Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1: Proceedings of ICoRD 2023 (Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, 343) 9819902924, 9789819902927

Table of contents :
Conference Organisation
Sponsors
Endorsers
Preface
About the Conference
Contents
About the Editors
Part I Human Factors in Design (Physical and Cognitive Ergonomics; Design for Emotions, Etc.)
1 Influence and Depiction of Power in an Urban Space
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Greek Agora
1.1.2 Roman Forum
1.1.3 Piazza Venezia in Mussolini’s Rome—An Era of Fascism
1.1.4 Tiananmen Gate, China
1.1.5 Chaupars at City of Jaipur, India
1.1.6 Napoleon III, Haussmann-Paris
1.1.7 Sixtus V and Baroque Rome
1.1.8 Statue of Unity, Narmada
1.1.9 Central Vista, New Delhi
1.2 Discussion
1.2.1 Concept of Aggrandization in Architecture
1.2.2 Different Concepts of Power Reflected in Urban Spaces
References
2 Modular Approaches and Perspectives in Temple Architecture
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Literature Study
2.3 Primary Survey
2.4 Analysis
2.4.1 Meneshwar Temple, Menawali
2.4.2 Vishnu Lakshmi Temple, Limb
2.4.3 Rameshwar Temple, Limb
2.4.4 Kaashi Vishweshwara Temple, Mahuli
2.5 Observations and Results
References
3 Store Atmospherics and Moderating Effect of Motives on Consumer Behaviour—An Indian Perspective
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Literature Pertaining to Store Atmospherics
3.1.2 Literature Pertaining to Motives
3.1.3 Literature Pertaining Consumer Behaviour
3.1.4 Objectives Adhering to the Research Gap
3.2 Research Philosophy and Methodology
3.2.1 Research Philosophy
3.2.2 Research Methodology
3.3 Results and Discussion
3.4 Key Findings
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 Ergonomic Assessment and Workstation Design for Women Workers in Cashew Factory
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Materials and Methods
4.2.1 Phase I: Initial Risk Assessment
4.2.2 Phase II: Workstation Design
4.3 Results and Discussion
4.3.1 Phase I: Initial Risk Assessment
4.3.2 Phase II: Reassessment of Risk in Proposed Workstation
4.4 Conclusion
References
5 Exploring Architectural Façade Characteristics of Bag Bazar Street, Kolkata
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Bag Bazar Street,Kolkata: Background
5.3 Methodology
5.3.1 Data Analysis
5.3.2 Analysis Method
5.4 Result and Discussion
5.5 Conclusion
5.6 Future Research
References
6 The Role of Awareness and Experience in Designing Social Inclusion
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Motivations
6.1.2 Related Studies
6.1.3 Purpose of this Study
6.2 Method
6.2.1 Literature Review as a Research Method
6.2.2 Analysis and Synthesis
6.3 Results
6.3.1 Various Points of View Toward Disability and Inclusivity
6.3.2 Understanding Awareness and the Connection with Experience
6.4 Discussion
6.4.1 Considering Human Factors in Designing Social Inclusion
6.4.2 Experience as a Way to Raise Awareness
6.4.3 Awareness and Experience in Designing Social Inclusion
6.4.4 Findings
6.4.5 Limitations and Future Research
6.5 Conclusion
References
7 Preconditioning Pre-adolescent Students to Cope with Academic Stress: Using Game Design as an Approach to Inculcate Healthy Coping Mechanisms
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Literature Review
7.2.1 Related Work
7.2.2 Articulated Gaps
7.3 Methodology
7.3.1 Participants and Sampling Methods
7.3.2 Project Design Process
7.4 Results and Discussion
7.4.1 Concept Design
7.4.2 Final Concept
7.5 Discussions
7.6 Conclusion
References
8 An Empirical Study to Improve Faculty Workplace Ergonomics for Minimizing the Risk of Transmission of Airborne Diseases
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Methods and Materials
8.2.1 Experimental Design
8.2.2 Calculating Ventilation Rates (Q)
8.2.3 Evaluation of the Infection Risk: Wells-Riley Equation
8.3 Results
8.4 Discussions
8.5 Conclusions
References
9 Identification of Appropriate Tools and Techniques for Ergonomic Evaluation in FMCG Industrial Shop Floor
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Methodology
9.3 Ergonomic Tools/Techniques Available
9.3.1 Physical Ergonomics Research
9.3.2 Cognitive Ergonomics Aspects
9.3.3 Environmental Factors
9.3.4 Safety Aspects
9.4 Discussion
9.5 Future Scope
9.6 Conclusion
References
10 OSH Risk Perception of Floating Solar PV Workers and Identifying Scope for Design Interventions: A Codesign Approach
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Methodology
10.2.1 Design Methodology and Approach
10.3 Results
10.3.1 Sociodemographic Status, Environmental Data and OSH Perception Scores
10.3.2 Codesign Outcomes
10.4 Discussion and Conclusion
10.5 Limitations of the Study
References
11 Conceptual Model for Design Intervention Through a Preventive Approach to Challenges of Adolescent Emotional Health
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objective
11.3 Research Methodology
11.4 Context
11.5 Primary Research
11.6 Observations
11.7 Analysis
11.8 Insights
11.9 Understanding Adolescents
11.10 Designing Conceptual Models for Design Interventions
11.11 Conceptual Model
11.11.1 The Support Versus the Protagonist
11.11.2 The ABC’s of Emotional Health
11.12 Validating the Conceptual Model
11.13 Conclusion
References
12 Evaluation of Traditional Design of Shovel in Dairy Farms Using Digital Human Models
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Methodology
12.2.1 Selection of Sites
12.2.2 Selection of Subjects
12.2.3 Tasks Performed During Manual Cleaning Operation
12.2.4 Traditional Shovel
12.2.5 Measurement of Posture
12.2.6 Generation of Digital Human Models
12.2.7 Posture Analysis
12.2.8 Biomechanical Compressive Force Analysis
12.3 Results and Discussion
12.3.1 Postural Measurement
12.3.2 RULA Work Posture Analysis
12.3.3 Biomechanical Compressive Force Analysis
12.3.4 Interventions
12.4 Conclusion
References
13 Identifying the Need to Provide Medical Assistance and Home Healthcare to the Elderly
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Health Problems of the Elderly
13.1.2 Medical Devices and Tools Essential to the Elderly
13.1.3 Contents and Importance of a First-Aid Kit
13.1.4 Medical Emergencies Among the Elderly
13.1.5 Research Objectives
13.2 Methodology and Methods
13.2.1 Location of Research
13.2.2 Data Collection
13.2.3 Data Analysis
13.3 Results
13.3.1 Medication Regimen
13.3.2 Lab and Pathological Tests
13.3.3 First-Aid Kit
13.3.4 Engagement of Family Members with the Elderly
13.3.5 Health Concerns
13.3.6 Devices and Equipments
13.3.7 Emergency Crisis
13.4 Discussion
13.4.1 Medication Regimen
13.4.2 Lab and Pathological Tests
13.4.3 First-Aid Kit
13.4.4 Health Problems and Medical Devices
13.4.5 Emergency Crisis
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Ergonomic Principles to Design Adaptive Sportswear for Wheelchair Tennis Players
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Research Methodology
14.3 Research Findings
14.4 Conclusion
References
15 Designing a Learning Toy for Children with Constructional Dyspraxia to Improve Their Visual Intelligence
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Understanding Dyspraxia
15.2.1 Types of Dyspraxia
15.2.2 Gross Motor Skill and Fine Motor Skill
15.2.3 Understanding the Brain During Dyspraxia
15.2.4 Comorbid Different Disorders
15.2.5 Effect on Kinetic and Tactile Learners
15.2.6 Effect on Visual Intelligence
15.2.7 Conventional and Unconventional Techniques to Treat Dyspraxia
15.3 Methodology
15.3.1 Understanding the Persona Ecosystem
15.3.2 Objectives of Primary Research
15.3.3 Deriving Insights From the Primary Research
15.3.4 Generation of Solution
15.3.5 Proposed Design
15.3.6 Tomo App for Tracking the Progress in Visual Intelligence
15.4 Future Scope and Suggestions
15.5 Conclusion
References
16 Empirical Studies Assessing the CO2 Levels in Indoor Spaces
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Methodology
16.2.1 Experimentation Inside a Car
16.2.2 Experimentation in a Bedroom
16.3 Results and Discussions
16.3.1 For the Car Experiment
16.3.2 Result and Discussions for the Bedroom Experiment
16.4 Conclusion
References
17 Improving Parking Behaviour in the Apartment Society: An Example of Using an Integrated Behavioural Framework
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Background
17.1.2 Research Framework
17.2 The Framework
17.2.1 Understanding the Context of Behaviour
17.2.2 Analysing the Behaviour
17.2.3 Specifying and Categorising the Behaviours
17.2.4 The Behavioural Solution: Identifying Suitable Intervention Functions
17.2.5 Designing the Artefact
17.2.6 Identifying Implementation Strategy
17.3 Conclusion
References
18 Integrated Behavioural Design Framework to Encourage COVID-19-Appropriate Behaviour in University Canteens and Eateries
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 Research Motives, Questions, and Contributions
18.2 Methodology
18.3 The Framework
18.3.1 Understanding the Context of the Behaviour
18.3.2 Determining Corresponding Target Behaviours (TB)
18.3.3 Specifying Target Behaviours
18.3.4 Identifying Behavioural Solutions
18.3.5 Proposal for Artefact Design
18.4 Testing
18.5 Results
18.6 Conclusions
References
19 Assessing the Users’ Preference-Based Approach to Optimize the Integration of Physical-Infrastructural and Socio-cultural Elements of Design
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Methodology
19.2.1 Assessment of Weighted Vectors
19.3 Place-Based Assessment of Local Priority Vectors (EoDs)
19.3.1 Assessment of the Local Priority Based on Discrete Priority Vectors
19.3.2 Assessment of the Local Priority of the Composite Priority Vectors
19.4 Conclusion
References
20 Toward Health, Hygiene, and Safety—A Design Intervention for Accessible and Inclusive Toilets in India
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Background
20.3 Design Methodology
20.3.1 Literature Review
20.3.2 Guidelines on Smart Bio-Toilets Implemented by GSCL
20.3.3 Study of Site Characteristics
20.4 User Survey and Findings
20.5 Design Intervention and Recommendations
20.6 Discussions and Future Work
References
21 An Alternative Window Design Solution for Naturally Ventilated Educational Building
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Design Process
21.2.1 Questionnaire Survey
21.2.2 Observational Analysis of Conventional Window Design
21.2.3 Design Analysis of Alternative Window Design From Literature
21.2.4 Design of an Alternative Window Solution
21.2.5 Simulation of Proposed Alternative Window Solution
21.3 Discussions and Conclusion
References
22 Understanding Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) of Naturally Ventilated Educational Buildings—A Systematic Literature Review
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Methodology
22.2.1 Step 1: Identification of Literature
22.2.2 Step 2: Course Screening for Inclusion
22.2.3 Step 3: Fine Screening for Inclusion
22.2.4 Step 4: Analysis for Limiting the Scope
22.2.5 Step 5: Eligibility (Assessing Quality)
22.2.6 Step 6: Ranking
22.2.7 Steps 7, 8, 9: Data Extraction, Analysis and Synthesis of Data, and Report Findings
22.3 Literature Review
22.3.1 Thermal Comfort (TC)
22.3.2 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
22.3.3 Visual Comfort (VC)
22.3.4 Acoustic Comfort (AC)
22.4 Findings and Inferences
22.5 Discussions and Conclusions
References
23 Design of Signages and Information Boards for a Mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC)
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Methodology
23.3 Results
23.4 Discussion
23.5 Conclusion
References
24 Ergonomic Evaluation of Handle Position and Orientation in Pushing Cart Using RULA
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Materials and Methods
24.2.1 Design of Rustic Cart
24.2.2 Handle Configurations
24.2.3 RULA Analysis
24.3 Results
24.4 Discussion
24.5 Conclusion
References
25 Furniture Design: Reimagining a Designer’s Workstation Through an Ergonomic Lens
25.1 Introduction
25.1.1 Designer’s Task Analysis
25.2 Research Methodology
25.2.1 User Survey, Data Collection, and Analysis
25.2.2 Ergonomic Factors
25.3 The Design Approach and Problem Identification
25.3.1 Design Approach
25.3.2 Challenges and Problems
25.4 Prototyping
25.4.1 Three-Dimensional (3D) Prototype
25.5 Conclusion
References
26 Evaluation of Ergonomic Issues, Mental Stress, and Performance of Higher Education Students Due to Online Education Mode During COVID-19
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Objective
26.3 Methodology
26.4 Results
26.4.1 Physical Concerns
26.4.2 Mental Health Concerns
26.4.3 Work Performance
26.5 Discussion
26.6 Conclusions
26.7 Future Scope
References
27 An Empirical Study on the Impact of Emotional Intelligence on Design Thinking in Industry 4.0
27.1 Introduction
27.1.1 Emotional Intelligence
27.1.2 Design Thinking
27.2 Research Methods
27.2.1 Research Design and Instrument
27.2.2 Data Collection
27.2.3 Data Analysis Tools
27.3 Outcomes and Deliberations
27.3.1 Outcomes of the Study
27.3.2 Deliberation
27.4 Conclusions
References
28 Menstrual Pad and Its Packaging for People with One-Hand Function
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Problem Identification
28.2.1 Basic Steps of Opening a Menstrual Pad
28.2.2 The Basic Steps for Disposing the Pad
28.2.3 Problem Identification
28.2.4 Edge Cases
28.3 Ideations
28.4 Design
28.4.1 Proposed Design Solution
28.4.2 Iterations of Proposed Design Solution
28.4.3 Final Design Solution
28.5 Testing
28.6 Conclusion
28.7 Limitations
28.8 Scope
References
29 UI Guidelines for Cultural Sensitivity in Indian Handicraft User Interfaces
29.1 Introduction
29.1.1 Importance of Handicrafts
29.1.2 Employment and Economy in the Handicraft Sector
29.2 Background
29.2.1 SWOT Analysis of the Handicraft Sector
29.3 Research Methodology
29.4 Experimental Procedure
29.4.1 Adi Mahotsav
29.4.2 Site Experiment
29.5 Findings
29.6 Observation
29.7 Conclusion and Discussion
29.8 Future Scope
References
30 A Bibliographic Survey of Indoor Navigation Systems for Autonomous Mobility of People with Visual Impairment and Deafblindness
30.1 Introduction
30.2 An Overview of Navigation Systems and User Interfaces
30.3 Research Design
30.3.1 Materials and Methods
30.3.2 General Research Steps
30.4 What Emerging Trends Are Influencing Indoor Navigation Systems for People with Visual Impairment and Deafblindness?
30.4.1 Applicating the Query Terms
30.4.2 The Visual Representation of Data
30.5 Conclusion
References
31 Ergonomic Risk Assessment of Hand Injuries and Accidents Among Soft Marble Carving Artisans of Bhedaghat, Jabalpur M.P.
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Methodology
31.2.1 Data Collection and Study Design
31.2.2 Independent Variables
31.2.3 Dependent Variables
31.2.4 Statistical Analysis
31.3 Result
31.3.1 Demographic Study
31.3.2 Task Analysis
31.3.3 Analysis of Risk Factor Related to Workplace
31.3.4 Analysis of Amended Boston Questionnaire
31.3.5 Prevalence of Hand Symptoms with Variable Demographic Factors
31.4 Discussion
31.5 Conclusion
References
32 Gender Differences in the Occurrence of Musculoskeletal Disorders Among Adult Male and Female Potato Farmers in Hooghly, West Bengal
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Methodology
32.2.1 Participant Selection
32.2.2 Questionnaire Study
32.2.3 Postural Analysis
32.2.4 Statistical Analysis
32.3 Results
32.3.1 Study Descriptions
32.3.2 Factors Associated with Body Pain Discomfort
32.3.3 Gender Comparison with Prevalence of Pain in Different Body Regions
32.3.4 Gender Comparison with Prevalence of Pain During Different Tasks Involved in Potato Farming
32.3.5 Postural Analysis
32.4 Discussions
32.5 Conclusion
References
33 A Comprehensive Evaluation of Indian Railway Station Signage Design
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Methodology
33.2.1 Assessment of Railway Codes
33.2.2 Case Studies
33.2.3 Survey of IR Passengers
33.3 Discussion and Conclusion
References
34 Comprehensive Evaluation Study on the Cognitive Load of Kids with Dyslexia in Traditional Learning Practices at Jabalpur, India
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Methodology
34.2.1 Data Collection and Study Design
34.2.2 Sample Screening
34.2.3 Statistical Analysis
34.3 Results
34.3.1 Analysis of Sample Data
34.3.2 Psychomotor Analysis
34.4 Discussion
34.5 Conclusion
References
35 Emotion AI in India
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Research
35.2.1 Study 1
35.2.2 Study 2
35.3 Discussion
35.4 Conclusion
References
36 Study the Effects of Online Gaming on Different Emotional Behavior of the Users
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Background Research
36.2.1 Previous Literature
36.3 Methodology
36.3.1 Research
36.3.2 A Gaming App to Test the Users
36.4 Results and Inferences
36.4.1 Why Do People Game?
36.4.2 Does Gaming Help?
36.4.3 Does Gaming Affect You in Any Negative Way or What Does the Behavior Change in the Regular Online Gamers?
36.5 Conclusions
36.6 Future Scope to Improve the State of Current Gaming?
References
Part II Design of/for User Interfaces, User Experience and Human-Computer Interaction
37 Interactive News Platform for User Perspective Through Design Concept for Interesting Visual Understanding
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Design Process and Method
37.3 Methodology
37.3.1 Understanding the User Perception
37.3.2 Understanding User Needs
37.3.3 Study Material Design
37.3.4 Application Design
37.3.5 Testing the Prototype Design
37.3.6 Feedback and Observation of the Prototype
37.4 Result and Discussion
37.4.1 Inference of Feedback and Observations of the Prototype
37.5 Conclusion
References
38 Senior Citizens and Smartphones: Identifying User Segments in Urban Middle-Class India
38.1 Introduction
38.1.1 Aim
38.1.2 Objectives
38.2 Methodology
38.3 Results and Discussion
38.3.1 Persona Type 1: Bold Bhoomika
38.3.2 Persona Type 2: Practical Prakash
38.3.3 Persona Type 3: Enthusiastic Eklavya
38.3.4 Persona Type 4: Hesitant Hari
38.3.5 Persona Type 5: No-Thanks Naina
38.4 Conclusion
References
39 Understanding the Challenges Students in Rural Areas Are Facing While Interacting with the Existing E-learning Platforms
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Paper Theoretical Foundation and Related Literature
39.3 Methodology
39.4 Results
39.5 Discussion
39.6 Envisaged Impact of the Results
39.7 Conclusion
References
40 Study and Evaluation of User Interaction and User Experience Design for the Development of a Fully Autonomous Passenger Drone Interior Cabin for India
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Aim and Objective
40.3 Methodology
40.3.1 Brainstorming
40.3.2 User Experience
40.4 Data Representation and Analysis
40.4.1 Brainstorming Analysis
40.4.2 User Survey Analysis
40.5 Summary, Discussion, and Conclusion
Appendix
References
41 A Design-Based Study to Assist Claustrophobics in Overcoming Their Fears
41.1 Introduction
41.2 Methodology
41.2.1 Participants
41.2.2 Materials and Procedure
41.3 Results
41.3.1 Key Findings
41.3.2 Intervening Points
41.3.3 Proposed Solution—SPACE
41.3.4 Design Validation
41.4 Discussion
41.5 Conclusion
References
42 Use of New Media to Preserve Cultural Heritage in Museums
42.1 Introduction
42.1.1 What Are Museums?
42.1.2 Types of Museums
42.2 Methods and Frameworks
42.3 Results and Discussion
42.3.1 Various Technologies
42.4 Conclusions
References
43 Exploration of Visual Cues and Guidelines to Increase Visitors’ Engagement and Immersion in Virtual Museums
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Methodology
43.3 Results and Discussion
43.4 Conclusions
References
44 On Defining Interactive Visual Narratives (IVNs)
44.1 Introduction
44.2 The Visual Narratives
44.3 Rational for a New Definition
44.4 Influencing Fields
44.5 Forms of Interactive Narratives
44.5.1 Hypermedia
44.5.2 Interactive Cinema and TV
44.5.3 Interactive Drama
44.5.4 Interactive Fiction
44.5.5 Virtual Storytelling
44.5.6 Environmental Storytelling
44.5.7 Story Space
44.5.8 Digital Heritage Narratives
44.5.9 Video Games and Cyber Drama
44.6 Defining an Interactive Visual Narrative (IVN)
44.7 Conclusion
References
45 Graphic-Based Healthcare Information: Evaluation of Suitability Qualities for the Intended Population
45.1 Introduction
45.1.1 The Readability Factor Associated with Printed Materials
45.1.2 Readability Issues and Their Effect
45.1.3 Suitability Qualities of Printed Materials
45.1.4 Significance
45.2 Method
45.2.1 Materials
45.2.2 Assessment Tools
45.2.3 Data Analysis
45.3 Results
45.3.1 Readability Grade of Collected Maternal Health Materials
45.3.2 Suitability Quality Score of Maternal Health Contents
45.3.3 Percentage Comparison of SAM Items
45.4 Discussions
45.4.1 Future Research Objectives
45.4.2 Conclusion
References
46 Exploring New Idioms for Books as Interactive Experiences in Digital Domain
46.1 Introduction
46.2 Literature Review
46.3 Methodology
46.3.1 3D Modeling
46.3.2 Digital Archive Design and Interactions
46.4 Final Design
46.5 Discussion
46.6 Conclusion
References
47 An Exploration on Interactive Educational Games for Teaching Primary School Students of Vernacular Medium
47.1 Introduction
47.1.1 Background Study
47.1.2 Problem Statement
47.1.3 Aim and Objectives
47.2 Literature Review
47.2.1 Child Psychology and Development with Technology
47.2.2 Related Works
47.3 Methodology
47.3.1 Game Idea Development
47.3.2 Game Structure
47.3.3 Game Mechanism
47.4 Results
47.5 Discussion
47.6 Conclusion
References
48 Investigating Work-on-the-Move Scenarios and User Experience in Autonomous Vehicles
48.1 Introduction
48.2 Literature Review
48.3 Methodology
48.3.1 Research Study
48.3.2 Primary Research
48.4 Analysis and Evaluation: User Needs Along with AV Journey Touch Points
48.4.1 Findings: User Needs Along with AV Journey Touch Points
48.4.2 Conclusion
48.4.3 Future Work and Recommendations
References
49 Framework for Visual Experience in Designing Digital Twin for Smart Cities—Dubai Expo 2020 Perspective
49.1 Introduction
49.1.1 Dubai Expo, Smart City, Digitalization, and Visual Experience
49.1.2 Use Case Challenges from Expo Perspective
49.1.3 Visual Experience Framework
49.2 Research Perspective
49.2.1 Case Study: Visualization of Concepts and Validation
49.2.2 Application of VX Framework Defining Experiences
49.3 Contributions and Conclusion
References
50 A Conceptual Framework for Conversational Human-AI Interaction Design (CHAI)
50.1 Introduction
50.2 Art of Conversation
50.3 Human-to-Human (H2H) Conversations—What Makes Them Effective and Engaging?
50.4 State of the Art in Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI)
50.5 Methodology
50.6 Purpose of Conversation
50.7 Classification of Conversations
50.8 Purpose-Driven Conversation Typology
50.9 Generic Conversation Construct
50.10 Conversation Value Dimensions
50.11 Conceptual Framework for Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI)
50.12 Conclusion
50.13 Future Work
References
51 Design Guidelines for an Immersive Auditory Experience
51.1 Introduction
51.2 Design Research Objectives
51.3 Organization of Design Research Methodology
51.3.1 Expert/Stakeholder Interviews—Delphi Technique
51.3.2 User Interviews
51.4 Design Guidelines for Immersive Audio Experience
51.5 Limitations of the Study
51.6 Conclusion
References
52 Factors Influencing Adoption and Use of Digital Wellbeing Interventions
52.1 Introduction
52.2 Background and Related Work
52.3 Method
52.4 Results
52.5 Discussion
52.6 Conclusion and Limitations
References
53 Who to Blame—User Interface Design or Learning Content? A Neurophysiological UX Assessment of e-learning Process
53.1 Introduction
53.2 Literature Review
53.2.1 User Interface Design of an e-learning System
53.2.2 Learning Content of an e-learning System
53.2.3 UX Evaluation Using Neurophysiological Measure
53.3 Method and Materials
53.3.1 Stimuli
53.3.2 Participants
53.3.3 Procedure
53.4 Analysis and Results
53.4.1 EEG Findings
53.4.2 Eye Tracking Findings
53.4.3 Galvanic Skin Response Findings
53.5 Discussion and Conclusion
References
54 Proposal of an e-learning Evaluation Model for Online Design Courses and Its Psychogalvanic Validation
54.1 Introduction
54.2 Literature Review
54.2.1 Existing Evaluation Model
54.2.2 Proposed Evaluation Model
54.2.3 Comparison of Kirkpatrick Model and Proposed Model
54.2.4 Description of the Proposed Model
54.3 Methodology
54.3.1 Participants
54.3.2 Experimental Set-Up
54.3.3 Stimuli
54.3.4 Procedure
54.4 Analysis and Results
54.4.1 Behavioural Findings
54.4.2 Psychogalvanic Data Findings
54.5 Discussion and Conclusion
References
55 Neurophysiological UX Evaluation of Industry 4.0 Technologies: E-commerce, e-learning Websites, and VR Simulation
55.1 Introduction
55.2 Literature Review
55.2.1 E-commerce in the Era of Industry 4.0 and Its UX Assessment
55.2.2 e-learning in the Era of Industry 4.0 and Its UX Assessment
55.2.3 Virtual Reality in the Era of Industry 4.0 and Its UX Assessment
55.3 Methodology and Materials
55.3.1 Stimuli
55.3.2 Participants
55.3.3 Procedure
55.4 Analysis and Results
55.5 Discussion and Conclusions
References
56 User Experience of Virtual Reality Showcasing Sham Sunder Das Archive: A Case Study of Digital Preservation of the Archival Artifact
56.1 Introduction
56.1.1 Characteristics of Virtual Exhibition
56.2 Related Works
56.3 Building Up of VR Exhibition Timeless Memory: Chamba Through the Lens of Sham Sunder Das
56.4 Methods and Process
56.4.1 Visualization and Interaction
56.4.2 User Experience and Usability Testing
56.4.3 User Selection
56.5 Results
56.6 Discussion
References
57 User Interface Design Recommendations for Mental Health Mobile Application Design
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Methodology
57.2.1 Identifying Usability Issues in Mental Health Apps
57.3 Patterns Identification
57.4 Literature Study
57.4.1 Colors
57.4.2 Shapes
57.4.3 Typography
57.4.4 Images and Illustrations
57.5 Selection of Benchmark Application
57.6 Preparation of Mockup/Prototype
57.7 Assessing the Usability of Mockup by Comparative Analysis
57.7.1 Selection of Participants
57.8 Results
57.8.1 Usefulness
57.8.2 Ease of Use
57.8.3 Design Observations for Color
57.8.4 User Satisfaction
57.9 Discussion
57.10 Design Recommendations
57.10.1 Colors
57.10.2 Shapes
57.10.3 Typography
57.10.4 Images and Illustrations
57.11 Conclusion
References
58 Can Children Be Taught Values Using Game Designs? Insights from a Neurophysiological Experimental Study with Children
58.1 Introduction
58.1.1 Human Values in Schwartz’s Theory and Patanjali Yogsutra
58.2 Methodology
58.2.1 Experimental Methods
58.2.2 Analysis Methodology
58.3 Neurophysiological Results
58.4 Discussion
58.5 Conclusion
References
59 Online Education in India: Challenges and Opportunities
59.1 Introduction
59.2 Literature Review
59.2.1 Online Education Versus Traditional Modes of Education
59.2.2 Impact of Covid-19 on Education
59.3 Research Methodology and Observations
59.3.1 Content Analysis of Popular Online Portals in India
59.3.2 Questionnaire Data Collection and Processing
59.4 Findings
59.5 Conclusion
59.6 Discussion
References
60 Auditory Interactions: A Potential Way for Managing the Children Living with ADHD
60.1 Introduction
60.2 Method
60.2.1 Literature Survey
60.2.2 Interviews and Surveys
60.2.3 Analysis of Literature and Expert Survey
60.3 Results
60.4 Discussion
60.4.1 Topic 1: Use of Music and Sounds as a Management Tool
60.4.2 Topic 2: Use of Interactive Digital Conversations
60.4.3 Topic 3: Systematic Design of Sounds, Music, and Conversations
60.5 Conclusion
References
61 Role of Multi-experience Developmental Platforms (MXDP) in Futuristic Classroom Education
61.1 Introduction
61.2 Virtual Reality (VR)
61.3 Augmented Reality (AR)
61.4 Mixed Reality (MR)
61.5 Literature Review and Gap Analysis
61.6 Pedagogical Approach of Imparting Education
61.7 What Is Multi-experience Developmental Platforms
61.8 MXDP as a Futuristic Classroom Education Technology
61.9 Conclusion
References
62 Users’ Spatial Experiences in a Public Plaza Developed Under the Bhubaneswar Smart City Project
62.1 Introduction
62.2 Research Method
62.2.1 Site Brief
62.3 Results and Discussion
62.3.1 Respondent Profile
62.3.2 Average Footfall
62.3.3 Survey Results
62.3.4 Users’ Reviews on Google
62.4 Conclusion
References
63 Encouraging Better Food Inventory Management: A Mobile Application-Based Solution
63.1 Introduction
63.2 Literature Review
63.2.1 Food Wastage Around the World
63.2.2 Food Waste by Household/Supermarkets/Restaurants
63.2.3 Food Expiration Dates Contributing to Food Waste and Environmental Issues
63.2.4 Misinterpreting Expiry Date Labels
63.2.5 Food Products Date Labelling
63.2.6 Consumer Behavior Toward Expiry Dates
63.2.7 Health and Food Labels
63.2.8 Existing Solutions in the Market
63.3 Methodology
63.3.1 Participants
63.3.2 Materials and Methods
63.4 Results and Discussion
63.4.1 Outcome of Research and Data Collection (Phase 1)
63.4.2 Outcome of Data Synthesis (Phase 2)
63.4.3 Outcome of Conceptualization (Phase 3)
63.4.4 Outcome of Design Validation (Phase 4)
63.4.5 Limitations and Scope of Improvements
63.5 Conclusion
References
64 Design Considerations for X-ray Software Controls
64.1 Introduction
64.1.1 Objective
64.1.2 Need
64.1.3 Scope
64.1.4 Methodology
64.2 Radiography Context and Clinical Considerations
64.2.1 Tube Head Controls Definition
64.3 Design Framework
64.4 Design Considerations
64.4.1 Responsive Layout
64.4.2 Design and Usability
64.4.3 Hardware Aspect Ratio
64.4.4 Consistency Between Console and Tube Head UI
64.4.5 Maintaining the Proximity of Similar Controls/Similar Buttons
64.4.6 Priority and Sequence of Controls
64.4.7 Visual Consistency and Visual Memory
64.5 Conclusion
64.6 Next Steps
References
65 Design Fiction: A Way to Foresee the Future of Human–Computer Interaction Design Challenges
65.1 Introduction
65.2 Background Study
65.2.1 Technology Adoption in HCI
65.3 Research Gap
65.3.1 Objectives
65.4 Methodology
65.5 Defining Theoretical Framework Based on Design Fiction
65.6 Conclusion
References
66 Enhancing User Experience of Mobile OTT Platforms—A Case Study of Redesigning Netflix for Indian Market
66.1 Introduction
66.2 Literature Review
66.3 Aim and Objectives
66.4 Methodology
66.4.1 Interview
66.4.2 Survey
66.4.3 Analysis Using Hick’s and Fitts’ Laws
66.5 Results
66.5.1 Redesign
66.6 KLM GOMS Analysis
66.7 Conclusion
References
Part III Enabling Technologies and Tools (Computer-Aided Conceptual Design, Augmented/Virtual Reality, MEMS, Haptics, Smart Technologies, IoT, Cobotics, Etc.)
67 Interactive 3D Marathi Language Alphabets: AR-Based Mobile App in Context of Rural India
Abstract
67.1 Introduction
67.2 Literature Study
67.2.1 Identifying User Requirements
67.2.2 Comparative Study of the Exiting Augmented Reality-Based Applications
67.2.3 Augmented Reality in Education
67.2.4 Inference from Literature Survey
67.3 Methodology
67.3.1 User Study
67.3.2 Procedure
67.3.3 Usability Evaluation of Anilearn
67.4 Conclusion
References
68 Proposal of an ARVR-Enabled Digital Archive: Preserving Archaeological Data Through Emerging Technologies
68.1 Introduction
68.2 Literature Review
68.2.1 Immersive Technologies in Archaeology
68.2.2 Mixed Reality in Cultural Heritage and Archaeology
68.2.3 Visualisation of Historical Heritage for Learning Purposes
68.2.4 An Overview of Existing Digital Applications
68.2.5 Emerging Technologies in Underwater Archaeology
68.3 Methodology
68.3.1 Primary Research-Understanding User Personas
68.3.2 Defining the Problem
68.4 Ideation and Conceptualisation
68.5 Proposed Design Concept
68.6 Design Testing
68.6.1 Testing Criteria
68.6.2 Procedure
68.7 Results and Discussion
68.8 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
69 Enhancing the Perfume Buying User Experience Through AI and Machine Olfaction
69.1 Introduction
69.2 Research and Design Methodology
69.3 Literature Review
69.3.1 Perfumes, People, Cultures and Trends
69.3.2 Artificial Intelligence (AI), Augmented (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR)
69.3.3 Machine Olfaction and Sensing Applications
69.4 Research Methods
69.4.1 Primary User Research
69.4.2 Competitor Analysis
69.4.3 Contextual Enquiry
69.5 Conceptualisation, Ideation and Design Methodology
69.6 Usability Testing
69.7 Discussion
69.8 Conclusion
References
70 E-commerce Platform for Sustainable Thrift Fashion Industry Powered by Blockchain Technology
70.1 Introduction
70.2 Methodology
70.3 Literature Review
70.3.1 Rise of Fast and Vintage Fashion
70.3.2 Emotional Association with Ethical Fashion
70.3.3 Transparency in the Fashion Industry
70.3.4 What is Blockchain Technology?
70.3.5 How Blockchain Can Fight Counterfeiting?
70.4 Emphasize Phase and User Research
70.4.1 Contextual Enquiry
70.5 Conceptualization and Design Solution
70.6 Usability Testing
70.7 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
71 Real-Time Digital Ecosystem for Effective Blood Bank Supply Chain Management in India
71.1 Introduction
71.2 Literature Review
71.2.1 Blood Shortage in India
71.2.2 Reluctance in Donating Blood
71.2.3 Donors’ Attitude Towards Incentives
71.2.4 Causes of Errors in the Blood Transfusion Process
71.2.5 An Ideal Blood Bank Experience
71.2.6 Notable Features of Blood Donation Websites
71.2.7 Radio Frequency Identification and Bar Codes
71.2.8 Use of New Technology in Healthcare and Inventory Management
71.3 Methodology
71.4 User Study
71.5 Ideation
71.6 Usability Testing
71.7 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
72 A Blockchain-Based Framework for Efficient Health Record Management
72.1 Introduction
72.2 Literature Review
72.2.1 Related Works
72.2.2 Challenges
72.3 Proposed Framework for Efficient Health Record Management
72.3.1 Hybrid Consensus Algorithms for Blockchain Implementation
72.4 Experimental Results and Discussion
72.4.1 Experimental Setup
72.5 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
73 Augmented Reality App for Science Pre-university Students
73.1 Introduction
73.2 Literature Review
73.3 Research Gap and Research Model
73.4 Methods and Methodology
73.5 Sampling and Sample Size
73.6 Findings: Data Collection Tool and Data Analysis
73.7 Results and Discussion
73.8 Designing a Learning Platform Based on Curriculum Includes Both Lectures and Lab Experiments
73.9 Review
73.10 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
74 Astromos: An Astronomy Application for Augmented Reality-Based Learning
74.1 Introduction
74.2 Methodology
74.2.1 System Design
74.2.2 Research and Analysis
74.3 Results and Discussion
74.3.1 Participant Demographics
74.3.2 Data Reliability
74.3.3 Relevant Findings
74.4 Conclusion
References
75 Visualization Techniques for Visibility Graph Analysis in Virtual Reality for the Case of the Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad
75.1 Introduction
75.2 The Space Syntax Method's Fundamentals
75.3 Virtual Reality in Architecture
75.4 Methodology
75.4.1 Data and Survey
75.4.2 Analysis Method
75.5 Result and Discussion
75.5.1 General Description
75.5.2 Visibility Graph Analysis in Virtual Reality
75.6 Conclusion
References
76 Projection Mapping on Building Facade Using Augmented Reality
76.1 Introduction
76.1.1 Photogrammetry
76.1.2 Augmented Reality
76.1.3 Projection Mapping
76.2 Methodology
76.2.1 Photogrammetric Data
76.2.2 Augmented Reality App Development
76.2.3 On-Site Application Testing
76.3 Results and Analysis
76.4 Conclusion
References
77 A Bibliometric Analysis of Research in VR and Haptics
77.1 Introduction
77.2 Methodology
77.3 Results and Discussion
77.3.1 Citation Analysis
77.3.2 Co-citation Analysis
77.3.3 Bibliographic Coupling
77.3.4 Co-word Analysis
77.4 Conclusion
Bibliography
78 Insider–Insider Observations and Reflections from the Director, Cast, and Crew of Table for Two—A Parallel Interactive Narrative in Virtual Reality
78.1 Introduction
78.2 Parallel Interactive Narratives in Virtual Reality
78.3 Table for Two
78.4 Summary of the Pre-production and Production Process for Table for Two
78.5 Methodology
78.6 Observations and Reflections of Production Crew Members in Table for Two
78.6.1 The Director’s/Researcher’s Role in Table for Two
78.6.2 The Set Designer’s Role in Table for Two
78.6.3 The Cinematographer’s Role in Table for Two
78.6.4 The Casting Talents’ Role in Table for Two
78.7 Responses from the Production Cast and Crew Survey
78.8 Discussion and Conclusion
References
79 Virtual Trial Room Simulation for Online Ordering and Alteration of Clothes According to Buyers’ Ergonomics
79.1 Introduction
79.2 Literature Review
79.2.1 Case Studies
79.3 Methodology
79.3.1 Procedure
79.3.2 Environment
79.3.3 User Interface
79.3.4 Testing
79.4 Results and Discussion
79.5 Conclusion
References
80 “HappyBin” Remodifying Social Behaviors
80.1 Introduction
80.1.1 Issues of Garbage in Indian Cities
80.1.2 Positive Reinforcement to Improve Public Behavior
80.2 Design as a Tool
80.2.1 The Role of IoT
80.2.2 Working of HappyBin
80.2.3 Prototyping
80.3 Impact of Innovation
80.3.1 Business Plan and Product Realization
80.3.2 Users Feedbacks
80.4 Conclusion
References
81 Virtual Reality for Creativity Practice and Art and Design Education: A Literature Review
81.1 Introduction
81.2 Methodology
81.3 Virtual Reality Technology in Art and Design Education
81.4 Interactive Technology in Art and Design Research
81.5 Possibility of VR Application in Art and Design Pedagogy
81.6 Discussions and Conclusions
References
82 Artificial Intelligence-Based Learning Toys: Exploring the Role of Tangram as a Tool to Develop Spatial Learning Among Children
82.1 Introduction
82.1.1 Influence of AI on Education
82.1.2 Use of Artificial Intelligence in Tangram
82.1.3 Different Components of the Toy
82.2 Design Methodology of AI-Enabled Education Tool
82.3 Conclusion
References
83 Designing for Interactive Rehabilitation in Virtual Reality
83.1 Introduction
83.2 Background Works
83.2.1 Designing for Interactive Rehabilitation of Wrist and Arm
83.2.2 Wrist and Elbow Sensing
83.2.3 Controllers for Rehabilitation
83.3 Implementation
83.3.1 Design Approach
83.3.2 Architecture
83.4 Discussion
83.4.1 User Perceptions
83.4.2 Limitations and Future Implementation
83.5 Conclusion
References
84 Role of Human-Centered Design in Haptic-Enabled Virtual Reality Environments’ Research and Development
84.1 Introduction
84.1.1 Human-Centered Design
84.2 Methodology
84.3 Critical Review
84.3.1 Is the Adoption of HCD Active or Passive?
84.3.2 Have Target User Groups and Use Cases Been Identified?
84.3.3 Has the Research Goal/Problem Been Arrived at After Studying the Users or Use Cases?
84.3.4 Is the Focus of the Problem Statement/Argument on the User or Functionality and Technology?
84.3.5 Is the Outcome of the Research/Design Focused on Usability or Functionality?
84.4 Discussion and Conclusion
References
85 Heritage Preservation with Virtual Reality (VR): Recreating the Lost Glory of the Medieval Metropolis of Mandu
85.1 Introduction
85.1.1 Blending 3D and VR for Architectural Landscapes
85.2 Literature Review
85.3 Methodology
85.3.1 Understanding the Mandu Architecture
85.3.2 Application of VR
85.4 Setup and Results
85.5 Conclusion
References
86 A Review of the Potential and Path to the Large-Scale Adaptation of DIY in Assistive Technology
86.1 Introduction
86.2 Defining DIY and DIY-AT
86.3 Methodology
86.4 Benefits of DIY-AT
86.4.1 The 4As of WHO
86.5 Barriers to the Adaptation of DIY in AT
86.5.1 Adaptation of DIY-AT by Clinicians
86.5.2 Lack of Collaboration Among Stakeholders
86.5.3 Accessibility to DIY Ecosystem
86.5.4 Drawbacks and Risks Associated with DIY-AT
86.6 Path to Large Scale Adaptation of DIY-AT
86.6.1 Incorporating DIY-AT in Clinical Practise
86.6.2 Amplifying Collaboration Among Stakeholders
86.6.3 Empowering People to Do It Themselves
86.6.4 Designing AT for DIY
86.7 Discussion
86.8 Limitations and Scope
References
87 Smart Refrigerator System: Enabling Healthy Cooking
87.1 Introduction
87.2 Literature Review
87.3 Methodology
87.3.1 Design Study and Participants
87.3.2 Data Collection
87.3.3 Contextual Inquiry
87.3.4 Competitive Analysis
87.3.5 Brainstorming & Conceptualization
87.4 Results
87.4.1 Data Collection
87.4.2 Contextual Inquiry
87.4.3 Competitive Analysis
87.5 Design Intervention
87.6 Discussion
87.7 Limitations and Future Scope
87.8 Conclusion
References
88 Mechanics of Pseudo-Haptics in Virtual Reality: Weight Perception
88.1 Introduction
88.2 Proposed Mechanics of Pseudo-Haptics
88.2.1 Work-Energy Conservation Principle
88.3 Experimental Method
88.3.1 Experimental Design
88.3.2 Pseudo-haptics Algorithm
88.3.3 Experimental Parameter Design
88.3.4 Experimental Protocol
88.4 Experimental Results and Discussion
88.4.1 Novelties of This Study
88.4.2 Limitations in This Study
88.5 Conclusion and Future Work
References
89 Design of Wearable: Effect of Various Finger Poses on Tactile Perception
89.1 Introduction
89.2 Methodology
89.2.1 Experiment
89.3 Results and Discussion
89.3.1 Variation in Vibration Perception Threshold and Dynamic Stiffness
89.4 Limitations
89.5 Applications
89.6 Summary
References
90 A Design Framework for Preserving Cultural Heritage with AR Technology—An Innovative Exploration on Ethnic Motifs and Its Symbolism of the Naga Tribes
90.1 Introduction
90.2 Background Study
90.2.1 Need of Identification
90.3 Literature Review
90.4 Methodology
90.4.1 Phase 1—Workflow of the Development of the Virtual Content
90.4.2 Phase 2—Workflow of the Augmented Reality Implementation
90.4.3 Phase 3—Virtual Information Generation Process of the Smartphone Application
90.5 Discussion
90.6 Conclusion
References
91 Challenges and Opportunities of Spatial Sound Design in Cinematic Virtual Reality: A Scoping Review
91.1 Introduction
91.2 Methods
91.2.1 Search Strategy
91.2.2 Inclusion Criteria
91.2.3 Charting Data
91.3 Results
91.4 Discussion
91.5 Conclusion
References
92 Creative Approaches to Teach Regional Languages Using Non-linguistic Cues
92.1 Introduction
92.2 Methodology
92.2.1 Data Collection
92.2.2 Synthesis and Formulation
92.2.3 Strategy and Learning Design Framework
92.2.4 User Testing
92.3 Results and Discussions
92.3.1 Online Survey
92.3.2 Primary Research
92.3.3 Behavioural Study
92.3.4 Formulation of Problem Statement and Product Vision
92.3.5 Conceptualisation and Strategy Building
92.3.6 User Testing
92.4 Conclusion
Appendix
References
93 Comic Study in Virtual Reality
93.1 Introduction
93.2 Objectives
93.2.1 Storytelling in VR
93.3 Making of Comic: “Online Jungle Safari”
93.3.1 About the Comic
93.3.2 Visual Foundation
93.3.3 Character Building
93.3.4 Final Comic Designs
93.3.5 Design for Virtual Environment
93.3.6 Hand Tracking Controls
93.3.7 Three-Dimensional (3D) Environment
93.3.8 Comic Book in Virtual World
93.3.9 Testing
93.4 Conclusion
References
Part IV Lexicon, Taxonomy, Ontology, Machine Learning and Data-Driven Design
94 Innovative Design Platform on Hotel Industry 4.0 Using AI/ML
94.1 Introduction
94.2 Prediction of Components Preferred by the Customers
94.2.1 Data Extraction
94.2.2 Data Preprocessing
94.2.3 Data Exploration and Visualization
94.2.4 Hotel Prediction
94.2.5 Room Class Prediction
94.2.6 Ancillary Service Prediction
94.2.7 Model Accuracy of Hotel, Room, and Ancillary Services
94.3 Bundling of Components as a Combo Package
94.3.1 Ranking of Ancillaries
94.3.2 Bundle Forming
94.3.3 Integration of Room Class with Bundles
94.4 Pricing of Packages
94.4.1 Correlation Among the Bundles
94.4.2 Clustering of Bundles into Buckets
94.4.3 Computing Linear and Stochastic Price by Using Different Promotional Offers
94.4.4 Calculating bundle’s Normalized Value and Plotting Them on Charts with Different Promotional Offers
94.5 Example
94.6 Conclusion
References
95 “This Has Been Written by a Bot”: A Bot Detection Study of the SubsimulatorGPT2 Subreddit
95.1 Introduction
95.2 Background and Related Work
95.3 Experimental Methodology
95.4 Sample
95.5 Data
95.6 Survey
95.7 Delimitations
95.8 Analysis
95.9 Conclusion and Discussion
Appendix
References
96 Implementing Conversational AI to Enhance Critical Illness Communication
96.1 Introduction
96.2 Literature Review
96.2.1 Related Works
96.2.2 Challenges
96.3 Paradigm for CIC Documentation Using Conversational AI
96.3.1 Pre-processing and Feature Extraction
96.3.2 Question–Response System
96.4 Experimental Results and Discussion
96.4.1 Identification of Critical Illness Communication Eligible Patients
96.4.2 Machine Learning Methods and Model Selection
96.4.3 Critical Illness Communication Information Gathering and Therapeutic Conversation
96.4.4 Critical Illness Communication Summarization
96.5 Conclusion and Future Scope
References
97 A Review of Repositories of Design Methods
97.1 Introduction
97.2 Research Methodology
97.3 Review and Analysis
97.3.1 Review
97.3.2 Analysis
97.4 Discussion
97.5 Summary, Conclusions, and Future Work
References
98 Machine Learning to Generate Knowledge for Decision-Making Processes in Product Portfolio and Variety Management
98.1 Introduction
98.2 Background
98.2.1 Knowledge Generation with Machine Learning
98.2.2 Views and Levels of Decisions-Making
98.2.3 Decision-Making Process in Product Portfolio and Variety Management
98.3 Research Approach
98.4 Support Decision-Making Process with Machine Learning
98.4.1 Search for Information
98.4.2 Formulate Alternatives
98.4.3 Forecast Impact
98.5 Case Study
98.6 Conclusion and Outlook
References
99 Ontology-Based Approach for Aesthetic Product Design
99.1 Introduction
99.2 Literature Review
99.3 Aesthetics in Product Design
99.3.1 Log-Aesthetic Curves (LAC)
99.4 Ontology-Based Approach
99.4.1 Case Study
99.5 Conclusion
References
100 The Role of the Human-in-the-Loop in Industrial Digitalization and Automation
100.1 Introduction
100.1.1 The Role of the Human
100.2 Current Literature
100.3 Motivating Factors for the Human-in-the-loop
100.3.1 Multi-disciplinary Nature of Problems
100.3.2 Domain Knowhow
100.3.3 Procedural Knowledge
100.3.4 Knowledge Completion
100.3.5 Context Awareness
100.3.6 Situational Awareness
100.3.7 Technological Limits
100.3.8 Machine Capabilities
100.3.9 Reasoning Under Uncertainty
100.3.10 Variety of Data and Dirty and Incomplete Data
100.4 Modes of Interaction
100.4.1 Clarifying the Terminology and Procedures
100.4.2 Correct and Improve Model Performance
100.4.3 Reduce Complexity
100.4.4 Factor of Safety and Contingencies
100.4.5 Specifying and Correcting Context
100.5 Conclusions and Discussion
References
101 Video Games as Ontological Design in the Indian Context
101.1 Introduction
101.2 Research
101.2.1 Understanding Video Games Through Literature
101.2.2 Insights and Thesis
101.2.3 Deriving Connections: Games and the Four Noble Truth of Buddha
101.3 Conclusion
References

Citation preview

Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343

Amaresh Chakrabarti Vishal Singh   Editors

Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1 Proceedings of ICoRD 2023

123

Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies Volume 343

Series Editors Robert J. Howlett, KES International Research, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK Lakhmi C. Jain, KES International, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK

The Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies book series encompasses the topics of knowledge, intelligence, innovation and sustainability. The aim of the series is to make available a platform for the publication of books on all aspects of single and multi-disciplinary research on these themes in order to make the latest results available in a readily-accessible form. Volumes on interdisciplinary research combining two or more of these areas is particularly sought. The series covers systems and paradigms that employ knowledge and intelligence in a broad sense. Its scope is systems having embedded knowledge and intelligence, which may be applied to the solution of world problems in industry, the environment and the community. It also focusses on the knowledge-transfer methodologies and innovation strategies employed to make this happen effectively. The combination of intelligent systems tools and a broad range of applications introduces a need for a synergy of disciplines from science, technology, business and the humanities. The series will include conference proceedings, edited collections, monographs, handbooks, reference books, and other relevant types of book in areas of science and technology where smart systems and technologies can offer innovative solutions. High quality content is an essential feature for all book proposals accepted for the series. It is expected that editors of all accepted volumes will ensure that contributions are subjected to an appropriate level of reviewing process and adhere to KES quality principles. Indexed by SCOPUS, EI Compendex, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, Japanese Science and Technology Agency (JST), SCImago, DBLP. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science.

Amaresh Chakrabarti · Vishal Singh Editors

Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1 Proceedings of ICoRD 2023

Editors Amaresh Chakrabarti Centre for Product Design and Manufacturing Indian Institute of Science Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Vishal Singh Centre for Product Design and Manufacturing Indian Institute of Science Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

ISSN 2190-3018 ISSN 2190-3026 (electronic) Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies ISBN 978-981-99-0292-7 ISBN 978-981-99-0293-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Conference Organisation

Steering Committee Balan Gurumoorthy, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India Cees de Bont, Loughborough University, UK John Gero, George Mason University, USA Kota Harinarayana, National Aeronautical Laboratories, India Panos Papalambros, University of Michigan, USA Steve Culley, University of Bath, UK

Advisory Committee S. Saleem Ahmed, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India Tracy Bhamra, Loughborough University, UK K. S. Bhanumathi, Kovair, India Henri Christiaans, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, South Korea Anjan Das, Confederation of Indian Industry, India U. B. Desai, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, India Kees Dorst, University of Technology Sydney, Australia Srinivasan Dwarakanath, Airbus, India Prem Shankar Goel, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India Anil K. Gupta, Honey Bee Network, SRISTI and GIAN, India Imre Horvath, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands Jitendra Jadhav, CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories, Bengaluru, India Arun Jaura, Michelin, India Deep Kapuria, The Hi-Tech Gears, India Yong Se Kim, Sungkyunkwan University, South Korea Ananda Kumar, Perspective, India

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Conference Organisation

Larry Leifer, Stanford University, USA Banshildar Majhi, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Kancheepuram, India Udayant Malhoutra, Dynamatic Technologies Limited, Bengaluru, India K. Rajalakshmi Menon, Centre for Airborne Systems, Defence Research and Development Organisation, India Arabinda Mitra, Office of PSA to GOI T. S. Mruthyunjaya, Chairman Emeritus, CPDM, Indian Institute of Science, India Muruganant, Indus University, India Nagahanumaiah, Central Manufacturing Technology Institute, India Shailesh Nayak, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India Srinivas Nidamarthi, ABB Ltd., Michigan, USA Sudarsan Rachuri, Department of Energy, USA P. Radhakrishnan, PSG Institute of Advanced Studies, India V. Bhujanga Rao, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India B. Ravi, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India Sofia Ritzén, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden Rajkumar Roy, City University of London, UK Al Salour, The Boeing Company, USA Raman Saxena, USID Foundation, India Vijay Srinivasan, National Institute of Standards and Technology, USA B. N. Suresh, Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology, India

Programme and Conference Chair Amaresh Chakrabarti, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India

Vice-Chair Vishal Singh, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India

Co-chairs Lucienne Blessing, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore Debkumar Chakrabarti, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India John Clarkson, University of Cambridge, UK Benoit Eynard, University of Technology of Compiègne, France

Conference Organisation

Petter Krus, Linkoping University, Sweden Akane Matsumae, Kyushu University, Japan Tim McAloone, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark Yukari Nagai, Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Japan Luciana Pereira, Federal University of ABC, Brazil Ravi Poovaiah, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India Raghu Prakash, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India Sandro Wartzack, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany

International Programme Committee Sofiane Achiche, Polytechnique Montréal, Canada Rajat Agrawal, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India Janet Allen, University of Oklahoma, USA Gokula Vijaykumar Annamalai Vasantha, Edinburgh Napier University, UK Christian Johansson Askling, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Sweden Santhi Balaraman, National Institute of Technology Goa, India Sandipan Bandyopadhyay, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India Sharmistha Banerjee, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India Amrita Basak, Penn State College of Engineering, USA Deepak B. B. V. L., National Institute of Technology Rourkela, India Niccolò Becattini, Politecnico Di Milano, Italy Alessandro Bertoni, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Sweden Marco Bertoni, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Sweden Mehul Bhatt, Örebro University, Sweden Ritwij Bhowmik, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India Braj Bhushan, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India Jayachandra Bingi, IIITDM Kancheepuram, India Haorongbam Bisheshwar, National Institute of Design Assam, India Dandeswar Bisoyi, MIT Art Design and Technology University, India Prasad Bokil, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India Yuri Borgianni, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Italy Dipanka Boruah, National Institute of Design Assam, India Arindam Brahma, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden Ross Brisco, University of Strathclyde, UK David C. Brown, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA Gaetano Cascini, Politecnico Di Milano, Italy Philip Cash, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark Jayanta Chatterjee, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India Yong Chen, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China Peter Childs, Imperial College London, UK François Cluzel, University of Paris-Saclay, France Nathan Crilly, University of Cambridge, UK

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Conference Organisation

Pranab K. Dan, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India Amarendra Kumar Das, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India Suman Devadula, MIT World Peace University, India Debayan Dhar, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India Jay Dhariwal, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India Udaya Kumar Dharmalingam, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India Cyriel Diels, Royal College of Art, UK Brian Dixon, Ulster University, UK Jared Donovan, Queensland University of Technology, Australia Raghu Echempati, Kettering University, USA Grace Eden, Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology Delhi, India Boris Eisenbart, Swinburne University of Technology, Australia Hisham Elmoaqet, German Jordanian University, Jordan Mario Fargnoli, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy Francesco Ferrise, Politecnico Di Milano, Italy Khaled Galal Ahmed, United Arab Emirates University, UAE Ashok Ganapathy Iyer, Manipal Academy of Higher Education—Dubai Campus, UAE Gionata Gatto, Studio Gionata Gatto, Netherlands Georgi V. Georgiev, University of Oulu, Finland Detlef Gerhard, Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany Kilian Gericke, University of Rostock, Germany Ravindra Goonetilleke, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Lapo Governi, University of Florence, Italy Serena Graziosi, Politecnico Di Milano, Italy Ji Han, University of Liverpool, UK Peter Hehenberger, University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Austria Ben Hicks, University of Bristol, UK Chan Hoi Shou Alan, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Liesbeth Huybrechts, University Hasselt, Belgium David Inkermann, Technical University of Clausthal, Germany William Ion, University of Strathclyde, UK Santosh Jagtap, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Sweden Camille Jean, Arts et Métiers, France Shiva Ji, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, India Iestyn Jowers, The Open University, UK Tero Juuti, University of Tampere, Finland Pratul Kalita, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India Vivek Kant, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India Gourab Kar, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India Sougata Karmakar, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India Cigdem Kaya, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey Sonal Keshwani, Dayananda Sagar University, Bengaluru Pramod Khadilkar, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi

Conference Organisation

ix

Mohammed Rajik Khan, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, India Yong Se Kim, University in Turku, Finland Edwin Koh, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore Christian Köhler, Saarland University of Applied Sciences, Germany Lauri Koskela, University of Huddersfield, UK Srinivas Kota, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, India Vinayak Krishnamurthy, Texas A&M University, USA Peter Krogh, Aarhus University, Denmark Senthilkumaran Kumaraguru, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Kancheepuram, India Vikash Kumar, Shiv Nadar University, India Kamila Kunrath, Aarhus University, Denmark Guillaume Lamé, University of Paris-Saclay, France Mohit Lal, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, India Tobias Larsson, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Sweden Rungtai Lin, National Taiwan University of Arts, Taiwan Ravi Lingannavar, KLE Dr. MSSCET Belagavi, India Ying Liu, Cardiff University, UK Jianxi Luo, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore Anja Maier, University of Strathclyde, UK Johan Malmqvist, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden Nicolas Maranzana, Arts et Métiers Paristech, France Christian Marxt, ETH Zürich, Switzerland Deepak John Mathew, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, India Christopher McComb, Carnegie Mellon University, USA Alison Mckay, University of Leeds, UK Gavin Melles, Swinburne University of Technology, Australia Farrokh Mistree, University of Oklahoma, USA Subhas Chandra Mondal, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, India Ashaprava Mohanta, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology Odisha, India Rabi Mohanty, Indian Institute of Technology BHU, India Charu Monga, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India Prabir Mukhopadhyay, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Jabalpur, India Elena Mulet, Universitat Jaume I, Spain Raguraman Munusamy, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Kancheepuram, India Tamotsu Murakami, University of Tokyo, Japan Ramanathan Muthuganapathy, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India Madhusudanan N., Corporate Technology, Siemens, India Nanki Nath, National Institute of Design Ahmedabad, India Susanne Nilsson, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden Josef Oehmen, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark Sai Ojha, MIT World Peace University, India

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Conference Organisation

Prasad Onkar, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, India Abhijit Padun, Central Institute of Technology Kokrajhar, India Kristin Paetzold-byhain, Technische Universitat, Dresden Rowan Page, Monash University, Australia Swati Pal, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India Sangeeta Pandit, Indian Institute of Information Technology Design and Manufacturing Jabalpur, India Massimo Panarotto, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden Neven Pavkovic, University of Zagreb, Croatia Ramana Pidaparti, University of Georgia, USA Vesna Popovic, Queensland University of Technology, Australia Ravi Mokashi Punekar, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India Bastian Quatttelbaum, Hochschule Niederrhein, Germany Mariano Ramirez, University of New South Wales, Australia B. S. C. Ranjan, Dayananda Sagar University, Bengaluru Guruprasad Kuppu Rao, MIT World Peace University, India N. V. Chalapathi Rao, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India P. V. M. Rao, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India N. Venkata Reddy, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, India Remedios, Delwyn, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, India Caterina Rizzi, University of Bergamo, Italy Sergio Rizzuti, University of Calabria, Italy Paul Rodgers, University of Strathclyde, UK Serge Rohmer, University of Technology of Troyes, France Federico Rotini, University of Florence, Italy Bhaskar Saha, Central Institute of Technology Kokrajhar, India Tomohiko Sakao, Linköping University, Sweden Biplab Sarkar, Nokia, India Prabir Sarkar, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, India Peer Sathikh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Michael Schabacker, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Germany Vinodh Sekar, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India Harivardhini Selvakumar, National Institute of Fashion Technology Hyderabad, India Mohammad Shahid, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, India Anshuman Sharma, Philips Healthcare Apurbba Kumar Sharma, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India Aneesha Sharma, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India Avinash Shende, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India Arlindo Silva, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore Sumer Singh, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India Ricardo Sosa, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Anmol Srivastava, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India Mario Storga, University of Zagreb, Croatia Shankar Subramanian, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India Joshua Summers, University of Texas at Dallas, USA

Conference Organisation

xi

Abinash Swain, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India Puneet Tandon, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Jabalpur, India Saurabh Tewari, School of Planning and Architecture Bhopal, India Asokan Thondiyath, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India Anshuman Tripathy, Indian Institute of Management Bengaluru, India Yasushi Umeda, University of Tokyo, Japan Pankaj Upadhyay, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India Paul Varghese, Trysquare Engineers and Builders, India Srinivasan Venkataraman, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India Vimal Viswanathan, San Jose State University, USA Nikola Vukasinovic, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Fedja Vukic, University of Zagreb, Croatia Parag Vyas, GrauBär Design Studios, India Yan Wang, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA Robert Wendrich, University of Twente, Netherlands Andrew Wodehouse, University of Strathclyde, UK Pradeep Yammiyavar, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, India Nilakshi Yein, Amity University, India Yong Zeng, Concordia University, Canada

Organising Committee Shakuntala Acharya, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India G. K. Ananthasuresh, Indian Institute of Science, India Jaywant Arakeri, Indian Institute of Science, India Manish Arora, Indian Institute of Science, India Abhijit Biswas, Indian Institute of Science, India Pradipta Biswas, Indian Institute of Science, India Abhra Roy Chowdhury, Indian Institute of Science, India Anindya Deb, Indian Institute of Science, India J. E. Diwakar, Indian Institute of Science, India Ashitava Ghosal, Indian Institute of Science, India Satish Vasu Kailas, Indian Institute of Science, India Rina Maiti, Indian Institute of Science, India Monto Mani, Indian Institute of Science, India N. D. Shivakumar, Indian Institute of Science, India Dibakar Sen, Indian Institute of Science, India Chamundeshwari K. S., Indian Institute of Science, India Ravindra R., Indian Institute of Science, India Thirunavukkarasu R., Indian Institute of Science, India Mary Ranjeetha, Indian Institute of Science, India Nishath Salma, Indian Institute of Science, India

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Mayank Agrawal, Indian Institute of Science, India Sankar B., Indian Institute of Science, India Apoorv Naresh Bhatt, Indian Institute of Science, India Kausik Bhattacharya, Indian Institute of Science, India Krishnakant Bhole, Indian Institute of Science, India Manish Kumar Dhiman, Indian Institute of Science, India Kiran Ghadge, Indian Institute of Science, India Vibhor Gupta, Indian Institute of Science, India Hemang Kumar Jayant, Indian Institute of Science, India Uttam Jodawat, Indian Institute of Science, India Ishaan Kaushal, Indian Institute of Science, India Mathangi Krishnan, Indian Institute of Science, India Anmol Luharuka, Indian Institute of Science, India Tejas Mahadev, Indian Institute of Science, India Anubhab Majumder, Indian Institute of Science, India Sachin N. J., Indian Institute of Science, India Annu Niraj, Indian Institute of Science, India Sandeep Pothkanoori, Indian Institute of Science, India Prajwal Prabhu, Indian Institute of Science, India K. S. Puneeth, Indian Institute of Science, India Sanket R., Indian Institute of Science, India Subin Raj, Indian Institute of Science, India Sreeja Sri Ramoji, Indian Institute of Science, India Vighneshkumar Rana, Indian Institute of Science, India Rajath S., Indian Institute of Science, India Ansuman Sahu, Indian Institute of Science, India Komal Shah, Indian Institute of Science, India Vyom Sharma, Indian Institute of Science, India Atheeth Shivalingaprasad, Indian Institute of Science, India Anugya Singh, Indian Institute of Science, India Sanjay Singh, Indian Institute of Science, India Vikash Kishore Singh, Indian Institute of Science, India Shailesh Sutar, Indian Institute of Science, India Sanket T., Indian Institute of Science, India Charan Tadisetti, Indian Institute of Science, India Charu Tripathi, Indian Institute of Science, India Vivek Upadhyay, Indian Institute of Science, India Naz Yaldiz, Indian Institute of Science, India

Conference Organisation

Sponsors

Centre for Product Design and Manufacturing Indian Institute of Science Bengaluru, India Indian Institute of Science Bengaluru, India Springer Nature

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Endorsers

The Design Society, UK Design Research Society, UK

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Preface

The collection of papers in these three book volumes constitutes the Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Research into Design (ICoRD’23) held at the Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India, during 9–11 January 2023. ICoRD’23 is the ninth in a series of biennial conferences held in India to bring together the international community from diverse areas of design practice, teaching and research. The goals are to share cutting-edge research about design among its stakeholders; aid the ongoing process of developing a collective vision through emerging research challenges and questions; and provide a platform for interaction, collaboration and development of the community in order for it to address the global and local challenges by forming and realising the collective vision. The conference is intended for all stakeholders of design and, in particular, for its practitioners, researchers, teachers and students. About 705 abstracts were submitted to ICoRD’23, from which 672 were accepted for full paper submission. A total of 404 full papers were submitted, which were reviewed by experts from the ICoRD’23 International Programme Committee comprising 194 members from over 117 institutions or organisations from 28 countries spanning five continents. Finally, 300 full papers that were authored by 622 researchers (622 unique authors, actually 827 author entries in 300 papers) from 25 countries spanning 5 continents were selected for presentation at the conference and for publication as chapters in this book. ICoRD has steadily grown over the last eight editions, from a humble beginning in 2006 with 30 papers and 60 participants, through 75 papers and 100 participants in ICoRD’09, 100 papers and 150 participants in ICoRD’11, 114 papers and 170 participants in ICoRD’13, 118 papers and 200 participants in ICoRD’15, 177 papers and 230 participants in ICoRD’17, 169 papers and 352 participants in ICoRD’19 and 235 papers and 271 participants in ICoRD’21 (online). ICoRD’23 had 300 podium papers. It had seven keynotes from prominent researchers and practitioners from around the world, such as Prof. Uday Athavankar from MIT School of Design, Pune, India; Prof. Farrokh Mistree from University of Oklahoma, USA; Prof. Joshua D. Summers from University of Texas at Dallas, USA; Prof. P. V. M. Rao from Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India; Prof. xvii

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Preface

Udaya Kumar Dharmalingam from Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India; Prof. Luciënne T. M. Blessing from Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore; and Mr. Apoorv Shankar from Ultrahuman, India. It had two panel discussions on ‘How to publish papers in peer-reviewed journals?’ and ‘How should design education evolve to suit the changing needs of the society?’, sixteen workshops which included Ph.D. Students Symposium and Publishing workshop and a networking event ‘Young Researchers’ Meet’. Since 2015, ICoRD has initiated ICONNN Awards (acronym for ICoRD Outstanding Contribution to desigN scieNce and educatioN) to be given to two outstanding contributors to design education and research at each ICoRD. Professor Sudhakar Nadkarni from Welingkar Institute of Management, India, and Prof. John Gero from George Mason University, USA, were selected as the ICONNN awardees for 2015. Professors Amit Ray from Shiv Nadar University, India, and Cees de Bont from Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, had been selected as the ICONNN awardees for 2017. For ICoRD’19, the ICONNN awardees are Prof. Imre Horvath from Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands, and Prof. T. S. Mruthyunjaya from Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India. For ICoRD’23, the ICONNN awardees are Prof. Uday Athavankar from MIT School of Design, Pune, India, and Prof. Farrokh Mistree from University of Oklahoma, USA. The chapters in the three book volumes together cover all three major areas of products and processes: functionality, form and human factors. The spectrum of topics ranges from those focusing on early stages, such as creativity and synthesis, through those that are primarily considered in later stages of the product life cycle, such as safety, reliability or manufacturability, to those that are relevant across the whole product life cycle, such as collaboration, communication, design management, knowledge management, cost, environment and product life cycle management. Issues of delivery of research into design, in terms of its two major arms: design education and practice, are both highlighted in the chapters of the book volumes. Foundational topics, such as the nature of design theory and research methodology are also major areas of focus. It is particularly encouraging to see in the chapters the variety of areas of application of research into design—aerospace, health care, automotive, biomedical and so on. The theme of ICoRD’23 is ‘Design in the Era of Industry 4.0’—which explores how Industry 4.0 concepts and technologies influence the way design is conducted, and how methods, tools and approaches for supporting design can take advantage of this transformational change that is sweeping across the world. ICoRD’23 was hosted in Bengaluru, which is the ‘Silicon Plateau’ of the world, with the second fastest-growing community of start-ups, many of which are exploring emerging technologies, such as IoT, IIoT, Digital Twins, sensor networks and I4.0 to design new products, systems and services. It is only appropriate that the theme for ICoRD’23 aligns with this ambiance. On behalf of the Steering Committee, Advisory Committee, Organising Committees and Co-chairs, we thank all the authors, delegates, institutions and organisations that participated in the conference. We also thank the members of the International Programme Committee for their support in reviewing the papers for ICoRD’23,

Preface

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which is essential for maintaining the quality of the conference, and for their support in putting this book together. We are thankful to the Design Society and Design Research Society for their kind endorsement of ICoRD’23. We thank Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bengaluru and its Centre for Product Design and Manufacturing (CPDM) for their support of this event. We also wish to place on record and acknowledge the enormous support provided by the Student Organizing Committee in managing the review process, in preparation of the conference programme and this book and the conference as a whole. In particular, we wish to thank Mr. Apoorv Bhatt, Ms. Nishath Salma and Ms. Mary Ranjeetha for their valuable contributions during the preparatory stages to ICoRD’23. We also thank the large and dedicated group of student volunteers of IISc Bengaluru in the organisation of the conference. Finally, we thank Springer, especially its Editor Ms. Swati Meherishi and its editorial support team, for their wonderful support, including their sponsoring of the Springer book vouchers for the ICONNN awardees and the winners of Distinguished Paper Awards at ICoRD’23. Bengaluru, India

Amaresh Chakrabarti Vishal Singh

About the Conference

Design is ubiquitous; it pervades all spheres of life and has been around as long as life has taken up the task of purposefully changing the world around it. Research into design and the emergence of a research community in this area have been relatively new. Its development has been influenced by the multiple facets of design (human, artefact, process, organisation, the micro- and macro-economy and the ecology by which design is shaped) and the associated diversification of the community depending on the facets of focus or that of their applications. Design is complex, balancing the needs of multiple stakeholders and requiring a multitude of areas of knowledge to be utilised, with resources spread across space and time. ICoRD’23 is the ninth in a series of conferences intended to be held every two years in India to bring together the international community from diverse areas of design practice, education and research. It aims to showcase cutting-edge research about design to the stakeholders; aid the ongoing process of developing and extending the collective vision through emerging research challenges and questions; and provide a platform for interaction, collaboration and development of the community in order for it to take up the challenges to realise the vision. The conference is intended for all stakeholders of design and, in particular, for its practitioners, researchers, pupils and educators. The collection of papers in these three book volumes constitutes the Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Research into Design (ICoRD’23) held at Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India, during 9–11 January 2023. ICoRD series was initiated in 2006 by the Centre for Product Design and Manufacturing (CPDM) at Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bengaluru. Since then it has been hosted in 2009, 2011 (both at IISc), 2013 (at IIT Madras), 2015 (IISc), 2017 (IIT Guwahati), 2019 (IISc) and 2021 (IIT Bombay). CPDM has pioneered design research in India for the last two decades. IISc is one of India’s leading science and technology institutions and is one of the Institutes of Eminence decreed by the MHRD, Government of India. ICoRD’23 was hosted in Bengaluru, which is the ‘Silicon Plateau’ of the world, with the second fastest-growing community of start-ups, many of which are exploring emerging technologies, such as IoT, IIoT, Digital Twins, sensor networks and I4.0 xxi

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About the Conference

to design new products, systems and services. It is only appropriate that the theme for ICoRD’23 aligns with this ambiance. The theme of ICoRD’23 is ‘Design in the Era of Industry 4.0’—which explores how Industry 4.0 concepts and technologies influence the way design is conducted, and how methods, tools and approaches for supporting design can take advantage of this transformational change that is sweeping across the world. Industry 4.0 signifies the fourth industrial revolution. The first industrial revolution was driven by the introduction of mechanical power, such as steam and water engines to replace human and animal labour. The second industrial revolution involved introduction of electrical power and organised labour. The third industrial revolution was powered by introduction of industrial automation. The fourth industrial revolution involves introduction of a combination of technologies to enable connected intelligence and industrial autonomy. The introduction of Industry 4.0 dramatically changes the landscape of innovation and the way design, the engine of innovation, is carried out. The conference contained: • • • • • • •

Invited/keynote presentations from eminent international experts and practitioners Presentations of refereed papers as podium, poster, panel or theme presentations Industrial session to present perspectives from industry and studies in practice Presentation of ICONNN Awards and Keynotes Doctoral Symposium Networking Sessions for Young Researchers Workshop Sessions

Contents

Part I

Human Factors in Design (Physical and Cognitive Ergonomics; Design for Emotions, Etc.)

1

Influence and Depiction of Power in an Urban Space . . . . . . . . . . . Kalpeshkumar Patel and Nikita Manvi

2

Modular Approaches and Perspectives in Temple Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vishnu K. Suresh

19

Store Atmospherics and Moderating Effect of Motives on Consumer Behaviour—An Indian Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ramchandra Alias Ameet Chate and Ravi Lingannavar

29

Ergonomic Assessment and Workstation Design for Women Workers in Cashew Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishna Chaitanya Mallampalli

37

Exploring Architectural Façade Characteristics of Bag Bazar Street, Kolkata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shilpi Chakraborty and Shiva Ji

49

The Role of Awareness and Experience in Designing Social Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elly Fitriana Soedjito and Akane Matsumae

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3

4

5

6

7

8

Preconditioning Pre-adolescent Students to Cope with Academic Stress: Using Game Design as an Approach to Inculcate Healthy Coping Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Akshata Chitnis and Arundhati Guha Thakurta An Empirical Study to Improve Faculty Workplace Ergonomics for Minimizing the Risk of Transmission of Airborne Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bankapalli Vamsi, Pullela Kali Raj Sunad, and Jay Dhariwal

3

75

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9

10

11

12

13

14

15

Contents

Identification of Appropriate Tools and Techniques for Ergonomic Evaluation in FMCG Industrial Shop Floor . . . . . Gurdeep Singh and Sougata Karmakar OSH Risk Perception of Floating Solar PV Workers and Identifying Scope for Design Interventions: A Codesign Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abhijit Sen and Sougata Karmakar Conceptual Model for Design Intervention Through a Preventive Approach to Challenges of Adolescent Emotional Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tanya Prasad and Gayatri Menon

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Identifying the Need to Provide Medical Assistance and Home Healthcare to the Elderly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mehek Lahoti, Sudip Ray, and Tanmayee Puntambekar

151

Ergonomic Principles to Design Adaptive Sportswear for Wheelchair Tennis Players . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Subhalakshmi Kropi Bhuyan and Nilanjana Bairagi

171

Designing a Learning Toy for Children with Constructional Dyspraxia to Improve Their Visual Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. S. Archana and Ankita Roy

183

Empirical Studies Assessing the CO2 Levels in Indoor Spaces . . . Sonal Gangrade, Bankapalli Vamsi, Prasannaa, Saran Raj, and Jay Dhariwal

17

Improving Parking Behaviour in the Apartment Society: An Example of Using an Integrated Behavioural Framework . . . . Sonal Gangrade and Pramod Ratnakar Khadilkar

19

117

Evaluation of Traditional Design of Shovel in Dairy Farms Using Digital Human Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sarju Thokchom, B. S. K. Chhetry, and K. N. Dewangan

16

18

103

Integrated Behavioural Design Framework to Encourage COVID-19-Appropriate Behaviour in University Canteens and Eateries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Swagatam Dey and Pramod Khadilkar Assessing the Users’ Preference-Based Approach to Optimize the Integration of Physical-Infrastructural and Socio-cultural Elements of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tanima Bhattacharya and Joy Sen

197

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xxv

Toward Health, Hygiene, and Safety—A Design Intervention for Accessible and Inclusive Toilets in India . . . . . . . . Trisha Bordoloi and Shakuntala Acharya

253

An Alternative Window Design Solution for Naturally Ventilated Educational Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abdul Mohsin Ali and Shakuntala Acharya

267

Understanding Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) of Naturally Ventilated Educational Buildings—A Systematic Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abdul Mohsin Ali and Shakuntala Acharya

279

Design of Signages and Information Boards for a Mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Md. Haseen Akhtar and Janakarajan Ramkumar

293

Ergonomic Evaluation of Handle Position and Orientation in Pushing Cart Using RULA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mohammed Rajik Khan and Sumit Pravin Vedpathak

305

Furniture Design: Reimagining a Designer’s Workstation Through an Ergonomic Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eriyat Arun Krishna, Subhashree Mohapatra, and Shiva Ji

315

Evaluation of Ergonomic Issues, Mental Stress, and Performance of Higher Education Students Due to Online Education Mode During COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Avantika Verma and Sonal Atreya

325

An Empirical Study on the Impact of Emotional Intelligence on Design Thinking in Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Praveen M. Kulkarni, Prayag Gokhale, and Saurabh Pote

337

Menstrual Pad and Its Packaging for People with One-Hand Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aayaan Khan and Shubhangana Singh

349

UI Guidelines for Cultural Sensitivity in Indian Handicraft User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Renu Kundu, Pushkar Pandey, and Ritwij Bhowmik

359

A Bibliographic Survey of Indoor Navigation Systems for Autonomous Mobility of People with Visual Impairment and Deafblindness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Caio Silva, Bruna Leite, Patrícia Pereira, Petter Krus, and Luciana Pereira

371

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31

32

33

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Contents

Ergonomic Risk Assessment of Hand Injuries and Accidents Among Soft Marble Carving Artisans of Bhedaghat, Jabalpur M.P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rajat Kamble, Vishal Patil, Avinash Sahu, Sangeeta Pandit, and Biswadeep Paul

385

Gender Differences in the Occurrence of Musculoskeletal Disorders Among Adult Male and Female Potato Farmers in Hooghly, West Bengal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chinmay Biswas, Rajat Kamble, Sangeeta Pandit, and Bishwadeep Paul

397

A Comprehensive Evaluation of Indian Railway Station Signage Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sneh Singh, Satyaki Roy, and Siddhant Walia

409

Comprehensive Evaluation Study on the Cognitive Load of Kids with Dyslexia in Traditional Learning Practices at Jabalpur, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supriya Bawiskar, Avinash Sahu, and Sangeeta Pandit

35

Emotion AI in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mriganka Madhukaillya and Gurgenius Singh Kapoor

36

Study the Effects of Online Gaming on Different Emotional Behavior of the Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sai Prasad Ojha, Meer Shaikh, Manika Gupta, Arya Shinde, Sahil Waghmare, and Sarthak Shukla

Part II 37

38

39

423 433

445

Design of/for User Interfaces, User Experience and Human-Computer Interaction

Interactive News Platform for User Perspective Through Design Concept for Interesting Visual Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . Shouvik Sengupta, Sandipan Bhattacharjee, and Bhaskar Saha

461

Senior Citizens and Smartphones: Identifying User Segments in Urban Middle-Class India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pragnya Ramjee, Aditi Rathi, and Sharmistha Banerjee

475

Understanding the Challenges Students in Rural Areas Are Facing While Interacting with the Existing E-learning Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Apoorva Gandharve and Siddharth Singh

485

Contents

40

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xxvii

Study and Evaluation of User Interaction and User Experience Design for the Development of a Fully Autonomous Passenger Drone Interior Cabin for India . . . . . . . . . Meenakshi Mishra, Deepak John Mathew, and Ketan Madan Chaturmutha

501

A Design-Based Study to Assist Claustrophobics in Overcoming Their Fears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nikita Bhatnagar and Shreya Maulik

513

42

Use of New Media to Preserve Cultural Heritage in Museums . . . Deepanshu Verma and Charu Monga

43

Exploration of Visual Cues and Guidelines to Increase Visitors’ Engagement and Immersion in Virtual Museums . . . . . . Deepanshu Verma and Charu Monga

525

535

44

On Defining Interactive Visual Narratives (IVNs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishna Kumar Radhakrishnan and Ravi Poovaiah

45

Graphic-Based Healthcare Information: Evaluation of Suitability Qualities for the Intended Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rohit Kumar and Shatarupa Thakurta Roy

559

Exploring New Idioms for Books as Interactive Experiences in Digital Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ankita Roy and Mahima Nareshchandra Dahekar

573

46

47

48

49

50

51

An Exploration on Interactive Educational Games for Teaching Primary School Students of Vernacular Medium . . . Banamita Sarma, Debarshi Kumar Brahma, Abhijit Padun, and Anowar Hussain Mondal Investigating Work-on-the-Move Scenarios and User Experience in Autonomous Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sandipana Das, Mamata N. Rao, and Vipul Vinzuda Framework for Visual Experience in Designing Digital Twin for Smart Cities—Dubai Expo 2020 Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . Ramesh Manickam, M. B. Padmaavathi, Priyanka Bharti, Afzal Shabaz Mohammed, Jagannayakam Sundaram, and Steffen Appel A Conceptual Framework for Conversational Human-AI Interaction Design (CHAI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shridhar Marri Design Guidelines for an Immersive Auditory Experience . . . . . . . Ganesh Kailas and Nachiketa Tiwari

545

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599

615

627 641

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52

53

54

55

56

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58

Contents

Factors Influencing Adoption and Use of Digital Wellbeing Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stuti Prakashkumar, Aditya Wadher, Swati Pal, and Debayan Dhar Who to Blame—User Interface Design or Learning Content? A Neurophysiological UX Assessment of e-learning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abhijeet Kujur, Naveen Kumar, and Jyoti Kumar Proposal of an e-learning Evaluation Model for Online Design Courses and Its Psychogalvanic Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aarati P. Khare, Abhijeet Kujur, Greeshma Sharma, and Jyoti Kumar Neurophysiological UX Evaluation of Industry 4.0 Technologies: E-commerce, e-learning Websites, and VR Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abhijeet Kujur, Sadaf H. Khan, and Jyoti Kumar User Experience of Virtual Reality Showcasing Sham Sunder Das Archive: A Case Study of Digital Preservation of the Archival Artifact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ankana Sen and Deepak John Mathew

661

673

689

701

User Interface Design Recommendations for Mental Health Mobile Application Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amol Pakhale and Venus Kashyap

715

Can Children Be Taught Values Using Game Designs? Insights from a Neurophysiological Experimental Study with Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chirag Rajyaguru, Pooja Sahni, Manvi Jain, Rohit Pandey, and Jyoti Kumar

729

59

Online Education in India: Challenges and Opportunities . . . . . . . Surbhi Pratap, Abhishek Dahiya, Shaurya Rawat, and Jyoti Kumar

60

Auditory Interactions: A Potential Way for Managing the Children Living with ADHD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sandesh Sanjeev Phalke, Abhishek Shrivastava, and Mridumoni Phukon

61

649

Role of Multi-experience Developmental Platforms (MXDP) in Futuristic Classroom Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Srinidhi Ramprasad and Ankit Jain

741

751

761

Contents

62

63

Users’ Spatial Experiences in a Public Plaza Developed Under the Bhubaneswar Smart City Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ashaprava Mohanta and Rabi Narayan Mohanty

773

Encouraging Better Food Inventory Management: A Mobile Application-Based Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nidhi Kastiya and Indresh Kumar Verma

785

64

Design Considerations for X-ray Software Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . Anshuman Sharma, Shweta Kamble, and S. B. Kiran Kumar

65

Design Fiction: A Way to Foresee the Future of Human–Computer Interaction Design Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . Suvodeep Misra, Debayan Dhar, and Sukumar Nandi

66

xxix

Enhancing User Experience of Mobile OTT Platforms—A Case Study of Redesigning Netflix for Indian Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aditya Wadher, Nidhi Meena, and Debayan Dhar

797

809

823

Part III Enabling Technologies and Tools (Computer-Aided Conceptual Design, Augmented/Virtual Reality, MEMS, Haptics, Smart Technologies, IoT, Cobotics, Etc.) 67

68

69

70

71

72

Interactive 3D Marathi Language Alphabets: AR-Based Mobile App in Context of Rural India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanika Pareek, Aventika Khemani, Namrata Dhobale, and Shrikant Salve

839

Proposal of an ARVR-Enabled Digital Archive: Preserving Archaeological Data Through Emerging Technologies . . . . . . . . . . Shraddha Govindraj, Pranita Ranade, and Tanmoy Goswami

853

Enhancing the Perfume Buying User Experience Through AI and Machine Olfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pradnya Agarwal, Pranita Ranade, and Tanmoy Goswami

865

E-commerce Platform for Sustainable Thrift Fashion Industry Powered by Blockchain Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Senorita Dev, Tanmoy Goswami, and Pranita Ranade

877

Real-Time Digital Ecosystem for Effective Blood Bank Supply Chain Management in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Senorita Dev, Tanmoy Goswami, and Pranita Ranade

889

A Blockchain-Based Framework for Efficient Health Record Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Akanksha Goel and S. Neduncheliyan

903

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73

Augmented Reality App for Science Pre-university Students . . . . Shivanshu Sagar and Shazia Aziz Bolwar

74

Astromos: An Astronomy Application for Augmented Reality-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ayan Aggarwal, Manomay Singh, Shorya Kansal, Pankaj Badoni, and Avita Katal

75

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Visualization Techniques for Visibility Graph Analysis in Virtual Reality for the Case of the Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shilpi Chakraborty and Shiva Ji Projection Mapping on Building Facade Using Augmented Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tejas Pawar, Aman Sharma, and Shiva Ji

915

927

941

953

77

A Bibliometric Analysis of Research in VR and Haptics . . . . . . . . . Saptarshi Samanta, Sharmistha Banerjee, and Pankaj Upadhyay

78

Insider–Insider Observations and Reflections from the Director, Cast, and Crew of Table for Two—A Parallel Interactive Narrative in Virtual Reality . . . . Delwyn Jude Remedios, Deepak John Mathew, and Max Scheleser

973

Virtual Trial Room Simulation for Online Ordering and Alteration of Clothes According to Buyers’ Ergonomics . . . . Ritika Singh and Subhajit Chandra

985

79

961

80

“HappyBin” Remodifying Social Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Priyabrata Rautray, Avik Roy, and Deepak John Mathew

997

81

Virtual Reality for Creativity Practice and Art and Design Education: A Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011 Sumana Som, Deepak John Mathew, and Kim Vincs

82

Artificial Intelligence-Based Learning Toys: Exploring the Role of Tangram as a Tool to Develop Spatial Learning Among Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023 Brajesh Dhiman, Darshika Kantaria, Kashif Khan, and Hariesh K. Sankaran

83

Designing for Interactive Rehabilitation in Virtual Reality . . . . . . 1033 Achille Gakwaya, Yazan Barhoush, Vijayakumar Nanjappan, and Georgi V. Georgiev

84

Role of Human-Centered Design in Haptic-Enabled Virtual Reality Environments’ Research and Development . . . . . . 1043 Saptarshi Samanta and Pankaj Upadhyay

Contents

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85

Heritage Preservation with Virtual Reality (VR): Recreating the Lost Glory of the Medieval Metropolis of Mandu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055 Mahima Nareshchandra Dahekar and Ankita Roy

86

A Review of the Potential and Path to the Large-Scale Adaptation of DIY in Assistive Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067 Yash Bohre, Purba Joshi, and Rowan Page

87

Smart Refrigerator System: Enabling Healthy Cooking . . . . . . . . . 1081 Nripan Nath, Rahul Prakash Salunke, and Wricha Mishra

88

Mechanics of Pseudo-Haptics in Virtual Reality: Weight Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093 Neelesh Kumar, Ravali Gourishetti, Madhan Kumar Vasudevan, and Muniyandi Manivannan

89

Design of Wearable: Effect of Various Finger Poses on Tactile Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105 Debadutta Subudhi, Madhan Kumar Vasudevan, and Muniyandi Manivannan

90

A Design Framework for Preserving Cultural Heritage with AR Technology—An Innovative Exploration on Ethnic Motifs and Its Symbolism of the Naga Tribes . . . . . . . . . 1115 Susmita Roy, Pankaj Pratap Singh, and Abhijit Padun

91

Challenges and Opportunities of Spatial Sound Design in Cinematic Virtual Reality: A Scoping Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127 Hitesh Kumar Chaurasia and Manoj Majhi

92

Creative Approaches to Teach Regional Languages Using Non-linguistic Cues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1141 Rhythm Gauba and Manisha Phadke

93

Comic Study in Virtual Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1153 Abhishek Verma, Subhajit Chandra, and Richard Laurence

Part IV Lexicon, Taxonomy, Ontology, Machine Learning and Data-Driven Design 94

Innovative Design Platform on Hotel Industry 4.0 Using AI/ML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1167 Natarajan Vijayarangan, Kumari Rashmi, and M. Sakthi Priya

95

“This Has Been Written by a Bot”: A Bot Detection Study of the SubsimulatorGPT2 Subreddit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1183 Chaitanya Solanki

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96

Implementing Conversational AI to Enhance Critical Illness Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191 Mily Lal and S. Neduncheliyan

97

A Review of Repositories of Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205 Mayank Mayookh and V. Srinivasan

98

Machine Learning to Generate Knowledge for Decision-Making Processes in Product Portfolio and Variety Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217 Jan Mehlstäubl, Felix Braun, Emir Gadzo, and Kristin Paetzold-Byhain

99

Ontology-Based Approach for Aesthetic Product Design . . . . . . . . 1229 Anuj Kumar and Abinash Kumar Swain

100 The Role of the Human-in-the-Loop in Industrial Digitalization and Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1241 N. Madhusudanan and Ramesh Manickam 101 Video Games as Ontological Design in the Indian Context . . . . . . . 1251 Mriganka Madhukaillya and Aman Chandra

About the Editors

Amaresh Chakrabarti is Senior Professor and current Chairman for the Centre for Product Design and Manufacturing, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru. He has B.E. in Mechanical Engineering from Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, M.E. in Design of Mechanical Systems from Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, and Ph.D. in Engineering Design from the University of Cambridge UK. He led for ten years the Design Synthesis group at the EPSRC funded Centre of Excellence called the Engineering Design Centre at University of Cambridge before joining Indian Institute of Science as Associate Professor in 2001. His interests are in synthesis, creativity, sustainability, and informatics. He published 16 books, over 300 peer-reviewed articles, and has 11 patents granted/pending. He co-authored DRM, a methodology used widely as framework for design research. He has been Associate Editor, Area Editor, Advisory Editor for eight Journals. He has been on the Advisory Board and the Board of Management of the Design Society, UK; Member of the CII National Committee on Design India; Member of the Jury of India Design Mark; and Member of the CII Smart Manufacturing Council India. He founded IDeASLab—India’s first Design Observatory. He is Founding Programme Chair for International Conference Series on Research into Design (ICoRD), Conference Chair for the 22nd CIRP Design Conference 2012 and the 3rd International Conference on Design Creativity 2015 (3rd ICDC), and Vice-Chair for AI in Design and Design Computing and Cognition Conferences. He is Honorary Fellow of the Institution of Engineering Designers, the highest honour of the peer society under the UK Royal Charter in engineering design, and TUM Ambassador Awardee from TU Munich Germany. Sixteen of his papers won top paper awards in international conferences. In 2014, he co-initiated India’s first Smart Factory R&D platform. He also heads the IISc-TCS Innovation Lab, the IISc Press, and the Springer International Book Series on Design Science and Innovation. He has received Careers360 Faculty Research Award 2018 for being the ‘Most Outstanding Researcher’ in Decision Sciences. He is the current Editor-in-Chief for AI EDAM Journal (CUP). Vishal Singh is Associate Professor in the Centre for Product Design and Manufacturing at IISc. Before joining IISc, he was Assistant Professor in the Department xxxiii

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About the Editors

of Civil Engineering at Aalto University, Finland, besides a brief stint as Director, Innovation at the Helsinki Metropolia University of Applied Sciences where he led the Research and Development strategy for the Data-Driven Construction Innovation Hub. At Aalto, Vishal led the Aalto BIM Collaboration and built the Integrated Construction Innovation and Collaboration (ICONIC) Lab focusing on construction informatics and Building Information Modelling (BIM). Previously, he has also worked in Australia as Postdoctoral Research Fellow at Deakin University and as Research Assistant at the University of Newcastle. His research and teaching have revolved around digitalisation and construction informatics, looking at the products, processes, people, and policy aspects of Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) approaches, complemented by his research on design and construction innovation. His research builds on design thinking, computational thinking, and systems thinking to understand and develop tools and methods to study built environment innovation ecosystems, ranging from micro-ecosystems within project teams to macro-ecosystems at the urban and global levels. He also serves on the scientific committee of several international conference series across engineering design, product informatics, and lifecycle management. He has also served as Chair of the Educational Committee in EC3, the European Council for Computing in Construction. He has also been Regular Contributor and Reviewer across several noted academic journals.

Part I

Human Factors in Design (Physical and Cognitive Ergonomics; Design for Emotions, Etc.)

Chapter 1

Influence and Depiction of Power in an Urban Space Kalpeshkumar Patel and Nikita Manvi

Abstract The paper is an attempt to understand influence and depiction of power in an urban space by throwing light across few examples across the architectural timeline. Power has been the medium through which ideologies function as witnessed across the timeline. The center to understand this ideology is to apprehend how power is formed, captured, owned, traded, and distorted. Every urban space has power embedded in it, either for the people who are imposing it or for the public who are receiving it. The most fundamental question in the issue of power is who—who will judge, whose tastes will matter, and whose interests are being served. Power is expressed and reinforced by regular means, a boundary and gates, a parade route, a dominant landmark, play of shape or scale in elevation, ceremonial axis, boulevards and avenues, the vista, bilateral symmetry, or regular order. Even if people accept the psychological efficacy of these forms, the way they perceive may vary depending on the subject. Yet it is also true that these symbolic forms are attractive because they speak to deep emotions of people. They do indeed give us a sense of security, of stability and continuity, of awe and pride. The urban space for mass assembly is an idea that continues to seduce dictators and democracies. It is a tradition as old as agora and as manipulative as Baroque Rome. It variates due to introduction of built form, changing world view by the ruled, over the ruled (hence a political innuendo) or due to changing needs of the populace.

1.1 Introduction Power is a dimension observed virtually among all human relationship which tends to govern every move of life directly or indirectly. It is one of the basic phenomena. K. Patel KLE Technological University, Hubballi, India e-mail: [email protected] N. Manvi (B) ICFAI School of Architecture, Hyderabad, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_1

3

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K. Patel and N. Manvi

The impositions to make an urban space or the making of an urban space to reflect power is a trend commonly witnessed. The element of power has executed itself in various forms over a period of time. In the past when monarchic rule was exerted by one person, the system had its representation which dictated even the way the city was planned and designed. But with the advent of modernism and technology followed by a large rise in population of cities (1920–60), the advent for new forms of cities began. With this, the role of power changed further. History itself has to be staged as well as get updated. The great monuments beholding the heritage and celebrating the personality and political message of the current ruler have to be erected within the same frame of history, and representational connections made on location between ancient memories and modern triumphs. Symbolism of an urban space associates people’s aspiration, liberation, and freedom of expression. It also reflects on the true voice of people and their needs. An urban space is also a place to discuss and give a critical feedback to ruling authority. People can express their thoughts and desire for change of things for better life. Such urban space either becomes a powerful symbolic aspect of the built environment responding to context [1]. Symbolism of an urban space is associated with the people’s aspiration, liberation, and freedom of expression. It also reflects on the true voice of people and their needs. An urban space is also a place to discuss and give a critical feedback to ruling authority. People can express their thoughts and desire for change of things for better life. These powers are manifold, from religion to politics, from economics to social, to government and state laws and certain disciplinary laws [2, 3]. Sometimes, some of these urban spaces demonstrate how power is consolidated over time to serve the interest of specific groups and classes. The urban space case studies are conducted in successive world views in order to identify and understand influence and depiction of power in an urban space.

1.1.1 Greek Agora Going back to the classical era of Greece, the agora was the essential component of a free polis, a symbol of democracy and the rule of law. First came the acropolis, a sacred space that also played a civic role. But with time, it evolved as an epitome for classical temples and monuments, its political function shifted to agora [4]. This civic space began to accommodate other uses, market spaces for buying and selling of goods, the practice of law, government, and popular worship. Steadily, it overtook the acropolis to become the most vital feature of the city, the focus of its social life, and its most important building. In the classical period, the agora remained irregular in plan and loosely defined by civic buildings. Later, the agora was regularized and tightly enclosed on at least three sides by arcades containing shops. Hippodamus designed the first such regularized agora, a perfectly rectangular space measuring 400 by 540 feet, surrounded by stoas (porticoed civic buildings) with a single street entry—in his native town of Miletus, as early as 5th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, regularity and enclosure had

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become a norm. As wealth increased and democracy ebbed, rulers compensated their subjects for the loss of liberty by building ever more splendid agoras—a triumph of form over function. Agora became such a crucial component for Greek settlements. Agora was not only a constituent part of an urban environment but also signified a form of order and civilization, hence linking with the birth of Greek polis–city state. The Agora remained a vital place of Athenian life and growth, as an engine of constructive human activity where power determined the political, cultural, and economic influence which shaped some of the most important decisions undertaken in the shaping of what we commonly call today Western Civilization (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). Fig. 1.1 Ground plan of North Agora, Miletus, second century BC (Source Global History of Architecture, Volume 1; p. 315)

Fig. 1.2 Plan of the Agora from Athens in the second century AD (Source Global History of Architecture, Volume 1; p. 259)

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1.1.2 Roman Forum Through the five centuries of Republic, “every Roman’s life revolved around the Forum. In this central urban space, citizens attended schooling; worshiped, conducted business, attended ceremonies, gathered news, and took part in history” [4, 5]. Every building and monument were steeped in tradition and association, so that the place became a collective memory of the city tightening the bonds of the past and the present, ruler and ruled. Rome retained an intimacy that permitted a single modestly scale square, to serve its entire people. It remained an open space, not only to accommodate crowds, but because it served as a place of ceremonies and the sporting events which spectators watched from the surrounding colonnades and Balconies. Every new Emperor of Rome built a new forum bigger and grander than the last and contributed an obelisk or monument to ensure his immortal memory. The forum was monumentalized by numerous triumphal arches and basilicas around. The Roman Forum was the celebration of dominance. The monumental forums enclosed in marble colonnades which, with regular additions of temples, columns, statues, and arches, advertised the power, wealth, and military successes of the Roman emperors (Fig. 1.3).

1.1.3 Piazza Venezia in Mussolini’s Rome—An Era of Fascism One of the great achievements of the liberal and fascist urban planning scheme lies in the transformation of Piazza Venezia to the political power center of the new Rome. Urban clearing and the subsequent construction of the Vittoriano, a monument to unification led for the realignment of Rome, gave a symbolic birth of the new capital for Italy. By 1929, Piazza Venezia was completely transformed into the indisputable political center of the city and nation when Mussolini moved his offices. At the heart of the city, Piazza Venezia became the key national space for celebrating and performing the national ceremonies [4]. Mussolini used the square to profess the upcoming new political religion that was Italian fascism, delivering his most famous speeches proclaiming various social and military victories from the balcony of the palace. Mussolini’s transfer of his office to the Piazza Venezia was by far the most political manipulation of public space. The addition of the tomb of Italy’s Unknown Soldier further reinforced the symbolic centrality of Piazza Venezia to the nationalization of Rome (Fig. 1.4).

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Fig. 1.3 Roman Forum—Plan of the imperial forums, Temple of Peace (75CE) and temple of Divine Trajan (118CE), Rome. Following the model established with the Forum of Caesar of a colonnaded enclosed space dominated by an axial temple, the new forums added by Augustus, Domitian and Trajan (replacing the temple by a giant basilica) came to form an integrated unit over twice the size of the old Forum Romanum (Source Global History of Architecture, Volume 1; p. 387)

Fig. 1.4 Piazza Venezia, Italy (Source https://www.turismoroma.it/)

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1.1.4 Tiananmen Gate, China Tiananmen Gate (actually, “Men” mean “Gate”) was built in 1417 (Ming Dynasty), to complement the Forbidden City. In 1699 (early Qing Dynasty), the Tiananmen was renovated and given its current name. During the Ming and Qing eras, there was no public square here—the area was filled with offices of the imperial ministries. These were badly damaged during the Boxer Rebellion, and the area was cleared to produce the beginnings of Tiananmen Square. Near the center of today’s square, close to the site of the Mao Zedong Mausoleum once stood one of the most important gates in Beijing. This gate was known as the “Great Ming Gate” during the Ming Dynasty, the “Great Qing Gate” during the Qing Dynasty, and simply “China Gate” during the Republic of China era. In the early 1950s, China Gate (as it was then known) was demolished along with the Chess Grid Streets to the south, completing the expansion of Tiananmen Square to its current size. The location took on added significance as China shifted from an emperor-led political culture to one that was governed by the Communist Party [6]. Mao Zedong, founder of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), envisioned to conceive the square the greatest and most spectacular in the world, to hold over 500,000 people, so as to commemorate the spirit of PRC. The new square was used for mass rallies during the Cultural Revolution. Tiananmen Square is a focus for people from all over China both on International Labor Day on and National Day. With the birth of Tiananmen Square in Beijing during the May Fourth Movement in 1919, the square reflects of how a political public space is made. It argues, the transformation of the spatial order of Beijing made possible the formation of new modes of collective political action in republican Beijing. The different kinds of action of the people led to the production of a number of political public spaces [7, 8]. The demonstration staged on May 4, 1919, was vital in converting the empty space in front of Tiananmen Gate into a public space of political significance, which was then named Tiananmen Square. Borrowing from Arendt’s conception of the public space and people’s political action, this paper contends that the political action of people was most important in breaking through the control of the government and opening up political public spaces (Fig. 1.5).

