globalization. For example, Lin (1994) claimed that global awareness is a global strategic vision and considers problems worldwide. Lin remarked that enhancing

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global awareness aims to develop China’s economic internationalization. Lin suggested some ways to enhance global awareness, which are (a) to participate in the practice of market economy, (b) to be familiar with national conditions and understand the world, and (c) to learn and obey the rules and conventions of the international economy. Shi (2001) noted the relationship between economic integration and global awareness. He claimed that a basic principle of global awareness is to keep harmony and respect diversity and the coexistence of multiple cultures. The principle of global culture combines global awareness and consciousness of seeking Chinese culture. Wang (2008) examined the relationship between the 2008 Beijing Olympics and global awareness and argued that it is critical to raise awareness of the importance of living with foreigners with equity, communication, and cooperation. He suggested some ways to develop global awareness, which are (a) to protect tropical rainforests and the ozone layer and (b) to protect the earth’s resources and environment. He concluded that the global awareness that one Chinese person need is to go into the world with the Olympic spirit. From the arguments of Chinese scholars, we can see that global awareness is important for China’s economic development. Third, some studies showed that global awareness was related to political theory education. The public political theory course at university is one of the most important courses. This course includes Marxist philosophy, Marxist political economy, Deng Xiaoping Theory, Mao Zedong Thought, ideology morality, and law. Some studies (e.g., Gu, 2003; Liang, 2008; Wei, 2004) stated that global awareness should connect with patriotic education and national spirit. They suggested developing global awareness in a public political theory course at the university. Gu (2003) argued that in a globalized society, we must foster scientific global awareness, patriotism, cultivation of awareness, and innovation awareness. Wei (2004) claimed that the university should put the connotation of international awareness into the national spirit. He suggested (a) teaching international awareness in political education, (b) building campus culture with international awareness education, (c) organizing international activities, and (d) using the Internet for international awareness education. Liang (2008) argued for developing university students’ global awareness of political education. Furthermore, several studies (e.g., Chen, 2005; Han, 1997; Li, 2009; Sun, 1998) claimed that global awareness was embodied in Deng Xiaoping Theory. Chen (2005) researched the global awareness of this theory, suggesting that Deng Xiaoping’s global awareness was mainly embodied in his theory about China’s foreign policy of peaceful coexistence, the issues of the reunification of the motherland, and reforms and openness policy. In addition, Chen noted that Deng Xiaoping’s study abroad and visit abroad experiences promoted the development of his global awareness. Lastly, some researchers have researched the global awareness of historical figures in China. Some historical figures touched on global awareness in the historical figure periods, such as Guo Songtao (a Chinese diplomat and statesman during the Qing dynasty) and Zheng He (China’s greatest explorer, mariner, and navigator). For example, Cheng (2003) researched the reasons behind Guo Songtao’s global awareness, suggesting that his global awareness development was through his learning Western knowledge from books and magazines. Zhao (2003) pointed

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out that Chinese people’s research of Zheng He reflected global awareness. Zheng He’s overseas exploration activities proved that he was a predecessor who had global awareness. You and Wei (2007) researched the world consciousness of important Chinese historians in the early twentieth century, like Li Dazhao, Hu Zhefu, and Liang Qichao, who introduced Chinese history to the world and explored the characteristics of Chinese history by comparing China and Western countries. Their world consciousness has influenced and shaped modern Chinese historiography from theory to methods, language, genres, and teaching. From the analysis of historical figures’ global awareness, we can see that the term “global awareness” is not the product of modern society; it has existed throughout Chinese history. Chinese historical figures had strong global awareness. Their global awareness improved the development of society and human civilization. In sum, we can see many themes emerge from the analysis of “global awareness” in the different research fields highlighted above. “Global awareness” was mentioned in economics, history, geography, and literature. Numerous experts shared their perspectives on global awareness from a variety of research disciplines. Although the scholars examined the concept of global awareness, the majority of their research consisted of library research. It is tough for educators and teachers to build global awareness in practice since I was unable to locate many empirical research studies and a unified definition of global awareness that is acceptable to the majority of people. Most scholars have expressed their thoughts and recommendations, but their views of global awareness are neither systematic, nor are their recommendations based on actual practice. It is difficult to determine whether their proposals are accurate or practical. In addition, the researchers did not provide any feedback in response to the suggestions. Therefore, empirical research is required, particularly for quantitative and qualitative studies. Since the concept has not been precisely defined, it must be investigated using grounded theory in order to build a model. Furthermore, I recommend conducting more qualitative research via interviews and observations. Only in this way can empirical data be used to describe people’s perspectives.

4.3 Models of Intercultural Communicative Competence in China Ten years ago, language education researchers were investigating models of ICC within the Chinese context. There are three types of ICC models which provide detailed competences, such as the models for students’ ICC (e.g., Chen & An, 2009; Peng & Wu, 2016; Wu et al., 2013; Zhang & Yao, 2020), models or principles for intercultural language teaching (e.g., Peng et al., 2020; Sun, 2019; Zhang & Wu, 2022), and models of ICC from the perspective of intercultural experts and Chinese teachers (e.g., Dai, 2022; Suo & Kulich, 2019).

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The first type of ICC model focuses on the assessment of students’ ICC. For example, Chen and An (2009) proposed a model of Chinese leadership competence based on Chinese philosophical assumptions: yin and yang or Tai Chi. The model comprises three dimensions: self-cultivation, culture profundity, and action dexterity. Self-cultivation is “a process of transforming and moving the leader from the lower to the higher level of the developmental ladder of leadership competence” (Chen & An, 2009, p. 200). Context profundity requires the leaders “to broaden and expand their perspectives by eliminating biases or stereotypes toward those of cultural others” (Chen & An, 2009, p. 201). Finally, action dexterity refers to “the leader’s ability to appropriately and effectively initiate, maintain, and terminate verbal and nonverbal interaction” (Chen & An, 2009, p. 202). When comparing US or Western models of intercultural communication competence, Chen and An’s (2009) model clearly reflects “an orientation toward the Chinese culture specifically and Asian cultures in general” (p. 202). A series of studies conducted by Peng and his colleagues (Fan et al., 2013; Peng & Wu, 2016; Peng et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2013) was part of an assessment on research on Chinese college students’ ICC. Wu et al. (2013) developed an assessment tool for measuring Chinese college students’ intercultural communicative competence. The tool consists of six factors: knowledge of self, knowledge of others, intercultural attitude, intercultural communication skills, intercultural cognitive skills, and intercultural awareness. The six factors have varying influences on the measurement. The most important factor is knowledge of others, followed by intercultural communication skills. Intercultural cognitive skills are quite weak, and intercultural awareness is the weakest. Furthermore, using the above ICC assessment tool, Fan et al. (2013) surveyed and interviewed Chinese college students and discovered that (1) Chinese college students believe that they lack knowledge of foreign cultures, such as basic standards and behavior; (2) they do not like to adjust their behavior to adapt to foreigners; (3) the intercultural abilities are weak to communicate successfully in English; and (4) they are unaware of the reasons for foreigners’ attitudes toward them and stereotypes. Peng and Wu (2016) developed a conceptual model and dimension scale of intercultural contact among Chinese college students. They investigated the six intercultural contact pathways used by Chinese college students and their significance in terms of intercultural competence. According to the survey, domestic social media is comparatively most significant, foreign social media is relatively more important, foreign intercultural communication activities are generally important, and domestic intercultural communication activities are relatively least essential. Cultural products are rather crucial for the two intercultural indirect contact pathways, and multimedia and courses are generally important. Zhang and Yao (2020) proposed an Integrated Model for Chinese Students’ Intercultural Competence Development (IMCSICD) based on a “4-3-2-1” theoretical framework, which includes four perspectives, three dimensions, two contexts, and one platform. This model can support theoretical and pedagogical guidelines for intercultural competence development in foreign language education. They also tested the model’s applicability and effectiveness in an English course at a junior high school

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using an IMCSICD teaching experiment. The results improved that students’ enthusiasm to learn English and culture has increased due to participating in intercultural activities. The second type of ICC model may indeed facilitate processes beneficial to intercultural foreign language teaching. In China, critical thinking is a core competence in the “National Standard for Undergraduate Teaching Quality of Foreign Language and Literature Colleges and Universities”. Sun (2019) proposes eight critical thinking teaching principles in language teaching in Chinese higher education: Targeting, Evaluating, Routinizing, Reflecting, Inquiring, Fulfilling, Integrating, and Content (TERRIFIC). These teaching principles are intended to provide strategies for the teaching design of the language and critical thinking integrated instruction. Peng et al. (2020) proposed a theoretical and practical model for intercultural foreign language teaching in China. The theoretical model has three layers: the platform (foreign language curriculum), forms (experiential learning, analytical learning, and interactive learning), and competence (intercultural competence). The practical model includes six components, including teaching objectives, teaching principles, teaching strategies, teaching procedures, teaching activities, and teaching assessment. Similarly, Zhang and Wu (2022) proposed a framework of reference for intercultural competence teaching in China’s foreign language education. The framework is divided into three dimensions and nine components, which are knowledge (foreign cultural knowledge, Chinese cultural knowledge, general cultural knowledge), attitudes (cultural awareness, national identity, global mindedness), and skills (intercultural experiencing, intercultural dialogue, intercultural exploration). In addition, it presents gradient descriptions of the content goals of each component at the level of elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and colleges. The third type of ICC models was proposed through the Delphi method from teachers and researchers’ perspectives. For example, Suo and Kulich (2019) adopted a Delphi process to explore 45 intercultural experts’ perspectives on the status and conceptualization of intercultural communication studies in China. According to the findings, Chinese intercultural communication scholars highly cite the following five scholars and key theories: (1) Mike Byram’s intercultural communicative competence theory, (2) G. Hofstede’s theory of cultural value orientation dimensions, (3) Y. Y. Kim’s integrated theory of intercultural adaptation, (4) E. T. Hall’s theory of high and low context, and (5) S. Ting-Toomey’s face management theory and identity management theory. Using the same method to Suo and Kulich (2019), Dai (2022) also used the Delphi method to create a theoretical model of intercultural competence from the perspective of Chinese teachers. He defined intercultural competence as “the ability to communicate adaptively, effectively, and appropriately in intercultural contexts” (p. 26) based on a survey of 84 intercultural communication teachers in China and 68 leading intercultural communication scholars. He established a five-dimensional model of intercultural competence that includes attitudes, knowledge, awareness, skills, and expected goals.

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4.4 Studies into Intercultural Communicative Competence in the Chinese Context Having explored the recent ICC models in China, let us now turn to examining the empirical studies on ICC conducted in China. Chen (2017) reviewed intercultural communication studies in China and argued that the conceptualization of cross-cultural adaptation and intercultural competence has gained much attention in recent years in China. Notably, the concept of “interculturality” has come to the fore. Chen argued that “Dai (2010) conceptualizes interculturality in IC terms as a space and the connection among cultures via individuals as cultural members, who negotiate mutually agreeable identities as a base for mutual understanding and subsequent action”. A number of studies examined college teachers’ perceptions of ICC and intercultural teaching practice. Lee (2009) conducted a study to investigate a short-term overseas immersion program and address its impact on student teachers and the benefits they could derive from it. The participants were fifteen Postgraduate Diploma in Education (Primary) English language student teachers who joined a six-week immersion program in Auckland. The data collection methods were a questionnaire and qualitative methods like notes, evaluations, journals, and reflections. The results showed that the student teachers became more confident in their communicative abilities and more aware of different varieties of English through the program. Wang and Coleman (2009) used questionnaires and a semi-structured question survey to examine college teachers’ and learners’ perceptions of intercultural classroom instruction held by 47 teachers and 72 students in China. The results showed that textbooks remained the predominant authority, while Internet tools were used as a source of information rather than a means of communication. They suggested that national policy, local incentives and resources, and educational traditions did not yet allow optimal use of the Internet-mediated approaches. Zhou (2011) investigated 201 Chinese teachers’ beliefs and self-reported practices about intercultural competence teaching. The author used a mixed methods approach, including a survey and narrative interviews. Regarding the objectives of EFL teaching, the results suggested that the participants’ beliefs reflected various aspects of an intercultural perspective toward cultural teaching. The most commonly shared objective was to promote cultural knowledge teaching. The participants believed the linguistic dimension was more important than the cultural dimension. The participants also thought it was one of the least important objectives in EFL teaching to promote students’ understanding of Chinese culture. The results showed that teachers had positive attitudes toward integrating language and culture. Most teachers agreed that both English and Chinese culture should be taught. Though most teachers recognized the importance of cultural teaching, intercultural competence teaching practices were not an important component or a regular focus in their EFL classes. Teachers usually followed the traditional teacher-centered approach of cultural teaching and taught cultural topics and issues through pair or small group discussions. The results showed that the participants’ beliefs about intercultural

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teaching influenced their teaching practices. The results also pointed out that intercultural language teaching training is necessary for in-service teacher training. The author found that teachers’ educational degrees impacted their intercultural competence and beliefs. Teachers with a master’s or doctoral degree had higher intercultural competence and positive attitudes to intercultural objectives than those with a bachelor’s degree. Teachers also need support from the language curriculum and teaching materials for intercultural teaching. Han and Song (2011) conducted a pilot study investigating Chinese university teachers’ cognition of ICC in the EFL context. They aimed to investigate teachers’ perceptions of ICC, the relationship between ICC and language education, teaching content, teaching methods, and materials. The participants included 30 English teachers at a northeastern Chinese university. The instrument used was a questionnaire. The results were presented from several standpoints: (a) perceptions of English teaching, (b) English language and familiarity with the target cultures, (c) the culture teaching activities practiced, (d) the current EFL materials, (e) the teachers’ contact opportunities with other culture or people, and (f) their cognition of intercultural English Language Teaching (ELT). The results showed that the teachers’ conceptualization of ICC and its relevance to ELT were ambiguous. The reason for the limited intercultural teaching was that those teachers were unfamiliar with specific aspects of the target culture and the intercultural elements in the teaching materials. The authors suggested that teachers need intercultural encounters, teaching materials, and professional development of intercultural teaching. Furthermore, Gu (2016) surveyed EFL teachers’ perceptions and practices about ICC assessment in China. 1170 Chinese university EFL teachers responded to the questionnaire. The results showed that most teachers were aware of assessing students’ ICC in EFL classes and agreed that language and culture could be assessed interactively. The survey results indicate that most Chinese university EFL teachers held a positive attitude toward ICC assessment, regarding ICC as a necessary part of the EFL curriculum and considering that it should be incorporated into foreign language tests. However, the results of teachers’ practice showed that only half of the teachers had ever assessed students’ ICC. The most common assessment methods were oral presentation, role play, and paper tests. The paper test was still the most popular mode of assessment among English teachers. In addition, learners’ selfevaluation and self-monitoring, such as self-reports, self-reflection diaries, evaluation forms, and surveys, had never been used by any respondents. The author pointed out that the factors affecting the assessment of ICC are a lack of insight into ICC and language learning, a lack of available resources for material development, and a lack of administrative support. While the studies described above examined college teachers’ perceptions, Han (2010) conducted a quantitative study of EFL teachers’ perceptions of cultural teaching in secondary schools in Xinjiang, China. The teachers’ perceptions of language and culture teaching objectives showed that “most teachers are interested in teaching culture…. They perceive the language teaching objectives or cultural teaching objectives more in terms of general teaching objectives: promoting students’

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motivation and sustain their interest in learning English, widen students’ horizon by means of cultural teaching” (p. 287). The teachers’ understanding of culture showed that “teachers give a very extensive definition of culture but mainly focusing on small c culture like ‘traditions and customs,’ and ‘the way of people’s life,’ etc.” (p. 288). The possible cultural topics teachers prefer to teach were “the small c culture in terms of ‘daily life’, ‘festivals and customs’, ‘shopping, food and drink’ and school and education are more supported by teachers” (p. 288). The result of cultural teaching activities showed that “the most often used technique to teach culture is through the textbook…. However, the activities regarding the skills and attitudinal dimension development are not much used” (p. 288). The result shows that “teachers’ devotion of time to culture teaching is less than the time devoted to language teaching though they express their willingness to teach culture in language classroom” (p. 288). The result about teachers’ perceptions of the materials they use showed that “teachers have little freedom to choose teaching materials, which local educational institutions select. The findings reveal that cultural contents included in the current textbook are enough at the moment and teachers think it unnecessary for them to use additional materials” (pp. 288–289). In the following section, we review in more detail global/intercultural citizenship education in China.

4.5 Global/Intercultural Citizenship Education in China In recent years, many researchers in China have been concerned with developing citizenship education in schools; many works and articles have been published concerning studying citizenship education. Chen and Reid (2002) critically reviewed the history of the development of citizenship education in Chinese schools in terms of three major periods: social transformation prior to 1949, socialist construction between 1949 and 1978, and innovation from 1978 to the present day. Gongmin Daode Jianshe Shishi Gangyao (the Implementation Guidelines to Construct Civic Virtues of Citizens) was published by the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in 2001. It explicitly specifies what the Central Committee takes citizenship to mean. In this context, citizenship is clearly equated with socialist ideology and political morals. The official conception of citizenship is a collectivistic socialist citizenship model (Feng, 2006). Moral education in Chinese schools mainly includes current ideological, political, and moral qualities. Although citizenship education differs from moral education, moral education has been transforming into citizenship education recently. The main factors are changing from the traditional ideology to the quality of the modern citizen. Citizenship education in China emphasizes students’ independent study and participation in practice. The new course standard demands a combination of each course’s characteristics and strengthens the course goal of the experience. Moreover, the implementation of citizenship education is viewed within the historical course of traditional moral education. Xin gong min du ben (Li & Yang, 2006) is

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the first citizenship education textbook for school children to have been published in a complete sense since the founding of the People’s Republic in 1949. Xin gong min du ben includes citizenship morality, values, knowledge, and participation skills. Research by Lee and Leung (2006) suggested that the reasons for global citizenship education in Shanghai and Hong Kong in China are different. The top three reasons suggested by the Hong Kong interviewees are: “to cultivate students’ understanding and appreciation of diverse values”, “to broaden students’ domains of knowledge”, and “to raise students’ concern about world affairs”. For the Shanghai interviewees, the top three reasons are: “to enhance the competitiveness of students in the future society”, “to broaden students’ domains of knowledge”, and “to cultivate students’ understanding and appreciation of diverse values” (p. 74). From the above research, we can find that although global citizenship is included in citizenship education in China, there is little research into global citizenship education itself. On the other hand, Chinese scholars have made good achievements in studying intercultural communication in foreign language education. However, looking at global citizenship education within English language education is a new step, so arguments in favor of developing learners’ ICC and global citizenship in English language education will be considered in this section. Byram’s (2008) intercultural citizenship education theory has influenced intercultural communication scholars in China. As one outcome of the international project of intercultural citizenship education (Byram et al., 2017), Han, Song, Jing, and Zhao (2017) explored the perceptions of Chinese students regarding intercultural citizenship in English language learning in two universities in China. The survey investigated 308 university students’ opinions ranging from world/intercultural citizens’ traits, responsibilities and obligations, necessary skills, and the benefits of learning English in cultivating world/intercultural citizens. The results showed that the participants’ understanding of citizenship mainly lies in legal identification and nationality, responsibilities and obligations, a sense of belonging, a combination of right and duty and good character. Though most participants have heard of the concept of world/global citizen, they have not heard of the concept of intercultural citizen. Most participants think intercultural citizen should be able to visit or live in other countries, and they should know an international language. The essential responsibilities of intercultural citizens are culture. Most participants said they had intercultural experiences, including attending lectures or courses delivered by foreign teachers and using public media such as the Internet, TV, and films. Fang and Baker (2018) carried out qualitative research at a university in China to explore the possibility of incorporating ELF, intercultural approaches, and the concept of intercultural citizenship into the area of ELF. Eight students who had studied abroad for at least four months participated. Through interviews and focus groups, the finding showed that all participants could relate to the concept of intercultural citizenship and thought it should and could form a valuable part of ELT. The findings showed study abroad has a positive experience in developing a sense of ICC and intercultural citizenship. At the same time, all participants reported changes in both attitudes and behaviors. Another finding showed that participants recognized the importance of English in intercultural communication and studying abroad. However,

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the study pointed out a mismatch between the experiences of mainstream mentors of ELT and the study abroad period.

4.6 Conclusion In summary, developing ICC and global awareness has been advocated in China’s English curriculum since 2001. ICC is the goal of foreign language education in the educational stage of high education, nine-year compulsory education, and senior middle schools. The review of Chinese perspectives on global awareness suggests that it is difficult to develop a unified definition of global awareness in practice due to a lack of empirical research studies. The results of recent studies on teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding ICC in China (e.g., Gu, 2016; Han, 2010; Han & Song, 2011; Zhou, 2011) indicate that the teachers’ beliefs about global awareness in the EFL class have not yet been widely researched in China. Although we know about the importance of developing students’ ICC and global awareness, which are emphasized in educational policy and the foreign language curriculum, there is little empirical research available on foreign language teachers’ beliefs about global awareness and their teaching practices in the classroom. EFL teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding global awareness still require in-depth exploration. Some studies have investigated Byram’s (2008) intercultural citizenship education in language learning in higher education (Han et al., 2017; Fan & Baker, 2018), but more action research needs to explore how to develop learners’ ICC and intercultural citizenship in Chinese basic education. In order to achieve this, I conducted the qualitative case study as described in this volume. In Parts II and III, we will present the interview and observation data about teachers’ cognition and classroom practices regarding global awareness, with a focus on teachers’ beliefs and reported practices (Chap. 5), factors (Chap. 6), Chinese English teachers (Chap. 7), and Canadian teachers of English (Chap. 8).

References Byram, M. (2008). From foreign language education to education for intercultural citizenship: Essays and reflections. Multilingual Matters. Byram, M., Golubeva, I., Han, H., & Wagner, M. (2017). From principles to practice in edu-cation for intercultural citizenship. Multilingual Matters. Chen, G. M., & An, R. (2009). A Chinese model of intercultural leadership competence. In D. K. Deardorff (Ed.), The SAGE Handbook of intercultural competence (pp. 196–208). Sage. Chen, L. (2017). Intercultural communication study in China. In K. Young Yun (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of intercultural communication. Wiley. Chen, Y. S. (2005). Shilun deng xiaoping de shijie yishi [On Deng Xiaoping’s consciousness of world]. Hefei Gongyie Daxue Xuebao (shehui Kexue Ban), 19(003), 9–12. Chen, Y., & Reid, I. (2002). Citizenship education in Chinese schools: Retrospect and prospect. Research in Education, 67, 58–69.

