Designing and Implementing Public Policy of Contemporary Polish Society: Selected Problems [1 ed.] 9783737013697, 9783847113690

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Dorota Szaban / Inetta Nowosad / Piotr Pochyły (eds.)

Designing and Implementing Public Policy of Contemporary Polish Society Selected Problems

With 6 figures

V&R unipress

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available online: https://dnb.de. © 2021 by Brill | V&R unipress, Theaterstraße 13, 37073 Göttingen, Germany, an imprint of the Brill-Group (Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands; Brill USA Inc., Boston MA, USA; Brill Asia Pte Ltd, Singapore; Brill Deutschland GmbH, Paderborn, Germany; Brill Österreich GmbH, Vienna, Austria) Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Hotei, Brill Schöningh, Brill Fink, Brill mentis, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Böhlau, Verlag Antike and V&R unipress. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission from the publisher. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Verlage | www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht-verlage.com ISBN 978-3-7370-1369-7

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7

I. Social categories perspective in sectoral policy Izabela Kaz´mierczak-Kałuz˙na / Magdalena Pokrzyn´ska The program “Family 500+” as an instrument of changing family policy in Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

Beata Springer Governmental religious administration in Poland. Local level . . . . . . .

29

Beata Trzop / Maria Zielin´ska Youth policy in Poland – the dispersion of competences in the context of complexity of contemporary youth problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

Marzanna Farnicka Educational institutions – their goals, organization and functioning. The Polish road of change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

Magdalena Zapotoczna The entrepreneurship imperative in educational policy of Poland . . . . .

77

II. Socio-political issues as subject of interest to sectoral policy Adam Ilciów Transport policy of Poland. Model of sustainable development . . . . . .

91

Krzysztof Lisowski / Dorota Szaban Strategies for merging local government units – from the socialization of power to non-participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

6

Contents

Inetta Nowosad Educational policy in an integrated model of intervention at the macro, meso and micro levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Jerzy Leszkowicz-Baczyn´ski / Artur Kinal The Cultural Urban Regeneration of Zielona Góra from the Perspective of the City’s Wine Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Ewa Pasterniak-Kobyłecka The priorities of contemporary educational policy in Poland. Outline of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Anna Ratke-Majewska The politics of memory as a sectoral state politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Łukasz Młyn´czyk Making information scientific. Information policy in Poland in the era of COVID-19 pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Piotr Pochyły The Foreign Affairs Committee of the Polish Sejm and religious policy of the state – selected aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

III. Social challenges for the public sphere Lilla Młodzik Public sector organizational culture in achieving security objectives

. . . 195

Justyna Nyc´kowiak / Tomasz Kołodziej Misunderstanding institutional rules: Electoral-list mobility in Poland, 2005–2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Lech Szczegóła Civil Society. Idea and practice in Polish public discourse . . . . . . . . . 227 Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Introduction

Public policy is perceived as a network of related decisions and actions taken by public authorities focused on achieving specific goals when market mechanisms lose their effectiveness. Public policy in Poland are deeply rooted in political processes, even if, for example, in the Anglo-Saxon tradition, the foundation of public action is a cooperation between various entities. The process of creating public policy is complex and multidimensional, based on a multifaceted analysis of the rationalized and systemic actions of the state and society around pressing public problems. Defining public policy emphasize two understandings of politics – as policy and politics. Apart from detailed etymological findings, politics means a struggle for power in the state. Policy, on the other hand, is connected with using the acquired power to achieve other goals, such as increasing the welfare of society, satisfying its needs, economic growth, securing a high level of environmental protection or caring for safety. A policy also specifies the management of public affairs and activities in various spheres of social life, supporting achieving the Aristotelian common good. The final shape of a given public program depends on specific factors, characteristic for a particular country. To understand why different public policy emerge in different regions, it is important to understand the details that shape them. For us, in this monograph, it is crucial to indicate the determinants of the process of creating and implementing policy relating to selected aspects of socio-economic life (de facto sectoral policy) in Polish society. We recognize that the specificity of a country’s policy is primarily determined by cultural factors (e. g. separate historical and cultural traditions, also related to the preferred decision-making mechanisms), economic factors (related to the possibility of securing the implementation of specific solutions), political factors (determined by the existing political system and structure of interests) and institutional factors (including institutional potential, institutional relations between the executive and the legislature, and the functioning model of public administration). The links between different public policy have an immediate or indirect impact on the behaviour of social actors involved in both the process of

8

Introduction

creating specific solutions and the recipients of these activities. The combined results of the implementation of policy with legal instruments relating to economic, social, political and environmental issues and their positive and negative effects balanced by social practice are crucial for the functioning of social entities. The public policy indicates tasks assigned to the public sphere, starting from their diagnosis, through implementation and execution, to monitoring, evaluation and analysis of its results. The functioning and creation of public policy are possible due to the existence of public problems. By public policy, we can understand the process of analyzing and implementing solutions and assumptions in individual areas of public life, such for example, social welfare, health protection, safety policy, environmental protection or the economy. The designing instruments to change the situation in selected areas can be considered as a sectoral policy. In this monograph, we want to look at the conditions and examples of the implementation process of selected sectoral policy. We are particularly interested in urban, educational, social, religious, information, historical and youth policy. The process of creating and implementing sectoral policy has been described in this book from two perspectives. On the one hand, the attention of the authors of the texts focuses mainly on the social actors of these policy – individuals and institutions on whose activity the process of implementing specific policy provisions depends. On the other hand, the complexity of sectoral policy forces the need to refer to many areas of social life around which specific solutions are created. The effectiveness of public policy, including sectoral policy, also requires indicating the context related to the socio-political conditions in Poland. Hence, the book ends with the third chapter, which includes three texts describing the conditions of the functioning of civil society in Poland, the principles of constructing electoral lists and elements related to the organizational culture conducive to care for safety. I. Kaz´mierczak-Kałuz˙na and M. Pokrzyn´ska describe the family policy in Poland, taking into account its special instrument – the “Family 500+” program. The authors treat the program as a response to radical social changes in recent years, which resulted, among other things, in the emergence of new or the discovery of previously unnoticed social problems. The described activities within the pro-family policy take into account the changing patterns of the family and fertility as well as the processes of redefining the stereotypes of gender roles as well as family roles. In the article by B. Springer the field of analyzes are the tasks of the local government administration in matters of religion as an element of public policy. It discusses the tasks of the provincial governor, as a representative of the government, who has limited powers in this area. Their realization results directly from the distraction of public administration, i. e. the model of administration

Introduction

9

system introduced in Poland – transfer of tasks to the voivodeship level. The policy in this area (performance of tasks and relations) must be consistent with the perspective of those currently ruling, as it results from the role of the voivode. The text also contains a comparative analysis of the scope of tasks concerning religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities as well as the location of 16 voivodeship’s offices in Poland in the administrative structure. The youth policy was presented by M. Zielin´ska and B. Trzop as a series of activities and legal provisions dispersed in terms of competences, sometimes in isolation from social problems that affect young people. According to the authors, it is precisely the problems of young people indicated in social research that should constitute the foundation for the constructed political solutions. In her text, M. Farnicka presents the importance of solutions at the institutional level as an example of creating an educational environment aimed at influencing the sphere of activity, system of values and personality of an individual. The idea of the socializing and emancipatory influence of upbringing at the institutional level was presented in the realities of educational institutions. The cooperation between organizations (non-governmental, local government) and formal educational institutions was treated not only as a manifestation of the socio-cultural changes taking place, but also as an example of accelerating the potential of various educational institutions and a factor modifying the network of existing social relationships. In the presented text, the institutional level of education is divided into two dimensions: cultural and operational. The cultural dimension (macro-level) concerns events in the social, historical and political dimension, and the operational dimension is related to the use of skills and tools enabling the implementation of the challenges posed. M. Zapotoczna focuses on the implementation of Polish educational policy oriented towards supporting entrepreneurship. EU recommendations constitute an important point of reference in setting the priorities and directions for the development of education. For educational purposes, a European concept of entrepreneurship as a key competence shaped in lifelong education has been developed. This approach is reflected in the national provisions of the core curriculum. The main postulates emphasized in international documents are consistent with the reforms in the field of education for entrepreneurship implemented in Poland since 2002. The aim of the article is to present entrepreneurship as an important direction in the development of educational policy. The basic formal and legal documents as well as the methods of implementing international recommendations to the conditions of the Polish school were presented. The article by A. Ilciów analyzes the Polish transport sector. Particular attention was paid to the importance of transport in the national economy, as well as national transport in the European Union. The author considers the model of

10

Introduction

sustainable development as the most appropriate for transportation. The perspectives of development of the transport sector are connected with large infrastructural investments and the use of modern technologies. Both areas require the involvement of entities with large capital at their disposal, or with the possibility of obtaining it. The state and/or local authorities play a key role in planning the future and in legal regulations. One of the important elements of creating urban policy is connecting local governments – usually by including rural areas into city areas. Three units – Zielona Góra, Rzeszów and Opole – have such experience. Each connection proceeded in a different way, creating a certain type of action strategy. The experiences of these local governments were characterized by D. Szaban and K. Lisowski. An overview of the current trends in the educational policy of countries assessed by international bodies as highly effective, and the development of a conceptual framework for political interventions is the starting point for I. Nowosad’s analyzes. The adopted approach shows the current paradigm shift in the development of education in achieving world-class status, in which the departure from a centralized model of political interventions results in the search for new solutions that meet the current needs. The text discusses the potential of educational policy in an integrated model of intervention at the micro, meso and macro levels. A. Kinal and J. Leszkowicz-Baczyn´ski emphasize the importance of modern urban policy as a comprehensive tool, constituting an instrument for a multifaceted analysis of urban realities by the widest possible group of actors in urban life. In this context, they locate the urban policy of the city of Zielona Góra along with elements of the wine tradition, which could constitute the basis for constructing new development assumptions for the city. The proper functioning of the state depends on good quality of education. This thesis is formulated by E. Pasternak-Kobyłecka. In Poland, the education system is being reformed and adapted to the changing social needs. Conditions are created in schools that are conducive to the comprehensive development of children and youth. The article indicates the main priorities of contemporary educational policy and the possibilities of their implementation in educational institutions. The author focused on issues related to ensuring high-quality education in schools and shaping pro-social attitudes of students and educating them in the spirit of humanistic values. A. Ratke-Majewska, in her text considers the question of what this kind of politics is, what it is for and what forms it may take. The author refers to theoretical issues, discussing at the same time trends resulting from the practice. In her text she proves that the politics of memory has an enormous resource of political abilities which give it the possibility to have a significant impact in

Introduction

11

society. By defining the contents of memory and shaping its perception the present and the future are really created. Ł. Młyn´czyk analyzes Polish information policy in the era of the Covid-19 pandemic as a function of the deliberate activities of public authorities to achieve a desired social state. In this view, information policy is more a function of power rather than information itself. He tries to show in this text that the status of knowledge can be conferred not by the evidence of science, but by the communication itself, which is public and ultimately political. The state thus solves the problem at the level of information when it regulates the flow of content relevant to it. P. Pochyły presents the influence and scope of activity of the members of the Polish Sejm on the creation of religious policy of the state on the example of the activity of the Foreign Affairs Committee in the period of the Third Republic. The author analyzes parliamentary resolutions prepared during the committee’s sessions, published positions and desiderata. Since the beginning of democratization of the country Polish deputies have repeatedly referred to the defense of religious freedom, protection of human rights in the world. In her article, L. Młodzik states that security and security management as sectoral policy are considered among other things in the categories of process and system. In the first case it consists, not only of preventing threats, but also of ensuring the existence and survival, state of possession and functioning and development of the entity (individuals and other organizational structures). In turn, the whole of the authorities and administration responsible for the implementation of state protection tasks, linked by information and remaining in the legally established competence relations, together with the auxiliary apparatus (administrative, staff, organizational) and the necessary infrastructure constitutes a security management system. In both cases we should talk about a special type of public organizations. For the author the point of reference for security policy are feedback relations based on values and norms located in organizational culture, affecting the development of its participants in both functional and process sense, especially in today’s VUCA world. The issue addressed in the article is a development of this issue. Governmental strategies affect the degree of institutional openness, competition between individuals and organizations, as well as the level of civil liberties and the ability of citizens to influence the activities of authorities at various levels. The government is responsible for shaping various policy. It largely depends on the actions of political authorities whether the sectoral reforms will be efficient and effective. At the same time, it is the political authorities that are the source of human resources determining the shape and development of various sectoral policy. In this context, transparency and clarity of the mechanisms of selecting political authorities as the most important tool of social impact on the

12

Introduction

political situation in the country, as well as a clear and unambiguous declaration of politicians as to their views and party affiliation becomes extremely important. J. Nyc´kowiak and T. Kołodziej attempt to analyze the electoral lists in parliamentary elections in order to discover the rules which govern this process. L. Szczegóła provokes reflection on the socio-cultural factors of the democratic transition. He asks whether there is a public policy that can effectively create a transformation of a post-communist society into a civil society. Polish experiences are interesting in this case, they show the nature of the problems in the installation of ideas that were formed in a different cultural and economic context. By handing over this monograph to the Readers, we hope that the texts contained therein will help to understand the instruments and practices of shaping sectoral policy in Poland. We hope that the considerations contained in individual chapters will become an inspiration for further scientific exploration of contemporary policy problems in the indicated dimensions. Dorota Szaban Inetta Nowosad Piotr Pochyły

I. Social categories perspective in sectoral policy

Izabela Kaz´mierczak-Kałuz˙na / Magdalena Pokrzyn´ska

The program “Family 500+” as an instrument of changing family policy in Poland

Introduction The last decade of the 20th century was a period of radical economic and sociocultural changes in Poland, which resulted, among other things, in the emergence of new or the discovery of previously unnoticed social problems. Some of them still condition the life situation of some Polish families today, affecting their functioning and structures. This study addresses two issues – poverty and the deepening unfavorable demographic changes – which, initiated/visible at the threshold of the 1990s, have co-shaped three decades of Poland’s post-transformation history and continue to pose a threat to the country’s socio-economic development. Both issues are within the scope of influence of the state family policy. Its main goal is the creation of conditions which are to favor the formation of families, their development and the comprehensive satisfaction of their needs, including living needs and needs connected with the rearing of offspring. Measures implemented within the framework of family policy can be divided into those aimed directly at the family (direct policy) and those of more comprehensive character and covering with their impact also other areas of social policy (indirect policy, pro-family policy)1. Thus, within the framework of indirect family policy, initiatives are undertaken in which the family is placed in a broad institutional context, and the proposed influences on it are consistent with solutions within the framework of the labor market, housing policy, childcare system, education, health care, tax or pension system. The primary instrument of the direct family policy are social benefits (both monetary and nonmonetary) which, depending on the needs, perform the following functions: profitable, compensatory, egaliIzabela Kaz´mierczak-Kałuz˙na, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7942-0507. Magdalena Pokrzyn´ska, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8370-0592. 1 Cf. e. g. B. Balcerzak-Paradowska, Family and family policy at the turn of the century – transformations, threats, need for action, IPiSS, Warszawa 2004; A. Durasiewicz, W kierunku rozwoju polityki rodzinnej w Polsce, Dom Wydawniczy Elipsa, Warszawa 2017.

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Izabela Kaz´mierczak-Kałuz˙na / Magdalena Pokrzyn´ska

tarian and/or stimulating, particularly with respect to shaping pro-employment and procreation attitudes and thus can also be defined as a tool of the pronatalist policy. The state’s family policy should be both stable and flexible, so that it can respond in a timely manner to emerging or deepening problems and changes in the demographic, economic and social situation. In the last decade Poland has undertaken a number of initiatives aimed at improving the material living conditions of families and increasing the fertility rate. Particularly in the area of pro-natalist actions, we can observe broadening of pro-family policy instruments and efforts to make employment more flexible and increase opportunities to reconcile work and family life. The implemented solutions, including for example: extension of paid parental leaves; introduction of the Large Family Card; parental benefits for women who gave birth and previously did not work or were insured in the Agricultural Social Insurance Fund (KRUS); development of institutional forms of childcare for the youngest children; tax reliefs for children; popularization of the “zloty for zloty” mechanism in the case of family benefits, etc.2, initiated in times of economic prosperity, improved the material situation of families, but they did not translate into an increase in the birth rate. On 1 April 2016, the “Family 500+” program was introduced in Poland under the Act on State Aid in Raising Children3. The benefits offered under it (PLN 500 per child until the age of 18) are universal. In the initial period of the program’s functioning, families were entitled only to the benefit for the second and subsequent child (the first or only child was covered by support after meeting income criteria – income below 800 PLN net per person in the family or 1200 PLN in the case of families with children with disabilities). In July 2019, the program was extended to all children regardless of the financial status of families. When defining the new tool, emphasis was placed on equally treated social issues, i. e. reduction of poverty, especially among children, investment in human capital and pro-natalist goals, leading to a sustainable increase in the fertility rate4. The program matched well with public expectations. It met with a very positive reception and was recognized as a qualitative turn in the state’s family and pronatal policy. Analyzing the results of CBOS surveys from the last quarter of a 2 Cf. e. g. M. Grabowska et al., Jak przezwycie˛z˙yc´ kryzys dzietnos´ci, czyli o programu Rodzina 500 plus i nie tylko, [in:] Rodzina PLUS. Sytuacja polskich rodzin i oceny polityki prorodzinnej, ed. by M. Grabowska et al., CBOS, Warszawa 2017; A. Ruzik-Sierdzin´ska, Krótkookresowe skutki programu Rodzina 500+, “Studia z Polityki Społecznej”, no. 1, 2018. 3 Journal of Laws. 2016 item 195. 4 Speech by E. Rafalska, Minister of Family, Labour and Social Policy during the first reading of the government bill on state aid in upbringing of children on 9 February 2016., https:// www.gov.pl/web/rodzina/wystapienie-elzbiety-rafalskiej-minister-rodziny-pracy-i-polityki-s polecznej-podczas-pierwszego-czytania-rzadowego-projektu-ustawy-o-pomocy-panstwa-wwychowywaniu-dzieci (access: 22. 01. 2021).

The program “Family 500+” as an instrument of changing family policy in Poland

17

century, it is possible to notice the unquestionable influence of the program on the perception of state policy towards the family. In the years 1996–2013, the share of Poles assessing the state’s activities in this area well or very well ranged from 6 % in 2000 to 16 % in 2006. At the same time, in each of the surveyed years, those dissatisfied in this regard were several times higher (from 31 % in 2006 to 52 % in 2012). Between 2017 and 2019, a radical change can be observed. Not only did the number of respondents satisfied with the state’s family policy increase sharply – 52 % in 2017 and 62 % in 2019, but also the share of those rating it as inadequate dropped significantly (a maximum of 11 % in 2018). In the opinion of respondents, program benefits are one of the most effective tools for supporting families and fertility5. The analysis of their effectiveness is devoted to the next part of the study.

Economic effects of the “Family 500+” program In Poland, poverty became the subject of systematic research only in the early 1990s. Before that, in order to maintain the ideological foundations of the socialist system, the category of “shortages” was used in public discourse. There was also a kind of embargo on researching and describing domestic poverty. After 1989, however, numerous empirical works on the subject quickly began to appear, and poverty and the poor were not so much present in the new posttransformation reality, as they were “rediscovered”6. In the 1990s, income poverty rates in Poland grew steadily. In the year of accession to the European Union the extent of poverty and social exclusion amounted to 20.3 %, and among children – 48 % and was the highest among the member states7. In 2005–2015, along with an increase in average household income, the scope of poverty, measured using basket lines, i. e., the subsistence minimum and the social intervention threshold, gradually decreased. Systematic improvement was also observed in the area of poverty of living conditions and fiscal imbalances. Each of the thirty indicators of unmet needs and lack of 5 Program Family 500 plus as an element of the system supporting families and fertility, research announcement, no. 25/2016, CBOS; State policy towards families – assessments and expectations, research announcement, no. 83/2018, CBOS; Program Family 500 plus after three years of functioning, research announcement, no. 52/2019, CBOS; B. Roguska, Opinions on the program “Family 500 plus”, [in:]. Rodzina PLUS…, op. cit. 6 Cf. e. g. S. Golinowska S. (ed.), Polska bieda. Kryteria, ocena, przeciwdziałanie, IPiSS, Warszawa 1996; E. Tarkowska (ed.), Zrozumiec´ biednego. O dawnej i obecnej biedzie w Polsce, IFiS PAN, Warszawa 2000; W. Warzywoda-Kruszyn´ska, Wielkomiejscy biedni – formuja˛ca sie˛ underclass? Przypadek klientów pomocy społecznej, “Kultura i Społeczen´stwo”, no. 2, 1998. 7 I. Mendryk et al., Gospodarstwa domowe z 500+ w procesie rozwoju kapitału ludzkiego. Wybrane problemy ekonomiczne i socjologiczne, Wydawnictwo C.H. Beck, Warszawa 2020.

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Izabela Kaz´mierczak-Kałuz˙na / Magdalena Pokrzyn´ska

resources taken into account by the CSO in 2015 was lower than in 2011 and 2013. Progress can be seen in particular in the area of sanitation, housing equipment, as well as disposing of funds for vacations, buying books, medicines, etc8. In the second decade of the 21st century, Poland was among the countries that most effectively deal with poverty and exclusion among children. The continuing trend in this regard is confirmed by the results of Eurostat studies, according to which the percentage of children at risk of poverty in Poland is significantly lower than the EU average9. Positive trends in the area of poverty reduction, especially child poverty, were significantly strengthened by the program introduced in 201610. The social effects of its impact are reflected, among others, in current CSO surveys. Over the last few years (2015–2019), further improvement in the financial situation of households in Poland can be observed – both household income and expenditure are increasing11. There is also a further gradual reduction in the incidence of poverty, both extreme poverty (decrease from 6.5 % in 2015 to 4.2 % in 2019), statutory poverty (decrease from 12.2 % in 2015 to 9 % in 2019), and relative poverty (decrease from 15.5 % in 2015 to 13 % in 2019) (Figure 1). The improvement of material living conditions concerns especially the families most at risk of poverty – those living mainly on social benefits, with disabled people, with the head of the family with a low level of education, as well as singleparent families and families with at least 3 children under the age of 18. In families with many children, where the share of benefits from the program is the highest and reaches 20 % of disposable income, the decrease in the extent of poverty, especially extreme poverty, had the most significant character in the analyzed period (from 16.7 % in 2015 to 6.8 % in 2019). The real increase in income in this category of families directly translates into an increase in spending 8 S. Golinowska, O polskiej biedzie w latach 1990–2015. Definicje, miary i wyniki, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2018. 9 Only the Netherlands, Germany, Finland, Denmark, Czech Republic, Iceland and Slovenia are currently performing better – Children at risk of poverty or social exclusion, Eurostat, 2019, https://ec.europa.eu/ eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Children_at_risk_of_poverty_ or_social_exclusion (access: 26. 01. 2021); por. takz˙e I. Mendryk et al., op. cit. 10 Cf. e. g. D. Prokopowicz, Sytuacja materialno-ekonomiczna gospodarstw domowych w Polsce oraz znaczenie wprowadzenia programu Rodzina 500 plus w ramach kompleksowej polityki społecznej, Uniwersyteckie Czasopismo Socjologiczne, vol. 18, no. 1, 2018; I. Kaz´mierczakKałuz˙na, W orbicie 500 plus. Funkcjonowanie ubogich rodzin wielodzietnych w warunkach zmiany polityki rodzinnej w Polsce, Kultura i Społeczen´stwo, no. 4; 2019; I. Mendryk et al., op. cit. 11 The level of average monthly disposable income was PLN 1819 per person in 2019. and was by PLN 433 higher than in 2015, while household expenditures increased in the analyzed period from PLN 1091 to PLN 1252 – cf. Sytuacja gospodarstw domowych w 2019 r. w s´wietle wyników badania budz˙etów gospodarstw domowych, informacje sygnalne, 20. 05. 2020, GUS, Warszawa.

The program “Family 500+” as an instrument of changing family policy in Poland 18 16

15,5

14 12

12,2

10

13

12,7

10,7

8 6 4

6,5 4,9

2 0

2015

2016

14,2

13,4

13,9

4,3 2017

10,9

9

5,4

4,2

2018

19

extreme poverty (subsistence minimum) statuory poverty

rela!ve poverty

2019

Figure 1. Poverty in Poland between 20015 and 2019 according to the poverty lines adopted in a given year (in % of persons in households). Source: own compilation based on: Range of economic poverty in Poland in 2019, signal information, 30. 06. 2020, GUS, Warszawa

on basic goods, as well as those that represent an investment in human capital (educational classes of children, spending on culture, tourism, health care, etc.)12. The positive trend is also visible in the results of Eurostat surveys, indicating a successively decreasing scope of deep material deprivation in Poland13, as well as in CBOS surveys. In 2014–2019, the assessment of ways and possibilities of managing the household budget systematically improved. Year after year, the share of people living well and very well increased (from 19 % in 2014 to 33 % in 2019) and the share of people living modestly or very poorly decreased (from 23 % in 2014 to 15 % in 2019). In 2020, with the economic crisis associated with the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus pandemic, this trend is less pronounced. While the downward trend continues for respondents rating their living conditions as unsatisfactory (14 % in March and 12.5 % in September 2020), the percentage of those living in complete financial comfort is also falling (32 % in March and 31 % in September 2020)14. Good social moods in recent years (even despite the spectre of economic crisis) translate into a growing sense of financial security among Poles who are beneficiaries of the government program15. Beneficiaries definitely find it easier to balance their household budgets. In 2018, none of the surveyed people (program beneficiaries), when asked about their material living conditions, assessed them as very poor, making it impossible to meet the basic needs of the family. However, as the number of children in respondents’ families increases, their 12 Zasie˛g ubóstwa ekonomicznego w Polsce w 2016 r., opracowanie sygnalne, 23. 06. 2017, GUS, Warszawa; Zasie˛g ubóstwa ekonomicznego w Polsce w 2019 r., informacje sygnalne, 30. 06. 2020, GUS, Warszawa.; I. Mendryk et al, op. cit. 13 Podstawowe dane dotycza˛ce zasie˛gu ubóstwa w Polsce w 2016 r., notatka informacyjna, 25. 09. 2017, GUS, Warszawa. 14 Oceny sytuacji finansowej gospodarstw domowych, komunikat z badan´, no. 123/2020, CBOS. 15 Por. np. Ocena programu “Rodzina 500 plus” po blisko roku od jego wprowadzenia, komunikat z badan´, no. 36/2017, CBOS; Materialne warunki z˙ycia, komunikat z badan´, no. 47/ 2018, CBOS; Program Rodzina 500 plus po trzech latach…, op. cit.

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Izabela Kaz´mierczak-Kałuz˙na / Magdalena Pokrzyn´ska

concerns about the future increase16. These fears may be greater in households whose present financial condition depends on the benefits received, and the fear of its deterioration is connected with the uncertainty about the continuity of the program or the inevitable loss of funds caused by successive children growing up. The program beneficiaries are also families whose adult members are permanently out of the labor market and are regular clients of assistance institutions. In the absence of gainful sources of income, the fear of a renewed breakdown of the living situation may be multiplied. The more so, as research shows that the program may have a negative impact on certain categories of people (e. g., mothers with a lower level of education), limiting their professional activity and petrifying their dependence on social benefits17. After only five years of the program’s operation, there is no clear answer to the question of whether and to what extent its social effects will be lasting. The consolidation of positive tendencies would probably be facilitated by modifying the program’s assumptions so as to integrate it into a coherent whole with other family support systems operating alongside it – the system of family benefits and tax allowances for children. Additionally, building incentives for professional activity into the program would prevent the emergence of a new social problem in the form of successive generations dependent on attractive financial support from the state18.

“Family 500+” as a pro-natalist program The social advantages of the program are not in doubt – there is a relative consensus in academic and journalistic discourse in this regard. However, it does not exist in relation to the widely promoted pronatalist goals. In this case, the effectiveness of the benefits, despite the short period of its implementation, raises a number of reservations and fosters strong polarization19. According to the assumptions of the authors, the program was supposed to “protect Poland from a

16 Sytuacja rodzin w Polsce dwa lata po wprowadzeniu programu Rodzina 500 plus, komunikat z badan´, no. 54/2018, CBOS. 17 I. Kaz´mierczak-Kałuz˙na, Work in the Lives of Women with Many Children Living in Poverty in the Context of Reforms in Poland’s Family Policy – Continuation or Change?, Przegla˛d Socjologiczny, no. 3, 2018; I. Magda et al., “The Family 500+” child allowance and female labour supply in Poland, IBS Working Paper, 1, 2018. 18 Cf. I. Magda et al., “Rodzina 500+” – ocena programu i propozycje zmian, 2019 https://ibs.org .pl/ publications/rodzina-500-ocena-programu-i-propozycje-zmian/ (access: 21. 01. 2021). 19 M. Rymsza, Zrozumiec´ ten plus, “Wie˛z´”, no. 3, 2017.

21

The program “Family 500+” as an instrument of changing family policy in Poland

demographic disaster”20. However, not only does it not bring the promised results, but its impact seems to be negligible. Considering Poland’s long-standing demographic problems, which began in the 1990s, this situation should not come as a surprise. For the past three decades Poland has been experiencing the processes resulting from the so-called second demographic transition – the number of marriages is declining, the number of divorces is increasing and the fertility rate of women is significantly decreasing. The observed phenomena of deinstitutionalization of marriage and nuclearization of families are closely related to technological, economic and socio-cultural changes (including shifts in hierarchies of values and life goals) which create conditions for the ongoing transformation of the family, especially in the area of its structures and functions. In 1990 the fertility rate in Poland stood at 1.991 and even then, on the threshold of political change, did not guarantee a simple replacement of generations. Subsequent years brought further declines. For the past two decades, the fertility rate has remained below 1.5 and has been defined as extremely low. The critical moment in this regard in Poland was 2003, when only slightly over 350,000 children were born, i. e., almost 200,000 fewer than in 1990, and the fertility rate stood at 1.222. The next few years saw a short-term reversal of this tendency and a slight increase in the number of births, echoing the baby boom of the early 1980s. The beginning of the second decade of the 21st century saw a renewed and deepening decline in births, lasting until 2015, when the fertility rate stood at 1.289, one of the lowest in both the EU and the world21 (Figure 2). 2,5 1,991

2 1,5

1,367

1,376

2000

2010

1,289

1,357

2015

2016

1,453

1,435

1,419

2017

2018

2019

1 0,5 0

1990

Figure 2. Fertility rate in Poland in 1990–2019. Source: own elaboration based on: Demographic Yearbook 2017, 2020, CSO, Warsaw.

20 Wysta˛pienie E. Rafalskiej… op. cit.; A. Gromada, Rodzina 500+ jako polityka publiczna, Seria Analizy – polityka społeczna, ekonomia, Instytut Studiów Zaawansowanych, Warszawa 2017, https://krytykapolityczna.pl/instytut/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2017/09/Gromada_Rodzin a-500.pdf (access: 21. 01. 2021). 21 A. Gromada, op. cit.; B. Balcerzak-Paradowska, op. cit.

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Izabela Kaz´mierczak-Kałuz˙na / Magdalena Pokrzyn´ska

The year 2015 was also the year before the introduction of the “Family 500+” program. The first two years of its functioning brought an increase in the fertility rate. In 2017, it reached its highest value in twenty years (1.453), and the number of children born exceeded 402,000. Importantly, however, the recorded increase concerned mainly children born second and subsequent. Still in 2010, half of all births were first births, while in 2017 – their share in the total number of births was already only 43 %. On the other hand, the proportion of second (40.1 %) and third and subsequent births (16.9 %) increased significantly22. The decreasing share of first-time births in the total number of births is a worrying phenomenon. It may be an effect of the continuing trend of postponing the decision about having the first child or an indicator of the growing number of couples who intentionally do not want to have children. In the context of potentially halting the negative trends, both situations are unfavorable and, due to the decreasing biological fertility of women with age, constitute a serious obstacle to demographic development. It is the fertility and size of the female population of reproductive age (15–49 years), especially at the age of the highest birth rate (25–34 years), that is one of the decisive correlates of fertility. The decades-long demographic crisis in Poland, however, has caused deep distortions in the population structure, the most visible manifestations of which are the progressing depopulation and population ageing processes. The low birth rate, which has been sustained for many years, means that fewer and fewer people are entering childbearing age. Everything indicates that the process of demographic reconstruction will be long and arduous, and pro-natalist policy measures should be designed for decades rather than for years23. The conclusions formulated above are confirmed by the analysis of births in Poland in 2018–2020, in which again a progressive year-on-year decrease in the number of children born was recorded. In 2018, about 388 thousand children were born, in 2019 – about 375 thousand, and the preliminary estimates of the Central Statistical Office for 2020 indicate that the trend deepened (estimated number of births – about 360 thousand) and the year was the worst in terms of births for a decade and a half 24.

22 Urodzenia i dzietnos´c´, informacje sygnalne, 23. 05. 2018, GUS, Warszawa; I. Mendryk et al., op. cit. 23 I. Magda et al., “Rodzina 500+”…, op. cit.; Prognoza ludnos´ci na lata 2014–2050, GUS, Warszawa. 24 The demographic collapse is further exacerbated by the pandemic. 2020 was a record year in terms of the number of deaths in Poland. According to estimates, nearly 480,000 people died in 2020, about 70,000 more than the year before – cf. A. Ambroziak, 500 zero. Koniec fantazji o prodemograficznym 500+. Liczba urodzen´ wróciła do poziomu z 2016 roku, 2020, https://oko.press/spada-liczba-urodzen/ (access: 26. 01. 2021); M. Fidzin´ski, Olbrzymia wyrwa demograficzna w 2020 r. w Polsce. Liczba ´smierci poszybowała, urodzenia leca˛ w

The program “Family 500+” as an instrument of changing family policy in Poland

23

The birth increase observed shortly after the program’s introduction can be interpreted either as a short-term “novelty effect”, or associated with the realization of deferred births. Although women aged 25–34 are still the most likely to give birth in Poland, the fertility rate of older women has increased considerably in recent years. In an environment of economic prosperity and labor market stability, a program offering attractive financial transfers may be an incentive for women to accelerate their decision to have children, resulting in a temporary increase in the number and intensity of births. The low effectiveness of the program in achieving pro-natalist goals is emphasized not only by demographers. The narration of the program’s authors is also changing, as they more often emphasize its social effects, while admitting that the program has not translated, and probably will not translate into a radical increase of the fertility rate in Poland in the near future25.

Conclusions The changes introduced in Poland in the family and pro-family policy, including the launching of the program “Family 500+”, in relation to the two issues addressed in the article, should be analyzed in the broader context of economic and socio-cultural conditions. The process of reducing the scope of poverty and social exclusion is a consequence of the continuing favorable economic situation in recent years, which can be illustrated by the high GDP growth rates and an extremely low unemployment rate. Pro-social activities of the state, including the newly introduced program, accelerated (and in certain categories of families significantly strengthened) the improvement in this area. From the perspective of the program’s assumptions, families with children became the main beneficiaries of the benefits. For some of them – previously suffering from multidimensional deprivation – a real chance for social and economic advancement has emerged. This is particularly visible in families with many children, for whom the benefits sometimes allow them to become independent and permanently free of dependency on welfare institutions. They also somewhat blur the boundaries between the world of affluence, represented by well-off consumers, and the world of the excluded, so far incapable of responding properly to the emerging offers. In the families of program beneficiaries, signals of social inclusion are appearing – dół, 2021, https://next.gazeta.pl/next/7,151003,26678048,olbrzymia-wyrwa-demograficzna -w-2020-r-w-polsce-liczba-smierci.html (access: 26. 01. 2021). 25 Government admits for the first time: thanks to 500 plus, births have not increased and will not increase (2020), https://businessinsider.com.pl/twoje-pieniadze/praca/rzad-przyznaje-ze -500-plus-nie-zwieksza-dzietnosci/p7de1pc (access: 26. 01. 2021).