1.1.5 Chaupars at City of Jaipur, India It is one of the unusual cities of India because it was a city which was designed and structured when most Indian cities have not been designed as a preconceived whole. The city is organized on a grid with nine principle squares of which two forms the palace complex located at the center of the city. The main connecting roads are absolutely linear with junctions of right angle. The longer road network holding the nine squares together was clearly defined and dominating which can be interpreted as a gesture of individualism and self-expression of the aristocracy. The

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Fig. 1.5 Tiananmen gate (Source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiananmen)

trade and commerce is the catalyst for bringing people into the squares not forcing them. Integrating the public interactive areas (the chaupars) with the roads, making it look not just a path, but to create a spatial pause and a place to share experiences. The city envisioned as a center for trade and commerce rather than just being a martial capital. The capital was close enough to Amer to maintain the continuity of rule, yet also close to busy trade routes and a Mughal highway, thus a lucrative spot for running businesses. The city of Jaipur illustrates themes of power of trade and kingship being articulated through architecture and urban planning [9]. Jai Singh’s vision of the new capital was of a strong political statement at par with Mughal cities and as a thriving trade and commerce hub for the region. The sandy site on the plains south of Amber and an open, clear iron grid planning of the city with commercial streets of monumental scale can be attributed more as a pragmatic response to the above factor adhering to the traditional treatise of Vastushastra. This vision was translated into a city plan that integrated traditional planning guidelines with contemporary Mughal architectural vocabulary and showcased a will to define new concepts for a trade city that became a norm for the later towns in the adjoining Shekhawati region [10]. The crossing of the two cardinal axes defined the main public square of the city called the Bari Chaupar or Manak Chowk. Since Jai Niwas, consecrated by the idol of Govind Deva, was the center for the generation of the city plan, a road parallel to the north–south axis and situated at an equal distance from Jai Niwas was located on the west. This created the second town square, i.e., Choti Chaupar or Amber Chowk and effectively placed the Palace Complex in the center of the city. These squares or chaupars worked as the centers and sub-centers for further subdivision and structuring of the Jaipur city. All-important temples and significant havelis of the leading courtiers and merchants were marked on these squares or chaupars and along the axes. The time and distance scale, well related to human capacities, is consistently followed in the walled city of Jaipur. The distance from either of the city gates to

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Fig. 1.6 Grid iron planning of City of Jaipur (Source https://architexturez.net/doc)

its nearest chaupar and between the two chaupars is about 800 meters, ideal for pedestrian movement. While on the one hand, movement at pedestrian’s pace allows socialization and observation of human conduct in everyday life; on the other hand, it greatly facilitates comprehension of articulation and makes the city discernible, providing the opportunity to interact with the Bazaar, the messengers of the lifestyle of the dwellers of Jaipur. The chaupar was the center of community. The step well of chaupar symbolized an oasis, the harbinger of life and comfort to the populace (Figs. 1.6 and 1.7).

1.1.6 Napoleon III, Haussmann-Paris In Paris, Haussmann carved out streets from the old structure to create boulevards and Fashionable Street for the city not just as a show piece, but also as a method to curb the possibilities of civil disobedience and uprising. The new and wide street facilitated Napoleon III in his show of dominance as a monarch. At a larger scale for city of Paris, Haussmann enclosed eleven independent communes within a new set of walls and legally annexed them in 1860. By doing this,

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Fig. 1.7 Badi Chaupar, Jaipur 1905 (Source unknown person Jaipur: The Royal Tour of India, 1905–06)

he stamped a new urban identity on these quasi-rural settlements by purposely obliterating their former structure [11]. These acts reflect the use of individual ideology by Haussmann under Napoleon III as a means of subjugation. Haussmann’s imposition shaved off the surface and identity of the old street, to create new avenues land and property has to be expropriated. Whatever the concern, expropriation which was often for the larger good always involved the act of exerting force on people which proclaimed to domination of aristocracy over citizens (Fig. 1.8).

1.1.7 Sixtus V and Baroque Rome When Sixtus V become the Pope in 1585, the city of Rome was in a sprawling disorderly condition which he found the need of restructuring. The primary concern of Sixtus V was reordering the chaotic medieval city and transforming toward a symbol of coherence and order. Road connections should link all the seven main churches and holy shrines which had to be visited during the course of the day’s pilgrimage [8, 9]. The desire of Sixtus V was to make the whole of Rome into “a single holy shrine.” The replanning of Rome in 1585–90 by Sixtus V and his architect Domenico Fontana introduces the most enduring themes of Baroque Grand Manner—notably trivium, emphatic straight and diagonal streets and variety of urban markers and monuments. The most effective perhaps was the use of obelisk as a space maker. Strong axis connecting roads are the acts of dominating and imposition of authority. Bacon says “while the total extent of this work may not seem very impressive, the

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Fig. 1.8 Aerial view of Paris shows the wide boulevards and uniform apartments, which were designed and constructed under the watch of urban planner Georges-Eugène Haussmann (Source: https://www.architecturaldigest.com)

impact it makes on the ground is very great indeed. This is because the buildings surround and dominate large open spaces. Since these spaces are part of a controlled sequential experience, the individual design impact built up into a powerful force and the connecting frame work dominates the visual image of a large part of Rome.” The urban planning of the sequential movement revolves in such a manner that the power and the supremacy of the church are dictated to the surrounding urban spaces, which together in coherence reflects formation of the city (Fig. 1.9).

1.1.8 Statue of Unity, Narmada The colossal Statue of Unity was erected on the natural context which stands on an island in Narmada River to commemorate India’s first home minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, a seminal figure in the history of modern India who played a decisive role in the country’s unification following independence from British rule. The building of monuments and memorials as the biggest proof of admiration for a leader reflects the power of unity and pride that people of India reflect through the great personality—The iron man of India. To generate that sense, the largest statue in the world—182m high—of daunting scale and nature was erected. The first step toward connecting the entire nation with the statue was the Loha (iron) campaign, in which an agricultural tool each was collected from around 700,000 villages across India and melted down for use. In all, 135 tons of iron was donated by farmers to support the project, for which Modi’s slogan was Ek Bharat, Shrestha Bharat (One

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Fig. 1.9 Urban plan for Counter Reformation of Baroque Rome by Sixtus V (Source Urban plan for Counter Reformation of Baroque Rome by Sixtus V)

India, Noble India). And there is a Shrestha Bharat Centre at the feet of the statue, which will also house a research facility for agriculture and tribal development. The structure is more than its material content; it carries the power of symbolism. The humongous nature of the statue in such a context which created an extended vista of the river and the dam spread over 2200 acre preserve reflects the power and pride generated among the citizens of the country, a new icon to reflect the idea of progressing which also in turn does justice to the historiography of the great personality. The project both commemorates Sardar Patel and catalyzes tourism, which will catapult the region’s economy. The recreational landscape planning will also preserve and restore the vital habitat of plants and trees. These public uses will blend with cultural, entertainment, residential, and educational areas such as museums, restaurants, lodges, hotels, amphitheaters, and retail areas. To the extent, it also becomes a residence of artists and will give a boost to local crafts and traditions. India has a history of constructing memorials and statues, as ways of recognizing and preserving political memories. These are reminders of important historical events or people and are built to keep the past alive. Statue of Unity is a political symbol that plays a major part in the way a nation is depicted and fed into imagination of its citizens. Such complexes commence a new fabric of campus for Indian context, where it is the larger crowd which is benefitted with the in-flow of visitors to the place. The ways in which such places are used aptly illustrate the wider trends and attitudes go the region. The overall cognition of design as a part of a multifaceted program intended to forge a new national identity, which harnessed the legitimate power of history in a different way, and in turn attitudes toward the nation’s statuary and the values they embody have evolved [12] (Fig. 1.10).

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Fig. 1.10 Statue of Unity, Narmada, Gujarat (Source https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki)

1.1.9 Central Vista, New Delhi The main idea to come forth with a new project for Capital’s Central Vista was to reimagine and renew the national icon. One needs to understand that it is the living center of administration of India—an architectural icon for Government of India during British Raj—the power house of the nation. Elements like the grand boulevard with a central spine axis reflect the dictating power of the central administration—the epitome among the government hierarchy The existing complex was built to house a colonial government, which was adopted by independent India’s government as their own. However, across the administration post-independence, the grand vision of Central Vista was reduced to a twodimensional plot plan, not matching the initial ideas of central vista leading to disorderly and incoherent architecture housing incongruent activities majorly across the flanks. The entire plan is a nice play of clustering and proximity where the central avenue is a civic place—a stage for national cultural events with better civic amenities [13]. Architecture is one of the regime’s favorite means of expression. Hence, the design of new structures is a result of proactive policymaking that seeks to endow a city with facilities, especially cultural ones, and by extension, to leave a tangible trace of a government or a personality for future generations. Retrofitting for the Parliament and meaningfully used in conjunction with the new facility—preserving the symbol for vibrant democracy of India. New Parliament structure has the shape and elements like spires which links people’s emotions that they relate with a religious place; and the symbolic association created transcend the realms of Parliament as “The temple of Democracy.” The central vista not just to be a place for government functioning buy also for the citizens of the country. Vista gifts that power of public participation back to the people where the avenue landscape is livelier for recreational activities. The existing blocks being the fortress of the government and that space being given to the people

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by adaptive reuse of existing heritage structures of the avenue spaces to grand national museum to showcase the rich culture of the country and by giving people opportunity to walk across these structures which used exude the supremacy of the functioning of the government. The New Central Vista all together defines the nation—its geography, its people, and its history. It incorporates within itself the Legislature and Executive, the Administration, the Culture and the Leisure and Recreation. It is a place which defines functioning of the supreme among the nation’s hierarchy, and the plan hence withholds the power by proposing a functional, simple, robust, and quiet design. It consolidates all the emotions one associates with the place and synergizes their functioning by making more efficient use of government land. Moreover, it respects and builds on the heritage and leads to the future with enhanced public participation which generates the power and onus among the citizens while experiencing the space. Moreover, it does not compromise on the original vision of the vista, by retaining the central spine which more focused and public transit-oriented development enhancing sustainability. The central vista also exhibits the nation’s capacity to proficiently execute complex master plans and demonstrates how seemingly unsolvable problems that present cities face could be tackled. That is the power the nation exhibits by executing such master projects (Fig. 1.11).

Fig. 1.11 Arial representation of Central Vista Plan, New Delhi (Source https://thewire.in/urban)

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1.2 Discussion 1.2.1 Concept of Aggrandization in Architecture Architecture reflects context; it reflects the prevailing art and culture; it reflects the spirit of the society. Through the discussion of few examples listed above, as society unfolds in different eras, the fundamental beliefs shape the period change. It creates a self-perpetuating cycle where architecture grows to reflect the prevailing power to showcase the success and recognition of the society. Not all architectural patrons are self-aggrandizing, and we are, in fact, witnessing a downward trend of self-aggrandizement due to the democratization of architecture. Here, selfaggrandizement refers to the process of enhancing one’s own importance, power or reputation. In the past, the commissioning of architectural projects was exclusively the domain of the social elite. This was because wealth and social power resided in them. In an environment where high society remained exclusive and had near-absolute power, it was easier for self-aggrandizement to flourish. In contrast, architecture of urban space in today’s context is democratized, which results in a decrease in self-aggrandizing architectural projects. The social elite increasingly fall under the influence of the masses. In the case of architecture, the public is increasingly consulted when commissioning public structures. We see that the drift of idea of power reflected in architecture also reflects the idea evolve in the entire concept of power where it shifts toward a more democratic value; a value associated with the masses. Hence, we observe the variations in aggrandization and concepts across different examples discussed.

1.2.2 Different Concepts of Power Reflected in Urban Spaces Urban spaces have always been a myriad between space and people; the physical, and the social; however, in conceptualizing public open space, one side has always taken priority over the other. When the “physical” was given priority, public urban space tended to be conceived as an outdoor “room,” while, when the social was given priority, it tended toward being considered as a social “meeting room” [14]. Architecture has always been intricately tied to the aspect of power; the tendency to reflect power brought the design of public open space closer toward architecture, albeit on a bigger scale. Architecture therefore demonstrates power through multiple concepts—depiction of power through faith and religion, protest, urban sophistication, might, politics and wealth. Referring to the nuances to these variants of power, it is the consequence of power’s legitimization. The use of tangible and intangible imagery to stand for power and authority is actually using architecture of urban spaces to prove its rationality. Under different social systems and timelines, architecture tells the story of power and authority in its own language [15, 16]. The

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study is a step for us to find more spatial features depicting power that can add to the architectural dictionary of urban spaces.

References 1. Roger, T.: Finding Lost Space, June 1986 ed. van Nostrand Reinhold, New York (Chapter 2, Development of Twentieth Century Space) (1986) 2. Franck, A.K., Quentin, S.: Loose Space: Possibility and Diversity in Urban Life, 2006 ed. Routledge (2006) 3. Joseph, E.B.: The Code of the City, 2005 ed. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England (Chapter 1, The rise of the Rule book) (2005) 4. Paul, Z.: Town and Square, From Agora to Village Green, 1959 ed., Columbia University Press, New York (1959) 5. Kostof, S.: The City Assembled, Thames and Hudson (The Open City Pg. 54, The Sovereign District Page. 71, God in the City Page. 82) 6. Hassenpflug, D.: The rise of public urban space in China. http://www.uic.edu/cuppa/cityfu tures/papers/webpapers/cityfuturepapers/session3_1/3_1riseinpublic.pdf 7. Kostof, S.: The City Shaped, A Bulfinch Press Book Little, Brown and Company, Boston, Toronto, London (Chapter 4, The Grand Manner) 8. Cuthbert, A.R: The Form of Cities, Blackwell (Chapter 4, Politics) (2006) 9. Lynch, K.: Good City Form, MIT Press (Chapter 4, Three Normative Theories) (1981) 10. Alain, B., Francoise, C., Remi, P.: Jaipur: A Planned City of Rajasthan, Altrim Publishers Spain (2020) 11. Hall, T.: Planning Aspects of Europe’s Nineteenth Century Capital Cities Urban Development. The Alden Press, Oxford (1997) 12. Giedion, S.: Space, Time and Architecture, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, London (1967) 13. Norma, E.: The Indian Metropolis, Yale University Press (Chapter 4, Modern Planning and the Colonial City) (1989) 14. Webb, M.: The City Square, Thames and Hudson Ltd., London (1990) 15. Hiral, D.: (UD6400), Urban Form, Resultant of Dominance of Various Forms of Power, Urban Form and Space Term Paper A R040 UDTP, CEPT University, Ahmedabad 16. Enrique, M.M.: It takes three: “The People,” Businessmen, and Government Officials, Harvard Design Magazine Spring/Summer 2008

Chapter 2

Modular Approaches and Perspectives in Temple Architecture A Case of Maratha Temple Architecture in the Krishna River in Satara, Maharashtra Vishnu K. Suresh Abstract This paper examines how Maratha temple architecture exhibits properties of modularity in design evolution, and how each component is used to interchangeably to achieve a unique design solution, specific to the study area context, i.e., Krishna River in the district of Satara, Maharashtra. Scholars approach temple architecture in a manner of complete totality of the structure and history. However, for professionals of all disciplines of design, temple architecture should be looked at in a perspective of evolution of design, which is the one of the most comprehensible readings of temple architecture. Modularity in design is a principle, wherein subdivision of a larger system, yields smaller parts called as modules, which can be created, modified, changed, or replaced independently. The design process to achieve modularity is often considered to be time-saving, yields reduction in cost, operability, learning times which are significantly shortened, and flexibility in design. Despite the modernistic nature of modularity, this form of design thinking has been ingrained in our cultural past for a long time, much before the onset of European colonization. This paper attempts to shed light on the case of Maratha temple architecture which stands as a strong proponent of this modular design process, in which discrete elements of various regional styles and elements are brought together, and yet works as a homogenous whole. Maratha Temple design traditions are the most recent indigenous form of design process prior to European colonization and hence carry the mark of indigenous continuity of temple building traditions. This marks a different way of design evolution, wherein individual modules could be design differently, and yet be working in tandem with each other, as a whole.

V. K. Suresh (B) SCMS School of Architecture, Karukutty, Ernakulam District, Kerala, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_2

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2.1 Introduction Temple architecture is one product of a constantly evolving practice, involving Indic design evolution, wherein the chiefly observed attributes are modular design evolution and perspectives of repeatability with respect to building components, or aedicules. During the late fifteenth century, the Marathas had gained territorial superiority over the Indian mainland, which effected their architectural patronage in a large way. This design evolution of an Indic origin was emerging in the subcontinent. One of whose by-products were the phenomena of Maratha temple architecture, which many scholars read as a style in its own. The scope and limitation of the documentation are as follows. It was carried out exclusively through the use of photographs, and conversion into CAD drawings and sketches, during the period of February 2021, as a part of Masters’ Thesis work as required for the degree of Master of Conservation from School of Planning and Architecture—Bhopal. Hence, no material or archeological studies were done for the same.

2.2 Literature Study Dr. M.S. Mate’s scholarly work Maratha Architecture (1957), in tabulating and researching the architecture of the Marathas, created a framework with which the architecture of Marathas could be studied.1 Other scholars shed light on their areas of study—such as Dr. Anurag Kashyap and Dr. Chetan Sahasrabuddhe’s works on the temple town of Wai and Peshwai2 Architecture, Kate Gauri Shrikant Ranjana’s Indological work on the Bhuleshwar Temple near Pune, Avinash Sowani’s work on Maratha Town and City Planning with reference to systems of village development, Ashutosh Sohoni and Pushkar Sohoni’s take on the architecture on the region during and prior to the Shivshahi3 era. Although there is no text for reference about the design of temple architecture, the proportions are guided by the ubiquitous principle in Vastushastra texts of dividing plans and elevations into parts (bhagas) and specifying dimensions in terms of whole numbers or simple fractions of such parts [1]. Though seen in scattered places in much of the literature cited above, the approach of understanding the architecture of temples was focused on major structures found across the whole region of Maharashtra, as a whole. The history, and architectural processes involved in the development of architecture of the Marathas, focusing on 1

Mate (1957) refers to his thesis into various sections as “Civil Architecture,” “Military Architecture,” “Religious Architecture” wherein the chapter of “Religious Architecture” is extensively utilized for the research. 2 Of, or pertaining to the Peshwas who were the executive powerhead during the post-Shivaji history of Maharashtra. 3 Of, or pertaining to the time period of History of Maharashtra, from the coronation of Shivaji Bhosale, to the time period prior to the power shift towards the Peshwa.

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temple design was understood through these readings. The literature study around the structures of the Krishna River ensemble was few and far in between, and hence, many of the structures becoming part of the study was largely undocumented.

2.3 Primary Survey The Krishna River is colloquially referred to as “Krushnamai,” indicating a “mother”symbolism, possibly because of the years of agricultural produce made possible because of the presence of the river. It originates in a place in Dhom Village, near the study area, and the river was within the apex of the Maratha Empire. The river system has numerous temple structures found within the boundaries of the river system and its part of the Maratha Empire. The study area is a fifty kilometer stretch from its origin, in Dhom Village to one of its first confluences of rivers within the district of Maharashtra., the village of Sangam Mahuli, where rivers Krishna and Venna confluence (Fig. 2.1). This stretch’s landscapes are composed of private agricultural lands, temples, and settlements reminiscent of a picturesque Maharashtra countryside. Most of the temples built, renovated, and conserved are conjectured to belong to the time period between seventeenth and eighteenth century. At the time of the Maratha expansions, the pervading architectural prototypes, other than temples of Yadavas, were the arcuated funerary structures and palaces built by the Sultanates of Bidar and Gulbarga, which were the Adil Shahi and Nizam Shahi. These structures were conceived through an influence of Central Asian vaulting techniques, such as arcuated structures, and a mix of Indian craftsmanship, such as modular ornamentation, and temple design. For temple patronage to once again flourish, the Maratha craftsmen and designers had to be looking for their inspiration in the architecture of their region, which were the derelict (while some functional) temple architecture dating to the Yadavas, and the Sultanate architecture of the Adil and Nizam Shahis [2]. From these inspirations, and possibly, the rediscovery of much of the still continuing traditions of temple architecture in Gujarat and Rajasthan [2], Tamil Nadu and Karnataka [3], the Marathas conceived temple architecture, which was quick to be conceived, considering that the elements, and discrete modules was still practiced, while simultaneously, the permutations of the said modules created something very unique in the region, establishing the fact that the Maratha craftsmen conceived the temple architecture of sixteenth and eighteenth century, as a modular design thought, bringing together many elements of discrete temple styles.

2.4 Analysis The understanding of a Maratha temple can be expressed in two orthographic planes, i.e., the elevation and the plan. Careful observation of elevations would reveal that

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Fig. 2.1 Satellite image showing study area within the district of Satara, in Maharashtra

it is a cluster of compositional arrangement of gradually transformed kuta coming together. It is to be observed that the walls of the superstructure, which support the shikhara of the structure, are lacking embellishments, since most of the ornamentation and embellishment is designed to be repeated above the wall. The walls and their absence of ornamentation is rarely an obstruction, since the temple can be seen in two different levels of vision—one from afar, which makes the height of the shikhara crucial to be captured by our eyes, and one from closely, at which point the user is interacting with the spatial figure left, beyond the built, observing the environments, and the idolatry within the garbagriha. The plan form is simple, with a quadrilateral form, with four equal sides, rising on a plinth of varying heights. Compared to the height of creativity found within the height of temple architecture during the medieval ages, the Maratha temples are much more simplistic and minimalist. The simplicity in planning must have been to rapidly finish construction. In building technology aspect, simple planning always results in simple ways of loading the roofs so that the superstructure is covered.

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Fig. 2.2 Typical composition of a Maratha temple through planar form

In most of the observed cases, the construction system in the superstructure is of arcuated structural systems (Fig. 2.2). The elevational logic of design in the Maratha temple is based on the number of kutas, placed in specific numbers, faced through specific plains of elevations, and modifying it according to design. The trend of this design is expressed through a nomenclature, using numbers, to represent the number of elements found within. For instance, if one design logic is represented as a 5-8-8 shikhara, then that means that the expression, from the varandika of the structure, to the amlakha, is of 5kutas in the bottom level, 8-kutas in the middle level, and 8-kutas in the top level, before the shikhara terminates with an amlakha. Each level is called as a bhumi. The nomenclature logic can be applied to many temples within the Krishna River regions, since the design is very similar to the design logic, illustrated here (Fig. 2.3). Many temples found within the shores of the Krishna River within the district of Satara, Maharashtra, conform to the design principles discussed above. Hence, to illustrate, three temples have been discussed, through the modular breakdown and diagrammatic explanation of how the temples were possibly conceived through the principle of modularity.

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Fig. 2.3 Components of a Maratha temple through elevation plane (5-8-8 Shikhara)

2.4.1 Meneshwar Temple, Menawali Dedicated to a form of Lord Shiva in the village of Menawali, the Meneshwar Temple’s design is a compositional expression of kutas and shalas. Fundamentally, the Meneshwar Temple has a design logic of a 5-12(cir)-8(cir) (Fig. 2.4) where the middle and top level of kuta arrangement has been done in a circular composition, which reduces in diameter, as one develops it further. However, the center remains constant, almost as if to emerge from the center itself. An interstitial element which is an elongated tower-like component is also found. Similarities to a Sultanate-style minaret are seen in the same, because of its characteristic metal finial. The top-level 8(cir) is also individually roofed with an iconographic representation of a bangladaar roof. The entire shikhar system is topped with a domical amlakha, which is a replacement of a typical amlakha, which is in the form of a notched disk.

2.4.2 Vishnu Lakshmi Temple, Limb The Vishnu Lakshmi Temple is located in Limb, in the region of the Krushnamai River. The design logic of the central shrine is 5-12(cir)-12(cir), with a domical amlakha topping the shikhar. Along with the standalone kutas placed at the corner, there is a larger kuta, with a larger domical amlakha placed above it (Fig. 2.5). Similar design logic is seen in the much smaller mandapa-like structure placed in the same axis as the central shrine. The design logic is 12(cir), each of the kuta being roofed by the bangladaar roof element, and domical forms of the amlakha, topped

2 Modular Approaches and Perspectives in Temple Architecture

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Fig. 2.4 Modular analysis of Meneshwar Temple, with modules representations

Fig. 2.5 Modular analysis of Vishnu Lakshmi Temple, Limb, with modular representations

with a larger amlakha above. This indicates a systemic design logic of growing the mandapa, from simple structural loading to a multiplying or emanating from which raises to the top.

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Fig. 2.6 Modular analysis of Rameshwar Temple, Limb, with modular representations

2.4.3 Rameshwar Temple, Limb The Rameshwar Temple is a Maratha temple, with a much smaller variety of modular permutations observed in the structure. The structure has a design logic of 3-kuta shikhara, with a domical amlakha placed above the kutas (Fig. 2.6). There are minor domical amlakhas placed above the antarala of the structure, instead of the trend of using smaller aedicules of kutas. A modular arrangement of two-forms of amlakhas, and a kuta with a bangladaar-derivative roof is also observed.

2.4.4 Kaashi Vishweshwara Temple, Mahuli Possibly, the most complex and the most documented structure in the Krishna River ensemble is the Kaashi Vishweshwara Temple, located at the confluence between Krishna and Venna River, in a place called Mahuli. With respect to the design understanding of other temples found in the region, the Kaashi Vishweshwara follows a different design logic, wherein the plan form is what derives its elevational logic. The plan form follows a stellate plan, where each projection is projected to form an elevational design logic of 1-1-1-1, with each vertical wall having one kuta, with other façade elements replaced with stellate projections. This projection is expressed on the roof of the garbagriha, while the roof above the antarala is loaded with stone slabs, and smaller kuta arrangements. The modular analysis is represented in Fig. 2.7. Beyond a typical antarala, the structure has a sabhamandapa, which is not a unique feature in the temples of the same ensemble across the Krishna River

2 Modular Approaches and Perspectives in Temple Architecture

27

Fig. 2.7 Modular analysis of Kaashi Vishweshwara Temple, Mahuli, with modular representations. (Drawing Source: Sohoni 1998)

ensemble. The roof of the sabhamandapa has multiple kuta elements, and their derivatives, used to represent deities, and other forms. Beyond the sabhamandapa, there is a smaller nandimandapa. The roof elements have a multiplicity of forms emerging out of the mandapa, like the structure itself, with kutas and deity niches within them (Fig. 2.8).

Fig. 2.8 Nandimandapa (R) and Sabhamandapa Kutas (L)

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2.5 Observations and Results Modularity, as a device of exploration and optimization of achieving a desired product at the end, has been explored in the context of a cultural property. The identified elements within the context of the Krishna River Valley are kutas, minarets, amlakhas, and their replicated multipliers. The idea of modularity and their interrelationships have been discussed through the analysis of modular breakdown of each of the temples, through observations of elevations expressed through plans. The following results have emerged as a result of this study: 1. Modularity is seen to be expressed in each of these temples and their design. 2. This modularity is expressed with multiple components, permuted to form a new language in design, while being coherent in the larger context of the temple superstructure. 3. Each of the elements’ modularity is expressed within the superstructure of the temple, where major elements’ expression is seen to be in the shikhara of the temple structure. These have been expressed in the numerical format of “n-n-n” where each n = number of elements, wherein elements are kutas or shalas. 4. Each of these kutas and shalas derive similarities of existing architectural elements, found within the region, such as the bangladaar roof. These cultural properties exhibit a collective sense of cohesive design, that is useful for architects and designers, and could serve as inspiration for thoughts of design ideation and development. It serves as an example where isolated elements can visually and structurally work together as a whole.

References 1. Hardy, A.: Re-creation and self-creation in temple design. Archit. Res. Q. 26(1), 14–29 (2022) 2. Sohoni, A.: Temple architecture of the Marathas in Maharashtra. Ph.D. Thesis, Leiceter: De Montfort University, April (1998) 3. Sahasrabudhe, C.: Architecture in eighteenth century Maharashtra: a focus on commissioning and construction of buildings in Pesva Period. Ph.D. Thesis, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, MH, India (2014)

Chapter 3

Store Atmospherics and Moderating Effect of Motives on Consumer Behaviour—An Indian Perspective Ramchandra Alias Ameet Chate and Ravi Lingannavar

Abstract An individual may visit a retail store for several reasons other than need fulfilment. Also, there are several external and internal influences that affect the consumer behaviour. A scientific study on these aspects to study the combined effect and individual effect shall enhance the body of knowledge. Store atmospherics can be defined as a conscious effort put by the organized retailer to create a pleasurable retail space. This enhances the experience of the customer and helps develop a favourable or unfavourable attitude towards the store, product, services or other merchandise. The attitude formation directly affects the consumer behaviour. Literature in the past on shopper motivation has indicated that motives are also influential parameters that affect the consumer behaviour, hence, the study attempts to evaluate the direct impact of stores atmospherics on consumer behaviour, and also, the indirect impact of store atmospherics on consumer behaviour with motives as a moderating variable. For this purpose, the data is collected from all over the country, by dividing the country into five strata, i.e. North, South, East, West and Central India. All the visitors of organized retail stores are eligible samples for the study. Regression modelling using SPSS AMOS is administered to evaluate the strength of association with the variables of the study. The research findings in the paper shall be of great relevance to organized retailers and shall help them to design a congenial environment in terms of designing the store layout that shall stimulate the desired behaviour in terms of Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance.

The research paper is an extract of the original work undertaken by me (Dr. Ramchandra Alias Ameet Chate) and submitted to Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU), Belagavi, Karnataka R. A. A. Chate (B) KLS Gogte Institute of Technology, Belagavi, Karnataka 590008, India e-mail: [email protected] R. Lingannavar KLE Dr. M. S. Sheshgiri College of Engineering and Technology, Belagavi, Karnataka 590008, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_3

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3.1 Introduction Store atmospherics can be defined as an attempt made by the retailer to create pleasurable experiences while shopping by setting the right kind of environment that appeals to physical, mental and emotional well-being of the consumer [1]. This is predominantly done by experimenting with various dimensions of the physical and aesthetics, related to in-store decor to generate an expected response or behaviour from the consumer [2]. Consumer behavioural study can be defined as the process of analysing the way an individual, group or organizations consider, select, purchase, use and dispose goods and services. Associated with these behaviours are the consumer’s mental, behavioural and emotional responses that precede or follow these activities [3]. Understating these psychological aspects of consumer behaviour emerged as an important sub-discipline and an important area of consideration in the marketing area in the 1940s and 50s. Consumer behavioural studies are a blend of various fields put together which include a mix of psychology, ethnographic analysis, economical evaluation, sociology and evaluating the impact of exogenous variables. This counts for investigation of various demographic characteristics, personality characteristics, lifestyle patterns, utilitarian patterns, store patronage, brand advocacy, resonance with the brand, consumption patterns, purchase patterns and frequency of purchase. Also, the psychological factors like the motivational drive to achieve a goal, perception about possessing a product and belief systems that shapes an individual’s personality are all the factors that tend to affect the consumer buying decision [4]. Emotional response of the user is mediator to the environmental cues which influence user’s behaviour [5]. Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) model proposes that the environment (i.e. stimulus) influences users’ cognitive and affective experiences (i.e. organism) that mediate user’s response, e.g. avoidance or approach desire to stay/revisit [6]. Buying behaviour was also defined in terms of pleasure (P), arousal (A) and dominance (D)-PAD adopted from studies done by Mehrabian and Russell [6]. Motivational drive is the key force that impels an individual towards action. An unfulfilled need or desire can drive an individual to search for information and ultimately purchase a product [7]. Table 3.1 proposes eight types of purchase motivations which are the key reasons to drive the product purchase. These motivational drives have been known as Rossiter and Percy’s Purchase Motivations and Emotions approach [8]. The literature described in Sects. 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 charts out the studies carried so far pertaining to store atmospherics, measurement of behavioural outcomes and consumer motives.

3 Store Atmospherics and Moderating Effect of Motives on Consumer … Table 3.1 Rossiter and Percy’s Purchase motivations and emotions-1991

Motivation

31

Emotional sequence

Negative Problem removal

Annoyance → Relief

Problem avoidance

Fear → Relaxation

Incomplete satisfaction

Disappointment → Optimism

Mixed approach avoidance

Conflict → Peace of mind

Normal depletion

Mild annoyance → Convenience

Positive Sensory gratification

Dull (or neutral) → Sensory anticipation

Intellectual simulation

Bored (or neutral) → Excited

Social approval/conformity

Apprehensive (or ashamed) → Flattered/proud

3.1.1 Literature Pertaining to Store Atmospherics Donovan and Rossiter [9] in the research titled Store Atmosphere and Purchasing Behavior considered In-store environment as Independent variable with Attitudes and intentions as dependent variable. The study found that experienced pleasantness of the in-store environment was a significant predictor of willingness to spend time in the store and intentions to spend more money than originally planned. Hussain and Ali [10] in the study—Effect of store atmosphere on consumer purchase intention evaluated Cleanliness, scent, lighting, music, colour display/layout as Independent variable and Buying behaviour as dependent variable to conclude that Atmospheric variables such as cleanliness, scent, lighting, and display/layout have a positive influence on consumer purchase intention. Baker, Levy and Grewal [11] in the research titled—An experimental approach to making retail store environmental decisions, studied the impact of ambient cues (lighting and music) and social cues (number/friendliness of employees) on retail patronage decisions (pleasure, arousal and willingness to buy were examined). The outcomes of the studies revealed that ambient cues interact with social cues to influence respondent’s pleasure and social cues influence arousal in-store environment.

3.1.2 Literature Pertaining to Motives Tauber [12] in the research, Marketing Notes and communications: why do people shop? considered reasons for shopping as independent variable and motives (diversion sensory stimulation, learning, physical activity, social experience, peer group attraction, status and authority, communication with others having similar interest)

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as dependent variables to suggest that a person may shop for many reasons other than his or her need for products or services. Gardner [13] in the study titled Mood states and consumer behavior: A critical review considering mood states as independent variable and consumer behaviour as dependent variable stated that mood may affect consumer behaviour during service encounters; consumers in good moods may be more likely to be helpful and easy to please than consumers in neutral moods. Sherman, Mathur and Smith [14] stated that Consumer’s emotions can be a mediating factor in the purchase process in the study titled Store Environment and Consumer Purchase Behavior: Mediating Role of Consumer Emotions.

3.1.3 Literature Pertaining Consumer Behaviour Mehrabian and Russell [15] defined pleasure as a affective (emotional) responses and feelings of pleasantness and unpleasantness as dimensions of evaluating pleasure. They added that pleasure is defined as feelings ranging on a spectrum of pain towards happiness. Also, their studies concluded that dominance is associated to behaviour such as controlling, influencing others and self-governing. Olson [16] in the study “Circumflex model of marital and family systems” defined arousal as being watchful, aroused, enthusiastic, heartfelt and watchful.

3.1.4 Objectives Adhering to the Research Gap • To understand the strength of association between store atmospherics and consumer motives. • To analyse the impact of store atmospheric and consumer motives on behavioural responses of Indian consumers.

3.2 Research Philosophy and Methodology 3.2.1 Research Philosophy The research philosophy adopted for the study is positivism as it adheres to the view that only “factual” knowledge gained through observation (the senses), including measurement, is trustworthy. The data collection and interpretation are done in an objective way. The research findings are observable and quantifiable.

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3.2.2 Research Methodology The study is confined to visitors of an organized retail stores (any category—Departmental stores, Supermarket, Convenience stores, Speciality stores, Malls) because these stores possibly include all the elements of store atmospherics. The sample size chosen for the study is 1028. Comrey and Andrew [17] postulated that “1000 respondents and above is considered as excellent sample size”. The sampling method adopted for the study is stratified random sampling, since a larger sample size had to be considered covering the entire population attaining Indian consumers; groups or strata were organized based on the shared characteristics or attributes of the members in the group. Hence, the country was stratified in five zones North, South, East, West and Central India and the data as collected randomly. The scale chosen for the study is Likert scale as it is the most suited scale for ordinal psychometric measurement of attitudes, beliefs and opinions [18]. Also, it does not force the participant to take a stand on a particular topic, but allows them to respond in a degree of agreement; this makes question answering easier on the respondent. A questionnaire consisting of 69 questions pertaining to independent variables-store atmospherics, mediating variables—consumers motives and dependent variables—behavioural responses—Pleasure (P), Arousal (A), Dominance (D) was designed. Since data had to be collected PAN India, the most convenient method was circulating Google Forms. Google Forms were circulated to approximately 1550 samples, since all the questions were mandatory there was no scope of missing values. Out of the 1550 questionnaires distributed online, 1028 responses were received. Software used to do regression analysis was SPSS 21 and SPSS AMOS 23.

3.3 Results and Discussion Regression analysis was used to evaluate the direct and indirect impacts of store atmospheric variables and motives on behavioural responses using SPSS AMOS. Table 3.2 charts out the direct and indirect impacts of store atmospheric variables and motives on consumer behaviour. The notations of consumer behaviour are as follows—Pleasure-P, Arousal-A and Dominance-D.

3.4 Key Findings The desire to make unplanned purchases will increase with cleanliness; irrespective of the pre-defined motive with which the consumer visits the store since the significance value remains constant at 0.15. But cleanliness as an atmospheric variable seems to have a reduced impact in terms of desire to spend more time and display store patronage (since the significance value reduces from 0.22 to 0.18 and 0.26 to

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Table 3.2 Direct and indirect impacts of store atmospheric variables and motives on consumer behaviour Store atmospheric variables

Direct effect

Motives as mediating variables Indirect effect

Cleanliness

P

A

D

P

A

D

0.22

0.15

0.26

0.18

0.15

0.16

Discussion: Desire to make unplanned purchases will increases with cleanliness; irrespective of the pre-defined motive with which the consumer visits the store. But cleanliness as an atmospheric variable seems to have a reduced impact in terms of desire to spend more time and display store patronage because the pre-defined motives dominate over cleanliness Music

0.13

0.12

0.13

0.25

0.25

0.22

Discussion: Music in the store tends to have a dominating impact on the motives of the customers and in turn on the behaviour because from the statistics above, desire to spend more time in the store, make unplanned purchase and recommend the store to others and display store loyalty seems to have increased with the presence of music irrespective of the pre-defined motive with which the consumer visits the store Scent

0.09

0.13

0.07

0.16

0.16

0.15

Discussion: Store fragrance or scent is instrumental in changing the pre-defined motives of customer as the statistics above show that desire to spend more time in the store, make unplanned purchase and recommend the store to others and display store loyalty seems to have increased with the presence of store fragrance Temperature

0.26

0.18

0.25

0.20

0.19

0.19

Discussion: Desire to make unplanned purchases will increase with temperature; irrespective of the pre-defined motive with which the consumer visits the store. But temperature as an atmospheric variable seems to have a reduced impact in terms of desire to spend more time and display store patronage because the pre-defined motives dominate over temperature Lighting

0.34

0.24

0.34

0.21

0.20

0.20

Discussion: Store lighting is not instrumental in changing the pre-defined customer motives. Hence, the customer will act and behave in the way that he has decided Colour

0.28

0.26

0.28

0.24

0.24

0.22

Discussion: Colour is not instrumental in changing the pre-defined customer motives. Hence, the customer will act and behave in the way that he has decided Display/layout

0.29

0.24

0.33

0.24

0.21

0.21

Discussion: Display/Layout is not instrumental in changing the pre-defined customer motives. Hence, the customer will act and behave in the way that he has decided Human variables

0.17

0.18

0.25

0.27

0.27

0.26

Discussion: Human variables are instrumental in changing the pre-defined motives of customer, as the statistics above show that desire to spend more time in the store, make unplanned purchase and recommend the store to others and display store loyalty seems to have increased with the presence of human variables

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35

0.16, respectively, for pleasure and dominance dimensions) because the pre-defined motives dominate over cleanliness. The desire to spend more time in the store, make unplanned purchase and recommend the store to others increases with the presence of music irrespective of the pre-defined motive with which the consumer visits the store, since the significance value increases from 0.13 to 0.25, 0.12 to 0.25 and 0.13 to 0.22, respectively, for Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance. The scent of the place increases the desire to spend more time in the store, make unplanned purchase and recommend the store to others irrespective of the pre-defined motive with which the consumer visits the store, since the significance value increases from 0.09 to 0.16, 0.13 to 0.16 and 0.07 to 0.15, respectively, for Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance. The desire to make unplanned purchases will increase with temperature; irrespective of the pre-defined motive with which the consumer visits the store since the significance value increases from 0.18 to 0.19. But temperature as an atmospheric variable seems to have a reduced impact in terms of desire to spend more time and display store patronage since the significance value reduces from 0.26 to 0.20 and 0.25 to 0.19, respectively, for pleasure and dominance dimensions because the pre-defined motives dominate over temperature. Store lighting does not have any impact on behavioural responses with motives as mediating variables. The reduced significance values from 0.34 to 0.21, 0.24 to 0.20, and 0.34 to 0.20 for Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance, respectively, indicate that the customer will act and behave with respect to the pre-defined motives. Colour does not have any impact on behavioural responses with motives as mediating variables. The reduced significance values from 0.28 to 0.24, 0.26 to 0.24, and 0.28 to 0.22 for Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance, respectively, indicate that the customer will act and behave with respect to the pre-defined motives. Display/Layout does not have any impact on behavioural responses with motives as mediating variables. The reduced significance values from 0.29 to 0.24, 0.24 to 0.21, and 0.33 to 0.21 for Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance, respectively, indicate that the customer will act and behave with respect to the pre-defined motives. Human variables in store increase the desire to spend more time in the store, make unplanned purchase and recommend the store to others irrespective of the predefined motive with which the consumer visits the store, since the significance value increases from 0.17 to 0.27, 0.18 to 0.27 and 0.25 to 0.26, respectively, for Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance.

3.5 Conclusion The direct impact of store atmospherics on behavioural responses is different from that of indirect impact with motives as a mediating variable. This means that store atmospherics are instrumental in affecting consumer motives and in turn

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the behavioural responses. Also, consumer behaviour varies in accordance with consumer motives.

References 1. Kotler, P.: Atmospherics as a marketing tool. J. Retail. 49(4), 48–64 (1973) 2. Smith, P.C., Curnow, R.: “Arousal hypothesis” and the effects of music on purchasing behavior. J. Appl. Psychol. 50(3), 255 (1966) 3. Schiffman, L.G., Wisenblit, J., Kumar, S.R.: Consumer Behavior | By Pearson. Pearson Education India (2011) 4. Durmaz, Y.: The impact of psychological factors on consumer buying behavior and an empirical application in Turkey (2014) 5. Eroglu, S.A., Machleit, K.A., Davis, L.M.: Atmospheric qualities of online retailing: a conceptual model and implications. J. Bus. Res. 54(2), 177–184 (2001) 6. Russell, J.A., Mehrabian, A.: Distinguishing anger and anxiety in terms of emotional response factors. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 42(1), 79 (1974) 7. Pincus, J., Baker, B.: Beyond stack smashing: recent advances in exploiting buffer overruns. IEEE Secur. Priv. 2(4), 20–27 (2004) 8. Rossiter, J.R., Percy, L.: Emotions and motivationa in advertising. ACR North American Advances (1991) 9. Donovan, R.J., Rossiter, J.R., Marcoolyn, G., Nesdale, A.: Store atmosphere and purchasing behavior. J. Retail. 70(3), 283–294 (1994) 10. Hussain, R., Ali, M.: Effect of store atmosphere on consumer purchase intention. Int. J. Mark. Stud. 7(2) (2015) 11. Baker, J., Levy, M., Grewal, D.: An experimental approach to making retail store environmental decisions. J. Retail. 68(4), 445 (1992) 12. Tauber, E.M.: Why do people shop? Mark. Manage. 4(2), 58 (1995) 13. Gardner, M.P.: Mood states and consumer behavior: a critical review. J. Consum. Res. 12(3), 281–300 (1985) 14. Sherman, E., Mathur, A., Smith, R.B.: Store environment and consumer purchase behavior: mediating role of consumer emotions. Psychol. Mark. 14(4), 361–378 (1997) 15. Mehrabian, A., Russell, J.A.: An approach to environmental psychology. The MIT Press (1974) 16. Olson, D.H.: Circumplex model of marital and family systems. J. Fam. Ther. 22(2), 144–167 (2000) 17. Comrey, A.L.: A First Course in Factor Analysis, (2nd ed.). Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey (1992) 18. Joshi, A., Kale, S., Chandel, S., Pal, D.K.: Likert scale: explored and explained. Br. J. Appl. Sci. Technol. 7(4), 396 (2015)

Chapter 4

Ergonomic Assessment and Workstation Design for Women Workers in Cashew Factory Krishna Chaitanya Mallampalli

Abstract Assessment of ergonomic risk in the worker population is essential when determining exposure to risk factors in a workplace, and subsequently establishing intervention priorities to prevent occupational health problems among workers. It is speculated that exposure to ergonomic risk factors, namely, awkward working postures (e.g., bending, twisting, overreaching, and turning) and repetitive actions often leads to work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) among workers in many small-scale industries. Therefore, the present study has attempted to assess ergonomic risk of WMSDs among women workers engaged in cashew kernel separation (CKS) task in small-scale cashew factories with a view to design an ergonomic workstation. Primarily, the women workers perform CKS task manually by adopting different floor-sitting positions (e.g., crossed legs and bent knees). In present study, twenty-five women workers in this task were interviewed using Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (NMQ). Results showed that there was prevalence of WMSDs among women workers, particularly in the lower back (84%), upper back (72%), shoulders (64%), and neck (60%). Further, the current working postures of women workers were analyzed using Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) in CATIA V5 R19 software. It was found that the adopted postures by the workers were at high risk level with a RULA score of 7 and had indicated an immediate change in the postures. Based on these observations, an ergonomically designed workstation was suggested to improve the current body postures of women workers in CKS task. The analysis of postures during the interaction with new workstation design has revealed that the ergonomic risk was reduced to low risk level (i.e., RULA = 3), indicating safe posture. Overall, the findings of the present study had indicated that the postural ergonomic risk of WMSDs among women workers who engaged in CKS task has been minimized noticeably using ergonomically designed workstation.

K. C. Mallampalli (B) Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_4

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4.1 Introduction Cashew nut processing industry is a traditional and economically important smallscale industry in India. This traditional cashew industry has been one of the exportoriented industries in India and employs a huge number of workers. According to one report, there were nearly half-million workers engaged in this industry [1]. Along with the huge number of workers, the cashew nut processing units are also mushrooming at a faster rate [2, 3]. However, the workers engaged in cashew factories often have exposure to various occupational health problems. Some studies carried out in the past have demonstrated that work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) are one of the major occupational health problems among cashew workers in India [2– 4]. The prevalence rates were reported to be ranged between 28.5 and 70.3% among cashew workers performing different processing activities in India [2–4]. Among different cashew workers, one of the special cashew workers in the cashew processing factories is the cashew kernel separation workers. These workers mainly deal with separating cashew kernels from cracked cashew nuts. Initially, cashew nuts are cracked using mechanical/electric powered shelling machines to separate the cashew kernels (Fig. 4.1a). However, in many cases, the cashew kernel does not completely separate from the shell due to processing factors like moisture content, cutting efficiency, etc. [5]. Therefore, the cashew factory owners employ workers to separate the cashew kernels manually from cracked shells. The majority of the workers employed in the cashew kernel separation (CKS) task are women workers. Generally, owners of cashew factories prefer women workers as the task is slow and time-consuming [2–4]. While separating the cashew kernels women workers are required to adopt different floor-sitting positions (Fig. 4.1b), involving awkward bending of the back, folded knees, and bent neck. The task also involves frequent flexion/extension of arms to pick up the shells from ground. In the previous studies, researchers have reported that awkward postures and repetitive actions contribute to WMSDs in different body regions [6, 7]. In addition, workers working in confined workplaces and adopting floor-sitting positions for prolonged hours in almost static body posture cause pain and discomfort among workers [6, 8]. Several researchers mentioned that such poor working conditions require intervention from ergonomics point of view to improve occupational health and well-being of workers [6, 9, 10]. However, to date, there is hardly any study has been conducted on women workers engaged in CKS task. Therefore, the objectives of the present study are: (a) to assess risk of current working postures and prevalence of WMSDs among women workers in CKS task, and (b) to suggest workstation design using participatory approach.

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Fig. 4.1 a and b depict the example of shelling device used and typical working conditions during cashew kernel separation task

4.2 Materials and Methods The study was conducted in two separate phases: (a) Phase I of the study focuses on initial risk assessment in relation to working posture and musculoskeletal problems, and (b) Phase II includes the design of ergonomic workstation and evaluation. Figure 4.2 illustrates the study conducted in phase wise.

Fig. 4.2 Methodological procedure followed phase wise in this study

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4.2.1 Phase I: Initial Risk Assessment Study location, sample, and procedure. The study was conducted in three smallscale cashew factories located at Vetapalem cashew nut cluster in the coastal region of Andhra Pradesh, India. From these units, a total of 25 workers expressed interest to participate voluntarily in the study. All the participants were women. Those workers who had a history pain due to any musculoskeletal diseases or previous accidents were not included. Required data on general characteristics such as age, height, weight, work experience, and duration of work was collected. Prior to this study, researcher had a formal meeting with owners of three processing units, and they had shown interest in the study objectives and gave permission to conduct the study. Musculoskeletal disorders. Nordic musculoskeletal questionnaire (NMQ) [11] was used to assess WMSDs among the participants. Nine different body regions (neck, shoulders, elbows, hands/wrists, upper back, lower back, thighs, knees, and ankles/feet) were assessed. All the body regions were evaluated with ‘yes’ or ‘no’ responses to the musculoskeletal pain/discomfort during past 12 months and last 7 days. Posture assessment. A real-time observation of working postures of workers while performing CKS task was carried out to identify the most frequently adopted body postures. Through direct observations, two critical and most repetitive body postures were identified by the researcher. The selected work activity postures included: (a) one leg with knee raised and other crossed, and (b) both the legs with knees rose (Fig. 4.3). These identified postures were further confirmed with the workers, and they also felt these are the most frequently adopted postures during CKS task. After this step, the selected postures of workers were photographed for further analysis. Kinovia open-access software was used to analyze the recorded images. Kinovia is a reliable and valid tool for analyzing postures [12]. After the analysis, the body joint angles were determined for the selected activity postures ((a) one leg with knee raised and other crossed and (b) both the legs with knees rose). CATIA DELMIA V5 software was used for postural simulation. A female digital human was created according to the stature height (stature = 1543 mm) of the subjects. It is based on relevant literature [13, 14]. The digital human model has essential characteristics such as scalability, flexibility, and movements at joints. By using ‘posture edit’ feature, the measured joint angles were applied to the digital humans to replicate the actual postures of subjects as close as possible. Figure 4.4 shows the simulated postures of women workers in actual condition. Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) [15] technique was used for assessing simulated activity postures of women workers in CKS task. RULA allows quick evaluation of working postures and suggests distinct actions for improving working conditions. Jadhav et al. [16] and Mallampalli and Pal [6] have also used RULA analysis to optimize the postures and ensure better product design and a safer workplace in small-scale industries. RULA method investigates ergonomic risk factors and all

4 Ergonomic Assessment and Workstation Design for Women Workers …

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Fig. 4.3 Cashew kernel separation postures: a one leg with knee raised and other crossed and b both the legs with knees rose

Fig. 4.4 Simulated working postures of women workers in actual condition (Note: R: body right side L: body left side)

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K. C. Mallampalli

the risk factors are combined to give a final score (ranges between 1 and 7) and four action levels.

4.2.2 Phase II: Workstation Design Understanding the user needs thoroughly could help to devise context-specific ergonomic interventions and help to improve working conditions of workers [13]. Especially while providing user-centered ergonomic design for informal small-scale industries contextual knowledge is very important. Therefore, a participatory process was adopted to understand the issues and users’ needs related to CSK task. Two focus group meetings were conducted involving eight women workers from three units and had discussions on issues related to cashew kernel separation. Based on the problems identified and interaction with the workers, the idea of an ergonomic workstation design was evolved. Anthropometric data is essential for ergonomic workstation design. Therefore, Indian civilian anthropometric data developed by [17] was applied while designing the workstation. In this stage, the main goal was to develop a workstation which could provide comfort for the user and robust with respect to its function. Finally, the three-dimensional model of workstation was developed in CATIA V5 software (Fig. 4.5). The proposed workstation design was evaluated using female manikin (stature height = 1543 mm). The reassessment musculoskeletal risk was analyzed using RULA tool (Fig. 4.6).

Table wall Table surface

Container for collecting empty shells

Stool Container for collecting kernel

Fig. 4.5 Workstation design

4 Ergonomic Assessment and Workstation Design for Women Workers …

43

L

R

Fig. 4.6 Simulated working postures of women workers in modified condition (Note: R: body right side L: body left side)

4.3 Results and Discussion 4.3.1 Phase I: Initial Risk Assessment A total of 25 women workers in CKS task participated in the study. The average age of participants was 38.3 years (SD = 7.9; range = 26–52). The average height and weight of workers were 154.3 cm (SD = 6.6) and 55.3 kg (SD = 4.6), respectively. The average BMI of participants was 23.2 kg/m2 (SD = 1.9; range = 19.9–27.6). The average work experience and daily working hours were 10.8 years (SD = 4.9; range = 5–20) and 8.4 h (SD = 0.8; range = 8–10), respectively. Table 4.1 gives the demographic characteristics of women workers in CKS task. Table 4.2 presents the prevalence of WMSDs among women workers in CKS task. The results showed that participants who had experienced musculoskeletal discomfort for the past 12 months and last 7 days were 96.0% and 84.0%, respectively. Among the workers reporting WMSDs in the past 12 months, lower back (84%) was highest, followed by upper back (72%), shoulders (64%), and neck (60%). It was observed that lower back pain was also the highest among those reported discomfort in last 7 days. The reported prevalence was relatively more when compared with studies on floor-sitting workers in foot ware stitching [16] and sedge weaving [7] tasks. Further, it was shown that unnatural posture is potentially harmful to workers Table 4.1 Demographic characteristics of women workers (n = 25)

Variable

Mean (SD)

Min

Max

Age (years)

38.3 (7.9)

26

52

Height (cm)

154.3 (6.6)

145.1

168.2

Weight (kg)

55.3 (4.6)

45

65

(kg/m2 )

23.2 (1.9)

19.9

27.6

Experience (years)

10.8 (4.9)

5

20

Daily working time (hrs)

8.4 (0.8)

8

10

BMI

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Table 4.2 WMSDs among women workers in past 7 days and 12 months, respectively

Body region

7 days; n (%)

12 months; n (%)

Neck

14 (56)

15 (60)

Shoulders

15 (60)

16 (64)

Elbows

7 (28)

7 (28)

Wrists

11 (44)

12 (48)

Upper back

16 (64)

18 (72)

Lower back

19 (76)

21 (84)

Thighs

5 (20)

8 (32)

Knees

12 (48)

14 (56)

Ankles

6 (24)

10 (40)

in CKS task. The current floor-sitting postures ((a) one leg with knee raised and other crossed, and (b) both the legs with knees rose) assumed during CKS task had RULA final score of 7, respectively, which indicated that the workers’ posture was at high risk and required immediate change (Table 4.3). Pheasant [10] further described that excessive trunk bending for a prolonged period could cause deformation of intervertebral discs and cause permanent musculoskeletal injuries in the long run. Thus, there is a great need to improve the current body postures of women workers in CKS task. Table 4.3 Final RULA scores and corresponding actions Condition Before

After

Posture

RULA Posture A

Posture B

Final score

Action level

Left

5

8

7

4

Right

4

8

7

4

B

Left

5

8

7

4

Right

4

8

7

4

C

Left

2

2

3

2

Right

3

2

3

2

A

Note RULA = Rapid Upper Limb Assessment Scores 1–2 (Green color) and action level 1: posture is acceptable; Scores 3–4 (Yellow color) and action level 2: further investigation is needed and changes may be required. Scores 5–6 (Orange color) and action level 3: investigation and changes are required soon. Score 7 (Red color) and action level 4: investigation and changes are required immediately

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4.3.2 Phase II: Reassessment of Risk in Proposed Workstation The results of the first phase confirmed that awkward working postures and WMSDs were prevalent among women workers in CKS task. Therefore, the second phase of study primarily focused on designing ergonomic workstation to reduce the risk of WMSDs. The participatory process adopted during this phase was found to be worthwhile while designing the ergonomic workstation. The inputs given by the workers were useful. During the discussions, it was observed that the workers themselves had been looking for some alternatives. This gave an opportunity for the researcher to try out an idea of how a workstation design can address the current issues. With this idea, all of the users agreed, and the criteria for workstation design were: (a) the workstation should be robust and simple, (b) it should be ergonomically fit, (c) the workstation should provide comfort for users, and (d) there should be separate containers to collect of empty shells and kernels. Accordingly, the ergonomic workstation was designed. Anthropometric data of Indian civilian female population was applied for design development. The design parameter and percentile used were: • Seat height was determined based on 5th percentile popliteal height (i.e., 365 mm). So that the shorter people are allowed use the stool. • Table height (lower edge of table) was determined based on 95th percentile knee height (upper most point) and added 50 mm clearance = 520 mm + 50 mm = 570 mm. So that the larger people legs would not touch the table and it also provides enough leg room for the workers to freely move their legs. • Table surface (extreme edges of table) was determined based on 5th percentile forward arm reach (i.e., 704 mm). So that the shorter people can reach the extreme point of table (Fig. 4.7). With the ergonomic workstation, there was evidence of improvement in the RULA final scores which indicated that the proposed workstation design has improved the working posture. The final RULA score was dropped from 7 in existing condition to

704mm

365mm

570mm

Fig. 4.7 Design parameters and recommended anthropometric values for workstation design

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K. C. Mallampalli

3 in the new condition (Table 4.3). Working in seated position and appropriate table height are the factors mainly attributed to less deviation of trunk from neutral position. Further, the condition of folding legs was completely eliminated by providing a seat. It was further recommended that the integration of existing shelling machine with proposed workstation design, which could be useful for auto-feeding of table area. Thus, it reduces manual carrying of cracked shells by the workers to their place. However, the owner has to make small adjustments to existing machines. Overall, the workstation design was liked by all the users and owners. Furthermore, the owners of the cashew factory promised implementation of proposed design intervention in future.

4.4 Conclusion In this case study, it was shown that the WMSDs prevalent in lower back, upper back, shoulder, and neck regions of women workers engaged in CKS task. Further, it was also confirmed that the working postures adopted by the workers were poor and had high risk of WMSDs. Therefore to improve this condition, an ergonomic workstation has been designed through participatory approach. The evaluation of workstation design in virtually simulated environment has revealed that the body postures were improved noticeably and musculoskeletal risk level has been reduced. This study was limited by small sample size and the self-reported information by the subjects may subject to recall bias. Further, the study performed only simulationbased evaluation. Hence, user trials using a physical model are required to further validate the results.

References 1. Anonymous.: Statistical information. In: Annual Report, Directorate of Cashew and Cocoa Development, Kochi, India (2009) 2. Borah, S.: Ergonomic assessment of drudgery of women worker involved in cashew nut processing factory in Meghalaya, India. Procedia Manuf. 3, 4665–4672 (2015) 3. Girish, N., Ramachandra, K., Arun, G.M., Asha, K.: Prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders among cashew factory workers. Arch. Environ. Occup. Health 67(1), 37–42 (2012) 4. Mallampalli, K.C., Dhar, D., Pal, S.: Work posture and risk factors associated with work-related musculoskeletal disorders among cashew workers in Eastern India. Int. J. Hum. Factors Ergon. 1(1), 1 (2021) 5. Ogunsina, B.S., Bamgboye, A.I.: Pre-shelling parameters and conditions that influence the whole kernel out-turn of steam-boiled cashew nuts. J. Saudi Soc. Agric. Sci. 13(1), 29–34 (2014) 6. Mallampalli, K.C., Pal, S.: Design and evaluation of an ergonomic polisher for handcrafted Kalash polishing workers in north-east India. Int. J. Hum. Factors Ergon. 9(2), 163 (2022) 7. Thongsuk, W., Geater, A.F.: Work-related discomfort among floor-sitting sedge weavers: a cross-sectional survey. Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon. 0(0), 1–12 (2019)

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8. Mallampalli, K.C., Pal, S.: Musculoskeletal disorders and ergonomic risk assessment of postures adopted by handcrafted Kalash Polishers, Northeast India. In: Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, pp. 257–66. Springer (2022) 9. Sanjog, J., Patel, T., Karmakar, S.: Occupational ergonomics research and applied contextual design implementation for an industrial shop-floor workstation. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 1(72), 188– 198 (2019) 10. Pheasant, S.: Ergonomics, Work and Health. Macmillan International Higher Education (1991) 11. Kuorinka, I., Jonsson, B., Kilbom, A., Vinterberg, H., Biering-Sørensen, F., Andersson, G., et al.: Standardised Nordic questionnaires for the analysis of musculoskeletal symptoms. Appl. Ergon. 18(3), 233–237 (1987) 12. Elwardany, S.H., El-Sayed, W.H., Ali, M.F.: Reliability of kinovea computer program in measuring cervical range of motion in sagittal plane. OALib. 2(9), 1–10 (2015) 13. Mallampalli, K.C., Dhar, D., Pal, S.: Ergonomic design and simulation-based evaluation of a new cashew nut sheller. J. Ind. Prod. Eng. 30, 1–15 (2022) 14. Qureshi, A.M., Solomon, D.G.: Ergonomic assessment of postural loads in small- and mediumscale foundry units. J. Inst. Eng. Ser. C 102(2), 323–335 (2021) 15. McAtamney, L., Nigel, C.E.: RULA: a survey method for the investigation of work-related upper limb disorders. Appl. Ergon. 24(2), 91–99 (1993) 16. Jadhav, G.S., Arunachalam, M., Salve, U.R.: Ergonomics design and evaluation of the stitching workstation for the hand-crafted Kolhapuri footwear using a digital human modeling approach. J. Ind. Prod. Eng., pp. 1–13 (2019) 17. Chakrabarti, D.: Indian anthropometric dimensions for ergonomic design practice. National Institute of Design (1997)

Chapter 5

Exploring Architectural Façade Characteristics of Bag Bazar Street, Kolkata Shilpi Chakraborty

and Shiva Ji

Abstract Bag Bazar underwent continuous expansion with a new age of Bengalis from the mid-eighteenth century, dating to the ancient trading society of the Seths and Basaks. They were primarily banians and dewans (legal and taxation authorities for the enterprise). Including these groupings, landowners from Gobindapur’s hamlet moved to this region. This article looks at the architectural analysis of Bag Bazar Street to give you a better idea of how British architecture influenced the Indian nobility. Efforts and pragmatic practices aimed at improving community engagement through familiar places and activities to expand the accessibility of offerings related to urban expansion contribute to cultural integration in the urban setting. Bag Bazar Street is among Kolkata’s three principal roadways and is recognized within ekantoporibar (joint family) called the grandmother route, providing it a perfect case research setting. The street’s growth occurred mainly due to World trade in the seventeenth century, British colonial commercial and military requirements in the eighteenth century, the Indian nationalist movement, and the changing road-building technology. Analyzing and comprehending the historical context allow us to fully understand the inextricable relationships among form structure with material that gives historic structures their distinct personality and create architectural individuality. Architectural photography allows for a closer look at the various aspects of architectural heritage, making it simpler to identify heritage qualities. The Bag Bazar Street is an amalgamation of neo-classical architecture and modern architecture. The history of the locality’s affluent citizens aided in continuing another socioeconomic and cultural restructuring.

S. Chakraborty (B) · S. Ji Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, IITH Main Road, NH65, Sangareddy, Hyderabad 502284, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Ji e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_5

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5.1 Introduction Visual methods of examining places and spaces in culture, especially in our communities, are not new. Georg Simmel stressed the vital significance of the visual in conceiving about the complex and continually changing city at the beginning of the twentieth century in Europe. Every urban domain has a history of emphasizing the visually appealing, sometimes as a fascinating undertone. Contemporary human contact “must lay a cornerstone for moral standards and emotions,” according to Simmel a century earlier [?] . As per Douglas Harper, the field may be divided into at least two subfields: “Visual Studies,” which comprises researchers conducting visual cultural evaluations, and “Visual Methods,” which includes any endeavor wherein researchers use photography to study sociological situations. Sociologists can use the latter method to study the signification of visual transmitters. Harper identified four different forms of research, including “phenomenological,” which uses relativism as a data origin, "narrative," which organizes knowledge into documents, “reflexive,” which builds information from the viewpoint of its subjects, and “scientific,” which categorizes the globe and provides data [8]. The social science conceptual framework of visual culture, in addition to the intersecting descriptor scopic regime, which refers to the manner wherein viewers brought theirs possess approaches of viewing and other learnings to endure on an image [19], is thus an identifiable archetype that has been extensively practiced in art theory ideologies. Photographic approaches were consolidated as an evidence platform for analyzing and representing “other” civilizations as technology advanced in the nineteenth century. The making of these images, as well as their transmission and interpretation, was deeply enmeshed in Imperialism’s dominance dynamics, wherein photography constituted a component of the colonial project’s objectifying gaze. Architectural styles have shifted throughout history, complementing the evolution of society’s cultural, financial, and religious features. Designers and architectural scholars often identify and study architectural styles and chronology due to the construction, fabric, ornamentation, shape of architectural parts, and surroundings of buildings. The architectural style of history, particularly that of indigenous villages and structures, is an endless resource of inspiration, an extensive repository of concentrated information about geologically and ecologically suitable design. These characteristics are principally owing to a dearth of technical and financial capabilities [16, 26], which can also culminate in connected architecture, including its native habitat, defined by optimal usage of materials and environmental elements, and the supply of appropriate comfortability all round. Urban constructed history in Indian cities is by its vast variety of colossal architectural monuments, traditionally connected with individuals at the apex of general societal hierarchical systems. “Historical buildings, urban spaces, waterways, living societies, and their related conventional occupations and social conventions” describe traditional districts [5] offer a different meaning to the city. Notwithstanding architectural and social developments, they contribute to the city’s historical character and are essential to its provincial and neighboring economies. Many European populations moved to India in the fifteenth century to

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start commerce, which led to colonialism. The British were the most successful colonists. The dominance of a migrant marginalized ruling over a native populace is colonization. It depicts the joining of two drastically diverse civilizations in “any kind of partnership.” This interaction culminates in forming a colonialist “third culture,” defined by distinct societal groups and the production of distinctive cultural artifacts such as building structures and urban dynamics [10]. The early colonial structures in India were to fit the particular requirements of the imperial way of life, and they were purposefully constructed to depart from local indigenous forms. Throughout time, British architects across the Imperial had to consider the region’s unique climatic requirements [13]. The soul of a city is in its historic districts. Ahmedabad’s pols, Delhi’s Chandi Chowk, and Mumbai’s Fort are the areas that reveal the true spirit of the city. The intensity of construction in these historical centers is quite remarkable. These sites undergo a variety of transformations that alter the fabric across history, resulting in a multitude of varied reactions to stimuli. As a result, the fabric expresses several historical accounts and concurrent growth processes. What is the fate of a city’s historical core? How does one assist in these situations? To build a strategy for existence, one must first grasp the importance of being. As a result, the article examines Bag Bazar Street, one of Calcutta’s early streets, as a case study and attempts to track transformations in urban fabric via facades. Metamorphosis tendencies can provide helpful information about the architectural form. Thus to do that, Sect. 5.2 provides a brief background from its origin till now. The study aims to examine the continuance of historical kinds and the modifications as a consequence of transformations at the city level, which provides us with the objectives of the research: • To document the characteristics of Bag Bazar Street, Kolkata • To examine the architectural facade characteristics of Bag Bazar Street, Kolkata. Such knowledge can provide light on the rationale/issues engaged in the type’s adaptability/growth as guidance for future growth and improvements in the city’s historic fabric.

5.2 Bag Bazar Street,Kolkata: Background Bag Bazar did not appear as an independent entity before 1705, according to historical writings and sources. Bag Bazar was built in the north part of “Sutanuti,” which was a thriving cloth market following the fall of the old trading metropolis, old Saptagram, near the Saraswati river around 1660. Aside from a few makeshift cottages and intensively farmed green sections, the region was dense forest and notorious for goons. On September 11, 1837, “Samachar Darpan” reported a leopard sighting near Shyampukur, and a scavenging crew was dispatched to chase down the leopard. Bag Bazar may be a misspelling of “bank-Bazar,” the bazaar on a “bank” or bend of the canal, although it is most usually associated with Captain Charles Perrin’s riverfront garden (bag) [15]. To secure the freshly constructed city from intruders, the Mahrattas

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Fig. 5.1 Bag Bazar Street in 1746 (Left) [12]; in 2020 (Right) [25]

Ditch was excavated in 1742 to the north of Bag Bazar near Chitpur Creek meets the Ganga. Holwell issued a study in 1752 assessing the acreage of many sections of then-Kolkata, including Bag Bazar, which had 173 dwellings. According to Captain Steel, there were 526 pakka homes, 129 tally buildings, and 1690 thatched dwellings. Seven hundred thirteen were landlords, 883 were farmers, and 570 were daily wagers [6]. Bag Bazar (Fig. 5.4), alongside Shyambazar, is a suburb in North Kolkata that falls beneath the jurisdiction of the Kolkata Police Department’s Shyampukur police station that has historically served as the fortress of the Bengali elite. Bag Bazar (Fig. 5.1) has played a significant role in the evolution and expansion of Kolkata. In Kolkata, the old city is into many sectors or neighborhoods (Fig. 5.2), with separation along the lines of occupation or caste. The para quickly lost its consistent makeup regarding caste or profession due to urbanization pressures generated by socioeconomic transformations linked with the zamindari regime, but the conceptual boundaries and its character remain in mind even now.

5.3 Methodology 5.3.1 Data Analysis A design research methodology, a technique and set of supplementary approaches and guidelines, provides a framework for performing design study [4]. Observations, conversations, statistics, and information or recordings of the site are all part of the preliminary study’s objectives. The figure beneath contains relevant data methodologies, research scope, research strategy, and expected study outcomes (Fig. 5.3). The recommended design research methodology (DRM) and its techniques are intended to provide a more thorough data methodological approach by assisting in the conception and implementation of design research. Using the process interactively should improve the efficacy and productivity of design research.

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Fig. 5.2 The heritage map of different para in the city with Bag Bazar marked as red. Source Author

5.3.2 Analysis Method The goal of photographing architectural heritage is to capture as much graphic data about a property as feasible in as few shots as conceivable. The photographer must choose which perspectives disclose the maximum data about a building. Architectural styles are evolutionary phases that categorize architecture’s grasp of historical eras, locations, and cultural influences. Each architectural style has its construction forms, planning concepts, techniques, materials, and structures. They combine archi-

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Fig. 5.3 Design research methodology (adapted from [4] and modified by the author

tectural aspects that evolved from one another–additional improvements or modifications to earlier modules. A method for automatically classifying building façade photographs based on historic characteristics. It is developing information organized into groupings that correlate to specific historical periods owing to styles. There is no automatic method for categorizing images of building facades predicated on architectural styles. Building facade photographs from Internet repositories frequently lack architectural style designations or contain incorrect identifiers [21]. The architectural style categorization of the entire structure is considered a polling system of individual architectural elements. This technique allows for façade architectural style categorization in the partially obscured exterior by a particular structural feature, such as a door. It is also suited with facades that combine architectural styles. When deciding on distinct architectural styles using various architectural features, the higher significant architectural components are given higher weights. There are several methods to identify the architectural style using a single element [2, 7, 17, 18, 22, 28]. The façade of a structure [9, 11] reflects the building’s purpose and worth. It must not be viewed as a passive facade since it contains significance as well as the value of the architectural form. As a result, facades are essential in the city’s evolution and ecological architecture [24]. Architectural facades and their tangible things, such as shape, traditional architecture, fabric, color, and decoration, are historically significant because they express the architectural heritage of their surroundings [27]. Similarly, culture is vital since it has a significant role in developing architectural façade characteristics [20]. The façade of a structure determines the scale of space surrounding it. In a larger perspective, the urban environment is by structure façades, cityscape, and the accompaniment [9], which is why structure façades provide the observer with various perspectives. A structure façade is an urban

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Fig. 5.4 buildings for analysis in Bag Bazar Street. Source Author

setting and metropolitan identity characteristic, and proper decoration is essential for generating a rich and exciting atmosphere [14]. Components’ readability, coherence, and harmonic recurrence are visual qualities that enhance the image [1, 23].

5.4 Result and Discussion Figure 5.4 shows the buildings for the study for the comprehension of façade analysis in Bag Bazar Street. According to the information obtained, window arches, materials, doors, and ornamentation are the significant features that give historical architectural facades a striking picture. This conclusion is consistent with the findings of other research [1, 3, 23], which confirmed that ornamentation and columns are elements that magnify the appearance of historic facades. Nonetheless, non-colored materials have a favor-

Traditional

Traditional with Big opening (S1 Small doors ) modern (D2 )

4

Straight small openings (S1 )

Small doors (D2 )

Small doors (D2 )

3

Big opening S1

Small doors (D2 )

Doors

Traditional

Straight small openings (S3 )

Windows

2

Material

Traditional

Building

1

S. No.

Table 5.1 Comparative analysis of Facade in Bag Bazar Street

Yes

NIL

Yes

NIL

Yes

NIL

Yes

NIL

Ornamen- tation Arches

Horizontal

Horizontal

Veritcal

Veritcal

No

No

Yes

No

Vertical Roof covering /horizontal span (Chajja)

Low

High

High

High

Plinth

(continued)

Neo-classical

Bengali Baroque

Islamic with modern architecture

Bengali Baroque

Architectural style

56 S. Chakraborty and S. Ji

Material

Modern

Traditional

Traditional

Traditional

S. No. Building

5

6

7

8

Table 5.1 (continued) Doors

Small doors (D2 )

Medium size Medium opening (S2 ) doors (D1 )

Straight small Medium openings (S3 ) doors (D1 )

Big opening (S1 )

Medium size Medium opening (S2 ) doors (D1 )

Windows

Yes

Yes

Yes

NIL

Ornamentation

NIL

Yes

Yes

Yes

Arches

Horizontal

Horizontal

Horizontal

Veritcal

Vertical /horizontal span

Yes

No

No

Yes

Roof covering (Chajja)

High

High

High

Low

Plinth

Neo-classical

Neo-classical

Neo-classical

Modern

Architectural style

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able effect, while architectural style is another critical component in improving the appearance of traditional structure facades. Some of the facades with a strong cultural character in the research region should be highlighted, including neo-classical, modern, and Bengal baroque architecture. Table 5.1 shows a comparative analysis of various buildings in Bag Bazar Street regarding different attributes such as material type, windows, doors, ornamentation, arches, horizontal/vertical span, roof covering, plinth, and architectural style for analyzing the façade.

5.5 Conclusion Historical neighborhoods are essential for municipal identity and should be actively considered for future urban design and planning development. When evaluating a historical area, the public pays the most emphasis to architectural façades. As a result, recognizing the features and qualities of traditional architectural facades with a compelling impression lends credence to Lynch’s concept of urban form. Bag Bazar expanded continuously with a modern generation of Bengalis beginning in the mideighteenth century, extending back to the period of the old trade community of the Seths and Basaks. This study analyzes Bag Bazar Street’s architectural research to understand better how British design inspired Indian nobles. Initiatives and practical methods targeted at strengthening social inclusion through recognized locations and activities and increasing the usability of offers connected to urban growth assist cultural assimilation in the urban setting. Analyzing and interpreting the historical background helps us to completely realize the irreconcilable links between form, structure, and material that give historical constructions their specific personality and character. The study concludes architecture of Bag Bazar Street is a mix of neo-classical and modern styles.

5.6 Future Research For future research, scholars and researchers can look into aspects of the city instead region. This research also intends to present recommendations to help urban designers and planners preserve traditional architectural facades across the study region.

References 1. Akalin, A., Yildirim, K., Wilson, C., Kilicoglu, O.: Architecture and engineering students’ evaluations of house façades: preference, complexity and impressiveness. J. Environ. Psychol. 29(1), 124–132 (2009)

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2. Ali, H., Seifert, C., Jindal, N., Paletta, L., Paar, G.: Window detection in facades. In: 14th International Conference on Image Analysis and Processing (ICIAP 2007), pp. 837–842. IEEE (2007) 3. Askari, A.H.: Influence of building facade visual elements on its historical image: case of Kuala Lumpur City, Malaysia. J. Des. Built Environ. 5(1) (2009) 4. Blessing, L.T., Chakrabarti, A.: DRM: A Design Research Methodology. Springer (2009) 5. Carr, S., Stephen, C., Francis, M., Rivlin, L.G., Stone, A.M.: Public Space. Cambridge University Press (1992) 6. De, A., Nandi, R.: Conversations with the modern Indian City: questioning the regimes. The Journal 3(1) (2015) 7. Gupta, U., Chaudhury, S.: Deep transfer learning with ontology for image classification. In: 2015 Fifth National Conference on Computer Vision, Pattern Recognition, Image Processing and Graphics (NCVPRIPG), pp. 1–4. IEEE (2015) 8. Harper, D.: Visual sociology: expanding sociological vision. Am. Sociol. 19(1), 54–70 (1988) 9. Huxtable, A.: Building façade (2004). Retrieved 15 Feb 2007 10. King, A.D.: Colonial Urban Development: Culture, Social Power and Environment. Routledge (2012) 11. Knaack, U., Klein, T., Bilow, M., Auer, T.: Façades: Principles of Construction. Birkhäuser (2014) 12. Losty, J.P.: Calcutta: city of palaces. A survey of the city in the days of the East India Company (1690–1858) (1990) 13. Metcalf, T.R.: Architecture and the representation of Empire: India, 1860–1910. Representations 6, 37–65 (1984) 14. Moughtin, C., Oc, T., Tiesdell, S.: Urban Design: Ornament and Decoration. Routledge (1999) 15. Nair, P.T., et al.: The growth and development of old Calcutta. Calcutta: the living city 1, 10–23 (1990) 16. Rapoport, A.: House Form and Culture. Englewood Cliffs (1969) 17. Recky, M., Leberl, F.: Window detection in complex facades. In: 2010 2nd European Workshop on Visual Information Processing (EUVIP), pp. 220–225. IEEE (2010) 18. Recky, M., Leberl, F.: Windows detection using k-means in CIE-lab color space. In: 2010 20th International Conference on Pattern Recognition, pp. 356–359. IEEE (2010) 19. Rose, G.: Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to Researching with Visual Materials. Sage (2016) 20. Sari, R.M., Sen, D., Al, S., Kahya, N., Sagsoz, A.: The effects of traditions, customs and beliefs on architectural design: the example of turkey. Int. J. Acad. Res. 3(1), 780–792 (2011) 21. Shalunts, G., Haxhimusa, Y., Sablatnig, R.: Architectural style classification of building facade windows. In: International Symposium on Visual Computing, pp. 280–289. Springer (2011) 22. Shalunts, G., Haxhimusa, Y., Sablatnig, R.: Segmentation of building facade domes. In: Iberoamerican Congress on Pattern Recognition, pp. 324–331. Springer (2012) 23. Stamps, A.E., III.: Architectural detail, van der laan septaves and pixel counts. Des. Stud. 20(1), 83–97 (1999) 24. Utaberta, N., Jalali, A., Johar, S., Surat, M., Che-Ani, A.: Building facade study in Lahijan city, Iran: The impact of facade’s visual elements on historical image. Int. J. Humanit. Soc. Sci. 6(7), 1839–1844 (2012) 25. wikipedia: bagbazar map (2007). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagbazar. Online accessed 3 Oct 2021 26. Wines, J., Jodidio, P.: Green Architecture, vol. 240. Taschen Köln (2000) 27. Zadeh, F.A., Sulaiman, A.B.: Dynamic street environment. Local Environ. 15(5), 433–452 (2010) 28. Zeppelzauer, M., Despotovic, M., Sakeena, M., Koch, D., Döller, M.: Automatic prediction of building age from photographs. In: Proceedings of the 2018 ACM on International Conference on Multimedia Retrieval, pp. 126–134 (2018)

Chapter 6

The Role of Awareness and Experience in Designing Social Inclusion Elly Fitriana Soedjito

and Akane Matsumae

Abstract A disability exists when people with health conditions experience difficulties engaging in certain activities due to a lack of access. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), disabilities are a global public health issue affecting over 1 billion people, 15% of the global population. However, despite this widespread impact, the lack of awareness and understanding of disabilities means the issue is still not properly addressed in many countries. Instead of focusing on correcting the lack of access, people see those with disabilities as different from most people and see the problem as a personal health issue. This perception has led to social exclusion, as evidenced by stigmatization and the lack of inclusive public spaces. To address this problem and design a socially inclusive society, it is important to know how the concept of disability is understood and to raise public awareness. This paper examines various ways of thinking about disabilities by reviewing published journals that have focused on how people understand the issue, while also exploring the role of awareness and experience from the viewpoint of cognitive science. A review of the journals reveals that people have various ways of perceiving this issue; we need to understand these from a social point of view to reduce social exclusion. It was found that awareness is the first step needed to persuade people to care more about the issue. Letting people directly experience the benefits of inclusivity leads them to understand the importance of providing access. The authors have concluded that awareness gained by social experience plays a significant role in shaping the way people think, resulting in a greater willingness to provide social inclusion.

E. F. Soedjito Graduate School of Design, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan A. Matsumae (B) Faculty of Design, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_6

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6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Motivations When the word “disability” is presented, what is the first thing that crosses people’s minds? There are many answers to this but, unfortunately, there are still many who misunderstand the concept of disability in a way that results in discrimination and social exclusion. The World Health Organization defines disability as an outcome of health conditions meeting environmental factors, but the general public still considers the health condition to be the main factor that makes a person disabled. An estimated 15% of the world’s population experiences disability [36]. We need to reduce this percentage to provide a better place to live for all people. The first step in reducing the stigma attached to disabilities is to raise awareness of the issue, and this is the approach this paper will take. This paper will discuss how to help people have a better understanding of what a disability is, so they can become more aware of the need for social inclusion.

6.1.2 Related Studies Disability. A disability exists when people with a health condition encounter an environmental barrier [39]. It is also created by the society through an unaccommodating physical environment [16]. However, many people still consider the health condition to be the main problem and view those with disabilities as people of less value who are in need of a cure [18, 20]. This stigma needs to be eliminated and the concept that the environment is part of the problem needs to be instilled. If the environment can provide access that allows everyone to perform well despite their various health conditions, there will be fewer people experiencing disabilities. Social inclusion. Social inclusion is the practice of making it easy for all individuals and groups to take part in society and to improve each person’s ability, opportunity, and dignity [36]. Disabilities and social inclusion are linked because absolute social inclusion means that everything would be accessible, and, therefore, nobody would experience a disability. Awareness. Awareness is a state where people have knowledge of a certain thing: in this case, disability issues. There are three levels of awareness: unconscious, preconscious, and conscious. Each of these has an impact that shapes perceptions [43]. For people to acquire a deeper understanding of an issue, they must first be made aware of the issue, so they can be more conscious of it. Raising awareness is considered to be the first step toward providing social inclusion [39].

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6.1.3 Purpose of this Study The purpose of this study is to explore how disabilities are understood and how the perception of them has changed over time, with an aim toward understanding what causes people to have misconceptions that lead to social exclusion. To correct misconceptions, it is essential to explore the importance of raising awareness via experience. To this end, the author has proposed a review of the literature as the key methodology of the first step toward understanding how awareness and experience play a role in shaping the common understanding of this issue.

6.2 Method 6.2.1 Literature Review as a Research Method The main methodology proposed here is a literature review. This method was chosen because this research paper will be the first step toward understanding the problem and determining how to solve it [26, 33, 38]. This is a semi-systematic review that will cover how the topics encompassing disability, social inclusion, and awareness have developed across research traditions. Such a review can be useful when defining these terms in design research that focuses on cognitive perspectives. This paper will be a preliminary study that precedes further research in the deeper field of design study.

6.2.2 Analysis and Synthesis This part came with several steps, including searching for literature from reliable sources, breaking the literature down to identify the most important information, categorizing it by research needs, and producing summaries to illuminate key thoughts. Two of these steps are described below: Search for literature from reliable sources. The literature used for this research paper was found through Science Direct, ResearchGate, and Google Scholar. The sources were some 45 references, including theories from such names as Sigmund Freud and Maurice Merleau-Ponty [31]. There were also references from the United Nations, World Health Organization, and World Bank. Categorization by research needs. Categorizing literature according to its application to respective research needs allows the author to work effectively when presenting results because the sources can be divided into categories that will answer each research question: various points of view toward the concept of “disability,” awareness of cognitive science aspects, and experience in cognitive science aspects.

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This step facilitates the synthesis of each literature source as an answer to the research questions posed in the Discussion section.

6.3 Results 6.3.1 Various Points of View Toward Disability and Inclusivity Development of the Concept of Disability. When talking about how society approaches the topic of disability, we can go back to how this topic developed. Multiple philosophical reflections have revealed the changing perceptions of “disability” through the years, such as viewing it through medical point of view [11]. However, Marks [20] highlighted that those points of view supported few social criteria and relied more on viewing those with disabilities as “patients” or “sick people” whose health condition required a cure. Considering these points of view, those with different health conditions are often stigmatization as people who will always be dependent on others and who offer little or no value [11, 13]. Recent studies also support the idea that there is a problem in viewing “disability” from the medical point of view, as this point of view creates an exclusion for people who are considered “different” from most of society and has caused stigmatization and discrimination. Monedero et al. [22] stated that this sort of concept relies more on stigmatization marked by pity, sorrow, and mercy, while Almog [1] also agreed and provided evidence that this stigmatization results in lower employment rates for people with disabilities, no matter how qualified they may be. Byrne [5] noted that people with disabilities experience higher levels of poverty, unemployment, and lack of access to services. To challenge this point of view, the World Health Organization (WHO), through the WHO Policy on Disability [40], defines the term as an outcome of an interaction between environmental factors and individuals with a health condition, with both sides playing a role in limiting activities. Supporting this change, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) [42] includes a policy that encourages people with disabilities to receive equal rights in performing activities. This is considered to be a change in perspective, from medical models that see people with disabilities as individuals that need to be cured to social models that see the problem as being environmental [20]. Recent studies also support this idea that the medical model of disability fails to acknowledge social and environmental factors and result in people who experience disabilities also experiencing exclusion. Patrick [24] supported the idea that a disability is a mismatch between an individual and the environment rather than merely the characteristic of an individual, and that when this identity is not felt in the environment, these individuals will feel excluded. Begen [3] also stated that this exclusion or ostracism acts as a source of social pain. Within the context of the workplace, Almog [1] provided evidence that when an individual feels excluded from a

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team, the entire team will fail to perform at its maximum level. Conversely, when all team members feel safe and included, the team as a whole will excel. Social Inclusion Design. As recent studies of the concept of disability mentioned “feeling included” as the opposite of “being excluded,” we searched for more studies regarding “social inclusion” as support in studying the disability concept. The World Bank [36] defines “social inclusion” as the process of improving the terms by which individuals and groups take part in society. Patrick [24] also supports this idea that inclusivity means that people do not reject others because of who they are, but instead work with them to create a solution and benefit everyone. In a study of psychology and health, Begen [3] even stated that inclusion increases trust and reduces the impact of prior exclusion, with consequent health benefits. By including everyone’s needs, the entire team can excel [1]. Roth et al. [29] studied disability awareness training for university staff by reviewing case studies of students with disabilities interacting with university staff in various activities. They noted that these interactions produced a positive change of attitude toward how people work with others who have disabilities and helped them to better understand everyone’s needs. Those observed also showed a greater willingness to support inclusiveness, which led to a more positive and successful student experience. When discussing the inclusion of everyone’s needs, Harte et al. [14], through their studies in Human-Centered Design Methodology, said that we need to put the user at the core of the design process. Campagnaro et al. [6] also noted that when we involve all marginalized citizens in a process, it can improve people’s personal, cognitive, and social abilities. Hays [15] categorized groups of marginalized citizens with the acronym “ADDRESSING.” The two Ds in this acronym stand for “developmental disabilities” and “disabilities acquired later in life.” Also, to design inclusivity, people need to embrace an inclusive attitude [41] and avoid skepticism, criticism, and backlash [30].

6.3.2 Understanding Awareness and the Connection with Experience Understanding Awareness and its Importance. According to Merriam-Webster [21], awareness refers to the knowledge and understanding that something is happening or exists. As a neurologist, Sigmund Freud [9, 10] explained that there are three levels of awareness that become part of our way of thinking: unconscious, preconscious, and conscious [35]. Each level has a role to play in shaping human behavior and thought. There are several differences at each stage of human consciousness that have an impact on individual awareness. Supporting this statement, Cherry, in the psychology Web site Verywellmind, [43, 44] stated that when someone is at the unconscious level, it means they lack an awareness of something. Meanwhile, Boag [4] explained that

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when someone is conscious, it means that the person is awake and aware of their surroundings. Awareness is an important part of the study of attitude and behavior, as Din et al. [8] noted in their research on levels of awareness in learning-based projects. This is also supported by the TAP Network 2030 [34], which states that awareness raising is a process meant to inform and educate people about an issue to influence their attitudes. The importance of awareness is also included in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Article 8 [42], which encourages people to raise awareness throughout society (including the family level) regarding persons with disabilities and to foster respect for the rights and dignity of persons with disabilities. No effort toward awareness can be completed in the short term [8], so reaching the desired society that has already changed its attitudes is a long-term process [23]. However, the WHO stated that raising awareness and challenging negative attitudes are often the first steps toward creating more accessible environments for persons with disabilities [28, 40]. Then, how does awareness affect the practical outcome? To answer this, we searched for more evidence of the importance of raising awareness as the first step in social change, and we found project reports with “awareness-raising” at the core of project implementation, including a series of projects to raise awareness about the Sustainable Development Goals [45]. Through the “stages of change” model established by the Transport Studies Group at the University of Westminster [37], projects aimed to reach the stage where people have the willingness to contribute to change. However, they needed to reach “awareness” as the first step, and this has been confirmed by The Cycle of Change by Prochaska [25]; being “aware” contributes to behavioral change. The first example, provided by the e-Atomium project [32], stated that the central point of an awareness-raising activity is to communicate a message to the intended audience. A workplace diversity and inclusion training program by Idemitsu [17] also stated that, by making people aware of the biases occurring in the workplace, mutual understanding can be enhanced. The BhENEFIT project [19] also took the position that awareness raising is the process of informing and educating to influence behavior. Awareness-raising efforts may encompass various activities, from issuing a press release to hosting conferences and workshops [34]. Interreg Central Europe, in their BhENEFIT project [19], used mass media such as newsletters, printed media, and social media as their methods of raising awareness. However, they also emphasized that face-to-face events are a powerful resource when transferring information. Mass-media activities may have a broader impact, but giving people experiences in interactive meetings will provide a more profound impact. Experience as a Method to Raise Awareness. A research investigator at the University of Michigan, Zirui Huang, Ph.D., explained that there are two dimensions of information processing in the brain: sensory processing of the environment without awareness and processing when something occurs because of a stimulus that reaches a certain level and enters conscious awareness. This can also be connected with Sigmund Freud’s theory of synchronization.

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Synchronization is the state when a certain perception takes on meaning individually for someone or the state when a thing starts to matter to them [9, 10]. It is said that human bodies are always “situated” in a certain moment because they tend to behave in the context of the situation. Guy [12] stated that the concept of a situation is a set of facts, events, and conditions that affect a person. Expanding on this, Riberio [27] noted that, to help people become “situated” in a certain perception, they need to be synchronized. Experience can shape people’s bodies to certain perceptual fields and can help people adopt perceptual outcomes that allow them to cope with the world [27]. Aru et al. [2] support the idea that experience can influence a certain perception, and prior knowledge can influence the way one experiences the world. Therefore, when people experience things, those experiences can become embodied in their minds and shape how they cope with the world. To validate this idea, we looked for other awareness-raising projects that used experience as their basis. One of them, Dialogue Social Enterprise, conducted three projects on raising awareness of the benefits of an inclusive world [7]. They situated people without disabilities so that they could experience the world of the blind, deaf, and elderly, and could change roles with them to practice empathy. According to their annual report, this project has reached nearly 261,800 visitors as of 2021 and promotes awareness of social inclusion around the world.

6.4 Discussion 6.4.1 Considering Human Factors in Designing Social Inclusion Considering the misconceptions in society of disabilities and how they affect the way people live their daily lives, it is essential to reshape how people perceive the issue and encourage them to adjust to the social approach of “disability.” The belief that a disability is primarily a health condition has caused problems such as social exclusion, inaccessible public places, and discrimination. To prevent this misconception, people must be made to understand that environmental factors also cause disability. Hence, the idea of social inclusion must be instilled. Social inclusion is when everyone feels needed, a situation where everyone lives with no barriers and can freely engage in activities. With this concept at the top of our minds, we see all people as equal human beings and include them in all decisions. This approach is the same as the human-centered design approach, where we place people at the core of the design process, so everyone’s needs can be met. We tried to combine these two approaches to find commonalities, and we concluded that to design social inclusion we need to consider the human factor as well. In the end, social inclusion is human to human, a situation where all people support each other (Table 6.1).

68 Table 6.1 Connection between social inclusion and human-centered design approach

E. F. Soedjito and A. Matsumae Social inclusion approach

Human-centered design approach

Seeing people as equal human beings

People is the core of the design process

Everyone’s feelings are included

Everyone’s needs are met

Individual identity is accepted

Being involved in a decision-making

With this conclusion that we need to place human factors at the center of designing social inclusion, we must first imagine ourselves as being in the same position as people with disabilities. Exclusion happens when people don’t feel included because their needs are not being met. It also happens when people around them don’t notice that such a problem exists, which is also the reason why stigmatization still occurs. This is due to the lack of knowledge that there is a problem in viewing what a disability is. If most people fail to notice the problem, they will also fail to take action in solving it. Therefore, making people aware that such a problem exists will make them want to act to solve it. We must design a society where everyone is aware of how the concept of disability in society needs to be changed, that disability exists not merely because of health conditions but also because of social conditions. To reach that state, making people aware is the first step.

6.4.2 Experience as a Way to Raise Awareness Regarding social change, the results show that changing society to have the willingness to solve the problem is a long process, and still has a long way to go. However, to take into account the stages of change where being aware of the problem is the first step before changing society, it is necessary to raise awareness first. So far, the idea that a disability is also caused by environmental limitations has not been instilled in many people, which has resulted in a lack of awareness that this misconception is a problem. The benefits of social inclusion where everyone can live freely despite having various abilities also have not been recognized at a conscious level that will allow everyone to contribute to providing an inclusive environment. Therefore, considering that people need to be synchronized in a particular situation for an issue to have meaning for them individually, it will be necessary to provide direct experience. When one experiences a situation that directly brings home the problem of stigmatization of people with disabilities, it will become evident to them that providing social inclusion will be beneficial to everyone, regardless of their abilities (Fig. 6.1). Case studies of awareness-raising projects we found in the results section as references have brought us to the conclusion that experiencing the situation in an

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Fig. 6.1 Desired condition in raising people’s awareness of social inclusion

interactive activity will deliver a more profound impact. We can place people in situations where they face the problem directly, for example, having them interact with people with disabilities in an inclusive environment. During this activity, they will learn more about the difficulties of people with disabilities and feel how it is to be in the same position as they are. When placed in an inclusive environment where a disability becomes an ability, people will become aware that we can do everything freely regardless of our abilities if there is inclusivity. Considering the findings on the role experience plays in influencing people’s attitudes, it is expected that when people experience an actual situation of exclusion and inclusion, they will gain the insight that social inclusion is needed to help shape a better society. Such an experience can influence their attitude the next time they face attitudes that lead to social exclusion.

6.4.3 Awareness and Experience in Designing Social Inclusion So far, we hope to have offered a better understanding of why it is important to help people acknowledge the social exclusion that arises from a lack of awareness of the concepts of disability and inclusivity. We have also found that providing inclusivity means that we think of people in a human-centered manner, so we can understand everyone’s needs and create a society where people can do their activities freely, without feeling excluded. The findings have suggested that experience is a way to raise awareness in a more profound manner, as people will face the situation directly and have it embodied in their minds. With the interaction they experience in an inclusive environment, they

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will acquire a better understanding of why people experience disabilities and how an inclusive attitude can contribute to making the world a comfortable place to live for everyone regardless of their abilities. Changing society is a long process, but, at least for now, making people aware of disability and inclusivity is a solid first step. Such an experience embodied in their minds will influence people’s attitudes in the future when faced with an issue of disability.

6.4.4 Findings In this study, the authors found: • Changing society is a long process, and “raising awareness” is the first step. • Having an inclusive attitude also means that we think with a human-centered approach, so it is important to consider human factors when designing social inclusion. • Making people experience a situation directly can influence their attitude toward the same situation in the future. This is the basis of our conclusion that experience plays a key role in raising awareness of social inclusion. • To consider what kind of activity can best be experienced to effectively raise awareness, it is essential to take human factors into account. We need to think from the perspective of people with disabilities and consider their limitations to determine whether the activity should be focused on disability or ability, the disadvantages of feeling disabled, or the advantages of limits.

6.4.5 Limitations and Future Research A limitation of this paper is that it only discusses each of the keywords in a basic sense, as they will be the basis of future research. Considering this, the paper was limited to a literature review with the aim of building a strong foundation before moving on to the next step in designing experiences to raise awareness. The selection of the literature was also based on the research questions, and focused on literature that discusses how disability and inclusivity issues have developed through the years, the importance of awareness as the first step in social change, and methodologies for raising awareness. For future research, we will focus more on designing an exact experience that can effectively raise awareness of social inclusion. Considering the findings gleaned from this research paper, we plan to conduct an experiment that is based on an interactive activity that targets a small group of people for a deeper impact. We also plan to use a “less is more” approach, where the experiment will have both subjects (with and without disabilities) sharing an equal experience in the same limited space, yet with an inclusive and accessible environment. The hypothesis in this experiment will be that having a limitation is not a problem if we can provide equal access. We hope

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the participants will come to understand that an inclusive way of thinking is needed to provide a better life for all.

6.5 Conclusion A disability exists when a health condition meets an inaccessible environment, whether this refers to physical access or conceptual access. Stigmatization happens because people still have a misconception that implies those with disabilities are imperfect and essentially sick people who need to be cured. This stigma leads to social exclusion, so we must raise awareness to change this misconception. Being aware that the stigma is wrong is the first step to giving people a better understanding of what a disability is and instilling the importance of providing social inclusion. Further, giving people the actual experience or direct observation of a disability will impart how an accessible environment will be beneficial in designing social inclusion and providing a better life for all, and is one method of raising awareness. With this process, more people will have a better understanding of the problem and take the first step toward breaking the stigma of disabilities. Acknowledgements This work was supported by JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research JP20K20119.

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11. Grover, P.: Conceptual models of disability. https://now.aapmr.org/conceptual-models-of-dis ability. Last accessed 15 May 2022 (2022) 12. Boy, G.A.: On the complexity of situation awareness. In: 19th Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association (IEA 2015), International Ergonomics Association, Aug 2015, Melbourne, Australia, pp. 9–14 (2015) 13. Hahn, H.: Disability and the urban environment: a perspective on Los Angeles. Environ. Plan. D: Soc. Space 4(3), 273–288 (1986) 14. Harte, R., Glynn, L., Rodríguez-Molinero, A., Baker, P.M., Scharf, T., Quinlan, L.R., ÓLaighin, G.: A human-centered design methodology to enhance the usability, human factors, and user experience of connected health systems: a three-phase methodology. JMIR Hum. Factors 4(1):e5443 (2017) 15. Hays, P.A.: Addressing Cultural Complexities in Practice: Assessment, Diagnosis, and Therapy, 2nd edn. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC (2008) 16. Heymani, S., Pillay, D., Andrade, V.d., Roos, R., Sekome, K.: A transformative approach to disability awareness, driven by persons with disability. South African Health Review 2020 (2020) 17. Idemitsu.: Awareness raising of D&I. https://sustainability.idemitsu.com/en/themes/339. Last accessed 18 Oct 2022 (2022) 18. Imrie, R.: Rethinking the relationships between disability, rehabilitation, and society. Disabil. Rehabil. pp. 263–271 (1997) 19. Interreg Central Europe.: Awareness campaign strategy. https://www.interreg-central.eu/Con tent.Node/BhENEFIT-D.T3.3.1-AWARENESS-CAMPAIGN-STRATEGY.pdf. Last accessed 18 Oct 2022 (2022) 20. Marks, D.: Models of disability. Disabil Rehabil. pp. 85–91 (1997) 21. Merriam-Webster Dictionary.: Awareness. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/awa reness. Last accessed 28 May 2022 (2022) 22. Monedero, J.A., Cuesta, C.U., Angulo, B.N.: Social image of disability. Vulnerability of the dignity of women with disability and social exclusion contexts. Procedia—Soc. Behav. Sci. pp. 115–120 (2014) 23. NSA Fund Training.: Strategies of raising awareness of the citizens. https://slideplayer.com/ slide/16078386/. Last accessed 18 Oct 2022 (2022) 24. Patrick, V.M., Hollenbeck, C.R.: Designing for all: consumer response to inclusive design. J. Consum. Psychol. pp. 360–381 (2021) 25. Prochaska, J.O., Velicer, W.F.: The transtheoretical model of health behavior change. Am. J. Health Promot. 12(1), 38–48 (1997). https://doi.org/10.4278/0890-1171-12.1.38. PMID: 10170434 26. Ramdhani, A., Ramdhani, M.A., Amin, A.S.: Writing a literature review research paper: a step-by-step approach. Int. J. Basics Appl. Sci. (2014) 27. Riberio, R.: The role of experience in perception. Hum. Stud. 37(4), 559–581 (2014) 28. Rochette, A., Roberge-Dao, J., Roche, L.: Advancing social inclusion of people with disabilities through awareness and training activities: a collaborative process between community partners and researchers. Patient Educ. Couns. pp. 416–425 (2020) 29. Roth, D., Pure, T., Rabinowitz, S., Kaufman-Scarborough, C.: Disability awareness, training, and empowerment: a new paradigm for raising disability awareness on a university campus for faculty, staff, and students. Soc. Incl. (ISSN: 2183-2803), 6(4), 116–124 (2018) 30. Shel, H., John, C.H.: Tactical Transparency: How Leaders Can Leverage Social Media to Maximize Value and Build Their Brand, 1st edn. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA (2009) 31. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.: Maurice Merleau-Ponty. https://plato.stanford.edu/ent ries/merleau-ponty/#NatuPercStruBeha. Last accessed 13 May 2022 (2022) 32. STEER programme.: e-atomium awareness raising & communication campaign. https:// www.eltis.org/sites/default/files/awareness_raising_communication_campaigns_6.pdf. Last accessed 18 Oct 2022 (2022) 33. Snyder, H.: Literature review as a research methodology: an overview and guidelines. J. Bus. Res. pp. 333–339 (2019)

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34. TAP Network 2030.: Raising awareness through public outreach campaigns. https://www. sdgaccountability.org/working-with-informal-processes/raising-awareness-through-publicoutreach-campaigns. Last accessed 18 Oct 2022 (2022) 35. Tononi, G., Koch, C.: Consciousness: here, there and everywhere? In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. The Royal Society Publishing (2015) 36. The World Bank.: Disability inclusion. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/disability#1. Last accessed 27 Apr 2022 (2022) 37. University of Westminster.: Promoting sustainable transport—the role of information, publicity and community education (1997). https://trimis.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/project/doc uments/inphormm.pdf 38. Ward, V., House, A., Hamer, S.: Developing a framework for transferring knowledge into action: a thematic analysis of the literature. J. Health Serv. Res. Policy (2017) 39. World Health Organization.: World report on disability. https://www.who.int/publications/i/ item/9789241564182. Last accessed 10 May 2022 (2022) 40. World Health Organization.: WHO Policy on disability. https://www.who.int/publications/i/ item/9789240020627. Last accessed 10 May 2022 (2022) 41. Umoh, R.: A decade of diversity highs and lows. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/rut humoh/2019/12/23/a-decade-of-diversity-highs-and-lows/?sh=2fd6bc9e7d48. Last accessed 18 Oct 2022 (2022) 42. United Nations.: Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities (CRPD). https://www. un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities. html. Last accessed 11 May 2022 (2022) 43. Verywellmind.: The preconscious, conscious, and unconscious minds. https://www.verywellm ind.com/the-conscious-and-unconscious-mind-2795946. Last accessed 12 May 2022 (2022) 44. Verywellmind.: States of consciousness: understanding human consciousness. https://www. verywellmind.com/lesson-four-states-of-consciousness-2795293. Last accessed 12 May 2022 (2022) 45. VVSG.: SDGs in your municipality. https://www.acor.ro/files/SDGs-in-your-municipality-50practical-awareness-raising-examples-.pdf. Last accessed 18 Oct 2022 (2022)

Chapter 7

Preconditioning Pre-adolescent Students to Cope with Academic Stress: Using Game Design as an Approach to Inculcate Healthy Coping Mechanisms Akshata Chitnis and Arundhati Guha Thakurta Abstract Pre-adolescence students need healthy resilience and coping mechanisms to deal with the mental distress caused by the unhealthy academic competition that glorifies overworking culture amongst students for validation of their worth. The research tried to assess the effect of academic stress on the overall well-being of preadolescence students to identify its implications on their coping mechanisms as they grow into adulthood. Based on this research, the study aimed to build a game design intervention to enable self-exploratory learning of healthy coping means. A systemic approach to game design was adopted using the Octalysis Framework for gamifications and behavioural design to build the game experience that balances the engagement with the learning aspect. The user expectancy and acceptance were assessed by taking user feedback. The system usability score (SUS) was used for usability evaluation. The developed game design ‘The Warrior in You’ introduces pre-adolescence students to coping means and initiates conversations within households to accept each student’s coping capabilities (SUS Score:90). The game design includes all stakeholders either directly through experience sharing and group problem-solving interactions or indirectly through the game scenarios. ‘The Warrior in You’ is a game design that uses situational narratives to channelise students’ creativity and teach problem-solving. It also helps parents understand their child’s internal struggles and learn the coping means suitable for their child.

