Design with Climate: Bioclimatic Approach to Architectural Regionalism - New and expanded Edition [New and expanded] 9781400873685

Table of contents :
CONTENTS
PART 1. CLIMATIC APPROACH
I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The Earth and Life
Animal Life and Shelter
Human Life and Shelter
Adaptation of Shelter to Glimate
Similarities Around the World
Community Layouts and Climate
Regional Character
To Find a Method
Summary
II. THE BlOCLIMATIC APPROACH
The Effects of Climate on Man
Shelter and Environment
The Comfort Zone
Relation of Climatic Elements to Comfort
The Bioclimatic Chart
III. REGIONAL EVALUATlON
Climatic Evaluation by Region
Bioclimatic Needs by Region
IV. CLIMATIC ELEMENTS
Factors in Weather
Radiant Heat Transfer
PART 2. INTERPRETATION IN ARCHITECTURAL PRINCIPLES
V. SITE SELECTION
Microclimatic Effects
Effect of Topography
Natural and Built-Up Surroundings
Criteria for Site Selection
VI. SOL-AIR ORIENTATION
Bound to the Sun
Recent Theories
Sol-Air Approach
Regional Adaptation
Regional Application
VII. SOLAR CONTROL
The Structure
Transmission of Radiation and Heat
Economy of Shading Devices
Shading Effects of Trees and Vegetation
Obstruction of Surroundings
Summary of Method
VIII. ENVIRONMENT AND BUILDING FORMS
Morphology in Nature
Impact of External Forces on Buildings
Criterion of Optimum Shape
Conclusions for Basic Forms of Houses
Regional Effects on Large Building Shapes
Morphology of Town Structures
IX. WIND EFFECTS AND AIR FLOW PATTERNS
Wind and Architecture
Wind Analysis
Local Factors in Wind Orientation
Windbreaks
Flow Patterns Inside Buildings
Summary of Procedures in Wind Control
X. THERMAL EFFECTS OF MATERIALS
Opaque Materials and Indoor Temperature Balance
Heat Entry on the Surface
Moisture Effects
Deterioration of Materials
Heat Transmission of Materials
Resistance Insulation, or Heat Capacity Effects
Time Lag and Calculation Methods
Balanced Insulation
Summary
PART 3. APPLICATION
XI. HELIOTHERMIC PLANNING
Comfort Criteria
Calculating Thermal Behavior of Structures
Method of Approach for Heliothermic Planning
Thermal Behaviors
Heat Analysis of Structures in Temperate Zone, Cool Area
Hot-Arid Area
Hot-Humid Area
Summation of Regional Conclusions
XII. EXAMPLES IN FOUR REGIONS
Architectural Application to Community Layouts
APPENDIX A. Technical Notes
APPENDIX B. The Thermoheliodon
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES
INDEX

Citation preview

d e s i g n

w i t h

c l i m a t e

bioclimatic approach to architectural regionalism

D E S I G N W I T H C L I M AT E BIOCLIMATIC APPROACH TO ARCHITECTURAL REGIONALISM new and expanded edition

V I C T O R O L GYAY some chapters based on cooperative research with

A L A D A R O L GYAY

with new essays by Donlyn Lyndon, Victor W. Olgyay, John Reynolds, and Ken Yeang

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS PRINCETON AND OxfORD

Copyright © 2015 by Princeton University Press Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, 6 Oxford Street, Woodstock, Oxfordshire OX20 1TW press.princeton.edu All Rights Reserved ISBN (pbk.) 978-0-691-16973-6 Library of Congress Control Number: 2015939336 British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available This book has been composed in Baskerville Printed on acid-free paper. ∞ Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

PREFACE TO THE 2015 EDITION more than fifty years after its original publication in 1963, Design with Climate remains a touchstone of how architecture is intimately tied to climate and regional character, and it continues to be a guide for how we can measure the benefits and implement the principles of bioclimatic design. Prophetically, our father died on the first Earth Day, in 1970. We knew that he was remarkable and talented, but it took time before we understood how far his contributions extended. Design with Climate was reprinted periodically and translated into several languages. The last paperback printing, in 1992, sold out almost immediately. Since then, there have been many inquiries but few copies, creating an almost constant undercurrent of demand. Many educators and students have asked if the book might be republished. We are delighted that Princeton Univer-

sity Press has decided to reissue this seminal work and make it available in both print and digital formats. Ken Yeang, John Reynolds, and Donlyn Lyndon have contributed essays to this edition and deserve special appreciation for having donated their insights and creative energy to this effort. This publication is richer for their contributions. Molly Miller has done an extraordinary job in editing and harmonizing the new material and has lifted our new prose from the prosaic to the profound. There are innumerable professionals and students in architecture, landscape architecture, and related design fields whose interest and environmental dedication have helped make this republication a reality. We thank these committed individuals, who are creating the change that Design with Climate advocates.

A work like this is never done by a single person, and we would be remiss if we did not acknowledge our mother, Ilona Olgyay, who provided support to our father as he completed Design with Climate. This 2015 edition is dedicated to our parents, Ilona and Victor Olgyay. Cora L. Olgyay, Landscape Architect Nora A. Olgyay, Graphic Information Designer Victor W. Olgyay, Architect

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F R O M B I O C L I M AT I C D E S I G N T O E C O D E S I G N KEN YEANG the work of Victor and Aladar Olgyay incorporating climate data as a basis for architectural design marks a crucial milestone in modernist architectural thinking. The Olgyay brothers were among the very first to systematically incorporate localized climate information as a major determinant of a built form’s configuration—the facade elements, the internal spatial organization, the external layouts, and their aesthetic identities. The work of the Olgyays is even more astounding considering that during the time when they did their studies, commonplace devices available today— electronic calculators, climatic measurement devices, and computers—were still in their infancy. The brothers did their calculations manually or perhaps using slide rules, whereas today we have advanced computing hardware and software, such as Computational Fluid Dynamics, for simulations. This work has formed the basis for an evolving eco architecture, growing now both in popularity and in importance. It is as relevant today, or perhaps more so, as it was when the first edition of Design with Climate came out in 1963. Others who pioneered the field of bioclimatic design include Baruch Givoni, Otto Königsberger, and Simos Yannas. The work of architects of that era, such as Alison and Peter Smithson and Maxwell Fry with Jane Drew, also illustrate principles of this design approach. Le Corbusier’s brise- soleil sunshade is one of the finest examples of bioclimatic design. Bioclimatic design’s relevance today is tied not only to current issues of carbon emissions and comfort but to contemporary culture. Ken

Frampton, who became dean of architecture at Princeton shortly following the death of Victor Olgyay and was surely influenced by him, espouses a climate-responsive approach to architecture tied to geographical and cultural context because it strives to counter placelessness and lack of identity. In the time of the Olgyays this was in contrast to the International style of architecture, but today it could be in contrast to, as one example, the mass homogenization of urban development. Frampton refers to this approach as “critical regionalism,” where, he asserts, a geographical and climate-responsive architecture provides a more authentic basis for deriving an endemic architectural identity by linking the built form’s design to its locality. Climate and geography provide more durable links to place than, for instance, the use of symbolic cultural ornamentation, which can reduce the architecture to a facile pastiche. Climate is a more immutable aspect of place and hence more authentic than symbolic devices, such as red cement mimicking adobe in the American Southwest, for example. When an architect makes a design derived from the measured meteorological data of the locality, then the architectonic responses to those data demand their own different and unique architecture whose characteristics are varied by virtue of the locality’s particular climatic conditions and seasonal changes—shading designs in temperate zones, compact forms in cold zones, thermal mass in warm-dry zones, or copious ventilation in warm-humid zones. Bioclimatic design is also referred to as “passive mode” design. Being passively responsive to

the local climate improves internal comfort conditions without the inclusion and use of any active-engineering environmental systems. Building orientation, material selection, openings, and shading can all provide ideal access to sunlight for light and heat as well as breezes for cooling and ventilation. The antithesis of passive mode is full mode, or active mode, where buildings have fully engineered environmental systems. Today, engineers working with architects in designing sustainable buildings have revived interest in bioclimatic design principles, as they conclude that low-energy design should start prior to engineering environmental systems in buildings (cooling, heating, artificial lighting, mechanical ventilation, etc.) and not after. The engineering serves only to further enhance the already low-energy passive structures. Of course, during the time of the Olgyays, there was no known need for apprehension about climate change. Yet the bioclimatic design principles and ideas espoused in Design with Climate, beyond their value for addressing our continuing need for comfort and elegance, remain crucially valid and relevant for today’s designers who are focused on energy usage and carbon emissions. Fossil fuels power just about everything we like about modern life. They feed us, warm and cool us, transport us, and keep the lights on while powering industry, our economies, our cities, and our communication modes—including the Internet. Cheap nonrenewable energy is, of course, an expeditious way to improve human society’s living standards, and it certainly has lifted millions of people, in places such as China, out of poverty. This endeavor to improve our so-

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ciety’s living standards comes with a high environmental cost. The price we pay is atmospheric pollution contributing to global warming. Global warming, as we know, is caused by CO2 emissions from burning fossil fuels to generate power to provide this cheap energy. Global warming today has become a key issue besetting our planet’s health—an issue that comes from human beings demanding a standard of life that is dependent on the availability of cheap, convenient and immediate sources of energy. Fifty percent of our current use of nonrenewable energy goes into our buildings, from their construction to their operation, demolition, reuse, recycling, and eventual reintegration—ideally benignly—back into the natural environment. Buildings are significant contributors of greenhouse gases. Clearly, our designs today must go beyond bioclimatic design. Designing to reduce the use of nonrenewable energy in buildings has to be an imperative. Our designing should start from the bioclimatic in optimizing and exhausting all its passive-mode design options. Then it should progress to an intermediary stage of mixed-mode options (further adoption of bioclimatic responses combined with partial mechanical and

electrical [M&E] engineering systems). Next, we advance to full active-mode systems (the use of hyperefficient, clean-tech, and lowest-embodiedenergy M&E engineering systems). This leads us to an eventual “productive mode” (where the built system itself produces it own energy) through the use of renewable energy sources, as in the ecomimicry of ecosystems where the energy source is renewable and from the sun. The design goal today is to design for “net-zeroenergy buildings” (NZEB), an energy-efficient built form where the building’s total energy used roughly equals the amount of renewable energy created on the site. Incorporating the principles of bioclimatic design has led us to what we call sustainable design today. Sustainable design (or eco design) begins with the adoption of bioclimatic principles to deliver a passive low-energy structure that provides a design framework for adapting other green features, such as water management systems, integration with ecology of the locality, and use of recycled materials. We need at the same time to be aware that eco design is not just about energy or about ecoengineering systems. Our designing the net-zeroenergy and carbon-neutral built forms addresses

only one aspect of eco design: its eco-engineering aspect. Besides the issue of global warming, there are a host of other human-induced environmental impairment issues that eco design needs to address, such as water, food, and land use. Eco design’s goals are the seamless and benign biointegration of our human-built environment— and everything that we, as humans, make and do—with the natural environment. We are indebted to the Olgyays, and others, for their extensive pioneering work that provides us with the springboard for advancing passivemode and mixed-mode design in tandem with today’s technologies, which were unavailable in their time. This work has made our current highperformance buildings possible.

Ken Yeang is a Malaysian architect, author, and ecologist known for his signature eco architecture and eco master plans. Yeang is an early pioneer of ecology-based green design and master planning, having carried out design and research in this field since 1971. He was named by the Guardian as “one of the 50 people who could save the planet.”

T H E R O O T S O F B I O C L I M AT I C D E S I G N JOHN REYNOLDS when architects Victor and Aladar Olgyay arrived in the United States in 1947, the world was in recovery from the devastation of World War II. The world had changed, and in moving into a new age, the twin brothers also brought the modern architectural style they had learned and practiced in Europe to their new home. They had designed many buildings in Hungary in the International style and were part of the diaspora that spread this movement widely from its European roots. Walter Gropius, the father of the Bauhaus, had arrived in the United States just ten years earlier. After the bitter divisions of war, there was appeal in the unifying notion that every country could embrace one style, that indeed there was even an internationally shared thermal comfort zone. In this process, many of the Internationalstyle advocates had relegated climate to a minor design influence; let the machinery handle it. The emerging technology of air conditioning could overcome the summer heat and humidity, and the price of energy for heating and cooling was dropping . Yet in the United States, George Fred Keck had taken a different path in the 1930s after designing an all-glass International- style house for the 1933 Century of Progress Exhibition in Chicago. During its construction, once the glass walls enclosed it, the winter sun warmed the house before a furnace was installed. This led to a series of “passive solar houses” by Keck and his brother, William. The walls of these houses were not all glass; rather, most glass was placed on the south facade.

Frank Lloyd Wright had already become a well-known architect, largely on the strength of his “prairie houses.” Many of these were elongated east-west to allow large south-facing windows. Wright’s “Solar Hemicycle” house near Madison, Wisconsin, in 1944 was an embodiment of what were to become, twenty-some years later, many of Victor Olgyay’s design guidelines. Wright’s Hemicycle house was wrapped with a sheltering earthen berm on the north side as well as the east and west ends, contrasting with the fully glazed south facade. In stark contrast, Mies van der Rohe had designed the all-glass-walls Farnsworth House in 1946 to sit on posts above the ground. These classics of midcentury architecture were designed almost at the same time and in closely similar climates; the sites are only 120 miles apart on the prairie. What a contrast between organic and international styles! The year after the Olgyays emigrated and began teaching at the University of Notre Dame, James Marston Fitch’s American Building: The Forces That Shape It was published. Fitch had served as the editor of Architectural Record magazine and then had trained in meteorology with the US Army during World War II. These experiences combined to give him new direction for his book. “I began to see this functioning on all three scales—micro, mezzo, and macro—if you will, starting with clothing and extending to buildings, with cities as the scale that extends beyond buildings” (p. viii). The book assembled scientific data to support design decisions, while encouraging aesthetics. It was particularly strong on the thermal aspects of building design. Soon afterward, House Beautiful magazine in cooperation with the Bulletin of the AIA began a

The south facade of the Jacobs II house, one of Frank Lloyd Wright’s Hemicycle houses, located near Madison, Wisconsin. The passive solar features provide on average over 50 percent furnace energy saving (“solar savings fraction”) for the entire Wisconsin winter.

series called the Climate Control Project. The first piece was an ambitious twenty-one-page spread in the September 1949 Bulletin, introducing the series with an article by the climatologist and military geographer Dr. Paul A. Siple. He had gained fame on six expeditions to Antarctica and had developed the “wind chill factor.” This first effort concentrated on the Ohio region, showing climate variations relative to the Columbus area. Two pages of charts were followed by two pages of written design data. This four-page set was shown for monthly range and distribution of temperatures, then of solar and wind data, and finally of precipitation and humidity data. Compared with articles in the commercial architecture periodicals of today, this is a huge commitment of space and effort. Fitch became the editor of House Beautiful during the 1950s.