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new patterns of consumption are taking shape, participation in social institutions in the areas of education, health care, tourism, culture is increasing; access to goods and services previously beyond reach is becoming easier. The emerging sense of financial security strengthens independence, and in the case of some – activates resourcefulness, allowing for a bolder outlook on the future26. It is too early to judge about the long-term effects of the program, in the form of halting the intergenerational transmission of social disadvantage in families that are deeply and multifaceted poor. Nevertheless, in the short-term perspective, the social success of the program, defined in terms of improvement of families’ current living conditions, seems measurable and – disregarding cases of wasting the funds by some beneficiaries – relatively indisputable. The situation is completely different in the area of pro-natalistic activities. And although it is premature to pronounce the program a failure in this sphere, apart from a short-term increase in the number of births in 2016–2017 – it is difficult to find arguments indicating or even forecasting demographic success in the long run. This is influenced not only by strictly demographic or biological conditions (decreasing number of women of childbearing age), but also by economic and socio-cultural factors. The current income situation is only one of the conditions favoring procreation decisions. Child-rearing benefits obviously improve material and living conditions, but the basis of families’ financial security is income and not social transfers. The effectiveness of such financial incentives increases if they are an element of a coherent and long-term system of supporting families. In Poland, despite the measures undertaken to date, such a predictable system still does not exist. The program itself, although generally accepted and evaluated positively, due to its short period of functioning, even by some beneficiaries raises concerns about its continuation and continuity of benefits27. Demographic decisions are nowadays significantly linked to the functioning of the labor market. The increasing professional activity of women and their participation in the broadly defined public and non-family sphere, resulting from the growing demand for women’s employment, their rising education level, rising aspirations and changes in the systems of values and social norms related to the fulfillment of women’s roles, is an irreversible process28. To sum up, Poland needs a coherent and effective system of family support, based not only on financial transfers. When designing pro-family policy measures, it is impossible to ignore the changing family patterns and fertility rates or 26 I. Kaz´mierczak-Kałuz˙na, W orbicie 500 plus…, op. cit. 27 Program “Rodzina 500 plus” jako element…, op. cit. 28 I. E. Kotowska, Uwarunkowania zachowan´ prokreacyjnych, [in:] Niska dzietnos´c´ w Polsce w konteks´cie percepcji Polaków. Diagnoza 2013, ed. I. E. Kotowska, MPiPS, Warszawa, 2014.

The program “Family 500+” as an instrument of changing family policy in Poland

25

the processes of redefining stereotypes and gender roles, including family roles. It is a truism to state that nowadays a satisfying job is more often put before the family and women, fearing to leave the fast-paced career path, postpone the decision of having a child or consciously give up motherhood. Parenthood significantly determines the quality and rhythm of an individual or couple’s daily life. For some, such a scenario is difficult to accept. Without a radical rethinking of the family and fertility, attempts to save the situation through social transfers alone seem doomed to failure. In view of the demographic collapse Poland is currently facing, financial incentives, even if they improve the material situation of families, are not – as it turns out – an effective pro-natalist instrument.

Bibliography Ambroziak A., 500 zero. Koniec fantazji o prodemograficznym 500+. Liczba urodzen´ wróciła do poziomu z 2016 roku, https://oko.press/spada-liczba-urodzen/ (access: 26. 01. 2021). Balcerzak-Paradowska B., Rodzina i polityka rodzinna na przełomie wieków – przemiany, zagroz˙enia, potrzeba działan´, IPiSS, Warszawa 2004. Durasiewicz A., W kierunku rozwoju polityki rodzinnej w Polsce, Dom Wydawniczy Elipsa, Warszawa 2017. Eurostat, Children at risk of poverty or social exclusion, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/sta tistics-explained/index.php/Children_at_risk_of_poverty_or_social_exclusion (access: 26. 01. 2021). Fidzin´ski M., Olbrzymia wyrwa demograficzna w 2020 r. w Polsce. Liczba ´smierci poszybowała, urodzenia leca˛ w dół, https://next.gazeta.pl/next/7,151003,26678048,olbrzymia -wyrwa-demograficzna-w-2020-r-w-polsce-liczba-smierci.html (access: 26. 01. 2021). Golinowska S. (ed.), Polska bieda. Kryteria, ocena, przeciwdziałanie, IPiSS, Warszawa 1996. Golinowska S., O polskiej biedzie w latach 1990–2015. Definicje, miary i wyniki, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2018. Grabowska M., Omyła-Rudzka M., Rogulska B., Jak przezwycie˛z˙yc´ kryzys dzietnos´ci, czyli o programie “Rodzina 500 plus” i nie tylko, [in:] Rodzina PLUS. Sytuacja polskich rodzin i oceny polityki prorodzinnej, ed. M. Grabowska, M. Omyła-Rudzka M., B. Rogulska, CBOS, Warszawa 2017. Gromada A., Rodzina 500+ jako polityka publiczna, Seria Analizy – polityka społeczna, ekonomia, Instytut Studiów Zaawansowanych, Warszawa 2017, https://krytykapolityc zna.pl/instytut/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2017/09/Gromada_Rodzina-500.pdf (access: 21. 01. 2021). Kaz´mierczak-Kałuz˙na I., Work in the Lives of Women with Many Children Living in Poverty in the Context of Reforms in Poland’s Family Policy – Continuation or Change?, Przegla˛d Socjologiczny, no. 3, 2018. Kaz´mierczak-Kałuz˙na I., W orbicie 500 plus. Funkcjonowanie ubogich rodzin wielodzietnych w warunkach zmiany polityki rodzinnej w Polsce, Kultura i Społeczen´stwo, no. 4, 2019.

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Kotowska I. E., Uwarunkowania zachowan´ prokreacyjnych, [in:] Niska dzietnos´c´ w Polsce w konteks´cie percepcji Polaków. Diagnoza 2013, ed. I. E. Kotowska, MPiPS, Warszawa 2014. Magda I., Brzezin´ski M., Chłon´-Domin´czak A., Kotowska I. A., Myck M., Najsztub M., Tyrowicz J., “Rodzina 500+” – ocena programu i propozycje zmian, https://ibs.org.pl /publications /rodzina-500-ocena-programu-i-propozycje-zmian/ (access: 21. 01. 2021). Magda I., Kiełczewska A., Brandt N., The “Family 500+” child allowance and female labour supply in Poland, IBS Working Paper, 1, 2018. Materialne warunki z˙ycia, komunikat z badan´, no. 47/2018, CBOS. Mendryk I., Kawczyn´ska-Butrym Z., Oleszko-Kurzyna B., Galbarczyk T., Gospodarstwa domowe z 500+ w procesie rozwoju kapitału ludzkiego. Wybrane problemy ekonomiczne i socjologiczne, Wydawnictwo C.H. Beck, Warszawa 2020. Ocena programu “Rodzina 500 plus” po blisko roku od jego wprowadzenia, komunikat z badan´, no. 36/2017, CBOS. Oceny sytuacji finansowej gospodarstw domowych, komunikat z badan´, no. 123/2020, CBOS. Podstawowe dane dotycza˛ce zasie˛gu ubóstwa w Polsce w 2016 roku, notatka informacyjna, 25. 09. 2017, GUS, Warszawa. Polityka pan´stwa wobec rodzin – oceny i oczekiwania, komunikat z badan´, no. 83/2018, CBOS. Postawy prokreacyjne kobiet, komunikat z badan´, no. 29/2013, CBOS. Potrzeby prokreacyjne oraz preferowany i realizowany model rodziny, komunikat z badan´, no. 61/2012, CBOS. Prognoza ludnos´ci na lata 2014–2050, GUS, Warszawa. Program “Rodzina 500 plus” jako element systemu wspierania rodzin i dzietnos´ci, komunikat z badan´, no. 25/2016, CBOS. Program Rodzina 500 plus po trzech latach funkcjonowania, komunikat z badan´, no. 52/ 2019, CBOS. Prokopowicz D., Sytuacja materialno-ekonomiczna gospodarstw domowych w Polsce oraz znaczenie wprowadzenia programu “Rodzina 500 plus” w ramach kompleksowej polityki społecznej, Uniwersyteckie Czasopismo Socjologiczne, vol. 18, no. 1, 2017. Rocznik Demograficzny 2017, GUS, Warszawa. Rocznik Demograficzny 2020, GUS, Warszawa. Roguska B., Opinie o programie “Rodzina 500 plus”, [in:] Rodzina PLUS. Sytuacja polskich rodzin i oceny polityki prorodzinnej, ed. M. Grabowska, M. Omyła-Rudzka M., B. Rogulska, CBOS, Warszawa 2017. Ruzik-Sierdzin´ska A., Krótkookresowe skutki programu Rodzina 500+, Studia z Polityki Społecznej, no. 1, 2018. Rymsza M., Zrozumiec´ ten plus, Wie˛z´, no. 3, 2017. Rza˛d pierwszy raz przyznaje: dzie˛ki 500 plus urodzenia nie wzrosły i nie wzrosna˛, https://b usinessinsider.com.pl/twoje-pieniadze/praca/rzad-przyznaje-ze-500-plus-nie-zwieksz a-dzietnosci/p7de1pc (access: 26. 01. 2021). Sytuacja gospodarstw domowych w 2019 r. w s´wietle wyników badania budz˙etów gospodarstw domowych, informacje sygnalne, 20. 05. 2020, GUS, Warszawa. Sytuacja rodzin w Polsce dwa lata po wprowadzeniu programu Rodzina 500 plus, komunikat z badan´, no. 54/2018, CBOS.

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Tarkowska E. (ed.), Zrozumiec´ biednego. O dawnej i obecnej biedzie w Polsce, IFiS PAN, Warszawa 2000. Urodzenia i dzietnos´c´, informacje sygnalne, 23. 05. 2018, GUS, Warszawa. Ustawa z dnia 11 lutego 2016 roku o pomocy pan´stwa w wychowywaniu dzieci, Dz. U. 2016 poz. 195 z póz´n. zm. Warzywoda-Kruszyn´ska W., Wielkomiejscy biedni – formuja˛ca sie˛ underclass? Przypadek klientów pomocy społecznej, Kultura i Społeczen´stwo, no. 2, 1998. Wysta˛pienie Elz˙biety Rafalskiej, Minister Rodziny, Pracy i Polityki Społecznej podczas pierwszego czytania rza˛dowego projektu ustawy o pomocy pan´stwa w wychowywaniu dzieci w dniu 9 lutego 2016 roku, https://www.gov.pl/web/rodzina/wystapienie-elzbie ty-rafalskiej-minister-rodziny-pracy-i-polityki-spolecznej-podczas-pierwszego-czyta nia-rzadowego-projektu-ustawy-o-pomocy-panstwa-w-wychowywaniu-dzieci (access: 22. 01. 2021). Zasie˛g ubóstwa ekonomicznego w Polsce w 2016 r., opracowanie sygnalne, 23. 06. 2017, GUS, Warszawa. Zasie˛g ubóstwa ekonomicznego w Polsce w 2019 r., informacje sygnalne, 30. 06. 2020, GUS, Warszawa.

Beata Springer

Governmental religious administration in Poland. Local level

Introduction The governmental administration in Poland has been divided into the central level of administration and the governmental local administration which is the subject of this analysis. The local government bodies are the segment of public administration in Poland (resulting from the division into smaller units – voivodships). They are formed by bodies, offices and institutions at the voivodship level, which perform public tasks for citizens, both individual and collective entities. As in the case of the central and supreme authorities, the local authorities after 1989 had to be reconstructed or re-established in connection with the political transformation. The reason for reforming / rebuilding the administration was undoubtedly the need to change the system of state management, improve the efficiency of its functioning and improve the quality of service to citizens1. The aim of these considerations is to analyze the tasks of the local government administration in religious matters, which are part of public policies implemented by the state authorities. The analysis will be preceded by the location of the local government administration in the administrative system of the Republic of Poland (with a short historical outline showing the reasons for the changes). On 17 May 1990 the legislator made the division of tasks between local government and local government administration by implementing the Act on the division of tasks and competences specified in special acts between commune and government administration bodies (Journal of Laws of 1990 No. 34, item 198 as amended). Earlier it was decided to enact the Act of 22 March 1990 on local governmental general administration bodies (Journal of Laws of 1990, No. 21, item 123). In accordance with these provisions, the voivode, as a government general administration body, directed and coordinated the work and provided Beata Springer, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2112-6556. 1 E. Doman´ska, Kapitał nowoczesnej administracji. “Biuletyn Słuz˙by Cywilnej” 1997, no. 1, p.49.

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conditions for the operation of general administration, provincial services and inspections and other provincial units. The act conferred upon him the existing powers (tasks and competences) belonging to provincial national councils and local state administration bodies with general jurisdiction and special provincial rank (Article 53). Subsequent reforms began to be introduced in 1998 by implementing the socalled Reform of the Administrative and Economic Center of the Government. The division of tasks and competences was made by the Act of 24 July 1998 on the amendment of certain laws defining the competences of public administration bodies in connection with the state reform (Journal of Laws of 1998, No. 106, item 668, as amended). The changes concerning the functioning of local government administration were regulated by the Act of 5 June 1998 on government administration in the province (Dz. U. of 1998, No. 91, item 577 as amended), at the same time derogating the Act on local governmental bodies of general administration. The standards introduced in 1998 by the Act on Governmental Administration in the Voivodship put in order the legal status of the Voivode and, within the framework of special divisions, introduced non-combined administration bodies. According to them, the government administration was made up of: a voivode; heads of joint services, inspections and guards acting under the supervision of a voivode; non-associated administration bodies; local government bodies if the performance of government administration tasks results from an act or agreement; heads of district services, inspections and guards acting under the authority of a starost, performing the tasks and competences specified in the acts; bodies of other local governments if the performance of government administration tasks results from an act or agreement (Article 2). This solution was sealed with dualism at the level of administration in the province. The role of the voivode was changed, subordinating to him a number of joint administration, introducing supervisory powers over self-government, and leaving loose connections with the non-combined administration. The adoption of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland on 2 April 1997 (Journal of Laws of 1997, No. 78, item 483) created new political conditions, at the same time stiffening (taking into account the mode of change of the Constitution) certain systemic solutions. In accordance with Article 152 of the Constitution, the voivode is the representative of the Council of Ministers in the province, while the procedure for its appointment and dismissal and the scope of action are defined by law. The 1998 Act on Government Administration in the Voivodship specifies in Article 10 that the voivode is appointed by the Prime Minister at the request of the minister in charge of public administration, who supervises the activities of the voivode. The voivode should undoubtedly be classified in the political sphere, because according to Article 38 of the Act of 1996 on the Council of Ministers, the resignation of the voivode and his deputies

Governmental religious administration in Poland. Local level

31

takes place together with the resignation of the Council of Ministers (so there is no doubt that this is a political position)2. The next statutory regulation concerning voivodes and local government administration took place in 2009. The Act of 23 January 2009 on Voivode and Government Administration in the Voievodship (Journal of Laws of 2009, No. 31, item 206) clarified the competence and powers of the Voivode. The division into combined administration under the authority of the province governor and noncombined administration cooperating with the voivode is left. The voivode, as the government’s representative in the field, is a general administration body, and his position is to show the authority of central bodies in the field. The Prime Minister directs the activities of the voivode, giving him guidelines and orders, requesting reports and periodically evaluating his work. In his speeches, the voivode presents a position consistent with the arrangements adopted by the Council of Ministers. This means greater dependence of the voivode on the central authorities and centralization of the field policy and implementation of the central policy in the field by the voivode. The lack of independence makes the voivode a person completely subordinate to the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers. According to the current statutory regulations, the tasks of governmental administration in a province are performed by: the voivode, the bodies of governmental administration united in the voivodship, including the heads of the united services, inspections and guards, the bodies of non-integrated governmental administration, local government units and their unions, if the performance of their tasks results from separate acts or from an agreement concluded, the starost if the performance of their tasks results from separate acts. A voivode shall be appointed and dismissed by the Prime Minister at the request of the competent minister for public administration. He or she shall perform his or her function until the time of dismissal or until a change in the parliamentary arena. He is thus a strictly political position. He pursues government policy by exercising general administrative authority3. The Prime Minister directs the activities of a voivode and exercises supervision on the basis of the criterion of compliance of his actions with the policy of the Council of Ministers, while the minister in charge of administration on the basis of the criterion of compliance of his actions with generally applicable law. The voivode’s auxiliary apparatus is the voivodship office4. The voivode, being a representative of the Council of Ministers in the field, will also carry out matters concerning public policies, including religious policy. 2 D. Plecka and others, System polityczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Wybrane aspekty, Wyd. Adam Marszałek, Torun´ 2020, p. 141. 3 J. Zimmerman, Prawo administracyjne, Wolters Kluwer, Warszawa 2010, p. 161. 4 B. Springer, Administracja rza˛dowa, [in:] Leksykon wiedzy politologicznej, J. Marszałek-Kawa, D. Plecka (eds.), Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Torun´ 2018, p. 16–20.

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The Voivode – powers in the field of religious matters The legal status of the voivode, as the representative of the Council of Ministers in the field, is defined above. Being a component of the government administration system, the voivode realizes the government policy5 and has a priori powers in religious matters, although the above mentioned law on the voivode and government administration in the voivodship does not assign them directly to him. The obligation to adapt the policy objectives of the Council of Ministers to local conditions, as well as to coordinate and control implementation, should be noted in Article 22, paragraph 1. In addition, Article 23.1, which places the voivode as a representative of the Council of Ministers at state ceremonies and during official visits to the province by representatives of foreign countries, and Article 24, which obliges the voivode to represent in his speeches a position consistent with the arrangements adopted by the Council of Ministers. Therefore, the political line represented by the voivode must be consistent with the Council of Ministers’ policy also in terms of religious policy6. The Constitution of 1997 does not contain such standards either; only in the Act on Guarantees of Freedom of Conscience and Religion will we find standards that assign specific powers to the voivode. Art. 14 imposes an obligation on churches and religious associations to notify the voivode competent for the seat of the organizational unit of the church or religious association about the fact that the voivode is a member of the church or religious association: creation, change of name, seat, borders or merger, division and abolition of dioceses, parishes, congregations, communes and other units, and about change of seat, change of persons entering the executive bodies (giving their names, surnames, citizenship and place of residence). An exception to this rule will be regulations contained in separate laws or ratified international agreements (e. g. the Concordat). This activity should be described as technical, and it is the responsibility of the voivode only to accept this information without any interference7. Individual laws regulating the relations of churches and religious associations with the state in principle duplicate this obligation in a similar

5 The provision of Article 3 of the Act defines a voivode as a representative of the Council of Ministers in a voivodship, as a government administration body in a voivodship whose competence includes all matters of government administration in a voivodship not reserved in separate acts to the competence of other bodies and, moreover, as a representative of the Treasury. 6 T. Resler, Kompetencje wojewody w sprawach wyznaniowych, Przegla˛d Prawa Publicznego 7– 8/2019, p. 179. 7 The situation was different during the Second Republic of Poland, when the voivode had a real influence on filling church posts. More on this subject Ibidem, p. 180.

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way. As T. Resler rightly points out, the exception is made up of three pre-war acts, from which the voivode’s controlling and supervising powers arise8. The voivodes are also authorized in the field of property matters. One of them results from the possibility of free of charge acquisition of state agricultural properties by church legal persons. According to the Act of 17 May 1989 on the relations between the State and the Catholic Church in the Republic of Poland (Journal of Laws No. 89, item 154, as amended), the locally competent voivode issues an administrative decision on the return of legal persons of the Catholic Church, who after 8 May 1945 started their activity in the Western and Northern Territories. Then, between 1995 and 1997, such a right was also granted to seven non-Roman Catholic Churches9. The province governor’s activity also includes issuing administrative decisions concerning properties or parts of properties owned by church legal persons and confirming (restoring) their ownership. This applies to the ecclesiastical properties nationalized in the previous system. As can be seen from the summary enclosed to these considerations (Table 1 Summary of the scope of tasks concerning religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities and the location in the structure of 16 voivodship offices in Poland), due to the limited powers of a voivode, the regulation of matters related to churches and religious associations is dispersed to individual organizational units of voivodship offices. Out of the 16 voivodship offices, only one of them has de facto “centralized” religious matters, creating an independent work station for Religious Affairs, Care of War Graves – Plenipotentiary for National and Ethnic Minorities in the Pomeranian Voivodship Office in Gdansk. At the same time, all religious matters are handled by the Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners. Although the Warmia and Mazury Office also has an independent post, some tasks have been assigned to other departments, i. e. the Security and Crisis Management Department, the Social Policy Department or the Infrastructure and Real Estate Department. One may wonder whether the model of specialization/centralization of tasks is not more effective than assigning to individual positions/departments a part of competences and scattering tasks belonging to the religious policy circle. In general, most offices place religious matters in the Departments of Civil and Foreigners. Logically, however, matters related to land/ real estate are the responsibility of the Real Estate Departments (sometimes the State Treasury). Pilgrimages or other religious events on public roads are the domain of either the Infrastructure or Security and Crisis Management De8 Ibidem, p. 182. These are the regulation on the attitude of the State to the Eastern Old Believing Church, the law on the attitude of the State to the Karaim Religious Union in the Republic of Poland and the law on the attitude of the State to the Muslim Religious Union in the Republic of Poland, which do not reflect the current status of the voivode as a governmental authority in the voivodship and should be adapted to reality (such as the powers for the Vilnius voivode!). 9 M. Pietrzak, Prawo wyznaniowe… op. cit., pp. 278–279.

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partments. The degree of regulation remains at various levels of detail. Generally, there are general regulations in the statutes of provincial offices (in accordance with the art), and their clarification is contained in the regulations. The regulations, in most cases, refer in detail to specific tasks that are anchored in statutory regulations (which are sometimes called “church laws”). To sum up, the powers of the voivode in matters of religion are, in part, only technical or organizational, but we will also find the actions of the authorities, however, their heterogeneity and dispersion may cause some difficulties in classification, hence the postulates in the doctrine of the need to redefine and organize these issues10.

Summary The reforms of government administration (both central and local) carried out in Poland after 1989 were intended to adapt structures and institutions to the new political conditions, the new reality and democratic rules of the rule of law. They were modernized in terms of normative, institutional, procedural and personnel aspects. The change in the relationship and treatment of churches and religious associations (the separation of the enemy versus the coordinated separation) was a direct result of the changes at the statutory level and was, of course, caused by the different views of those in power. To sum up, one can say that with the change of political regime, the period of excessive interference in the internal affairs of churches and religious associations ended11. The government’s field administration in the area of religious matters had rather limited powers. Their realization results directly from the deconcentration of public administration, i. e., the model of administration system introduced in Poland – delegation of tasks to the voivode. The policy in this area (performance of tasks and relations) must be consistent with the perspective of those currently in power, as this results from the role of a voivode. Hence the de lege ferenda postulate to transfer some of the competencies (registration, technical, information duties) of the province governor in religious matters to an independent registry court12. In conclusion, the task of the state (assuming a secular democratic state) is to support churches and religious associations in carrying out tasks not related to the religious cult, i. e. those of a non-confessional nature, such as: charity and care 10 T. Resler, Kompetencje wojewody… op. cit., p. 178. 11 K. Walczuk, Rza˛dowa administracja wyznaniowa w Polsce, “Studia z Prawa Wyznaniowego”, 2006, Vol. 9, p. 266. 12 T. Resler, Kompetencje wojewody… op. cit., p. 190.

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or education and upbringing function. However, all matters related to religious dogma should remain beyond the interest of state institutions13. The constitutional norms concerning equal rights of churches and religious associations also express the necessity of equal treatment of all subjects in the administrative sphere.

13 P. Borecki, Dobro wspólne jako determinanta relacji mie˛dzy…, op. cit., p. 33.

Voivodship/legal act Dolnos´la˛ski Voivodship Office

Kujawsko-Pomorski Voivodship Office in Bydgoszcz Statute Regulations

l.p. 1.

2.

Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners

State Treasury and Real Estate Department

Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners

Voivode’s office

Location in the structure Real Estate, Agriculture and Environment Department Independent post for Church Property Department of Organization and Development

Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities in respect of matters relating to the regulation of the property of churches and religious associations Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities excluding the matters listed above Records of Churches and Religious Associations and issuing certificates to Church legal persons of legal personality for submission to other institutions Arranging routes for pilgrimages or other religious events on public roads – for road safety. Carrying out matters concerning the relations between the State and the Catholic Church in Poland and other churches

Implementation of tasks Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities in terms of legal regulations for the benefit of church legal persons. Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities in the area of subsidy handling. Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities (subject to the above). Cooperation with national and ethnic minority organizations in the voivodship. Keeping records of church and religious organizations, confirmation of acceptance of notification of appointment, abolition and organizational changes concerning religious legal persons, issuing certificates from the records of church and religious organizations kept by the Voivode.

Table 1. Summary of the scope of tasks concerning religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities and the location in the structure of 16 voivodship offices in Poland

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Voivodship/legal act

Lubelski Voivodship Office

l.p.

3.

Table 1 (Continued)

Security and Crisis Management Department

Social Policy Department

Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners

Location in the structure

Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities. Issuing certificates confirming the possession of legal personality of church organizational units. Accepting notifications of changes in organizational units of churches and religious associations. Undertaking actions for the benefit of national and ethnic minorities. Undertaking activities ensuring the implementation of the “Program for the integration of the Roma community in Poland”, cooperation in this respect with the relevant departments of the Office. Cooperation with non-governmental organizations, legal persons and organizational units acting on the basis of the regulations on the attitude of the State to the Catholic Church in Poland, the attitude of the State to other churches and associations and the guarantee of freedom of conscience and religion, if their statutory objectives include carrying out activities in the scope of the tasks carried out by the Department. Cooperation with non-governmental organizations and churches and religious associations in the field of providing assistance to people affected by violence, influencing those who use violence and raising public awareness of the causes and effects of violence in the family. Agreeing on pilgrimage routes or other religious events on public roads.

Implementation of tasks and religious associations. Conducting matters related to activities for national and ethnic minorities.

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Małopolski Voivodship Office

6.

Department of Civil Affairs

Department of Agriculture and Transport Real Estate Department

Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners

Łódzki Voivodship Office

5.

4.

Location in the structure Department of Real Estate Management and State Treasury Lubuski Voivodship Of- Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners fice

Voivodship/legal act

l.p.

Table 1 (Continued)

Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities. Road safety of pilgrimages and religious processions. Transfers of property ownership rights to churches and other religious associations, as well as to church legal entities. Participation in regulatory proceedings at the request of churches and other religious associations before the property commission and regulatory committees. Issuing confirmations of acceptance of notifications from churches or other religious associations about the creation, change of name, change of seat, change of borders, merger, division, abolition of relevant organizational units and the appointment, dismissal of a person holding the function of a body of a legal person. Issuing certificates that religious legal persons have legal personality and a body authorized to represent them. Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities. Conducting matters in the field of relations between the State and the Catholic Church and other churches and religious associations in the Republic of Poland with the exception of matters concerning the regulation of the legal

Implementation of tasks Conducting cases of restitution of church properties and religious associations. Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities. Handling cases in the field of relations between the state and churches and religious associations.

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Mazowiecki Voivodship Governor’s Office Office

State Treasury and Real Estate Department

Civil Affairs Division

State Treasury and Real Estate Department

Department of Health

7.

Location in the structure

Voivodship/legal act

l.p.

Table 1 (Continued)

Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities in matters related to the preservation and development of the cultural identity of national and ethnic minorities, civic and social integration of persons belonging to those minorities, and the preservation and development of the regional language. Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities in terms of confirming the legal personality of organizational units of churches and other religious associations. Conducting cases in the field of real estate management resulting from the regulations on relations between the State and churches and religious associations.

Implementation of tasks status of real estate and matters concerning cooperation with these institutions in combating social pathologies. General supervision of compliance with the Act of 17 May 1989 on guarantees of freedom of conscience and religion. Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities. Running the regulation of the legal status of properties covered by the Acts on relations between the State and the Catholic Church and other churches and religious associations. Execution of tasks related to the revindication and return of property and real estate taken over for the benefit of the State Treasury under the Act of 20 March 1950 on the State’s taking over of dead hand property, guaranteeing parish priests possession of farms and establishing the Church Fund.

Governmental religious administration in Poland. Local level

39

Voivodship/legal act Opolski Voivodship Office

Podkarpacki Voivodship Office

l.p. 8.

9.

Table 1 (Continued)

Infrastructure and Real Estate Department

Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners

Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners

Implementation of tasks Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities in the field of relations between the State and the Catholic Church and other churches and religious associations. Preparation of draft decisions on the transfer to church legal entities: real estate owned by church organizational units, agricultural land of the State Treasury for the creation of farms. Conducting matters in the field of supervision over traffic management on public roads and agreeing on road safety during religious events. Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities subject to the above. Confirmation of receipt of notifications of the establishment of an organizational unit of the Catholic Church and other churches by church authorities. Issuing confirmations and certificates on the appointment and change of church bodies of legal persons, as well as on the retirement of clergy. Cooperation with the Department of Religious Denominations and National and Ethnic Minorities of the Ministry of Interior and Administration, Opole Voivode’s Plenipotentiary for National and Ethnic Minorities, the Police, the Education Office, and local government bodies in terms of tasks for national and ethnic minorities. Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities. Conducting cases in the field of receiving notifications from the authorities of the church or other religious association about the establishment, change of name, seat, borders or merger, division and abolition of parishes, congregations, municipalities and other

Location in the structure

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Voivodship/legal act

Podlaski Voivodship Office

l.p.

10.

Table 1 (Continued)

Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners

Real Estate Department

Location in the structure

Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities. Implementation of tasks resulting from the Acts on the relations between the State and the Catholic Church in the Republic of Poland and other churches and religious associations and the Act on guarantees of freedom of conscience and religion, including: conducting matters related to the property sphere of churches and religious associations, conducting matters related to the acquisition of legal personality by organizational units of churches and

Implementation of tasks organizational units not exceeding the territory of the province, and about the appointment and dismissal of a person who is the executive body of such an organizational unit, confirming these facts at their request, as well as keeping appropriate records in this respect. Performing tasks resulting from the competence of the Voivode in relation to churches and religious associations whose legal status has been regulated. Running the matters related to the regulation of property matters of churches, religious associations and Jewish communities in the scope of: acquiring by virtue of law the ownership of the properties under their authority, representing the Governor in relevant property commissions. The tasks of the joint departments include matters related to the execution of the tasks and competencies of the Voivode, especially as regards cooperation with the Real Estate Department in matters concerning the regulation of property matters of churches and religious associations.

Governmental religious administration in Poland. Local level

41

Pomorski Voivodship Office

S´la˛ski Voivodship Office Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners

12.

Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners (Independent post for Religion, Care of War Graves – Plenipotentiary for National and Ethnic Minorities).

Security and Crisis Management Department

Social Policy Department

11.

Location in the structure

Voivodship/legal act

l.p.

Table 1 (Continued)

Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities. Confirmation of legal personality of church organizational units and religious associations and confirmation of the appointment and removal of their executive bodies. Cooperation in proceedings concerning the regulation of property rights of churches and religious associations, including free of charge transfer of certain properties, restoration of ownership. Agreeing the routes of church ceremonies on public roads. Accepting notifications of decisions made by church authorities and religious associations in the field of abolishing or changing the boundaries of their organizational units. Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities. Issuing certificates to organizational units of

Implementation of tasks religious associations. Issuing certificates confirming legal personality to church units. Conducting cases in the field of compliance with the Act on guarantees of freedom of conscience and religion. Cooperation on the basis of partnership with social organizations, non-governmental organizations, churches, religious associations and natural and legal persons in the field of social assistance tasks. Cooperation with governmental and self-government administration bodies and other institutions in the field of public safety and order, including the agreement of pilgrimage routes with the competent authorities in order to ensure their participants a safe march on public roads.

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l.p.

Voivodship/legal act

Table 1 (Continued)

Social Policy Department

Location in the structure

Implementation of tasks churches and religious associations acting on the basis of the laws governing the relationship between the State and churches and religious associations about the possession of legal personality and about the bodies authorized to represent them. Issuing, in the first instance, a decision on the transition from the law to a religious entity of property ownership. Making arrangements concerning the legal situation of the property and preparing documentation for regulatory proceedings conducted by the Inter-Church Regulatory Commission, the Regulatory Commission and the Regulatory Commission for Jewish Religious Communities and participating in proceedings before these Commissions. Maintaining documentation related to the creation, change, alteration, merging, division and abolition of organizational units of churches and other religious associations, as well as appointing and dismissing executive bodies in churches and other religious associations. Coordination of the reconciliation of routes and times of pilgrimages or processions on public roads in the field of road safety if they cross the area of the municipality or province. Receiving and confirming the receipt of notification of the establishment of a religious legal entity, changes of its seat, name, territorial scope of its operation, and the appointment and dismissal of its bodies representing the legal entity. Issuing and withdrawing a permit for a limited period of time for running an institution providing round-the-clock care for the disabled, the chronically ill or the elderly as part

Governmental religious administration in Poland. Local level

43

Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners

S´wie˛tokrzyski Voivodship Office

Warmin´sko-Mazurski Urza˛d Wojewódzki

13.

14.

Implementation of tasks of the statutory activities of the Catholic Church, other churches, religious associations and social organizations, foundations and associations.

Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities. Participation in regulatory proceedings concerning property matters of individual churches and religious associations. Conducting religious matters arising from the Act on Guarantees of Freedom of Conscience and Religion and the package of laws on the attitude of the Republic of Poland to individual churches and religious associations. State Treasury and Real Estate Department Ruling in the first instance in matters relating to the transfer of property or parts thereof by law to the ownership of the Catholic Church, resulting from the provisions of the Act of 17 May 1989 on the relations between the State and the Catholic Church in Poland and the ownership of other churches and religious associations, resulting from the provisions of the package of laws of the Church. Ruling in the first instance in matters concerning the transfer of real estate or parts thereof to the ownership of Jewish communities, resulting from the provisions of the Act of 20 February 1997 on the relations between the State and the Jewish religious communities in Poland. Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorIndependent post for citizenship, repatriation and ities. Conducting the matters specified in the laws and social and religious matters regulations on the relations between the State and the Catholic Church and other churches and religious associations: issuing certificates to church legal persons, regu-

Location in the structure

Voivodship/legal act

l.p.

Table 1 (Continued)

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Voivodship/legal act

Wielkopolski Voivodship Office

l.p.

15.

Table 1 (Continued)

Religious denominations. Financial support for programs in the area of social assistance defined by the Voivode, carried out by local government units or non-governmental organizations, the Catholic Church, other churches and religious associations. Cooperation in the field of social assistance with non-governmental organizations, the Catholic Church, other churches, religious associations, other legal persons and individuals. Ruling on the transfer of agricultural land to the ownership of legal entities of the Catholic Church. Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities in the area of property regulations of church legal persons. Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities excluding the above. Within the scope of religious denominations, conducting matters in the field of relations between the State and the Catholic Church in the Republic of Poland, as well as other churches and religious associations, concerning the receipt of notifications from the authorities of churches and religious associations about the establishment, changes and abolition of ecclesiastical legal persons, as well as about the appointment or dismissal of persons performing the functions of the authority of ecclesiastical legal persons and religious associations, the examination of applications for the issuance of a certificate

Security and Crisis Management Department Social Policy Department

Department of Civil Affairs

State Treasury and Real Estate Department

Infrastructure and Real Estate Department

Implementation of tasks lating the property of churches and religious associations a) Agreeing the routes for religious ceremonies (pilgrimages).