7.1 Introduction Education is a way of life that enables us to evolve as a person by acquiring knowledge, skills, values, morals and habits. While educational institutions have established A. Chitnis (B) · A. G. Thakurta NMIMS School of Design, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India e-mail: [email protected] A. G. Thakurta e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_7

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a system to facilitate learning, it is crucial to change with the world that demands a dynamic learning approach about self, people and environmental relationships. Learning today revolves around making students memorise facts and figures for higher scores on grade sheets. What we truly need is to curate a learning experience that enables students to build sensibilities to solve real-world problems [1]. Educational institutes evaluate a student’s intellectual capabilities through their grade sheets, promoting an attitude to chase after grades, with low prioritisation to actual knowledge acquired. To keep up with the advancing world, students are plunged into the ‘survival of the fittest’ atmosphere without so much as helping them find their identity first [2]. This has led to one out of four students in India being depressed [3]. According to the Indian National Crime Records Bureau, one student commits suicide every hour in India with the number now rising to 34 per day [4]. Failure in examinations, parental expectations, competition at school, treatment from peers and teachers have led to this overwhelming amount of stress and mental health problems amongst Indian students [3]. World Health Organisation defines mental health as not just the absence of mental illness but a state of well-being wherein one can realise true potential, cope with stress and work productively [5]. In India, till date, this understanding and acceptance of mental health remains low with a general consensus to equate it to madness. India is a developing nation with high population, where intellect-based professions as considered to be the means to secure a stable life in the competitive environment. Old Indian scriptures have valued the ideologies of hard work and consider relaxation as a path to failure [6]. Indian society also believes in upholding the image of strong family values in society. Thus, requiring child therapy is considered a parenting failure rather than accepting the different coping styles of each child. A culmination of these cultural, social, personal and behavioural stressors amongst students since an early age affects their trajectory into adulthood affecting their overall well-being and creating a future of unhealthy work culture [7].

7.2 Literature Review Psychologists across the globe suggest most of the mental health problems amongst students begin at 14 years of age [5]. Therefore, the pre-adolescence age group before 14 needs to be empowered to cope with the stressors. Most schools in India lack initiatives or inclusion of mental well-being in curriculums. Mandatory celebration of events such as International Yoga Day across all schools in the country has been a small attempt towards building mindfulness but has led to the students equating mental health to yoga. Despite a mandatory rule for private schools to provide a counsellor, only 3% of them provide one. Indian schools need 15 lakh counsellors for the 315 million students [8].

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7.2.1 Related Work International schools across the globe have prioritised their students’ mental health by creating curriculums to educate them on the subject and worksheets to identify signs of mental problems. Such interventions restrict a student’s self-exploratory understanding of personal stressors and coping means. Projects such as the Peer Education Project offer a syllabus covering awareness, risks, seeking and providing help, delivered by older pupils; trained and supported by the school staff [9]. My Resilience in Adolescence (MYRIAD) is a UK school curriculum research project developed by teachers to inculcate mindfulness skills amongst teens [10]. The students answer well-being worksheets, and teachers rate them on risk for depression, socio-emotional and behavioural functioning [11]. These projects bring in influential aspects of peer learning and mindfulness skills. Various medical studies such as Stratifying Resilience and Depression Longitudinally (STRADL) use detailed clinical and cognitive questionnaires to collect data about socio-economic factors, lifestyle, personality and psychological health to understand how teens cope with situations to build therapy techniques [12].

7.2.2 Articulated Gaps The research highlights for mental health education interventions to succeed, several key practical and theoretical issues need to be considered. At the pragmatic level, many programmes do not consider the influencing groups—teachers and parents, to deliver the intervention void of biases. On a fundamental level, interventions treat mental health as another worksheet to solve or a chapter to learn. While many aptitude tests and algorithms help in ‘detection’ of mental disorders, there is a greater need to empower young minds to make healthy choices for their well-being. It has been noted that most interventions exist for teens or young adults; since the onset of mental health problems is at the age of 14, educating the age group just before, in a simple yet intuitive manner, is essential. The above discussed concerns led to the following problem statement “Students of the age 10–12 need to be empowered with healthy resilience and coping mechanisms to overcome the mental distress triggers caused by the unhealthy academic competition”. The age of 10–12 is when the academic stress-based turmoil begins to ingrain in their daily habits and behaviours, and hence, they can be pre-conditioned to adapt to these stressors. The key objective of the study is to enable the parents to learn their child’s needs to better support them while empowering students with healthy coping means like mindfulness, problem-solving, resilience and empathy. Ultimately, the purpose of the project is to help students to adopt healthy coping means to excel in their academic journey, building a path to a future of better work culture and well-being awareness.

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7.3 Methodology 7.3.1 Participants and Sampling Methods The study was conducted in Mumbai suburbs based on convenience sampling and involved around 133 participants through interviews and surveys conducted over various online and offline mediums. The study participants were—students age 10– 12 years; students age 16–19 years, their parents, teachers and child psychologists. Students of progressing age groups were studied to understand the academic triggers and their development into mental health problems. The participants were selected through based on the age and user group criteria and included: 53 students, 30 parents, 25 teachers and 25 psychologists.

7.3.2 Project Design Process The process followed for the project was done in four interconnected phases, each consisting of milestones achieved through design research and thinking tools. The data collection phase focused on qualitative and quantitative research using tools such as user interviews and surveys. The information gather in this phase was synthesised in the next to articulate a problem statement for ideation. The concepts then explored were reviewed with users, psychologists and game designers in the validation phase (Fig. 7.1).

Fig. 7.1 Design process followed

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7.4 Results and Discussion The scope of study was focused to academic stress affecting students’ well-being within the larger theme of Mental Health Education. The study delved deeper into the causes and effects of academic stress on the individual and society at large. The desk research revealed that the repetitive occurrence of a stimuli can turn positive motivation to bad stress causing physical, mental, emotional, cognitive and behavioural symptoms amongst students. The Indian Education System does not acknowledge effects of such stressors leading to lack of initiatives to create well-being programmes in schools. Table 7.1 details the findings of competitive analysis. The Google Survey provided a deeper understanding of peoples’ views on academic stress, well-being and therapy. Out of the 100 responses, 40% were students, 20% parents, 20% teachers and 20% child psychologists. The survey revealed 90% of the students were experiencing academic stress. Students prioritised grades over learning; making them feel disappointed for failing parents, stressed about people’s judgement and angry with self. Parental expectations and competition in schools are the biggest contributors for this stress. Though parents realised this academic pressure, they were unsure about therapy. The teachers revealed the lack of mental health curriculum in schools. Despite the lack of training or knowledge, they believed some students would benefit from therapy but were scared to suggest it to parents. Most students were unaware if their schools had a counsellor while the rest were scared of being reported to parents and teachers and being judged by friends (Ref Fig. 7.2). Through the user study, three major behaviours were observed—students compete for grades over learning; parents and teachers inculcate unhealthy comparison and glorification of overwork for success attainment. The following causes were articulated for these behaviours—evaluation of competence in grades, receiving greater respect in social circles, lack of acceptance of students’ varying intellectual and coping capabilities and considering relaxation as failure. Thus, the intervention target is pre-conditioning, which refers to self-exploratory learning of healthy coping means, during the formative years that define cognitive and emotional development. The key targets are—introduction and acceptance of healthy coping mechanism, initiating conversations and expressing self to accept coping capabilities. Table 7.1 Competitive analysis—the types of existing solutions and their gaps Worksheets

School book

Storybook

Fidget toys

Applications

Therapy

Detect mental health problems rather than to empowering them to cope

Mental health problems are explained through fear eliciting chapters

Lack of knowledge retention to translate into real-life situations

Leads to high dependence for quick relief over long-term benefit

Targets young adults, but these problems onset at 14 years of age

Lack of awareness and acceptance coupled with the cost services

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Fig. 7.2 Google survey data visualisation

7.4.1 Concept Design The brainstorming phase led to exploring the most unusual ideas from toolkit design, game design, virtual reality, product design to service design were explored. To better visualise and understand the viability of concepts, their minimum viable prototype was created for user feedback (Table 7.2). The feedback session revealed the first board game to be best approach to ensure behaviour change along with engagement. Since games result in dopamine secretion, they are naturally engaging and result in low stress levels. The core structure of the game presents a challenge and repercussion system, providing instant gratification for reinforcing a behaviour and consequences to deal with for negative conditioning. Pivots were also made after the review such as simplifying the language, building a warrior storyline to enhance game principles of accomplishment and healthy competition using the Octalysis framework.

7.4.2 Final Concept ‘The Warrior in You’ is a game designed to create a safe space for students to practice and explore healthy coping mechanisms while enabling parents to understand their kids better through the game choices. The game is based in The Kingdom Kokoro that has been attacked by demons who have stolen the peace elements—Fire, Water, Earth and Wind. Four bravest warriors of the kingdom have taken an oath to save their land and bring the elements back. Through the journey, the players have to roleplay as their selected warrior. They

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Table 7.2 Evaluation of all the brainstormed concepts Concept

Description

Warrior’s worries

Board High Game—through roleplaying as warriors on a mission, enables active practice of coping means

Knowledge gain Engagement Learnability User rating High

Moderate

4/5

Our coping tree Toolkit High design—through a series of 3 story books about a boy and his bonsai, helps kids build their own coping tree

Moderate

Moderate

3/5

Our well-being Curriculum Moderate quest design—uses interactive movie storyline to enable group problem-solving sessions in classrooms

High

Low

3/5

Guiding light

Virtual Reality—a walk-through daily stress trigger interactions with options to find better means to cope

High

Low

2.5/5

Ghost on my back

Interactive High Book—a book about a girl carrying a ghost of worries on her back that the students need to resolve through interactive puzzles

Moderate

Low

3/5

Moderate

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must face choice-based demon situations and perform healthy coping tasks to ensure a high warrior well-being to win the game. The gameplay is very simple and based on taking turns to roll the dice. The game requires 2–4 players with an age bracket of 10 + and takes about 40 min to complete. Table 7.3 details the game components their interactions and the psychological strategy applied (Figs. 7.3 and 7.4). Principle in Application The game is designed as a leisure activity to be played at any time with friends and family. The challenge cards are created based on behavioural psychology—cue, action, result model. For instance: the situation presented of King asking to overwork is a trigger that the students have seen or experienced before; the options provided to rest and gain well-being or move ahead and lose well-being are actions which indicate the type of coping means a child opts for in real life. Thus, they experience repercussions in the game based on the health priority choices taken. Usability evaluation of final prototype A playable design of the game with aesthetic and ergonomic details was created and tested with user to evaluate its effectiveness and engagement. Through the game, we observed a growth in the choices made by kids moving towards healthy coping options for their warrior’s well-being. The students enjoyed roleplaying as warriors and were able to express their own emotions without feeling conscious. A review with game designers guide was designed with psychologists, to help them understand child psychology and the actions to be taken based on their child’s game choices. The reviews helped conclude that the game is a successful attempt to trigger an action amongst parents and students to become more aware and actively shift towards healthier coping means (Table 7.4). The SUS test helped understand the usability performance in the aspects of efficacy, efficiency, and overall ease of use with a positively high score of 90. Most participants agreed for the positive phrased (odd no) questions were and disagreed for the negatively phrased (even no) questions (Fig. 7.6).

7.5 Discussions ‘The Warrior in You’ creates narratives that blend the fantasy world with real-life challenges students face today to channelise creativity. It also enables parents to empathise and learn the coping means suitable for their child. Thus, the concept may prove to be impactful to trigger change in the attitudes of students and parents. Unlike most mental health education solutions, the game includes all stakeholders through experience sharing, group problem-solving and game scenarios. Various video games have attempted to depict mental health issues. Hellblade is one of the most popular game where players take on the role of Senua, a female warrior experiencing psychosis [4]. Though the game has taken a great stance on depicting the struggles of psychosis, it focuses on the graphic visuals and sound design which can also trigger certain users.

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Table 7.3 Gameplay components their interactions and strategy Sr. no.

Name and rules

Psychological strategy

1

Game component

Main Board It has a path that leads the warriors into the palace. The path is made up of steps that include blank steps, power boosts (yellow), power down (red), challenge steps (blue grey) and islands

The power boost and power down steps were designed to add element of unpredictability and luck that makes players earn/lose coins or move ahead/back in the game. On the challenge step, the players must pick a challenge card from the deck

2

Palace It comes needs to be placed behind the board using its stand. Warriors need to reach the palace, the first to last take place from left to right

Win Condition 1 The first player to go through all steps and reach the palace gets +5 points followed by +4, +3 and +2 for those that follow

3

Warrior Pawns and Boards There are 4 warrior characters in the game—Layla, Athena, Maximus and Alessandro personified with strengths and weaknesses. These traits are mentioned on the each warrior’s board. The board also provides space to place challenge cards, well-being and warrior elements earned

The characters were developed based on major traits found in students such as inability to focus, fear of failure, difficult to express emotions and self-doubt. Refer to Fig. 7.5 to understand the details of every character development

4

Challenge Cards Each warrior has their own challenge cards with situations that build their character strengths or face weaknesses to grow; they must be placed face down on the warrior board

There are 5 types of challenge card activities—sensory, imagination, decision making, imitation, talk therapy and assistance; to boost creativity, express emotions, share experiences and problem solve

5

Demon Islands The islands are milestones to There are 5 demon islands boxes test if the coping activities kids each consisting of 6 battle cards performed through the challenge cards translate in situation application to make better choices

6

Island battle cards The battle cards are placed inside the island box and are choice-based situations

The situations are evaluated based on the effect on the warrior’s well-being. Choices that are considered ‘brave’ but affect well-being result in repeating demon battles and losing well-being in the process

7

Well-being coins They can be earned by completing challenges, landing on power boosts and winning the demon island battles

Win Condition 2 Palace points must be added to the total well-being coins collected at the end to find the winner (continued)

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Table 7.3 (continued) Sr. no.

Game component

8

Name and rules

Psychological strategy

Warrior elements There are 4 warrior element in the game—Fire, Water, Earth and Wind

Elements are attributes designated to each warrior based on their goal of their persona. Refer to Fig. 7.5 for details

Fig. 7.3 Final game setup and packaging look

Fig. 7.4 Warrior character persona details

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Fig. 7.5 Warrior challenge card types and examples

Other video games like Gris also follow around a girl through stages of grief [13]. Some physical games include Box of Emotions, LinkyThings-Wheel of emotions, Conversation cubes to help kids understand emotions and express themselves. The limitations of such games are they include questions about emotions felt, coping means used or anxiety levels, which need to be moderated by a therapist or someone with training to provide appropriate responses. The unique selling point of ‘Warrior in You’ is its approach to present scenarios that allow self-exploration of coping means to adopt healthy ways while normalising well-being struggles.

7.6 Conclusion An individual’s well-being refers to their evaluation of life and experiences based on needs, pains and motivation and thus is subjective to what is intrinsically valuable to that person. Since the idea of well-being and stressors affecting it is multitudinal, each individual has different ways to cope with it. The game thus developed uses behavioural design to enable players to explore healthy coping means suitable for them through reinforcement learning model combined with gamification principles to ensure engagement and retention. The concept could expand to include—comic book series on warriors tackling demons, interactive movies and workshops of the game for schools. The limitation would be encouraging parents to buy the game, but this can be overcome through effective marketing to display the benefits of the game. The ultimate goal is to build a service that expands into all horizons of interactions for students like classes, schools, therapy clinics by first starting at their own home.

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Table 7.4 System usability scale Sr. no. System usability scale questions

Strongly Disagree (2) Neutral (3) Strongly agree Agree (4) disagree (1) (5)

1

I think that I would like to use this game frequently

0

0

0

0

4

2

I found the game very complex

0

2

0

0

0

3

I thought the 0 game was easy to understand and play

0

0

5

0

4

I think that I 1 would need additional support to play and use this game

0

0

0

0

5

I found the 0 storyline and tasks in the game were well integrated

0

0

5

0

6

I thought there 1 was too much inconsistency in the game design

0

0

0

0

7

I would 0 imagine most people would learn to use this game very quickly

0

0

0

4

8

I found the 1 game very cumbersome to use

0

0

0

0

9

I felt very confident and enjoyed playing the game

0

0

5

0

0

(continued)

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Table 7.4 (continued) Sr. no. System usability scale questions

Strongly Disagree (2) Neutral (3) Strongly agree Agree (4) disagree (1) (5)

10

0

I needed to learn a lot of things before I could get going with game

2

0

0

0

Fig. 7.6 Board game prototype testing

References 1. Morrison, R.: We need to completely reimagine education (2018). Retrieved from BOLD, 15 Oct 2018: https://bold.expert/we-need-to-completely-reimagineeducation/?gclid=CjwKCA iAiKuOBhBQEiwAId_sKxujtaTHizJcC2FQXaQuhYrFtCH8JWfxW21j8TNODDvX3bCc 6SevphoC-J0QAvD_BwE 2. Miller, K.D.: The importance of child mental health and happiness (2021). Retrieved from Positive Psychology, 12 July 2021: https://positivepsychology.com/child-mental-health-hap piness/ 3. Reddy, K., Menon, K., Thattil, A.: Academic stress and its sources among university students (n.d.). Retrieved from https://biomedpharmajournal.org/vol11no1/academic-stress-and-its-sou rces-among-university-students/ 4. Hellblade.: Hellblade Senua’s sacrifice (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.hellblade.com 5. World Health Organization.: Mental health: strengthening our response (2018). Retrieved from 30 Mar 2018. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-health-strengtheningour-response 6. Gautam, S., Jain, N.: Indian culture and psychiatry (n.d.). Retrieved from Indian Journal of Psychiatry: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3146223/ 7. Pascoea, M.C.: The impact of stress on students in secondary school and higher education (2019). Retrieved from 29 Jan 2019 https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1596823 8. Gosh, R.: India needs 15 lakh counsellors for 315 million students (2019). Retrieved from Times of India, 6 May 2019: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/indianeeds-15-lakh-counsellors-for-315-million-students/articleshow/69201566.cms 9. Mental Health Foundation.: PEP peer education project (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www. mentalhealth.org.uk/projects/peer-education-project-pep 10. Minsthorpe Community College.: MYRIAD (n.d.). Retrieved from https://minsthorpe.cc/myr iad/

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11. Oxford Mindfulness Center.: MYRIAD my resilience in adolescence (n.d.). Retrieved from https://myriadproject.org/myriad-project/ 12. University of Edinburgh.: STratifying resilience and depression longitudinally (STRADL) (2019). Retrieved from https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/datasets/stratifying-resilience-anddepression-longitudinally-stradl-a-dep 13. Nomada Studio.: Gris (2018). Retrieved from 13 Dec 2018. https://nomada.studio

Chapter 8

An Empirical Study to Improve Faculty Workplace Ergonomics for Minimizing the Risk of Transmission of Airborne Diseases Bankapalli Vamsi, Pullela Kali Raj Sunad, and Jay Dhariwal Abstract Improving the workspaces for “environmental ergonomics” is essential for better occupational health and safety, especially in populated and developing countries like India. Moreover, controlling airborne diseases in indoor environments has become one of the significant concerns during the recent COVID-19 pandemic. Enhancing indoor ventilation is one of the most effective ways to mitigate the airborne transmission risk. In this study, experiments were planned and carried out in smaller volume rooms inside a university building, such as faculty cabins, using CO2 sensor monitoring. CO2 measurements are taken in 16 different ventilation instances including doors, windows, and exhaust fans. Using the ASTM tracer gas equation, these CO2 values are used to determine the ventilation rates in each circumstance. The Wells-Riley probability model is used to determine the probability of infection, and the findings for all the 16 instances are provided. When all the doors and windows are closed, the exhaust is switched off, and the mask is not worn; the mean CO2 concentration is the highest, thereby increasing the risk of airborne transmission. This study finally exhibits and proposes a design paradigm that specifies which method to use under certain scenarios.

8.1 Introduction Environmental ergonomics is a vital area in the field of ergonomics, which encompasses better indoor environments in terms of climate, lighting, acoustics, airborne disease reduction, and others for better occupational health and safety [1]. Out of these parameters, controlling airborne diseases in indoor spaces has become one of the significant concerns during the recent pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-Cov-2), also known as the COVID-19 pandemic. Populated countries like India have long been hindered by other airborne infections, B. Vamsi (B) · P. K. R. Sunad · J. Dhariwal Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_8

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such as syncytial virus, influenza, measles, metapneumovirus, adenovirus, tuberculosis, and so on [2]. Hence, it is important to design indoor spaces such that the probability of infection transmission is minimized for better health and safety. This can be achieved by improving ventilation in indoor spaces [3]. Klompas et al. emphasized the necessity of a well-ventilated room, claiming that exposure to an infected person in a poorly ventilated area allows pathogen-containing aerosols [4]. On the other hand, Morawska and Milton also stressed the need for adequate and appropriate ventilation for giving clean outdoor air in public spaces to prevent the virus from spreading [5]. Previous literature suggested that enhancing the ventilation of indoor spaces is critical in minimizing the risk of airborne infections. During the COVID-19 pandemic, there were studies examining the intersection of “infection transmission” and “ventilation systems” in various indoor settings such as classrooms, elevator cabins, car cabins, hospital wards, airplane cabins, and salons [6–11]. For instance, Huang et al. analyzed the human factors of dentists by examining CO2 concentrations in dental clinic buildings and found that “ventilation” was one of the factors that led to CO2 accumulation by measuring CO2 concentrations [10]. Bain-Reguis et al. also examined the human factors of students in twenty Scottish schools during the COVID-19 epidemic considering ventilation as a tool [12]. All of these previously published studies investigated the quality of indoor air in terms of airborne disease transmission using mathematical models such as the Wells-Riley probability function [13] and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) [14]. However, dimensions of the indoor space also have a significant impact on altering ventilation rates [15]. Therefore, it is equally essential to assess infection risk models in spaces with smaller volumes in the context of environmental ergonomics. One such indoor space with smaller volumes that can be considered is a “faculty office room” inside university buildings. Moreover, studies of small-volume workplaces, such as faculty cabins, are also limited in the available literature. Therefore, in our study, we considered faculty workplaces as our analysis system since these rooms are often utilized for meetings between professors and students, as well as employees and industry professionals. Moreover, studies related to assess the impact of indoor and outdoor corridors in increasing CO2 levels in indoor spaces are also limited. This study is one such attempt conducted inside a faculty cabin at the Indian Institute of Technology, (IIT) Delhi campus. All the faculty rooms inside the IIT campus are air-conditioned. Considering thermal comfort, the faculty rooms are mostly not air-conditioned during winter, allowing faculties to close their doors and windows. As a result, natural ventilation has been widely recommended and can be an efficient way to reduce pathogen spread [16]. As a result, factors that are associated with natural ventilation, such as doors, windows, and face masks, can be manipulated based on indoor carbon dioxide (CO2 ) levels. In indoor spaces, CO2 levels are produced from the metabolic process of human beings through exhalation. With inadequate ventilation, the stale air recirculates in the room, leading to increased CO2 levels. This is why CO2 can be considered a proxy for airborne transmission of diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic [17]. In this light, the most effective way to minimize infection spread in indoor spaces is to improve building ventilation and optimize indoor CO2 levels.

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Fig. 8.1 Field study layout diagram, faculty office-3 a inside the office cabin b outside the office cabin layout

The guideline from WHO (1000 ppm), USA (700 ppm), India (1000 ppm), and other countries is to keep CO2 levels less than 1000 ppm in indoor spaces [17]. With reference to the above points, manipulating factors such as doors, windows, face masks, and exhaust fans in a smart way is preferable to limit infection risk during winter seasons inside faculty workplaces effectively. Most of the current research has been carried out in many other nations with relatively colder climates than Delhi during winters. Thus, observing changes in these climatic circumstances is also preferable. In response, CO2 monitoring experiments were planned inside a faculty office cabin (faculty room-3, Fig. 8.1) on 10th December 2021.

8.2 Methods and Materials 8.2.1 Experimental Design The dimensions of the office room are 115 inches × 158 inches × 178 inches. The room has two windows (42 inches by 20 inches), one door (33 inches by 79 inches), and one exhaust fan (v = 1.6 m/s). The exhaust fan velocity was determined using a vane probe (Ø 16 mm, digital)—wired anemometer by testo. For monitoring indoor quality parameters, we used the Testo 400 IAQ-Kit (with 400 Universal IAQ Instrument, Bluetooth CO2 Probe). During the experiment, Testo was placed on a table

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Fig. 8.2 Design matrix of all 16 experiments, where “1” refers to “Open/yes/on”and “0” refers to “Close/no/off”

at the height of 65 cm, with seven occupants seated around it, for a total of 24 = 16 different cases (shown in Fig. 8.2). All 7 seven occupants are sat at 60, 145, 71, 71, 99, 65, and 65 cm (mean distance of 82.285 cm) from the table. Because CO2 is heavier than air, it often exhibits a stratified flow characteristic. Therefore, whatever occupants exhale, CO2 gas will initially rise as the exhaled air is at a higher temperature, but it should settle down at the bottom of the room after the temperature of the gas reaches the ambient conditions. So, one can find accurate settling concentrations at the bottom of the room. As a result, all seven room occupants are seated closer to the sensors’ table. This is because the table’s surface is closer to the source, allowing sensors to provide accurate settling readings. Because of this, the seating arrangement was designed to bring everyone closer to the table. Only 6 min of data are considered for evaluation, and all the data collected by the data logger in Testo were imported into computers for further assessment analysis.

8.2.2 Calculating Ventilation Rates (Q) We analytically calculated the ventilation rates using Eq. (8.1), which is called the tracer gas equation. The tracer gas equation can be utilized by making a few assumptions, such as that the ventilation rates and ambient CO2 concentrations remain constant throughout the period [18, 19].

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Q=

1.8G × 106 Ca − C0

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(8.1)

where Q = Ventilation rate into the space, L/s; G = Carbon dioxide generation rate into the space, L/s; C a = average CO2 recorded throughout the timeframe, mg/m3 and C 0 = Ambient CO2 concentration, mg/m3 . Based on Eq. (8.1) in the reference [20], the G value corresponding to an average-sized adult engaged in office work (1.4 met) is about 0.0052 L/s is considered. The ambient CO2 concentration is considered as 738 mg/m3 (410 PPM) [21].

8.2.3 Evaluation of the Infection Risk: Wells-Riley Equation The Wells-Riley model is a quick and easy way to assess airborne infection risk based on Poisson’s distribution. The probability of airborne virus transmission (P) in a space that has reached a steady-state concentration is usually calculated with this approach. The Wells-Riley equation is given as— 

P=

C − =1−e S

N Rqt Q



(8.2)

where P = probability of infection transmission, C = number of cases that develop infection, S = number of susceptible people, N = number of infectors, R = pulmonary ventilation rate (m3 /h), q = quantum generation rate (1/h), t = exposure time (h), Q = ventilation rate (m3 /h). In our case, N = 1 is considered, which means we assumed that there is one infected person out of 7 occupants and R = 0.36 m3 /h [22, 23]. The ranges for quantum generation rates for different diseases are extracted from previous studies [24]. In our case, the maximum “q” value in the specified range was considered. For tuberculosis, the “q” range is 1–50 h−1 [25], and we considered the value of 50 h−1 in our study. For MERS, it is 6–140 h−1 ; for SARS and influenza, it is 10–300 h−1 and 15–300 h−1 , respectively, and for measles, it is 570–5600 h−1 [26]. In some instances, occupants wear face masks, which decreases the “q” value and increases in “Q” value. The factor at which this will increase or decrease depends on the effectiveness of the face mask. The effectiveness of masks varies depending on the type of mask it is. In our case, all occupants wear N95 face masks, which have a 90% effectiveness level [27]. So, in our case, we used a conservative estimate of an 85% reduction in viral transmission from N95 usage by an infected individual and quantified this reduction as an 85% decrease in “q.” We also selected a conservative estimate of 85% to account for the reduction in transmission when a susceptible person wears a face mask, which we characterized as an 85% increase in “Q.” Face masks are worn by all occupants in instances 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, and 12. In these instances, adjusted “Q” and “q” are considered for calculating probability. These adjusted values for “q” and “Q” are obtained by multiplying the actual/calculated values with the factors 0.15 (85% decrease) and 1.85 (85% increase), respectively.

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These changes were made only in the instances when occupants wear masks; in all remaining instances, the original values are considered as it is.

8.3 Results The link containing supplementary materials of this study is attached at the end of this manuscript, which provides the results of mean CO2 , temperature, and relative humidity recorded in all 16 cases (Fig. 8.2b). From the results obtained, the maximum mean CO2 value recorded was 1508 PPM in experiment-13 (refer to Fig. 8.2b), while the smallest mean CO2 value was 442 PPM in experiment-5. The highest mean CO2 values measured were 1508 PPM (experiment-13), 1226 PPM (experiment-14), and 1096 PPM (experiment-15), with both the exhaust fan and mask turned off in each case. Therefore, it is apparent that the exhaust fan and mask have a considerable impact on CO2 fluctuations inside the room. However, even without using an exhaust fan and keeping windows and doors open while wearing a mask, the average CO2 level observed was comparatively nearer to the safe threshold value, at 605 PPM. In terms of temperature, the maximum mean recorded temperature was 23.8711 °C in experiment-13, while the lowest mean temperature was 21.135 °C in experiment1. Thermal comfort-wise, experiment-13 has positive findings, with a 2 °C difference measured when all doors and windows are closed. For relative humidity, the highest mean value was 56% in experiment-1, while the lowest mean value was 52% in experiment-15. Also, in addition, we estimated the thermal discomfort index proposed by Thom 1957, Epstein, and Moran 2006 [28] for all 16 experiments. The results of these are provided in the supplementary section. These results clearly showed that throughout all 16 experiments, there were no significant differences in temperature and relative humidity values inside space as compared with CO2 values. In our study, when exhaust fans are turned off, CO2 levels rise to over 1000 ppm, exceeding the WHO’s (1000 ppm), USA’s (700 ppm), India’s (1000 ppm), and other nations’ [17] threshold limits. Using these mean CO2 values in each instance, the ventilation rates are determined using Eq. (8.1) and adjusted based on face mask filtration efficiency. Figure 8.3 illustrates the ventilation airflow rates of the faculty cabin (both calculated and adjusted). The average ventilation rate in all the experiments was 140 m3 /h (equivalent ACH of 2.6 h−1 of our faculty space), ranging from minimum ventilation rate of 17 m3 /h in experiment-13 and maximum ventilation of 585 m3 /h in experiment-13. The building ventilation system performs more air purification when the ventilation rates inside the space are high [29]. The ventilation rate is relatively low when the exhaust fan is switched off, no mask is used, and doors and windows are closed, indicating a considerable risk of disease transmission. Furthermore, using these calculated ventilation rates, the probabilities of getting an airborne infection were estimated (TB, MERS, SARS, influenza, and measles) in all 16 cases using Eq. (8.2). The “q” values are also adjusted in experiments 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, and 12 in the same manner as adjusting “Q.” The values of adjusted “q” considered in these cases were q = 7 h−1

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Fig. 8.3 Infection risk probabilities using Wells-Riley model in all 16 experiments

for tuberculosis, q = 21 h−1 for MERS, q = 840 h−1 for measles, and q = 45 h−1 for SARS and influenza. With N = 1, adjusted “q” and “Q,” and R values, the probability of getting infected is estimated in each case. Figure 8.3 shows the results of these. It is clearly observed that measles disease has higher transmission potentiality. However, this is because of the higher “q” value for measles. Therefore, even with a facemask, it was recommended that a person infected with measles not interact with the faculty members in our office. In addition, Fig. 8.3 illustrates the probabilities for a one-hour exposure; however, for 1–5 min of exposure time, the predicted probability decreased significantly, indicating that good ventilation may not transmit measles in shorter meetings. The lowest and highest probability estimated for TB infection were 0.78% in experiment-4 and 65.20% for experiment-13, for MERS were 2.32% and 94.79%, and for SARS were 4.92% and 99.82%, respectively. From observations, however, these strategies (experiment-1 or 4) for reducing the risk of TB infection are showing promising outcomes. In experiment-4, it was clearly demonstrated that the chance of contracting tuberculosis is only 0.78%. Yet, it is evident that tuberculosis is one of the infections that affect healthcare workers [30]. Implementing experiment-4 technique can reduce the incidence of TB in Indian hospitals because the design of most office cabins, nurse chambers, doctor cabins, and other spaces in government TB facilities is similar to our faculty cabins. The maximum ventilation rate for this office cabin is estimated at experiment-5 (585 m3 /hr), as well as the minimum ventilation rate at experiment-13 (17 m3 /hr). Therefore, our faculty cabin can achieve the ventilation rates in the range 17– 585 m3 /hr. Typically, ventilation rates in a certain space are affected by various parameters such as meteorological conditions, occupant behavior, wind velocity, room volume, and other uncertainties and are not constant over time [31]. Therefore,

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Fig. 8.4 Wells-Riley probability versus ventilation rates at N = 1 for 60 min exposure time

we compared the ventilation rates graphically with Wells-Riley probability to know the correlations. For visualization purposes, the probability versus ventilation rates plot was illustrated and shown below– The probabilities were estimated and fitted as shown in Fig. 8.4. While plotting the curve, we only calculated the probability for tuberculosis, MERS, SARS, and influenza. We skipped over measles for this comparison since it is riskier and more frequent in children than in adults [32]. On the other hand, it was observed that from Fig. 8.4, when occupants wear mask, the probability of infection transmission is relatively less indicating that mask also has significant effect in reducing airborne disease transmission.

8.4 Discussions The ventilation of an indoor area depends on the inlets and outlets of air flow into the room, as well as the direction of the outside wind. Our faculty cabin has doors and windows as inlets and an exhaust fan as an outlet. If both inlets (doors and windows) are exposed to the outside environment, more fresh air will enter the space. However, in our case, the faculty cabin door is exposed to an indoor corridor, and the windows are exposed to outdoor corridor (Fig. 8.1). This results in an inflow of accumulated CO2 from the indoor corridor into the space through doors. As a result, maximum

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ventilation rates in experiment 3 rather than experiment-1 are recorded. Typically, the maximum ventilation rates are supposed to be recorded in experiment-1, which has both windows and doors open, yet the maximum value is not recorded in that case. But, for readers, it is ideal to adopt the experiment-1 strategy when your space’s doors and windows are exposed to the outdoor corridors. Experiment-5 typically generates good results in terms of mean CO2 and natural ventilation rates, but experiment-4 gave favorable results in terms of infection probability. This is because the “q” values have been adjusted. The exhaust fan is present in all the above experiments; however, if an exhaust fan is not available in your room, it is recommended that you install one or use the experiment-9 strategy (which also provides favorable results). If there is no scope for natural ventilation, adaptive thermal comfort is best recommended. But, further study in adaptive thermal comfort is required under Indian meteorological circumstances to provide an efficient approach. By compiling all these points, we designed a paradigm (Fig. 8.5) that provides details on the environmental ergonomics strategies proposed in this study based on the results obtained. To comprehend this diagram, readers must be familiar with the following terms: • Exhaust-only ventilation system: A room with only exhaust that helps to suck the indoor air that has accumulated. • Supply-only ventilation system: A room with supply vents can help to pressurize the area, and the accumulated air can escape through gaps. • Balanced ventilation system: A room with both supply and exhaust vents. The strategies shown in Fig. 8.5 are based on the values derived from Eqs. (8.1) and (8.2). These strategies are applicable to a variety of building types with regard to indoor and outdoor corridors. Usually, a balanced ventilation system delivers optimal thermal comfort and prevents airborne transmission while using more energy than natural ventilation. Therefore, for saving energy, more research in this field is required to design demand-control ventilation systems based on Indian meteorological conditions and the impacts of outdoor pollution.

Fig. 8.5 Proposed environmental ergonomics strategies

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For calculation purposes, the assumption we made for CO2 generation rates (G) was based on Eq. (8.1a) [20], but this model only works for steady-state fluxes, which are practically difficult to obtain. The value of “G” is, however, dependent on the age, height, sex, weight, and metabolic activity of the occupants. So, the considered value from existing literature may be closer to the actual value, resulting in a negligible error only. In addition to removal by natural ventilation forces, airborne droplets can be eliminated by viral inactivation (l) and gravitational settling (k) also [33]. Viral inactivation is the loss of infectivity caused by chemical and physical changes in aerosolized viruses. In our research, we overlooked these two values while calculating natural ventilation rates. In a nutshell, this study found that adequate ventilation, as well as the effects of doors, windows, face masks, and exhaust, can help to reduce the probability of airborne diseases in a faculty office. As the number of faculty meetings increases in the future, the natural ventilation measures outlined in this study may be useful in reducing airborne infection transmission. But, these measures outlined in this study are only limited to winter seasons. Temperature changes, wind velocity, and humidity levels may affect the results in various seasons. As a result, additional monitoring studies in different Indian locations will be required to acquire a deeper grasp of this problem statement. India has a wide range of climates, including cold, composite, moderate, hot, and dry, and warm and humid climates. As a result, understanding variations in CO2 levels in the context of airborne diseases, air pollution, and thermal comfort in various climatic conditions and seasons under various indoor spaces such as transportation vehicles, schools, offices, malls, movie theaters, and so on may assist Indian designers in developing new guidelines for indoor air quality monitoring in India. Some residential houses, on the other hand, are congested with other buildings on all four sides, limiting natural ventilation, especially for those living on the first three floors. When these strategies (Experiment-1 or 5) are used in these types of structures, natural ventilation can only be achieved to a limited extent. Separate ways for acquiring a better understanding of these buildings can be developed in the future. On the other hand, monitoring CO2 is critical, as previously mentioned, and indoor air quality measures should be monitored on a regular basis. Furthermore, because setting up many indoor monitoring stations for experiments is costly, designers should concentrate on designing efficient and low-cost indoor air quality evaluation equipment. In the future, there should be more commercial CO2 exposure monitoring equipment available in Indian markets. It would also be a good idea to develop lowcost personal CO2 exposure wearables. To produce low-cost personal IAQ monitorbased wearables, product designers must also research Indian markets and customers. Furthermore, focusing on the philosophy of green buildings in different ways is also an efficient way to optimize CO2 levels [34, 35]. Using CO2 absorbent materials over various surfaces and items dependent on climatic conditions in Indian structures might be a viable strategy to lower levels.

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8.5 Conclusions The following points are the summary of our study based on the results we obtained and discussions—(1) In this study, an experimental design was planned using 24 experiments by varying four factors for two levels each and implemented in rooms with smaller sizes, such as faculty cabins, inside a university building, to enhance the space’s ergonomics from the perspective of reducing the transmission of airborne diseases using CO2 sensor monitoring; (2) The maximum mean CO2 value was recorded when all doors and windows are closed; the exhaust is off, and the mask is not worn; (3) According to our estimations, the faculty office can accomplish ventilation between 17 and 585 m3/h during the winter; (4) When all doors, windows, and exhaust fans are closed, and no mask is used, the probability of developing TB is 65.21%, MERS is 94.8%; SARS and influenza are 99.82%, and measles is 100%; (5) When the door is closed, the window is open, and the exhaust fan is on, the risk of developing TB is 3.03%, 8.25% for MERS, 16.86% for SARS and influenza, and 96.81% for measles; (6) This work illustrates and presents a design paradigm that provides information on which strategy to use under which conditions as shown in Fig. 8.5; (7) In the discussions section, recommendations for future product development and environmental ergonomics are presented related to lowcost sensors, green buildings, sensor wearables, IAQ studies, and adaptive thermal comfort. The following link provides the supplementary materials for this study— https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1qe0nr0lcGnLC_hTQ9-GeeUKghN5 OwhBL?usp=sharing

References 1. Parsons, K.C.: Environmental ergonomics: a review of principles, methods and models. Appl. Ergon. 31, 581–594 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-6870(00)00044-2 2. Waghmode, R., Jadhav, S., Nema, V.: The burden of respiratory viruses and their prevalence in different geographical regions of India: 1970–2020. Front. Microbiol., 12 (2021). https://doi. org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.723850 3. Li, Y., Leung, G.M., Tang, J.W., et al.: Role of ventilation in airborne transmission of infectious agents in the built environment—a multidisciplinary systematic review. Indoor Air 17, 2–18 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2006.00445.x 4. Klompas, M., Baker, M.A., Rhee, C.: Airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2: theoretical considerations and available evidence. JAMA 324, 441–442 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1001/ jama.2020.12458 5. Morawska, L., Milton, D.K.: It is time to address airborne transmission of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Clin. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. Infect. Dis. Soc. Am. 71, 2311–2313 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa939 6. Haverinen-Shaughnessy, U., Moschandreas, D.J., Shaughnessy, R.J.: Association between substandard classroom ventilation rates and students’ academic achievement. Indoor Air 21, 121–131 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2010.00686.x

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29. Farnsworth, M.: Air changes per hour, infection control and dust containment (2014). https://www.hepacart.com/blog/air-changes-per-hour-air-flow-and-dust-containmentinfection-control 30. Kumar, M., Joseph, B., Goud, B., et al.: Risk of tuberculosis infection among healthcare workers in a tertiary care hospital in Bengaluru City. Indian J. Occup. Environ. Med. 23, 83–89 (2019). https://doi.org/10.4103/ijoem.IJOEM_269_18 31. Dhariwal, J., Banerjee, R.: Naturally ventilated building design under uncertainty using design of experiments (2015) 32. Misin, A., Antonello, R.M., Di Bella, S., et al.: Measles: an overview of a re-emerging disease in children and immunocompromised patients. Microorganisms 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10. 3390/microorganisms8020276 33. Benbough, J.E.: Some factors affecting the survival of airborne viruses. J. Gen. Virol. 10, 209–220 (1971). https://doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-10-3-209 34. Manna, D., Banerjee, S.: A review on green building movement in India. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res. 8, 1980–1986 (2019) 35. Macnaughton, P., Satish, U., Laurent, J., et al.: The impact of working in a green certified building on cognitive function and health. Build. Environ. 114 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.buildenv.2016.11.041

Chapter 9

Identification of Appropriate Tools and Techniques for Ergonomic Evaluation in FMCG Industrial Shop Floor Gurdeep Singh

and Sougata Karmakar

Abstract Ergonomics plays a vital role in improving worker safety, overall worker well-being, and productivity improvement on industrial shop floors. Numerous ergonomic evaluation techniques/tools exist for conducting ergonomic evaluations in various work domains of industrial shop floor work. Due to their diversity and finer differentiation, it becomes confusing for shop floor engineers to quickly decide the most appropriate tool(s) feasible for their intended purposes. By considering the fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) industry’s fundamental work parameters, the current paper hints at the critical strategies to be followed in order to identify the most relevant tools for conducting an effective ergonomic evaluation on the FMCG shop floor. Based on these work fundamentals, the probable and appropriate tools were identified for conducting an ergonomic evaluation on the FMCG shop floor. Proper identification of ergonomic evaluation tools and their application in FMCG shop floor, occupational safety and health (OSH) evaluation would ultimately enable industrial designers/engineers to come up with appropriate solutions through innovative design and behavioral changes. This paper highlights the strategies to be adopted by shop floor engineers in identifying and implementing bestsuited ergonomic tools/techniques for successful ergonomic evaluation and thereby proposing context-specific interventions.

9.1 Introduction Consumer goods or groceries comprising food, beverage, and household goods are better known as fast-moving consumer goods (FMCGs). Globally, FMCG industry serves the consumers’ daily needs with its wide variety of low-cost, high-volume products of consumable nature. The FMCG industry heavily contributes to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employment perspective within all nations across the globe. A brief outlook of the FMCG industry worldwide is depicted in Table 9.1 [1, 2]. G. Singh · S. Karmakar (B) Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_9

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Table 9.1 Overview of global FMCG industry National category

Product segment ranking

Production set-up

Manual labor engagement

Developed nations

1

Food and beverages

Highly automated

Limited engagement

2

Household and personal care products

Highly automated

Limited engagement

3

Healthcare products

Highly automated

Limited engagement

1

Household and personal care products

Semi-automated

Highly labor intensive (packaging activities)

2

Healthcare products

Semi-automated

Medium labor intensive

3

Food and beverages

Highly automated

Low labor intensive

Developing nations

Source Author

The FMCG industries in developing nations are highly automated and require limited labor engagements. Contrary to these within the developing countries, the FMCG industries involved in household and personal care products (hair oil, shampoo, detergents, etc.) are highly manual intensive due to their semi-automatic production setup. Most of their packaging activities are manual-oriented, and such industries are alternatively called make and pack industries. Multiple high-paced parallel assembly lines commissioned upon the production shop floor and manual packaging stations are the distinct features of FMCG manufacturing units. Globally, work-related musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are commonly prevalent occupational diseases found among assembly workers due to heavy workloads and repetitive motions [3]. As such, the assembly line operator’s work is highly prone to the above-average ergonomic risks [4]. The majority of understanding regarding the assembly line work is derived/comes from the automotive and electronic component manufacturing industries, and very little is known about FMCG assembly lines and its allied workstations. For promoting and enhancing productivity and occupational safety and health (OSH) on the FMCG shop floor, ergonomic studies and design interventions can play a vital role [5]. Unfortunately, when a researcher/engineer takes up an ergonomic study in the FMCG sector, it is difficult for him/her to identify appropriate tools/techniques as there is no previous reference in this particular industrial setup. Although several OSH and ergonomic studies in other industrial shop floor assembly lines and allied activities

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Table 9.2 Characteristics of assembly line-oriented industries: an overview Work activities/production parameters

Automotive assembly-lines

Electronic component manufacturing assembly-lines

FMCG assembly-lines

Assembly-line pacing

Slow paced

Slow paced

Highly paced

Workstations across assembly-line

Single side

Single side

Both sides

Nature of work activities

Long cycled—moderate repetitive work

Moderate cycled—moderate repetitive work

Short cycled—highly repetitive work

Work posture

Moderate standing/sitting

Generally sitting

Prolonged standing

Prominent body parts involved

Upper extremities

Hands and forearm

Wrists and fingers (packaging and bottle feed)

Cognitive load Low (man–machine pacing)

Low

Very high

Product type and product volume

High cost, low volume

Moderate cost, moderate Low-cost volume high-volume

Essential production activity

Single part fixing

Assembling components Manual carton packing and dispatching (high pace)

Source Author

exist, the tools and techniques adopted in those industries are often not readily adaptable/feasible/applicable in the FMCG sector because of varying production-related characteristics. Such characteristics are summarized in Table 9.2. As the characteristics of FMCG differs from the other assembly line-related work. Thus, for conducting ergonomic research and proposing design interventions on the FMCG shop floor for productivity and OSH improvements, there exists the need to identify the most feasible and relevant tools for conducting an ergonomic evaluation on the FMCG shop floor. The present paper aims to study the literature review and identify appropriate tools and techniques that can be implemented and adopted for ergonomic research and evaluation and thereby equip design improvement of FMCG assembly line-related work to ensure productivity and worker OSH.

9.2 Methodology The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) model was used for conducting the systematic literature search. The online databases of Scopus and Web of Science were accessed to shortlist published

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research work (handbooks, reports, research articles, etc.) using relevant search terminologies related with different aspects of ‘Ergonomics in Industrial Work/Shop floor.’ The search was constrained to literature published in the English language ranging between the years 1990–2022. Duplicates were removed using a database manager once the collected articles were gathered from electronic databases. Further, the articles were once again screened to include only those that fell within the appropriate categories of industrial work-related ergonomic domains, viz., physical, cognitive, and environmental ergonomics. In addition, literature related to safety, accident investigation, and work standardization was also shortlisted to assess thoroughly. Finally, the twenty-five most relevant handbooks and articles addressing the current review topic were accessed online. These were used for citation purposes in different sections of the present article to cover different dimensions related to the article topic concerning ‘Selection of appropriate ergonomic tools for FMCG work.’ Additionally, the rigorous ergo-audit was conducted at several Indian FMCG units to understand the key work characteristics of the FMCG work [5]. The work parameters involved in various FMCG jobs/tasks were then mapped with the ergonomic tools/techniques available to select the most appropriate tools as per the job demand.

9.3 Ergonomic Tools/Techniques Available 9.3.1 Physical Ergonomics Research Worldwide, in the industrial arena for conducting ergonomic evaluations, various physical ergonomic tools are being used by researchers for the early detection of MSDs and for providing mitigating solutions for prevailing ergonomic hazards. These physical ergonomics tools comprise questionnaires, checklists, postural and load evaluation tools, etc. These tools can further be classified as objective and subjective evaluation techniques based on the result outcomes of the data analyzed. In conjunction with these tools, various ergonomic laboratory equipment (anthropometric kits, goniometers, force dynamometers, etc.) and various bio-electrical signals, viz., electromyograph (EMG), electrocardiograph (ECG), electroencephalograph (EEG) are being used for workplace ergonomic evaluations [6]. Subjective Assessment Tools These tools primarily consist of questionnaires administered for reporting levels of MSDs and discomfort among various shop floor workers under observation. As individual responses of the subjects are recorded based on their perception, the responses vary and are thus subjective in nature. Researchers have widely used varied subjective questionnaires, viz., Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (NMQ), Dutch Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (DMQ), National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) discomfort survey, etc., for recording responses for this purpose [7–9].

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Postural Evaluation Tools The vast majority of researchers on the industrial shop floor have used physical ergonomic tools like Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA), Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA), Ovako Working Posture Analyzing System (OWAS), etc., for conducting posture evaluations and suggesting remedial measures for MSDs prevalent over there [7, 9]. Work Effort and Fatigue Measurement Tools Researchers have also used several ergonomic tools for measuring the exerted work effort and fatigue level thereof for the shop floor workers under consideration. Among such tools, the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion Scale, Hand Activity Level (HAL), Muscle Fatigue Assessment Method (MFA), etc., have been widely used by the researchers [8–10]. Repetitive Action Level Assessment Tools In several occupations that require high repetitive action levels, the researchers have used ergonomic assessment tools like the occupational repetitive action (OCRA) method to evaluate the risk factors associated with the particular repetitive task based on the parameters, viz., repetition rate, the force exerted, awkward posture and movements, and recovery period provided [9–11]. Back Injury Risk Assessment and Weight Recommendation Tools On industrial shop floors, the researchers have widely used the NIOSH Lifting Equation to assess the risk of back injury due to heavy load carrying and have suggested the recommended weight limits for carrying safe lifting tasks [12]. Similarly, for lifting tasks while carrying the weight, the researchers have administered Snook Tables to recommend safe weight limits for intended purposes [13]. Depending upon the characteristics of the FMCG sector, where high-paced assembly line work, highly repetitive hand/wrist movements, and frequent manual material handling (MMH) work exists; in that context, the researchers need to minutely study the work context (task context) and accordingly need to determine appropriate physical ergonomic evaluation tools [14]. For example, for repetitive finger, wrist, and hand movements, precision gripping and twisting work, OCRA and MFA might be more beneficial. Here, it is also essential to understand that the posture varies across the workstations. Sometimes it may be sedentary (sitting posture), where RULA could be applicable. On the other hand, in situations where the whole body movement like carrying and lifting is involved, REBA might be relevant.

9.3.2 Cognitive Ergonomics Aspects In industrial shop floor activities, both physical and cognitive features are involved. Every task essentially involves cognitive parameters such as thinking, deciding,

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calculating, looking, searching, etc., for better performance to accomplish the job task. In such a scenario, the cognitive task elements become critical, and cognitive ergonomic evaluation tools are required for proper task analysis. Subjective Assessment Tools Researchers are widely administering psychosocial questionnaires to evaluate the working style, job stress, and other cognitive loading elements among shop floor workers to promote employees’ overall well-being. Researchers use the Job Stress Questionnaire (JSQ) to evaluate cognitive parameters like workload, role conflict, role ambiguity, and underutilization of abilities. The Work Style Questionnaire (WSQ) is widely used on industrial shop floors to evaluate behavioral and work style parameters. In addition, the NIOSH Generic Job Stress Questionnaire is further administered to observe the existing mental hurdles on the shop floor minutely [7– 9]. It includes various other factors: individual factors, buffer factors, and non-work factors that contribute to employees’ mental condition and cognitive loading. Mental Load Evaluation Tools Overall assessment of physical, mental, and temporal loading and corresponding satisfaction and induced fatigue level is important for successful evaluation of cognitive loading induced by a worker’s task. National Aeronautics and Space Administration–Task Load Index (NASA-TLX) is one such subjective tool for measuring the workload of workers engaged in tasks under observation [15]. Various other bioelectric potentials like EEG, etc., are used to measure the worker’s cognitive load. Besides, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), heart rate variability (HRV), etc., enable the researchers to measure the brain and heart activity, respectively, to assess the cognitive loading being induced by the task under observation. Researchers nowadays use magnetoencephalography (MEG) as an advanced technique to measure brain activity using very sensitive magnetometers. Researchers often use the galvanic skin response (GSR) to map the electrodermal responses (EDRs) to assess the relationship between worker’s psychological state and his environmental events [7–9, 16]. Since high-paced assembly line works, high man–machine pacing, highly repetitive hand/wrist movements, and frequent MMH work are fundamental to FMCG work. The cognitive evaluation tools like NASA-TLX can be applied to evaluate the work task complexity and its interrelationship with induced fatigue level and job satisfaction or frustration levels to propose ergonomic design interventions as mitigation strategies.

9.3.3 Environmental Factors Environmental factors play a vital role in worker’s performance and productivity. On any industrial shop floor, these must be taken care of minutely to keep the working conditions human-friendly and congenial for human working. Researchers across the

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industrial sector have widely worked upon various environmental sectors to promote ever-increasing safe, healthy, and pleasant working environments. Illumination Illumination level at industrial shop floors contributes a lot toward overall productivity achieved. Researchers have paid lots of attention to figure out the optimum level of illumination required for various industrial activities across varied industrial sectors. They have also researched upon the OSH effect on workers due to existing illumination levels and other ergonomic stressors due to poor illumination levels [9, 17]. Illumination level measurement in Lux values is important in this context. Specifically, for FMCG work, illumination is the key parameter for success. Since the FMCG industry is well known as the ‘make and pack’ industry, packaging activities remain at its core. For effective packing activities, proper inspection of printed label graphics (batch number, quantity, etc.) and warehouse management (stacking raw material and finished goods), well-illuminated shop floors, and warehouses are utmost essential. Temperature Carrying out smooth operations on industrial shop floors depends upon the existing temperatures over the workplace. Worker performance is achieved only if the working temperature is suitable to human body conditions, and they feel comfortable working within those temperature limits. Researchers have determined various temperature levels for better human performance across different industrial sectors and their integral work activities [8, 9, 17–19]. Thermal assessment is conducted by taking three different measurements of the air temperature, viz., dry bulb temperature (DBT), wet bulb temperature (WBT), and globe temperature (GT). Among these three measurements, to assess the true nature of the thermal environment, the GT is the most important factor as it accounts for the effects of radiant heat. Researchers prominently use the wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT) to estimate the effect of temperature, humidity along with the wind speed (wind chill), and visible and infrared radiation on shop floor workers. WBGT is calculated by the formulae below: WBGT(out) = 0.7WBT + 0.2GT + 0.1DBT WBGT(in) = 0.7WBT + 0.3GT Compact advanced equipment may be used for measuring these parameters. A heat stress monitor can measure DBT, WBT, and GT, whereas the micro-psychrometer can give the direct readings of temperatures (WBT, DBT), relative humidity, and dew point too. Primarily for the FMCG sector, temperature (heat) remains the primary focus area. In the essential packaging activities of the FMCG shop floor, shrink packaging is the most frequent activity. The shrink packs coming out of the heated oven are tedious and need proper addressing by the researchers. Besides, FMCG assembly line activities’ high pace leads to high HR levels and enhanced sweating due

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to exaggerated adrenal hormone secretion. High-focused attention level requirements coupled with high cognitive loading increase the drudgery. In such conditions, the optimum ambient temperature levels need to be assessed and maintained to achieve productivity. Humidity High moisture content existing on the shop floor leads to increased perceived temperature and negative worker productivity due to irritation and non-comfort. Similarly, low moisture content has negative consequences too. Proper moisture content must be maintained to keep the workplace comfortable for working upon therein. Researchers have determined various moisture levels for different workplace environments to achieve the determined level of production output [7, 8, 17, 19]. ‘Psychrometric Charts’ are often used to calculate relative humidity by assessing the DBT and WBT existing on shop floors. Micro-psychrometer is the most important equipment for direct reading of temperatures (WBT, DBT), relative humidity, and dew point. For the FMCG activities, the moisture content is of primary concern as most FMCG products use chemicals that contain moisture, adding to the already existing moisture levels and thus increasing the humidity content over workplaces. Determining optimum humidity levels on FMCG shop floors should be a primary concern for shop floor managers. Airflow To achieve the right conditions for work on the shop floor, not only do the temperature and humidity play a vital role, in fact the airflow becomes an essential factor. Correctly saying, it is the optimum combination of all these three parameters which makes the workplace environment comfortable. Shop floor environments are often contaminated with dust, vapors, gases smoke, or other substances created by the production processes. These airborne contaminants might be toxic, flammable, or explosive. Air quality is also deteriorated due to a buildup of odors, excessive humidity and heat, and carbon dioxide within factory premises. Airflow has both physiological and psychological effects on the workers, like decreasing skin temperature (physical) and creating comfortable or uncomfortable sensations (psychological). Effective ventilation systems must be installed on shop floor premises to keep the surrounding air clean and throw away the foul smell, stale air, etc. Indoor air quality (IAQ) assessment is the most important measure to determine the air quality within an indoor space, i.e., freshness, cleanliness, circulation level, etc. The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), OSHA guidelines may be considered for proper IAQ measurements and for effective ventilator designs and placement as per the context [7, 17, 19, 20]. Airflow and effective ventilator systems become essential for the FMCG shop floor as FMCG products readily use chemical compositions in their products, as these are ‘make and pack’ industries. Menthol is generally used in personal care FMCG products, giving a cooling sensation to the skin and sometimes irritation to the eyes. Many other chemicals suspended in the air within FMCG factory premises exist, which need to be expelled with effective airflow and ventilation.

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Noise Noise is one of the other environmental factors that the researchers actively study to detect the optimum levels for safe working conditions on the shop floor. Excessive noise and sound levels cause irritation and temporary or permanent threshold limit shifts. Noise is a physical stimulus. It can be measured and quantified with instruments like dosimeters, transducers (microphones), and sound level meters (SLMs) and is measured in decibels. Measurement of time weighted average (TWA) exposure and noise dose for specific periods is often performed by the researchers [7, 8, 17, 21]. OSHA standards requirements for various SLM, TWA, noise dose, etc., become essential for achieving preferred and optimum levels of noise on shop floors. Particularly in FMCG, while packing the solid/liquid contents in bottles (glass/plastic), the induced noise is a major irritant for the workers. The fast-moving bottles on the conveyer belt often striking/colliding with each other generate lots of noise which needs to be addressed properly to keep the noise level under safe limits. Noise level measurement at other FMCG stations is equally important to understand context-specific needs in this domain. Vibrations Vibration is another environmental concern; however, it is a less common problem but affects a lot on any industrial shop floor. Whole body vibration (WBV) and shakiness tend to increase heart rate, oxygen uptake, and respiratory rate. It leads to fatigue, insomnia, headaches, and uneasiness. The Raynaud’s syndrome, or dead fingers, is one of the major vasospastic syndromes associated with hand and arm vibrations (HAVs). Vibration measurements become important on any industrial shop floor, and these are measured in Hertz. WBV measurements are generally made using a very lightweight pie-shaped instrumented hard rubber disk. Similarly, the HAV measurement uses three small lightweight crystal accelerometers that are mounted to a small metal cube. These vibration measurements are often carried out in accordance with guidelines published by International Standards Organization (ISO), ANSI, NIOSH, and OSHA as per the context [8, 9, 22]. On FMCG assembly lines, vibration becomes a primary concern. On packing stations that are integrated with assembly lines, the workers tend to sit closely (often colliding with) due to narrow lateral clearance margins and are exposed to WBV and HAV. In such conditions, the vibration measurements and their ill-effect measurements need to be addressed as a priority in the FMCG sector.

9.3.4 Safety Aspects Industrial safety is an important factor in promoting occupational safety, worker well-being, and productivity across varied industrial sectors. Every industrial shop floor is exposed to several hazards, viz., physical, chemical, mechanical, biological, electrical, ergonomic, environmental hazard, etc. If not correctly identified and taken

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care of at early stages, these hazards lead to accidents. Industrial accidents and accident investigations are scantly reported across the published literature. Hazard and Risk Assessment Tools Several hazard identification tools can be deployed on a regular basis to conduct checks for early detection of prevailing hazards upon the industrial shop floor. Preliminary hazard analysis (PHA), hazard analysis (HAZAN), chemical hazard analysis (CHA), hazard and operability study (HAZOP), risk analysis (RA), etc., can be implemented for early detection of hazards [23]. Various combinations of these checklists should be deployed at regular intervals to ascertain the safety of shop floors. Accident Investigation Techniques Hazards, once triggered, lead to industrial accidents. In an untoward event of an accident, the accident investigation becomes very important. Accident investigation helps to determine the key factors that lead to the event, and it further helps to ensure that such events do not occur in the future. Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA), technique of review (TOR), event tree analysis (ETA), root cause analysis (RCA), fault tree analysis (FTA), etc., can be implemented both before and after the event to investigate the causes leading to an accident [23, 24]. The FMCG shop floors readily store the raw material (flammable chemicals, etc.), use high-speed moving machinery parts (assembly line, heat ovens for shrink packing, etc.), and heavy load handling machinery in warehouses being as these are typically ‘make and pack’ industries working on just-in-time (JIT) model. As such, all these hazard identification and risk analysis techniques become an utmost necessity for the FMCG engineers/managers. In addition, appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) awareness needs to be generated. Work-standardization Activities and Research Work standardization is essential on every shop floor to keep it productive and nonchaotic. It is a method for developing best practices and procedures which provide ease of working and enhances overall work productivity of the tasks upon which these are implemented. Researchers have readily focused on continuous improvement activities (Kaizens) to promote work standardization activities. Implementation of 5S, visual management, and standardization of processes have been important for the researchers. For standardization of work processes, method-time measurement (MTM), time and motion studies, Maynard’s operation sequencing technique (MOST), Takt time improvement, etc., were employed in industries [25–27]. The overall equipment efficiency (OEE) is being used for work measurement and productivity enhancement in the FMCG sector. Especially in the FMCG sector, where assembly line work is an inevitable feature, these activities are of prime importance. Takt time improvement, Kaizen activities with thorough ergonomic considerations, and visual management can be much beneficial for FMCG work keeping into consideration FMCG work parameters. In addition, rigorous research to find the best possible spatial arrangement of workers and workstations across the FMCG

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assembly lines may be initiated as the FMCG workstation is spread across both sides of the assembly lines.

9.4 Discussion It is evident from the literature review that researchers are actively using various ergonomic evaluation tools to cater to and address the specific ergonomics-related issues to promote OSH, worker well-being, and efficiency. The selection of the right and appropriate tools for such ergonomic evaluations becomes important for its success. The researchers must identify the work’s fundamental parameters thoroughly, and appropriate ergonomic tools based upon those parameters/principles should be used to conduct ergonomic evaluations at the shop floor chosen. For example, in the case of the FMCG work, where the cognitive loading is high along with excessive physical work, the REBA and NASA-TLX in combination may be used for better results. The context-specific approach is essential to evaluate the task better using the appropriately selected tools (a combination of tools) for the intended purpose. Table 9.3 indicates the probable tools that might be appropriate and effective for various FMCG domains based on the fundamental FMCG parameters.

9.5 Future Scope By critical examination of the FMCG sector’s fundamental parameters and its mapping with existing ergonomic assessment tools, the current paper has identified and hinted at the ergonomic tools that could be highly beneficial for the ergonomic assessment in the FMCG sector. However, this paper is theory based and has explored the theoretical concepts only; its realistic implications need to be assessed and validated upon implementing and practicing those in real industrial scenarios. Moreover, to benefit from Kaizens that are executed on a routine basis in FMCG industries, at least, minimal training in these identified ergonomic tools can be provided to the concerned OSH personnel/safety officers and production managers. They can use these tools to regularly monitor ergonomic/OSH assessment on the FMCG shop floor. Further, the overall framework may be developed for conducting ergonomic studies on FMCG shop floors. It may consist of identifying the authorizing committee, authorized departments and persons, frequency of conducting such exercises, key obligations, responsibilities of persons involved and reporting features, etc. As the major sector of FMCG is highly automated, especially the food processing sector, what specific ergonomic tools and techniques are required for such an automated sector may further be explored on similar lines. Most appropriate ergonomic tools highly specific to automated FMCG further need to be identified and implemented upon.

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Table 9.3 Ergonomic tools for FMCG work domains: summary Ergonomic evaluation domain

Available Most suitable ergonomic tools ergonomic tools for FMCG

Selection critique

Physical ergonomics

RULA, REBA, OWAS, NMQ, DMQ, OCRA, MFA, HAL, Borg Rating, NIOSH, Snook Tables etc.

Cognitive ergonomics

JSQ, WSQ, JSQ, NASA-TLX, and Generic NIOSH any of the bioelectric JSQ, potential techniques NASA-TLX, EEG, HRV, fMRI, GSR, EDR, etc.

Highly repetitive fine finger and wrist movements are predominant, rapid hand-eye co-ordination is required

Qualified professionals may be required for bioelectric potential measurement evaluations

Environmental ergonomics

Measurement of Lux, DBT, WBT, WBGT, IAQ, TWA, SLM, WBV, HAV, etc.

All these measurements in combination should be taken (simple and easy to measure)

Fine packaging needs high illumination level, wide use of chemical compounds

Should be taken on periodic basis regularly

Safety issues

PHA, HAZAN, CHA, HAZOP, RA, FMEA, TOR, FTA, RCA, etc.

PHA, HAZAN, CHA, HAZOP, context-specific PPE usage

Process-based industry, wide use of industrial chemicals, e.g., menthol

Routine hazard analysis checks should be done so that accidents remain averted

Work standardization

Takt time improvement, MOST, MTM-1, MTM-2, MTM-3, OEE

Takt time improvement, context-specific work studies on spatial arrangement of workers/workstations, OEE

Highly-paced assembly lines, work stations lie on both side of assembly-line

Efficacy of MOST, MTM techniques may be explored on FMCG assembly-line work

REBA, NMQ, OCRA, Whole body MFA, NIOSH involvement is predominant; lifting is prevalent

Comments

Tools need to be used in combination by specially formed team

Source Author

9.6 Conclusion In the current paper, the authors have advocated and stressed upon implementing a combination of appropriately selected ergonomic evaluation tools based on contextspecific work fundamentals for better result output. These selected tools should be used by a specially formulated team of professionals (shop floor engineers, ergonomists, and healthcare professionals) as per distinct requirements. This paper’s findings provide the shop floor engineers a ready reckoner of tools that might be applicable for their quick and routine ergonomic evaluations on the shop floor to

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keep their work environment safe and smooth. The ergonomic evaluations carried out using these tools will enhance the OHS scenario and overall worker well-being along with improving product quality and production efficiency.

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17. Hernandez, C., Llabores, R., Quevedo, V.: Ergonomics study on productivity of middle-aged workers in the shoe industry. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, pp. 966–977 (2021). www.ieomsociety.org/singapore 2021/papers/189.pdf 18. Ross-Pinnock, D., Maropoulos, P.G.: Review of industrial temperature measurement technologies and research priorities for the thermal characterisation of the factories of the future. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part B: J. Eng. Manuf. 230(5), 793–806 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1177/095 4405414567929 19. Foster, J., Smallcombe, J., Hodder, S.: Quantifying the impact of heat on human physical work capacity—II. Int. J. Biometeorol. 66, 507–520 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-021-022 12-y 20. Zhang, J., Long, Z., Chen, Q.: Strategy for studying ventilation performance in factories. Aerosol. Air Qual. Res. 16(2), 442–452 (2016). https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2014.09.0210 21. Denisov, E.: Noise at a workplace: permissible noise levels, risk & hearing loss prediction. Health Risk Anal., (3), 13–23 (2018). https://doi.org/10.21668/HEALTH.RISK/2018.3. 02.ENG 22. Vihlborg, P., Bryngelsson, L., Graff, P.: Association between vibration exposure and hand-arm vibration symptoms in a Swedish mechanical industry. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 62, 77–81 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ergon.2017.02.010 23. Hyatt, N.: Guidelines for Process Hazards Analysis (PHA, HAZOP), Hazards Identification, and Risk Analysis. CRC Press, Ontario (2018) 24. Theodore, L., Dupont, R.R.: Environmental Health and Hazard Risk Assessment. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2012) 25. Salvendy, G. (ed.): Handbook of industrial engineering: technology and operations management. Wiley, Toranto (2001). https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470172339 26. Zandin, K.B., Schmidt, T.M., Zandin, K.B., Schmidt, T.M.: MOST® Work Measurement Systems. CRC Press, New York (2020) 27. Charron, R., Harrington, H.J., Voehl, F., Wiggin, H.: The Lean Management Systems Handbook, vol. 4. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2014)

Chapter 10

OSH Risk Perception of Floating Solar PV Workers and Identifying Scope for Design Interventions: A Codesign Approach Abhijit Sen

and Sougata Karmakar

Abstract India has set a target of installing 500 GW of renewable energy capacity by the year 2030. There is availability of water surface of about 18,000 km2 across various states for installing floating solar PV (FSPV) projects. Many contractual workers are engaged in the installation and maintenance of these projects and are exposed to several occupational safety and health (OSH) risks. These OSH risks can lead to both short- and long-term health effects, and mitigating the risks is a priority. The aim of this present study is to evaluate the sociodemographic status and OSH risk perception of FSPV workers and to identify the scope for ergonomics design interventions. The OSH risk perception scores and sociodemographic data of workers (n = 53) from two FSPV sites were collected through field studies following all protocols. The codesign approach was adopted where workers and project engineers (n = 16) participated to develop the scope of design solutions based on the identified OSH risks. FSPV workers were from local and migrant backgrounds belonging to both unskilled and semi-skilled categories. The top five OSH risks included falling into water, heat stress, electrocution, solar radiation, and slips/falls on the floating platform. The codesign process elicited several designs which were further evaluated to arrive at workable design concepts. The identified design scope includes design of handrails, redesign of the work rest cycle, insulated tools/PPE, skin protection clothing, anti-glare eye shields, and anti-slip footwear. The identification of OSH risks at an early phase of the FSPV sector presents an opportunity for using prevention through design (PtD) as a risk mitigation strategy for designing out the hazards. The identified design scope will assist stakeholders in ensuring a safe workplace for FSPV workers.

A. Sen · S. Karmakar (B) Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Sen e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_10

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10.1 Introduction One of the important measures to combat climate change is a faster transition to renewable energy. Several nations have pledged important targets to contribute to this transition. India has planned to source 50% of its energy from renewables and achieve a total installed capacity of 500 GW of non-fossil capacity by 2030 [1]. Generation of electricity from sunlight is one of the viable options for producing clean power on a large scale. Installation of floating solar photovoltaic (FSPV) projects globally and in India is fast becoming a preferred option on account of large availability of water bodies [2], higher efficiency than ground-mounted solar installations [3], and positive environmental impact [4]. Enabling business and regulatory environment has further made the floating solar sector viable. This fast pace of growth has created jobs for a large number of fixed term workers, especially in the work of installation and maintenance. FSPV projects are new kinds of work systems with emerging OSH risks [5]. To understand the existing risks and risk mitigation measures in the solar photovoltaic industry, a literature review was conducted using the online bibliographic databases of Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science. The search terms included “OSH risk perception,” “floating solar,” “risk,” “risk mitigation,” and their various combinations. No search period was assigned, and all articles available in the databases were considered. However, only articles in English were read during the literature search. In accordance with the search objectives, few papers in relation to risks associated with FSPV projects could be retrieved. Most papers deal with technical, financial, and environmental risks associated with FSPV projects. A study found that working with electrical systems is an occupational risk factor, compromising with safety [6]. According to a review study on the emerging OSH risks in the floating solar sector, the identified risks include falling into water, heat stress, solar radiation, fire, ergonomics risks, harmful chemicals, electrocution, psychosocial stressors, and inclement weather conditions apart from many others [7]. The review study has further emphasized on the need for adopting design interventions for addressing the OSH risks [7]. Only one study was found on OSH risk perception measurement in FSPV projects from the perspective of safety managers across ten organizations [8]. Little research exists in these aspects of this emerging sector. The present study has been designed to address these knowledge gaps. FSPV workplaces are new work systems, and early design and development of appropriate measures following the “Prevention through Design” approach would be an affirmative action for a safe workplace. Evaluating and mitigating these risks is an important priority area for all stakeholders. OSH risk perception based on vulnerability and severity is a way of understanding the drudgery being faced by the FSPV workers. Risk perceptions have been defined as “beliefs about potential harm or the possibility of a loss” which is subjective [9]. The knowledge on how workers perceive the risks will facilitate the design and development of risk mitigation measures. Another important dimension for designing a safe workplace is understanding the sociodemographic background

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of the workers. Understanding user profiles and traits is a key input in developing design solutions. The research questions were (a) what is the sociodemographic status of FSPV workers, (b) how do FSPV workers perceive different OSH risks? and, (c) what risk mitigation measures can be designed by involving the FSPV workers and project engineers? The aim of this study is to develop design solutions to address the OSH risks using the codesign approach. The objectives of the study include collection of data on the sociodemographic aspects and OSH risk perception of the workers, environmental parameters and development of design interventions using the codesign methodology.

10.2 Methodology Questionnaire used in the present study: The literature search elicited a previous study in the FSPV sector which involves the collection of OSH risk perception data from safety managers using a Likert type questionnaire [8]. The said questionnaire was adapted for the present study by converting the questions into visual constructs for easy understanding of the workers. A sample question is shown in Fig. 10.1. The visual questionnaire consists of questions on risk perception on twenty different OSH risks to be filled up on a five-point scale indicated by emoticons. Questionnaire reliability was tested through a pilot survey (n = 10) using Cronbach’s alpha [10] where the alpha value was above 0.70 and was acceptable. Validity was ascertained at two different FSPV projects. The qualitative responses were converted into a quantitative scale by assigning numbers ranging from 1 to 5 (1 being very low risk and 5 being very high risk) for data analysis. Sociodemographic data/information on age, height, weight, monthly income, work experience, skill level, and educational qualification was obtained using a separate questionnaire. Two FSPV sites in India were selected for the study. Necessary permissions were obtained from two organizations for conducting the field visits. Approval for collecting data involving human subjects was obtained from the Institute Human Ethics Committee, IIT Guwahati. FSPV workers engaged at the sites were invited to voluntarily participate in the study, and informed consent was taken from the

Fig. 10.1 Sample question on perception of “Heat Stress” from the visual questionnaire used in the study

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workers participating in the study. Only medically fit workers were selected based on clearance by the medical personnel and safety officer. A total of 53 workers participated in the study. Environmental data from both the sites was collected using the Heat Stress Checklist [11] developed by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and Anemometer (Benetech make—GM 816).

10.2.1 Design Methodology and Approach Any project/installation is a complex socio-technical system involving man, machine, and the environment. Therefore, consideration of the needs from different perspectives is key to sustainable design. Several design methods/approaches were considered to generate concepts for design/redesign. FSPV projects being a new and emerging area, it was decided to engage the stakeholders who are either working on such projects or part of a team designing and planning such projects. Participatory design practices have been used for many decades by designers from Europe, and Collective Research Approach has been used by design practitioners from Denmark, Sweden, and Norway by involving workers in the development of better systems. Participatory design throughout the design process by involving the user, researcher and the designer is the core philosophy of codesign [12]. In the codesign process, the design researcher facilitates the participants (who are one of the future users) in generating concepts which may also be called the ideation phase. It incorporates the knowledge and creativity of the users into the proposed design concepts. Several approaches of codesign such as prototypes, probes and toolkits have been suggested [13]. Following the toolkit method, a questionnaire was designed seeking inputs from workers and project engineers. The questionnaire consists of two sections. The first section describes the OSH risks and the problem statement (derived from the OSH risk perception scores), and the second section contains a blank sheet for developing/sketching design solutions. FSPV workers and project engineers were invited to participate in the codesign process. Informed consent was obtained before starting the process. The authors of this present study facilitated the process by briefing about the context, problems arising out of OSH risks and the objectives of the study. Designs were developed using Google Sketchup software.

10.3 Results An overview of the two FSPV sites considered for the study is depicted at Table 10.1. The first site is located on the water reservoir inside Mejia Thermal Power Station (located in the West Bengal State of India) of Damodar Valley Corporation and the second site at the outskirts of the Simhadri Thermal Power Station of NTPC Ltd. (located in the Andhra Pradesh State of India).

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Table 10.1 Overview of the FPV sites considered for the study Parameters

Site 1—Mejia (DVC)

Site 2—Simhadri (NTPC)

Location

The water reservoir of a thermal power station

The water reservoir of a thermal power station

Capacity

25 kWp

25 MW

Design of FSPV

Floating structure type

Floating structure type

Number of workers engaged

30

23

Direct normal irradiation (DNI)*

1187 kWh/m2 per year

1298 kWh/m2 per year

Peak months*

March and April

March and April

Power output for 1000 kWp*

1.297 GWh per year

1.41 GWh per year

*

Source Global Solar Atlas

10.3.1 Sociodemographic Status, Environmental Data and OSH Perception Scores A total of 53 FSPV workers participated in the risk perception study. The sociodemographic features of the workers are summarized at Table 10.2. At site 1, 57% of the workers were locals while 47% were migrant workers. All workers at site 2 were locals. At Mejia site, 19 out of the 30 participants were from the unskilled category while 15 out of 23 workers at Simhadri were from the semi-skilled category. Most workers, i.e., 39 out of 53, had received education at the high school level. The environmental conditions measured during the filed visit are shown at Table 10.3. The workers are engaged for an 8 h shift from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. and are exposed to the Sun during the hottest part of the day. The OSH risk perception outcomes indicate that falling into water is perceived as the most critical risk by the FSPV workers (Fig. 10.2). Others among the top five include heat stress, electrocution, solar radiation and slips/falls on the floating platform. The risk perception scores of the OSH risks are summarized at Table Table 10.2 Sociodemographic information of the participants

Parameter

Site 1 (n = 30) Mean (SD)

Mean (SD)

Mean (SD)

Age (years)

27.76 (5.87)

25.30 (4.34)

26.69 (5.35)

Height (cms)

169.46 (4.27)

170 (3.51)

169.46 (3.65)

Weight (kgs)

63.62 (7.14)

62.21 (2.74)

63.01 (5.67)

Monthly income (INR)

15,151 (1487.32)

15,638 (3256.95)

15,362.49 (2404.37)

0.6 (2.27)

1.37 (0.8)

Work experience 1.96 (0.55) (yrs.)

Site 2 (n = 23)

Combined (n = 53)

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A. Sen and S. Karmakar Parameter

Site 1 (September 2020)

Site 2 (February 2022)

Air velocity (meters/second)

0.9

1.8

Temperature (°C)

29.2

29.4

Humidity (%)

56

61.5

Heat stress index*

2

2

*A score higher than 1 indicates Heat Stress [11]

Fig. 10.2 Falling into water is a major OSH risk for FSPV workers (Image: authors)

10.4. Some ergonomics risks include awkward postures, repetitive motions, manual material handling, cognitive and work organization-related factors.

10.3.2 Codesign Outcomes A total of sixteen participants consisting of project engineers (n = 12) and FSPV workers (n = 4) completed the questionnaire with regard to the top five risks. The participants expressed themselves through discrete sketches, written expressions, and verbal explanations of what they thought could mitigate the OSH risks. A few sketches developed by the participants is shown at Fig. 10.3. Based on the information/data collected from the participants, design concepts were developed. Some design concepts for mitigating falls into water, solar radiation, and glare are shown at Fig. 10.4.

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Table 10.4 OSH risk perception scores (n = 53) S. no.

OSH risk

Mean risk perception score (On a scale of 5)

1

Falling into water

4.75

2

Heat stress

4.73

3

Electrocution

4.47

4

Solar radiation

4.20

5

Slips/falls on floating platform

4.20

6

Fire/electric flash

4.16

7

Ergonomics risks

3.92

8

Lack of training/skill gaps

3.50

9

Lighting, storms, hail, etc.

3.49

10

Use of power tools

3.39

11

Psychosocial factors

3.37

12

Work organization

3.18

13

Occupational stress

2.94

14

Unstable platform

2.64

15

Cold stress

1.51

16

Working alone

1.33

17

Hazardous materials

1.24

18

Noise

1.19

19

Aquatic animals

1.17

20

Falling objects

1.15

Fig. 10.3 A sample of sketches of design concepts developed by codesign participants

Design concepts of handrails with toe stopper along the fringes of the installation and anti-glare shield were some of the outcomes of the codesign process. To protect against heat stress, project engineers suggested a change in work rest cycle by avoiding work during the hottest part of the day, consumption of sufficient water, and use of appropriate PPE/clothing. The workers were already using insulated gloves; therefore, protection against electrocution was already in practice at both the sites.

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Fig. 10.4 Design of handrail with toe stopper for fall prevention (a) and anti-glare shield for protection against glare and solar radiation (b)

During the field visits, FSPV workers were found to be working barefoot. The participants suggested design and use of anti-slip footwear while working on the floating platform/pontoons.

10.4 Discussion and Conclusion Although OSH risk factors have been identified in the FSPV sector; little research exists for OSH risk mitigation. Left unaddressed, these OSH risk factors have the potential to cause serious health issues for the workers. FSPV workers are exposed to long hours of outdoor work under the Sun. Solar radiation (UV exposure) can have long-term effects on the skin and the eyes [14]. Excess sunlight enters the eyes through combined reflection from surface of solar panels and water body surface surrounding the FSPV installation [8]. This can cause discomfort as well as disability glare causing long-term damage to the eyes. The design of the anti-glare eye shield can offer significant protection to the FSPV workers. Appropriate clothing for protection of the skin was suggested as a measure against solar radiation. This study has identified several risk factors that are not independent of each other. More than one risk factors can affect the worker at the same time. For example, falls may happen due to the unstable floating platform as well as the slippery surface of the floaters. Heat stress and solar radiation can act simultaneously and pose a significant health risk. In addition, addressing one OSH risk should not create newer occupational health problems. For example, design of protective clothing against solar radiation should be light and adequately ventilated so as to prevent symptoms and consequences of heat stress. Stakeholders should keep these aspects in mind while designing and implementing interventions.

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With large-scale implementation of FSPV projects in many countries, more and more workers need to be protected. Use of prevention through design (PtD) as a strategy early in the life cycle of the FSPV sector is critical in preventing long-term occupational diseases or even fatal accidents. The contribution and novelty of the present study is that it is a maiden effort in surveying the sociodemographic status of FSPV workers, evaluation of OSH risk perception of workers and application of codesign in the FSPV sector. The outcomes will help in understanding priority areas of mitigation and use of participative approach for developing design interventions. Future work involves developing working prototypes for testing and validation followed actual real-world use of the design solutions. This should be followed by evaluation of the benefits of the design interventions from the perspective of ergonomics, cost, productivity, and health benefits. Finally, this study will assist stakeholders in the FSPV sector for a creating safe work environment.

10.5 Limitations of the Study Only articles in the English language were considered in the literature review. The participation from FSPV workers in the codesign process was low (n = 4). The design ideas have not been tested in field trials. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the officials of NTPC Ltd. and DVC for providing necessary permissions for conducting the field studies. The authors are also thankful for the resources made available by the Central Library of IIT Guwahati.

References 1. The Hindu: Climate pledge: On CoP26 summit in Glasgow. https://www.thehindu.com/ opinion/editorial/climate-pledge-on-cop26-summit-in-glasgow/article37312195.ece. Last accessed, 04 May 2022 2. Acharya, M., Devraj, S.: Floating solar photovoltaic (FSPV): a third pillar to solar PV sector. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi (2019) 3. Choi, Y.K.: A study on power generation analysis of floating PV system considering environmental impact. Int. J. Softw. Eng. Appl. 8, 75–84 (2014). https://doi.org/10.14257/ijseia.2014. 8.1.07 4. Pimentel Da Silva, G.D., Branco, D.A.C.: Is floating photovoltaic better than conventional photovoltaic? Assessing environmental impacts. Impact Assess. Proj. Apprais. 36, 390–400 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/14615517.2018.1477498 5. Sen, A., Karmakar, S.: Exploring the OSH scenario in floating solar PV projects in India and opportunities for ergonomics design interventions. Smart Innov. Syst. Technol. 221, 245–255 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0041-8_21 6. Oliveira-Pinto, S., Stokkermans, J.: Marine floating solar plants: an overview of potential, challenges and feasibility. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Marit. Eng. 173, 120–135 (2020). https://doi. org/10.1680/jmaen.2020.10

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7. Sen, A., Mohankar, A.S., Khamaj, A., Karmakar, S.: Emerging OSH issues in installation and maintenance of floating solar photovoltaic projects and their link with sustainable development goals. Risk Manag. Healthc. Policy 14, 1939–1957 (2021). https://doi.org/10.2147/RMHP.S30 4732 8. Sen, A., Karmakar, S.: OSH risk perception of safety managers and scope for ergonomics design interventions in floating solar photovoltaic projects. LNNS.391, pp. 871–880 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94277-9_74 9. Turner, J.R., Gellman, M.D.: Encyclopedia of behavioral medicine. Encycl. Behav. Med. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39903-0 10. Tavakol, M., Dennick, R.: Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. Int. J. Med. Educ. 2, 53–55 (2011). https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd 11. Health & Safety Executive (HSE).: https://www.hse.gov.uk/temperature/assets/docs/heat-str ess-checklist.pdf. Last accessed, 08 May 2022 12. Sanders, E.B.N., Stappers, P.J.: Co-creation and the new landscapes of design. CoDesign 4, 5–18 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1080/15710880701875068 13. Sanders, E.B.N., Stappers, P.J.: Probes, toolkits and prototypes: three approaches to making in codesigning. CoDesign 10, 5–14 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/15710882.2014.888183 14. Modenese, A., Korpinen, L., Gobba, F.: Solar radiation exposure and outdoor work: an underestimated occupational risk. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 15, 1–24 (2018). https://doi. org/10.3390/ijerph15102063

Chapter 11

Conceptual Model for Design Intervention Through a Preventive Approach to Challenges of Adolescent Emotional Health Tanya Prasad

and Gayatri Menon

Abstract The paper explores the various challenges pertaining to mental health and well-being faced by adolescents in India through extensive field studies and proposes a conceptual model for design intervention. Along with the many advantages of Industrial revolution 4, it has also brought forth challenges of isolation, loss of selfesteem, lack of social integration, and most importantly a disconnect with the real life giving rise to an exponential increase in mental health issues among adolescents whose foundations of trust, meaningful connections, and mature understandings have been shaken with the jump into the unfiltered world of the Internet. With increased lack of acceptance and stigma against mental health illness, India has been consecutively ranked in the top 5 countries for depression. In such a situation, an emergency measure should be to shift emotional well-being from a secondary requirement of a person to the primary need. Research methods used to understand the present ‘wicked’ problem included participatory observations and long interviews with the primary stakeholders. The studies were conducted at the urban schools of Kerala and MP and the rural schools of Wayanad in Kerala with a total sample size of 270. Further to it, focus group discussions and experimental workshops were conducted and insights drawn from the study. Investigation into various aspects related to mental health led to a developing a conceptual model emphasizing the cultural backgrounds and psychological aspects of an adolescent. Frameworks were developed for navigation through different levels of mental health awareness with emphasis given equally to the protagonist and the support system. The conceptual model has been further used for design interventions at different levels to bring about an overall permanent shift toward a healthy emotional outlook.

T. Prasad (B) · G. Menon National Institute of Design, Paldi, India e-mail: [email protected] G. Menon e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_11

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11.1 Introduction Mental health is fundamental to good health and well-being, and it influences social and economic outcomes throughout life [1]. Emotional health crisis is defined as an emotional imbalance, arising from situational, developmental, biological, psychological, socio-cultural, and/or spiritual factors. This state of emotional distress results in a temporary inability to overcome the situation by means of one’s usual resources and coping mechanisms [2]. Young individuals often feel uncomfortable engaging with and receiving mental health support, and this can be due to obstacles such as availability of resources, access, stigma, socioeconomic, and cultural barriers [3]. The increasing burden of mental health problems among this population is a growing concern globally. Most mental disorders begin before 25 years of age, more often between 11 and 18 years [4]. The burden associated with common mental disorders (depressive and anxiety disorders) rises in childhood and peaks in adolescence and early to middle age (10–29 years) [5]. A meta-analysis estimated that the global prevalence for any mental disorder among children and adolescents is 13.4%. India is home to the largest number of adolescents globally, comprising about a fifth of its population (243 million) [6]. A meta-analysis reports that 6.5% of the community and 23.3% of school children and adolescents have psychiatric disorders [7]. India has the highest youth suicide rate globally, and suicide is the leading cause of mortality in this population [8]. The National Mental Health Survey (2015–2016) reported a 7% prevalence of psychiatric disorders in 13–17 years and was nearly equal among both the genders [9]. Depression, anxiety disorders, substance use disorder, attentive deficit hyperactive disorder, conduct disorder are the common psychiatric illnesses in children, and suicide is the leading cause of death in the adolescent age group in India [10]. The mental health gap is large, with less than 1% of children with psychiatric illnesses receiving treatment [11]. Stigma, poor mental health literacy, limited focus on child and adolescent mental health services are some of the barriers purported for this gap [10].

11.2 Objective The objective of the study is to understand the prevent gaps in the existing system toward developing a healthier relationship and understanding of emotional health to propose interventions at various levels to have a preventive approach for a better emotional health and well-being through an early introduction to the topic. The study aims to have a blanket effect in its design interventions through proposing a number of different outputs for a larger and more permanent shift in the overall outlook.

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11.3 Research Methodology The study followed a 6D approach naming, Discover, Determine, Define, Design, Develop, and Deploy. Primary research was conducted across schools of different syllabi in Kerala and Madhya Pradesh and Ahmedabad. Informal interviews, surveys among children and adults, live interviews of child professionals, teachers, parents, and school counsellor were some of the tools used for both qualitative and quantitative data collections. A total of 270 students and 258 adults surveyed as part of the study to understand the importance felt for a need of emotional health education during their adolescents. The adolescent population was defined as aged 12–19 years, with an extension to ages that are currently uneducated about the topic beyond the targeted years. Thorough study was conducted on the existing studies and frameworks about various stages of development in a child’s growth and the different effects on the emotional and cognitive developments. The qualitative data were analyzed for strong insights and acted as a key indicator to understanding the context of the topic selected.

11.4 Context India currently has about 56 million suffer from anxiety, depression, and other illness [12]. During earlier times, a child was brought up collectively by a village. Care was more of a communal feeling rather than just of the families. Now, as India turns into an urban village, we see a steep rise in the emotional health issues among the younger generations. The shift from a joint family structure to a nuclear and nano-family has adversely affected every dimension of human life. Added to this, one can also experience the lack of an institutionalized structure for the care of one’s emotional health. There still exists a strong taboo and stigma against addressing and treating emotional and mental health problems and seeking help from a professional. This shift can be starkly seen in comparison to the students in the urban schools versus a rural school. Heavy syllabus, working parents, reducing number of frequent interactions with family members, and the high peer and academic pressure have left the children in an urban context more susceptible to emotional health problems in comparison to a rural space [10].

11.5 Primary Research Primary research was conducted in schools across all the syllabus (State, CBSE, and ICSE syllabi) from class 8th to 12th. Surveys were used as one of the main tool to collect data from the students in each visit. Informal interviews and interactions with the class as a whole helped gauge the existing understanding and exposure

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about emotional health in schools. The teaching methods, the relationship of the students with the teachers and the peers, the co-curricular activities in the schools were observed and noted using a framework for the school visits. Special focus was given to the interview with the counsellors in each school to understand the overall emotional health of the students, the approach of the schools, the response from parents.

11.6 Observations 1. The adolescents were fairly new to the concept of emotional health. Sadness and anger were the most recollected and remembered emotions, with ‘cheated,’ ‘lonely,’ and ‘worried’ among them. 2. With a significant amount of shame, the students viewed a visit to the designated school counsellor as a sign of punishment. It was observed that the designated school counsellor was seen as an alien figure. The students were more comfortable talking to a familiar trusting figure, for example, their favorite teacher than a counsellor. 3. There was observed to be a strong association of students with movies and media. In the absence of a proper content for understanding and learning, the adolescents often mimicked the media stars and drew their understandings from them. 4. There was a clear struggle among some children to express their emotions and feeling. The fear of being isolated among the friends was a strong factor for their communications.

11.7 Analysis A detailed mapping was done between the adolescent-parent-teacher to using all the insights from the secondary and primary research. The map was structured to understand the existing conditions of a handling an emotional wellness journey of the adolescent. The system map helped synthesis all the data and put it visually together the various existing links between these three direct stakeholders. With the help of this map, it can be clearly understood the various links, journeys, and connections between the three and the major point of interaction (Fig. 11.1).

11.8 Insights 1. Having a high vocabulary was important to be able to understand and communicate and navigate between emotions.

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Fig. 11.1 Adolescent-parent-school relation map

2. The school counsellor had to have a frequent interactions with students for increase comfort and trust to approach the counsellor in need. 3. There needs to be a platform for authentic information with a peer sharing experience. Adolescents seemed to grab much more from the casual interactions within each other. 4. It was observed that adolescents were much more comfortable to interact when their identity was not being revealed. 5. The high academic content and low teacher–student ratio added to the lack of time to attend to each student in a class by the teacher. Though interested, the parents were not sure how to initiate discussion about various topics with their children as they themselves had not received any proper education about mental health.

11.9 Understanding Adolescents Adolescence is the bridge between childhood and adulthood. According to Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive development [13] and Eric Erikson’s stages of Psychosocial Development [14], adolescent stage can be seen as the starting age of understanding of abstraction, identity, and a series of complex relations and understandings in the world and the human mind with the start of a complex level of hormonal and bodily changes. The child development has two major growth spurts, the first being during the 7 month to 2 years when the child is absorbing all inputs without any filter. The other major growth spurt is seen during the adolescence when the person is well aware of the changes in and around him while raising questions and increased curiosity. The adolescent stage is also marked with a heightened sense of search for one’s identity in comparison the world around with a constant pull between wanting to blend in while also standing out among the peers. This makes adolescence the most complicated stage in a person’s growth, and a proper understanding needs to be started at this age to make them well resourced and equipped for the future world (Fig. 11.2).

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Fig. 11.2 Adolescence map

11.10 Designing Conceptual Models for Design Interventions The following design directions act as a compass that helps align our final interventions to a desirable effect. The design should inculcate space for interactions and growth in the future. An open circle approach helps in being ever evolving and changing with the times and prevents stagnation of the delivery with time. The design interventions should be non-intrusive and silent in nature. The interventions should be incorporated into the current system with the least changes to the existing methods. A silent-design approach would help in bringing about an easier and larger welcome to the topic without drawing in fear or throwing light to the unwanted consequences of emotional health. The designs would be easily adapted into the existing network with least ripples and obstructions. The ability to question and be curious is one of the key factors of a healthy growing child and should ideally be promoted and nurtured. The joy of discovery among people was a natural instinct to the curious mind in creating a strong affiliation to the found. A sense of belonging and an extension of one’s identity was strongly identified as attributes during the adolescents age. The design interventions should invite a constant questioning mind and cater to the curious leading to a joy of discovering the topic on one’s own. It was also observed that most of the environments were chosen for them which leads to an approach of ‘have to’ over ‘want to.’ Forcing something or placing a compulsion would lead to an increased resistance over the topic, and hence, the design solutions should invite to be chosen and not forced to the adolescents.

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Fig. 11.3 Protagonist and support system

11.11 Conceptual Model 11.11.1 The Support Versus the Protagonist Two main systems of a healthy emotional well-being are 1. The protagonist and 2. The environment surrounding them. For an effective maintenance of an emotional well-being, it is necessary not only for the protagonist but also for the support to be well resourced. An emotional health education helps a person be resourced to help the other, understand and provide the first aids of emotional health all the while taking care of one’s health too. Lack of awareness can lead the support to feel highly responsible for the others actions while maintaining secrets without breaking any trust. This can also place a lot of pressure and self-blame in the decisions and actions of the other which in turn can also affect their emotional health. Having a good understanding on how to respond, when and who to seek help and differentiating one’s own emotional health is of utmost importance as a support system for the other (Fig. 11.3).

11.11.2 The ABC’s of Emotional Health The foundations of emotional health can be broken down into three basic steps of A-Accept, B-Bond, C-Communicate (Fig. 11.4). A-Accept—the first step is to identify and accept one’s emotions. The action of denying and suppressing any emotions (such as anger, sadness) can lead to developing an unhealthy relationship with one’s emotions and prevent us from addressing the real problem while posing the threat of a random outburst in the least expected space.

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Fig. 11.4 ABC framework

B-Bond—a feeling of strength and confidence is derived when one feels we are not alone in our journeys. This step helps us feel more included and part of other’s journey and extends our emotional journeys beyond ourselves to help each other mutually. C-Communicate—The biggest challenge to emotional journey is communication. Our restricted vocabulary, language, culture, and stereotypes pull us back from healthy communications with others and most importantly ourselves. This poses a big threat as it leaves one in the dark with no expression of one actually feels, share their feels, and even ask for help.

11.12 Validating the Conceptual Model 1. A jigsaw puzzle game for developing better vocabulary (Fig. 11.5). The Junto’s wheel of emotions was used as the basic framework to design a jigsaw puzzle with the aim of increasing the vocabulary understanding of emotions among adolescents while learning the correct usage in a sentence. The game has been designed with two levels of difficulty (one with the meanings and usage and level two with only the words) that helps the player test their learning and shift to a tough level once confident. 2. The butterfly model (Fig. 11.6) was also designed to navigate one’s journey toward a better mental health. The four stages (Egg, larva, pupa, and the butterfly) were used to draw parallel understanding in one’s journey.

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Fig. 11.5 Jigsaw puzzle

Fig. 11.6 The butterfly model

(a) Egg—the Naïve, someone who was unaware about the emotional health. This ideally marks the beginning of one’s journey. (b) The Larva—the Crawler—signifies a stage of struggle with one’s emotions. (c) The Pupa—the Learner—the stage signifies a period of learning and awareness about one’s emotion. This stage marks the period of developing a healthy relationship with one’s emotions. (d) The Butterfly—the Flyer—The stage is a level of having achieved a healthy relationship and understanding of one’s emotions and having attained stage of maturity to handle future changes. 3. Redesigning the Notebooks: Notebooks act as a frequent source of interaction with a majority of students seen scribbling and doodling on the last pages. The frequency and the quantity of notebooks used by a student during a tenure in school make it an apt medium of intervention. Facts, games, awareness can be embedded into the design of the notebooks for a frequent exposure to the topic while having a fun and interactive platform for students through doodles, mandalas, or other activities.

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4. Introducing an Emotional Health Magazine: To create a sharing platform within adolescents to mutually share, learn, and exchange experiences. The magazine provides a safe space to express individual journey’s while creating an inclusive and diverse environment with more acceptance and respect. Story telling is the medium for sharing to break stigma’s and stereotypes from developing in the coming generations. This platform could extend to create clubs in every school with the lead of the counsellor to create self-help groups and understanding and discussion various topics in their particular context.

11.13 Conclusion Emotional health education is a multi-layered topic which requires interventions at different areas to create a blanket level permanent effect in the long term. The topic of emotional health does not lie in isolation and has under its umbrella a variety of other topics which directly or indirections contribute or draw from one’s emotional well-being. This intertwined space requires interventions at different levels that can be easily incorporated to the existing system. A silent-design approach, with the least obtrusion and easy implementation and scalability, can be a good approach to ensure the stickiness of the design interventions. The topic is also highly contextual to different cultures and demographics and requires a design approach that can be altered to fit their particular context. With a wicked problem as emotional health, it requires years of unlearning and conditioning to together create a better space in the society for the coming generations. The solution might be multi-fold with different methods of approach to cater to the large stakeholders at any given point. Emotional health is the foundation to healthy, sound, and able mind which helps in every individual to lead a healthier life in the society and contribute to the betterment of the society as a whole. It is hoped that the suggested conceptual models would be a good beginning to build further toward incorporating emotional health education into our current systems. The importance of cross-disciplinary collaboration combining the practical and theoretical knowledge can greatly help educators, counselors, and designers to incorporate these conceptual models through different mediums suited to the context to improve skills for a better emotional health. It is high time apt measure be taken to ensure the emotional well-being of the people which utmost importance and priority given to prevent from certain challenges to a healthier emotional wellbeing being developed in the coming generation.