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Victor Olgyay contributed to this discussion in his 1951 article “The Temperate House” for Architectural Forum. “The climate is the architect’s true adversary; as the climate varies, so should the shelter,” he begins (p. 180). The emphasis is on regional variations in the United States, with much attention to shading devices both geometric and organic (trees and shrubs). Then Olgyay provides a step-by- step calculation procedure for the New York–New Jersey area and a sample house design shaded by trees, overhangs, and adjustable louvers. The final three pages deal with community scale analysis. Among his sources and data, he lists Dr. Paul Siple and a fellow Hungarian colleague, Dr. Maria Telkes at MIT. In 1953, Climate and Architecture, by Jeffrey Ellis Aronin, was published by Reinhold; the subtitle, Progressive Architecture Book, was further evidence of the architecture periodical’s leadership in climate and design in those times. Aronin led off with vernacular examples, including sketches from the Olgyays. About half the book concerned the sun; the rest dealt with temperature, wind, and precipitation. Aronin credits Olgyay’s “The Temperate House” but then comments, “Mostly about the sun and temperatures, there is considerable data here. However, it is unfortunate that graphs are very difficult to interpret, unless one spends a lot of time on them” (p. 291). In 1954, the Association for Applied Solar Energy (AFASE) was founded in Phoenix, Arizona. It then organized the 1955 Symposium on Applied Solar Energy— perhaps the first solar energy conclave. AFASE later became ASES, the American Solar Energy Society, and reached memberships of many thousands in the environmental movement to come. Architectural Forum published the Olgyay brothers again in March 1954, with the article “The Theory of Sol-Air Orientation.” In it, they are described as working at MIT on a grant from the Housing and Home Administration and at

Princeton with a Guggenheim Foundation grant. In this five-page presentation, their study of the impact of the sun on building orientation produced their now widely cited recommendation of a house oriented with its major windows facing somewhat east of south, with some variations between Minneapolis, New York, Phoenix, and Miami. The Olgyay brothers returned to Architectural Forum that August, publishing “Environment and Building Shape.” It was here that the fourregion climate map of the United States appeared. The article compared optimum building shapes for the same four cities examined in the previous article. Now teaching at Princeton, the Olgyay brothers assembled their studies in book form, and Princeton University Press published Solar Control and Shading Devices in 1957. The brothers had by that time developed a deep understanding of climate’s influence on regional architectural character. This book was one offspring of that concept, and an important one to encourage regionalism in coordination with the prevailing International style. Here we find the basics of the Olgyays’ approach: the now-famous comfort zone graph, timetables of average temperature, sun path charts and the Libbey-Owens-Ford sun-angle calculator, various sun machines and dials, shading masks, trees and vegetation as shading, and radiation calculation methods. The book concludes with a very wide array of examples from around the world. Presented in black and white, the book is less colorful than the brothers’ previous magazine articles but is now aimed as much at design synthesis as at analysis. This is most appealing to architects. In the later years of Eisenhower’s presidency, optimism abounded. The cost of energy was decreasing, air conditioning was becoming commonplace, glass technology allowed larger win-

dows. The US presidential election of 1960 resulted in a narrow win by the young John F. Kennedy, and a youthful vigor swept the country. At the same time, Rachel Carson was writing her seminal book, Silent Spring. While her focus was on the damage to ecosystems by pesticides, the larger message was the danger of unbridled technology in the chemical industry and the lack of governmental regulation. Published in 1962, Carson’s book then appeared as a series in New Yorker magazine. Chemicals were not the only threat to nature; a widespread environmental movement had begun, with enormous appeal to young students and professionals. Just a year later, Princeton University Press published Victor Olgyay’s Design with Climate: Bioclimatic Approach to Architectural Regionalism. As readers know well, this book encouraged a closer look at local conditions, especially the characteristics of a site and its climate. It was in sympathy with architects’ growing distrust of things done on a large scale and applied equally to every climate. As Rachel Carson’s arguments gained currency, public opinion stopped a proposed massive hydroelectric dam in the Grand Canyon in 1968, a major consequence resulting in part from her questions about environmental impacts. This Bridge Canyon Dam (also called Hualapai Dam) was enormously controversial because it would flood the lower Grand Canyon. It was finally stopped when calculations showed that the summertime evaporation from the reservoir surface would equal the daily water requirements of Phoenix. People protesting the damage to the environment joined those protesting the war in Vietnam. The serenity of the 1950s gave way to the turbulence of the ’60s. Student activism brought disruption to many a campus. All these symbols of division called for a positive, unifying movement. A massive oil spill in 1969 off Santa Bar-

bara, California, was one catalyst for the establishment of Earth Day in 1970. The date chosen was April 22, Rachel Carson’s birthday. Sadly and quietly, that was also the day that Victor Olgyay died. Princeton University Press has no records on sales of Design with Climate, other than the total of less than 20,000 copies when it went out of print in 1991. Several hundred made their way to libraries at architecture schools, where faculty and students continued to find inspiration in its pages. The book’s suggestions influenced not only design studio teaching but also courses commonly called Mechanical and Electrical Equipment or simply MEP (mechanical, electrical, and plumbing). Ten years after Victor Olgyay’s death, the widely used Wiley textbook Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, 6th Edition featured Olgyay’s map of the four US climate regions, and his recommended plans for volume and shape characteristics for buildings in those four regions. Shortly after the first Earth Day, the 1973 Middle Eastern oil embargo became the world’s energy wake-up call. Long lines at gasoline stations, restrictions on gasoline purchases (only cars with even-numbered license plates were allowed on even-numbered days), and prohibitions on electrical use for outdoor signs caused a host of short-term behavioral changes. Long-term impacts included major environmental protection laws enacted during Richard Nixon’s presidency, a resurgence of interest in renewable energy sources, and the election of Jimmy Carter as US president in 1976. These were the halcyon days for renewable energy. The Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), which became the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, was formed. A group of nuclear engineers at Los Alamos National Laboratory headed by J. Douglas Balcomb began extensive research into passive solar heating perfor-

Buildings as part of the landscape. Condominium One at the Sea Ranch, California, completed in 1965; architects MLTW (Moore Lyndon Turnbull Whitaker).

mance, aided initially by grants from the Atomic Energy Commission. Other passive-energy enthusiasts were demonstrating many ways to “go passive” in New Mexico, and what became the first Passive Solar Energy Conference took place at Ghost Ranch. The election of Ronald Reagan in 1980 ended most federal support for renewable energy; SERI was gutted; the solar heating panels were removed from the White House roof. A movement was stunted, but the wounds were far from fatal. Indeed, the Balcomb group did much of its work between 1983 and 1985. The ideas Victor Olgyay developed at Princeton University were disseminated not only through publication but also through his seventeen years of teaching more than a thousand students at Princeton. Many of these former students have continued to practice, teach, and further develop the tenets of bioclimatic design. Donlyn Lyndon, one of his student assistants, has had a very distinguished career with MLTW (Moore Lyndon Turnbull Whitaker) as well as earning well-deserved fame for his Sea Ranch development, shaped by wind and sun on the northern California coast (see Lyndon’s essay,

“Learning to Design with Climate,” in this volume). Another student, Harrison Fraker, designed several solar buildings in and around Princeton, became the dean at UC Berkeley, and won the United States’ top education prize— AIA’s Topaz Medallion—in 2013. Steve Badanes, a professor of architecture at the University of Washington, founded his design-build firm, Jersey Devil, in the early 1970s and produced an array of utterly unconventional buildings, many of which celebrated renewable energy. Tod Williams (along with Billie Tsien) has created a wonderful portfolio of buildings that speak to both efficiency and the spirit. Douglas Kelbaugh has designed a stellar portfolio of low-energy buildings and is currently a professor of architecture and urban planning at the Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning of the University of Michigan, having served as dean of the college from 1998 to 2008. There are many, many others who have been touched by the teachings of Victor Olgyay at Princeton—and by this book—and continue to espouse the virtues of listening to the context of nature and responding with architecture inspired by bioclimatic design. While the influence of these teachings are still rippling out, so many corners of our built environment cry out for their application. These ideas are, indeed, of greater significance and interest than ever before. With this reissue of Design with Climate, may a new generation of environmental designers gain insight and inspiration from the work of Victor Olgyay. John Reynolds is Professor Emeritus of Architecture at the University of Oregon and a fellow of the American Institute of Architects. He has been dedicated to energy issues in Oregon since 1972 and has served as chair of the American Solar Energy Society, president of Solar Energy Association of Oregon, and member of the board of the International Solar Energy Society.

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A R AT I O N A L R E G I O N A L I S M V I C T O R W. O L G YAY nestled in the Italian Alps is the village of Limone, named for the citrus fruit grown there. The area is temperate—warmer than the surrounding areas. The Dolomites rise thousands of feet to the north of the village, and Lake Garda hugs the village’s southeast edge. These geographic conditions create the distinctive climate that allows the cultivation of lemons in this area but not a few miles away. And the opportunity to grow lemons in the Alps gave rise to a distinctive architecture, “lemon houses,” terraced structures with removable roofs and walls that, when removed, reveal a forest of columns. Facing southeast and warmed by the sun, these buildings, which protect and nourish the delicate citrus in the variable alpine weather, are designed in direct response to the character of their place. In 1935 my father, Victor Olgyay, won the Prix de Rome and spent a year studying at the

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A lemon house on Lake Garda, Italy.

Scuola Superiore di Architettura in Rome. He was twenty-five years old and excited to discover the world. He had just completed his architectural education at the Royal Hungarian Technology University in Budapest. Rising out of the ashes of World War I was a culture of modernism—a desire to move beyond the past, and a belief that rational thought could bring a renaissance of civility. The Bauhaus exemplified these ideals. The design of an object can be a formal expression of its function. Indeed, if not functional first and foremost, the design might be considered irresponsible. Through this lens, the inherent purposeful beauty of indigenous architecture is undeniable. Victor was intensely curious and eagerly joined in the professional quest to discover the underlying secrets of the natural world. He sketched as he traveled, investigating and analyzing buildings, landscapes, and towns, confident in the ability of science and rationality to provide the foundations of a new architecture. Victor collaborated with his identical twin brother, Aladar, and together they applied these expansive regionalist and modernist thoughts in their architectural practice in Budapest. The ambitious twins took advantage of every opportunity, and working together they doubled their achievements. They built over forty projects in Hungary before World War II, including eight apartment houses, three hotels, two factories, fifteen residences, five housing projects, and seven exhibition buildings located in Budapest, Vienna, New York, and Izmir. These early projects show a gradually increasing level of environmental analysis and application. One of these projects is described in their first

Victor Olgyay in Italy, ca. 1935.

book, Solar Control and Shading Devices. An apartment house in Budapest, it shows many iconic elements of modernism—an organic sculpted roof with a floating wing, a roof garden and a taut, precisely machined white facade. Along with this aesthetic comes a rigorous shading analysis, which shows how their design concept corresponds with the human need for comfort. The brothers’ pre–World War II work culminated with the commission for the Stühmer Chocolate Factory. Completed in 1941, this building demonstrates a comprehensive applica-

The Stühmer Chocolate Factory.

OLGYAY &: OLGYAY, Apartment House, Budapest, Hungary The living areas of this apartment house face toward the southeast and protection was needed against the sun. It was solved with a fixed eggcrate device, which serves another purpose too: to provide terraces for each apartment, while the vertical fins secure privacy. This structure is of thin concrete with plaster finishing. The railing has glass panels.

(a) Side view of building, with power plant on left.

An apartment house in Budapest designed by the brothers before World War II.

tion of environmental design and analysis. The factory design coordinates the operational needs of the facility with optimal environmental conditions; for example, storage is put in dark areas, and tasks requiring brighter light are located in brighter areas. They conducted extensive daylight model testing to inform the size and location of fenestration under various daylight conditions. In addition, they designed an ingenious ventilating facade calculated to passively mitigate solar heat gain. Not surprisingly, these environmental investigations resulted in an aesthetic much in line with the prevailing modernist style. In massing, de-

(c) Machines layout and working order, ground floor plan.

(b) The south elevation.

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ties, electric content in the air, and the like, not considered in this study.) They act on man in a complex relationship, which can be expressed in a calorimetric scale called the Operative Temperature (To) developed by Winslow, Herrington, and Gagge. Their equations combine air temperature, radiation, and air movements with metabolism to explain how the human body receives certain elirnatic elements, and how it maintains thermal stability. 4 Means by which the body exchanges heat with its surroundings can be classified into four main processes: radiation, conduction, convection, and evaporation. It is estimated that radiation accounts for about ! of the heat loss of the body, convection for!, and evaporation for!; however, these proportions change with variations in the thermal conditions. Winslow and Herrington, and Bedford,5 have discussed the body's response to thermal stresses in detail. D . H . K . Lee 6 summarized the factors involved in the heat balance of the body in the following way (see also Appendix A-1 ): GAINS

37. Heat exchange between man and surroundings.

LOSSES

l . H eat produced by: a ) Basal processes b) Activity c) Digestive, e tc. p rocesses d ) Muscle tensing and shivering in response to cold 2. Absorption of radian t 5. Outward radiation: a) To " sky" energy: b) To colder surmundings a ) From sun directly or reflected 6. H eat conductian away from b) From glowing ra diathe body: tors a) To air below skin temc) From non-glowing hot perature (hastened by objects air movement-convec3. H eat conductian toward tion) the body: b) By contact with colder a ) From air above skin objects temperature b) By contact with hotter 7. Evaporation : objects a ) From respiratory tract 4. Condensation of atmosb) From skin pheric moisture (occasion al)

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The actual relative magnitude of body heat production and heat interchange with the environment may vary within wide limits. The vital processes of the body are accompanied by considerable energy exchange. This energy is derived from the oxidation of foodstuffs and is utilized with a gross efficiency of the order of 20%, the remaining 80% of the energy is expended as heat. Even when the body is completely at rest and in warm surmundings its heat production does not fall below a certain minimum level-the basal metabolismusually taken as about 290 Btu/hr for an average person. This figure rises to 400 Btu/hr for sedentary activities, to 760 walking 2 mph, to 1,400 walking 4 mph, and to 3,000-4,800 at maximum exertion. The architect's problem is to produce an en-

vironment which will not place undue stress upon the body's heat-compensation mechanism. The approach should be repbrased in terms of comfort; the presentation should be in graphic form; and, to be easily applicable, the data should derive from the empirical findings available to the practicing architect.