Location in the structure

Governmental religious administration in Poland. Local level

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Voivodship/legal act

Zachodniopomorski Voivodship Office

l.p.

16.

Table 1 (Continued)

Infrastructure, Agriculture and Regional Development Department

Real Estate Department

Department of Civil Affairs and Foreigners

Infrastructure and Agriculture Department

Location in the structure

Religious denominations and national and ethnic minorities. Performing tasks resulting from the provisions of the Act on Guarantees of Conscience and Religion and the Acts on the Relationship of the State with Churches and Religious Associations in the Republic of Poland Free transfer of agricultural property of the Treasury to legal persons, churches and religious associations. Determining the transfer of real estate or parts thereof to church legal persons and religious associations. Arranging the time and route of processions, pilgrimages or other religious events on public roads.

Implementation of tasks of legal personality by ecclesiastical organizational units and religious associations, and about the ecclesiastical bodies of legal persons and religious associations. Agreeing on designated routes in order to ensure safe use of the roads by organizers of religious events.

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Governmental religious administration in Poland. Local level

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Bibliography Borecki, Dobro wspólne jako determinanta relacji mie˛dzy pan´stwem a Kos´ciołami i innymi zwia˛zkami wyznaniowymi we współczesnej Polsce, “Przegla˛d Prawa Wyznaniowego”, 2, 2019, pp. 23–42. Doman´ska E., Kapitał nowoczesnej administracji. “Biuletyn Słuz˙by Cywilnej”, no. 1, 1997, 42–52. Hausner J. (ed.), Administracja publiczna, Wyd. Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2005. Izdebski H., Kulesza M., Administracja publiczna. Zagadnienia ogólne, Wyd. Liber, Warszawa 2004. Kasin´ski M., Wolnos´c´ sumienia i wyznania jako dobro chronione w prawie administracyjnym (wybrane problemy) [in:] Dobra chronione w prawie administracyjnym, Z. Duniewska (ed.), Wyd. Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego, Łódz´ 2014, pp. 113–131. Krzysztofek K., Wpływ prawodawstwa okresu Polski Ludowej na przepisy prawa wyznaniowego III Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej – wybrane zagadnienia, “Studia z Prawa Wyznaniowego”, 21, 2018, pp. 301–322. Pietrzak M., Prawo wyznaniowe, Wyd. LexisNexis, Warszawa 2013. Plecka D., System polityczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Wybrane aspekty, Wyd. Adam Marszałek, Torun´ 2020. Resler T., Kompetencje wojewody w sprawach wyznaniowych, “Przegla˛d Prawa Publicznego” 7–8/2019, pp. 177–192. Springer B., Administracja rza˛dowa, [in:] Leksykon wiedzy politologicznej, J. MarszałekKawa, D. Plecka (eds.), Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Torun´ 2018. Szewczyk M., Wybrane problemy zwia˛zane z realizacja˛ konstytucyjnej zasady rozdziału Kos´cioła od pan´stwa w III Rzeczypospolitej, “Przegla˛d Prawa Konstytucyjnego”, no. 2 (14)/2013, pp. 91–118. Walczuk K., Rza˛dowa administracja wyznaniowa w Polsce, “Studia z Prawa Wyznaniowego”, 9, 2006, pp. 245–266. Zielin´ski E., Administracja rza˛dowa i samorza˛dowa w Polsce, Oficyna Wydawnicza ASPRAJR,Warszawa 2013. Zielin´ski E., Administracja rza˛dowa w Polsce, Wyd. Elipsa, Warszawa 2001. Zimmerman J., Prawo administracyjne, Wolters Kluwer, Warszawa 2010.

Normative acts Konstytucja RP z dnia 2 kwietnia 1997r. (Dz. U. z 1997r., Nr 78, poz. 483 z póz´n. zm.). Obwieszczenie Wojewody Wielkopolskiego z dnia 27 marca 2019r. w sprawie ogłoszenia jednolitego tekstu zarza˛dzenia Wojewody Wielkopolskiego w sprawie nadania statutu Wielkopolskiemu Urze˛dowi Wojewódzkiemu w Poznaniu. Regulamin Dolnos´la˛skiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego we Wrocławiu (tekst ujednolicony – stan na dzien´ 1 wrzes´nia 2020r.). Regulamin Podkarpackiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Rzeszowie, stanowia˛cy zała˛cznik do zarza˛dzenia nr 139/17 Wojewody Podkarpackiego z dnia 31 sierpnia 2017r. w sprawie ustalenia Regulaminu Podkarpackiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Rzeszowie.

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Statut Dolnos´la˛skiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego we Wrocławiu (tekst ujednolicony – stan prawny na 29 lutego 2020r.). Statut Podkarpackiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Rzeszowie ze zmianami wprowadzonymi zarza˛dzeniem Wojewody Podkarpackiego nr 42/14 z dnia 25 lutego 2014r., nr 144/ 15 z dnia 25 sierpnia 2015r., nr 187/16 z dnia 17 listopada 2016 r., nr 21/17 z dnia 30 stycznia 2017 r., nr 36/19 z dnia 6 lutego 2019 r. i nr 126/19 z dnia 3 lipca 2019r. Ujednolicony tekst regulaminu Pomorskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Gdan´sku, stanowia˛cy zała˛cznik do zarza˛dzenia Wojewody Pomorskiego z dnia 13 stycznia 2017r. w sprawie ustalenia regulaminu Pomorskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Gdan´sku. Ujednolicony tekst statutu Pomorskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Gdan´sku, stanowia˛cy zała˛cznik do zarza˛dzenia Nr 259/2016 Wojewody Pomorskiego z dnia 7 grudnia 2016r. w sprawie nadania statutu Pomorskiemu Urze˛dowi Wojewódzkiemu w Gdan´sku. Ustawa z dnia 17 maja 1989r. o stosunku Pan´stwa do Kos´cioła Katolickiego w RP (Dz. U. Nr 89, poz. 154 z póz´n. zm.). Ustawa z dnia 23 stycznia 2009r. o wojewodzie i administracji rza˛dowej w województwie (Dz. U. nr 31, poz. 236 z póz´n. zm.). Ustawa z dnia 4 wrzes´nia 1997r. o działach administracji rza˛dowej (Dz. U. Nr 141, poz. 943 z póz´n. zm.). Ustawa z dnia 8 sierpnia 1996r. o Radzie Ministrów (Dz. U. Nr 106, poz. 492 z póz´n. zm.). Zała˛cznik do obwieszczenia Nr 6/2019 Wojewody Podlaskiego z dnia 12 kwietnia 2019r. Statut Podlaskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Białymstoku. Zała˛cznik do zarza˛dzenia Nr 106 Wojewody Lubelskiego z dnia 3 paz´dziernika 2016r. Regulamin Lubelskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego (stan na dzien´ 19 czerwca 2020r.). Zała˛cznik do Zarza˛dzenia NR 123 Wojewody Warmin´sko-Mazurskiego z dnia 30 maja 2012r. Statut Warmin´sko-Mazurskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Olsztynie ze zmianami. Zała˛cznik do zarza˛dzenia Nr 132/2016 Wojewody Łódzkiego z dnia 25 maja 2016r. Statut Łódzkiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Łodzi. Zała˛cznik do zarza˛dzenia Nr 142/15 Wojewody S´la˛skiego z dnia 29 kwietnia 2015r. Regulamin S´la˛skiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Katowicach. Zała˛cznik do zarza˛dzenia Nr 203/2015 Wojewody Podlaskiego z dnia 28 grudnia 2015r. Regulamin Podlaskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Białymstoku. Zała˛cznik do zarza˛dzenia Nr 205/2016 Wojewody Zachodniopomorskiego z dnia 19 kwietnia 2016r. Statut Zachodniopomorskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Szczecinie. Zała˛cznik do zarza˛dzenia nr 246/20 Wojewody Wielkopolskiego z dnia 16 czerwca 2020r. Regulamin organizacyjny Wielkopolskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Poznaniu. Zała˛cznik do Zarza˛dzenia Nr 277 Wojewody Warmin´sko-Mazurskiego z dnia 12 paz´dziernika 2017r. Regulamin organizacyjny Warmin´sko-Mazurskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Olsztynie ze zmianami. Zała˛cznik do zarza˛dzenia Nr 279/13 Wojewody S´la˛skiego z dnia 20 listopada 2013r. Statut S´la˛skiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Katowicach. Zała˛cznik do zarza˛dzenia Nr 473 Wojewody Lubelskiego z dnia 15 listopada 2012r. Statut Lubelskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego (stan na dzien´ 9 czerwca 2020r.). Zała˛cznik do Zarza˛dzenia Wojewody Łódzkiego Nr 186/2016 z dnia 25 lipca 2016r. Regulamin organizacyjny Łódzkiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Łodzi.

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Zała˛cznik nr 1 do Zarza˛dzenia Nr 122/16 Wojewody Opolskiego z dnia 3 paz´dziernika 2016r. Statut Opolskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Opolu. Zarza˛dzenie Nr 233/2016 Wojewody Kujawsko-Pomorskiego z dnia 24 maja 2016r. w sprawie nadania Statutu Kujawsko-Pomorskiemu Urze˛dowi Wojewódzkiemu w Bydgoszczy ze zmianami z dnia 8 czerwca 2018r. Zarza˛dzenie Nr 32/2016 Wojewody S´wie˛tokrzyskiego z dnia 17 marca 2016r. w sprawie nadania statutu S´wie˛tokrzyskiemu Urze˛dowi Wojewódzkiemu w Kielcach. Zarza˛dzenie Nr 397/20 Wojewody Małopolskiego z dnia 30 kwietnia 2020r. Regulamin Organizacyjny Małopolskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Krakowie wraz ze zmianami. Zarza˛dzenie Nr 408/2018 Wojewody Kujawsko-Pomorskiego z dnia 10 sierpnia 2018r. w sprawie ustalenia Regulaminu Kujawsko-Pomorskiemu Urze˛dowi Wojewódzkiemu w Bydgoszczy. Zarza˛dzenie Nr 415/2016 Wojewody Zachodniopomorskiego z dnia 6 lipca 2016r. w sprawie ustalenia regulaminu Zachodniopomorskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Szczecinie. Zarza˛dzenie Nr 5 Wojewody Mazowieckiego z dnia 18 stycznia 2019r. w sprawie ustalenia Regulaminu organizacyjnego Mazowieckiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Warszawie. Zarza˛dzenie Nr 62/2016 Wojewody S´wie˛tokrzyskiego z dnia 1 czerwca 2016r. w sprawie ustalenia regulaminu S´wie˛tokrzyskiemu Urze˛dowi Wojewódzkiemu w Kielcach ze zmianami. Zarza˛dzenie Nr 71/20 Wojewody Opolskiego z dnia 1 sierpnia 2020r. Statut Opolskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Opolu w sprawie ustalenia Regulaminu organizacyjnego Opolskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Opolu. Zarza˛dzenie Nr 79/20 Wojewody Małopolskiego z dnia 27 lutego 2020r. w sprawie nadania Statutu Małopolskiemu Urze˛dowi Wojewódzkiemu w Krakowie. Zarza˛dzenie Nr 928 Wojewody Mazowieckiego z dnia 11 grudnia 2018r. w sprawie nadania Statutu Mazowieckiemu Urze˛dowi Wojewódzkiemu w Warszawie. Zarza˛dzenie Wojewody Lubuskiego z dnia 11 maja 2016r. w sprawie ustalenia Regulaminu Organizacyjnego Lubuskiego Urze˛du Wojewódzkiego w Gorzowie Wielkopolskim. Zarza˛dzenie Wojewody Lubuskiego z dnia 26 lutego 2016r. w sprawie nadania statutu Lubuskiemu Urze˛dowi Wojewódzkiemu w Gorzowie Wielkopolskim.

Beata Trzop / Maria Zielin´ska

Youth policy in Poland – the dispersion of competences in the context of complexity of contemporary youth problems

Introduction The last two decades of the XXI century are characterized by an increase in global educational awareness and the emergence of the need to create perspectives for young people in the context of the current and future development of society1. Experts and researchers of the issues clearly point to the fact that in Poland there is no central-level body responsible for making decisions on youth policy. Decisions remain mainly within the competences of the government administration, whose structure and scope of activities change with the change of power (and also within the reconstruction of already existing governments). This results in frequent changes in the competences of particular ministries, and thus in shifting of issues within the scope of youth policy and responsibility for decisions2. This is not conducive to developing a coherent vision of youth policy. Currently, there is no such proposal in the Polish list of departmental policies, which would allow for an unambiguous attribution of goals, tools, means and methods of action called youth policy. The basic aim of our article is to identify the basic areas of youth problems, a kind of map which could become a starting point for formulating programs within youth policy3. In-depth knowledge, well recognized problems and full Beata Trzop, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4791-817. Maria Zielin´ska, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2708-2774. 1 Empowering youth through national policies: UNESCO’s contribution, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2004. 2 The last reconstruction of the government in Poland in 2020 led to the merger in 2021 of the Ministry of National Education and the Ministry of Science and Higher Education – the Ministry of Education and Science (Journal of Laws, item 2334). 3 It is not our goal to explore the institutional and legal state that brings together scattered problems of young people in individual legal acts and strategies, a lot has been written on this subject, see: Polityka młodziez˙owa w Polsce – podstawowe zagadnienia. Encyklopedia Komisji Europejskiej Youth Wiki, Vol. 1, Fundacja Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji, Warszawa 2019, in which various legal acts, strategies both on the central and regional level are presented.

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diagnosis allow for clear formulation of goals, adequate tools for action and expected results. Within the framework of such a formulated goal we will attempt to synthesize various problems of contemporary youth, reflected in the results of social research. On the one hand the results of these studies show the diversity of youth and indicate the necessary elements of youth issues, on the other hand they suggest recommendations and solutions. We propose the thesis that the dispersion of central competences in different ministries, the lack of coordination and coherent actions and as a result – the lack of coherent, systemic youth policy outlined explicitly leads to chaos in decision-making, and consequently to the lack of actions or counterproductive actions4. Until the decision-makers make decisions based only on their own experiences, do not draw conclusions from existing reports, research, analyses, the solution of key problems important for the youth will be only apparent.

Youth as a social category Youth as a separate social category appeared in the reflection of social researchers relatively recently, and became the object of interest of sociologists in the 1970 s5. Youth is primarily an age category. It generally means the collective of people between the ages of 15–18 and 25. Youth is also a phase of life that each individual goes through in their biography, associated with the occurrence of biological processes, maturation of the human body, rapid physiological changes. Youth are also individuals who are in the phase of young age. Youth changes over time. Just as young age passes, you “leave” the youth community and move to the adult community. Certain characteristics of youth are unchangeable, particularly those that result from human development and characteristics attributed to a particular phase. These include curiosity about the world, the need for activity and exploration, contestation, volatility of moods and opinions, moving from the stage of concrete operations to the stage of formal operations, moral autonomy, adolescent idealism, etc. Other features depend on the era in which adolescents grow up, historical conditions, social tensions, lack of perspectives, which is evident in the attitudes of adolescents towards important social issues6. 4 Szafraniec K. (ed.), Młodzi 2018. Cywilizacyjne wyzwania. Edukacyjne koniecznos´ci, Warszawa: A PROPOS Serwis Wydawniczy Anna Sikorska-Michalak, 2019, p. 5. 5 Zielin´ska M., Polska młodziez˙ w czasach nieufnos´ci, Władza Sa˛dzenia, no. 7, 2015, pp. 28–35. 6 Cf. Zielin´ska M., Ariergarda realnego socjalizmu. Społeczne biografie pokolenia stanu wojennego, Wyd. Oficyna UZ, Zielona Góra 2006; Zielin´ska M., Mie˛dzy autorytaryzmem a demokracja˛. Pokoleniowy wymiar transformacji społeczno-politycznej w Polsce [in:] Forum Socjologiczne, no. 1, 2010, pp. 117–134; Nyc´kowiak J., Pokoleniowe uwarunkowania opinii na

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The youth are of interest to representatives of various disciplines of humanities and social sciences. Classical sociologists, who perceived youth as a barometer of social change, social potential, social reserve, etc., paid much attention to it7. It was also said that youth was a kind of mirror in which society as a whole was clearly visible, with all its differences, tensions, conflicts, problems; a mirror which was all the more valuable due to the fact that youth (their social situation, life goals and aspirations, opinions and attitudes towards important aspects of social life) acted as an early warning system. By reading the behaviors of youth correctly, many undesirable social phenomena can be prevented. In the context of the discussed issues – shaping and implementing youth policy – the position of Marian Niezgoda8, who points out that youth is a social category which reflects the most important social processes – treated as typical for the state of a given society – seems to be important. The author links this connection to the presence of two characteristic features of this category: youth is more open to innovations and novelties (in the area of values, ideology, changes in customs, technology, etc.); and at the same time youth is more sensitive to changes and basically does not have the “right to vote” in this area. – Therefore, it is often a victim of systemic changes or reforms undertaken – educational, economic, but also crises9. It is extremely important to observe demographic trends which nowadays unambiguously indicate the necessity of making corrections in social policies concerning not only young people, but basically all social categories10. In this context, the phenomena that in the case of young people (under 35 years of age) now require additional analysis are: leaving the family home later, taking up permanent paid employment later, the NEET phenomenon11, marrying later and giving birth to the first child later. These observed demographic changes have become a premise for the formulation of scientific theories about deferred, de-

7

8 9 10 11

temat przemian politycznych w Polsce po 1989 roku w ´swietle danych POLPAN 1993–2008 [in:] Rocznik Lubuski: Zrozumiec´ społeczen´stwo, zrozumiec´ pokolenia. Młodziez˙, młodos´c´ i pokoleniowos´c´ w analizach socjologicznych , 37, 2011, part 2, pp. 83–97. Cf. Mannheim, K., The Problem of Generation, w: Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, K. Mannheim, Oxford Uniwersity Press, New York 1952; Griese H. M., Socjologiczne teorie młodziez˙y, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, Kraków 1996; Szafraniec K., Młodos´c´ jako wyłaniaja˛cy sie˛ problem i nowa polityczna siła, “Nauka”, no. 1, 2012a. Niezgoda M., Młodziez˙ jako przedmiot zainteresowan´ socjologii, “Rocznik Lubuski”, vol. 40, 2014, part 2a Młodziez˙ w czasach kryzysu ekonomicznego. Mie˛dzy edukacja˛ i praca˛, p. 52. Ibidem, p. 52. Cf. Zielin´ska M., Wróbel R., Socio-demographic aspects of “emerging adulthood” in the context of cultural changes in Poland compared to Europe, “Rocznik Lubuski” vol. 44, 2018, part I, pp. 15–32. A phenomenon observed in Western Europe for at least three decades is the inactivity of young people out of work, out of education, out of skill acquisition (Not Employment, Education and Training).

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layed, postponed adulthood and about generations that are increasingly later reaching life independence and maturity12. The most important factors determining contemporary developmental trends that translate into the condition of youth are: demographic conditions, transformations of democracy/threats to democracy, growing social inequalities, growing global dysfunctions related to the ecological crisis, predictability and unpredictability of processes and consequences of the digital revolution, and finally developmental forecasts – with the threat of dystopia or visions of a new utopia. Sociologists, through their research and theoretical analyses, search for answers to questions about the place and functions of youth in society; they identify its problems, value changes, threats. The role of politicians is to outline and implement youth policies adequate to the challenges of a given society.

Youth policy, or what? Researchers and experts clearly point to the multifaceted nature of the very issues that make up youth policy. It can be considered that it combines all state activities concerning young people. Thus, it is one of the overriding factors affecting the socio-economic development of society, since young people are its driving force. In this context, the role of the state in the development of youth policy is important13. The very precise definition of youth policy as the scope of certain activities, strategy building, program implementation raises doubts. In the literature, youth policy is considered in two scopes – broad and narrow. From a broad perspective, youth policy consists of activities for the benefit of young people carried out by variously defined communities. In the narrow perspective, youth policy is understood as a set of legal acts and practices applied by public institutions and other entities for the benefit of youth (especially in the field of: education, culture, social assistance, health, labor market, participation in political life or

12 Cf. Arnett J., Young People’s Conceptions of The Transition to Adulthood. Youth and Society, 29 (1), 1997, pp. 3–23; Brzezin´ska A.I., Kaczan R., Piotrowski K., Re˛kosiewicz M., Odroczona dorosłos´´c: akt czy artefakt?, “Nauka” 4, 2011, pp. 67–107; Brzezin´ska A.I., Syska W. (eds.), S´ciez˙ki wkraczania w dorosłos´c´, Wyd. UAM, Poznan´ 2016a; Cf. Arnett J.J., Life Stage Concepts across History and Cultures: Proposal for a New Field on Indigenous Life Stages, Human Development 2016, pp. 290–316; Levinson, D. J., A conception of adult development. American Psychologist, 41 (1), 1986, pp. 3–13; Arnett, J.J., Emerging adulthood. A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 5, 2000, pp. 469–480. 13 Jez˙owski M., Wste˛p, [in:] Encyklopedia Komisji Europejskiej Youth Wiki, Vol. 1, Fundacja Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji, Warszawa 2019, p. 6.

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functioning in the legal system)14. The dispersion of competences and lack of a clear strategy in this area is not facilitated by the fact that there are discussions concerning the category which it should concern. Initially, people aged 15–25 were included. Over time, along with the implementation of new support programs, the upper age limit for young people – beneficiaries was shifted from 25 to 29. This was mainly related to the use of ESF funds, which could also be dedicated to young people entering the labor market. Generally, in social policy programs it is assumed that young people are aged 13–3015. The upper limit is of course defined differently in specific scopes of action16. According to the Act on the Children’s Rights Ombudsman, youth could be defined as persons who have become adults and thus are 18 or 16 years old. It is also assumed that “young people” are those up to the age of 34, as it is difficult to clearly define the age of transition from youth to adulthood17. In the two reports “Youth 2011” and “Youth 2018”, depicting the situation of young people in Poland, youth was defined as a group of people aged 15–2918. In the article, we adopt a general definition of youth policy as follows: “youth policy is a purposeful, coherent and planned activities aimed at young people, in the form of a set of long-term activities, established and implemented by both public authorities and non-governmental organizations, aimed at solving social problems and meeting the needs of this social group”19. We are particularly interested in the activities proposed under ministerial policies.

14 M. Sin´czuch, Polityka młodziez˙owa jako odre˛bny obszar działania Unii Europejskiej, [in:] Polityka młodziez˙owa, ed. G. Zielin´ska, “Studia BAS”, no. 2 (18), Warszawa 2009, p. 149. 15 Cf. Konieczny M, Polityka młodziez˙owa w Polsce – podstawowe zagadnienia, [in:] Encyklopedia Komisji Europejskiej Youth Wiki, Vol. 1, Fundacja Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji, Warszawa 2019, p. 9. 16 In Poland, a person who has attained the age of 18 or has been married becomes an adult. “The guardianship court may permit a woman who has attained the age of sixteen to marry.” Source: Art. 10(1) Kodeks rodzinny i opiekun´czy. 17 This is what the discussion on the new adulthood is designed for now, cf. Zielin´ska M., Gotowi na dorosłos´c´? Projekty z˙yciowe i zasoby społeczne pokolenia 2.0., IFiS PAN, Warszawa 2021 (work in print). 18 Cf. Szafraniec K., Młodzi 2011, Kancelaria Prezesa Rady Ministrów, Warszawa 2011, p. 70. Szafraniec K. (ed.), Młodzi 2018. Cywilizacyjne wyzwania. Edukacyjne koniecznos´ci, A PROPOS Serwis Wydawniczy Anna Sikorska-Michalak, Warszawa 2019. 19 Skocz M., Postawa K., Prokopowicz M., Czym jest polityka młodziez˙owa?, Urza˛d Marszałkowski Województwa Dolnos´la˛skiego, p. 7, 2009.

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Problems of contemporary youth in the light of social research – overview One of the important assumptions in the context of the discussed category is that there is no single “youth”. This is important, as the assumption of homogeneity of this social category leads to false premises and conclusions, and consequently to inappropriate programs for the given category. And it is not only about age, as mentioned above. Youth, just like the whole society, is divided and diverse. Among many studies on the functioning of youth, it is worth noting two, in our opinion significant, undertakings in the field of sociological research on youth and their functions in creating youth policy. They are distinguished from other studies by the fact that they were commissioned by the Chancellery of the Prime Minister. These are the two reports mentioned above: Report Youth 2011, and Youth 2018. They constitute a multidimensional diagnosis of the life situation of Polish youth, taking into account international comparisons. The 2011 report contains 35 recommendations for government policy that resulted from the findings and analysis presented in the report. These relate to the following areas, among others20: (1) education (including bridging educational gaps, improving the quality of higher education, effective career counseling, new technologies, scholarship assistance, bridging regional gaps); (2) labor market (promoting entrepreneurship, reducing costs in employment, work flexibility, allowing to combine work with childcare); (3) health and social care (supporting fertility, family benefits, care for the disabled, housing for young families); (4) culture and activation of the young generation (introducing mechanisms for youth participation in social and political life, in consultations, activation of civic activities). The experts agreed that the identified problems and areas should be taken into account in strategic and planning documents – in the context of national, regional and sectoral policies. Although the recommendations from the Report were not used in the construction of the youth policy, another attempt was made to face the issues of young people21. The report “Youth 2018” contained new data on issues addressed in the previous report from 2011, but in our opinion, above all, it contained new problem areas that require special attention and care. The issue of the problem of identity of the young generation, which, according to the authors of the report, seems to be looking for a new moral code for themselves, was considered paramount. The report contains three problem blocks, in which 20 An abridged and condensed list of recommendations can be found in : Youth 2011. summary of chapter contents, Chancellery of the Prime Minister, Warsaw 2011. 21 Szafraniec K. (ed.), Młodzi 2018. Cywilizacyjne wyzwania. Edukacyjne koniecznos´ci, A PROPOS Serwis Wydawniczy Anna Sikorska-Michalak, Warszawa 2019, pp. 5–6.

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different dimensions and aspects of the world of young people’s lives are analyzed. These are: (1) issues related to the global dimensions of youth life in Poland. The following areas are highlighted here: new technologies, Poland in the European Union, openness of borders and labor markets for youth, migrations. The report draws attention to the fact that young Poles are characterized by the least negative attitude towards immigrants or culturally different people in comparison with older Poles; (2) Issues related to factors differentiating the life situation of young people in Poland. Such problem areas appear here as: “the vicious circle of peripheralization of the periphery”, the activity of street children and youth gangs, the growing category of young people in large Polish cities who are outside the educational, welfare and social assistance system, gender issues (cultural gender and the resulting rights and differences between people), anticlericalism and environmental issues; (3) Issues related to the functioning of young people in the public sphere and civic engagement. In this block of issues, the following are presented: general trends illustrating the specifics of young people’s civic attitudes and behaviors, including civic education; characteristics of exceptional groups and environments such as intellectual and civic elites, among others. The authors stress that these are not new issues, but they are worth reminding about and constantly discussing. The report ends with recommendations referring to the undertaken issues. And a postulate to treat youth as an important and involved partner in decision-making processes. Other studies and reports, also those conducted after 2018, confirm the phenomena and processes identified in both presented reports, directing particular attention to education, health, especially mental health, risky behaviors, remaining outside the education, work and social welfare systems, as well as problems connected with entering adulthood and building one’s own identity. To the “standard” problems lying in the optics of the research we should add the newest one – whose consequences will be spread over years and numerous spheres of functioning, and generally it can be described as Youth in the times of SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.

Youth policy – the dispersion of competences According to the concept of governance youth policy covers activities at all levels of management, from supranational to regional and local22. The establishment of legislative solutions is strongly conditioned by the national context. Compared to 22 Youth: realities and challenges for achieving development with equality, (ed.) D. Trucco, H. Ullmann, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Santiago, 2016.

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other areas of social policy, youth policy is a relatively new phenomenon. The first official references to EU youth policy can be traced back to the EECT Treaty of 1957. Since then, the European Union has consistently supported the idea of leaving systemic solutions to individual member states. The main objective of the EU youth policy is to set certain conceptual frameworks, to formulate priorities and recommendations for member states and to support the implementation of these preferred courses of action. For many years, EU directives have referred to the key role of youth in civil society, emphasizing the idea of participatory democracy, bringing together the voices of young Europeans and public bodies responsible for youth affairs. These issues appear together with the problem of employment of young people, their vocational training and support for entering the labor market. Over the past few years, the European Union has strengthened its youth-oriented policies, as illustrated by initiatives such as the Erasmus+ program, the European Solidarity Corps and the Discover EU project23. According to the EU principles, detailed national youth policies should be based on evidence-based policy. At the central level in Poland, attempts to create the basis of youth policy and to identify entities responsible for its implementation were made during the actions connected with the EU accession process, which resulted in the creation of, among others, a state strategy for youth24. Previously, the youth policy model focused on activities aimed at youth, such as education, culture, sport or tourism, was dominant. These activities were undertaken mainly within the tasks determined by the scope of sector policies. The legal bases of youth policy at the central level in Poland are not uniform. The issues regulating the functioning of youth appear in many strategic documents, acts, regulations, etc., although youth is mentioned in them alongside many other social categories and is not their only addressee. The provisions concerning young people are set out in various legal acts, including the Constitution of the Republic of Poland25, Family and Guardianship Code26, Labor Code27, Education Law28, Higher Education Law29 and many others. The strategic document focused exclusively on youth was the “State Strategy for Youth for the

23 European Solidarity Corps and the Discover EU Project. Available at: https://www.europarl. europa.eu/factsheets/pl/sheet/141/mlodziez (access: 21. 01. 2021). 24 Ibidem. 25 Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 2 April 1997 (Journal of Laws of 1997, No. 78, item 483 as amended). 26 Act of 25 February 1964. – Family and Guardianship Code (Journal of Laws of 1964, No. 9, item 59). 27 Act of 26 June 1974 – Labor Code (Journal of Laws of 1974, No. 24, item 141). 28 Act of 14 December 2016 – Education Law (Journal of Laws of 2017, item 59). 29 Act of August 30, 2018 – Law on higher education and science (Journal of Laws 2018, item 1668).

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years 2003–2012”30. The main objective of the strategy was to provide equal opportunities for the young generation and to create appropriate conditions for young people. The strategy specified the basic issues to be implemented, which included youth education, employment, youth participation in public life, free time, culture, sport and tourism, health and prevention. The document has not been updated. Noticing the changes in the situation of young people, which resulted from a number of studies (including the above-mentioned report “Youth 2011”), the assumptions of youth policy were redefined and work on a new strategic document31 “Poland 2030. It was supposed to be a step towards making youth policy conducted centrally coherent, taking into account EU priorities. The works on the document were coordinated by the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy – at that time the document was given a working name Government Program for Youth. Active Youth”32. The draft of the new document appeared in 2013, and in 2015 it appeared as the Youth Social Activity Program for 2015. The lack of a coherent systemic legislative solution is associated with the absence of a center comprehensively managing youth policy at the central level. Institutionally, since 1982 in Poland there was an office headed by the Minister for Youth Affairs33, in whose responsibility was to take all initiatives concerning this social category. The most important statutory task of this central body was to shape conditions for the active participation of youth in the social and political life of the country. This institution functioned until 1989. After 1989, the coordination of activities towards youth, both in the theoretical and practical dimension, was the responsibility of the ministry in charge of education. With time (and taking into account the EU framework for youth employment and social inclusion), the focus of youth policy was gradually shifted from the Ministry of National Education to the Ministry in charge of labor and social policy, providing it with dedicated legislative, infrastructural and financial instruments. The tasks in the area of youth policy, implemented at the central level, are also carried out by the following entities: Ombudsman for Children, the State Agency for Solving Alcohol Problems, the National Bureau for Drug Prevention and the Parliamentary Committee for Education, Science and Youth.

30 Youth Strategy for the years 2003–2012, Ministry of National Education, Warsaw 2003. 31 Polska 2030. Trzecia fala nowoczesnos´ci. Available at: http://kigeit.org.pl/FTP/PRCIP/Litera tura/002_Strategia_DSRK_PL2030_RM.pdf (access: 20. 02. 2021). 32 Government Program for Youth. Active Youth. Available at: https://www.dbp.wroc.pl/biblio teki/wroclaw/images/Biblioteki/DBP-Wroclaw/WSIPO/Rzodowy_program_na_rzecz_mlod ziezy_Aktywna_modziez.pdf (access: 20. 02. 2021). 33 Raczek M., Polityka na rzecz młodziez˙y w Polsce, [in:] Polityka młodziez˙owa Unii Europejskiej, M. Boryn´, B. Dunaj, S. Mrozowska (eds.), Torun´ 2014, pp. 142–144.

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Within the framework of departmental tasks (except for the Ministry of Education and Science), trace amounts of youth-oriented activities can be found in individual ministries. The Ministry of Labor and Social Policy undertakes activities for youth, but they only concern youth at risk of social exclusion, especially supervising the Voluntary Labor Corps, which is subordinate to the ministry34. Within the proposals of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage there are no activities dedicated to youth culture. Only the issues devoted to the regulation of artistic education in Poland35 (separated from the competences of the Ministry of Education and Science) appear. Similarly, youth issues are only mentioned to a very limited extent in the analysis of the tasks of the Ministry of Sport – activities within the scope of supporting professional sport are mentioned36. The presence of youth was also noted within the activities of the Ministry of Climate – and the establishment of the Youth Climate Council on 31 March 202037. The Council consists of 32 young people. This is the 1st term of this body – arguably an attempt to provide a structural response to the youth climate strikes taking place since 2018. Youth policy is not fully developed at the regional level. The departments of the Marshal’s office are mainly responsible for their implementation. In several voivodeships sectoral strategies dedicated to youth are created and implemented. Dedicated strategies (or other documents of this type) are also created and implemented at the level of poviats and communes. The youth policy implemented by local governments cannot operate in isolation. Cooperation and complementarity with such policy areas as employment, education, training, health, culture, digital media, sustainable development, civic affairs and sports is crucial. The introduction of a single law or guidelines for the development of strategies for youth would make it easier to compare regions in terms of what is being done for young people and the extent to which of achieving particular goals and policies concerning young people. In Poland various initiatives for the benefit of young people are also developed by non-governmental organizations, which e. g. in the framework of open competitions announced by local governments can obtain funding for the implementation of public tasks for the benefit of young people.

34 Ministry of Labor and Social Policy. Available at: https://www.gov.pl/web/rodzina/aktywi zacja-mlodziezy (access: 20. 02. 2021). 35 Ministry of Culture and National Heritage. Available at: https://www.gov.pl/web/kultura/uc zniowie-i-studenci (access: 20. 02. 2021). 36 Ministry of Sport. Available at: https://www.gov.pl/web/sport/sport-mlodziezowy (access: 20 02 2021). 37 Ministry of Climate. Available at: https://www.gov.pl/web/klimat/MRK (access: 20. 02. 2021).