References 1. Herrman, H., Jané-Llopis, E.: The status of mental health promotion. Public Health Rev. 6, 34 (2014) 2. Hoff, L.: People in Crisis: Understanding and Helping (4th ed.). Princeton Architectural Press, New York (2014)

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3. Clark, T.C., Johnson, E.A., Kekus, M., Newman, J., Patel, P.S., Fleming, T., Robinson, E.: Facilitating access to effective and appropriate care for youth with mild to moderate mental health concerns in New Zealand. J. Child Adolescent Psychiatric Nurs. 27(4), 190–200 (2014) 4. Patton, G., Sawyer, S., Santelli, J., Ross, D., Afifi, R., Allen, N., Arora, M., Azzopardi, P., Baldwin, W., Bonell, C.: Our future: a lancet commission on adolescent health and wellbeing. Lancet 2423–2478 (2016) 5. Chadda, R.: Youth and mental health: challenges ahead. Ind. J. Med (2018) 6. Unicef: Progress for children: a report card on adolescents. Lancet (2012) 7. Malhotra, S., Patra, B.: Prevalence of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry Ment. Health, 8, 22 (2014) 8. Patel V., Ramasundarahettige, C. Vijayakumar, L., Thakur, J., Gajalakshmi, V., Gururaj, G., Suraweera, W., Jha, P.: Suicide mortality in India: a nationally representative survey. Lancet (2012) 9. Gururaj, G., Varghese, M., Benegal, V., Rao, G., Pathak, K., Singh, L., Mehta, R., Ram, D., Shibukumar, T., Kokane, A.: National mental health survey of India, 2015–16: prevalence, patterns and outcomes. India National Institute Of Mental Health & Neuro Sciences NIMHANS Publ, Bengaluru, India (2016) 10. Nebhinani, N., Jain, S.: Adolescent mental health: Issues, challenges, and solutions. Ann. Ind. Psychiatry (2019) 11. Malhotra, S., Patra, B.N.: Prevalence of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health (2014) 12. Rana, R.: The logical Indian. 22 September 2021. [Online]. Available: https://thelogicalindian. com/mentalhealth/mental-health-indians-30811 13. Cherry, K.: Very well mind 02 May 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.verywellmind.com/ piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457 14. Cherry, K.: Very well mind, 18 July 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.verywellmind. com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740

Chapter 12

Evaluation of Traditional Design of Shovel in Dairy Farms Using Digital Human Models Sarju Thokchom, B. S. K. Chhetry, and K. N. Dewangan

Abstract Cleaning in dairy farms is performed in five steps; namely scraping cow dung, loading dung in a trolley, transporting, unloading dung in a pit, and washing floors. Owing to the poor design of shovel, workers bend and twist torso in loading tasks which causes health hazards. Digital human modeling technique was used to evaluate the traditional design of shovel loading dung in a trolley using Kinovea application software and Dassault CATIA software. Still photographs were used to analyze working posture. Three manikins were designed based on 5th, 50th, and 95th percentile values of anthropometric dimensions of northeast Indian male workers. RULA analysis tools and biomechanical single action analysis in CATIA were performed to obtain RULA score and the back compressive force of the workers, respectively. RULA analysis indicates the immediate need for intervention. The mean back compressive force of the workers on L4–L5 lumbar spine is 4165 N/m2 which is very high and beyond the permissible limit, i.e., 3600 N/m2 . Therefore, intervention in manual cleaning in dairy farms is required to reduce the postural load, biomechanical stress, and subsequent risk of injury in the low back for farm workers.

12.1 Introduction A shovel is used for cleaning dung in dairy farms. Shoveling requires a combination of various manual activities. Frequent bending and twisting, heavy manual material handling (MMH), and forceful movements of the lumbar contribute to low back pain [1, 2]. Shoveling heavy material results in disk compression and shear forces [3]. The task involved in a dairy farm requires various risk factors such as repetitive movement, heavy load lifting and carrying, poorly designed manual tools, poor work practices, and awkward postures. Thus, musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are prevalent among workers in dairy farms [4]. Farmer’s musculoskeletal problems are S. Thokchom · B. S. K. Chhetry · K. N. Dewangan (B) Department of Agricultural Engineering, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology (NERIST), Nirjuli, Arunachal Pradesh 791109, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_12

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primarily associated with the hip, knee, lower back, elbow, and shoulder [5]. The load on the spine varied with the shovel design. The shovel design requires complicated three-dimensional movement of the trunk and arm. Proper ergonomic design is essential to avoid MSDs [6]. Many studies have been performed on shovel design. The blade size of the shovel depends on the density of the material being shoveled [7]. The workers prefer lighter shovels regardless of blade size [8]. Shovels must be as light as possible while maintaining strength and consistency. Intervention to reduce the risk of MSDs during shoveling includes additional support in the form of a different handle. The extra handle is attached at one end of the blade of a shovel to reduce the strain due to the stooping posture. The intervention improved efficiency and productivity of the shovel and eased mechanical handling of materials. Virtual simulation can be used to solve problems associated with manual cleanings such as stress and discomfort in human body parts. Digital human modeling and simulation (DHMS) refer to the digital representation of a human inserted into a simulation or virtual environment to aid in predicting safety and performance [9]. This study evaluated the traditional design of shovels used in a dairy farm using digital human models. The effect of shovel design on human posture was analyzed, and a device was proposed as an intervention to reduce number of tasks in a single unit.

12.2 Methodology 12.2.1 Selection of Sites The study was conducted in Central Cattle Breeding Farm, Nirjuli, Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh. Permission for conducting the experiments was obtained from the Directorate of Animal Husbandary, Veterinary and Dairy Development, Nirjuli, Government of Arunachal Pradesh. The farm has 5 sheds with a total population of 20 dairy cows, 10 heifers, 15 calves, and 2 bulls.

12.2.2 Selection of Subjects Workers of the farm were informed about the study. Written consent was obtained from the workers willing to participate in the study and fulfill the selection criteria. The subjects were selected based on nature of jobs such as milking, cleaning, feeding, and other activities. Workers in the study had to be at least 18 years old and have worked on the farm for at least one year. A total of eight workers were selected. Approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Institute.

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Fig. 12.1 Step-wise loading of dung in trolley: a scooping of dung by shovel; b lifting of dung from shovel; c unloading of dung in the trolley

(a)

(b)

(c)

12.2.3 Tasks Performed During Manual Cleaning Operation Cleaning in dairy farms is performed in five steps; namely scraping cow dung, loading dung in a trolley, transporting, unloading dung in a pit, and washing floors. Step-wise loading of dung in the trolley is shown in Fig. 12.1. Cleaning tools used in dairy farm includes gobar card for scraping the dung in the drainage, shovel for loading the dung in the trolley, trolley for transporting the dung to the manure pit, and brooms for cleaning the surface. gobar card is a wooden tool which consists of a long bamboo handle and a flat scraper at the tip. Cleaning of the shed is performed twice daily, i.e., in the morning (9.00 am) and afternoon (2.00 pm). Two workers are allotted for each shed. A total of 1.5–2.0 h is required to clean the whole shed.

12.2.4 Traditional Shovel The shovel used in the farm was manufactured by TATA. It consists of a steel blade, a plastic shaft, and a plastic handle. The shaft is 700 mm long. The width of cutting edge is 280 mm. Length of blade is 400 mm. Shaft diameter is 15 mm, and grip diameter is 15 mm.

12.2.5 Measurement of Posture Kinovea application software was used to analyze working posture. Still photographs and videos of the workers were captured using a digital camera from a distance of 3 m. Still photographs were also extracted from the videos. Landmarks on the body of the workers were marked with contrast color cello tape. In the Kinovea application software, all the still photograph and videos were inserted. The angle tap was also inserted into the proper location from which the relative angle was measured.

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12.2.6 Generation of Digital Human Models Anthropometric data in [10] was used in this study to build manikins for evaluation (Table 12.1). Three digital human manikins were created using Dassault CATIA V5R19 software to accommodate 5th, 50th, and 95th percentiles using the anthropometric database in the DHM simulation system [10] (Fig. 12.2). Initially, the dimensions of all the shovels were measured. Subsequently, CATIA software converted measured dimensions into a 3D model (Fig. 12.3). The developed models were simulated with digital manikins (Fig. 12.4) for ergonomic, postural, and biomechanical analysis. Table 12.1 Anthropometric data from across India [10]

Fig. 12.2 5th, 50th, and 95th percentiles of digital human models

Parameter

5th

50th

95th

Stature, mm

1521

1619

1746

Chest breadth, mm

217

276

335

Waist breadth, mm

215

266

317

Hip breadth, mm

256

301

347

Crotch height, mm

616

690

763

Waist height, mm

862

952

1042

Span, mm

1562

1697

1832

Thumb tip reach, mm

683

772

860

Chest depth, mm

176

208

243

Palm length, mm

160

171

180

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Fig. 12.3 CATIA model of traditional shovel

Fig. 12.4 Man–machine interaction while loading dung in CATIA

12.2.7 Posture Analysis The angles formed by the body segments of workers while loading dung in trolley were determined using Kinovea application software. Postural analysis was performed using RULA analysis tool in Dassault CATIA V5R19 software. RULA score color code and indicators are presented in Table 12.2. The RULA score represents the postural risk level of the evaluated work task. The minimum score is 1, and the maximum score is 7. Higher the RULA score value higher the postural risk. Postural risk assessment is very important in calculating musculoskeletal fatigue in human beings. Table 12.2 RULA score and required action RULA score

Color code

Indicators

1 and 2

Green

Posture is accepted

3 and 4

Yellow

Further investigation is needed, and changes may be required

5 and 6

Orange

Investigation and changes are required soon

7

Red

Investigation and changes are required immediately

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12.2.8 Biomechanical Compressive Force Analysis Back compressive force on the L4–L5 lumbar spine was calculated using the biomechanical compressive force (BMCF) analysis tool in Dassault CATIA V5R19 software. BMCF was obtained during loading of dung in trolley for a 5 kg load. The BMCF analysis was carried out for all three manikins for single-acting force analysis of L4–L5 spinal segment. The obtained data was compared with the NIOSH limit.

12.3 Results and Discussion 12.3.1 Postural Measurement Figure 12.5 shows angles of various body segments while loading dung in the trolley. The minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation of the torso, upper arm, lower arm, and knee bent obtained in the present study are shown in Table 12.3. The result indicates that torso angle varied from 53° to 80°. Awkward working postures may decrease the worker’s concentration and increase accident frequency and biomechanical overload [16]. Unsupported positions or awkward postures exceeding physical limits can compress nerves, affect tendons, and Fig. 12.5 Angles of body segments while loading dung in trolley

Table 12.3 Minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation of angles of body segments while loading dung in trolley Parameter

Minimum

Maximum

Mean

Standard deviation

Torso angle, °

53

80

72

13

Upper arm angle, °

33

50

42

9

Lower arm angle, °

52

66

59

7

Knee bent, °

147

160

153

7

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harm the muscles. Inadequate body postures related to workstations are the primary cause of MSDs [17]. The awkward posture is most important among various risk factors[18].

12.3.2 RULA Work Posture Analysis RULA score for cleaning operation of the 95th percentile worker is shown in Fig. 12.6. The score for all the body parts for the three manikins representing 5th, 50th, and 95th percentile population is summarized in Table 12.4. The results show that the RULA score of 5 at the wrist and arm was obtained for loading dung in the trolley during cleaning operation for the 5th percentile population, while the other body parts had lower score. Score 5 indicates that further investigation is needed, and postural change is required soon (Table 12.2). The wrist, neck, and trunk showed higher RULA scores for the 50th and 95th percentile population compared to the 5th percentile population. RULA score of 5 was highest for the two body segments, namely the wrist and arm, and the trunk for the 50th percentile population. However, the final score was 7 which shows that changes are required immediately (Table 12.2). The working posture could be changed with appropriate design modifications. The higher value of RULA score for the wrist and arm may be due to the workers lifting the dung in bending posture. Studies have reported that higher trunk score drudgery to the worker therefore lower score is desirable for comfortable and safe operation [11]. The possible reason for higher RULA score for the 50th and 95th percentile population could be the short handle length of the shovel. Therefore, the taller workers need to bend more to scoop the dung from the ground. Therefore, it needed to modify design of the shovel. Fig. 12.6 RULA score for cleaning operation of the 95th percentile population

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Table 12.4 RULA score for 5th, 50th, and 95th worker S. No

Parameter

5th percentile

50th percentile

95th percentile

1

Upper arm

3

3

3

2

Forearm

3

3

3

3

Wrist

2

3

3

4

Wrist twist

1

1

1

5

Muscle

1

1

1

6

Force/load

0

0

0

7

Wrist and arm

5

5

5

8

Neck

1

4

4

9

Trunk

3

5

5

10

Leg

1

1

1

11

Final score

5

7

7

12.3.3 Biomechanical Compressive Force Analysis The result shows that the BMCF at L4–L5 for 5th, 50th, and 95th percentile male workers was 2550, 2708, and 4165 N/m2 , respectively. The permissible limit for BMCF at the L4–L5 is 3600 N/m2 (11). The BMCF at L4–L5 for the 5th and 50th percentile workers was found to be within acceptable limit, whereas for the 95th percentile worker, the BMCF was beyond the threshold limit. The BMCF for 95th percentile workers is shown in Fig. 12.7. Mean values of BMCF for all the three percentile workers are shown in Fig. 12.8. According to field observations, the shorter workers perform the task with slightly less forward bending, whereas the taller workers bend more for loading dung using shovel. Studies have suggested that ergonomically designed equipment may prevent workers’ drudgery and improve worker safety [12] (Fig. 12.8). Fig. 12.7 BMCF for 95th population

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4200

Fig. 12.8 BMCF for all population

BMCF (N/m2)

3600 3000 2400 1800 1200 600 0

5th

50th Population percentile

95th

12.3.4 Interventions A device is proposed in which the three tasks of cleaning operation could be performed with a single device. In this device, the use of shovel is eliminated. Existing trolley is modifying in such way that the cleaning operations, namely scraping of cow dung, loading dung in a trolley, transporting, and unloading dung in a pit, can be carried out using a single device. This device consists of three components, i.e., a trolley, an inclined plate, and gobar card. The gobar card is used for scraping the cow dung. The gobar card is adjustable and is mounted in front of the trolley. The inclined plate helps the gobar card to pull up the dung in the trolley. The inclined plate can be lifted during unloading the dung from the trolley. Figure 12.9 shows CAD model for design modification of the system. The trolley height is designed according to anthropometric data so workers of different body dimensions can be used. Awkward postures and twisting of the back or limbs result in musculoskeletal disorders. Focusing on the postures resulting in WMSDs, the top ergonomic problems are identified as working in the same position for long periods, bending or twisting the back awkwardly, and working in awkward or cramped positions [15]. Posture when using modified trolleys is more comfortable as the workers do not need to bend. Fig. 12.9 CAD model for design modification of trolley

148 Table 12.5 RULA score and BMCF for 5th, 50th, and 95th workers after intervention

S. Thokchom et al. Parameter 5th population 50th population 95th population RULA

3

3

3

BMCF

1224

1545

1870

RULA score for cleaning operation and BMCF at the L4–L5 of the 5th, 50th, and 95th percentile population after intervention is summarized in Table 12.5. This result shows considerable improvement in design device compared to the existing design. The RULA score and indicators are given in Table 12.2 which need further investigation for the workers of the three percentile groups. The RULA score after intervention shows less postural risk compared to the use of shovel and trolley. The proposed design will be more economical and less risky to develop MSD. Exposure to biomechanical stress may be a precursor for the high incidence of MSDs in adult farmers [13]. In adulthood, MSDs are one of the most significant health issues that farmers face accounting for approximately 45% of all agricultural injuries (identified as a leading cause) [13, 14]. The BMCF at L4–L5 for the workers of the three percentile groups is within the permissible limit, i.e., 3600 N/m2 . Furthermore, 44–55% in BMCF was reduced compared to the values obtained prior to intervention.

12.4 Conclusion Digital human modeling technique was used to evaluate the traditional shovel design in loading dung in a trolley using Kinovea application software and Dassault CATIA V5R19 software. The highest RULA score during the task was 7 for the 95th percentile population. The evaluation of body posture has been carried out for the particular operation by RULA tool; it can be concluded that; significant proportion of the workers are working in uncomfortable and painful postures, as found by analysis. The BMCF for the 95th percentile population was considerably higher, i.e., 4165 N/m2 which may cause low back pain in future. To reduce low back pain, an intervention is suggested by modifying the trolley and combining three devices, namely gobar card, shovel, and trolley, used in cleaning. RULA score for all the population is 3, and the L4–L5 compression forces for all the people are within the permissible limit, i.e., 3600 N/m2 after the intervention.

References 1. Huang, C.T., Paquet, V.: Kinematic evaluation of two snow-shovel designs. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 29, 319–330 (2002) 2. Marras, W.S., Lavender, S.A., Leurgans, S.E., Fathallah, F.A., Ferguson, S.A., Allread, W.G., Rajulu, S.L.: Biomechanical risk factors for occupationally related low back disorders. Ergonomics 38, 377–410 (1995)

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3. Hansson, P.A., Oberg, K.E.T.: Analysis of biomechanical load when shoveling. J. Agric. Saf. Health. 2, 127–142 (1996) 4. Kolstrup, C., Stål, M., Pinzke, S., Lundqvist, P.: Musculoskeletal disorders among herdsmen working in Swedish dairy and pig farming. In: Proceedings of the 39th Nordic Ergonomics Society Conference, Lysekil, Sweden (2007) 5. Pinzke, S.: Changes in working conditions and health among dairy farmers in southern Sweden. A 14-year follow-up. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 10, 185–195 (2003) 6. Khayer, S.M., Patel, T., Dewangan, K.N.: Ergonomic design improvement of pedal thresher: an approach combining digital human modelling and response surface analysis. J. Ergon. 07, 1–9 (2017) 7. Freivalds, A.: The ergonomics of shovelling and shovel design—a review of the literature. Ergonomics 29, 3–18 (1986) 8. Freivalds, A., Kim, Y.J.: Blade size and weight effects in shovel design. Appl. Ergon. 21, 39–42 (1990) 9. Demirel, H.O., Duffy, V.G.: Digital human modeling for product lifecycle management. In: International Conference on Digital Human Modeling, pp. 372–381 (2007) 10. Gite, L.P., Majumder, J., Mehta, C.R., Khadatkar, A.: Anthropometric and strength data of Indian agricultural workers for equipment design (2009) 11. Khayer, S.M., Patel, T., Ningthoujam, B.: Ergonomic postural and biomechanical analysis of manual weeding operation in agriculture using digital human models. In: Research into Design for a Connected World, pp. 451–462. Springer, Singapore (2019) 12. Bilski, B.: Assessment of static loads on the locomotion system accompanying work on dairy stock farms. J. Med. Sci. 85, 121–130 (2016) 13. Meyers, J.M., Miles, J.A., Faucett, J., Janowitz, I., Tejeda, D.G., Kabashima, J.N.: Ergonomics in agriculture: workplace priority setting in the nursery industry. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 58, 121–126 (1997) 14. Zhou, C., Roseman, J.M.: Agricultural injuries among a population-based sample of farm operators in Alabama. Am. J. Ind. Med. 25, 385–402 (1994) 15. Zimmerman, C., Cook, T., Rosecrance, J.: Trade-specific trends in self-reported musculoskeletal symptoms and job factor perceptions among unionized construction workers. In: Proceedings of the 13th Triennial Congress of the IEA. Tampere, Finland (1997) 16. Caffaro, R., Lundqvist, P., Micheletti Cremasco, M., Nilsson, K., Pinzke, S., Cavallo, E.: Machinery-related perceived risks and safety attitudes in senior Swedish farmers. Agromedicine 23, 78–91 (2018) 17. Koohpaei, A., Khandan, M., Vosoughi, S., Khammar, A., Mobinizade, V., Farrokhi, M., et al.: Industrial workers’ postures analysis by a new method named “loading on the upper body assessment” in Iran. Annals Trop. Med. Public Health 10(4), 973–977 (2017) 18. Khandan, M., Aligol, M.H., Shamsi, M., Poursadeghiyan, M., Biglari, H., Koohpaei, A.: Occupational health, safety, and ergonomics challenges and opportunities based on the organizational structure analysis: a case study in the selected manufacturing industries in Qom Province, Iran, 2015. Annals Trop. Med. Public Health 10(3), 606–611 (2017)

Chapter 13

Identifying the Need to Provide Medical Assistance and Home Healthcare to the Elderly Mehek Lahoti , Sudip Ray , and Tanmayee Puntambekar

Abstract The health problems of elderly citizens are manifold, ranging from physical and mental ailments to emotional and psychological concerns. These raise challenges and limitations that, on varying levels, affect the daily living of the seniors. This also puts the family members in a constant state of worry. It is often found that the family members are unequipped, unaware, and/or afraid of providing any type of medical assistance to the elderly in times of emergency. The research aims to understand the need and importance of providing medical and health assistance to the elderly. The assistance could be varied and can cater to a wide range of needs. Furthermore, the research also aims to identify the importance of a medical emergency kit and its generic contents and also evaluate the existing knowledge and responsive behaviour of the elderly as well as his/her relatives, in the event of a medical emergency. For this research, a triangulation methodology was adopted by conducting observations and semi-structured interviews; data were analysed using thematic and content analysis techniques. The research has proven to be helpful in empathizing with the elderly. The need for an inclusive home healthcare product for the elderly is evident.

13.1 Introduction Senior citizens face many challenges in their daily living, related to their health. Their families are in a constant state of worry as the elderly have lower agility and slower reflexes that make them vulnerable to mild injuries or even critical health M. Lahoti (B) · S. Ray · T. Puntambekar Symbiosis Institute of Design, Symbiosis International (Deemed) University, Viman Nagar, Pune, Maharashtra 411015, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Ray e-mail: [email protected] T. Puntambekar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_13

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conditions [1]. It is often found that the family members are unaware and/or afraid of providing medical assistance to the elderly in times of an emergency. Therefore, it becomes imperative to provide medical and health assistance to elders that will help them maintain a healthy life. It is important to understand and identify the crucial devices that are needed by the elderly to monitor and sustain their health [1]; the necessary types of equipment that provide physical assistance; the need for various tools that would help in better organization of their reports and medicines, and so forth. The primary focus of conducting the research is to learn about the most common health problems and their corresponding challenges faced by elderly people; to identify the pain points experienced by them in their daily living and provide medical assistance or solutions to make their lives easier, simpler, and better. The research also aims to identify the need for an emergency kit; while evaluating the existing resources [2], knowledge and responsive behaviour of the patient as well as his/her relatives, in times of a medical emergency.

13.1.1 Health Problems of the Elderly The elders face several challenges, at multiple levels. With increasing age, physical health starts taking a toll. Deteriorating health conditions such as visual and hearing impairments; edentulism; weight loss; urinary problems; chronic ailments like respiratory, digestive, and heart-related issues are the most common factors that affect their physical, mental, and psychological health [3]. Furthermore, their changed socio-economic status along with the inability to perform tasks makes them dependent, both physically and financially, on other family members. Suffering from depression, anxiety, and constant paranoia along with feeling neglected, frustrated, and helpless could affect them deeply on a psychological level [4]. Therefore, this research becomes necessary to identify, learn, and provide solutions for the needs and aspirations of the elderly. This could also lead to finding intervention areas that would possibly mitigate their dependency quotient on others, thereby improving mental and psychological health.

13.1.2 Medical Devices and Tools Essential to the Elderly A few types of medical equipment, tools, and supplies have been identified that help to provide physical assistance and relief to senior citizens. These normally include mobility aids like wheelchairs and walking sticks; various health monitoring devices like a glucometer, blood pressure monitor, inhalers, hot and cold fomentation to ease pain; and a few exercise tools like compressive balls, stretchable bands, weights, etc. [1]. This research would aim to understand the need and importance of the mentioned items, from the perspective of the elderly and medical professionals.

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Fig. 13.1 First-aid kits owned by the elderly who were interviewed, arranged in order of organization level

13.1.3 Contents and Importance of a First-Aid Kit It is observed that every house is equipped with a first-aid kit containing generic supplies like bandages, dressing material, ointments, and pain-relief sprays; sanitisers; thermometers; gloves and masks [2] and basic medication. However, when living with a senior citizen, it becomes highly important to maintain an inclusive and updated first-aid kit that is catered to the needs and anticipatory problems of the elderly (Fig. 13.1).

13.1.4 Medical Emergencies Among the Elderly Keskino˘glu and Inan [5] analysed the visits by the elderly to the emergency departments of hospitals and stated, “The annual rates of admission to the emergency departments and hospitals were significantly higher in the older elderly population than in the younger elderly population. The most common diagnoses among elderly patients were disorders of the circulatory system”. The common cause of a medical emergency in the elderly includes, but is not limited to, circulatory diseases. Medication non-adherence poses a pressing matter in geriatric health. The factors that lead to such a situation are manifold, and it might result in mild-serious repercussions [6]. By the time the paramedic staff reaches the patient, it is important to understand, identify, and provide preliminary relief and/or treatment to the patient. The research would also understand the ways through which the elderly and their family members could be aware and equipped with precursory treatment/relief during a medical emergency.

13.1.5 Research Objectives The chief objectives of the study are, to: • Identify and learn the pain points, needs, and aspirations of the elderly, concerning their health

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• Identify the need for an inclusive product that provides medical assistance to the elderly.

13.2 Methodology and Methods Triangulation methodology was adopted to gather both, qualitative and quantitative data from the respective stakeholders. Three prominent stakeholders were identified namely, the elderly above 60 years of age; the family members of the senior citizens; and lastly, medical professionals who are experts on the subject matter. In all, a total of 65 responses were gathered through the interview and questionnaire methods. The questionnaires have been validated by research experts and guides and also by medical professionals before the interviews were conducted. To improve the effectiveness of the research, people belonging to the middleincome groups and above, in the socio-economic pyramid, were included in the study. The economic strata, in focus, would answer the questions in a more precise manner and shall be ready and able to accept change for their betterment.

13.2.1 Location of Research The major portion of the study was carried out in Pune, Maharashtra. The interactions and observations were conducted in the respective homes of the elderly, where they feel safe and comfortable. Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic and the nationwide lockdown, every individual has adopted the internet and technology to stay connected with one another. It was due to this that data could be gathered from different cities across the country. Thus, the interactions were a mix of in-person and telephonic interviews, from multiple locations.

13.2.2 Data Collection Semi-structured interviews were conducted for 21 elderly citizens and 12 family members (only 1 family member was considered for more than 1 elder residing in a household) where a mix of open-ended and closed-ended questions were prepared beforehand. Empathy played a key role in exploring certain factors in detail. The interviews provided deeper insights into the life of the elderly and their family members. Owing to the busy schedules of doctors and adhering to COVID-19 guidelines, an online questionnaire was circulated to 43 doctors, of which 32 responses were received from various locations, across different medical specialities. Experienced, as well as fresh graduates of the medical industry, were considered, to gather multiple

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viewpoints. Interactions with professionals from the medical industry guided the research in the right direction.

13.2.3 Data Analysis Data were collected and compiled systematically. Observation notes, audio recordings, videos, and images collected from the primary research were organized and studied to gather meaningful insights. Thematic, content, and comparative analysis were used for analysing the gathered data.

13.3 Results The data obtained from the research were both, qualitative and quantitative in nature. The quantitative data were analysed and converted into appropriate graphical representations. On the other hand, the qualitative data were analysed using methods such as thematic analysis, comparative analysis, and content analysis. The analysed information was converted into quantitative data that is represented through different pie charts, bar graphs, and so forth.

13.3.1 Medication Regimen Of the 21 elderly citizens interviewed, every respondent (100% of respondents) consumes allopathic medicines. In addition to allopathic medication, 14.3 and 4.8% of respondents also consume Ayurvedic and Homeopathic medication, respectively, for reasons including, but not limited to, decoctions and supplements for general immunity and strength, and for some specific health problem. 38% of elderly respondents need to consume more than 6 medicines daily and the remaining (62%) consume 1–5 tablets daily. The majority (58.3%) of respondents forget to take medicines either occasionally/frequently. 66.6% of respondents feel that medicine organizers shall be highly helpful, while 14.3% are unsure about the same. 14.3% of respondents aspire for reminders, while 1.8% of people find the existing organizers insufficient in terms of storage/compartments/space (Figs. 13.2, 13.3 and 13.4).

13.3.2 Lab and Pathological Tests The frequency of undertaking lab and pathological tests by the elderly is varied. 28.6% of respondents take these tests at least once in 3 months, whereas 38.3%

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Fig. 13.2 Daily intake of allopathy medicines

Fig. 13.3 Type of medication adhered to by the elderly

of the elderly take these tests once in 6 months. Of all elderly respondents, 90.5% maintain their test reports and records in a manner of manual filing. 78.9% of elderly respondents maintain these records for, a minimum, of 3 years (Figs. 13.5, 13.6 and 13.7).

13 Identifying the Need to Provide Medical Assistance and Home … Fig. 13.4 Adherence to medication regimen

Fig. 13.5 Frequency of check-ups

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158 Fig. 13.6 Maintaining reports and records of testing

Fig. 13.7 Duration for which records are maintained

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13.3.3 First-Aid Kit A small percentage of respondents (37.5%) own an unorganized kit, while a significant percentage of respondents (59.9%) do not have a kit that is catered to the needs and anticipatory health problems of the elderly that might result in a medical emergency. All in all, most of the first-aid kits owned by the respondents include only a limited supply of wound-dressing material (57.9%) and general medication (63.2%) (Figs. 13.8, 13.9 and 13.10). Fig. 13.8 Identifying supplies in the respondents’ first-aid kits

Fig. 13.9 Identifying organization of the respondents’ first-aid kits

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Fig. 13.10 Identifying whether the fist-aid kit is suited for the elderly

13.3.4 Engagement of Family Members with the Elderly Out of the 12 family members, 41.6% spend almost the entire day with the elderly. 58.3% of the respondents provide medication assistance and have made the bathrooms elder-friendly. Monitoring meals for the elderly (50%), making necessary seating (16.7%), and room modifications (33.3%) are also practised by a few members (Figs. 13.11 and 13.12).

Fig. 13.11 Help and assistance provided to the elderly by the family members

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Fig. 13.12 Gauging the time spent with the elderly on a daily basis

13.3.5 Health Concerns Data were compared from two different stakeholders, namely the elderly (21 in number) and doctors (32 in number) using the comparative analysis technique. The most common health ailments noticed among the elderly, in decreasing order of occurrence, are cardiac problems; diabetes; musculoskeletal problems; neurological concerns; and digestive problems. It is noted that 85.7% of elderly respondents have vision problems which include nearsightedness, farsightedness, partial blindness, and cataract surgeries (Fig. 13.13).

13.3.6 Devices and Equipments According to doctors, the most essential devices to be owned by the elderly are, in order of importance, Blood Pressure Monitor (93.8%), Glucometer (87.5%), Medicine Organizers (81.3%), Fomentation pads (62.5%), Oximeters (59.4%), Walking Sticks (53.1%), and Inhalers (50%). Only 71.4, 42.9, 38.1, 33.3, 23.8, 4.8, and 9.5% of the elderly respondents own the respective devices and aids (Fig. 13.14).

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Fig. 13.13 Comparative analysis between responses of elderly and doctors on health issues faced by the elderly

Fig. 13.14 Comparative analysis between responses of elderly and doctors, on devices to be owned by elderly

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13.3.7 Emergency Crisis As shown by the statistics, the majority of the respondents (both, elderly and family members) are unaware of the emergency contact numbers like the national helpline number and the ambulance service numbers. A very small percentage (8.3%) of the family members are fully aware of the elderly’s medical condition which includes understanding the ailment thoroughly, the side effects of medicines consumed, and any adverse situation that could arise due to the respective health condition. Only 41.7% of family members are equipped with basic cardiac medication and extremely brief knowledge of CPR and mouthto-mouth resuscitation but are not confident in administering these services when needed. None of the respondents owns any machine/device that will provide any kind of preliminary treatment to the patient in the event of a medical emergency. As rated by doctors, every household should be equipped with an emergency kit, the contents of which should include a defibrillator (50%), training/guides on CPR (84.4%) and mouth-to-mouth resuscitation (56.3%), emergency medications and injections (93.8%), emergency contact details (87.5%), and an SOS button (84.4%) to alert the necessary authorities.

13.4 Discussion 13.4.1 Medication Regimen As noted, the majority (58.3%) of respondents forget to take medicines either occasionally/frequently. Non-compliance with the medication regimen may lead to mildserious repercussions. Thus, arises the need for a redesigned medicine organizerdispenser-reminder that takes care of the medication schedule of the respondents. A few respondents are also dependent upon their children/grandchildren for medication assistance. They either remind them of medication or take out the correct medicines for them. The redesigned medicine organizer shall also prove helpful to alleviate this reliance on others and make the elderly feel independent, thus contributing to better mental and psychological health.

13.4.2 Lab and Pathological Tests While there are no direct problems observed in the current filing system practised by the respondents, a few modifications might prove beneficial. The changes would include providing a dedicated space for storing these reports, either digitally or physically, so as to make them easily accessible in times of emergency (Figs. 13.15, 13.16, 13.17, 13.18, 13.19 and 13.20).

164 Fig. 13.15 Awareness of the elderly about emergency contacts

Fig. 13.16 Awareness of the family members, about emergency contacts

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13 Identifying the Need to Provide Medical Assistance and Home … Fig. 13.17 Awareness of the family members, about the elderly’s health problems

Fig. 13.18 Preparedness for medical emergencies

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Fig. 13.19 Essential resources to be owned in an emergency kit Fig. 13.20 Rating the need for an emergency kit

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Out of the data obtained from the interviews, only 30.3% of respondents are fully comfortable and confident in using a digital interface (for example a smartphone), while 36.3% of respondents are not at all comfortable with the same. Thus, the notion of digital storage and maintenance of health records and test reports seems to be sceptical. However, it would be helpful if easily accessible and dedicated storage space is available for the same.

13.4.3 First-Aid Kit When living with the elderly, it becomes crucial to maintain an inclusive medical kit catered to the needs of the elderly, which will also aid in times of a medical crisis. A contrast is noticed in the research conducted, with only 59.1% of households including special supplies for the elderly’s health problems. This provides a possible scope for intervention.

13.4.4 Health Problems and Medical Devices On comparing the data obtained from all stakeholders, a noticeable difference is observed in the devices/equipment that should be ideally owned by the elderly (as per the suggestions of the doctor) and the devices actually owned and used by the elderly. In the mission of providing complete medical assistance to the elderly, this gap between ‘what should be owned’ and ‘what is owned’ needs to be bridged. 90.5% of elderly respondents have cardiac ailments, of which only 71.4% of respondents own and use a BP Monitor. 57.1% of the elderly have diabetes and only 42.9% of respondents own and use a glucometer. Similarly, none of the 38.1% of respondents who have hearing impairments uses a hearing aid. This difference is mostly due to carelessness and denial.

13.4.5 Emergency Crisis The family members and the elderly are oblivious to emergency contact numbers; and are unaware, unequipped, and not confident in providing any treatment to the elderly in the event of a medical crisis; all of which becomes a necessity when living with the elderly. None of the respondents has a caregiver attending to the elderly. It might pose a problem if a medical emergency arises, given the lack of medical knowledge possessed by family members. The first instinct of the family members, when faced with an emergency, is to try to treat the problem at home. However, this may not always be the correct solution as the condition might deteriorate over time resulting in severe complications. The

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respondents (both, elderly and family members) are not fully aware and confident regarding their course of action in such a situation of crisis.

13.5 Conclusion The research has come to fruition by achieving its aim of understanding the need for medical assistance for the elderly in their daily living as well as in times of medical emergency. The research proves that there is a need for a medicine organizer-dispenserreminder that will help the elderly adhere to their medication regimen and also reduce their dependence on family members, for the same. As identified from the responses of the doctors, it is important to own a few devices and equipment, at home, that monitor and/or sustain the health of the elderly. These include Blood Pressure Monitors, Glucometers, Oximeters, Medicine Organizers, Inhalers, Walking Sticks, and Fomentation Pads. The majority of the elderly as well as the family members are unaware of the necessary helpline numbers. As suggested by doctors too, the feature of an SOS alarm to alert the neighbours, ambulance, nearest hospital, etc., shall prove to be extremely beneficial in the event of a medical emergency. After studying the pain points, habits, and attitudes of the elderly, the need for an inclusive home health care product is evident. It shall instil confidence and independence among the elderly as they would be actively responsible and in charge of their health. This product/kit would provide medical assistance to the elderly not only in their daily living but will also prove to be a valuable asset in the event of a medical crisis. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Symbiosis Institute of Design and Symbiosis International (Deemed) University for supporting this research.

References 1. Isnaini, F.: Medical Equipment for the elderly. Harmony Home Medical (2019). [Online]. Available at https://harmonyhomemedical.com/medical-equipment-for-the-elderly/. Accessed 22nd July 2020 2. Miller, M.J.: U.S. Patent Application No. 12/883,037 (2011) 3. Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study: Survey into health problems of elderly people: a comparison of self-report with proxy information. Int. J. Epidemiol. 29(4), 684–97 (2000) 4. Lena, A., Ashok, K., Padma, M., Kamath, V., Kamath, A.: Health and social problems of the elderly: a cross-sectional study in Udupi Taluk, Karnataka. Indian J. Commun. Med. Off. Publ. Indian Assoc. Prevent. Soc. Med. 34(2) (2009)

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5. Keskino˘glu, P., Inan, F.: Analysis of emergency department visits by elderly patients in an urban public hospital in Turkey. J. Clin. Gerontol. Geriatrics 5(4), 127–31 (2014) 6. Malhotra, S., Karan, R.S., Pandhi, P., Jain, S.: Drug-related medical emergencies in the elderly: role of adverse drug reactions and non-compliance. Postgraduate Med. J. 77(913), 703–07 (2001)

Chapter 14

Ergonomic Principles to Design Adaptive Sportswear for Wheelchair Tennis Players Subhalakshmi Kropi Bhuyan and Nilanjana Bairagi

Abstract Wheelchair tennis (WT) is a parasport played in some parts of India. The absence of adaptive clothing creates a barrier to the performance of wheelchair tennis, as observed during the pilot study. The study has shown that the prerequisites of differently abled WT players are not met in commercially available sportswear. Limited literature is available on the design framework of adaptive sportswear for WT. Therefore, the objective is to design an ergonomic framework that includes the design process specific to adaptive sportswear for WT. The methodology includes an ethnographic study at Karnataka State Lawn Tennis Association (KSLTA) Bengaluru, India, on men and women WT players from 2019. Data were collected during 2019–2022 to study the ergonomic needs and design requirements using the usercentric approach and FEA model of Lamb and Kallal. The data collected during the study have been used in co-designing, prototyping, user testing, and redesigning the adaptive sportswear.

14.1 Introduction Wheelchair tennis is a parasport included in all Grand Slams (International Paralympic Committee) of the world and is a popular sport played by differently abled in some cities in India. The difference between regular and wheelchair tennis is that the tennis ball in wheelchair tennis can bounce twice, and the players use wheelchairs to move around the court. Basically, there are two classes under which the players are categorised, the open class (impairment in legs), and the quad class (Impairment in arms and legs). The need and requirements of differently abled wheelchair tennis players are very distinctive from abled-bodied tennis players. Differently abled is a term used to define people with disability (PWD), who can have restricted mobility of the body, hearing, speech and visual impairment, mental problems, etc. S. K. Bhuyan (B) · N. Bairagi National Institute of Fashion Technology, Bengaluru, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_14

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As stated in the report of the Department of Empowerment of People with Disabilities, Government of India, 20–21, one of the significant commitments of the department is to focus on leisure and sports activities to uplift the morale of differently abled to participate in National and International parasports. A thorough understanding of the differently abled is essential to conducting a study. The absence of adaptive clothing can limit one to socialisation and participation in societal duties [1]. It can further create a barrier to performing sports activities smoothly. The ethnographic research executed in the process had shown that the prerequisites of differently abled wheelchair tennis players are not met in sports apparel. The apparel worn during the sport can restrict the movement of the players if it is not designed according to the necessary conditions. This study aims the ergonomics of wheelchair tennis (WT) players during sports activities. In ergonomics, there are two aspects, according to Bainbridge [2]: (a) Designing working conditions and (b) foreseeing the performance to improve the conditions. Wheelchair tennis (WT) is a parasport that involves pushing the rim with one hand and holding the racquet, and hitting the ball with the other hand. Sports activities can elevate one to lead an active lifestyle and provide physical and mental strength to everyone, including wheelchair users [3]. Sports indeed display an optimistic impression of disability. According to World Health Organization (WHO), 1 billion people are disabled in one form, and the statistic is rising considerably worldwide. There is an urgent need for disability inclusion in the health sector for the well-being of a person. As per the estimation by WHO, 1 out of 3 are in conditions that would be aided with the help of rehabilitation. A rehabilitation process is exercised by doctors and medical practitioners for the benefit of the individual. The user-centric design approach is very imperative to developing a product. Fulfilling the user requirement to satisfy the end-user with the help of upto-date fabric materials, trims, construction methods, new machinery/technologies, etc. [4]. In the process of product development, introduction to ergonomic principles is essential to keep away from unwanted issues created by the user being able to use it for the right purpose. The main objective of the research paper is to design a framework of ergonomic principles specific to adaptive sportswear for wheelchair tennis, as there is limited literature on the ergonomic principles of wheelchair tennis. In Fig. 14.1, the mindmap of human factor ergonomics, especially for wheelchair tennis, is illustrated to understand the various components associated with wheelchair tennis. The components are an integral part that affects the game of wheelchair tennis.

14.2 Research Methodology The methodology includes an ethnographic study at Karnataka State Lawn Tennis Association (KSLTA) Bengaluru, India, on 10 men and women WT players from 2019 in a real situation. Subjective methods were adopted with the help of questionnaires, interviews, participatory observations, and visual data collected during this period to study the ergonomic needs and design requirements using the user-centric

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Fig. 14.1 Mind map of human factor ergonomics: wheelchair tennis (WT)

approach and FEA model of Lamb and Kallal [5], along with focus group interviews related to existing problems. Throughout the study, Activity, Environment, Individual, Object and Understanding (AEIOU design approach) has been applied to be au fait with the whole process. Observations were made during the duration on the court, playing with their camaraderie and interacting with the environment while using a wheelchair/racquet/ball/assistive device, etc. In this case study, men and women regular WT players of Karnataka State Lawn Tennis Association were identified who enthusiastically participated in the research in an actual environment as presented in Table 14.1 (Fig. 14.2). The questionnaires were developed to focus on the areas like: what drives you to play WT? Do you face any specific physiological problems while playing WT? Which muscles oscillate during the game? Does your exposed skin get abraded anywhere? To rate the factors like comfort, fit, ease of use, easy closure, colour, materials, functionality, and fashion in the existing sportswear adorn. How do you adapt to specific environments like hot/cold/windy/rainy climates? Do you wear any assistive devices like braces/callipers? Does your sportswear accommodate assistive devices? To rate the fit parameters of the sportswear used. To rate the attributes of the sportswear before/during/after the game. Do you want to add or improve any element in your existing sportswear? The questions helped in identifying the ergonomic clothing need. Throughout the subjective method, critical incidents were studied furthermore to have a clear understanding of the parasport. The study involved the stages: pre-evaluation: characteristics of wheelchair tennis, the types of tools/aids used (racquet, ball, wheelchair, braces, callipers, etc.), safety accessories, sequence of activities, activity analysis considering comfort, functionality, and usability of the sports, etc. Survey: a survey on ergonomic comfort emphasising the criteria such as effectiveness, efficiency, satisfaction, safety, and the expectation of use.

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Table 14.1 Profile of the WT players Players

Gender

Age

Place

Years of playing

Impairment

P1

M

30

Bengaluru

12y

Left leg amputation due to accident

P2

F

28

Bengaluru

3y

Scoliotic deformity of the spine. (Poliomyelitis paralysed both legs

P3

F

30

Bengaluru

6y

Left leg poliomyelitis

P4

F

39

Bengaluru

10y

Right leg poliomyelitis, uses calliper

P5

M

40

Bengaluru

4y

Poliomyelitis

P6

M

38

Bengaluru

5y

-do-

P7

M

43

Bengaluru

16y

-do-

P8

M

30

Bengaluru

6y

-do-

P9

M

26

Bengaluru

11y

Amputation of the leg

P10

F

26

Bengaluru

3 months

Poliomyelitis

Fieldwork: a study was conducted in real situations at Karnataka State Lawn Tennis Association, Bengaluru. To have a detailed understanding of the user needs, the study was conducted on the court and off the court. Centred on the data collected, a conceptual framework was developed for the clothing comfort of WT players. The user’s main ergonomic requirements concerning sportswear were distinguished, and design concepts were developed. Physical, psychological, and individual factors were considered while designing the adaptive sportswear for wheelchair tennis players. Based on user feedback, concepts were further modified and revised. Prototypes were developed, and user trials were conducted on WT players with prior consent. Feedback was recorded to improve the prototypes to achieve the final design.

14.3 Research Findings The ethnographic study conducted among the WT players has shown that the players use the sportswear which is available in the market created for able-bodied players. They need specialised sportswear designed for their body types. During the study, the data acquired has shown that wear comfort is the priority among WT players. Wheelchair tennis players are motivated to play tennis knowing the health benefits and meeting like-minded people with similar interests. The various factors for designing and designing intervention necessary for adaptive sportswear for wheelchair tennis players. Literature has also expressed the need for sportswear to possess the quality of wear comfort that can improve performance. It can be divided into [6]:

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Fig. 14.2 Process flow chart of the research work on adaptive sportswear for wheelchair tennis players

• Thermophysiological comfort (The elements associated with wear comfort are breathability, moisture management, and thermal insulation). • Ergonomic comfort (Deals with the fit and freedom of movement. The patterns used on the sportswear with the elasticity play a significant role). Skin sensorial comfort (The feel of the garment when it comes in contact with the skin. It should not hurt the wearer). • Psychological comfort (Women WT players are more inclined towards fashion and spend more on sportswear. They even try coordinating upper with lower garments, sports bras with the top they wear, etc.). Some of the necessary factors for designing adaptive sportswear for WT are mentioned below, along with some vital design interventions.

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• The task of the person: The main task of a player is to play wheelchair tennis and improve individual performance. • Design for efficiency. Wheelchair tennis players can have varied motor disabilities. In many instances, the players affected by poliomyelitis who require orthoses to keep their legs firm find it challenging to buy track pants/trousers that can accommodate the same. Not enough legroom for the assistive devices. Players wear the braces/callipers first and then wear the pants if that is workable. Otherwise, they wear it on top of the pant they are wearing. Players have wished the callipers were hidden under the clothing. In the market, various types of orthoses are available: (a) hip, knee, ankle, and foot, (b) ankle foot orthoses, (c) knee brace, (d) push knee splint, and (e) spinal orthotics. Materials like carbon fibre, aluminium alloy, wood, polypropylene, polyethylene, aramid fibre etc., are available in various weights, sizes, and price points. Very often, it has been noticed that the sharp edges of the orthotic materials make small holes in the pant damaging the fabric (Fig. 14.3). To design sportswear, it is of utmost importance to study the thermal heat zones of the body, so the players to perform better and remove exhaustion [7]. The authors in a previous study [8] conducted infrared thermography on WT players to understand the thermoregulation of the body parts during sports activities. It was observed by the authors that as a result of the functional muscles, namely, the deltoid, trapezius, serratus anterior, biceps, latissimus dorsi, rectus femoris, gracilis, and adductor longus, of the players during sports activities, the cutaneous temperature rises in areas affecting the shoulder, upper arms, below the bust (in women), sides of the trunk, upper back, thigh, etc. Sportswear with multifiber fine fabrics in those sweat zones can help wick and keep the player cool and comfortable. To harmonise with the skin stretchability, the garments need to extend and give way for body movement which makes it essential to study the stretch and recovery of sportswear. Polyurethane-based elastomeric filaments like spandex, lycra, etc., are used in sportswear for elasticity to be compatible with body movement for comfort. These elastomeric materials can be stretched to three times their original size and Fig. 14.3 Callipers and the effect on the pant

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tremendously recover when the tension is not applied [7]. Users were looking for more flexibility in the body while carrying out sports activities. Many a time, WT players wear sportswear which is made of blends of cotton and polyester. If the percentage of cotton fibres is higher, it absorbs perspiration and saturates rapidly, causing the garment to cling to the body during the match, impacting the player’s performance. It creates drag and restricts the easy movement of the player. However, microfibre (fibre diameter less than 1 denier) polyester has an excellent wicking property that allows the garment to remain cool and dry during sports activities. A well-designed garment should not obstruct the movement of the human body. Three types of planes divide the body: sagittal (left and right), frontal (front and back), and transverse (top and bottom). In Fig. 14.4, the study was done to understand the body movement in longitudinal, medial, and transverse axes [9]. Lightweight sportswear was preferred by all users. The garment’s weight can be decreased by stitch-free seaming technology that reduces the use of thread and overlapping materials. The users expressed their delight in flat and smooth garment seams without any bulk in some parts of the garments like sleeve hem, neckline finish, cut-out finishes, attachment of two diverse materials, etc. • Design for safety WT players often complain about shoulder injuries. This is basically due to the wheelchair activities they perform and the movement of the upper body while playing tennis. Players have also conveyed the problem of tennis elbows like able-bodied tennis players. Literature also states that the problems of less trunk support, poor lower extremity, and tennis elbow persist with WT players [10]. In the past, designers and researchers have designed upper body garments with an arch cut-out at the back Fig. 14.4 Wheelchair tennis player’s body axes and planes

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for easy accessibility. However, it is not favourable for WT players because their skin might get abraded against the back of the wheelchair, and the skin will be revealed during the game. Compared to the T-shirts available in the market for the abled body, the back panel should be longer than the front panel because the Tshirt tends to move upward while playing. It was observed during the tournament that it distracts the player’s performance. To prevent the exposing their skin of the back body from protecting against abrasion to the wheelchair or from covering the person’s modesty. • Ease of use Players showed concern about the track pants. The ones available are designed by keeping in mind able-bodied players. Very often, the lower back shows up because the back rise of the pattern is designed for standing players. The back rise should be increased to solve the problem (Fig. 14.5). The back rise of the patterns can be increased by the slash and spread method, as mentioned by Armstrong [11]. Sportswear style should be simple so that it is not confusing to the user while wearing. Fasteners should be clearly visible and accessible to the user (Fig. 14.6). Design intervention to cover the knee joint area with another patch to avoid small holes on the track pant caused by the callipers worn underneath (Fig. 14.7). Design to accommodate space in the attire for the tennis balls and a towel that is handy during the tennis match (Fig. 14.8). Fig. 14.5 Increased back rise of the pattern with slash and spread [11]

Fig. 14.6 Accessible and effortless fasteners

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Fig. 14.7 Knee patch

Fig. 14.8 Pocket space

• Design for efficacy: Customisation can be done concerning WT players. Considering the factors related to designing adaptive sportswear, prototypes were developed for wheelchair tennis users. The co-designed samples were further usertested and redesigned. Sample A, shown in Fig. 14.9, is a 95% polyester and 5% spandex racerback hybrid top with mesh fabric at the upper back for more ventilation. Weight is 0.049 kg. Laser triangle cut at the front below the bust for air circulation. Stitchless technology is used to make some parts of the operation. It has been observed that the joining of two panels at the back (top and bottom with stitch-free seaming technology) has made the seams less flexible compared to stitched seams. A heatactivated adhesive bonding using tape has been executed to seal both panels at the back.

Fig. 14.9 Sample A, racer back top

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Fig. 14.10 Sample B, raglan sleeve top

Sample B, shown in Fig. 14.10, is a 95% polyester and 5% spandex short-sleeve hybrid raglan T-shirt for easy arm movement. Both sleeves and below the bust front wave panel are made of polyester mesh fabric. Weight is 0.083 kg. It has a cut-out at the upper back for ventilation. The bottom hem of the top is elasticated with a button strap to bind it with the lower garment to prevent it from moving upward. The attachment of the front panel and finishing of the back cut-out is made with stitch-free technology. Designing for differently abled wheelchair tennis players is very different from designing for able-bodied tennis players. Some of the challenges in designing specifically for wheelchair-bound users are mentioned below: • • • • • •

Restricted mobility with/without the help of assistive devices Every wheelchair tennis player can have distinct health issues and growth patterns Societal barriers and limitations can suppress their clothing needs May lack the freedom of donning and doffing and depend on caregivers Physiologically more vulnerable, e.g. COVID-19 pandemic situation Musculoskeletal injury can be more detrimental compared to able-bodied players.

The findings from the research presented an ergonomic framework that includes the factors related to the design process of adaptive sportswear specific to wheelchair tennis players (Fig. 14.11). It was observed that guidelines and standards of an ergonomic framework for WT are absent.

14.4 Conclusion An ethnographic study was conducted on ten wheelchair tennis (WT) players of India in a real setup at Karnataka State Lawn Tennis Association (KSLTA) to identify the ergonomic needs of the players with the help of the user-centric approach and FEA model [5]. The study on the ergonomic principles was carried out considering the task, design for efficiency, design for efficacy, design for safety, and ease of use of the

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Fig. 14.11 Ergonomic framework on factors related to adaptive sportswear for wheelchair tennis

wheelchair tennis players. The study showed the necessity of accommodating assistive devices like braces/callipers underneath the lowers of the adaptive sportswear. Thermal mapping of the skin temperature of the players facilitates the understanding of the heat zones of the body to design adaptive sportswear with thermophysiological comfort; studying body movements is an essential factor in designing the adaptive sportswear to facilitate the movement of the arms in hitting the ball, serving, and navigating the wheelchair during the match. The safety of the players is vital while designing for WT players. Therefore, adaptive sportswear should be designed to minimise injury/pain to the user’s body. The commercially available sportswear does not cater to the seated postures of wheelchair-bound players, and fasteners are not visible or accessible to wheelchair-bound players. Thus, the data collected during the ethnographic study on the ergonomic needs, thermophysiological, sensory, and psychological comfort were used in co-designing and developing the prototypes, which were user-tested and redesigned as per the user feedback per the task they performed during the game. This led to the development of the ergonomic principle of considering physical, psychological, and individual factors for designing adaptive sportswear for wheelchair tennis players.

References 1. Kabel, A., McBee-Black, K., Dimka, J.: Apparel-related participation barriers: ability, adaptation and engagement. Disability Rehabil. 38(22), 2184–2192 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3109/ 09638288.2015.1123309 2. Bainbridge, L.: The “cognitive” in cognitive ergonomics. Le Travail Humain 54(4), 337–343 (1991). http://www.jstor.org/stable/40657607 3. Van Der Ploeg, H.P., Van Der Beek, A.J., Van Der Woude, L.H.V., Van Mechelen, W.: Physical

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activity for people with a disability: a conceptual model. Sports Med. 34(10), 639–64 (2004) 4. Martins, S.B.: Ergonomics and fashion: the OIKOS methodology for usability and comfort evaluation in clothing and fashion, pp. 6059–6067 (2012) 5. Lamb, J.M., Kallal, M.J.: A conceptual framework for apparel design. Cloth. Text. Res. J. 10, 42–47 (1992) 6. Bartels, V.T.: Physiological comfort of biofunctional textiles. Curr. Probl. Dermatol. 33, 51–66 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1159/000093936. PMID: 1676688 7. Venkatraman, P.: Fibers for sportswear. In: Hayes, S.G., Venkatraman, P. (eds.) Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel, 1st edn. CRC Press (2016). https://doi. org/10.1201/b19359 8. Bairagi, N., Bhuyan, S.K.: Studies on designing adaptive sportswear for differently abled wheelchair tennis players of India. In: Majumdar, A., Gupta, D., Gupta, S. (eds.) Functional Textiles and Clothing 2020. Springer, Singapore (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-159376-5_7 9. Watkin, S.M., Dunne, L.: Functional Clothing Design: From Sportswear to Spacesuit. Bloomsbury Publishing Inc. (2015) 10. Yan-Ying, J., Chu, W.-T., Shieh, W.-Y., Cheng, H.-Y.K.: Sensors for wheelchair tennis: measuring trunk and shoulder biomechanics and upper extremity vibration during backhand stroke. Sensors 21(19), 6576 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/s21196576 11. Amstrong, H.J.: Pattern Making for Fashion Design. Pearson Education Limited, London (2014)

Chapter 15

Designing a Learning Toy for Children with Constructional Dyspraxia to Improve Their Visual Intelligence C. S. Archana and Ankita Roy

Abstract Designing for both typical and atypical groups is pivotal for achieving inclusivity. Atypical groups mainly include children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, dyspraxia, and dysgraphia. Dyspraxia is one of the toughest atypical groups to regulate in a normal classroom, as they are kinetic and tactile learners. In the current scenario, a reinforcement technique is used to teach them subjects like geometry where they are shown shapes or figures and the composition is memorized. This can impart short-term memory but would not improve visual intelligence in identifying other objects. No significant changes have been introduced for the learning and evaluation of these children, and for improving their visual intelligence, hence, there is a severe need for design intervention in this area. One of the important questions asked was, how can we devise a learning technique for children suffering from dyspraxia and improve their visual intelligence? The main objective of this research is to find out a technique to help children understand spatial relationships between different objects, construct them and track their visual intelligence in accordance with the same. With the research findings, a learning toy named “Tomo” has been devised that uses glyph-based visualization to improve the overall shape and form comprehensibility. It is also equipped with intelligent assistance through a mobile application that would allow the parents and teachers to track the improvement in children.

15.1 Introduction Inclusivity is an essential constituent of society. Inclusivity allows children with mental disorders to synchronize in the same society where differences can accord. The acceptance within the society also adheres to labeling the pathology identified C. S. Archana (B) · A. Roy Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Roy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_15

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in the mental disorder and the degree of change in the candidate’s demeanor toward normal society [1]. Multiple learning disorders are diagnosed in children at an early stage. Almost 6–10% of the population is affected by learning disabilities; nevertheless, two out of three have never known the existence of these disabilities [2]. One of the most common, but still unnoticed disorders is dyspraxia. Dyspraxia is a neurodevelopmental learning disorder that mainly affects the individual’s motor skills; sometimes, this could coexist with other disorders. According to DSM-5, dyspraxia is a motor disorder in the category of neurodevelopmental disorders [3]. Despite severe negative stigmatization of the children affected with dyspraxia, there has been very little research in this area. The current research is concentrated on constructional dyspraxia, where the behavior and ecosystem of the children affected with dyspraxia are evaluated, and a solution is provided to improve their visual-spatial intelligence. It is difficult for children with constructional dyspraxia to develop visual analyses and spatial relationships with the object around them [4]. There is no clear understanding of improving visual intelligence at this early stage as it critically affects their higher education. Henceforth, there is a requirement to instill awareness and improve visual intelligence in children with dyspraxia at an early stage. This paper will walk you through the role of the glyph-based visualization concept in improving the visual intelligence of the children’s learning experience by focusing on their visual-spatial processing and visual cognition [5]. Unlike 2D Glyph-based visualization, 3D-based glyph visualization will have more impact on the spatial relations, which is another focal point of this paper [6, 7].

15.2 Understanding Dyspraxia The study began with detailed desk research to understand the forms of dyspraxia, the functioning of the brain, its evolution, related research in a similar field, accompanying disorders, and the domains it had affected [8]. According to the UK General Medical Council (GMC), there is an immense emphasis on supporting learners within the clinical environment to confirm that those with learning disabilities will access the information concerning their adjustments. Also known as a developmental coordination disorder, dyspraxia’s significant symptoms include poor coordination, specifically in fine and gross motor skills; other symptoms include difficulty dressing up and inability to pronounce a word. As reported by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, individuals with DCD display “awkwardness as well as slowness and underperformance of motor skills” [9]. Children with dyspraxia would have specific cognitive risks, especially in areas such as spatial reasoning, visuospatial function, geometric transformation, visual intelligence, and geometric modeling. These are interwoven with other symptoms related to fine and gross motor skills.

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15.2.1 Types of Dyspraxia 15.2.1.1

Ideomotor Dyspraxia

In this type, the child generally knows to perform the specific task but will be incapable of converting the ideas into simple action. An example of this case would be brushing hair, using a spoon, climbing stairs, turning the faucet, etc. [10]

15.2.1.2

Ideational Dyspraxia

In this type, child generally has difficulty comprehending the sequence of movements that can convert into fruitful results. An example of this case would be tying shoelaces, folding clothes, cleaning the room, etc. [10]

15.2.1.3

Oromotor Dyspraxia

Children with this dyspraxia generally find it strenuous to pronounce the word [10].

15.2.1.4

Constructional Dyspraxia

The child will have difficulty understanding spatial relations. The child with this disorder will have trouble understanding spatial relations where they cannot fragment a whole and look at the part [11].

15.2.2 Gross Motor Skill and Fine Motor Skill Dyspraxia is mainly caused when impulses are not appropriately transmitted through nerve fibers to the muscles; this ultimately affects the body’s movements and coordination, which is indirectly classified as affecting either the gross motor or fine motor skills [12, 13].

15.2.2.1

Gross Motor Skill

This involves the movement of the entire body, including the limbs and the joints. Major developmental milestones include jumping, walking, running, etc. Dyspraxia affects visually present children in the form of poor timing, poor balance, cross laterality, and difficulty in combining movements [13].

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Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skill involves the movement of the muscles in the hand and joints typically. It mainly requires coordination between the eye, hand, muscles, and brain to achieve the desired movement [14].

15.2.3 Understanding the Brain During Dyspraxia The brain has a left cerebral cortex and a right cerebral cortex. The four components of the brain include the front lobe, hind lobe, motor area, and sensory area. The frontal lobe is mainly focused on decision-making and planning, and to execute this action, cerebellum is located in the hind lobe. The information is mainly accumulated in the left hemisphere, which is rearranged in the right hemisphere. A child affected with dyspraxia has a problem with the arrangement of the information in the right-handed side of the brain [15].

15.2.4 Comorbid Different Disorders Other learning disorders accompany dyspraxia, which includes apraxia, dyslexia, ADHD, dysgraphia, autism spectrum disorder, hypotonia, speech-language impairment, and sensory integration disorder. It affects the individual at different stages of growth. In extreme adulthood, it might also lead to severe depression due to constant poor performance [2].

15.2.5 Effect on Kinetic and Tactile Learners Since this disorder affects movement and coordination, the most effective way is to teach them through kinetic (body) and tactile (hand) movement [16]. They are the most challenging learners and require hands-on activity to learn by using the muscles and limbs in their bodies. One of the powerful ways to teach affected children is through the kinetic-tactile learning method in the VKAT approach [16, 17].

15.2.6 Effect on Visual Intelligence People suffering from constructional dyspraxia often find it difficult to learn subjects like geometry which involves understanding the spatial relationship between the two subjects and their composition [4].

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15.2.7 Conventional and Unconventional Techniques to Treat Dyspraxia Considerable research works have been done for a developmental disorder that can be applied to dyspraxia as well. The treatments have been divided into two broad categories; conventional and unconventional. In conventional techniques, many physicians have developed techniques like multi-sensory instruction [18], VKAT [17], sensory integration technique [19], etc. The unconventional techniques include equine therapy [20], color therapy [21], Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy [22], etc. Though most of these treatments can be applied to dyspraxia, there is no evidencebased proof to show the effect of this technique on dyspraxic children. Hence, this paper focused on creating a solution that is novel to a specific group of children affected with a specific type of dyspraxia.

15.3 Methodology For the primary research, we interviewed 15 candidates in 14 days, including parents and teens affected by dyspraxia. The process began by mapping out all the personas and their roles. Following this, we made the agenda for the primary survey and filtered the insights to frame the final brief for formulating the solutions.

15.3.1 Understanding the Persona Ecosystem Dyspraxia has a community of people other than the individuals who are directly impacted by the disorder. From our desk research, we came up with a persona ecosystem that was divided into four categories. The first set of personas includes the group which is directly impacted by dyspraxia in daily routine; the group includes parents, friends, siblings, and teachers. The second group includes people affecting dyspraxia, including help groups, awareness programs, websites, foundations, and interest groups. The third personas are the speech computers, parents, clinical psychologists, and educational psychologists who help diagnose dyspraxia. The final set of personas is those who treat dyspraxia, which includes teachers, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, behavioral therapists, and language therapists. Out of all the personas, we chose to work with persona groups one and three because they are the individuals who interact with dyspraxic children the most.

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15.3.2 Objectives of Primary Research Before framing the questions, a set of requirements for the interview were listed. In the case of the student, we wanted to mainly identify the subjects that the individual found difficult, the developmental milestones for the specific subject, the arena that needed more effort, and the environment for the children to learn. For the parents, the primary intention was to understand the support extended by the parents and the evaluation techniques they followed for their children. With regard to the clinical psychologist, the main focus was on the evaluation of success in adopting specific techniques for the treatment of children affected with dyspraxia.

15.3.3 Deriving Insights From the Primary Research After conducting the interview, we derived pain points, insights, and opportunities from each participant. Some of the insights from the dyspraxic children include difficulty in performing simple tasks like chaining the pins and removing them, learning introductory algebra, and joining the Lego cubes. One of the points emphasized was the difficulty in visualizing the structure, which resulted in difficulty in constructing structures that uses an interlocking mechanism like Lego. Few participants pointed out that math was a complicated subject, especially spatial relations (geometry), algebra, and calculus; nevertheless, they could learn the subject at their pace. However, it was very tough to understand and develop their awareness of the spatial relations of objects around them. Parents have to spend long hours repetitively teaching their children simple actions and movements, and most of them used to adopt varied activities to improve their child’s skills. Clinical psychologists claimed that the pace of each individual to reach the milestone was varied. Hence, tutors have developed a streamlined teaching system for each child specifically. From the primary research, we assimilated that it was difficult for the parents and clinical psychologists to track the child’s improvement. Secondly, learning was more of a stressful task for children. Thirdly, the beginning of the development of the visual sense took much time in a child who was diagnosed with dyspraxia compared to a normal child. Table 15.1 gives the insights and opportunities derived from the analysis.

15.3.4 Generation of Solution From the primary research, we identified that spatial relations and shape perception is one of some areas children have difficulty, and this is a symptom of constructional dyspraxia. Hence, we decided to develop a solution to improve the visual intelligence and spatial intelligence in the dyspraxic child. One of the main objectives of the

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Table 15.1 Insights and opportunity Persona type

Pain points

Insights

Dyspraxic child (1) Sit alone in a class to learn (2) Difficult to compose a shape on 2D and 3D surfaces, like tangrams and Lego (3) Extra support in primary school (4) Unable to do simple tasks like chaining a pin and removing it (5) Math was the toughest as they had to work with formulas and shapes (6) It is difficult to catch and identify objects around them

(1) No specific toys to play with (2) Child was asked to organize and stack objects (3) No games or apps to teach math (4) Dyspraxia doesn’t affect intelligence, it just affects the working memory (5) Simple shape visualization, drawing, copying pattern was difficult

Parents

(1) Constant monitoring by the therapist and parent is needed (2) There were no toys, most of them were activities (3) Had few friends (4) Forced memory-Call out the word loud and point at the object

(1) It was difficult to make a child understand and imagine (2) A lot of time was spent teaching their child (3) Math was a tough subject (4) Poor memory in child lead to forced memory (5) Hard to spend time with children

research was to make the experience fun for children and promising for parents. For the final solution phase, we did an intensive literature read to understand glyphs, shapes, and pattern formation.

15.3.4.1

Spatial Selection

Development of spatial selectivity in the child with or without conditions is achieved through early disengagement. This involves shifting and engaging operations for the visual attention system, and the measure of the development in the early stage depends on the “gap task.” A gap task is a brief period in which the infant can focus on a particular subject. On the other hand, it can also be claimed as the span of attention engaged in reaction to a particular stimulus. The development of the gap task lays the foundation for formulating the solution as disengagement supports other critical aspects of development, including joint attention and social skills [23]. The development of gap task takes a lot of time in children suffering from constructional dyspraxia.

15.3.4.2

Shape Visualization

One of the techniques to improve the gap task is shape visualization. Shape visualization focuses on developing distorted versions of any shape. For instance, in a table lamp, the amount of deviation from the basic shape depends on the data dimension

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Fig. 15.1 Glyph-based visualization of bulb

being visualized, where the lower mapped shape can also be proclaimed as the base shape that will map the actual shape of the object, in other words, it can also be called as generating the distorted version of the actual shape. This shape visualization lays the second foundation of the solution [5].

15.3.4.3

Glyph-Based Visualization

While looking at different ways to represent the shapes, we referred to the paper [5–7] and came across glyph-based visualization. A glyph-based visualization is a unique representational form in visual design where information is depicted as a collection of visual objects commonly referred to as glyphs. In a simpler interpretation, a glyph is a small representation that attaches meaning to its shape, which can help achieve better visualization and improve cognitive activity during visualization [5]. This can prove to be a crucial data mapping technique to help children suffering from dyspraxia. Figure 15.1 shows glyph-based visualization representing an object. Hence, this paper [5] lays a foundation for Tomo by taking similar concept of three-dimensional glyph into consideration.

15.3.5 Proposed Design After determining the concept of the solution, we iterated on the same and designed a toy. This toy resembles a Lego but is specifically designed for children with dyspraxia. The toy uses a 3D glyph-based visualization technique, as shown in Fig. 15.2, where basic geometric shapes will be used for constructing the given structure. Additionally, Tomo has an application to track the visual intelligence in the child, and it is more detailed in Sect. 3.6 of this paper. The shapes used in the given toy include cubes, spheres, pyramids, hexagonal pyramids, cylinders, and cones. Each shape would have 60 pieces of six different

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Fig. 15.2 3D glyph-based visualization for bulb

colors. The composition of each shape is shown in Fig. 15.3, where each side of the shape would have a magnet attached to the sides. The use of the magnet was mainly to aid the children with dyspraxia as they have to perform lesser limb movements, and to keep the structure of the magnet in position, there is another magnetic plate with a magnetic coating on the top as shown in Fig. 15.3. To play the Tomo, the child will initially begin with the basic stacking of shapes according to color, and this can also be claimed as level one of the game. As they progress, the child would be given live objects around them and asked to create Tomo for the same, and a timer would be set to track the child’s pace. Over time, the child can imagine the same structure in different shapes; this will help the child improve his/her/their visual intelligence, understand the spatial relationship, and improve his/her/their gap task. For the task, the parent must scan any object around them in the Tomo app; the application would recognize the object. The child can construct the structure using the shapes, and parents would scan this structure; the app will provide accuracy. The child can choose to repeat the same object or choose some other object and perform the same task. Figure 15.4 shows another feature sorting, where the child will sort according to the color and shape, and a timer will be set for the same.

Fig. 15.3 Magnetic construct of the game, the superimposing of the structure, and the magnetic plate for holding the structure

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Fig. 15.4 (From left) Sorting, kid playing with Tomo, scanning of Tomo using app

15.3.6 Tomo App for Tracking the Progress in Visual Intelligence Tomo app has multiple features to help track progress, understand more about shapes, and improve the visualization of a child without limited imagination. Figure 15.5 shows the dashboard which displays the number of objects tried by the child, his/her/their progress, area of strength and weakness, modeling accuracy, and sorting time. This kind of tracking is more optimistic for parents to understand the development happening in their children at an early age and makes Tomo unique compared to other toys in the market. Tomo uses a systematic calculation to find the improvement in the child. The child’s overall performance would be shown relative to the rest of the children using this application. The application has two parts: activity motor and performance accuracy. In the activity motor, the average sorting time and accuracy time would be shown, whereas in the performance session, modeling accuracy, sorting accuracy, and overall performance would be shown. The application also suggests objects based on the level of child, e.g., a beginner will only have to make simple objects; this feature makes the application adaptive. As the child progresses, the system will measure intelligence through gaming and other activities. The app can also teach children about various shapes and relate them to the objects around us. Other additional features include shape identification in objects, and the child can scan the object and the app would help child identify the shapes contained by it.

15.4 Future Scope and Suggestions At this stage, Tomo is only implemented at the concept level. Tomo toy has 60 pieces in total, along with the sorting box, packaging box, and brochure as shown in Fig. 15.6. The sorting box is made of light weighted fiberboard, which is laser cut and fit, and it can also be easily collapsed and stored. The brochure is A4 size, threefolded, with 300 GSM. The shapes have magnet fit on all the sides and are made

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Fig. 15.5 Tomo (from the left) app screen 1—overall dashboard. Screen 2—Performance analysis, Screen 3—activity motor

of light weighted wood. With the packaging box, the entire cost of the structure could be below 1000 Indian Rupees. However, the cost of the product would also depend on the entire system chain including materials, manufacturing, assembling, transportation, etc. The current solution is at the early prototype stage portraying the potential impact of glyph-based visualization for improving visual intelligence. The decision regarding the use of AI/ML technology and its limitations in the application is yet to be analyzed and refined. It is also recommended in the future to carry out a testing phase for this solution.

15.5 Conclusion For children suffering from a developmental disorder, learning should not be a strict regime; rather it should be an activity-based positive reinforcement technique. Also, in the process of designing toys for children with dyspraxia, it is very important to include tactile or kinetic activities; Tomo is more focused on creating a tactile solution. Secondly, Tomo is a novel solution for children with constructional dyspraxia as it is experimenting with the concept of glyph-based visualization for improving the visual intelligence of shape identification of objects around them. It will take a considerable number of days to show improvement; the child should be allowed to visualize the same object multiple times to improve and track his/her/their shape

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Fig. 15.6 Tomo game

visualization. On whole, this systematically designed toy based on the glyph visualization theory could be one of the potential solutions in the future for other comorbid dyspraxia also.

References 1. Pecsok, M., Igelstrom, K., Kim, N.Y., Kastner, S.: Divergent Development in Dyspraxic Children. Princeton University (2020) 2. Miller, B., Vaughn, S., Freund, L.: Learning disabilities research studies: findings from NICHD funded projects. Natl. Libr. Med. 225–231 (PMC4255958) (2015) 3. Nemeroff, C.B., Weinberger, D., Rutter, M., MacMillan, H.L., Bryant, R.A., Wessely, S., Stein, D.J., Pariante, C.M., Seemüller, F., Berk, M., Malhi, G.S., Preisig, M., Brüne, M., Lysaker, P. DSM-5: a collection of psychiatrist views on the changes, controversies, and future directions. BMC Med. 11(202) (2013) 4. Byerley, A., Davis, A.S.: Constructional apraxia. In: Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology, Part 3, pp. 695–697. Springer, New York (2011) 5. Borgo, R., Kehrer, J., Chung, D.H.S., Maguire, E.: Glyph-based visualization: foundations, design guidelines, techniques and applications. In: Eurographics State of the Art Reports (2013) 6. Lie, A.E., Kehrer, J., Hauser, H.: Critical design and realization aspects of glyph-based 3D data visualization. In: Spring Conference on Computer Graphics (2009) 7. Ying, L., Shu, X., Deng, D.: MetaGlyph: Automatic Generation of Metaphoric Glyph-Based Visualization. IEEE (2022)

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8. Meachon, E.J.: An investigation of dyspraxia: what we know and why the research is so far behind. Research Gate 7 (2017) 9. Elcombe, E.:Effects of Practical Life Exercises on Fine Motor Development in a Montessori. Masters Paper, University of Wisconsin, Wisconsin 10. Mozaz, M.J.: Ideational and ideomotor apraxia: a qualitative analysis. Behav. Neurol. (n.d.) 11. Jankovic, J.: Constructional apraxia. In: Bradley and Daroff’s Neurology in Clinical Practice, 4th edn. Fundamental Neuroscience (2013) 12. Hestbaek, L., Andersen, S.T., Skovgaard, T., Olesen, L.G., Elmose, M., Bleses, D., Andersen, S.C., Lauridsen, H.H.: Influence of motor skills training on children’s development evaluated in the Motor skills in PreSchool (MiPS) study-DK: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial, nested in a cohort study. BMC (2017, August) 13. Sorgente, V., Cohen, E.J., Bravi, R., Minciacchi, D.: Crosstalk between gross and fine motor domains during late childhood: the influence of gross motor training on finemotor performances in primary school children. MDPI (2021) 14. Dehghan, L., Mirzakhani, N., Rezaee, M., Tabatabaee, M.: The relationship between fine motor skills. Dranian Rehabil. J. 15(4), 8 (2017) 15. Olbert, C.M., Gala, G.J.: Supervenience and psychiatry: are mental disorders. J. Theor. Philos. Psychol. 35(4), 203–219 (2015) 16. Sreenidhi, S., Helena, T.C.: Styles of learning VAKT. Int. J. Innov. Res. Multidisc. Field 3(4) (2017) 17. Hardiana, M.T.A.N.: The effectiveness of VAK (visual, auditory, kinesthetic) model in learning of summary writing (n.d.) 18. Syahputri, D.: The effect of multisensory teaching method on the students’ reading achievement. Budapest Int. Res. Crit. Linguist. Educ. (BirLE) J. 2(1), 2019 (2022) 19. Cermak, S., Mitchell, T.W.: Sensory integration. In: Treatment of Language Disorders in Children, pp. 435–469. Brookes Publishing (2006) 20. White-Lewis, S.: Equine-assisted therapies using horses as healers: a concept analysis. Natl. Libr. Med. 7(1), 58–67 (2019) 21. Gupta, R.: Color therapy in mental health and well being. Int. J. Res. Educ. Sci. Methods (IJARESM) 9(2) (2021) 22. Chandio, M.T., Pandhiani, S.M., Iqbal, R.: Article bloom’s taxonomy: improving assessment and teaching-learning process. J. Educ. Educ. Dev. 3(1), 11 (2017) 23. Colombo, J.: The development of visual attention in infancy. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 52(1), 37–67 (2001)

Chapter 16

Empirical Studies Assessing the CO2 Levels in Indoor Spaces Sonal Gangrade, Bankapalli Vamsi, Prasannaa, Saran Raj, and Jay Dhariwal

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic forced everyone to isolate themselves and confine their lives to enclosed spaces to protect themselves from the outbreak and spread of the virus. Contrary to this, recent studies have shown that restricting ventilation in a space can lead to health risks resulting from CO2 build-up from exhaled breath. There have also been a substantial number of multidisciplinary research studies that have established CO2 exhalation in an enclosed room as a proxy for COVID-19 and other similar variants of viruses. We conducted experiments to understand the spatio-temporal spread of CO2 inside a car in the hot and dry climate of Jodhpur and a bedroom in the composite climate of New Delhi during the winter season. The experiments were carried out using reference-grade sensors and custom-built devices for indoor use, which measured the ambient temperature, relative humidity, and CO2 levels. On analyzing the findings from our studies, we observed that even seemingly harmless situations, such as an enclosed vehicle and a non-ventilated bedroom space, could lead to harmful levels of CO2 built-up of over nine times and three times over the acceptable threshold of 1000 ppm for a car and a bedroom, respectively. Reassessment of the design guidelines underlying environmental ergonomics is advised for automobiles and residential spaces.

16.1 Introduction Human factors in the ambient environment, often known as “Environmental Ergonomics,” are a design specialization that refers to the improvement of indoor environments in terms of thermal comfort, illumination, sound, and indoor air quality (IAQ) [1]. Out of these parameters, IAQ highlights the necessity of improving the S. Gangrade (B) · B. Vamsi · Prasannaa · Saran Raj · J. Dhariwal Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi 110016, India e-mail: [email protected] J. Dhariwal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_16

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ambient ergonomics of indoor spaces in the context of reducing airborne transmission of diseases. With the recent SARS-Cov-2 (COVID-19) pandemic, it has come to light that sharing confined areas with restricted ventilation may have implications to the health of the occupants [2]. When CO2 gas accumulates in an enclosed space, the same gas may be inhaled by the same inhabitants, increasing the risk of airborne infections such as COVID-19, tuberculosis, and even the common cold. Therefore, CO2 gas has been viewed as a proxy for several airborne illnesses [2, 3]. As a response, monitoring and controlling CO2 levels in enclosed spaces is vital from the perspective of environmental ergonomics. Monitoring CO2 levels and understanding its trends can help human factors professionals improve ventilation guidelines for indoor occupants’ better health. The number of studies that employ CO2 concentrations as a consideration in IAQ-related decision-making has increased in the recent times. For example, Huang et al. examined CO2 levels in dental clinics to evaluate doctors’ occupational health and human factors. According to the authors’ conclusion, “ventilation” contributed to CO2 build-up by measuring CO2 emissions in these rooms [4]. Natalie BainReguis et al. evaluate the human factors of students in 20 Scottish schools during the COVID-19 pandemic by monitoring CO2 levels with different ventilation systems. This study concluded that mechanically ventilated classrooms performed better than naturally ventilated classrooms, indicating that opening the windows is contingent upon conventions and habits [5]. Similarly, many researchers have assessed the IAQ in the context of airborne diseases in a wide range of indoor spaces, such as classrooms, hospital wards, airline cabins, multi-story structures, and others, using sensor monitoring and computational fluid dynamics [6–11]. It has been observed that residential rooms and automobiles are spaces where individuals spend the most time and have environmental control. People in a city drive with the air conditioner on and close the windows for optimal thermal comfort. This stops O2 in the fresh air from entering the car and causes a rise in CO2 levels. In addition, some studies indicate that rising CO2 concentrations in indoor spaces, without corresponding changes in ventilation rate, are detrimental to the decision-making performance of occupants [12, 13]. Another study analyzed nine critical parameters and combinations that indicate the level of performance in a controlled indoor environment at three distinct CO2 levels: 600, 1000, and 2500 PPM. At 2500 PPM, fundamental activity, conscientiousness, applied activity, initiative, flexibility in work approach, information utilization, and fundamental strategy were substantially diminished [14]. A similar situation is also observed in confined bedrooms. People tend to restrict natural ventilation and use heating devices throughout the winter to feel thermally comfortable while sleeping. According to research conducted by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), even though this may seem thermally comfortable, it causes roughly 90 deaths yearly [15]. Due to the recirculation of CO2 within the bedroom, the risk of airborne illnesses increases in bedrooms where individuals are in closer proximity.

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As a response, through our study, we are monitoring CO2 levels in a car cabin and a bedroom for a specified time to assess the environmental ergonomics in these spaces and create a knowledge base for designers and policymakers to develop suitable designs necessary for maintaining a healthy indoor environment for the occupants. The main objectives of our study are: • To determine the scope of low-cost IAQ monitoring devices in personal indoor spaces • To verify whether the CO2 concentrations within these personal spaces (Car and bedroom) are under the recommended threshold • To assess the thermal comfort performance of indoor spaces with respect to CO2 concentrations

16.2 Methodology We conducted two experiments as follows: 1. Inside a mid-sized car with four occupants 2. Inside a residential bedroom with two occupants The methodologies of these experiments are shown in Sects. 2.1 and 2.2, respectively.

16.2.1 Experimentation Inside a Car The studies were conducted in a closed vehicle with four participants, including one of the authors, with all doors and windows shut on December 17, 2021 in Jodhpur’s hot and dry climate. The passengers were seated without engaging in any physical activity within the cabin and were aware of the experiment but not about the expected outcomes in terms of desirable CO2 range. This investigation employs five IAQ sensors (mainly monitoring CO2 , temperature, and relative humidity). These IAQ sensors include one reference-grade sensor from Testo 400 and four low-cost sensors from Aerogram [16]. The study was conducted in two phases sequentially: (1) When all five sensors were placed in the same location for calibration, and (2) when all five sensors were placed in multiple locations to understand the spatio-temporal distribution of CO2 levels. After installing and activating all monitoring devices in the vehicle, the data was analyzed. At 4:20 p.m., all sensors were installed and the data was recorded every 6 s. At 4:20 p.m., the average CO2 sensor reading was 2168 ppm, indicating data logging began at that concentration. From 4:20 p.m. to 4:24 p.m. is an experiment with a single occupant. From 4:24 pm to 4:34 p.m., there are two individuals inside; after that, there are four.

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16.2.2 Experimentation in a Bedroom The experiment was conducted in the bedroom of a 1BHK apartment (Fig. 16.1) in the composite climate of New Delhi in December 2021 with two participants (one of the authors is one of the participants). The bedroom has a size of 20 ft. × 20 ft. with no heating system. For conducting the experiment, three Testo CO2 sensors were used in the following locations: 1. In the lobby 2. In the bedroom, on the bedside table 3. In the bedroom, inside the blanket. The experiment was conducted from 10 p.m. on 25th December till 9 am on 26th December. The data was collected for CO2 levels from 10 p.m. to 6:36 a.m. every 6 s keeping the door closed and from 6:36 a.m. to 9 a.m. keeping the door open. Various CO2 level differences were recorded by keeping the head inside and outside the blanket.

Fig. 16.1 Layout of the residential apartment with the location of sensors

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Fig. 16.2 Calibrating the sensors with respect to reference-grade sensors

16.3 Results and Discussions 16.3.1 For the Car Experiment 16.3.1.1

Calibrating the Sensors

As stated in the methodology section, we measured CO2 levels using four lowcost sensors and the data was recorded every 6 s. Accordingly, these four sensors have been designated as sensor-1, sensor-2, sensor-3, and sensor-4. The calibration experiment was conducted from 4:20 p.m. to 4:57 p.m. Python workbench was used to compute Pearson’s correlation coefficient [17]. Figure 16.2 shows the correlation between sensor-1, 2, 3, 4 and the benchmark device to be 96%, 93%, 90%, and 92%, respectively. It indicates that all the sensors in the study have a significant correlation with the reference-grade sensor.

16.3.1.2

CO2 Levels in a Car

We also visualized the CO2 trends with time (calibration and spatial observations) and illustrated them as shown in Fig. 16.3a, b. Figure 16.3a shows the calibration and spatial experiment results for the Testo 400 reference sensor and low-cost sensor Sensor-1. It was observed that a negative spike in the CO2 levels between 4:55 p.m. and 5:02 p.m. resulted from the drop of CO2 levels from 7000 to 4000 ppm (43% reduction) because of the opening of the door. From 5:03 p.m. to 5:25 p.m., the spatio-temporal spread of CO2 levels was visualized (as shown in Fig. 16.3a, b), where each sensor was placed in a different location inside a car. During this phase of the experiment, each of the four low-cost sensors (sensor-1, 2, 3, and 4) was held by four occupants seated at four locations in the car, as shown in Fig. 16.3a. The Testo probe was placed at the center of the car where there was no occupant. From Fig. 16.3b, it was observed that all low-cost sensors exhibited similar trends and the Testo probe had an offset in the downward direction. This may have been because there was no occupant around the Testo probe, resulting in lesser CO2 values than the other sensors. Since the occupants held the low-cost sensors, their respective breathing zones exhibited higher CO2 levels than the reference sensor placed (Testo’s location) where there were no occupants. This

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Fig. 16.3 a CO2 levels vs. time plot in a car. b Spatio-temporal distribution of CO2 levels in the car

shows that there is higher CO2 spatial distribution around an occupant’s breathing zone. It means that when more than two people are seated at the back, this would result in poor indoor air quality with respect to CO2 levels compared to the people sitting on the front side. However, more experiments are needed for conclusive evidence of such spatio-temporal distribution of CO2 levels. CO2 level stratification with height should also be observed. The CO2 coming out of exhaled breath may rise as the temperature of the exhaled breath is higher than the ambient temperatures, and after it reaches the ambient temperature, it may settle down at a lower height as it is a denser gas than air.

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With more elaborate experiments, it is also possible to devise the relationship of variation of CO2 levels with time with occupancy and weather variables such as temperature and humidity. This would help with car design guidelines without the need for a sensor setup. Therefore, it is advised that alternatives for fan speed, ventilation mode, and cabin air recirculation be investigated and modeled to assist in safeguarding the passengers’ respiratory health. The algorithms from these kinds of more in-depth research may be used to develop the HVAC control unit for maintaining the CO2 at a tolerable level based on the study’s findings.

16.3.2 Result and Discussions for the Bedroom Experiment 16.3.2.1

CO2 Level in the Bedroom

From the graph depicted in Fig. 16.4, it can be seen that the CO2 concentration in the room increased to a maximum of 3770 ppm between 10 pm and 6:43 a.m. The room’s door was opened at 6:43 a.m. and the CO2 level decreased to 1670 ppm by 8:43 a.m. When the occupant placed their head inside the blanket, the CO2 concentration spiked to a maximum of 10,642 ppm. After the room’s door was opened at 6:43 a.m., the ventilation caused the CO2 level to decline by 2100 ppm over the course of two hours. On the contrary, when the bedroom door was opened in the morning, CO2 concentrations surged in the lobby, which was empty. In two hours, the CO2 level rose by 872 ppm.

Fig. 16.4 CO2 levels in the bedroom with no heating device

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As seen from the results of this experiment, CO2 levels rise to more than three times the acceptable range of 1000 ppm [3] when the occupants sleep in a nonventilated room. Given that the participants in this study spent most of the winter season (60–90 days) in a room with CO2 levels ranging from 1000 to 3400 ppm, they are susceptible to health problems like CO2 retention, inflammation, and cognitive impairment [18].

16.3.2.2

Thermal Comfort in the Bedroom

Figure 16.5 demonstrates that the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) inside the room and the lobby stayed constant at approximately 16 °C. UTCI is an indicator of thermal comfort in a space. However, due to the CO2 accumulated within the blanket each time the occupant kept their head inside, the temperature reached 34 °C, which is on the warmer side for UTCI. It is seen that even though the CO2 build-up achieved by keeping their head inside the blanket can help in reaching a warmer comfort level, it can quickly reach a hot thermal stress state and also create a condition with CO2 levels over ten times the acceptable range. Hence, it is recommended that people should not cover their heads while sleeping. Ventilation devices with small openings are advised to maintain a thermally comfortable climate in naturally ventilated indoor areas. These ventilators allow for air mixing while limiting significant heat exchange.

Fig. 16.5 CO2 levels versus thermal comfort with respect to time

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16.4 Conclusion India’s permitted range for CO2 levels is up to 1000 parts per million [2]. Our findings show that the CO2 levels rise to more than three times the acceptable range when the occupants sleep in a non-ventilated room and nine times the acceptable range in an enclosed car. As humans spend one-third of their lives sleeping and Indian commuters travel approximately 35 km per day [19], exposure to such high levels of CO2 can be detrimental to their health and may result in sick-building syndrome [18]. CO2 levels above 800 ppm in enclosed spaces can also be responsible for transmitting airborne infections such as COVID-19 and similar viruses [20]. Therefore, it is recommended that people spend their time in well-ventilated areas and sleep without blankets on their heads. Although sick-building syndrome has been studied extensively in other areas of the world, it has not been explored much in India due to the high cost of monitoring devices. For achieving more reliable results in defining environmental ergonomics standards for the Indian setting, these experiments must be conducted in multiple climatic locations and weather conditions across India. The calibration tests in this research establish the relevance and applicability of low-cost CO2 sensors. Indoor air quality (IAQ) indicators should be examined regularly in light of growing concerns about airborne diseases and cognitive performance. Establishing several indoor monitors for the study is costly. Thus, designers should focus on developing low-cost equipment. Future Indian marketplaces should have the availability of affordable CO2 monitoring devices such as wearables, wall mounts, and stand-alone sensors. The results of the current study highlight the necessity to evaluate the ergonomics of the environment with regard to ventilation and CO2 concentrations when building living spaces and automobiles. There are still many research gaps to be filled before making firm recommendations about environmental and product design for today’s ventilation-restricted environmental settings, despite the fact that the effects of CO2 build-up in enclosed spaces have recently become relatively important research. The issues of upgrading our personal spaces for the challenges of the twenty-first century will be easier to tackle with continued research’s assistance in creating new knowledge, promoting better standards, and more informed solutions. The results of this study should guide further empirical research into the significance of ventilation and air-flow design in enclosed spaces in order to address the issues of occupant health, well-being, and productivity that are impacted by CO2 build-up in their environment. These findings may also be applied to future design projects.

References 1. Parsons, K.C.: Environmental ergonomics: a review of principles, methods and models. Appl. Ergon. 31(6), 581–594 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0003-6870(00)00044-2

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2. Peng, Z., Jimenez, J.L.: Exhaled CO2 as a COVID-19 infection risk proxy for different indoor environments and activities. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 8(5), 392–397 (2021). https://doi.org/ 10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00183 3. Abdul-Wahab, S.A., Chin Fah En, S., Elkamel, A., Ahmadi, L., Yetilmezsoy, K.: A review of standards and guidelines set by international bodies for the parameters of indoor air quality. Atmos. Pollut. Res. 6(5), 751–767 (2015). https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2015.084 4. Huang, Q., Marzouk, T., Cirligeanu, R., Malmstrom, H., Eliav, E., Ren, Y.-F.: Ventilation Assessment by Carbon Dioxide Levels in Dental Treatment Rooms. J. Dent. Res. 100(8), 810–816 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/00220345211014441 5. Bain-, N., Smith, A., Martin, C.H., Currie, J.: Indoor CO2 and thermal conditions in twenty scottish primary school classrooms with different ventilation systems during the COVID-19 pandemic. Pollutants 2(2), 180–204 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants2020014 6. Faridi, S., et al.: A field indoor air measurement of SARS-CoV-2 in the patient rooms of the largest hospital in Iran. Sci. Total Environ. 725, 1–5 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv. 2020.138401 7. Kallio, J., et al.: Assessment of perceived indoor environmental quality, stress and productivity based on environmental sensor data and personality categorization. Build. Environ. 175, 106787 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.106787 8. Fantozzi, F., Lamberti, G., Leccese, F., Salvadori, G.: Monitoring CO2 concentration to control the infection probability due to airborne transmission in naturally ventilated university classrooms. Archit. Sci. Rev. 65(4), 306–318 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1080/00038628.2022.208 0637 9. Pedersen, T.H., Nielsen, K.U., Petersen, S.: Method for room occupancy detection based on trajectory of indoor climate sensor data. Build. Environ. 115, 147–156 (2017). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.01.023 10. Marques, G., Ferreira, C.R., Pitarma, R.: Indoor air quality assessment using a CO2 monitoring system based on internet of things. J. Med. Syst. 43(3), 67 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10 916-019-1184-x 11. Harrichandra, A., Ierardi, A.M., Pavilonis, B.: An estimation of airborne SARS-CoV-2 infection transmission risk in New York City nail salons. Toxicol. Ind. Health 36(9), 634–643 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/0748233720964650 12. Angelova, R.A., Markov, D.G., Simova, I., Velichkova, R., Stankov, P.: Accumulation of metabolic carbon dioxide (CO2 ) in a vehicle cabin. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 664(1) (2019). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/664/1/012010 13. Kajtár, L., Herczeg, L.: Influence of carbon-dioxide concentration on human well-being and intensity of mental work. Id˝ojárás 116, 145–169 (2012) 14. Satish, U., et al.: Is CO2 an indoor pollutant? Direct effects of low-to-moderate CO2 concentrations on human decision-making performance. Environ. Health Perspect. 120(12), 1671–1677 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104789 15. Permentier, K., Vercammen, S., Soetaert, S., Schellemans, C.: Carbon dioxide poisoning: a literature review of an often forgotten cause of intoxication in the emergency department. Int. J. Emerg. Med. 10(1), 14 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12245-017-0142-y 16. “Aerogram.” https://aerogram.in/ 17. Kirch, W. (ed.): Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient BT - Encyclopedia of Public Health,” Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1090–1091 (2008) 18. Jacobson, T.A., Kler, J.S., Hernke, M.T., Braun, R.K., Meyer, K.C., Funk, W.E.: Direct human health risks of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide. Nat. Sustain. 2(8), 691–701 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0323-1 19. Sengupta, N.: Indian commuters travel 35 km/day , says survey. Indian commuters travel 35 km/day, says survey, pp. 1–14 (2021) 20. Unite: Covid-19 Guide on Ventilation and CO2 monitoring. pp. 1–4, 2021, [Online]. Available: https://www.cibse.org/news-and-policy/august-2021/new-air-cleaning-guidance-for

Chapter 17

Improving Parking Behaviour in the Apartment Society: An Example of Using an Integrated Behavioural Framework Sonal Gangrade and Pramod Ratnakar Khadilkar Abstract Behavioural design is an approach that can be used not only to understand the way people think and make decisions about their actions but also to modulate them. Current behavioural design frameworks deal with different stages of behavioural design effectively; however, designers struggle to find an integrated framework to address a socio-behavioural problem. This research uses a case study to demonstrate the application of an integrated framework for addressing the social problem related to parking behaviour in a residential area. The shortage of parking space has led to irrational parking behaviour amongst vehicle owners, which influences the social harmony of the society since it is a crucial factor in instigating aggressive behaviour and anxiety amongst vehicle owners. To solve this behavioural problem, the integrated framework uses methods from domains like nudge from behavioural economics, theory of goals and COM-B from psychology, and behavioural analysis from applied behavioural science. Behaviour definitions were employed to determine the sub-domains of current and target behaviour. Interviews with residents were conducted using the theoretical domains framework (TDF) model to assess their perspective of the problem, problem behaviour, and willingness to attain the target behaviour. The identified behaviours were further classified into meta-categories to find the category most responsible for the situation. Additionally, Fogg behaviour grid and COM-B (capability, opportunity, and motivation) model were applied to identify intervention options, which were then weighted using APEASE criteria to narrow down the suitable interventions. The behaviour change technique was applied to the selected intervention to determine the guidelines and design the artefact for achieving the target behaviour. This paper demonstrates the application of the integrated framework to improve parking behaviour in residential buildings in vertically growing cities.

S. Gangrade (B) · P. R. Khadilkar Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi 110016, India e-mail: [email protected] P. R. Khadilkar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_17

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17.1 Introduction Designing, redesigning, or changing an existing system design can solve any wicked problem. Because public opinion is multifaceted, contradictory, and diverse, it is vital to comprehend the interplay between design and people when addressing a problem at the community level [1]. When a problem is identified, designers advocate technological solutions to influence user behaviour by optimising and automating technology to the point that users have no choice but to adhere to the designer’s recommended procedure or behaviour [2–4]. Technical solutions alone cannot accomplish longterm behavioural change [5]. As a result, there has been a move towards productintegrated interventions that enable users to visualise the impact and observe the development of their behaviour [6]. Humans are habitual and may be seemingly irrational. This makes it hard for behavioural designers to change easy-to-correct behaviour. Behavioural science helps people modify behaviour. More than nineteen frameworks have been identified [7] to observe people in their environment, understand the psychology behind their behaviour, predict their response to a change, target an appropriate behaviour, change people’s perspective on the targeted behaviour, and persuade people to change their behaviour. Designers face difficulty in selecting from these frameworks. This research intends to showcase to designers a way to integrate these frameworks to develop a design intervention; however, it does not deal with testing the interventions due to limited time.

17.1.1 Background There has been a lot of research in the field of product design for developing and designing a product [8–11]. However, these processes may not be sufficient for behavioural design as its primary focus is on bringing about a desirable behavioural change by using artefacts as a medium rather than focussing on the artefact to fulfil a function [12]. To bring about a behaviour change, it is crucial to understand the theoretical aspects behind the behaviour, contextual aspects, and operational aspects of design for behaviour change [2, 8]. There are certain frameworks, such as COM-B theory, the behaviour change wheel, social cognitive theory, Fogg’s behaviour grid model, and the theoretical domains framework (TDF) model, to name a few, that can be applied to theorise a behaviour. Conscious behaviour change strategies [5, 9] and unconscious behaviour change strategies [13] can be used for operationalising a behavioural change. These frameworks and strategies support the discrete phases of behavioural change (refer to the steps inside the arrow in Fig. 17.1 for a detailed account)—comprehensive evaluation and selection of the optimal behavioural goal (s), behavioural interventions to achieve the behavioural goal (s), and design of best artefact to optimise its application [7]; however, an integrated framework that guides the designer throughout the behavioural design process is missing. This work is a part

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Fig. 17.1 Proposed integrated behavioural design framework

of a course ‘behavioural design’ at a technical institute in India, where the students were introduced with an integrated framework that covers the whole design cycle.

17.1.2 Research Framework An integrated framework that is suitable for the various types of behavioural design problems is not available. Ulrich and Eppinger [14] highlight that specific methods and tools are less effective when not integrated into a cohesive process. Hence, through this research, we are trying to formulate an integrated behavioural design framework suitable for working on problems that fall under a common category. To characterise an empirically supported behavioural design process at the stage and activity level, it is necessary to address the following research aim and sub-objectives: Aim: To elaborate and showcase a framework to solve the set of problematic behaviours that fall under a common category of social problems by cohesively integrating different behavioural design processes. Objective 1: To showcase an integrated behaviour change framework through a real-life behavioural design problem. Objective 2: To showcase a set of preliminary design interventions based on the findings from the case study.

17.2 The Framework Figure 17.1 shows the integrated framework for the behavioural design process within the arrow and the various frames employed in the text box below it in Fig. 17.2. The successive sections elaborate the framework through the working example.

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Fig. 17.2 Existing parking behaviour in a residential society

17.2.1 Understanding the Context of Behaviour The first step in the integrated framework uses standard literature review methods, contextual inquiry, and observations. The cities are growing in population and expanding vertically, resulting in a deficiency of vehicular parking spaces. In 1991, M. A. Venkataramanan and Marc Bornstein designed an algorithm model for allocating parking space in a society based on priority, cost, and walking distance as the main parameters [15]. Tullio Giuffrè et al. designed an intelligent parking assistant to help assign and guide vehicles to their parking spaces [16]. In 2020, Ruby Singh et al., using the Firefly algorithm, developed a vehicle parking mechanism that focussed on parking efficiency and reduced space searching time using sensors [17]. Though these systems are efficient, they are technology focussed, which requires a large digital network system and incurs high costs for installation and maintenance, and they largely ignore the behavioural origins of the problems. A residential apartment society with five towers and insufficient parking, located in Vadodara (Gujarat, India), was selected for the case study. In the structure of the prevalent observational studies, parking behaviour was categorised using the behavioural insights of a framework—antecedent > behaviour > consequence of behaviour (ABC) [18]. In the antecedent of current behaviour, the residents are habitual to parking vehicles haphazardly without regard to the yellow markings on the ground. In the behaviour itself, the resident who is currently trying to find a parking spot or take their vehicle out feels anxious, and to save time and effort, parks their vehicles adjacent to the parked vehicles without much care about rules, regulations, and possible consequences. The consequence of this behaviour is that the parking lot is a mess, and there is damage to the vehicles and increased parking time and effort. The existing situation is shown in Fig. 17.2. The logic behind selecting this category of problem is that it directly or indirectly affects other behaviours of the residents by impacting the peace and order of the society as it plays a significant role in instigating aggressive behaviour and anxiety in vehicle owners.

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17.2.2 Analysing the Behaviour The proposed integrated framework demands understanding the existing behaviour by breaking down the behaviour in detail into sub-domains and then defining the target behaviour. This can be done using the behaviour change wheel, which is one framework developed by combining 19 different behaviour change frameworks. The COM-B (capability, opportunity, and motivation) model serves as the core of this wheel, assisting in identifying the origins of behaviour that may be effective targets for intervention but is primarily dependent on the observation of behaviours [19]. To understand the user perspective, interviews were conducted using structured questions based on the theoretical domains framework (TDF). TDF is designed by 32 experts in behaviour change who scientifically identified 128 constructs from 33 behaviour change theories and simplified them by categorising the behaviours into 14 domains [7]. The COM-B is an extension of TDF and thus interlinks the constructs used in TDF [7]. This helps designers in having an integrated toolkit. TDF-based questionnaire resulted in the following insights from the interview based on the theoretical domains: 1. Awareness—Residents are unaware of the general guidelines and rules of parking as there are no concrete guidelines set by the society. 2. Skills—Except for only a few, most people are over-confident about their parking skills and do not accept their mistakes. 3. Capability and decision process—Finding a vacant space for parking and taking out parked vehicles from narrow spaces was difficult for the residents. 4. Reinforcements—Residents believed that imposing penalties for incorrect parking would improve the situation. 5. Social influences—It is difficult for the residents to point out the wrongly parked vehicles if the owners are their friends or neighbours. 6. Environmental context and resources—Residents were interested in an intervention that would regulate the turn of four-wheeler parking within their affordability, along with a governing body to set rules and guidelines for the same. The observations, questionnaire, and interview resulted in a list of problematic behaviours, which were further analysed using the behavioural specifications [20]. This helped in understanding various sub-domains of current behaviour, like whether a given behaviour is in excess of some problematic behaviour, e.g. parking at a more inclined angle than necessary, or whether we need to measure the intensity of a behaviour or frequency of occurrence. This resulted in nuanced behavioural definitions, as shown in Table 17.1, derived from task specification [20]. The authors observed the behaviours and generated this specification using standard applied behavioural nomenclature to generate this matrix. This specification was created by describing the behaviours and categorising them based on different levels. The first level is determining its action type (functional—for considering the overall action or topographical—considering the finer subtleties of the action). In the next level, the stages of the behavioural cycle—beginning, middle, and end, are established. In

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the third level, the temporal aspects needed to be measured are then identified, such as the duration of and between behaviours (time), frequency of behaviour (rate), or requirement of a cue and its response time (stimulus control and latency) which were further used in breaking down the target behaviours into tasks as follows: • Knowing and understanding the existing rules of parking • Following the rules for proper parking • Understanding the difficulties and problems arising (for you and others) from haphazard parking • Self-awareness to eliminate the shortcomings that hamper your parking capability • Think like a community and not an individual

17.2.3 Specifying and Categorising the Behaviours After understanding the behaviours using TDF, the framework suggests categorising the various behaviours based on the inherent characteristics of behaviour (using Fogg’s behavioural grid), based on the personal, societal, and contextual factors related to behaviour (COM-B model), and based on the overall response of the population towards the behaviour (meta-categories of behaviour).