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Cheng, X. J. (2003). Shilun guo songtao shijie yishi de chansheng xingcheng [The study of the development of Guo Songtao’s global awareness]. Guizhou Shehui Kexue, 5, 100–105. Dai, X. (2010, March). Intercultural communication theory in China: Thirty years. Review. In Chinesisch-Deutsche Konferenz zur Interkulturellen Kommunikation (Sino-German conference on intercultural communication) (pp. 29–31). Humboldt University. Dai, X. (2022). Zhongguo jiaoshi shijiao de kuawenhua nengli moxing jiangou [Developing a model of intercultural competence from Chinese teachers’ perspectives]. Waiyu jie [Foreign Language World], 212(5), 20–28. Fang, F., & Baker, W. (2018). ‘A more inclusive mind towards the world’: English language teaching and study abroad in China from intercultural citizenship and English as a lingua franca perspectives. Language Teaching Research, 22(5), 608–624. Feng, A. W. (2006). Contested notions of citizenship and citizenship education: The Chinese case. In G. Alred, M. Byram, & M. Fleming (Eds.), Education for intercultural citizenship: Concepts and comparisons (pp. 86–105). Multilingual Matters. Fan, W., Wu, W., & Peng, R. (2013). Zhongguo daxuesheng kuawenhua nengli ziwo pingjia fenxi [A survey on self-evaluation of Chinese college students’ intercultural competence]. Zhongguo Waiyu [Foreign Languages in China], 56(6), 53–59. Gu, B. X. (2003). Quanqiu yishi he aiguo zhuyi jiaoyu [Global awareness and education]. Dangdai Qingnian Yanjiu, 3, 55–56. Gu, X. (2016). Assessment of intercultural communicative competence in FL education: A survey on EFL teachers’ perception and practice in China. Language and Intercultural Communication, 16(2), 254–273. Han, H. (2010). An investigation on teachers’ perceptions of culture teaching in the secondary schools in Xinjiang. Doctoral dissertation. Retrieved from http://ethses.dur.ac.uk/109/1/HAN,_ Hui_FinalVersion.pdf Han, Q. H. (1997). Lun deng xiaoping de quanqiu yishi yu minzhu jingshen xiang tongyi de shixiang [Deng Xiaoping’s global awareness and national spirit]. Changbai Xueka, 2, 87–89. Han, X. H., & Song, L. (2011). Teacher cognition of intercultural communicative competence in the Chinese ELT context. Intercultural Communication Studies, XIIX(1), 175–192. Han, H., Song, L., Jing, H., & Zhao, Y. (2017). Exploring perceptions of intercultural citizenship among English learners in Chinese universities. In M. Byram, I. Golubeva, H. Han & M. Wagner (Eds.), From principles to practice in education for intercultural citizenship (pp. 25-44). Multilingual Matters. Holmes, P., Ganassin, S., & Song, L. (2022). Reflections on the co-construction of an interpretive approach to interculturality for higher education in China. Language and Intercultural Communication, 22(5), 503–518. Lee, W., & Leung, S. (2006). Global citizenship education in Hong Kong and Shanghai secondary schools: Ideals, realities and expectations. Citizenship Teaching and Learning, 2(2), 68–84. Lee, J. F. (2009). ESL student teachers’ perceptions of a short-term overseas immersion programme. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(8), 1095–1104. Li, J. L. (2009). Bawo quanqiuhua: Zhonggong sandai lingdaoren de guojia-guojia yishi [Managing globalization: The ideology of nation-world in three generations CCP leaders]. Xiangtan Daxue Xuebao, 3, 143–145. Li, P., & Yang, D. (2006). Xin gong min du ben: Xiao xue juan [New citizen reading book: primary school]. Beijing da xue chu ban she. Liang, P. (2008). Lun ruhe zai gonggong zhengzhi lilunke jiaoxuezhong peiyang daxuesheng de guoji yishi [How to develop university students’ global awareness in public political theory course]. Guanli Cankao, 2, 115–116. Lin, R. F. (1994). Zhengqiang shijie yishi yu cujin zhongguo jingji guojihua [Developing global awareness and enhancing China’s economy globalization]. Zhonggong Fujian Shengwei Dangxiao Xuebao, 9, 36–37. Ministry of Education. (2001). National English curriculum standards for nine-year compulsory education, Experimental piloting edition. Beijing Normal University Press.

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Part II

Teacher Cognition about Global Awareness

Chapter 5

Teachers’ Beliefs and Reported Practices Regarding Global Awareness

In this chapter, I focus on teachers’ beliefs and reported practices regarding global awareness. I begin by introducing a model of global awareness, which includes knowledge, skills, and emerging attitudes. I then examine participants’ beliefs about global awareness in the curriculum, including the purpose of language education, the importance of global awareness in the curriculum, and the relationship between language, culture, and global awareness. Next, I look at the participants’ general teaching methods in English class. Finally, I examine the different teaching methods for global awareness. Parts II and III present the key findings obtained from interviews, focus group interviews, questionnaires, and classroom observation. Four major findings emerged from this study are shown in Table 5.1. Finding #1 provides a response to Research Question One (teachers’ beliefs). Finding #2 provides a response to Research Question Two (teachers’ reported practices). Finding #3 provides a response to Research Question Three (factors). Finding #4 provides a response to Research Question Four (teachers’ classroom practices). In order to report description and themes, I add additional rigor and insight to this study through layering themes (Fig. 5.1). According to Creswell (2011), “layering themes builds on the idea of major and minor themes but organizes the themes into layers from basic elementary themes to more sophisticated ones” (p. 251). Layering the analysis (also called first- and second-order abstractions) in qualitative research means “represent the data using interconnected levels of themes” (Creswell, 2011, p. 251). Figure 5.1 shows four layers that I used. I collected data from several sources (Layer 1) and analyzed it to develop a description of global awareness (Layer 2). Based on this description, I then formed nine themes (Layer 3) and combined these themes into three broad perspectives (Layer 4). The three broad perspectives are the

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 H. Jing, Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education, Intercultural Communication and Language Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4179-7_5

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Three Broad Perspectives Beliefs

Practices

Layer 4 Factors

Nine themes identified from the data

Teachers

Concept

Curriculum

Students

Materials

Classroom Practices!

Activities

Layer 3

Test ! Methods

Descriptive analysis of the global awareness

Layer 2

Description of Global Awareness

Database: Interview transcriptions, observational field notes, documents, and audiovisual materials

Layer 1

Data

Fig. 5.1 Layers in English teachers and global awareness

main findings and respond to Research Questions One to Four. In Layer 4, the perspective of beliefs is the Finding #1 regarding teachers’ beliefs about the concept and the curriculum, the perspective on practices is Finding # 2 and Finding #4 regarding teachers’ reported and actual classroom practices, and the perspective of the factors is Finding #3 regarding factors that shape teachers’ beliefs. In Layer 3, the themes of concept and curriculum belong to the perspective of beliefs; the themes of methods, activities, and classroom practices belong to the perspectives of practices; the themes of teachers, students, materials, and tests belong to the perspectives of factors. I have previously published some aspects of teacher cognition about global awareness (Jing, 2011, 2013a, 2013b, 2013c). The following is a discussion of the findings with details supporting and explaining each finding. In this chapter, a model of global awareness, which includes knowledge, skills, and attitudes, emerged. The participants stated the purpose and the importance of global awareness in the curriculum and the relationship between language, culture, and global awareness. The following

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Table 5.1 Findings and research questions Findings

Research questions

Finding #1: Teachers’ Beliefs Regarding Global Awareness Concept of global awareness Global awareness in curriculum

Research Question One: teachers’ beliefs

Finding #2: Teachers’ Reported Practices Regarding Global Awareness General teaching methods Global awareness teaching in classroom

Research Question Two: teachers’ reported practices

Finding #3: Factors that Shape Teachers’ Beliefs Teachers and global awareness Students’ knowledge and attitudes Global awareness in tests Global awareness in teaching materials

Research Question Three: factors

Finding #4: Teachers’ Classroom Practices Regarding Global Awareness The regular high school English department The Sino-Canadian program

Research Question Four: teachers’ classroom practices

section begins with the participant’s beliefs about the concept of global awareness and then examines their beliefs about students and global awareness.

5.1 The Global Awareness Model One purpose of this qualitative case study is to explore high school English teachers’ beliefs about the concept of global awareness. Analysis and interpretation of findings were organized into three analytic categories that are based on the English teachers’ beliefs about the concept of global awareness. In this section, I would like to focus on the teachers’ beliefs and discussion of the concept of global awareness. The following three core elements emerged as categories from the interview data as being integral to global awareness: • Knowledge • Skills • Attitudes. In the literature on global awareness, most models have similar categories such as knowledge, skills, action, attitudes, and values (DEA, 2009; Dell & Wood, 2010; DfES, 2005; Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009). The definition of intercultural competence often resulted in lists of KSA (knowledge, skills, and attitudes). My findings support some scholars’ models and frameworks. In order to analyze the teachers’ definitions, I used Vygotsky’s theory of everyday and scientific

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concepts (Vygotsky, 1986). Scientific concepts can be defined as “systematic principles consciously applied to understanding diverse phenomena” (Swain et al., 2011, p. 152), and everyday or spontaneous concepts “are not systematic or have a very limited ‘system’” (Swain et al., 2011, p. 150). Therefore, the three components of a scientific concept are (a) conscious (and consciously applied), (b) systematic, and (c) not bound to a context (Swain et al., 2011). While the individual teachers each displayed basic everyday concepts for global awareness, I discovered that they had relatively the same scientific concepts as presented in the literature by combining their understandings into systematic categories. However, none of the teachers alone had a systematic, generalized, and conscious concept of global awareness. Below I look at the three core elements of global awareness and provide examples from the data. Firstly, the knowledge related to global awareness includes globalization, cultures, language, global issue, and cultural self-awareness. We can see some examples from the teachers: Global awareness is to understand different cultures in the world and other countries’ information. It is about communication, too. It is thought, culture. (T3) I think global awareness is concerned about global issues, what happens in the world. (T4) Global awareness is globalization, it is about a world view from a big aspect, and it is about concerning society and ourselves and real life from a small aspect. (T11) See yourself from the new perspective; you can understand your own culture more deeply when you understand other cultures. (T17) Based on the analysis of the interview data, the findings showed that “culture” was mentioned many times. The teachers thought global awareness is about knowledge of different cultures and understanding Western countries’ lifestyles and cultural backgrounds. The culture here includes two different cultures: one is the culture of other countries and worldviews, and the other is one’s own culture. Here is an example of a teacher who expressed “cultural self-awareness” through an everyday concept. “See yourself from a new perspective; you can understand your own culture more deeply when you understand other cultures” (T17). Many intercultural scholars defined cultural self-awareness as a scientific concept regarding the knowledge necessary for intercultural competence. According to Deardorff (2006), cultural self-awareness can be defined as the ways one’s culture has influenced one’s identity and worldview.

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Secondly, the skills needed for global awareness include critical thinking, communication, language skills, self-cultivation, and learning skills. The following are a few examples that represent many teachers: The world is a big family. We cannot always stay at home; we should go outside and communicate with others. The communication is between different countries, neighbors, and colleagues. (T5) Global awareness is a detailed and specific thing; my concept of it is tentative. I can describe it from one side, for example, language, culture, lifestyle, and intercultural communication. It is too abstract; I am not very clear about the concept; I can only describe it in some detail. (T12) We often say that we need to strengthen self-cultivation, right? You can understand yourself better through learning from others; “Get deep inside, get a new perspective”, right? (T17) From the micro-perspective, I think it is the same as the Confucian personality ideality “Upright Heart, Self-cultivation, Family Harmony, State Governing and World Peace”. They are the same thing. (T17) We should notice that “critical thinking” is an important concept here. Teachers gave the everyday concept. T17, for example, suggested that “You can understand yourself better through learning from others”. Byram (1997) defined critical cultural awareness as “an ability to evaluate critically on the basis of explicit criteria, perspectives, practices, and products in one’s own and other cultures and countries” (p. 63). These examples from the teachers make it clear that “communication” is a very important skill to promote global awareness. The teachers thought it was necessary to communicate with people from other countries. It is very clear that teachers described “self-cultivation” as one skill of global awareness. As a scientific concept, self-cultivation is one core concept of Confucian personal ideality which has influenced Chinese culture for two thousand years. T17 described the scientific concept of self-cultivation; T5 described it through everyday concepts. So, what is self-cultivation? Chinese scholars have explained it from different perspectives. Chen and An (2009) described self-cultivation in their Chinese model of leadership competence which contains self-cultivation, context profundity, and action dexterity. They argued that self-cultivation is a process of transforming and moving the leader from the lower to the higher level of the developmental ladder of leadership competence. It is the process of increasingly edifying, liberating, and purifying personal attributes of the self. At the global level, “it refers to the ability to look for shared communication symbols and to project the self into another person’s mind by thinking the same thoughts and feeling the same emotions as the person” (Chen & Starosta, 2004, p. 13). These scholars’ theories of selfcultivation supported the English teachers’ perceptions of self-cultivation as one important element of global awareness. We can find that self-cultivation skill can help students communicate and develop their personal abilities.

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The last category is attitudes that include responsibility, tolerance, openness, justice, and respect. Some examples for the categories are: In my opinion, from a macro perspective, global awareness is to develop students’ international views, so they have tolerance to see the world; they can understand many things; they are not prejudiced; they cannot think which culture is good or bad; they should think every culture has its advantage and disadvantage; they can learn from other cultures. (T17) We need to develop students’ tolerance and open-mindedness; I think we cannot understand the world from one parochial aspect. Because at present there are more and more connections between different places and countries in the world, right? The people have become more open-minded in different areas in the world, and it is a trend that will continue in the future. (T8) We need to educate responsible students and citizens. They should have responsibility for themselves, their community, and society no matter whether they are Chinese citizens or global citizens. (T17) Attitudes include responsibility, tolerance, openness, justice, and respect. A close look at these examples will reveal that the teachers explain tolerance and respect. They not only talked about their scientific concepts but also gave detailed reasons to explain their everyday concepts. Respect is to treat other cultures and cultural diversity equally and not to value other cultures with prejudice. The teachers again stressed that the students should be open to the world and people from other cultures, withholding judgment. Again, responsibility as a scientific concept was emphasized. The teachers hoped their students would be both responsible Chinese and global citizens. In the different content of categories, culture, communication, and global issues are mentioned many times. The knowledge includes globalization, cultures, language, global issues, and cultural self-awareness. The teachers defined global awareness as related to intercultural communicative competence. Based on the analysis of the above three categories of teachers’ concepts, this resulted in the Global Awareness Model as shown in Fig. 5.2. I define global awareness as a combination of global knowledge, global attitude, and global skills for a global citizen to act on from local community to global community. Similarities can be found with Byram’s (1997) intercultural communicative competence model, which includes attitudes, knowledge, skills, and critical cultural awareness. Critical thinking and the attitude of openness both feature in the Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) and in Byram’s ICC model. Intercultural knowledge in Byram’s ICC model means “knowledge of social groups and their products and practices in one’s own and in one’s interlocutor’s country, and of the general processes of societal and individual interaction” (Byram, 1997, p. 51). In this study, the knowledge in the Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) also includes cultures and cultural self-awareness. Besides these, it includes knowledge of globalization

5.2 Global Awareness in the Curriculum Fig. 5.2 Global awareness model

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Global Awareness

Knowledge Globalization Cultures Global issue Cultural selfawareness

Skills Critical thinking Communication Language skills Learning skills Self-cultivation

Attitudes Responsibility Justice Respect Tolerance Openness

and global issues. The skills in the Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) do not include the interpreting and relating skills in Byram’s ICC model.

5.2 Global Awareness in the Curriculum The participants stated two purposes, the importance of global awareness in the curriculum and the relationship between language, culture, and global awareness. The objective of Chinese English education in the curriculum is to develop students’ comprehensive language competence. In order to further demonstrate the connections of “global awareness” in the teachers’ beliefs, analysis of the purpose of developing global awareness from interview data illuminated participants’ beliefs about the purpose of global awareness, which were grouped into two categories: to cultivate students’ tolerance and open-mindedness, and to educate them to be global citizens. The interview question was: What is the purpose to emphasize global awareness in foreign language teaching? Reflection on some of the teachers’ answers suggests that the purpose of global awareness is to cultivate students’ tolerance and openmindedness and educate them to be global citizens. I can help students to broaden their outlook. Studying one more foreign language is like having one more eye and ear; it helps students to know the wider world. (T14) Next, I would like to focus on teachers’ beliefs about the importance of global awareness outlining some of their main ideas with examples. The interview question was: How important do you think global awareness is in learning a foreign language? Why do you think so? All of the teachers agreed that global awareness is very important. Three important categories emerged: language learning and communication with foreigners, students’ personal development, and developing of students’ open-mindedness and critical thinking.

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The first category relates to the idea that global awareness benefits language learning and communication with foreigners. For example: “I think it is very important. The aim of foreign language teaching is to develop students’ foreign language learning ability and language learning; learning a foreign language is to integrate with the world and communicate with foreign people. So the students should have such mentality and awareness to communicate” (T3). The second category relates to the idea that global awareness is good for students’ personal development, which supports their future development and career. For example: “If we can develop students’ global awareness or world view, they will have a higher position in their future career, lifestyle, and life planning” (T15). The third category relates to the idea that global awareness is good for developing students’ open-mindedness and critical thinking. For example: “Of course, it has great advantages. It can help students to broaden their visions and change their thinking. The foreign language is another culture; it is good for students’ perspectives, thinking styles, and habits” (T10). Finally, I would like to emphasize teachers’ beliefs about the relationship between language learning and global awareness. The relationship can be classified into two categories: (a) global awareness is in close touch with language learning and culture, which are a single undivided whole, and (b) language is a tool and bridge for communicating and understanding the world. Therefore, the interview question was: What is the relationship between global awareness, language, and culture? Illustrative answers are presented below. I think they are completing whole, complementary, and indivisible. (T8) English is a tool. If you can learn English better, you can communicate with other people in the world. Then you can know the world more through the tool and to contribute to human and global development. It is a bridge and tool. (T16)

5.3 General Teaching Methods The participants’ general teaching methods were nearly the same, and they taught global awareness differently. Therefore, the following section begins with the teachers’ self-reported global awareness teaching methods and activities. From the interview and classroom observation, I found that the participants’ general teaching methods were very similar. But although they followed a common teaching model when teaching global issues in the classroom, they used different methods depending on their preferred teaching styles. I describe their general and global teaching methods below. When I asked the participants about the general teaching situation of grade one, T7 commented: Our teaching design follows three dimensional objectives of the new curriculum. It includes knowledge and skills, process and method, emotion, attitude, and

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values. The new curriculum not only emphasizes knowledge and skills, but also emphasizes process and method. Students’ subjective roles were emphasized more than before. The curriculum suggested that teachers should give students more time in the classroom to develop their subjective roles. (T7) After explaining the three-dimensional objectives of the new curriculum, T7 continued to comment on the character of English teaching in grade one: The four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) were developed in grade one. Speaking maybe is weak, but we always emphasize listening. Reading is the most important skill; next is writing; the last is listening and speaking. We speak English in the classroom. (T7) T9 recalled the teaching model used when teaching grade one the previous year: We have a teaching model, and every class has the same model. We usually spend several minutes doing one activity at the beginning of class. For example, review the content of the last class, the students write some English proverbs and teach to other students. (T9) Then, T9 commented on the teaching model of grade two: We do not have any activities now. Sometimes we let students do an exercise at the beginning of class, such as proofreading, blank-filling, and asking questions. After the exercises, we began the class. The teaching model of each unit is the same for each teacher at our school. Each unit includes six lessons: warming up, reading up, knowledge points, grammar, writing, and vocabulary. (T9) T7 and T9 commented about the teaching model of grade one and grade two, and another participant described the teaching model of grade three. The teaching model of grade three is based on the traditional three-round revision. The first round revision is basic knowledge, the second round revision is grammar, and the third round revision is the university entrance exams. During the three round revisions, the students’ study consists of doing exercises. Students’ speaking and listening abilities are not high; their content of study followed the exam’s guide. (T15) We can summarize the general teaching methods from the teachers’ interview data. The grade one’s teaching model emphasizes the development of the four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing); however, the importance of teaching comes after reading, writing, listening, and speaking. The grade two’s teaching model consists of six steps: vocabulary, warming up, reading, knowledge points, grammar, and writing. The grade three’s teaching model is based on the traditional three-round revision format, which comprises basic knowledge, grammar, and university entrance exams.

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5.4 Global Awareness Teaching Methods The English teachers taught global awareness in the following ways: global issues in textbooks, films, music, debate, group discussion, newspapers, role plays, and examinations. When I asked the participants in focus group interviews about how to teach global issues in the classroom, they said that they usually followed the same teaching method: introducing one global issue, organizing group discussion, watching videos, making summaries, and giving action guidance. One of these participants described this method in this way: One lesson only has 40 minutes; as usual, we introduce some topics like global warming, then organize different groups and let students discuss about this topic. The students will have many different views. Then I will play videos and show some survey study in order to let them have a general understanding of global warming. Then I ask them how to do it? Low-carbon life and reduce carbon emissions. (T12) Another participant summarized the teaching method used for introducing global issues: I introduce global issues from local issues in our life. I also introduce global issues from newspapers like 21st Century English Newspaper. (T9) Another participant summarized the teaching method as follows: The general activities are related to the textbook. I often use role plays. When I taught environmental protection topics, I first organized small group activities, and then every member expressed his idea. For example, I let students watch Michael Jackson’s “Earth Song”. (T3) Another participant said writing could develop students’ global awareness: We have written some essays, for example, if your net friend comes to China to visit you, how do you rent a house for him? This is a very useful exercise. There is another one, if your net friend comes to China to attend summer camp, please introduce your net friend. (T5) Compared with the language skill objective, the cultural objective is lower. When the students cannot achieve the objective of language skills, the teachers have to reduce cultural awareness. (T8)

5.5 Conclusion To sum up, in this chapter, I have focused on teachers’ beliefs regarding global awareness. I have developed a model of global awareness, including knowledge, skills, and attitudes. I have also described the participants’ beliefs about the purposes

References

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and the importance of global awareness in the curriculum and the relationship between language, culture, and global awareness. Finally, I have explored teachers’ reported practices regarding global awareness, including general teaching methods and various activities to develop students’ global awareness. In the next chapter, I will examine the factors that shape teachers’ beliefs.

References Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Multilingual Matters. Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (2004). Communication among cultural diversities: A Dialogue. International and Intercultural Communication Annual, 27, 3–16. Chen, G. M., & An, R. (2009). A Chinese model of intercultural leadership competence. In D. K. Deardorff (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of intercultural competence (pp. 196–208). Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2011). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. Development Education Association (DEA). (2009). Teachers’ attitudes to global learning: An Ipsos MORI research study on behalf of DEA. DEA. Deardorff, D. K. (2006). Identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 241–266. Department for Education and Skills (DfES). (2005). Developing a global dimension in the school curriculum. DfES Publications. Dell, C., & Wood, M. (2010). Developing students as critical thinkers through global learning using Enquiry-Based Learning (EBL) pedagogic principles. In M. Cooper (Ed.), Changing the culture of the campus: Towards an inclusive higher education-Ten years on (pp. 35–49). European Access Network. Jing, H. (2011). Global awareness as everyday and scientific concepts: Research in one Chinese high school. PeerSpectives Online, 8, 21–23. Jing, H. (2013a). Chinese high school English teachers’ concept of global awareness. Bulletin of WASEDA University Institute of Teacher Education, 4, 3–16. Jing, H. (2013b). Global awareness: Foreign language teachers’ beliefs and practices. Intercultural Communication Studies, XXII, 1, 95–116. Jing, H. (2013c). Teachers’ perceptions of global awareness in China’s foreign language curriculum. Proceedings of the 14th Annual Temple University Applied Linguistics Colloquium, 22–30. Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2009). P21 framework definitions document. Retrieved from http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/ Swain, M., Kinnear, P., & Steinman, L. (2011). Sociocultural theory in second language education: An introduction through narratives. Multilingual Matters. Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.