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Instead of a summary Creating a coherent policy, including one dedicated to this category, requires an in-depth diagnosis, identification of needs and creation of effective tools to implement the proposed solutions. Poland’s accession to the EU, thanks to which it is possible to benefit from the EU’s achievements in this area, was crucial for the research on youth policy. Currently – the dispersion of these activities in Poland into many ministries de facto blurs the scope of problems related to youth. The lack of a holistic approach, coordination of activities, scattering particular issues to various ministries (including the already mentioned Ministry of Education and Science, which covers children and youth at various stages of life, up to and including the category of young adults) gives the impression that youth as an autonomous social category does not function in Polish society. Young people are a catalyst for social change and are proof of the level of its development in many dimensions. Construction of legislative and support solutions for young people by the state may be conducive to shaping social capital for the future. In order to create an appropriate environment for the development of young people and to provide them with support, it is important to know the needs of young people from different backgrounds, to have an action plan tailored to these needs and to implement the actions envisaged in the plan at central and local level. In this context, it is important to know to what extent the activities carried out at multiple reference levels are in line with the real needs of young people and how they are oriented to the real needs of young people. One of the most important demands for the implementation of youth policy is to take into account its participatory nature, which means the inclusion and involvement of young people in the process of its creation. However, the first step is to recognize youth as a distinct social category on which the future of societies and nations depends and to create a holistic proposal of youth policy based on diagnostics, social research, expert analysis.

Bibliography Arnett J., Young People’s Conceptions of The Transition to Adulthood. “Youth and Society”, 29 (1), 1997, pp. 3–23. Arnett, J.J., Emerging adulthood. A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. “American Psychologist”, 55, 5, 2000, pp. 469–480. Arnett J.J., Conception of the transition to adulthood: Perspective From Adolescence through Midlife. “Journal of Adult Development”, 8, 2001, pp. 133–143. Arnett J., Emerging adulthood. A winding road from the late teens through the twenties, Oxford University Press, New York 2004.

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Arnett J., Adolescence and emerging adulthood. A cultural approach, Pearson, New York 2010. Brzezin´ska A.I., Kaczan R., Piotrowski K., Re˛kosiewicz M., Odroczona dorosłos´c´: akt czy artefakt?. “Nauka” 4, 2011, pp. 67–107. Brzezin´ska A.I., Dorastanie do dorosłos´ci: odraczane czy opóz´nione,[in:] S´ciez˙ki wkraczania w dorosłos´c´, (eds.) A.I. Brzezin´ska, W. Syska, Wyd. UAM, Poznan´ 2016. Brzezin´ska A.I., Syska W. (eds.), S´ciez˙ki wkraczania w dorosłos´c´, Wyd. UAM, Poznan´ 2016a. Brzezin´ska A.I., Appelt K., Ziółkowska B., Psychologia rozwoju człowieka, GWP, Sopot 2016b. Długosz P., Pokolenie przegranych? Kondycja psychospołeczna młodziez˙y w Europie S´rodkowo-Wschodniej. “Zeszyty Pracy Socjalnej” 21(2), 2016, pp. 77–90. Długosz P., Szczudło S., Młodziez˙ pogranicza polsko-ukrain´skiego wobec własnej przyszłos´ci, Nowa Ukraina 13, 2013. Empowering youth through national policies: UNESCO’s contribution, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2004. Encyklopedia Komisji Europejskiej Youth Wiki, Vol. 1, Fundacja Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji, Warszawa 2019. Griese Hartmut M., Socjologiczne teorie młodziez˙y, Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 1996. Fatyga B., Polska młodziez˙ w okresie przemian, [in:] Wymiary z˙ycia społecznego. Polska na przełomie XX i XXI wieku, (ed.) M. Marody, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2002. Fatyga B., Młodos´c´ bez skrzydeł, Wyd. ISNS UW, Warszawa 2001. Herbst M., Reformowanie edukacji, [in:] Młodzi 2018. Cywilizacyjne wyzwania. Edukacyjne koniecznos´ci, (ed.) K. Szafraniec, A PROPOS Serwis Wydawniczy Anna SikorskaMichalak, Warszawa 2019. Levinson, D. J., A conception of adult development. “American Psychologist”, 41 (1), 1986, pp. 3–13. Mannheim K., The Problem of Youth in Modern Society, Diagnosis of our Times. Wartime Essays of a Sociologist, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & CO., London 1943. Mannheim K., The Problem of Generation, [in:] Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, (ed.) K. Mannheim, Oxford University Press, New York 1952. Niezgoda M., Młodziez˙ jako przedmiot zainteresowan´ socjologii. “Rocznik Lubuski”, vol. 40, part 2a, 2014, p. 52–60. Nyc´kowiak J., Pokoleniowe uwarunkowania opinii na temat przemian politycznych w Polsce po 1989 roku w ´swietle danych POLPAN 1993–2008. “Rocznik Lubuski”, vol. 37, part 2, 2011, pp. 83–97. Ostaszewski K., Bobrowski K., Borecka A., Cybulska M. (eds.), Monitorowanie zachowan´ ryzykownych młodziez˙y. Badania mokotowskie 1988–2008, Wydawnictwo IPiN, Warszawa 2011. Ostaszewski K. (ed.), Monitorowanie zachowan´ ryzykownych, zachowan´ nałogowych i problemów zdrowia psychicznego 15-letniej młodziez˙y. Badania mokotowskie 2004– 2016 Badania ukrain´skie, obwód lwowski 2016, Wydawca Instytut Psychiatrii i Neurologii, Warszawa 2017.

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Ostaszewski K. (ed.), Analiza jakos´ciowa stylu z˙ycia 17–18-letnich uz˙ytkowników substancji psychoaktywnych, wzorów i motywów uz˙ywania substancji oraz innych zachowan´ problemowych. Raport z badan´, Wyd. Psychiatrii i Neurologii, Warszawa 2019. Polska 2030. Trzecia fala nowoczesnos´ci. Długookresowa strategia rozwoju kraju, Warszawa 2013. Przetacznik-Gierowska M., Tyszkowa M., Psychologia rozwoju człowieka vol. 1, PWN. Warszawa 2014. Raczek M., Polityka na rzecz młodziez˙y w Polsce, [in:] Polityka młodziez˙owa Unii Europejskiej, M. Boryn´, B. Dunaj, S. Mrozowska (eds.), Torun´ 2014, pp. 142–144. Szafraniec K., Młodzi 2011, Kancelaria Prezesa Rady Ministrów, Warszawa 2011. Szafraniec K., Młodos´´c jako wyłaniaja˛cy sie˛ problem i nowa polityczna siła. “Nauka”, no. 1, 2012a. Szafraniec K. (ed.), Młodzi 2018. Cywilizacyjne wyzwania. Edukacyjne koniecznos´ci, A PROPOS Serwis Wydawniczy Anna Sikorska-Michalak, Warszawa 2019. Trempała J., Deregulacja cyklu z˙ycia w planach z˙yciowych młodziez˙y. “Polskie Forum Psychologiczne”, 1, 2006, pp. 108–120. Zielin´ska M., Mie˛dzy autorytaryzmem a demokracja˛. Pokoleniowy wymiar transformacji społeczno-politycznej w Polsce. “Forum Socjologiczne”, no. 1, 2010, pp. 117–134. Zielin´ska M., Polska młodziez˙ w czasach nieufnos´ci. “Władza Sa˛dzenia” 7, 2015. Zielin´ska M., Wróbel R., Socio-demographic aspects of “emerging adulthood” in the context of cultural changes in Poland compared to Europe. “Rocznik Lubuski” vol. 44, 2018, part I, pp. 15–32. Zielin´ska M., Szaban D. (eds.), Młodziez˙ w czasach nieufnos´ci. Studenci zielonogórscy o sobie i innych, Fundacja Obserwatorium Społeczne Inter Alia, Zielona Góra 2016.

Legal acts, government strategies, references to websites of particular ministries Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 2 April 1997 (Journal of Laws of 1997, No. 78, item 483 with amendments). Act of 25 February 1964. – Family and Guardianship Code (Journal of Laws of 1964, No. 9, item 59). Act of 26 June 1974. – Labour Code (Journal of Laws of 1974, no. 24, item 141). Act of 14 December 2016. – Education Law (Journal of Laws of 2017, item 59). Act of 30 August 2018. – Law on higher education and science (Journal of Laws 2018, item 1668). Polska 2030. Trzecia fala nowoczesnos´ci. Available at: http://kigeit.org.pl/FTP/PRCIP/Lite ratura/002_Strategia_DSRK_PL2030_RM.pdf (access: 20. 02. 2021). Rza˛dowy Program na Rzecz Młodziez˙y. Aktywna Młodziez˙. Available at: https://www.dbp .wroc.pl/biblioteki/wroclaw/images/Biblioteki/DBP-Wroclaw/WSIPO/Rzodowy_progr am_na_rzecz_mlodziezy_Aktywna_mlodziez.pdf (access: 20. 02. 2021). Strategia pan´stwa dla młodziez˙y na lata 2003–2012, MEN, Warszawa 2003. https://www.gov.pl/web/rodzina/seniorzyaktywne-starzenie (access: 20. 02. 2021). https://www.gov.pl/web/rodzina/seniorzyaktywne-starzenie (access: 20. 02. 2021). https://www.gov.pl/web/rodzina/aktywizacja-mlodziezy (access: 20. 02. 2021).

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https://www.gov.pl/web/kultura/uczniowie-i-studenci (access: 20. 02. 2021). https://www.gov.pl/web/sport/sport-mlodziezowy (access: 20. 02. 2021). https://www.gov.pl/web/klimat/MRK (access: 20. 02. 2021).

Marzanna Farnicka

Educational institutions – their goals, organization and functioning. The Polish road of change

Introduction This chapter presents the significance of solutions at the institutional level as an example of creating an educational environment aimed at influencing the sphere of activity, value system and personality of an individual. The idea of the socializing and emancipatory influence of education at the institutional level was presented in the realities of educational institutions. The collaboration between organizations (non-governmental, local government) and formal educational institutions was treated not only as a manifestation of the socio-cultural changes taking place, but also as an example of accelerating the potential of various educational institutions and a factor modifying the network of existing social relationships. In this chapter, the institutional level of education has been divided into two dimensions: cultural and operational. The cultural dimension (macro-level) concerns events in the social, historical and political dimension, and the operational dimension is related to skills and tools used to face challenges. The issues were presented in line with the key thesis according to which educational organizations1 function in accordance with the assumed goals and ideals dominating in a given society. Therefore, one can observe coherence between the cultural and social level (macro-level and meso-level) and the operational functioning of these organizations (exo-level and micro-level), which is manifested, for example, by the relationship between the values recognized and the level of economic development in a given country, and the expectations and tasks set for educational institutions. Marzanna Farnicka, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4274-1646. 1 The concept of education is very broad and includes formal and informal activity consisting in teaching and carrying out educational life-long tasks in order to ensure comprehensive development and successful existence for individuals, and cultural ties linking historical past with the present and future for a society. Therefore, it includes various types of institutions such as, schools, kindergartens, libraries.

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As an example of a change in the method of constructing institutional educational environments, the author presents some attempts to respond to contemporary dilemmas related to the ongoing moral, technological and social breakthroughs, as well as to new knowledge. For instance, the assumptions of the Cultural Relevant Pedagogy (CRP) are presented as the key to understanding the relationship between the culture of a given society and the assumptions and functions of the education system. At the operational level related to the events accompanying the ongoing processes, East Asian, Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian educational configurations and Polish ones are presented2.

The idea of network development of educational systems According to the concept of Uri Bronfenbrenner, educational institutions and organizations associated with them constitute a specific macro system, which is both the context and environment of development, in which an individual observes, learns and develops a range of specific patterns of activity, ways of fulfilling social roles or behaviou manifested in relations with other people or given tasks3. This chapter assumes that numerous interactions are launched at various (cultural and operational) levels of functioning of the network of educational organizations, leading to further changes, both for the system and its individual members. This specific synergy of pressures and challenges with the capabilities of the systems largely determines the functioning of lower-order systems (e. g. school as an exosystem and microsystem). If a system is to respond properly to the perceived pressures, they should occur at the sensitive period or the period of readiness, which is determined by the biological or motivational maturity of the system, its current goals and possibilities (economic, material, spatial, cultural)4.

2 Farnicka M., Organizacje w systemie wychowania, [in:] Psychologia wychowania: wybrane problemy, (eds.) H. Liberska, J. Trempała, PWN, Warszawa 2020, pp. 459–470. 3 Bronfenbrenner U., Ekologia rozwoju człowieka – historia i perspektywy. “Psychologia Wychowawcza”, 5, 1976, pp. 537–549; Kowalik S., Globalizacja jako kontekst funkcjonowania psychologicznego ludzi. “Nauka”, 1 2015, pp. 7–37; Brzezin´ska A., Psychologia wychowania, [in:] J. Streau (ed.), Psychologia. Podre˛cznik akademicki, vol. 3, GWP, Gdan´sk 2006, pp. 229– 247. 4 Bronfenbrenner U., Ekologia rozwoju człowieka…, op.cit., pp. 537–549; Brzezin´ska A., Psychologia wychowania…, op. cit., pp. 229–247.

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Cultural level: assumptions about the organization of educational institutions Due to the cultural, social and technological changes taking place at the end of the 20th century, the assumptions of existing educational systems and their goals were revised. Attention was drawn to the inadequacy of the current ways of thinking and asking questions about the goals and areas of education. Due to new scientific discoveries and technological possibilities, assumptions concerning the nature of human development, learning processes and the values in education were criticized5. Anna Brzezin´ska points out that in modern education the main goal should be shaping the subjectivity of the student, and the main values ought to be (1) civic cooperation, (2) productive independence, (3) critical thinking and (4) developing a rich repertoire of behaviour6. Jerome Bruner in his psychocultural approach, presents nine inalienable principles of the functioning of modern educational systems (the principle of perspectivism, limitations, constructivism, responsibility, interactionism, interaction, externalization, instrumentalism, institutionalization) 7. Bruner assumes that the goal of education is to build the student’s identity and self-esteem. This goal indicates the importance of efficacy and responsibility in the evaluation of achievements or undertaken actions. Numerous comprehensive proposals for reforming educational systems have been put forward as a response to the postulated directions of changes. For instance, the classic (didactic) model, the loose-ended approach and the interactive model, an example of which is the model of learner-centered education have been suggested8. Each of these proposals can be treated as a specific paradigm of education because, apart from epistemological, ontological and axiological assumptions, each has its own methods of operation and tools for their evaluation9. Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP) is an example of a specific conceptualization10. The CRP model identifies five pillars that are the basis for the changes introduced in education systems. An adequate diagnosis of these five

5 Ledzin´ska, M., Mie˛dzy raportem Faure’a a raportem Delorsa – specyfika refleksji o nauczaniu na przełomie stuleci. “Psychologia Rozwojowa” 5 (1–2), 2001, pp. 27–35. 6 Brzezin´ska A., Psychologia wychowania…, op. cit., pp. 229–247. 7 Bruner J., Kultura edukacji, Wydawnictwo Universitas, Krako´w 2006, pp. 29–68. 8 Brandes D., Ginnis P., A Guide to Student – Centred Learning, Blackwell, Oxford 1986. 9 Aypay A., The Adaptation of the Teaching – Learning Conceptions Questionnaire and Its Relationships with Epistemological Beliefs. “Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice”, 11 (2), 2011, pp. 21–29. 10 Brown-Jeffy S., Cooper J.E., Toward a Conceptual Framework of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. “Teacher Education Quarterly”, 38 (1), 2011, pp. 65–84.

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elements shows the most important resources, advantages and challenges posed for educational institutions in a given culture or environment, and thus enables synergy and cooperation between various educational environments based on community and responsibility. As far as the operational level and tasks are concerned, East Asian, Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon organization types of educational institutions can be given as examples of different school systems. In East Asia the organization of the education process is focused on strict regulations, starting from systemic regulations, to instructions on conducting lessons and creating a strict examination system. It is worth adding that this configuration emphasizes the value of education through the pressure of achievement on students, parents and teachers. In Scandinavia, the basis for action is cooperation and the creation of optimal conditions for individual development in a peer group. Schools enjoy a wide range of autonomy and a wide network of organizations to support them. In the Anglo-Saxon model, school focuses on the comprehensive development of the student and his/her social activity. School is treated as a social organization which exists in a network of other local organizations creating their culture and potential11. It is worth emphasizing that today, due to the globalization processes and pluralisation of social life (including the organization of educational institutions), the above models are transferred and implemented to other countries.

Changes in Poland: goals, organization and functioning of educational institutions The presented assumptions about the goals of education in a given country are related to the cultural and social context and are manifested at the level of its organization in a given community. At this point it is worth asking what educational system functions in contemporary Poland. When looking at the educational changes taking place, one should pay attention to three stages of introducing changes. After 1990, there were three significant turning points in the reform of education. Their goal was to improve the quality of education after years of totalitarianism and indoctrination. The Act of 7 September 1991 on the education system was the first ordering and formal document. It was to trigger grassroots initiatives, to enable the democratization of education, and give schools and teachers autonomy. The ideas of decentralization were expressed in 11 Nowosad I., O potrzebie integralnego podejs´cia do zmian w edukacji szkolnej od zmian w szkole do zmiany szkoły. “Studia Pedagogiczne” 16, 2011, pp. 27–42; Farnicka M., Liberska H., Szkoła wspólnych rza˛dów. “Psychologia w szkole” 5, 2014, pp. 38–46.

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encouraging innovation, and pedagogical experiments, creating proprietary curricula, classes, and non-state schools. The first great reform of education in Poland after 1990 (1999) was of a structural nature, and it changed the organization of the school system and introduced a system of supporting and ensuring the quality of education. The educational system was based on the Anglo-Saxon configuration in which tests and educational procedures would be instruments ensuring high quality of education. Schools had good teaching aids and used extensive proprietary curricula. This system was to stimulate teachers’ and students’ activity and to adapt the transferred knowledge to the needs of the changing culture and the needs of the cultural environment. The reform allowed schools to introduce an internal grading system. The system of external examinations was introduced. The system of professional ranks for teachers was created. It was allowed to open non –state schools and parents were given the opportunity to become more involved in the school life. The reform in 2009 was a curriculum reform. The national curriculum was changed, which required the introduction of new school textbooks. Finally, the reform in 2017 was mainly of a structural nature and restored the 8-year cycle of primary education and abolished junior high schools. (see Table 1.) Table 1. Major changes in education system introduced in successive reforms Reform/ changes Type

1999

2009

2017

structural

curriculum

structural

supporting and securing the quality of education

External examinations were introduced: in primary school for year 3 and year 6 students, in junior high school for year 3 students, professional rank system for teachers appeared internal evaluation system, curriculum pluralism, decentralization of funding

Model of preparing students to examinations was changed

Junior high school examination was replaced with primary school examination. Time requirements for each teacher rank was prolonged

School autonomy

National curric- Greater centralization ulum changed, it and control over rank became more system uniform Source: author’s own work based on: Farnicka, Nowosad 2016 and Farnicka M. 2014

The adopted method of creating a network of institutions supporting the functioning of the school, the process of evaluating the student’s achievements at subsequent stages of education, implemented in the first stage of the reforms, indicate that the reform was to introduce the Anglo-Saxon model to Poland. The reform aimed at decentralization of management and at supporting educational institutions. It emphasized the activity and involvement of all people partic-

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ipating in the education process. This led to the creation of a network of various organizations operating outside and inside schools, which by helping schools to carry out their tasks or giving additional educational offer, built complementary social capital, activating the potential of the environment. This process created conditions for the diversity of educational offers, and it also increased the importance of educational institutions. The observation of successive reforms (2009 and 2017) shows that they aimed at the standardization of the curriculum and the limitation of the internal autonomy of schools,. This means that Poland chose its own specific way of adapting and developing the Anglo-Saxon model.

Creating conditions for the functioning of educational institutions (institutional dimension) One of the main assumptions of the created school support system is to identify a good school or a good kindergarten with an educational organization. Therefore, three forms of systemic support for the school’s activity through evaluation, control and support processes were introduced. Evaluation and control of educational activities is carried out by the body exercising pedagogical supervision, i. e. the school superintendent or inspector, who represents the Minister, and the governing body, i. e. specially appointed local government units. The body of pedagogical supervision is also to support schools and institutions. Most often it is done by preparing and publishing conclusions after external evaluations and audits, providing examples of good practice or organizing conferences and meetings for head teachers. Additionally, schools are supported by partners such as teacher training centres, psychological and pedagogical counselling centres and pedagogical libraries. Teacher training centres offer general and specialized trainings to help teachers improve their teaching competences and to educate them on school organization and management. Psychological and Pedagogical Counselling Centres help schools offering support for students and families, and providing diagnosis, therapy and prevention of learning problems. Pedagogical libraries support schools in using modern technologies, organizing additional meetings or cultural and artistic events12.

12 Wysocka J., Hajdukiewicz M., Zapewnianie jakos´ci procesu wspomagania szkół w rozwoju, ORE, Warszawa 2015.

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Creating conditions for the functioning of educational institutions – social dimension Educational institutions are made up of many smaller systems. One of the simplest system is the one consisting of the head teacher (management), teachers, students, assisting employees, and parents. Another system is formed by classes. There are also many other ways of organizing individuals connected with schools13. They are presented below. The obligatory organizational unit in a school or institution employing at least 3 teachers is the teachers’ council, which is a collective body involved in the implementation of school statutory tasks. Moreover, there are school councils. The law guarantees extensive rights for parents and students as members of school councils – they have the same rights and are represented to the same degree as teachers (1/3 of members in the school council). The school council is engaged in dealing with school internal affairs, approves the work plan, innovation projects and pedagogical experiments. On its own initiative, the council may put forward own proposals to the head teacher, teacher council, governing body and voivodship education board in matters concerning, for example, the organization of extracurricular activities and extracurricular subjects. In order to support the statutory activities of school, the council may collect funds (from voluntary contributions and other sources) and spend them in accordance with its regulations. There are also parents’ councils to represent all parents of the school pupils. The parents’ councils include representatives of the parents of students who were chosen in secret elections during parent-teacher meetings. The parents’ council defines the rules of its activity, in particular its internal structure, mode of operation, detailed procedure for holding elections. The parents’ council may present their notions and opinions to the head teacher, other school bodies, the governing body and the body of pedagogical supervision. The competences of the parents’ council include: approving, in agreement with the pedagogical council, the school’s educational programme covering all educational content and activities addressed to students, and implemented by teachers; a prevention programme that covers all preventive content and activities aimed at students, teachers and parents; giving opinions on the plan for improving the effectiveness of education in school; giving opinions on the draft financial plan submitted by the head teacher. 13 EAO EA, Organizacja systemu edukacji w Polsce 2009/2010. Dokument Agencji Wykonawczej ds. Edukacji, Kultury i Sektora Audiowizualnego, Komisja Europejska, Euridyce, Bruksela 2010; Kołodziejczyk W., Polak M., Jak be˛dzie sie˛ zmieniac´ edukacja? Wyzwania dla polskiej szkoły, Instytut Obywatelski, Warszawa 2011.

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In each school there is also a student government. The student government is chosen in equal, secret and common elections. It should be pointed out that the bodies of the student government are the only representatives of all students. The student government presents their opinions and conclusions to the school council, teachers’ council and head teachers on any matters related to students’ fundamental rights. At the national level, parents are represented by the National Association of Parents and Parent Councils, students are represented by the Student Commissioner, and trade unions represent teachers. Trade unions play a significant role in shaping the current educational policy, as the Minister of National Education is legally obliged to consult the drafts of legal acts with teachers’ unions. Educational institutions are multi-level organizations. Each participant of the educational process (students, teachers, parents) differs in the perception of school activity. It can be assumed that parents strive to socialize their child in terms of their own values. The student is mainly interested in fulfilling his/her developmental needs related to the process of individualization and separating himself/herself from others. School employees want to implement the goals and tasks defined by the institution. For this reason, they often face a conflict between work based on individualizing processes and the involvement of pupils, and work based on processes that include them in the group, and related to the need to recognize community or utilitarian values as the most important and to give up their own needs or aspirations. The expectations of the external environment on school efficiency should also be mentioned here. In the Polish education system, the person responsible for resolving conflicts between all participants of education is the head teacher. His/her responsibilities include: – managing school (the head teacher manages school activity, decides about financial resources, employs and dismisses teachers and other school employees, awards prizes and penalties), – representing school (the head teacher represents school, cooperates with non-school institutions and organizations) – supervising school (the head teacher exercises pedagogical supervision), – taking caring of students, – organizing conditions (the head teacher organises proper conditions for the harmonious psychophysical development of students, creates conditions for volunteers, associations and other organizations to operate in school, cooperates with universities and institutions educating teachers), – executing law (the head teacher implements resolutions of the school council and the teachers’ council). Being entrusted with such tasks, the head teacher needs high management and leadership skills14.

14 Nowosad, I. (2019). Alicanto czy Simurg? O zmianie orientacji na innowacje i przywództwo w szkolnej codziennos´ci. “Rocznik Lubuski”, 45 (1), 2019, pp. 233–246.

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Creating conditions for the functioning of educational institutions – participation of non-governmental institutions One of the goals of the currently implemented reforms, which adopted the Anglo-Saxon paradigm in the education system, is to strengthen the autonomy of local government in the organization of educational tasks. Non-governmental organizations are institutions that support schools. They assist schools to improve the activity of parents and local communities as well as meet various educational needs and civic activity of young people. According to the statistics kept by non-governmental organizations about 60,000 non-governmental organizations operate in Poland and about 25,000 (42 %) of them conduct some educational activity15. The majority of them operate as foundations and associations. Their activity usually involve conducting extra-curricular activities and clubs for children and adolescents. In fact, one fifth (22 %) of all Polish organizations conduct this type of activity. Some associations and foundations of this type operate independently, some cooperate closely with schools. By engaging students in their projects, non-governmental organizations give them a chance for volunteering and civic activity. They teach students sensitivity to the needs of others and develop their passions and talents. Organizations whose representatives at school are most often teachers or parents include School Volunteer Clubs, League for National Defence, League for Nature Conservation, Caritas, Polish Red Cross, Polish Tourist and Sightseeing Society. There are also other organisations worth mentioning, including scout movement, All Poland reads to children campaign, the Grand Orchestra of Christmas Aid, the Great Seven Club, European Clubs. There are also non-governmental organizations that represent the interests of parents and teachers in the national arena, influencing the state’s educational policy. These are, for example: Ratujmy Maluchy (Save Kids), Fundacja Dzieci im. J.A. Komen´skiego (Komen´ski’s Children Foundation), Stowarzyszenie Rodziców TU (Parents Association TU) and Federacja Inicjatyw Os´wiatowych (Federation of Educational Initiatives).

Conclusions Culture is a source of potential experience, the gaining of which requires the activity of the subject. This means that along with cultural changes (for example, the development of scientific knowledge, technological progress enabling the process of globalization and the existence of cyberspace as a development en15 NGO, Edukacja wychodzi poza szkołe˛, 2013. Available at: https://publicystyka.ngo.pl/eduka cja-wychodzi-poza-szkole (access: 5. 01. 2019).

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vironment), the field of individual activity, its forms, direction and pace, including the interpretation of the world, and the way of experiencing values, are changing – both in the individual and supra-individual dimension. Teaching takes place in the process of development through the mediation of an individual’s activity and contacts with other people, as well as contact with manifestations of culture. A comparative analysis of educational systems functioning in the modern world shows the coherence between cultural assumptions and the operational level of education. The assumptions about the method and direction of a student’s development are reflected in the created education system. Educational systems differ in terms of organization, goals, student commitment, the ethos and purpose of learning. One of the main areas of conflict between the systems is the value of community, individualism and collectivism. This conflict manifests itself in the shaped system of evaluation of activities and achievements. Due to the fact that the influence of the broad sociocultural context on the process of organizing education is indisputable, selected conceptualizations and practices have been presented. They relate to the cooperation of organizations in a network of institutions. This makes school community engaged in the process of initiating deliberate changes noticeable in the outside world, and thus it responds to the needs of the environment or uses its potential. Therefore, it can be assumed that the way a school functions in a network of institutions is a process related to recognizing new challenges and needs, the effect of learning and gaining experience, and acquiring proficiency in joint action. It can also be noticed that by pointing to the cultural and social conditions of the functioning of the educational system, the idea of global and universal education was reflected upon16.

Bibliography Appaduray, A., Modernity At Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis 1996. Aypay A., The Adaptation of the Teaching – Learning Conceptions Questionnaire and Its Relationships with Epistemological Beliefs. “Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice”, 11 (2), 2011, pp. 21–29. Brandes D., Ginnis P., A Guide to Student – Centred Learning, Blackwell, Oxford 1986. Bronfenbrenner U., Ekologia rozwoju człowieka – historia i perspektywy. “Psychologia Wychowawcza”, 5, 1976, pp. 537–549. Brown-Jeffy S., Cooper J.E., Toward a Conceptual Framework of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. “Teacher Education Quarterly”, 38 (1), 2011, pp. 65–84. 16 A. Apaduray, Modernity At Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis 1996; Kowalik S., Globalizacja …, op.cit., pp. 7–37.

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Bruner J., Kultura edukacji, Wydawnictwo Universitas, Krako´w 2006. Brzezin´ska A., Psychologia wychowania, [in:] J. Streau (ed.), Psychologia. Podre˛cznik akademicki, vol. 3, GWP, Gdan´sk 2006, pp. 229–247. EAO EA, Organizacja systemu edukacji w Polsce 2009/2010. Dokument Agencji Wykonawczej ds. Edukacji, Kultury i Sektora Audiowizualnego, Komisja Europejska, Euridyce, Bruksela 2010. Farnicka M., Organizacje w systemie wychowania, [in:] Psychologia wychowania: wybrane problemy, (eds.) H. Liberska, J. Trempała, PWN, Warszawa 2020, pp. 459–470. Farnicka M., Liberska H., Szkoła wspólnych rza˛dów. “Psychologia w szkole” 5, 2014, pp. 38– 46. Kołodziejczyk W., Polak M., Jak be˛dzie sie˛ zmieniac´ edukacja? Wyzwania dla polskiej szkoły, Instytut Obywatelski, Warszawa 2011. Kowalik S., Globalizacja jako kontekst funkcjonowania psychologicznego ludzi. “Nauka”, 1 2015, pp. 7–37. Ledzin´ska, M., Mie˛dzy raportem Faure’a a raportem Delorsa – specyfika refleksji o nauczaniu na przełomie stuleci. “Psychologia Rozwojowa” 5 (1–2), 2001, pp. 27–35. NGO, Edukacja wychodzi poza szkołe˛, 2013. Available at: https://publicystyka.ngo.pl/ed ukacja-wychodzi-poza-szkole (access: 5. 01. 2019). Nowosad I., O potrzebie integralnego podejs´cia do zmian w edukacji szkolnej od zmian w szkole do zmiany szkoły. “Studia Pedagogiczne” 16, 2011, pp. 27–42. Nowosad, I., Alicanto czy Simurg? O zmianie orientacji na innowacje i przywództwo w szkolnej codziennos´ci. “Rocznik Lubuski”, 45 (1), 2019, pp. 233–246. Wysocka J., Hajdukiewicz M., Zapewnianie jakos´ci procesu wspomagania szkół w rozwoju, ORE, Warszawa 2015.

Magdalena Zapotoczna

The entrepreneurship imperative in educational policy of Poland

Introduction Educational policy is one of the fundaments of a country social politics, taking into account the role which education plays in social and economic development. The area of interest of educational policies concentrates on activities of country authorities towards planning and organisation of education as well as management of educational institutions. In Poland these are: pre-school education, primary school and high schools, such as secondary schools, vocational schools, colleges, special schools and associate level vocational colleges. A relevant call for changes in the field of educational policies emerged when Poland became the EU member. The accession to the EU that took place on 1st May 2004 made it necessary for the national educational regulations to be seen in line with the EU recommendations. An important reference point in formulating recommendations and determining the directions of the European educational politics is dynamics of social transformations and resulting from it the need of tightening of the relationships between education and economics. Over the last two decades the successively implemented concept in the EU countries is key competences making the combination of knowledge, aptitudes and attitudes. The set of the eight key competences is to foster self-realisation and self-development, activate one’s patriotic attitude, help in the process of social integration and running of a balanced lifestyle, as well as enable employment and knowing the job market well. The EU Community document announced in the form of a recommendation of the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union was developed by a team of experts of the European Commission in 20061. The very term key competences was formulated a decade earlier during the 1996 Magdalena Zapotoczna, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7109-9464. 1 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reco/2006/962/oj.

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Council of Europe symposium in Bern, which developed a catalog of skills, known as Bernese competences, that should be available to high school graduates in Europe2. In general, the Recommendation is to make it easier for the member countries to initiate and implement educational reforms. In the process of constituency of the reference scope for key competences on particular countries, education decision makers, educational and training institutions and social stakeholders ought to participate. Moreover, the recommendation is to support other related to education policies, among others in the field of employment and social affairs. Embedding key competences in lifelong learning means shaping them from early childhood throughout adulthood in formal, non-formal and informal education, in all contexts, including family, school, workplace, neighbourhood and other communities. More than 10 years after the implementation of the concept of key competences in European countries, its assumptions were reviewed and updated. Particular importance was attached to improving basic skills, investing in language learning, strengthening digital and entrepreneurial competences3. One of the current leading topic of many strategic educational documents is fostering the entrepreneurship education. The debate on the directions of education system reforms in the face of modern economy challenges includes entrepreneurship in national curricula, which should result in given attitudes and skills of the students. It is relevant for the entrepreneurship education to not be restricted only to theoretical knowledge, but be based on practice, learning by actions and team work, that would awake the creative potential of the youth. Two years before Poland joined the European Union, a new general education curriculum was approved. The curriculum reform of 2002 resulted in the introduction of entrepreneurship education to the secondary education curriculum, anticipating the need to implement EU recommendations resulting from Poland’s membership in the European Union. Undoubtedly, entrepreneurship is an important objective of the educational policy development in Poland, which is also the aim of herein work. Based on the source analysis of the national and EU documents an analysis of entrepreneurship description has been made in the context of key competences and ways of implementing international recommendations in to the settings of Polish school. Due to the complexity of the issue an attention has been paid to general principles and reasons of the political and

2 Key Competencies for Europe. Report of the Symposium, Berne, Switzerland, March 27–30, 1996. A Secondary Education for Europe Project. Available at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fullte xt/ED407717.pdf. 3 Recommendations of the Council of the European Union and of the Council of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/E N/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(01)&rid=7.

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educational debate in Poland on the developmental directions of education within entrepreneurship competences.