17.2.3.1

Fogg’s Behavioural Grid

According to the Fogg’s behavioural grid, behavioural responses vary based on the nature of the behaviour. People respond differently to a known behaviour than a new behaviour. The duration of change (one time vs fixed duration vs permanent) and nature of change (increase, decrease or stop) affect the perception of the difficulty of performing the behaviour [21]. The categorisation used in this grid is unique, and this grid helps in identifying the sub-sets of the target behaviour and designing a preliminary framework to observe the behaviour change suggested [22]. Fogg’s behavioural grid has been used for the behaviours, as shown in Table 17.2.

17.2.3.2

COM-B Model

COM-B theory model has three main components and respective sub-components— capability (physical and psychological), opportunity (physical and social), and motivation (reflective and automatic) [7]. This model has been used to categorise the change required to achieve the target behaviours and correlate it with the availability of the resources in Table 17.3.

Parking with regard to the yellow line markings

Parking without any regard to the yellow line markings

Parking two-vehicles at inclined angles, occupying 1.5 times more space than required

Disregard to adjacent vehicles leading to scratches and other damage on the vehicle-body

1

2

3

D

Self-conscious D to consider the adjacent vehicle whilst parking in and out to avoid any probable damage

F

T

T

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(continued)

Yes

Yes

Yes

Excess Functional or Duration Rate/freq Intensity Stimulus Latency Quality B. P. Individual group or topographical measure measure deficit

Behaviour definitions

Take time to E park the vehicles straight, occupying minimum required space

Target behaviour

S. Current No. behaviour

Table 17.1 Sub-domains of behaviour—task specification [20]

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Voluntarily D designate parking spaces according to the frequency of vehicle use, period of parking, size of the vehicle, age and gender of the owner, and parking skill/capability of the owner

Anyone parks in any available space

F

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

(continued)

Yes

Excess Functional or Duration Rate/freq Intensity Stimulus Latency Quality B. P. Individual group or topographical measure measure deficit

4

Behaviour definitions

Target behaviour

S. Current No. behaviour

Table 17.1 (continued)

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An algorithm system that can notify the parking arrangement each week on online society group so that everyone gets equal chance of parking under the shade

Argument for parking under the shade and cars are parked behind another, blocking the way of the car parked first

Children Park their bicycles anywhere between cars and two-wheelers resulting in additional scratches

5

6

A separate space for children’s bicycles so that they can learn to park as well as not damage other vehicles

Target behaviour

S. Current No. behaviour

Table 17.1 (continued)

D

D

F

Mix

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

(continued)

Yes

Yes

Excess Functional or Duration Rate/freq Intensity Stimulus Latency Quality B. P. Individual group or topographical measure measure deficit

Behaviour definitions

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Friendly D training sessions in society for difficult parking spots and also work as form of social bonding

Some occupants do not possess proper knowledge and skill for parking

F

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Excess Functional or Duration Rate/freq Intensity Stimulus Latency Quality B. P. Individual group or topographical measure measure deficit

7

Behaviour definitions

Target behaviour

S. Current No. behaviour

Table 17.1 (continued)

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Table 17.2 Fogg’s behavioural grid Green (new behaviour)

Blue (familiar behaviour)

Purple (increase behaviour intensity or duration)

Grey (decrease behaviour intensity and duration)

Black (stop behaviour)

Dot Install video behaviour one camera in the time parking lot

Tell your – neighbour about parking systems and regulations and appoint the society president as the judge of this issue

–

–

Span has Click photos of duration such all the vehicles as 40 days incorrectly parked, 8 pm every day, print them, and put them on the society notice board every morning 8 am for a month

Post the photos – of incorrectly parked vehicles on society WhatsApp group and take a poll of residents on its correctness for a month

–

No quarrelling for parking-related problems for a month

Path is a permanent change

Park your vehicle perfectly aligned straight (vertically)

17.2.3.3

Park within the yellow demarcation lines

Be more – careful whilst parking in and out the vehicle to avoid damage to adjacent vehicle

–

Meta-Categories of Behaviour

These meta-categories are derived by the second author using the response to change in the theory of goal systems [23], nudge [13], and theory of diffusion [24]. Most vehicle owners understand that they are responsible, which they, as well as other society members, face and they are willing to solve the problem, but the situation is not changing. The meta-categories of behaviour identified the group of people who are majorly responsible for the problem and need to be targeted to bring about the change. The categories are as follows:

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Table 17.3 Application of COM-B model COM-B components

What needs to happen for target behaviour to occur?

Is there a need for change?

Physical capability

Need a physical ability to drive the vehicle and see the interventions

No change needed

Should be skillful in parking

Need change—Should be able to assess their ability and gain training accordingly

Should understand the functions of the interventions

Need change—A demonstration of the interventions is must

The ability to get away with their parking behaviour needs to be challenged

Need change—A video camera/CCTV camera should be installed for observation

Should have the knowledge of parking guidelines

Need change—A clause with parking guidelines should be formulated, properly read, and signed by the residents and should be available for reference

Psychological capability

Physical opportunity

Residents should have smartphones No change needed to get notified of their turn-wise (algorithm based) parking space Automated notifiers in the form of buzzers/sirens in the physical interventions to indicate the quality of parking

Need change—Designing a parking system installed on floor which directs you to your assigned parking space and guides you to park your vehicle within a specified area, and if not, the buzzer goes off until you park it correctly and the name enters a defaulter list

The intervention systems should be Need change—A budget is fixed affordable for all unanimously by the residents Social opportunity

Reflective motivation

The smartphone and the algorithm-based app should be acceptable

Need change—It should cover the details of all the residents necessary to design a parking pattern and should be unbiased. Also, its process of working should be explained to all

The other residents should be willing to train their fellow residents who need it and vice-versa

Need change—A bonding session between the residents can be organised. Also, an incentive (prize) for the teachers and those who ask for help (training) should be initiated

The residents make sure that their Need change—A display board to parking does not pose as a problem keep track of the defaulters to others and park carefully (identified from the CCTV/ video camera) should be kept in clear sight for everyone to see (continued)

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Table 17.3 (continued) COM-B components

What needs to happen for target behaviour to occur?

Is there a need for change?

Automatic motivation

The residents who park incorrectly even after notifying time and again by the society member should be demotivated to do so

Need change—A penalty should be imposed on defaulters who neither park properly nor attend necessary training session and have a strike rate of 5 within a month

1. Do not want to change—the ones who park incorrectly pose a major problem for others and do not want to acknowledge it. 2. Unaware that the change is required—the ones who have never experienced a proper parking system in their society 3. Ready to change—are unable to make up their mind to put extra effort and money into improving this situation.

17.2.4 The Behavioural Solution: Identifying Suitable Intervention Functions The behavioural categorisation provides deep insights into the nature of the behaviour, and an understanding of what solutions may work, e.g. if the majority of the population does not want to change, the solution has to use force or coercion to change the behaviour. Components of the COM-B model, TDF, intervention functions, and policies have been correlated to form a category [7] (Table 17.4). This category is then evaluated by applying APEASE criteria for designing and evaluating the appropriateness of the proposed interventions or intervention ideas in terms of affordability, practicability, effectiveness and cost-effectiveness, acceptability, side-effects/safety, and equity [7, 25] (Table 17.4). However, instead of any scientific procedure, APEASE criteria utilise the designer’s and stakeholder’s contextual understanding of the situation at hand for the evaluation [7]. The authors identified the intervention function that satisfies the higher number of components of the APEASE criteria and is then chosen for implementation (listed in Table 17.4). From Table 17.4, the suitable intervention functions that satisfy the APEASE criteria are found to be as follows: • Education—Educating the residents about the parking rules through pamphlets, video presentations • Coercion—Penalising the consistent residents responsible for incorrect parking— a fine of Rs. 500 after 5 strikes (the fine and strikes unanimously decided by the committee) • Training—Training them in skilful parking–friendly sessions over the weekends • Environmental restructuring—Creating parking guidelines and installing CCTV cameras for observation and record

Reinforcement

Physical skills

Cognitive and interpersonal skills

Automatic motivation

Physical capability

Psychological capability

Beliefs about consequences

Beliefs about capabilities Persuasion

Reflective motivation

Communication/marketing

Policy

Training

Demonstrating the working of the parking system

Training them in skillful parking–friendly sessions on weekends

Service provision

Service provision

Penalising the consistent Fiscal measure, legislation residents responsible for incorrect parking—a fine of Rs.500 after 5 strikes (the fine and strikes unanimously decided by the committee)

Coercion

Fiscal measure

Samosa treat for the teachers as well as learners who attend the friendly training sessions

By installing a display Regulation board to notify the incorrect parkers and persuading them to join a training session

Educating the residents about the parking rules through pamphlets, video presentations

What needs to happen for target behaviour to occur?

Incentivisation

Education

Knowledge

Psychological capability

Intervention function

TDF

COM-B

Table 17.4 Evaluating intervention functions based on APEASE criteria [7]

(continued)

APEAE (safety maybe an issue)

APEASE

APEASE (unanimously decided, so will not affect acceptability)

APEASE (maybe lack cost-effectivity)

APEE (problem with acceptability and side-effects)

APEASE

APEASE

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TDF

Environmental context and resources

Social influence

COM-B

Physical opportunity

Social opportunity

Table 17.4 (continued)

Modelling

Environmental restructuring

Intervention function

Social influence through proper parking record of neighbours or friends

Communication

APEASE

PEA

Environmental planning

Sing directional methods for parking as well as parking systems for organising the parking behaviour–buzzer systems

APEASE APEASE

Policy

Creating parking guidelines Environmental planning and installing CCTV camera for observation and record

What needs to happen for target behaviour to occur?

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Fig. 17.3 Artefact gallery snapshot

• Modelling—Social influence through proper parking records of neighbours or friends and helping out the ones who lack the skill.

17.2.5 Designing the Artefact The integrated framework specifically suggests working on artefacts that translate the intervention functions into actual interventions, which will interface with the target users. For example, the intervention function ‘training’ was designed to have weekend training sessions where fundamentals of parking along with actual demonstrations of car parking in real-use situations were conducted. Similarly, separate design exercises involving specialised knowledge of graphic design, process design, and system design were suggested to create the artefacts, including communication material, process flows, and regulations, as depicted in Fig. 17.3.

17.2.6 Identifying Implementation Strategy The nature of artefacts and behaviours demands specific implementation strategies for behaviours that are dot, span, and path, as shown in Fogg’s behaviour grid.

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Fig. 17.4 Implementation of interventions for changing parking behaviour

After suitable intervention options are found, the framework proposes to design an implementation strategy unique to Fig. 17.4.

17.3 Conclusion The solution to the parking-related behavioural problem in a residential society using an integrated framework resulted in the successful conceptualisation and detailing of various interventions. The integrated framework is based on various behaviour design processes, including behavioural specification, TDF, COM-B, and Fogg’s behaviour grid. The study was limited to suggesting a design intervention. The actual testing of the intervention and the analysis of the outcomes of implementing the framework are the future scope of the study. However, this work successfully showcases the use of the integrated framework for a real-life problem, which will help designers provide an operational guideline to approach a social problem like parking behaviour. This work provides an additional example of how to combine mainstream design methods like immersion with tools like task specification from behavioural analysis along with mainstream behavioural theories like COM-B. This would act as a reference to designers starting their journey in behavioural design.

References 1. Tromp, N., Hekkert, P., Verbeek, P.-P.P.P.-P.: Design for socially responsible behavior: a classification of influence based on intended user experience. Des. Issues 27(3), 3–19 (2011) 2. Cash, P., Hartlev, C.G., Durazo, C.B.: Behavioural design: a process for integrating behaviour change and design. Des. Stud. 48(January), 96–128 (2017)

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3. Greening, L.A., Greene, D.L., Difiglio, C.: Energy efficiency and consumption—the rebound effect - a survey. Energy Policy 28(6–7), 389–401 (2000) 4. Herring, H., Roy, R.: Technological innovation, energy efficient design and the rebound effect. Technovation 27(4), 194–203 (2007) 5. Lilley, D.: Design for sustainable behaviour: strategies and perceptions. Des. Stud. 30(6), 704–720 (2009) 6. Jackson, T.: Live better by consuming less? Is there a ‘double dividend’ in sustainable consumption? J. Ind. Ecol. 9(1–2), 19–36 (2005) 7. S. Michie, L. Atkins, West, R.: The Behavior Change Wheel: A Guide to Designing Interventions. London, UK (2014) 8. Yang, S., Zhao, Y.F.: Additive manufacturing-enabled design theory and methodology: a critical review. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 80(1), 327–342 (2015) 9. Olivier, G., Ibrahim, S., Patrick, M.: Distributed design theory and methodology. Concurr. Eng. 3(1), 43–54 (1995) 10. Chulvi, V., Mulet, E., Chakrabarti, A., López-Mesa, B., González-Cruz, C.: Comparison of the degree of creativity in the design outcomes using different design methods. J. Eng. Des. 23(4), 241–269 (2012) 11. Chakrabarti, A., Bligh, T.P.: A scheme for functional reasoning in conceptual design. Des. Stud. 22(6), 493–517 (2001) 12. Khadilkar, P., Cash, P.: Understanding behavioural design: barriers and enablers. J. Eng. Des. 31(10), 508–529 (2020) 13. Thaler, R., Sunstein, C.: Nudge: improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Yale University Press, England (2008) 14. Ulrich, K., Eppinger, S.: Product Design and Development. Irwin McGraw-Hill, New York, USA (2000) 15. Venkataraman, M.A., Bornstein, M.: A decision support system for parking space assignment. Mathl. Comput. Model. 15(8), 71–76 (1991) 16. Giuffrè, T., Siniscalchi, S.M., Tesoriere, G.: A novel architecture of parking management for smart cities. Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci. 53, 16–28 (2012) 17. Singh, R., Dutta, C., Singhal, N., Choudhury, T.: An improved vehicle parking mechanism to reduce parking space searching time using firefly algorithm and feed forward back propagation method. Procedia Comput. Sci. 167(2019), 952–961 (2020) 18. Miltenberger, R.: Behavior Modification: Principles and Procedures. Cengage Learning (2011) 19. Michie, S., van Stralen, M.M.M., West, R.: The behaviour change wheel: a new method for characterising and designing behaviour change interventions. Implement. Sci. 6(1), 42 (2011) 20. Johnston, J.M., Pennypacker, H.S., Green, G.: Strategies and Tactics of Behavioral Research. Routledge (2010) 21. Fogg, B.: Fogg Behavior Grid. Stanford University (2018) 22. Fogg, B.J.: Creating persuasive technologies: an eight-step design process. In: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Persuasive Technology, pp. 1–6 (2009) 23. Kruglanski, A.W., Shah, J.Y., Fishbach, A., Friedman, R.: A theory of goal systems. In: The Motivated Mind, Routledge, pp. 215–258 (2018) 24. Rogers, E.M.: Diffusion of Innovations, 3rd edn. The Free Press, New York, USA (1983) 25. Robert West, F., Michie, S., Atkins, L., Chadwick, P., Lorencatto: Achieving behaviour change: a guide for local government and partners About Public Health England. Achiev. Behav. Chang. A Guid. local Gov. Partners (2019)

Chapter 18

Integrated Behavioural Design Framework to Encourage COVID-19-Appropriate Behaviour in University Canteens and Eateries Swagatam Dey

and Pramod Khadilkar

Abstract Behavioural design is a significant area of research due to its potential to solve problems by facilitating desirable human behaviour in areas such as healthcare and sustainability. Unlike conventional design domains, behavioural design distinguishes itself by prioritising behaviours as the primary objects of design instead of artefacts. However, the operationalisation of behavioural design suffers from its inability to cohesively integrate behavioural science-led and design-led methods to characterise problematic and target behaviours in a systemic context. The domain also lacks a structured framework to bridge the gap between target behaviours and design interventions. Thus, there is a perceived need for an integrative behavioural design framework that helps designers address complex human behaviours in a social setup like university canteens. With the resumption of in-person classes, there are high chances for university canteens to be overcrowded, potentially leading to the spread of the COVID-19 virus. We address this challenge by proposing an integrated framework for facilitating behaviours like social distancing, wearing of masks, and effective lane movement. Further, the application of the framework is demonstrated in a university canteen setup using defined behavioural parameters.

18.1 Introduction Behavioural design is deemed a crucial paradigm for design research and practice due to its ability to restrict undesired behaviour and influence desired behaviour amongst people [1, 2]. The domain is marked by its ability to combine insights of behavioural science with design practice for ethically evoking, nudging, persuading,

S. Dey (B) · P. Khadilkar Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi 110016, India e-mail: [email protected] P. Khadilkar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_18

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and motivating people to carry out desired behaviour [3]. This has found its relevance in important sectors including healthcare and sustainable innovation [4]. What distinguishes this domain from other traditional design domains is its intensive focus on “behaviour” as a primary object of design with artefacts as secondary objects. To do so, it explicitly uses behavioural theories as a foundation for the design process, method choices, and object development [5]. The behavioural design process’s efficiency to address systemic and complex problems depends upon the effective blending of the nuances of design and behavioural science. Research suggests that projects face significant difficulties in achieving this complex integration, thus confining themselves to either design or behavioural science-backed framing [6]. This is because, prevalent methods fail to account for potential interactions between these two domains [7], resulting in the domain’s tendency to narrow down problems of broader contexts to measurable behavioural definitions. It further limits the ability to address underlying root causes and contextual insights grounded in behavioural theory [8]. Therefore, there is a perceived need for better support that integrates theories and methods from the concerned domains cohesively to build effective interventions.

18.1.1 Research Motives, Questions, and Contributions Behavioural designers need tools and methods to help understand the scientific aspects of behaviour and creative methods to generate artefacts [7]. As discussed earlier, the lack of integrative tools to identify and position these methods along the design stages acts as a hurdle [5]. Contextual and holistic understanding and characterising of problematic and target behaviour are essential for addressing underlying root causes and systemic influences. In order to do so, designers need frameworks developed for individual stages in a more integrative manner, which will further help in the domain’s operationalization. In this work, to address these challenges, we provide inputs to prospective behavioural designers at two levels, first by proposing a framework that specifies and seamlessly integrates methods from various domains such as task complexity from operations research, COM-B from psychology, behavioural design space from design, and behavioural analysis from applied behavioural science. We also demonstrate the framework’s real-life application through a case study, which was undertaken as part of a course project at an Indian university that aimed to encourage a desired COVID-conscious behaviour in their canteens.

18.2 Methodology The work was undertaken as a part of the course “special topics in design- behavioural design”. We adopted the research-by-design methodology [9] for which an integrated

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framework was used to induce desirable behaviours in the concerned setups within the university. Canteens were chosen as the location of the study owing to the ease of access and scope of the project. In the initial phase of the study, we utilised nonparticipative observation method to understand behaviours followed by their analysis and categorisation. The observations were carried out during peak hours, i.e. during breakfast (0900–1100 h) and lunch (1300–1500 h) time. This helped us identify a wide spectrum of behaviours from which problematic behaviours were identified. To limit the scope of the work, the sample was limited to students and faculties residing within the university premises. A questionnaire was floated amongst the concerned sample during the behavioural solution framing stage which further helped us identify the behavioural sources that required intervention. The interventions were further tested in the canteen area, and cameras were used to record and further analyse the behaviours after the interventions were introduced.

18.3 The Framework The integrated framework developed is illustrated in Fig. 18.1. Subsequent sections elaborate on each method and its application in the real-life context.

18.3.1 Understanding the Context of the Behaviour The first step in the integrated framework utilises standard methods of literature review, contextual inquiry, and observations to establish the context of the concerned behaviours. In the context of our case study, the resumption of physical classes in universities has resulted in a significant influx of students within the campuses. However, a recent resurgence of variants also necessitates compliance with COVIDappropriate norms like social distancing to prevent the formation of local hotspots.

Fig. 18.1 Integrated behavioural design framework

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The literature review helped in understanding the underlying psychological and systemic mechanisms. Evidence suggests that individuals are more affected by the notion that taking precautions will prevent them from spreading COVID-19 amongst others than by the notion of reducing their risks [10]. In their work, Betsch et al. [11] also reported that wearing a mask is a social contract wherein individuals who comply with the norm are perceived more positively than others. In terms of social distancing, recognising characteristics that can be manipulated through interventions is termed a crucial exercise [12]. This indicates the need for understanding factors like individual capability, motivation, and opportunities since they play a key role in influencing compliance with COVID norms. To do so, the identified undesirable behaviours were analysed from the perspective of the behavioural design space [13], and a compendium of 83 behavioural change strategies by Michie et al. [14] was utilised for a deeper understanding of the behaviours. Based on the framework, we utilised a non-participative semi-structured observation method [15] to analyse the COVID-inappropriate behaviours in the context of the university canteens. During this initial stage, we didn’t conduct any interviews because the aim of this stage was to identify the behaviours that were taking place within the concerned social setup, i.e. the canteens, and further categorise them into desired and undesired ones. The ongoing pandemic during the time of study also restricted our access to undertake any interviews. Based on the spectrum of behaviours that were observed, the undesirable behaviours were further identified to work upon. • Undesirable Behaviour 1 (UB1)—Lowering and inappropriate wearing of masks • Undesirable Behaviour 2 (UB2)—Irregular movement whilst receiving food items. Following this, the undesirable behaviours were further categorised using the ABC framework [16]. In the antecedent of UB1, Person “A” enters the canteen to order and acquire food items. For the behaviour, the person enters the queue and orders by lowering the mask and doesn’t put it back after ordering. The consequence of this is endangering the safety of others. For UB2, Person “A” enters the queuing line to acquire food, and instead of exiting from the adjacent exit line, she tries to exit through the same entry line. This reduces social distance as a consequence. Next, we identified the problem locations and the stakeholders involved within the problem space (See Table 18.1). Table 18.1 Identified locations and stakeholders involved in the performance of undesired behaviours

Location

Stakeholders

UB1

Counters near central library; staff canteen

Students, faculties, and facilitators

UB2

Staff canteen

Students and faculties

18 Integrated Behavioural Design Framework to Encourage … Description

A orders the items lowering his mask, then leaves the queue without putting it on

Excess/Deficit

Deficit

A enters the queuing line to acquire food in the canteen and instead of exiting from the adjacent exit line, exit through the same line limiting the proximity Deficit

Functional/ Topographical/ mix

Stimulus Control

229

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes for all

Individual

Functional

Target 1- Harsh enters through the entry pathway following cues and is cued to exit through the adjacent exit pathway Target 2- Harsh is made to follow a sequential pathway to acquire his order before Yes leaving the counter

Yes

Yes

No

Yes for all (non artefact)

Both

No

Quality

Group/ Individual

Topographical

Yes

Latency

Artefact/ Non Artefact Assesment

Target Behaviour Time Rate Intensity Target 1- X doesnt put down his mask while ordering Target 2- X is reminded and he immediately puts on his mask appropriately after ordering Yes Yes No

Fig. 18.2 Determining the subdomains of behaviour

Table 18.2 Prioritisation target behaviour for UB1 Potential TBs

BC impact

BC likelihood Spill over

Measurement

X does not put down his mask Very promising Promising whilst ordering and can communicate well without any distortion of sound

Promising

X is reminded and immediately puts on the mask appropriately after ordering (selected)

Very promising Promising

Very promising Promising

Promising

18.3.2 Determining Corresponding Target Behaviours (TB) This stage analysed target behaviours using a behavioural specification chart which is used to identify the subdomains of behaviours [17] (Fig. 18.2). It helped in determining whether the overall gross action (functional) had to be studied or the finer nuances of action also needed to be reviewed (Topographical). Next, we established the behavioural cycle stating the beginning, middle, and end stages of problematic behaviour. Then, we identified what temporal aspects needed to be measured, like the duration between repeated behaviours (inter-response time), response time to a cue (latency), or duration of behaviour (duration) (Fig. 18.2). The TB’s likely impact was then analysed using the likelihood of the occurrence of the change, the spill over score (possibility of creating other undesired behaviours), and the ease with which it can be measured. The behaviours under the mentioned parameters are rated either “unacceptable”, “unpromising but worth considering”, “promising”, or “very promising”—refer to Tables 18.2 and 18.3 [14].

18.3.3 Specifying Target Behaviours Once prioritised and selected, the target behaviours were further elaborated and contextualised using the following questions [14]—who performs the TB, when,

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Table 18.3 Prioritisation of target behaviour for UB2 Potential TBs

BC impact

A enters the ordering pathway and is constrained to an easier exit pathway

Quite promising Quite promising Unpromising Promising

“A” is nudged to follow a Promising sequential pathway to acquire his order before leaving the counter (selected)

BC likelihood

Very promising

Spill over

Measurement

Promising

Very promising

Table 18.4 Specifying target behaviours Target behaviour

Who

When

Where

Frequency

With whom

TB1—“A” is reminded and keeps wearing his mask appropriately whilst and after ordering

Students, scholars, and staff

Whilst ordering food and beverage at the cash counter

Canteen

Every time the customer is ordering at the counter

Individual

TB2—“A” is nudged to follow a sequential pathway to acquire his order before leaving the counter

Students, scholars, and staff

After acquiring food and beverages

Canteen

After acquiring Group and orders until habit individual formation occurs

where, in what frequency and whether the target is an individual or a group (refer to Table 18.4 for the details).

18.3.4 Identifying Behavioural Solutions Diagnosis Using COM-B Model- Determining What Needs to Change. Next, a behavioural diagnosis is done to identify the person/environment-based factors that need to be worked upon utilising the COM-B model by Michie et al. [14]. The model argues that the occurrence of behaviour depends on one’s capability, the situational opportunity in terms of a physical and social environment, and motivation at the relevant time [14]. For the case study, we used COM-B factors, for TB 1 and TB

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2, to design a self-evaluative questionnaire and circulated it amongst students and faculties. The results revealed that for wearing masks appropriately, a stronger sense of responsibility enables the behaviour effectively. Social conformity was found to be a strong enabler of desired lane movement. Glimpses of the survey are provided in Figs. 18.3 and 18.4. Following this, unstructured interviews were conducted to identify whether individuals lack the capabilities, opportunities, or motivation to do the behaviour (see Tables 18.5 and 18.6). Categorising the Behaviours. The sixth stage of the process is to categorise the TBs based on some fundamental characteristics. Fogg’s behavioural grid helps if I get into a pattern of wearing it appropriately without thinking consciously if I have a stronger sense that one should do it I care about the negative consequences of not doing it if I am reminded of doing so if all others do it properly if I have a better mask if I reduce unwanted urges to remove the mask if I know why wearing the mask appropriately is important

0

2

4

6

8

Fig. 18.3 Behavioural enablers for appropriate mask-wearing in university canteens if I get into a habit of taking the passage without having to think if I care more about the negative consequences of not doing it if all others do the same if the passage was easily accessible if I am reminded or guided to take the passaged strategically if it reduces the time to order and acquire my food if reduces my efforts to order and acquire my food if I know why is it important to follow the line

0

1

2

3

4

Fig. 18.4 Behavioural enablers for desired lane movement

Table 18.5 Identifying behavioural sources for TB1 Issues/statements

Identified sources of behaviour

“If people around me do it I will…but as they don’t Social opportunity (social influences) do it hence I don’t do it as well” Since most of us are frustrated and we consider the canteen as mask free zone “It is difficult to keep wearing a mask as fog Physical capability accumulates” “I can’t speak with the mask since its already noisy and nobody can hear each other” “Everybody is vaccinated so there is no issue if they Psychological capability (cognitive skills) don’t wear a mask”!

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Table 18.6 Identifying behavioural sources for TB2 Issues/statements

Identified COM-B domains

“People who come first get food, at last, it should be mechanised”

Social opportunity (social influences)

“We don’t follow a lane since there isn’t anyone asking Physical capability us to do” There is no signal of where to order what and hence everything happens haphazardly One can’t improvise and help it since three side opening and also there are no dedicated windows for certain products

in identifying the potential behavioural changes based on the type and duration of the changes. The model establishes 5 types of behavioural change occurring across a spectrum of 3 different ways, i.e. change happening only once (dot), for some time (span), or a permanent change (path). The types of behaviour changes are green (initiating a new behaviour), blue (reinitiating an existing behaviour), purple (increasing the intensity of behaviour), grey (decreasing the intensity of behaviour), and black (eliminating an existing behaviour) [18, 19]. Based on the grid, the TB1 and TB2 were classified as follows: • TB1 (prevents putting down the mask whilst speaking/ordering for some time)— Green Span. • TB1 (leaves the counter whilst wearing the mask and reaches safe proximity before removing the mask)—Blue Span. • TB2 (follows the sequential pathway instead of an undesired one)—Blue Path. Understanding the Task Complexity and ABCs for Target Behaviours. Once the categorisation of behavioural changes is made, the next step is to identify the task complexity of the desired behavioural change at hand. This is done by utilising a conceptual framework developed by Liu et al. [20]. The framework defines the task complexity through various complexity dimensions including size (no. of task components), relationship (the connection between the components), variability (unstable factors of components), unreliability (existence of wrong information), novelty (non-routine events), action complexity (demands of the task components), and temporal demand (time pressure) (refer to Table 18.7 for details). ABCs of Target BehavioursTB1 Antecedent—“A” reaches the canteen to have a cup of coffee during a break. He wants to relax for a whilst and converse with his colleagues/classmates. TB1 Behaviour—Reaches counter and communicates with the cashier without putting down the mask. Takes the order and reaches safe proximity before removing the mask. TB1 Consequence—Safe passage and satisfaction.

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Table 18.7 Task complexity for TB1 and TB2 Complexity

TB1

TB2

Task size

Preventing the removal of the mask during the ordering and acquiring + Removing the mask after reaching a safe distance

Following the entry-exit pathway at the acquisition counter

Relationship

The task is dependent on The task is dependent on environmental noise and opportunities environmental factor

Variability

They may use alternative means to cover their face

They might not follow the route when the canteen is empty

Novel situations

What if he finds someone near the counter and wants to meet him?

None

Action complexity

The physical requirement is needed

Physical and cognitive abilities

Temporal demand

None

The task can be initiated and facilitated by temporal pressure

TB2 Antecedent—At lunch hours, “A” decides to have food. She is in a hurry since she needs to finish her paper by the evening. TB2 Behaviour—A reaches the canteen and orders based on her preference (decided by external opportunities) + enters the acquisition counter and provides the bill + acquires the tray and leaves by the adjacent lane without thinking too much. TB3 Consequence—No loss of time and a better experience. Identifying Goal Mismatches. Next, the theory of goal systems is referred to find out whether the participant’s higher-level motives (goals) compete with the motives required to perform desired TBs or if there is a mismatch of artefacts used to achieve motives related to the TBs [21] (see Table 18.8). Identifying Intervention Functions. The next step is to identify interventions, which is done using the behaviour change wheel by determining higher-level behavioural/cognitive mechanisms (intervention functions) and allied policies that can effectively induce changes. The APEASE [14] criteria comprised of affordability, practicality, effectiveness, acceptability, safety, and equitability are applied to Table 18.8 Goal mismatches for TB1 and TB2 Factor

Justification

TB1

Competing goals with problematic behaviour

Because his goal to stay safe is competing with his goal to effectively communicate across the counter

TB2

Same goals, but the means used are different with the problematic behaviour

Since in this case, the goal for both is to save time and effort. However, TB2 utilises effective lane movement, whilst UB2 takes shortcuts and erratic lane movements

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Table 18.9 Intervention functions, policy categories, and APEASE remarks Intervention functions

Policy categories

APEASE criteria

TB1

Restriction enablement environmental restructuring

Guidelines, regulation service provision communication

Service provision can be changed through environmental context but can cost more Regulations already exist but aren’t followed or maintained

TB2

Enablement persuasion restriction environmental restructuring

Service provision, environmental planning, communication, regulation

Planned service delivery can help EP can cost more but communication can be used effectively for traffic movement

compare and further choose the most effective intervention from the list as elaborated in Table 18.9. Based on this, communication-based intervention functions were confirmed for TB1, whilst for TB2 environment planning and communication were finalised.

18.3.5 Proposal for Artefact Design The next step includes transforming the intervention functions into relevant artefacts. To do this, we first carried out secondary research to determine the existing artefacts and then brainstormed on the possible artefacts in the canteen’s context. Artefact Proposed for Target Behaviour 1 (TB1)—“A” is reminded and keeps wearing his mask appropriately whilst and after ordering—Imagery Narratives. Placement of images showing people wearing masks at counters and sitting areas can remind customers about wearing their masks. Image-based narratives are powerful tools of persuasion in this particular context where service provision and environmental context changing are a costly affair. Artefact Proposed for Target Behaviour 2 (TB2)—“A” is constrained or nudged to follow a sequential pathway to acquire her order before leaving the counter— Pathway Markers to Guide Lane Movement. The use of pathway markers to nudge customers towards a direction. This artefact can help in regulating the customer traffic in the canteen food acquisition areas since it is subtle as well as reliable. High-contrast floor marking tapes were utilised to help guide the customers to follow the desired route (see Fig. 18.5).

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Fig. 18.5 Pathway markers

Fig. 18.6 Desired pathways for TB2 (green), undesired pathways (red)

18.4 Testing The artefact for TB2 was further tested in the university canteen setup within available resources and time. 5 possible routes were observed out of which 2 desired and 3 undesired routes were categorised (Fig. 18.6). Following this, n = 80 people were observed whilstordering and acquiring food in the canteen. The protocol established was as follows: • If the person follows routes R1 and R2, it is successful behaviour, and if follows routes R3, R4, and R5, it is an unsuccessful behaviour. • If the person is facing obstructions whilst completing R1 and R2, it is a null action. A camera setup was also established to record their movement pattern. We used striped floor markers for better visibility. The observational studies were carried out across two working days during lunch and dinner hours (Fig. 18.7).

18.5 Results Analysing the results revealed that 40 out of 80 people undertook the desired routes (R1 and R2) whilst the rest followed the undesired ones. The result shows that the

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Fig. 18.7 Customer engaging in desired behaviour TB2

intervention was 50% successful in inducing desired lane movement. People who didn’t perform the TBs were influenced by unidentified infrastructural and systemic elements like lack of clarity, availability of food at the counters, etc., that were beyond the scope of the study. People were also seen standing in front of the counters whilst acquiring the ordered items, which further clogged the desired pathways.

18.6 Conclusions The paper introduces an integrated behavioural design framework incorporating tools and methods from the domains of behavioural science and design whilst providing a cohesive structure to the design process utilising methods like observation, immersion, user interviews, task complexity, COM-B, and BCW amongst others. The application of the framework is then further demonstrated using a case study. However, the scope of this case study was limited due to its academic nature. A rigorous test of this framework in a professional environment is necessary and recommended to understand the professional scope and challenges.

References 1. Cash, P.J., Hartlev, C.G., Durazo, C.B.: Behavioural design: a process for integrating behaviour change and design. Des. Stud. 48, 96–128 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2016.10.001 2. French, S.D., Green, S.E., O’Connor, D.A., McKenzie, J.E., Francis, J.J., Michie, S., Buchbinder, R., Schattner, P., Spike, N., Grimshaw, J.M.: Developing theory-informed behaviour change interventions to implement evidence into practice: a systematic approach using the theoretical domains framework. Implement. Sci. 7 (2012) https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-59087-38 3. Tromp, N., Hekkert, P., Verbeek, P.-P.: Design for socially responsible behavior: a classification of influence based on intended (2011) 4. Niedderer, K., Clune, S., Ludden, G.: Design for behaviour change : theories and practices of designing for change

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5. Khadilkar, P.R., Cash, P.: Understanding behavioural design: barriers and enablers. J. Eng. Des. 31, 508–529 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/09544828.2020.1836611 6. Cash, P., Khadilkar, P.R., Jensen, J., Dusterdich, C., Mugge, R.: Designing behaviour change: a behavioural problem/solution (BPS) Matrix. APA (2020) 7. Cash, P., Gamundi, X.V., Echstrøm, I., Daalhuizen, J.: Method use in behavioural design: what, how, and why? Int. J. Des. 16 (2022). https://doi.org/10.57698/v16i1.01 8. Schmidt, R., Stenger, K.: Behavioral brittleness: the case for strategic behavioral public policy. Behav. Public Policy 1–26 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1017/bpp.2021.16 9. Prochner, I., Godin, D.: Quality in research through design projects: recommendations for evaluation and enhancement. Des Stud 78 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2021. 101061 10. Sunstein CR The Meaning of Masks 11. Betsch, C., Korn, L., Sprengholz, P., Felgendreff, L., Eitze, S., Schmid, P., Böhm, R.: Social and behavioral consequences of mask policies during the COVID-19 pandemic. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 117, 21851–21853 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2011674117 12. Hagger, M.S., Smith, S.R., Keech, J.J., Moyers, S.A., Hamilton, K.: Predicting social distancing intention and behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic: an integrated social cognition model. Ann. Behav. Med. 54, 713–727 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1093/abm/kaaa073 13. Bay Brix Nielsen, C.K.E., Daalhuizen, J., Cash, P.J.: Defining the behavioural design spac. Int. J. Des. 15, 1–16 (2021) 14. Michie, S., Atkins, L., West, R.: The behaviour change wheel: a guide to designing interventions (2014) 15. Clark, A., Holland, C., Katz, J., Peace, S.: Learning to see: lessons from a participatory observation research project in public spaces. Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol 12, 345–360 (2009). https:// doi.org/10.1080/13645570802268587 16. Miltenberger, R.G.: Behaviour modification: principles and procedures. Cengage Learn. (2015) 17. Johnston, J.M., Pennypacker, H.S., Gina, G.: Strategies and Tactics of Behavioral Research, 3rd edn. Routledge (2008) 18. Fogg, B.J., Hreha, J.: Behavior Wizard: A Method for Matching Target Behaviors with Solutions. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg (2010) 19. Daee, J.Z., Boks, C.: Reinforcing preliminary design strategy selection guidelines with insight from Fogg’s behaviour grid. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Persuasive Technology: Persuasive Technology and Design: Enhancing Sustainability and Health (2011) 20. Liu, P., Li, Z.: Task complexity: a review and conceptualization framework. Int. J. Ind. Ergon 42, 553–568 (2012) 21. Shah, J.Y., Kruglanski, A.W.: 4 Aspects of goal n ETWO R KS implications for self-regulation (2000)

Chapter 19

Assessing the Users’ Preference-Based Approach to Optimize the Integration of Physical-Infrastructural and Socio-cultural Elements of Design Tanima Bhattacharya and Joy Sen Abstract In contemporary times, various policies and strategies have been formulated to meet the need of the rapidly growing cities and their suburbs. However, hardly, a few of the initiatives have had the actual potential to mitigate the problems and satisfy the need of the stakeholders. Most of the initiatives are top-down and thus fail to address the basic requirements of the targeted population. Therefore, choosing the best suitable alternative from a large pool of design solutions is critical and the need of the hour. Considering the context, the present paper assesses the users’ preference-based approach to understand the need and the potential of a set of elements of design (EoD) and, accordingly, attempts to present the best possible threshold to integrate physical and socio-cultural infrastructural elements of design (EoDs). The methodology adopted in the present study deals with the primary data concerning the priorities and choices of a large cross-section of users, including dwellers, peddlers, and pedestrians of the urban spaces at the local level. The paper argues that choosing the best-suited alternatives needs to be based on the location, ethnicity, socio-cultural history, economic conditions, land use plan, and other community-oriented design elements. The present study explores these pivotal elements of design ingrained in the space in bringing unique features and characteristics. Accordingly, users’ preferences have been collected and assessed to assign priority to the alternatives that aid to harp on the unique features of the individual spaces. Finally, the paper persuades achieving a true sense of integrated elements of design to ensure equitable participation and all-pervading social connection that boosts creative innovations and assures urban rejuvenation.

T. Bhattacharya (B) Department of Silpa Sadana, Palli Samgathana Vibhaga, Visva Bharati, Sriniketan, West Bengal 731236, India e-mail: [email protected] J. Sen Department of Architecture and Regional Planning, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_19

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19.1 Introduction Different policies and tactics have been developed in the modern era to satisfy the needs of the constantly expanding cities and their suburbs. However, only a small number of the projects actually had the potential to solve the issues and meet the demands of the stakeholders [1–3]. The majority of projects are top-down and, as a result, fall short of meeting the basic needs of the intended audience [4, 5]. Elements of design have the potential to address the emerging urban issues. Therefore, selecting the most appropriate option from a wide range of design solutions is crucial and urgent (Fig. 19.1). The present paper forwards the method of prioritizing the design elements as per the users’ preferences along with the results and interpretations [6]. Users’ preference-based hierarchy aids to determine the threshold of integration of physical and socio-cultural elements of design [7]. To reach the optimal point of integration, the analytical hierarchy process has been applied to the individual and integrated set of physical-infrastructural and socio-cultural elements of design (EoD) [6, 7]. The paper forwards the hierarchy of the global priority vectors (PV) against the local solutions discretely and integrally by applying the EoDs as the facilities to assess the availability, the extent, the iterations, and the combination of the twin sets of EoDs

Fig. 19.1 Twelve urban spaces of Kolkata selected for the study

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[7, 8] which would enable to strategies the policies and their implementation more effectively.

19.2 Methodology To understand the good combination of the design alternatives, 12 urban areas have been selected based on the location and demography. To prioritize the elements of design according to their rejuvenation potential, analytic hierarchy process (AHP) has been applied as a tool based on a 9-point Likert scale representing the stated preferences of the experts, and the imageability scores assigned by the users [8]. A total no. of 360 users (30 users in each area) have been surveyed. On the whole, this paper has carried two key tasks as follows: • Initially identified the key global priority vectors (EoDs) based on their levels/extent of complementarity to assure rejuvenation and accordingly earmark ways and means to arrive at the local design prototypes based on the available alternatives and choices. • Finally, assess the local design priorities and their positioning against the global vectors that aid in formulating the policies and strategies best positioning the EoDs (priority vectors). To fulfill the two above-mentioned tasks, the present paper has logically established a stepwise process to arrive at the priorities of EoD as priority vectors and further identified design-based local solutions against the global elements of design [9, 10]. The three-stage evaluation processes are as follows: 1. Assessment of the discrete priority vectors (EoDs), 15 physical-infrastructural, and 16 socio-cultural elements of design, based on the twelve study areas of the city of Kolkata. This section assigned the priorities to the vectors while implementing them individually. The discrete priority vectors assure only one side of the infrastructure, either social, cultural and esthetic, or physical technological; hence, presents a journey from the discrete to composite priority vectors to understand the holistic scenario. 2. Assessment of the local design priorities based on the composite priority vectors (the twin sets of composite EoDs) considers implementing the priority vectors in a composite form. Therefore, to best explore the potential and aspirations, 31 composite priority vectors are reforwarded in Fig. 19.2 into three transitional thresholds, namely foundational, evolutional, and advanced forwards, a complete understanding of the rejuvenation process. The present paper and the set of data extracted through the deep engagement surveys consciously keep the income and affordability of the users’ out of the scope of the current study, which in a way proposes the further probing possibilities in terms of the interlinkages between the economical standards cum affordability and the users’ preferences.

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Step 1

EoDs as Facilities: Basic, Intermediate and Facilities for rejuvenation

EoDs as Facilities: Basic, Intermediate and Facilities for rejuvenation

EoDs as Facilities: Basic, Intermediate and Facilities for rejuvenation

Basic facilities >>> Intermediate facilities >>> Facilities of rejuvenation

Step 3

Step 2

Fig. 19.2 Three thresholds to understand the potential of integrated elements of design

19.2.1 Assessment of Weighted Vectors The formation of a matrix is generally based on the pairwise comparison of the variables. The pairwise comparison is based on the respondents’ scores assigned as per the ordinal scale mentioned in Table 19.1. The opinions have been obtained through deep engagement surveys. The 9-point psychometric scale corresponding to the preferential statement of the stakeholders adopted for AHP is demonstrated in Table 19.1 [11].

19.3 Place-Based Assessment of Local Priority Vectors (EoDs) The 12 urban spaces of Kolkata have been assessed based on both the two sets of discrete priority vectors (T-EoD and A-EoD) and the integrated set of TA-EoDs. Table 19.1 Psychometric scale of absolute numbers used in the study Intensity of importance

Definition

Explanation

1

Equal importance

2

Weak or slight

Two activities contribute equally to the objective

3

Moderate importance

4

Moderate plus

5

Strong importance

6

Strong plus

7

Very strong or demonstrated importance

8

Very, very strong

9

Extreme importance

Experience and judgment slightly favor one activity over another Experience and judgment strongly favor one activity over another An activity is favored very strongly over another; its dominance demonstrated in practice The evidence favoring one activity over another is of the highest possible order of affirmation

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Subsequent analysis and assigning hierarchy of discrete and integrated priority vectors forward the understanding of the potential and tendencies of priority vectors.

19.3.1 Assessment of the Local Priority Based on Discrete Priority Vectors The technological and art-based priority vectors have been assessed to calculate the hierarchy. The hierarchy has been assigned based on the rejuvenation potential [12]. Tables 19.2 and 19.3 reflect the priorities of the technology and art-based alternatives on each of the twelve spaces reflecting varied demographic and land use pattern [13].

Total percentage

Saltlake (CC1)

Rabindra Sadan

Rabindra Sarovar

Newtown

0.060 0.064 0.055 0.065 0.058 0.055 0.053

Dalhousie

0.064

Kumartuli

0.063

Hatibagan

Gariahat 0.063

Esplanade

0.086 0.054

College street

Availability of adequate transportation facility Availability of adequate drinking water Access to proper sanitation facility and its operation & maintenance Adequate facility of solid waste disposal Availability of good health-care facility Availability of adequate educational facility Proper visibility of information centers Presence of proper lighting conditions with street lights in public spaces Adequate availability of common utilities Availability of adequate facility for all age groups and speciallyabled people Available facility for pollution check Availability of communication and advanced IOT facility Accessibility to mass media Ensuring safety and security Consideration of economic activities concerned to the place

Kalighat

Priority vectors of T-EoD

Jorasanko

Table 19.2 Place-based assessment of the hierarchy of priority vectors of T-EoD

0.150 0.168

0.143

0.143

0.120

0.158 0.188 0.166 0.155 0.143 0.189 0.175

0.069 0.066

0.074

0.069

0.076

0.086 0.076 0.087 0.087 0.071 0.083 0.084

0.110 0.091

0.091

0.080

0.099 0.127 0.087 0.111 0.106 0.094 0.114 0.137

0.078 0.088

0.068

0.091

0.075

0.099 0.094

0.098

0.101 0.0s91 0.072 0.085 0.092 0.081 0.078 0.086 0.083

0.006 0.004

0.009

0.007

0.009

0.005 0.003 0.004 0.008 0.013 0.004 0.017

0.091 0.103

0.121

0.099

0.103

0.093 0.060 0.104 0.097 0.099 0.092 0.120

0.025 0.041

0.024

0.044

0.051

0.049 0.052 0.044 0.047 0.056 0.036 0.063

0.041 0.034

0.035

0.042

0.035

0.031 0.039 0.056 0.047 0.042 0.042 0.031

0.009 0.008

0.008

0.006

0.012

0.009 0.008 0.020 0.008 0.017 0.006 0.013

0.004 0.003

0.003

0.006

0.006

0.002 0.004 0.007 0.005 0.006 0.010 0.014

0.036 0.032

0.034

0.037

0.026

0.029 0.033 0.031 0.019 0.028 0.036 0.040

0.100 0.135

0.137

0.139

0.130

0.148 0.146 0.114 0.120 0.138 0.127 0.071

0.098 0.079

0.093

0.073

0.104

0.053 0.078 0.031 0.068 0.095 0.046 0.026

1.00 1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

0.077 0.076 0.077 0.087 0.061 0.073 0.073

1.00

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0.054 0.101 0.055

0.069 0.077 0.086 0.088 0.087

0.061

0.043

0.095 0.091

0.024 0.027 0.036

0.026 0.036 0.036 0.038 0.034

0.028

0.027

0.038 0.038

0.042 0.043 0.056

0.045 0.061 0.035 0.051 0.059

0.055

0.057

0.069 0.078

Presence and maintenance of water body Presence and maintenance of heritage structure Presence and maintenance of topiary Visual augmentation by Using/ applying murals

0.102 0.067 0.133

0.109 0.039 0.037 0.150 0.119

0.096

0.126

0.115 0.071

0.159 0.116 0.056

0.121 0.146 0.112 0.094 0.066

0.074

0.121

0.018 0.016

0.045 0.042 0.038

0.030 0.025 0.048 0.015 0.056

0.054

0.066

0.048 0.082

0.031 0.017 0.043

0.024 0.031 0.019 0.015 0.026

0.023

0.027

0.044 0.049

0.015 0.016 0.016

0.023 0.018 0.007 0.008 0.011

0.018

0.012

0.012 0.027

0.025 0.020 0.032

0.012 0.021 0.018 0.028 0.013

0.030

0.031

0.024 0.053

0.029 0.037 0.048

0.056 0.037 0.044 0.076 0.033

0.031

0.055

0.019 0.085

0.008 0.007 0.007

0.034 0.047 0.014 0.018 0.026

0.027

0.012

0.032 0.044

0.013 0.007 0.021

0.012 0.009 0.008 0.006 0.025

0.026

0.011

0.009 0.011

0.040 0.013 0.031

0.008 0.011 0.008 0.007 0.025

0.026

0.016

0.016 0.020

0.085 0.146 0.055

0.153 0.169 0.107 0.154 0.053

0.112

0.123

0.024 0.024

0.200 0.169 0.207

0.167 0.189 0.243 0.174 0.178

0.210

0.140

0.268 0.160

Visual augmentation by Using/ applying graffiti Visual augmentation by Using/ applying paintings Visual augmentation by Using/ applying sculptures Visual augmentation by Using/ applying art installations Adequate facility to arrange art performances Adequate facility to arrange Performing arts Facilitating the stakeholders with economic regenerative opportunities concerning heritage Facilitating the stakeholders with community space to promote community interactions Total percentage

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

Newtown

Saltlake (CC1)

0.169 0.151

Kumartuli

0.135

Hatibagan

0.127

Esplanade

0.111 0.084 0.178 0.076 0.189

Gariahat

0.128 0.173 0.167

Kalighat

Availability of adequate green space Availability of adequate open space Adequate facility to use and promote recreational spaces Visibility of color-scape

Priority vectors of A-EoD

Jorasanko

Dalhousie

Rabindra Sada n

Rabindra Sarovar

College street

Table 19.3 Place-based assessment of the hierarchy of priority vectors of A-EoD

1.00

Scores of priorities present in Table 19.2 forward the idea that if only T-EoDs have been considered, the top three priorities mostly revolve around the availability of drinking water, ensuring safety-security by installing street lights in the public spaces and neighborhoods, and facilities for solid waste disposal (Fig. 19.3). Likewise, Table 19.3 presents the priority vectors representing user aspirations to have more community-friendly spaces to boost social bonding, followed by the predominant human inclination to have more green space and water bodies. In the case of the city of Kolkata, the combination of culture-heritage-ethnicity plays a significant role in maintaining good liveability; hence, spaces like college street, Esplanade, Kumartuli, Hatibagan, and Jorasanko with rich tangible and intangible heritage have significant concerns about the maintenance of the heritage structures

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Fig. 19.3 Moderation of the technological elements of design as the priority vectors at the global level

Fig. 19.4 Moderation of the art elements of design as priority vectors at the global level

and further aspires to explore economic rejuvenation opportunities associated with the same (Fig. 19.4).

19.3.2 Assessment of the Local Priority of the Composite Priority Vectors The assessments of discrete priority vectors represent only one side of the infrastructure, either social, cultural and esthetic, or physical technological. Therefore, to understand the whole scenario, it is imperative to study the composite priority vectors, i.e., T-EoD and A-EoD as a whole. Composite priority vectors actually

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consider both artistic and technological needs together to assure sustainable rejuvenation [12]. Fifteen technological and sixteen artistic alternatives (priority vectors) have been considered compositely. The priority vectors are prescribed to consider together [14]. The total of 31 vectors have been divided and hierarchically marked into three thresholds, i.e., basic facilities (11 composite priority vectors), intermediate facilities (11 composite priority vectors), and facilities for rejuvenation (9 composite priority vectors) [12]. The priority assigned to the alternatives in three successive thresholds of urban rejuvenation identifies the overall preferential hierarchy within the study areas [15]. The hierarchy assigned in 12 areas is almost close to the individual choices of the spaces and alongside forwards the tendency of the data series as a whole. Tables 19.4, 19.5, and 19.6 successively forward the hierarchy of the priority vectors in three thresholds.

Esplanade

Hatibagan

Kumartuli

Rabindra Sarovar

Rabindra Sadan

Dalhousie

Saltlake (CC1)

Newtown

Total percentage

College street

Availability of good health-care facility Availability of adequate green space Availability of adequate open space Adequate facility to use and promote recreational spaces Visibility of colorscape Presence and maintenance of water body Presence and maintenance of heritage structure

Gariahat

Availability of adequate transportation facility Availability of adequate drinking water Access to proper sanitation facility and its operation & maintenance Adequate facility of solid waste disposal

Kalighat

Priority vectors of TA-EoD catering to the Basic Facilities

Jorasanko

Table 19.4 Priority of the local alternatives (basic facilities) calculated based on twelve individual study areas

0.09

0.09

0.12

0.08

0.08

0.06

0.09

0.08

0.07

0.08

0.22

0.22

0.22

0.22

0.25

0.19

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0.11

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0.14

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0.04

0.03

0.05

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0.04

0.06

0.10

0.13

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0.08

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0.10

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0.17

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0.08

0.19

0.08

0.21

0.15

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0.16

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0.05

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0.06

0.07

0.08

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.07

0.07

0.03

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.03

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0.03

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.04

0.13

0.11

0.04

0.04

0.15

0.12

0.11

0.13

0.10

0.07

0.04

0.09

0.10

0.08

0.07

0.05

0.06

0.09

0.01

0.01

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

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0.07 0.12 0.16 0.22 0.09 0.10

0.05 0.11 0.13 0.04

0.04 0.11 0.15 0.07 0.02

0.02 0.02

0.02 0.20

0.09 0.07 0.11 1.00

1.00

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Gariahat

College Street

Esplanade

Hatibagan

Kumartuli

Rabindra Sarova r

Rabindra Sadan

Dalhousie

Saltlake (CC1)

Newtown

Availability of adequate educational facility Proper visibility of information centers Presence of proper lighting conditions with street lights in public spaces Adequate availability of common utilities Availability of adequate facility for all age groups and specially abled people Presence and maintenance of topiary Visual augmentation by Using/ applying murals Visual augmentation by Using/ applying graffiti Visual augmentation by Using/ applying paintings Visual augmentation by Using/ applying sculptures Visual augmentation by Using/ applying art installations Total percentage

Kalighat

Priority vectors of TAEoD catering to the Intermediate Facilities

Jorasanko

Table 19.5 Local priority of the alternatives (intermediate facilities) of twelve individual study areas

0.37

0.35

0.35

0.34

0.33

0.28

0.33

0.28

0.27

0.26

0.32

0.23

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.01

0.01

0.02

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0.02

0.22

0.24

0.27

0.21

0.23

0.23

0.14

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0.20

0.21

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0.08

0.13

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0.13

0.08

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0.06

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0.03

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1.00

1.00

1.00

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• The preference pattern presented in Table 19.4 shows the highest priority which is always drinking water followed by green cover except for Kalight and Rabindra Sarovar. The critical feature of Kalighat is the water body “Adi Ganga,” which has rich historic-religious-cultural connotations. • Likewise, Rabindra Sarovar is known for its greenery (the lung of south Kolkata), thus got the highest priority. • The third priority is majorly given based on the specific need of the place, varied from the sanitation facility, availability- maintenance of water body, availability of transportation to heritage structures. • The priorities are critically low in case of having recreational space and colorscape that shows the major inclination toward more physiological, tangible infrastructure at the basic level. For instance, at Jorasanko, recreational spaces are present but denied access to the local users. Saltlake and Newtown have critically low priorities for heritage structures because, as a newly developed city extension, they do not house any heritage sites (Fig. 19.5).

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College street

Esplanade

Hatibagan

Kumartuli

Rabindra sarovar

Rabindra sadan

Dalhousie

Saltlake (CC1)

Newtown

Total percentage

Gariahat

Available facility for pollution check Availability of communication and advanced IOT facility Accessibility to mass media Ensuring safety and security Consideration of economic activities concerned to the place Adequate facility to arrange art performances Adequate facility to arrange Performing arts Facilitating the stakeholders with economic regenerative opportunities concerning heritage Facilitating the stakeholders with community space to promote community interactions

Kalighat

Facilities for Rejuvenation

Jorasanko

Table 19.6 Priority of the local alternatives (facilities for rejuvenation) calculated based on twelve individual study areas

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.04

0.02

0.04

0.01

0.04

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.03

0.03

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.05

0.09

0.09

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0.08

0.06

0.07

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0.09

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0.30

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0.28

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0.23

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0.13

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0.02

0.01

0.03

0.02

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0.02

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0.01

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0.01

0.01

0.01

0.04

0.04

0.02

0.02

0.03

0.10

0.16

0.06

0.18

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0.13

0.19

0.09

0.15

0.15

0.03

0.04

0.25

0.20

0.25

0.21

0.18

0.32

0.23

0.33

0.31

0.19

0.37

0.30

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

Fig. 19.5 Priorities assigned based on the local design (basic facilities) solutions

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Fig. 19.6 Presentation of the local priorities of vectors considering intermediate and advanced facilities

According to the scores of intermediate facilities presented in Table 19.5, in all the twelve spaces, the education facility has been prioritized unanimously, followed by the need for street lights. Common utilities and inclusiveness for all age groups are assigned priority according to the individual requirement of the space. Most of the lower priorities are attributed to the presence of information centers and using of art installations and graffities for esthetic rejuvenation. • Table 19.6 shows the local priorities attributed to the alternatives that belong to the final threshold of facilities for rejuvenation. Unlike the prior two thresholds, the alternatives are prioritized as specific to individual study areas. For instance, Kalighat, Gariahat, college street, Esplanade, Kumartuli, and Dalhousie, which are comparatively less residential, prioritize safety and security. • On the contrary, major residential areas as Jorasanko, Hatibagan, Saltlake, and Newtown have prioritized community space for social interactions. Engagement surveys further pointed out that in the case of Rabindra Sadan (Art and cultural hub) and Rabindra Sarovar, the priority is very site-specific. The former one is meant for socio-cultural activities to promote communication. In the case of the latter one, the area lacks standard communication, socio-cultural activities, and the users are concerned about that; hence, they opted for community spaces to boost social bonding. Figure 19.6 presents glimpses of the real-life situation of the prioritized vectors.

19.4 Conclusion The following conclusions have been drawn based on a study of primary data as observable from responses of a large cross-section of users, including dwellers, peddlers, and pedestrians of the selected urban spaces or the local level. • An analysis of the locally available discrete and composite alternatives (priority vectors) forwards interpretations that are highly location-based and micro-level

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specific. One instance is the case of Kalighat, which has differed from the general inclination toward assigning priority. Kalighat’s local religious and cultural history are the reasons for such a deviation. • Subsequent analysis based on discrete and composite alternatives reflects the users’ choice. The scores mentioned in Tables 19.2 and 19.3 discretely reflect the users’ preference; however, the cumulative scores of Tables 19.4, 19.5, and 19.6 forwards that, in each threshold, composite alternatives perform better to attain the infrastructural requirements. In summary, it may be said that the scores presented in Tables 19.4, 19.5, and 19.6 summarize the priorities of the alternatives based on their need, potential, availability, maintenance, and users’ aspirations. The priorities calculated using AHP have substantially commensurate with the scores of current imageability of the twelve study areas. The local priorities are guided by the general inclination based on the socio-cultural, economic, and ethnic aspects of the urban spaces and garnered by the alternatives, both of which are equally required in different equations and combinations to assure successful rejuvenation.

References 1. Yadav, V., Bhagat, R.B.: Urban development challenges, risks and resilience in Asian mega cities. Urban Dev. Challenges, Risks Resil. Asian Mega Cities, 2015, 157–173 (2015). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55043-3 2. Haque, I.: Discriminated urban spaces: a study of spatial segregation in urban West Bengal. Econ. Polit. Wkly. 51(46), 41–50 (2016) 3. Haque, I., Mehta, S., Kumar, A.: Towards sustainable and inclusive cities: the case of Kolkata. Obs. Reserach Fond. 83(83) (2019). [Online]. Available: https://www.orfonline.org/series/urb anisation-and-its-discontents/ 4. Listerborn, C.: Who speaks? And who listens? The relationship between planners and women’s participation in local planning in a multi-cultural urban environment. GeoJournal 70(1), 61–74 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-007-9114-8 5. Suzanne, D., Walter, A.: Urban design interventions : an emerging strategy of arts-based social change June (2013) 6. Bhattacharya, T., Dasgupta, S., Saha, T.K., Sen, J.: Altered perception of culture: based on features of pedestrian experience and aesthetic regeneration of built environment (2020) 7. Furlan, R.: Urban design and social livability: the revitalization of the corniche in Doha. Am. J. Environ. Eng. 6(3), 73–87 (2016). https://doi.org/10.5923/j.ajee.20160603.01 8. Brown, S.: Likert scale examples for surveys. Iowa State Univ. 1–4 (2010). https://doi.org/10. 1002/9780470479216.corpsy0508 9. Waris, M., et al.: An application of analytic hierarchy process (ahp) for sustainable procurement of construction equipment: multicriteria-based decision framework for malaysia. Math. Probl. Eng. 2019 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6391431 10. Morano, P., Locurcio, M., Tajani, F.: Cultural heritage valorization: an application of AHP for the choice of the highest and best use. Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci. 223, 952–959 (2016). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.05.328 11. Kunz, J., et al.: Analytical hierarchy process 5(1), 229–244 (2017). https://doi.org/10.4324/ 9781315266589 12. Bhattacharya, T., Banerjee, A., Sen, J.: Urban rejuvenation through techno art intervention: a case of Kolkata 5(1), 472–477 (2017). https://doi.org/10.5176/2301-394x_ace17.63

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13. Armin, A.: Importance of Urban squares as public space in social life. a new design of Fisktorget in Karlskrona City p. 57 (2016) [Online]. Available: http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/ diva2:971403/FULLTEXT03.pdf 14. Sepe: Liveable and healthy city design. WIT Trans. Ecol. Environ., 217, 177–189 (2018). https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP180171 15. Bhattacharya, T., Dasgupta, S., Sen, J.: An attempt to assess the need and potential of aesthetic regeneration to improve walkability and ergonomic experience of urban space, vol. 966 (2020)

Chapter 20

Toward Health, Hygiene, and Safety—A Design Intervention for Accessible and Inclusive Toilets in India Trisha Bordoloi

and Shakuntala Acharya

Abstract Access to basic amenities, such as public toilets, is an important aspect of a developed city, as it plays a significant role in ensuring good hygiene and sanitation. It is essential for maintaining health and well-being, personal security, and dignity for every stratum of society. Every year, millions of people suffer from incurable diseases and die due to lack of proper sanitation and hygiene. Toilets are crucial for city planning and urban design and aid in sustainable, equitable, accessible, and efficient cities. Many socio-cultural factors, religious beliefs, health issues, planning, cleaning, and management aspects prevent women and girls from using public toilets. Accessing and using safe toilets when away from home are a genuine issue and barrier to broader participation in public life, especially for women employees and workers. Unsanitary menstrual customs and filthy washrooms are the leading cause of infections and bacterial diseases. This research paper aims to understand and investigate the problems and barriers of not using existing public toilets and suggest design interventions for age-friendly, easily accessible, and inclusive toilet design. A user survey has been conducted on various sites of Guwahati city for in-depth study and analysis. This survey helps understand the user’s perception and hesitation about using toilets and their complexities. The outcome of the paper provides inclusive design interventions for public toilets, which will break the barriers between users and toilets in cities in developing nations.

20.1 Introduction Sanitation is considered one of the human rights, and access to improved sanitation is essential for socio-economic well-being and sustainable development of a T. Bordoloi (B) · S. Acharya Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam 781039, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Acharya e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_20

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community [1]. Safe water sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are necessary for every individual’s health and well-being. Good hygiene is the simplest and the most effective way to prevent the spread of diseases and risks in the everyday life of humans [2]. Hygiene is a broad term, including hand hygiene, menstrual hygiene management, oral hygiene, environment cleaning, etc. [3]. By 2030, the second target under Sustainable Development Goal 6, aims to ensure that everyone has access to sufficient sanitation and hygiene as well as to eradicate open defecation, with a special focus on the needs of women and girls [3]. According to United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), more than half of the world’s population lacks access to safe sanitary facilities and around 673 million practice open defecation. 2.2 billion people around the globe still do not have access to clean drinking water, and every day nearly 700 children, under the age of 5 years, die because of lack of adequate WASH services [4]. Women and girls are affected mainly by vulnerable infections and diseases due to the lack of access to sanitation and hygiene facilities, especially during their menstrual days and pregnancy. Elderly, specially challenged people, women, and girls have distinct sanitary needs from young men around the world, as they generally use the toilets for longer than boys and men, most frequently due to their physiology, monthly mensuration period, pregnancy, health issues, etc. [5], yet their distinct needs are not given priority. Moreover, accessing safe toilets, away from home, is one of the biggest challenges for women and elderly people. It hinders broader participation and social interaction, resulting in leave from work and suffering health problems. Women’s needs are not discussed or considered while designing and implementing public toilets by most of the male engineers, architects, and decision-makers [6]. Public toilets are places where one is forced to relieve oneself in an unfamiliar environment among people of the same and sometimes opposite sex. Hence, it is essential to include psychological studies, emotions, physical clearances, and space requirements in public toilet design [7]. Public toilets are an important part of a city or an urban area to guarantee the right to sanitation in public places and the necessary infrastructure for inclusive and sustainable cities [8]. Convenient, safe, easily accessible, gender-friendly, and age-friendly are essential elements of an inclusive toilet design. More design and planning considerations are required for inclusive toilet provision rather than simply altering signage on doors [6]. One of the most important features is the ‘directional sign,’ which includes all relevant information such as direction, walking distance, and pictograms of the facilities available [9]. Poorly located public toilets generate a sense of neglect and social disorder, attracting vandalism and anti-social behavior. If these issues are not solved effectively in a city, people will neglect the use of public toilets, which will affect the quality of life and place and will cause social and physical problems [10]. The main goal of this paper is to focus primarily on behavioral factors and design strategies that impact the behavior of toilet users and uses the existing public toilet scheme present in Guwahati city, implemented by Guwahati Smart City Limited (GSCL) to provide insights on much needed design interventions that help break the barrier between the users and the toilet units.

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20.2 Background Smart cities are reinventing the cities for a better future [11] and the Government of India initiated the Smart Cities Mission in 2015 to develop 100 cities and provide core infrastructure, a clean and sustainable environment and improve the quality of life of their citizens through the application of ‘smart solutions’ [12]. Swachh Bharat Mission was also launched in 2014 by the Government of India to eliminate open defecation by building household and community toilets. Tying the Government of India’s initiatives can boost economic growth by addressing the sanitation crisis and wide access to safe sanitation [11]. To prevent open defecation, prevent pollution of water bodies, meet the demands of sustainable and hygienic sanitation in the city, and promote safety and dignity for women and other users, the installation of smart bio-toilets in various locations throughout Guwahati city has been proposed under Guwahati Smart City Mission [13]. A special purpose vehicle, Guwahati Smart City Limited (GSCL), has been incorporated under Guwahati Smart City Mission to plan, design, implement, coordinate, and monitor the smart city projects in Guwahati city. 30 smart bio-toilets have been proposed to inculcate better sanitation practices. Currently, 20 numbers have been installed in various locations in the city. The locations are identified after a basic analysis of footfall, water and power connectivity, and maximum users [13].

20.3 Design Methodology To provide design interventions for Accessible and Inclusive Toilets in India, considering health, hygiene, and safety; the following design methodology was pursued. Firstly, a literature survey was first carried out to understand the gap between the existing public toilets and the guidelines provided for better access to public toilets and included different case studies, from worldwide and within India; guidelines for toilet design; government initiatives; existing research works and review papers. Secondly, primary research included field visits, questionnaires, field observations, and direct interviews. Further, a user survey was conducted among the users in 20 separate locations to find the gap, identify issues, user feedback on the existing public toilets, their hesitation in using them, and their recommendations. The questionnaire survey was intended to gather knowledge about the major concerns of users while approaching and using public toilets. Thirdly, an interview was conducted with the officials of the implementation agency, i.e., GSCL, to understand their challenges while implementing the toilet units, finding locations, their services and maintenance so far. The factors considered for the study include physiological, psychological, cultural, social, and ideological factors. Lastly, design conceptualization and preliminary evaluation of the proposed, in comparison with existing solutions, are carried out prior to collating recommendations for wider application.

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20.3.1 Literature Review 20.3.1.1

Study of Design Principles of Public Toilets

According to Mamee and Sahachaisaere [14], there are seven universal design principles to focus on while designing public toilets. They are equitable, flexible, simple, tolerant, convenient, and suitable in size and place. Areas of interest should include (i) circulation areas for restroom access, (ii) major activity areas around the toilet bowl and lavatory, and (iii) spatial and height measurements for face, hand washing, and teeth brushing activities. Some of the factors that should be taken into consideration while designing an inclusive toilet are social issues, cultural and religious factors, architectural design and visual aspects, planning and urban design, environmental and global concerns, medical and health matters, governmental and management aspects, economic and financial factors [15]. Greed [16] stated that every public toilet should be incorporated with a 2-to-1 toilet ratio for women to men in heavily used facilities. Woman, on average, takes twice as long to urinate as compared to the average man’s 2 min. There are cultural and biological reasons for women to take longer, along with the dressing pattern.

20.3.1.2

Case Studies

a. Public Toilets in Central Sydney Public toilets in Central Sydney are provided within 400 m, i.e., 5–10 min walk, with objectives of availability, inclusive access, ease to find, safety, sustainability, build quality, servicing and cleanliness, decommissioning, and adaptive reuse as shown in Fig. 20.1. The toilets incorporated in the city are ecologically sustainable, have minimum energy and water consumption resources, reduce resource inputs, and have inclusive and barrier-free access. Provision of solar panels for lighting and maximum use of natural light and ventilation, sensor lighting, and power controls are incorporated to minimize resources. Greywater reuses for flushing to minimize water consumption and inclusive access, i.e., good access for people of all ages and abilities. Barrier-free is access to toilets from the public domain without any interruption, non-slip paths with level, and provision of restrooms if the route is long [17]. Sydney is trying to create a liveable and sustainable city for its residents, visitors, and businesses by providing a high quality of life. It provides clean, healthy, secure, and accessible public toilets that adhere to best practices in ecologically sustainable design (ESD) and crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED).

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Fig. 20.1 a Automated public toilet at York Street, Sydney and b public toilet at Pirrama Park, Pyrmont [17]

b. Loocafe, Hyderabad Loo cafes by Ixora Group, as shown in Fig. 20.2, are luxury free washrooms built on an area of 160 sq. ft. provided within every 1 km radius for the people of Hyderabad, collaborated with Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC). Loo cafe was designed for the public to keep the growing concern of hygiene and sanitation. Some features included are radio frequency identification (RFID) attendance, footfall sensor, feedback support, water level sensor, stink sensor, ATM, and Kiosk [18]. These washrooms are also designed to cater to the requirement of physically challenged women and other commuters. Besides the washroom areas, a café is attached to the premise, serving snacks, and beverages at economical rates and free Wi-Fi. The washroom generates revenue from the café and through advertisements. These cafes aim to ensure hygiene, sanitation, and waste management across India.

Fig. 20.2 a Loocafe, Hyderabad and b side view of café [18]

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Fig. 20.3 a Smart bio-toilets by GSCL and b interior view of the toilet (Source Author)

20.3.2 Guidelines on Smart Bio-Toilets Implemented by GSCL GSCL, under Smart City Mission, has been making serious efforts to improve the city’s hygiene and sanitation conditions by installing smart bio-toilets in various locations. 20 out of the proposed 30 bio-toilets (shown in Fig. 20.3) have been installed to inculcate better sanitation practices across the city. The government of India proposed the project in May 2017 and approved it in October 2017. The Project Management Consultant—Tata Consulting Engineer Ltd. presented the concept, submitted the detailed project report (DPR), and requested for project report (DPR). Eventually, M/s Eram Scientific Solutions Pvt. Ltd. was awarded the project contract. The site survey has been conducted jointly by Tata Consulting Engineers and the Circle officer and its officials from Guwahati, Dispur, and Azara revenue circle to identify land [13]. The site selection on a particular location is done on the number of footfalls, availability of water supply, electricity, and stormwater drainage. Some smart features incorporated in the bio-toilets are access control through coin inserted mechanism, sensor-based pre- and post-auto flush, automated floor and wall panel wash, sensorbased water taps and soap vending machine, and sanitary napkin vending machine, incinerator for disposal, audio instruction, etc.

20.3.3 Study of Site Characteristics Guwahati, the capital of Assam, where there are existing public toilets and there persists an issue of irregular user footfall, has been considered [19] as the area of

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Fig. 20.4 Study area—Guwahati city [19]

study. Guwahati Smart City Limited has implemented smart bio-toilets in various locations of the city to promote hygiene and sanitation and prevent the problem of open defecation [13]. The existing master plan and Guwahati Metropolitan area of the city, as shown in Fig. 20.4, are 262 km2 [20], and the city population in 2021 is estimated to be 1,155,000 [21]. It is the gateway of the entire northeast and one of the most developed cities in the entire region. The city is surrounded by hills and forested hillocks. Guwahati city has been selected in this study as the user acceptance of the toilets is not yet known. The possible design interventions for increasing the present level of footfalls and generating wider acceptance should be done for the project’s success.

20.4 User Survey and Findings A structured questionnaire survey has been conducted on all the 20 identified locations of bio-toilets, and respondents from each site considered are 5. A total number of 100 respondents were collected through a paper-based questionnaire. The rationale for conducting the survey is that user acceptance is not yet known or recorded, and it is necessary to understand whether or not the interventions proposed were successful or not in terms of accessibility, usability, affordability, visibility, and design. The

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Fig. 20.5 User survey results

random survey on all the locations (results shown in Fig. 20.5) found that male users are more than female toilet users. Study 1: Toilet users, awareness, and behavioral change among the users Considering the type of users, observations, site visits, and their awareness about the toilet installed in the designated locations. Questions included demography profile, awareness, and the users’ behavioral change, before and after installing the toilet units. These included: • If they are aware of the bio-toilets installed by the Government of Assam under the Smart City Mission? • If they use the toilets? • Are there any behavioral changes among the users after installation? • If there is behavioral change, what are the changes visible? From the site survey, in-depth observations, and enquiry from nearby localities, it has been found that the toilet users are mainly men. Around 95% of users are male, and only 5% are female users. The female users hesitate to use the toilets as they feel uncomfortable using the same common toilet as there is no designated unit for males and females. Other reasons for not using the units are that the female users fear of being locked as the units’ function with a coin insert mechanism; some are located far from the main road and mostly not visible from the road.

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Study 2: Difficulties in using the toilet or the features installed in the toilet units This study aimed to understand the difficulties faced while using the toilet or if the users are unaware of the features installed in the toilet units. Many users claimed that they faced difficulties, such as unavailability of water and electricity, unsatisfied with the design as the unit is common for all, and not age-friendly.

20.5 Design Intervention and Recommendations The previous sections have highlighted the various needs, design adoption in different case studies, perspectives from several types of literature for an inclusive toilet design, and the challenges faced by the users while using the existing toilet unit implemented by GSCL. This section presents the approach and design recommendations for an inclusive toilet design that is easily accessible and efficient in breaking the barrier of not using public toilets, especially for women and aged persons. The age-friendly toilet units are slightly wider than the most existing toilet units and should incorporate handrails on either side of the toilet. The door locks should be easily accessible and can be accessed easily by children and specially challenged persons. Two key factors of directional signs [9] and location of the toilets [10] are kept in mind.The site for implementing the toilet units (as stated by GSCL officials) is generally selected by government officials depending on the availability of government lands and other elements required for the smooth functioning of the toilet units. So, the system boundary for designing the toilet units is curtailed for the designers or architects due to the limited intervention in selecting the appropriate locations for implementation. Hence, the designers can work freely on the interior and exterior parts of the toilet design, considering users’ perceptions and needs with less intervention from government officials. The comfort and efficiency of the users while using the toilet units are in the hands of a designer, so the users’ perception should be given the utmost importance while designing. The toilets should be designed so that every stratum of people—women, transgender, specially challenged personals, pregnant women, old persons, and children can use them easily without any hesitation and can be easily accessed from the main road. Hence, toilet design features should include the following: • • • •

A sense of belonging, safety, cleanliness, simple, and easily accessible. Holistic approaches—Environment, social, economy, and technical. Visibility—Street signage is essential to raise public awareness. Appealing colors of the walls and the decor in the toilet encourage toilet usage by providing a sense of space and showing that the toilets are cared for.

Some of the existing scenarios of the toilets implemented by GSCL across Guwahati city are shown in Fig. 20.6. Existing scenarios of toilet units implemented by GSCL (Source: Author). .

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Fig. 20.6 Existing scenarios of toilet units implemented by GSCL (Source Author)

Some of the conceptual design approaches for an inclusive toilet are shown in Fig. 20.7, considering users’ perceptions from the survey conducted and guidelines from the literature study. Fig. 20.7 a Conceptual design ‘A’ and b conceptual design ‘B’ (Source Author)

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Fig. 20.8 Final proposal—plan (Source Author)

From the user survey, it has been found that the existing toilet units have issues with lighting, safety, size, and signage. User expectations and concerns with access, distribution, and quality of facilities are found to be quite different and opposite from providers’ concerns. The design recommendations incorporated for the inclusive design shown in Fig. 20.8 are wider cubicles for easy access, a diaper changing station for infants, sitting space for breastfeeding mothers, the introduction of Loo scaping (for better ambience inside and outside), skylight provisions for natural lighting, solar panels to generate electricity, adequate lighting for safety at night, simple to use and directional signages in the main, and arterial road for better visibility and access (Figs. 20.9 and 20.10). A comparative analysis is done (shown in Table 20.1) with existing toilets and the proposed toilet units to understand better the guidelines, users’ perceptions, what is lacking in the existing toilets, and what is incorporated in the proposed design.

20.6 Discussions and Future Work The toilet facilities developed by Guwahati Smart City Limited, incorporated with the local bodies, have tried to solve the primary issue of open defecation to prevent diseases. However, only one type of gender uses it, and others are deprived of

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Fig. 20.9 a Proposed roof plan and b side view elevation of the proposed toilet (Source Author)

Fig. 20.10 a Front elevation of the proposed design and b 3D view of the proposed toilet unit (Source Author) Table 20.1 Comparative analysis of existing and proposed toilet units S. No.

Guidelines and literature

Existing toilet units implemented by GSCL

Proposed toilet units

1.

Areas of focus—circulation areas Not provided of restroom access, major activity areas around the toilet, height measurements for face, hand washing, and teeth brushing [14]

Provided

2.

Age-friendly cubicles, directional Not provided signs, and texting feedback [9]

Provided

3.

Adequate lighting [15]

Not provided

Provided

4.

2-to-1 toilet ratio for women to men [16]

Not provided

Provided

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it due to its design and planning issues. The needs of elderly, specially-abled, women, and children are marginalized, and inclusivity, accessibility, and usability are neglected. Through design, not only were interventions and recommendations developed, research into user behavior was revealed via secondary and primary research, which in turn, highlighted the importance of application of design principles while planning smart and sustainable solutions in cities. Inclusivity should be the motto of every toilet design, where everyone is encouraged and feels comfortable using it every day without any discrimination. This research through design effort is valuable as the user survey and the proposed solutions will help designers, architects, and government officials identify and understand the on-ground challenges and issues that users face while using public toilets. The proposed solutions may help better understand the minimum requirements and circular space needed for public toilets. Future work entails focus on the design’s user validation and the approval of government officials and stakeholders, along with solid and wastewater discharge management, without hampering the natural environment. This work is an initial output of a larger research aiming at the development of design guidelines and frameworks for the design of sustainable smart cities in developing nations, such as India, with a keenness on regions that are newly being urbanized.

References 1. Baye, D.: Sustainable development goals (SDG) Target 6 . 2 in Ethiopia : challenges and opportunities 8 (2021). https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1107458 2. Chowghury, Z.: Two billion people lack safe drinking water, more than twice lack safe sanitation. Unicef, Jul. 17, 2017. https://www.unicef.org/philippines/press-releases/two-billion-peo ple-lack-safe-drinking-water-more-twice-lack-safe-sanitation. Accessed 25 Apr 2022 3. U. N. C. F. (UNICEF): State of the World’s Hand Hygiene (2021) 4. UNICEF: Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) | UNICEF. Dec. 09, 2020. https://www.uni cef.org/wash. Accessed 26 Apr 2022 5. Schmitt, M.L., Clatworthy, D., Ogello, T., Sommer, M.: Making the case for a female-friendly toilet. Water (Switzerland) 10(9), 15–17 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/w10091193 6. Ramster, G., Greed, C., Bichard, J.A.: How inclusion can exclude: the case of public toilet provision for women. Built Environ. 44(1), 52–76 (2018). https://doi.org/10.2148/benv.44. 1.52 7. Association, R.: A guide to better public toilet design and maintenance (2017) 8. Moreira, F.D., Rezende, S., Passos, F.: Public toilets from the perspective of users: a case study in a public place, Brazil. J. Water Health 20(1), 41–53 (2022). https://doi.org/10.2166/WH.202 1.127 9. Knight, G., Bichard, J.: Publicly accessible toilets. Design, 1–40 (2011) [Online]. Available: https://www.brunel.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/148792/Publicly-Accessible-Toi lets.pdf 10. DCLG: Improving public access to better quality toilets (2008) [Online]. Available: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120919132719/www.communities.gov.uk/ publications/localgovernment/publicaccesstoilets 11. Toilet Board Coalition, Pune Municipal Corporation, and Pune Smart City, Smart sanitation city, no. November, 2018 [Online]. Available: https://cn.inside.dtu.dk/cnnet/filesharing/dow nload/d53b21d0-9f87-4a4d-8596-843052142014

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12. Ministry of housing and urban affairs, About The Mission | Smartcities. Smart City (2022). https://smartcities.gov.in/about-the-mission. Accessed 02 May 2022 13. GSCL: Smart bio-toilet | Guwahati Smart City Limited | Government Of Assam, India (2021). https://gscl.assam.gov.in/projects/detail/smart-bio-toilet. Accessed 02 May 2022 14. Mamee, W., Sahachaisaeree, N.: Public toilet design criteria for users with walking disability in conjunction of universal design paradigm. Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci. 5, 1246–1250 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.269 15. Greed, C.: Inclusive urban design: Public Toilets (2003) 16. Greed, C.: Public toilet provision for women in Britain—an investigation of discrimination against urination. Science(80-. ) 18, 573–584 (1995) 17. Darebin City Council: Public toilet strategy. Sydney 2030, no. February 2016 18. Loocafe: Loocafe 1.0 | Loocafe. Loocafe (2020). https://loocafe.com/loocafe-1-0/. Accessed 06 May 2022 19. Guwahati Development Department, “Home | Guwahati Development Department | Government Of Assam, India,” 2022. https://gdd.assam.gov.in/. Accessed 09 May 2022 20. Guwahati Metropolitan and Development Authority, Part I - Master Plan for Guwahati Metropolitan Area - 2025 (2009) [Online]. Available: http://www.gmda.co.in/maps/part1.pdf 21. MT: Delhi, India Metro Area Population 1950–2022 | MacroTrends Macrotrends (2022). https:// www.macrotrends.net/cities/21228/delhi/population. Accessed 10 May 2022

Chapter 21

An Alternative Window Design Solution for Naturally Ventilated Educational Building Abdul Mohsin Ali and Shakuntala Acharya

Abstract The building envelope is critical for Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ), as it reduces occupant discomfort in naturally ventilated buildings and energy use in air-conditioned buildings. The window is the most essential element of the building envelope, which connects the interior to the exterior, physically, visually, and spatially by allowing natural ventilation, view, and light, thereby enhancing the IEQ. Operating the window is one of the most favorable adaptive measures for space cooling across countries in warm humid climate conditions due to its ease, effectiveness, and economy of use. With a focus on naturally ventilated educational buildings, it was found through a questionnaire survey that the most preferred solutions for achieving thermal comfort in summer months were switching on the fan and opening the window. However, most students open the windows only sometimes. The reason for not opening the windows during the day was noise and the night was insects. Hence, the issue with conventional windows is that they simultaneously cannot provide ventilation and avoid noise. The available alternative solutions found in the literature, such as meta-material windows and plenum windows, could mitigate noise and provide ventilation at the same time but have the limitation that they cannot be adjusted to allow complete ventilation in favorable condition. Therefore, in this study, a new window was designed which could be adjusted according to different environmental conditions to enable full ventilation and prevent noise and insects when required, focusing on contributing toward occupant comfort and improved IEQ.

21.1 Introduction Educational buildings are essential facilities in our community where children spend more than 25% of their time in the classroom [1–4]. Indoor Environment Quality A. M. Ali (B) · S. Acharya Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Acharya e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_21

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(IEQ) of an educational building is very critical, especially for young children, as they are the most vulnerable population to the adverse effects of poor IEQ [5, 6]. In developing countries, most educational buildings are naturally ventilated, and the IEQ of the classrooms is primarily affected by the outdoor environment [1]. Researchers have said that naturally ventilated buildings are easily susceptible to poor IEQ compared to air-conditioned buildings due to their connection with the outdoor environment [7]. The building envelope is the most critical element to reduce discomfort in naturally ventilated buildings, and the window is the most essential element of the building envelope, as it connects the interior to the exterior physically, visually, and spatially by allowing natural ventilation, view, and light [8]. Operating the window is one of the most favorable adaptive measures for space cooling across countries in warm humid climates due to its ease, effectiveness, and economy of use since natural ventilation positively impacts human health [9]. Studies have shown that students in naturally ventilated buildings use adaptive measures to improve the thermal environment, like switching on the fan or opening windows and doors [10]. However, literature reports that operating window is the most neglected adaptive measure, in naturally ventilated educational buildings, due to several restrictions and less ‘ease of use’ compared to operating fans [11, 12]. In contrast, for space cooling during the daytime, when the indoor temperature is lower than the outdoor temperature, operating window is not favorable. Studies have shown that keeping the windows closed during the day time and opening them at night time will keep the indoor temperature 4–5 °C lower than keeping the windows always open [13, 14]. The primary issue with opening windows for natural ventilation in the urban area is noise intrusion, followed by privacy, security, and/or insects during summer months, whereas in winter months, cold wind also adds up [9]. For maintaining good indoor air quality, only a small opening to let in fresh air, which can be coupled with an active system (exhaust fan), is required [11]. In designing a window, there is a conflict between natural ventilation and noise intrusion, as the former will require maximum opening. In contrast, the latter will require minimum opening [9, 12], and the noise reduction through a single-glazed window is ineffective even with a 1/10 open area [13]. Mitigating noise and simultaneously allowing ventilation is a requirement. A plenum window is effective in mitigating traffic noise and simultaneously allowing lateral ventilation [13, 17]. The effectiveness of the plenum window in reducing noise with an opening size and spacing distance of 1/5 the window’s height is 15 dB at a frequency above 600 Hz, which is comparable to a single-glazed closed window with noise reduction of 20 dB. The limitation of the plenum window is that it cannot be adjusted according to the external environment to prevent or enhance ventilation. Meta-material is the latest innovative engineered material that can mitigate low to mid-frequency noise and simultaneously allow ventilation if formed into a cage-like structure [14–16]. The effectiveness of reducing noise by a meta-cage window ranges between 8 and 35 dB in the frequency range between 350 and 5000 Hz with 17–45% opening. Kumar, et al. [14] have also shown that the sound absorption coefficient can reach as high as 0.96 at a frequency of 850 Hz with a meta-material chamber

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(cage) and an opening area of 45%. Even though the high performance of metamaterial is proved through experiments, meta-material for window application has some practical limitations, like: penetration of dust, insect, cold wind, etc., since the opening area of meta-material window cannot be adjusted or closed. Cost and availability may also be an issue. Therefore, this study aims to design a window that allows ventilation, light, and view and simultaneously prevents noise. If possible, it can also be adjusted to avoid or enhance ventilation, with ‘ease of use’.

21.2 Design Process The methodology for the design used to identify the problem and find a solution, thereby proposing a new key, is Engineering Design Process (EDP). It is a series of steps that engineers and designers follow to find a solution to a problem. The number of steps followed in EDP is not always the same. Still, the fundamental core method is the same: A problem is identified, and a solution is iterated until a solution is perfected. It is a highly iterative process that allows repetition in the steps and also goes backward during the process due to its cyclic nature [18]. EDP generally consists of seven significant steps, as shown in Fig. 21.1. In the first step, a questionnaire survey was conducted to identify the need and constrain, and observation of conventional window design was carried out. In the second step, a literature review was done to find an alternative window design for the existing problem. An alternative window design solution was designed and detailed in the third, fourth, and fifth steps. In the sixth and seventh steps, a simulation was conducted for the proposed design, and final changes were made to improve it. Below is the elaboration of the design process adopted, as per the above steps.

21.2.1 Questionnaire Survey The main aim of the questionnaire survey was to understand the adaptive behavior of the occupant in operating window. An online questionnaire survey was conducted by sending the questionnaire to all students and faculties of the Design Department at the Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, via the institute mail. Thirty-five Problem Phase Identify problem

Research & analysis

Solution Phase Generate new ideas

Fig. 21.1 Engineering design process

Select best solution

Create prototype

Test prototype

Improve solution

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people responded to the questionnaire, of which 91% were students and 9% were faculties, 60% were male, 40% were female, 89% were between the ages of 15 and 35, and 11% were above the age of 35. In the questionnaire, it was also asked about the timing of their stay in the classroom; it was found that most of them stayed in the classroom/lab between 9 am and 6 pm, few of them stayed back after 6 pm, and very few of them come early morning before 8 am. Apart from this, relevant questions were asked to understand the adaptive behavior, which will be discussed in the result section along with their responses. To understand the adaptive behavior of operating windows and the associated problem with opening windows, few questions were asked, such as: 1. What do you prefer to do to feel thermally more comfortable in the summer months? 2. How often do you open/close the windows of the classroom/lab? 3. During day time, whenever you close the window, what would be the reason? 4. At night time, whenever you close the window, what would be the reason? The responses to the questionnaire are as follows: • It was found from the first question that 57% of the occupant preferred to switch on AC, whereas 37% of the occupant chose to open windows and switch on the fan. This shows that the occupants are aware of the importance of opening windows during summer months, but most of them do not open the window may be due to ‘ease of use’, which we will see in the next question. • From the second question, it was found that 62% of the occupant sometime open/close the window, and only 38% of the occupant most of the time open/close the window. Hence, it seems that the proposed window should be easy to operate. • It was found from the third question that the most important reason for closing windows during the daytime is noise, where about 82% of occupants selected noise as the main reason. From the fourth question, it was found that the most important reason for closing windows during the night time is insects, where about 100% of the occupant selected insects as the main reason. Therefore, the proposed window must be able to mitigate noise and insects. The literature study and questionnaire survey found that a window’s primary purpose is to provide daylight, view, and ventilation. The limitations of the window are noise, dust, insects, draft, privacy, security, rain, and direct solar radiation. Therefore, these points were kept in mind before designing an alternative window.

21.2.2 Observational Analysis of Conventional Window Design Few conventional windows were observed to understand the limitation of having a window in a wall and the elements which mitigate it. It was found that dust and

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Fig. 21.2 Section of conventional window

insect are mitigated by screen (net) simultaneously, allowing ventilation. Draft during winter is mitigated by glazing simultaneously, allowing a view outdoors. Curtains maintain privacy, the grill achieves security, and rain and direct radiation are mitigated by chhajja (as shown in Fig. 21.2). Apart from these, the only problem which is not mitigated by the conventional window is noise from outdoors, simultaneously allowing ventilation.

21.2.3 Design Analysis of Alternative Window Design From Literature Since the conventional window cannot mitigate outdoor noise while simultaneously allowing ventilation, a literature study was done to find if any solution exists. It was found that mainly two types of alternative windows exist which mitigate noise simultaneously, allowing ventilation which are: meta-material windows [14] and plenum windows [17] (as shown in Fig. 21.3). Therefore, these two alternative windows were analyzed, and it was found that the only limitation with these windows is that they are unable to be adjusted to prevent insects and drafts and allow ventilation (completely) according to the outdoor environment, which is dynamic in nature and requires adjustments [19].

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Fig. 21.3 Section of alternative window from literature a plenum window, b meta-cage window

21.2.4 Design of an Alternative Window Solution An alternative window was designed which can be adjusted to: (i) prevent all (noise, insect, and ventilation), (ii) prevent noise and insects, (iii) prevent only noise, (iv) prevent only insects, and (v) allow direct ventilation. The proposed window consists of a UPVC frame; this material was proposed because few studies have shown that UPVC frames mitigate the highest amount of noise when the windows are closed [9]. There are three UPVC shutters—two with glazing (clear glass) and one with knitted technology fly screen, which allows more airflow through it [20, 21], steel grill for security, and meta-material board at the center of the window to mitigate noise [16] (as shown in Figs. 21.4 and 21.5). The upper shutter and grills are fixed with the frame; the lower two shutters can be vertically lifted like a top-hung window which is better for mitigating noise compared to other types of window [9]; along with this also, the central meta-material board can be rotated which is pivoted to change the function of the window (as shown in Fig. 21.6).

21.2.5 Simulation of Proposed Alternative Window Solution Finally, a classroom with a base case window and a proposed case window was simulated, using DesignBuilder 2.1 software, to compare the performance of each other. Due to the limitation of the software, the acoustic performance of the classroom could not be simulated, but the thermal and visual performance of the classroom could be simulated for both cases.

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Fig. 21.4 Section of proposed window

Fig. 21.5 Three-dimensional views of proposed window (normal and dismantle views)

Fig. 21.6 Section of proposed window with different functions

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The classroom’s thermal performance for both cases was compared with the hourly average temperature in °C of a typical summer month (March). It can be seen in Fig. 21.7 that the indoor air temperature of the classroom with a conventional window (base case) is far higher than the outdoor temperature due to low air change per hour (1.5 ACH). Therefore, in the proposed case, an exhaust fan was introduced along with the proposed window design to achieve 15 ACH, which has drastically reduced indoor temperature. The visual performance of the classroom for both cases was compared with light level in lux of a typical summer month with a clear sky. It can be seen in Fig. 21.8 that the light distribution of the classroom with conventional window (base case) is inappropriate where most of the area is over lit which may cause glare, whereas, in the classroom with the proposed window, most of the area is lit with appropriate light level with the introduction of solid board (meta-material) in between the window shutters.

Fig. 21.7 Thermal performance of the classroom

Fig. 21.8 Visual performance of the classroom

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21.3 Discussions and Conclusion One of the primary functions of a window is to provide ventilation in a naturally ventilated building, but natural ventilation also brings in noise, dust, insect, etc. [19, 22]. Therefore, the study aims to design a window that could mitigate noise and insects and simultaneously allow ventilation, as well as be adjusted to allow complete ventilation in favorable outdoor conditions with ‘ease of use’. This was so intended because the literature review and questionnaire survey suggested that the insect and noise were the main reasons for not opening conventional windows [9]. On further literature review, it was found that few alternative window designs can mitigate noise and simultaneously allow ventilation, but the limitation of these was that the proportion of openings could not be adjusted to prevent complete ventilation or allow full ventilation [17–21]. Therefore, this paper proposes an alternative window design solution that addresses these problems. The proposed window design has three shutters, like a conventional top hang window which is better for mitigating noise compared to other types of window [9], but one of the shutters is split from the normal position, and a meta-material board is inserted in between to allow ventilation and simultaneously prevent noise [15]. The meta-material panel in between the window is pivoted on the horizontal axis, and the inner shutters are slide-able on the vertical axis so that the operation of the window is with ‘ease of use’. Upon simulation, it was found that the classroom with the proposed window design in its normal mode, which prevents noise and allows ventilation with an exhaust fan (see Fig. 21.3), has the potential to improve the thermal performance of a classroom compared to a classroom with conventional window, which is completely open for ventilation but is unable to prevent outdoor noise. The visual performance of the classroom with proposed window can also improve due to the solid board introduced in between the windows which act as a diffuser which minimizes glare due to excess light. Therefore, the proposed window design is better than the conventional window and alternative window found in the literature. There are a few limitations: It could not simulate the acoustic performance of the classroom with the proposed window design due to the lack of simulation software for the acoustic environment in the market. Future work should focus on user validation and the empirical study of stakeholders in classroom environments across different climatic conditions to better understand the implication of the proposed design and its effect on IEQ and occupant comfort. This work is an initial output of a larger research aiming at the study of occupant comfort and the development of IEQ assessment tool to aid design of spaces and building elements, such as windows, for naturally ventilated educational buildings in developing nations such as India.

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References 1. Kapoor, N.R., et al.: A systematic review on indoor environmental quality in naturally ventilated school classrooms : a way forward. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2021, 19 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1155/ 2021/8851685 ˇ Burdová, E.K.: Investigation of indoor 2. Silvia Vilˇceková, V.I., Kapalo, P., Meˇciarová, L., environment quality in classroom—case study. Procedia Eng. 190, 496–503 (2017) 3. Ghita, S.A., Catalina, T.: Energy efficiency versus indoor environmental quality in different Romanian countryside schools. Energ. Build. 92, 140–154 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. enbuild.2015.01.049 4. Bughio, M., Schuetze, T.: Comparative analysis of indoor environmental quality of architectural campus buildings’ lecture halls and its’ perception by building users, in Karachi, Pakistan. Sustainability (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072995 5. Quality, I.E., Nearly, I.N., Energy, Z.: Concept paper indoor environmental quality in nearly zero energy schools to meet health and nearly zero energy goals concept 6. Toyinbo, O., Phipatanakul, W., Shaughnessy, R., Shaughnessy, U.H.: Building and Indoor Environmental Quality Assessment of Nigerian Primary Schools: A Pilot Study, pp. 510–520. Wiley (2019). https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12547 7. Pathirana, S., Rodrigo, A., Halwatura, R.: Effect of building shape, orientation, window to wall ratios and zones on energy efficiency and thermal comfort of naturally ventilated houses in tropical climate. Int. J. Energ. Environ. Eng. 10(1), 107–120 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s40095-018-0295-3 8. Indraganti, M.: Adaptive use of natural ventilation for thermal comfort in Indian apartments. Build. Environ. 45(6), 1490–1507 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2009.12.013 9. Mediastika, C.E., Kristanto, L., Anggono, J., Suhedi, F., Purwaningsih, H.: Open windows for natural airflow and environmental noise reduction. Archit. Sci. Rev. 61(5), 338–348 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/00038628.2018.1502151 10. Zaki, S.A., Damiati, S.A., Rijal, H.B., Hagishima, A., Abd Razak, A.: Adaptive thermal comfort in university classrooms in Malaysia and Japan. Build. Environ. 122, 294–306 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.06.016 11. Homod, R.Z., Sahari, K.S.M.: Energy savings by smart utilization of mechanical and natural ventilation for hybrid residential building model in passive climate. Energ. Build. 60(2013), 310–329 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.10.034 12. De Salis, M.H.F., Oldham, D.J., Sharples, S.: Noise control strategies for naturally ventilated buildings. Build. Environ. 37(5), 471–484 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(01)000 47-6 13. Yu, X., Lau, S.K., Cheng, L., Cui, F.: A numerical investigation on the sound insulation of ventilation windows. Appl. Acoust. 117, 113–121 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apacoust. 2016.11.006 14. Kumar, S., Xiang, T.B., Lee, H.P.: Ventilated acoustic metamaterial window panels for simultaneous noise shielding and air circulation. Appl. Acoust. 159, 107088 (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.apacoust.2019.107088 15. Fusaro, G., Yu, X., Kang, J., Cui, F.: Development of metacage for noise control and natural ventilation in a window system. Appl. Acoust. 170, 107510 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. apacoust.2020.107510 16. Kim, S.H., Lee, S.H.: Air transparent soundproof window. AIP Adv. 4(11), 8 (2014). https:// doi.org/10.1063/1.4902155 17. Tong, Y.G., Tang, S.K.: Plenum window insertion loss in the presence of a line source—a scale model study. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 133(3), 1458–1467 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1121/1. 4788996 18. Sung, E., Kelley, T.R.: Elementary students’ engineering design process: how young students solve engineering problems. Int. J. Sci. Math. Educ. 0123456789 (2022). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s10763-022-10317-y

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19. Costa, M.L., Freire, M.R., Kiperstok, A.: Strategies for thermal comfort in university buildings—the case of the faculty of architecture at the Federal University of Bahia, Brazil. J. Environ. Manage. 239, 114–123 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.03.004 20. Teitel, M., Dvorkin, D., Haim, Y., Tanny, J., Seginer, I.: Comparison of measured and simulated flow through screens: effects of screen inclination and porosity. Biosyst. Eng. 104(3), 404–416 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2009.07.006 21. Teitel, M., Wenger, E.: Improving airflow through insect-proof screens. Acta Hortic. 1015, 201–208 (2014). https://doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.2014.1015.22 22. Boafo, F.E., Ahn, J.G., Kim, S.M., Kim, J.H., Kim, J.T.: Fenestration refurbishment of an educational building: experimental and numerical evaluation of daylight, thermal and building energy performance. J. Build. Eng. 25, 100803 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019. 100803

Chapter 22

Understanding Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) of Naturally Ventilated Educational Buildings—A Systematic Literature Review Abdul Mohsin Ali and Shakuntala Acharya Abstract Most people in developed and developing countries spend an average of 80–90% of their time indoors. Due to this, the importance of a building’s Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) is of utmost importance. Several studies have shown that IEQ impacts building occupants’ health, comfort, safety, well-being, efficiency, and productivity. In the urban context of developing countries, most buildings are naturally ventilated and are easily susceptible to poor IEQ compared to air-conditioned buildings due to their connection with the outdoor environment. In addition, most developing countries are in a hot and humid climate, making such spaces even more vulnerable. This issue becomes even more critical in educational buildings, as children spend more than 25% of their time in the classroom, and their lungs and other organs are developing. Therefore, a systematic literature review of naturally ventilated educational buildings has been conducted to understand the IEQ performance of such buildings and the importance of the four major IEQ parameters. It was found that the thermal environment causes the most discomfort, followed by the acoustic environment, and the visual environment causes the least discomfort. But, there are some confusions with IAQ. Therefore, further investigation is required.