Chapter 6

Factors That Shape Teachers’ Beliefs About Global Awareness

In the previous chapter, I discussed teachers’ beliefs and reported practices about global awareness. In this chapter, I will consider the factors that affected teachers’ beliefs and practices: teachers’ intercultural experience, teacher training, international study visits, students, the school culture, the National College Entrance Examination, and the textbooks and other teaching materials. In China, researchers have studied factors affecting intercultural language teaching in English classes at junior high schools and universities (e.g., Gu, 2016; Han, 2010; Han & Song, 2011; Zhou, 2011). They reported a lack of teacher training in intercultural competence, few suitable textbooks, low confidence in teaching culture, lack of administrative support, limited time to teach culture in class, and pressure from the National College Entrance Examination. However, these studies used a quantitative approach and focused on intercultural teaching at junior high schools and universities. In contrast, the present study is a qualitative case study that explores English teachers’ beliefs about factors affecting global awareness development in senior high schools in China. In my previous research, I found that some factors have shaped language teachers’ cognition and classroom practices (Jing, 2013, 2016). This chapter aims to explore the factors influencing teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding global awareness in foreign language teaching. The questions were: 1. How do teachers’ new roles, intercultural experience, and teacher training relate to their development of global awareness? 2. What are teachers’ beliefs about their students’ global awareness? 3. How does the National College Entrance Examination affect teachers’ beliefs and practices about global awareness?

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 H. Jing, Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education, Intercultural Communication and Language Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4179-7_6

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Teachers Teacher’s role Global teacher’s characters Intercultural experiences Teacher training International study visits

Students Students’ knowledge and attitudes Global learning activities School trips and exchange projects

Foreign Language Teachers’ Beliefs about Global Awareness

Tests Global awareness in exams Listening test The National College Entrance Examination’s influence

Teaching Materials Textbook Global issues

Fig. 6.1 Factors affecting foreign language teachers’ beliefs about global awareness

4. To what extent can teaching materials contribute to the development of global awareness? Figure 6.1 provides an overview of the initial categories that emerged regarding the factors affecting English language teachers’ beliefs about global awareness. These factors fell into four categories: (a) teachers; (b) students; (c) National College Entrance Examination; and (d) teaching materials. First, the participants described their images of global English teachers, and they were influenced by intercultural experiences, teacher training, and international study visits. Second, the participants stated that their students had positive attitudes toward global awareness, and teachers enhanced students’ global awareness through global learning activities, school trips, and exchange projects. Third, the participants stated that the National College Entrance Examination was the biggest barrier to developing global awareness. Fourth, the participants reported that the textbooks and other teaching materials had addressed many global issues.

6.1 Teacher Professional Development and Global Awareness Teacher professional development that fostered the factors affecting English language teachers’ beliefs included teachers’ role, global teacher’s characters, intercultural experiences, teacher training, and international study visits.

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The new role of English teachers in the global society is to guide, bridge, mediate, instruct, and assist. Teachers reported that the purpose of developing global awareness was to educate students to become global citizens. The characteristics of global teachers are that the teacher should be learned and capable, have intercultural experiences, and be able to educate intercultural speakers. Global teachers should teach the following content: intercultural experiences, grammar, language knowledge, ways of thinking, attitude, intercultural communicative skills, responsibilities, and world values. Participants expressed their beliefs as follows (teacher participant indicated in brackets): The teacher can teach students how to deal with intercultural problems when communicating with foreigners. (T15) The teacher’s role is as a guide. (T15, T16) The teacher’s role is as a bridge and channel. (T7) The teacher’s role is a guide who can help students to open the door to the world and let them get to know the world. (T9) I think the foreign language teacher is not only a person to teach language knowledge; teachers also provide a bridge for students to understand the world and communicate with people around the world. The teacher’s role is very important. [It] is not only to teach students how to learn and remember knowledge; the more important role is to develop students’ critical thinking. The teacher should develop students’ all-inclusive mentality to face the world. It is also very important to teach them how to communicate with people from different cultures. (T16) The teacher is also a learner, and teachers need to learn from students. (T7) I think the new English curriculum gives teachers more challenges. Students can find many English learning materials outside of class. The new materials are big challenges for teachers, but it is also a chance for teachers’ learning. My students recommended many new songs to me. I had never listened to them before, but they are very good. They also recommended many good movies to me. Sometimes I think our teachers are less knowledgeable than students, right? Some students are excellent. One of my students is good at Japanese, and other students are learning Korean and other languages. (T17) In the past, teachers knew everything, and the students were learners. Now the role has changed. Sometimes teachers have to learn from students. So, I think teachers face a big challenge; we must study continuously. (T17)

The participants indicated that they were influenced by intercultural experiences, teacher training, and international study visits. Some teachers had been on intercultural visits to Canada and Australia organized by the school. For instance, T8 had been in Canada for academic study for three weeks. When asked about the influence of this on teaching, T8 commented: I think there are some implications for my teaching, but I feel that sometimes the two countries’ education systems are different. Though some teaching methods look very useful, I think it is very difficult to copy their teaching methods; it does not work in China. (T8)

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Teacher training regarding global awareness and intercultural foreign language education were also themes that emerged from the data. Unfortunately, most teachers had never attended any intercultural teaching or global teaching training programs. The training programs they attended were almost all about the National College Entrance Examination. They did not study intercultural communication courses at university. Three participants conveyed this view when they said: The school should give English teachers more chances for international study visits. The international study visits need to be developed into a training system. The opportunity [to travel] should not only be for school leaders or a few teachers; all teachers should take turns. Through international study visits, teachers’ global awareness and intercultural experience could be enhanced. Then teachers will influence students in general teaching. (T2, T6, and T7)

These teachers suggested that the school could give them more international study visits and intercultural training opportunities. One participant expressed this view as follows: “I think the support we need is getting more chances for international study visits for teachers” (T16). The results of the interviews with Chinese teachers support Pike and Selby’s (1988) description of a global teacher. In their book Global Teacher, Global Learner, Pike and Selby (1988) provide a profile of what a global teacher is and they define a global educator who: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

is “global centric” rather than ethnocentric or nation centric; is concerned about culture and perspective; is future-oriented; is a facilitator; has a profound belief in human potential; is concerned with the development of the whole person; employs a range of teaching/learning styles in the classroom; sees learning as a lifelong process; tries to be congruent; is rights-respectful and seeks to shift the focus and locus of power and decisionmaking in the classroom; 11. seeks functional interdependence across the curriculum; 12. is a community teacher (pp. 272–274). The findings of the interviews revealed that the beliefs of Chinese English teachers regarding the teacher’s role, teaching content, and the characteristics of a global teacher align with the profile of a global teacher as outline by Pike and Selby (1988) above, specifically with the notions of being global centric, concerned about culture and perspective; a facilitator, concerned with the development of the whole person and employing a range of teaching/learning styles in the classroom. Having now discussed the factors that influenced teacher professional development, in the next section I look briefly at the category of students.

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6.2 Students and Global Awareness This section describes three factors about students’ global awareness. The participants stated that their students had positive attitudes toward global awareness. Their school organized various activities to develop both students’ and teachers’ global awareness through school trips and exchange projects. The first factor is about students’ knowledge and attitudes toward global awareness. The students were interested in global issues, and they were very curious. They acquired global knowledge through the classroom, the Internet, and media. Global learning can help students to broaden their horizons and change their stereotypes. Participants expressed students’ attitudes to global awareness education in the following ways: The students attend the international study visits just for one month, and then they have changed their views totally after coming back. I think these students had some intercultural experiences out of school. Then they could learn more during the study visits. (T1) The students are very curious about global knowledge. When I taught global issues or showed some movies, they concentrated in the class. They are very interested in global issues. Sometimes their interest in global knowledge is stronger than their interest in the textbooks. They are very interested in the knowledge outside of the textbook, class, and school. (T7) The students were very curious about global knowledge. They accepted global awareness very positively. Some students even imitated foreign culture. They like Christmas day more than the traditional Chinese New Year. I think they want to accept foreign festivals. In fact, it is good to develop their global awareness. But we did not do too much global awareness education. The students would like to know and understand global culture, but they cannot put it into action, right? They like to try. (T9)

One participant from the focus group interviews also commented about students’ attitudes toward global awareness in this way: I think they developed global awareness mainly through media communication. They are interested in global awareness. Especially they want to know more about adolescence. Though the pressure from the National College Entrance Examination limited their interests and development, they hope to develop their global awareness. (T10)

On this point, T12 commented: “As T10 said, the students have the global awareness; I think their thirst for knowledge is strong. They hope to go abroad to broaden their horizons. In fact, their global awareness is strong” (T12). Similarly, another participant said: “Through the globalization of economy, the students have more global knowledge; they could accept global knowledge more easily than us. Maybe their global awareness is stronger than ours. Sometimes it is true” (T11). The students have many ways to acquire global knowledge and develop their global awareness. The following participant’s comment illustrates the view of student’s global learning: The students acquired global awareness through textbooks; the teacher also taught global knowledge based on teachers’ intercultural experience and global knowledge. They had more

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channels to acquire global knowledge; the Internet is the normal channel. Some students made net friends. But they did not spend a long time communicating with net friends. You know, but I feel that they like global culture. They appreciate global culture; they develop their self-enhancement through learning foreign culture and then broaden their horizons. (T9)

The second factor is global learning activities. The global learning activities organized by the school were: English corner, Model United Nations (MUN), researchbased study, international study visits or exchanges, international news, China Central News Daily, English debate, and English teacher’s lesson. All the participants commented that Model United Nations (MUN) is an important global activity at their school. One participant described the Model United Nations in this way: At first, the students attend MUN at our school; after the competition, the most excellent students would go to Beijing University to attend the national MUN. They discussed global issues such as environmental problems and the international economy at the conference. (T3)

When the participants were asked about the global activities at their schools, T6 described the research-based study in this way: This year won’t do the research-based study, but last year, we did it one time. Some students did very well. They found many resources. But I do not know whether they found resources based on the society practices or the Internet. I am not sure, but they did good work. Furthermore, I think they presented research-based study very well, though some students were very shy. (T6)

Through the above descriptions of global activities from the participants, I found the school had made great efforts to push global learning activities. Some participants commented about the school’s efforts in this way: I think our school has tried hard to develop global learning activities; many other schools did not have MUN activities, right? The international program can stand for our school’s development of global awareness. (T4) There are many global activities. The school will organize the activities step by step. The school makes certain the activities cannot interfere with students’ study. The school also encourages students to attend various activities to enrich their lives. (T15) The most important support for global awareness should come from the school. It needs to push global awareness into action. And it also needs much time, money, and energy to do it. The school should support the activities. I think it also needs the participation of every member. Every teacher should make some effort for global awareness education. (T8)

The third factor is school trips and exchange projects. The school organized student study visits or exchanges to the U.K., Canada, and Australia. The number of students was small. Only one student in each class could attend the program each year, which was a small number considering the typical class size of 60 students. The students changed their ways of thinking and stereotypes after the intercultural experience. However, the program also had some disadvantages. Some participants also pointed out the disadvantages of student’s international study visits:

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They did not have many opportunities to communicate in the foreign country, because the route was arranged in advance. All the activities were designed beforehand. Even taking taxis was arranged in advance. They did not have intercultural experience and struggle with barriers and difficulties. (T4) At present, international study visits are a normal school activity. Other activities are through teaching, the library, and reading of course. Not all students can go abroad, only some students can attend intercultural study visits. This is the direct way to develop students’ global awareness. (T12)

Having looked at two categories (teachers and students) that shape teachers’ beliefs about global awareness, the following section looks at the category of tests’ influence on developing global awareness.

6.3 Global Awareness in Tests The National College Entrance Examination is the biggest barrier to developing global awareness according to teachers who expressed three main views about exams: (a) global awareness in exams, (b) listening tests, and (c) the National College Entrance Examination’s influence on global awareness. Reading in the exams is related to global awareness. The listening test had been canceled in the National College Entrance Examination in Henan Province recently. The examination did not include a speaking component. First, participants noted that global awareness was evaluated in the test. Reading comprehension and dialogue is related to global awareness, and the test designer also considered global elements in the test. On this point, one participant commented: The test includes evaluation of global awareness. Reading comprehension is related to global awareness. The dialogue is a setting for intercultural communication. Some materials relate to international issues. (T3)

Another participant conveyed this view as follows: Global awareness can be found in the test. Exam designers considered global awareness when they designed the test, because developing global awareness is beneficial to students. The test includes global topics because global topics are the hot topics. (T9)

Second, the majority of the participants commented on the exams’ influence on English teaching and global awareness: The test guidance would directly influence the school’s design of objectives. The school would design these objectives for teachers, and then the teachers would achieve these objectives for students. The influence is circular. The biggest difficulty in developing global awareness is the National College Entrance Examination. “Quality education” has been advocated for many years. It requires liberating teachers and students from heavier teaching and school study. I think cultural awareness is one of the most important parts of the quality education. But in fact, from the results of quality education, it is still very difficult to develop. Intercultural communication would be frequent in the schools in big cities like Beijing and Shanghai. Schools there may do well with global awareness education. (T8)

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I think the objective of foreign language teaching is influenced by the National College Entrance Examination. It is not right to teach English following the examination. The present educational style, method, and teaching key points are not right. This is not the teachers’ problem; it is the educational and exam systems. I think correct foreign language education should emphasize listening and speaking more than other language skills. But at present listening is not included in the exams. Reading is the key teaching point. If the exam had listening and speaking tests, English teaching would be better. But at present the ultimate aim of foreign language education is still reading development, and to develop students’ reading ability. (T9) The exam is the biggest barrier to global awareness development. Because of the pressure of the National College Entrance Examination, the teachers do not have time to teach culture and global knowledge. Though some teachers have tried to teach global awareness, the results were not good. (T6)

Third, the participants mentioned that the listening test was canceled, and the National College Entrance Examination policy directly influenced their teaching. Communication skills cannot be developed in the classroom. The following comments illustrate participants’ comments regarding the listening test: The reason for canceling the listening test is for balance and equality because the education in different areas of Henan Province was developing in an unbalanced way. The learning environment in city schools is better than in the country. Listening was emphasized in city schools, so the students’ scores were higher. In the country, the teaching facilities are more limited; for example, maybe they do not have a recorder that would be used to develop listening abilities. Canceling listening has disadvantages; that is to say, the whole English level of students has dropped. (T2) Canceling the listening test is not only in Henan province. Particularly in remote areas, like Xinjiang and Gansu, the listening test was canceled, too. The National College Entrance Examination policy relates directly to a high school’s foreign language teaching. In grade one and two, speaking and listening were practiced, but in grade three, speaking and listening were not practiced. Of the four skills, reading is the most important, then writing, and then listening and speaking. (T7)

In the next section, I look briefly at global awareness in teaching materials.

6.4 Global Topics in Teaching Materials The category of teaching materials includes the factors of textbooks and global issues. The textbooks included many global issues topics and themes; the teacher’s book also included cultural background guidance. Other teaching materials had global awareness content. One participant introduced global topics (beyond Anglo-American) in the textbook: The textbook has some topics about global culture and issues, such as world heritage, Olympic Games, wildlife protection, and world music. (T3)

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Another participant commented on the teacher’s book: The teacher’s book has explanations of cultural background. These need to be introduced in the class. It may meet teachers’ teaching needs, but teachers do not have enough time to teach culture. (T8)

The teachers also used other teaching materials like newspapers and magazines. For example, one of the participants described teaching materials in this way: Teaching materials include the 21st Century English Newspaper, English Weekly, and English Coaching Paper. The newspaper has content of global awareness. The students read the newspaper themselves. The textbook cannot satisfy the needs of cultural teaching. (T3)

Another participant commented about the global elements in the teaching materials in the following way: We also use other teaching materials in addition to textbooks. The teaching materials are mainly related to language skills training. Sometimes the teaching materials are related to culture, but cultural contents are very limited. Basically, teachers find materials by themselves. Sometimes I have taught cultural knowledge that I learned from the university. I also searched global topics as additional materials. (T8)

Global topics include world musicians, peace and war, international relationships, the global environment, food safety, world culture, habits and customs, sports, world cultural heritage, the Olympics, the development of the computer, wildlife protection, music, energy problems, global warming, and world economy. The following is a summary of the teachers’ beliefs about global issues. • Music topics include world-famous musicians, such as Beethoven and Tchaikovsky. • The teachers have limited music knowledge. • Students feel the learning pressure is too high, so they cannot give sufficient attention to global issues. • The teachers suggested that English teaching might be combined with music classes to develop students’ global awareness. • The figures in the music unit of textbooks are world famous. • Global issues: war and peace, Sino-US relations, US-Taiwan relations, movies, global topics in the textbook, reading comprehension in the examination, student debate, culture, customs, sports, cultural heritage, the Olympic Games, the development of the computer, wildlife protection, music, environment, food safety, energy issues, inflation, and global warming.

6.5 Conclusion In this chapter, I have explored core factors that shape teachers’ beliefs about global awareness. I have described participants’ images of global English teachers and found they were influenced by intercultural experience, teacher training, and international

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study visits. I highlighted students’ positive attitudes toward global awareness, and teachers enhanced students’ global awareness through school trips and exchange projects. I also noted that the National College Entrance Examination was considered the biggest barrier to developing global awareness. I also reviewed global issues in English textbooks and other teaching materials. In the next chapter, I will examine teachers’ classroom practices related to global awareness.

References Gu, X. (2016). Assessment of intercultural communicative competence in FL education: A survey on EFL teachers’ perception and practice in China. Language and Intercultural Communication, 16(2), 254–273. Han, H. (2010). An investigation on teachers’ perceptions of culture teaching in the secondary schools in Xinjiang (Doctoral dissertation). http://ethses.dur.ac.uk/109/1/HAN,_Hui_FinalVers ion.pdf Han, X. H., & Song, L. (2011). Teacher cognition of intercultural communicative competence in the Chinese ELT context. Intercultural Communication Studies, XIIX(1), 175–192. Jing, H. (2013). Teachers’ perceptions of students and global awareness. Bulletin of the Graduate Division of Literature of Waseda University, 58, 123–138. Jing, H. (2016). Exploring factors affecting foreign language teachers’ beliefs about global awareness in a Chinese high school. In Y. X. Jia & G. M. Chen (Eds.), Intercultural communication research (Vol. 4, pp. 71–86). Higher Education Press. Pike, G., & Selby, D. (1988). Global teacher, global learner. Hodder & Stoughton. Zhou, Y. (2011). A study of Chinese university EFL teachers and their intercultural competence teaching (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. NR77977).

Part III

Global Awareness in Classroom Practice

Chapter 7

Chinese English Teachers’ Classroom Practices

Part III presents the key findings obtained from classroom observation. This chapter responds to Research Question Four (teachers’ classroom practices). This chapter describes seven Chinese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers’ classroom practices of global awareness in one senior high school. Findings showed that global awareness is facilitated through different teaching activities like vocabulary, grammar, multimedia lessons, and teachers’ joint instruction preparation. The EFL teachers’ classroom practices reflect their strong beliefs about teaching intercultural competence and global awareness. The study explores effective intercultural teaching approaches that policymakers and language teachers can use to develop global citizenship in senior high schools. Findings may also help teacher trainers design effective training programs to develop teachers’ intercultural competence. This chapter explores the teachers’ classroom practices regarding global awareness in the regular high school English department. Seven teachers of the regular high school English department taught global awareness through different teaching activities like vocabulary lessons, grammar lessons, multimedia lessons, and teachers’ joint preparation of instruction. The high school concerned had a regular high school department and an international education department. I observed English classes in both departments and report teachers’ teaching approaches to teach culture and global awareness observed in their classroom practices in this chapter. Based on that, I will try to answer the fourth research question in Chapter 1: What are the teachers’ classroom practices about global awareness? In this chapter, I report classroom observations of Chinese English teachers in the regular high school classes. In the previous chapter, I presented the findings and analysis of teachers’ interview data, and I built the Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) based on grounded theory. I defined global awareness as three categories: global

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 H. Jing, Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education, Intercultural Communication and Language Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4179-7_7

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knowledge, global skills, and global attitudes. Knowledge is related to globalization, cultures, language, global issues, and cultural self-awareness. The skills include critical thinking, communication, language skills, self-cultivation, and learning skills. Attitudes include responsibility, tolerance, openness, justice, and respect. In this chapter, I examine the relationship between teachers’ teaching practices and the Global Awareness Model. I examine whether they teach global knowledge, global skills, and global attitudes in the classroom and their teaching methods. Classroom observations of seven Chinese EFL teachers were grouped into four different themes. These EFL teachers taught global awareness through different teaching activities like vocabulary, grammar, multimedia lessons, and teachers’ joint instruction preparation.

7.1 Vocabulary Lessons This section deals with the first theme of classroom observation: teaching vocabulary. Observing the seven teachers’ classroom practices, I noticed two teachers who taught global awareness through vocabulary lessons (T3 and T17). T3’s vocabulary class was the third class in the morning on October 28, 2010. In the teaching plan, vocabulary usage would be explained in the first lesson, and the text would be discussed in the second lesson. The lesson was Unit Five of Book One in the textbook “New Senior English for China”. T3 talked about words related to culture. For example, when explaining the word “Bible”, T3 gave an example and spoke about Adam being the first man created by God, also referring to “The Three People’s Principles” of Sun Yat-sen, Marx and Leninism, and peace. T3 referred to a quote from Julius Caesar: “I came, I saw, I conquered”. The class was very interactive as T3 introduced many international figures. In another lesson on October 18, T3 taught Class 6 of grade one. The lesson focused on sentence training. Some students asked questions, and the teacher responded to them. T3 talked about Greek myths, mentioning Pandora, Zeus, and Athena. T3 was a very humorous teacher who liked to play jokes. The students enjoyed this and were very interactive. The pictures in the slides were very expressive. T3 explained sentences illustrated with details from everyday life. T17 talked about Western development in the USA in one lesson and how this affected the local Indians, and used a sentence to explain the use of the phrase “run down” in Chinese: T: S: T: S:

We spoke last time about how to say, ‘tears run down their faces’? Tears run down. Do we use ‘from’ next to ‘Tears run down’? No.

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T: Some people used ‘slow’ to express the meaning of ‘run down’. Do not think in this way. English-speaking countries think quite logically. We should understand their logical thinking and values and follow their speaking ways. Another lesson with T17 in Class 11 of grade one involved 48 students. The teaching material was Book 3 of Unit 1: “Festivals around the World”. After studying the vocabulary, T17 asked students to find all the words about festivals. The students were excited and found many words, including “celebration, origin, religious, ancestor, obon, grave, incense, in memory of”. In addition, some students wrote down additional words not included in the textbook. Through brainstorming, students became more interested in the vocabulary and were more motivated than in other teaching forms. Next, T17 asked some students to describe traditional Chinese festivals in English. Most students chose Chinese New Year, which had just passed and is the most important festival in China. Other students chose the Chinese Mid-Autumn Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival. When a student had difficulties describing the festivals in English, T17 let other students assist. Finally, T17 let students list several foreign holidays through which to understand foreign cultures and customs. The following is an example of classroom interaction. T: S1: S2: S3: T: S1: S4: S5: T: T: S1: T: S6: T: S7: T: Ss: T:

S8:

The topic of Unit 1 is ‘Festivals around the World.’ Since we’ve finished the vocabulary, can you find the words and phrases connected with festivals? Yes. There are a lot of them, celebration, origin, religious, ancestor, obon… Grave, incense, in memory of… Play a trick on, feast, award, Easter, Christian, Jesus, cherry... You’ve done a great job. Now, boys and girls, can you name some of our traditional Chinese festivals? The Spring Festival! The Mid-Autumn Festival! The Dragon Boat Festival! Good! How do we celebrate these festivals? Now do you know some of the foreign festivals? Halloween! How do people celebrate it? Children will dress up and go to their neighbors’ homes to ask for sweets. If the neighbors do not give any sweets, they might play a trick on them. Very good, what else? Easter! Do you know what Easter is for? No. Easter is a Christian festival. It is a very important religious and social festival for Christians around the world. It celebrates the return of Jesus from the dead and the coming of spring and new life. I know in Japan, they celebrate the Cherry Blossom Festival.