THE COMFORT ZONE Some writers consicler sunstroke or heatstrake as the upper temperature limit for man's existence, with the freezing point as the lower limit. 7 The ideal air temperature ma y be assumed to be midway between these extremes. Experiments on animals in a variable-temperature tunnel at the John B. Pierce Founda-

tion showed that animals prefer to stay at 70° F, about midway between the points calling for maximum expenditure of energy in adjustment to the environment. s Therefore, some writers believe that the human being, with a body temperature averaging 98.6° F, seeking a comfortable temperature condition, picks by intuition an area where the temperature is about halfway between what he can tolerate in cold without being grossly uncomfortable, and the point which would require real effort on the part of his circulatory and sweat secretion system in order to permit him to adapt to heat. The British Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, headed by Drs. H . M. Vernon and T. Bedford, arrived at certain conclusions in their investigations and experiments to define comfort conditions. Vernon states that the ideal temperature with slight air movement (50 fpm or less) is 66.1 o F in summer, and 62.1 o F in winter. Bedford gives the ideal indoor air temperature as 64.7° F in winter, and defines a comfort zone which ranges from 55.8° to 73.7o F.9 A German suggested standard is 69.5 o F with 50% relative humidity.10 S. F. Markbarn proposes a range of temperature from 60° to 76° F as constituting an ideal zone, with relative humidities at noon varying from 40 to 70%.11 C. E. P. Brooks shows that the British comfort zone lies between 58° to 70° F; the comfort zone in the United States lies between 69o and 80° F; and in the tropics it is between 74° and 85 o F; with relative humidity between 30 and 70%.12 The Australian Commonwealth Experimental Building Station conducted physiological experiments which suggest that, in given elirnatic conditions, the dry-bulb temperature would provide a satisfactory index for the sensation of warmth up to the beginning of general perspiration. 13

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18

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69

American scientists have tried to establish a physiological measurement, combining the effects of temperature, humidity, and air movement, called the effective temperature scale (ET).14 They place the comfort zone between 30 and 70% relative humidity. According to Houghton and Yaglou, optimum ET lies at 66 o, with a range of 63-71 o for both men and women (winter nonbasal, at rest, normally clothed). Yaglou and Drinker found a 71 o optimum, with a range of 66-75° for men (summer nonbasal, at rest, normally clothed). Laboratory and field workers have found that the ET index overestimates the influence of humidity on sensations of warmth and com-

fort at ordinary temperatures, and underestimates this influence at very high temperatures.15 Yaglou later offered a method for improving the ET index on a basis of mean skin temperature.16 The sources mentioned above were used as a basis for the outline of the "comfort zone." However, it should be mentioned that considering the range of observations and opinions there is no precise criterion by which comfort can be evaluated. Maybe it can be defined negatively as the situation where no feeling of discomfort occurs. Such a zone, which is very similar to the zone of thermal neutrality, differs with individuals, types of clothing, and

the nature of activity being carried on. Further, it depends on sex, as women in general prefer an effective temperature for comfort l degree higherthan men. Age plays a role also in the thermal requirements as persons over 40 years of age generally prefer l degree ET higher than men and women below this age. Acclimatization according to geographical locations shifts the comfort zone warmer elirnatic conditions elevating the thermal requirements. The comfort zone does not have real boundaries; as, diverging from the center of the comfort zone, the thermal neutrality subtly turns to a slight degree of stresses, and from this to situations of discomfort. Therefore any definite comfort perimeter outline must be based on arbitrary assumptions. In case of mechanical conditioning the desired situation should aim toward the middle of the thermal neutrality. In cases where the ambient conditions of the building strive to be balanced by natural means, evidently no such strict conditions can be required. Here the criterion was adopted that conditions wherein the average person will not experience the feeling of discomfort can constitute the perimeter of the comfort zone. The values of effective temperature used in the chart were adjusted to the mean skin temperature index. The desirable comfort zone indicated lies between 30 and 65% relative humidity. For practical purposes the summer zone was enlarged to include those lower and higher humidity regions where no thermal stresses occur-not, however, recommended for prolonged periods. The winter comfort zone is charted somewhat lower. The use of the chart is directly applicable only to inhabitants of the temperate zone of the United States, wearing customary indoor clothing, engaged in sedentary or light muscular work, at elevations not in excess of l ,000 feet above sea

level. To apply the chart to elirnatic regions other than approximately 40° latitude, the lower perimeter of the summer comfort Iine should be elevated about t o F for every 5o latitude change toward the lower latitudes. The upper perimeter may be raised proportionately, hut not above 85 o F. Outside the comfort zone the indications of the different sensations on the chart are in agreement with C. E. P. Brooks' observations.l7 The limit to moderate work at high temperatures is indicated with a curve on the chart, which was based on D. Brunt's description.l 8 This curve follows approximately the 85 o ET curve. The "Difficult Environment" (93 o96o ET) and the "Impossible Environment" (95 o -97 o ET) curves are based on results of studies made at Pittsburgh (ASHVE- USBM) and Fort Knox (AMRL).19 The scale for measuring the thermal effect of clothing on the human body is based on the unit of one Glo.20 Glo is an arbitrary unit of clothing insulation. It is assumed to be the insulation of men's ordinary indoor clothing, capable of maintaining comfort in still air of 70°, with relative humidities less than 50%, and without much physical activity. The warmest practical clothing made has an insulation value of about 4.5 Glo.

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RELATION OF CLIMATIC ELEMENTS TO COMFORT AIR MOVEMENT affects body cooling. It does not decrease the temperature hut eauses a cooling sensation due to heat loss by convection and due to increased evaporation from the body. As velacity of air movement increases, the upper comfort limit is raised. However, this rise slows as higher temperatures are reached.

RE~ATIVE

40. Atmospheric comfort and danger zones (for inhabitants of moderate elimate zones).

HUMIDITY

19

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The figure shows wind velocities theoretically needed to restore comfort when temperatures and relative humidities are outside the comfort zone. The desirable range of wind velocities is, of course, limited by the effect on the human being.22

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41. Relation of winds and high temperatures.

VELDCITY

PROBABLE IMPACT

Up to 50 fpm 50 to 100 100 to 200

Unnotieed Pleasant Generally pleasant but eausing a eonstant awareness of air movement. From slightly drafty to annoyingly drafty Requires eorreetive measures if work and health are to be kept in high effieieney.

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42. Effect of air movement on vapor pressure.

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V APOR PRESSURE is exerted by a variable quantity of water vapor contained in atmospheric air. People usually notice a "close" or depressed feeling if vapor pressure surpasses the 15 mm mercury mark. Dr. Paul Siple statesthat over 15 mm vapor pressure, each additional millimeter of pressure can be counteracted with one mph (88 fpm) wind effect. 23 The John B. Pierce Foundation at Yale University has worked out more detailed calculations on this effect, hut accepts the above approximation as adequate in practice. The figure shows the range from 15 to 23 mm vapor pressure counteracted with wind velocities from still air (20-30 fpm) up to 700 fpm. EvAPORATION decreases dry-bulb temperature. The curves shown in the figure are calibrated in 5 gr moisture/ lb air intervals. The temperature decrease eaused by evapora-

~l

tion of added moisture will restore comfort temperatures to the ou ter limit of the comfort zone. Calculations were based on the assumption that the latent heat is supplied entirely by the air. The Carrier Psychometric Chart was used (barometric pressure 29.92 inches mercury; v apor pressures are those of w ater) to d etermine the amount of grains of mo is ture per pound of dry air in obtaining lower temperatures.24 Evaporative cooling can be achieved by mechanical means, and also, to a certain degree, through the use of trees, vegetation, pools, or fountains. It is of importance in dry and hot elimate zones, where wind effect is of little help in lowering high temperatures. RADIATION EFFECT of inside surfaces can be used to some extent to balance higher or lower air temperatures. This means that we can be comfortable at low temperatures if the heat loss of the body can be counteracted with the sun's radiation. At lower temperatures (under 70o F) a drop of l o F in air temperature can be counteracted by elevating the mean radiant temperature by 0.8° F. 25 However, this possibility of counteraction has its limitations. In practice we shall not find more than 4 o or 5o F difference between air and wall temperatures. Radiation curves shown in the figure and expressed in Btu, refer to outdoor conditions only. Calculations indicate that 50 Btu of sun radiation can counteract a 3.85 o F drop in dry-bulb temperature. (See Appendix A-2.)

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43. Effect of added moisture on high temperatures.

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RE.LATIVE HUMIDITY !tJo

21

THE BlOCLIMATIC CHART

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22

The effects of the elirnatic elements can now be assembled from these separate studies into a single chart. This chart shows the comfort zone in the center. The elirnatic elements around it are shown by means of curves which indicate the nature of corrective measures necessary to restare the feeling of comfort at any point outside the comfort zone. The chart is applicable to inhabitants of the moderate elimate zones in the United States, at elevations not in excess of l ,000 feet above sea level, with customary indoor elothing, doing sedentary or light work. A simplified version of the bioelirnatic chart shows the relationships of the various elirnatic elements to each other. Glimatic needs for conditions outside the comfort zone are shown in simple diagramrnatic form. The bioelimatic chart was built up with dry-bulb temperature as ordinate and relative humidity as abscissa. In the middle, we can see the summer comfort zone divided into the desirable and practicable ranges. The winter comfort zone lies a little lower. Any elirnatic condition determined by its dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity can be plotted on the chart. If the plotted point falls in to the comfort zone, we feel comfortable in shade. If the point falls outside the comfort zone, corrective measures are needed. If the point is higher than the upper perimeter of the comfort zone, winds are needed. How wind effects can restare the feeling of comfort and offset high temperatures is charted with the nearly parallel Iines following the upper limit of the comfort zone perimeter. The numbers indicate the needed wind velocities in feet per minute value (fpm). If the temperature is high and the relative humidity is low, we feel too dry and hot, and

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45. Bioclimotic Chort, for U.S. moderote zone inhobitonts.

winds are of little help here. Evaporative cooling is the tool with which to fight high temperatures. The dotted Iines indicate grains of moisture per pound of air needed to reduce

temperatures to the level at the upper earnfort perimeter. At the lower perimeter of the comfort zone is the line above which shading is needed.

......... Conversely, radiation is necessary below the line to counteract lower dry-bulb temperatures. The amount of Btu needed by "solair" action to restore the sensation of comfort is tabulated for outdoor conditions only. At the left are charted the mean radiant temperature values (mrt) necessary to restore the feeling of comfort by either radiant heating or cooling (control of surface temperatures of the surroundings).

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USE OF THE BlOCLIMATIC CHART No corrective measures are necessary for any point ofknown dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity which falls within the boundaries of the comfort zone. For any point falling outside this zone, corr ective mea sures needed to restore the feeling of comfort can to taken directly from the chart. For example, at dry-bulb temperature, 75o F; relative humidity, 50%, Need is: none, the point is already in the comfort zone. At dry-bulb temperature, 75 ° F; relative humidity, 70%, Need: 280 fpm wind to eaunteract vapor pressure. At dry-bulb temperature, 50 ° F; relative humidity, 56%, N eed: 260 Btu/ hr sun radiation. At dry-bulb temperature, 87 o F; relative humidity, 30%, N eed: counteraction by either oftwo means : (l) 300 fpm wind ; or (2) evaporative cooling by adding 8 gr moisture/ lb of air. At dry-bulb tempera ture, 95 ° F ; relative humidity, 20%, Need: cannot be achieved with winds alone. Even 700 fpm wind would still have to be supplemented by 9 gr moisture/ lb of air. However, evaporative cooling could bring down the temperature to the leve! of comfort by adding 22 gr moisture/ lb of air. Bioelimatic evaluation is the starting point for any architectural design aiming at environ-

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46. Schematic bioclimotic index.

mental elimate balance. Prevailing elirnatic conditions can easily be plotted on the chart, and will show the architect what corrective measures are needed to restore comfort conditions. A good m a n y of these measures may be a chieved by natural means, that is, by adapting architectural design to utilize the elirnatic elements. Other problems, which fall outside

the natural possibilities, will have to be remedied by mechanical mea ns , such as air conditioning. l t is the task of the architect to m ake utmost use of the natural means a vailable in order to produce a more healthful a nd livable house, a nd to a chieve a saving in cost by keeping to a minimum the use of mech an ical aids for elimate control.

23

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47-48. Regional elimate analyses for metropoliten New York-New Jersey area.

CLIMATIC EVALUATlON BY REGION Bioelimatic Chart maps the problems and describes the counter measures for human comfort in varying elirnatic conditions. To apply this, to evaluate the elirnatic situation of a given locale, a detailed analysis covering the complete yearly cyele is necessary. Local weather data supplied by meteorological stations may give the architect information that THE

24

will enable him to construct his own evaluation. In addition, excellent regional analyses focusing on the importance of elimatology in residential design have been published in connection with the House Reautiful elimatecontrol project. 1 Detailed technical information, developed by Dr. Paul Siple in connection with this project has been issued by the American Institute of Architects since 1949.2

In the form of graphs and detailed design information, the AlA regional elimate analyses contain: A. Thermal analysis. In leaf-shaped graphs the range and distribution of temperatures are indicated; overlapping this the dewpoint temperatures are shown. The diurnal cyele of the average hourly temperatures and the degree days are tabulated.

NOTE WIND AIIIIIOWS ON THI:S[ lltA,HS

THI: WIND BLOWS THUS : ,IIIIDICATI:S WIIIIO FIIOIII

B. Solar analysis. The hours of sunshine broken up quantitatively for clear and cloudy days, the average amount of solar heat striking a horizontal surface, and the direction of the sun according to altitude and azimuth are charted. C. Wind analysis. Wind directions and veloci-

ties, storm patterns, and gale days are tabulated. D. Precipitatian analysis. The amount of precipitation and snowfall, and the maximum rate of rainfall are charted. Rainy days, snowcover days, days with heavy fogs and thunderstorms are evaluated at their average distribution.

IIIW

E. Humidity analysis. Average hourly percentage of relative humidity occurrence and average and extremes in vapor pressure are tabulated. The figures show an AlA Regional Glimate Analysis for the metropolitan New York and New Jersey area. The charts are reproduced

25

here in an abbreviated form, containing only the main elirnatic data pertinent to evaluations and calculations which are discussed later. (In this publication, if not otherwise indicated, the AlA charts were used as the source of elirnatic information.) Since the AlA data cover general elirnatic conditions-or macroelimate-of a region, any specific application should be modified to same extent by the surmundings of the building in question-the microelimate. This ineludes the topography, exposure, obstructions, existing natural cover, and the like, of a given site. Also, since Weather Bureau observations are made at rooftop leve! the data should be adapted to "living leve!," about 6 feet above ground. 3 The meteorological data for temperature and relative humidity can be used with adequate accuracy, hut the given wind velocities should be reduced considerably (see Chapter IV).

BlOCLIMATIC NEEDS BY REGION

26

The regional evaluation of a elirnatic situation must be applied to the bioelimatic chart. Plotting of combined temperature and relative humidity data on the chart at regular intervals will show the general characteristics of a region. This can be done with data for average maximum or minimum conditions, according to the purpose. The figure shows an average yearly evaluation of the conditions for the New York-New Jersey area. Here each point represents hourly data at ten-day intervals throughout the year. From the number of points falling inta different sensation categories, the importance of the various elirnatic elements-showing need for shading, radiation, wind, and so on-can be estimated. And from this the bioelimatic analysis can be translated to a yearly chart.

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49. Bioclimatic evaluation for New York-New Jersey area; each point represents

80

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ftELATIVE HUMID/TY%

hourly data over ten-day periods throughout the year.

One can say in general terms that there are four major elimate zones within the United States. Here are four regions selected to represent the types of cool, temperate, hot-arid, and hot-humid elimates: Minneapolis, Minne-

sota; themetropolitanarea of New York and New Jersey; Phoenix, Arizona; and Miami, Florida. Throughout the book the problems are analyzed from these key points. Although samewhat arbitrary, this choice of elimate

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50. EVALUATlON OF MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.