22.1 Introduction Educational buildings, particularly schools, are one of the country’s most important institutions; in India, children spend more than 25% of their time in the classroom [1–4]. IEQ of an educational building is critical, especially for young children, as they are the most vulnerable population to the adverse effects of poor IEQ [5, 6]. A study reported that even though the influence of IEQ on the quality of teaching cannot be A. M. Ali (B) · S. Acharya Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Acharya e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_22

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confirmed due to lack of evidence, its impact on the quality of learning is confirmed [7] and is determined by the level of comfort, mental health, and physical health of teachers and students. Many studies have shown that good IEQ in the classroom plays a vital role in improving performance, health, well-being, and work efficiency, with learning results being better and absenteeism being lower, which in turn, increased workplace productivity and test scores in schools [1, 2, 8, 9]. It is well documented that all four IEQ parameters—thermal comfort, acoustic comfort, visual comfort, and indoor air quality (IAQ)—are essential for classrooms. Any discomfort caused by these parameters can reduce students’ cognitive ability [7, 10]. In addition, most schools in developing countries are naturally ventilated (NV), and the IEQ of the classrooms is primarily affected by the outdoor environment. However, there is no national building code for improving the overall IEQ of NV educational buildings, and this research area needs more investigation [1]. Thus, a systematic literature review on this topic has been conducted to find the importance of different IEQ parameters for naturally ventilated educational buildings in developing countries.

22.2 Methodology A systematic literature review was conducted in nine steps, as follows. (1) identification of literature; (2) course screening for inclusion; (3) fine screening for inclusion; (4) analysis for limiting scope; (5) eligibility (assessing quality); (6) ranking for importance; (7) data extraction; (8) analysis and synthesis of data; and (9) report findings (as shown in Fig. 22.1), as explained in detail below.

Fig. 22.1 Systematic literature review process

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22.2.1 Step 1: Identification of Literature The search engines used for this literature review are “Google Scholar”, “Science Direct”, “Web of science”, and “Taylor & Francis”, but it was found that most of the results from other search engines overlapped with Google Scholar. The keywords used in the search were: Indoor Environmental Quality, IEQ; productivity; performance; school; classroom, and educational building. To identify relevant results, only the publications which contained IEQ and educational building (or school/classroom) in the title were selected. In this process, 76 papers were identified as relevant to the study from the first 20 pages and were downloaded.

22.2.2 Step 2: Course Screening for Inclusion In this step, screening was done by checking the relevance and quality of the publication. For relevance, only publications that were either research articles or review papers were selected, and for quality, only publications that were published by either the top 30 publishers (according to American Standards for Journal and Research) or Scopus journals or had a DOI number were selected. In this step, 28 publications were excluded from the list, and 48 research papers remained.

22.2.3 Step 3: Fine Screening for Inclusion Similarly, in this step, screening was done by checking the relevance and quality of the publication. For relevance, the abstract and conclusion of the papers were read, and for quality, the methodology of the papers was read. In this step, it was found that eight papers were irrelevant or the quality was not up to the mark, which was excluded, and only 40 research papers remained.

22.2.4 Step 4: Analysis for Limiting the Scope In line with our focus on studying naturally ventilated educational buildings, it was decided to analyze all the remaining papers based on the mode of operation of the building. It was found that 25 research papers conducted their study in an airconditioned building, 13 research papers conducted their study in an NV building, and two research papers were review articles. Therefore, 25 research papers were excluded, and only 13 papers discussing IEQ in the NV educational building were left.

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22.2.5 Step 5: Eligibility (Assessing Quality) To check the relevance and quality of the papers, ten parameters were considered, out of which; three parameters were for relevance, namely: Building characteristics, Physical context, and Climate; and seven were for quality, namely: Quantitative measurement, Qualitative survey, IEQ parameters considered, Additional parameters considered were; Instrument used, Published year, and Number of citations. All these parameters were analyzed by giving a qualitative value and then a quantitative value.

22.2.6 Step 6: Ranking In this step, ranks were assigned to the papers based on the total score of the quantitative values calculated above. The top ten research papers for the second iteration were selected for forward (citation) and backward (reference) searches. The exact process was followed for the second iteration in which initially 65 articles were identified; then coarse screening was done, which excluded 27 articles; then fine screening was done, which further excluded 17 articles (of which 14 were duplicates), and then, analysis of articles was done which excluded nine articles; finally, only 11 articles remained (of which one was review article). Then, the quality and relevance were assessed as stated above, and with the score of these research papers, an overall ranking was done with the papers from the first iteration. The final ranking of all papers concerning IEQ performance, along with the physical context, location, climate, and traffic level, is shown below in Table 22.1.

22.2.7 Steps 7, 8, 9: Data Extraction, Analysis and Synthesis of Data, and Report Findings Data were extracted from all the top 20 research papers focusing physical context and climate of the study and IEQ of the naturally ventilated classrooms. The data were analyzed, synthesized, and findings were reported in the literature review section.

22.3 Literature Review The overall IEQ performance of a building, and classrooms, can effectively be assessed only by considering the four major IEQ parameters—thermal, visual, acoustic, and indoor air quality. However, due to a lack of studies that have considered all the major four IEQ parameters, in this research, studies that have considered

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Table 22.1 Summary of the physical context of the selected papers for review Author, year, and source

Location

Koppen climate classification

Outdoor traffic

Zuhaib et al. 2018 [11]

Galway, Ireland

Temperate (humid, warm Low traffic summer)

Vilcekova et al. 2017 [12] Kosice, Slovakia Cold (humid, warm summer)

Moderate traffic

Ali et al. 2009 [13]

Irbid, Jordan

Arid (dry, hot arid)

Moderate-to-high traffic

Gao et al. 2014 [14]

Copenhagen, Denmark

Temperate (humid, warm Not mentioned summer)

Korsavi et al. 2020 [15]

Coventry, UK

Cold (humid, warm summer)

Low traffic

Ghita et al. 2015 [3]

Valcea, Romania Cold (humid, warm summer)

Low traffic

Meciarova et al. 2018 [16] Kosice, Slovakia Cold (humid, warm summer)

High traffic

Toyinbo et al. 2019 [6]

Oyo/Osum, Nigeria

Tropical (dry winter)

Not mentioned

Ramprasad et al. 2017 [17]

Tamil Nadu, India

Tropical (dry winter)

Not mentioned

Dorizas et al. 2015 [18]

Athene, Greece

Temperate (dry summer, hot summer)

Not mentioned

Bughio et al. 2020 [4]

Karachi, Pakistan

Arid (desert)

Moderate-to-high traffic

Giuli et al. 2014 [19]

Venice, Italy

Temperate (humid, warm Moderate-to-high summer) traffic

Giuli et al. 2012 [20]

Venice, Italy

Temperate (humid, warm Low traffic summer)

Dhalluin et al. 2012 [21]

La Rochelle, France

Temperate (humid, warm Not mentioned summer)

Zhang et al. 2006 [22]

Perth, Australia

Temperate (dry winter, hot summer)

Bluyssen et al. 2020 [9]

Netherland

Temperate (humid, warm Not mentioned summer)

Vilcekova’ et al. 2017 [2]

Kosice, Slovakia Temperate (humid, warm Not mentioned summer)

Jayakumar et al. 2019 [23]

Ahmedabad, India

Arid (dry summer)

Not mentioned

Che-Ani et al. 2012 [24]

Selangor, Malaysia

Tropical (humid)

Not mentioned

Bernardi et al. 2006 [25]

San Paulo, Brazil

Temperate (humid, hot summer)

Not mentioned

Not mentioned

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even one IEQ parameter have been considered, but to better understand the state of the art, all four parameters are discussed separately below.

22.3.1 Thermal Comfort (TC) Of all the twenty papers considered for data extraction, TC was the most considered parameter for the IEQ study of the classroom. Eighteen studies have considered TC in their study, out of which fifteen have shown that TC is not satisfactory in NV classrooms. In most cases, the outdoor climate was the problem, either too hot in summer and/or too cold during winter. Studies that have shown discomfort due to summer months found that, on average, students evaluated air temperature as slightly warm during the summer season [12]; the indoor temperature was above the accepted level due to natural ventilation in most of the schools [6], and many school students complained that the indoor temperature was too high during the summer months [19]. More than 60% of the pupils in most classrooms complained about indoor temperature in warm seasons, while in winter, they do not usually feel cold [20]. It was reported that the indoor temperature of the classroom was 1.5–2 °C higher in “NV only” mode compared to others, which was not satisfactory [21], while the dry bulb temperatures reached above 29 °C in both schools on one of the observations’ days [25]. Bughio et al. [4] observed that 60% of students perceived problems with TC in the classroom on hot days, and solar heat gains through the single-glazed window heated the lecture halls, which results in high-temperature indoors during the daytime consistent with the simulation model. Korsavi et al. [15] claim that the highest priority should be given to thermal comfort controls because they cause the most discomfort in the non-heating period (summer months). Other studies, which have shown discomfort due to winter months, found that occupants were not satisfied with the thermal comfort due to cold weather [3] and had to use portable heaters [13]. Only one study has shown discomfort due to both winter and summer months which found that 44% of the children felt either too warm or too cold in their classroom [9]. Some studies have shown discomfort due to indoor sources. Buildings got overheated in the winter season due to portable heaters and lack of ventilation [11], and those with manually operated windows faced the issue of overheating in summer and winter months (due to portable heaters) and also a lack of inadequate ventilation [14]. Few authors have stated that thermal comfort significantly influences IEQ compared to other IEQ parameters [17] and that 50% of the students were not satisfied with the temperature and humidity [24]. In contrast, four studies have shown that the TC is satisfactory in the naturally ventilated classroom. The other parameters of IEQ were causing more issues than

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TC [16], and students were satisfied with the TC and believed that these parameters impacted their performance [18]. Vilcekova’, et al. [2] found that, on average, students evaluated air temperature as slightly warm, but students ranked the indoor environment as more acceptable than unacceptable and generally well tolerable.

22.3.2 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) IAQ was the second most considered parameter in the IEQ study of the classroom. In total, sixteen studies have considered IAQ, out of which seven studies have shown that the IAQ is not satisfactory in the naturally ventilated classroom. There are many reasons for this, such as Zuhaib et al. [11] found that sometimes the building overheated in the winter due to portable heater and lack of ventilation, which impacts IAQ. In contrast, Gao et al. [14] found that manually operated windows lack adequate ventilation. Ali et al. [13] reported that most schools suffered from polluted surroundings, and in some cases, the occupants were satisfied with the IAQ even though the reading was outside the comfort limit [3]. In one case, children felt IAQ as a weak odor during both seasons in the classroom, but the CO2 level reached a mean value of 2,237 ppm in autumn and 1651 ppm in spring (which is high above the accepted limit) [16]. Few directly claim that the highest priority should be given to controls that provide IAQ [15] and that students were not satisfied with the IAQ of the classroom [26]. In contrast, nine studies have shown that the IAQ is satisfactory in naturally ventilated classrooms, primarily due to adequate ventilation. As stated by [6], due to good natural ventilation in most of the schools, the IAQ level is within the limit; however, CO2 concentration was very low due to airing through open windows [19], and in one of the school classrooms, the concentration of CO2 was the lowest where the windows were open [20]. In some cases, it was found that the CO2 level did not increase the accepted limit due to proper ventilation, such as Dhalluin et al. [21], which further reported that the concentrations were higher than 1000 ppm less than 35% of the time and did not exceed 1750 ppm with the “NV only” mode in summer. At the same time, Jayakumar et al. [23] stated that the average CO2 concentration in the NV classroom was 513 ppm, which is far below the maximum limit. Others have directly claimed that occupants are satisfied with the IAQ of the classroom [12] and that they believe that this parameter impacts their performance [18]. In comparison, Vilcekova’ et al. [2] found that, on average, students evaluated odor as no odor or slight odor and that 78% of the children were not bothered by air-related problems [9].

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22.3.3 Visual Comfort (VC) VC was the third most considered parameter in the IEQ study of the classroom. In total, eleven studies have considered VC, out of which only one study has shown that VC is not satisfactory in the naturally ventilated classroom, which is also due to excess daylight level [19] as authors found that many school students complained that the desk illuminance reached very high values (in some cases over 2000 lx) and illuminance uniformity was extremely low. Other studies have shown that the VC is satisfactory in the naturally ventilated classroom, directly claiming that occupants are “comfortable with” [11] or “satisfied with” [12] the visual environment or that more priority should be given to other parameters of IEQ [15]. Dorizas et al. [18] report that students were satisfied with the visual environment, and they believed that this parameter has an impact on their performance, while Dhalluin et al. [21] found that the lighting levels with blind closed were well accepted by the occupant. Some studies have found that the light level was within the accepted limit. The illuminance values were consistently above the required values of 300 lx, as per Giuli et al. [20], and Bernardi et al. [25] found that the average lighting level was 1094 lx in one of the schools and 353 lx in another school. Bluyssen et al. [9] surveyed that only 16% of the children were bothered mainly by light-related problems, most of their problems were associated with incoming sunlight, and Che-Ani et al. [24] found that 70% of the students were satisfied with the brightness of the architecture studio. However, one study has shown contradicting results that the occupants were satisfied with the visual environment even though the reading was outside the comfort limit [3].

22.3.4 Acoustic Comfort (AC) AC was the least considered parameter in the IEQ study of the classroom. Eight studies have considered AC in their study, out of which six studies have shown that AC is not satisfactory in naturally ventilated classrooms. Vilcekova et al. [12] state that noise created by the students themselves was a major problem, while Giuli et al. [20] state that the school near the main road was noisier than the others due to traffic noise, but in most of the classrooms, noise is due mainly to internal sources (students). Jayakumar et al. [23] surveyed that 58% of the children identified their classmates as the primary source of noise in the classroom. In comparison, Bernardi et al. [25] found that noise levels were tested above 62 dB in all rooms and reached levels of 75 dB. This is primarily related to students’ behavior and not to the reverberation condition of the room. Few studies have shown that outdoor noise was the issue, such as Ghita et al. [3], which state that noise was perceived as an issue in one of the schools due to its location near a high traffic road, and that the most prominent issue for children was noise from the surrounding [16].

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In contrast, only two studies have shown that the AC is satisfactory in the naturally ventilated classroom. Zuhaib et al. [11] claim that occupants are comfortable with the acoustic environment, while Dhalluin et al. [21] found that the indoor background noise levels with all windows closed were 26 dB for the NV-only mode; therefore, the students were satisfied with the AC.

22.4 Findings and Inferences Concerning thermal comfort, out of 18 papers that have studied this parameter, 15 papers have reported discomfort, and only three papers have reported comfort (as shown in Fig. 22.2), which indicates the importance of thermal comfort in educational buildings, corroborating earlier literature studies that thermal comfort causes the most discomfort of all IEQ parameters and has the highest impact on overall comfort [11, 28–30]. Out of 16 papers that studied the IAQ of educational buildings, seven papers have reported discomfort, and nine papers have reported comfort (as shown in Fig. 22.2); this indicates confusion from the literature on whether the IAQ of the naturally ventilated classroom is satisfactory or not. This can be because most of the studies were conducted in cold or temperate climates where the windows are closed, whereas studies conducted in warm climates have shown that in naturally ventilated buildings, air change per hour is very high, due to which the CO2 concentration level does not increase more than the prescribed limit [6, 26]. Out of 11 papers that studied visual comfort, only one reported discomfort. In contrast, ten papers have reported comfort (as shown in Fig. 22.2), which supports that visual comfort is not a problem with the conventional building design, where the size of the windows is large enough to provide adequate daylight [9]. This is also because of the timing of operation (9 am–4 pm) of the educational building and the ample amount of daylight in most outdoor conditions. And only eight papers studied acoustic comfort; six papers out of these have reported discomfort, while two papers have reported comfort (as shown in Fig. 22.2), which shows the neglect of studying this parameter. The results indicate that the

Fig. 22.2 IEQ Parameters and its prevalence in literature

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students are not satisfied with AC. This goes with the studies which have said that most complaints from students and staff were about the sound discomfort, and most reported that the students themselves were the primary cause [2, 9, 15].

22.5 Discussions and Conclusions From the state of the art on IEQ of NV educational buildings, it was found that TC is the most studied parameter (90%) for IEQ of the educational building, and the results are consistent for most papers, based on which it can be stated that it causes most discomfort (83%). But, this was not the same for IAQ, even though it is the second most studied parameter (80%). The results are contradictory, possibly because even though the studied classroom was NV, the windows were kept closed due to cold weather. Although VC and AC were less considered in studies, their results were precise, implying that while the former causes least discomfort, the latter causes more discomfort than considered (as shown in Fig. 22.3). This study has shown a glimpse of quantitatively the weighted scheme of IEQ parameter of NV educational building. The weightage of IEQ parameters obtained carefully and precisely for a particular building type/operation can guide the priority selection of alternative solutions during retrofitting existing buildings or designing new buildings for enhanced occupant comfort. In other words, priority can be given to some retrofitting/design solutions over others [31]. The benefit of arriving at a weighting scheme aids in combining multiple IEQ parameter indexes in a single IEQ index [32] for improved design decision-making. However, upon the literature review and analysis, it can be stated with confidence that the weighting scheme for each case would be different due to differences in geography, climate, building typology/operation, etc., as is suggested that it is not right to look for a universal weighting scheme; instead, a case-by-case weighting scheme should be derived [33]. Many studies have derived weighting schemes noticing its importance, but still, there are limited studies if we look for a particular building

Fig. 22.3 Importance of IEQ parameters

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type/operation and climate. Therefore, there is enormous potential in deriving the weighting scheme of IEQ parameter of NV educational building in developing countries, primarily located in the temperate-to-equatorial regions or the Global South of the world. Future work entails obtaining the weighting scheme of each IEQ parameter quantitatively, based upon empirical studies, and how these parameters should be considered subsequently while designing. The more significant intent is to develop support in assessing the overall IEQ performance of existing educational buildings and designing buildings with different alternatives in the conceptual design stage.

References 1. Kapoor, N.R., et al.: A systematic review on indoor environmental quality in naturally ventilated school classrooms: a way forward. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2021, 19 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1155/ 2021/8851685 2. Silvia Vilˇceková, V.I., Kapalo, P., Meˇciarová, L., Burdová, E.K.: Investigation of indoor environment quality in classroom—case study. Procedia Eng. 190, 496–503 (2017) 3. Ghita, S.A., Catalina, T.: Energy efficiency versus indoor environmental quality in different Romanian countryside schools. Energy Build. 92, 140–154 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. enbuild.2015.01.049 4. Bughio, M., Schuetze, T.: Comparative analysis of indoor environmental quality of architectural campus buildings ‘lecture halls and its ’ perception by building users, in Karachi, Pakistan. Sustainability (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072995 5. Quality, I.E., Nearly, I.N., Energy, Z.: Concept paper indoor environmental quality in nearly zero energy schools to meet health and nearly zero energy goals concept 6. Toyinbo, O., Phipatanakul, W., Shaughnessy, R., Shaughnessy, U.H.: Building and indoor environmental quality assessment of Nigerian primary schools: a pilot study. Wiley February, 510–520 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12547 7. Brink, H.W., Loomans, M.G.L.C., Kort, H.S.M., Mobach, M.P.: Classrooms’ indoor environmental conditions affecting the academic achievement of students and teachers in higher education : a systematic literature review. Wiley September, 1–21 (2020) https://doi.org/10. 1111/ina.12745 8. ISHRAE-Position-Paper-Indoor-Environmental-Quality.pdf. pp. 12 (2015) 9. Bluyssen, P.M., Kim, D.H., Eijkelenboom, A., Ortiz-sanchez, M.: Workshop with 335 primary school children in The Netherlands : What is needed to improve the IEQ in their classrooms . Build. Environ. 168(October), 106486 (2020): https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106486 10. Mujan, I., A.S.A.C.: Mun, V., Kljaji, M.: Influence of indoor environmental quality on human health and productivity—a review. J. Clean. Prod. 217, 646–657 (2019) https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jclepro.2019.01.307 11. Zuhaib, S., Manton, R., Griffin, C., Hajdukiewicz, M., Marcus, M., Goggins, J.: An indoor environmental quality (IEQ) assessment of a partially-retrofitted university building. Build. Environ. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.05.001 12. Vilcekova, S., Meciarova, L., Kridlova, E., Katunska, J., Kosicanova, D., Doroudiani, S.: Indoor environmental quality of classrooms and occupants’ comfort in a special education school in Slovak Republic. Build. Environ. 120, 29–40 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2017. 05.001 13. Ali, H.H., Almomani, H.M., Hindeih, M.: Indoor and built environment indoor and built of public school buildings in Jordan. Indoor Built. Environ. 18(1), 66–76 (2009). https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1420326X08100760

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14. Gao, J., Wargocki, P., Wang, Y.: Ventilation system type, classroom environmental quality and pupils’ perceptions and symptoms. Build. Environ. 75, 46–57 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.buildenv.2014.01.015 15. Korsavi, S.S., Montazami, A., Mumovic, D.: The impact of indoor environment quality (IEQ) on school children’s overall comfort in the UK; a regression approach. Build. Environ. 185(June), 107309 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107309 16. P.K. & N.M., Meˇciarová, L., Vilˇceková, S., Burdová, E.K.: The real and subjective indoor environmental quality in schools. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 28(1), 102–123 (2018). https:// doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2018.1429579 17. Ramprasad, V., Subbaiyan, G.: Perceived indoor environmental quality of classrooms and outcomes : a study of a higher education institution in India. Archit. Eng. Des. Manag. 1–21 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1080/17452007.2017.1287050 18. Dorizas, P.V., Assimakopoulos, M.N., Santamouris, M.: A holistic approach for the assessment of the indoor environmental quality, student productivity, and energy consumption in primary schools. Environ. Monit. Assess. 187(5), 1–18 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-0154503-9 19. De Giuli, V., Zecchin, R., Corain, L., Salmaso, L.: Measurements of indoor environmental conditions in Italian classrooms and their impact on childrens comfort. Indoor Built. Environ. 24(5), 689–712 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X14530586 20. De Giuli, V., Da Pos, O., De Carli, M.: Indoor environmental quality and pupil perception in Italian primary schools. Build. Environ. 56, 335–345 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bui ldenv.2012.03.024 21. Dhalluin, A., Limam, K.: Comparison of natural and hybrid ventilation strategies used in classrooms in terms of indoor environmental quality, comfort and energy savings. Indoor Built. Environ. 23(4), 527–542 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X12464077 22. Air, I., Journal, T.A., Munksgaard, B., Air, I.: Indoor environmental quality in a ‘ low allergen ’ school and three standard primary schools in Western Australia. Indoor Air 16, 74–80 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2005.00405.x 23. Jayakumar, S., Apte, M.G.: Estimation and analysis of ventilation rates in schools in Indian context: IAQ and indoor environmental quality. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 609(3), 8–14 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/609/3/032046 24. Che-Ani, A.I., Tawil, N.M., Musa, A.R., Yahaya, H., Tahir, M.M.: The architecture studio of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM): has the indoor environmental quality standard been achieved? Asian Soc. Sci. 8(16), 174–183 (2012). https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v8n16p174 25. Kowaltowski, D.C.C.K.: Environment and behavior a case study of awareness. Environ. Behav. 38(155) (2006) https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916505275307 26. Zhang, D., Ortiz, M.A., Bluyssen, P.M.: Clustering of Dutch school children based on their preferences and needs of the IEQ in classrooms. Build. Environ. (2018). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.buildenv.2018.10.014 27. Al, Y., Arif, M., Katafygiotou, M., Mazroei, A., Kaushik, A., Elsarrag, E.: Gulf organisation for research and development impact of indoor environmental quality on occupant well-being and comfort: a review of the literature. Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ. 5(1), 1–11 (2016). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2016.03.006 28. Abhijeet, G., Lata, S., Nath, T.: Investigation of indoor environment quality and factors affecting human comfort: a critical review. Build. Environ. 204(July6), 108146 (2021). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108146 29. Taylor, P., Sakhare, V.V., Ralegaonkar, R.V.: Indoor environmental quality: review of parameters and assessment models. Archit. Sci. Rev. 57(2), 147–154 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/000 38628.2013.862609 30. Frontczak, M., Wargocki, P.: Literature survey on how different factors influence human comfort in indoor environments. Build. Environ. 46(4), 922–937 (2011). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.buildenv.2010.10.021 31. Leccese, F., Rocca, M., Salvadori, G., Belloni, E., Buratti, C.: Towards a holistic approach to indoor environmental quality assessment: weighting schemes to combine effects of multiple

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Chapter 23

Design of Signages and Information Boards for a Mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC) Md. Haseen Akhtar and Janakarajan Ramkumar

Abstract Communicate-shift alert: “From vague communication” to “sensitive communication”. Often, we as product designers tend to focus only on the utility of the product and hardly pay attention on how to communicate the design to the end user. In case of mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC), which is a Product Service and System design, one of the feedback items during the trial run of an OPD camp was to communicate the design better with information boards and signages for the intended user. The intended user in this case is the low literate people of the far-flung regions of the rural India. The main questions which are addressed in this study are: What are the factors that will govern the design of signages for the mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC)? What are the factors that will govern the design of information boards for the mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC)? To answer the above questions, this study intends to explore the factors which will govern the design of signages and information boards. The method used to design signages and information boards was done by synthesizing design guidelines of Rodrigues et al. and Robert Wood. Finally, the author proposed a modified evaluation template derived from Bubric et al. evaluation template to test the designed prototype. Future is already here; it’s just not deeply imagined of.

23.1 Introduction Visiting a hospital can be unpleasant; visitors are typically not there by choice and are in a condition of discomfort, agony, and/or fear, whether they require care or are visiting someone who is ill or injured [1–3]. Hospitals must spend resources to streamline and simplify navigation inside their facilities to eliminate these feelings of uneasiness and improve the visitor experience. Whether visiting the emergency

Md. H. Akhtar (B) · J. Ramkumar Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016, India e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_23

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department or attending an appointment, a successful navigation system allows visitors to swiftly locate their destination and ensures that essential care is obtained in a timely manner [4, 5]. Wayfinding systems are frequently limited to a single language, which might be troublesome for tourists who do not speak English as their first language [4– 6]. Furthermore, hospital name traditions sometimes include medical language, are extensive and complex, and might result in similarities between different destinations [7]. This reality may be especially difficult for people who are unfamiliar with the healthcare system or facility, as well as those who have disabilities, as previously indicated. A substantial amount of existing literature aims to provide direction on how to create an effective wayfinding system. However, in healthcare settings, navigation remains a challenge [8–11]. The present guidelines by Rodrigues et al. [11] and Bubric et al. [12] serve as a general guideline, and thus, it is necessary to tailor it to the specific use case scenario. In the context of mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC) which is intended to be a collapsible system, similar feedbacks of lack of proper signages and information boards were received during trials. Signages and information boards were designed and developed and tested during trial runs of a pediatric OPD camp. Feedbacks were encouraging and on the positive side.

23.2 Methodology The methodology used was to propose design guidelines for signages and information boards by synthesizing the design guidelines (Fig. 23.1) used by Rodrigues et al. [11] and Robert Wood [13]. A modified evaluation template of Bubric et al. [12] is proposed that is used to test wayfinding system by asking end users (patients and visitors) how easy it is for them to navigate the location. Fig. 23.1 Synthesis diagram Design guidelines by Robert Wood

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DESIGN GUIDELINES

UNIVERSAL DESIGN SYMBOLS

CONTEXT IN ENQUIRY

EVALUATION TEMPLATE

PROBLEM DEFINED

Synthesizing design guidelines by Rodrigues et. al

Design of Universal Healthcare Symbols by Robert Wood

Rural regions in Indian context

Synthesizing evaluaƟon template by Bubric et. al

Design Gaps (EvaluaƟon template proposed)

Fig. 23.2 Research framework (Authors own)

Figure 23.2 shows the research framework used for the study where we used synthesis of design guidelines situating it into the context in enquiry and then further merging the analysis to the evaluation template to propose a tailored evaluation template for the mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC).

23.3 Results The author proposed signages and information boards based on iteration of the preliminary design and feedback received from the user. Preliminary design of the information board and signanges of the pediatric OPD camp run inside the institute campus for the campus residents is shown in Fig. 23.3. These designs are made by Jugaad since we wanted to make signages and information boards on site as per the situation, material availability, and context where the mobile Primary Health Center will be deployed. Thus, we took a empty cardboard box and printed information is pasted on it (Fig. 23.3a). We took discarded wooden planks and made a stand as usually present in Primary Health Centers (observed during field visit) in Kanpur and pasted exit, waiting area, and entry posters on it (Fig. 23.3a–c). The following section discusses different factors to be considered while designing such as different wordings for signages and information boards generally used. The entry signage was taken as example, and we enquired about different possibilities related to it. The very first question which we tried to answer is: Is it entry/entrance/enter? (Fig. 23.4). What will fit in the context of mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC)? After a Google search of the keyword “Entry”, it was found that Entry word comes only with No as “No Entry” and the most common word used is either “Entrance” or “Enter”. But, it is worthy of notice that the context in which the mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC) will be deployed is the remotest villages where people do not understand the English language. Thus, we converge to two options as the first being signages must be in native language (in case of villages near Kanpur, it is Hindi) and the second being the signages can be combination of word and icon or only icon/word.

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Fig. 23.3 Preliminary signages and information boards a information board b exit signage c waiting area signage d entry signage

Fig. 23.4 Types of signages

A research done to test the Universal symbols in health care (Fig. 23.5) developed by Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, Hablamos Juntos, and the Society for Environmental Graphic Design demonstrated that patients found graphic symbolbased signage to be far easier to grasp than text-only signage [13]. Thus, an attempt was made to recommend guidelines to develop signages using the Universal symbol developed by Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, Hablamos Juntos, and the Society for Environmental Graphic Design. A literature review done by Rodrigues et al. [11] explains different factors which must be considered while designing wayfinding systems. The author tried to map the recommendations by Rodrigues et al. with the Universal Healthcare Symbols to develop new recommendations for the mobile Primary Healthcare signages. Recommendations derived from Rodrigues et al. [11] are proposed among nine categories, namely text formatting; information hierarchy and density; language and terminology; symbols and pictograms; color; placement, dimension, and typology; illumination, visibility, and legibility; standardization; and inclusivity and user characteristics.

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Fig. 23.5 Universal Healthcare Symbols [14]

In the context of mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC), author proposed recommendation for all except text formatting; language and terminology; illumination, visibility, and legibility; and standardization (Table 23.1). Design of the signages based on the recommendation inferred is illustrated in Fig. 23.8. We have taken the item of entry, exit, and waiting area for this study. The next step shall be to use the modified version of evaluation template by Bubric et al. to test the prototypes. Template is developed after two trial runs of the preliminary design of the mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC), synthesis of Rodrigues et al. guidelines, and design synthesis from Universal Healthcare Symbols (Table 23.2). The key findings were listed under themes (Table 23.3). This section is out of scope and thus left for future research (although sample is shown below for further discussion).

23.4 Discussion The study analyzed two guidelines one by Rodrigues et al. and another by Robert Wood for designing Universal Healthcare Symbols situating the analysis into the context in enquiry. The analysis done was further merged with Bubric et al. to propose evaluation template for designing signages and information boards from mobile infrastructure in health care with a focus on mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC). If we analyze the design guidelines by Rodrigues et al. and Robert Wood, we see that there are similarities and overlaps in design recommendations and characteristics. For example, pictograms should be used to design the signages as mentioned by Rodrigues et al. can be seen in Universal Healthcare Symbols designed by Robert Wood. Thus, the same guideline has been used to design the signages for the mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC). While trial run of the initial prototype of the mobile Primary Health center (mPHC), the author with the analysis of design guidelines by Rodrigues et al. [11] and design characteristics in the Universal Healthcare Symbols designed by Robert Wood [13] overlapped with the feedback during the trial run and the evaluation template by Bubric et al. [12] to propose the tailored evaluation template as shown

Separate signage was designed for separate items

1. Pictograms were used for the signage (as shown in Fig. 23.4) 2. It has been applied in the designed outcome as shown in Fig. 23.4 (column 3, item 4) 3. Solid black color is used in the design (as shown in Fig. 23.4) 4. Distinct symbols are used with avoidance of abstraction in it 5. Human shapes are used in the final design for entry, exit, and waiting area signages

Information hierarchy and density The procedure for differentiating the information should be consistent in all signs. Preferably, use separate signage for separate items

Symbols and pictograms 1. Symbols or pictograms are easier to recognize from a distance and are more likely to be understood by people of various cultures, ages, and literacy levels. Pictograms take around half the time to understand than text-only signs 2. When representing the human body, silhouette side views are preferable to frontal views because they are easier to understand 3. Instead of colorful outlines, solid color sections are used 4. To avoid confusion, distinct design from other symbols. Abstract symbols should be avoided 5. Using human shapes increases comprehension rates 6. To be legible, symbols or pictograms should be at least 76.20–203.2 mm tall 7. The analysis varies with age, culture, and literacy. Thus, it is imperative to test the symbols with the end users

(continued)

Recommendation and application (in case of mPHC)

Guidelines (by Rodrigues et al.)

Table 23.1 Recommendations and applications of guidelines suggested by Rodrigues et al. [11]

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(continued)

1. Contrast of black and white is present in the final design 2. Light color (white) with dark letter (black) 3. In case of mobile Primary Health Center, the system will be deployed in an open area where the background will be mostly green grass, brown soil, or wall with different colors. Thus, it is recommended to use a black background for all the signages depending upon what is required in that context

Color 1. Contrast should be there between sign colors and the background 2. Light colors with dark letters or dark colors with while letters 3. Color contrast should be in the range of 60–70%. Can be calculated by ASI-Modulex (www.asi-modulex.com). Color can be used to differentiate information. Consistent color should be used in all signs. Associated meaning of colors should be kept in mind while its usage (for example, red for prohibition and yellow for danger)

Placement, dimension, and typology of Signs This section is not being carried out in this study 1. The eye level of users should always be considered when determining the height of signage 2. At 1.90 m from the floor, a height of 1.40–1.70 m or more is recommended (Fig. 23.6) 3. Use of double or multiple-sided signage (wall mounted and suspended) to improve readability from all angles and distances should be considered if the signs will be approached from more than one aspect 4. People can normally discern signage within a 30° angle on both sides without shifting their heads, which should be considered 5. The formula for calculating the size of a sign based on the distance from which users are anticipated to read it (h = I/Z) (Fig. 23.7), where I is the distance, H is the sign plate’s height, Z is the distance factor equal to I/tan(a), and a is the sign’s angular extension (tan(a) = H/I) 6. Mounted such that a person standing 2.7 m away from the sign may read it clearly

Recommendation and application (in case of mPHC)

Guidelines (by Rodrigues et al.)

Table 23.1 (continued)

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Recommendation and application (in case of mPHC)

Inclusivity and user characteristics It is important to do a survey of wayfinding systems in the intended location 1. The impact of signage can be influenced by familiarity with the for the deployment of mobile Primary Health Center (mPHC) considering all environment. When the signage is updated, some people may be familiar with the guidelines which is out of scope of this study the previous signs, making the new signage more difficult to understand (past recognition can play an important role) Due to diversity of the population, it is necessary to communicate in ways that are generally understood Symbols can communicate across cultures; nonetheless, they should be evaluated among users It may be important to educate users about the symbols; consequently, manuals and instructions might be helpful in this regard If well designed, signs can cross the barriers of age, literacy, and cultural backgrounds Before or during the signage design process, examine the number of people (annual users), user profiles (age, gender, social backgrounds, etc.), and the services to be provided Color-blind persons cannot tell the difference between red, green, yellow, and light blue when it comes to symbol associations Colors should be carefully chosen, and there should be a strong contrast between the sign plate and the backdrop For people with visual disabilities, use Braille and raised symbols on the signages. Designers often use "double signs" (which convey both tactile and visual information) in their work Place the signages in specified areas, avoiding areas where there is a lot of environmental clutter Use sans serif fonts with a size of 13–25 mm and a spacing of 7.6–203.2 mm. For persons with vision impairments, uppercase letters are simpler to read Pictograms should be elevated by a minimum of 0.8 mm. Brailed characters and pictorial symbols should be raised by a minimum of 0.8 mm. Use uppercase letters with Grade 2 Braille and a sans serif or plain serif font. The height of raised characters should be at least 1.6 mm but no more than 5 mm

Guidelines (by Rodrigues et al.)

Table 23.1 (continued)

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Fig. 23.6 Placement of the signages

Fig. 23.7 Calculation of signage size

in Table 23.2. Thus, this study has attempted to propose designs of signages and evaluation template to test the same design for a usable product for the end users and with the end users.

23.5 Conclusion The important findings from the above study are consideration of different parameters to design the signages for low resource settings with diversity in language, culture, age, and literacy. The most important parameters which are necessary to be considered while designing signages for low literate people of remote villages are the user characteristics, diversity, and inclusivity.

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Table 23.2 Modified version of evaluation template (developed by Bubric et al. [12]) Step

Evaluation content

Identify Evaluation Questions

Are the signs legible and visible in the space (color, font size, placement)? Is the icon used in signages intuitive and visible? Are there any terms that are not clear?

Identify key problems

Identifying the entrance and exit signages Lack of information Navigation problem

Develop scenarios

When reach the OPD camp, register at the reception desk Ask for further steps to follow Where to enter and from where to exit

Prototype and test

Three prototypes were designed and placed at the desired position at the pediatric OPD camp

Scenarios and data collection 1. The evaluator (in this case, author/researcher) walked with each participant (in this case, parents) from the waiting area to the reception desk for registration. Further from reception desk to the entrance 2. The evaluator recorded what they aid and observed where they looked 3. The quantitative measures were recorded at the end 4. At the end of the scenario, the evaluator asked the participant of the challenges they had while navigating from waiting area till they exit the OPD camp Conclusion

Table 23.3 Key findings (depicted as sample for future research)

Challenges and suggestions recorded were discussed

Theme

Finding(s)

Color Language and/or wording on the signages Hierarchy of information Legibility of signages

The research approach and solutions of this study should serve as a valuable reference for designing signages for mobile collapsible systems considering different parameters discussed in this study. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to PMRF Scheme, which is under Ministry of Education (MoE), Government of India (GoI), and MedTech IIT Kanpur for the guidance on this research, and to the National Biopharma Mission (NBM) of the Department of Biotechnology India, being executed by the Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC), for providing the funds under Proposal No. BT/NBM0127/03/18.

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References 1. Berger, C.: Wayfinding: Designing and Implementing Graphic Navigational Systems, p. 89. Rockport Publishers (2009) 2. Carpman, J.R., Grant, M.A.: Design that Cares: Planning Health Facilities for Patients and Visitors, vol. 142. Wiley (2016) 3. Mollerup, P.: Wayshowing in hospital. Aust. Med. J. (Online) 1(10), 112–114 (2009) 4. Cooper, R.: Wayfinding for Health Care: Best Practices for Today’s Facilities. AHA Press/Health Forum (2010) 5. Rodrigues, R., Coelho, R., Tavares, J.M.R.S.: Users’ perceptions of signage systems at three Portuguese hospitals. Health Environ. Res. Des. J. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/193758672 0924761 6. Cowgill, J., Bolek, J., Design, S.J.: Symbol usage in health care settings for people with limited English proficiency. Part two: Implementation recommendations. JRC (2003) 7. Campbell, P., Scott, W.: A model-based study of concept development for hospital wayfinding to improve operating efficiency. Insight 17(4), 46–49 (2014) 8. Apelt, R., Crawford, J., Hogan, D.J.: Wayfinding design guidelines. CRC for Construction Innovation (2007) 9. Calori, C., Vanden-Eynden, D.: Signage and Wayfinding Design: A Complete Guide to Creating Environmental Graphic Design Systems. Wiley (2015) 10. Gibson, D.: The Wayfinding Handbook: Information Design for Public Places. Princeton Architectural Press (2009) 11. Rodrigues, R., Coelho, R., Tavares, J.M.R.S.: Healthcare signage design: a review on recommendations for effective signing systems. Health Environ. Res. Des. J. 12(3), 45–65 (2019) 12. Bubric, K., Harvey, G., Pitamber, T.: A user-centered approach to evaluating wayfinding systems in healthcare. HERD Health Environ. Res. Des. J. 14(1), 19–30 (2021). https://doi. org/10.1177/1937586720959074 13. Christina, K.: Universal Hospital Signs and Symbols. https://www.fastsigns.com/blog/foryour-industry/healthcare/universal-hospital-signs-symbols/. Accessed 19 June 2022 14. Lee, S., Dazkir, S.S., Paik, H.S., Coskun, A.: Comprehensibility of universal healthcare symbols for wayfinding in healthcare facilities. Appl. Ergon. 45(4), 878–885 (2014). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.apergo.2013.11.003

Chapter 24

Ergonomic Evaluation of Handle Position and Orientation in Pushing Cart Using RULA Mohammed Rajik Khan and Sumit Pravin Vedpathak

Abstract Number of people uses hand cart (i.e., thela) for selling vegetables, fruits, street foods, etc., for their living. While manually pushing such traditional carts, they often exposes to awkward postures causing severe musculoskeletal injuries and discomfort at various body regions. The present study aims to evaluate ergonomically the comfort/discomfort observed in hand cart pushing workers and to suggest effective handle position for improved comfort. Five different handle positions with three different user offset positions from pushing end of the cart were considered in a virtual CAD environment. RULA score on different body parts is evaluated for multiple postural combinations arising due to varying handle positions/orientations and offset distances. Handle orientations considered were (i) traditional pistol handle (P), (ii) horizontal handle (H), (iii) vertical handle (V), (iv) vertical handle with forward tilt (F), (v) vertical handle with inner tilt (I). A lower score (1–2) was observed in all the body parts for vertical and vertical with forward tilt handles. Similar trend of RULA score was also observed with these handle positions for various height categories and hence justifies the comfortable handle positions (i.e., handle positions V and F) as compared to others.

24.1 Introduction Hand carts are widely used in India for selling vegetables, fruits, street foods, etc., and are moved manually in the workplace. These tasks were mostly preferred by the men in India. Lack of literacy is commonly observed among these hand cart workers [1]. The workers adapt poor postures while pushing these carts. Many studies show that poor work posture is also one of the causes for pain prevalence at the neck, lower back, and waist and stress at work [2–4]. For hand cart workers, awkward posture mainly produces discomfort at wrist, arm, shoulder, and lower back. The M. R. Khan (B) · S. P. Vedpathak Department of Industrial Design, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_24

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discomfort and fatigue are often considered as early warning symptoms for workrelated musculoskeletal disorders (WRMDs) [5]. Studies have shown that awkward posture is strongly associated with the development of musculoskeletal problems. Such disorder mainly occurs due to poor work posture maintained for long time in a constant position or any repetitive movements with varying pace which does not allow the body parts to recover during the movements [6, 7]. Most of the time, handles in trolleys/other movable devices are held in the range between shoulder and hip height. But, the handle of hand cart is kept below the hip height. The handle height affects the joint moment at shoulder, elbow, and wrist and compressive force at lumbosacral joint [8]. The interhandle distance influences the muscular load on workers that operate the hand cart [9], whereas pushing strength is affected by handle rotation and tilt angles [10]. Every handle parameter affects muscle strength as well as posture. However, the most suitable handle orientation for handling a hand cart has not been examined till date. In handle position, along with handle height, other parameters like handle tilting angle, handle diameter, interhandle distance, and handle orientation are the important parameters [9]. In order to reduce discomfort during hand cart pushing, accurate design of handle position and orientation is desired which may also improve the working posture. Most of the studies involves industrial cart having swing or rigid castor wheels, but limited study for hand cart is found in the literatures. In hand carts, more focused study exists considering overall activity of person using the hand cart but postural evaluation while pushing activity is limited. Here, the RULA tool is employed to analyze the upper limbs in the sedentary posture. It is nearly similar to OWAS, but it shows more precise difference between the positions of the hands while performing tasks [11]. The RULA method generates an overall score by accounting for postural loading on the entire body, with a focus on the upper limb (neck, trunk, shoulders, arms, and wrists) [12]. Apart from RULA, there are different ergonomic assessment tools like Snook Table, WISHA/NIOSH lifting equation, REBA, etc. Among these, REBA and RULA are mostly preferred for postural study. However, the experimental assessment and other physiological measurement techniques are more viable but limited due to high cost and time involved in multiple iterations [8, 13, 14]. In the present study, focus is on analyzing human posture for different handle positions in CAD environment to reduce the discomfort while pushing the hand cart. The assumption considered that the handle position affects the posture of the hand cart, causing discomfort at upper limb exertion. This study examined the ergonomic risks of various body parts during cart pushing through postural evaluation using RULA.

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Fig. 24.1 Two-dimensional view of traditional hand cart

24.2 Materials and Methods 24.2.1 Design of Rustic Cart A typical hand cart is shown in Fig. 24.1. In general, they have a loading pallet (existing handle attached at one end), a metallic chassis, and four rigid wheels. As there is no standard for cart chassis or overall dimension of cart, people in general fabricate according to their purpose. But most of the times, the chassis dimensions (Fig. 24.1) are very common and only top portion was decorated accordingly.

24.2.2 Handle Configurations For the comfort evaluation, five different handle positions were considered. Pistol handle (P) is the existing traditional handle configuration that is attached to hand cart in longitudinal direction. Other four handle configurations were based on positioning as vertical (V), horizontal (H) with inner tilt, vertical with forward tilt (F), and vertical with forward and inner tilt (I) as shown in Fig. 24.2. Handle positioning parameters like height from the ground, interhandle distance, and angles of forward and inner tilts are mentioned in Fig. 24.2b and Table 24.1. These dimensions were chosen considering the traditional cart design and handle orientations as preferred in most of the material handling pushing cart/devices/lawn mower studies [8–10, 15, 16]. Handle height for handle positions H, I, and F is at elbow height [8], and for handle position V, handle height is considered at mid-shoulder position to compensate hand– handle natural angle [14]. Interhandle distance for all handle positions is considered as 40 cm except handle positions I and P [9]. Interhandle distance for pistol handle P is 60 cm as the traditional one and comfort in maneuverability of cart is considered for I [13]. Forward tilt is taken as 25° with vertical by considering natural hand– handle angle, whereas inner tilt is taken in between comfortable range of 42° and 12° from vertical [14].

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Fig. 24.2 Handle orientations a five handle orientations (Y–Z plane) b handle position parameters c handle P (top view) d handle V (front view) e handle H (top view) f handle I (front view)

Table 24.1 Handle positioning parameters for various handle combinations Handle positions

Height from ground (cm) [d]

Interhandle distance (cm) [c]

Forward tilt (°) [a] 0

Inner tilt (°) [b]

P

76.00

60.0

0

H

103.40

40.0

0

8

I

103.40

35.6

25

12

F

103.40

40.0

25

0

V

119.05

40.0

0

0

24.2.3 RULA Analysis A hand cart model is generated in CATIA V6, and human manikin was imported in virtual CAD environment. Five different handle configurations were generated and mounted individually on hand carts. Each handle configuration is attached to the same hand cart independently one by one to perform postural study for those handle positions. CATIA V6 platform was used to estimate human posture during pushing hand cart. In RULA, each handle orientation (P, H, V, F, and I) was considered for three different manikin’s height categories (5th, 50th, and 95th percentiles) and three

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different offset distances (x, x + 10, and x + 20 cm) of individual’s from cart. All the body dimensions for manikin were according to Indian Anthropometric data of male population [15]. The initial offset distance ‘x’ refers to the distance between cart and human from where he can easily reach to the handle, allowing us to focus on human postural comfort. So, this x offset distance was different for each handle position and acts as reference for other offsets chosen as x + 10 cm and x + 20 cm (Fig. 24.3). The assumption considered that the handle position affects the posture of the hand cart, causing discomfort at upper limb exertion. Hence, Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) is the tool to determine postural discomfort at upper limb. It shows discomfort according to the posture adapted and accordingly suggestive measures can be taken. In this study, newly introduced handle positions were kept at elbow and midshoulder height. Increasing handle height reduces load on lower back [16]. This study focuses on the comfort of individual body regions during cart pushing like upper arm, forearm, wrist, neck, and trunk. These were chosen because handle positioning and human-cart offset distance are directly related to the upper body postural movement. Grasping of handle was crucial in this analysis, since it can affect the elbow flexion, and shoulder abduction and medial lateral deviation. During grasping of handle for each position, hand and handle were in line with each other. Since inline hand–handle position shows maximum push strength [14]. In Pistol position, handle is in between knuckle height and hip height of person. The posture adapted was similar to that regular cart worker. For three handle positions (H, I, and F), handle

Fig. 24.3 Hand cart and manikin with forward tilt handle orientation (‘F’) showing offset distance positioning

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Table 24.2 RULA score of 50th percentile height person for different upper body regions considering handle orientations of P, H, I, F, and V with offset distances of 0, 10, and 20 cm Offset distances

0 cm

Handle positions P Body parts Upper arm Forearm

10 cm

20 cm

H I

V F

P

H

I

V

F

P

H

I

V

F

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

3

3

3

3

3

2

1

1

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

3

2

2

2

Wrist

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

Wrist twist

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

Trunk

2

1

1

1

1

3

1

1

1

1

3

2

2

2

2

Neck

2

1

1

1

1

4

1

1

1

1

4

4

4

4

4

Final score

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

7

7

7

7

6

height was nearer to elbow height. In horizontal handle (H) position, hand was in pronated position. In vertical handle (V), handle height was in between shoulder and elbow. With increasing offset distances, trunk inclination and neck extension were provided accordingly in CAD environment to reach the handle.

24.3 Results The individual body parts’ score in RULA analysis for three different percentile height persons considering three offset distances is shown in Tables 24.2, 24.3 and 24.4. In terms of human-cart offset distance, score was ‘2’ for trunk at 0 cm offset and score of ‘3’ each at an offset of 10 and 20 cm for handle position P. The score was 2–4 for neck at all offsets. Trunk inclination and neck extension were observed for handle position P. At increasing offset distances, each handle position shows higher score. At closer offset distance, handle position P has shown higher score for trunk and neck, whereas the handle positions F and V have shown less score (1). Handle positions F and V also showed almost similar trend for all height percentile persons for other individual body parts.

24.4 Discussion Cart pushing with different handle positions involves multiple postures in upper body. The results show the distinctive role of handle positions on the posture for different height categories during pushing and how the changes in offset distances would alter their posture. In pushing, Anterior Deltoid is considered, and this is associated with shoulder abduction [14]. Therefore, abduction angle range was taken into account during RULA analysis.

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Table 24.3 RULA score of 5th percentile height person for different upper body regions considering handle orientations of P, H, I, F, and V with offset distances of 0, 10, and 20 cm Offset distances

0 cm

Handle positions P Body parts Upper arm Forearm

10 cm

20 cm

H I

V F

P

H

I

V

F

P

H

I

V

F

2

1

1

2

1

1

2

2

2

2

1

3

3

3

3

2

2

1

2

2

3

2

1

2

2

3

2

2

2

2

Wrist

3

2

3

1

1

3

2

3

2

2

3

2

3

2

2

Wrist twist

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

Trunk

2

1

1

1

1

3

1

1

1

1

3

2

2

2

2

Neck

2

1

1

1

1

4

1

1

1

1

4

4

4

4

4

Final score

3

3

3

3

3

6

3

3

4

3

6

7

4

7

7

Table 24.4 RULA score of 95th percentile height person for different upper body regions considering handle orientations of P, H, I, F, and V with offset distances of 0, 10, and 20 cm Offset distances

0 cm

Handle positions P

10 cm

20 cm

H I

V F

P

H

I

V

F

P

H

I

V

F

2

1

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

1

2

3

2

3

2

Forearm

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

3

2

2

2

1

Wrist

2

2

3

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

Wrist twist

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

Trunk

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

3

2

2

2

2

Neck

4

1

1

1

1

4

1

1

1

1

4

4

4

4

4

Leg

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Final score

6

3

3

3

3

6

3

3

3

3

7

7

6

7

6

Body parts Upper arm

For 50th percentile height category (Table 24.2), wrist score was ‘2’ for handle positions P, H, and I, whereas ‘1’ for V and F at 0 cm offset. With increased offset distances (i.e., 10 and 20 cm), wrist score was almost similar for all handle positions which was ‘2’, but for handle F, it again reduces to ‘1’ for 20 cm offset. Wrist twist score shows lower value of ‘1’ for all handle positions except H at 0 cm offset. Handle position H had shown wrist twist score of ‘2’ at 0 cm offset as hand was in fully pronated position. This score of ‘2’ is exceeding the limit and needs to reduce according to RULA. For increased offset distances (10 and 20 cm), score was following similar pattern as that for 0 cm offset for all handle positions. Forearm score of ‘1’ was observed for handle positions H and I, whereas for P, V, and F, score was ‘2’ at 0 cm offset. With increased offset (10 and 20 cm), score was almost similar (i.e., ‘2’) for all handle positions except for handle position H at 20 cm which was ‘3’ exceeding the acceptable limit. Upper arm score for all handle positions was ‘1’, ‘2’, and ‘3’ for offsets 0, 10, and 20 cm, respectively, which was within the acceptable range. Trunk and neck scores for handle position P were more than other handle positions for all offset distances. For increased offset (10 and 20 cm),

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handle position P had shown the score of ‘3’ for trunk and ‘4’ for neck. And for 20 cm offset, all handle positions had shown neck score of ‘4’. These scores are exceeding the eligible range. Neck extension was associated with trunk inclination to maintain eye sight horizontal. Neck extension was there for each person for every offset distance except for 50th percentile height at 0 cm offset. For 5th percentile height category (Table 24.3), wrist score was ‘3’ for handle positions P and I, whereas ‘2’ for H and ‘1’ for V and F handle positions at 0 cm offset. With increased offset (10 and 20 cm), wrist score increased to ‘2’ for handle positions H, V and F, but it remains ‘3’ for handle positions P and I which was above the limit. Wrist twist score was within limit for all handle positions at all offsets except for handle position H, for which score was ‘2’. Forearm score was up to ‘2’ for all handle positions at 0 cm. For increased offset (10 and 20 cm), score for handle position P was increased to ‘3’ which is beyond the limit. Upper arm score was ‘1’ for handle positions H, I and F and ‘2’ for handle positions P and V at 0 cm offset. At offset 10 cm, all handle positions observed same score of ‘2’ except for P. At 20 cm offset, all handle positions observed same score of ‘3’ except for P. All these scores are within acceptable range. Trunk and neck scores were ‘2’ for handle position P whereas for other handle positions, score was ‘1’ at 0 cm. With increased offset (10 and 20 cm) trunk score of ‘3’ and neck score of ‘4’ was observed for handle position P. For other handle positions trunk score was ‘1’ at 10 cm and ‘2’ at 20 cm offset, whereas neck score was ‘1’ at 10 cm and ‘4’ at 20 cm offset. For 95th percentile height category (Table 24.4), wrist score was ‘2’ for handle positions P and H, score was ‘1’ for V and F and score was ‘3’ (which is above the acceptable range) for I handle position at 0 cm offset. With increased offset (10 and 20 cm) score was ‘2’ for all handle positions. Wrist twist score was ‘2’ for handle position H and ‘1’ for remaining handle positions for all offset distances. Forearm score varies between ‘1’ and ‘2’ for all handle positions except for handle position P which was ‘3’ at 20 cm offset. Upper arm score varies between ‘1’ and ‘2’ for all handle positions at 0 and 10 cm offsets. But, at 20 cm offset, score was ‘2’ for handle positions P, I, and F and score was ‘3’ for handle positions H and V. All the scores for upper arm were within a range. Trunk score was ‘2’ for handle position P and ‘1’ for remaining handle positions at offset of 0 and 10 cm. But at 20 cm offset, trunk score became ‘3’ for handle position P and ‘2’ for remaining handle positions. Neck score was ‘4’ for handle position P and ‘1’ for remaining handle positions at offset of 0 and 10 cm. At 20 cm offset, neck score was ‘4’ for all handle positions. Handle position H had shown higher wrist twist score because hand was pronated at extreme level. Handle position I had shown higher wrist score for 5th and 95th percentile height category which was beyond the acceptable limit. Wrist score is relevant to grasping of handle. Grasping a handle is very important to deliver the force, and this could be done with good wrist score [18, 19]. Handle positions V and F had shown better score among all handle positions. Inner tilt is present for this handle position where force direction would not be straight. The inward force component of this force could generate an additional moment at elbow joint as well as reduces the net applied force [9]. Some of the body parts had shown more score while some of them had shown unacceptable score for all handle positions at 20 cm

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offset distance for all height percentile category. Handle positions V and F had shown better score among all handle positions at 0 and 10 cm offset. This is because the increasing distance causes a person to lean forward to reach the handle. Posture varied significantly with regard to offset human-cart distance during the pushing task, with a narrower offset distance showing better posture.

24.5 Conclusion The present work demonstrates that the handle orientation, position and offset distance can affect the human comfort in manual cart movement. A nontraditional handle configuration may provide significant benefits to the cart movers. RULA score at various body regions was assessed in CAD environment while considering the manual cart pushing postures with multiple handle configurations and offset distances for different male height categories. A lower individual score (1–2) was observed in all the body parts for vertical (V) and vertical with forward tilt (F) handle orientation configurations at 0 and 10 cm offset for all height percentile (5th, 50th and 95th) category. Each handle position gives more score for individual body parts for 20 cm offset, whereas narrower offset distance shows better postural score. The adapted posture in any work environment is one of the significant parameter for musculoskeletal disorders. Hence, experimental evaluation on suggested handle position configuration is essential to identify the comfort and ease of operation for manual cart movers. Further, various parameters like push force, muscle strain, fatigue, etc. is to be analyzed experimentally in a controlled environment for an actual work situation considering straight and turning movements.

References 1. Ansari, N.A., Sheikh, M.J.: Evaluation of work posture by RULA and REBA: a case study. IOSR J. Mech. Civil Eng. 11(4), 18–23 (2014) 2. Khan, M.R., Ambati, T.: Musculoskeletal pain symptoms in users performing smartphone texting: a preliminary study on institute environment. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 1(90), 103325 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ergon.2022.103325 3. Khan, M.R., Naik, G.: An experimental investigation on postural risks in floor mopping. In: Chakrabarti, A., Poovaiah, R., Bokil, P., Kant, V. (eds.) Design for Tomorrow—Vol. 1. ICoRD 2021. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 221, pp. 39–50. Springer, Singapore (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0041-8_4 4. Khan, M.R., Singh, N.K., Shinde, D.: An ergonomic study: bicycle repairer in rural India. In: Chakrabarti, A. (eds.) Research into Design for a Connected World. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 135, pp. 509–517. Springer, Singapore (2019) 5. Garg, A., Kapellusch, J.M.: Job analysis techniques for distal upper extremity disorders. Rev. Human Factors Ergon. 7(1), 149–196 (2011) 6. Naik, G., Khan, M.R.: Prevalence of MSDs and postural risk assessment in floor mopping activity through subjective and objective measures. Saf. Health Work 11(1), 80–87 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2019.12.005

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7. Bisht, D.S., Khan, M.R.: A novel anatomical woodworking chisel handle. Appl. Ergon. 76, 38–47 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2018.11.010 8. Lee, Y.J., Hoozemans, M.J., van Dieën, J.H.: Handle height and expectation of cart movement affect the control of trunk motion at movement onset in cart pushing. Ergonomics 54(10), 971–982 (2011) 9. Ohnishi, A., Takanokura, M., Sugama, A.: Evaluation of interhandle distance during pushing and pulling of a four-caster cart for upper limb exertion. Saf. Health Work 7(3), 237–243 (2016) 10. Lin, J.H., McGorry, R.W., Chang, C.C.: Effects of handle orientation and between-handle distance on bi-manual isometric push strength. Appl. Ergon. 43(4), 664–670 (2012) 11. Grobelny, J., Michalski, R.: Preventing work-related musculoskeletal disorders in manufacturing by digital human modeling. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 17(22), 8676 (2020) 12. Stack, T., Ostrom, L.T., Wilhelmsen, C.A.: Occupational Ergonomics: A Practical Approach. Wiley (2016, May 2) 13. Hoozemans, M.J., Slaghuis, W., Faber, G.S., van Dieen, J.H.: Cart pushing: the effects of magnitude and direction of the exerted push force, and of trunk inclination on low back loading. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 37(11–12), 832–844 (2007) 14. Song, D., Kim, E., Bak, H., Shing, G.: Effect of hand loads on upper extremity muscle activity during pushing and pulling motions. Appl. Ergon. 96, 103504 (2021) 15. Lowndes, B.R., Heald, E.A., Hallbeck, M.S.: Ergonomics and comfort in lawn mower handle positioning: an evaluation of handle geometry. Appl. Ergon. 1(51), 1–8 (2015) 16. Young, J.G., Lin, J.H., Chang, C.C., McGorry, R.W.: The natural angle between the hand and handle and the effect of handle orientation on wrist radial/ulnar deviation during maximal push exertions. Ergonomics 56(4), 682–691 (2013) 17. Chakrabarti, D.: Indian Anthropometric Dimensions for Ergonomic Design Practice. National Institute of Design (1997) 18. Rossi, J., Berton, E., Grélot, L., Barla, C., Vigouroux, L.: Characterisation of forces exerted by the entire hand during the power grip: effect of the handle diameter. Ergonomics 55(6), 682–692 (2012) 19. Sancho-Bru, J.L., Giurintano, D.J., Pérez-González, A., Vergara, M.: Optimum tool handle diameter for a cylinder grip. J. Hand Ther. 16(4), 337–342 (2003)

Chapter 25

Furniture Design: Reimagining a Designer’s Workstation Through an Ergonomic Lens Eriyat Arun Krishna, Subhashree Mohapatra , and Shiva Ji

Abstract Design, unlike any other profession, is commonly recognised as an iterative process requiring a significant amount of physical labour from the outset. Going back and forth to find the materials, one needs might be exceedingly time-consuming and exhausting. Designers encounter several obstacles regarding the equipment they use and the working environment they create. This paper explains how ergonomics can help alleviate some of those issues. The usage of computers, such as laptops, mice, and keyboards, can negatively impact one’s physical health, and these issues must be addressed. To ensure their well-being and safety, ergonomics has been taken into account. This experimental design was conducted based on the double diamond industrial design method. The user survey conducted on 104 participants gave the challenges faced by them using a standard worktable. The survey further focussed on task analysis of the users, human comfort considerations, and empirical datasets of design employees and students. The solution is a product that solves several shortcomings of an ideal office workstation for designers. The product developed is a prototype simulated in Rhino and KeyShot software, which provides customisable office furniture for every user category.

25.1 Introduction Design is commonly recognised as an iterative process, in contrast to any other profession requiring a significant amount of human labour from the ground up to create a meaningful result [1]. As a result, ergonomics and access to these commodities while E. A. Krishna · S. Mohapatra (B) · S. Ji Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana 502284, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Ji e-mail: [email protected] S. Mohapatra Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_25

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working in a workspace are vital considerations. Implementing effective tactics and coordinating efforts are required to mitigate the potential negative consequences to overcome the obstacles [2]. It is imperative in the future to address concerns such as workplace design, education and training, and ergonomics programmes, among other things. In the wake of the new coronavirus outbreak, when more than half of the population is compelled to work from home, which may not be ideal for everyone [3], the ergonomics of the workspace and the challenges associated is considered. The purpose of this study is to emphasise the importance of ergonomics when building a workspace for designers and propose interventions that may alleviate the difficulties that employees are experiencing with their equipment and their work environment. There are a variety of concerns associated with the use of computing equipment such as laptops, mouse, and similar other gadgets, along with various postures adopted that must be addressed to improve physical health [4]. As a response, ergonomic factors are critical for their ability to perform safely and efficiently.

25.1.1 Designer’s Task Analysis Design is a relatively current topic of the study compared to other occupations on the market, having emerged in the late 1900s and evolving ever since [5]. It is a large field that demands an individual’s creative aptitude to complement solid technical understanding in the same domain. There are numerous subfields among the design profession like architecture, fashion, experience design, interior design, interactive design, graphic design, product design, and web design, to mention a few—each with its vocabulary and practices [5]. Establishing the proper physical working space is critical for completing several tasks that need diverse materials and digital equipment at various phases of design [6]. Workplace design should strive to accommodate human needs rather than accommodate people into the design [7]. The layout of seats and workstations in the home/office should seek to create a worker-friendly environment. This enables a worker to perform at their best while preserving good health. Office ergonomics comprises implementing designs appropriate for the workplace, job requirements, and position [8]. It focuses on the chair, desk, keyboard, monitor, and telephone positioning.

25.2 Research Methodology 25.2.1 User Survey, Data Collection, and Analysis The scope of this research was composed of 104 randomly selected design employees and students who are in the design schools of Hyderabad, India, as they were the primary target group who have been working on various design projects in different

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Table 25.1 Designer’s task analysis Sl. No. Task analysis Responses Description 1

Reading

82

Research involves lot of reading

2 3

Watching

97

Viewing content online for insights

Sketching

85

Brainstorming ideas on paper

4

Writing

42

Penning down thoughts and ideas

5

Rendering

57

Three-dimensional modelling, rendering, and video editing

6

Prototyping

36

Workspace to develop a scalable prototype

7

Relaxing

53

Microbreaks to regain the work momentum

environments. Table 25.1 shows the findings of the designer’s task analysis as per the survey results. To reach the aim of this research, a research questionnaire was used among the target groups. Format of the questionnaire composed of questions with multiple choices and subjective questions was applied with the help of online Google Forms, which was converted to charts as shown in Figs. 25.1, 25.2, 25.3, and 25.4. Figure 25.1 questions about having a suitable workspace from home and enjoying work from home (WFH). Figure 25.2 questions about postures of users while working. Figure 25.3 questions about changes after ergonomic adjustments. Figure 25.4 questions the comfort and satisfaction with the initial assessment. Through quantitative and qualitative surveys and personal interview sessions with some targeted users, an ethnographic study was conducted to increase and solidify understanding of the problem that the set of user groups experience. Although the survey results can seldom be considered conclusive proof to proceed with the design process, they can be skewed by respondents’ personal preferences, moods, and consciousness. It highlighted the many behavioural patterns users exhibit when performing various jobs within the workspace, which aids in comprehending the path they commonly take within the workspace. Physical, emotional, and psychological elements may all contribute to the tensions and frustrations experienced by the targeted user group. The survey of 104 candidates who work in various fields of design aided in tabulating and comprehending some typical user challenges. Figure 25.5 depicts the challenges faced by design students in percentage.

25.2.2 Ergonomic Factors Ergonomics is critical to achieving optimal health, productivity, and workplace wellness. Ergonomics is the science of designing workplaces for maximum human efficiency and health [9]. It encompasses five components: safety, comfort, simplicity of use, productivity/performance, and aesthetics [9]. Workplace design has a significant impact on employee productivity. Ergonomics is concerned with optimising space utilisation through equipment placement, incorporating the human component

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Fig. 25.1 Ergonomic assessment on having a suitable workspace in the office and enjoying WFH

Fig. 25.2 Ergonomic assessment on user postures

Fig. 25.3 User data on questions relating to ergonomic adjustments

into workplace design, and efficiently aligning the workplace with its surrounding environment. Maintaining a static position for an extended period can cause back problems, even if the work is not physically taxing. Setting up an ergonomically appropriate workspace at home requires effort on the user’s part to maximise efficiency. Having the ability to order a variety of goods to assist in achieving the most ergonomic office setup possible may not be the case if people work from home

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Fig. 25.4 Ergonomic assessment on comfort and satisfaction with the initial assessment

Fig. 25.5 Challenges faced by design students

Lack of sleep

39.2

Eye strain

70.7

Neck/Body ache

47.2

Lack of physical acvies

71.7 0

20

40

60

80

What among the following difficules you face?

during the pandemic. The pandemic restricts the user’s ability to rush out to the office supply store and purchase what they require. Even if they can, they may be unwilling to spend the money or risk their health. Table 25.2 shows the ranks on problems faced by users due to non-ergonomic furniture. Table 25.2 Ranking by users on problems faced due to non-ergonomic furniture Sl. No.

Ergonomic problems due non-ergonomic furniture

A

B

C

D

E

1

Eye problems

36

25

11

24

08

2

Back pain

24

26

25

46

06

3

Headache

11

06

12

43

32

4

Pain at the elbow

09

12

22

29

32

5

Pain in the wrist and other joints

23

15

19

32

06

6

Neck and shoulder pain

19

25

21

22

14

7

Insomnia

27

19

30

16

12

8

Fatigue

10

21

39

26

08

A—most severe and E—none

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25.3 The Design Approach and Problem Identification Anthropometry is the science that measures the range of body sizes in a population. When designing products, it is essential to remember that people come in many sizes and shapes. Anthropometric data vary considerably between regional populations. Scandinavian populations tend to be taller, while Asian and Italian people tend to be shorter [10]. Recommended dimensions include the height of the bench surface, the depth and width of the bench, the width and height of the backrest, the angle of the backrest, the size of the desk, the depth and width of the desk, and the rise of the desk [11]. Thus, implementing these data will contribute to the creation of comfort, safety, well-being, and appropriateness and the reduction of musculoskeletal disorders and the improvement of students’ attention performance. Additionally, it is strongly suggested to incorporate student requirements into furniture design and offer seminars to educate users about the detrimental consequences of developing poor posture over time while using a work desk.

25.3.1 Design Approach The design process was guided by the double diamond approach, one of the most extensively used design frameworks in the industry [12]. It is a convergent–divergent approach to problem-solving. A design problem always begins with an idea or a hypothesis, but neither will help solve the problem completely, and it is for this reason that a design process must be followed to ensure that steps are correct from the start [12]. The design process enables to shape of an idea rationally into a finite solution. In design, a method is a series of activities undertaken to accomplish a goal. It is nothing more than a sequence of activities undertaken to arrive at a final solution that resolves the user problems identified. Each design approach begins with a fundamental grasp of the situation. It entails conducting extensive research to elicit as many inputs as possible before moving on to the next step, identifying the core problems to understand, narrowing them down to a single focal point around which issue revolves, and initiating innovation based on findings [12]. It is a highly iterative process, as it may require modifications to each phase or backtracking as it progresses.

25.3.2 Challenges and Problems The physical obstacles that constrain the workspace and disrupt the flow of work are briefly discussed in this portion of the study to grasp the fundamental cause of the frustration experienced by users while performing various jobs. Certain businesses overlook basic requirements that contribute to the user’s well-being and happiness.

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Numerous additional circumstances could contribute to a user’s dissatisfaction, such as a conflict with a co-worker or any situation where they cannot achieve a deadline due to physical workplace limits. For some users, the flexibility to move from one location to another can make a significant difference in the quality of the work completed. Users will find it incredibly difficult to shift and move around the workspace if the tables and drawers are too large and heavy [11]. It has long been that designers are a set of users who spend countless hours at their worktable in front of the system, doing whatever it takes to fulfil their deadlines. Long periods spent at work on a non-adjustable surface might result in muscle soreness, stiffness, and other difficulties in the long run for the worker [13]. When there is little storage space or an excessive amount of storage utility, it can make work more difficult. Design that effectively divides often used objects from infrequently used items within the workstation while maintaining the accessibility of those items is one of the most important factors to consider. Space restrictions both on and off the table can hamper the user’s ability to move freely. In addition, because no two users’ journeys are intended to be identical in any way, the table’s constraints vary from person to person. It gets more challenging to cope with changes in requirements. Workplace ergonomics is widely regarded as providing the ideal work–life balance. It is common for a desk to become cluttered due to the interplay of electronic devices with other stationery, especially when working long hours. Every time, users arrive at their place of employment; it becomes pretty difficult for them to rearrange their workspace. Unorganised individuals tend to become bored fast and require stimulation to remain happy [14]. Workspace that is free of the issues mentioned above is essential today to avoid tangled cables, easy space management, and less clutter that comes in the way of productivity.

25.4 Prototyping According to survey data, users prefer less complicated forms. The design should be compact, modest, and simple enough to accommodate humans without interfering with their daily tasks while welcoming the individual whenever they like. Behind the final concept is achieving a design of desired quality in all aspects without compromising the product’s usefulness. Rhino was used to model the form, and KeyShot was used to render it. A customised workspace in one’s home or office reflects one’s personality. The day’s start and, more crucially, the best works are generated in the same workplace. Nothing could go awry if users have a well-designed workspace that pushes them to work smarter and more efficiently. The final product was designed in response to the findings. The product was named SPRUCE-O. SPRUCE-O is an intelligent and ergonomically stable furniture system for designers that infuses their environment and workflow with a new sense of meaning. Enabled by a dual-powered motor externally controlled by a unit, the table surface may be manually adjusted for screens according to the user’s demands and a clever

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solution for incorporating tablets to continue working seamlessly. Its intuitive and intelligent furniture is adaptable to users’ preferences, preventing their area from becoming congested. With customisation, it is ideal for balancing work and leisure activities such as reading and watching movies. The wood framework is joined using a combination of lap and half-lap joineries that are screwed together [15].

25.4.1 Three-Dimensional (3D) Prototype The SPRUCE-O model’s 3D prototype was created in Rhino and meticulously rendered in KeyShot to capture the product’s sense and feel in real life while adhering to the constraints of not constructing the model in a wood workshop. Simulating it in Rhino aided in determining whether any of the moving elements conflicted with one another. Additional clamps can be added to the metal frame secured to the wood to secure the Control Processing Unit (CPU) if the system requires it. Behind the rear panel is a Light-Emitting Diode (LED) strip that can provide a distinct flavour to the decor or lighten the mood of users, as shown in Fig. 25.6. User-adjustable wooden pieces to manage their storage requirements and inbuilt storage with sliders to make accessing items faster and more intelligent. Stopper to secure the laptop and other gadgets against gravity (to prevent any work boards from slipping down), and detachable storage to expand the unit to accommodate extra essentials such as newspapers, books, and magazines as shown in Fig. 25.7. Fig. 25.6 SPRUUCE-O’s rear panel with LE

Fig. 25.7 Storage and other details of SPRUCE-O

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25.5 Conclusion The experimental design seeks to better understand the importance of ergonomics in the workplace and to take a close look at the ergonomic considerations included in the standard design. Anthropometry and user feedback are the other key factors to keep in mind while designing any product. Several recommendations are made to promote health and safety and eliminate risk factors that contribute to musculoskeletal injuries. A cluttered, unorganised work environment can be detrimental to productivity. When visual distractions surround workers, concentration becomes difficult. As a result, stress levels may rapidly rise. To avoid these events, one must maximise the use of available space by arranging workstations so that everyone has adequate personal space. Each must have employee furniture that is suited to their needs. According to the poll, standard office desks, for example, are generally designed for people over six feet tall. This means that the majority of female employees and some male employees are sitting in an inappropriate position that prevents them from comfortably operating a computer without straining their neck or adding to their lower back strain. The product design follows the double diamond methodology as it aids in providing accurate design solutions to design problems. The product solves both anthropometric and ergonomic challenges while proving to be an asset for WFH workers. The table, SPRUCE-O, has a LED-lit rear end as both aesthetics and illumination feature. Multiple styles of storage make different kinds of products used by the user to be stored. This further assists the user by not getting up again and again during their total work hours for essential items. Adjustable height of the table with stopper for gadgets keeps the posture perfect for the user. This feature lets the worker sit and work for long hours, which is impossible with the conventional type of tables available. The table is lightweight due to the use of wooden boards and thin but sturdy metals, making it easy to shift around.

References 1. Clark, G., Kosoris, J., Hong, L.N., Crul, M.: Design for sustainability: current trends in sustainable product design and development. Sustainability 409–424 (2009). https://doi.org/10.3390/ su1030409 2. Ulug, M.: Biophobia effect of biophilic furniture design, a critical approach on furniture design. In: 6th International E-Conference on New Trends in Architecture and Interior Design, July 2021 3. Barbour, N., Menon, N., Mannering, F.: Transportation research interdisciplinary perspectives a statistical assessment of work-from-home participation during different stages of the COVID19 pandemic. Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect. 11(May), 100441 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.trip.2021.100441 4. Domljan, D.: Furniture Design Using Function Analysis, Mar 2017 5. Gero, J.S.: Creativity, emergence and evolution in design. Knowl. Based Syst. 9(7), 435–448 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0950-7051(96)01054-4 6. Wilson, I., Desai, D.A.: Anthropometric measurements for ergonomic design of students’ furniture in India. Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J. 20, 232–239 (2017)

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7. Simonetto, M., Arena, S., Peron, M.: A methodological framework to integrate motion capture system and virtual reality for assembly system 4.0 workplace design. Saf. Sci. 146(Oct 2021), 105561 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105561 8. Danielsson, C.B.: Office employees’ perception of workspace contribution: a gender and office design perspective. Environ. Behav. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1177/001391651875914 9. Salvendy, G.: Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics (2012) 10. Indian Anthropometric Dimensions 11. Smardzewski, J.: Furniture Design (2015) 12. Heffernan, K.J.: Design Thinking 101—The Double Diamond Approach. https://medium.com/ seek-blog/design-thinking-101-the-double-diamond-approach-ii-4c0ce62f64c7. Accessed 15 Nov 2021 13. Mokdad, M., Al-Ansari, M.: Anthropometrics for the design of Bahraini school furniture. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 39(5), 728–735 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERGON.2009.02.006 14. Uzun, O., Çınar, H.: Educational satisfaction and expectation of future careers of the students in the furniture and design education. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 1, 129–135 (2009). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.024 15. Muhammad Suandi, M.E., Amlus, M.H., Hemdi, A.R., Abd Rahim, S.Z., Ghazali, M.F., Rahim, N.L.: A review on sustainability characteristics development for wooden furniture design. Sustainability 14(14) (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148748

Chapter 26

Evaluation of Ergonomic Issues, Mental Stress, and Performance of Higher Education Students Due to Online Education Mode During COVID-19 Avantika Verma and Sonal Atreya Abstract As the COVID-19 pandemic spread, offices and schools were forced to close their doors and enter a virtual world. More than a billion students, including 320 million in India, were unable to attend schools or higher educational institutions. The ‘new normal’ resulted in higher screen time and longer work durations in poorly built makeshift workstations. The aim of this study is to identify and assess the ergonomic concerns, mental stress, and performance of higher education students associated with online learning. The literature review included articles, journals, and case studies. Specific research gaps were observed regarding the research context and the sample population. We conducted a survey, where we adopted the questionnaire method and received 62 responses. The research questions were categorized into workstation characteristics, physical discomfort, and mental health issues. Analysis and recommendations were made based on the responses and images received from the respondents. The findings indicate that 43.5% of respondents did not have a workstation setup ready at home. Due to this reason, the respondents reported significant issues like headache, eye strain, and distraction due to the environment of the home. This shift in the work environment resulted in a shift in sleep patterns and restlessness, affecting the students’ performance.

26.1 Introduction COVID-19, a novel coronavirus disease, was declared a public health emergency of worldwide significance by the World Health Organization (WHO) in January 2020 and was later labeled a pandemic in March 2020 [1]. This moment of the crisis caused widespread stress among individuals of all ages, which impacted many A. Verma Department of Architecture and Planning, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India S. Atreya (B) Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_26

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aspects of life, including education. Anticipating a worsening of the crisis, several higher education institutions worldwide, shifted to online learning and put physical classes on hold. The closure affected more than 90% of the world’s student population, with 34,337,594 students in India alone (this number includes learners enrolled in tertiary education in Indian universities, as of May 03, 2020) [2]. Educational institutions used a range of innovative solutions, including conducting online classrooms using software and applications such as Zoom, Microsoft, Google Classroom, and Google Docs to bridge the gap of physical classes and continue their studies. The home environment is more vulnerable to difficulties than the office, schools, or colleges due to lack of ergonomic furniture making it challenging to adopt a good posture and contributes to musculoskeletal (MSK) issues [3]. Extended screen time can cause fatigue, headaches, and other vision-related problems. The need to stay at home for an extended amount of time may intensify depression and anxiety, leading to changes in habits and diet [4]. This might lead to social isolation and depression and cause tension, worry, and loneliness, affecting performance and well-being [5]. Due to a sudden shift to online learning and other contexts, a unique framework is needed for investigating the link between physical and mental health. While many studies examine the relationship between poor ergonomics and a higher risk of musculoskeletal injuries, there is not much information on workstations in home-based work environment that the COVID-19 pandemic requires.

26.2 Objective The study aimed to survey higher education students on their home workstations, specifically ergonomic stressors, and muscular discomfort. In addition, the impact of cognitive and behavioral changes on performance was evaluated.

26.3 Methodology The methodology included a survey, photographic analysis, and ergonomic considerations and recommendations. Data was gathered from primary and secondary sources. The questionnaire method was used in the primary research, with the survey questions being divided into three sections: workstation characteristics, physical discomfort, and mental health concerns. For preparing the questionnaire, existing studies were referred [6]. The study included a brief examination of existing workstation ergonomics, musculoskeletal issues, and psychological consequences of the pandemic. The secondary research assisted in understanding the topic and identifying the gaps in existing interventions. This research was limited to the undergraduate students at the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. Random sampling

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technique was employed to select the respondents, and the questionnaire was circulated to 140 students. 62 students returned the questionnaire. The mean age of the respondents was 19.89 ± 1.27 years, with 62.9% of them being male.

26.4 Results Students moved from universities to their homes to set up workstations for online learning using what they already had at home: dining tables and chairs and other makeshift workstations. Unsuitable arrangements like a computer onto a kitchen table, a laptop in a chair, or work done while reclining in bed or on the floor are examples of such makeshift workstations. While greater than half of the respondents stated they use a traditional chair and table setup, the remainder appear to work from either bed, while a marginal number use mat and sit on the floor (Fig. 26.1). Laptops are commonly utilized in home workstations, followed by smartphones and desktop computer and tablet. Similarly, laptops are also widely used as they are portable. Their usage is high at above 90% [7]. Even if students had their own laptops, the conditions necessitated by the pandemic might have led students to share devices with others in their household working or learning remotely [8] (Figs. 26.2 and 26.3). A recent study reported that overall digital device usage during the pandemic increased by 5 h, giving a rise to screen time up to 8.8 h per day among younger adults [9]. Likewise in our study, almost half of the respondents reported spending 4–8 h. on their workstations. When it comes to supporting proper working postures, makeshift workstations are unsuitable. For example, while typing or using the touchpad on a laptop when seated on a sofa, wrist and arm postures put strain on the upper back, and the neck extends to glance down at the screen [10]. External input devices, such as a keyboard and mouse, cause lesser computer-related discomfort than laptops [11]. Fig. 26.1 Type of workstation

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Laptop

Smartphone

Desktop computer

Survey response frequency

Tablet

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Laptop

Smartphone

Desktop computer

Tablet

Survey response frequency

Fig. 26.3 Time spent at the workstation

Furthermore, improper chair height and armrest position can be linked to musculoskeletal pain [12]. Although laptop is a portable device that can be used anywhere, having it on one’s lap can be an uncomfortable ergonomic position. While using a laptop, the eyes should be level with the top of the screen, rather than gazing down, which causes neck strain. The elbows should be bent, and the hips, knees, and ankles should be flexed at 90-degree angles. The lumbar support in the chair should be appropriate [13]. The common challenges at home workstations were identified based on the images received. Most of them had laptops that were too low for their eyes, but they tried to compensate by utilizing a stand in certain situations. The work surfaces were hard around the edges. Some of the workstations were in the busiest areas, such as the drawing rooms, which could cause distractions while working. Only a few students used external devices like keyboards for comfortable hand positioning (Fig. 26.4).

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Fig. 26.4 Workstations used by the students for online learning

Fig. 26.5 Controllable factors at the workstations

Controllable factors at the workstations were studied. More than half of the respondents stated that they could control the amount of lighting, while rest of them stated the control over the level of noise and ventilation. Parameters related to furniture like position, height, etc., were the least adjustable (Fig. 26.5).

26.4.1 Physical Concerns Previous studies concerning the ergonomic issues faced by university employees suggested that more than 40% of employees experienced discomfort working from home in several bodily regions, including the eyes/neck/head, upper back/shoulders,

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and lower back, according to earlier studies on the prevalence of discomfort in university workers. This can be attributed to prevalent laptop use, which was strongly correlated with makeshift workstations such as a bed or couch with poor ergonomics [6]. Similarly, in our study, more than three-fourths of the respondents stated they experienced pain or stiffness in their neck and shoulders, followed by back pain or stiffness while studying from home. They also noted pain and stiffness in the hands/wrists, hips/thighs, knees, ankle/feet, and elbows (Figs. 26.6 and 26.7). Fig. 26.6 Discomfort due to workstations

Fig. 26.7 Eye problems experienced

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Fig. 26.8 Ergonomic considerations followed

Around one-third of the respondents do not use glasses for their eyesight. From the remaining fraction who wear glasses, 37.1% reported that their eyesight has not changed after the onset of online mode, while 32.3% reported that their eyesight has worsened. The respondents also reported having other eye conditions like headache, eye strain, sore/watery eye, and dry eye. A few typical faults people make when setting up their workstations might lead to health problems like repetitive strain injury (RSI), cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs), and musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). MSDs encompass a wide range of inflammatory and degenerative muscle, tendon, and nerve illnesses. MSDs can affect body parts, including the neck, upper and lower back, shoulders, elbows, wrists, and hands, resulting in pain and functional impairment [13]. The respondents were following one or more of the primary ergonomic considerations for home workstations like keeping their back supported and straight, taking periodic breaks for stretching their muscles, relaxing their eyes, keeping their screen positioned at correct distance and level, keeping their feet flat on the floor or footrest, and keeping wrists flat while typing and using the mouse. However, the percentage of respondents who could follow these ergonomic considerations was higher for those who used chair and table setups compared to other types of workstations (Fig. 26.8).

26.4.2 Mental Health Concerns Mental health is becoming an increasingly important concern, with social isolation and loneliness topping the list of challenges for college students. Research has reported stress and sleeping disorders as some of the most common health complaints among late adolescents and young adults [14]. It can be due to variable sleep patterns

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and excessive media use [15]. Indeed, empirical research reveals that emotional and intellectual stress negatively impacts sleep pattern, resulting in fewer hours of sleep, more sleep interruptions, and later wake-up times, especially during stressful times impacting students’ academic success [16, 17]. Likewise, in our study, the respondents stated observing cognitive changes in themselves including decreased efficiency, difficulty in concentrating, decision making, and memory problems. They also stated observing behavioral changes in themselves including changes in sleep patterns, restlessness, anger issues, and changes in eating habits (Figs. 26.9 and 26.10). Fig. 26.9 Cognitive changes

Fig. 26.10 Behavioral changes

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Fig. 26.11 Effect of physical problems on work performance

26.4.3 Work Performance Because of the freedom that online education provides, students must remain motivated and focused on maintaining a healthy balance between academics, extracurriculars, and home life. Distance learners must be more focused, manage their time well, work individually and in groups, and have strong self-motivation and self-discipline [18]. An individual’s ability to self-regulate their learning, gather resources, and seek peer assistance to understand what it takes to attain the happy medium is critical [19]. In our survey, participants were asked to compare and evaluate their performance in terms of academics, productivity, and well-being before and after the onset of the pandemic. They were asked to rate the effect on a scale of one to five ranging from ‘not at all affected’ to ‘extremely affected.’ Most participants agreed that their performance was ‘moderately affected’ due to physical and mental health concerns. Comparing this percentage to previous studies wherein, more than 75% of respondents claimed they had little to no discomfort in their regular office setting before to COVID-19, but that, as a result of the switch to telework, their discomfort symptoms dramatically increased. Forced social isolation and reduced physical activity due to remote working could negatively impact both physical and mental health [20] (Figs. 26.11 and 26.12).

26.5 Discussion The responses of students who are learning at home raise concerns about their long-term health. More severe problems, such as MSDs, can develop due to the widespread discomfort. Students’ performance, absenteeism, and presenteeism will all suffer with its prevalence. Limited research has been conducted to evaluate the

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Fig. 26.12 Effect of mental health issues on work performance

ergonomics of makeshift workstations environment to physical discomfort, mental health concerns, and behavioral changes. In terms of musculoskeletal problems, there were some notable findings. The survey’s findings may not entirely reflect the views of all students, but they do throw light on common concerns regarding home workstations. Students, residing in remote towns, may have unstable internet and fewer choices for setting up a home workstation.

26.6 Conclusions 43.5% of the respondents worked on temporary workstations other than conventional chair and table setups that yielded poor postures. From the questionnaire and the photographs, it can be concluded that the workstations were not adjustable in terms of back support, armrests, height, etc. The screen’s distance from the eyes and the viewing angle generated in these workstations may cause eye-related conditions like eye strain and headache. Since there is no dedicated space for working, there is distraction and disturbance in the home environment (due to noise, family members, etc.), affecting work performance and changes in sleep patterns and restlessness. COVID-related panic might have contributed to the stress levels and weariness. Most participants reported their work performance to be ‘moderately affected’ due to physical and mental health challenges.

26.7 Future Scope The completion of this study adds to the research of online learning physical and mental health issues. Numerous universities had incorporated procedures to adapt their methods of delivering education to the demands of their students. The model of blended learning relocates content delivery online and puts emphasis on active

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learning during in-person sessions [21]. The results of this study demonstrate opportunities for improving ergonomics of home workstations. Similar studies have identified respondents who typically work while sitting on the bed, dining chairs, or poor worksurfaces. Therefore, the importance of ergonomic awareness, as well empowering home workers to make positive changes, is a need for the changing work requirements [22]. This study has identified the gaps which need to be addressed by developing strategies for creating adequate ergonomic conditions in online learning environments to better understand students’ physical and cognitive limitations and expectations.

References 1. Masters, K., Ellaway, R.: e-Learning in medical education guide 32 part 2: technology, management and design. Med. Teach. 30(5), 474–489 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1080/014215908021 08349 2. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF): Rapid Assessment of Learning During School Closures in the Context of COVID-19, New Delhi, India (2021). https://www.unicef.org/india/ media/6121/file/Report%20on%20rapid%20assess-ment%20of%20learning%20during%20s chool%20closures%20in%20context%20of%20COVID-19.pdf 3. Pillastrini, P., Mugnai, R., Bertozzi, L., Costi, S., Curti, S., Guccione, A., Mattioli, S., Violante, F.S.: Effectiveness of an ergonomic intervention on work-related posture and low back pain in video display terminal operators: a 3 year cross-over trial. Appl. Ergon. 41(3), 436–443 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2009.09.008 4. Di Renzo, L., Gualtieri, P., Pivari, F., Soldati, L., Attinà, A., Cinelli, G., Leggeri, C., Caparello, G., Barrea, L., Scerbo, F., Esposito, E., et al.: Eating habits and lifestyle changes during COVID19 lockdown: an Italian survey. J. Transl. Med. 18(1), 1–15 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12967-020-02399-5 5. Grant, C.A., Wallace, L.M., Spurgeon, P.C.: An exploration of the psychological factors affecting remote e-worker’s job effectiveness, well-being and work-life balance. Empl. Relat. (2013). https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-08-2012-0059 6. Gerding, T., Syck, M., Daniel, D., Naylor, J., Kotowski, S.E., Gillespie, G.L., Freeman, A.M., Huston, T.R., Davis, K.G.: An assessment of ergonomic issues in the home offices of university employees sent home due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Work 68(4), 981–992 (2021). https:// doi.org/10.3233/WOR-205294 7. Gierdowski, D.C.: ECAR Study of Community College Students and Information Technology (2019) 8. López, M.G., Chiner-Oms, Á., García de Viedma, D., Ruiz-Rodriguez, P., Bracho, M.A., Cancino-Muñoz, I., D’Auria, G., de Marco, G., García-González, N., Goig, G.A., GómezNavarro, I., et al.: The first wave of the COVID-19 epidemic in Spain was associated with early introductions and fast spread of a dominating genetic variant. Nat. Genet. 53(10), 1405–1414 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-021-00936-6 9. Allen, M.S., Walter, E.E., Swann, C.: Sedentary behaviour and risk of anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Affect. Disord. 242, 5–13 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad. 2018.08.081 10. Werth, A.J., Babski-Reeves, K.: Assessing posture while typing on portable computing devices in traditional work environments and at home. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 1258–1262. SAGE Publications, Los Angeles (2012). https://doi.org/10.1177/1071181312561223

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11. Buckle, P.W., Devereux, J.J.: The nature of work-related neck and upper limb musculoskeletal disorders. Appl. Ergon. 33(3), 207–217 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-6870(02)000 14-5 12. Blocher, J.M., De Montes, L.S., Willis, E.M., Tucker, G.: Online learning: examining the successful student profile. J. Interact. Online Learn. 1(2), 1–12 (2002) 13. Jacobs, K., Johnson, P., Dennerlein, J., Peterson, D., Kaufman, J., Gold, J., Williams, S., Richmond, N., Karban, S., Firn, E., Ansong, E., et al.: University students’ notebook computer use. Appl. Ergon. 40(3), 404–409 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2008.11.009 14. Yang, C.M., Wu, C.H., Hsieh, M.H., Liu, M.H., Lu, F.H.: Coping with sleep disturbances among young adults: a survey of first-year college students in Taiwan. Behav. Med. 29(3), 133–138 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1080/08964280309596066 15. Tavernier, R., Willoughby, T.: Sleep problems: predictor or outcome of media use among emerging adults at university? J. Sleep Res. 23(4), 389–396 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1111/ jsr.12132 16. Naicker, K., Galambos, N.L., Zeng, Y., Senthilselvan, A., Colman, I.: Social, demographic, and health outcomes in the 10 years following adolescent depression. J. Adolesc. Health 52(5), 533–538 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.12.016 17. Abdulghani, H.M., Al-Drees, A.A., Khalil, M.S., Ahmad, F., Ponnamperuma, G.G., Amin, Z.: What factors determine academic achievement in high achieving undergraduate medical students? A qualitative study. Med. Teacher 36(sup1), S43–S48 (2014). https://doi.org/10. 3109/0142159X.2014.886011 18. Asundi, K., Odell, D., Luce, A., Dennerlein, J.T.: Notebook computer use on a desk, lap and lap support: effects on posture, performance and comfort. Ergonomics 53(1), 74–82 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1080/00140130903389043 19. Rodrigues, M.S., Leite, R.D., Lelis, C.M., Chaves, T.C.: Differences in ergonomic and workstation factors between computer office workers with and without reported musculoskeletal pain. Work 57(4), 563–572 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-172582 20. Torales, J., O’Higgins, M., Castaldelli-Maia, J.M., Ventriglio, A.: The outbreak of COVID-19 coronavirus and its impact on global mental health. Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry 66(4), 317–320 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020915212 21. Murphy, M.P.: COVID-19 and emergency eLearning: consequences of the securitization of higher education for post-pandemic pedagogy. Contemp. Secur. Policy 41(3), 492–505 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2020.1761749 22. Meydanlioglu, A., Arikan, F.: Effect of hybrid learning in higher education. Int. J. Inf. Commun. Eng. 8(5), 1292–1295 (2014). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1092346

Chapter 27

An Empirical Study on the Impact of Emotional Intelligence on Design Thinking in Industry 4.0 Praveen M. Kulkarni, Prayag Gokhale, and Saurabh Pote

Abstract Design is pervasive; it transfuses into all compasses of life, and it has been everywhere as long as life has taken up the task of persistently altering the ecosphere around it. Design has been an integral part of industry 4.0. The fourth industrial revolution comprises a combination of technologies to facilitate connected intelligence and industrial autonomy. Industry 4.0 has affectedly transformed the field of innovation, and the way design in engineering is carried out. This work endeavors to experimentally detangle the impact that the five factors of emotional intelligence namely self-awareness, social skills self-regulation, motivation, and empathy have on the five phases of design thinking namely empathize, define, ideate, prototype, and test. The preliminary results of the study suggest that various factors of emotional intelligence have a varied effect on the various stages of design thinking and emotional intelligence. The study also attempts to build a comprehensive model to understand and alter the impact of these emotional intelligence factors to get a positive result and effectively help in the implementation of the design thinking process in industry 4.0.

27.1 Introduction The following section gives an introduction to the variable used in the study namely emotional intelligence and design thinking along with the relevant works of literature reviewed.

P. M. Kulkarni · S. Pote Department of MBA, KLE Dr. M. S. Sheshgiri College of Engineering and Technology, Udyambag, Belgaum 590008, India e-mail: [email protected] P. Gokhale (B) Department of MBA, K.L.S. Gogte Institute of Technology, Belagavi, Karnataka 590008, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_27

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27.1.1 Emotional Intelligence In psychology, emotions are understood as organized responses, crossing physiological, cognitive, motivational, and experiential thresholds [1]. Emotions are usually a response to an event, either internally or externally, that has a positive or a negative effect on the person [2]. In this dynamic world where one experiences change constantly, there arises a need for keeping emotions intact [3]. A person’s emotions decide how he/she feels and behaves at a given point in time [4]. If emotions can be channelized in the right direction, they can act as a driving force to accomplish the given objective [5]. The ability to channel the emotion in the right direction depends on how emotionally stable a person is [6]. This emotional stability can be termed emotional intelligence [6, 7]. When one is emotionally intelligent, they can monitor their feelings as well as others, know how to distinguish between them, and use this information to guide their thinking and actions [8]. People with different beliefs, values, systems, and personalities portray their emotions differently [9]. In a generic sense, emotional intelligence consists of five domains: personal (self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-motivation) and social (social awareness and social skills) competencies [10]. When individuals have high emotional intelligence, they can identify the emotions they are experiencing, what these emotions mean and how those emotions impact their behavior and those around them [11]. Managing other people’s emotions is a little more complicated; one cannot control what they feel or do [12]. In this situation, if one understands the emotional intentions of others, he/she would be in a better place to deal with it [13]. An organization can utilize emotional intelligence to facilitate better teamwork [14], deal effectively with changing dynamics of the business environment, improve people skills [14, 15], realize the impact of every situation, and manage stressful situations daily [14, 15].

27.1.2 Design Thinking Traditionally, science disciplines were responsible for teaching about nature: what it is, what it does, and how it works [16]. For centuries, engineering schools have taught about artificial things: how to make things with desirable properties and how to design them [16, 17]. Generally, when we think of design, we believe it is an idea or plan for constructing an object, system, or implementation of an activity or process, or the outcome of that plan or specification, as evidenced by prototypes, products, or processes [18]. Designing was restricted to a few line of work like artwork, architectural plans, engineering drawings, business processes, circuit diagrams, and others [19]. The concept of design has evolved over a while [20]. With the theory of evolutions: utility theory, statistical design theory to computational methods like computations in

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linear programming, control theory, and dynamic programming, and use of heuristics for choosing satisfactory alternatives to the formal logic of design like imperative and declarative logic, designing has come a long way [20, 21]. Designers have mastered the skills during a century of professional practice and are applying them in productive ways to more problems than have been generally believed, problems that are social, organizational, technological, and business orientations [22]. The business world has evolved from following a traditional way of modeling business processes to creatively designing the process with the view of expected outcomes [23]. Tim Brown, a designer, researcher, and chairperson of IDEO, believes that design thinking (DT) is a human-centered approach to innovation that draws from the designer’s toolkit to integrate the needs of people, the possibilities of technology, and the requirements for business success [24]. Among many others, IDEO, a creative designing firm, has been instrumental in implementing the thought process of design thinking into their work, including Apple’s first mouse, the Palm V PDA, and Steelcase’s Leap chair [24]. • Phases of Design Thinking The stages of design thinking comprise five interlaced sequential phases [25], which include • Empathize: understanding the characteristics of the targeted users [25]. • Define: define the problem, team, client requirements, goals, and Standard Operating Procedures [25]. • Ideate: brainstorming to generate ideas [25]. • Prototype: creating a physical representation of a solution to the problem [25]. • Test: check the functioning of the designed solutions [25].

27.2 Research Methods Concerning the literature analyzed, the subsequent research methodology was used to gather and analyze the data.

27.2.1 Research Design and Instrument An exploratory research design is adopted in this research to understand the impact of emotional intelligence on the design thinking process adopted in the company [11]. The data was collected in phases of the design thinking process via a five-pointer Likert scale structured questionnaire adopted from the original study conducted by Daneil Goleman [26] which consists of 25 items and 50 number of questions [27].

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27.2.2 Data Collection For this study, the data was collected from the managers of the design and development department of 24 companies in the Belagavi district, Karnataka, India (Fragmentation is specified in Table 27.1) that have adopted industry 4.0 and design thinking as a part of their work culture

27.2.3 Data Analysis Tools The collected data is analyzed using a paired sample t-test, which is used in understanding the variance among the observations [28]. Consequently, in this research, the variance among the various elements of emotional intelligence and the various stages of design thinking is deliberated. Paired sample t-test is appropriate since the data is accumulated using a five-pointer Likert scale [29], from 24 companies in the Belagavi district that have adopted industry 4.0 and design thinking as a part of their work culture. The profile is done based on the number of employees working in the organization.

27.3 Outcomes and Deliberations 27.3.1 Outcomes of the Study The outcomes of the research are presented in this section in Tables 27.2 and 27.3. The outcomes of the analysis are presented regarding the association between the various elements of emotional intelligence at the various stages of the design thinking process. Table 27.3 shows that most of the elements like emotional awareness, initiative, service orientation, optimism, self-confidence, building bonds, developing others, and innovativeness are the elements of emotional intelligence that have a negative impact on the empathize phase of the design thinking process, whereas influence, change catalyst, emotional awareness, team capabilities, collaboration and cooperation, conscientiousness, conflict management, self-control, accurate selfassessment, adaptability, achievement drive, leveraging diversity, communication, political awareness, commitment, trustworthiness, leveraging diversity show a positive impact on the empathize phase of the design thinking process. However, the T stat shows the positive and negative impact of the various elements on the empathize phase of design thinking. But, emotional awareness, innovativeness, influence, and change catalyst have a significant value of more the 0.05 which indicates that these elements do not have a significant impact on the empathize phase of design thinking.