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Yes, the Japanese love cherry blossoms very much. From March 15th to April 15th, when the cherry trees are in full bloom, people will go to the park to enjoy the beautiful flowers. They enjoy them very much.

In this example, T17 used brainstorming to teach global awareness. The teacher introduced traditional Chinese festivals and then encouraged students to talk more about foreign holidays. The examples of Halloween, Easter, and the Cherry Blossom Festival showed that students knew about some cultures from around the world. The classroom discourse illustrated the students’ strong desire for global learning. Having looked at teaching vocabulary, the next section looks at the second theme: grammar teaching.

7.2 Grammar Teaching Grammar teaching is a very common teaching method in high schools in China. This section describes one Chinese teacher’s grammar teaching method I observed. T10 explained test questions in one class. One question was about the choice of verb. For example: 3. It took her a long time to ____ the skills she needed to become a famous player. A. acquire B. inquire C. require D. request T10 firstly explained the Chinese meaning of the English sentence and then explained each item’s Chinese meaning to the students. When explaining the word “request” (choice D), T10 gave this example: “The North Koreans request financial support”, before translating this sentence and commenting on the international relationship between China and North Korea: Do you know why the relationship between China and North Korea was not good before? That is because North Korea did not vote for China for the Olympics. Now the United States and Japan sometimes make trouble for China. It will be a risk to conflict directly with them, so we resolve the troubles through North Korea. So now our relationship with North Korea is sound. Just like Mao Zedong said, ‘Resist U.S. aggression and aid Korea and protect our homes and defend our country’. In fact, there is another saying: ‘It is better for the United States to fight with another country than with China’.

T10 introduced an international topic into the grammar lesson to motivate students. As a result, the students laughed and felt relaxed, and at the same time, they understood the meaning and use of the word “request”. T10 continued to explain grammar and the use of phrases as related to question 3. When explaining question 8, T10 gave an important example to explain using the keyword “constant”, using one sentence in English: “Russia is always constant, with China, in its relationship to Japan”. Question 8 was:

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8. They haven’t seen each other for ten years, but they still keep in ____ contact with each other. A. constant B. instant C. content D. consistent Then T10 continued to say: Russia and China maintain a consistent position in their relationship with Japan. If the United States announced that it would protect Diaoyu Islands, we would unite with Russia and issue a statement that the islands in the Pacific should be divided by the treaties of World War II. So, the word ‘constant’ is an adjective; it means ‘persistent in occurrence and unvarying in nature’.

T10 explained the usage of the word “constant” by talking about international relationships, spending most of the time explaining the multiple-choice test questions in this grammar class, and focusing on students’ grammar and vocabulary. When explaining the grammar, T10 emphasized the different usage of keywords and taught some new sentences linked to international situations and issues. This intercultural teaching method was very interesting, and the class was very lively. T18 taught English in grade two. The class I observed was the second lesson on the morning of October 20, 2010. The class focused on explaining grammar. T18 used slides to aid the teaching process, and the main content was about the indicative, the imperative, and the subjunctive. For example, the special sentence patterns of the subjunctive were taught using the object clause of “wish” and the present, past, and future tenses of “would rather than”. The first half of the lesson focused on explaining grammar; the second was about translation practice. T18 explained the translation of a few sentences to consolidate the grammar points. For example: “If I am 20 years old next year, I will study French”. One sentence mentioned Japanese Crayon Shin Chan (a Japanese animation series), and another example was about Yao Ming, a famous NBA basketball player. Other examples were given in sentences like: “One American car turned over”, and “It is very important to master a foreign language”. T18’s slides were very expressive, with each sentence illustrated by a slide and grammar exercises that were very interesting. These two examples from T8 and T10 showed how grammar exercises could link to global learning. T10 used the international relationship between China and North Korea to explain grammatical points. T18 emphasized foreign language learning in the translation exercises and mentioned Japanese Crayon Shin Chan and Yao Ming. The information from the sentence translation connects to global knowledge. These teachers’ classroom practices supported their beliefs about the Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2). In particular, their classroom practices illustrated categories such as culture, language, and global issues.

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7.3 Multimedia Lessons The third theme of classroom practice is developing students’ global awareness through using multimedia. Teachers used movies and songs in the classroom. When T7 taught about animal protection, not all the students could understand that animals should have the same rights to live as humans. T7 introduced some English videos to students, such as Lassie, Snow Dogs, and BBC nature documentaries. Some students argued that people were free to make choices about the different animals they liked. The students felt that Spain’s bullfighting festival was very cruel and acknowledged foreigners’ attitudes to Chinese people eating dogs. Cultural differences were acknowledged, and it was agreed that animal rights require the whole of society’s efforts. T16 developed students’ global awareness through watching videos. In this class, students watched “2012” (a 2009 American science fiction disaster film) and a speech by former American President Obama. T16 also developed students’ global awareness through English songs by playing Michael Jackson’s songs in her classroom, for example, some of which were about environmental protection. Examples of relevant international affairs and global issues were also provided. In one lesson, Unit 5 about “Travel Abroad” was taught using a PowerPoint slideshow that showed one student’s experience in the U.K., describing intercultural conflict. In this class, T16 asked questions in English, giving some examples to illustrate intercultural conflict because intercultural theory may be difficult for students to understand. In T7’s class, the global issue of animal protection caused students to think critically about animals’ rights and cultural differences, which supported teachers’ beliefs about global awareness. From the examples, we can see illustrated global skills such as critical thinking, and global attitudes such as responsibility and respect. The second example from T16 is related to environmental protection and intercultural learning abroad. Both of these teachers used multimedia lessons for global awareness teaching. From the practice of multimedia lessons, we can see that high school English teachers use ICT effectively to improve their teaching skills and teach intercultural communication in language classrooms. Digital ability was emphasized by Butler (2022). She argued that the purpose of language education in the era of digital technology is “to assist learners to develop communicative competence by using digital technology as a pedagogical tool along with these learners’ own language use and cognitive styles” (p. 149). She proposed a conceptual framework for communicative competence in the digital era that consists of basic linguistic knowledge and the ability to use language autonomously, socially, and creatively. Butler (2022) expands the concept of communicative competence for this new era of digital technology when teachers use digital teaching in the language classroom. The teachers also need to consider issues of “equity and privacy, unequal access to digital technology, the gap in the quality of students’ use of digital information, how students’ personal data is used” (p. 149).

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7.4 Teachers’ Joint Preparation for Instruction The last theme of classroom observation findings is teachers’ joint preparation for instruction. Each grade had joint preparation time twice a week. All the English language teachers had a meeting to explore how to teach. Typically, one teacher gave a demonstration and a presentation about their teaching plan for the following week. Then, other teachers gave feedback about this presentation. Finally, all the teachers decided on a unified lesson plan. I observed one joint preparation session on October 29, 2010. It was grade one’s collective preparation session. T4 talked about the lesson plan and shared teaching experiences with others, firstly questioning why college graduates could not find work in China due to social inequality. Next, the conversation turned to the issue of discrimination, and teachers considered whether there was any discrimination against black people before addressing the issue of discrimination against the Henan people. Finally, they talked about equality, human rights, black and white people, and educational degrees. In this discussion, teachers focused on the teaching materials in selected textbook pages. Through the example of teachers’ joint preparation for instruction, it was noted that they have strong global awareness. Topics such as job hunting, human rights, racial inequality, and issues of discrimination against Henan people were related to their beliefs about global awareness. Human rights topics also emerged that reflected theories of global learning (Hogg & Shah, 2010, 2011) and global citizenship education (Oxfam, 2006).

7.5 Conclusion In this chapter, I have focused on the teachers’ classroom practices about global awareness. I have described Chinese English teachers’ different teaching activities like vocabulary lessons, grammar lessons, multimedia lessons, and teachers’ joint preparation of instruction in the regular high school English department. In Chapter 6, I will focus on the classroom practices of three Canadian teachers of English.

References Butler, Y. G. (2022). Language education in the era of digital technology. JALT Journal, 44(1), 137–152. Hogg, M., & Shah, H. (2010). The impact of global learning on public attitudes and behaviours towards international development and sustainability. http://clients.squareeye.net/uploads/dea/ documents/Impact_of_global_learning_research_paper_web.pdf

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Hogg, M., & Shah, H. (2011). What parents want: The role of schools in teaching about the wider world. http://clients.squareeye.net/uploads/dea/documents/Parents_screen.pdf Oxfam. (2006). Education for global citizenship: A guide for schools. http://www.oxfam.org.uk/ coolplanet/teachers/globciti/wholeschool/getstarted.htm

Chapter 8

Classroom Practices of Three Canadian English Teachers

In the previous chapter, I examined Chinese English teachers’ classroom practices regarding global awareness in the regular high school department. In this chapter, I examine the classroom practices of three Canadian English teachers related to global awareness in the Sino-Canadian program. I begin by looking at the first teacher’s teaching method through reading global and local issues in an English newspaper, and then examine the second teacher’s classroom activities related to performing Christmas. Finally, I discuss the third teacher’s drama class. In my previous research, I explored global awareness teaching by three Canadian English teachers’ focusing on classroom practices regarding global awareness (Jing, 2015). I coded the three Canadian English teachers as C1, C2, and C3. They each had different classroom practices and used different teaching methods to develop students’ global awareness. C1 developed students’ global awareness by reading about global and local issues in an English newspaper. C2 developed students’ global awareness through the study of Christmas. C3 developed students’ global awareness in a drama class. This research project introduced one Chinese high school. This high school features an international department with programs such as Sino-Canadian and Sino-Japanese. The international department’s principal teaching goal is to prepare students for study abroad. As I explained in Chapter 1, I chose the Sino-Canadian program as an outstanding case to purposefully sample since it best represents the high school’s global and intercultural education. Furthermore, I chose these three Canadian teachers because their teaching methods emphasized the development of students’ global awareness and intercultural communicative competence. Other teachers also suggested that I observe their classes. The subtitle of this book, “English Language Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices in China”, does not imply that it simply investigates Chinese English teachers’ beliefs

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 H. Jing, Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education, Intercultural Communication and Language Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4179-7_8

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and practices related to global awareness. The subtitle “English language teachers” refers to Chinese and international teachers. I also looked at the practices of Canadian English teachers because they are also English language teachers in China. Their teaching style reflects the global teaching approaches used by the Sino-Canadian curriculum. The teaching approaches of these Canadian teachers differ from those of the Chinese English teachers mentioned in Chapter 7. I hope that by sharing their classroom practices, we will better understand the overall image of this high school’s English education and global citizenship education.

8.1 Reading an English Newspaper In this section, I describe C1’s classroom observation and review the standard teaching model used. I observed C1’s class four times and found that the teaching approach included multiple steps. First, group discussions were initiated using group assignments drawn on the blackboard (see Fig. 8.1). Students read the “21st Century Newspaper”, a popular, high-quality English newspaper in China, and they filled in a handout that C1 created. They could use dictionaries to look for new vocabulary. The group members discussed the handout questions together in English. Second, C1 asked the student groups to answer the handout questions, giving them feedback. Every group chose one member to answer the question. Third, students wrote and submitted their diaries weekly, and C1 read them and gave feedback. C1 liked to play background music in the classroom, believing that the music makes the students feel relaxed and makes them enjoy the reading. C1 claimed to like to play music and watch TV shows at home according to an interview conducted at home. I observed one of C1’s lessons on November 25, 2010. It was the first lesson in the morning. The purpose of the class was to develop students’ oral English abilities and global awareness through reading about global issues in the English newspaper (November 3, 2010 edition). Global issues here were used in the widest sense, and global issues topics included world musicians, peace and war, international relationships, global environment, food safety, world culture, habits and customs, sports, world cultural heritage, the Olympics, the development of the computer, wild animal protection, music, energy problems, global warming, and world economy. When the students had difficulties, they would look up words in the dictionary. They used both paper dictionaries and electronic dictionaries. Twelve students were not in the classroom because they were taking a math exam. C1 called everyone’s name and divided the class into four groups. Each group had four or five students. The students began to read the newspaper at 8 AM, and then, they did the exercises in the handout. Selected articles were provided from the newspaper, including: “IT ‘Wonderkid’”, “Time for Population Control”, and “Swiftly Seeking a True Love”. The reading materials were all about global issues. C1 also included local issues in the handout and then assigned students to groups.

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Fig. 8.1 Seating arrangement in C1’s class

When the students had difficult questions, they would discuss them together. Sometimes they discussed in Chinese, perhaps because they could understand the questions more quickly than when discussing in English. I moved between different groups and observed each group’s discussion. I found that the discussion lacked an international orientation. The students were mainly focused on the exercises. During the class, C1 told me about the teaching syllabus in more detail. In this class, the students read about global issues in the newspaper and did the reading practice in the handout. They discussed the questions with partners in their group. The teacher introduced local issues. The comparison between global issues and local issues developed students’ global awareness and critical awareness. Because the teaching materials were about global issues, the students were able to learn more about the wider world. All three global issues topics were about culture and were actual issues in a global society. Therefore, the teaching materials were able to help students learn about other cultures and acquire global knowledge. In the handout, C1 designed four reading activities. The students read the newspaper and then wrote the answers in the handout. The first reading passage was based on the newspaper section “the buzz” and was about China and the world (see Figs. 8.2 and 8.3). Figure 8.4 shows a short story of Steve Jobs in reading passage B. C1 designed some questions for the reading passage: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Who is Steve Jobs? Name Apple’s new CEO and state where he previously worked? What was Steve Jobs regarded as? Name the college that Steve Jobs graduated from?

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Slimming drugs Fifteen slimming drugs, including Qumei and Aoquqing, have been recalled as recent research indicates that they contain an ingredient which could lead to increased instances of heart disease and strokes. The ingredient, sibutramine, is commonly found in slimming medications and acts by altering the body’s metabolism. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the US banned the substance in early October. Slimming drugs. (November 3, 2010). 21st Century Newspaper, p. 2.

Fig. 8.2 Example of “slimming drugs”

All but certain Final polls indicate that the American Democrats are “all but certain” to lose control of the House of Representatives as well as see their Senate majority slashed in the US midterm elections on November 2. Democrats and Republicans go head-to-head for all 435 seats in the House of Representatives as well as 37 Senate seats and a further 37 governor’s seats. The economy and President Barack Obama’s healthcare reform plan form the election’s main battleground. All but certain. (November 3, 2010). 21st Century Newspaper, p. 2.

Fig. 8.3 Example of “all but certain”

5. In a commencement speech, what did Jobs encourage students to do? C1 began to discuss the handout with students after they finished the reading. C1 was able to develop students’ global awareness by asking critical questions. C1’s questions were not limited to the reading materials—questions also related to global knowledge. These challenging questions made students think critically and globally. The following is an example of an interaction between C1 and his students taken from recorded observations. C1: Okay, look at the first one in B… Pelagia, who is Steve Jobs? S1: The co-founder and CEO of Apple. C1: Name Apple’s new CEO, and where did he previously work? Let’s go. Who is it? S1: John Sculley. C1: John Sculley. Where did he previously work? S1: Pepsi-Cola. C1: What is Pepsi-Cola? A drink. Yao Ming drinks Pepsi-Cola. C1: Okay. No. 3, No. 3. S1: He was regarded as a source of motivation and inspiration by youth. C1: Does anybody here see Steve Jobs as a source of motivation and inspiration? S: Yes. C1: Yeah, many people would like to be him. Yeah, he was regarded as a source of motivation and inspiration. C1: Alan. No. 4, 4. Name the college that Steve Jobs graduated from.

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IT ‘Wonderkid Steve Jobs, 55. The co-founder and CEO of Apple “Innovation distinguishes between a leader and a follower.” College drop-out Steve Jobs lured John Sculley away from Pepsi-Cola to serve as Apple’s CEO. Jobs asked him: “Do you want to sell sugar water for the rest of your life, or do you want to come with me and change the world?” The “wonderkid” of Silicon Valley was known for pulling off seemingly impossible feats. He gave the world the first successful, mass-produced personal computer (PC), the Apple, and reinvented it years later by creating the Mac. He made a successful business out of creating PCs that were not only user-friendly but were also aesthetically pleasing. He was regarded as a source of motivation and inspiration by youth. Check out: Stanford University Commencement Speech, 2005. Jobs encouraged students to follow their heart and intuition. Fan view: “Apple was at death’s door when Jobs came back. Few people were willing to take a risk with it. But he stood out. He always dares to make changes.” Luo Bi, 27, a senior director in Walmart, Shenzhen, China IT ‘Wonderkid’. (November 3, 2010). 21st Century Newspaper, p. 4.

Fig. 8.4 A short story of Steve Jobs

S2: He graduated from Stanford University. C1: Did he graduate from there? S2: No. C1: No, he was a college dropout, he never graduated from it. S: Haha… C1: Go back to page four. What is he saying? C1: The first line, he is a college dropout, just like who? S: Bill Gates. C1: Just like Bill Gates… college dropout, never graduated from university or college. S3: Bill Gates graduated from Harvard. C1: In a commencement speech, what did Jobs encourage students to do? Let’s go… over here. What did Jobs encourage students to do? S4: Jobs encouraged students to follow their heart and intuition. C1: Yes, follow your heart and intuition. Now, last year, in the article in the paper, they had an interview with a Chinese guy—who is the Chinese guy who studied Chinese Google? S: Oh…? Google? C1: Li Wei. Yeah, Chinese Google. S4: Chinese Google? S5: Li Kaifu. S6: No.

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C1: Okay, anyway, that guy said the same thing. “Do what you enjoy doing; do what you enjoy”. That is why he made his money. He did what he likes to do. That is something he wants to do. Okay? Reading passage C in the handout was “Time for population control?” It discussed the time-sensitive need for population control in China. The middle paragraphs introduced the population situation in large cities in China. Figure 8.5 shows one part of this reading. In the end, the article asks: “What do you think? Should large Chinese cities seek to control the size of their population?” Yes and no were given as options, and three reasons were given to support the arguments. In the handout, C1 asked five questions: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Give some of the reasons the article lists for having population control. What was the population of Beijing earlier this year? Who has put forth plans to control the urban population? In your opinion, is Zhengzhou doing enough to deal with its population growth? Explain. 5. In your opinion, do cities need to put controls on their population growth? Why? C1 designed Question Four based on a local issue. Because the school is located in Zhengzhou City, C1 designed the question to ask about population control in Zhengzhou. In the group discussion, students were very interested in this question. C1 asked questions to develop students’ critical global awareness by comparing the global and local issues. For example, C1 asked, “What do you think about the population in Zhengzhou?” The examples provided above demonstrate C1’s approach to global awareness teaching. By using the “21st Century Newspaper” to introduce global issues and foster intercultural knowledge on topics including slimming drugs, final polls for the US president, Steve Jobs’ biography, and China’s population control problem, C1 developed students’ critical thinking, which is an aspect of global skills under the Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2). The classroom discourse related to the reading passage on Steve Jobs illustrates how C1 developed students’ global attitudes with reference to Jobs’ speech, encouraging students to follow their hearts and intuition. C1’s class practice supported the teachers’ beliefs about the objectives of foreign language education: to develop students’ global awareness and educate them to be global citizens.

8.2 Christmas Class The second type of global awareness teaching is about a Christmas class. I observed C2’s lessons three times. These lessons were all about Christmas. Christmas had not yet come, and all of the Sino-Canadian classes began to prepare to celebrate Christmas. Each Christmas class would be evaluated in the term scores.

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Time for population control? Many of China’s large cities are bursting at the seams. They are afflicted by rapidly growing populations and limited space. There are too many cars for the roads, too few parking spaces, and growing demands on public transport, water, electricity and the jobs market. Earlier this year, Beijing announced that its population had reached almost 20 million, a full decade earlier than estimated. Time for population control? (2010, November 3). 21st Century Newspaper, p. 7.

Fig. 8.5 Reading passage of population control in China

Christmas class was only one day long. The students prepared the class, and the teacher celebrated with the students. The students bought Christmas trees, hats, red cloth, colorful lights, and candles. They decorated the classroom very beautifully. I attended three classes’ Christmas activities and documented them with photos and videos. I will describe the approach to Christmas used by Class #20 of grade three. C2 wore a Christmas hat and red clothes. All of the students wore red Christmas hats. “Merry Christmas” was written on the blackboard. There was a big television in front of the classroom. The television was playing a Christmas carol. The students watched the screen and sang the Christmas carol. The students were divided into six groups of five students, with each group occupying one row of the classroom. Students sang the Christmas carol row by row, with each row standing up, singing their line, and sitting down again very quickly. The students sang the song for about four minutes, after which the teacher and students applauded. The class was decorated interestingly, with many colorful paper footprints on the floor close to the window. The footprints were lined up in a row that extended to the back of the classroom. A big blackboard on the wall in the back of the classroom displayed a picture of Santa Claus, a Christmas sleigh, and two deer, and there was a row of Christmas trees with colorful lights. Many photos from students’ travel were posted on the walls. C2’s Christmas lesson demonstrates how global learning activities can develop students’ global awareness. During the preparation for Christmas, students learned about Christmas, and they also developed global attitudes like openness and tolerance. They developed their English language skills when communicating with their Canadian teacher in the Christmas lesson. C2’s Christmas classroom practices support teachers’ beliefs about the importance of global awareness and the relationship between global awareness, language, and cultural learning in the curriculum.