Entrepreneurship as a key competence in the EU documents The presence of the category of entrepreneurship in colloquial language, public debate and scientific discourse draws attention to its topicality and multidimensional importance for human functioning, both in his workplace and in other fields of social activity. Due to the interdisciplinary and polysemic nature of the concept of entrepreneurship, the literature on the subject has many research perspectives and theoretical constructs depending on the goals and context of the considerations4. In order to create effective strategies and curricula in relation to entrepreneurship, it is necessary to approve a universal and one view. The operationalization of entrepreneurship as a key competence carried out by a team of experts of the European Commission was adopted by the educational authorities of the member countries. Entrepreneurship has been regarded as one of the fundamental objectives of educational policies, whose priority is to stress the relationship between school and job market. The educational implications of the concept of entrepreneurship in the context of the key competences are reflected in strategic documents and curricula at all levels of education. The analysis of the description of the concept of key competences from 2006 and 2018 allows us to adopt the definition of entrepreneurship understood as a set of knowledge, skills and attitudes of an individual, which is characterized by: initiative5, creativity, perseverance in pursuing goals, the ability to think critically and solve problems, curiosity about the world, awareness of own strengths and weaknesses, self-discipline, willingness to take sustainable risks and take responsibility6. The European concept of entrepreneurship as a key competence is disseminated through reports, expert studies and promotional materials signed by the most important EU institutions. Among the key studies aimed at awak4 I. Nowosad, M. Farnicka, Entrepreneurship at school. Is institutional development of entrepreneurship possible?, [in:] Towards the Internationalisations of Education and the Labour Market. The European Perspective, red. M. Zapotoczna, International Forum for Education no. 12, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Torun´ 2019, pp. 103–116. 5 According to the Recommendations of 18 December 2006 sense of initiative was equal to the entrepreneurship competence. In turn, in the Recommendations of 22 May 2018 sense of initiative was recognized as a component of the behavioral competences of an entrepreneurial person. 6 Recommendations of 18 December 2006…; Recommendations of 22 May 2018…

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ening the spirit of entrepreneurship through education, two long-term strategic plans are worth mentioning. The educational implications of supporting entrepreneurship as a key competence can be found both in the Lisbon Strategy7 adopted by the European Council for 2000–2010 and the Europe 2020 Strategy8 implemented in 2010–2020 under the auspices of the European Commission. Apart from measures to increase the innovativeness of the economy, market liberalization and social cohesion, the adopted plans also included the modernization of education systems in European countries by increasing the importance of entrepreneurship at all levels of education and training. What compliments the activities deriving from the application of recommendations on key competences are the studies by EU institutions9, the Eurydice network10, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency11 and Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development12. The aim of entrepreneurship education recommended by the European Commission, and implemented as part of various educational activities in the member countries, is to shape the entrepreneurial attitudes of young people. It is an important postulate in the political and educational debate in the context of counteracting unemployment among school graduates13. Sirelkhatim and Gankgi indicate that due to the increased dynamics of educational activities and the variety of educational offer, entrepreneurship is one of the fastest growing areas of education on an international scale14. Nevertheless, it is difficult to find the results of analyzes and research devoted to the verification of the actual effects of the actions taken. The available publications include studies on various factors related to entrepreneurial education and their mutual correlations15, but 7 Lisbon European Council 23 And 24 March 2000 Presidency Conclusions, Brussels, 3. 3. 2010. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/lis1_en.htm. 8 European Commission, Europe 2020. A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth, Brussels, 3. 3. 2010. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eu2020/pdf/COMPLET%20EN%20BAR ROSO%20%20%20007%20-%20Europe%202020%20-%20EN%20version.pdf. 9 European Union, Key Competences for Lifelong Learning, Luxembourg 2019; European Commission, EACEA, Eurydice, Entrepreneurship Education at School in Europe. Eurydice Report, Luxembourg 2016. 10 Eurydice, Developing Key Competences at School in Europe: Challenges and Opportunities for Policy, Brussels 2012. 11 Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency, Entrepreneurship Education at School in Europe. National Strategies, Curricula and Learning Outcomes, Luxembourg 2012. 12 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Definition and selection of key competencies: executive summary, Paris, OECD, 2005. 13 N. Bowers, A. Sonnet, L. Bardone, Giving Young People A Good Start: The Experience of OECD Countries, OECD, Paris, Available at: https://www.oecd.org/els/emp/1953937.pdf. 14 F. Sirelkhatim, Y. Gangi, Entrepreneurship education: A systematic literature review of curricula contents and teaching methods. “Cogent Business & Management”, 2, 2015, pp. 1–5. 15 Compare: European Commission, Effects and impact of entrepreneurship programmes in higher education, Brussels, March 2012; European Commission, EACEA, Eurydice, En-

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there are no reliable reports on the practical implementation of the European Commission’s goal of developing entrepreneurship as a key competence. In response to the EU recommendations regarding the development of key competences, European Union countries include the recommendations in their formal and legal regulations and curricula. They do so in various ways, adopting different approaches to shaping and promoting key competences16. Despite the differences in their implementation into school curricula, particular importance is attached to supporting school undertakings aimed at strengthening cooperation between the education sector and the economy. According to the report of the European Commission entitled “Entrepreneurship Education at School in Europe National Strategies, Curricula and Learning Outcomes”, the popularity and importance of entrepreneurship education is increasing, which is reflected in the development of national strategies and initiatives promoting entrepreneurship in schools in the EU countries.

The place and role of Entrepreneurship Education in Polish educational policy Formal education in Poland is conducted on the basis of educational laws and regulations. Entrepreneurship as a key competence has been included in the national general education strategies and is one of the priority objectives of education and social policy. Six ministries and the Chancellery of the Prime Minister are involved in the development of a strategy for entrepreneurship education. An inter-ministerial team is responsible for the conceptualization of goals falling under the responsibility of several policy areas, especially education, innovation and economic development. Detailed assumptions regarding entrepreneurship education at the level of primary and general secondary education are included in the core curriculum for general education, which is a commonly binding normative act. Until 1999, the core curriculum did not include separate classes in entrepreneurship. Economic

trepreneurship Education at School in Europe, Luxembourg 2016; A. Favolle, B. Gailly, The Impact of Entrepreneurship Education on Entrepreneurial Attitudes and Intention: Hysteresis and Persistence. “Journal of Small Business Management”, 53(1), 2015, pp. 75–93. 16 The report identifies three main approaches to the entrepreneurship education in European countries: 1) entrepreneurship as part of the curriculum (its presence is demonstrated by the learning outcomes for entrepreneurial attitudes and skills such as: initiative, risk-taking and creativity); 2) entrepreneurship as a separate subject (elective or obligatory), 3) entrepreneurship as an element of other subjects (social, mathematics or computer science). See: European Commission, Entrepreneurship Education at School…, pp. 13–17.

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issues were included in the subject of Knowledge about society17. Two years before Poland joined the European Union, a new general education curriculum was approved. Since 2002, in the Polish system of secondary education, teaching entrepreneurship is carried out as part of the obligatory subject of Entrepreneurship. Its status was confirmed in subsequent ordinances of the Minister of National Education of 2008, 2012 and 201718. It can therefore be assumed that the modernization processes in Polish education were per se an accelerator of new didactic ideas, which resulted in the introduction of Entrepreneurship Education to the secondary education curriculum, anticipating the need to implement EU recommendations resulting from Poland’s membership in the European Union. In the comments to the regulations, the legislator draws attention to several issues related to the conditions and manner of implementing entrepreneurial content19. From the point of view of objectives conducive to the development of entrepreneurship, the importance of selecting appropriate education methods and the level of students’ activity is emphasized. From the methodological point of view, the need to correlate the content of the subject of Entrepreneurship with the content of other school activities, such as social studies, geography, mathematics, IT and ethics, is indicated. Experts believe that the application of the project method, consisting in team solving of complex tasks, requiring knowledge and skills in various subjects and social competences, would make it possible to give the content of entrepreneurship a real, interdisciplinary character20. No less important than the methodological workshop and correlation of subject content is also the teachers’ approach and inspiring their students to develop 17 Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 15 lutego 1999 roku w sprawie podstawy programowej kształcenia ogólnego, Dz. U. z 1999, nr 14, poz. 129. 18 Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 23 grudnia 2008 roku w sprawie podstawy programowej wychowania przedszkolnego oraz kształcenia ogólnego w poszczególnych typach szkół, Dz. U. z 2009, nr 4, poz. 17; Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 27 sierpnia 2012 roku w sprawie podstawy programowej wychowania przedszkolnego oraz kształcenia ogólnego w poszczególnych typach szkół, Dz. U. z 2012, poz. 977; Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 14 lutego 2017 r. w sprawie podstawy programowej wychowania przedszkolnego oraz podstawy programowej kształcenia ogólnego dla szkoły podstawowej, w tym dla uczniów z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛ intelektualna˛ w stopniu umiarkowanym lub znacznym, kształcenia ogólnego dla branz˙owej szkoły I stopnia, kształcenia ogólnego dla szkoły specjalnej przysposabiaja˛cej do pracy oraz kształcenia ogólnego dla szkoły policealnej, Dz. U. poz. 356, z póz´n. zm. 19 Podstawa programowa z komentarzem. Szkoła ponadpodstawowa, liceum ogólnokształca˛ce, technikum oraz branz˙owa szkoła I stopnia. Podstawy przedsie˛biorczos´ci, Ministerstwo Edukacji Narodowej, Warszawa 2018. Available at: https://www.ore.edu.pl/2018/03/podstawa-pr ogramowa-ksztalcenia-ogolnego-dla-liceum-technikum-i-branzowej-szkoly-ii-stopnia/+&c d=1&hl=pl&ct=clnk&gl=pl. 20 S. M. Kwiatkowski, Przedsie˛biorczos´c´ jako cel edukacji formalnej, pozaformalnej i nieformalnej. “Polityka Społeczna” nr 7/2017, p. 15 [pp. 13–17].

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entrepreneurial competences. Although empirical research will confirm that entrepreneurship can be supported and stimulated in the course of the educational process21, it should be realized that some entrepreneurial competences, such as persistence, proactivity and systematicity, are difficult to learn in school environment. The postulate of transferring knowledge on how to be entrepreneurial replaces the “learning process of becoming entrepreneurial”22. Competences in entrepreneurship acquired in the process of formal education constitute the basis for further learning in non-formal education implemented in several basic forms, such as: meetings with entrepreneurs, business games, workshops, seminars, festivals and competitions devoted to entrepreneurship. Nevertheless, according to the OECD report, the number of activities promoting entrepreneurship in schools in Poland is still small in contrast to higher education23. The initiatives are incidental and short-lived. Students can run student companies or take part in business simulations, among others. An example of the first type of solutions is the project “Young mini-enterprise” coordinated by the Youth Entrepreneurship Foundation (Fundacja Młodziez˙owej Przedsie˛biorczos´ci), which is part of Junior Achievement Worldwide24. At the level of post-primary schools, students may run student companies in schools25. The second of the mentioned examples of solutions in the field of supporting entrepreneurial competences are simulation companies26. The realisation of the school project takes place in virtual reality and consists in running a fictional company organised like a real business activity. Although the organization and operation of the company corresponds to the actual conditions of the workplace, all activities take place in isolation in a protected environment with no real reference to the market reality. The inability to maintain contact with the external environment deprives the company of an important element of authenticity.

21 G. Gorman, D. Hanlon, W. King, Some Research Perspectives on Entrepreneurship Education, Enterprise Education and Education for Small Business Management: A Ten-Year Literature Review. “International Small Business Journal”, 15, 3, 1997, p. 63. 22 T. Rachwał, Przedsie˛biorczos´c´ jako kompetencja kluczowa w systemie edukacji, [in:] Kształtowanie kompetencji przedsie˛biorczych, red. T. Rachwał, FRSE, Warszawa 2019, p. 30. 23 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Youth Entrepreneurship Support in Poland. Rapid Policy Assessments of Inclusive Entrepreneurship Policies and Programmes, p. 15. 24 Fundacja Młodziez˙owej Przedsie˛biorczos´ci, Informacje o programie “Młodziez˙owe miniprzedsie˛biorstwo”. Available at: http://www.miniprzedsiebiorstwo.junior.org.pl/. 25 M. Zapotoczna, Strengthening school and labour market connections on the example of German solutions. “Przegla˛d Pedagogiczny”, 2, 2019, pp. 179–189. 26 M. Zapotoczna, Simulation company – between education and the labour market, [in:] Towards the Internationalisation…, pp. 117–128.

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Conclusion Entrepreneurship is regarded as one of the more important factors in social and economic development. It is particularly significant for Poland, where the strategic goal of the policy is to accelerate developmental processes on the increase in the level and quality of life to match the standards of the most developed countries27. In the functioning of the education system, a significant role is played by the shaping of entrepreneurial competences, which are generally considered key in the personal and professional development of every human being. The multitude of definitions of entrepreneurship places it at the crossroads of many disciplines whose common element are competences. Assuming that they are components of the constitutive nature of entrepreneurship, a question arises about the possibilities and conditions for shaping the desired triad of knowledge, features and attitudes within school education. In the Polish educational system, a particularly predestined school subject to shaping entrepreneurship as key competences are the basics of entrepreneurship. However, the alleged obligatory subject is only the first stage of the implementation of the Entrepreneurial Education model. What is much more important though is to choose the right content and an adequate method of education. Entrepreneurship education in school settings cannot be limited to teaching entrepreneurship, but should be a form of reflective activity in all areas covered by this education. An urgent task facing the Polish education policy is to develop a systemic and systematic approach to teaching entrepreneurship in schools with the involvement of the local community, especially entrepreneurs. According to the OECD report on the diagnosis of entrepreneurial education in Poland, several key areas for improvement have been identified based on the SWOT analysis28. In particular, these are: training for teachers in the field of entrepreneurship, modernization of teaching with a particular focus on the use of activating methods instead of passive ones, building a positive image of the entrepreneur and promoting an entrepreneurial culture, transfer of good practices on how to use the experience of higher education institutions, and better use of EU structural funds and investment. The European concept of entrepreneurship as a key competence shaped within lifelong education is reflected in the national provisions of the core curriculum. The main postulates emphasized in international documents are consistent with the reforms in the field of education for entrepreneurship im27 T. Rachwał, Wste˛p, [in:] Kształtowanie kompetencji przedsie˛biorczych, red. T. Rachwał, FRSE, Warszawa 2019, p. 9. 28 OECD, Youth Entrepreneurship Support…, pp. 31–32.

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plemented in Poland since 2002. Adapting the concept of entrepreneurship to the context and settings of the Polish school requires constant reflection on the effectiveness of educational strategies, flexibility in the selection of content and the use of activating methods of education. The need to develop systemic solutions that go beyond the mere optimization of the education system in accordance with EU recommendations is one of the challenges facing the Polish education policy.

Bibliography Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency, Entrepreneurship Education at School in Europe. National Strategies, Curricula and Learning Outcomes, Luxembourg 2012. Bowers N., Sonnet A., Bardone L., Giving Young People A Good Start: The Experience of OECD Countries, OECD, Paris. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/els/emp/1953937.pdf (access: 11. 12. 2020). European Commission, EACEA, Eurydice, Entrepreneurship Education at School in Europe, Luxembourg 2016. European Commission, Effects and impact of entrepreneurship programmes in higher education, Brussels, March 2012. European Commission, Europe 2020. A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth, Brussels, 3. 3. 2010. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eu2020/pdf/COMPLET%20EN% 20BARROSO%20%20%20007%20-%20Europe%202020%20-%20EN%20version.pdf (access: 11. 12. 2020). European Union, Key Competences for Lifelong Learning, Luxembourg 2019; European Commission, EACEA, Eurydice, Entrepreneurship Education at School in Europe. Eurydice Report, Luxembourg 2016. Eurydice, Developing Key Competences at School in Europe: Challenges and Opportunities for Policy, 2012. Favolle A., Gailly B., The Impact of Entrepreneurship Education on Entrepreneurial Attitudes and Intention: Hysteresis and Persistence. “Journal of Small Business Management”, 53(1), 2015, pp. 75–93. Fundacja Młodziez˙owej Przedsie˛biorczos´ci, Informacje o programie “Młodziez˙owe miniprzedsie˛biorstwo”. Available at: http://www.miniprzedsiebiorstwo.junior.org.pl/ (access: 11. 12. 2020). Gorman G., Hanlon D., King W., Some Research Perspectives on Entrepreneurship Education, Enterprise Education and Education for Small Business Management: A TenYear Literature Review. “International Small Business Journal”, 15, 3, 1997. Key Competencies for Europe. Report of the Symposium, Berne, Switzerland, March 27–30, 1996. A Secondary Education for Europe Project. Available at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/f ulltext/ED407717.pdf (access: 11. 12. 2020). Kwiatkowski S. M., Przedsie˛biorczos´c´ jako cel edukacji formalnej, pozaformalnej i nieformalnej. “Polityka Społeczna” nr 7/2017, pp. 13–17.

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Lisbon European Council 23 And 24 March 2000 Presidency Conclusions, Brussels, 3. 3. 2010. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/lis1_en.htm (access: 11. 12. 2020). Nowosad I., Farnicka M., Entrepreneurship at school. Is institutional development of entrepreneurship possible?, [in:] Towards the Internationalisation of Education and the Labour Market. The European Perspective, red. M. Zapotoczna, International Forum for Education nr 12, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Torun´ 2019, pp. 103–116. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Definition and selection of key competencies: executive summary, Paris 2005. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Youth Entrepreneurship Support in Poland. Rapid Policy Assessments of Inclusive Entrepreneurship Policies and Programmes. Podstawa programowa z komentarzem. Szkoła ponadpodstawowa, liceum ogólnokształca˛ce, technikum oraz branz˙owa szkoła I stopnia. Podstawy przedsie˛biorczos´ci, Ministerstwo Edukacji Narodowej, Warszawa 2018. Available at: https://www.ore.edu.pl /2018/03/podstawa-programowa-ksztalcenia-ogolnego-dla-liceum-technikum-i-branz owej-szkoly-ii-stopnia/+&cd=1&hl=pl&ct=clnk&gl=pl (access: 11. 12. 2020). Rachwał T., Przedsie˛biorczos´c´ jako kompetencja kluczowa w systemie edukacji, [in:] Kształtowanie kompetencji przedsie˛biorczych, red. T. Rachwał, FRSE, Warszawa 2019. Rachwał T., Wste˛p, [in:] Kształtowanie kompetencji przedsie˛biorczych, red. T. Rachwał, FRSE, Warszawa 2019. Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reco /2006/962/oj (access: 11. 12. 2020). Recommendations of the Council of the European Union and of the Council of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/ legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018H0604(01)&rid=7 (access: 11. 12. 2020). Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 14 lutego 2017 r. w sprawie podstawy programowej wychowania przedszkolnego oraz podstawy programowej kształcenia ogólnego dla szkoły podstawowej, w tym dla uczniów z niepełnosprawnos´cia˛ intelektualna˛ w stopniu umiarkowanym lub znacznym, kształcenia ogólnego dla branz˙owej szkoły I stopnia, kształcenia ogólnego dla szkoły specjalnej przysposabiaja˛cej do pracy oraz kształcenia ogólnego dla szkoły policealnej (Dz. U. poz. 356, z póz´n. zm.). Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 15 lutego 1999 roku w sprawie podstawy programowej kształcenia ogólnego, Dz. U. z 1999, nr 14, poz. 129. Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 23 grudnia 2008 roku w sprawie podstawy programowej wychowania przedszkolnego oraz kształcenia ogólnego w poszczególnych typach szkół, Dz. U. z 2009, nr 4, poz. 17. Rozporza˛dzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 27 sierpnia 2012 roku w sprawie podstawy programowej wychowania przedszkolnego oraz kształcenia ogólnego w poszczególnych typach szkół, Dz. U. z 2012, poz. 977. Sirelkhatim F., Gangi Y., Entrepreneurship education: A systematic literature review of curricula contents and teaching methods. “Cogent Business & Management”, 2, 2015, pp. 1–5. Zapotoczna M., Simulation company – between education and the labour market, [in:] Towards the Internationalisation of Education and the Labour Market. The European

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Perspective, red. M. Zapotoczna, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Torun´ 2019, International Forum for Education no. 12, pp. 117–128. Zapotoczna M., Strengthening school and labour market connections on the example of German solutions. “Przegla˛d Pedagogiczny”, 2, 2019, pp. 179–189.

II. Socio-political issues as subject of interest to sectoral policy

Adam Ilciów

Transport policy of Poland. Model of sustainable development

Introduction Transport is a sphere of human activity that has always been present. Along with the increase in the exchange of goods, unification and globalization of markets, the demand for goods transportation services is constantly growing. Development of modern technologies is very important for the development of the transport sector. They contribute not only to the growth of trade, but also to the improvement of means of transport. Due to the increasing mobility of people, passenger carriage is an important part of transport. There are many definitions of “transport” in the literature, but its essence is undoubtedly the movement (carriage, transfer) of people or goods in space by means of transport. In addition, the provision of transport services is often accompanied by auxiliary services, and transport can also include energy. Transport is a key branch of the national economy and is the subject of state transport policy1. The term “transport” is often associated with the term “communication”, with which we undoubtedly associate the transmission of information. Some authors consider “transport” to be a broader concept than “communication”. Then, speaking about “transport” we mean movement of people and goods, and speaking about “communication” we mean – the reconciliation of all issues necessary to make this movement. In a broader sense, “transport” includes “communication” and all additional (auxiliary) services necessary for providing transport service2. The literature presents various classifications of transport depending on the categories adopted. The most frequent classifications are: land transport (road and rail), water transport (inland and sea), air transport (air) and transmission Adam Ilciów, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7304-2154. 1 J. Neider, Transport mie˛dzynarodowy, Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2019, pp.11–12. 2 Ibidem.

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transport (pipeline and wire transport). If we take the subject of transport as a criterion, we deal with passenger or goods transport; if the length of the route, then – with short, medium or long-distance transport; if the type of transaction, then – with domestic or international transport; if the size of the shipment, then – with full truckload or groupage transport; if the continuity of the transport service, then – with direct, multi-branch or multimodal transport3. The issues analyzed in this paper relate mostly to inland transport, Polish transport policy and the influence of the European Union on it4. The aim is to diagnose and try to predict the development of the transport sector.

Transportation in the national economy Except when we move for pleasure, transportation is included in the group of secondary human needs. The emergence of a transportation need is usually preceded by a so-called spatial incompatibility. It may result, for example, from the location of natural resources, the location of production, or the conduct of certain cultural, entertainment, and/or recreational activities in a given place. The role of transportation in the economy cannot be overestimated, as the ability to provide transportation services for manufactured goods significantly affects costs. Transport not only determines the turnover of goods, dynamizes markets for specific products, but also shapes the spatial-economic order, if only through the need to provide the necessary infrastructure. The level of transport development in a given country or region determines its socio-economic growth. Without efficient transport, functioning of many areas of life would be impossible, or at best, it would be very difficult. Planning of any economic activity must be preceded by an analysis of transport needs and possibilities to provide them. When it is a production activity, raw materials and materials have to be delivered and finished products and waste have to be transported. Employees, contractors and customers must be able to safely reach the company. In case of large-scale production, it is necessary to anticipate the traffic volume and use optimal means of transport. The goal of the state transport policy is to optimize the activities leading to the growth of the transport sector. The state has tools that can be used to create and stimulate the development of transport companies. It is crucial to analyze current processes, monitor changes and diagnose potential threats. The transport sector is an attractive branch of the economy for entrepreneurs, with a high potential for 3 Ibidem, p. 13. 4 See more: Transport. Spoiwo społeczen´stwa i biznesu w UE, Urza˛d Publikacji Unii Europejskiej, Luksemburg 2014, pp. 3–4.

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growth, with real opportunities for support by public institutions, opportunities to implement innovative solutions and synergistic effects on other sectors. The state’s transportation policy means initiating actions not only on a national scale, but also in regions and cities (agglomerations); moreover, it must be consistent and integrated with EU transportation policy. Infrastructural projects are a special task of the state. The transportation network ensures that people and goods can move between infrastructure points (nodes), which is a necessary condition for the functioning and development of the socio-economic sphere. Infrastructure facilities are indivisible and immobile, often require large capital expenditures, are characterized by high capital intensity, their use is planned over a long time horizon, and they cause significant, often unpredictable and/or deferred external effects, such as environmental effects. Moreover, spending on productive infrastructure must be preceded by spending on transport infrastructure, which is not always accepted by decision makers. Therefore, transport policy requires forward planning and constant updating of plans. The necessity to incur large investment expenditures and at the same time prospects for profits that are far in the future make it necessary to create incentives for business entities with sufficient capital, engage public funds and/or make long-term commitments by representatives of the state and/or local government. The state’s initiative is often necessary when the aim is, for example, to stimulate economic development in a region and the infrastructure investment is an impulse for the activity of private entities and entrepreneurial inhabitants5.

National transport in EU countries Transport also plays a key role in the framework of the functioning of the single European market, affects the economic efficiency and competitiveness of goods produced in EU countries in the global market. The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union includes it in the group of infrastructure sector policies, which results not only from the necessity of its legal regulation, but also from the specificity of providing transport services with the use of advanced technological solutions6. The shape of the state’s transport policy is influenced by the needs defined in plans for the development of the national economy and the establishment by the 5 W. Rydzykowski, K. Wojewódzka-Król, Współczesne problemy polityki transportowej, Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 1997, pp. 16–18. 6 Traktat o funkcjonowaniu Unii Europejskiej, Dziennik Urze˛dowy Unii Europejskiej, 2010/C83/ 01, 20. 03. 2010, Art. 90–100, EUR-Lex. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu (access: 10. 01. 2021).

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government of the leading areas of the economy. Attention is also paid to the socalled unity of transport, i. e., such a division of transport tasks and such a realization of transport needs that the available national carriers can meet them and develop at the same time. Economic activity in the transport sector must be profitable, thus, the supply of transport services and demand for them must remain at a level at least satisfactory to both parties. State involvement, particularly in the development and maintenance of infrastructure, seems inevitable. Disturbances in the functioning of the transportation sector may cause problems in the development of other sectors of the national economy. The efficient functioning of the transportation sector requires planning and coordination of activities, and due to the special role of the state, also the shaping of transportation policy. Profitability of transport services results from the quality of transport services expected by the customers and offered by the carriers. Buyers formulate requirements and service providers make efforts to meet their expectations to the fullest extent possible, at the same time ensuring themselves a fair profit. Stanislaw Marszalek included the following key postulates of transport: speed, mass, cheapness, safety, accessibility, directness, reliability and comprehensiveness. Depending on the type of transport, more importance is attached to selected postulates. For example, the author concluded that road transport fulfills the postulates of accessibility, directness and comprehensiveness to the greatest extent, railroad transport fulfills the postulates of massiveness, cheapness, safety and reliability, and transmission transport fulfills the postulates of massiveness, cheapness, safety, directness and reliability to the greatest extent. Transport postulates are important to buyers of transport services as they suggest expected benefits. When transport is balanced, it is easier for a buyer to find the most advantageous transport option7. In the European Union countries, road transport still plays the largest role. This is mainly due to the versatility of the means of transport. This type of carrier can offer: access to a transport network with the widest area coverage, access to the largest number of final recipients of goods, the option to provide door-todoor service, the ability to transport virtually any type of goods, high time availability and flexibility, no need for reloading, provision of irregularly intensive services. Among the most significant disadvantages of road transport, we can point out the limitations related to the poor technical condition of roads, the maximum load capacity of vehicles, and thus the relatively high cost of transportation. Moreover, on the one hand, the large number of transport companies

7 S. Marszałek, Ekonomika, organizacja i zarza˛dzanie w transporcie, Wydawnictwo S´la˛skiej Wyz˙szej Szkoły Zarza˛dzania, Katowice 2001, pp. 97–99.

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makes it easy to find a carrier, on the other hand, the offer of services by small carriers is usually limited8. The common transport policy of the European Union is formulated on the basis of several principles: “(1) free and fair but controlled competition, (2) freedom of the user to choose the mode of transport, (3) equal treatment of transport modes and carriers by the authorities, (4) financial and commercial independence of transport companies, (5) the idea of Community coordination of investment in transport infrastructure”9.

The most important objective was considered to be the definition and removal of all barriers to transport development. As a first step, differences in legislation, limitations to competition and reasons for discrimination against carriers were analysed. Particular attention was paid to improving transportation safety and increasing its functionality, which was reflected in infrastructure investments in European Union countries. According to Wiesław Wan´kowicz, the European Union countries shape transport by defining: “the objectives of the development of the transport system (…), the principles governing the way in which transport services are provided (…), the principles of the functioning of the transport system, especially with regard to the effective linking of individual transport subsystems, the principles of accessibility of the transport system (…), norms and standards, the principles of financial and economic documentation and analysis in transport, the formation of transport prices”10.

The special role of transport in EU countries was already highlighted in the early 1990s. The influence of the transport sector on other industries and the link between transport development and economic growth is undeniable. It also stimulates socio-cultural activity, intensifies interpersonal contacts, improves development of weaker regions and even strengthens state cohesion11. However, we should not forget about the negative aspects of transport development. The size of infrastructure investments may be determined by political factors, when a more optimal solution could be to make fuller use of existing infrastructure. Such a solution would allow investing available resources in the region for other no less important purposes.

8 Z. Krasucki (ed.), Transport i spedycja w handlu zagranicznym, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdan´skiego, Gdan´sk 2000, pp. 129–130. 9 W. Wan´kowicz, Transport po przysta˛pieniu Polski do Unii Europejskiej. “Problemy Rozwoju Miast”, 2007, no. 1–2, p. 36. 10 Ibidem, pp. 36–37. 11 S. Marszałek, Ekonomika, organizacja i zarza˛dzanie w transporcie, op. cit., pp. 12–13.

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Sustainable development of transport Declaratively, the idea of sustainable development is supported by everyone. Undertaking any activity should be preceded by thinking about the fate of future generations, and economic goals cannot be the only determinant12. In case of transport, the main concerns are congestion, accidents, air pollution, noise and climate change. External costs are most often analyzed in economic terms, the negative impact on human health is less often mentioned. For example, it is difficult to assess the impact of increased noise on the level of stress, which undoubtedly reduces the quality of life of residents. The concept of environmentally sustainable transport, i. e., transport that does not adversely affect human health and the environment, uses renewable resources to the extent that they can be regenerated and non-renewable ones only to the extent that they can be replaced by substitutes, deserves attention13. The following principles may be helpful for transportation sustainability: (1) access, (2) equity, (3) responsibility of individuals and societies, (4) health and safety, (5) education and public participation, (6) integrated planning, (7) land and resource use, (8) pollution prevention, and (9) economic prosperity14. Sustainable transport planning should take into account: possible economic effects, ensuring conditions for fair competition, negative impact on the environment, the level of consumption of non-renewable resources, the impact on the components of socio-economic space, meeting the transport needs of the society taking into account the expected needs of future generations. In 2019, the “Strategy for Sustainable Transport Development until 2030” was adopted15. The document was developed to “determine the most important directions of interventions and actions” and ensure their coordination. The main objective was defined as “to increase transport accessibility and improve the safety of road users and the efficiency of the transport sector through the creation

12 See more about Agenda 21: Agenda 21, United Nations Sustainable Development. Available at: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf (access: 10. 01. 2021). 13 P. Wiederkehr, R. Gilbert, P. Crist, N. Caid, Environmentally Sustainable Transport (EST): Concept, Goal and Strategy – The OECD’s EST Project. “European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research”, 2004, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 11–25. 14 See more: OECD Proceedings Towards Sustainable Transportation. The Vancouver Conference. Conference highlights and overview of issues, OECD, Vancouver 1996, pp. 61–68. Available at: http://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/greening-transport/2396815.pdf (access: 10. 01. 2021). 15 Strategia Zrównowaz˙onego Rozwoju Transportu do 2030 roku, Ministerstwo Infrastruktury. Available at: https://www.gov.pl/web/infrastruktura/projekt-strategii-zrownowazonego-roz woju-transportu-do-2030-roku2 (access: 10. 01. 2021).

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of a coherent, sustainable, innovative and user-friendly transport system at national, European and global level”16. Six directions of intervention were also set: “building an integrated, interconnected transport network serving a competitive economy, improving the way the transport system is organized and managed, changes in individual and collective mobility, improving the safety of traffic participants and transported goods, reducing the negative impact of transport on the environment, improving the efficiency of the use of public funds for transport projects”17.

The strategy also states that: “A coherent network of roads and railroads, a developed network of airports, seaports and inland waterways and changes in individual and collective mobility, as well as an increase in the level of innovation and digitization of the transport sector and the development of public transport systems will allow the full use of the potential of the Polish economy, education, science and culture”18.

The diagnosis of the situation presented in the document is detailed, and the expected changes in the transport sector and planned undertakings for the next decade are ambitious goals. Changes in the transport sector, as far as railroad transport is concerned, were planned by the Railway Transport Office19. The document diagnoses five challenges: “(1) introduction of solutions to level the playing field between road and rail transport, (2) improvement and adaptation of rail infrastructure for the takeover of goods by rail, (3) introduction of incentives for the use of containers in the economy, (4) initiation of transport of truck semi-trailers over 300 km on selected rail routes, (5) initiation of transport of whole truck sets (tractor plus semi-trailer) in transit”20.

At the same time, attention was drawn to the need to make international corridors leading from seaports to the south of Europe more efficient and to build intermodal centers21.

Prospects for development of the transport sector The transport industry is characterized by a high degree of complexity, affects economic development and the social environment, is linked at many levels with other industries. Predictions of development in the long term are subject to a high 16 17 18 19 20 21

Ibidem, p. 13. Ibidem, p. 14. Ibidem, p. 15. Ibidem, p. 15. Ibidem, p. 5. Ibidem, p. 7–8.

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risk of error. Noteworthy are two studies: “Transport of the Future. Report on the prospects for the development of road transport in Poland in the years 2020– 2030”, prepared by PwC and the Employers’ Association Transport and Logistics Poland, and “Technological Revolution. Directions of the TSL industry development”, coordinated by the Polish Institute of Road Transport. The authors of the first report identified five forces that will determine the shape of road transport in Poland in the near future. These are: (1) domestic freight growth, (2) reorganization of international freight, (3) driver shortage, (4) digitalization, (5) industrialization22. Despite the expected growth in transport, there are at the same time important risk factors, such as cost increases in the industry and more orders for part-vehicle transport. Changes in EU regulations will lead to increased costs of transport networks, reduced revenues due to reduced market availability, increased involvement of Polish carriers in the domestic market, forced internationalization, increased levels of concentration, risks and barriers, which will cause the collapse of many small transport companies. A large and still growing problem, not only on a national scale, is the lack of a sufficient number of qualified drivers. By digitalization we should understand informatization, automation and optimization of transport processes. The increasing share of modern technologies will lead to the dominance of large logistics operators. The platformization of services or the use of artificial intelligence improve the provision of transport services, but at the same time exclude small operators from the market due to high initial costs. The autonomization of vehicles and the use of alternative propulsion systems are expected to be more distant in time, but these modern solutions will be an important factor leading to lower costs23. Developments in the use of modern technology in transport are further outlined in the second report24. The authors point out that on the one hand, many forecasts predict growth in the transport sector, on the other hand, numerous risks for the industry are pointed out. Forecasts of dynamic growth seem to be contradicted by barriers in the ability to increase the size of the fleet, warehouse space and the lack of professional drivers. Political pressure to protect domestic markets is also significant. The solution to some of the problems may be the use of modern technologies in the transport sector. According to the authors of the report, a great potential lies in using algorithms, which will improve decisionmaking processes and resource allocation. Transport system generates huge 22 Transport przyszłos´ci. Raport o perspektywach rozwoju transportu drogowego w Polsce w latach 2020–2030, PwC, Zwia˛zek Pracodawców Transport i Logistyka Polska, Warszawa 2019, pp. 5–16. 23 Ibidem. 24 M. Wolak (ed.), Rewolucja technologiczna. Kierunki rozwoju branz˙y TSL. Raport, Polski Instytut Transportu Drogowego, Warszawa 2019.

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amount of data, and their proper processing will allow to optimize transport organization25.

Summary In many studies we can meet with a statement that transport is the “bloodstream of the economy”. This metaphor reflects the dependence of the development of other branches of the economy on the condition of the transport sector. Due to the necessity of making large infrastructural investments, the involvement of state and/or local governments is inevitable. Even when the burden of investment is borne by private entities, it is up to politicians to establish the legal regulations that set the framework for operation. The state also plays a key role in forward planning of economic development and in shaping the mutual influence of various industries on each other in order to achieve synergies. The Polish economy is part of the EU market, which is beneficial for many entities, but at the same time it must develop in accordance with accepted standards. It is assumed that transport will develop in a sustainable way, and the goal will be not only efficiency, but also care for future generations. Attempts to forecast the development of the transportation sector are in the nature of targets and assumptions. The sector is influenced by many variable factors. It is taken for granted that there are major challenges associated with the application of modern technology, which will only be met by entities with sufficiently strong facilities and financial capabilities. Note: The article does not analyze the impact of the pandemic on economic growth and development of the transportation industry.