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the horizon Iine appears as a circle, and the sun-path as various curves depending on the method of projection and the proper latitude. Recent methods of projection are the Orthographic, the Stereographic, and the Equidistant. In the equidistant projection method the altitude angles appear on the diagram equally spaced. This characteristic assures equal readability for high or low angles, and makes plotting easy. A small circle facing the observation point will be flattened out into an ellipse-like figure when it is near the edge, one diameter remaining always the same, the other increasing until i t is 'TT / 2 times as great. Irving F. Hand 23 described this method, and the Libbey-Owens-Ford Glass Company produced excellent diagrams of this projection, called the " Sun Angle Calculator." 24 The availability and wide use of this calculator in the United States is such that the diagrams in this book are constructed in the equidistant projection. Shown are sun-path diagrams of the "Sun Angle Calculator" for 52o and 24o N. Latitudes. The curved Iines indicated by days and months of the year represent the sun-paths on the dates shown. Lines "radiating" from the North Pole indicate the hours. Between the hour Iines are lighter Iines indicating twentyminute intervals. With a cursor which pivots about the center point of the diagram the altitude of the sun can be read in any position. The sun's position with reference to the horizon is usually expressed by altitude and azimuth. Altitude is the angular distance above the horizon. lt has a maximum value of 90° at the zenith, which is the point overhead. Gomputatian of solar energy with a radiation calculator. The calculation of radiation through

the use of tabulated data is laborious and time-consuming. Therefore, some graphic

systems have advantages over the statistical approach. Here a method is shown, developed by the author, which, for any orientation, the direct, diffuse, and total radiation effects on opaque or through glass surfaces can be determined with one reading. The Radiation Calculator charts are based on the assumption that the magnit u de of direct and diffuse radiation is a function of the solar altitude and the angle of incidence of the sun. On a sphere, equal altitude variations to a central point would show paraHel circles; the variation of equal incidence angles would appear in form of concentric cones. Therefore, it is evident that for any given altitude and incidence situation, two points will correspond symmetrically to a vertical plane normal to the wall surface. Hence, all possible radiation effects can be charted in relation to a given surface on a spherical projection. The Calculator diagrams are projected horizontally in the equidistant method. The charted energy values are representative for a clear day with unobstructed sky conditions. The direct radiation data earresponds to the Moon 's standard, 25 the diffuse values to ASHVE recommendations.26 Since in architectural problems the irradiatian of vertical and harizontal surfaces are of primary interest, the charts were developed forthese exposures; however, the method can be adapted to any oblique plane, and to other conditions, such as semi-cloudy or cloudy atmospheres. The Calculator diagrams can be used for any latitude (for general practical purposes), and for all orientations. Since the total radiation falling on a surface can be read directly for any hour of the year, the flexibility and rapidity of the Radiation Calculator has its obvious advantages for use in architectural tasks. The amounts of direct radiation falling on a

SOLAR ENERGY CALCULATOR FOR OPAQUE SURFACES

66. Direct Radiation Calculator.

67. Diffuse Radiation Calculator.

68. Total Radiation Calculator.

SOLAR ENERGY CALCULATOR TRANSMITTED THROUGH GLASS SURFACES

69. Direct Radiation Calculator.

70. Diffuse Radiation Calculator.

71 . Total Radiation Calculator.

37

72. Calculation of radiation effects on o vertical surfoce.

38

73. Colculation of radiation effects on a horizontal sur· face.

vertical plane are shown at the lower halfcircle; on the opposite side the measures indicate the sun's energies on a harizontal surface. The equi-intensity radiation Iines are indicated at 25 Btu/hour/ sq ft intervals. The diffuse energies are charted on a vertical surface at 5 Btu/hour/ sq ft intervals. Note that the vertical surface receives sky radiation even when the sun's angle of incidence exceeds 90°. Total radiation amounts received by a vertical surface are shown, with tabulatians for the added energy amounts of both the direct and diffuse radiation. The calculator diagrams show transmitted energies through single glass surfaces of direct, diffuse, and total radiation. Here for transmittance of the glass at normal incidence for direct radiation 0.91 was taken; for diffuse radiation a general transmittance of 0.82 was used. For practical application the intensity diagrams are charted on transparent overlays. These may be superimposed on a sun-path diagram to read directly the amount of energy being received. Two examples show the application of the Radiation Calculator. The first diagram illustrates the Calculator position set for 40° N latitude to read total radiation effects on a vertical surface facing south-east direction. The seeond example illustrates the calculator set to read the total radiation falling on a harizontal surface 9:20A.M. atjune 21. Mean radian! temperature. Discounting solar radiation a nd evaporation effects, heat sensation in a closed space depends not only on ambient air temperatures hut also on heat impacts radiating from the surrounding surfaces. The total effect of such radiation is expressed as the mean-radiant-temperature impact (MRT). This heat flux will be positive when the surrounding surfaces are warmer than the body surface temperature; and it will

74. Hemispherical projection of a room.

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.··'

-·~ ~

.,___-''··., .. ,~·...,.........,.............~...,.. ~········»'

,,.... -w:

75. Hemispherical radiation nomogram divided into 500 equa l units.

be negative (heat loss from the body) if the mean radiant temperature is lower than the average surface body temperature. Mean radiant temperature and ambient air temperature are dependent on each other, but they are not usually equal. The sensible heat relationship of temperature and radiation has been explored by several researchers, who generally concur that 1.25° F increase in room temperature will compensate for l o F decrease in MRT.27 In a room camposed of interior and exterior walls and windows, surface temperatures may vary considerably from point to point. Accordingly the resulting mean radiant temperatures and the sensation of heat will vary with positions within the room. Since the mathematical calculations determining this effect are quite lengthy, a graphic method is developed here as an approach to the problem. For any given observation point, radiation effects are proportionate to their distance from the radiating panel. By projecting the surmunding radiative objects on a theoretical sphere in which the center is the observation point, the relative magnitude of the surface impacts can be plotted. For this purpose the equidistant projection method proved practical as did a surface protractor (see Chapter VII) for plotting. The size of the projected surfaces can be calculated with the hemispherical surface nomogram. Here the hemisphere was divided into 500 equal squares. The points shown on the nomogram designa te the centers of these squares. By superimposing a projected surface over the nomogram and counting the encompassed points within, the relative magnitude of its radiation impact is found. An example is given of an applied calculation, where the numbers on the projected areas refer to fr actions of the l ,000 total spherical u nits.

Thus the calculation of sensible heat effect to a location point will be: Ts

= Ta (ambient air temperature)± MRT temp. difference per 1.272 (or 1.25).

Wind. For wind calculations several factors have to be considered. First is the decrease in measured wind speeds at levels close to the ground, seeond is the modification of the operative wind pattern by local topography and the immediate surroundings, third is the comfort evaluation-the desired breezes versus the unwanted winds. The wind effects of the free atmosphere are modified and slowed down at low levels, and at ground surface the air is almost at rest. Geiger has warked out an equation to express the variation of wind velocities with height.28 However, the U.S. Quartermaster Corps method has been applied here.29 This develops a smooth diurnal curve, giving reduction factors which can be safely applied to all days in the year. For example, the New York-New Jersey wind evaluation is illustrated. The meteorological data were gathered at 4 7 feet ; the velocities can be reduced to the 6-foot " living level." The necessary curves for the reduction process, the average velocities and wind directions at the measured height, and the effect of the reduced wind velocities at 6 feet, are shown on the next two pages. The effects of wind on housing have to be considered both on the outside (because of convection transfer and infiltration) and within the dwelling itself. For comfort balance, air movements have to be evaluated as both positive and negative. They should be blocked as much as possible from penetrating structures during underheated periods, but they should be admitted a nd utilized at overheated times. If the overheated diagram is superimposed on

76. Ratio of mean wind speed at a ny height till l 00 feet under average, stable, and convective conditions.

77. Hourly wind speed reduction from 47 feet to 6 feet height.

J9

78. Average wind velacity and direction at about 50 feet height, in New York-New Jersey area.

40

0\/EilH!ATfD PIRlOD IINOW'N INSID! DOTT~D LIM~ THU$ e•

.......

• ••••••••

79. Average wind velocity and direction at 6 feet height, in New York-New Jersey area.

41

N

s 80. Wind analyses for New York-New Jersey area. Winds occurring during the underheated period.

N

E

s

42

81. Breezes prevailing during the overheated period. The numbers represent the total a mount of 4 hourly data x the ft min air movement velocity throughout the year at average conditions.

the wind chart, desirable breezes can be distinguished from unwanted winds, and their directions and velocities easily summarized. Depending on their characteristic duration and velocity, they can also be expressed as orientation vectors. The charted wind data are evaluated under average conditions. However, the need for cooling and relief from vapor pressure in periods of high absolute humidity should be considered in planning design conditions. To set a maximum it is customary to use outdoor temperature data, from a period of years, which were equalled or exceeded not more than 5% of the time in the summer months. 30 Such maximum conditions would constitute the criteria for sizes of openings to counteract undesirable elimate situations. Maximum-velocity air flows, however, would be too high for comfort, so a limit should be set, of 300 fpm in daytime and 200 fpm at night, for air movements inside a structure. If this does not balance the heat or vapor pressure conditions, mechanical conditioning should be called into play.

PART

~

INTERPRETATION IN ARCHITECTURAL PRINCIPLEs

Dependable Dependable Dependable MICROCLIMATIC EFFECTS

44

WE ARE inclined to think of elimate as a certain condition uniformly distributed over a large area. This impression is partly because weather data are collected at points where "undisturbed conditions" prevail, and partly because targeseale maps depict equal mean temperatures in a few srnooth lines. However, at ground level multifold minute elimates exist side by side, varying sharply with the elevation of a few feet and within a distance of a mile. N a ture demonstrates this in late winter with melting snow-cover patterns, and in early spring when north sides of hills may be frozen and brown while southerly slopes turn green with awakening vegetation. Plants are sensitive indicators of favorable circumstances. This effect is well known to farmers, who prefer southern slopes for growing grapes or cultivating orchards. The difference between the kind of plants which would grow on either side of a hill, if nature were allowed to select, would be as great as the difference between locales a hundred miles north and south of one another. 1 Further, every elevation difference, character of land cover, every water surface, induces variations in a local climate. These effects within the large scale "macroelimate" form a small-seale pattern of "microelimates." Deviations in elimate play an important part in architectural land utilization. First, in site selection, favorable locations should be considered. Second, a less favorable site may be improved by windbreaksand surmunding surfaces that induce an advantageous reaction to temperature and radiation impacts. Extensive studies on microelimatology were done by Geiger,2 and by Landsberg.3 These

provide detailed information on the subject. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss some of the most im portant elimate effects on sites from the point of view of the architect.

EFFECT OF TOPOGRAPHY Temperature in the atmosphere decreases with altitude. The temperature drop in the mountains can be approximated as l o F for each 330-foot rise in summer, and for each 400-foot rise in winter. This effect is important in tropicallands where temperatures become more favorable at higher altitudes. The location of the ca pitals of some Latin American republics reflect this. Mexico City lies over 7,000 feet above sea level, and the new capita! for Brazil is being built at an elevation of 3,500 feet. As mountains affect the macroelimate, small differences in terrain can create remarkably large modifications in the microelimate. Cool air is heavier than warm, and at night the outgoing radiation eauses a cold-air layer to form near the ground surface. The cold air behaves somewhat like water, flowing toward the lowest points. This "flood of cold air" eauses "cold islands," or "cold air puddles." Accordingly, elevations that impede the flow of air affect the distribution of the nocturnal temperatures by dam action; and concave terrainformations become cold-air lakes at night. The same phenomenon is enlarged when a large volume of cold air flow is in vol ved, as in valleys. Geiger describes and illustrates that with a diagrammatic cross section. 4 The plateau, valley walls, and bottom surface cool off at night. Air flow occurs toward the valley floor. On the valley slopes a series of smaller circulations mix with the neighboring warm air, eausing intermediate temperature conditions. Accordingly, the temperatures at the plateau

20 r--.---.---.---.--.---.---.--.

"'""' k 82-83. Cold air pool.

lO

..: s

600..:

J soo

l ~ :k-.. ~~~

.· ~ r' \7 ·~

")\J

~ '~l/

V"V

400 >

3oo ~o ~~---1---+--~--4-444-~+-~ 200

\.J

2

1&1

...

~

l

... -s

f---1---+--+----l--+--+--++1----hv~

- lo

l---1---+---+---+---+---+---+1tt-+---i

Radioting surface .............. Air movement

M l L E S

85. Effect of land formation on temperature distribution.

1-::~·'j Warm

Cold

Nocturnol minima

84. Warm slope zone.

will be cold, at the valley ftoor very cold, but the hi g her sides of the slopes will remain warm. This area, often indicated by vegetation, is referred to as the warm slope (thermal belt). In the temperate zone the thermal belt is most advantageous for placing a dwelling. However, if this location is exposed to crest winds that may offset higher temperatures, a more desirable place would be approximately halfway up the slope.

A characteristic example of the effect of land formation on temperatures was recorded by Middleton and Millar in Toronto, Canada. 5 They measured the temperatures along a profile at right angles to the Lake Ontario shore on a clear winter night. Near the lake the highest temperatures were recorded, gradually decreasing with the distance from it. The graph indicates the temperature differences between valley bottoms and their crests. Only seven miles from the lake a temperature drop of 34 o F was recorded. Such differences cannot be neglected in the choice of a building site.

RADIATION EFFECTS. The quantity of solar radiation also has a dominant effect on climate. The ancient Greeks associated insolation exposure with elimate so much that the latter word derives from the verb "to slope." A hillside receives radiation impact depending on the inclination and direction of the slope. This radiation varies, of course, depending on the season and the degree of cloudiness . Because of its importance the quantity of radiation impact on various slopes will be treated here in detail. The tabulated data was developed for the specific conditions of the New York-New Jersey region. In the calculations a method was adapted where weighted percentage-correction factors were used according to the Blue Hills Observatory data for both cloud-free and for average conditions (typical for the month).6 The following assumptions are implicit in these radiation calculations : there is no asymmetry in the curve of daily intensity of solar radiation; differences in radiation intensity resulting from the slightly elliptical orbit of the earth may be disregarded; the regions to which these calculations apply are near sea leve!. Tables A-F contain the results of the calculations for clear-sky direct radiation; clearsky diffuse radiation; clear-sky total radiation for design purposes, and average direct radiation; average total radiation for heat-gain data under average conditions. The summations show daily radiation amounts received on a surface of one square foot . The values are given for the 21st of each month for eight orientations. For site selection purposes only the small-slope inclinations are of importance. However, for the sake of completeness, data from the horizontal to the vertical, in eight angles of inclination are recorded.

45

TABLE A .-Direct Radiation for Clear Skies 40° N. Lat. Radiation: Direct Clear (New York-New Jersey area) Total daily B. t . u./sq. ft.

0° Inclina.tion SE. SW .

s.

Month Dec. 21 . --------------Jan. 21 or Nov. 21 Feb. 21 or Oct. 21. . .... M ar. 21 or SCpl. 21. ....

-----

A pr. 21 or Aug. 21. .....

May 21 or July 21. .....

J une 21 ••• ••••••••••.•••

532

0° lnclina.tion

E. W.

NE. NW .

N.

- -532- - -532- - -532- - - 532 -

Mon t h Dec. 21 ----- - ---------· Jan . 21 or Nov. 21. .....

688

688

688

688

688

953 1392 1889

9~1 13~2

953 1392 1889

953 1392 1889 2185 ?300

953 1392 11189 2185 2300

Fcb. 21 or Oct. 21. ... .. Mar. 21 or Sept. 2L .. .. A pr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... May 21 or July 21. ..... June 21. ..... ...........

385 451 781 1m

309 363

D ec. 2L ............ _--. Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. ..... Feb. 21 or Oct. 21. ... .. Mar. 21 or Sept. 2L .... Apr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... May 21 or Jul y 21. .... . J une 21 ···-···· ......

1889

21~

21 ~

21~

2300

2300

2300

10° Dec. 21 ........ . ........ Jnn. 21 or Nov. 2L ..... Fe b. 21 or Oct. 2L _.... )iar. 21 or Sept . 21. .... A pr. 21 or Aug. 2L ..... May 21 or July 2L ..... J une 21 .................

TABLE B.-DijfuBe Radiationfor Clear Skies 40° N. Lat. Radiation: Diffuse clear (New York-New Jersey area) Total daily B. t. u./sq. ft.