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8.3 Drama Class The third approach for Canadian teacher is drama teaching. I observed two drama classes in the Sino-Canadian program. I had heard from the teachers of the SinoJapanese program that the drama class was very interesting. The students liked it and gave high evaluations. The drama class is an intercultural experience that can develop students’ intercultural communicative competence. The lesson described occurred in the No.10C class of grade three on November 29, 2010, held at the Art and Sports Center. I observed and videotaped the class with permission. The classroom was very big—the size of a basketball court. The drama class lasted 80 min rather than 40 min, and drama lessons occurred only once weekly. There were 30 students and four teachers in this class. One teacher was a Chinese teacher, and the other three were Canadian English teachers. C3 was the drama teacher, and the other two teachers were observers. C3 and the Chinese teacher taught the drama class together. The Chinese teacher was a teaching assistant who helped the Canadian teacher when she had trouble in the classroom. Because C3 was about to become the chief of the Sino-Canadian program and would no longer teach drama, the two young Canadian teachers attended the class to learn how to teach drama. C3 taught “Cinderella”, a fairy tale known worldwide that is very popular in China. The drama class followed four stages. First, C3 explained the drama background and taught a song, “Did She Mention My Name”. Second, C3 told the story of “Cinderella”. Third, the students performed the drama in groups. Fourth, each group acted out the drama. At the beginning of the class practice, all of the students brought chairs and sat in one corner around the teacher. C3 stood at stage right. I stood to the left of the teacher and students to observe and document the class. To start, C3 explained the drama’s background and taught the class a song (Lightfoot, 2017), giving each student a handout containing the song’s lyrics (https:/ /www.youtube.com/watch?v=9n1a2TQnorQ). C3 posted a note on the wall. She discussed literary devices such as metaphor, simile, hyperbole, and subtext. She gave an example: “the cherry lips, and lips like cherry”. She also explained how to use hyperbole and subtext. After explaining the drama, C3 taught the song sentence by sentence. Then, she asked the students to find the song’s simile, exaggeration, and subtext. After C3 explained the drama’s background, she said she would tell a story for a dramatic performance. All students moved to the middle of the classroom and sat around the teacher in a circle. C3 told the story of “Cinderella”. C3 said that the story was a little different from the one people have widely known and comes from Canadian folk history. C3 said that Cinderella’s mother died and was buried in the garden. Her stepmother was not kind to her. C3 asked the students, “Do you like this

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story? Or do you not like it?” Each student listened to the story carefully and took notes. When C3 finished the story, she asked the students to select a scene and act it out. The students were divided into eight groups of, on average, four students. One Canadian teacher attended a group and played the role of Cinderella. The students began to practice the scenario while C3 walked up and down the classroom and guided them. The eight groups performed their scenes individually, and I filmed their performances. While one group performed, the other students watched. The students gave warm applause for the exciting performances. C3 gave guidance and evaluated groups on the side. Sometimes C3 interrupted students’ performances and asked questions such as “What do you think of the role? And what do you imagine when you play this role?” C3 listened and explained the roles. In one group, C3 interrupted the students’ performance and asked the other two students in the group, “How did you design the plot?” Then, C3 again asked the students who were acting, “What do you think?” Five groups performed before the end of the class; the other three groups were to perform their scenes the following week. C3 taught drama knowledge in this class and reviewed it using a song. The song made students respond positively, be highly motivated, and enjoy attending the drama activity. Students acquired cultural knowledge through the story of “Cinderella”. During the drama performance, the teacher developed students’ critical thinking skills by asking students to describe their attitudes and thoughts about the roles.

8.4 Conclusion In sum, I have explored three Canadian English teachers’ global teaching methods in this chapter. I have overserved that these three Canadian English teachers of the Sino-Canadian program used different teaching methods to develop students’ global awareness, such as reading global issues and local issues in the English newspaper, Christmas, and drama class. In Chapter 9, I will present the findings’ analysis, interpretation, and synthesis regarding the literature.

References Lightfoot, G. (2017, July 24). Did she mention my name [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=9n1a2TQnorQt Jing, H. (2015). Teachers’ classroom practices regarding global awareness: A case study of three native speakers of English. JACET Language Teacher Cognition Research Bulletin, 2015, 103– 129.

Part IV

Discussion and Conclusions

Chapter 9

Teacher Cognition, Practice, and Global Awareness

In this chapter, I will attempt to analyze, interpret, and synthesize the findings that emerged in Part II and Part III. Based on my previous research about language teachers’ cognition and practices regarding global awareness (Jing, 2013b, 2013c, 2013d, 2013e, 2015, 2016), I will explain how to integrate and synthesize the findings in the previous relevant literature described in Chapters 2, 3, and 4; I will use the findings to answer the research questions and discuss the significance and contribution. I will explain whether my findings reflect similar research or contradict previous studies and consider differences or similarities. This chapter is organized into the following four sections: (1) teachers’ beliefs and reported practices regarding global awareness; (2) factors that shape teachers’ beliefs; (3) teachers’ classroom practices regarding global awareness; and (4) the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and practices. I used these four analytic categories to analyze the findings.

9.1 Understanding Teachers’ Cognition About Teaching Global Awareness 9.1.1 Teachers’ Beliefs Regarding Global Awareness The analytic categories mentioned in Chapter 5 were directly aligned with this study’s research questions and were used to code the interview data and present the findings in Chapter 5. The relevant theory and research will be analyzed here. The Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) includes knowledge, skills, and attitudes emerged. Through the analysis of teachers’ interview data, I found that it was very difficult for them to conceptualize the concept of global awareness. When I

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 H. Jing, Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education, Intercultural Communication and Language Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4179-7_9

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asked how they defined global awareness, most teachers said they could not give a clear definition of the concept of it. They described it with one or two elements and explained it through some examples. Since global awareness is a scientific concept with systematic principles (Vygotsky, 1986), it is not easy for one teacher to define it. The teachers used everyday concepts to describe global awareness from their teaching experiences and professional knowledge. Han and Song (2011) also found that Chinese English teachers’ conceptualizations of intercultural communicative competence and its relevance to ELT are ambiguous. Based on the review of global awareness research, I found that most frameworks or theories have similar categories. Most of them mentioned common elements: global knowledge, global issues, and foreign language. However, my findings of the framework did not include behavior or action; it only included knowledge, skills, and attitudes, which resemble the categories found in most models. Spitzberg and Changnon (2009) stated that “the theories and models of intercultural competence both display considerable similarity in their broad brushstrokes (e.g., motivation, knowledge, skills, context, outcomes) and yet extensive diversity at the level of specific conceptual subcomponents” (p. 35). This high school group of teachers produced a scientific concept as a group (see Fig. 5.2) through their everyday concepts. The Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) can contribute to the theoretical development of global awareness to some extent. From the data, I find teachers emphasized some important categories, such as culture, communication, global issues, and self-cultivation. Most teachers recognized culture and communication, both of which form part of intercultural communicative competence (ICC). All the teachers knew that the English curriculum emphasizes the development of students’ intercultural communicative competence. The teachers also tried to teach culture and organize some communicative activities. However, they could not always teach English through communicative language teaching and cultural teaching because of the pressure of the National College Entrance Examination and limited time. The global issue was the most important term when they thought of global awareness. They taught global awareness in the classroom because there are many global topics in the textbook. Though the teachers thought global awareness was important, language teaching was considered more important than global awareness as their teaching was still focused on language skills because the National College Entrance Examination did not evaluate intercultural communicative competence or global awareness. The Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) does not include behavior or action. Some literature refers to behavior and action (Oxfam, 2006; Witte, 2010). The teachers did not mention “action” because they did not know how to develop global awareness through activities. Only one teacher talked about action in the interview, but this did not represent all the teachers’ perceptions. Many NGOs and international organizations mention global citizenship education theories and policies. Oxfam’s (2006) statement can stand as a leading example. The key elements for developing responsible global citizenship are knowledge and understanding, skills, values, and attitudes (Oxfam, 2006). The Global Awareness Model in my research supports Oxfam’s (2006) definition of global citizenship education

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on some points. Although I found some common categories: justice, diversity, globalization, critical thinking, respect, identity, and empathy, differences also emerged. The Global Awareness Model does not include peace, sustainability, or cooperation. When I interviewed the teachers about the content of global issues, their answers included peace, sustainability, and cooperation. However, their answers about the global awareness concept did not include these three categories, perhaps because they distinguished global awareness and global issues, keeping them separate. From the Global Awareness Model, we can see that they thought global issues came under global knowledge as one category of global awareness. Oxfam’s model of global citizenship education is more comprehensive. Global citizenship education includes global awareness and is used in different school subjects. My research participants were only English teachers, so their definition mainly focused on the connection between English teaching and global awareness. This could explain why the two models are different. At the same time, Oxfam (2008) suggested some guidelines to develop global citizenship in a foreign language curriculum. The Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) in this book includes all the points in the curriculum of modern foreign languages: identity and diversity, awareness of global interconnectedness, knowledge appreciation, worldviews, and global issues (Oxfam, 2008). Oxfam’s statement of global citizenship in the foreign language curriculum can help high school teachers in China to reconsider the curriculum and design teaching plans from global perspectives. Global awareness was also explained in Parmenter’s (2011) exploration of university students’ concepts of global citizenship education, which comprised four core concepts: human-beingness, connectedness, engagement, and transformation, each of which could be developed in five education areas: awareness, knowledge, skills, attitudes/attributes, and action. Global awareness is one concept in the areas of education. We can see that the concepts of global citizenship education in the education area are the same as in the Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2). Both of them include knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The same categories of these two models are respect, identity, diversity, empathy and compassion, responsibility, openness, intercultural interest, communication skills, critical thinking skills, global issues, and transformation. The different categories are human rights, peace, intercultural activities, intercultural friendship, and participation in online discussion groups. The reason for these differences may come from the research sample and site. In Parmenter’s (2011) research, the samples are university students from different countries. The university students’ learning environment and age are different from high school teachers. However, in my research, high school teachers’ perceptions are influenced by school curriculums, foreign language education policy, professional experience, and high school culture. The Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) can support the Model of Competences for Democratic Culture (CDC). Council of Europe (2018) developed with reference to the framework of competence for democratic culture (RFCDC) (), which consists of three main components: a model of the competencies, a set of descriptors, and a collection of guidance documents for users of the RFCDC. It includes a model of

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CDC and 135 key descriptors. CDC includes 20 competencies, and these competencies are subdivided into four categories: values, attitudes, skills, knowledge and critical understanding. The 135 items were divided into three stages: basic, intermediate, and advanced. Values include “Valuing human dignity and human rights, Valuing cultural diversity, Valuing democracy, justice, fairness, equality and the rule of law”. Attitudes include “Openness to cultural otherness and to other beliefs, world views and practices, Respect, Civic-mindedness, Responsibility, Self-efficacy, Tolerance of ambiguity”. Skills include “Autonomous learning skills; Analytical and critical thinking skills; Skills of listening and observing, Empathy, Flexibility and adaptability; Linguistic, communicative and plurilingual skills; Co-operation skills; Conflict-resolution skills”. Knowledge and critical understanding include “Knowledge and critical understanding of the self; Knowledge and critical understanding of language and communication; Knowledge and critical understanding of the world: politics, law, human rights, culture, cultures, religions, history, media, economies, environment, sustainability”. All the 14 terms of the Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) in this book are included in the model of CDC. However, CDC has more terms than the Global Awareness Model: valuing human dignity and human rights, valuing cultural diversity, civic-mindedness, self-efficacy, skills of listening and observing, empathy, flexibility and adaptability, cooperation skills, and conflict-resolution skills. These differences may come from the participants’ perspectives, nationalities, and cultural backgrounds. For example, the Global Awareness Model comes from Chinese language teachers’ perspectives, while CDC has more broad participants from EU countries. In addition, CDC is designed for whole school education; the Global Awareness Model is only used for language education.

9.1.2 Global Awareness in the Curriculum The theory and literature on global awareness have mostly dealt with general subjects at school. Consequently, secondary schools have gathered little empirical data about global awareness in foreign language teaching. The present research is an effort to explore global awareness in the curriculum for foreign language teaching. Through an examination of the beliefs of English teachers about global awareness in the curriculum, the findings showed different themes of global awareness in the foreign language curriculum. Finally, I discuss key findings from the interviews. In the interview data, most teachers talked about global awareness in connection with intercultural communicative competence, which was emphasized as one aim of English language education in China’s English language curriculum. The teachers in this study believed that one purpose of global awareness is to cultivate students’ tolerance and open-mindedness. Tolerance and open-mindedness are key elements in Byram’s (1997) descriptions of intercultural attitudes. Intercultural attitudes refer to “Curiosity, openness, the affective ability to ‘decentre’, which implies abandoning ethnocentric attitudes and relativising one’s own values, beliefs and behaviours”

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(p. 57). My findings support Byram’s (1997) ICC model, which includes attitudes, knowledge, skills, and critical cultural awareness. The teachers believed the students could broaden their outlook by learning foreign languages and different cultures. If the students are tolerant, they can understand many new ideas and appreciate cultural diversity; they can think about questions from different viewpoints. The teachers also agreed that an objective of English education is to communicate with people from different cultural backgrounds through language and culture teaching. The teachers repeatedly emphasized communication as language education’s aim in their description of the importance of global awareness and its relationship with language learning. These teachers’ beliefs supported Byram (1997, 2008), who argued that foreign language education’s purpose is to develop students’ intercultural communicative competence and to educate them to be intercultural speakers and intercultural citizens. The teachers in this study perceived the relationship between global awareness and language teaching as falling into two categories: global awareness is in close touch with language learning and culture and forms a single undivided whole; language is a tool and bridge for communicating and understanding the world. My findings support Byram’s (1997) argument about the relationship between language, culture, and communication. Byram (2009) pointed out: The aims and purposes of foreign language education have changed in the past few decades, with the much stronger emphasis on communication. Language teachers should plan their teaching to include objectives, materials and methods that develop the special elements of intercultural competence. Teachers of language need to become teachers of language and culture. (pp. 330–331)

The interview data showed that the teachers perceived that the purpose of global awareness is to cultivate students’ tolerance and open-mindedness and then to educate them to be global citizens. What kind of citizens did the teachers hope to create? The interview data indicated that the teachers hoped to educate responsible and highquality human resources with global awareness. We can see that some concepts are mentioned, such as global citizen and responsibility. Two teachers (T16 and T17) mentioned the relationships between Chinese citizens and global citizens. Hogg and Shah (2011) defined “being a responsible global citizen” as acting on an understanding of global challenges to create a more just and sustainable world. The purpose of global awareness in this study is the same as Oxfam’s (2006) framework of global citizenship education. The key elements for developing responsible global citizenship are knowledge and understanding, skills, values, and attitudes (Oxfam, 2006). According to Oxfam (2008), global citizenship education can be related to different curriculum subjects at school, and Oxfam (2008) gave guidelines to develop global citizenship in a foreign language curriculum: • explores issues of identity and diversity by considering similarities and differences between peoples, places, cultures and languages; • develops awareness of global interconnectedness in that languages are continual evolving and borrowing from each other;

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• develops knowledge and appreciation of different cultures and their different world views; and • provides opportunities to explore global issues while developing reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills (p. 19). Oxfam’s statement of global citizenship in the foreign language curriculum can help high school teachers reconsider the curriculum and design teaching plans from global perspectives. Applying global awareness can enrich the content of the English curriculum. Intercultural communicative competence has been introduced into the Chinese English curriculum; global citizenship can also be integrated into the curriculum. Teaching for intercultural communicative competence might be complementary to global citizenship education in foreign language teaching. Byram (2006) has argued that education for citizenship requires engagement with people from other ways of life or cultures, and with their language and language games. Language teaching must take intercultural competence as one of its aims. Language teachers and those who teach citizenship education pursue the same goals. Byram (2008) stated again: It is the notion of taking action that links the concept of intercultural communicative competence with education for citizenship. My argument is that it is the purpose of FLT and the duty of teachers, not only to combine utility and educational value, but also to show learners how they and should engage with the international globalised world in which they participate. That is a move “from” FLT within education “to” FLT that brings a specific additional contribution to education for citizenship. (p. 229)

In this study, the teachers believed that foreign language education aims to develop students’ global awareness and educate them to be global citizens. Global citizenship is stressed as an educational aim. However, the teachers’ concept of a citizen in this study is a global citizen, which differs from Byram’s (2006, 2008) intercultural citizenship. The reason is that intercultural citizenship education is a new concept based in the European context, and Chinese teachers are unfamiliar with it.

9.1.3 Teachers’ Reported Practices Regarding Global Awareness In Chapter 5, I described Chinese teachers’ reported practices regarding global awareness at the high school. For the general teaching methods at this school, every grade had different teaching methods, and the teachers of each grade kept the same teaching models. For global awareness teaching in the classroom, the English teachers taught global awareness through the following ways: the global issues in textbooks, films, music, debates, group discussions, newspapers, role plays, and examinations. Byram et al. (2002) suggested that language teachers can promote the intercultural dimension even if the teachers have to follow a set curriculum or program of study and teach grammar. As they pointed out, “Grammatical exercises can reinforce prejudice and stereotypes or challenge them”, and “One important contribution to

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an intercultural perspective is the inclusion of vocabulary that helps learners talk about cultural diversity” (Byram et al., 2002, pp. 21–22). Byram’s research gave useful implications for English teachers to develop students’ global awareness. So even in the test-centered teaching context in China, English teachers can also develop students’ intercultural communicative competence through grammar and vocabulary practice. If Chinese teachers could consider intercultural and global dimensions, the usual grammar and vocabulary teaching and learning would be good ways to develop global awareness. Lázár et al. (2007) discussed methods based on literature, films, and songs that can help to develop intercultural communicative competence. They also gave examples of activities and projects to incorporate literary pieces, film scenes, and songs into teaching. My findings support the results of the Intercultural Communication in Teacher Education (ICCinTE) project of the ECML. The participants in my research also used literature, films, and songs for global teaching. The limitation of their teaching in my research is whether the participants could use these methods effectively and frequently. Due to the exam and limited teaching time, the teachers could not use these teaching methods for every class. I believe that the participants in my study can teach English more effectively if they follow these guidelines in the project (Lázár et al., 2007). The translation is a normal language-learning activity in my findings. Translation as a data source can be used to promote intercultural competence in language classrooms (Elorza, 2008). Translation activities can be used as cultural awareness training tools and develop students’ critical awareness. The participants in my research taught culture and global issues in the translation exercises. My research findings support the results of Han (2012), who found the most often used technique of secondary English teachers to teach culture was through textbooks. The intercultural activities regarding the skills and attitudinal dimension development were not used often. My research also showed that teachers only taught global issues and cultures. They did not know how to develop students’ global skills and attitudes. In sum, in this section we have discussed teachers’ beliefs and reported practices regarding global awareness. We compared the model of global awareness to Byram’s (1997) ICC model and the Council of Europe’s (2018) RFCDC. We have explained teachers’ general teaching methods at high schools. In the following section, we discuss some factors that shape teachers’ beliefs.

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9.2 Exploring Factors Affecting Teachers’ Beliefs Regarding Global Awareness 9.2.1 Teaching Training In Chapter 4, the findings showed that Chinese teachers face many challenges, including a lack of time to teach intercultural communicative competence, the pressure of the university entrance examination and school culture, and teacher training. These factors are not limited to China; some European countries and the USA face the similar problems. For example, Young and Sachdev (2011) investigated experienced teachers’ beliefs and practices about how to applicate ICC to English language programs in the USA, U.K., and France. The results showed that though most teachers believed in the relevance of interculturality to their teaching, ICC was emphasized little in the curricula. The reasons were a lack of support for effective and appropriate intercultural learning approaches and interculturality in testing, textbooks, and institutional syllabi. Lack of teacher training was considered the main problem. An intercultural approach may be effective and appropriate, but teachers seemed unable or unwilling to implement it. The stated reasons for this were lack of learner interest, lack of curricular support, lack of suitable textbook material, and concern about engaging with controversy. The findings in the present study also showed that factors related to teacher training and examinations affected the development of ICC and global awareness. Other studies in China have emphasized the need for teacher training. For example, Han (2010, 2012) argued that teachers’ devotion of time to culture teaching was less than the time devoted to language teaching. However, the teachers expressed willingness to teach culture in the language classroom. The reasons were curriculum restraints, lack of time, pressure from the National College Entrance Examination, and their lack of familiarity with foreign cultures. These reasons showed the gap between teachers’ willingness to teach culture and their difficulties with the teaching practices in China. Han and Song (2011) also mentioned that English teachers need professional development to integrate language and culture teaching. The participants in my research expressed the same reasons for global teaching. They also said that they need teacher training for intercultural and global teaching. They need teaching methods and guidelines. In July 2015, Beijing held a successful intercultural communicative competence training program for college English teachers. National and international specialists such as Mike Byram and Sun Youzhong gave lectures about intercultural language teaching. Such a teacher training program is also much needed for high school English teachers in China. Both the present study and literature review showed that English teachers do not have sufficient time or confidence to teach culture in the class. One effective way of teaching culture is to use intercultural communication handbooks in language classes. For example, based on Byram’s (1997) ICC, Corbett (2010) designed 80 practical activities in his handbook “Intercultural language activities”. The topics

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include domestic and public life, childhood, food, and sports and focus on different levels. This book can support language teachers in developing students’ language and intercultural competence together. In another book, “Tips for teaching culture: practical approaches to intercultural communication”, Wintergerst and McVeigh (2011) provided about 50 intercultural communication activities. Each chapter provides sections detailing “What the research says”, “What the teacher can do”, “Voices from the classroom”, and “Classroom activities”. Handouts in the appendix can be used directly in the classroom. It is necessary to introduce these books and educational materials about intercultural language education and global learning. These materials could be chosen based on the EFL context in China. Recent college textbooks describe the development of intercultural competence. For example, “Daxue sibian yingyu kecheng” (College critical thinking English textbook, 2015/2016) is underpinned by theories of content and language integrated learning, critical thinking, intercultural competence, and learner autonomy. The new standard of these college textbooks will influence future high school English textbook design.

9.2.2 Students’ Global Awareness In Chapter 6, the interview data from participants explained some factors that shape their beliefs about global awareness. Firstly, the data about students’ attitudes toward global awareness from teachers’ interviews showed that global learning could help students broaden their horizons and change their stereotypes. DEA (2008) showed that global learning had an impact on students. Those who had experienced global learning in school were keen to understand more about the problems in the world and believed that what they did in their daily lives could affect those in other countries. They also appeared to be more open to people of different backgrounds than those who had not experienced global learning in school. My findings are in line with DEA’s findings. For example, T1 reported that students changed their views after a one-month-long international study visit. T9 commented that students like Christmas day more than the Chinese traditional Spring Festival. DEA (2008) also found that two-thirds of students in secondary school in England believed there are things people can do to make the world a better place. Half of the pupils thought it was a good idea to have people of different backgrounds living in the same country together. In my research, the teachers reported that their students were strongly curious about global issues. For example, T7 and T9 both said their students were very curious about global knowledge and accepted global awareness very positively. My research also supports the findings from Ipsos MORI (2009), which found that young people wanted to learn more about the wider world. Most students thought it was important to learn about issues affecting different parts of the world, particularly how the world they live in changes. Two-thirds of the 11–14-year-olds in that study thought that not enough time was spent learning about the wider world in school.