Bibliography Agenda 21, United Nations Sustainable Development, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1992. Available at: https://sust ainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf (access: 10. 01. 2021). Krasucki Z. (ed.), Transport i spedycja w handlu zagranicznym, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdan´skiego, Gdan´sk 2000. Marszałek S., Ekonomika, organizacja i zarza˛dzanie w transporcie, Wydawnictwo S´la˛skiej Wyz˙szej Szkoły Zarza˛dzania, Katowice 2001. Neider J., Transport mie˛dzynarodowy, Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2019.

25 Ibidem, p. 8–9.

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OECD Proceedings Towards Sustainable Transportation. The Vancouver Conference. Conference highlights and overview of issues, OECD, Vancouver 1996. Available at: http:// www.oecd.org/greengrowth/greening-transport/2396815.pdf (access: 10. 01. 2021). Rydzykowski W., Wojewódzka-Król K., Współczesne problemy polityki transportowej, Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 1997. Strategia Zrównowaz˙onego Rozwoju Transportu do 2030 roku, Ministerstwo Infrastruktury. Available at: https://www.gov.pl/web/infrastruktura/projekt-strategii-zrown owazonego-rozwoju-transportu-do-2030-roku2 (access: 10. 01. 2021). Traktat o funkcjonowaniu Unii Europejskiej, Dziennik Urze˛dowy Unii Europejskiej, 2010/ C83/01, 20. 03. 2010, EUR-Lex. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu (access: 10. 01. 2021). Transport przyszłos´ci. Raport o perspektywach rozwoju transportu drogowego w Polsce w latach 2020–2030, PwC, Zwia˛zek Pracodawców Transport i Logistyka Polska, Warszawa 2019. Transport. Spoiwo społeczen´stwa i biznesu w UE, Urza˛d Publikacji Unii Europejskiej, Luksemburg 2014. Wan´kowicz W., Transport po przysta˛pieniu Polski do Unii Europejskiej. “Problemy Rozwoju Miast”, 2007, nr 1–2, pp. 27–41. Wiederkehr P., Gilbert R., Crist P., Caid N., Environmentally Sustainable Transport (EST): Concept, Goal and Strategy – The OECD’s EST Project. “European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research”, 2004, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 11–25. Wolak M. (ed.), Rewolucja technologiczna. Kierunki rozwoju branz˙y TSL. Raport, Polski Instytut Transportu Drogowego, Warszawa 2019. Zwie˛kszenie roli kolei w równowaz˙eniu transportu towarów w Polsce. Wyzwania, propozycje, dobre praktyki, Urza˛d Transportu Kolejowego, Warszawa 2019. Available at: https://www.utk.gov.pl/download/1/48741/Zrownowazenietransportuaktualizacja2205 2019.pdf (access: 10. 01. 2021).

Krzysztof Lisowski / Dorota Szaban

Strategies for merging local government units – from the socialization of power to non-participation

Introduction One of the elements of urban and regional policy making is the merging of local governments. The Polish experience shows that in the process of incorporating parts or whole municipalities into urban space different strategies are applied which have specific social consequences. Substantive arguments and the will of inhabitants for or against a change of borders often clash with political decisions that take into account the interests of only one of the parties. This creates conflict situations that affect the quality of functioning of local communities. The aim of this paper is to compare three cases of mergers (Rzeszow, Zielona Gora and Opole), and to indicate their social effects. Taking into account the criterion of inclusion of residents in the decision-making process, the proposed cases form a continuum from deliberation and socialization of power to the lack of participation, sham activities and imposition of the will of one of the parties.

The pressure of urban expansion Changes in the boundaries of local government units (hereafter: LGUs) in Poland have several reasons. Firstly, scholars and politicians consider arguments concerning the efficiency of their functioning or, more precisely, its optimization1. In this case, it is not only about economic aspects, but also about the quality of democracy2 or ability to perform public tasks. Answers are sought to the question Krzysztof Lisowski, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6943-0127. Dorota Szaban, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4791-817. 1 P. Swianiewicz, A. Gendz´wiłł, J. Łukomska, A. Kurniewicz, Wielkos´c´ gmin i powiatów a sprawnos´c´ ich funkcjonowania. Hipoteza wielkoludów i liliputów, Wydawnictwo naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2016. 2 B. Denters, A. Lander, P.E. Mauritzen, L. Rose, Size and Local Democracy, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham-Northampton 2014.

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of what size of communes, districts or provinces is optimal for the efficiency of their functioning. Most often, such analyses result in local government reforms that redefine the territorial and administrative division and its functions. The current three-tier territorial division was introduced in Poland in 1999 and the basic level units (communes) were created in 1973 as a consequence of merging smaller communes. The second argument formulated by researchers and local government officials (mainly mayors of towns) is the emerging barriers to development (development thresholds)3. According to this concept, the development of cities, which have the character of local, regional or supra-regional centers, must overcome a number of barriers that make economic, social and spatial development possible. Spatial expansion often becomes a necessary condition of further economic and social development. In this context, the thesis of “free riding” of the municipalities surrounding the urban centers, whose residents benefit from the urban infrastructure without participation in the costs is often recalled4. Characterizing the inhabitants of the suburbs of Poznan´, Rafał Drozdowski calls them stowaways: “The inhabitants who moved out of the cities to the surrounding municipalities are like stowaways. They still work in the city, they function based on the city’s infrastructure, roads, theaters, schools, but they are not residents of the city, they do not contribute to it”5. The Association of Polish Cities6 has repeatedly called for legislative changes to facilitate the correction of administrative boundaries which are often drawn at random and to adapt regulations to the requirements of an integrated development policy. The above arguments are strengthened by intensive suburbanization processes which have been intensifying in Poland since the 1990 s7. Their consequence is urban sprawl and significant flows of urban population to the suburban areas located in other LGUs while maintaining intensive relations with the central city. Suburban areas change their character and social structure to a great extent. The

3 D. Rajchel, Zmiana granic administracyjnych miast metoda˛ pokonania bariery przestrzennej na przykładzie Opola i Rzeszowa, [in:] S. Sitek (ed.), “Stare i nowe” problemy badawcze w geografii społeczno-ekonomicznej, Polskie Towarzystwo Geograficzne, Oddział Katowicki, Uniwersytet S´la˛ski, Wydział Nauk o Ziemi, Sosnowiec 2018. 4 P. Swianiewicz, K. Szmigiel-Rawska, Niezwykłe rozszerzenie granic miasta. Przypadek Zielonej Góry w konteks´cie zjawiska jazdy na gape˛. “Studia Regionalne i Lokalne” no. (4) 78/2019. 5 A. Kompowski, Wywiad z prof. Rafałem Drozdowskim Mieszkan´cy osiedli pod miastem sa˛ jak gapowicze, wyborcza.pl. Available at: http://poznan.wyborcza.pl/poznan/1,36001,18103740,P rof__Drozdowski__Mieszkancy_osiedli_pod_miastem_sa.html (access: 24. 01. 2021). 6 Stanowisko Zarza˛du Zwia˛zku Miast Polskich w sprawie wniosków o zmiane˛ granic miast i o przyznanie praw miejskich w 2020 roku. Available at: : https://www.miasta.pl/uploads/document/content_file/886/stanowisko_ZMP_-_zmiany_granic_2020.pdf (access: 23. 01. 2021). 7 K. Kajdanek, Suburbanizacja po Polsku, Zakład Wydawniczy NOMOS, Kraków 2012.

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consequence of urban sprawl is a strong functional connection with the central city and the creation of communities with a hybrid urban-rural identity8. The migratory movements associated with suburbanization, as well as negative population growth, cause depopulation of cities and give rise to the desire to prevent drastic changes. In his forecast9, Przemysław S´leszyn´ski predicts that by 2050 almost all 66 largest cities in Poland will have experienced a decline in population. Filip Springer, analyzing the populations of 31 smaller cities (from Biała Podlaska to Zamos´c´), notes that between 1975 and 2015 only three of them managed to avoid depopulation (Suwałki, Siedlce, Leszno), while the remaining ones, mainly former voivodship towns, experienced a significant depopulation. Other studies also point to the problem10: between 1988 and 2015 a decrease in population was recorded in most large and medium-sized cities in Poland. The greatest losses were recorded in Łódz´ (-17.9 %), Katowice (-18.3 %), Sosnowiec (-19.8 %) and Bytom (-18.7 %). Among cities which in the analyzed years increased their population potential the most were Rzeszów (+25.1 %) and Zielona Góra (+23.9 %), which enlarged their area by the villages adjacent to the city, showing that such a strategy is an effective way to keep their former inhabitants in the city and gain new ones. The above premises encourage many cities to take into account territorial expansion in their urban policies and define enlargement as a necessary condition of development and avoidance of degradation. Such strategy is best illustrated by the sentence uttered by the Mayor of Rzeszów, Tadeusz Ferenc: “If we want to maintain the region, we have to expand Rzeszów. If they return to the idea of 8 or 12 voivodeships, they will cut the small ones”11. An alternative to reforms and corrections of territorial division at the local level are various forms of inter-municipal cooperation, which are supposed to optimize the performance of public tasks. In the analyzed cases the municipal authorities decided that the formula of cooperation did not guarantee overcoming the existing barriers to development, so they decided to extend the borders. The initiatives undertaken were not bottom-up in nature, they were not born in the minds of the inhabitants, they were not imposed by law by the central 8 K. Lisowski, Kiedy wies´ staje sie˛ miastem. Socjologiczna analiza procesów ła˛czenia miasta i gminy Zielona Góra, Zakład Wydawniczy NOMOS, Kraków 2017. 9 P. S´leszyn´ski, Delimitacja miast ´srednich traca˛cych funkcje społeczno-gospodarcze, Polska Akademia Nauk, Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania, Warszawa 2016. 10 R. Krzysztofik, R. Szmytkie, Procesy depopulacji w Polsce w ´swietle zmian bazy ekonomicznej miast, Przegla˛d Geograficzny 2018, 90, 2, pp. 309–329. Available at: https://przegladgeografic zny.igipz.pan.pl/zeszyt/item/90_2.html (access: 22. 01. 2021). 11 D. Wodecka., Wywiad z prezydentem Rzeszowa Tadeuszem Ferencem Znaczy prezydent, Magazyn S´wia˛teczny 21–22 paz´dziernika 2017, pp. 26–27.

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authorities, they were an element of urban policy related to expansion and development of cities. Resolutions of city councils initiating the merger process created a conflict situation between the city and its neighboring municipalities. In each case (Rzeszów, Zielona Góra, Opole) municipal officials considered the idea of merging as an unacceptable territorial annexation and a violation of democratic rules. This position is illustrated by the words of the head of Trzebownisko commune: “We count on broad cooperation, not territorial annexation. 9 months ago we held consultations. More than 99 percent of our residents want to remain within the boundaries of Trzebownisko commune. Please respect this. We live and work in a democratic country, where each local government has the same right to exist and develop”12.

The same right to existence and development was entangled in the relationship of partners with definitely different development potential. Paraphrasing the title of the cited book by Paweł Swianiewicz, these were the relations of giants and lilliputians. Such reference perfectly illustrates the imbalance and difference of potentials of self-governments co-existing with each other. Changes of LGUs boundaries ultimately affect their inhabitants. Residents have a say? Changing the administrative boundaries of cities is a long process, conditioned by statutory requirements and procedures. The Act on Municipal SelfGovernment, while regulating the rules of changing the borders, states that at the request of local authorities the final decision is taken by the Council of Ministers. Before the decision is taken, public consultations must be held, which are not binding. The key decision concerning the actual inclusion of the inhabitants in the decision-making process about the merger remained in the hands of local authorities. This aspect had the greatest influence on the strategies adopted by municipal authorities. It should be noted that various forms of social consultations must take place both in cities and in incorporated villages or entire municipalities. Here, a big difference in attitude to the subject of merging was visible, as inhabitants of cities were definitely less interested in the subject and less active than inhabitants of communes. Immediately after the municipal authorities (it was they who initiated the merger process) announced their intention to incorporate villages or communes, conflicts emerged, the most important of which were centered on the following axes: city authorities (city council) – commune authorities (commune council);

12 Interview. Available at: https://rzeszow-news.pl/wojtowie-przeciwko-ferencowi/ (access: 6. 02. 2021).

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commune inhabitants – city authorities; commune inhabitants – central authorities. In the cases analyzed in the procedures preparing applications to the Council of Ministers, different strategies were adopted to involve residents in the decision-making process. Referring to the concept of Sherry R. Arnstein13 and her proposal of a hierarchical ladder of participation, eight levels of participation can be distinguished (manipulation, therapy, information, consultation, appeasement, partnership, delegation and citizen control). They form three levels related to the scope and forms of inclusion of municipal residents in the decisionmaking process. The first of them (manipulation, therapy) is the lack of participation, the second (information, consultation, appeasement) are apparent activities and the third (partnership, delegation, citizen control) is called socialization of power. According to the author, participation without the redistribution of power is an insignificant activity that does not affect decisionmaking, becoming a facade activity. In this context, only in Zielona Góra the concept of sharing power was adopted and residents were treated as partners. In Rzeszów and to an even greater extent in Opole the forms of consultation were closer to sham activities in which the residents of the annexed municipalities were excluded from the decision-making process.

Rzeszów – ‘the struggle of a long-distance runner’ Rzeszów’s struggle with the incorporation of successive villages into the city area began in 2004, this process has not been completed, it is still going on. In total, since 2006, 10 new suburbs have been incorporated into Rzeszów, and the city has more than doubled its area; its population has increased from 163.5 thousand to 198 thousand14. The first ideas of changing the borders appeared in September 1999 on the conference concerning the development of Rzeszów agglomeration. The position of the city authorities clearly rejected any action without the consent of the municipalities concerned. The considered alternative way of strengthening the city was closer cooperation with the communes. However, instead of close cooperation, conflicts and the phenomenon of “free riding” could be observed more often, which manifested itself in the use of city infrastructure without participation in costs. For this reason the city of Rzeszów started to enforce the 13 S. R. Arnstein, Drabina partycypacji [in:] Partycypacja. Przewodnik Krytyki Politycznej, Warszawa 2012. 14 Rzeszów aglomaration. Available at: https://erzeszow.pl/pl/692-rozszerzenie-granic-rzeszow a/13520-jak-roslo-nasze-miasto.html (access: 5. 02. 2021).

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obligation of suburban municipalities to pay the costs of maintenance of municipal kindergartens and public transport. The association “Rzeszów Agglomeration” was created, in which the city did not participate. Mayor of Rzeszów Tadeusz Ferenc, in a difficult situation, does not give up his plans for territorial expansion of the city, while declaring that “There will be no voluntary merger of municipalities, at least for today, the heads of communes have left us no illusions here”15. At first, the residents, who objected to the inclusion of their localities in the city during the organized consultations, also left no illusions. The authorities of the district and communes neighboring with Rzeszów explicitly negatively assessed the measures depleting their population potential and area. They even undertook legal actions aiming to invalidate the decision, the cases were brought to the Supreme Administrative Court and the Supreme Court. The standpoint of the municipal authorities is best illustrated by the statement of the head of the S´wilcza commune, Wojciech Wdowik, “What kind of cooperation is it if one local government changes borders against the will of another local government? The most important aspect of cooperation and integration has been shattered”16. The Rzeszów model in the first years was a consequence of lack of culture of cooperation, respect and collaboration between neighboring LGUs. Although the residents were consulted about the decisions, as it was required by the procedure, they were not included in the final decisions and did not influence the fact of submitting the application for extending the boundaries. Initially, the inhabitants did not agree with the solutions imposed on them, and it can be assumed that the new situation gave rise to fears and uncertainty. Until 2008 all consultations ended with the inhabitants disagreeing (Słocina 80,4 % against; Załe˛z˙e 78,2 % against; Przybyszówka 81,4 % against; Zwie˛czyca 91,5 % against). Lack of in-depth debate, consensus building, disregard for the will of residents, the adopted model is located in the sham activities of the ladder of participation Shery R. Arnstein17. Consultations were carried out because it is required by law, but from the very beginning it was assumed that they would not affect the steps already taken and decisions to submit applications. This assumption also influenced the forms of consultation, which were limited to expressing opinions without in-depth debates. Fourteen years after the first villages were incorporated into the city of Rzeszów a radical change in the attitude of the residents towards the ongoing 15 Sesja Rady Miasta Rzeszowa 11 kwietnia 2006 r. https://bip.erzeszow.pl/368-sesje-rady-miasta -rzeszowa.html (access: 5. 02. 2021). 16 https://rzeszow-news.pl/wojtowie-przeciwko-ferencowi/ (access: 6. 02. 2021). 17 S. R. Arnstein, op. cit., p. 16.

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process can be observed. It is manifested in the positive results of social consultations of the villages recently joined to Rzeszów. Moreover, the surveys conducted in 201718 and 202019 with the residents of the villages annexed to Rzeszów show that most of them (74 %) are satisfied with this fact. They also positively evaluate the changes taking place in the old villages (new districts) and new investments (68 %). The highest ratings were given to the state of roads, sidewalks, public transport and the quality of life in housing estates. Although the act of incorporation itself was not always respectful of the will of the municipal authorities and residents, municipal investments in new housing estates (since 2006 the city has invested PLN 2.2 billion)20 and improvement in the quality of life are changing attitudes towards incorporation. Other villages expressing their opinion in consultations have the opportunity to refer to specific examples of villages previously incorporated into the city. Rzeszów with its ‘long distance’ idea of territorial expansion of the city creates hybrid strategy. It has never been possible to come to an agreement with the authorities of the annexed communes, their position has always been negative. On the other hand, the attitude of the inhabitants of the annexed villages has been changing more and more often.

Zielona Góra – “deliberative marathon” The concerted merger of the city and the rural commune of Zielona Góra into one local government in 2015 was an unprecedented event in Polish self-government. One of the authors of the merger Czesław Ose˛kowski emphasized that it took place in compliance with all democratic standards21. Paweł Swianiewicz and Katarzyna Szmigiel-Rawska22 in their article call the successfully completed process “an extraordinary expansion of the city boundaries”.

18 W. Jedynak, K. Piróg, H. Kotarski, K. Malicki, Ocena zadowolenia z poszerzenia Rzeszowa z perspektywy mieszkan´ców osiedli wła˛czonych po 2006 roku, Próba losowa 595 mieszkan´ców osiedli: Biała, Budziwuj, Młocin, Przybyszówka, Słocina, Załe˛z˙e, Zwie˛czyca. Available at: http://gospodarkapodkarpacka.pl/news/view/20556/mieszkancy-nowy-dzielnic-r zeszowa-zadowoleni-z-rozszerzenia (access: 5. 02. 2021). 19 H. Kotarski, K. Piróg, Rzeszowska Diagnoza Społeczna 2020. Available at: https://rzeszow-ne ws.pl/rzeszowska-diagnoza-spoleczna-czyli-co-o-wlaczeniu-do-rzeszowa-myslamieszkancy/ (access: 5. 02. 2021). 20 https://www.erzeszow.pl/692-rozszerzenie-granic-rzeszowa/13520-jak-roslo-nasze-miasto.h tml?srch=jak%20ros%C5%82o%20nasze%20miasto#ak0 (access: 5. 02. 2021). 21 Cz. Ose˛kowski, Poła˛czenie miasta Zielona Góra z gmina˛ Zielona Góra we wspólny samorza˛d terytorialny, Oficyna Wydawnicza Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego, Zielona Góra 2016, p. 10. 22 P. Swianiewicz, K. Szmigiel-Rawska, op. cit., p. 54.

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The argumentation for merging the city and the entire rural commune was based on the premises known from Rzeszów and later from Opole, pointing to the lack of investment areas, the shrinking population potential of the city as a result of suburbanisation, and fears of degradation of one of the smallest voivodship cities in Poland. An additional argument was that as a result of a change in regulations in 2003, a new incentive was introduced for merging municipalities in the form of an additional five percent share in personal income tax revenue to be transferred to the new municipality for five years after the merger. It was quickly calculated that the additional amount was about 100 million. The specificity of the merger of Zielona Góra was the fact that the entire commune was integrated with the city (formally it ceased to exist). This was due to the peripheral location of the commune around the city and fears that taking over only the largest, most urbanised villages could complicate the merger process and on the other hand deprive it of the so-called ministerial bonus. However, the most important distinguishing feature of the merger was the choice of a deliberative model of decision-making in the commune referendum and municipal consultations. The mayor of the city and the head of the commune agreed that the decision should be made by the residents. This did not mean the absence of conflicts and disputes, it gave a chance for discussion and convincing both supporters and opponents of the merger to their arguments. All attention was focused on the residents of the rural municipality. It was rightly assumed that they would be the most affected by the merger and that it would be most difficult to convince them to the merger. Since the presentation of the merger proposal in October 2011, the mayor of Zielona Góra appointed a special team, which already in the first arrangements assumed that the decisive vote will belong to the residents, an additional bonus for the merger will be transferred to investments in the commune and the campaign will be positive in nature23. The campaign, which was conducted for almost 3 years and formally ended with a referendum in the rural municipality on 18 May 2014, was mainly targeted at the residents of the commune. Its deliberative nature consisted in organizing dozens of meetings with residents and various professional circles (education, farmers, volunteer fire departments, business, etc.) During this time, the Integration Fund was also implemented, which in 2013–2014 offered 3 million PLN each year for investments in villages. The decision on their allocation was made by the residents themselves and not by the commune authorities. The financial incentive made it possible to carry out a number of investments, but more important for the municipal authorities was to gain the trust and credibility of the community’s residents. The knowledge gained during the meetings, legal analyses and social research were the basis for 23 Cz. Ose˛kowski, op.cit., p. 28.

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preparing a connection offer for the residents of the rural commune, which was finally written down in the form of the Zielona Góra contract and formally accepted as a commitment by the city council. The contract contained, among other things, declarations concerning: 1. the organizational structure of the new city (preservation of the villages and village leaders, financial support for village leaders and village councils, creation of a separate electoral district to ensure the representation of residents) 2. education (maintaining the network of schools and educational institutions, maintaining the current salaries resulting from the Teachers’ Charter), 3. farmers (maintaining the right to keep cattle, pigs and poultry), 4. administrative matters (not charging residents with the costs of changing legal documents), 5. taxes (after the merger the rates will be equalized to a lower level) 6. communication (providing transport to every village and lowering ticket prices to the municipal level)24. The effect of the city’s actions was visible in social surveys, the attitude of residents of the commune was becoming more favorable, between February and October 2013, the percentage of supporters of the merger increased by 6.2 % at the same time the opponents were also decreasing25. This trend continued until the referendum in the rural municipality, which was won by the proponents of the merger, obtaining 53 %, with a turnout reaching 55 % of those eligible. The effect of adopting the deliberative model was the preparation and presentation to the residents of the rural municipality of a specific offer (Zielona Góra Contract), which resolved almost all doubtful issues and allowed to look at the merger through the prism of specific proposals. Sharing power in the decision to merge local governments proved to be the right decision and the social costs were minimal. In surveys conducted more than 3.5 years after the merger, nearly 80 % of respondents from the rural commune and almost 90 % from the old Zielona Góra were convinced that the merger was beneficial for the residents of the former rural commune26.

24 Ibidem, p. 150. 25 K. Lisowski, op.cit., p. 221. 26 P. Swianiewicz, op. cit. p. 65.

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Opole – “the shortcut” The main reason for the decision to extend the borders was the systematic decline in population, lack of investment areas and consequently fear of Opole’s degradation as an important urban center. Announcing the idea of merging the authorities of Opole knew the experience of Rzeszów and Zielona Góra, they were aware of the adopted strategies and their course. The decision was made for a modified Rzeszów variant, i. e. one that made little reference to the will of the inhabitants and disregarded the position of the commune authorities. The difference consisted in simultaneous inclusion of 13 villages from 5 communes into the city boundaries in a short period of time. It took eight months from the presentation of the idea to change the city boundaries of Opole in November 2015 to the decision of the Council of Ministers in July 2016. In Rzeszów a similar scale of territorial expansion of the city took 15 years and in Zielona Góra over 3 years. The main reason for the decision to extend the borders was the systematic decline in population, lack of investment areas and consequently fear of Opole’s degradation as an important urban center. Announcing the idea of merging the authorities of Opole knew the experience of Rzeszów and Zielona Góra, they were aware of the adopted strategies and their course. The decision was made for a modified Rzeszów variant, i. e. one that made little reference to the will of the inhabitants and disregarded the position of the commune authorities. The difference consisted in simultaneous inclusion of 13 villages from 5 communes into the city boundaries in a short period of time. It took eight months from the presentation of the idea to change the city boundaries of Opole in November 2015 to the decision of the Council of Ministers in July 2016. In Rzeszów a similar scale of territorial expansion of the city took 15 years and in Zielona Góra over 3 years. The research and subsequent consultations clearly showed that there was no possibility of appealing to vox populi, the inhabitants’ reluctance to incorporate parts of their communes into Opole was common (percentage of responses ‘I am against’ in communal consultations, Da˛browa commune 95.9 %; Dobrzen´ Wielki commune 99.7 %; Komprachcice commune 93.9 %; Prószków commune 93.6 %; Turawa commune 97.8 %)27. The situation was different for yet other reasons, including the incorporation of the Opole Power Plant area into the city. This fact made economic arguments crucial. This gave rise to the local community’s belief that it was all about “robbing the money”. In such a situation, it seemed unreasonable from the point of view of the effectiveness of the chosen strategy to include the inhabitants of the villages that 27 Zała˛cznik nr 3 do wniosku o dokonanie zmiany granic miasta Opola. Available at: https://bip. um.opole.pl/zalaczniki/40978/zalacznik_nr_3_digi__28-04-2016_14-35-30.pdf (access: 6. 02. 2021).

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were to be incorporated into Opole in the decision-making process. The probability of obtaining social consensus or winning a possible referendum was close to zero. The stance of the commune authorities was also unequivocally negative, which should not come as a surprise, since in none of the analyzed merger processes (except for Zielona Góra) did the commune authorities finally accept the cities’ proposals. When arguing the necessity of extending the boundaries, the Opole authorities referred to the analyses conducted on their commission28, which justified extending the spatial potential by part of the areas of rural municipalities. It was also necessary to seek political support at the central level, which in the case of Opole played a very important role. The extremely fast procedure (“shortcut”) did not give the deliberative model a chance to be adopted. Instead, it created many levels of conflict and resulted in forms of protests unprecedented in the previously described mergers. These ranged from legal arguments (allegations of illegal construction of the application, complaints to the Voivodeship Administrative Court and the Constitutional Tribunal) to pickets, demonstrations, roadblocks and hunger strikes by residents of the incorporated villages. “The shortcut” that was chosen in Opole does not cancel out the social benefits in the long run, however, it makes people aware of the significant costs, which are primarily related to the loss of subjectivity and the belief that democratic procedures are not always implemented. “Long-term” actions of the mayor of Rzeszów show that it is possible to change social attitudes from strong opposition to satisfaction and acceptance of the inhabitants for further enlargement of the city boundaries. Symptoms of such changes can also be observed in Opole. From the social research carried out with the inhabitants of the incorporated villages before and after the formal merger29 one can see clear changes in attitudes, the support for incorporating into Opole has almost doubled in that time from 17.2 % to 33.7 %, however, the percentage of opponents is still higher. The example of Opole, however, is a lot of local conflicts and related radical actions of residents. This state of affairs does not improve the quality of life and sense of subjectivity. Undoubtedly, the model of non-participation and sham actions carries the greatest social costs, which may be recalled for many years.

28 K., Heffner, Ekspertyza “Uwarunkowania funkcjonalno-przestrzenne rozwoju miasta Opole”, 2015. Available at: https://www.bip.um.opole.pl/zalaczniki/40978/zalacznik_nr_9_digi_27-0 4-2016_11-59-03.pdf (access: 6. 02. 2021). 29 A. Drosik, Materiały konferencyjne, prezentacja wyników badania: Stosunek do duz˙ego Opola, (realizacja badania – marzec 2016, N=467, marzec 2017, N=830).

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Conclusions The cases of incorporating suburban areas into cities presented in the paper are similar as far as the justification of the actions taken is concerned. Local governments used the same arguments related to the elimination of development barriers, such as counteracting depopulation, gaining new investment areas or territorial integrity. They were always accompanied by the fear of marginalization and loss of the position of strong urban centers. Rzeszów, Zielona Góra and Opole differed in the strategies adopted to achieve their objectives. In Rzeszów the enlargement started at the earliest in 2006 and in the opinion of the city’s mayor the process has not yet finished. Initially, the adopted model was of a forced nature, introduced against the will of local authorities and residents. Currently, with the stance of the commune heads remaining unchanged, the inhabitants of the incorporated villages are more and more often declaring their willingness to be incorporated into the city boundaries. Such a change is the effect of investments made in the incorporated villages; the city, having at its disposal an incomparably larger budget, was able to solve many infrastructural problems. Coercion was also associated with treating the will of residents and public consultations in a ritualistic manner, they had to be held, but their results were not taken into account. After many years, this model is shifting on the ladder of participation from non-participation and sham activities towards ritual participation and partial socialization of authorities. A specific feature of the Opole model was the simultaneous incorporation of 13 villages from 5 communes into the city and the speed with which the entire procedure was carried out. In this case, too, the incorporation was forced, against the unambiguous will of the inhabitants and the commune authorities. This resulted in open conflict and numerous protests of the inhabitants, which sometimes took drastic forms (hunger strikes, road blockades). Conflicts dominated mutual relations and closed the way to agreement. This model in Shera R. Arnstein’s participatory ladder is closest to sham actions and indicates a lack of real opportunities to influence important decisions from the residents’ point of view. At a completely different extreme is the model adopted in Zielona, where from the very beginning the residents were given the most important role in decisionmaking. The way the campaign was conducted, the preparation of a concrete merger offer (Zielona Góra Contract), the introduction of a pilot program (Integration Fund) and finally the opportunity to take a stand in a referendum, confirm the subjective treatment of residents and the fact that they were given a part of the government. When trying to answer the question what are the social effects of empty participatory rituals, it is difficult to have a clear answer. Creating new qualities

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through conflict always leaves consequences in the form of difficult relationships and limited trust. As the research shows, the evaluation of city authorities’ actions changes over time, but this fact should not be a justification for depriving local communities of their subjectivity. From the point of view of the authorities’ effectiveness in implementing specific projects, participatory sham actions may accelerate procedures without incurring large expenditures. This conclusion emerges after analyzing the Opole model. The unquestionable social benefit is the improvement of living conditions, it is also the implementation of changes that take into account the will and needs of residents. In the presented examples of merging empty ritual was contrasted with social benefit. And as Sherry R. Arstein writes: “There is a big difference between meaningless, ritualistic participation and having real power to change the outcome of the political process”30.

Bibliography Arnstein, S. R., Drabina partycypacji [in:] Partycypacja. Przewodnik Krytyki Politycznej, Warszawa 2012. Denters B., Lander A., Mauritzen P.E., Rose L., Size and Local Democracy, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham-Northampton 2014. Heffner K., Ekspertyza “Uwarunkowania funkcjonalno-przestrzenne rozwoju miasta Opole”, 2015. Available at: https://www.bip.um.opole.pl/zalaczniki/40978/zalacznik_n r_9_digi_27-04-2016_11-59-03.pdf (access: 6. 02. 2021). Interview. Available at: https://rzeszow-news.pl/wojtowie-przeciwko-ferencowi/ (access: 6. 02. 2021). Jedynak W., Piróg K., Kotarski H., Malicki K., Ocena zadowolenia z poszerzenia Rzeszowa z perspektywy mieszkan´ców osiedli wła˛czonych po 2006 roku, Próba losowa 595 mieszkan´ców osiedli: Biała, Budziwuj, Młocin, Przybyszówka, Słocina, Załe˛z˙e, Zwie˛czyca. Available at: http://gospodarkapodkarpacka.pl/news/view/20556/mieszkancy-no wy-dzielnic-rzeszowa-zadowoleni-z-rozszerzenia – (access: 5. 02. 2021). Kajdanek K., Suburbanizacja po Polsku, Zakład Wydawniczy NOMOS, Kraków 2012. Kompowski A., Wywiad z prof. Rafałem Drozdowskim Mieszkan´cy osiedli pod miastem sa˛ jak gapowicze, wyborcza.pl. Available at: http://poznan.wyborcza.pl/poznan/1,36001 ,18103740,Prof__Drozdowski__Mieszkancy_osiedli_pod_miastem_sa.html (access: 24. 01. 2021). Kotarski, H., Piróg K., 2020, Rzeszowska Diagnoza Społeczna 2020. Available at: https://rze szow-news.pl/rzeszowska-diagnoza-spoleczna-czyli-co-o-wlaczeniu-do-rzeszowa-mys la mieszkancy/ (access: 5. 02. 2021).

30 S. R. Arnstein, op. cit. p. 13.

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Krzysztofik R., Szmytkie R., Procesy depopulacji w Polsce w ´swietle zmian bazy ekonomicznej miast. “Przegla˛d Geograficzny” 2018, 90, 2, pp. 309–329. Available at: https://p rzegladgeograficzny.igipz.pan.pl/zeszyt/item/90_2.html (access: 22. 01. 2021). Lisowski K., Kiedy wies´ staje sie˛ miastem. Socjologiczna analiza procesów ła˛czenia miasta i gminy Zielona Góra, Zakład Wydawniczy NOMOS, Kraków 2017. Ose˛kowski Cz., Poła˛czenie miasta Zielona Góra z gmina˛ Zielona Góra we wspólny samorza˛d terytorialny, Oficyna Wydawnicza Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego, Zielona Góra 2016. Rajchel D., Zmiana granic administracyjnych miast metoda˛ pokonania bariery przestrzennej na przykładzie Opola i Rzeszowa, [in:] S. Sitek (ed.), “Stare i nowe” problemy badawcze w geografii społeczno-ekonomicznej, Polskie Towarzystwo Geograficzne, Oddział Katowicki, Uniwersytet S´la˛ski, Wydział Nauk o Ziemi, Sosnowiec 2018. Rzeszów aglomeration. Available at: https://www.erzeszow.pl/692-rozszerzenie-granic-rze szowa/13520-jak-roslo-nasze-miasto.html?srch=jak%20ros%C5%82o%20nasze%20mi asto#ak0 (access: 5. 02. 2021). Sesja Rady Miasta Rzeszowa 11 kwietnia 2006. Available at: https://bip.erzeszow.pl/368-se sje-rady-miasta-rzeszowa.html, (access: 5. 02. 2021). Swianiewicz P., Gendz´wiłł, A., Łukomska A., Kurniewicz A., Wielkos´c´ gmin i powiatów a sprawnos´c´ ich funkcjonowania. Hipoteza wielkoludów i liliputów, Wydawnictwo naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2016. Swianiewicz P., Szmigiel-Rawska K., Niezwykłe rozszerzenie granic miasta. Przypadek Zielonej Góry w konteks´cie zjawiska jazdy na gape˛. “Studia Regionalne i Lokalne” no. (4) 78/2019. S´leszyn´ski P., Delimitacja miast ´srednich traca˛cych funkcje społeczno-gospodarcze, Polska Akademia Nauk, Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania, Warszawa 2016. Wodecka D., Wywiad z prezydentem Rzeszowa Tadeuszem Ferencem Znaczy prezydent, Magazyn S´wia˛teczny 21–22 paz´dziernika 2017, pp. 26–27. Available at: https://erzeszo w.pl/pl/692-rozszerzenie-granic-rzeszowa/13520-jak-roslo-nasze-miasto.html (access: 5. 02. 2021).