1 ~73

1999 ?153 2268

686

~2~

737 11 06 11>35 1920 2220

574 942 1382 1870 21 ~

2306

22711

1m

701 1173 1719

2128 2262

2096 2238

241 299 6 16 1014 1612 1984 2139

96 142

20° In clination Dec. 21. ...... .......... Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. ..... Feb. 21or Oct. 21. . ____ Mar. 21 or Sept, 21 . .... Apr . 21 or Aug. 21. ..... May 21 or July 2L ..... J une 21 ... ........ ------

931 981

760 883 1232 1607 1992 2180 2'249

1 ~2

1706 0054 2181 2241

11.6.1 1127 1494 1779

910 1: 1650

574 900 1340 1806

2083 2188

l

=l 211;

?028 20111 2100

4~7

899

150'2 1938 2107

Dec.:.21. ................ Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. ..... Feb. 21 or vet. 21. ... .. Mar. 21 or Sept. 21. .... A pr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... May 21 or Ju ly 21. .. ... June 21. ...............

490 561 887 1278 1723 1985 2079

99 192 450 844 1383 1787 1949

1258 1290

1003 10.13

~ ~~

1~1

480 531 835

1794 1991 1818 1808

1617 1846 1804 1884

1060 17ö3 1841

1019 1080 1333 1519 1631

1344 1368 1602 1700 1647 1457 1407

-----·-·· --------194 633 1232 1714 1889

Dec. 21. ................ Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. ..... Fe b. 21 or Oct . 21. ..... Mar . 21 or Sept. 21. .... Apr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... M ny 21 or Jul y 21. ..... June 21. .......... ......

ll77

39 13 1

328 628 1063 1343

1.18~

'01 440 700 1936 1346 1515

1 ~79

1 ~90

--------------- --------191 8 13 1"34 1>44

1 ~92

26 ~2

'20.1 477 794 1092 1223

---------·-·· -------- 2-

·-·

m

'l42 1013

Dec. 21 --------···---··

Jan . 21 or Nov. 21. . ... Feb. 21 or Oct. 21. ..... Mar. 21 or Sept. 21. .... A pr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... May 21 Or 1uly 21. ..... June 21. ......... -------

1334 1344 1497 1469

1m 9~ ~

l

99; 1037 1207 1296 1322 1218 1182

··--------·-···

Dec. 21 Jan . 21 or Nov. 21. ..... Feb. 21 or Oct. 2; ...... Mar. 21 or Sept. 21. .... A pr. ?l or Aug. 21. .. . .. May 21 or Jul y 21. ..... June 21 -------------··

46

mo

123f 1314

1138

830 469 407

917 911 1013 1007 994 844 807

106 172

233 309 381 453 457

159 216 291 37~

427 451

1 ~9

216 291 375 427 451

IW 216 291

-143 1 ~0

216 291

Mon t h Dec. 21 ..... ... ......... Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. ..... Feb. 21 or Oct. 21. .... . M nr. 21 or Sept. 21. ....

148 170 229 303 378 4~

4.18

l~

247

320 401 441 4~7

1.18 178 244 314 394

«O 4 ~7

288

2264

2264

2264

2264

2612 2751

2612 275 1

2612 2751

2612 2751

136 153

Dec. 21. ................ Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. .... Fe b. 21 or Oct. 21. .... Mar. 21 or Sept. 21. .... Apr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... May 21 or July 21. ..... J une 21. ................

l~

106 2011 278

a)4

271

268

~7

~7

342 407 424

338 398 423

D ec. 21 . ............. .. Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. ..... Fe b. 21 or Oet. 21. ..... Mar. 21 or Sept. 21. .... Apr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... M ay 21 or July 21. ..... J une 21. .. -------------

320

273

39~

350

428 44 1

437 449

40.1 423

27~

265 315

320 M{ 370 374

309 361 628 9~

1109 1?50 1281

13 3ll 130 325 ~9 1

84 1

90.1

Dec. 21 ·· -- ····· .. -··--

87 298 485

J"an. 21 or Nov. 21. ..... Feb. ?l .or Oct. 21. ..... Mar. 21 or Sept. 21. .... Apr. 21 or Aug. 21 ----May 21 or July 21. ..... June 21 · ----------- ----

41 161 237

Dec. 21. ................ Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. ..... Feb. 21 or Oct. 21. ..... Mar. 21 or SCpt. 21. .... Apr. 21 or Aug. 21. .... . May 21 or July 21. ..... June 21 .............. ...

363 380 389

128 143 193 254 340 39~

415

122 137 185 241 319 376 402

Dec. 21 .. . .............. Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. .... Feb. 21 or Oct. 21. ..... M ar. 21 or Sept. 21. .... A pr. 21 or Aug. 21. . .... May 21 or July 21. ..... June 21... --- - ----------

179 203

?96

301 335

324 329 337

~2

118 138

700 268 344 391 400

122 137 184 24~

316 370

379

11 6 l~

179 229 294 349 371

Dec. 21 . ... ............. Jan. 21 or ov . 21. ..... Fe b. 21 or Oet. 21. ..... Mar. 21 or Sept. 21. .... Apr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... May 21 or Jul y 21. ..... J une 21. ...............

113 128 172 219 774 322 341

Dec. 21 ...... ........... Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. . .... Fe b. 21 or Oct. 21. ..... Mar. 21 or Sept. 21. .... Apr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... May 21 oc July 21. .... . June 21... ------------· ·

116 129 170

107

D ec. 21 . .. . ---- - ---····· Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. .... . Feb . 21 or Oct. 21. ..... Mar. 21 or Sept. 21. .... A pr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... May 21 or Jul y 21. ..... J une 21. ... ---------- --·

140 160 200 281 347

110 132 174 233 297

388

3.13

403

369

136 IM 187

m

161

220

204

282 327

258 297 313

173 190

133

112

1~1

l~

236 268 309

201 248

l~

3«

90° TndinA.t.ion

m

m

lO 24

4 ~9

9~

788 872

407

227

99S

688

978

673

199 20.1 242 272

296 306 at4

323 3~

607

990 1513 21-12

2380 2606

26M

2W2

27~

27C4

2732

2544 2710

-

445 016

908 1446 2069 2498 2661

Jn~]ination

llOI

11 66 1 ~99

2028 24M 2622 2698

918 1011 l-1i6 1921

2386

637 710 1102 1611 2163

2620

24 9~

1312 1954 2391

2336

2706

26 1 ~

2.163

2.130

1268 1 3~

1258

608 700 1087 IM I 2073 2390

227

122 137 379 874 IM I 2090 2291

2108 2430 ~ 19

2541

1076 1148 1565 1970 2374 2532 2567

1461 1509 1797 2127 2382

2502

2223 2215

1183

604

1 ~2

669 1035 1445 1904 2144 2247

1612 1936 2234 2277 2303

371 449 81~

33~

643 1098 1723 2183 2364

161 268 512 873 1379 171 3 1971

1566 1.186 1877

1201 1286

541

14 ~

600

1 ~98

20'26

1834 1994 1965 1968

900 1317 1693 1903 1993

184 379 710 1091 1445 IW2

2001 1827 1781

7fi 0 Tn nlination

268

~7

~20

73~

224 286 6.10 11 06 1840

11 6 l~

179 420 1107 1683 1915

f\0° Tn(';linA.tion

327 362 372

3.13

66e 11 63 1670 2243

834 907 1335 1838 2298

45° Inclination

Tn~linA.t.ion

214 214 263

Tn~lination

897 972 1410 1882

30° lnclina.tion

401

182

1169 1683

20°

329

206

747

11 69 1683

2612 2751

128 144 193

118 139

218

747 11 69 1683

747

2264

130 150 199

200

m

747 11 69 1683

747

1169 1683

A pr. 21 or Aug. 21. .. ...

118 136

166 188

413 419

--675

67 ~

May 21 or July 21. ..... Junc 21. .. .••.•....•..••

273 350 402 423

?~2

388

N.

m

67~

37.')

416 448

412 427

NE.

NW.

427 461

· ~l

365

202

E.

-s-w.- - w. --

37~

373 427 453

183 198

180 199 261 319

87~

10° 141 161 221

264

203 210 272 333 391 40.1 407

SF:.

s.

427

In ~ lin atio n

170

7fi 0

90' Inolina.t.ion Dec. 21. ................ J"an. 21 or Nov . 21. ..... Fe b. 21 or Oct. 21. ----Mar. 21 or Sept. ?.L .... A pr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... May 21 or J"uly 2L .... . J une 21. ......... . .. ....

- -143- - -143- - -143- -

N.

60° lnclina.tion

7.~ 0 Tnclin~tt.ion

Dec. 21. .. . ------------Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. ..... Fe b. 21 or Oct . 21.- ---M ar 21 or Sept. 21. . ___ Apr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... May 21 or July 21. ..... June 21. .--- -- ----------

NE. N W.

4.1:) 0 Tn~linA.t.inn

60° Inclination Dec. 21. .. ---·--·----- - Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. ..... Feb. 21 or Oct . 21. ..•.. )1ar. 21 or Sept. 21. ... . A pr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... :M ay 21 or July 21. ..... J une 21..... .. .. ........

·~ l

0° Tn~lin11.t.ion E.

w.

30° Inclination

4!) 0 Jnclination Dec. 21.. -------- ----·· · Jan. 21 or Nov. 21. ..... Feb. 21 or Oct. 21. ..... Mar. 21 or Sept. 21. .... A pr. 21 or Aug. 21. ..... M ay 21 or Jul y 21 ---··· J une 21. ................

143 159 216 291 375 427

20° ~19

::l0° Tnr.JinA.t.lon Dec. 21. .... -----------Jan. 21 or Nov. n __ ____ Feb. 21 or Oct. 21. ..... Mar. 21 or Sept. 21. .•. . Apr. 21 or Aug. 21 .... .. May 21 or Jul y 21. .. ... June 21 ... ..... .........

s w.

10° TndinR.tion

Tn~lination

741 800 1177

S F. .

s.

TARLE C.- Total Radiationfor Clear Skies Radiation: Total clear 40° N. Lat. (New York-New Jersey area) Total daily B. t . u./sq. f t .

1548 15.18 1760

1176 12

lOL---~------------------------------------~----~10

lO

JULY

20

30

DATE

230. Material effects on building behavior.

lO

20

31

AUGUST

TIME LAG AND CALCULATION METHODS

of Structures.

In an example a comparison is shown between the behavior of light and heavyweight structures under the same elirnatic circumstances. The calculations were made for a housing development in Baghdad, Iraq. The upper left graph shows the heat transmission curves for wood construction walls (U = 0.268, lag 2 hrs, color light) under sunlit conditions in midsummer Ou ly 21 ). The curves on the lower left indicate heat flow behavior of 9" native Iraq brick walls under the same conditions hut with 10 hrs time-lag characteristics. Note that although the total daily heat transmission of the building components at both structures is the same (having equal insulation values), the amplitude and the period of transmission is markedly different. The total daily heat flow behavior of the structures is summarized in the upper right graph; under it the shade-temperature curve illustrates the corresponding outdoor conditions. Note that the light structure heats up during the hot daytime hours (from 7 AM till 7 PM) transmitting 450.5 Btus through the differently oriented unit surfaces, while the heavyweight structure transmits only 331.4 Btus during the same period. Here the heavyweight components are markedly advantageous in the daytime heat balance. Daily Heat Balance

CALCULATION METHOD FOR TIME LAG REQUIREMENTS The "shift in phase" effect of capacity insulation provides the leeway to delay outside impacts from heat load periods to a cooler time phase, and to transmit the nighttime low temperatures to the daytime heat peak. Generally it can be said that in zones of high diurnal

14,--------------------------------, 13

l

9

\

jl

5

•·••.•

'

iflj/

-~~-

f·•••

4

l '-'~l

l i//i

litll

~~

3 l

,.

l i/ v . ·:.:;:··-"'~, \\ l l l i~"" ' \l\ :f./ i l .l.... ~\ '\\ ,,~ .. i f/ ..l \'~

ll 6 ~ 4

~

j\ i : \ : l f \. \ \ ....... _~l .,.. .....;~,,, ...';........x·,

i

7

l

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,·-·i

8 -i

2

.

f

11 10

.i"'-·\

:

l2

~

~:....

52

........~

.,_

'·,

jii _,;j/ .,f!

""o

::> J:

'::>....

·-.:~:.-::.~?./

"'

l

~

o ;:;! ....

o

10

12

14

16

18

20

36 32 28

HOURS

:!

24

231. Behaviour of light wood structure, lraq, July.

_,

....o

'\

l

40

.s J:

Light construction /~

44

24

22

...-,

48

l

l

l

l

\

t" l

\\

\\

20 16 12 8

o

4

8

lo

12

14

16

18

20

22 24 HOURS

10,--------------------------------. ~------------------------------~108

..·················.......... da il y outdoor temp. curve

4

104 100

\

L -----

60

80

70

rs f

-. zo ::

....

?

:z:

,?

~

.•

Q

,p~

'


;yl p!

'


"'

JAN 21

6

o o o

o

...

...J

l l l

3

....

< w

l

2

J:

l

l

________ ./l

,._./

l l

w

N

60

60

-1,210

-2,940

-2,940

-2,940

-~.940

-3,340

585

-7,670

-26,915

-1,188

-1,232

-3,000

-3,000

-3,000

-3,000

-3,340

585

-7' 850

-27' 423

-1,210

-1,210

-1,232

-3,060

-3,060

-3,060

-3,060

-3,553

585

-8,020

-28,090

-1,232

-1,232

-1,254

-3,180

-3,180

-3,180

-3,180

-3,553

585

-8,200

-28,838

-1,254

-1,254

-1,298

-3,180

-3,180

-3,180

-3,180

-3,675

585

-8,290

-29,160

-1,298

-1,276

-1,276

-1,320

-3,240

-3,240

-3,240

-3,240

-3,675

585

-8,465

-29,685

-1,298

-1,298

-1,276

-1,320

-3,300

-3,300

-3,300

-3,300

-3,798

1 '585

-8,600

-29,205

-1,320

-1,320

-1,320

-1,364

-3,300

-3,300

-3,300

-3,300

-3,798

1 '585

-8,600

-29,337

-1,320

-1,320

-1,320

-1,364

1,860

180

-2,940

-2,880

-3,920

2,585

-8,380

-18,819

-1,320

-1,320

-1,320

-1,364

6,120

4,380

-2,460

-2,460

-3,920

6,195

-8,020

-5,489

10

-924

-1,034

-1,276

-1,320

3,600

7,320

-2,160

-2,160

-3,920

195

-7,670

-9,349

11

-682

-616

-1,188

-1,232

300

9,300

-1,800

-1,920

-3,553

195

-7,225

-8,421

12

-660

-352

-1,122

-1,166

-1,620

10,260

-1,620

-1,800

-2,940

195

-6,790

-7,615 --4,402

-1,210

-1,188

-1,210 -1,232 -1,254

,.,

l \l

l

l

l

\"----~

\

o -l

HOURLY TOTAL

s

-1,166

\

INFIL-

TRATION

60

-1,166

l

INDOORS

E

-1,188

l

l l

HEAT CRT

60

220

l

l

ROOF

N

s 220

l

l l

3:

GIASS

220

w

E

220

~

s

SINJLE

FRAME

l

225

13

-836

-132

-1,056

-1,100

-1,500

9,720

600

-1,620

-2,328

195

-6,345

14

-1,012

-22

-990

-1,034

-1,560

7,920

4,200

-1,560

-1,838

195

-6,080

-1 '781

15

-968

o

-682

-968

-1,680

5,160

5,040

-1,680

-1,593

195

-5,905

-3,081

-4

16

-946

-132

-396

-946

-1,980

-1,080

2,820

-1,920

-1,470

195

-5,995

-11 '850

-s

17

-924

-330

-352

-924

-2,400

-2,400

-2,400

-2,400

-1,715

2,695

-6,170

-17,320 -17,468

-2 -3

-6

-7 -8

-9

00

04

08

12

16

20

24

18

-968

-704

-550

-968

~2,460

-2,460

-2,460

-2,460

-2,083

4,085

-6,440

19

-1,012

-990

-990

-1,012

-2' 580

-2,640

-2,580

-2,640

-2,695

1 ,585

-6,790

-22,344

20

-1,056

-1,034

-1,034

-1,056

-2' 700

-2,700

-2,700

-2,700

-3,063

1 ,585

-6,965

-23' 423

-1,078

21

-1

J

100

-1,078

-1,100

-2,760

-2,760

-2,760

-3,063

1,585

-7,230

-24,104

-1

J

100

-o, 100

_,l 100

-2,760

22

-1 '144

-2' 880

-2,880

-2,880

-2,880

-3,308

1,585

-7' 405

-25,092

23

-1,166

-1,144

-1,144

-1,166

-2,940

-2,940

-2,940

-2,940

-3,308

1,585

-7,585

-~5,688

31,530 -176,690

-454,899

DAILY TOTAL -26,oo4 -21,252 -25,520 -28,094 -40,380

9,180 -42,240 -61,980 -73,449

BTU

DAY

HOURS

276.