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Secondly, in the interview data, T10 said the students approached global learning mainly through media communication, textbooks, and teachers’ teaching in the classroom. This supports some other research. For example, Parmenter (2004) conducted a study examining Japanese university students’ perspectives on issues related to intercultural citizenship. The findings showed that the students were influenced by their families, education, and media like television and the Internet. My research also showed students learned about the culture and global issues from school education and media. The findings also support the results of Han (2012), who found the most often used technique to teach culture among secondary English teachers was through textbooks. The intercultural activities regarding the skills and attitudinal dimension development were used infrequently. On the other hand, McCutcheon et al. (2008) found that most pupils in Northern Ireland believed that the Internet and images were the best media for teachers to use to communicate a global dimension in their lessons. Thirdly, through the interviews, the participants expressed that though the school trips and exchange projects increased students’ global awareness, the program had some disadvantages. Compared with theory and empirical research, I found three reasons. First, the students had no intercultural communication training before going abroad. Second, the students did not have actual interaction with the locals. For example, from the interview data, T4 said, “they did not have too much communication in the foreign country because the route was arranged in advance. All the activities were designed beforehand”. The teachers’ comments gave strong evidence to support Williams’ (2005) research that overseas study can develop intercultural competence only if the students actually communicate with the local culture and people. Third, the number of students is small. Only one student can attend the program each year. It is a small number compared with the class size of 60 students. All the students desire to go abroad to expand their global awareness, but they do not have the chance. As T12 said, “Not all the students can go abroad; only a part of students can attend international study visits. This is the direct way for developing students’ global awareness”. Byram et al. (2002) argued that “The visit or exchange is much more than an opportunity to ‘practice’ the language learnt in the classroom. It is a holistic learning experience which provides the means of using intercultural skills and acquiring new attitudes and values” (p. 20). In order to help learners profit from a visit or exchange, Byram et al. (2002) suggested a pedagogical structure in three phases, including a preparatory phase, a fieldwork phase, and a follow-up phase: 1. In the preparatory phase, learners need to externalize their thoughts, anxieties, and excitements about their visit. 2. In the fieldwork phase, learners are surrounded by and immersed in a new environment and learn consciously and unconsciously through all the senses. 3. In the follow-up phase, after return home, the emphasis should be on further reflection on individuals’ experience during the visit and by sharing and comparing, on an attempt to analyze and conceptualize what has been experienced as a basis for understanding (some aspects of) the other environment and

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the people who live there. One very effective way of doing this is for them to prepare a presentation of their visit to friends and family (pp. 19–20).

9.2.3 Tests The English test in the National College Entrance Examination in Henan Province did not evaluate listening scores from 2005. Of a total score of 150, listening constitutes 30 marks. Though learners must attend the listening part of the test, the score is not included in the English test results. This policy directly influences the teaching of high school English teachers: teachers do not teach listening in grade three at high school. The teaching focuses on preparation for the entrance examination. There is a big gap between teachers’ beliefs about intercultural language teaching and their classroom practices. If policymakers do not change the English test in the national examination, developing learners’ skills in all areas of communicative competence and intercultural competence will remain challenging. Recently, Han and Liang (2021) analyzed the problems in nine senior high schools’ English entrance tests and six National Matriculation English Tests in China. The results pointed out that the design of these tests is still based on identifying language ability with language knowledge and language skills. They recommended using the Assessment Use Argument Framework (Bachman & Palmer, 2010) to improve test design in China. Influenced by the washback of the entrance test, English teachers in China have to teach English based on the test’s contents, and it is impossible to develop students’ communicative competence. We can also understand English teachers’ difficulty designing intercultural language activities in the classroom. Gu (2016) noted that assessing ICC in foreign language education is also necessary. The results from the questionnaire showed that though most Chinese university teachers agreed to incorporate ICC into foreign language tests, it is still hard to teach culture in a language class. The causes cited are a lack of insight into ICC and language learning, a lack of available resources for materials development, and a lack of administrative support. Though the findings showed that the university entrance exam had influenced teachers’ beliefs and practices, there are still many effective ways to develop intercultural competence and global awareness in language teaching. Some researchers argue that grammatical exercises and vocabulary reinforce prejudice and stereotypes (Byram et al., 2002). Translation exercises may be utilized as cultural awareness training techniques to help students acquire critical thinking skills (Elorza, 2008). In 2022, the Education Department of Henan Province announced the reform of the College Entrance Examination. The listening score will be included in the total foreign language score from 2027. I think the reform will influence the teaching practice of English teachers and listening skills will be emphasized along with reading and writing skills in the future.

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9.2.4 Teaching Materials The English textbook is one of the most important factors influencing English teachers’ teaching. The interview data showed that English textbooks cover many global issues and cultural topics. Though the current textbooks include some global knowledge, global skills and attitudes have not been sufficiently covered. Zhang (2007) pointed out that the current high school English textbooks focus on developing the four skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing) rather than developing learners’ intercultural competence. Teachers need to teach three elements of the Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) more effectively in the textbooks and other teaching materials. We need to develop textbooks and materials related to ICC and global awareness. In the next section, teachers’ classroom practices regarding global awareness will be analyzed.

9.3 Developing Global Awareness in Classroom Practice 9.3.1 Discussion of the Regular High School English Department This section aims to analyze observations of teachers’ classrooms concerning global awareness in the regular high school department. I will answer the fourth research question, responding to teachers’ classroom practices related to global awareness. In the findings, I will present teaching practices about global awareness through different teaching activities like vocabulary, grammar, multimedia lessons, and teachers’ joint instruction preparation. In the following analysis of teacher beliefs and classroom practices, I will follow the Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2), including knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Table 9.1 shows the topics of the content of global awareness noted in teachers’ classroom practices. • Global knowledge Teachers’ references to global knowledge in the classroom supported their beliefs found in the interview data. In the interviews, teachers perceived that global knowledge includes knowledge of globalization, cultures, global issues, and cultural self-awareness. Six teachers’ classroom practices were related to culture and global issues. Three teachers’ classroom practices were related to cultural self-awareness. All of the seven teachers’ classroom practices were related to culture. T7 introduced Spain’s bullfighting festival in relation to animal protection, also highlighting foreigners’ attitudes toward Chinese people eating dogs. T17 highlighted the aggression against Native Americans during America’s development of the West. In another

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Table 9.1 Global awareness in classroom practices T3 Knowledge

Skills

T17

T19

Cultures

〇

Global issue

〇

〇

〇 〇

Cultural self-awareness

〇

Critical thinking

〇

T18

T7

〇

〇

〇

〇

T16

T4

〇

〇

〇 〇

〇 〇 〇

〇 〇

〇

〇

Communication Language skills

T10 〇

Globalization

〇 〇

〇

〇

〇

〇

〇

〇

Learning skills Self-cultivation Attitudes

Responsibility Justice Respect

〇

Tolerance

〇

Openness

〇

〇

〇

〇

〇 〇

〇

class about vocabulary, T16 taught about festivals around the world by playing Michael Jackson’s songs in class and T17 introduced the concept of intercultural conflict through one student’s intercultural experience in the U.K. T7 and T10 mentioned global issues in their classes. T7 tried to help students understand animals’ rights to live by watching videos like Lassie and Snow Dogs. In a grammar class, T10 spoke of international relations between China, North Korea, Japan, Russia, and the USA, focusing on the Korean War and territorial problems between China and Japan, such as the Diaoyu Islands and the Northern Territories (or Southern Kurils’ problem) between Russia and Japan. Global awareness teaching practices in China in this study fit with previous findings from Ipsos MORI (2009). The survey found that most teachers in England saw global learning as an important aspect of teaching in schools. Global learning had an impact on teachers. The teachers agreed that thinking about how teaching contributed to making the world a better place motivated them to stay in the profession. • Global skills T7 and T17 developed students’ critical awareness using different teaching activities. The teachers’ joint instruction preparation for grade one reflected their critical intercultural awareness. In T7’s class, when she asked the students about their attitudes toward Spain’s bullfighting festival, the students thought it was cruel. The students acknowledged that not all people agree with animals’ rights to live. T17 explained the meaning of “run down” using the example of “tears run down their faces”, suggesting that adding “from” after “run down” would not be appropriate in English, although this would be the direct translation from Chinese, which addressed the importance of logic to

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English-speaking people. In the teachers’ joint instruction preparation, they discussed discrimination against black people and Henan people. They talked openly about equality, human rights, black and white people, and the importance of education. The classroom practices from T7 and T17 correlate fairly well with Byram (1997) and further support the concept of critical cultural awareness. Byram (1997) pointed out that critical cultural awareness is “an ability to evaluate, critically and on the basis of explicit criteria, perspectives, practices and products in one’s own and other cultures and countries” (p. 63). The participants in this research critically evaluated culture in other countries and China. The teachers’ critical cultural awareness supported the Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) for teachers’ beliefs about global awareness in the interview findings in my study. Critical thinking is one element of global skills in the Global Awareness Model. The findings correlated favorably with Borg’s (2006) idea that language teachers’ beliefs profoundly influence their classroom practices. The interview data suggested that participants believed critical thinking was an important category of global awareness. They developed students’ critical awareness through vocabulary lessons and global issues teaching in their classroom practices. Their beliefs about critical awareness influenced their classroom practices. • Global attitudes Teachers’ joint preparation of instruction was not only concerned with cultural problems in textbooks, such as the problem of discrimination against black people in the USA, but also related to the problem of local discrimination. The teachers linked other countries’ cultural and social issues to their local issues. This demonstrated Byram’s (1997) intercultural communicative competence and reflected the theory of “Think globally, act locally”. Teachers mentioned China’s social problems, that is, the current situation where young people cannot find work because of social injustices in the country. From this perspective, the teachers’ thoughts reflected the contents of global citizenship education. In Oxfam in Hong Kong, teachers arranged for students to investigate social problems, the income of migrant workers, and the problem of poverty. Teachers’ discussions were fully in line with the ideas and content of global citizenship education. When analyzing teaching practices following the Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Jing, 2013a, 2013b, 2013c), I compared teaching practices observed with the Global Awareness Model. Global knowledge and skills were more reflected in the teachers’ classroom practices than global attitudes. The main categories reflected in the classroom were culture, global issues, and language skills. Cultural self-awareness and critical thinking were also mentioned. The teachers’ classroom practices reflected their beliefs about global awareness. It is an important issue to discover whether students have global awareness. The lack of intercultural teaching methods and global learning and teaching methods is the important reason why teaching global awareness as part of classroom practice is so difficult. Other factors such as teachers’ intercultural experience, intercultural competence training, international study visits, students’ global learning, the school culture,

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the National College Entrance Examination, and textbooks and other teaching materials were influential (Jing, 2016). Through the analysis of teachers’ practices in this study, I found global awareness could be taught within the regular teaching activities such as vocabulary and grammar lessons. Empirical research about intercultural competence teaching can help EFL teachers develop more effective teaching methods. For example, the intercultural dialogue model (Houghton, 2010) can help teachers develop students’ critical cultural awareness. Based on action research in Japan, Houghton (2010) developed a model for developing critical cultural awareness for English language learners at a Japanese university. The model includes three different teaching approaches. The teachers deal with students’ value judgments differently at each stage. In this way, Houghton (2010) extended Byram’s (1997) model and provided foreign language teachers with a clear understanding of ways in which to organize their teaching to foster intercultural communicative competence in their students (Ryan, 2011). Teachers can develop students’ intercultural competence through literature, films, and songs (Lázár et al., 2007). In addition, they can organize intercultural language activities through topics such as childhood, food, sport, icons, politics, and body language (Corbett, 2010). Wintergerst and McVeigh (2011) suggested intercultural teaching approaches for English language teachers. The tips for teaching culture include language, nonverbal communication, identity, culture shock, crosscultural adjustment, and traditional ways of teaching culture, education, and social responsibility. Barrett et al. (2014) defined the components of intercultural competence and gave suggestions for activity types that help develop these components in formal, nonformal, and informal education: activities emphasizing multiple perspectives; role plays, simulations, and drama; theater, poetry, and creative writing; ethnographic tasks using films and texts; image making/still images in class; social media and other online tools. These activity types can also be used in language classrooms in China. Teacher trainers could use these intercultural approaches for teacher training in China. English teachers in China could also teach themselves about the intercultural theories mentioned here. The teachers could use these practical techniques to teach culture in the Chinese context. In this way, teachers could develop more effective teaching methods to teach culture and ultimately develop students’ global awareness. Having discussed Chinese English teachers’ classroom practices regarding global awareness in the regular high school department, the following section analyzes Canadian English teachers’ intercultural teaching methods in the Sino-Canadian program.

9.3.2 Discussion of the Sino-Canadian Program In Chapter 8, I described three Canadian English teachers’ teaching methods in the Sino-Canadian program at a high school in Henan Province, China. The three

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teachers used different teaching methods to develop students’ global awareness. C1 developed students’ global awareness through reading about global and local issues in an English newspaper, C2 developed students’ global awareness through Christmas, and C3 developed students’ global awareness in drama class. Teachers and students require global awareness and reading about global issues in an English newspaper is a common and effective way to learn about a wider world and develop global thinking. A 2010 U.K. general public survey on behalf of the Development Education Association (DEA) by Ipsos MORI (Hogg & Shah, 2010) found that the media is by far the most important place for people to learn about global issues outside of school. They found that TV programs and newspapers are the most common sources of information on global issues outside school. They also found that “regularly reading, listening, or watching media about global issues encourages an outward-looking attitude, and they are very important ways for people to learn more about these issues” (p. 3). In this case study of these three Canadian English teachers, C1 used the 21st Century Newspaper in English class and created a handout for every class. In this class, the English newspaper was the most important source for high school students to learn more about global issues. Those students at the Sino-Canadian program who regularly read English newspapers about the wider world had significantly greater global awareness and critical intercultural awareness about various issues. Through group work and interactions with teachers, the students developed their global awareness. Group dynamics is an effective approach to developing students’ global awareness, and all three teachers in this study used group dynamics in the classrooms. Dörnyei and Murphey (2003) suggested that changing the placement of chairs is often able to enhance learning. The placement of chairs and desks has a substantial influence on the classroom. Seating arrangements should suit different activities. The teacher can make an interactive class by changing the furniture arrangement. Desks can be moved in different ways to provide a semi-circular seating structure, a circular seating structure, ad hoc clusters of chairs/desks, or to remove desks entirely (Dörnyei & Murphey, 2003). In the three cases discussed here, the teachers frequently changed the furniture arrangement. C1 liked to use ad hoc clusters of chairs/desks. This kind of arrangement is useful for small-group activities. C1 was not present in the students’ primary group communication. Instead, the students grouped together and discussed the questions. C3 also used this spatial arrangement to teach drama techniques and acting performances. However, when C3 told the students the story, the seating arrangement was circular. Sitting in a circle could help foster interpersonal attraction and involvement; it makes everyone feel friendlier than in other arrangements. Canadian teachers and Chinese English teachers used seating differently. In the regular high school department, I observed that the Chinese teachers did not usually organize the classroom according to group dynamics. Their regular teaching method was based on teacher-centered teaching, and the furniture arrangement was a traditional forward-facing teacher-fronted seating structure. This is appropriate if communication is planned only between the English teacher and the whole class. However,

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Dörnyei and Murphey (2003) pointed out that this spatial structure has several disadvantages from the perspective of group dynamics: “it creates inequality among students, it enforces teacher-dependency, and it is an obstacle to group processes” (p. 80). Songs and music can relax the students and make them enjoy learning. Dörnyei and Murphey (2003) gave some general musical recommendations that the teacher can follow in choosing soft background music: “no music when the teacher is talking; soft music at the beginning of pair or group work, stopped when the teacher wants to call back the attention to the front of the room; very soft classical music for reading or solitary seat-work” (p. 87). Songs and music played an important role in developing students’ global awareness in the three classes discussed here. C1 was good at using music in the class, and C1’s musical choices followed Dörnyei and Murphey’s recommendations. C1 chose the music and songs that the students liked. This is a good way to acquire global knowledge. It motivated students to enjoy the discussion of global issues in the English newspaper class. In C2’s class, students sang a Christmas song together. Each classroom played Christmas songs during the Christmas classes. Students learned about the culture of Christmas and developed their English language skills and communicative skills. In C3’s class, to help students understand some of the features of drama, including simile, exaggeration, and subtext, she taught students Gordon Lightfoot’s song “Did She Mention My Name”. Students acquired drama knowledge by singing the song. Drama class was very well received in the international department, and C3 developed students’ global awareness in drama class. Fleming (2004) emphasized that teaching and learning through drama is a valuable form of intercultural education. He summarized five overlapping ways that drama can promote cultural and intercultural awareness: “use of drama in the modern language classroom, making theatre in a foreign language, exploring cultures through theatre traditions, exploring other cultures through ‘process’ drama, [and] looking at one’s own culture through drama” (p. 114). C3 used drama to teach students English and to develop global knowledge. The students explored different characters’ psychological states in the story of “Cinderella” through roleplaying. C3’s drama class promoted global skills such as language, communication, and critical thinking skills. The findings of the drama and Christmas classes demonstrated that the Canadian teachers gave Chinese students instruction in gesture usage. For instance, in Chapter 8, the details of the classroom activities provide stronger evidence that students use gestures to rehearse performances and prepare for Christmas. The findings of the Canadian English teachers’ global teaching methods in Chapter 8 support Jungheim’s (2004, 2013) findings of a connection between gesture and language learning. Jungheim (2004) investigated what behaviors are associated with Japanese refusals and how these are performed in the same contexts by ten Japanese speakers and 33 Japanese as a second language learner (JSL). The findings revealed that, whereas JSL learners tended to utilize physical gestures with refusals of an offer and head movements with refusals of an invitation, there were substantial differences in the actual performance of these gestures. The participants’ first language, English, may have had a cross-linguistic effect on the differences, suggesting that

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gesture usage is an essential aspect of interlanguage pragmatics. The implication is that even if learners have experience with Japanese culture, they may benefit from further instruction on coping with gestures as a fundamental component of Japanese refusals. Based on the findings of this study, English language teachers in China can more successfully teach gestures to Chinese English learners who do not have the opportunity to live in the English culture. In addition, Jungheim (2013) investigated how language, gesture, and facial expression interact with a listener’s perception of refusal in Japanese. When the ambiguous Japanese term “kekkou desu” was used, the results revealed that a neural facial expression most clearly explained the seriousness of a speaker’s intention to refuse an offer. As a result, it is suggested that language teachers pay more attention to developing instructional approaches to sensitize learners to some of these nonverbal characteristics that would contribute to the teaching of pragmatics. In sum, the findings correspond well with Byram (1997) and further support the concept of critical cultural awareness. Group dynamics are an effective way to develop students’ global awareness, and all three Canadian English teachers took advantage of group dynamics in the classrooms. My findings, therefore, support Dörnyei and Murphey’s (2003) group dynamics theory and Fleming’s (2004) five ways to develop intercultural awareness, and Jungheim’s (2004, 2013) gesture and language learning interaction.

9.4 The Relationship Between Teachers’ Beliefs and Teaching Practices Up until now, we have discussed teachers’ beliefs, factors, and classroom practices regarding global awareness in the above three sections. In this section, we now explore the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and teaching practices. Though intercultural communicative competence and global awareness were emphasized in China’s foreign language curriculum, I could not find a detailed explanation of the Global Awareness Model (see Fig. 5.2) and the teaching approach. There is a big gap between the curriculum and teaching practices. After Parmenter’s (2010) analysis of intercultural aspects in 86 national education policies and curriculums, she pointed out that “many policy-makers are happier producing lists of keywords and phrases than working out a coherent framework of how these fit together and how to achieve them, but this is a feature that is probably not unique to issues of being intercultural” (p. 85). The situation of intercultural and global aspects in China’s foreign language curriculum is consistent with the description in Parmenter’s analysis. The results of DEA (2009) showed a large gap between the proportion of teachers who thought schools should teach global issues and how the current school actually provided global learning. The main reason for this gap was teachers’ lack of confidence in teaching specific global issues. My findings are in line with their results and also show that teachers did not have the confidence to be global teachers. Some

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teachers thought they needed to learn from students because students had attained new global knowledge and had a strong curiosity about the world. However, from my findings, there are other reasons for the gap besides confidence, and the main reason is test-centered teaching. Teacher training is also needed. Some studies recently reported the gap between teachers’ beliefs about intercultural teaching in the curriculum and teaching practices in China. For example, Han (2010) pointed out the gap between teachers’ willingness and practices to teach culture in her research of Chinese secondary school teachers’ beliefs about intercultural language teaching. Her results showed that teachers’ focus on cultural teaching was far less than on language teaching though they expressed a strong willingness to teach culture in the classroom. Zhou (2011) conducted mixed-method research to explore Chinese university EFL teachers and their intercultural competence teaching. The results showed that teachers believed that the linguistic dimension was more important than the cultural dimension in the objectives of EFL teaching. However, teachers were positive toward integrating the English language and its cultures. My research findings also supported teachers’ lack of confidence in teaching complex cultural and global issues as reported by Han and Song (2011) and Ipsos MORI (2009). Furthermore, Kulich and Wang (2015) pointed out some weaknesses in intercultural competence teaching in FLE across China, such as the lack of (a) differentiated roles of language and competence teaching; (b) clear aims and systematic content; (c) holistic, integrated designs (e.g., the need to link the IC teaching curriculum, textbooks, and evaluation); (d) IC training for the teaching staff; (e) both teachers’ and students’ awareness of the importance of IC education, especially the deeper understanding of diversity and the dynamics of cultures; and (f) theoretical foundations for the indigenous application of IC education (e.g., a reconceptualization of Chinese ICC). Gao and Wang (2017) argued that bilingual education in China positively impacted English learning; it was also undermined by various contextual factors such as a lack of trained teachers, inappropriate learning materials, and students being unready to learn academic subjects in English. The limitation of Chinese–English bilingual education focuses on developing learners’ foreign language, lack of cultural learning, and content learning. Therefore, intercultural competence and CLIL may be practical approaches to resolving the problem. Butler (2017) pointed out that CLT and TBLT in the Asia–Pacific have some significant challenges: (a) how to situate TBLT in a highly exam-driven educational system, (b) how best to balance between forms and meaning in task design and implementation, and (c) how to assist teachers in implementing TBLT in a way that is responsive to their needs and constraints. Based on research on CLT/TBLT in Asia, she suggested two future directions: (a) adapting contextually appropriate and feasible conceptualizations and strategies for CLT/TBLT; (b) widening the application of tasks both inside and outside of transitional language classroom, including using technology in TBLT. Not only did the teachers agree about the gap, but parents and business leaders also pointed out that schools should promote global awareness in the curriculum. For

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example, Hogg and Shah (2011) conducted a YouGov survey of parents’ attitudes toward their children’s education. Based on the findings, they suggested that policymakers design a school curriculum that creates the spaces for teaching about the wider world. More specifically, the new national curriculum should include global issues, and the teachers should be given more confidence and freedom to develop the curriculum. In the interview data, the school believed that language learning is more important than global learning. The teachers agreed that global awareness is connected with language learning, but language learning is still more important than global learning in teaching practices. Evidence from the U.K. also supported my findings. A survey of about 500 U.K. senior business leaders’ views of global thinking as an important skill for young people was conducted by ICM Research on behalf of Think Global and the British Council. The report entitled “The Global Skills Gap: Preparing young people for the new global economy” showed that for job seekers, knowledge and awareness of the wider world are more important than degree classification or A-levels. My research findings of teachers’ beliefs about the relationship between language learning and global awareness contrasted with the U.K. senior business leaders’ views. Though education in China and U.K. is different, I found high scores are still an important aim for school education in both countries. The teachers need time to study and prepare to teach complex cultures and global issues. Then, they can build confidence to teach more deeply about culture.

9.5 Conclusion This chapter summarized the main findings and discussed them regarding the five research questions in Chapter 1. The findings were also related to the literature review in Chapters 2, 3, and 4. The first section discussed teachers’ beliefs regarding global awareness from three themes: the concept of global awareness, global awareness in the curriculum, and teachers’ reported practices. The first theme showed that it was very difficult for the teachers to conceptualize the concept of global awareness. The second theme showed the relationship between global awareness, intercultural communicative competence, and global citizenship education in the foreign language curriculum. The third theme compared teachers’ reported practices and ICC pedagogy in the literature review. The second section discussed some factors that shape teachers’ beliefs: teaching training, students’ global awareness, tests, and teaching materials. The third section discussed the classroom practices at the regular high school English department and the Sino-Canadian program. Finally, the fourth section showed the gap between teachers’ beliefs and teaching practices. In the next chapter, I will discuss how to prepare language teachers to teach English for the development of global awareness and ICC.