Inetta Nowosad

Educational policy in an integrated model of intervention at the macro, meso and micro levels

In all countries and in all political systems, by means of various methods, the state aims to convince the largest possible number of citizens to its goals, trying to persuade the undecided, as well as groups opposing state authorities. These activities, broadly defined as state policy, also apply to education and as such, they are part of educational policies adopted in a given country, the aim of which is to define general assumptions, goals, ideas, functions, principles, tasks and organisational structures within the system; planning its development, as well as establishing a specific strategy of conduct by appointing qualified staff. As a result, it becomes important to meet the present and future educational needs of the society, which are determined by the authorities in charge1. These activities are reflected in educational laws enacted by the state, which includes legal provisions regulating its educational activities, as well as collateral legal relations. In other words, the state tries to keep up with the changes taking place in sociopolitical and economic relations, as well as to ensure that the prevailing ideology or system is maintained. School and its effective functioning play an important role in educational policies. Despite the accompanying changes in government and political options, it is a constant arena of political intervention. Such importance may be justified by increased effectiveness of the assumed social and political goals, as well as by savings associated with effective functioning of the system. In highly developed countries, educational policies are founded on knowledge of school effectiveness and improvement, which has developed over the last fifty years. It is a phenomenon in which politics derives results from scientific knowledge and implements new solutions in the school system through reforms or modifications. The differences between countries are only apparent in the scope and temporal distribution of the implemented changes. This emerging regularity confirms that pioneering countries with highly effective school systems (top of the PISA Inetta Nowosad, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3739-7844. 1 M. Pe˛cherski, Polityka os´wiatowa, Wrocław-Warszawa-Kraków 1975, pp. 17–18.

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ranking list) make most effective and timely use of confirmed research results in the realities of their school systems. The aim of the article is to review the current trends in educational policies of countries assessed by international bodies as highly effective, and then to develop a conceptual framework for political interventions on this basis. The adopted approach shows the current paradigm shift in the development of education in achieving world-class status2, in which the departure from a centralised model of political interventions results in the search for new solutions that meet current needs. The article discusses the potential of educational politics in an integrated model of intervention at the micro, meso and macro levels. Since at the same time in countries with completely different social and economic conditions, the same phenomena are mentioned, it is assumed that they are universal phenomena, corresponding to contemporary needs and determining dominant tendencies. On this basis, the analyses undertaken in the article may constitute a reference point for the interventions implemented in the school system, but always carried out through the prism of the native context of socio-cultural conditions.

A conceptual framework for highly effective school systems Since the pioneering research by James S. Coleman and the momentous significance of the report published on its basis in 1966: Equality of Educational Opportunity3 report, interest in the determinants of school achievement and educational effectiveness has grown. So far, it has been possible to define and describe a number of factors at different levels of the functioning of educational systems, which in most countries are associated with effective improvement in some areas of the functioning of schools. However, it is worth remembering that it is difficult to distinguish factors which would act in exactly the same way in all countries. Therefore, as is emphasised by researchers, universal solutions should always be treated with a large margin of error. What is more, even if the selected factors do overlap, their impact varies from (very) positive to (very) negative across countries. Also, there are differences within particular systems, i. e. between individual schools, because improving the functioning of schools may be a different process in schools that have already achieved success and in schools that

2 See: A. Schleicher, Edukacja ´swiatowej klasy. Jak kształtowac´ systemy szkolne na miare˛ XXI wieku, Evidence Institute–Zwia˛zek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego, Warszawa 2019, p. 51. 3 J. S. Coleman (E.Q. Campbell, C.J. Hobson, J. McPartland, A.M. Mood, F.D. Weinfeld i R.L. York), Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1966.

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only count on this success4. Although empirical evidence makes it difficult to draw a common model and indicate unambiguous, universal recommendations, it seems justified to develop a certain framework within which the process of achieving effectiveness and improving education (effective school improvement)5 can be developed or explained. Over the last four decades, school efficiency and the creation of a database of factors exerting an effective influence on the improvement of schools have been gaining more and more recognition in the international arena6. This applies as much to the development of theory as to empirical research that results from well-documented projects, interventions and policy innovation by different countries. On the basis of the introduced political interventions, two main types of school systems can be distinguished: effective – world-class, which meet social expectations and react to changing external conditions, and ineffective – practicing old solutions. Experiences in achieving high-quality and efficient school systems in various countries make it possible to isolate and describe a conceptual framework for policy interventions that may help schools become beneficial and enabling learning environments. While adopting the framework, particular attention was paid to those factors which, in the opinion of researchers, were indicated as important regardless of the context of a given country.7 In its general assumptions, this model balances the top-down and bottom-up strategy of political interventions, which is achieved by highlighting the role and importance of the intermediate level, which is a buffer zone between governmental decisions and school practice. This tendency is reinforced by the world-observed process of departing from centralised, top-down management education systems, in which the school is a linear executive unit belonging to higher education authorities and as such, it creates a strong foundation for new interpretations of school and effective education. When looking at the ongoing educational changes, the tendency to decentralise education management systems becomes apparent in a number of countries. 4 L. Stoll, D. Fink. The cruising school: The unidentified ineffective school, [in:] L. Stoll, K. Myers (eds.), No quick fixes: Perspectives on schools in difficulty, Falmer, London/Washington 1998, pp. 189–206. 5 B. P.M. Creemers, L. Stoll, G. Reezigt and the ESI team, Effective School Improvement – Ingredients for Success. The Results of an International Comparative Study of Best Practice Case Studies, [in:] International Handbook of School Effectiveness and Improvement, (ed.) T. Townsend, Springer, Dordrecht 2007, p. 830; B.P.M. Creemers, L. Kyriakides, Improving Quality in Education: Dynamic Approaches to School Improvement, Routledge: New York 2012. 6 I. Nowosad, Rozwój i główne nurty w badaniach efektywnos´ci szkoły. “Studia Edukacyjne”, no. 46, 2017, pp. 125–152. 7 See: De Jong, R., Demeuse, M., Denooz, R., & Reezigt, G. J. (). Effective school improvement: Programmes in the United Kingdom and the United States of America. A re-analysis of school improvement programmes, Groningen Institute for Educational Research, University of Groningen, Groningen, 2001.

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Table 1. Old vs new school systems Old school systems – Bureaucracy and regulation – Hierarchy and breakdown of responsibility – Centralisation – Poor stimulation of good teacher’s work, lack of rational quality control – Quality assurance through input resource control, free assessment by school supervision – Salary based on graduation diploma and not on the actual quality of work – Orientation towards the world of work of the 19th century and education of the middle class – Investments in higher education levels, neglecting preschools and primary schools – One-sided orientation towards baccalaureate (elitism)

New school systems – Orientation towards competence and transparent accountability – Orientation towards tasks set at different levels of the system – Decentralisation – A holistic approach, the principle of subsidiarity – An extensive quality support system; stimuli mobilising to run effective classes – Compensation based on performance – Requirements related to modern living conditions – Investments in early support for children, – Orientation towards all levels of education and employment market (egalitarianism)

Source: own elaboration based on: H. Fend, Beste Bildungspolitik oder bester Kontext für Lernen? Über die Verantwortung von Bildungspolitik für pädagogische Wirkungen, “TiBi” 2003, no. 6

input

The local level (meso)

intermediate level

The ministerial level (macro)

The school level

process

output

context Figure 1. Integrated multi-level model. Source: own elaboration based on: I. Nowosad, Modele efektywnej edukacji, [in: J.M. Łukasik, I. Nowosad, M.J. Szyman´ski (eds.), Nauczyciel i szkoła w obliczu zmian społecznych i edukacyjnych, Oficyna Wydawnicza Impuls, Kraków 2021.

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Theories of organisational management, which have not only opened up new research fields, but have brought together arguments for educational policies, constitute now an important aspect in the development of the contemporary approach to effective school and school systems. The concepts of decentralisation and subjectivity, the principles of total quality management and the theory of change imported into the organisational culture, have shaped the contemporary understanding of school efficiency and its inseparable connection with the school’s need to strive for continuous improvement (change / development). All this is rooted in the transition from interpreting efficiency within a simple model oriented towards “production” (input, process, output, context) toward creating more complex models that take into account the dynamics of internal and external conditions in a dynamically changing environment, strengthening the category of school development in research. Improving education is always focused on practice, on building daily experiences, in the sphere of government regulations – macropolicy aimed at introducing changes and delineating specific directions at lower levels: meso – (regional, local / regional policies) and micro – school units (micropolitics). This means that activities aimed at obtaining high-quality educational processes cannot be treated in isolation, but only in combination. It is equally important that the input resources falling under the responsibility of educational policies, intra-school processes and the output resources included in corrections or modifications that provide feedback on the effectiveness of the processes implemented, will be consistent with historical context and take into account the importance and value of education for a given society. The adoption of an integrated approach reveals a complicated system of connections and dependencies of processes towards the effectiveness of education in schools, but also at the conditions for obtaining a permanent ability of schools to improve their results.8 In the adopted assumption, it should also be noted that the overall results of schools’ functioning (including the effectiveness of the processes leading to it) can be changed over time.9 Therefore, achieving the effect of a permanent increase in pupils’ achievements can be reinforced on three main levels: micro – school level, meso – intermediate level, regional level and macro – national level.

8 D. Hopkins, D. Reynolds, The Past, Present, and Future of School Improvement: Towards the Third Age. “British Educational Research Journal”, vol. 27 (4) 2001, pp. 459–475. 9 P. Mortimore, P. Sammons, L. Stoll, D. Lewis, R. Ecob, School Matters, the Junior Years, Open Books, Wells 1988.

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systemic level (macro)

regional level (meso)

school level (micro)

structural changes, poli!cal decisions

poli!cal decisions, counselling and support counselling, training, feedback

Figure 2. Levels and types of political interventions.

Macropolitics and input resources The central level is the most recognisable in the process of creating educational policies. At this level, the main decisions (all decisions in the top-down strategy) concerning educational policy and the organisation and functioning of schools are made. Political interventions concern input resources through predetermined legislation: laws, regulations and recommendations that apply to all conditions and measures related to: teacher qualifications, educational goals, amount and distribution of funds. The adoption of the above principles results in certain consequences for the school and school processes of initiating and implementing changes. Changes, if any, applied to the entire system – for example, curricula and textbooks were developed by the national institute and had to obtain ministerial approval. In this event, schools were mere recipients. For this reason, searching new ways of solving problems was not preferred, and the system tended rather to stabilise the existing structures and procedures. It was not focused on development and quality improvement, but on finding errors and avoiding them. Centrally managed education systems hardly respect the pluralism of living conditions of children and adolescents. They are also unable to keep up with the intensity of external changes, as they have a limited ability to react quickly and adequately. Moreover, in a hierarchical structure, criticism passes through a certain filter so that management does not receive any reliable feedback on emerging difficulties. And the excess of its regulatory function makes the goals

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set by the legislator illegible. Also, the rationing of activities does not penetrate the teaching-learning processes, which means that teachers have considerable freedom in pedagogical work with their pupils. In such a system, the control of the goals set by the legislator consists in trusting procedures and regulations and in the faith in their effectiveness. There is no institutionalised system of continuous evaluation and reporting. Despite the criticism of the top-down strategy promoting the exclusivity of intervention at the central level, its positive impact is emphasised in the case of systemic consistency. Michaela Fullan clearly emphasises that the government cannot abdicate its responsibility to oversee educational changes initiated by legislative and political procedures, although there are naturally limits to what can be achieved by regulations10.

Micropolitics and intra-school processes Micropolitics stems directly from the school autonomy and its bottom-up change strategy. It is related to the criticism of top-down reforms launched in the 1970s and 1980s, which demonstrated the ineffectiveness of exclusive policy-making and the implementation of political interventions from the central level. Since then, close attention has been paid to other actors in the educational scene and to bottom-up strategies11. In search for new solutions, educational service providers at the level at which implementations are carried out (the principle of subsidiarity) were noticed. It is worth bearing in mind that creating micro-policy in a bottom-up approach is devoid of prescriptive recommendations, instead there is focus on the obligation to arrive at preset goals12. This approach is possible in decentralised systems with partial autonomy assigned to schools. Transferring some decisions down to schools and the possibility of creating intra-school legal acts that regulate detailed local solutions, not regulated in legal acts of the rank of an act or regulation, provides certain school bodies with a degree of constitutive powers, i. e. with the power to create intra-school laws. Such 10 M. Fullan, The New Meaning of Educational Change (4th Edition), Teachers College Press, New York 2007, pp. 254–258. 11 See: K. Hanf, B. Hjern, D. Porter, Local networks of manpower training in the Federal Republic of Germany and Sweden, [in:] K. Hanf, F. Scharpf (eds), Interorganisational Policy Making: Limits to Coordination and Central Control. Sage, London 1978, pp. 303–344; S. Barrett, C. Fudge (eds.), Policy and Action. Methuen, London 1981; K. Hanf, The implementation of regulatory policy: enforcement as bargaining. “European Journal of Political Research” no.10, 1982, pp. 159–172. 12 R. Matland, Synthesising the Implementation Literature: the Ambiguity Conflict Model of Policy Implementation. “Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory”, no. 5 (2), 1995.

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intra-school documents are: statute, regulations and resolutions of collective bodies and head teacher’s orders. Documents forming intra-school laws may not contain provisions contrary to the provisions of a higher office, but they relate to a specific institution, its specific conditions, needs and development plans. From this perspective, one can speak of implementation of state educational policies at the school level, assuming that they overlap with a given school’s micro-policies. This concept includes organisation, management and administration of internal and external affairs, including the definition of a school’s vision and mission, planning development, adopting specific strategies of conduct and enforcing decisions. In this approach, school communities make mid- and short-term decisions aimed at improving the efficiency of their educational processes. Additionally, the processes organised at the school level are enhanced by immediate feedback, so that changes at school level may be initiated with the new school year. The system is flexible and variable to accommodate local difficulties and contextual factors. It can be concluded that the importance of the context is of key importance in this case and it is associated with the emphasis on a significant level of school autonomy.

Policy integration (macro and micro levels) in orientation towards resources In the new approach, when integrating the central level and the school level, it is important to shift the input control towards a stronger output control. Solutions introduced in this field are modelled on modern enterprise management13, in which there is stronger focus on results is associated with decentralisation. The assumption is that inadequate performance in the system is to be remedied by shifting responsibility from the state down to individual institutions, as a result, contributing to improvement in pupils’ achievement. Control of this process is associated with increased monitoring of results through re-centralisation, focusing on the formulation of educational standards and their verification on the basis of tests. It is argued that “granting freedom justifies, and even enforces, orientation towards results (products), holding schools accountable to their head teachers, and defining boundaries between the individualisation of schools and

13 W. Böttcher, Zur Funktion staatlicher “Inputs” in der dezentralisierten und outputorientierten Steuerung. [in:] H. Altrichter, T. Brüsemeister, J. Wissinger (eds.), Educational Governance – Handlungskoordination und Steuerung im Bildungssystem, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2007, pp. 189 (185–206).

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expectations from schools”14. It can be assumed that new public management focuses on issues of system design and targeted control. This is a response to the need to build on the strengths of both top-down and bottom-up strategies, where evidence-based education policies, stronger than before, are given significant importance. This approach is also a product of recognition of the complexity of policies. It assumes the use of knowledge created on both macro levels and micro levels. Educational policies are to be implemented not on the basis of gathered beliefs, but on the basis of reliable evidence15. Experience in this field illustrates different ways in which regions or districts have been successful in introducing sustainable, top-down and bottomup changes in order to achieve real improvement in pupils’ school achievements, but all show the important role of the intermediate level in integrating policy interventions16.

The role of the intermediate level in education policies The integration of macropolicies and school policies aimed at improvement and quality assurance denotes not only recognition of school autonomy in decisionmaking and central actions determining the direction of the system development (comparability of schools), but also a number of directing units that are located between the central level and the level of individual schools. This intermediate level, which can be treated as a basis for various institutional forms which are important in improving schools, is of key importance. It is not just about the role of regions or counties and local authorities, but also about other medium-sized entities. A good example are networks of cooperating schools.17 Despite the fact that they have no authority, they can exert a certain influence on individual schools through, for example, national or regional conferences as well as institutionalised teacher training. There is already well-researched evidence of significant influence of professional learning communities and their role in developing the capacity to build lasting and strong learning potential in schools18. 14 W. Böttcher, Zur Funktion staatlicher…, op. cit., p. 187. 15 H. Fend, Die Wirksamkeit der Neuen Steuerung – theoretische und methodische Probleme ihrer Evaluation. “Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung” 2011, no. 1, p. 6 (5–24). 16 See: Fullan, M., The New Meaning of… , op, cit.; R.F. Elmore, School Reform from the Inside Out, Harvard Education Press, Massachusetts 2004. 17 L. Earl, and S. Katz () Learning from the Networked Learning Communities: Research Report, NCSL, Nottingham 2005. 18 V. Vescio, D. Ross, A. Adams, A review of research on the impact of professional learning communities on teaching practice and student learning. “Teaching and Teacher Education”, 24 (1), 2008, pp. 80–91; L. Stoll, K. S. Louis, Professional Learning Communities: Divergence, Depth and Dilemmas, Open University Press/McGraw Hill, Maidenhead 2007; L. Stoll, Ca-

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David Hopkins, analysing the role of the regional level in improving school performance and pupils’ achievements, developed a set of key variables: – a clear and comprehensive model of reform; – strong leadership at the regional level; – substantive training related to the goals of the program; – implementation support at the school level; – an increasingly differentiated approach to school improvement19. Thus, the results of the research highlight the need to reconstruct the distribution of decisions at individual levels (macro, meso and micro) in creating educational policies and managing school systems20.

Summary The extremely fast pace of changes taking place in the school environment has become a challenge for education policies. For example, David Hopkins suggests that strategic balancing of the top-down and bottom-up changes21 constitutes a key to managing system reforms. It is an approach that is gaining in importance and drawing attention to the potential of various levels, i. e. to the importance of not only the “ordered” block of tasks but also of specific feedback. In other words, Michael Barber emphasises the importance of systemic leadership and building a potential for change in shaping effective educational processes22. Andy Hargreaves and Dennis Shirley advocate what they call “the fourth way of change”, which combines top-down “national vision, governance and government support with professional and public engagement in order to promote the value of learning and achieving better and better results”23. The cited examples reflect the main threads in the discussion taking place on the international

19

20 21 22 23

pacity building for school improvement or creating capacity for learning? A changing landscape. “Journal of Educational Change”, 10 (2), 2009, pp. 115–127; L. Stoll, L., Extending the learning conversation: reflections on the second year of the Ealing Professional Learning Community, Ealing County Council and Creating Capacity for Learning, London 2010. D. Hopkins, School improvement and system reform, [in:] Ch. Chapman, D. Muijs, D. Reynolds, P. Sammons, Ch. Teddlie (eds.), The Routledge International Handbook of Educational Effectiveness and Improvement: research, policy, and practice, Routlege, London and New York 2016, p. 134. D. Hopkins, J. Munro, W. Craig, Powerful Learning: a strategy for systemic educational improvement, ACER Publishers, Melbourne 2011. D. Hopkins (ed), Transformation and Innovation: System Leaders in the Global Age, Specialist Schools and Academies Trust, London 2007. M. Barber, From system effectiveness to system improvement, [in:] A. Hargreaves, M. Fullan (eds.), Change Wars, IN: Solution Tree, Bloomington 2009. A. Hargreaves, D. Shirley, The Fourth Way, Thousands Oakes, CA, Corwin 2009.

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forum. They reflect the growing need to recognise the specificity of school mobilisation in achieving efficiency improvements in educational systems. At the same time, they draw attention to frustration, especially among politicians who desire quick-fix results. Internationally, researchers’ attention is focused on finding a balance between the development of individual schools and the development of the system. Two blocks of issues necessary to achieve efficiency and continuous improvement at both levels are isolated: (1) systemic changes at the national or state level, and (2) renewing and redefining the role and work of local education authorities. It is important to define what systemic changes should be introduced at the national level as a way of managing local improvement processes and how the local level can support and mobilise schools to continuously increase pupils’ achievements.

Bibliography Barber M., From system effectiveness to system improvement, [in:] Hargreaves A., Fullan M. (eds.), Change Wars, Solution Tree, Bloomington 2009. Barrett S., Fudge C. (eds.), Policy and Action, Methuen, London 1981. Böttcher W., Zur Funktion staatlicher “Inputs” in der dezentralisierten und outputorientierten Steuerung, [in:] H. Altrichter, T. Brüsemeister, J. Wissinger (eds.), Educational Governance – Handlungskoordination und Steuerung im Bildungssystem, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2007, pp. 185–206. Coleman J. S., E.Q. Campbell, C.J. Hobson, J. McPartland, A.M. Mood, F.D. Weinfeld, R.L. York, Equality of Educational Opportunity, US Government Printing Office, Washington 1966. Creemers B. P.M., Stoll L., Reezigt G. and the ESI team, Effective School Improvement – Ingredients for Success The Results of an International Comparative Study of Best Practice Case Studies, [in:] T. Townsend (ed.), International Handbook of School Effectiveness and Improvement, Springer, Dordrecht 2007. Creemers B.P.M., Kyriakides L., Improving Quality in Education: Dynamic Approaches to School Improvement, Routledge, New York 2012. De Jong, R., Demeuse, M., Denooz, R., Reezigt, G. J., Effective school improvement: Programmes in the United Kingdom and the United States of America. A re-analysis of school improvement programmes, Groningen Institute for Educational Research, University of Groningen, Groningen, 2001. Earl L., S. Katz, Learning from the Networked Learning Communities: Research Report, NCSL, Nottingham 2005. Elmore, R. F., School Reform from the Inside Out, Harvard Education Press, Massachusetts 2004. Fend H., Die Wirksamkeit der Neuen Steuerung – theoretische und methodische Probleme ihrer Evaluation. “Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung” 2011, no. 1, pp. 5–24. Fullan, M., The New Meaning of Educational Change (4th Edition), Teachers College Press, New York 2007.

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Hanf K., The implementation of regulatory policy: enforcement as bargaining. “European Journal of Political Research” 1982, no. 10, pp. 159–172. Hanf K., Hjern B., Porter D., Local networks of manpower training in the Federal Republic of Germany and Sweden, [in:] K. Hanf, F. Scharpf (eds.), Interorganisational Policy Making: Limits to Coordination and Central Control, Sage, London 1978, pp. 303–344. Hargreaves A., Shirley D., The Fourth Way, Thousands Oakes, CA, Corwin 2009. Hopkins D., School improvement and system reform, [in:] Ch. Chapman, D. Muijs, D. Reynolds, P. Sammons, Ch. Teddlie, (eds.), The Routledge International Handbook of Educational Effectiveness and Improvement: research, policy, and practice, Routlege, London and New York 2016. Hopkins D. (ed.), Transformation and Innovation: System Leaders in the Global Age, Specialist Schools and Academies Trust, London 2007. Hopkins D., Reynolds D., The Past, Present, and Future of School Improvement: Towards the Third Age. “British Educational Research Journal”, vol. 27 (4) 2001, pp. 459–475. Hopkins, D., Munro, J., Craig, W., Powerful Learning: a strategy for systemic educational improvement, ACER Publishers, Melbourne 2011. Matland R., Synthesising the Implementation Literature: the Ambiguity Conflict Model of Policy Implementation, “Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory” 1995, no. 5 (2). Mortimore P., Sammons P., Stoll L., Lewis D., Ecob R., School Matters, the Junior Years, Open Books, Wells 1988. Nowosad I., Rozwój i główne nurty w badaniach efektywnos´ci szkoły. “Studia Edukacyjne”, no. 46. 2017. Pe˛cherski M., Polityka os´wiatowa, Wrocław-Warszawa-Kraków 1975. Schleicher A., Edukacja ´swiatowej klasy. Jak kształtowac´ systemy szkolne na miare˛ XXI wieku, Evidence Institute–Zwia˛zek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego, Warszawa 2019. Stoll L., Fink D., The cruising school: The unidentified ineffective school, [in:] L. Stoll, K. Myers (eds.), No quick fixes: Perspectives on schools in difficulty, Falmer, London/ Washington 1998. Stoll, L., Capacity building for school improvement or creating capacity for learning? A changing landscape. “Journal of Educational Change”, 10 (2), 2009, pp. 115–127. Stoll, L., Extending the learning conversation: reflections on the second year of the Ealing Professional Learning Community, Ealing County Council and Creating Capacity for Learning, London 2010. Stoll L., Louis K.S., Professional Learning Communities: Divergence, Depth and Dilemmas. Open University Press/McGraw Hill, Maidenhead 2007. Vescio, V., Ross, D., Adams, A., A review of research on the impact of professional learning communities on teaching practice and student learning. “Teaching and Teacher Education”, 24 (1): 2008, pp. 80–91.

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The Cultural Urban Regeneration of Zielona Góra from the Perspective of the City’s Wine Tradition

Contemporary patterns of creating and using the urban space have been transformed profoundly for recent decades what also pertains to one of the cities of the western border of Poland, to Zielona Góra. This city is traditionally considered to be an urban centre unequivocally associated with the wine tradition of the region. There are dozens of valuable buildings connected with this aspect of economic activity, and certainly some of them feature the architectural values that make them classified as local cultural heritage. The previous efforts to promote the wine-related elements of the city can be hardly accepted as adequate and comprehensive and thus it is worth complementing them with new content and directions of activities. The proposed method of shaping an urban policy of Zielona Góra refers to, inter alia, the concept of the creative city designed by G. Tȍrnqvist1 and further developed in a lot of versions2. It assumes that (1) an urban development policy consists in forming the structures of the new economy; (2) a creative class is a component of the urban community; (3) urban space is characterised by high quality, and the people staying in it have made autonomous decisions about living or investing within this space; (4) the policy of the creative city is combined with the investments in hard projects (renovation and modernisation) and soft ones (the shaping of attitudes and forming competences)3. The modern design of the urban policy takes account of the objectives set by local authorities as well as includes in the opinions of resident citizens and

Jerzy Leszkowicz-Baczyn´ski, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7955-1400. Artur Kinal, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3748-5828. 1 G. Tȍrnqvist, Creativity and the Renewal of Regional Life, [in:] A. Buttimer, A. (ed.), Creativity and Context. Lund Studies in Geography, Series B 50, 1983, pp. 91–112. 2 Ch. Landry, The Creative City: A Toolkit for Urban Innovators, Earthscans Publications, London 2000; D. F. Batten, Network Cities: Creative Urban Agglomerations for the 21st Century. “Urban Studies” 32/2, 1995, pp. 313–327. 3 B. Namys´lak, Miasto kreatywne w uje˛ciu teoretycznym. “Studia ekonomiczne i regionalne”, vol. VI, No. 2, 2013, pp. 5–13.

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independent experts in the planning process that is in compliance with the rules of social participation. In this context, the role of modern urban policies should be emphasised. They are comprehensive tools which add up to an instrument of a multi-faceted analysis of the urban reality used by the widest groups of actors of urban life that should result in introducing the new standards and improving the living parameters in the city what lead to an increase in the quality of life of resident citizens. The urban policy in Poland apply the territorially targeted actions and instruments corresponding to the current challenges which the cities are confronted with, including the demographic and climatic challenges. The strategic documents of an urban policy are the Strategy for Responsible Development (adopted on 14/02/2017), the National Strategy of Regional Development (adopted on 17/09/2017) and the National Urban Policy (adopted on 20/10/2015). We think that it is worth supporting these documents with the assumptions of the new urban policy, which refers to an even greater extent to the vision of creative, innovative cities based on the idea of competitiveness, own cultural capital and regeneration activity.

Assumptions of the text The purpose of this paper is to show, based on the example of Zielona Góra, that cities belonging to the category of medium-sized centres can be included in the modern and effective planning, taking into account the cultural and social potential. Here we make some assumptions that determine the structure of the text. Firstly, as a medium-sized centre, Zielona Góra does not have the cultural potential of other Polish cities (for example Kraków, Gdan´sk, Warszawa, Wrocław), but it has its own exceptional attributes in a form of wine monuments that may create a competitive advantage over other cities. Secondly, thinking of further development of the city, based on the new assumptions of the urban policy, and taking into consideration the previously overlooked content and development objectives, it is worth defining and activating them, including the local context. According to the perspective adopted in this text, the wine monuments and the vineyards surrounding the city treated as infrastructure constitute a significant part of Zielona Góra cultural heritage. We consider that the indicated type of the objects will allow for modifying and enhancing the image of the city, and enabling its cultural regeneration. Thirdly, what will be discussed in the final part of the paper, it is important to work out and enforce an appropriate recommendation that enable the formulation of a new urban policy based on the tangible and intangible cultural heritage related to wine making. They have been captured by indicating the selected and the most valid strategies. Their common

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goal is to tap the local resources which have not been included in the plans of the development and promotion of the city so far, such as urban wine routes, the systematic and multistage popularisation of enotourism as well as creating city games with the wine themes.

Characteristics of Zielona Góra According to data from the year 20194, Zielona Góra has a population of 140.900 inhabitants, of which 58.8 % are people of working age, 17.8 % are people of under working age, and the remaining percentage 23.4 % are people are above the working age limit. The city has recorded a significant percentage of migration contributing to the increase in population for some time now. In 2019 Zielona Góra was ranked first as regards the net migration rate per voivodeship capital city per 1000 inhabitants. The average employment amounted to 24.800 persons – including 34.9 % in industry and 24.5 % in the automotive industry (trade and service). In all the months of 2019, employment growth was recorded, with varying intensity. Compared to the previous year, the number of the registered unemployed decreased by 27 %. The registered unemployment rate was 2.4 %. It is worth noting that Zielona Góra, among all the voivodeship capital cities, recorded the biggest decline in this parameter (of 0.9 %), but the data were gathered before the COVID-19 pandemic and before the restrictions on operating the economic entities resulted from it. The average gross salary in enterprise sector amounted to 4430.56 PZL, an increase of 7.5 % compared with the previous year, and in the same period, with regard to the lowest average monthly gross salary in this sector, Zielona Góra was the fourth voivodeship capital city. There were 21.900 economic entities (the REGON register), a rise of 3,6 % in comparison to the year 2018. The number of economic entities with foreign investment amounted to 1.5 % of the total entities. In the city there are 31 accommodation facilities with 1328 beds, 94 % of which are open all year round. Throughout the year 2019 78 700 people took advantage of this offer of which domestic tourists accounted for 63 600, and foreign ones – four times less (15 100). In comparison with the previous year, the total numbers of tourists went up by 10 %. From the point of view of development potentials, it is worth noting that innovation is a matter of the economy. During years 2017 to 2019, the percentage of industrial 4 The source of data from Office for National Statistics (GUS in Polish). All statistic data (unless otherwise stated) [in:] Raport o sytuacji społeczno-gospodarczej w miastach na prawach powiatu: Gorzów Wlkp. i Zielona Góra w 2019 r., Office for Statistics in Zielona Góra. Available at: https://zielonagora.stat.gov.pl/opracowania-biezace/opracowania-sygnalne/inne-opracowani a/raport-o-sytuacji-spoleczno-gospodarczej-w-miastach-na-prawach-powiatu-gorzow-wlkpi-zielona-gora-w-2019-r-,8,3.html (access: 21. 01. 2021).

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enterprises that show innovative activity in the Lubuskie Voivodeship stands at 17.2 %. Innovativeness of enterprises from service sector was 4.6 %. Compared to the 2016–2018 period, in the group of industrial entities as well as in service ones, this percentage decreased.5 These data refer to the whole region and therefore Zielona Góra accounts for only a part of this total number.

Wine culture as a sphere of cultural heritage of Zielona Góra Zielona Góra, as an urban centre, does not have considerable potential in form of urban monuments (as tangible urban heritage). On the UNESCO World Heritage List it is inscribed Muskauer Park that is located on the Polish-German border, and about 82 km from the city. The oldest, neo-classical church of St. Hedwig, originally gothic, built at the turn of 14th and 15th centuries and the town hall from the second half of the 15th century are worth mentioning among the monuments of Zielona Góra registered in the records of the National Heritage Board of Poland. Even though one takes into account historical sites situated in the neighbouring towns such as churches (Nowogród Bobrzan´ski, Sulechów, S´wiebodzin, Gubin, Lubsko, Z˙agan´, Koz˙uchów, Wschowa), castles (Sulechów, Krosno Odrzan´skie, Z˙ary, Koz˙uchów, Mie˛dzyrzecz), town halls (Lubsko, Szprotawa) and old town squares (Bytom Odrzan´ski), their cultural value is not immense enough to attract tourists from distant places of the country. If one seeks a city development strategy based on the new urban policy, a possible solution is, therefore, to rely on innovative solutions, which have been so far too sparingly adopted in the local urban policy. In this text, we assume that a unique opportunity to promote and develop Zielona Góra should be based on cultural heritage considering the context of the city’s wine traditions. In a narrow sense, the tangible objects of these traditions are historical monuments, more precisely the buildings and historical complexes which have obtained the status of a historical monument from the conservation services on the basis of an analysis of the cultural value of a historical object (in this case – a building). However, nowadays the concept of a historical monument is replaced by the broader term “cultural heritage”. The general understanding of this concept includes not only individual tangible objects, but also their complexes, moreover landscapes or elusive components such as customs, traditions and the special atmosphere of a place (genius loci). As a result, any type of a 5 The source of data from Office for National Statistics (GUS in Polish): Działalnos´c´ innowacyjna przedsie˛biorstw 30 GRUDNIA 2020 r. w województwie lubuskim w latach 2017–2019. Available at: https://zielonagora.stat.gov.pl/download/gfx/zielona-gora/pl/defaultaktualnosci/1728/2/4 /1/dzialalnosc_innowacyjna_przedsiebiorstw_w_woj_lubuskim_w_latach_2017_2019.pdf (accesss: 21. 01. 2021).

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human activity, including nonartistic, may become the heritage6. The tendency towards broadening the meaning of the term results in the fact that cultural heritage is considered to be “the multiplicity of material and immaterial values that are passed down from previous generations”7. The wine tradition of Zielona Góra owes its uniqueness to two features. Firstly, it has dual roots: the essential feature comes from the past centuries, ending in the year 1945, hence this part of the tradition is German in origin. During the almost four post-war decades, the Poles, as newcomers, continued this wine tradition. Secondly, despite breaking the continuity of city’s wine heritage in the second half of the 20th century, it significantly began to recover due to individual initiatives to restore the vineyards in the 1990s, and after the year 2000 it gathered momentum8. For the presented concept of winemaking regeneration, it is essential to distinguish between intangible and tangible cultural heritage, and both of which are recognised as important in the plans of the new urban policy that is proposed here. Intangible heritage includes oral history, rituals, social practises, knowledge and skills transmitted from generation to generation. With regard to the wine tradition, they are messages about old vineyards, their owners, and above all the September Grape Harvest Festival that is the main tradition combining ludic motifs with mythology. Considered from an urban perspective, tangible heritage, by contrast, concerns the objects and sites permanently located in the space such as buildings, urban complexes, and industrial facilities. Here, we narrow down the scope of tangible heritage to those which are related to the people who cocreated the city’s wine history and to their initiatives (residential houses, industrial facilities referring to winemaking, vineyards and so on). As this component of Zielona Góra cultural heritage has not been properly organised and appreciated, it is necessary to estimate its cultural value and to catalogue it by Zielona Góra conservation services. The catalogue of the city’s wine monuments should be a starting point of the further activities targeted at developing tourist routes, printed promotional materials, city games, websites and a lot of other forms of promoting the city, including those not very popular so far such as sound walks. At the same time, we assume that estimating the number, level of diversity and the cultural value of wine heritage depends on a lot of factors, and therefore the experts from a wide range of areas should be involved in these 6 M. Murzyn-Kupisz, Podmioty na rynku dziedzictwa kulturowego. “Studia Regionalne i Lokalne”, No. 41, 2010. 7 M. Murzyn-Kupisz, Barbarzyn´ca w ogrodzie? Dziedzictwo kulturowe widziane z perspektywy ekonomii. “Zarza˛dzanie Publiczne” No.13, 2010. 8 J. Leszkowicz-Baczyn´ski, Odradzanie sie˛ kultury winiarstwa na ziemi lubuskiej po 1989r., [in:] D. Angutek, A. Kinal, J. Leszkowicz-Baczyn´ski, M. Pokrzyn´ska, A. Urbaniak, Winiarska i bachiczna tradycja Zielonej Góry. Epigram, Bydgoszcz 2019, pp. 105–182.