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Table 27.1 Elements of emotional intelligence [10] Self-awareness Emotional awareness (EA)

Recognizing one’s emotions and their effects

Accurate self-assessment (ASA)

Knowing one’s strengths and limits

Self-confidence (SC)

Sureness about one’s self-worth and capabilities

Self-regulation Self-control (SCT)

Managing disruptive emotions and impulses

Trustworthiness (TW)

Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity

Conscientiousness (CT)

Taking responsibility for personal performance

Adaptability (AD)

Flexibility in handling change

Innovativeness (INO)

Being comfortable with and open to novel ideas and new information

Self-motivation Achievement drive (AD)

Determined to improvise the standard of excellence

Commitment (CO)

Alignment of group goals with organizational goals

Initiative (IN)

Willingness to grab opportunities

Optimism (OP)

Achieving goals regardless of hindrances and impediments

Social awareness Empathy (EM)

Understanding the feelings and perspectives of others, and showing concern toward others

Service orientation (SO)

Recognizing, anticipating, and meeting customers’ needs

Developing others (DO)

Sensing what others need to develop and strengthen their capabilities

Leveraging diversity (LD)

Educating opportunities through people with diverse social backgrounds

Political awareness (PA)

Ability to understand a group’s emotional currents and power relationships

Social skills Influence (IF)

Wielding effective tactics for persuasion

Communication (COM)

Sending clear and convincing messages

Leadership (LDR)

Inspiring and guiding groups and people

Change catalyst (CC)

Initiating or managing change

Conflict management (CM)

Negotiating and resolving disagreements

Building bonds (BB)

Nurturing instrumental relationships

Collaboration and cooperation (CCP)

Working with others toward shared goals

Team capabilities (TC)

Creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals

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Table 27.2 Profile of respondents Profile of the respondents (no. of employees)

N

Percentage (%)

150–200

8

33.33

75–150

7

29.17

50–75

4

16.67

Less than 50

5

20.83

Total

24

100

Table 27.3 Association between the elements of emotional intelligence and the empathize phase of design thinking Association

T

Sig. (2-tailed)

Association

T

Sig. (2-tailed)

EA ↔ EMP

1.39

0.12

SO ↔ EMP

− 4.36

0

ASA ↔ EMP

2.14

0.02

DO ↔ EMP

− 2.05

0.03

0

LD ↔ EMP

3.11

0 0

SC ↔ EMP

− 2.96

SCT ↔ EMP

2.06

0.03

PA ↔ EMP

3.62

TW ↔ EMP

5.15

0

IF ↔ EMP

0.14

0.79

CT ↔ EMP

1.91

0.04

COM ↔ EMP

3.46

0

ADP ↔ EMP

2.52

0

LDR ↔ EMP

5.42

0

INO ↔ EMP

− 1.52

0.09

CC ↔ EMP

1.25

0.11

2.37

0.01

CM ↔ EMP

1.93

0.02

− 2.66

AD ↔ EMP CO ↔ EMP

4.52

0

BB ↔ EMP

IN ↔ EMP

− 5.86

0

CCP ↔ EMP

1.85

0.02

OP ↔ EMP

− 4.32

0

TC ↔ EMP

1.74

0.01

EM ↔ EMP

− 10.22

0

0

Table 27.4 shows that most of the elements like empathy, initiative, service orientation, optimism, self-confidence, and developing others, are the elements of emotional intelligence that have a negative impact on the define phase of the design thinking process, whereas Emotional awareness, accurate self-assessment, self-control, trustworthiness, conscientiousness, adaptability, innovativeness, achievement drive, commitment, leveraging diversity, political awareness, influence, communication, leadership, change catalyst, conflict management, building bonds, collaboration and cooperation, and team capabilities show a positive impact on the define phase of the design thinking process. However, the T stat shows the positive and negative impact of the various elements on the define phase of design thinking. But, innovativeness, influence, and change catalyst have a significant value of more the 0.05 which indicates that these elements do not have a significant impact on the empathize phase of design thinking. Table 27.5 shows that most of the elements like empathy, initiative, service orientation, optimism, self-confidence, developing others, and innovativeness are the

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Table 27.4 Relationship between elements of emotional intelligence and the define phase of design thinking Association

T

Sig. (2-tailed)

Association

T

Sig. (2-tailed)

EA ↔ DF

1.25

0.11

SO ↔ DF

− 3.92

0

ASA ↔ DF

1.93

0.02

DO ↔ DF

− 1.85

0.02

0

LD ↔ DF

2.79

0 0

SC ↔ DF

− 2.66

SCT ↔ DF

1.85

0.02

PA ↔ DF

3.26

TW ↔ DF

4.63

0

IF ↔ DF

0.13

0.71

CT ↔ DF

1.72

0.03

COM ↔ DF

3.11

0

ADP ↔ DF

2.27

0

LDR ↔ DF

4.88

0

INO ↔ DF

− 1.37

0.08

CC ↔ DF

1.12

0.09

2.13

0.01

CM ↔ DF

1.74

0.01

AD ↔ DF CO ↔ DF

4.07

0

BB ↔ DF

IN ↔ DF

− 5.27

0

CCP ↔ DF

− 2.4 1.67

0.02

OP ↔ DF

− 3.89

0

TC ↔ DF

1.56

0.01

EM ↔ DF

− 9.19

0

0

DF define

elements of emotional intelligence that have a negative impact on the ideate phase of the design thinking process, whereas emotional awareness, accurate self-assessment, self-control, trustworthiness, conscientiousness, adaptability, achievement drive, commitment, leveraging diversity, political awareness, influence, communication, leadership, change catalyst, conflict management, building bonds, collaboration and cooperation, and team capabilities show a positive impact on the ideate phase of the design thinking process. However, the T stat shows the positive and negative impact of the various elements on the ideate phase of design thinking. But, emotional awareness, innovativeness, and influence have a significant value of more the 0.05 which indicates that these elements do not have a significant impact on the ideate phase of design thinking. Table 27.6 shows that most of the elements like empathy, initiative, service orientation, optimism, self-confidence, building bonds, and developing others are the elements of emotional intelligence that have a negative impact on the prototype phase of the design thinking process, whereas emotional awareness, accurate self-assessment, self-control, trustworthiness, conscientiousness, adaptability, achievement drive, commitment, leveraging diversity, political awareness, influence, communication, leadership, change catalyst, conflict management, collaboration and cooperation, and team capabilities show a positive impact on the prototype phase of the design thinking process. However, the T-stat shows the positive and negative impact of the various elements on the prototype phase of design thinking. But, emotional awareness, influence, and change catalyst have a significant value of more the 0.05 which indicates that these elements do not have a significant impact on the prototype phase of design thinking.

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Table 27.5 Relationship between elements of emotional intelligence and the ideate phase of design thinking Association

T

Sig. (2-tailed)

Association

T

Sig. (2-tailed)

EA ↔ ID

1.01

0.09

SO ↔ ID

− 3.18

0

ASA ↔ ID

1.56

0.01

DO ↔ ID

− 1.5

0.02

0

LD ↔ ID

2.26

0 0

SC ↔ ID

− 2.16

SCT ↔ ID

1.5

0.02

PA ↔ ID

2.64

TW ↔ ID

3.75

0

IF ↔ ID

0.1

0.58

CT ↔ ID

1.39

0.03

COM ↔ ID

2.52

0

ADP ↔ ID

1.84

0

LDR ↔ ID

3.95

0

INO ↔ ID

− 1.11

0.07

CC ↔ ID

0.91

0.08

1.73

0.01

CM ↔ ID

1.41

0.01

− 1.94

AD ↔ ID CO ↔ ID

3.29

0

BB ↔ ID

IN ↔ ID

− 4.27

0

CCP ↔ ID

1.35

0.02

OP ↔ ID

− 3.15

0

TC ↔ ID

1.26

0.01

EM ↔ ID

− 7.45

0

0

ID ideate Table 27.6 Relationship between elements of emotional intelligence and the prototype phase of design thinking Association EA ↔ PRT ASA ↔ PRT SC ↔ PRT

T

Sig. (2-tailed)

Association

T

Sig. (2-tailed)

0.82

0.07

SO ↔ PRT

− 2.57

0

1.26

0.01

DO ↔ PRT

− 1.21

0.02

0

LD ↔ PRT

1.83

0 0

− 1.75

SCT ↔ PRT

1.22

0.02

PA ↔ PRT

2.14

TW ↔ PRT

3.04

0

IF ↔ PRT

0.09

0.47

CT ↔ PRT

1.13

0.02

COM ↔ PRT

2.04

0

1.49

ADP ↔ PRT INO ↔ PRT AD ↔ PRT CO ↔ PRT

0

LDR ↔ PRT

3.2

0

− 0.9

0.05

CC ↔ PRT

0.74

0.06

1.4

0.01

CM ↔ PRT

1.14

0.01

2.67

0

BB ↔ PRT

− 1.57

IN ↔ PRT

− 3.46

0

CCP ↔ PRT

1.1

0.01

OP ↔ PRT

− 2.55

0

TC ↔ PRT

1.02

0.01

EM ↔ PRT

− 6.03

0

PRT prototype

0

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Table 27.7 Relationship between elements of emotional intelligence and the test phase of design thinking Association

T

Sig. (2-tailed)

Association

T

Sig. (2-tailed)

INO ↔ TE

0.66

0.06

SC ↔ TE

− 2.08

0

PA ↔ TE

1.02

0.01

AD ↔ TE

− 0.98

0.01

0

LDR ↔ TE

1.49

0

TW ↔ TE

− 1.42

LD ↔ TE

0.99

0.01

CM ↔ TE

1.73

0

CCP ↔ TE

2.46

0

AD ↔ TE

0.07

0.38

SO ↔ TE

0.91

0.02

CC ↔ TE

1.65

0

1.21

0

TC ↔ TE

2.59

0

0.04

CO ↔ TE

0.6

0.05

0

DO ↔ TE

0.92

0.01

COM ↔ TE IN ↔ TE

− 0.73

IF ↔ TE

1.13

BB ↔ TE

0

CT ↔ TE

− 1.27

ASA ↔ TE

− 2.8

0

EM ↔ TE

0.89

0.01

SCT ↔ TE

− 2.07

0

OP ↔ TE

0.83

0.01

EA ↔ TE

− 4.89

0

2.16

0

TE test

Table 27.7 shows that most the elements like emotional awareness, accurate self-assessment self-confidence, self-control, trustworthiness, conscientiousness, achievement drive, and initiative are the elements of emotional intelligence that have a negative impact on the prototype phase of the design thinking process, whereas adaptability, innovativeness, commitment, optimism, empathy, service orientation, developing others, leveraging diversity, political awareness, influence, communication, leadership, change catalyst, conflict management, building bonds, collaboration and cooperation, and team capabilities show a positive impact on the prototype phase of the design thinking process. However, the T-stat shows the positive and negative impact of the various elements on the prototype phase of design thinking. But, innovativeness and achievement drive have a significant value of more the 0.05 which indicates that these elements do not have a significant impact on the prototype phase of design thinking.

27.3.2 Deliberation 27.3.2.1

Design Thinking and Industry 4.0

The latitude of emotional intelligence is further than its application in design thinking; the areas of research for this study were curved on to, the relationship between the elements of emotional intelligence and the various phases of design thinking. The results concerning the impact of the various elements of emotional intelligence on the

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respective phases of design thinking show that except for a few elements of emotional intelligence like emotional awareness, innovativeness, influence, and change catalyst other elements of emotional intelligence have a significant impact on the various phases of design thinking. The decision-makers in the companies implementing industry 4.0 and are adopting design thinking as a part of their work culture should understand that emotional intelligence plays a vital role in the successful adoption of the design thinking process and cannot be ignored. The various elements of emotional intelligence as discussed above should be bifurcated based on a positive and negative impact and have to be properly managed to ensure the successful implementation of the process of design thinking in industry 4.0.

27.3.2.2

Practical Implications

The alternative role of emotional intelligence is to make the decision-makers aware of the diversified level of employees in the organization and this, in turn, will assist the decision-makers in the allotment of roles to the employees based on their level of emotional intelligence this will ensure a successful implementation of Industry 4.0 in the organization.

27.3.2.3

Academic Implications

The study contributes to the body of knowledge in design thinking by introducing the elements of emotional intelligence and its impact during the various phases of implementing the design thinking methodology. In this study, it is found that various elements of emotional intelligence have varying impact in terms of Negative impact, positive impact which can be further classified significant and insignificant on the phases of design thinking. Thus, this would help the academicians, researchers, and the implementers of design thinking to device proper measures to mitigate the impact of the negatively significant factors and enhance the positively significant factors for a successful implementation of design thinking methodology in the industry.

27.4 Conclusions To realize a competitive advantage, the companies must attempt to develop their employees by adopting the various tools used for assessing the level of emotional intelligence among their employees. The current study indicates that design thinking has become an integral part of the implementation of industry 4.0 and for successful adoption of the design thinking process a proper understanding of the level of emotional intelligence among the employees has to be done. The outcomes of this study have indicated proper insight into the elements of emotional intelligence of the

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employees which will in turn assist the decision-makers in successfully implementing the industry 4.0 with design thinking as the core behind this implementation. Additionally, the study will also make available complete information for augmenting emotional intelligence and its role in design thinking, which will make available a widespread understanding of the various elements that positively or negatively influence the adoption of design thinking while implementing industry 4.0.

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16. Zamora-Polo, F., Sánchez-Martín, J.: Teaching for a better world. Sustainability and sustainable development goals in the construction of a change-maker university. Sustainability 11(15), 4224 (2019) 17. Meyer, M.W., Norman, D.: Changing design education for the 21st century. She Ji J. Des. Econ. Innov. 6(1), 13–49 (2020) 18. Sacks, R., Brilakis, I., Pikas, E., Xie, H.S., Girolami, M.: Construction with digital twin information systems. Data-Centric Eng. 1 (2020) 19. Sacks, R., Eastman, C., Lee, G., Teicholz, P.: BIM Handbook: A Guide to Building Information Modeling for Owners, Designers, Engineers, Contractors, and Facility Managers. Wiley, New York (2018) 20. Harrison, D.J., Geller, D.S., Gill, J.D., Lewis, V.O., Gorlick, R.: Current and future therapeutic approaches for osteosarcoma. Expert Rev. Anticancer Ther. 18(1), 39–50 (2018) 21. Coit, D.W., Zio, E.: The evolution of system reliability optimization. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 192, 106259 (2019) 22. Weil, D., Mayfield, M.: Tomorrow’s critical design competencies: building a course system for 21st century designers. She Ji J. Des. Econ. Innov. 6(2), 157–169 (2020) 23. Sjödin, D., Parida, V., Jovanovic, M., Visnjic, I.: Value creation and value capture alignment in business model innovation: a process view on outcome-based business models. J. Prod. Innov. Manag. 37(2), 158–183 (2020) 24. Swaid, S.I., Suid, T.Z.: Celebrating design thinking in tech education: the data science education case. In: International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, pp. 66–70. Springer, Cham (2021, July) 25. Appleyard, M.M., Enders, A.H., Velazquez, H.: Regaining R&D leadership: the role of design thinking and creative forbearance. Calif. Manage. Rev. 62(2), 12–29 (2020) 26. Cherniss, C., Goleman, D., Emmerling, R., Cowan, K., Adler, M.: Bringing Emotional Intelligence to the Workplace, pp. 1–34. New Brunswick, NJ: Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations, Rutgers University (1998) 27. Sala, F.: Emotional Competence Inventory: Technical Manual. McClelland Center For Research, HayGroup, Philadelphia (2002) 28. Kelter, R.: Analysis of Bayesian posterior significance and effect size indices for the two-sample t-test to support reproducible medical research. BMC Med. Res. Methodol. 20(1), 1–18 (2020) 29. Kim, T.K., Park, J.H.: More about the basic assumptions of t-test: normality and sample size. Korean J. Anesthesiol. 72(4), 331–335 (2019)

Chapter 28

Menstrual Pad and Its Packaging for People with One-Hand Function Aayaan Khan and Shubhangana Singh

Abstract Opening and closing a menstrual pad with one hand are difficult. Primary research showed that the process takes much time and effort and also at times leads to compromised hygiene of the pad. Thus, it was realized that design interventions were needed in menstrual pads so that people with one functional hand who menstruate can use menstrual pads with ease. Moreover, users are bound to use papers or even polythene bags to dispose of the pad which is not sustainable and is harmful on a large scale. The aim was to ease the whole process of using a pad right from opening to disposing it off so that using a pad is not a struggle anymore for people with one-hand function. The objective was to redesign the pad and its packaging and also focus on the sustainability aspect. Different concepts were explored and the final solution was designed keeping in mind the ease of use and comfort of the target users. The packaging has one round elastic band at one end and a sealed sleeve at the other. The adhesive mechanism of the pad that sticks to the underwear is inspired from that of Band-Aid which makes it quite smooth to use with one hand. Thus, there is no need to keep the pad face down to remove the cover of the adhesive, which compromises with the hygiene of it. Usability testing of the final design was conducted with eight able-bodied participants. The results showed an average time reduction of 23.37 s during opening of the packaging and 7.88 s during closing the packaging for disposal. The solution designed is such that it can be implemented by pad manufactures without compromising on the cost or introducing any significant change in the process of making pads and its packaging.

28.1 Introduction According to the 2011 World Report on Disability by the World Health Organization/World Bank, there are an estimated 1 billion persons with disabilities worldwide, of whom 2–4% experience significant difficulties in functioning [1]. About A. Khan (B) · S. Singh Department of Design, Shiv Nadar (IoE Dtb) University, Delhi, NCR, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_28

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10 million are amputated, which include about 30% of arm amputees [2, 3]. Moreover, in most OECD countries, women report higher incidence of disability than men [1]. September 2015 marked a turning point in the lives of people with disabilities when the Sustainable Development Goals for the period of 2015–2030 were adopted during the 2015 UNGA [4]. The focus of this research paper lies on the intersection of SDG 3: good health and well-being, period poverty, and people with one-hand function. After thorough research, it was realized that people with a one-hand function such as amputees and those who have stroke-induced hemiplegia, or congenital disorder, needed design interventions in menstrual pads. Though current pads, with some trouble, can be opened with one hand, primary research showed that the process takes much time and effort and may also lead to compromised hygiene of the pad. Although menstrual cups are a sustainable and economical alternative, many people who menstruate still use pads for various reasons. Research showed that nearly 55.1% people preferred menstrual pads, 38% menstrual cups, and only 7% preferred tampons [5]. Moreover, research and surveys conducted on Menstrual Hygiene Management in Nepal show that disposable menstrual pads with wings were the most preferred menstrual product by the participants; at the same time, “hygienic and environmentally friendly disposal behaviours were often inadequate” [6]. One of the participants highlighted that they preferred disposable pads since they did not have to wash them which otherwise was a big challenge with respect to their disability [6]. Studies suggest that people with disabilities prefer disposable menstrual pads over other alternatives like menstrual cups or tampons as they are difficult to use and their insertion requires use of “hands, arms, and fingers” [7]. Moreover, period products are rarely made for people with disabilities, and the ones that are made are not economical [7]. The aim of this research was to ease the whole process of using a pad right from the opening to disposing of it so that using it does not remain a struggle anymore for people with one-hand function. The objective was to redesign the pad and its packaging and also look at it from the sustainability point of view since many people who menstruate are bound to use papers or even polythene bags to dispose of the pad which is not sustainable and is harmful on a large scale, thus making menstrual pads accessible to people who have special physical needs.

28.2 Problem Identification To understand the gravity of the problem, we first decided to analyze how ablebodied people who menstruate open and dispose of menstrual pads. This helped us understand that there is no particular way to open and dispose of the pads. Different people do it in their own ways depending on the facilities they have, they adapt to the situations.

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28.2.1 Basic Steps of Opening a Menstrual Pad 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Get in a comfortable position: sitting for comfortable reach. Holding a napkin in one hand and peeling off the wrapper with another. Fold out flaps/wings. Align the pad to the central line of the underwear. Position to most effective area. Unfold wings to the other side of the undergarment and stick it. Wear underwear as usual.

28.2.2 The Basic Steps for Disposing the Pad 1. 2. 3. 4.

Get into a comfortable/convenient position. Fold the back wings (detach). Pick a corner of the longer axis of the pad and roll the used napkin. Dispose by wrapping in a paper or the pouch typically provided with the napkin.

28.2.3 Problem Identification User testing was conducted with eight able-bodied people who menstruate. They were asked to open and dispose of the pads the way they usually do but using just one of their hands. They all preferred to perform the tasks with their dominant hand. Some of the problems that were encountered are: While opening the pad 1. Five people flipped the pad face down in order to remove the cover from the backside. This compromised the hygiene of the pad. 2. It took the people longer to remove the cover from the backside of the pad with one hand. 3. Three people even used their second hand to remove the cover (Fig. 28.1). While closing the pad 1. All the users said that they used either newspaper or polyethene to wrap the pad and then they disposed it off. So, they had to remember to carry them at all times with them in addition to a new pad to exchange into. 2. Not every user wrapped the pad in a way that it remained sealed after throwing it away. Some just wrapped it without securing it, and thus, the wrapper opened up immediately after it was thrown away (Fig. 28.2).

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Fig. 28.1 Flipping the pad facedown which in turn is compromising the hygiene of the pad

Fig. 28.2 Taking another accessory, i.e., a newspaper to dispose of the pad

28.2.4 Edge Cases When talking about Indian context, it was felt that it is important to consider changing of menstrual pads while standing. Since many Indian households use squat toilets which do not have enough floor space, people with one-hand function who menstruate would face difficulty in applying and/or changing pads.

28.3 Ideations After thorough research, we were able to find the lacunae that needed design interventions. After stumbling upon the possible user target by personal experience, we had a clear problem statement with us—design pads for people with single-hand function.

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Fig. 28.3 Different ideations of packaging

In the ideation phase, we realized that the problem can be looked at from the perspective of packaging and there is no need to redesign the menstrual pad as such (Fig. 28.3).

28.4 Design We explored designs and chose the final concept that was most suitable for the target user and also fit other criteria such as ease of manufacturing, sustainability, and adaptability with respect to the current menstrual pads.

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Fig. 28.4 (Left to right, top to bottom) Steps to open the packaging and take out the menstrual pad. The process to dispose of the pad is just the reverse of this

28.4.1 Proposed Design Solution The packaging has two round elastic bands at its respective ends. One of the bands forms a loop which helps in closing the package shut. When the flap is slid through this looped elastic and the package opens up, the pad inside remains in its place with the help of these two elastic bands and can easily be taken out using one hand. The disposing of the pad follows the same process in reverse, thus utilizing the packaging entirely (Fig. 28.4).

28.4.2 Iterations of Proposed Design Solution See Table 28.1.

28.4.3 Final Design Solution The final design solution chosen is Iteration 3 of the proposed design solution. It was preferred by the participants among the other iterations as they were able to easily open and close it. It also catered to the edge case where the user is using an Indian squat toilet where they needed a place to hang pad when they were changing it while standing up (Figs. 28.5 and 28.6). The adhesive mechanism of the pad is inspired from that of a Band-Aid. The cover over the adhesive is split into two and thus can be taken out quite smoothly with one hand. Thus, there is no need to keep the pad face down to remove the cover on the adhesive, which compromises with the hygiene of it. This feature also helps in its easy application on the underwear (Fig. 28.7).

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Table 28.1 Comparison of different iterations of proposed design solution Prototype

Features

Justification

Iteration 1

Two horizontal cuts in the flaps

Avoid buckling

Second elastic band at the bottom is replaced with a folded flap

Acts both as a seal and a pocket for the pad to fit into so that the pad stays in place even when it is held vertically (when people are changing it while standing up)

The cuts in the flaps are removed

Opening and closing the flaps became difficult

Introduced a loop

Function as a hanger for the packaging to be hung so that the pad can be changed without worrying about where to put the pad and its packaging during the whole process

One round elastic band at one end

• The band forms a loop which helps in closing the package shut • When the flap is slid through this looped elastic, the package opens up • The elastic loop that is used to close the pad packaging can also be used as a hanger

A sealed sleeve at the other end

The pad inside remains in its place with the help of elastic band and sealed sleeve. It can easily be taken out using one hand

Iteration 2

Iteration 3

Fig. 28.5 Packaging has one round elastic band at one end and a sealed sleeve at the other. The band forms a loop which helps in closing the package shut

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Fig. 28.6 Loop is introduced that will function as a hanger for the packaging to be hung

Fig. 28.7 Band-aid inspired adhesive cover for easy application of pad on underwears

Material exploration Glassine sheets along with recycled paper sheets (> 350 GSM) have been chosen for the packaging of pads. Glassine is pH neutral and acid-free. And, it is resistant to moisture, air, and grease. Because it is made from wood pulp, glassine is fully recyclable and biodegradable—making it a sustainable material choice. It is comparatively more durable than corn starch and other sustainable alternatives. The solutions provide a safe and environment-friendly approach along with ease of use single handedly.

28.5 Testing Usability testing of the final design solution was conducted with eight able-bodied participants. The participants were first asked to open and close the current menstrual

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Table 28.2 Time required in opening and closing for current pads and proposed design solution Participants

Opening time (s)

Closing time (s)

Current pads

Final design solution

Current pads

Final design solution

P1

35.49

13.07

27.00

31.09

P2

33.52

10.48

31.27

28.30

P3

35.14

9.46

31.49

15.28

P4

36.32

10.14

32.21

19.36

P5

32.46

11.25

28.17

21.81

P6

32.58

10.31

30.01

19.42

P7

34.38

9.59

28.23

17.48

P8

33.41

12.04

28.19

22.26

Average time (s)

34.16

10.79

29.70

21.81

pads the way they usually do and repeat the process for the final design prototype. Time taken by the participants to complete each activity was then analyzed by calculating the average time taken (Table 28.2). The results showed a significant average time reduction of 23.37 s during opening of the packaging, whereas 7.88 s during closing the packaging for disposal. It can be reasoned that the time reduction in closing the packaging of the final design is not as significant as opening; it is because users have different methods of disposing the pad, not necessarily focusing on if it is properly sealed or not.

28.6 Conclusion In conclusion, the final design solution makes the process of opening and closing the menstrual pad with one hand significantly quicker and efficient. The packaging of the pad is designed such that the pad can be packed in it and disposed of completely sealed. Thus, eliminating the need for the user to carry any extra polythene to wrap the pad and dispose it of, making it all sustainable since the packaging material chosen is glassine sheets along with recycled paper. The adhesive mechanism of the pad is split into two, eliminating the need to keep the pad face down to remove the cover on the adhesive, which compromises with the hygiene of it and can be easily applied with one hand. The loop functions as a hanger, which is beneficial for people who use squat toilets and do not have enough floor space. The solution designed is such that it can be implemented by pad manufactures without compromising on the cost or introducing any significant change in the process of making pads and its packaging.

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28.7 Limitations The first limitation is that the research and the final design solution are based on the assumption that the user’s functional hand has no disability. The second limitation is specifically with respect to the Indian squat toilets, as the design solution necessarily needs a support to hang the pad.

28.8 Scope The future of the design can be seen in the perspective of increasing the scope of the target users who also have disabilities in their one functional hand such as rheumatoid arthritis or other motor disabilities. The design solution can be improved for the people who use Indian squat toilets and need support to hang the pad. Since people dispose of pads in different ways which resulted in less time reduction in disposing the pad during testing, there is scope of improvement where the closing time can be reduced by either creating awareness on why disposing the pads properly is important or through better design interventions.

References 1. UN, Department of Economic and Social Affairs Disability. https://www.un.org/development/ desa/disabilities/resources/factsheet-on-persons-with-disabilities.html 2. LeBlanc, M.: Patient population and other estimates of prosthetics and orthotics in the USA. Orthot. Prosthet. 27(3), 38–44 (1973) 3. LeBlanc, M.: Give Hope—Give a Hand (2008). https://web.stanford.edu/class/engr110/2011/ LeBlanc-03a.pdf. Accessed on 01 May 2016 4. Humanity and Inclusion: Putting People with Disabilities at the Heart of Development. https:// www.hi-us.org/putting_people_with_disabilities_at_the_heart_of_development 5. Statista: Breakdown of the Feminine Hygiene Market Worldwide in 2018, by Segment. https:// www.statista.com/statistics/1075218/market-share-of-feminine-hygiene-worldwide-by-type/ 6. Wilbur, J., Kayastha, S., Mahon, T., Torondel, B., Hameed, S., Sigdel, A., et al.: Qualitative study exploring the barriers to menstrual hygiene management faced by adolescents and young people with a disability, and their carers in the Kavrepalanchok district, Nepal. BMC Public Health 21(1) (2021) 7. Clue: Disabled Periods Have Periods Too. https://helloclue.com/articles/cycle-a-z/menstruatingwhile-disabled

Chapter 29

UI Guidelines for Cultural Sensitivity in Indian Handicraft User Interfaces Renu Kundu, Pushkar Pandey, and Ritwij Bhowmik

Abstract The handicraft artisans of India play an important role in preserving the rich cultural heritage of the nation by passing it from generation to generation. This is one of the largest and unorganized sectors where people are employed on a large scale. However, despite having a very large production base, the market reach of domestic products at the international level is yet to be fully explored. Concurrently, their inperson interaction with the customers/users has manifested an appreciation for the hand-crafted products, as well as the unique and highly valuable manual dexterity and artistic skill of the artisans. With the advent of digital marketing, the social interaction between the artisan, the customer/user, and the craft/art object, has been changed altogether. However, the question remains, whether the customers/users are having the same experience on the digital platforms, as they used to experience it physically. In an effort to understand the current scenario of Indian digital platforms selling/exhibiting handicrafts, and to look forward to the future of Indian handicraft presentations digitally, this research conducted a detailed ethnography study of the craft exhibition ‘Adi Mahotsav’ in both online and offline mode. A series of interviews and journey mapping were taken for a large number of tribal artisans. Their expectations and experience related to the web portals for the same event were recorded. Based on the analysis and insights, UI guidelines were created for cultural sensitivity in Handicraft User Interfaces, which are listed down in the article.

29.1 Introduction Craft, as defined by the Oxford Dictionary, is a vocation requiring specialized ability and expertise, particularly manual art. Artisanal products, according to UNESCO, are R. Kundu (B) · P. Pandey Department of Design, IIT Kanpur, Kanpur, India e-mail: [email protected] R. Bhowmik Department of Humanities and Social Sciences and Design Programme, IIT Kanpur, Kanpur, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_29

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those manufactured totally by hand or with the aid of hand tools or even technology processes, as long as the craftsmen’s direct manual input remains the most significant component of the finished product. Artisan items have unique characteristics that might be utilitarian, aesthetic, creative, culturally connected, ornamental, functional, traditional, religiously and socially meaningful and significant [1].

29.1.1 Importance of Handicrafts India is one of the most diverse lands with 29 states, each with its own unique languages, traditions and religions. Each part of the country has its own unique cultural ethos, which is manifested in the craft of that particular region and gives it a unique identity. Indian culture and lifestyle changes (social, economic, cultural and regional change) every few kilometres, and this cultural variation gives rise to a new art form [2].

29.1.2 Employment and Economy in the Handicraft Sector According to the Ministry of Textiles’ Year-End Review 2020, the handicrafts industry is the second biggest source of jobs, after farming [2]. A lot of artists work in the home sector that isn’t organized, especially in rural areas. Since starting a business in the handicraft industry doesn’t require a lot of money, women and people from other disadvantaged groups can easily join the informal handicraft industry and start making money that will help them live. According to the Ministry of Textiles, Government of India’s annual report for 2016–17, exports of handicrafts, like handmade carpets, are supposed to reach Rs. 34,160 crores in 2016–17. The amount of money from exports in 2016–17 is Rs. 20,869.29 billion [3]. However, despite having a large production base, the market at the international level is still unexplored and the share of India in the world handicraft exports is less than 2% only [3] (Fig. 29.1).

29.2 Background 29.2.1 SWOT Analysis of the Handicraft Sector By scrutinizing the problem, the pain points were concluded as (Table 29.1)

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Fig. 29.1 Handicraft and its features. Source Author Table 29.1 SWOT analysis of the handicraft sector [2] Strength

Weaknesses

Opportunities

Threats

Rich and diversified Lack of design, Increasing emphasis on Handicraft sector is culture producing wide innovation and product development not included in range of unique and technology upgradation and design upgradation government exclusive handicrafts development agendas Availability of unique local raw materials, e.g. jute, leather, etc.

Unstructured and individualized production system

Rising demand in the domestic and traditional markets

Decreasing supply of good quality raw material

Strong existing pool of Lack of strong skilled artisans umbrella sector organization

Government support and preserving craft

Escalating danger from Asian nations

Wide range of traditional production skills derived from indigenous knowledge

Insufficient market information on export trends, opportunities and prices

Rising appreciation by consumers in developed countries

High cost of production renders Indian crafts less competitive in the markets

High potential for empowerment of women, youth and people with disability

Limited resources for Emerging markets in production, distribution Latin America, North and marketing America and European countries

Absence of institutional, support expensive air cargo and freight charges

Low production cost

Limited e-commerce

Reduce spending

Fairtrade practices

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• Due to a lack of knowledge regarding selling platforms and poor prices, artisans were forced to become labourers. • Despite having a big manufacturing base, the international market is still underdeveloped, and India’s share of global handcraft exports is less than 2%. • High potential to sell at a higher price, soft power is decreasing. • After a pandemic, it is vital to switch from an offline to an online platform.

29.3 Research Methodology The experimental investigation described in this paper was carried out in three phases. Initially, the empathy study of the artisans was done through primary study, and a detailed ethnographic study was done on Adi Mahotsav, by taking interviews with tribal artisans. Next, an analysis was done on the existing web portal to know what are its pros and cons. This is a method to integrate Adivasis into the mainstream and provide them with the opportunity to showcase their unique and diverse goods to a bigger audience by improving the user interface. The artisans were contacted and given a thorough explanation of the study’s purpose and methods. They provide informed permission to participate in the research and are interviewed to gather data. In addition, users were given a questionnaire. Videos and audio of the sessions were captured with participant permission and utilized for data analysis (Table 29.2).

29.4 Experimental Procedure 29.4.1 Adi Mahotsav The Adi Mahotsav, an annual tribal festival organized by TRIFED at Dilli Haat, New Delhi, from November 15–30, 2021. This event was organized to draw the Adivasis into the mainstream and give them a chance to display their unique and range of products to a larger audience, with more than 200 stalls from across the country and about 1000 artisans with their unique stories participating [4]. More than 500+ artisans attended the festival and transacted business worth over Rs. 20 crores in the two-week-long festival. More than 500 cultural troupes performed at the festival. The festival, graced by several prominent personalities, had on display over 240 stalls and saw a multitude of rich cultural performances. The aim is to widen the spread and reach of the work of the tribal artisans [4] (Fig. 29.2). Adi Mahotsav conducted in two ways (Figs. 29.3 and 29.4): 1. Online: Each stall and product is exhibited on the web portal. https://www.tribes india.com/ as shown in images. 2. Offline Mode

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Table 29.2 Questionnaires for the artists in Adi Mahotsav, Nov 16–30, 2021

Name: Age: Occupation:

Behaviour

Motivation

Pain points

What is your name and age? What do you do? Why are you here? For how long have you been doing this? How do you do this? How was your journey so far? What do you do when you are not doing this craft work? What are the materials you use? How much time it consumes to make one craft piece? What is your raw material cost also the return on investment? Defect crafts, how it changes artist to artist? How to identify the authenticity of the craft?

What is the purpose of you doing this work? When you have started doing this work? What did motivate you to do this?

What are the problems faced by you? Do you seek any help from the government? Why the traditional handicraft is not so popular in India?

Goal

Need

Consumer behaviour

What do you want to do in future? Where do you see yourself after 5 years? Will you try doing innovation/changes in your art in future? Gallery/shop or anything in future? You want to educate people about your art form?

What do you need to be successful from the govt or any other support? Material, transport, audience or client Situation in your city for your art. Is it successful?

How does customer behave with your art? What kind of people you met?

Questions related to online platforms: Do you use online platform to sell/exhibit your art? If yes, what was your experience? Will you advice to use it to others? If not, what is stopping you to use it? Online/offline—which was more beneficial? Out of 10—online/offline—where you sell more

29.4.2 Site Experiment Persona (Table 29.3)

364 Fig. 29.2 Adi Mahotsav, Nov 16–30, 2021. Source Author

Fig. 29.3 Online site of tribal India

Fig. 29.4 Offline shopping tribal India

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Table 29.3 Personas of artists in Adi Mahotsav, Nov 16–30, 2021

Name: Indra Kumari Age: 40 Occupation: Tribal artisan (textile designer) from Jaipur

Behaviour

Motivation

Pain points

She participates for the last 2 years in the exhibition For the last 18 years, she is working as a designer at anokhi Anokhi is a self-help group of 15–20 house-working ladies’ Most sales are due to orders from govt She is an expert in Gudari handwork and Kantha work

During lockdown/COVID time, they received orders for masks from the government, per mask they received 15–20 rupees Appreciation from the consumer for the craft It is an example of women’s empowerment

Advance money—raw materials Lack of knowledge of the consumer Not getting value for the product

Goals

Needs

Consumer behaviour

She wants to go ahead in the same field Creating new handwork in the same field is her goal During COVID time, her own store of her got closed There are more foreign clients than Indian clients

For purchasing the raw material for the orders, advance payment is needed Delhi has more clients as compared to her hometown Jaipur. There is a need to build an art fair in Jaipur

Need to tell customers regarding craft importance Mostly handwork is addressed as cheap and local Lack of awareness in consumers

Name: Virender Kumar Age: 22 Occupation: Tribal artisans (Handloom) Location: Himachal (Kullu)

Behaviour

Motivation

Pain points

Working for 10 years, plus studying engineering Participated for last 2 years in exhibition Sheep hairs thread—warm water—khadi thread—hand weaving—Kullu art His family is a national awardee for handloom It is his Family business and he works from childhood

Innovation can lead to a loss of authenticity Carry on the family tradition of handloom Build the carrier in the same field

For him studying and handling a family business is hard Never explored international platforms

Goals

Needs

Consumer behaviour (continued)

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Table 29.3 (continued) Want to go ahead in Happy with the current the same field situation He wants to do innovation in the art to increase the sales

Name: Vicky Bhatt—National Awardee (desi handicraft) Occupation: Tribal artisans (Kathputli) Location: Rajasthan (sikkar)

Name: Omkar Lal Age: 45 Occupation: Tribal artisan of miniature art (painting) from Jaipur

Polishing the same handloom is cheaper as compared with the original It is hard to explain to the consumers, the authenticity of the product

Behaviour

Motivation

Pain points

His complete family in this business This craft is passed on from generation to generation in his family He is working from childhood to protect the kathputli culture from selling to the puppet show

He likes to interact with the consumer New consumers and their urge to know about the kathputli culture motivate him the most

Kathputli culture is now vanishing from India Due to the modern era, the kathputli shows are replaced by movie halls

Goal

Needs

Customer behaviour

He wants to educate himself about the online platform His goal is to spread the knowledge of the puppet industry

He earns most of the profit in Mela but a self-owned store is required Technology literacy

Consumers come and check the kathputli search it on the online platform and buy online

Behaviour

Motivation

Pain points

For the last 25 years, he is been working in exhibitions like this His father and forefather also worked in the same traditional work He is working in the Chaminda self-help group of 25–30 (including 12 family members and the rest friends), formed in 2005 The group worked on Rajasthani Miniature art on cloth and silk cloth, using organic handmade colour

It is art which is preserved from his older generation Believe in government authorities and their scheme Working in a group with family and friends motivates him

He has no owned stores He requires advance money for the raw materials According to him, art has no response in India For his art, there is no appreciation in India

Goal

Needs

Customer behaviour (continued)

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Table 29.3 (continued) Want to do innovation in the type of organic colour used For long sustain of the art use handmade paper and silk cloth Want to work in the same field with new creation

Name: Deelip Sham Age: 42 Occupation: Gond artist from Madhya Pradesh

He needs a marketing strategy and has no information about the market In metro city response is more as compared to other cities

Need to tell customers regarding craft importance His artwork is mostly addressed as cheap and local

Behaviour

Motivation

Father, brother and wife are in the same traditional work From the Gond community and has 25 years of experience in Gond painting First Gond art was painted on walls but now canvas is used

Try to do art in a modern Transportation of way to reach the artwork is an issue maximum number of consumer Show culture through his painting

Pain points

Goal

Needs

Want to use acrylic colour in Art for a long time span of painting Explain the knowledge of art to everyone

Need more workshops to Consumers often mix exchange knowledge of different art with Gond different arts art Explaining the novelty of Gond art is an issue

Customer behaviour

29.5 Findings Online Website Analysis The conclusions of the ethnography study are derived from the artist’s interviews. Copyright being major issue, the absence of a touch and feel experience in the internet market is another major source of misery. Miniature painting artists are afraid about not being able to present the details of their work online, and customers misunderstood them as prints. Tribal people not being able to cope up with the technology changes, fail to sell the product online. Because tribal people are unable to keep up with technological advancements, they are unable to market their products online. However, because of the fees charged by Amazon and Flipkart to sellers, the product’s base value rises. The artisan’s livelihood has been severely harmed by the lockdown; they require a market to sell their wares. Because the general public is unaware of art and lacks knowledge of craft workers, their work is undervalued. Ethnography study findings • Fears of not being able to show details online specially in miniature paintings misunderstood as prints

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• Touch and feel the experience is better in the offline market • Artisans don’t understand technology • Amazon and Flipkart charge money from artisans which results in an increase in price value • No public awareness of craft • The lockdown/pandemic had a severe economic effect on the artisan • Online copyright issue (subjective to art). Analysis of existing web portal has depicted the following points • The platform’s user interface (UI) is task-oriented rather than relationship oriented. • It fails to connect with customers owing to a lack of storytelling. • It is not based on cultural significance. • They are unable to provide the necessary experience transfer.

29.6 Observation From the research, it is observed that handicraft is a large sector in terms of economy, employment and cultural importance for a country like India. There is a huge potential for growth in the international market. A new market for handicraft artisans is a need of the hour. Digital platforms can be the potential solution, if the desired experience transfer can be created by bringing innovation to the existing user interfaces by adding more sensitivity. It has been observed through detailed analysis that the existing user interfaces for selling and exhibiting handicrafts are based on task-oriented UX (user experience) approach rather than relationship orientation. Innovation in user interfaces by adding cultural sensitivity can be an important catalyst in creating a digital desired experience transfer between the user and craft. Insights from the Artisan’s interviews are the guidelines for experimenting with the existing user interfaces for exhibiting handicrafts.

29.7 Conclusion and Discussion In this paper, the primary research on the empathy study of tribal artisans is done. A detailed ethnography study has been carried out to understand the artisan’s perspective towards digital platforms (selling/exhibiting Indian handicrafts). The question was answered that the customers/users are not having the same experience on the digital platforms, as they used to experience it physically. There is a need for innovation in designing user interfaces for the selling/exhibiting of Indian handicrafts to get the desired experience.

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A number of findings have been discovered through the ethnography study (as mentioned in the finding section), which could be the guidelines for creating or experimenting with the user interfaces for a more innovative digital solution for handicraft presentation.

29.8 Future Scope This ethnography study was done from the artisans’ perspective; a lot more information can be gathered by interviewing different personas, e.g. customer’s viewpoints, analysis of all existing platforms, experimenting with cultural models, questioning modern age artisans, etc. On the basis of the findings of the study, corrective measures may be designed and executed in a structured way to create a better digital interaction design between craft and users engaged in handicraft and thus to improve their awareness and innovativeness resulting in a more structured, effective, efficient and sustainable system.

References 1. UNESCO and International Trade Centre (ITC): Craft or Artisanal Products | UNESCO UIS (1997). http://Uis.Unesco.Org/En/Glossary-Term/Craft-or-Artisanal-Products. http://uis. unesco.org/en/glossary-term/craft-or-artisanal-products 2. Ranjan, M.P.: Handmade in India: A Geographic Encyclopedia of India Handicrafts, 1st edn. Abbeville Press (2009) 3. Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India: Working Group Report on Handicrafts for the 12th Five Year Plan (n.d.). https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/aboutus/committee/ wrkgrp12/wg_handi1101.pdf 4. Tribal Co-Operative Marketing Development Federation of India Limited (TRIFED): Aadi Mahotsav (2022). https://Trifed.Tribal.Gov.In. https://trifed.tribal.gov.in/retail-market/exhibi tions-tribal-artisan-melas 5. Amisha, S., Rajiv, P., Vidyapith, G.: A study on the sustainability of rural artisans in handicraft sector. Thesis. http://hdl.handle.net/10603/191671 6. Hashmi, S.K.: Millennium institute of management, Aurangabad. Excel Int. J. Res. Soc. Sci. 7(4) (2017). ISSN: 2249-2496 7. KPMG: Fulfilled! E-Commerce Retail Logistics in India, New Delhi (2016). Retrieved from https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/in/pdf/2016/08/E-commerce-retail-logist ics-India.pdf 8. Kulkarni, M.: E-commerce in India: why ishippo.com is eyeing space shunned by Amazon, Flipkart, Snapdeal. Financial Express (2016). Retrieved from http://www.financialexpress. com/industry/e-commerce-in-india-why-ishippo-com-is-eyeing-space-shunned-by-amazonflipkart-snapdeal/290251/ 9. Kumar, D., Rajeev, P.V.: Present scenario of Indian handicraft products—the research publication. Res. Publ. 2(1), 21–27 (2013). Retrieved from http://www.trp.org.in/issues/present-sce nario-of-indian-handicraft-products-2 10. Ministry of Textiles: Press Information Bureau Government of India Ministry of Textiles 30 DEC 2020 6:08 PM by PIB Delhi Year End Review 2020 11. Annual Report 2016–17 of Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India. http://texmin.nic.in/docume nts/annual-report

Chapter 30

A Bibliographic Survey of Indoor Navigation Systems for Autonomous Mobility of People with Visual Impairment and Deafblindness Caio Silva , Bruna Leite , Patrícia Pereira , Petter Krus , and Luciana Pereira Abstract The goal of this paper was to map the literature on indoor navigation system technologies. This knowledge can aid in the design of non-visual interactions, such as haptic feedback, which also enables communication between navigation systems and users with visual impairment and deafblindness. From this perspective, the design of naviagtion systems for orientation in unfamiliar location should apply the concept of mental imagery, which is a cognitive strategy used by our brain to solve problem. Multisensory cues could give tips about the surround environment. For instance, visual cues become tactile maps, recognition based on echolocation, vibration through haptics feelings. These approaches are well-known in aeronautical sciences because they play a key role in the design of human–machine interfaces for aircraft cockpits. Similarly, people with visual impairment and deafblindness need navigation orientation devices that allow alternative sensory experience to help them to navigate with autonomy.

30.1 Introduction Key technologies in aircraft and vehicle navigation systems are now being used for indoor and outdoor navigation for people who are visually impaired. A navigation system allows the user to move from one destination to another while maintaining their position. In other words, a navigation system is a device that can determine someone’s or something’s current location as well as assist in the route to its destination. Navigation system technologies have been used for simple tasks like path planning with obstacles and finding safe routes [1, 2]. C. Silva · B. Leite · P. Pereira · L. Pereira (B) Federal University of ABC, Santo André, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] P. Krus Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_30

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Navigation technologies for people with visual impairments and deafblindness are systems capable of assisting or guiding people with visual impairment, low vision, blindness, or deafblindness through multisensory commands. This process employs a variety of technologies, including ultrasound, cameras, and voice assistance guidance, among others [3]. Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi), laser, and ultrasound are examples of technologies that use human-generated signals to detect obstacles [2, 4, 5]. Indoor location, in contrast to outdoor, where people with visual impairment and deafblindness can access Global Positioning System (GPS) signals to obtain position information, requires other accessible signals. Some signal sources or devices, such as ultra-wideband radio frequency identification (RFID), are pre-deployed in navigation areas [6]. While these devices can provide reliable and accurate signals for indoor locations, they can only be used in areas with pre-deployed signal sources or devices, which leads to higher installation costs. As a result, the purpose of this paper is to outline navigation systems that can be used to support the design of decision-making systems concerning orientation and mobility in exploring indoor environments by people having different sensory information [7] by considering [8]: • Perception of the actual scenario. • Understanding of such scenario. • Prediction of the next scenario. In this sense, there is a significant spillover effect of aeronautical sciences with a major contribution to the autonomy of people with visual impairment concerning autonomous systems such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Most of us pay little attention to spatial orientation, including the information we use when planning and executing routes, as well as how to re-establish our orientation when we become disoriented [9, 10]. Visual cues are commonly used by people with intact vision when they are having difficulty identifying specific information or cognitive strategies used to solve problems. The question now is how to provide these cues using navigation systems like the ones pilots use when flying under instrument flight rules (IFRs) [11]. As a methodological approach, we used a literature review to identify the state of the art in research on indoor navigation systems, combining the goals of accuracy and reliability through analyzing the most used terms in the field, the goal of clarity well defining, justifying, and quantifying the application of the query term and the filters, and goal of brevity restricting the search to only results including the focused concept of situational awareness, so then allowing the researcher to conduct an efficient analysis of the technologies through the identification of methods that can base the development of new systems [12, 13]. The word cloud technique was applied to analyze the collected material. The keywords obtained from the systematic review were used as a base. This method can be thought of as a visual representation of linguistic data, displaying the frequency with which words appear. The image construction technique consists of using different letter sizes and fonts that vary depending on the occurrence of the words, with the most frequently occurring words typically appearing in the center of the image.

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There is also the implication for the system in terms of navigation technologies providing input and output signals. In this case, an intelligent environment is created, which is a system capable of detecting and communicating with devices via a network [14]. Consequently, the structure of the system’s interaction with people with visual impairment and deafblindness was considered through the inclusion of the concept of the user interface and was defined a general architecture of an indoor navigation system for people with visual impairment and deafblindness in comparison with a general autonomous vehicle system architecture. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Sect. 30.2 presents the navigation systems and user interfaces. The methodological strategy is discussed in Sect. 30.3. Findings and conclusions are addressed in Sects. 30.4 and 30.5.

30.2 An Overview of Navigation Systems and User Interfaces In the orientation and mobility field (O&M) for people with visual impairment and deafblindness, the term orientation is related to knowledge of the relative distance and direction to what is watched and/or what is memorized from the surroundings [15]. Orientation also means knowing where the elements are concerning each other and with respect to us. Concerning these concepts’ applications in the mobility of people with visual impairment and deafblindness, the way how they process the spatial information and use them to orientate their locomotion day by day can be approached as a situational awareness process, which is, the building of a mental image of what is happening in the surroundings [16]. That process involves the collection of information from the environment around and its use in decision-making. Consequently, this understanding leads us to the definition of a navigation system. A navigation system is a mechanism able to determine the current position of someone and/or something as well as assist in the route to its destination. Thereby, navigation systems for people with visual impairment and deafblindness refer to systems able to assist or orient people with visual impairment, low vision, total blindness, and/or people with deafblindness, employing multisensory commands that promote situational awareness. Concerning these commands, the user’s interactions with the navigation system occur through the interfaces, and these can be classified according to their internal organization. For example, a meta-user interface is characterized by assigning to the system the responsibility of translating the user’s intent, to actions that the controlled devices must perform [14]. On the other hand, different from outdoor localization when people can access the Global Positioning System (GPS) signals to obtain the position, indoor localization requires other available signals once GPS signals have many interferences in internal buildings. In this sense, some signal sources, such as ultra-wideband (UWB), radio

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frequency identification (RFID), and Bluetooth low energy (BLE) devices, can be pre-deployed in the areas where the navigation occurs [6], which increases the implementation cost. However, it also can be a marketing tool with other customers such as locating—for instance—stores in the airport. Furthermore, the technological innovations passed in the last decades allowed the aid to navigation of vehicles and aircraft that might be used for the indoor and outdoor navigations of people with visual impairment, including two elementary tasks: avoiding obstacles and finding paths [1, 2]. Therefore, many technologies use human-generated signals to detect obstacles, such as Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi), laser, and ultrasound [2, 4, 5], and these can be followed, in the user guidance process, by different interfaces, like directional vibrations and sound, for users with low vision voice assistance [3] in the English language following a universal design visual interface and other interfaces.

30.3 Research Design 30.3.1 Materials and Methods For the development of a literature review based on scientific principles of process repeatability, traceability, and researcher bias constraints in the search, then in the present study, the Systematic Search Flow (SSF) method applied was used by Pagliosa et al. [12]. The method consists of eight activities divided into four stages, as represented below by Pagliosa (Table 30.1). In the first stage, a specific query term applied was defined to a selected scientific bibliographic database. The results, after arrangement in a worksheet, could be processed and refined by the application of a filter of publications in the last five years and a filter of English language materials. Lastly, a final bibliographic portfolio was generated. After this definition of a bibliographic investigation set, in the second and third stages using bibliometric tools, a word cloud and a word dynamic representation were generated with the most frequent keywords used. And posteriorly, an overall architecture was defined and compared for an indoor navigation system.

30.3.2 General Research Steps Scientific Bibliographic Database Searching. The first step in the research methodology was the definition of a bibliographic database. Here, it is important to highlight that, at first, two databases were used, the Periódico Capes and the Web of Science. The first one is an important Brazilian research gateway, funded by the government, which leads to a wide range of international and national databases.

Search strategy

Activity

Source Adapted from Pagliosa et al. [12]

Database consultation

1—Research protocol

Stage Documents’ management

Table 30.1 Stages and activities of the systematic search flow Documents’ selection and standardization

Composition of the documents’ portfolio

Data consolidation

2—Analysis

Reports’ elaboration

3—Synthesis

Writing

4—Writing

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For the case of traceability and reproducibility principles, in this research, only results from the Web of Science database were analyzed, which is internationally recognized. Then, a query term was defined to be applied to the bibliographic database. At first, using the Boolean operator AND, the following simple query term was tested “a” to find results that only approached simultaneously indoor navigation, user interface, and people with visual impairment or deafblindness: • a. (“indoor” AND (“navigation” OR “position*”)) AND “user interface” AND (“blind*” OR “deafblind*”). As a result of this query term, 11 results in the Web of Science were found, with the five most cited majorities related to the “framework” and structure considerations of the systems. Then, the following final sentence “b” was set by examining, essentially, fundamental terms in the study field of indoor navigation and interfaces and considering the research restriction to focused studies using awareness situational for people with visual impairment and deafblindness: • b. “indoor” AND (“situation awareness” OR “situational awareness”) AND (“navig*” OR “position*” OR “localiz*”) AND (“blind*” OR “deafblind*” OR “visual* impair*”) AND (“user interface” OR “assist*” OR “maps” OR “people” OR “visual*” OR “impair*” OR “user” OR “system” OR “detection” OR “vision” OR “sensor” OR “smartphone” OR “aid” OR “mobility” OR “points of interest” OR “travel aid” OR “UWB” OR “BLE”). The Boolean operator “AND” was used in this query term to restrict just results containing terms related to navigating in indoor areas for those with visual impairment or deafblindness, as well as analyzing situational awareness. Moreover, in this expression above, the terms referred to people with visual impairment and people with deafblindness were joined together linked by the “OR” Boolean operator intending to encompass results related to only users with visual impairment, or studies directed to only users with deafblindness, as well as research including both users. The separation between these user terms by the operator “AND” could imply in the review restriction to only results directed simultaneously to people with visual impairment and people with deafblindness, reducing the research coverage and so the reliability through a greater sample. Furthermore, to broaden the scope of the search, as indicated in the query term above, numerous popular terms from the field were inserted in the final part of the expression combined with the logic operator “OR”, that is: “user interface”, “assist*”,“maps”, “people”, “visual*”, “impair*”, “user”, “system”, “detection”, “vision”, “sensor”, “smartphone”, “aid”, “mobility”, “points of interest”, “travel aid”, “UWB”, and “BLE”. Processing and Filters’ Application. The following step was the final data treatment of the bibliographic findings, to determine the investigation set. For this goal, two filters were utilized. The first, which was used to obtain state-of-the-art studies, was a

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filter for only publications from the last five years, i.e., only publications from 2021, 2020, 2019, 2018, and 2017. Secondly, the last filter was applied, which is likewise connected to worldwide scientific reproducibility and is a filter for only publications written in English. Analysis of the Final Bibliographic Investigation Set. To examine the obtained bibliographic portfolio in the second and third stages of the Systematic Research Flow, the RStudio Cloud was employed, which is a development environment for building up statistics studies using the R programming language. The Bibliometrix library, which allows several bibliographic statistical studies and has an interactive interface called Biblioshiny, was utilized to generate the bibliometric analyses inside the RStudio. Using the Biblioshiny’s interactions and importing the final bibliographic collection previously obtained, a word cloud representation was created using the author’s keywords arranged in different sizes and colors based on their frequency. In addition, a word dynamic chart was produced based on the growth in the use of the most popular author keywords. Beyond that, extracting the literature information, lastly a general architecture for the system and its comparison to the architecture of an autonomous vehicle were defined.

30.4 What Emerging Trends Are Influencing Indoor Navigation Systems for People with Visual Impairment and Deafblindness? In the last decade, there have been efforts to map assistive devices that increase the autonomy of people with visual impairment and deafblindness in their everyday activities. When it comes to navigating in an unfamiliar indoor environment, it is critical to investigate technologies that allow those people to perform a great exploration without the use of visual cues, meaning a reliable and precise indoor positioning system with non-visual interactions. Researchers have looked at assistive technologies and indoor positioning systems, but just a few have studied them from the perspective of people with visual impairment and deafblindness. Furthermore, questions of high autonomy and dependability characteristics, which are an intersection with many aeronautical applications like unmanned aerial vehicles, have not been considered.

30.4.1 Applicating the Query Terms As the outcome of the defined methodology, the application of the final query sentence resulted in an amount of eight publications in the Web of Science when no filters were used. When a filter was applied exclusively to studies published in the recent

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five years, one study was removed from the Web of Science’s original eight findings. Furthermore, the second filter, which only allowed publications in English, resulted in no exclusions from the first eight results. Following this, a bibliographic research set portfolio of seven results was obtained after removing that one publication due to the purpose of studying the state of the art in the prior five years. This resulting final bibliographic investigation set is represented in Table 30.2. Therefore, is reasonable to infer, from the results of the query term, that even using the application of different common terms in the field accompanied by an inclusive OR logic operator, the database returned only a few studies, indicating that there aren’t many publications linking indoor navigation, people with visual impairment , deafblindness, and situational awareness.

30.4.2 The Visual Representation of Data Analyzing the obtained bibliographic portfolio utilizing the Bibliometrix library, through bibliometric statistical analyses, was possible to understand the representation of some common terms in the area concerning the research focus publications. Primarily, to describe the bibliographic sample trends’ concepts, the Biblioshiny tool generated the following word cloud representation considering the authors’ keywords of the seven resulting publications (Fig. 30.1): From this representation, is feasible to infer that the expressions relating to the indoor navigation systems’ functionalities, such as “object detection” and “collision risk prediction” have been highlighted in the research field. In addition, there were also some words associated with devices and technologies for indoor navigation like “camera”, “5g”, “bluetooth”, “beacons”, “lidar”, and “computer vision”, as well as terminologies of interfaces characteristics, like “activity-based instructions” and “acoustics”. Then, one more time using bibliometric analyses to depict the dynamic occurrence of conceptual terms, we used the Biblioshiny interface to generate a words’ dynamic chart with the ten most frequent terminologies appointed by the word cloud: “5g”, “acoustics”, “activity-based instruction”, “assisted living”, “assisting systems”, “assistive technology”, “beacons”, “Bluetooth”, “object detection”, and “situational awareness”. So, after setting these expressions, their accumulated use was plotted in a function of the last five years: 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, and 2021 (Fig. 30.2). As a result, comparing the accumulated occurrences of trends´ concepts between 2017 and 2021 is perceivable the growth in the adoption of concepts “object detection” and “situational awareness”, both closely associated with aeronautic applications terms. Also, from the chart, the recent inclusion of assistive concepts is noticeable, as demonstrated by the use of “assistive technology” and “assisted living” recently in 2021, which can evidence an increase in the direction toward consideration of peoples’ needs in the development of indoor navigation systems.

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Table 30.2 Final bibliographic investigation set Author full names

Article title

Real, Santiago; Araujo, Alvaro

Source title

Author keywords

Times cited, all databases

Navigation Systems Sensors for the Blind and Visually Impaired: Past Work, Challenges, and Open Problems [17]

Assisting systems; navigation systems; perception; situation awareness; visually impaired

40

Ko, Eunjeong; Kim, Eun Yi

A Vision-Based Sensors Wayfinding System for Visually Impaired People Using Situation Awareness and Activity-Based Instructions [18]

Wayfinding system; visually impaired people; situation awareness; activity-based instruction; user trajectory recording

17

Nair, Vishnu; Budhai, Manjekar; Olmschenk, Greg; Seiple, William H.; Zhu, Zhigang

ASSIST: Personalized Indoor Navigation via Multimodal Sensors and High-Level Semantic Information [19]

Computer Vision—ECCV 2018 Workshops, PT VI

Indoor positioning; environmental and situational awareness; Bluetooth beacons; Google Tango

4

Li, Zhongen; Song, Fanghao; Clark, Brian C.; Grooms, Dustin R.; Liu, Chang

A Wearable Device for Indoor Imminent Danger Detection and Avoidance with Region-Based Ground Segmentation [20]

IEEE Access

Three-dimensional displays; real-time systems; cameras; acoustics; object detection; navigation; visualization; convolutional neural network; ground segmentation; object detection; point cloud; region of interest; visual impairment; wearable assistive system

3

Cordeiro, Natal Henrique; Pedrino, Emerson Carlos

Collision Risk Prediction for Visually Impaired People Using High Level Information Fusion [16]

Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence

High level information fusion; collision risk prediction; visually impaired people; situation awareness

2

Cordeiro, Natal Henrique; Pedrino, Emerson Carlos

An Architecture for Collision Risk Prediction for Visually Impaired People [21]

Proceedings 2018 31st SIBGRAPI Conference on Graphics, Patterns and Images (SIBGRAPI)

1

(continued)

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Table 30.2 (continued) Author full names

Article title

Source title

Author keywords

Times cited, all databases

Bharati, Vivek

LiDAR Plus Camera Sensor Data Fusion on Mobiles with AI-Based Virtual Sensors to Provide Situational Awareness for the Visually Impaired [22]

2021 IEEE Sensors Applications Symposium (SAS 2021)

LiDAR; camera; 0 sensor data fusion; mobile sensors; virtual sensors; computer vision; speech-to-text; text-to-speech; assisted living; assistive technology; microenvironment; human attention saliency; 5G

Source Elaborated by the authors

Fig. 30.1 Word cloud research representation. Source Elaborated by the authors

Fig. 30.2 Words’ dynamic research representation. Source Elaborated by the authors

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Finally, considering the technologies and functionalities of the bibliographic set investigated together with the consideration of market trends, the following overall draft was developed as represented in Fig. 30.3, appointing the differences and similarities between the design of an indoor navigation system and an autonomous vehicle. Thereby, is possible to infer that the main differences between both architectures is found in the control and commands subsystem, which in a navigation system must besides controlling, provide useful and understandable information for the user. Then, that user is the one who does at a higher level the decision make, as well as the actions of locomotion, configuration, and control of the system in the most adequate way for its use. GENERAL ARCHITECTURE OF AN AUTONOMOUS VEHICLE SYSTEM

• SENSORS DATAS (LIDAR, CAMERAS, RADAR, GPS...) • DATA RECOGNITION MODULES • PROCESSING AND RECOGNITION OF OBSTACLES • PROCESSING OF THE VEHICLE POSITIONING • DATA FUSION

DECISION AND PLANNING • MAPS EVALUATION • USER INTERFACE INPUT EVALUATION • ALGORITHMS OF CALCULUS AND PREDICTION OF DISTANCES AND OBSTACLES • ROUTE PLANNING

PERCEPTION (INPUTS)

VEHICLE ACTIONS (OUTPUTS)

• VEHICLE CONTROL MODULE • DECISION MAKE • INTERRUPTIONS, CANCELLATIONS AND USER COMMANDS • COMMANDS TO THE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS OF THE VEHICLE • USER INTERFACE NOTIFICATIONS

• LOCOMOTION OF THE VEHICLE IN RESPONSE OF THE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS TO THE CONTROL COMMANDS

CONTROL AND COMMANDS

GENERAL ARCHITECTURE OF A NAVIGATION INDOOR SYSTEM FOR PEOPLE WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT AND DEAFBLINDNESS

• SENSORS DATAS (LIDAR, CAMERAS, INERTIAL SENSORS, BLE AND UWB TAGS) • DATA RECOGNITION MODULES (IN THE SERVER ORTHE USER SMARTPHONE) • PROCESSING OF RECOGNITION AND DESCRIPTION OF OBSTACLES (COMPUTATIONAL VISION) • PROCESSING OF THE USER INDOOR POSITIONING (BLE AND UWB COORDINATES) • DATA FUSION

PERCEPTION (INPUTS)

DECISION AND PLANNING

• COMPARISON BETWEEN POSITIONING COORDINATES AND INDOOR ENVIRONMENT MAPS • EVALUATION OF DESIRED DESTINY OF THE USER INTERFACE • ALGORITHMS OF CALCULUS AND ROUTE CORRECTION • ALGORITHMS OF OBSTACLE AVOIDANCE • EVALUATION OF THE OPTIMUM INTERACTION WAY CHOSEN FOR/BY THE USER

• PROVISION IN THE SMARTPHONE OF INSTRUTIONS OF ORIENTATION AND GUIDANCE OF THE USER • RELEASE IN THE SMARTPHONE OF ENVIRONMENT AND OBJECTS DESCRIPTIONS ACCORDING TO THE POSITIONING COORDINATES OF THE USER • NOTIFICATION IN THE SMARTPHONE OF ROUTE DEVIATION AND OBJECT DETECTION

USERS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT AND DEAFBLINDNESS´ ACTIONS (OUTPUT)

• INTERRUPTIONS, CANCELLATIONS AND COMMANDS IN THE SMARTPHONE • DECISION MAKE OF FOLLOW SYSTEM ORIENTATION OR MODIFICATE SYSTEM INPUTS • CONFIGURATION OF OPTIMUM FEEDBACK WAY AND USER INTERACTION WITH THE SYSTEM IN THE SMARTPHONE

CONTROL AND COMMANDS

Fig. 30.3 General system architecture comparison. Source Elaborated by the authors

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30.5 Conclusion In conclusion, by mapping and exploring the state-of-the-art literature through bibliographic searching in the Web of Science database combined with data processing using filters, it was detected that there are only a few publications, the majority in the last five years, correlating indoor navigation, people with visual impairment and deafblindness, and situational awareness. As a contribution of this study, the proposed architecture for the design of an indoor navigation system, we realized that the greatest difference between the architecture of an autonomous vehicle and an indoor navigation system for people with visual impairment and deafblindness occurs in the blocks of control and actions. As suggestions for future works, assessing the diverse navigation devices that meet the needs of an application of indoor navigation system for people with visual impairment and deafblindness, through concept tables and relationship matrixes, it would be possible to evaluate trade-offs aimed at the implementation of the most appropriate devices and interfaces, considering technology parameters, accuracy, uncertainty, protocols and ways of communicating with other devices, cost-effectiveness, as well as parameters of awareness situational. Acknowledgements This project has been sponsored by the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) and the EP32280009/3006.0082.03/202-41.

References 1. Lee, K.M., Li, M., Lin, C.Y.: A novel way-finding method based on geomagnetic field effects and magnetic tensor measurements for visually impaired users. In: 2015 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics (AIM), pp. 232–237, July 2015. IEEE (July) 2. Javed, Y., Khan, Z., Asif, S.: Evaluating indoor location triangulation using Wi-Fi signals. In: International Conference on Emerging Internetworking, Data & Web Technologies, pp. 180– 186, Feb 2019. Springer, Cham (2019) 3. Lakde, C.K., Prasad, P.S.: Review paper on the navigation system for visually impaired people. Int. J. Adv. Res. Comput. Commun. Eng. 4(1) (2015) 4. Martinez-Sala, A.S., Losilla, F., Sánchez-Aarnoutse, J.C., García-Haro, J.: Design, implementation, and evaluation of an indoor navigation system for visually impaired people. Sensors 15(12), 32168–32187 (2015) 5. Kietlinski-Zaleski, J., Yamazato, T.: UWB positioning using known indoor featuresenvironment comparison. In: 2010 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, pp. 1–9, Sept 2010. IEEE (2010) 6. Kulyukin, V., Gharpure, C., Nicholson, J., Pavithran, S.: RFID in robot-assisted indoor navigation for the visually impaired. In: 2004 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS). IEEE Cat. No. 04CH37566, vol. 2, pp. 1979–1984, Sept 2004. IEEE (2004) 7. Maciel, I.M., Felicio, G., da Silva, E.T., Villani, E., Krus, P., Pereira, L., Chakrabarti, A., Poovaiah, R., Bokil, P., Kant, V.: Mental imagery for multisensory designers: Insights for non-visual design cognition. Design for Tomorrow—Volume 1 Proceedings of ICoRD 2021. pp. 109–118. Springer, Singapore (2021)

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Chapter 31

Ergonomic Risk Assessment of Hand Injuries and Accidents Among Soft Marble Carving Artisans of Bhedaghat, Jabalpur M.P. Rajat Kamble, Vishal Patil, Avinash Sahu, Sangeeta Pandit, and Biswadeep Paul Abstract Hand related acute and chronic injuries are common among soft marble carving artisans of Jabalpur. The task is highly repetitive, forceful and involves precession grip. This study aimed to determine the causative factor of work-related hand injuries and accidents so that effective interventions can be suggested to retain the sustainable growth of the artisan’s community. Occupational hand related risk among the artisans was identified using Amended Dutch Questionnaire (ADQ) and Amended Boston Questionnaire (ABQ). Direct observation study was performed to cross-check the reporting of the Questionnaire study. The artisans were found to be prone to the risks of high force, static load, repetitive activity, and vibration. Symptoms like pain, weakness, and difficulty with handling tools were highly prevalent among the artisans, those with experience < 20 years, while numbness (p < 0.001) and tingling (p < 0.05) were highly reported among artisans, those with experience > 31 years. The study indicates that the artisans are at high risk of developing hand pain symptoms and an immediate ergonomic intervention is need for the well-being of the artisans.

31.1 Introduction Art of carving and sculpture has a long history in Indian art and craft sector. One such rich culturally evolved carving and sculpting occupation can be found in Bhedaghat tehsil of Jabalpur district of Madhya Pradesh, India. Here marble carving sector is operational since decades and is the chief source of livelihood for the artisans engaged R. Kamble · V. Patil · A. Sahu · S. Pandit (B) Design Discipline, PDPM Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 482005, India e-mail: [email protected] B. Paul Indian Association of Occupational Health, Mithagar Road, Mulund East, Mumbai 400081, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_31

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Fig. 31.1 a Marble crafting process and b hand symptoms

in it. They manually carve out beautiful artifacts like idols, statue, decorative items, fancy jewelry, etc., from the marble blocks for the visiting tourists, thus contributing toward the Indian economy. The artisans operational in Bhedaghat are predominantly Gond tribes, most of them are illiterate and belong to poor economic background, and they are majorly dependent on the carving work for their livelihood, where most of them earn hand to mouth [1]. The tools they use and their work environment is far from safe and comfortable. It is the need of the hour to explore the needs and problems of the carving artists to provide them with proper work station and to improve the tools for better comfort and reduce the work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMSD) among them [2]. The artisans were seen to work for long working hours in an awkward sitting posture with continuous use of hand tools, thus developing deformities in the hands (see Fig. 31.1) temporarily or sometimes permanently. The marble carving is a manually operated process with personalized tool and is highly labor intensive, repetitive, and monotonous in nature [3, 4]. Prolonged working hours, complex body-work posture, strenuous work space, and highly repetitive hand movement posed artisans to several hand injuries [4]. The artisans engaged in sandstone mine have reported injuries such as cuts, bruise, superficial wound, tear, and laceration [5]. Hand related musculoskeletal disorder (HRMSD) is prevalent among those who uses hand tools in an awkward posture of wrist, make forceful movement, perform repetitive, and precision work [6]. Improper design of hand tools and continuous use of them in sewing operation developed severe hand injuries among workers [7]. Due to slipping of hand tools and impact to hard surfaces in agricultural field, farmers of northern India more often met with cuts and pricks leads to major fatal injuries [8]. The workforce engaged in construction site for wire tying in columns, in absence of proper hand tools uses pliers and available local tools, due to which highly repetitive and forceful exertion of hand tool, causes serious hand/wrist problems [9]. Marble carving belongs to one such handicraft sectors where any discomfort in hands would directly affects the quality of the finished product and the productivity of their work [4]; thus, it is extremely important to conduct a research study focused on the hand related issues among the artisans. Many studies have been conducted on handicraft sectors involving similar work conditions [4, 6, 10, 11], but there are

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no researches done in marble carving sector focusing on the hand related symptoms faced by the artisans. Thus, this study aimed to determine the factors associated with work-related hand injuries and to identify the ergonomic risks involved and thus aid for development of effective ergonomic interventions for the well-being of marble carving artisan’s community in Bhedaghat.

31.2 Methodology 31.2.1 Data Collection and Study Design The study was conducted between March and May 2022 on artisans working at marble artifact from nearby villages of Shilpinagar, Panchavati, Bhagrai, Chargava, Khudri under Bhedaghat Nagar Parishad close to Bhedaghat and Dhuadhar tourist spots. 33 artisans from the above field site selected randomly between the age group of 18–65 years and interviewed. This direct observation helps in the identification of work-related health issues among artisans and their manufacturing process. Participants who were not willing to participate in this study were excluded. All participants participated in this study were skilled artisans and were directly involved with the crafting process. For the study, standard size of marble block 12 × 12 cm2 was processed by all the artisans for carving. The time-frequency computation of the carving process prepared on the basis of videography recorded on the site.

31.2.2 Independent Variables Demographic parameters. The demographic characteristics evaluated in this study are age, work experience, and working hours. Based on age, the artisans were categorized into four groups (< 35), (36–45), (46–55), and (> 56). Likewise, based on experience, it was grouped into four: (< 15), (16–20), (21–30), and (> 31), respectively. Direct observation conducted to assess different task involved in making marble artifact and grouped accordingly. Risk factors associated with workplace. From the observations made on the field site, a Dutch Questionnaire [12] relevant to the work amended and an Amended Dutch Questionnaire (ADQ) was conducted to find the nature of work where ergonomic risk involved among the artisans carving marble artifacts through a subjective response. The Questionnaires were categorized based on the nature of work as shown in the Table 31.1. For assessment ‘never, rarely, sometimes’ (were classified as ‘no’) and ‘most of the time, and always’ (were classified as ‘yes’), respectively. This was then converted to a quantitative data for the analysis.

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Table 31.1 Amended Dutch questionnaire for work nature Nature of work

Code

Questions

Force exertion (F)

F1

Do you often make forceful movements with your fingers and wrist?

F2

Do you perform lifting operations with your hands?

F3

Do you make exerting force by your hands?

D1

Do you make sudden movements of the wrist?

D2

Do you experience twisting movements of fingers/hands?

D3

Do you experience twisting movements of the wrist?

S1

Do you bend your hands/fingers for a prolonged time?

S2

Do you often twist your wrist for a prolonged time?

S3

Do you perform a twisting motion of hands for a prolonged time?

R1

Do you perform the repetitive motion of hands in an awkward posture?

R2

Do you make small movements with fingers/hands at a high pace?

Dynamic loads (D)

Static loads (S)

Repetitive loads (R)

Vibration (V)

R3

Do you make the repetitive motion of the wrist?

V1

Do your fingers/hands experience vibration while working?

V2

Do your wrist experience vibration while working?

31.2.3 Dependent Variables To evaluate hand related ergonomic problems associated with prolonged exposure to marble carving activity, Amended Boston Questionnaire (ABQ) [13] was conducted to understand the severity of hand pain symptoms, where symptom severity scale (SSS) Questionnaire and a Functional Status Scale (FSS) Questionnaire prepared refer Table 31.2 to identify which task has the maximum contribution to artisan’s hand pain. Questionnaires were prepared on a 5-scale rating where ratings 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 signify: never, rarely, sometimes, most of the time, and always, respectively. These ratings were converted to two broad categories for analysis: No (1, 2) and Yes (3, 4, 5). The SSS and FSS Questionnaire will help in identifying the hand related symptoms and the tasks with difficulty in performing due to hand discomfort among the artisans.

31.2.4 Statistical Analysis Basic statistics of mean and percentage was used to evaluate the response of ADQ and to summarize the scores of SSS and FSS. Chi-square test was used to investigate

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Table 31.2 Amended Boston questionnaire for hand related symptoms Category

Code

Amended Boston questionnaire

Symptom severity scale

SS1

Do you feel pain at night?

SS2

Do you feel pain in the day?

SS3

Do feel weakness in hand?

SS4

Do you feel tingling sensation on hand region?

Functional status scale

SS5

Do you feel loss of sensitivity on hand region?

FS1

Marble rocks are cut into small marble slabs

FS2

The marble slabs are then given a form

FS3

Given basic shaping on marble block

FS4

Detailing and carving the marble blocks

FS5

Finishing/smoothing

the effects of variables (age and experience) with prevalence of hand symptoms. p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant throughout the study.

31.3 Result 31.3.1 Demographic Study The demographic data is given in Table 31.3. The artisans work throughout the week. Even during the weekend’s tourist activities were high, so the spend more extra time in their workplace to complete the real time production demands. Table 31.3 Demographics characteristics of marble artisans (n = 33)

Parameter

Min

Max

Standards Deviation

Age (years)

18

65

44.24 (± 11.82)

Working experience (years)

6

50

24.27 (± 10.52)

Duration per day (h)

8

14

9.88 (± 1.43)

Working days per week

7

7

7 (± 0)

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31.3.2 Task Analysis In the preparation of artifact, the artisans usually follow five processes in sequence to transform a raw marble block into finished artifacts. All the process of carving activity mention in Table 31.4 and its time-frequency computation in Table 31.5 [14]. Table 31.4 Task involved in marble crafting activities (n = 33) Number of task and pictures

Activity and detail description Type of work and overall effort (low, medium, high)

T1.

Sizing: The marble block cut with a handsaw cutter

Repetitive work (low)

T2.

Hitting: With the help of big chisel break the extra parts of marble to give basic shape

Forceful work (medium)

T3.

Chipping: With masonry chisel gives the basic design outline for desired design

Precision work (high)

T4.

Detailing: With stone chisel gives miner details on marble piece

Precision and repetitive work (high)

T5.

Polishing: With sandpaper gives the smooth finish on marble

Repetitive work (medium)

Table 31.5 Time-frequency computation (n = 33) Task no

Task name

Avg (± SD)

TT (in s)

Rep/Non-rep

T1

Sizing

174.61 (± 56.94)

296

58.99 (±19.24)

T2

Hitting

120.39 (± 43.59)

186

64.73 (±23.44)

T3

Chipping

153.06 (± 43.52)

242

63.25 (±17.98)

T4

Detailing

1293.36 (± 87.16)

1410

91.73 (±6.18)

T5

Polishing

85.45 (± 60.65)

228

37.48 (±26.60)

Avg = average, SD = standard deviation, TT = total time, Rep/Non-rep = repetitive/non-repetitive

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Fig. 31.2 Outcome of ADQ

31.3.3 Analysis of Risk Factor Related to Workplace Figure 31.2 shows the results of ADQ to assess the nature of work. A group of five categorical Questionnaires was used to identify the intensity of crafting activities and its related risks. For the nature of work, categories like force exertion, dynamic loads, static loads, and repetitive loads F1 and F3, D2, S1, R1 and R3 reported high risks, respectively, whereas under vibration category risks found to be low.

31.3.4 Analysis of Amended Boston Questionnaire Figure 31.3 shows the result of ABQ to evaluate the severity in hand. The statistics of SSS and FSS expressed in terms of percentage. The severity of the risk factor leads to weakness (SS3) and difficulty in grasping objects (SS6), refer Fig. 31.3a. The artisans also reported Tingling sensation (SS4). From task analysis (Table 31.4) and FSS (Fig. 31.3b), FS3 and FS4 interpret that the chipping and detailing of murals are difficult task for artisans, which lead to maximum pain in hand and wrist.

31.3.5 Prevalence of Hand Symptoms with Variable Demographic Factors The effects of demographic characteristics over prevalence of hand pain symptoms among the artisans are given in Table 31.6. It was found hand-related symptoms such as weakness, tingling, and difficulty holding small objects were high for the age group > 56 years with > 31 years of work experience. Similarly, artisans with experience > 31 years reported a high percentage of loss of hand sensitivity. The artisans of age < 35 years showed high reports of feeling pain in day time.

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(a) Symptom Severity Scale (SSS)

(b) Functional Status Scale (FSS)

Fig. 31.3 Outcome of ABQ Table 31.6 Demographic characteristics of the artisans with respect to severity of prevalence of chronical hand symptom (n = 33) Demographic factor

Pain in night (SS1)

Pain in day (SS2)

Weakness (SS3)

Variable

Classification (N)

N (%)

P-value

N (%)

P-value

N (%)

P-value

Age (years)

[< 35] (7)

5 (71.4)

–

6 (85.7)

< 0.05*

2 (28.6)

< 0.05*

[36–45] (12)

3 (25)

3 (25)

7 (58.3)

[46–55] (8)

1 (12.5)

1 (12.5)

7 (87.5)

[> 56] (6)

1 (16.7)

1 (16.7)

[< 15] (7)

4 (57.1)

Experience (years)

–

6 (100)

4 (57.1)

–

1 (14.3)

[16–20] (7)

3 (42.9)

3 (42.9)

3 (42.9)

[21–30] (12)

3 (25)

4 (33.3)

11 (91.7)

[> 31] (7)

0 (0)

0 (0)

7 (100)

< 0.01**

Demographic factor

Tingling (SS4)

Lost sensitivity (SS5)

Difficulty to hold small objects (SS6)

Variable

N (%)

P-value

N (%)

P-value

N (%)

P-value

0 (0)

< 0.05*

1 (14.3)

–

2 (28.6)

< 0.01**

Classification

Age (years) [< 35] (7)

Experience (years)

[36–45] (12)

5 (41.7)

4 (33.3)

[46–55] (8)

5 (62.5)

2 (25)

6 (75)

[> 56] (6)

5 (83.3)

5 (83.3)

6 (100)

[< 15] (7)

2 (28.6)

[16–20] (7)

1 (14.3)

0 (0)

2 (28.6)

[21–30] (12)

6 (50)

4 (33.3)

8 (66.7)

[> 31] (7)

6 (85.7)

7 (100)

6 (85.7)

< 0.05*

1 (14.3)

3 (25)

< 0.001***

1 (14.3)

N number of artisans, % percentage value, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001

< 0.05*

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31.4 Discussion The study results indicate that the marble carving artisans engaged in highly repetitive, high force exertion, and precision grip activities. The exertion of force is found to be very high while lifting objects and hitting actions during carving process (Fig. 31.2). Similar study on construction workers who were engaged in lifting operation have reported developing work-related musculoskeletal disorder in shoulder, hands, and wrist which leads to muscle fatigue for long time [12]. This study found that the artisans were majorly prone to risks such as forceful movements with fingers and wrists, twisting of wrists, prolonged bending of wrist in static position, repetitive, and awkward wrist movements. These were due to the high precession tasks involved in the carving process, where artisans had to carve out the extra marble with by continuously hitting the hammer on the chisel to create a design. These risks have found to develop MSDs, injuries, and deformation of skin among the artisans; this finding is consistent with the previous studies done among the artisans working in similar work environment [6, 11, 12, 15–17]. It was also found that the tools from getting covered with the marble dust gets slippery and may lead to accidents and acute hand symptoms such as cuts and pricks. The present study found high percentages of artisans reporting symptoms such as weakness and tingling sensation in hands. From FSS majority of the artisans were seen to report difficulty during the tasks of detailing and shaping due the hand pain symptoms. This finding is consistent with the findings of the study done among Bagh hand block printing, involving similar force exerting tasks where artisans reported weakness and tingling in hands which also led to difficulty in performing the tasks [7]. Similar findings were also seen among artisans working in other industries involving similar working conditions [3, 5, 11]. This study also found that the artisans with age below 35 years significantly reported more pain during the day than the older artisans, this finding is in line with the previous researches where the younger aged workers were seen to report more pain [6, 18–20]. Artisans of more than 46 years and of experience more than 21 years were significantly more prone to develop symptoms such as weakness and tingling in hands and also difficulty to hold small objects. It was also found that the artisans of experience more than 31 years were more prone to develop the symptoms of lost sensitivity in hands. The reason for these finding could be that while performing the detailing tasks, artisans constantly hold the marble piece by the supporting hand and a continuous force is applied with precision by the dominating hand, causing weakness and pain in hand among experienced artisans. These findings are consistent with the previous researches involving similar tasks where workers have reported weakness and tingling in hands due to prolonged awkward hand posture and repeated force exertion [5, 6, 10, 11, 15, 21, 22]. The findings of this study will help in the development of an effective hand tool following ergonomic guidelines that can eliminate the occurrence of cumulative trauma disorder such as tingling and weakness in hands from years of exposure to repetitive precision work.

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Limitations of this study is that a much-detailed hand focused study in relation to the different tools used by the artisans is needed for better insights for designing and developing better tools.

31.5 Conclusion The marble carving artisans working at Bhedaghat, Madhya Pradesh, are at very high risk of showing symptoms of discomfort in hands. This intern effects the quality of the carvings, lowers productivity, and also increases the risk of deformities leading to inability to work. This study suggests an immediate ergonomic intervention to improve the workstation and tools, for better productivity, and to ensure a healthy work life among the marble carving artisans. Acknowledgements The authors express sincere gratitude to the marble carving artisans who supported and cooperated a lot for the completion of this research study.

References 1. A panorama of marble craft of Bhedaghat as geographical indication under the Indian law. Am. Int. J. Res. Humanit. Arts Soc. Sci. http://www.iasir.net/. Last accessed: 9 June 2022 2. Widana, I.K., Sumetri, N.W., Sutapa, I.K.: Ergo-mechanical approach to reduce musculoskeletal disorders and fatigue. Proc. ICST 2018(1), 82–87 (2018) 3. Jadhav, G.S., Arunachalam, M.: Musculoskeletal problems of hand-sewn crafted footwear manufacturing artisans in Kolhapur, India. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 95(2), 499–508 (2022) 4. Rathore, B., Pundir, A.K., Iqbal, R.: Ergonomic risk factors in glass artware industries and prevalence of musculoskeletal disorder. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 80, 103043 (2020) 5. Rehman, N.: Ergonomics risk factors prevailing in Kota Doria loom weavers of India. In: Congress of the International Ergonomics Association, pp. 326–337. Springer, Cham (2018) 6. Kamble, R., Sahu, A., Pandit, S.: Occupational ergonomic assessment of hand pain symptoms among Bagh hand block print artisans of the handicraft textile industry in Madhya Pradesh, India. Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon. 1–9 (2021) 7. Motamedzade, M., Choobineh, A., Mououdi, M.A., Arghami, S.: Ergonomic design of carpet weaving hand tools. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 37(7), 581–587 (2007) 8. Kumar, A., Singh, J.K., Mohan, D., Varghese, M.: Farm hand tools injuries: a case study from northern India. Saf. Sci. 46(1), 54–65 (2008) 9. Li, K.W.: Ergonomic design and evaluation of wire-tying hand tools. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 30(3), 149–161 (2002) 10. Ghosh, T., Das, B., Gangopadhyay, S.: Work-related musculoskeletal disorder: an occupational disorder of the Goldsmiths in India. Indian J. Commun. Med. Off. Publ. Indian Assoc. Prev. Soc. Med. 35(2), 321–325 (2010). https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-0218.66890 11. Veisi, H., Choobineh, A., Ghaem, H., Shafiee, Z.: The effect of hand tools’ handle shape on upper extremity comfort and postural discomfort among hand-woven shoemaking workers. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 74, 102833 (2019)

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12. Hildebrandt, V.H., Bongers, P.M., Van Dijk, F.J.H., Kemper, H.C.G., Dul, J.: Dutch musculoskeletal questionnaire: description and basic qualities. Ergonomics 44(12), 1038–1055 (2001) 13. Meirelles, L.M., Santos, J.B.G.D., Santos, L.L.D., et al.: Evaluation of Boston questionnaire applied at late post-operative period of carpal tunnel syndrome operated with the Paine retinaculatome through palmar port. Acta Ortop. Bras. 14(3), 126–132 (2006). https://doi.org/10. 1590/S1413-7852-2006000300002 14. Wang, D.M., Wang, J., Ge, L.Z.: sEMG time-frequency analysis techniques for evaluation of muscle fatigue and it’s application in ergonomic studies. Hang Tian yi xue yu yi xue Gong Cheng Space Med. Med. Eng. 16(5), 387–390 (2003) 15. Smith, T.D., Balogun, A.O., Yu, Z., Mullins-Jaime, C.: Health, physical activity and musculoskeletal symptoms among stone, sand, and gravel mine workers: implications for enhancing and sustaining worker health and safety. Safety 6(4), 52 (2020) 16. Sahu, A., Kamble, R., Pandit, S.: Identification of ergonomic risk factors in Dhokra Bell Metal Handicraft Industry of Chhattisgarh, India. Ergon. Des. Innov. 1327–1336 (2022). https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-030-94277-9_113 17. Vihlborg, P., Bryngelsson, L., Lindgren, B., Gunnarsson, L.G., Graff, P.: Association between vibration exposure and hand-arm vibration symptoms in a Swedish mechanical industry. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 62, 77–81 (2017) 18. Watkins, S.A., Maibach, H.I.: The hardening phenomenon in irritant contact dermatitis: an interpretative update. Contact Dermatitis 60(3), 123–130 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.16000536.2009.01507.x 19. John, S.M., Uter, W., Schwanitz, H.J.: Relevance of multiparametric skin bioengineering in a prospectively-followed cohort of junior hairdressers. Contact Dermatitis 43(3), 161–168 (2000) 20. Kamble, R., Pandit, S., Sahu, A.: Occupational ergonomic assessment of MSDs among the artisans working in Bagh hand block printing industry in Madhya Pradesh, India. Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon. 1–18 (2022) (just-accepted). https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2022.2090120 21. Baig, L.A., Rasheed, S., Zameer, M.: Labourers in the cottage industries of Karachi. JCPSP 15(1), 7–10 (2005) 22. Gangopadhyay, S., Ghosh, T., Das, T., Ghoshal, G., Das, B.B.: Prevalence of upper limb musculo skeletal disorders among brass metal workers in West Bengal, India. Ind. Health 45(2), 365–370 (2007)

Chapter 32

Gender Differences in the Occurrence of Musculoskeletal Disorders Among Adult Male and Female Potato Farmers in Hooghly, West Bengal Chinmay Biswas, Rajat Kamble, Sangeeta Pandit, and Bishwadeep Paul Abstract Purpose: Musculoskeletal disorder is a major health problem among farmers involved with small and marginal farming as they depend mainly on a manual workforce. Potato farming is the main cash crop in Hooghly district of West Bengal. Both male and female farmers involved in potato farming have high risks of the prevalence of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSD). The aim of this study is to find out different health risks associated with potato farming from the ergonomic point of view and potential gender difference in the development of such musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). The study was conducted on 60 farmers, among whom 30 were male and 30 females from Hooghly district of West Bengal. Prevalence of MSDs was assessed using Modified Nordic Questionnaires. Posture analysis was conducted using RULA and REBA. A detailed task analysis of potato cultivation was performed to understand the activity involved in developing WMSD. Majority of the participants reported discomfort in different parts of the body, with high reports in knees, lower back, and hip regions. The women participants reported suffering more pain in the lower back (86.1%) region compared to male farmers. Significant pain in the hip region was identified among the younger age (70.6%) and lower experience (72.2%) groups. The older age and higher experience groups showed pain in knee (77.8%). More reports discomfort was seen for harvesting task among female. This study supports the evidence that the female farmers are at higher risk of development of MSDs, with harvesting task majorly contributing towards the discomfort.

C. Biswas · R. Kamble · S. Pandit (B) Design Discipline, PDPM Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 482005, India e-mail: [email protected] B. Paul Indian Association of Occupational Health, Mithagar Road, Mulund East, Mumbai 400081, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_32

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32.1 Introduction Potato is among the most important food crops in the world, and it comes in third place after rice and wheat in terms of consumption [1]. In 2019, this tuber crop provided about 280 billion INR to the Indian economy [2]. India is the secondlargest potato producer in the world, and West Bengal stands in second place after Uttar Pradesh in potato production [3]. In the agricultural year 2018–19, the volume of potatoes produced across India was estimated to be around 53.69 Million Metric Tons (MMT), of which 9.97 MMT (21.92%) was produced in West Bengal [4]. In the Hooghly district of West Bengal, around 2.7 MMT of potatoes was produced on 0.99 lakh hectares of land in 2018–19, which is the highest among all the districts in West Bengal [5]. 95% of farmers in West Bengal are either small or marginal farmers who own land areas of less than 2 ha [6]. They cannot afford the power-driven agricultural equipment for farming; thus, they largely depend upon manual labour for agricultural work. Potato farming involves land preparation, planting seeds, tunnelling or earthing, and harvesting. In order to carry out these works, the farmers need to adopt postures like stooping and squatting for hours to carry out the tasks. They also need to exert force during land preparation and earthing up. These activities cause pain in several body parts, leading to musculoskeletal disorders. A study on female potato cultivators found that the prevalence of MSD is significantly higher in farmers of lower age groups compared to middle and upper age groups [7]. The study also states that awkward postures are the main reason for the discomfort in labour-intensive and time-consuming tasks [7]. Another study by the same researcher has shown that the tunnelling task is the most challenging task causing body pain compared to the planting and harvesting task causing relatively less pain and discomfort among male potato cultivators [8]. However, pain in the lower back prevails in all tasks [8]. In another study on 70 potato farmers from different locations in West Bengal found that prolonged working in a squatting posture causes discomfort in the lower back, followed by pain in the neck and shoulder region. The researchers also found that the farmers reported discomfort while sleeping at night [9]. However, in this study, the effects of body discomfort on different age groups and experience groups were not considered [9]. Similar studies have been conducted on other crops also. A study on sugarcane stripping activity at Jajpur and Odisha shows that using a tool developed by Krishi Vigyan Kendra reduces drudgery and peak heart rate among the participants during the task compared to the traditional tool. It also reduces the chance of hand injury [10]. In another study on cashew nut processing among female workers reveals that elaborate steps of extracting cashew nuts from its shell in forward bending and squatting caused lower back and neck pain. The author suggested designing an ergonomic workstation to reduce the existing problem [11]. A paper on maize production finds maize shelling to be a light activity, but the task is monotonous and full of drudgery and requires long sitting. Using a maize sheller tool reduced the time required and the possibility of injury [12]. The effect of climate change on agricultural ergonomics is seen in another paper where

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harvesting lodged paddy crops takes time, thus reducing productivity and the chances of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) among female harvesters [13]. A comparative study on adolescent male and female potato farmers reveals that both pre-adolescent male and female farmers feel similar discomfort in all agricultural activities. However, that paper does not present a detailed discomfort rating for different body parts [14]. A study on MSDs of the adult potato cultivators from a gender comparison perspective was missing in the existing literature. Thus, this study aims to compare the occurrence of MSD among male and female potato cultivators and to identify the tasks responsible for the occurrence of MSD.

32.2 Methodology 32.2.1 Participant Selection A total of 60 potato farmers (30 women and 30 men) were randomly selected from Tarakeswar, Hooghly district of West Bengal, India. The farmers were first explained the motive of the study by the researcher in the regional Bengali language, and individual consent was taken before the study began. Upon agreeing to participate in this study, the farmers were categorised into three groups based on age, experience and gender, and data was collected.

32.2.2 Questionnaire Study The study was conducted using a modified Nordic questionnaire which consisted of predetermined multiple-choice questions related to the experience of pain in different body parts while performing different tasks.

32.2.3 Postural Analysis The different attained postures to carry out potato cultivation, such as plantation, earthing up, and harvesting, were identified with videography and analysed using Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) and Rapid Upper Body Assessment (RULA).

400 Table 32.1 Participant descriptions

C. Biswas et al. Parameters

Categories

N (%)

Age

20–35

28.3

36–45

41.7

Experience

Gender

46–60

30

1–15

30

16–30

40

31–45

30

Male

50

Female

50

32.2.4 Statistical Analysis The prevalence of pain in different body regions concerning demographic characteristics was investigated using a categorical variable (age, experience and gender). A two-tail chi-square test (χ 2 ) of independence was performed to find a significant association of the effects of gender on the prevalence of discomfort in different body parts. The same statistical test, a two-tail chi-square test of independence, was also performed to determine whether there were any significant effects of gender on the prevalence of body pain while performing different tasks. This statistical evaluation was used to calculate the odds ratio (OR) at 95% confidence interval (CI). P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

32.3 Results 32.3.1 Study Descriptions Table 32.1 shows the participant’s socio-demographic characteristics. Out of 60 farmers who participated in this study, the majority belong to the age group between 36–45 years (41.7%) and 16–30 years (40%).

32.3.2 Factors Associated with Body Pain Discomfort Pain in the different body regions concerning demographic characteristics was found using the χ 2 test (Table 32.2). It was found that pain in the lower back was significantly higher (86.1%) among female farmers. No other significant difference is found among male and female groups. Other than that, a significant number of farmers of age group 46–60 years, experience group 31–45 years reported pain in the lower

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back. Significantly high pain reports in the hip region were found among the age groups 20–35 years within the experience group of 1–15 years. A high percentage of pain in knee regions was also observed among the age group 46–60 years among the experience group 31–45 years. Shoulder pain is significant among farmers of the lower experience group.

32.3.3 Gender Comparison with Prevalence of Pain in Different Body Regions Table 32.3 shows gender-related differences in discomfort in different body parts. This study indicated significantly higher discomfort reports of the lower back portion in female potato cultivators than in males, and no significant differences were found for the other body regions.

32.3.4 Gender Comparison with Prevalence of Pain During Different Tasks Involved in Potato Farming Table 32.4 shows the gender-related differences in body pain concerning different potato cultivation tasks. The study found that females suffered significantly in harvesting task. Though the number of the female participants who felt pain is greater than the number of male in all the tasks.

32.3.5 Postural Analysis Table 32.5 shows the RULA and REBA assessment scores for the different tasks performed. Earthing up and harvesting tasks both had a score 7 in the RULA assessment, which indicates a very high action level and suggests the need for investigation and immediate change of the postures. In the planting task, RULA score is 6, where further investigation was required, but there was no need for an immediate change of posture. The harvesting task had a REBA score of 11, which indicated a high risk level and suggested ceasing the work until a safer solution is found. The other two tasks had a REBA score 6, which indicated medium risk.

Gender

Experience

Age

Parameters

30

Female

22.2

40

31–45

Male

37.5

16–30

22.2

46–60

44.4

36

1–15

47.1

36–45

0.417

0.356

0.303

56

50

44.4

41.7

77.8

38.9

48

76.5

N (%)

20–35

Shoulder

N (%)

P value

Neck

0.605

0.045

0.066

P value

53

50

50.0

41.7

66.7

50

44

64.7

N (%)

Elbow

0.795

0.272

0.414

P value

63.3

63.3

72.2

54.2

66.7

72.2

56

64.7

N (%)

Wrist

1

0.457

0.547

P value

20

20

72.2

58.3

72.2

72.2

60

70.6

N (%)

1

0.535

0.648

P value

Upper back

Table 32.2 Effect of age, experience and gender on discomfort feeling on different body parts

86.1

56.7

94.4

70.8

50

88.9

76

0.01

0.012

0.019

P value

46.7

46.7

33.3

37.5

72.2

33.3

40

70.6

N (%)

Lower back Hip

47.1

N (%)

1

0.033

0.06

P value

53.3

50

77.8

50

27.8

77.8

48

29.4

N (%)

Knee

0.796

0.011

0.015

P value

30

23.3

27.8

20.8

33.3

22.2

24

0.559

0.658

0.631

P value

Feet

35.3

N (%)

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Table 32.3 Effect of gender on pain in regions of body among potato farmers Parts

Gender

No pain

Pain

OR

95% CI

χ2

P value

Neck

Male

18

12

0.125

− 0.149–0.349

0.425

0.125

Female

21

9

Shoulder

Male

15

15

0.131

− 0.328–0.195

0.612

0.472

Female

13

17

Male

15

15

0.131

− 0.296–0.229

0.800

0.720

Female

14

16

Wrist

Male

11

19

0.127

− 0.253–0.253

1

1

Female

11

19

Upper back

Male

10

20

0.124

− 0.248–0.248

1

1

Female

10

20

Male

13

17

0.112

− 0.523–0.077

0.009

0

4

26

16

14

0.131

− 0.262–0.262

1

1

0.131

− 0.296–0.229

0.800

0.720

0.116

− 0.298–0.165

0.567

0.254

Elbow

Lower back

Female Hip

Male Female

16

14

Knee

Male

15

15

Female

14

16

Male

23

7

Female

21

9

Feet

Table 32.4 Gender effect on the pain felt during different activities of potato cultivation on potato farmers Task

Gender

No pain

Pain

OR

95% CI

χ2

P value

Planting

Male

20

10

0.126

− 0.519–0.014

0.039

0.305

Female

12

18

Male

17

13

0.447

− 0.316–0.161

0.190

0.629

Female

14

16

Male

17

13

0.018

− 0.546–-0.053

0.123

0.016

8

22

Earthing up Harvesting

Female

32.4 Discussions Manual potato farming is a very labour-intensive task. This study found that almost all the farmers felt discomfort during the potato farming tasks. Fewer participants were seen in the lower age group participating in this study, as agriculture is becoming a non-profitable occupation, and the young generation is choosing other options for their livelihood. In the upper age group (46–60), healthy farmers actively participated in farming activities. Some farmers from this age group had an experience of 45 years.

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Table 32.5 Working postures analysis of potato farmers Task

Posture

Posture analysis RULA method

REBA method

RULA score

Risk level

Remarks

REBA score

Risk level

Action category

Planting

6

Low

Investigate further and change soon

6

Medium

Further consideration should be given as to how risk can be lowered

Earthing up

7

High

Investigate and change immediately

6

Medium

Further consideration should be given as to how risk can be lowered

Harvesting

7

High

Investigate and change immediately

11

High

Work must cease until a safer solution can be found

This study found that the reports of discomfort in the lower back and knee were significantly higher among women in the older age group and experienced workers. Discomfort in the hip region was seen to be highest among younger aged groups and farmers having low experience. These findings are consistent with the study among workers involved in similar tasks [15, 16]. Both men and women potato cultivators were engaged in intensive work involving repeated twisting, awkward postures and forward bending for years resulting in discomfort in different parts of the body, especially in the knees and lower back. These findings are in line with the previous studies done in similar work environments, such as in rice cultivation [15, 16], paddy harvesting [17], cotton harvesting [18] and harvesting of fishes [19]. This study also finds that the female farmers had significantly higher pain in the lower back compared to men, with high discomfort during planting and harvesting. The reason could be that women workers attain the bent posture for a longer duration compared to men workers who apply much greater force hence attaining the awkward posture for a lesser duration. This finding is consistent with the previous findings involving the gender effects on MSDs in lower back regions [20]. Studies have also found that male and female gender groups have significantly different levels of anxiety, tiredness stress and fatigue [20]. In another study on gender effects over lower back pain, they found that females had greater lumbar lordosis than males [21], and standing for prolonged periods with more lumbar lordosis may result in the development of lower back pain among workers [22]. The posture analysis showed that the workers were prone to attain stooping, squatting, bending and standing postures during different tasks of potato farming.

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The stooping and standing posture attained during harvesting tasks, along with force exertion, increased the risks among the workers. This finding is in line with the studies done in a similar work environment where the exertion of force increased the risks among the farmers [23, 24]. In a similar study, lower back pain is most associated with harvesting tasks [8]. Squatting posture attained during planting task, where farmers were found to be at moderate risk suggesting further investigation. During these tasks, the farmers were prone to flexion, lateral twist and bending; these factors have been reported to develop lower back pain among the workers [25–27]. Though both males and females attained similar postures, females posed a higher risk of developing lower back problems. Studies have found a significant association between work–family conflicts and musculoskeletal pain in the lower back [28], with female workers having significantly higher work–family conflicts than male workers [28]. Lower back pain is the major problem found in this study which also supports the findings of the review study done among the farmers working under similar work practices [29]. The findings indicated that the harvesting task involved high risk; thus, these findings will help future research focusing on the risk involved with harvesting tasks among female cultivators and aid in developing an effective tool to reduce the drudgery among female farmers. The tool has to be designed to keep these aspects fulfilled. Limitations of this study are that it only focused on the MSD and postural aspects of the risks involved, a detailed study involving heart rate measurements, long term physiological and biomechanics stress among the potato cultivators need to be done to better understand the effects of gender over occupational risks.

32.5 Conclusion This study showed that irrespective of gender, farmers were at risk of developing MSDs in different body regions. It was evident from this study that female farmers were more prone to develop MSDs, with harvesting tasks being the leading cause in the development of discomfort among female farmers. This study suggests the need for effective and low-cost intervention of tools to improve the working conditions for female farmers, thus ensuring their well-being. Acknowledgements The authors wish to express their gratitude to all those potato farmers for their coordination during the study. Conflict of Interest There is no conflict of interest.