THERMAL BEHAVIORS STRUCTURES IN TEMPERATE AREAS "0RTHODOX HOUSE" IN TEMPERATE ZONE.

132

The selected house norm is a structure which has neutral features in regard to the elirnatic environment. The square (35' X 35') house has a floor area of 1225 sq ft. Each side has a

280 sq ft surface consisting of 220 sq ft dark colored wood frame construction (a = O. 7, U = 0.13) and two 5' X 6' windows totaling 60 sq ft of glass area. A 21 sq ft door is placed on the north side. Flat roof construction (a 0.7, U 0.07) covers the total 1225 sq ft area. The thermal behavior of the structure in

=

=

New York in winter is illustrated, with the heatflow budget itemized at the righthand side. There the ordinate refers to the hours of the day. Horizontally the columns indicate the materials arranged according to exposures. At the far right the hourly total heat flow for the structure is shown. Under each column the

WOOD

lffiS

s

E 220

o 2

6 7

w

220

SINGLE GLASS

FRAME

220

N 220

w

ROOF

E

s

60

60

60

60

HEAT CRT INDOORS

INFILTRATION

ORTHODOX HOUSE

N

-31

_,,

-42

-240

-240

-240

-240

-13

-33

-24

-55

-240

-240

-240

-240

-37

-68

-48

-81

-360

-360

-360

-360

123

585

-882

-1,848

-51

-79

-64

-95

-420

-420

-420

-420

123

585

-1,058

-2,319

-73

-106

-86

-121

-480

-480

-480

-480

o

585

-1,235

-2,956

-97

-130

-110

-145

960

-480

-480

-60

o

585

-1,411

-1,368

-121

-156

-134

-172

8,040

o

-60

1,320

-120

1,585

-1,411

8, 771

-176

-156

-139

11,760

?45

585

-617

-833

"' ::>

585

-706

-961

:I:

o

'.....::> o o o 3

-120

1,585

-l' 147

13' 194

...

"" o

x

'::>....

JAN 21

24 20

~

16

3:

12

o.... ...

YORK AREA

28

"'

o o

NEW

....

•x

w

4

o -4 -8 -12 - 16 -20 -24 - 28 -32 -36 -40 00

281.

04

08

12

16

20

24 HOURS

CoNCLUSIONS FOR NEw YoRK AREA. A earn-

parison of heat behavior between the orthodox and balanced structures is illustrated graphically in the accompanying plans for both winter and summer. On each side of the structures the hours of the day are indicated clockwise. The hourly heat amount transmitted by the surfaces is charted from the center of the wall, the heat gains toward the interior of the house, the heat losses toward the exterior. For any given time, the summation of the heat impacts at the four orientations will result in the total heat transmission of the building sides. Thedaily total heat flow curves in winter of

the orthodox and balanced houses are shown. Note that the orthodox house has negative heat flow throughout the day, whereas the balanced house gains heat for about seven ho urs. The losses of the balanced house are smaller too, making its performance throughout the day better than the orthodox structure. Shown also are the daily total heat flow behavior of the same houses in summertime. The balanced house reduces the heat peak of the orthodox house from 26.587 to 8.456 Btu. The improvements in the seasons are the products of the following measures: in winter: orientation, house shape, and rearrangement of openings ( +86.429 Btu gain) 19%; reduction of infiltration ( + 87.319 Btu) 19%, drop in convection through double-glass window ( +67.306 Btu) 15%. The applied stonewall because of lower insulation value results in a loss of 2%. The ventilation of appliances works negatively also by 2%. The total reduction of heat loss is 49%. The breakdown of the applied measures improves the conditions in summer as follows: orientation, shape, and rearrangement of openings (- 21.938 Btu) 8%; shading of glass surfaces ( -132.408 Btu) 48%; partial shading of walls ( -12.468 Btu) 4%; double-pane south window ( -4.200 Btu) 2%; roof alteration with light color and ventilation (- 15.780 Btu) 6%; ventilation effect for heat created indoors ( -10.900 Btu) 4%. The stonewall applied to the west shows a loss of l% as a daily total, however its balancing effect works favorably. The total improvement over the orthodox house amounts to 71%. From the seasonal data a yearly importance index can be compiled for the applied measures. As a criterion for such an index the transmitted-heat-flow sums were multiplied by the duration of the season (72% for underheated period, 28% for overheated), and since the final

TOTAL HEAT BUDGET

::> ""

o x

'::>....

40 36

~

32

3:

.......

o

28

....

24

w

20

•x

JULY 21

44

"'

o o

NEW YORK AREA

,Jl l \

16 12

4

o -4 -8 -12 -16 -20 -24 00

04

08

12

16

20

24 HOURS

282.

yardstick for evaluation is human stress, the summer heat impacts were again multiplied by two. Accordingly the yearly evaluation results show the following order. (l) Orientation has importance in both periods, hut mainly during underheated times, with a yearly importance of 27%. (2) Shading of glass surfaces is equal to it in magnitude (27%), hut only in one season. (3) Reduction in infiltration is a close third with 23%. (4) Lower heat transmission in glass surface (double pane) accounts for 18%. (5) Roofventilation is 3%. (6) Shading of walls is 2%. (7) Ventilation of appliances and stone wall both work in such a summation negative!y with a total of - 3%.

137

:;

o

:J:

MINNEAPOLIS

ORTHODOX

HOUSE

JAN 21

HRS

......

E

.......

~

6

o o o

4

~

o

o

....
25 585

-10,231

-35,778

-1,620

-1,601

-1,612

-1,620

-4,080

-4,080

-4,080

-4,080

-17

-4,018

585

-10,584

-36,807

-1,651

-1,632

-1,642

-1,651

-4,200

-4,200

-4,?00

-4,?00

-17

-4,104

585

-10,866

-37,778

-1J701

-1J682

-1,695

-1,701

-4,260

-4,260

-4,260

-4J260

-18

-4J875

585

-11J113

-39,240

-1,700

-1J722

-1J785

-1,700

-4,320

-4,320

-4,320

-4,320

-18

-5,010

585

-11,290

-39,920

-1,781

-1J760

-1,770

-1,781

-4,)80

-4J380

-4J380

-4,380

-18

-5,120

585

-11,395

-40,560

-1,810

-1,785

-1,795

-1J810

-4,320

-4,)20

-4,320

-4,320

-18

-5J218

1,585

-11,360

-39J491

-1,800

-1,810

-1,820

_,,260

-4,?60

-4,260

-4,260

-18

-5,29:?

1,585

-11,184

-39,199

-1,821

-1,798

-1,800

-1,821

-840

-2,220

-3,960

-3,960

-18

-5,329

2,585

-10,866

-31,848

-1,790

-1J770

-1,778

-1J790

2,4oo

2,580

-J,48o

-3,480

-18

-5,316

6,195

-1o,443

-18,690

-1,616

-1,600

-1,727

-1,69Q

1,980

6,000

-3J120

-3,120

-17

-5,243

195

-10,060

-20,027

-1,389

-1,350

-1,650

-1,688

-480

7,860

-2,820

-2J940

-16

-5,035

195

-9,561

-18,8711

-1,345

-1,155

-1,585

-1,599

-2,580

8,880

-2,580

-2,820

-15

-4,386

195

-9,173

-18,163

13

-1,360

-990

-1,1190

-1,521

-2,460

8,100

-2,580

-14

-3,099

19'5

-8,714

-14,053

14

-1,449

-907

-1,496

-1,466

-2,520

6,720

2,400

-2,520

-14

-2,609

195

-8,502

-12,168

15

-1,389

-869

-1,250

-1,399

-2,700

3,360

3,180

-2,700

-13

-2,401

195

-8,967

-14,953

16

-1,360

-934

-1,132

-1,370

-3,060

-1,)20

60

-3,060

-13

-2,278

195

-8,644

-22,916

17

-1,370

-1,068

-1,115

-1,375

-3,4:?0

-3,420

-3,420

-3,420

-14

-2,499

2,Ö95

-8,820

-27,246

18

-1,410

-1,260

-1,300

-1,409

-3,480

-3,480

-3,480

-3,480

-14

-2,928

4,085

-8,996

-27,152

19

-1,449

-1,430

-1,41q

-1,449

-3,540

-3,540

-3,540

-3,540

-15

-3,1>79

1,585

-9,280

-31,124

-1,470

-1,455

-1,69'>

-1,470

-3,600

-3,600

-3,600

-3,600

-15

-3,638

1,585

-9,420

-31,978

-1,500

-1,488

-1,500

-1,500

-3,720

-3,720

-3,720

-3,720

-15

-3,712

1,585

-9,631

-3?,641

-1,535

-1,519

-1,488

-1,535

-3,720

-3,720

-3,720

-3,720

-16

-3,797

1,585

-9,77?

-F',957

-1 ,561>

-1,550

-1,560

-1,564

-3,840

-;,840

-3,8'-o

-3,840

-16

-3,871

1,585

-10,020

-33,920

~i~ -37,490-34,695 -37,69:> -38,]:>8 -69,360 -19,140 -69,540 -86,:>80

-383

97,?13 31,530

-?38,89?

-697,483

-18

-20 23

-22

W

INDOORS TRATION

-1,820

-2

-4

S

HEAT CRT INFIL-

-24 00

04

08

12

16

20

283.

"'

MINNEAPOLIS

~

~

20

~

18

...... o o o ~

o

24 HOURS

ORTHODOX HOUSE

JULY 21

STNGLE GLASS woon PRA\\E HRS - - - - - ,- - . . ,---c,..r:---- ---c,-;--cc,W 3 11 ??O 2?0 ??O ?:>o 60 60 60

< ....

-420

-1

?94

585

-1,058

-1,941

-')40

-1

159

585

-1 '411

-3 '111

-660

-660

-600

-660

24

585

-1,764

-4,278

-660

-660

-600

-660

-1 ??

585

-1J835

-4,692

-255

-720

-720

-660

-7?0

-257

585

-1,870

-5,302

-238

-?64

2,040

-540

-392

585

-1,835

-2J081

-255

-?42

-?71

7. 980

-60

1 ,320

-416

1,585

-l

,693

7,597

-92

-244

-229

11,580

300

240

540

-428

1,585

-1,411

11,639

12,240

900

600

720

-318

2,585

-822

15,614

367

-147

-143

10,980

3,000

900

1,080

208

6,195

-318

22,000

"'

-13

-59

-70

7,920

5,040

1,260

1,320

t

,oo4

195

176

17,235

486

180

26

15

t.,200

6J600

1,560

1,620

1 ,935

195

706

17' 524

438

339

92

1,800

7,080

1,740

1,740

2,817

195

1,1?9

17,47?

354

464

182

172

1,860

6,960

4,380

1,860

3,515

195

1 J 411

21,355

>46

537

251

235

1J800

5,520

8,400

1,860

3,993

195

1 '588

24,627

15

277

565

462

?75

1,6?0

3J6oo

11,640

1,800

4, 275

195

1,588

26,299

l6

'93

539

647

299

1,500

1,920

13,140

1,680

195

1 ,517

25,995

"8

451

763

299

1,200

1,320

12,5loO

1,560

268

,,

807

282

900

1 ,020

9,000

?,400

3,552

4,085

988

23,629

744

266

420

420

2,940

l ,440

?,966

1,585

706

11,839

183

598

275

,033

1 ,585

"'

'"

169

1 ,261

1 ,585

"

55

661

1,585

-353

1,680

428

1,585

-706

219

3,169

635

35,~22

31,530

-3,679

258,919

-141

-1 ?1

-167

-191

-178

-216

-240

-?27

-224

-?51

-229

12

10

16

14

-194

:J:

4

o l8

"

138

284.

325

178 125

-6

70

04

08

12

16

20

61

-48

-l

5?

-117

18

24 H OUR S

HOURLY TOTALS

-480

-79

00

I :W IL-

-360

-30

-90

-4

HEAT CRT

-540

-39

-73

-2

ROOF'

-540

-?4

~

"-

....

DOOR

1 -----"JNDO'=O'O'R§ __TRATION 1,l ,225

60

DAILY

'roT AL

l, 172

?

J 192

-1

120

?

-300

-300

-300

-300

64J740

39,780

64,800

17,160

-1

BTU

DAY

HRS

WOOD FRAME

DOUBLE

GIASS

DOOR

INDOORS

S 1lo.6

W 234

N 266

E 30

W 30

N 30

-t,olo.o

-1,682

-1,918

-1,980

-1,980

-1,980

-4,8oo

-16

-3,956

-1,724

-1,064

-1,717

-1,960

-2,040

-2,040

-2,040

-4,9::>0

-17

-4,018

'e'

-1,757

-1,083

-1,750

-1,998

-", 100

-2,100

-2,100

-5,100

-17

-4,103

-1,813

-1,116

-1,80

-4,2?1

5,298

-517

-1,329

-1,689

-1,350

1,590

-1,]50

11,100

-13

-

-1,66]

-1,710

-1,710

-1,710

-4,:?00

-2,499

1,1145

-11,410

-19,8??

18

-1,499

-SJO

-1,383

-1,713

-1,7lo0

-1,740

-1,740

-4,200

-2,927

?,585

-4,498

-19,719

-949

-1,540

-1,TfO

-1,770

-1,'!70

-4,-1'50

-15

-3,479

1, J3';

-4,(,o4

-22,2o1

-967

-1,802

-1

-1,8JO

-1,800

-1 1 600

-4,3'5C

-15

-3,638

1,

-4,710

-2?,892

-1,598

-1,817

-1,860

-1,860

-1,860

- 1•,500

-15

-3,711

1,335

-4,R16

-:>3,287

1,335

-5,010

'9

-1

'598

-987

-1

,6)0

-1,007

-1,628

-1,854

-1,1'-ilO

-1,860

-1

-·'•' ~JO

-16

-3,797

23

-J,666

-1,028

-1,659-1,894

-t,y-20

-1,920

-1,920

-4,650

-16

-3,871

~~R

-39,918

-4o,o66 -46,432 -34,68o -J4,7?·J -43,140

53,1oo

-383 -91,2o1

JAN 21

16 14

12

lO

"'J:"'

?,559

15

.~39

...