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activities, such as art historians, urban planners, renovation specialists, sociologists, marketing specialists, and wine historians as well as the vineyard owners themselves.

Conditions for the hitherto promotion of winemaking in Zielona Góra The restoration of the local vineyards at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries was accompanied by some elements of promotion of wine culture. Although necessary and important, they were rather a set of separate initiatives that did not create one structured vision of promoting the local winemaking and thus we postulate that they should be complemented by a comprehensive promotion programme being a component of the local urban policy. The outreach activities of Zielona Góra wine associations (including Lubuskie Stowarzyszenie Winiarzy, 1994) and their educational and publishing activities are included in the current achievements. The hitherto deficiencies of the previous urban policy justify the need to develop a comprehensive strategy for cultural regeneration of winemaking. Systematic errors of the local urban policy related to winemaking are as follows: 1. Lack of profiling the current regeneration activities in the city on the issues of wine heritage and consequently the deteriorating technical state of the remaining buildings. 2. Narrowing institutional and spatial promotion of winemaking. Such promotion has been taking place at Lubuskie Centrum Winiarstwa w Zaborze (the Lubusz Centre for Viticulture) recently, and also traditionally at Muzeum Ziemi Lubuskiej in Zielona Góra, on the Vineyard Hill next to the Palm House, at Muzeum Etnograficzne w Ochli (the Ehnographic Open Air Museum called “Skansen”) and also during the September Grape Harvest Festival. Unfortunately, such promotion does not exist in the urban space. 3. System neglect is the gradual land use of former vineyards for new (‘nonwine’, usually real estate development) investment purposes, disregarding at least the partial, historical regeneration of the sites. 4. The flawed design of regeneration programmes, excluding the social effects of changes, and insufficient effectiveness of public consultations with the resident citizens. On the other hand, the main achievements in the development and promotion of contemporary Zielona Góra winemaking are: (a) launching the “Winiarz Zielonogórski” journal (2004); (b) founding Lubuski Szlak Wina i Miodu (the Lu-

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buskie Wine and Honey Trail) (2007); (c) establishing Winnica Samorza˛dowa in Zabór (the Lubuskie Marshal Vineyard) at the initiative of the Marshal of the Lubuskie Voivodeship, Elz˙bieta Polak (2013); (d) making St.Urban I the patron saint of Zielona Góra (2010); (e) organising the 1st National Grape Harvest Grand Prix (2010); (f) an amendment to the “Wine Act” initiated by the Lubuskie winemaking associations (2011); (g) publication of the monograph “Enographia Thalloris” by Mirosław Kuleba (2013). While drawing up the programme of Zielona Góra winemaking regeneration, the potential benefits deriving from the access to national projects should not be overlooked. For example, such an opportunity is currently provided by the “Wzorcowa rewitalizacja” programme produced by the National Heritage Board of Poland carried out as part of the National Programme for the Protection and Guardianship of Historical Monuments for the years 2019–2022. This programme allows for gaining support of the Board’s experts in planning and conducting regeneration programmes concerning cultural heritage, including (1) cooperation in preparing expert’s statements, conservation guidelines or restoration work programme with municipalities carrying out regeneration activities; (2) implementation of projects related to historical monuments (such as infrastructure, architectural, conservation projects as well as adaptation of historical objects); (3) implementation of projects concerning local culture and tradition, making use of intangible heritage)9. From an urban policy point of view, it is essential that cultural heritage can be also considered from the perspectives of financial market regulation. It means that investment in historic winery buildings may result in a decline in the values of these buildings and their surroundings, as well as it provides the opportunity to generate future financial benefits for a lot of industries in their neighbourhood, for example as a consequence of increased tourist traffic or the attractiveness growth of the area among local residents. Such investment have an impact on the increase in the Zielona Góra budget’s revenues and on the profits of companies operating in the city. The social and economic impact of the assets making up the city’s cultural heritage has been documented in studies. They prove that “the rich, culturally diversified, architecturally attractive and historically ‘carrying’ places attract in particular the so-called creative class”10. The estimation of the value of heritage provides arguments related to funding its

9 The recruitment of municipalities to the “Wzorcowa rewitalizacja” programme produced by the National Heritage Board of Poland, published on 21. 01. 2021. Available at: https://nid.pl /pl/Informacje_ogolne/Aktualnosci/news.php?ID=4434 (access: 21. 01. 2021). 10 A. Kozioł, M. Trelka, P. Florjanowicz, Społeczno-gospodarcze oddziaływanie dziedzictwa kulturowego. Raport z badan´ społecznych, Narodowy Instytut Dziedzictwa, Warszawa 2013, p. 42.

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protection and prompts for the appropriate guardianship of historical monuments. The tourism sector is a significant source of income for a lot of cities, as illustrated by national examples of Kraków and Gdan´sk. The visual attractiveness of the site, combined with the uniqueness of former wineries, residential houses, wine cellars and suburban vineyards, should give Zielona Góra a competitive advantage over the cities that do not have such resources. Due to the German origins of wine culture in this region, such a targeted tourist offer should be attractive to its western neighbours, who are fond of doing so-called nostalgic tourism.

Development strategy In order to establish a programme of cultural regeneration of Zielona Góra winemaking monuments, it is necessary to develop a comprehensive plan including the successive stages of activities.11 That is not the point to come back to the pre-war division of Zielona Góra into the city centre and 13 winemaking districts12. However, we find the main system-building activities useful in the form of preparing and implementing a local programme of regeneration of the places related to wine heritage. Its essential requirement would be to undertaken a massive programme of consultations with the resident citizens regarding the being planned actions. The list of such historical monuments includes, for example, the residential houses of wine producers who made their marks on local history: Eduard Seidel’s (13 Drzewna Street), Friedrich Fӧrster’s (35 Słowackiego Street) or the house of the most important figure, August Grempler’s (2 Sikorskiego Street). The later was the founder of the oldest champagne factory in Germany (Grempler & Co.GmbH, Schaumweinkellerei, established in 1826), and according to historical records he hosted the King of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm IV, in his house in 184113. It is worth promoting such events, including them in the wine history of the city. The industrial facilities have been also awaiting their regeneration, for example the former brandy factory of Heinrich Raetsch (Cognac-Brennerei Hch.Raetsch A.G. at 3/5 Chrobrego Street.) or the Albert Buchholz factory (Cognac-Brennerei Albert Buchholz A.G. at 59–61 Jednos´ci Street). 11 The interesting findings were made by one of the local experts in this field, Przemysław Karwowski. See: Annex “Promocja dziedzictwa winiarskiego Zielonej Góry”, [in:] M. Kuleba, Topografia winiarska Zielonej Góry, Organizacja Pracodawców Ziemi Lubuskiej, Zielona Góra 2010. 12 Ibidem. 13 M. Kuleba, Topografia winiarska Zielonej Góry, Organizacja Pracodawców Ziemi Lubuskiej, Zielona Góra 2010, p. 180.

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Although the first is the seat of the Marshal’s Office and the second one is an operating plant, they should be made at least partially available to the organizes groups of visitors. The Zielona Góra wine cellars should be also covered in the regeneration programme, including probably the biggest of the city built by Johann Jeremias Seydel in 1786 (32 Wodna Street) as well as the other cellars with an impressive beauty (Jednos´ci Street, Sowin´skiego Street, Sikorskiego Street). Cultural and tourist regeneration of Dolina Luizy (different spelling in German Luisental, Louisental or Louisenthal) – a pre-war recreation place with a restaurant, a concert bowl and a boat rental, known to all the resident citizens of Zielona Góra at that time, is another possible idea to be considered. Finally, walks along former vineyards of the city combined with games based on finding their remains seems to be an attractive offer. As mentioned above, the starting point would be to make the legal status of some real estate clear as well as to cover conservation guardianship of the buildings that have not been registered yet. One of the form of the programme would concern the renovation and modernisation of winery buildings, including the remains of the former winemaking facilities (as well as vinegar, vodka and brandy), before and after the war, and eventually wine cellars. The programme should also consist in preparing the tourist routes running through sites of historical monuments, in accordance with the touring plans for Zielona Góra14. The detailed actions should concern appropriate, standardised labelling of winemaking monument and the placement of information boards with infographics. They would contain information on the place/building, its role in the development of winemaking and a brief biography of the figures related to it. Another element of winemaking regeneration is to open eating places, restaurants with a varied gastronomic offer and an opportunity to taste local wine. Due to the continued popularity of various food trends, it is worth returning, at least to a limited extent, to the old, pre-war grape therapy (ampelotherapy) which consists in consuming grape constituents. The curative nature of a grape diet was recommended in the 1930s in the still existing building at 38 Botaniczna Street. We also propose that contemporary programmes of cultural regeneration of Zielona Góra should not be limited to the pre-war period, but present the achievements of the Poles too. After 1945, a lot of economic initiatives were launched in winemaking, brewing and related food production referring to the pre-war tradition. What is more, in the immediate post-war period in Lubuska Wytwórnia Win (formely Grempler & Co.GmbH, Schaumweinkellerei) the Poles 14 Such proposals were developed by Przemysław Karwowski. See: P. Karwowski, Promocja dziedzictwa winiarskiego w Zielonej Górze, [in:] M. Kuleba, Topografia winiarska Zielonej Góry, Organizacja Pracodawców Ziemi Lubuskie, Zielona Góra 2010, pp. 937–942.

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worked with some members of old German staff who passed the secrets of production to the new one. In Zielona Góra after 1945, a large number of private plants producing wine, fruit juices and vinegar were established. Law on Nationalization of Industry (passed and executed within 1946–1956.) ended their existence, and their nationalization brought about various effects. Finally, the key question is arising: how to commemorate Grzegorz Zarugiewicz, a pioneer of winemaking regeneration in post-war Zielona Góra? Naming one of the street after him is a good but not sufficient solution.

Summary In addition to the ideas proposed above, it is worth paying attention to some issues of the Athens Charter that should act as the axes focusing the activities of municipal authorities and actors of city life cooperating with them15. Historical continuity. A lot of factors influence the image and attractiveness of the city, but the quality and number of local historical monuments play a crucial role in this respect. The importance of monuments related to the wine tradition of the region as well as the city has been emphasised in this paper. As regenerated and made available, they can serve various functions, such as exhibition, club, concert, partly warehouse, but, above all, they document the value of the rooms once intended for long-term storage of wine. Appropriate adaptation and promotion of such buildings should be preceded by the regulation of their legal status, covering conservation guardianship and undertaking renovation and conservation works. Social involvement. The existence of cities is based on the process of constant engagement of residents in planning and executing the decisions made. It is important for municipal authorities to support the grassroots initiatives in the field of regeneration of winery buildings, and to treat this form of resident involvement as real help and not as opposition and contesting activities. Multicultural richness. In the coming decades, Zielona Góra will not have any multi-cultural city prospects. In this case, the postulate of multiculturalism may be understood differently – as a centre combining historical heritage of German predecessors with the being restored wine tradition. We regard multiculturalism of the city as a connection between the old wine tradition of the region with the traditions brought by new resident citizens from Podolia, Zaleszczyki or other 15 The New Charter of Athens: Visions for cities in the 21st century (2017). Available at: https:// www.tup.org.pl/download/Karta_Atenska_2003-1.pdf and also on the Teoria architektury blog, publication, date: 11. 05. 2017, http://teoriaarchitektury.blogspot.com/2017/05/nowa-ka rta-atenska-2003.html (access: 21. 01. 2021). We use the Polish edition from 2003.

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parts of pre-war Poland after 1945. The key role of multiculturalism understood in this way should be played by contemporary activities related to winemaking: eco-friendly farming practices, wine tourism, modern promotion of local products (not only wine, but also other food items made in vineyards: jams, cheese or sausages), participations of the Lubuskie winemakers in national conventions, competitions and wine tasting. Social identity. The personal identity of resident citizens is a result of the image of the city which should be attractive and clear, and, if possible, unique. We recognise that the expressive, ‘wine-like’ character of the city will be an attraction both for tourists and potential new resident citizens interested in the wine-oriented lifestyle. A marketing strategy promoting the city and the region as an area of wine production, and additionally complemented by winemaking monuments, should provide the basis for the identity in its dual capacity: the city per se (its promotion, policy, implemented investments) and its residents who considerate the winemaking ethos as a component of urban life. Globalisation and regionalisation. Each of an urban centre is influenced by a combination of two trends: on the one hand, by globalisation, on the other, by local (regional) specialisation. The network of multi-level connectivity between the cities has become a fact, and the benefits derived from the mutual relations are a direct consequence of participation in the structure of cooperation. By contrast, the advantages of cities are their local resources, especially those that testify to the uniqueness of the place, and therefore create a competitive advantage over other urban centres. We opt for the use of globalisation in such a way that the ideas obtained thanks to the partnership can be implemented as modern technologies enabling the optimal promotion of the city which reflects on its winemaking specificity. Competitive advantages. For several decades, the role of urban development strategies based on local resources, including the attractiveness of the natural and cultural environment, has been increasing. Referring to historical heritage and thus showing the uniqueness of the city plays an undeniable role. The attractive location of Zielona Góra, as well as the historical buildings as its existing attributes documenting the wine tradition of the city and the region create an opportunity for a competitive advantage over other urban centres. City networking. The effectiveness of a city’s development strategy hinges on, to a great extent, its strategic priorities and the involvement of its neighbourhood policy in various networks connecting cities.16 Taking into account the assumptions of the city development concept presented here, it is advantageous for Zielona Góra to join the structures connecting European cities that share

16 M. Castells, Społeczen´stwo sieci, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2013.

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common wine profile and traditions, such as France, Italy, Hungary, Germany, Slovakia and the Czech Republic. Making efforts to put into practice the assumptions of the local urban policy of Zielona Góra, presented in this paper, arouse no doubts. The city’s wine resources are subject to the same rules as all the components of cultural heritage: they are non-renewable and hard to replace. As a consequence, the lack of a comprehensive, systematic guardianship of such monuments can lead to their irretrievable loss of what happened during the post-war decades, involving at least a dozen historical buildings in the city, including the historical industrial facilities and machinery. The other examples of wine architecture which disappeared from the city landscape are octagonal small buildings situated in vineyards and popular in the nineteenth century. To sum up, the cultural regeneration of wine monuments proposed here has a strong justification in two ways. For those who are sensitive to the uniqueness and beauty of the remains of old wine architecture, cultural regeneration enable them to be restored and saved for future generations. On the other hand, for those who think in the economic way – internet promotion, marking the historic places with the plaques, setting out tourist trails which shows the artefacts documenting the wine splendour of the city in an interesting way, creating city games and the other for of promotion – will build a competitive advantage of this urban centre, as well as lead to an increase in the economic value of the historical buildings and open up a development opportunity for many sectors of economic activity of local companies.

Bibliography Batten D. F., Network Cities: Creative Urban Agglomerations for the 21st Century, Urban Studies 32/2, 1995, pp. 313–327. Działalnos´c´ innowacyjna przedsie˛biorstw 30 GRUDNIA 2020 r. w województwie lubuskim w latach 2017–2019, Available at: https://zielonagora.stat.gov.pl/download/gfx/zielona -gora/pl/defaultaktualnosci/1728/2/4/1/dzialalnosc_innowacyjna_przedsiebiorstw_w_ woj_lubuskim_w_latach_2017_2019.pdf (access: 21. 01. 2021). Kuleba M., Topografia winiarska Zielonej Góry, Organizacja Pracodawców Ziemi Lubuskiej, Zielona Góra 2010. Landry Ch., The Creative City: A Toolkit for Urban Innovators, Earthscans Publications, London 2000. Leszkowicz-Baczyn´ski J., Odradzanie sie˛ kultury winiarstwa na ziemi lubuskiej po 1989 r., [in:] D. Angutek, A. Kinal, J. Leszkowicz-Baczyn´ski, M. Pokrzyn´ska, A. Urbaniak (eds.) Winiarska i bachiczna tradycja Zielonej Góry, Epigram, Bydgoszcz 2019, pp. 105–182. Murzyn-Kupisz M., Barbarzyn´ca w ogrodzie? Dziedzictwo kulturowe widziane z perspektywy ekonomii. “Zarza˛dzanie Publiczne”, no 13, 2010.

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Murzyn-Kupisz M., Podmioty na rynku dziedzictwa kulturowego. “Studia Regionalne i Lokalne”, no. 41, 2010. Namys´lak B., Miasto kreatywne w uje˛ciu teoretycznym. “Studia Ekonomiczne i regionalne”, tom VI, nr 2, 2013, pp. 5–13. Nowa Karta Aten´ska 2003. Wizja miast XXI wieku. Available at: https://www.tup.org.pl/do wnload/Karta_Atenska_2003-1.pdf (access: 21. 01. 2021). Teoria architektury blog, data publikacji: 11 maj 2017. Available at: http://teoriaarchitek tury.blogspot.com/2017/05/nowa-karta-atenska-2003.html (access: 21. 01. 2021). To˝rnqvist G., Creativity and the Renewal of Regional Life, [in:] A. Buttimer (ed.), Creativity and Context, Lund Studies in Geography, Series B 50, 1983, pp. 91–112. Urza˛d Statystyczny w Zielonej Górze, Raport o sytuacji społeczno-gospodarczej w miastach na prawach powiatu: Gorzów Wlkp. i Zielona Góra w 2019 r. Available at: https://zielo nagora.stat.gov.pl/opracowania-biezace/opracowania-sygnalne/inne-opracowania/rap ort-o-sytuacji-spoleczno-gospodarczej-w-miastach-na-prawach-powiatu-gorzow-wlkp -i-zielona-gora-w-2019-r-,8,3.html (access: 21. 01. 2021).

Ewa Pasterniak-Kobyłecka

The priorities of contemporary educational policy in Poland. Outline of the problem

Introduction In his dialogues Plato claimed that the proper functioning of the state depended on good education. Over the centuries, this issue has been raised in many countries. Also now, a lot of attention is paid to education. According to the Lisbon Strategy, the European Union was to become one of the most competitive knowledge-based economies in the world, therefore the governments of the Member States were called upon to improve the quality of education. Eight key competences which students should acquire during the school education process were defined: “communication in the mother tongue; communication in foreign languages; mathematical competences and basic competences in science and technology; IT competences; learning to learn; social and civic competences; initiative and entrepreneurship; Cultural awareness and expression”1. Increasing quality “is a development (a kind of continuation) of the educational priority of partnership – the content discussed and postulated in all global reports”2. Educational policy means all activities of the state related to the planning and implementation of educational goals as well as the organization and management of educational institutions. In Poland, it is defined by the Act of 14 December 2016 Educational Law, announced on 22 May 2020, in force from 1 September 2017. In the introduction it says: “Education in the Republic of Poland is the common good of the whole society; it is guided by the principles presented in the Constitution of the Republic of Poland, as well as the indications contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Ewa Pasterniak-Kobyłecka, University of Zielona Góra, https://orcid.org/000-0002-8245-9012. 1 W. Zgliszczyn´ski, Polityka os´wiatowa Unii Europejskiej, [in:] Studia Biura Analiz Sejmowych Kancelarii Sejmu nr 2 (22), Polityka Os´wiatowa, M. Korolewska, J. Osiecka-Chojnacka (Eds.), Warszawa 2010, p. 77. 2 I. Nowosad, Decentralizacja i autonomia szkoły – remedium na kryzys jakos´ci edukacji?, [in:] Edukacja. Jakos´c´ czy równos´c´?, E. Kobyłecka, I. Nowosad, M.J. Szyman´ski, (Eds.), Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Torun´ 2010, p. 48.

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Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child. […] The school should provide each student with the conditions necessary for their development, prepare them to fulfil family and civic obligations based on the principles of solidarity, democracy, tolerance, justice and freedom”3. For many years, the education system in Poland has been reformed and adapted to the conditions of the changing world. In the current school year 2020/ 2021, the following educational policy objectives have been defined: 1. “Implementation of the new core curriculum in secondary schools, with particular emphasis on science and mathematics education. Developing independence, innovation and creativity in students. 2. Implementation of changes in vocational education, with particular emphasis on adult education. 3. Providing high-quality education and psychological and pedagogical support to all students, taking into account the diversity of their development and educational needs. 4. The use of digital tools and resources as well as distance learning methods in educational processes. Safe and effective use of digital technologies. 5. Educational activities of school. Education to values, shaping attitudes and respecting social norms”4.

The primary goal of education is to create the best possible conditions for the comprehensive development of each person and to prepare them for life in an unknown future. The proposed activities and the possibilities of their implementation which I would like to pay special attention to include shaping the creative attitudes of students, improving the quality of teachers’ work, socializing young people and encouraging them to accept humanistic values. Each school develops its task schedule for educators, which defines goals and tasks to be implemented. Local governments are the governing bodies for all educational institutions. The Ministry of Education and Science and the Board of Education supervise the content of education.

3 Act of 14 December 2016 Educational Law, Journal of Laws of 2020 items 910 and 1378 and of 2021 item 4. 4 Major directions of the implementation of the state educational policy in the school year 2020/ 2021. “Journal Of Laws” 2020, item 910.

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Supporting innovation and creativity in schools Many economies struggle with outdated technologies and unemployment. It is extremely important for young people to be trained in self-learning and getting new competences on their own in order to be able to cope with the challenges of the labour market. The future belongs to enterprising and inventive people. Innovation (Latin innovatis – renewal, creating something new) means a change that brings a positive social effect. In the literature, innovation is considered a synonym for a creative activity or an object that is part of culture5. Innovation makes progress possible. In the 21st century, independence, activity and the ability to transform reality are very desirable human qualities. Innovation is based on creativity (this is “a feature that defines a creative person, author of original theoretical and / or practical works, an inventor”). It is a feature of an individual who can use their imagination, presents an attitude of openness to new ideas and views, crosses the boundaries of routine, takes up challenges to make the world better, has an open mind. Creativity is something very valuable and “a desired state to which a person aspires, perfecting oneself and their immediate surroundings.”6. The active person focuses on: the process (“What can I do now?”); improvement (“How could it be done better?”); positives (“At least this worked out”); teaching (“What can this teach us?”) 7. The characteristics of a creative individual include: talent, proficiency in a specific field; intellectual abilities; divergent thinking; high motivation, perseverance; coping with unusual situations, self-confidence; ability to analyse and synthesise; individualism, independence; willingness to make changes and transform reality; amazement with the world. We need teachers with passion who look critically at reality, improve themselves and their teaching methods, cooperate with students, encourage them to reflect, verify their beliefs, and make decisions on their own. It is facilitated by friendly, democratic relations of cooperating people, dialogue and negotiations. In educational institutions, it is worth creating such conditions for students that they can demonstrate various activities, plan activities in lessons, independently search for and solve problems, make autonomous decisions.

5 Cf. B. Przyborowska, Pedagogika innowacyjnos´ci. Mie˛dzy teoria˛ a praktyka˛, Wydawnictwo Naukowe UMK, Torun´ 2013, pp. 74–76. 6 M. Magda-Adamowicz, Twórczos´c´ pedagogiczna nauczycieli w konteks´cie systemowym. Z´ródła, koncepcja i identyfikacje, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Torun´ 2015, p. 13. 7 Cf. G. Petty, Nowoczesne nauczanie. Praktyczne wskazówki i techniki dla nauczycieli, wykładowców i szkoleniowców, translated by J. Bartosik, GWP, Sopot 2000, p. 514.

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Improving the quality of education in educational institutions Improving the quality of education is necessary if the young generation is to be better prepared to function in the postmodern world. At the turn of the century, there was a vision of the school as an innovative organisation8 in which the following changes could take place: – “In terms of school activity products: transition from standard results to new and unique products, adapted to social needs; – in terms of school behaviour: transition from replicating behaviour that passively uses the achievements of teaching experience to innovative behaviour that enriches the existing cultural resources with new values – innovation; – in terms of structural school ownership: transition from bureaucratic to innovative organization; – in terms of working conditions for teachers and students: transition from an environment that opposes individual creativity to an environment that fosters innovation and stimulates creative work”9. Children and adolescents want to attend modern institutions that teach entrepreneurship, prepare them for an active and wise life. Thus, school “should be a task-social environment conducive to the individual creativity of all entities”10. Bolesław Niemierko defines three levels of teacher involvement in improving the quality of education (Table 1). The author notes that any change in school must be well planned, implemented, analysed and assessed. Table 1. Levels of teacher involvement in improving the quality of education Level Scope of changes Innovation More effective achievement of a specific goal

Essential qualities of teachers Courage, consistency, and selfcontrol

Novelty

Flexibility, openness to changes

Creativity

Systematic introduction of numerous innovations Finding new educational goals and methods

Uniqueness, intuition, suggestibility

Source: B. Niemierko, Kształcenie szkolne, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa 2007, p. 375.

Pedagogical creativity is a form of the planned development of educational culture. Thanks to it, progress is possible within the school practice. Teachers – 8 Cf. R. Schulz, Szkoła – instytucja – system – rozwój, EDYTOR, Torun´ 1992; B. Przyborowska, Struktury innowacyjne w edukacji. Teoria. Praktyka. Rozwój, Wydawnictwo UMK, Torun´ 2003. 9 R. Schulz, Szkoła – instytucja – system – rozwój, op. cit., pp. 162–163. 10 B. Przyborowska, Struktury innowacyjne w edukacji. Teoria. Praktyka. Rozwój, op. cit. p. 235.

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innovators improve their own work and the self-teaching process of their students. In Poland, educational institutions are increasingly implementing experimental activities. The curriculum, organization of classes, method of assessing pupils (e. g. taking into account the criterion of uniqueness), are modified. Students are taught to solve standard tasks in an unusual way, and to cooperate in teams of different ages. This is to prepare young people to work on their own development and change the world for the better. Teachers are required to have a reflective approach to the tasks performed, responsibility, prudence, perseverance, wisdom and a positive attitude towards people. Teachers who support their students’ talents and strengths help them learn effectively. The pupils’ faith in their own abilities is essential for their success. A modern school becomes a “place to talk, think and act together”11. It is a place to exchange experiences, confront views, and negotiate meanings. In a friendly school, pupils satisfy their curiosity, are happy to acquire knowledge, are liked and trusted, feel that they are appreciated by their teachers. Changes in education are necessary and these changes should involve intensified activities that will support the emotional development of students so that they can cope with the tasks set in the future, and ,above all, they can construct their own knowledge about themselves and the surrounding reality. At school, the individual is subject to socialization, learns to cooperate in various formal and informal teams, and to be jointly responsible for the activities undertaken together with the classmates and the teacher. A very valuable initiative to support the emotional development of pupils is to engage them in work for the benefit of the school community (e. g. helping other students with homework, organising free time activities for younger students during long breaks) and in voluntary work (caring for animals in winter, preparing Christmas presents for children in children’s shelters, etc.). Modern schools need teachers who enable their students to make individual decisions. Concern for the development of young people should be manifested in taking actions that support the development of students’ manners, and in caring for their high moral level. Being at school, children are to rise above their own egocentrism, overcome their limitations, be open to other people, learn communication in a group. The progress of civilisation, especially IT progress, contributes to changes in teaching, which has to adapt to students’ interests and capabilities. The Internet generation learns, spends their free time, and communicates with the world differently from the previous generations. There are many ways to use new technologies in education. Interactive multimedia are especially useful because they allow the student to choose their own path of learning. Children can nat11 R. Kwas´nica, O szkole poza kulturowa˛ oczywistos´cia˛. Wprowadzenie do rozmowy. “Teraz´niejszos´c´ – Człowiek – Edukacja” 2015, vol. 18, 3(71), p. 24.

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urally navigate in cyberspace, they operate a computer and use the Internet easily. Interactive boards and computers are placed in classrooms. In line with the core curriculum in younger classes, coding is used and children are taught programming with the use of Ozobots. Educational institutions can take part in competitions and obtain funds to improve the quality of education. For example, between 2018 and 2021, within the EU Power Project Practice school in Primary School No 18 in Zielona Góra in lubuskie voivodship (Szkoła c´wiczen´ w SP18 w Zielonej Górze w województwie lubuskim) numerous teaching innovations have been introduced and classrooms have been modernized. The main goals of the activities include: 1. Improving the process of education and self-education of students in four areas (mathematics, biology, information technology and foreign languages). 2. Increasing the teacher’s competence by observing their practice. 3. Expanding collaboration between schools, universities and science centres 4. Better training for future teachers (university students training to become teachers). As part of the project, workshops for teachers have been organised. In addition, teachers participated in trainings and consultations with scientists – specialists at the University of Zielona Góra and online. Students also took part in special classes conducted at the Science Centre in Zielona Góra Ideally, introducing innovation and improving the quality of education should be a daily practice, a continuous process based on the involvement of all school staff. Also, the frequent participation of university researchers in joint educational projects developed together with educational institutions can contribute to increasing the efficiency of schools and is important from the social perspective.

Axiological education At school and in after-school classes, students deal with values. They often choose them spontaneously, guided by their intuition or beliefs. They can also imitate the preferences of other people, peers, family members, idols, teachers. Values are important, valuable, and desirable. They are what individuals strive for, what they want to achieve, know, multiply, defend. They are something that gives meaning to their existence and enriches life by defining its goals. They can

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take the form of goods, ideas, thoughts, concepts, attitudes, experiences. They are classified and hierarchized12. The educational space of school is also an axiological space, saturated with values related to the goals of education. It is a place where various processes that introduce students to wise life occur. Values as criteria for evaluating actions and behaviour set the course of action. Contemporary education “appears as a tool and perspective of planning social changes oriented towards humanistic values, i. e. properly understood freedom, pluralism, tolerance and human rights”13. In order to be oriented in the world of values, axiological competences are needed. They consist of knowledge in axiology, the ability to recognize, prioritize, choose, understand values, and distinguish them from anti-values, as well as the attitude of accepting and respecting various goods and ideas14. Recognizing values means noticing them, identifying them, distinguishing them from other phenomena. This process requires a certain amount of knowledge and sensitivity, and it engages the intellect, emotions and imagination. Understanding values is grasping their meaning, sense and point of reference. Accepting values means approving them, giving consent to them. Respecting values involves living in accordance with them and following them. Axiologically competent students have moral and aesthetic sensitivity, appreciate universal human values (peace, justice, truthfulness, humanity), and attempt to multiply good and beauty (volunteer service, creating works of artistic value). School and teachers can support young people in a special way in gaining knowledge about the rich world of values and about anti-values (combined with various manifestations of evil)15. Different methods of axiological education can be distinguished, including creating films, preparing an art portfolio, problem methods, valorisation methods, drama, educational games, projects, editing a class magazine). Students can take part in competitions for the best poem, fairy tale or story. They can participate in poetry recital competitions, art competitions or just recite poems together, act in a play, organize a concert or poetry evening16. Additionally, the use of available technical means can make the teaching process more diversified, modernized and attractive. 12 More in: E. Kobyłecka, Nauczyciele i uczniowie gimnazjum wobec wyboru wartos´ci. Mie˛dzy pewnos´cia˛ a zwa˛tpieniem, Oficyna UZ, Zielona Góra 2009, p. 29 and next. 13 J. Szempruch, Pedeutologia, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, Kraków 2013, p. 260. 14 E. Kobyłecka, Nauczyciele i uczniowie gimnazjum wobec wyboru wartos´ci. Mie˛dzy pewnos´cia˛ a zwa˛tpieniem, op. cit., pp. 145–146. 15 Values can also have opposites (truth-lie, dignity-contempt, courage-cowardice, freedomenslavement). Anti-values are most often defined as lack of good, false values. Dealing with them brings undesirable effects (destruction of the psyche, pathologies). 16 Cf. E. Kobyłecka, Edukacja aksjologiczna dziecka w ´srodowiskach wychowawczych. Współczesne problemy, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, Kraków 2020.

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It is worth mentioning here the international project on teaching values called Living Values: An Educational, which has been translated into over 60 languages17. Teachers can find many valuable inspirations and tips there. In Poland, the programmes and lesson plans developed by Krystyna Chałas (Education towards values. Elements of theory and practice – 9 volumes, KUL)18 are quite popular. In the process of education attitudes that foster the emergence and strengthening of communities (e. g. kindness, compassion, forbearance, mercy) can also be emphasized. In the curriculum, values from various groups are highlighted, including: family, friendship, tolerance, patriotism, health, honesty, responsibility, respect, truth. For example, teachers of the Polish language often refer to them when discussing with students the motives of conduct, lives and actions of literary characters19. Values determined by the European tradition are widely recognized: peace, entrepreneurship, prosperity, democracy, rule of law, freedom, equality, altruism20. The axiological spaces of individual schools are often very diverse, both in terms of values preferred by educational entities, as well as in relation to communication contacts between teachers and students. In the process of education, it is important to make students aware of the richness and complexity of the world and to teach them the basic axiological concepts, which should give them a chance to defend against cultural chaos, shallowed feelings and vulgarized language in which we express our thoughts. Young people have insufficient knowledge of the cultural contexts, literature, history, or traditions of their own country and continent. The poverty of language hinders self-understanding and dialogue with other people. Young people have little knowledge of the achievements of outstanding artists (e. g. poets, musicians, painters). The primacy of visual culture over the culture of the word, the collapse of traditional institutions of promoting culture, combining art with marketing are noticeable. The multiplicity of offers causes confusion and axiological chaos21. On the one hand, some representatives of the young generation have high aspirations and easily adapt to new conditions. On the other hand,

17 D. Tillman, Wychowanie w duchu wartos´ci. Poszerzanie ´swiata 8–14 lat. Program edukacyjny, WSiP, Warszawa 2004 and other volumes. 18 K. Chałas, Wychowanie ku wartos´ciom. Elementy teorii i praktyki, t. 1, Godnos´´c, wolnos´´c, odpowiedzialnos´c´, tolerancja, Wydawnictwo “Jednos´c´”, Lublin – Kielce 2006 and next volumes. 19 E. Kobyłecka, Nauczyciele i uczniowie gimnazjum wobec wyboru wartos´ci. Mie˛dzy pewnos´cia˛ a zwa˛tpieniem, op. cit., pp. 212–213. 20 K. Pomian, Europa i jej narody, Słowo. Obraz. Terytoria, Gdan´sk 2004, pp. 117–227. 21 J. Bednarek, Multimedia w kształceniu, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2012, p. 306 and next.

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more and more people are at risk of pathologies, they cannot find the meaning of their own existence. Irena Wojnar claims that “it is necessary to restore the lost existential sensitivity, to support the >>reflective project of identity we all have to go to the ballot box