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Hogg, M., & Shah, H. (2011). What parents want: The role of schools in teaching about the wider world. http://clients.squareeye.net/uploads/dea/documents/Parents_screen.pdf Houghton, S. (2010). Savoir se transformer: Knowing how to become. In Y. Tsai & S. Houghton (Eds.), Becoming intercultural: Inside and outside the classroom (pp. 194–228). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Ipsos MORI. (2009). Teachers’ attitudes to global learning. http://clients.squareeye.net/uploads/ dea/documents/dea_teachers_MORI_mar_09.pdf Jing, H. (2013a). Foreign language teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding global awareness: A case study of one senior high school in Henan province in China (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan. Jing, H. (2013b). Chinese high school English teachers’ concept of global awareness. Bulletin of WASEDA University Institute of Teacher Education, 4, 3–16. Jing, H. (2013c). Global awareness: Foreign language teachers’ beliefs and practices. Intercultural Communication Studies, XXII(1), 95–116. Jing, H. (2013d). Teachers’ perceptions of students and global awareness. Bulletin of the Graduate Division of Literature of Waseda University, 58, 123–138. Jing, H. (2013e). Teachers’ perceptions of global awareness in China’s foreign language curriculum. In Proceedings of the 14th Annual Temple University Applied Linguistics Colloquium (pp. 22– 30). Jing, H. (2015). Teachers’ classroom practices regarding global awareness: A case study of three native speakers of English. JACET Language Teacher Cognition Research Bulletin, 2015, 103– 129. Jing, H. (2016). Exploring factors affecting foreign language teachers’ beliefs about global awareness in a Chinese high school. In Y. X. Jia & G. M. Chen (Eds.), Intercultural communication research (Vol. 4, pp. 71–86). Higher Education Press. Jungheim, N. O. (2004). Hand in hand: A comparison of gestures accompanying Japanese native speaker and JSL learner refusals. JALT Journal, 26(2), 127–146. Jungheim, N. O. (2013). The interaction of language and nonverbal behaviour influencing the perception of Japanese refusals. Transcultural Studies, 2, 71–94. Kulich, S., & Wang, Y. (2015). Intercultural communication in China. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intercultural Communication, 458–469. Lázár, I., Huber-Kriegler, M., Lussier, D., Matei, G. S., & Peck, C. (Eds.) (2007). Developing and assessing intercultural communicative competence: A guide for language teachers and teacher educators. European Centre for Modern Languages. Council of Europe. McCutcheon, I., Knipe, D., Cash, T., & McKay, T. (2008). For a better world: The global dimension in education-knowledge and attitudes of students, pupils and teachers in Northern Ireland: Research summary. http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/ccci/docs/Global%20Dimension%20Research%20S ummary.pdf Oxfam. (2006). Education for global citizenship: A guide for schools. http://www.oxfam.org.uk/ coolplanet/teachers/globciti/wholeschool/getstarted.htm Oxfam. (2008). Getting started with global citizenship: A guide for new teachers. Oxfam. Parmenter, L. (2004, December). Interculturalism in Japan: An analysis of the negotiation of cultural citizenship among students in Japanese universities. Paper presented at the Interculturalism: 2nd Global Conference, Vienna, Austria. http://inter-disciplinary.net/ati/diversity/interculturalism/ ic2/parmenter%201.pdf Parmenter, L. (2010). Becoming intercultural: A comparative analysis of national education policies. In Y. Tsai & S. Houghton (Eds.), Being intercultural: Inside and outside the classroom (pp. 66– 88). Cambridge Scholars. Parmenter, L. (2011). Power and place in the discourse of global citizenship education. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 9(3–4), 367–380. Ryan, P. (2011). The English as a foreign or international language classroom. In J. Jackson (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of language and intercultural communication (pp. 422–433). Routledge.

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Chapter 10

Preparing Language Teachers for Intercultural/Global Citizenship Education

The main purpose of this chapter is to explore ways to prepare language teachers to develop intercultural communicative competence (ICC) and global awareness for cultivating global citizens. In this chapter, I take a close look at five areas that have been proposed to develop ICC among language teachers: intercultural teaching and learning approaches; ICC assessment; online intercultural exchange; content and language integrated language learning (CLIL); and global Englishes. Language teachers can implement these approaches and principles in the classroom to help students develop IC and become global citizens. In addition, teachers can also improve their teaching skills to become intercultural and global teachers.

10.1 Intercultural Teaching and Learning The reconceptualization of the foreign language teacher’s role as a language and intercultural competence teacher has important implications for pedagogical skills (Byram & Peiser, 2015). Based on Byram’s intercultural communicative competence (ICC) model, the language teacher should be able to develop learners’ cultural knowledge and their skills, values, and attitudes. For trainers and educators involved in intercultural programs, being familiar with the dimensions of cultural learning can be very useful in (1) identifying specific dimensions that are particularly relevant to their group of learners; (2) integrating key culture concepts, such as cultural patterns and cultural difference, into their training program or course; (3) providing learners with opportunities to enhance their culture-learning skills—for instance, learning the processes of acquiring and

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 H. Jing, Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education, Intercultural Communication and Language Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4179-7_10

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then making sense of new cultural knowledge; and (4) supporting a learning-how-tolearn approach to intercultural education that empowers individuals to be effective cultural learners on their own (Paige, 2015, p. 200). Arasaratnam-Smith (2017) argued that ICC could be learnt under conditions of equal opportunities for intercultural training, experience, and exposure; some people would still be more competent in intercultural communication than others. In Barrett et al. (2014), there are some principles of planning for developing intercultural competence: experience, comparison, analysis, reflection, and cooperative action. Furthermore, Barrett et al. (2014) suggested various approaches and a brief description of activity types to develop intercultural competence through education. There are three pedagogical approaches: (1) experiential learning, (2) project work, and (3) cooperative learning. These seven activity types are: (1) activities emphasizing multiple perspectives; (2) role plays, simulations, and drama; (3) theater, poetry, and creative writing; (4) ethnographic tasks; (5) use of films and texts; (6) image making/still images in class; and (7) social media and other online tools. Kelly (2017) recommended three stages of intercultural language learning: (a) gain knowledge and understanding of a foreign culture; (b) encourage learners to think about the relationship between their own culture and the one whose language they are learning; and (c) develop a broader understanding of the complex relationships between cultures. Furthermore, Kelly (2017) pointed out that the ability to teach in an intercultural way depends on the teacher’s intercultural awareness. Trainee teachers need to have direct experience of intercultural situations through an international collaboration between teacher educators and encouragement to reflect on them. Hendrix and Moore (2017) recommended some resources to develop students’ intercultural competence in the classroom: (a) textbooks, (b) movies, (c) the dayto-day experiences of students and teachers, (d) travel experiences of students and teachers, and (e) international travel experiences. GCED Online Campus is an e-learning platform on Global Citizenship Education by APCEIU. APCEIU is a UNESCO Category 2 Centre established in 2000 by the Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Korea and UNESCO to promote and develop Education for International Understanding (EIU) and Global Citizenship Education (GCED) with the UNESCO Member States. For example, the online resource includes: What is Global Citizenship Education? A Guide on Developing GCED Policy, Pedagogical Principles of GCED, Thematic Areas and Learning Domains of GCED, etc. The components of intercultural competence may be broken down into attitudes, knowledge, understanding, skills, and actions (Barrett et al., 2014). Therefore, to be credited with intercultural competence, an individual must also apply their intercultural attitudes, knowledge, understanding, and skills through actions. Relevant actions include: • Seeking opportunities to engage with people who have different cultural orientations and perspectives from one’s own. • Interacting and communicating appropriately, effectively and respectfully with people who have different cultural affiliations from one’s own.

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• Cooperating with individuals who have different cultural orientations on shared activities and ventures, discussing differences in views and perspectives, and constructing common views and perspectives. • Challenging attitudes and behaviors (including speech and writing) which contravene human rights, and taking action to defend and protect the dignity and human rights of people regardless of their cultural affiliations. • Intervening and expressing opposition when there are expressions of prejudice or acts of discrimination against individuals or groups. • Challenging cultural stereotypes and prejudices. • Encouraging positive attitudes toward the contributions to society made by individuals irrespective of their cultural affiliations. • Mediating in situations of cultural conflict (Barrett et al., 2014, p. 21). In short, at the level of action, intercultural competence provides a foundation for being a global citizen, and intercultural competence is a core competence required for democratic citizenship within a culturally diverse world. Barrett (2018) reviewed existing evidence on how the intercultural competence of young people can be promoted by schools and recommended some actions that schools can take. These actions have three categories: actions based on intergroup contact, actions based on pedagogical approaches, or actions based on school institutional policies. First, actions based on intergroup contact include (1) encouraging intercultural friendships; organizing periods of study abroad; (2) arranging for students to have Internet-based intercultural contact; (3) setting up school-community links and partnerships and implementing service-learning projects. Second, actions based on pedagogical approaches include (1) supporting students’ critical reflection on their intercultural experiences and their cultural affiliations; (2) using pedagogical approaches such as cooperative learning and project-based learning; (3) using other pedagogical activities to enhance the development of specific components of intercultural competence (e.g., activities emphasizing multiple perspectives, role plays and simulations, the analysis of texts, films, and plays, and ethnographic tasks). Third, actions based on school institutional policies include (1) using a culturally inclusive curriculum; (2) adopting a whole school approach to valuing diversity and human rights. Language teachers can use these actions and assess the effectiveness of these various actions in China. Jackson (2017) recommended some methods for pre-sojourn preparation in training for study abroad programs. For example: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Design intercultural training course or series of workshops. Building up knowledge of the host language and culture. Encourage to set specific realistic goals. Address language-related issues in the pre-departure phase. Familiarity with a range of language- and culture-learning strategies. Use an ethnographic approach to language and cultural learning.

Jackson (2017) also argued that for the sojourn, writing a diary or blog can prompt deep reflection, group sharing sessions can foster personal growth and

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self-confidence, and small-scale ethnographic projects can be conducted to help sojourners gain exposure to different worldviews and authentic communication styles and speech genres. Furthermore, Jackson (2017) stated that intercultural educators could offer postsojourn intercultural training. First, a research-based reentry program can offer guided reflection, sojourn experience analysis, and goal-setting for further selfimprovement. Next, intercultural training can help to reinforce what participants have learned during their sojourn and motivate them to tell others about their adventures. Moreover, intercultural trainers can motivate returnees to consider practical ways to develop intercultural competence in their future careers. Finally, for intercultural trainers, it is necessary to recognize the definition and assessment of intercultural competence. Zhu (2019) argued that ICC could be developed through education and training. She emphasized the uniqueness of intercultural learning and proposed that: 1. Intercultural learning takes various forms through a variety of means. 2. ICC develops incrementally over time through learning in the classroom and learning from the real world. 3. Some aspects of ICC benefit from direct contact more than others. 4. It is essential to get the right balance between challenge and support. 5. It is also essential to maximize affordance and to transform from just “being there” into participation and engagement (pp. 178–179). In addition, Zhu (2019) has offered a variety of fundamental models and strategies for intercultural learning and teaching. These include contact theory, experiential learning theory, transformative learning theory, reflection, critical incidents and cultural assimilators, reflective learning journals, the learner as ethnographer, and a language socialization perspective. In recent years, some Chinese books about intercultural competence teaching have been published in China. For example, the Sun et al. (2021) book “Research on Intercultural Foreign Language Teaching and Learning” introduced intercultural language teaching theory and practice for language teachers and teacher trainers. In “A Study on Intercultural Competence”, Dai (2018) introduced the concept, theory, and assessment of intercultural competence for graduate students, teachers, and researchers. In 2022, the Chinese vision of Darla K. Deardorff (2020) book “Manual for Developing Intercultural Competencies: Story Circles” was published in China; the intercultural competence approach and the tool called “story circles” can help teachers and learners develop intercultural competencies. Finally, the book by Jia et al. (2019) “Experiencing global intercultural communication: Preparing for a community of shared future for mankind and global citizenship” introduced the most updated theory of intercultural communication from the perspectives of traditional Chinese culture; it can help the pre-server teacher better understand intercultural competence and to be a global citizen. Having discussed some effective teaching methods of ICC, in the next section we look briefly at how to assess ICC.

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10.2 Assessment of ICC ICC is not a static concept but a competency developed over time through experiences, learning, and reflection (Arasaratnam-Smith, 2017). Qualitative assessments of ICC include techniques such as interviews, portfolios, blogs, and reflective journals. Quantitative assessments of ICC have typically involved self-responses to interval-scale survey instruments. Some of the known instruments in ICC research are the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI), Behavioral Assessment Scale for Intercultural Communication (BASIC), the Intercultural Sensitivity Inventory (ISI), the Global Competency Inventory (GCI), and the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (MPQ). The Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters (www.coe.int/lang) (AIE) is a tool for the assessment of ICC. AIE focuses on ICC and intercultural citizenship education. The special heading in AIE is action, which refers to the competences of intercultural citizenship. In 2022, the Council of Europe published the second edition of the Autobiographies of Intercultural Encounters. There are three autobiographies and a fourth accompanying volume: the Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters, the Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters through Visual Media, the Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters through the Internet, and the Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters: Context, Concepts and Theories. In addition, all these resources have been matched with the Council of Europe’s Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture. NCSSFL and ACTFL (2017) developed can-do statements for learners’ intercultural communication and reflection tools. They defined ICC as the ability to interact effectively and appropriately with people from other languages and cultural backgrounds. It provides examples and scenarios that show how learners use the target language and knowledge of culture to demonstrate their ICC. The Council of Europe published a portfolio of Competences for Democratic Culture (Byram et al., 2021) based on the Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC) (Council of Europe, 2018). The portfolio is a means of using the RFCDC. The portfolio is a practical tool to develop learners’ intercultural competence and become active and interculturally competent democratic citizens. The standard version (for learners from 10/11 years upwards) of the portfolio can be used for high school learners in China. The portfolio can be used at the end of a school term or school year, discussion with teachers, peers, and others such as family members. It can also be used through video conferencing or social media, for example, communicating and exchanging information with people from other cultural backgrounds, conducting a collaborative project with young people in another country, or in another region of the same country. The teachers need to guide learners on using the portfolio, and teachers may introduce the basic concepts such as culture, citizen, citizenship, and competence. Competences for Democratic Culture (CDC) butterfly can be translated into the mother language, and learners may discuss the concepts and questions in the template in a group. Learners are also encouraged to present their intercultural activities by analyzing the CDC.

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Barrett et al. (2014) pointed out that though the usage of many instruments for measuring individuals’ level of intercultural competence, these can only be used for research purposes and evaluation. At present, they are not suitable for assessment and examinations. The problem of evaluation has been tackled with great effort by Chinese researchers. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press launched the “Intercultural Competence Test” in 2022. It examines six factors: intercultural communication skills, intercultural cognitive skills, intercultural attitudes, intercultural awareness, knowledge of Chinese culture, and knowledge of foreign cultures. It consists of objective and subjective questions and three levels: primary, intermediate, and advanced. Furthermore, Peng et al. (2022) used the Rasch measurement model (Rasch, 1960) to analyze the reliability and validity of the test’s elementary level. The results showed that the test has unidimensionality and high reliability, but several items should be revised. This section focused on the different assessment tools of ICC in EU, the USA, and China. The following section looks at online intercultural exchange as an innovative form for global citizenship education.

10.3 Online Intercultural Exchange The term “Online Intercultural Exchange (OIE)” has come to be used to refer to as telecollaboration or virtual exchange. Online intercultural exchange is defined as “the engagement of groups of students in online intercultural interaction and collaboration with partners from other cultural contexts or geographical locations under the guidance of educators or expert facilitators” (O’Dowd, 2017, p. 5). Online intercultural communication has different development stages, including newspaper exchange, text-based communication, tandem exchange, and e-mail exchange (O’Dowd, 2017). Online intercultural exchange has grown steadily in recent years in foreign language education at the university level. A growing number of educators appear to be engaging students in telecollaborative exchanges with other English speakers in different countries using English as a lingua franca context. Lingua franca exchanges provide valuable opportunities for intercultural learning. However, the L2 learning outcomes of such exchanges have yet to be explored in detail, and it is also unclear what telecollaborative task types are best suited for such exchanges. Therefore, there is clearly a need for more research in this area in the future. Online intercultural exchange has a positive contribution to developing intercultural awareness and intercultural communicative competence. The literature demonstrates some negative attitudes toward the partner group and their culture, misunderstanding, and unachievable objectives (Belz, 2002; Kramsch & Thorne, 2002). Some research revealed that online intercultural exchange enhanced learners’ motivation and intercultural competence. O’Dowd (2016) reviewed the most significant emerging trends and tendencies in telecollaborative practice. The main trends are the diversification of telecollaborative partnerships and networks, the rise of critical and cross-disciplinary approaches to

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telecollaboration, the combination and integration of telecollaboration with other modes of education, and the emergence of video conferencing as an important tool for online intercultural interaction. Martin and Meares (2015) argued that teaching intercultural issues online can develop intercultural awareness, like increasing learning, reducing prejudice, and moving from ethnocentric to autocorrelative views toward cultural differences. Though most intercultural experts argue that learners’ intercultural attitude development requires experiential learning and intercultural contact, online instruction can facilitate intercultural learning better than a traditional classroom because everyone has to take part in the online classroom. Byram and Peiser (2015) suggested that using networked technologies like Webchat or Skype can help the learning of intercultural communicative competence in the language classroom; e-mail or social media sites can help students interpret and reflect on the communication before learners formulate responses. Li and Edwards (2016) argued that distance learning could support the professional development of teachers in rural areas in China, and the use of ICT such as WeChat in China is a valuable tool; the authors pointed out that very little research has been conducted on the professional development needs of teachers working in English immersion schools at secondary education in China. Since the end of 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced the whole world and changed the teaching and learning style of the whole educational system. As a result, online teaching has become the main teaching style for both teachers and learners. Although it is hard for students to study abroad in this situation, the telecollaborative exchange became an effective way to develop students’ intercultural competence. As O’Dowd (2015) pointed out, the telecollaborative exchange can contribute to intercultural education; it can provide intercultural knowledge to students and develop students’ intercultural awareness and second language pragmatic competence. What competencies do foreign language teachers need to carry out a telecollaborative exchange? O’Dowd (2015) used the Delphi technique to conduct a survey and draw up a model of telecollaborative competence for teachers. The model contains four sections: organizational, pedagogical, digital competencies, and attitudes and beliefs. Teachers and teacher trainers can use this model to conduct a telecollaborative exchange. However, the teachers also need to overcome some barriers, for example, a lack of stability in project partners, the limited support and understanding of practitioners’ institutions, and the practical difficulties in integrating online exchange in course syllabi and course evaluation shames. In addition, O’Dowd (2023) proposed key methodological principles for teachers to integrate online intercultural exchange into classes: integrate virtual exchange and blended mobility into the curriculum, develop rich intercultural learning opportunities, integrate reflection with interaction, identify an effective equilibrium in communication modes, and support students’ foreign language needs. Jing and Song (2021) reported a telecollaborative Global Citizenship Virtual Project conducted in three universities in China and Japan. The project aims to cultivate students’ global citizenship by developing their English academic skills and intercultural communicative competence (Byram, 1997, 2021). The Chinese

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and Japanese university students worked together through ZOOM and discovered different reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic in each other’s countries. The participants are 14 Chinese graduate students who are learning an intercultural communication course in China, 12 undergraduate students who are learning academic English, and one Japanese graduate student who is learning intercultural communication in Japan. The presentation focuses on the impacts of the virtual exchange (Helm, 2015) on students’ intercultural learning toward global citizenship development. The Council of Europe’s Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters through the Internet (AIETI) was used in this project. The findings showed that writing AIETI is a productive learning process of enhancing students’ critical awareness and global identity. Furthermore, findings indicated that AIETI is useful for both intercultural learning engagement and self-assessment. Virtual exchange is an effective approach to developing learners’ ICC for global citizenship education. In the next section, CLIL as one effective approach to developing ICC will be explored.