BALANCED HOUSE

-939

-1 '476

755

MI NNEAPOLI S

o

-1,923

-1,719

1j

GlASS

SI~I..E

20,63o-119,104

-2 -4 -6

,--

'·---··-----,,' ..........._______ _ -......... ......-..,·-·-·-:::· :·-·-·-·-·-·--====~ 11!--'...... .-.. ............. .......-..............._..............··

-B

····-···-··-

-l o

-2~,219 -4o~.'l99 ~r~

-12

-14

00 WOOD FRAME

HRS

SINGLE GLASS

s

_,

"6

-103

-67

-1 5e

-154 -204

w

JO -6]

-]4

-1]4 -167

-261

-174

-278

-177

-278

-170

-270

-150

-?41

-164

-119

-192

-85

-64 -9

64

')7

93

'39

'JJ

204

'6

q4

"'

18

2]8

'"

,go

19

193

'l'

'"

1':)'

49

DAILY TOTAL

-155

]]

'"

ROOF

HEAT CRT nw::_- HOUR!..Y INI:·C•CI1S TI1AT:C:•i TOTAL

-450

'76

585

-529

-1

,021 ,807

-125

-270

-?40

-600

585

-706

-1

-330

-300

-330

-900

585

-882

-2,744

-?50

-380

-300

-330

-900

585

-918

-3' 116

-330

-}60

-154

-3,448

-270

-2"(!)

-235

-3 '1 70

-180

-1

-270

-60

-31::-

6o -218

]60

_, 9

510

,,

-150

CC)

-73

-250 -257

-6117 1,

1

1 ,350

2' 197

J]O

3110

1 ,8oo

88

3' 418

480

2,100

1,161

'95

353

'J, 200

~40

?,250

1 ,6;l0

'95

565

6, '..>84

6o0

6oc

706

2' 109 2, 396

1, 'l'JO

2, 440

1 se

390

187

,,

-60

-.6

-.5

-300

-105

-132

3,280

l

,200

'Bo

8,291

1, 445

667

8,695

585

494

8, 522

1 7~

3 '677

? '1 31

;>'

1 , 1' ~

HOURS BALANCED HOUSE

JULY 21

16

14 12 l

o

o

........ ....

"'J: "'

4

-2 -4

-6

5,2?5

6o

60

'50

1 '220

757

1 '335

-60

-60

-150

397

1,335

-176

1,422

-150

-300

'"

1 ,335

-353

363

3,090

16,050

21 '253

20,630

-1,8:?1

3, 390

20

)::

8,587

1 • 720

16

7, 745

7'!9

2' 558

12

8, 448

1')')

2,565 570

o

o

':>06

-159

4';0

570

"'

-160

90 ?40

J:

';:

-1 '358

3 3';

08

MI NNEAPOLI S

~

o"'

l ' 225

jO

-180

]]0

"'

N

T(·,JR

-187

162

'03

DOUBlE GLA.SS

04

285.

-8

2,512

65, ?69

-l o

DO ETIJ DAY

286.

04

08

12

16

20

24 HOUR S

139

MINNEAPOLJS

BALAN CE O HOUSE

ORTHOOOX HOUSE

WINTER

SUMMER N

12

16

20

24

N

140

287.

SCALE IN FE E r

E8

S CAlE OF HEA T IMPACTS

IN 1000 BTU' S

l

o

15

TOTAL HEAT BUDGET

MINNEAPOLIS

288 .

::>

o

JAN 21

HOURS

TOTAL HEAT BUDGET

MINNEAPOLI S

JUL Y 21

48 - , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

40

g 36 ~ 32 28 ~

24 20 16 12

-4

-8 -12

-16

289.

HOURS

HEAT ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES IN COOL AREA The heat budget of the orthodox house in Minneapolis, during winter indicates that the heat losses arise from the following sources: woodframe construction, east 5%, south 5%, west 5%, and north 5%; window areas, east 10%, south 2%, west 10%, north 12%; heatloss through the roof 13%, through infiltration 33%. There is a 4% gain through the heat created indoors. In summertime the heat gain of the orthodox house results in terms of percentage from the following sources: woodframe wall, east l%, south l%, west l%; window area, east 25%, south 15%, west 25%, north 7%. The roof contributes 14% to heat gam; the heat created indoors amounts to 12%. There IS a small loss of l% through infiltration. The arrangement of the balanced house was changed by orientation, overhangs and shadmg, ventilated roof construction, doubleglazed south window, weather stripping, and ventilated appliances. The winter heat-loss breakdown in percentages is as follows: woodframe wall, east 8%, south 5%, west 8%, north 10%; window areas, east 7%, west 7%, north 9%. Heat loss through the roof amounts to 21 %, through infiltration 25%. An 11% heat gain comes through the 150 sq ft double-glazed south window, and the heat created indoors amounts to a 4% rise. In summertime the heat behavior of the wall surfaces is negligible. Window area at east supplies 5%, south 24%, west 5%, and north 5% of the total heat gain. The roof contributes 31%, and heat created indoors amounts to 30%. The daily infiltration total brings a loss of 3%. A daily heat behavior comparison m Minneapolis between the orthodox and balanced structures is illustrated graphically both for winter and summer. The indications are

the same as described for the New York example. Note the effect of solar impact in winter on the south side of the balanced house. In summer the reduction of heat load by the balanced house, as compared to the orthodox, is apparent. On the daily total heatflow curves between the orthodox and balanced houses in wintertime, note that the balanced house has less heat loss throughout the day, and by solar energy utilization positive flow occurs in some daytime hours. The summer behavior of the same houses shows the peak heatload value of 26.420 Btu of the orthodox house reduced to 8.695 Btu peak impact by the arrangements of the balanced structure. The improvements on a seasonal basis are the products of the following measures. In winter: orientation, and rearrangement of openings ( +82.631 Btu gain) 12%; reduction in infiltration (+119.788 Btu) 17%; cut in convection through the glass area by using double glass ( + 100.950 Btu) 15%. The applied ventilation of appliances works negatively by 2%. Summed up, the total reduction of heatloss by a balanced house is 42%. In summer the applied measures improve the conditions of the orthodox house as follows: orientation, shape, and rearrangements of openings ( -19.650 Btu) 8%; shading of glass surfaces ( -141.330 Btu) 54%; roof alteration by light color and ventilation ( -14.169 Btu) 5%; shading of wall surfaces ( -9.573 Btu) 3%; ventilation of appliances ( -10.900 Btu) 4%. The application of a double-pane south window and the reduction of infiltration do not amount to a practicable difference in the heat effects. The total reduction of heat gain is 75% as compared to the orthodox house. On the basis of the seasonal data the yearly importance index is evaluated according to the heat-flow sums, duration of season (here for

141

;

PHOENIX

o 24

ORTHODOX HOUSE

JAN 21

'::> o o o

~

WOOD FRAME

HRS

:I:

22

20 18 16 14

12 lO

s

E 60

w

ROOF

HEAT CRT INFILINDOOR3 '!'RATION

HOURLY TOTALS

220

220

220

220

60

60

-528

- 506

- 528

- 550

-l

,500

-1, 500

- 1,500

_, , 500

-1 ,470

585

- 572

-550

- 572

- 594

- 1,620

-1, 620

- 1 , 620

-1, 6?0

-1 , 470

- 594

- 59 4

- 594

- 638

_, , 680

_, , 680

_ , ,660

- 1,680

_, , 593

- 638

- 616

- 638

- 660

_, . 740

_, ' 7'-0

_, ' 71>0

- 1 '740

- 1 '7 15

'" '" ~85

- 4 , 604

-660

- 660

- 660

-682

_, ,860

- 1 , 860

_, , 860

_, , 860

- 1 , 838

'585

- 4 , 762

- 16, 1 17

- 682

- 682

- 704

-726

-1 , 920

_ , , 920

_, , 920

-1, 920

- 1 , 838

585

- 4 , 901>

-1 6 , 631

1, 225

- 3 , 972

-1 2,969 -13 , 887 -1 4 , 5 58 -1 5,246

- 704

- 704

- 726

-748

- 1,920

-1, 920

- 1 , 920

- 1 , 920

-1 , 960

1 ,585

- 5 , 0 10

- 15 , 947

- 726

- 726

- 748

- 770

- 780

-1 ,440

-1, 920

- 1 , 860

- 2,083

1, 585

-5 , 116

- 14 , 584

-748

-748

- 748

- 770

5 ,280

2,520

-1 ,560

-1 , 440

- 2,083

2 , 585

-5 , 0 10

- ? , 722

-682

- 682

- 770

-79

~

';:' "'

HOUR S PHOENIX

~

24

ORTHODOX

HOU SE

wom

IIRS

S

JULY 21

?W

~

22

?M

16 14

,," " ,," -2 00

291.

04

08

12

16

20

24 H OUR S

,, ~,}ki,

HEAT CRT INFfL- HOUHl.Y l NIYXlRS '!'RATION TOTALS

0

7?0

1,fl37

'>A'i

?,Ooo

9 , 7:>8 8 ,11 7

396

440

396

600

6o0

600

r.oo

1 , ., o;,

"JP5

1,71•5

'"

'"

35?

';>40

540

';> 40

';>40

1 , 59?

58'>

l· ''\?

7 , 385

30 fl

';>40

:;. 40

';40

., ,, 0

1 ,4 70

'>8'.>

1 ,3 ? 1

6 , 900

l30

?86

480

480

480

l>flO

1 , j47

)t1)

1 ,14 )

286

2 4 :>

7 ' 74o

8 4o

7 80

? ' } 4o

l ' ?2 5

1 ' '.>f~.,

l '00 4

1 ~ ,1 :'0

1 ,44 0

1 , ?60

2 , 340

1,1 0?

1, '.>85

1, 53~'

:?2 , 394

266

41 8

1 J , ')OO

1,9 80

1, 800

2,160

1,102

? , "Jfl'•

? , 327

26 ,994

"'

J74

506

1 2 ,4 20

2 , ')80

? , ??O

2,

400

1 , ] 47

6 ,1 95

3 , 000

3? , 648

506

~06

~:>8

9,4:>0

3 ' '>40

2 , 640

2' 700

?, 450

1'l 5

) , ":>? "!

?7,418

'"

,,

N

4 40

1 ,hos

lO

w

4~0

?1>4

12

s

46::>

18

....

E

440

":>

19 5

4 , , 95

27 ,909

1 , 1 00

1 , 01?

79?

no

i , 300

4, 860

6 ,1 ?O

3 ,3 00

5 ,390

19 ')

4 , 830

j 1 , 669

858

1 , 078

858

8j6

l , .:IOO

h,:>oo

1o , oso

3 , 36o

6 , oo2

19 5

5 , 11 5

3>,882

90?

1 , 1:> :>

1 , ? 10

880

3 , 1 80

I , '"JI•O

1 3 , 380

3,360

6,247

195

5 , 340

39 , 356

924

1 , 100

1 , 54o

94

2 , CJ 4o

3 , 1 ·o

14 , 6 4o

3 ,1 ~o

6,247

1CJ 5

5, 355

4o , 105

946

1 , 01 :>

1, 782

941,

? ,(,lw

2 , 820

13 , 500

:? , 880

6,002

2 , 695

~ . 290

ho , 513

9 h(,

946

1 , 848

990

:> , ?80

2 , j40

9, ?~O

2 , 460

'> , ~1 2

h , 08')

5 ,o hO

3 5 , 687

9o:>

9o:>

1 ,8o4

1 , 0 56

1 , F~oo

, , soo

1 , 8oo

1 , 8oo

4, 777

1, 585

h , 6oo

2:> , 826

8j6

8 14

1 , 386

l , 0 12

1 , 500

1 ,500

l' 500

1 ' 500

3 , 9?0

1 ' 5~5

3,q l 8

19,471

726

748

7:'6

1, ?60

1,260

1, 260

1, 260

:> ,695

1 , 585

3 ,403

15 , 671

638

660

616

1 , 1 ho

1 , 1 4o

1 ,140

1 , 140

2 ,4 50

1, 585

l , 018

1 h, 187

'>50

1 , o:>o

1 , o:>o

1 , o:>o

1 , 020

,?05

1, 585

2 , 259

1 ? ,417

14 , 76;>

9:> , 46o

51,720

92,460

47 ,1 60

76,924

31 , 530

78,787

538,515

660

550 18 : ''E8

1 7 , l78

18,766

~TI!

HRS

S'l'ONE MA50NRY E 260

10

S 218.4

SINJLE GLASS

W 320

N 297.4

E 80

S 120

W 20

DOOH NR 20 21

HOOP

HEAT INFILINOOORS TRATION

"":::> o

HCUHLY TOTALS

-735

-6811.

-2,000

-3,000

-500

-500

-132

-1,470

585

-1,986

-11,252

-5it6

-284

-735

-654

-2,160

-3,240

-540

-540

-141

-1,470

585

-2,117

-11,842

-546

-284

-735

-684

-2,240

-3,360

-560

-560

-149

-1,593

585

-2,205

-12,331

o

-546

-305

-735

-684

-2,320

-3,480

-580

-580

-155

-1,715

585

-2,302

-12,817

o

20

-546

-327

-735

-684

-2,480

-3,720

-620

-620

-162

-1,838

585

-2,381

-13,528

-572

-349

-735

-714

-2,560

-3,840

-640

-640

-164

-1,838

585

-2,452

-13,919

;;:

18

-572

-371

-768

-714

-2,560

-3,840

-611.0

-640

-172

-1,960

1,335

-2,505

-13,407

-371

-768

-744

-1,040

-2,880

-640

-620

-176

-2,083

1,335

-2,558

-11,117

...

16

-572

-768

-7lj.il.

7,040

-5,049

-520

-480

-179

-2,083

1,585

-2,505

14

12,830

-320

-320

-170

-2,083

795

-2,179

14,680

w J:

-180

-371

-800

-744

8,640

-598

-393

-800

-773

6,800

18,300

-598

-393

-800

-773

2,880

22,600

-598

-393

-800

-773

480

23,650

120

-145

-2,083

195

-1,746

18,377

-60

-116

-1,593

195

-1,288

20,054

60

-82

-735

195

-988

20,136 21.390

"' o

o

1,225

-546

"

19

PHOENIX

-2 -4 -6

100 -7,740 -2,685 -20,727 20,630 -38,863

-8

STONE WALL

HRS

E >'60

>'18.4

W

»60

STONE WALL IN GARDEN N

297.4

60

SIJ'l}LE GLASS

SIJIIJLE GLASS IN GARDEN

WE

80

S

w

N

DOOR

ROOF KEA.T CR'I INFILJ"NDOORS TRATION

HOURLY TOTALS

20

?O

21

1,225

1,800

JOO

JOO

95

t, 715

585

1,155

10,283

,44o

?4o

?40

84

1,470

58)

1,000

9,152

74

1,348

585

An

8,689

633

7')4

862

156

1,200

728

633

754

862

156

960

t

754

IS33

754

892

156

880

1,320

J:

12

"'

754

892

156

800

1,200

180

65

1,225

585

776

8,220

862

156

120

1,oao

180

180

59

1,103

585

662

7, 702

o

862

156

64o

960

16o

160

50

980

585

573

7,241

o

728

"'

754

612

7?8

833

150

960

1,080

160

240

44

980

1,135

503

8,353

728

612

P8

8]3

150

1,680

1,920

JOO

J60

44

958

1,335

767

10,415

7"

590

7D'

803

150

2,240

2, 760

440

480

1,585

1,1Fi4

12,416

590

150

2,480

3,360

5"

600

95

980

795

1,500

13,277

7D'

590

'"

803

"

735

7D'

773

144

?, 720

3,840

'" 680

680

120

1,103

195

1,71J4

13,953

800

13')

1,470

195

2,029

15,402

195

2,249

16,523

7"

7D'

568

702

773

144

2,880

4,320

702

5C8

144

3,040

4,680

76o

840

155

1,715

)68

'"

773

7"

676

77l

14'-

3,040

'-,800

800

880

172

l

,960

195

2,417

17,127

14

702

568

676

744

144

3, 1?0

4,800

840

900

183

2,205

195

2,558

17,635

15

676

%8

676

744

144

3,040

4,800

86o

920

193

2,328

195

2,672

17,816

16

676

546

676

744

144

2,960

4,560

86o

860

199

2,450

197

2,681

17,553

17

676

546

676

744

138

2,eoo

4,320

820

820

199

2,573

1,445

2,646

18,403

18

702

568

676

77l

144

2,560

3,960

720

740

193

2,573

2,585

2,523

18,717

19

702

590

7D'

77l

144

2,160

3,240

54 o

600

183

2,695

1,335

2,302

15,966

162

2,573

1,335

1,958

14,755

2,450

1,335

1, 702

13,717 12,659

702

~90

7D'

80J

150

1,920

2,880

480

500

728

61?