10.4 CLIL and ICC Coyle et al. (2010) proposed the 4Cs framework of CLIL, which outlines how CLIL can contribute to the development of content (subject matter), communication (language learning and use), cognition (learning and thinking processes), and culture (developing intercultural competence and global citizenship). According to Brown and Bradford (2017), the major differences between English-medium instruction (EMI) and CLIL stem from the relative placements of language and content in learning objectives and evaluation. With EMI, content is central; CLIL focuses on both content and language. CLIL includes the development of intercultural awareness as one of its four Cs. The theory of ICC (values, attitudes, skills, knowledge, and critical cultural awareness) in language education developed by Michael Byram can contribute to broadening CLIL’s theoretical outlook and pedagogy. Intercultural citizenship theory (Byram, 2008 ; Byram et al., 2017) has clear connections with CLIL since citizenship becomes the subject matter of language classes. Even though Coyle (2007) suggested over 15 years ago that an alternative pedagogic agenda for CLIL is “global citizenship”, the recommendation has not been taken up by teachers or researchers; there are no realizations in practice. Intercultural citizenship offers an empirically tested option (Byram et al., 2017). Furthermore, Rauschert and Byram (2018) argued that CLIL theory might facilitate the implementation of service-learning and intercultural citizenship education in the foreign language classroom; citizenship education could be content and taught through a foreign language. Porto (2018) argued that Mike Byram’s intercultural citizenship education theory can contribute to broadening CLIL’s theoretical outlook and pedagogy. The 4Cs framework and pluriliteracies approach (Coyle, 2007; Meyer et al., 2015) are similar to Byram’s ICC model, consisting of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Content in

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Coyle’s framework is called knowledge in Byram’s model; cognition is equal to skills of interpreting and relating; communication and culture are skills of discovery and interaction; content, cognition, communication, and culture refer to attitudes and critical cultural awareness (Porto, 2018). In a case study of intercultural citizenshipbased CLIL in the language classroom, undergraduate language students in an Argentinian university engaged in collaborative work with language undergraduates in a British university about the Malvinas war fought between both countries in 1982; 26 multinational groups collaborated to create pamphlet of peace. At least three Skype conversations were held in this project, and 260 recorded conversations were analyzed. The finding showed that when framed with intercultural citizenship as CLIL, foreign language teaching develops students’ democratic competencies and values by encouraging them to take social or civic action beyond the classroom. Similar to Porto (2018), Porto (2019) investigated whether education for intercultural citizenship using a CLIL approach leads to language learning. The college students between Argentina and British participated in an online intercultural communication exchange project to develop intercultural citizenship in the English and Spanish foreign language classrooms. The findings showed that students were engaged in noticing linguistic forms, developing procedural knowledge of language awareness and reflection, metalinguistic awareness, vocabulary development, meaning negotiation, experimentation with a new language, and rehearsing language in genuine contexts. They also engaged in multiliteracies practices and developed their plurilingual competence within a translingual orientation. The 4Cs framework of CLIL has shared characteristics with the model of Competences for Democratic Culture (CDC). For example, content in CLIL is called “Knowledge” in the model of CDC; cognition, communication, and culture are “Skills” in CDC. The 4Cs are all traversed by “values” and “attitudes” in CDC. The Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC) recommends content-based methods and approaches to teachers for contributing to the development of CDC. CLIL has revolutionized education, but its current conceptualizations and realizations tend to be structural and Eurocentric. There is a strong Eurocentric orientation despite the acknowledged need to focus on contexts outside Europe (Dalton-Puffer et al., 2014). Moreover, CLIL is generally implemented in secondary school contexts (Cenoz & Ruiz de Zarobe, 2015), with little focus on the higher education sector (Aguilar & Muñoz, 2014; Aguilar & Rodríguez, 2012). However, little attention has been paid to how ICC theory can be realized in the CLIL curriculum. Furthermore, there are very few empirical studies testing these ideas in the field of CLIL, except those reported by Byram et al. (2017). Therefore, it is necessary to address this gap by examining intercultural competence in CLIL classrooms in China. A series of monographs about CLIL has been released in Japanese since 2011 (e.g., Ikeda et al., 2016; Izumi et al., 2012; Sasajima, 2020; Watanabe et al., 2011). CLIL in Spanish and Japanese contexts (Tsuchiya & Perez Murillo, 2019) and soft CLIL and English language teaching (Ikeda et al., 2021) are some of the most current books written in English. The Japan CLIL Pedagogy Association (J-CLIL) conducted

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a large-scale survey on teachers’ CLIL pedagogy in 2021. Jing (2018, 2021) investigated effective pedagogy to develop intercultural communicative competence and CDC in a CLIL intercultural communication class for university English learners in Japan. The Japanese publisher Sanshusha has also released at least 9 CLIL university language textbooks. In Japan, Jing (2018) conducted one case study to explore the development of intercultural communicative competence in a CLIL class in a Japanese university, where 13 students were learning an introduction course of “Language and Intercultural Communication”. CLIL was introduced into the classroom to promote intercultural communicative competence, English was used as a medium of instruction (EMI), and the content was intercultural communication. This course was designed based on Byram’s (1997) theories of intercultural communicative competence and intercultural citizenship education (Byram, 2008). This course introduced language and intercultural communication to undergraduates new to this area. The specific learning interventions included: pre-homework, intercultural learning in the classroom, and extracurricular activities. In the classroom, the intercultural activities included group discussions, student presentations, final presentations, and writing an Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters (AIE). Beyond the classroom, the students attended two types of intercultural activities: one was an online intercultural exchange project (Cross-Cultural Distance Learning, CCDL) between Japanese and Korean college students, and the other was the intercultural activities from Intercultural Communication Center on campus. This intercultural communication class reflected the 4Cs of the CLIL approach: communication, cognition, content, and culture (Coyle, 2005). The first C was content, which was the theory of language and intercultural communication. Students read the book chapter and presented it based on their intercultural experiences. The second C was communication. In this case study, students had lots of communicative activities in English. For example, students discussed the chapter summary in pairs at the beginning of class. In the presentation part, the audience asked questions to the presenters. In the group discussion part, four students discussed the questions about the textbook, and international and Japanese students. The third C was cognition. Students developed their critical thinking by reflecting on their intercultural experiences during study abroad, the CCDL project, and intercultural activities at the Intercultural Communication Center. The fourth C was culture or community. The community in this study included three types: community in class, on campus, and online. In this class, since 30% of students were international students, Japanese students could talk about cultural differences with them. Beyond the class, CCDL enhanced the online intercultural communication with Korean students; Intercultural Communication Center’s activities developed face-to-face intercultural encounters on campus. Through these three communities, it developed a new global community through CLIL in the intercultural communication course (see Fig. 10.1). As a result, the study showed that CLIL presented an obvious possibility to contribute to the development of ICC and intercultural citizenship. Furthermore, the study suggested practical intercultural teaching approaches that can be used to develop intercultural competence through CLIL.

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Fig. 10.1 Global community and ICC

Study Online abroad intercultural exchange Global campus Intercultural classroom

In an action research, Jing (2021) explored one effective pedagogy to develop Competences for Democratic Culture (CDC) in a CLIL intercultural communication class for Japanese university English learners. The research question focused on what kind of competences for democratic culture students developed in CLIL classes. By analyzing 21 participants’ pre-survey and post-survey TOEIC scores and CDC, the result showed that learners had developed TOEIC scores from 560 to 648 and could understand 70% of the CLIL course content after the course. In addition, skills, knowledge, and critical understanding clearly improved, but values and attitudes did not change much. The language teacher can use the CDC model to evaluate students’ ICC. For example, Sasajima et al. (2020) designed a CLIL textbook (CLIL: intercultural awareness) in Japan. In this textbook, the authors designed a questionnaire for the CDC. Students can evaluate their CDC before and after one English course, although the tool is not intended for testing students’ scores. The EU’s homepage is available in the languages of the EU. Japanese scholars have translated the official documents into Japanese, and the Chinese vision is also valuable for teachers and learners. The model and 135 descriptors need to be translated into Chinese. In summary, CLIL is a new educational pedagogy, and it contributes to the development of ICC and intercultural citizenship education. However, empirical studies on CLIL in China are still scarce. We need more studies on teachers’ cognition and practices about CLIL at high schools, especially in international programs or international schools in China. In the following section, we will turn our attention to Global Englishes.

10.5 Global Englishes and ICC In this section, we will discuss the possible implications of Global Englishes for developing ICC in English language education. Recently, researchers on Global Englishes have proposed some models and approaches which can be used for

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language teacher education. These models include a three-phase model of EIL-aware teacher education (Bayyurt & Sifakis, 2017), a situated Meta-Praxis Framework of EIL teacher education (Dogancay-Aktuna & Hardman, 2017), and a model of the WE/ELF/EIL-informed English language teacher education (Snodin & Resnik, 2019). These approaches include a Global Englishes-oriented pedagogy (Fang & Baker, 2021), a transcultural language education approach (Baker, 2022), and five strands of intercultural language education (Baker, 2015). Bayyurt and Sifakis (2017) proposed a three-phase model of EIL-aware teacher education: exposure, critical awareness, and action plan. They suggest that when designing the project, teacher educators should carefully consider the context, the curricular specifications, and the participants’ attitudes. Dogancay-Aktuna and Hardman (2017) proposed a situated Meta-Praxis Framework of EIL teacher education. It consists of place (inner circle, outer circle, and expanding circle), proficiency, praxis (thought, desire, action), and understandings (language, culture, identity, and teaching). The model places praxis centrally and balances the various terms between place, proficiency, and understanding, providing “a framework for integrating teacher thought, teacher identity, and classroom action” (p. 22). The framework described above can be incorporated into TESOL courses such as linguistics and sociolinguistics, second language acquisition, and methodology. Matsuda (2017) introduced 15 lessons, activities, and tasks for preparing teachers to teach English as an international language. These pedagogical ideas can help preservice and in-service teachers raise awareness about using EIL to reflect their beliefs and practices. Snodin and Resnik (2019) proposed a model of the WE/ELF/EIL-informed English language teacher education and professional development. This model consists of three components. Component 1 is the theory, which refers to expanding the knowledge base and increasing exposure to Englishes and cultures. The second component, practicum, relates to the WE/ELF/EIL-informed practicum. Finally, component 3 refers to post-training activities involving engaging in lifelong learning by participating in online discussion forums, networks, and conferences. They also recommended notable networks for in-service teachers, including ELFReN (the English as a Lingua Franca Research Network) and “teaching English & teaching in English in global contexts”. With a view on EMI and intercultural citizenship, Fang and Baker (2021) proposed a Global Englishes-oriented pedagogy and argued for the need to implement such critical pedagogy within ELT. They suggested that a Global Englishesoriented critical pedagogy should challenge cultural essentialism and reductionism to develop students’ intercultural/global citizenship, to challenge the ideology of nativespeakerism, to recognize students’ L1s as language resources, and allow for the practice of translanguaging. In addition, they argued that Global Englishes-oriented critical pedagogy should be included in teacher preparation programs to prepare teachers and students better to deal with EMI. For the implication to language education, Baker (2022) stated that a transcultural language education approach recognizes the multilingual, multimodal, and

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multicultural resources, as well as the translanguaging, transmodal, and transcultural processes involved in L2 acquisition and use. The principles of a transcultural language education approach are as follows: • Expanding communicative competence to intercultural communicative competence (ICC) and awareness (ICA), pragmatic competence, and positive attitudes to difference and “others”. • Removing the “native” speaker as a model and goal and replacing with the intercultural speaker and intercultural citizen. • A focus on processes of communication, not on linguistic products. • A critical approach to language, culture, and identity that challenges dominant established discourses. • The importance of local contexts and cultures. • Recognizing the global role of English as a multilingua franca and developing EMF awareness (Baker & Ishikawa, 2021, p. 298). Language teachers in China might use Baker’s (2015) five strands of intercultural language education as a framework for developing their students’ intercultural awareness in the language classroom. The principles include: 1. Exploring the complexity of local cultures. 2. Exploring cultural representations in language-learning materials. 3. Exploring cultural representations in the media and arts in both digital and “traditional” mediums. 4. Making use of cultural informants. 5. Engaging in intercultural communication both face-to-face and digitally (p. 195). In additional, “digital” was highlighted as one efficient technique for ICC in Baker’s (2015) five strands. Language teaching, for example, can use digital sources such as news websites, social networking sites, blogs, and podcasts. Furthermore, digital interactions open up the possibility of online intercultural exchange. Baker and Ishikawa (2021) suggested that language teachers apply the guidelines to incorporate intercultural and transcultural communication into local language classrooms through Global Englishes. In summary, the above studies proposed some models, frameworks, and pedagogies for English language teacher education. However, when Chinese English language teachers apply these models, they need to consider the local culture of the school and how to implement them effectively in their language classrooms.

10.6 Conclusion In this chapter, we have examined the key models and approaches which language teachers should take into account when integrating ICC and global awareness into language practice.

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We have reviewed intercultural teaching and learning approaches, focusing on principles, intercultural resources, and intercultural training. We suggested using AIE and RFCDC to assess and evaluate students’ ICC. We have also discussed that teachers can develop global citizenship through online intercultural exchange. Finally, we have recommended that language teachers collaborate with other subject teachers through CLIL in order to develop students’ intercultural awareness. The next chapter brings this book to a conclusion.

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Chapter 11

Conclusions

This concluding chapter begins by discussing the summary of findings in this book. First, I will answer the five research questions presented in Chapter 1. Next, I will review the implications of my research for teacher professional development, English teaching material development, curriculum design, and assessment. Then, I will consider the limitations of the project in relation to research methods and participants. Finally, I will offer suggestions for future research to develop global awareness.

11.1 Summary of Findings from Studies on Global Awareness The present study’s primary purpose was to explore foreign language teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding global awareness in the context of one Chinese senior high school. The summary of findings from this qualitative case study addresses five areas: (1) the beliefs about global awareness of foreign language teachers at one senior high school in China; (2) the teachers’ reported practices about global awareness; (3) the factors that affect teachers’ beliefs and practices about global awareness; (4) the teachers’ classroom practices about global awareness; (5) the relationship between teachers’ beliefs, factors, and practices regarding global awareness. Below are brief summaries of the findings of each of the five research questions that this book has attempted to address. The first research question (RQ1): What are the beliefs about global awareness of foreign language teachers at one senior high school in China? In Chapter 5, the major findings include the Global Awareness Model and teachers’ beliefs about global awareness in the curriculum. First, the Global Awareness Model © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 H. Jing, Developing Global Awareness for Global Citizenship Education, Intercultural Communication and Language Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4179-7_11

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(see Fig. 5.2) emerged. Second, the participants stated the purpose and the importance of global awareness in the curriculum and the relationship between language, culture, and global awareness. The second research question (RQ 2): What are the teachers’ reported practices about global awareness? In Chapter 5, the finding showed that the teachers at the school had nearly the same teaching methods, but their global teaching methods were different. The teaching method of grade one was followed by the three-dimensional objectives of the new curriculum. The teaching method of grade two was followed by the model, which includes six lessons for each unit: vocabulary, warming up, reading, knowledge points, grammar, and writing. Finally, the teaching method of grade three was based on the traditional three-round revision which includes basic knowledge, grammar, and university entrance exams. The English teachers taught global awareness in the classroom through global issues found in textbooks, films, music, debates, group discussions, newspapers, role plays, and examinations. The third research question (RQ 3): What factors affect teachers’ beliefs and practices about global awareness? In Chapter 6, the major findings included the four factors that affect teachers’ beliefs and practices; these include teacher professional development and global awareness, students and global awareness, global awareness in tests, and global topics in teaching materials. The first factor is about teachers and global awareness. The main findings showed that teachers’ images of global English teachers were described, and the teachers were influenced by intercultural experiences, teacher training, and international study visits. First, the new role of English teachers in the global society is to function as a guide, bridge, mediator, instructor, and assistant. Global teachers should teach the following contents: intercultural experiences, grammar, language knowledge and way of thinking, attitudes, intercultural communicative skills, responsibility, and world values. The teacher should be learned and capable of having intercultural experiences and educating intercultural speakers. Secondly, some teachers had intercultural experiences organized by the school to visit Canada and Australia. English teachers in the regular teaching class had little experience communicating with Canadian teachers of English in the international program. The English teachers developed their global awareness through reading English newspapers. Thirdly, the English teachers needed training in global awareness and intercultural foreign language education. Unfortunately, these English teachers had never attended any intercultural teaching and global teaching training programs. The training programs were mostly about the National College Entrance Examination. They did not study any intercultural communication courses at the university. The second factor is about students’ attitudes toward global awareness. The students had positive attitudes toward global awareness, and teachers enhanced students’ global awareness through school trips and exchange projects. Their school organized various activities to develop students’ global awareness. In the first place,

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the participants stated that students were interested in global issues and had a strong curiosity. They acquired global knowledge through classroom teaching, the Internet, and the media. Global learning can help students to broaden their horizons and change their stereotypes. Secondly, participant teachers reported the global learning activities organized by the school: English corner, Model United Nations (MUN), research-based study, international study visits or exchanges, international news, China Central News Daily, English debate, and lessons with Canadian teachers. Furthermore, the school organized students’ study visits or exchanges to the U.K., Canada, and Australia. The students changed their ways of thinking and stereotypes after the intercultural experience, but the program also had some disadvantages. The third factor is about global awareness in examinations. The National College Entrance Examination was the biggest barrier to developing global awareness. There are three points about teachers’ beliefs on exams: (a) global awareness in exams, (b) the listening test, and (c) the National College Entrance Examination’s influence on global awareness. The reading in the exams is related to global awareness. Listening was canceled in the National College Entrance Examination in Henan Province recently. The National College Entrance Examination does not include speaking. The fourth factor is about global awareness in teaching materials. The textbooks include many global issues; the teachers’ guidebook includes cultural background guidance. Other teaching materials also have global awareness content. Global issues topics include world musicians, peace and war, international relationship, global environment, food safety, world culture, habits and customs, sports, world cultural heritage, the Olympics, the development of the computer, wild animal protection, music, energy problems, global warming, and the world economy. The fourth research question (RQ 4): What are the teachers’ classroom practices about global awareness? In Chapter 7, the findings described Chinese English teachers’ classroom practices. In the regular high school English department, teachers taught global awareness through different teaching activities like vocabulary lessons, grammar lessons, multimedia lessons, and teachers’ joint preparation of instruction. In Chapter 8, the findings showed three Canadian teachers’ classroom practices. In the international department, teachers developed students’ global awareness through global issues through English newspapers and Christmas and drama classes. The three teaching methods are very important as valuable forms of global learning. These Canadian English teachers’ classroom practices could be taught to English teachers at this high school to develop global awareness. Group dynamics and songs, and music are important ways to promote global awareness and intercultural awareness, too. Global teaching

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practices from these teachers will be helpful for the school to redesign the curriculum to include attention to practical activities for global awareness. The fifth research question (RQ 5): What is the relationship between teachers’ beliefs, factors, and practices regarding global awareness? In Sect. 9.4 of Chapter 9, I argued that the classroom practices supported teachers’ beliefs and reported practices about global teaching methods and activities. The study also showed the gap between teachers’ high motivation for teaching globally and the actual teaching practices at this school. Other research (e.g., Han, 2010; Parmenter, 2010; Zhou, 2011) also reported the gap between teachers’ beliefs regarding intercultural teaching and practices. My findings also supported some research (e.g., DEA, 2009; Han & Song, 2011; Ipsos MORI, 2009) that teachers did not have enough confidence to teach complex cultural and global issues.

11.2 Implications for Language Education These findings have implications for curriculum design, teacher professional development, and English teaching course material development. We need to develop textbooks and materials related to global awareness education. Though the current textbooks include some global issues, global skills, and global attitudes, they have not been featured enough. The teachers need to use global issues more effectively in textbooks and other teaching materials. It is also necessary to introduce more books and educational materials about intercultural language education, global learning, and global citizenship education. These materials could be chosen based on the EFL context in China. The findings of these English teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices regarding global awareness could be given back to English teachers at this high school and used to guide lesson planning design and classroom activities. I hope that it can help teachers think about global awareness and language skills, and encourage school leaders to emphasize global awareness by organizing more global learning activities inside and outside school. This research project makes a novel contribution to the existing field by describing language teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding intercultural language teaching and global awareness in an Asian country, notably China. Furthermore, it may contribute to the theoretical development of teacher cognition as most research is related to grammar and communicative language teaching (e.g., Nishino, 2009, 2012). Borg (2003, 2006) argued that studies of the cognition of secondary school foreign language teachers whose mother tongue is not the target language have been notably lacking. Further, this project may contribute to the theoretical development of global awareness in China’s foreign language education field. Although still a new area of research, language teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding intercultural language

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teaching and global awareness may also help develop the theory of intercultural communicative competence (ICC). Byram (2014) emphasized teacher education as the most important way in which intercultural competence can be developed in our diverse and globalized world over the next 25 years. This research responded to Byram’s suggestion by investigating teacher education, intercultural communicative competence, and global awareness in language education in China. The findings of this project will interest anyone wanting to learn how foreign language teachers in a Chinese senior high school perceive global awareness in the English classroom, and how their beliefs are related to practices. It may also help teacher trainers to design education programs about intercultural teaching and global learning more effectively. Such programs could encourage more foreign language teachers to develop the global knowledge, skills, and attitudes they need to teach students. It can also help policymakers to consider the concept of global awareness from teachers’ beliefs and practices. First, the future new curriculum design could include the dimension of global awareness, and global teaching and learning could be encouraged as a teaching approach. Second, the policymakers should give teachers more freedom to develop the curriculum in their schools. This would encourage teachers to teach global issues, develop students’ global awareness, and educate them to be global citizens living in a globalized world. Third, global awareness education could be incorporated into teacher training and professional development programs. Finally, the policymakers could organize experts and teacher trainers to teach the theories and practical approaches to intercultural language education, global learning, and intercultural and global citizenship education. Byram (2014) reviewed the development of language and culture teaching when he wrote foreign language education and cultural studies in the Journal of Language, Culture and Curriculum in 1988. He argued that culture learning has developed to ICC and intercultural citizenship education; he concluded that the most critical area for developing cultural studies in the future is teacher education, including both preservice and in-service. This book has responded to these Byram’s suggestions by exploring teachers’ cognition and classroom practices regarding global awareness in China.

11.3 Limitations of the Study The study presented in this volume was limited in several ways. It was carried out as a qualitative case study and focused only on one Chinese senior high school English teacher. Thus, the findings cannot be generalized to the wider population in China or internationally. More case studies should be carried out in a larger sample of schools that represent a greater range of socio-economic and regional backgrounds. Although generalizability beyond the specific case is lacking, language teachers can learn intercultural competence teaching approaches from this case study. To better understand Chinese teachers’ beliefs and practices, a large-scale quantitative research

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study needs to be conducted, including more senior high school EFL teachers from different provinces in China. In addition, globalization is advocated through Chinese national education policies and systems, but this book only focused on one senior high school. Future research covering the whole education system, including universities, junior high schools, and elementary schools, would be beneficial to understanding Chinese EFL teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding global awareness. Furthermore, in order to promote global awareness in the whole school system, it is also necessary to research other teachers’ beliefs and practices beyond English teachers. It is also a requirement to examine students’ beliefs about global awareness. This book only focused on teachers’ beliefs about global awareness. It also only analyzed teachers’ beliefs about students’ global awareness, and students’ voices were not analyzed, which is another limitation. Comparison of teachers’ beliefs about their students’ global awareness and students’ attitudes might be more revealing in the context of this study. In this sense, the present study has laid the foundations for future research.

11.4 Suggestions for Further Research This study is the first step toward enhancing the understanding of teachers’ beliefs and practices about global awareness. Since teachers’ beliefs will influence their practices (Borg, 2006), their actual classroom practices could be studied further to understand teachers’ beliefs better. For future research on global awareness and teachers in foreign language education, teachers’ learning experiences, pre-and in-service training, the influence of educational policy, and exam-related expectations should all be considered. These aspects can be included in future research. In order to understand the whole concept of Chinese EFL teachers’ beliefs about global awareness, further investigation into teachers’ global awareness beliefs could be conducted using quantitative research methods to provide a more general perspective on Chinese EFL teachers’ beliefs about global awareness. Action research could also be encouraged at high schools to explore effective teaching methods in the EFL context in China. In order to explore the whole picture of global awareness in China, it is also necessary to carry out more empirical research about global awareness from the perspectives of young people, the general public, parents, policymakers, employers, and business leaders. Future research could assess global awareness through new assessment tools. For example, researchers can use the Council of Europe’s second edition of the Autobiographies of Intercultural Encounters and the Council of Europe Portfolio of Competences for Democratic Culture (Byram et al., 2021). More efforts should be made in the future to examine the relationship between online intercultural exchange and global awareness. For example, researchers can

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investigate the impact of online intercultural exchange on developing students’ ICC, language skills, and global citizenship. Additionally, an area of future research that should be considered is CLIL. For example, researchers can explore in more detail how to develop global awareness and intercultural communicative competence in the CLIL classroom for English learners in China. This book has looked deeply at foreign language teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding global awareness in the context of one Chinese senior high school. It aimed to explore five areas of global awareness: (1) the teachers’ beliefs; (2) the teachers’ reported practices; (3) the factors that affect teachers’ beliefs and practices; (4) the teachers’ classroom practices; and (5) the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and practices. I define my understanding of global awareness as a combination of global knowledge, global attitude, and global skills for a global citizen to act on from local community to global community. Finally, the book suggests possible implications of developing global awareness for language teachers to educate global citizens. By analyzing the academic research and qualitative data from language teachers and linking these findings to language education policy and practice in China, this book has explored how English language teachers teach the English language, intercultural communicative competence, and global awareness in China. In the end, I hope this book can contribute to building a framework of global awareness for global citizenship education in China.

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Nishino, T. (2012). Modeling teacher beliefs and practices in context: A multimethods approach. The Modern Language Journal, 96, 380–399. Parmenter, L. (2010). Becoming intercultural: A comparative analysis of national education policies. In Y. Tsai & S. Houghton (Eds.), Being intercultural: Inside and outside the classroom (pp. 66– 88). Cambridge Scholars. Zhou, Y. (2011). A study of Chinese university EFL teachers and their intercultural competence teaching (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. NR77977)