728

8JJ

150

1,680

2,520

420

420

139

728

612

728

8JJ

150

1,520

2,280

380

380

122

2,083

1,335

1,508

728

612

728

862

156

1,360

2,040

340

340

109

1,838

1,335

1,129

~~lf17,108

14,308

17,134

19,449

3,576

47,360

69,960

11,84012,620

2,943

41,510 20,632 39,111

o

lO

...

633

13

23

o

G] l 7?8

20

292.

:5

120

728

754

11

S

293.

04

os

12

16

20 HOURS

143

PHOENIX

BALA NCED HOUSE

ORTHODOX HOUS E

WINTER

WINTER

SUMMER

SUM MER

SCALE I N FEE T

144

294.

SCALE OF HEA T IMPAC TS IN 1000 9TU ' S

TOTAL HEAT BUDGET

~

o

36

::>

32

.

~

PHOENIX

underheated period 75%, for overheated season 25% of the year), and stress coefficient. Accordingly the yearly importance for the applied measures show the following order: (l) reduction in infiltration 28%; (2) cut of heat loss by glass surfaces 24%, here applied in the double-window effect (note that the first two factors relate to the adverse cool temperature conditions; solar aspects count as a close second); (3) orientation 22%; (4) shading of glass surfaces 22%; (5) alteration of roof accounts only for a small value of 2%; (6) similarly wall shade is of only 2% importance; (7) ventilation of appliances on a yearly basis show a negative value of l%.

JAN 21

~

28

o o o

24

~

20

~

16

~ ~

~

%

12

-4 -8 -12

-16 -20 -24

-28

00

08

04

16

12

20

295. TOTAL HEAT BUDGET

~

::>

~

'::>

24 HOURS

PHOENIX

JULY 21

56 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , 52

~

c

48

g

44

~

40

~

36

~

1'\

~

~

32 28

24

l

20

l

ll

l\

.

l

i! :

l

.....,.:

l

\

i

f

16 12

\

.

-4

-8

00

296.

04

08

12

16

20

24 HOURS

HEAT ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES IN HOT-ARID AREA In Phoenix, Arizona the heat losses for the orthodox house arise in winter from the following sources in terms of percentage: woodframe wall, east 6%, south 3%, west 6%, north 8%. Window areas at east and west bring negligible amounts of heat gain, south counteracts the totalloss with a 37% positive gain; north loses 15%. Heat loss through the roof is 13%, through infiltration 49%. The heat created indoors amounts to 20%. In summertime the heat gains of the orthodox house result from the following sources: woodframe construction, east 3%, south 3%, west 4%, north 3%; window area, east 17%, south 10%, west 17%, and north 9%. Transmission through roof contributes 14%, infiltration amounts to 14%, and heat created indoors adds 6% to the total. The arrangement of the balanced house was changed by orientation, overhangs and shading, masonry walls, ventilated roof construction, weather stripping, ventilated appliances, and by surrounding same of the house with cooling garden plants. The winter

heat-loss breakdown m percentages is as follows: woodframe walls, east 11%, south 7%, west 14%, north 14%. Window areas east and west bring small, negligible gain, north loses 6%. Heat loss through the roof amounts to 16%, through infiltration 30%, through the door 2%. A heat gain of 86% of the total loss is supplied by the south window, and the heat created indoors adds 16%. In summer the east wall brings 5%, south 5%, west 6%, and north 6% heat gain. Window areas on the east account for: 15%, south 22%, west 4%, north 4%, of the total incoming heat. Heat gain through the roof amounts to 13%, through infiltration 12%, through door l%, heat created indoors 7%. The dailyheat behavior comparison between orthodox and balanced structures in Phoenix is illustrated in plan view for winter and summertime. Note that on the plan of the balanced house the arrangement of openings (east 80, south 120, west 20, and north 20 sq ft area) takes care of sol-air orientation. The schematically indicated gardens lower temperature loads (here conservatively taken as -5° F at peak values). A carportshadesthe west wall. Nate solar heat gain in wintertime, and the amount of heat load in summer reduced by the balanced house. In the comparison of the daily total heatflow curves between the orthodox and balanced houses in wintertime, note that the balanced house has less loss through most of the day, and that the solar gain is balanced around the noon ax1s. Peak heat gain is 20.584 Btu, while the peak gain of the orthorlax house is 17.357 Btu. The summer behavior of the same houses shows the peak load of the orthodox house ( 40.513 Btu) reduced to l 7. 794 Btu by the arrangements of the balanced structure. On a seasonal basis the improvements in

145

Plan

East view

South view

297. Adaptation of principles in Phoenix area.

146

winter are the products of the following measures: orientation, shape, and rearrangement of openings ( +58.951 Btu) brings a gain of 89% of the total loss. The applied masonry walls, because of larger surface and somewhat lower insulation value, shows a loss ( -15.304 Btu) of 23%. However, the calculation method does not register its advantageous quality of intemal heat absorbtion. A cut in infiltration conserves ( + 38.864 Btu) 58%. Ventilation of appliances eauses a loss ( -10.880 Btu) of 16%. Some of the above percentage figures may look high, as the original winter budget amount is quite low in this region, and the heat loss can be balanced in full under the given conditions. In summer the measures applied to the balanced house improve on the conditions of the orthodox house as follows: Orientation ( -9.820 Btu) shows little, 2%, reduction-however, this figure is somewhat misleading, as with other arrangement the effect could rise to ( -85.000 Btu) 16%-shading of glass surfaces ( -118.454 Btu) cuts the load by 22%. As wall surfaces became larger the heat transmission grew also ( + 12.760 Btu) to +2%, hut this is counterbalanced by the applied masonry material (- 4.1 72 Btu) and the microclimatic effects of the garden and wall shade ( -15.310 Btu), totaling a 4% reduction. Reduction of infiltration amounts to (- 39.393 Btu) 7%, alteration of the roof to (- 35.514 Btu) 6%, ventilation of appliances ( -10.880) to 2%. The total reduction of heat gain as compared to the orthodox house is 42%. On the basis of the seasonal data the yearly importance index can be evaluated according to the heat-flow sums, stress coefficient, and duration of seasons (here taken as 37% for underheated, 63% for overheated period). Accordingly the applied measures show the following order: (l) shading of glass surfaces

46%, (2) reduction in infiltration 19%, (3) altered and ventilated roof construction 14%, ( 4) orientation 11% (however, this effect could account for 14%, with campensating discount from shading to 43%), (5) garden effect and wall shade 7%, (6) ventilation of appliances 6%, (7) masonry walls -6% (hut the summation does not show the advantage gained by daily balance).

HEAT ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES IN HOT-HUMID AREA In Miami, Florida, the percentage heat gains for the orthodox house arise in summer from the following sources: woodframe wall, east 3%, south 2%, west 3%, north 2%; window areas, east 20%, south 8%, west 20%, and north 9%. Heat gain through the roof amounts to 15%, through infiltration 9%, and by heat created indoors to 9%. In winter under the given conditions heat loss occurs only by infiltration. The arrangement of the balanced house was changed by orientation, rearrangement of openings, building shape, ventilated roof construction, weather stripping, ventilated appliances, overhangs, and shading. In summer the heat gain breakdown is as follows: woodframe construction at each orientation accounts for 4%, for a total of 16%; glass areas at south gain 25%, at north 25%. The roof brings 10%, infiltration 11%, and heat created indoors amounts to 13% of the total. Winter heat loss is negligible, and is eaused by infiltration.

WOOD FRAME

HRS

E

'"-53

s

220

-70

-68

-300

-300

-300

-300

49

585

-706

_, ,496

-64

-73

-86

-360

-360

-360

-360

-24

585

-88~

-:?,054

-106

-420

-420

-420

-420

585

-1 ,058

-2,597

-480

-480

-480

-480

585

-1 '?]4

-3,161

-1]6

-134

-143

-160

-540

-540

-540

-540

585

-1 ']24

-3,668

-161

-158

-167

-185

-540

-540

-540

-540

-147

-178

-196

-600

-600

-600

-600

-189

-189

-195

-216

2 ,h60

-196

-196

-205

-92

-360

-360

-367

1,585

-1,41?

1,597

4 J 740

-180

-240

-416

2,585

-1,1146

19,073

338

482

33

18

l ,560

12,000

1,560

1,380

1,458

706

19,730

'"

596

97

84

1,500

11,700

3,900

1,380

2,:>66

934

22,927

'60

671

165

152

1,)80

10,620

7,500

1,::;.'3t

2,878

934

26,035

'" '8'

690

3 70

183

1,140

8,460

9,540

1,140

3,141'

846

25,~99

642

500

900

5,460

9,000

960

3,136

706

21,f'59

'60

541

565

'" '60

360

1,560

3,180

360

2, 707

2,695

530

1 :>,PI f

382

497

"7

'"60

2,045

4,085

3"

8,063

60

60

60

1,274

1,585

88

3, 709

-60

-60

-60

'"6'

79

"q -7

_,, "'

HRS

-15

-31

-20

3,431

875

-804

-60

4 78

1 J 585

-88

1,937

-120

270

1,585

-264

1 '1 85

-180

-180

-180

184

1,585

-442

585

-240

-240

-240

-240

1 23

1 '585

-564

63

33,660

80,700

33,300

5,040 18,081

31,530

-7,604

199,080

S

220

W

?20

:'20

E

60

S

60

W

60

N

60

HEAT CRT INFILINDOORS TRATION

480

480

1,017

4c'::J

420

420

968

585

1,094

5,119

4?0

420

943

585

1 ,058

5,039

907

585

420

894

585

420

1'8?

585

1 ,058

l,' 978

205

189 185

4?0

'78

"o

'OO

'78

'80

"'20

"5

'85

185

5'7

207

722

244

l

4?0

4?0

4?0

279

7,?60

720

660

2,100

858

1,585

1,094

15,500

'" '"

4?9

11,100

1,260

1,140

2,760

85P

1,585

1,?00

22,151

4?9

13,020

1,620

1,440

?,340

882.

?,585

1,3?2

?4,977

306

326

11,e2o

1,800

1,560

?,040

1,151

6,195

1,446

:>7,713

768

J"

667

134

334

337

8,520

1,920

1,860

1,9"0

?,010

195

1,588

19,7'-5

5"

396

354

350

4,740

2,160

1,980

1,980

3,025

195

1,694

17,40?

"'

"' 409

15,684

)67

548

367

370

7'3

"'

352

832

343

JJ7

3'8

J'9

'"

'" "'

'6'

'" m

'"

"'

8,910

3:

o

16

2,040

2,220

2,040

2,040

3,871

195

1 J 764

]65

1, 9 8o

2,160

'•,74o

1,9eo

4,544

195

1,798

19,0P.6

"'

1,920

1,980

8,580

1,980

4,949

195

1,f34

23,?60

378

1,680

1,920

11,940

1,91'0

5,120

195

1,798

26,556

"' 8"

493

1,560

1,740

1],140

2,460

4,986

195

1,764

2.7,880

506

1,320

1,44o

11,880

:>,940

4,630

2,695

1,73e

28,6o6

598

356

840

90o

7,44o

2,160

4,oo6

4,oe5

1,62:>

:?:::.,58~

'" '"

'" "6

600

600

660

600

3' 197

1

'585

1 '552..

9' 785

540

2,278

1,585

1,482.

8,514

372

"'

540

54o

540

540

1,360

1,585

1,41?

7,487

'33

'"

'"

540

480

480

480

480

1,066

1,585

1,306

6,786

480

480

480

480

1,041

1,585

1,234

8,912

7, 267

73,620

27,060

73,620

33,900

55,503

31,530

33,840

"' 6,505

JAN 21

....

14

18

"'

12

J:

lO

o -2 -4 -6 BTU

-8

DAY

o

298.

HOURS MIAMI

::>

480

198

"3

20

~

hf',O

HOUSE

22

"'

o o o

1,225

4?0

185

"'

'....::>

HOURLY TOTAI.S

198

189

785

ROOF

SINGLE GIASS N

ORTHODOX

24

-l

196

"' "5

195

-180

WOOD FRAME E 2'0

TOTAL

-3,339

-125

'3

DAILY

-3,949

-l ,500

e,2eo

-185

-4

,, ,,

-1,446

118

,,

" ,,"

585 1,585

]23

48

'3

-331

343

85

o J:

-57

-84

MIAMI

~

::>

220

-1]2

,,"

TOTAL

HOURIX TOTALS

_,,(j

'6

DAILY

INFILTRATION

-46

-64

"'5

HEAT CRT INDOORS

-108

-88

'3

ROOF

SIOOLE GLASS

w

~

':o o o

ORTHOOOX HOUSE

JULY 21

22

20 18 16

o

14

....

12

28

26

o

o

o

24

3:

22

o....

18 16

'"

-118

-167

19,200

1. 920

-270

'95

-88

21 ,019

378

-44

-69

22,920

2,280

-159

'95

132

25,957

320

563

3•

20

24 ,ooo

2,760

25

195

353

28,267

'3

259

696

92

97

23, 4oo

2. 760

208

195

467

28,174

12 •

"'5

'" '77

784

2, 760

380

195

467

26,311

lO

350

'" 2>5

21,240

807

'"

16,920

2,280

551

195

423

21 ,918

'6

'73

750

479

208

10,920

1,920

649

195

353

15,647

>7

'"

632

535

'87

3,120

720

649

1,445

265

7, 705

"3

447

470

>49

24o

240

612

2,585

5,025

8•

'9'

1,335

48

49

'"

55'

46

'"72

92

'"44

490

1,335

-44

1 ,756

'6

36

-132

•8 '9

'7 -6

-4

23 DAILY

TOTAL

-27

-23

-29

828

4,011

836

-120

-240

404

1,335

-360

-360

319

1 ,335

-480

-480

245

1,335

-28?

'"

1G1 ,4oo

10,080

3,820

20,630

-3,793

196,874

-•8 -938

14

6

4

2, 716

-240

"'

JAN 21

20

324

208

BALANCED HOUSE

30

"'

....

-1,021

-162

-178

"'::> o

HOURLY TOTALS

o -2

~l'!j

-4 00 WOOD FRAME

HRS E 208 208

s

N

'"

257

w o

ROOF N

120

HEAT CRT INFILINDOORS TRATION

ll)tJRIX TOTALS

1,225

254

204

267

960

686

.585

573

4,697

242

196

257

840

840

6'-9

585

547

4,356

840

81