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19. Kamble, R., Pandit, S., Sahu, A.: Contributing towards blue economy with ergonomic assessment of musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) among workers involved in harvesting living resources. In: Chakrabarti, D., Karmakar, S., Salve, U.R. (eds.) Ergonomics for Design and Innovation. HWWE 2021. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol. 391. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94277-9_49 20. Hagen, K.B., Thune, O.: Work incapacity from low back pain in the general population. Spine 23(19), 2091–2095 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1097/00007632-199810010-00010 21. Nourbakhsh, M.R., Moussavi, S.J., Salavati, M.: Effects of lifestyle and work-related physical activity on the degree of lumbar lordosis and chronic low back pain in a Middle East population. Clin. Spine Surg. 14(4), 283–292 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1097/00002517-200108000-00002 22. Sorensen, C.J., Norton, B.J., Callaghan, J.P., Hwang, C.T., Van Dillen, L.R.: Is lumbar lordosis related to low back pain development during prolonged standing? Man. Ther. 20(4), 553–557 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.math.2015.01.001 23. Kamble, R., Sahu, A., Pandit, S.: Occupational ergonomic assessment of hand pain symptoms among Bagh hand block print artisans of the handicraft textile industry in Madhya Pradesh, India. Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon. 1–9 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2021.1991131 24. Kaewdok, T., Sirisawasd, S., Taptagaporn, S.: Agricultural risk factors related musculoskeletal disorders among older farmers in Pathum Thani province, Thailand. J. Agromed. 26(2), 185– 192 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/1059924X.2020.1795029 25. Punnett, L., Fine, L.J., Keyserling, W.M., Herrin, G.D., Chaffin, D.B.: Back disorders and nonneutral trunk postures of automobile assembly workers. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 337–346 (1991) 26. Sahu, A., Kamble, R., Pandit, S.: Identification of ergonomic risk factors in Dhokra Bell Metal Handicraft Industry of Chhattisgarh, India. In: International Conference of the Indian Society of Ergonomics, pp. 1327–1336. Springer, Cham (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03094277-9_113 27. Kamble, R., Pandit, S., Sahu, A.: Occupational ergonomic assessment of MSDs among the artisans working in Bagh hand block printing industry in Madhya Pradesh, India. Int. J, Occup. Saf. Ergon. 1–18 (2022) (just-accepted). https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2022.2090120 28. Kim, S.S., Okechukwu, C.A., Buxton, O.M., Dennerlein, J.T., Boden, L.I., Hashimoto, D.M., Sorensen, G.: Association between work–family conflict and musculoskeletal pain among hospital patient care workers. Am. J. Ind. Med. 56(4), 488–495 (2013) 29. Osborne, A., Blaken, C., Fullen, B.M., Meredith, D., Phelan, J., Mc Namara, J., Cunningham, C.: Prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders among farmers: a systematic review. Am. J. Ind. Med. 55(2), 143–158 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.21033

Chapter 33

A Comprehensive Evaluation of Indian Railway Station Signage Design Sneh Singh, Satyaki Roy, and Siddhant Walia

Abstract Indian Railways (IR) is one of the largest transport networks in the world, which handles millions of passengers every day. Due to the ever-growing population and ensuing travel demand, there is a genuine need to develop more robust railway stations with improved safety, security, and navigation systems. By virtue of the national mission ‘Swachh Rail, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan,’ IR has recently taken an initiative to work on the cleanliness of railway stations which can improve the commuting experience of passengers. Certainly, refurbishing and upgrading the standards of Indian railway stations are the need of the hour for a smart and developing economy. Numerous studies have been done, world over, in the broader area of railways signage and wayfinding. However, very limited research has been done in the context of Indian railway stations, which have their own set of problems and compelling issues that demands immediate attention. The authors in this research have used a three-pronged approach to investigate the current state of signage design in IR stations. First, the IR codes and standards for signage and wayfinding designs were reviewed, analyzed, and compared with some of the best practices used globally. Second, a non-participant observation method involving case study of two IR stations was used, which included descriptive observation, the identification of specific aspects, and eventually the examination of collected observations in light of recognized signage criterions in order to better understand the current level of execution of signages at IR stations. In conclusion, a passenger survey was conducted to gain insight into the perspectives and concerns regarding civil work signages at

S. Singh (B) Manipal University Jaipur, Rajasthan & IIT Kanpur, Kanpur, UP, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Roy Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, UP, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Walia Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_33

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railway stations. The findings of this extensive study serve as the basis for developing policy circulars, guidelines for optimal railway station signage, and a branding strategy for Indian Railways.

33.1 Introduction Importance of a well-planned signage and wayfinding system in complex public places like airports and railway stations is crucial and can facilitate commuters reaching their desired location on time. Indian Railways (IR) dominates public transportation in India. As per the available data, it carried 1250 million passengers in 2020–21 and 8086 million in 2019–20 [1]. There is a growing need to build more robust railway stations to cater to the rapid increase in population and demand. A recent initiative by IR to improve station cleanliness as part of the ‘Swachh Rail, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan’ program aims to enhance commuters’ experiences. For better safety, security, and navigation system, there is an urgent need to understand travelers’ behavior and travel needs, which is represented thoroughly in pyramid of customer needs by Van Hagen et al. [2]. It also proposes certain criteria of passenger satisfaction and dissatisfaction, which directly relate to their emotions, personal convenience, stress level, journey experience, and safety. The fear of being misled or either way landing on the wrong platform or even missing the train cannot be understated. A well-designed signage satisfies all the criteria of the Van Hagen’s pyramid by improving passenger satisfaction, maintaining passengers’ overall flow, reducing crowding, helping passengers to reach on time, minimizing stay time in the platforms, reducing social/staff inquiries, helping in safe evacuation, and reducing the chances of selecting wrong train/station (Fig. 33.1).

Fig. 33.1 Pyramid of customer needs by Van Hagen and Brown [2]

33 A Comprehensive Evaluation of Indian Railway Station Signage Design

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Fig. 33.2 Indian railway stations overall signage system

In 2012, the Ministry of Railways categorized all Indian stations by expected income and outbound passenger volume. Prior to 2012, stations were classified as ‘A1, A, B, C, D, E, and F.’ These categories have now been renamed as non-suburban station (NSG) 1–6, suburban station (SG) 1–3, and halt station (HG) 1–3 [3]. IR’s navigation system consists of civil works, signaling and telecommunications (SNT), and commercial signages (Fig. 33.2). There has been substantial improvement over the past few years, in both signaling systems and telecommunication and the commercial signage space. However, the spirit of change and development has not percolated to the civil work signages and a paucity of research has been observed. This gave the authors an impetus to attempt and investigate this under researched problem of IR civil works signage through this study. For analysis, authors have focused on NSG2 category IR stations, in which several emerging smart cities such as Jaipur, Kanpur, Mathura, Agra, Allahabad, and Gwalior are categorized.

33.2 Methodology In this paper, authors have used a three-pronged approach to examine: (1) a comparison between Indian and international codes and standards (2) non-participant observation method for assessment of actual implementation at IR stations of current civil work signage standards, and (3) effectiveness in terms of understandability to commuters. The proposed methodology for assessing the current signage system at the railway station comprises the three steps shown in Fig. 33.3.

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Fig. 33.3 Methodological approach of the study

33.2.1 Assessment of Railway Codes The authors obtained and analyzed Indian signage standards and codes from (i) Ministry of Railways, (ii) Centre of Advance Maintenance Technology, Gwalior, (iii) Research Designs and Standards Organization Lucknow, and (iv) Indian Railways Institute of Civil Engineering Pune, to understand the workflow and implementation plan of the railway station signage system. In total, sixteen documents were obtained, out of which seven were IR signage codes that included the SNT and commercial signages. The nine codes containing civil work signages were included, while the commercial signages were excluded from the scope of study. To assess the gaps of Indian signage code and standards, the authors have compared current signage codes with selected international codes. These international standards contain design guidelines, manuals, codes of practices of such countries. This gap assessment study is based on—legible typography, standardization of text, pictograms and numbering, standardization of color-coding scheme and lighting levels, branding and legislations, station and coach identification, signage and wayfinding information management, and accessibility factors. Tables 33.1 and 33.2 demonstrate a comparison of Indian and international railway signage codes and standards using the selected factors. The typography factor refers to the text case, style, character width, stroke thickness, spacing and height, spacing between words and lines, and margins in signage and has been clearly emphasized in international codes [4–8]. In contrast, typography factor has a passing mention in ‘specifications for train information display system’ [08] for technological requirements of the train information and coach guidance display system. The text and pictograms are an essential part of any signage system and has been thoroughly discussed in the international codes, the uniformity of text and pictograms, along with their sizes, designs, and conspicuous character, has been clearly illustrated and presented. Text and pictograms have been adjusted according to local languages and regional influences, and a combined text-and-pictogram version has also been included [4, 6–8]. In comparison, signage pictogram images and specifications in Indian codes are scanned reproductions of traditional standards that may not meet local requirements [9]. In addition, international code includes a signage color scheme, foreground–background contrast, and necessary lighting and location for legible signage [10].

X

Colors/lighting

X

Specification for train info. display system RDSO[15]

Here, ‘X’ indicates the presence of a factor in code/standard

Accessibility

X X

Harmonized guidelines for passenger with disabilities, over IR [14]

Information management

X

Trackside indicator boards and signages, IRCEP [13]

X

X

Signage used in Indian Railways, CAMTECH [12]

Station/coach identification

Branding/relevant legislations

X

Updation /revision of manual for standards and specifications [11]

Text/pictogram standardization

Typography

Factors

Indian railway’s signage code

Table 33.1 Assessment of Indian railway’s signage codes and standards

X

The persons with disabilities act [16]

X

Passenger amenities in station [17]

X

Manual for standards and spec. for IR stations, Vol 1/2 [18]

X

X

X

Manual for standards and spec. for IR stations, Vol 2/2 [9]

X

IP based video surveillance system [19]

X

Policy circular of Commercial Directorate [20]

33 A Comprehensive Evaluation of Indian Railway Station Signage Design 413

Branding/relevant legislations

Here, ‘X’ indicates the presence of a factor in code/standard

X

X

X

X

X

Accessibility

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

California

Regional transit wayfinding Guidelines and standards 0.2 [6]

X

X

X

X

X

USA

The guidelines for transit Facility part 1 and 2, TCRP [5]

Information management

X

X

Scotland

Accessible train station design for disabled people [24]

X

X

X

Britain

Signals, hand signals, indicators and signs handbook RSSB [23]

Station/coach identification

X

X

X

X

Colors/lighting

X

X

X

London

Design guidelines and spec Network rail [4]

Text/pictogram standardization

Country/city UK

Station design principles for Network rail [22]

Typography

Factors

International railways signages code

Table 33.2 Assessment of international signage codes and standards

X

X

X

X

X

Britain

X

X

X

X

X

London

Wayfinding London at stations, underground A good [21] practice guide RSSB [7]

X

X

X

X

Australia

Wayfinding in the built Environment-CRC [25]

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Queensland

Signage manual, translink [8]

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The branding strategy is uniquely elaborated in international code and regulations, and many are influenced by the London Underground’s signage [21], which exemplifies best-in-class branding techniques. While Indian documents have provided insufficient branding strategies, the commercial directorate’s policy circular places a minimal emphasis on branding by just specifying commercial signage consistency and minimally necessary facilities under the context of branding strategy [17, 18]. Name and coach signage is necessary for the orderly movement of passengers through railway stations and has been addressed by number of international rules that include exterior and platform sign guidelines, station identity signage criteria, and mounting suggestions. Only one Indian SNT document [15] contains hardware, software, and technical specifications of train and station information display systems, outdoor video display boards, train information displays, coach navigation displays, and a PC announcement system. It does not, however, address pertinent typography, text height, frequency, placement, or location strategies, without which implementation will lack robustness. Sign information management includes the station’s main static and dynamic information’s position, display technology, and hierarchy. It also includes tactile information, public address and announcement systems, and temporary information needed during service interruptions or repairs. Most worldwide signaling and telecommunication (SNT) and civil work signage standards include this information management section. Indian signage norms and standards cover SNT, digital information, interface, display, announcement technologies, and fundamental facilities but not civil work signage, information hierarchy, or location [15, 19]. Any signage system without accessibility norms is incomplete, and for this factor, it was observed that most international signage codes have substantially addressed it. For example, Network Rail [4, 22] provides a complete station design strategy and future direction on accessible and sustainable techniques, as well as international codes and standards for tactile installation guidelines for important areas, tactile paving, braille signs, and tactile typography [5–8, 24, 25]. It can be an example that can be emulated by Indian standards [13, 15] such as the second volume of the manual of standards for IR [9] which follows Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) standards. The comparison between the Indian and international codes reveals that, due to the rapid development of technology, Indian railway signage codes require extensive reorganization and study. Users should have access to navigation tools that are superior to those now available. Numerous aspects of the outmoded codes, such as typographic uniformity, pictograms, branding, information management, and accessibility standards, require revision. Branding is also not up to international standards and must be acknowledged and implemented to improve the visual experience. Colors influence the visibility of signage; hence, color-coding schemes can be utilized to improve overall wayfinding [5]. In addition, it is essential to produce a comprehensive document including signage norms and standards for Indian railway stations, which is now lacking.

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33.2.2 Case Studies The preceding section compared IR signage codes to the internationally recognized signage codes based on critical characteristics for strong signage systems. This investigation found deficiencies and development opportunities in IR codes. Adaptation of international codes to the actual ground conditions and subsequent modification of certain traditional signage norms absent in many IR codes thereof, formed the basis for a non-participant observational study of IR stations. Consequently, case studies of Jaipur Railway Station and the Kanpur Central Station were conducted as part of this study. This study was undertaken based on a station signage audit report commissioned by the London Transport User Committee [26]. According to the findings of Jaipur Railway Station case study, some signages require upkeep. In some spots corrosion and peeling paint render, the station name identification signage unreadable (Fig. 33.4a). For protection of Signages, the requirements mentioned by codes are that signages must be resistant to vandalism or have a detachable cover [5], which seems to be clearly lacking in these cases. The directional signage on a foot-over bridge (Fig. 33.4b), which is parallel to one side of the ‘T’ intersection, makes determining the departure zone difficult. The glare from the digital signs mounted for coach identification makes them unreadable (Fig. 33.4c). Signage put in extreme weather circumstances (Fig. 33.4d) may have poor visual quality due to temperature, pollution, natural and artificial light variations and as per the standard must be protected by giving suitable shade and protective cover. In an overcrowded station, signage (Figs. 33.4e and 33.5d) becomes unreadable due to lack of attention given to the height of their placement. Therefore, according to the code, it must be placed above human height. Even overlapping of signage reduces visibility and must be placed and located carefully. Essential information must be made conspicuous with the help of increased text height or highlighting signage and keeping signage at the most visible location. Figure 33.5a shows the weathered Kanpur station identification signage in need of repair. Figure 33.5b also lacks underground route directional signage, a crucial decision-making point. Reflecting glare makes station identification signs challenging to view in Fig. 33.5c. Due to structural impediments, the signs in Figs. 33.5e and f are similarly difficult to see and decipher. The directional arrows for the ‘reservation counter’ are misaligned (Fig. 33.6a), contradicting the RSSB [7] guideline that signage should be aligned with the arrow used to indicate direction. Another notable observation has been the presence of

Fig. 33.4 Photograph of existing signages at Jaipur junction railway station

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Fig. 33.5 Photograph of existing signages at Kanpur central railway station

oversized station name signs at platform ends as you approach or leave. However, unlike London Underground standards [21], which specify the frequency, illumination, location, or height of a station identification sign, there is no Indian code clause that specifies these issues, and thus station name signage availability at other points in a train station is lacking (Fig. 33.6b). Figure 33.6c depicts very close signages with discrepancies in signage size, position, typeface, and text height. Additionally, excessive signage at vital crossroads produces visual clutter, which may lead to passengers overlooking critical information; therefore, it is critical to avoid such situations [21]. At the entrance to each station, there are signs identifying trains and coaches (Fig. 33.6d). However, it is uncertain whether to enter and proceed to the left or the right.

33.2.3 Survey of IR Passengers Any design is incomplete without the end user’s input; thus, it is critical to understand how commuters perceive IR station signs for movement at railway stations. Consequently, an IR passenger’s survey was conducted in May 2022 using an online survey. In total, 266 responses were collected. The first section of survey collected demographic and socio-economic data, while the second section collected information on travel preferences, wayfinding practices, and railway signage awareness. The questionnaire examines three critical aspects of the IR signage system: first, the effectiveness of contemporary IR station signage methods, second, the legibility of existing IR station signage, and finally, the traveler’s reliance on only IR physical

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Fig. 33.6 Photograph of few existing signages with legibility and readability issues

signage at railway stations. In the study, participants were asked how often they traveled and how recently they had utilized Indian trains to examine these factors better. Fifty percent of respondents said they took an IR train trip once every six months, and over sixteen percent said they took an IR trip once every twelve months. In addition, about twelve percent of people take a trip every two years, whereas sixty percent have taken a train within the past six months.

33.2.3.1

Effectiveness of Current Signage System

The authors observed that signage was missing at crucial decision points during the Jaipur and Kanpur railway station field study. In addition, when questioned about specific concerns while traveling with IR, respondents too often highlighted ineffective coach identification and location signage. Table 33.3 shows that more than nineteen percent of respondents rated ‘poor’ or ‘very poor’ when asked about the ‘effectiveness’ of the current IR signage system, which indicates passengers’ dissatisfaction with the existing system.

33.2.3.2

Legibility/Visibility of IR Signages

Legibility and visibility are physical properties of a sign that enable detection, and they are altered by surrounding illumination, sign factors, age, and observer acuity [10]. The authors surveyed IR passengers on how they identify station numbers and coach locations to assess signage visibility and legibility. The survey indicates that

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Table 33.3 Effectiveness of IR current signage system Train travel pattern

Very poor

Poor

Average

Good

Excellent

Total

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

Very rarely

5

1.9

6

2.3

38

14.3

7

2.6

1

0.4

57

21.4

Once in every 2 yr

1

0.4

6

2.3

18

6.8

7

2.6

1

0.4

33

12.4

Once in 0 every yr

0.0

8

3.0

28

10.5

5

1.9

2

0.8

43

16.2

Once in 6 months

4

1.5

21

7.9

74

27.8

32

12.0

2

0.8

133

50.0

Total

10

3.8

41

15.4

158

59.4

51

19.2

6

2.3

266

100

Table 33.4 Legibility/visibility of IR current signage system Very poor

Poor

n

n

%

%

Average

Good

N

n

%

%

Excellent

Total

n

n

%

%

Under18 yr

0

0.0

0

0.0

3

1.1

3

1.1

0

0.0

6

2.3

18–30 years

18

6.8

49

18.4

85

32.0

20

7.5

5

1.9

177

66.5

31–40 years

6

2.3

19

7.1

11

4.1

3

1.1

1

0.4

40

15.0

41–50 years

3

1.1

2

0.8

10

3.8

5

1.9

1

0.4

21

7.9

51–59 years

0

0.0

1

0.4

4

1.5

3

1.1

0

0.0

8

3.0

60 yr. above

2

0.8

1

0.4

9

3.4

2

0.8

0

0.0

14

5.3

Total

29

10.9

72

27.1

45.9

36

13.5

7

2.6

266

100

122

four percent rely on asking co-passengers and coolie (porter), and five percent use the railway voice announcement system. Fifty-one percent of respondents employ all these techniques for full assurance. Station name signage’s nighttime readability is reviewed in Table 33.4. A well-designed physical sign boosts confidence and makes swift action easier but the tabulated data shows that thirty nine percent of respondents rate existing legibility/visibility of station signs as ‘poor’ or ‘very poor’ and forty-six percent of the respondents rate it just ‘average’ leaving a wide scope of improvement.

33.2.3.3

Reliability

While accurate navigation is always preferred, railway stations must also consider the rate of movement when planning how to move vast crowds of people effectively [27]. Consequently, respondents were asked if they could travel with IR using only

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signages present on a railway station; approximately, fifty-seven percent of respondents answered no, indicating that most IR passengers consider present signage system as less reliable.

33.3 Discussion and Conclusion The findings of (1) passenger survey, (2) a non-participant observational study of two different railway stations, and (3) a review and comparison of national and international signage codes and standards for railway stations; all point to the conclusion that the current signage systems at IR stations have a great deal of room for improvement. First, the existing Indian railway’s signage standards and norms are weak in a few key elements, including signage planning strategy, detailing, standardization, and uniformity, as revealed by an investigation and comparison of the standards used by the Indian Railways with foreign standards. In addition, the implementation strategy, information signs, coding scheme, and maps are some areas that have not been adequately addressed. Second, to gain an understanding of the existing situation regarding the placement of civil work signage on IR stations, the authors went to and researched two IR stations (Jaipur and Kanpur). The results of the non-participant observational study were compiled and tallied, which revealed the problematic areas. Third, an online poll was conducted with IR passengers to identify their views and challenges regarding civil work signage at IR stations. The survey findings were also in tune with the examination of signage guidelines and observations of IR stations conducted during the field investigation. Most respondents stated that they cannot rely solely on the signage system to locate the train station and train coaches and that they require additional support, such as assistance from other commuters and porters. Approximately, one-third of those surveyed say that they occasionally or never travel using only the signage system. Visibility of railway station signage in night is also a cause of concern as highlighted by many in the survey. Most respondents also stated they could not travel with IR if they relied entirely on physical signage, highlighting that the existing IR signage system lacks acceptable legibility and readability, and the necessity for further improvements. Overall, the three approaches used for investigation of the current state of signage design indicate urgent and large-scale modifications required in existing signage system of IR stations and highlight the issues which can be taken up by designers and policy makers for creating policy circulars, branding strategy, and best practice guidelines for Indian railway station signages. The scope of this research paper is limited to examining the effectiveness of the existing signage system and does not offer design alternate consequently further research may be undertaken to address this issue by designing and analyzing (with the help of a prototype experimentation) a modified design system on the issues and shortcomings of the IR signage system highlighted in this research.

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References 1. Indian Railways yearbook 2020–21: Ministry of Railways (2021) 2. Van Hagen, M., Bron, P.: Enhancing the experience of the train journey: changing the focus from satisfaction to emotional experience of customers. Transp. Res. Procedia 1(1), 253–263 (2014) 3. Indian Railways Portal. https://nwr.indianrailways.gov.in/ 4. Network rail: Design Guidelines and Specifications: Managed Stations Wayfinding. Network Rail (2011) 5. KRW Incorporated, et al.: Guidelines for Transit Facility Signing and Graphics (TCRP), vol. 12. Transportation Research Board (1996) 6. MTC: Regional Transit Wayfinding Guidelines and Standards 0.2. Metropolitan Transportation Commission (2012) 7. Rail safety & Standards Board: Wayfinding at stations-A good practice guild (2006) 8. Translink: Signage Manual, Rail Station Queensland Government (2021) 9. Ministry of Railways: Manual for Standards and Specifications for Railway Stations. Vol. 2of 2/2009. Ministry of Railways (Railway Board) (2009) 10. Motamedi, A., et al.: Signage visibility analysis and optimization system using BIM-enabled virtual reality (VR) environments. Adv. Eng. Inform. 32, 248–262 (2017). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.aei.2017.03.005 11. Ministry of Railways: Report on Updation/Revision of Manual for Standards and specifications for Railway Stations 2019/SD-2/22/7/11 IR (2020) 12. CAMTECH: Signage used in Indian railways, CAMTECH/C/Signage/1 RDSO. Centre for Advanced Maintenance Technology (2012) 13. Northern Railway Construction Organization: Trackside Indicator Boards and Signages. IRCEP. Indian Railways Institute of Civil Engineering Pune (2020) 14. Ministry of Railways: Harmonized Guidelines for Passenger with Disabilities, Over Indian railways. Ministry of Railways (2019) 15. RDSO: Specification for Train Information Display System, RDSO/SPN/TC/67/2013 Research Designs and Standards Organization (2013) 16. Ministry of Railways (2013). The persons with disabilities act 1995 -Implementation and provisions 2013. Ministry of Railways 17. CAMTECH:. Passenger Amenities in Station CAMTECH/2012/C/PAS/1 Centre for Advanced Maintenance Technology (2012) 18. Ministry of Railways: Manual for Standards and Specifications for Railway Stations, vol. 1of 2/2009. Ministry of Railways (Railway Board)(2009) 19. RDSO: Public address system RDSO/SPN/TC/63/2006. RDSO (2006) 20. Ministry of Railways: Standardization of signages of stations. Policy circular: Commercial Directorate 97/TGII/39/11/Signages. Railway Board (1999) 21. Transport of London: London Underground Sign manual. Transport of London (2002) 22. Network Rail: Station design principles for network rail. BLDG-SP80-002 Network Rail (2019) 23. RSSB: Signals, Hand signals, Indicators and Signs Handbook RS521 Rail Safety and Standard Board (2020) 24. Great Britain. Department for Transport, Scotland: Accessible Train Station Design for Disabled People: A Code of Practice. Transport Scotland (2015) 25. Crawford, J., et al.: Wayfinding in the Built Environment. CRC (2004) 26. London Transport User Committee: An audit of station name signing report LTUC. https:// www.londontravelwatch.org.uk/ (2021) 27. O’Neill, M.J.: Effects of signage and floor plan configuration on wayfinding accuracy. Environ. Behav. 23(5), 553–574 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916591235002

Chapter 34

Comprehensive Evaluation Study on the Cognitive Load of Kids with Dyslexia in Traditional Learning Practices at Jabalpur, India Supriya Bawiskar, Avinash Sahu, and Sangeeta Pandit Abstract Purpose: Lack of awareness about dyslexia among Indian parents compelled them to send their wards to regular schools. Classrooms and teaching practices by the traditional learning method for normal children increase the cognitive load on dyslexic children and create a long-term impact on their mental health. This paper aims to study the cognitive load on children with dyslexia in traditional learning practices. Methods: A survey was conducted among 140 students from rural and semi-rural schools in Jabalpur. Out of 140 students, a screening test was performed to identify 30 children with dyslexic behavior. 30 children selected from the screening test underwent a psychomotor questionnaire test. The test was prepared based on some psychomotor factors with the help of NCERT textbooks and some parameters from the combined Kaufman assessment test and Wechsler Intelligence scale. Result: From the study, it is found that children with dyslexic behavior have difficulty reading, writing, and decoding words, making the learning process slow in regular teaching practice. The test for letter identification by showing basic alphabets and grouping the alphabets revealed confusion in children due to cognitive dissonance. The students score low in the psychomotor factors like gestalt closure, matrix analogy, and arithmetic index, which shows that the NCERT textbooks do not include students with learning disabilities. Conclusion: This study suggests that design intervention in textbook design is needed to reduce the cognitive load of children with learning disabilities. NCERT textbooks can be made more inclusive for all students with different learning disabilities for easy comprehension.

S. Bawiskar · A. Sahu · S. Pandit (B) Ergonomics Lab, Design Discipline, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Jabalpur, M.P. 482005, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_34

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34.1 Introduction Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder involving difficulty in reading and writing [1, 2]. If this disorder goes undiagnosed in early school days, the child may develop frustration due to difficulty in reading. As a student, they become neuro-diverse and develop problems like low self-esteem, anxiety and develop stress. In India, with a multilingual and multicultural background, students have high chances of learning disabilities if not given proper attention [3]. Our education system is designed in such a way that it fails to include students with learning disabilities [4]. Parents and teachers often ignore these students as they fail to understand and accepting a child as a dyslexic is difficult for a parent to accept [5, 6]. Most of the time, the child grows with age but continues to stay in the lower classes due to not being able to perform well academically. Most studies confirm that dyslexia is one of the common disorders seen among children [7], and almost 15% of the people in the world are dyslexic [8]. In children, there are different symptoms of dyslexia observed; the child can have any one or all of the symptoms. Directional dyslexia is when the numbers and letters are reversed or mirrored (Fig. 34.1). Dysgraphia is when the order of letters is mixed up, and dyscalculia is when the child is weak in mathematics and logic solving [4]. In Fig. 34.1, the English numbers 3 and 11 are confused as mirror C and H, which shows dysgraphia, whereas number 7 is the mirror image which shows directional dyslexia. Diagnosis of dyslexia can be made by reviewing the child’s processing of information from seeing, hearing, and participating in activities. The severity of dyslexia can vary from mild to severe and can be treated if diagnosed early. In Indian society, there is a lack of knowledge, empathy, and awareness regarding these neurodevelopmental disorders. There are different learning strategies for dyslexia, but our existing traditional learning practices are not inclusive of students with learning disabilities [4]. The traditional learning practices in our country prefer National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) syllabus over any other as it is standardized and compiled by experts in the field [9]. The aim of this paper is to study the cognitive load on students with dyslexia in traditional learning practices.

Fig. 34.1 Sample of directional dyslexia writing pattern (mirroring the letters) and dysgraphia (confusing in similar looking letters)

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34.2 Methodology 34.2.1 Data Collection and Study Design The study is focused on two phases; Phase 1 in the rural areas of Bargi and Barha; Phase 2 is in semi-urban areas of Bhatauli, Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh. Three schools from Bargi and Barha and five schools from Bhatauli were selected to conduct the study. Before the study began, the parents were made aware of the survey protocols, and ethical permission was sought from individual representatives and school authorities. Direct observation and photography at the primary level help identify the students’ behavioral patterns. The survey was conducted on students from 4 to 6th standard, and age group of students in that specific class was considered accordingly.

34.2.2 Sample Screening A basic writing test for alphabets in English and Hindi and numbers in English was conducted to see the dyslexic behavioral pattern on the students (Fig. 34.2). 140 students participated in the screening test from rural and semi-urban areas (Tables 34.1, 34.2 and 34.3).

34.2.2.1

Psychomotor Test

A modified psychomotor questionnaire was created from the combined Kaufman assessment test and Wechsler Intelligence scale. For developing the psychomotor test questionnaire, out of all the parameters mentioned in the Kaufman assessment test and Wechsler Intelligence test, three parameters were selected: Gestalt Closure, Matrix Analogies, and Arithmetic Indexes. These three parameters are considered the psychomotor factors for this test. The Gestalt closure factor was selected to evaluate the ability of the student to visualize the objects in proximity. The Matrix analogy factor evaluates the logic solving ability, and the Arithmetic index evaluates the quantitative reasoning ability (Table 34.1). The questions in the questionnaire about the three psychomotor factors were developed with the help of the school textbooks of the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT). The images, matrix, and arithmetic questions were developed from NCERT textbooks to assess the inclusivity of the textbooks for the dyslexic students (Table 34.1). The selected students were asked to sit in a classroom with some gaps between two students (Fig. 34.3). The students were given 30 min to fill up the psychomotor questionnaire. The filled questionnaires were collected, and the marks were calculated to find the results. The test was conducted by 12 questions of 10 marks each and a total of 120 marks in which the score slabs was fixed (Table 34.2).

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Fig. 34.2 Writing test samples of the selected students pattern observed in a Hindi alphabets, b(1) English alphabets, and b(2) English numerical

This rating was further classified into two categories: No (1, 2, 3) and Yes (4, 5, 6).

34.2.3 Statistical Analysis Basic statics such as mean and percentage was used. The chi-square test was used to find the categorical difference between the independent variable (age and class) with the dependent variable (psychomotor factors). p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant throughout the study.

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Table 34.1 Modified Kaufman assessment test model Psychomotor factors

Task

Gestalt closure

Points

No of questions

Ability measured

40

4*10

Perceive basic shapes Concentration Spatial reasoning

Complete the picture by joining the lines Matrix analogies

40

4*10

Logical reasoning Inductive reasoning Problem solving

Complete the matrix Arithmetic

40

4*10

Quantitative reasoning Mental manipulation

Count the no. of objects

Table 34.2 Test scoring with score slabs Scale

Scoring

Score slabs

1

0–20

Extremely low

2

21–40

Borderline

3

41–60

Low average

4

61–80

Average

5

81–100

High average

6

101–120

Superior

Table 34.3 Sample screening Area

Class

All samples

Selected samples based on screening

Rural

4th–6th

53

18

Semi-urban

4th–6th

87

12

140

30

Total

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Fig. 34.3 Students performing the tests

34.3 Results 34.3.1 Analysis of Sample Data Out of 140 students from class 4th to 6th standard, 30 students were selected by the psychomotor screening test for those who showed dyslexic behavioral patterns (Table 34.3). The chosen students were from a minimum age of 8 years to a maximum of 10 years old.

34.3.2 Psychomotor Analysis The total average score was found to be in the range of 10–50.5, which falls in the score slab of extremely low to low average (Table 34.2). The scores in rural areas were extremely low for 4th-grade students and borderline for 5th- and 6th-grade students. The scores in the semi-urban area were low average for 4th-grade students and borderline for 5th- and 6th-grade students (Table 34.4). Prevalence of psychomotor factor with respect to age and class were evaluated through the chi-squire test (Table 34.5), where students’ number and their percentage in the demographic group were considered for the study, and the p-value < 0.005 was considered statistically significant. It was found that psychomotor factors such as

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Table 34.4 Final score from psychomotor test Area

Class

No. of students

Average scores

Results

Rural

4th

7

10

Extremely low

5th

5

30.5

Borderline

6th

4

30.5

Borderline

4th

4

50.5

Low average

5th

6

30.5

Borderline

6th

4

30.5

Borderline

Semi-urban

Table 34.5 Prevalence of psychomotor factors with respect to psychomotor factor (n = 30) Demographic factor (n = 30)

The following questions are with respect to psychomotor factors Gestalt closure

Matrix analogies

Arithmetic

Variable

Classification (N)

n (%)

P-value

n (%)

P-value

n (%)

P-value

Age (years)

8 (10)

7 (77.8)

< 0.05*

6 (66.7)

< 0.05*

8 (88.9)

< 0.05*

9 (11)

5 (45.5)

4 (36.4)

5 (45.5)

10 (9)

2 (20)

1 (10)

3 (30)

4th (11)

6 (75)

5th (11)

6 (54.5)

4 (36.4)

5 (45.5)

6th (8)

2 (18.2)

1 (9.1)

4 (36.4)

Class

< 0.05*

6 (75)

< 0.01**

7 (87.5)

–

N = Number of students, % = Percentage value, * = p < 0.05, ** = p < 0.01, *** = p < 0.001

Gestalt closure and Matrix analogies were high for the age group 8 years for 4th standard, and arithmetic factor was high among the age group 8 years.

34.4 Discussion Dyslexic symptoms, if left unnoticed, may lead to severe consequences in the future [10]. This study, which took place among students from the rural and semi-urban areas of Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, clearly shows signs of dyslexic tendencies. Of the 140 students who attended the basic writing test, 30 showed signs of dyslexia. This clearly shows the possibility of dyslexic behavior among the selected population. Moreover, the textbooks belonging to the NCERT syllabus were referred for making the questionnaire for the test. The test results show significantly low performance in Matrix analogies and Arithmetic index tested for measuring students’ logic solving and quantitative reasoning ability. Similar results showing low performance in logic solving and quantitative reasoning were found in a paper based on dyscalculia and dysgraphia [11]. The test results also show that the textbooks are not inclusive to the students who have dyslexia. The right to education has been given to the children

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with learning disabilities according to the human-rights model in NCERT in recent years. But unfortunately they have been kept aside and treated differently than other students [12]. There is no proper training for teachers to meet the needs of students with learning disabilities in a normal classroom [12]. NCERT gives provisions for students with learning disabilities to be accommodated in the school curriculums by providing them with extra classes and time for the tasks [4]. The content of the NCERT text books is designed by the experts in the field But, according to studies, providing such extra provisions to the special students make them more neuro-diverse [4, 13]. Besides provisions of extra classes and extra time for tasks, no intervention at the syllabus level, including the study materials, has been done to accommodate the students with learning disabilities. It is seen from the results that the scores of the students from the semi-urban area are decreasing as they go to higher classes. This is because the severity of dyslexia increases as the kids grow if they are not treated in the early stage. Also, as they grow, it is seen that due to increased cognitive load, they become more neuro-diverse [13, 14]. As many schools are not commenced yet due to the COVID situation, the study could not be performed on a larger sample size. More insights can be retrieved on this regard if the sample size of the population is increased.

34.5 Conclusion The study suggests that design intervention is needed to help students with learning disabilities like dyslexia to reduce the cognitive load and achieve their full potential. Designing the NCERT textbooks can be more inclusive to all the students with different learning disabilities for easy comprehension. Acknowledgements For this research work, we would like to extend our thanks and cordial sense of gratitude to the teachers, parents, and students for their great support and help by participating in the research, to the schools for allowing the surveys and tests carried out.

References 1. Peterson, R.L., Pennington, B.F.: Developmental dyslexia. The lancet 379(9830), 1997–2007 (2012) 2. Lyon, G.R., Shaywitz, S.E., Shaywitz, B.A.: A definition of dyslexia. Ann. Dyslexia 53(1), 1–14 (2003) 3. Ramaa, S.: Two decades of research on learning disabilities in India. Dyslexia 6(4), 268–283 (2000) 4. NCERT, National Council of Educational Research and Training: Including Children with Special Needs Primary Stage. https://Ncert.Nic.In/. from https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/publication/ otherpublications/SpecialNeeds.pdf (2014). Retrieved 12 Jun 2022 5. Ginsburg, G.P., Hartwick, A.: Directional confusion as a sign of dyslexia. Percept. Mot. Skills 32(2), 535–543 (1971)

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6. Acharya, P.K.: A study on the awareness of secondary school teachers towards language learning difficulties of students. Sch. Res. J. Interdisc. Stud. 4(26), 2889–2898 (2016) 7. Shaywitz, S.E.: Dyslexia. N. Engl. J. Med. 338(5), 307–312 (1998) 8. Kariyawasam, R., Nadeeshani, M., Hamid, T., Subasinghe, I., Samarasinghe, P., Ratnayake, P.: Pubudu: deep learning based screening and intervention of dyslexia, dysgraphia and dyscalculia. In: 2019 14th Conference on Industrial and Information Systems (ICIIS), pp. 476–481. IEEE (2019) 9. Sharma, S., Kohli, A., Mohanty, M., Shah, R.: Construction of a battery for specific learning disabilities: a pilot study. J. Disabil. Manag. Rehabil. 8–17 (1918) 10. Brody, L.E., Mills, C.J.: Gifted children with learning disabilities: a review of the issues. J. Learn. Disabil. 30(3), 282–296 (1997) 11. Ramaa, S., Gowramma, I.P.: A systematic procedure for identifying and classifying children with dyscalculia among primary school children in India. Dyslexia 8(2), 67–85 (2002) 12. Raj, F.: Identifying and educating learners with language learning disabilities: advocating inclusion through teacher education. In: English Language Teacher Education in a Diverse Environment, vol. 223 13. Cooper, R.: Neurodiversity and Dyslexia: Compensatory Strategies, or Different Approaches (2009) 14. Armstrong, T.: Neurodiversity: discovering the extraordinary gifts of autism, ADHD, dyslexia, and other brain differences. ReadHowYouWant.Com (2010)

Chapter 35

Emotion AI in India Mriganka Madhukaillya and Gurgenius Singh Kapoor

Abstract Analyzing emotions accurately is the gateway to successful communication. Various theories have been established over centuries, all mapping physiological stimuli derived from facial expressions as the baseline for identifying emotions. Recently developed, AI-based emotion recognition tools (Emotion AI) have also been derived from such pre-existing models. But are these tools accurate? Research shows instances of bias emerging globally due to the subjective nature of AI. Therefore, this paper emphasizes the shortcomings of Emotion AI, due to lack of consideration of the cognitive aspects of emotion. Furthermore, it conducts experiments to ascertain the relevance of contextual data in revealing the actual affect of a person. It also highlights how cognitive appraisal could be person independent based on cultural upbringing, experience, and perception. This paper concludes by recommending parameters, which Emotion AI should be considerate of, if it were to be imposed on a nation as culturally diverse as India, or else it would lead to faulty outputs.

35.1 Introduction What is the major force that has driven mankind toward progress, innovation, evolution, or even destruction? What characteristic feature defines us humans as unique from the rest of creation? Well, the answer lies in our emotions. Evidence indicates that a healthy balance of emotions is integral to intelligence and is necessary for creative and flexible problem-solving. Emotions give us the capability to express ourselves and act upon our desires (belief), which when fulfilled results in contentment and when unfulfilled result in agony and suffering. Our desires and greed go hand in hand, which makes us yearn for even larger possessions and enjoyment. M. Madhukaillya · G. S. Kapoor (B) Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, India e-mail: [email protected] M. Madhukaillya e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_35

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When enjoyment is attained, this makes people arrogant and envious, to such an extent that even the thought of its loss induces fear. But how is all this relevant in today’s rapidly changing world? With the coronavirus pandemic, new challenges have surfaced. Our experience has transformed from real (offline) to virtual (online) in almost every sector, such as business, gaming, medical, and retail. We are living in a world where we are constantly emitting affective information which AI with the help of machine learning APIs can use to quantify our emotional state, be it for surveillance, seamless interaction between humans and machines or even to determine social outcomes. But is the technology quite there yet? Or is it subjected to biases which in turn could result in a future dystopia, as already envisioned in the “Black Mirror” episode “Be Right Back” [1], as well as in the movie “Her” [2]? Is it even possible to find a pattern based on which we can cluster people’s affect, resulting in categories of expressions that have not been identified so far—expressions that are, in fact, unique and person independent? And where would a nation like India stand? A nation that is ranked highest in sharing personal data, a nation so diverse and vast in terms of language, ethnicity, culture, religion, etc. Soon Emotion AI will also be a part of our country and therefore any non-indigenous model subjected to Indians, by either the US or China, the main players in the field, will result in difficulty to cope with, leading to bias and misinterpretation. To accurately predict a person’s affect, we need to delve deeper into emotions, their origin, and types. The definition of emotion is a constant challenge in many disciplines [3] because of various aspects of this concept. Some efforts have been made to establish a common agreement on what emotions are by starting with the definition of a core ideology behind it all. It is a generic concept that involves a broad range of feelings that people experience. Feelings are “mental experiences of body states. They signify physiological needs for example pain in case of an injury, fear or anger in case of a threat, or other specific social interactions, for example, compassion, gratitude or love” [4]. Strong emotions can cause us to take action. This experience called affect can be in the form of both emotions and moods. In psychology, emotion is often defined as a complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes that influence thought and behavior [5]. Therefore, emotionality is associated with a range of psychological phenomena, including temperament, personality, mood, and motivation. When we talk about duration, emotions are classified as “primary” (quick and dirty) and “secondary” (run by our passions). Primary emotions last for a short duration and can be classified as instinctive self-defense mechanisms, whereas secondary emotions are long-lasting and we are well aware of our context. Based on our understanding, we tried to differentiate between primary and secondary emotions in terms of duration, cognitive processing, response type, and changes in physiological traits like facial expressions, etc., as shown in Fig. 35.1. Emotions influence cognitive processes that underlie human behavior. Experiencing negative emotions may lead to developing psychological disorders, whereas experiencing positive emotions may improve creative thinking and promote cooperative behavior.

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Fig. 35.1 Difference between the nature of primary and secondary emotions based on insights from secondary research

The way we react and behave in our society can be classified into various emotion subfields. It all begins with emotions being generated in our hippocampus as the innate and primal response for self-defense or evasion. It lasts for just a few seconds and is common to all people as well as some animals. We might exhibit some universal traits in the form of basic facial expressions as a response. From there, neural signals are transferred to the frontal cortex of our brain where cognition occurs and we have an appraisal/awareness of the situation or the environment around us. It might take us some time to realize what just happened and based on that we might express some feelings, which could vary from person to person. Finally, after cognition has occurred, it represents a stage where feelings and emotions combine to give rise to a long-term affective state called mood. It could last from minutes to hours and depending on how we value it based on our likes or dislikes, interest, or perception, the response could be person independent. There could be some triggers when it comes to controlling the mood of a person but it is still majorly unknown. At this stage, one is fully conscious or aware of the context. Based on how deeply we are affected or aroused by the triggering event in our life, it could affect our mood for a long time which could influence our state of mind and change our temperament. After multiple layers of processing, we might exhibit some unique patterns. Depending on how long that stage lasts, it could result in an everlasting state which could be highly individual and entirely sophisticated. This gives birth to the personality of a person which is highly dependent on his life experiences. It is a way of living where one gets used to the environment in which he is living, it cannot be easily edited or suddenly changed as it takes years or decades into the making. In Fig. 35.2, we tried to showcase the transition across all emotional subfields along with the key factors which differentiate one state from the other. According to Paul Ekman, an American psychologist, what we have uncovered is the fact that humans exhibit seven universal emotions namely anger, happiness, fear, disgust, contempt, surprise, and sadness, all of which are valid across cultures despite their ethnicity or cultural diversity. Ekman even stated that the triggers of such emotions can also be generalized. These emotions are similar to the 9 Rasas in

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Fig. 35.2 Transitional stages of emotion based on research from primary and secondary sources

the Rasa Theory [6]. However, the language of emotions can differ across various cultures based on the culturally specific display rules/guidelines as to when and how to express certain emotions and with what intensity. This can be subjective and vary based on the individual’s level of experience, for example, some foods could be a delicacy in certain cultures but could evoke a feeling of disgust in others. The difference between universally exhibited emotions and culturally specific emotions has also been highlighted in Fig. 35.3. Fig. 35.3 How emotions could vary from universal to culturally specific based on insights from secondary research

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Understanding the emotions and expressions of a group of people can therefore become a means of revealing the fundamental makeup of their culture. But is it even possible to recognize the affect of a country like India, which is so diverse? Will the model be person independent or can it be homogenized considering the crosscultural context and ethnicity into account? Will there be other parameters needed to be considered rather than the obvious physiological ones? Nowadays, with the help of machine learning and artificial intelligence, it is very much possible to identify the affective state of a person using sensors, wearables, cameras, and microphones, classifying it with algorithms. The study dealing with it is called affective computing [7], initiated by Rosalind Pickard in 1997. Research in this field is about empowering machines and computers with emotional intelligence so that they can serve us better by giving appropriate responses or feedback and that depends highly on how accurately they recognize our emotions. This subset of artificial intelligence is called Emotion AI [8], and it is expected to grow exponentially in the coming years [9]. All the major APIs which exist these days like Affdex by Affectiva, Emotix, etc., [10] have been trained to rely majorly on Paul Ekman’s Model of emotion recognition called [11] Facial Action Coding System (FACS), which is a comprehensive, anatomically based system for describing all visually discernible facial movement by breaking down facial micro-expressions into individual components of muscle movement, called action units (AUs). But sometimes the result of these facial recognition APIs is not accurate. It could be the exact opposite for some. It has been stated from scenarios documented globally that these APIs are only capable of capturing the short-term affective state in the form of sudden spontaneous reactions. Therefore, such technology is flawed as it is only limited to detecting a few universal emotions and not more complex physiological states, which in turn could lead to false outputs or bias [12, 13]. It does not capture the true affect of a person. The purpose of this paper will be aimed at proving that the actual emotions of a person cannot be fully identified using only the face as a primary matrix [14]. Other factors also come into play when recognizing true affect like context and duration of the affective state.

35.2 Research After studying various theories on emotions (both western and Indian) and their evolution in depth, we tried to identify all the parameters linked to revealing them. Apart from the physiological aspects (sentics) which are apparent/less apparent to others, our focus is more on the varying cognitive aspects of emotion which could be a person independent and might differ based on the context. Hence, they will be clubbed as per the emotional subfield or category. This paper will also include experiments to demonstrate the importance of contextual data to determine the actual affective state and how the concept of familiarity (personal experience) could affect the intensity of emotion.

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35.2.1 Study 1 This experiment was conducted to figure out the importance of contextual data in revealing the actual affect of a person. Machines are unable to deduce the difference between a wink or a blink, a squint or a peep, happy or cringe, nostalgia or melancholy. AI systems can track the movement of facial muscles based on FACS, but they are unable to understand the action in context or its hidden meaning. Sample and Methodology To demonstrate the flaw of Emotion AI technology, some scenarios were carefully selected and gamified as a google form. Since humans are emotionally intelligent as compared to AI, about 15 users were shown a set of images with some contextual information relevant to each image. They were then asked to label the emotion they feel is being represented in each image from a set of two choices, as shown in Fig. 35.4. The concept is borrowed from the work of anthropologist Clifford Geertz and his theory of “thick description” along with soviet filmmaker Lev Kuleshov and his principle “The Kuleshov Effect”. These images show emotions that the AI can misinterpret in a contradictory sense.

Fig. 35.4 Sets of images with contextual information and a conflicting choice between emotions

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Observation Almost everyone was able to identify the correct emotion thanks to the contextual information given. 89.4% of scenarios were labeled correctly by participants. Without that critical data, it would have been difficult to identify the correct meaning of the image. The facial expression exhibited in the pictures can be easily misinterpreted by the latest emotion detection APIs. Even though two contrasting emotions exhibit similar facial responses, most were able to relate to the scenario based on perception and personal experience, which made them better judge when labeling the affective state. A minor discrepancy was found when labeling blink for wink and happiness for cringe by a few participants. Almost in every question, at least one person failed to interpret the context and hence labeled the emotion incorrectly. On average 20% of participants misjudged the context. 35% of participants mistook a cringing smile for a happy one as both look similar on the outside but only one is natural and pure emotion. Only five participants out of the rest answered all questions correctly, stating that might be slightly more emotionally intelligent. Result Imagine for a moment, that even with some contextual insight we make errors in judging others, then where would our computers stand? Surely the inaccuracy by the participants could be subjective in nature, but that could also be true in the case of AI, i.e., the nature of the algorithms based on which artificial intelligence is trained could be highly subjective and judgmental. So far there are no conclusive theories or fundamentals that label emotions keeping in mind the context. All the available Emotion AI technologies out there are still in their nascent stages. The Emotion AI industry believes that they need more facial data to accurately determine the mood of a person which raises privacy concerns, and the outcome is still inaccurate and biased for minorities. There is a need for new parameters which apart from analyzing the faces and the behavior of the subject would also consider the environment surrounding them. This experiment serves as an example to demonstrate and even raise awareness that the technology can easily be tricked into faulty detection. Creating huge data sets of facial images from around the globe and then expecting machine learning to do its job is just not the way to go. We do not even know the true nature of machine learning and even its shortcomings. We might be able to get facial recognition to identify people but determining their inner feeling, thoughts, and emotions is just out of the question as of now.

35.2.2 Study 2 Everyone reacts differently to a stimulus. The objective of this experiment was to understand how personal experience or familiarity can affect the mood of the user in a given situation. We also wanted to find out whether differences in gender, cultural

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makeup, and energy levels also played a role in generating emotions that are similar and can be clustered based on the type of user. Sample and Methodology A survey was conducted among 15 college students where they were shown a total of eight images representing different scenarios as shown in Fig. 35.5. Upon viewing, their task was to classify each image with an emotion they felt. From a list of 17 different emotions namely anger, frustration, nervous, compassion, confusion, contempt, love, disgust, excited, fear, happy, confident, neutral, surprised, sad, embarrassed, and boring, they were supposed to label each image with only two. The list of emotions to choose from was vast because people might experience more than just the basic universal emotions. The data collected from this survey would give insight as to whether personal experience, value structure or perception matters in cognitive appraisal or not. Observation 66.7% of people surveyed were male. The majority of people were between 19–40 yr. age group. Almost everyone who gave the survey was in a good mood with high energy levels. The type of emotions surveyors experienced in Muharram mourning tradition picture varied, ranging from fear to anger to disgust. Overall emotion exhibited here was negative, despite the familiarity. The image of a man urinating outdoors exhibited emotions varying from disgust to anger to neutral among the surveyors. The emotions exhibited in the India versus Pakistan cricket match varied from nervous to neutral to not interested. Dosa Thali picture had overall positive feedback. The image of a Kathakali dance performer’s face was amusing to some but was scary to others. The image of African Coffin Pallbearers caused a surprising reaction overall. The Insidious Ghost lady picture was boring to a few but exciting and scary for most.

Fig. 35.5 Variety of images shown to participants to observe the different emotions evoked in them

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Result This experiment verifies that cognitive appraisal is influenced by experience, value structure, and personal perception about good and bad or interesting and boring. It also verifies that the intensity at which emotion is induced could vary from person to person, even though they might be having the same valence. There is a need for a much bigger sample in order to figure out the influence of culture but with the given sample it could be sensed that what might be scary or disgusting for some, could be amusing or tasty for others, respectively. Based on personality development over the years, there could be things/topics which some might find interesting or thrilling, while others could have no emotional response at all. Hence, concluding that there exists a person independent affect. Also, we felt that energy levels also affect the cognitive appraisal. The higher the energy levels, the more the intensity of the positive affect could be. The lower the energy levels, the more intense the negative affect would be.

35.3 Discussion From the above experiments, we can deduce some facts about emotions that these emerging emotion-detecting APIs should consider, without which the outcome could be faulty or inaccurate. Emotion AI only recognizes universal emotions. The way these data sets have been trained only reveals that AI can recognize primary emotions which occur only for a short span of time. They are not well equipped in recognizing the long-term affective state of a user. It can only recognize spontaneous reactions to a stimulus. Capturing the natural state of the user requires taking into consideration the context of the user, and there are no parameters governing those factors which are ultimately leading to biased results. Context is important for emotional intelligence. We cannot really tell what emotion is hidden behind that plain face of the user. In order to determine that we need to spend some time with them so that we can gather some context about them. It is not possible to capture the emotions of a person by just the face or other physiological signs. Despite our intelligence, we still fail to recognize the social display norms or values because they are highly subjective and vary from culture to culture as well. Now think how bad the training model of these leading emotion APIs is, it can be totally unpredictable and biased. Emotions are person independent. The last experiment hinted toward the relevance of personal experience over our cognition. The personal experience could vary based on the value structure or social societal norms introduced via culture. All this information is triggered via our memory and results in a unique emotional footprint. There is also a sympathy factor or a third-person perspective which also affects the way cognition occurs.

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Fig. 35.6 Map generated from primary and secondary research, revealing all the factors which have an effect on appraisals via cognition

Figure 35.6 showcases the varying aspects of cognition. From our understanding, cognitive appraisal results in the generation of thoughts which in turn can influence our emotions. It is what we call secondary emotions, which arise at a later stage in an individual’s development when structured connections have been established between primary emotions and subjects associated with them in a given situation. Based on what perception people have about good or bad, like or dislike, important or unimportant, interesting or uninteresting, people can deduce balanced decisions unconsciously with common-sense reasoning. It has a huge cultural/ontological influence and hence is hard to compute as an effective pattern. All of this is classified under MEMORY via personal experience and acts as a chief mechanism through which emotions enter into the mental association’s active in analogical thinking and creativity.

35.4 Conclusion Emotion AI right now has a weak foundation. We feel that it is still in its infancy. It is still not accurate enough and is subjective in nature. All this is because of the skewed data sets and algorithms based on which it has been trained. Surely, we are making progress in this field with new data sets emerging now and then, but there is a strong need for a fundamental theory that could replace the outdated Ekman’s version of emotion recognition [15]. There are thousands of emotions besides the

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universal seven which he classified. All these emotion recognition APIs are totally inconsiderate of the person independent, long-term affective state. There is a need to research deeper into the cognitive aspects of humans to unveil new parameters, which could be ethically and morally considerable as well. As of now, there has been no direct implication of Emotion AI in India. However, facial recognition technology is being deployed at a really fast pace in India and already cases of bias are emerging, leading to bad social outcomes. There are many petitions out there to ban the use of such technology because it is still in its nascent stage right now. Despite that, there are plans by the government to deploy this technology at a massive scale in India [16], to improve the security and surveillance of our nation. As such there are no data laws governing the ethical use of this technology, resulting in many private corporations illegally capturing the facial biosignature of people without their consent. What these new emerging private organizations do with this data is a cause for concern. It is like a mad dog race between them as to which company gets to pitch their Emotion AI product to the government first. There will be concerns related to the false implications of this technology. The market for affect recognition in India is hot right now. There is a dire need to build an affective system that could classify us accurately, despite the diversity in our country. Developing such technology for a nation like India requires us to understand and somehow quantify the long-term affective state of the user, where all the cultural influences, past/history, experience, and other contextual information will come into play. Developing such tech purely based on facial mapping could in turn give unexpected outcomes.

References 1. Be Right Back. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2290780/ (2013) 2. Her. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1798709/ (2013) 3. Scherer, K.R.: What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Soc. Sci. Inf. 44(4), 695–729 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405058216 4. Damasio, A., Carvalho, G.B.: The nature of feelings: evolutionary and neurobiological origins. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 14(2), 143–152 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3403 5. Myers, D.G.: Psychology, Seventh Edition, in Modules, 7th edn. Worth Publishers (2003) 6. Schwartz, S.: Rasa: Performing the Divine in India (Illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press (2004) 7. Picard, R.W.: Affective Computing (The MIT Press) (Reprint ed.). The MIT Press (2000) 8. Issues.: Emotional AI Lab. https://emotionalai.org/so-what-is-emotional-ai (2017) 9. Telford, T.: ‘Emotion detection’ AI is a $20 billion industry. New research says it can’t do what it claims. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/07/31/emo tion-detection-ai-is-billion-industry-new-research-says-it-cant-do-what-it-claims/ (2019) 10. Adler, J.: Smile, Frown, Grimace and Grin—Your Facial Expression Is the Next Frontier in Big Data. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/rana-el-kalioubyingenuity-awardstechnology-180957204/ (2015) 11. FACS by Paul Ekman.: Paul Ekman. https://www.paulekman.com/facial-action-coding-sys tem/ (1978)

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12. Chen, A.: Emotion AI researchers say overblown claims give their work a bad name. MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/02/14/844765/ai-emotion-rec ognition-affective-computing-hirevue-regulation-ethics/ (2020) 13. The Risks of Using AI to Interpret Human Emotions: Harvard Business Review. https://hbr. org/2019/11/the-risks-of-using-ai-to-interpret-human-emotions (2019) 14. Davis, N.: Scientists create online games to show risks of AI emotion recognition. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/apr/04/online-games-ai-emotion-recogn ition-emojify (2021) 15. The problem with emotion-detection technology: Charlotte Gifford. https://www.theneweco nomy.com/technology/the-problem-with-emotion-detection-technology (2020) 16. Ara, I.: Lucknow Police to Use AI Cameras to Track Women’s Distress, Activists Slam Privacy Invasion. The Wire. https://thewire.in/women/uttar-pradesh-lucknow-police-artificial-intellige nce-camera-women (2021)

Chapter 36

Study the Effects of Online Gaming on Different Emotional Behavior of the Users Sai Prasad Ojha, Meer Shaikh, Manika Gupta, Arya Shinde, Sahil Waghmare, and Sarthak Shukla Abstract Online gaming in India has been evolving from mid-2000. While gaming in India is still scarce as compared to other countries, the gaming industry in India has developed a lot form the past few years especially with the increase in usage of smartphones and Internet bandwidth. Literature reveals that in 2019 the gaming industry at the global level was marked at a valuation of 151 billion dollars. With the growth in these field, came a lot of elements, some good some bad. Gaming was proven to improve thinking capabilities of the gamers through various types of games but on the other hand gaming also became an addiction, a source for escape from reality and a source for cyber-bullying. This paper primarily focuses on how gaming caused people to behave differently in their day-to-day life and what sort of an impact did it have on their mental states specifically toward the loss of focus. Toxicity in online gaming is something that is not new to the usual gamer, while most of the gamers ignore it or become a part of it, some have troubles facing it. By troubles, we mean it affects their concentrations in the gameplay, their professional work, and their day-to-day activities. Gamers tackle their stress by playing more video games. The result of this was that they became more aggressive toward others and became isolated. These results were concluded based on intensive surveys, observing the S. P. Ojha (B) · M. Gupta · A. Shinde · S. Waghmare · S. Shukla School of Design, Dr. Vishwanath Karad World Peace University, Pune, India e-mail: [email protected] M. Gupta e-mail: [email protected] A. Shinde e-mail: [email protected] S. Waghmare e-mail: [email protected] S. Shukla e-mail: [email protected] M. Shaikh National Institute of Design, Bengaluru, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_36

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subjects, and doing significant secondary research. Surveys were conducted taking the target audience as students from age group of 15–25, in different colleges in and around Pune and gaming zones nearby it. A small online gaming puzzle was assigned to these users to analyze the effects of gaming. The results were compared to the online games which these users were playing.

36.1 Introduction Gaming in general terms is usually thought as fun, playing with friends, spending time, etc., which is pretty much true for the normal public, for people dedicated to games it is something more. Newzoo reports that there were 2.69 billion gamers in the world by the end of 2020. Growth has been steady with an average of 5.6% yearon-year (YoY) increase. 2021 figures are forecast to reach 2.81 billion gamers that will earn the global games market an estimated $189.3 billion [1]. As most people stayed in their homes out of necessity during the pandemic, many Americans turned to video games to pass the time, similar is the case in the rest of the world. A survey found that 37% of respondents said that they will likely spend more on video games because of the pandemic [1]. According to Juliane et al. [2] a video game is defined as “a game which we play thanks to an audiovisual apparatus, and which can be based on a story.” Gaming among gamers is about competition, being better, express themselves, or the intricate story, the list can go on and on. The normal public play a game, have fun and are over it. For gamers, it is different they come back every time to improve themselves. Gamers are usually seen to stick to one genre that suits them and not hop genres. Eventually, these turns into addiction, gaming does improve the thinking abilities of a person, it makes them creative, helps them explore new ideas, improve analytical thinking, make split-second decisions, etc., and what not. But it has a major downfall it makes them socially awkward, aggressive, lonely, and even causes depression. To find out the above claim and how gamers get affected and how different gamers get affected in different ways, we did a lot of research on the topic, started observing them, made notes of their behavioral patterns, and prepared surveys. The aim of this paper is to study the effect of gaming on the online gamers. To achieve this aim, two objectives were decided. 1. To study the emotional behavior by surveys and observation. 2. The behavior pattern of the gamers for more amount of time. Two possible questions are asked in this regard: 1. Why do people game and does gaming help? 2. What does the behavior change in the regular online gamers? This paper is an attempt to answer these two questions. It is divided into six sections. The first section introduces the topic of gaming, it also mentions the statics of

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gamers at present. Also, the section highlights the questions which are hypothesized in this paper. The second section throws a light on the background research. The third section briefly describes the methodology followed in this research. In fourth section, the observation was analyzed. The fifth section is the conclusion, and the sixth section tries to point some future areas that can be researched.

36.2 Background Research 36.2.1 Previous Literature The primary focus for our literature background was on the articles and papers penned by the World Health Organization. Recently, the World Health Organization recognized gaming disorder as a mental health condition [3]. According to them, just playing video games regularly does not count as a disorder, it turns out to be one when it starts interfering with other people’s lives. According to the WHO, gaming disorder is a pattern of persistent or recurring gaming behavior in which people lose control of their gaming behavior that means that they give video games top priority over other interests and activities, including family, relationships, academics, health, social life, workspaces, etc. [3]. According to research by Dr. Shekhar Saxena, a mental health expert at the WHO, only a small amount people develop this disorder [3], but it is not clear from the study that who will be affected, unless there is a study done on the gamers. To understand the gamers, we need to understand the game addiction happens when a virtual world is created. The gamers try to establish in this virtual world, so lose tract of the real world [4]. According to Young [4], Gaming addicts willingly forgo sleep, food, and real human contact just to experience more time in the virtual world. Gaming addicts sometimes play for ten, fifteen, or twenty hours straight in a single gaming session, every day. The author has pointed out several instances where gamers are taking serious steps which effect their health and social connections. Spekman et al. [5] have pointed out that game addiction can be compared with the other substance like alcohol addiction. The authors tried to analyze the gamers by asking them to participate in a questionnaire which showed their inclination toward gaming. Similar results were also cited by Örnek et al. [6] suggesting the change in the eating habits of regular gamers. Clearly, for some people, video games can trigger unhelpful symptoms. But it is not all bad news. Certain types of games have recently been shown to assist in learning and developing skills such as communication, resourcefulness, and adaptability [7]. “There is also a large body of research utilizing gaming theory and structure to help improve willpower and decision-making in a range of mental health conditions,” says psychotherapist Noel McDermott. “Games are intrinsically motivating and piggybacking that for serious purposes often demonstrates great results [8]”.

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In another research, Dr. Patrick Markey used the most popular psychological model of personality traits, called the Five-Factor Model, to examine these effects. The model scientifically classifies five personality traits: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness [9–12]. Analysis of the model showed a “perfect storm” of traits for children who are most likely to become hostile after playing violent video games, according to Markey. Those traits are high neuroticism (e.g., easily upset, angry, depressed, emotional, etc.), low agreeableness (e.g., little concern for others, indifferent to others feelings, cold, etc.), and low conscientiousness (e.g., break rules, do not keep promises, act without thinking, etc.). Markey then created his own model, focusing on these three traits, and used it to help predict the effects of violent video games in a sample of 118 teenagers. Each participant played a violent or a non-violent video game and had his or her hostility levels assessed. The teenagers who were highly neurotic, less agreeable, and less conscientious tended to be most adversely affected by violent video games, whereas participants who did not possess these personality characteristics were either unaffected or only slightly negatively affected by violent video games [9–12].

36.3 Methodology 36.3.1 Research This part of our research mainly focused on our background research primarily focused on the articles and statements by WHO. The questionnaire was formed on this basis to see and analyze the transition of mental state between gamers. After Preparing the questionnaire, we split our group in two sub-groups. First group is consisting of three members, and second group is consisting of two members. Group 1 did surveys with the students of same college and the people at the gaming zone, while group 2 went to other colleges to do the same. The surveys were taken from multiple age groups and people with different backgrounds (Figs. 36.1 and 36.2). This second part of the research was to collect and assemble all the data together from interviews, surveys, papers, and other sources and makes a proper study analyzing them, gets the results and draws the conclusions. Note: The second part of the study was conducted in gaming booths, so some restrictions were there for audio and video footage. Majority of the data was written down on pen and paper, we were not given permission to record audio or video of the interviews. All interviews and surveys were taken with user consent. After the collection of the data, a sample gaming app was created and tested with the gamers.

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Fig. 36.1 Gaming platform Fig. 36.2 Gamer immersed in the online gaming

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36.3.2 A Gaming App to Test the Users The gaming app consisted of many virtual platforms for gamers who are looking for games to play, games to stream online to their audience, it also consists global connect feature which allows you to search for companions to play with who are interested in the same games as you and can be also searched location or region wise. The main motive about this application is to make your own community and followings. The app is targeted toward gamer audience who have to install multiple games, and we all know how time consuming and storage issues it causes, so we have designed this platform for such people who can just tap and play instantly without any other concern about storage and time. The gamer’s inference was needed in the creation of the gaming app. In the end, creating effective game UIs requires taking accessibility into account from the start, researching your target audience as much as you can, and rapid prototyping and playtesting in order to reiterate and revise early and often and improve the gaming experience for as many players as possible (Figs. 36.3 and 36.4). After the initial low fidelity wireframes, the final application was created to test the gamer’s engagement (Fig. 36.5). The gaming app was test with 22 users who were actively involved in playing video games. A System Usability Scale was also used to measure the perceived usability among all the user groups, and the scores was found to be 85% [13]. The standard Fig. 36.3 Gaming app

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Fig. 36.4 Low fidelity wireframes of the demo app. (a First three screens. b Next few screens)

SUS consists of the following ten items (odd-numbered items worded positively; even-numbered items worded negatively). Participants were given 5-point scales with anchors ranging from 1 (for “strongly disagree”) to 5 (for “strongly agree”) to use the SUS. Give an item a 3 if a participant does not respond to it (the center of the rating scale). After finishing, determine the contribution of each item to the final score, which will vary from 0 to 4. The score contribution for positively phrased items (1, 3, 5, 7, and 9) is equal to the scale

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Fig. 36.5 High fidelity wireframes of the demo gaming app (a, b Initial screens; c, d Ludo and chess games imbedded in the app)

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Fig. 36.5 (continued)

position minus 1. Negatively phrased items (2, 4, 6, 8, and 10) have a scale position less than 5 as their value. The sum of the item score contributions must be multiplied by 2.5 to obtain the overall SUS score. As a result, SUS scores are scaled in 2.5-point increments from 0 to 100.

36.4 Results and Inferences 36.4.1 Why Do People Game? On conducting the interviews, testing with the demo game and analyzing the data we came up with the following results. Most of the public in general play games for fun. However, hardcore gamers play it for multiple reasons like for the genre, the adrenalin, escape from their problems, and the most important one competition. Online gamers are usually seen to be more active in their respective game. As in they stick to one game and try to be the best at it, they believe that switching games causes them to lose their aim/game-sense in the game they master. Offline gamers are usually less active in the gaming communities and care more about how the game story proceeds, they play new games every day as they do not fear losing any competitive advantage as they do not rely on aim, map-sense, or game-sense as much. People playing on their mobile phones usually do not care much about the competitiveness or the way the story proceeds, for them it is like having fun with their friends or just a way to kill boredom. Surprisingly many of the interviewees said that it was an escape from reality to them, they played to get rid of their stress. 20 people were interviewed, out of which 14 were online gamers (12 PC 2 mobile) and 6 were offline (4 console-PS4 or XBOX One and 2 PC) gamers. The stat for offline gamers is as follows (Table 36.1).

454 Table 36.1 Reason to play

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Percentage

It’s their genre

28.57

Competition

42.855

Escape from problems

14.285

Fun

14.285

The offline gamers said that they played for exploring new things.

36.4.2 Does Gaming Help? The study was carried for a period of 12 weeks and people who were into the online gaming for more than 2 years and above were considered. On asking the audience whether gaming helped them in any way, we had multiple responses. Most of them said it helped them make split-second decision which helped them in their day-to-day life activities, some said it helped improve their analytical thinking, some said it boosted their hand eye coordination and reflexes, all the offline gamers said that it helped them imagine better, boost their creativity, and learn new things about various elements (e.g., Assassin’s Creed from Ubisoft is a story driven game which tells us about multiple civilizations and revolutions that happened in history) and others were just reluctant to it. Table 36.2 represents the data we collected from all of them. Table 36.2 How did the game help?

How did it help?

Percentage

Making split-second decisions

20

Improving analysis

25

Developing great reflexes

15

Better hand–eye coordination

10

Improve creativity

20

Nothing as such

10

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Negative effects

Percentage

Social awkwardness

40

Aggressive behavior

30

Reluctancy in daily activities

30

Distraction

20

Addiction

25

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36.4.3 Does Gaming Affect You in Any Negative Way or What Does the Behavior Change in the Regular Online Gamers? On being asked about this, most of the people said yes. The major reason is being toxicity and aggressiveness on losing. They said it impacted them on many levels and even in day-to-day life. Many of them reported social awkwardness, aggressive behavior, reluctancy to perform daily activities, distraction from daily chores, hardcore addiction, etc., as few of the reasons. Offline gamers were not a massive part of this criteria, there was just one person who complained about raging on not clearing levels. Table 36.3 represents the data below. Toxicity in online gaming proved to be one of the biggest reasons for gamers getting depressed or aggressive. It made them lose focus in games thus causing to lose their aim and for it affected their daily lives. The usual victims of toxicity are newcomers and people with comparatively less skill. The newcomers are bullied easily due to their lack of knowledge about the game and constant failing and making attempts. People with less skill are bullied for the same reason. Toxic behavior is not just mere abusing, it goes to a level where any person might get into depression, the statements made by toxic gamers are too horrible to even mention, they are based on race, gender, caste, etc., toxic gamers are usually gamers who want to sabotage the game or gamers who are highly skilled and are overconfident about it. Gamers also go toxic due to broken mechanism of the game, losing a game which might affect their overall performance stats, someone not playing fair (hackers), etc. Competition plays a major role in toxicity. Online communities also play a major role in this, such as Reddit, Twitter, Discord, and so on.

36.5 Conclusions All the online gamers complained about the community for their respective games being toxic, some of them stating that they were toxic themselves and just did it

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for fun and did not mean any harm to the victim. Some of the toxic gamers said that it kind of gave them a boost while playing by being aggressive, they said their only motive was to improve their game and not demoralize anyone. Online gamers were frustrated about the game doing weird stuff itself, like removing their favorite items from games, thus causing them to be irritable. Another reason that 90% of the online gamers said that the number of hackers in the game was increasing, thus it gets them frustrated and makes them rage. Offline gamers complained about raging on not clearing levels. Mobile gamers were not aware that gaming communities existed. Offline gamers said that it helped them be more creative. Online gamers said that they usually did it to evade stress. Offline gamers were in just for the story, they did not have to revisit the game every day like online gamers. Some of them even said that whenever they went through any problems anywhere, they chose gaming as an escape. Some online gamers said that it affected them very badly when being a victim of toxicity and that some had to leave the game for that very reason. Many players were afraid of playing without practicing or being in the mental state for playing in fear of losing or not able to play well. Gamers said that developers do literally nothing to remove toxicity. Mobile gamers said they did not really care, they played with their friends for fun.

36.6 Future Scope to Improve the State of Current Gaming? Games need to improve their monitoring system for toxic behavior, while games like Counter-strike, Fortnite and Rainbow Six have methods removing toxicity it’s not just enough. There are grieving bans in counter strike where you can report a player who’s being toxic, but the results are mostly limited to text chat not the voice chat which is a major source of it. Fortnite and Rainbow Six just merely cut off the cuss words in the chats which does not help that much. Acknowledgements The authors would acknowledge Ms. Siddhi Chavan for the development of the platform for the users to play the games.

References 1. Number of Gamers Worldwide 2022/2023: Demographics, Statistics, and Predictions, February 2020. https://financesonline.com/number-of-gamers-worldwide/ (visited on 15 Feb 2022) 2. Von der Heiden, J.M., Braun, B., Müller, K.W., Egloff, B.: The association between video gaming and psychological functioning. Front. Psychol. 10, 1731 (2019). https://doi.org/10. 3389/fpsyg.2019.01731 3. Rettner, R.: Video game addiction becomes official mental disorder in controversial decision by WHO. Abgerufen am 27(4), 2020 (2019)

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4. Young, K.: Understanding online gaming addiction and treatment issues for adolescents. The Am. J. Family Therapy 37(5), 355–372 (2009) 5. Spekman, M.L.C., Konijn, E.A., Roelofsma, P.H.M.P., Griffiths, M.D.: Gaming addiction, definition, and measurement: a largescale empirical study. Comput. Hum. Behav. 29, 2150– 2155 (2013) 6. Örnek, B.Y., Gündo˘gmu¸s, ˙I: The effects of smartphone and internet gaming addiction on eating attitudes among university students. Psychiatry Investig. 19(1), 1 (2022) 7. Surya, S.R., Sivakumar, I.: Video game addiction: gaming disorder among adolescents. In: Prevalence of Screen Addiction Among College Students, pp 179. Shanlax Publications (2021) 8. Kühn, S., Gallinat, J., Mascherek, A.: Effects of computer gaming on cognition, brain structure, and function: a critical reflection on existing literature. Dialogues Clinic. Neurosci. (2022) 9. Sipper, J.A.: Hypergaming for cyber: strategy for gaming a wicked problem. Military Cyber Affairs 5(1), 5 (2022) 10. Zakaria, A.S., Adnan, W.H.: Youth awareness: a survey on mobile gaming addiction concerning physical health performance on young adults in Malaysia. J. Media Inf. Warfare (JMIW) 15(1), 85–98 (2022) 11. Live Science: https://www.livescience.com/65580-video-game-addiction-mental-health-dis order.html (visited on 15 Feb 2022) 12. Healthline Media UK Ltd.: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/304474#Adding-com plexity-to-a-complex-problem (visited on 15 Feb 2022) 13. Lewis, J.R.: The system usability scale: past, present, and future. Int. J. Human-Comput. Interact. 34(7), 577–590 (2018)

Part II

Design of/for User Interfaces, User Experience and Human-Computer Interaction

Chapter 37

Interactive News Platform for User Perspective Through Design Concept for Interesting Visual Understanding Shouvik Sengupta , Sandipan Bhattacharjee , and Bhaskar Saha

Abstract Globalization and awareness have impacted the masses in a certain way, that information exchange has become an integral part of the societal system in modern days. One very convenient mode of information exchange is in the form of general news. In the wake of social media and technology, the stage for delivering news has drastically broadened and has become diverse. Children being one of the crucial pillars of society should stay aware of their surrounding developments and issues, yet in the present scenario, a gap can be witnessed that children find it challenging to connect toward the current presentation of news in comparison with elders, as children find a lack of entertainment and fun element in the current news presentation system. This paper aims toward the execution of general news for children into news content containing visual motion graphics for an effective and better understanding of the subject matter. The design concept would essentially contain the graphical representation of news materials to generate interest, curiosity, and cognitive retention of the information. Visual motion graphics being a very attractive and exciting element of new media could be effective in the exchange of information with children while adding a fun element to it. The advantages and challenges of the implementation of the design concept are tallied through a survey conducted among children and their guardians in Kokrajhar, Assam, India. The study explores the potential progressive breadth of the design concept to produce an efficient information transfer for kids using visual motion graphics.

37.1 Introduction Technology and advances have a prominent influence on people and their lives and have been an inevitable domain of society pertaining to day-to-day life [1]. News and news media, being one of the essential communication mediums, have also received S. Sengupta · S. Bhattacharjee · B. Saha (B) Department of Multimedia Communication and Design, Central Institute of Technology Kokrajhar, Kokrajhar, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_37

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this exposure to technological modernization and have evolved in terms of content portrayal and medium of delivery to the audience over the years [2]. When perceived from the point of view of the journalists, potential news depicts something that they instantly recognize and get a feeling that needs to be reported, and it gets better with years of experience and expertise in the field [3]. Complementing the technological advances of present times, the diversity in news collection has also been broadened and communicated to a larger mass [4, 5]. Small-scale businesses have been formulated in the online mode based on the idea of news content reporting and delivery to meet the aspects of the newer generations [6, 7]. Creative narrative methods and structures have been included in modern news delivery to meet the expectations of the audience and to establish a greater comprehension for the viewers [8, 9]. Studies indicate that there exist newer approaches and initiatives in journalism worldwide to maintain the authenticity and originality of news content [10]. Newer possibilities have emerged due to technological advances, and holistic approaches have been put forward toward imparting information and establishing better communication [11]. Children being one of the most influenced sections of society by technology, digital media, and modern gadgets have an inclination toward grasping information imparted through these at a greater pace [12]. The decimation of news and news media is in a generic structure and is meant for the masses to understand and comprehend properly. Children, in particular, perceive news according to their own selection of information and interest points [13, 14]. Due to this, they are exposed to all the media content that might have solely been appropriate for older age groups. The complexity in the presentation of the information is also a crucial aspect to consider in the context of comprehension of news information by children [15]. Media containing gore and inappropriate imagery could have an extreme psychological impact when viewed frequently and at a young age [16]. So children should view crucial news information in a creative manner that encourages them to take an interest in the subject matter and also increases their cognitive knowledge [17, 18]. Literature-based studies indicate that children tend to take less interest in things that are tough for them to perceive and comprehend [19]. Therefore, news and news media being a crucial aspect of growth and development for children should be delivered to them in a manner that enhances engagement for them while also ensuring quality content [20]. Multimedia has proved to be an esteemed tool for the creation of user-based engagement and helps in the longer retention of content [21]. Children indulge quite a lot in multimedia content every day, which has resulted in certain behavioral changes in children. They tend to interact more and be more involved in digital mediums and content such as pictures, videos, and sound. Sub-genres of multimedia, which are, in turn, an amalgam of two aspects of multimedia such as animation, VFX, SFX, motion graphics, and info-graphics, deliver a more encouraging environment for pertaining knowledge-generating interest in children [22, 23]. Complex subject matters and information could easily be explained through the implementation of multimedia, and better comprehension was achieved. Modernization has also led to the rise of mobile applications as digital platforms to support and assist daily human interventions in the present scenario [24, 25]. Concepts of user interface and experience have aided researchers in understanding the actual need of the users and

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maintaining the overall engagement factor for a particular digital platform. Introducing an element of entertainment, encouragement, fun, and relaxation into digital platforms while dealing with complex matters could prove beneficial for children for a holistic approach [26–28]. This paper aims to investigate and propose an innovative concept of a service design platform for delivering news and media content to children from classes 3–10 in a creative manner. The objective would essentially deal with a comprehensive and creative representation of news and related content through an interactive platform using motion graphics, videos, images, and sound. The advantageous aspects and challenges of using digital technology in a cognitive impartment of knowledge were tallied by conducting a survey in Kokrajhar, Assam, India, among children, parents and guardians, doctors, professors, and design students using the help of a module prototype and a survey. A thorough inquiry into the topic was conducted on the proper application and implementation of the suggested aspect. Modern innovations like augmented reality, holograms, and virtual reality, which are considered to be some of the most sophisticated technologies for the majority of people, may prove to be an intriguing and practical component of the Indian news media landscape. The hurdle of children being less enthusiastic about viewing news content could be addressed through the proposed approach and, in turn, could possibly raise the interest and curiosity level of children. The study explores the module’s potential future usage in improving user experience and usability in the content domain through contemporary technologies. This proposal tends to understand the actual user need on the matter and also validates the flexibility and feasibility of a proposed service design approach.

37.2 Design Process and Method The following steps shown in Fig. 37.1 were taken to finish the study. A study was conducted in the initial phase to comprehend the user’s perspective. Following this, exercises were carried out to construct user personas and empathy maps in order to comprehend the demands of the user. A prototype was created and tested with users once this study material had been refined, and suggestions from those who care about users’ well-being were also incorporated.

Fig. 37.1 Design process

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37.3 Methodology In correspondence to initial discussions and observations, it was perceived that there exist various aspects pertaining to children and the way they perceive news and content. There also exists the perspective of the parents and the guardians. Since the approach deals with the usage of modern gadgets such as mobile phones, tablets, and computers, the concern about increased screen time for children needs to be addressed properly. In the present times, it has been observed that parents tend to encourage children to indulge in digital content on a daily basis. Children, too, seem to be interested and intrigued by engaging with digital content and especially those which are targeted toward them, such as animations and multimedia content. Curiosity and interest levels in children are found to be increased while engaging with modern gadgets and interacting with multimedia content. The initial observations also suggested that there is a holistic approach possibility that cognitive learning and overall knowledge impartment could be enhanced in children, with proper implementation of technology and content. The emotional aspects of the children were also to be considered, as viewing certain content might be inappropriate for them and could have negative psychological impacts. The overall emotional engagement with the approach was to be considered for a better user experience. Understanding the actual user requirements and the difficulties associated with providing news materials, to kids in a creative way, in the current environment was essential before the method was actually put into practice. As quality user experience for the design approach would firmly depend on the perspective of all the stakeholders, it is important to enquire about the parents’ perspective as well as experts to establish a beneficial and wholesome experience.

37.3.1 Understanding the User Perception The study deals with the identification of the user perception in the context of delivering news and news media to children. The emotional state refers to the curiosity and interest level a child experiences while perceiving news both in the current scenario and with the proposed design approach. In this section, longer screen time and viewing habits, as well as child exposure to digital content, were taken into account. Reviews of existing options for delivering news and news content were made and considered accordingly. This was done to identify aspects of the decreasing interest level in viewing news in children and find some useful and interesting possibilities. The interactivity and versatility of the information for the children in the existing modules, as well as the level of curiosity a youngster has when exploring them, were reviewed. Children’s emotional health was given consideration because it is this element that impacts how much they will learn from a certain piece of content that is offered to them. After examining the various facets of cognitive learning, a proposal

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Fig. 37.2 Interaction with the users’

for a cutting-edge news platform for kids was offered to kids in the area. These kids could then respond with suggestions for how the project could be improved for a target user base. A questionnaire-based survey was used, and all relevant replies to the design process were recorded. The survey was directed among sixty-three participants, who are in the age range of 6–11 years, in Kokrajhar, Assam, India, using a questionnaire containing seven questions. Figure 37.2 shows the survey conducted. As discussed, the questionnaire had seven questions based on a presentation system of news that could make children aware of the situations in a fun and interesting way. Question 1 was all about how news has its own importance in the life of every individual as it keeps everyone updated about the changing events and issues worldwide. The respondents were asked if they thought news played an important role in staying aware of the current scenarios and changing events. Question 2 talks about how news attracts a specific group of enthusiasts which results in the dispersal of information to places where individuals fail to know about events that could help people to stand strong and united with each other. The respondents were asked if they believe in this kind of distribution of news among people, which can make them feel connected. Question 3 was about how a certain section of news turns out to be inappropriate for children, which can cause depression and anxiety, so in recuse, there should be an implementation of curtailment to avoid such scenarios. The respondents were asked if they supported this statement put forward to them. Question 4 dealing with the present circumstances and how children are more immersed in computerized content, which has resulted in increased screen time as this platform requires the engagement of digital media. The respondents were reviewed on the basis of this criterion. Question 5 dealt with the aspect of the perception of children and their parents regarding the portrayal of content in cartoonish forms, which makes children more inclined to it rather than live-action styles. The respondents were asked about their thoughts. Question 6 talks about the encouragement factor of cognitive impartment of knowledge and generated curiosity among children for which an innovative learning method is required rather than the present structure. The respondents were asked if they supported this statement. Question 7 ventured through a proposal of a design approach that deals with the creative presentation of news content for children, which initiates learning and engagement. The respondents were asked about the validity of such kind of representation.

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37.3.2 Understanding User Needs This section of the study deals with the actual understanding of user needs. Once the inputs were recorded, and possible solutions were considered, user personas were generated to understand the actual feasibility and practical challenges that exist in the actual scenario. Based on the outputs generated through the user personas, empathy maps were created to track and consider the emotional state and curiosity level of children while viewing news content. The activity during the session, such as what they say, think, do, and feel, was taken into consideration for further exploration of the design approach, and it can be seen that children find it more intersecting to consume cartoon-style content [29].

37.3.3 Study Material Design Based on the understanding of the user perception phase of the study, the selection of a proper news content type was decided as there might be an inappropriate perception for children to view a certain type of news content. The cartoonish style of presentation was thoroughly discussed and confirmed that an effective portrayal of news content to children would be beneficial. Thus, pictorial representation of news updates with the help of motion graphics was incorporated. Activities like a test of knowledge in the form of gamified structures such as quizzes and rewards containing gift vouchers and alluring toys were introduced on this platform.

37.3.4 Application Design The actual construction of the news platform is covered in this phase of the study, from content selection to prototype development. The first step in creating the application design was to come up with appropriate navigation for the application. Subsequently, the layout has been created in such a way considering that the majority of the users are children, so to keep them engaged in the platform, it should look fun, dynamic, and simple. Considering the technicality of the platform, the system design was developed so that the functionality and the actual feasibility are intact. The system design was developed from getting started with the platform through the various features such as bookmarking content, user profile, achievements, and viewing stylized news till the completion. Standardized font and color were used for better readability and captivating children to more engagement. Finalizing the style guide for the interactive platform, which resulted in developing high-fidelity screens. Figure 37.3 shows the high-fidelity screens for the prototype. After the completion of the above process, the prototype was created.

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Fig. 37.3 Application navigation flow

The initial step in making the module prototype was to arise with the ideation of the news content in cartoonish forms and aesthetics through brainstorming and storyboarding. Once the finalization of particular content ideation for the platform is done, the actual building of the elements in the scene is done in digital form so that they can be exported later. After the creation of all the essential elements for the content, they are compiled into a scene that depicts a particular news scenario in a creative manner. Exporting the entire scene into an interactive video format by adding buttons and navigations is done at this stage of the approach. As the proposed platform would be a cloud-based approach toward delivering news content in an interactive manner for the children, the content would essentially be needed to be uploaded to the cloud server for retrieving. In the later stages of building the platform, the entire data flow for the platform is established by connecting the end-users and the cloud-based server (Fig. 37.4).

37.3.5 Testing the Prototype Design This phase deals with the testification of the prototype among prospective users, and a discussion survey with professors, teachers, doctors, parents and guardians, media personnel, artists, and design students was conducted. The prototype was showcased to them, and the ideation for implementing the proposal was explained.

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Fig. 37.4 High-fidelity screens of the interaction platform

Additionally, design students were approached because they might offer valuable insights about the proposal’s scope and user experience. Figure 37.5 depicts the entire process. Children might require guidance and assistance from adults to operate and navigate through all the features of the prototype, so it was very important to know the guardians’ and parents’ perceptions toward it. To verify the design aspect testing a group comprising of professors, teachers, design students, parents, and children were taking into account. The assessment was done for the feasibility and usability check of the platform. The study was made primarily for children to make them aware of the events happening worldwide. The manner of the display and viewing was also taken into consideration. The objective was to make news content fun and interesting for the younger generation. The entire idea was to pick up pictorial representation of news with motion graphics to keep the children engaged with the platform. For building the prototype, it was essential to have engaging experiences for the children so that they could actually understand as well as gain from the content. The appropriate depiction of the details for the content was also a crucial task for proper comprehension by the users. The selection of content was a basic and generic one in terms of news content delivery.

Fig. 37.5 Testing the prototype design

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37.3.6 Feedback and Observation of the Prototype The next step was to validate the proposal and the prototype with the intended users so that the actual implementation along with its feasibility could be understood and the challenges could be addressed. The news was presented to the kids, and their parents and the interaction, information delivery, and experience levels were evaluated. The news content was presented to the kids and their parents, and evaluations were made based on the interaction, delivery of the information, and experience. A unique code was allotted to each respondent depending on their profession and the classification of the respondent order. For instance, if a teacher is a respondent, then the code would be RT001, where R represents the respondent, T represents the teacher, and 001 is the respondent order.

37.4 Result and Discussion According to the results obtained through the survey in Phase-1 of the study, Question 1, 54.2% of the respondents strongly agreeing with the fact, 25.4% of the respondents agreed, 6.8% were neutral, 10.2% disagreed, and 3.4% strongly disagreed. In Question 2, 43.1% of the respondents agreed with the fact, 32.8% strongly agreed, 5.2% were neutral, 15.5% disagreed, and 3.4% strongly disagreed. Question 3 saw 47.5% of the respondents agreeing to the fact, 23.7 strongly agreed to the fact, 10.2% were neutral, 10.2% disagreed, and 8.5% strongly disagreed. In Question 4, 39% of the respondents agreed with the statement, 25.4% strongly agreed, 15.3% were neutral, 15.3% disagreed, and 5.1% strongly disagreed. Question 5 had 42.4% of the respondents agreeing with the fact, 22% strongly agreed, 18.6% were neutral, 10.2% disagreed, and 6.8% strongly disagreed. Question 6 saw 44.1% of the respondents agree with the statement, 23.7% strongly agreed, 13.6% were neutral, 10.2% disagreed, and 8.5 strongly disagreed. In Question 7, 35.6% agreed with the fact, 35.6% strongly agreed, 11.9% were neutral, 8.5% disagreed, and 8.5% strongly disagreed. Figure 37.6 shows the results obtained in a tabular form.

37.4.1 Inference of Feedback and Observations of the Prototype The children who took part in the prototype validation survey took the method and manner of news content delivered to them very interesting and with curiosity. The emotional aspect and the appeal factors are two essential criteria for the engagement factor for the children to continue quality knowledge imparting and were seen to be closer in reach with the proposed approach.

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INSIGHTS Strongly Agree

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List of Queson Question 1 - News is that part of communication that keeps us informed of the changing event, issues and characters in the outside world, so it can be said that news plays an important role to stay update about things happening worldwide. Question 2 - often news like (sports and entertainment) attracts a special type of enthusiast which provide a distribution of information about other places were people are unable to get to or have little influence over. New can make people feel connected. Question 3 - The news and current affairs can be sometimes very inappropriate for children's which they are not ready to psychologically digest. There should be a mandate constraint to monitor those. Question 4 - The platform deals with engagement and immersiveness and hence is bound to increase the screen time for children. In the present scenario children's are more involved in modern technology and the aspect of increase screen time is manageable.. Question 5 - Children's are more inclined towards cartoonish style of representation rather than life action static and simple text information. Children tend to easily comprehend the content better in that way. Question 6 - To encourage cognitive learning method and generating curiosity in children an innovative learning approach is required compared to the existing once. Question 7 - An innovative learning platform that delivers news to children in a creative manner could essentially be helpful in modern times where the interest level of children is indulging in news content seems to be decreasing

Fig. 37.6 Survey conducted for the deliberate

According to the discussion poll, feedback was gathered from various people from many industries who play a significant role in a child’s life because younger children are less able to grasp their own betterment. The feedback was noted down for the concept’s upgrade. The feedback and response data are shown in Table 37.1. From the feedback collected, it was observed that the idea as a whole could be an innovative approach toward delivering news content to children in a creative manner. Immersive learning experiences for better comprehension of what is being shown on the screen could be achieved for children. The current modules of news display could also incorporate such creative ways of portraying content where the media houses could also put up efforts in doing so. To have a regular coverage of suitable

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Table 37.1 User feedback of proposed design Name

Profession

Feedback

RT001 Teacher

Innovative strategy Similar concepts could be added in a different area of the current display modes

RT002 Teacher

The users of the proposal may benefit from the proposal. In this sense, interaction is enjoyable, and media companies should make an effort to create a positive experience

RA001 Artist

Since the idea’s practical application spans a wide range, a more solid foundation is needed for any further development

RA002 Artist

Children will enjoy it unquestionably if it is both educational and amusing. It is extremely important to provide facts and other components in the form of news content to provide them with a high-quality learning experience

RP001 Painter

Interesting idea. It could be beneficial for the children as they can interact with what they see on the screen as a form of news. Learning could be made fun

RP002 Painter

People have mostly hinged to mobile phones these days, and concepts like this can be used to make cognitive learning more efficient

RP001 Professor

A very positive approach. However, user engagement could be possibly enhanced by adding user-centric controllability

RD001 Doctor

The concept would compel users to spend a good amount of time on screens. Additionally, an analogous idea can be employed to show immersive experience content for older generations

RI001

Industry Personnel There is the scope of the project into actual implementation. Planning the entire concept into working is needed to be done very crucially and minutely

RI002

Industry Personnel An innovative idea it is, but the only consent I have is how will manage to create several animated news each day with a smaller number of teams and make the quality of the visuals consistent

RB001 Businessman

The idea can be implemented alongside the existing modes of imparting knowledge and not as an alternative to them

RD001 Design student

Interesting approach. This could be a very interesting idea as not only children who don’t like the current form of news presentation and would like to consume information in an interesting way

news for children, would require a vast storage capacity and a prompt creation of the content on a daily basis. Therefore, a correct framework of the options for really putting the concept into practice needs to be mapped out and handled. Rewards and achievements could also be incorporated into the approach as they could act as a drastic boost in the emotional aspects of the children. Gamification of other elements in the prototype could also bring out advantageous aspects in favor of the idea. Additionally, the concept would necessitate a screen time that is roughly similar to the current situation and relies on the children’s level of interest, which mitigates the negative consequences of increased screen time that result in physical sluggishness and a lack of social skill development. The cognitive learning aspects

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of the approach might make screen time for children actually beneficial. Regular engagement by the users is determined by various factors pertaining to the approach, and the entertainment aspect plays a vital role in it. This aspect of delivering news content to children in a creative manner for better communication and comprehension is of utmost importance in the proposed approach.

37.5 Conclusion While addressing the issues pertaining to the delivery and portrayal of news and news content to children in a creative manner through an innovative design approach, a number of hurdles in the domain could possibly be addressed, such as difficulty in comprehension of generic news content, low-interest level in viewing news by children and lack of proper communication for facts. The above investigation on the need for an interactive platform for news content delivery for children dedicated to mainly proper comprehension and enhanced engagement could possibly prove to be effective and beneficial. Creatively integrating multimedia components like 2D cartoon characters, text rendered as motion graphics, and other visual elements with the right sound effects into daily news content may increase the likelihood of developing a cutting-edge service design strategy with a broad application in the future. It would be important for students and individuals from diverse technological and artistic sectors to collaborate. The conversation’s consideration of the potential scope of future work may have been a useful starting point. The potential of such an approach has been extensively and intensively developed, opening up the possibility that it might one day be used by people of all ages in a creative and engaging way that is not restricted to the preferences and tastes of a particular age group of the population.

References 1. Jasanoff, S.: Beyond epistemology: relativism and engagement in the politics of science. Soc. Stud. Sci. 26(2), 393–418 (1996) 2. Harcup, T., O’neill, D.: What is news? Galtung and Ruge revisited. J. Stud. 2(2), 261–80 (2001) 3. Brighton, P., Foy, D.: News values. Sage (2007) 4. Harlow, S., Salaverría, R.: Regenerating journalism: exploring the “alternativeness” and “digital-ness” of online-native media in Latin America. Dig. J. 4(8), 1001–1019 (2016) 5. Mioli, T., Nafría, I.: Jornalismo Innovador na América Latina. Centro, Texas (2017) 6. Scolari, C., Rodriguez-Amat, J.R.: A Latin American approach to mediatization: specificities and contributions to a global discussion about how the media shape contemporary societies: Un enfoque latinoamericano de la mediatización: especificidades y contribuciones a una discusión global sobre cómo los medios dan forma a las sociedades contemporáneas Midiatização sob uma abordagem latino-americana: especificidades e contribuições para uma discussão global sobre como os meios de comunicação vem delineando as sociedades contemporâneas. Commun. Theory 28(2), 131–154 (2018)

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7. García-Avilés, J.A., Carvajal-Prieto, M., Arias, F., De Lara-González, A.: How journalists innovate in the newsroom. Proposing a model of the diffusion of innovations in media outlets. J. Media Innov. 5(1), 1–6 (2019) 8. Salaverría, R.: Periodismo digital: 25 años de investigación. Artículo de revisión. Profesional de la Información 28(1) (2019) 9. García-Perdomo, V., Magaña, M.I.: The adoption of technology and innovation among native online news media in Colombia. Int. J. Commun. 14(19328036) (2020) 10. Sembramedia: Ponto de inflexão: impacto, ameaças e sustentabilidade—um estudo dos empreendedores digitais latino-americano. Retrieved from http://data.sembramedia.org/?lang= pt-br (2017) 11. Nonato, C., Pachi Filho, F.F., Figaro, R.: Relações de comunicação em novos arranjos alternativos e modelos de produção da notícia. Líbero. 20(41), 100–115 (2018) 12. Tabroni, I., Husniyah, H., Sapitri, L., Azzahra, Y.: Impact of technological advancements on the establishment of characteristics of children. East Asian J. Multi. Res. 1(1), 27–32 (2022) 13. Robinson, K.H., Díaz, C.J., Townley, C.: Constructions of knowledge and childhood: addressing current affairs with children with a focus on parents’ practices and children’s news media. Contemp. Issues Early Child. 20(4), 324–336 (2019) 14. Ponte, C.: Mapping news on children in the mainstream press. Eur. Soc. 9(5), 735–754 (2007) 15. Notley, T., Dezuanni, M., Zhong, H.F., Howden, S.: News and Australian children: How young people access, perceive and are affected by the news 16. MacKinnon, A.L., Silang, K., Penner, K., Zalewski, M., Tomfohr-Madsen, L., Roos, L.E.: Promoting mental health in parents of young children using ehealth interventions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin. Child. Fam. Psychol. Rev. 20, 1–22 (2022) 17. Beetlestone, F.: Creative children, imaginative teaching. McGraw-Hill Education (UK) (1998) 18. Wilson, R.: Nature and young children: encouraging creative play and learning in natural environments. Routledge (2007) 19. Beers, K.: When Kids can’t Read: What Teacher’s can do. Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH (2003) 20. Johnson, C.R., Campbell, J.M., (ed.): Sleep Monsters and Superheroes: Empowering Children Through Creative Dreamplay: Empowering Children Through Creative Dreamplay. ABC-CLIO (2016) 21. Walkerdine, V.: Children, Gender, Video Games: Towards a Relational Approach to Multimedia. Springer (2007) 22. Druin, A., Solomon, C.: Designing Multimedia Environments for Children: Computers, Creativity, and Kids. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1996) 23. Rieber, L.P., Davis, J., Matzko, M., Grant, M.: Children as multimedia critics: middle School students’ motivation for and critical analysis of educational multimedia designed by other children. Paper presented at the annual meeting. In of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle. Retrieved 04 March 2004, from www.nowhereroad.com/kiddesigner/res earch/aera2001-rieber.pdf (2001) 24. Wilson, C.M., Horsford, S.D. (eds.): Advancing Equity and Achievement in America’s Diverse: Schools. Routledge, New York (2014) 25. Soto-Garcia, M., Del-Amor-Saavedra, P., Martin-Gorriz, B., Martínez-Alvarez, V.: The role of information and communication technologies in the modernisation of water user associations’ management. Comput. Electron. Agric. 1(98), 121–130 (2013) 26. Liu, T.F., Craft, M., Situ, J., Yumer, E., Mech, R., Kumar, R.: Learning design semantics for mobile apps. In: Proceedings of the 31st Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, pp. 569–579 (2018) 27. Kuusinen, K., Mikkonen, T.: Designing user experience for mobile apps: long-term product owner perspective. In: 2013 20th Asia-Pacific Software Engineering Conference (APSEC), vol. 1, pp. 535–540. IEEE (2013) 28. Bhattacharjee, S., Saha, B.: An empirical study on styling trends and concept approach of augmented reality. In: Design for Tomorrow, vol. 3, pp. 849–861. Springer, Singapore (2021) 29. Saha, B., Senapati, A., Chakrabarti, D.: Foreign animation and Indian kids behavior: an innovative survey. In: Ergonomics for Improved Productivity, pp. 113–120. Springer, Singapore (2022)

Chapter 38

Senior Citizens and Smartphones: Identifying User Segments in Urban Middle-Class India Pragnya Ramjee , Aditi Rathi , and Sharmistha Banerjee

Abstract Despite rapidly growing smartphone ubiquity, technology has not been designed and developed accounting for the abilities, perceptions, and preferences of an ageing population. The effects of ageing include cognitive and physiological decline; this, along with habits ingrained over a lifetime, limits existing technological devices’ usability for them. As life expectancy increases, senior citizens become increasingly relevant smartphone users. The interaction between the elderly and smartphones has received limited empirical scrutiny, particularly in urban middleclass India. This study critically examines how the elderly in metropolitan middleclass India interacts with their smartphones through first-hand user research. We conducted twelve online and three hybrid interviews with fifteen senior citizens and analysed the data using six codes: (a) Frequency of use of/amount of time spent on the smartphone; (b) Breadth of smartphone use-cases; (c) Technology exposure/smartphone-savviness; (d) Comfort/confidence with smartphones; (e) Selfreported receptivity towards new ideas and technological interventions and (f) Proclivity to take action to adopt new ideas and technological interventions in practice. We then identify user segments based on their mobile phone usage, pain points, expectations, and outlook towards technology in general. Five distinct user segments emerge from the research. We designate them as (1) ’Bold Bhoomika’, (2) ‘Practical Prakash’, (3) ’Enthusiastic Eklavya’, (4) ‘Hesitant Hari’ and (5) ‘No-thanks Naina.’ This study demonstrates the variety and nuances of smartphones’ roles in the lives of the urban middle-class Indian elderly. While the exact technological tool (in this case, smartphones) in question may change with time, these broad segments would remain a relevant reference framework, aiding designers, engineers, technologists and others who build solutions for Indian elderly users.

P. Ramjee (B) · A. Rathi · S. Banerjee Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Rathi e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_38

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38.1 Introduction In India, ‘senior citizens’ are defined as those aged 60 years and above [1]. This group is predicted to comprise almost a fifth of India’s population by 2050 [2]. Today’s elderly population is more healthy, educated, and has more leisure time than previous generations [3, 4]. The Indian elderly also has significant aggregate purchasing power, mainly due to the spike in real-estate prices as well as a lifetime of earning [5]. Those who are financially well-settled demonstrate a change in mindset and prefer to utilise their net worth to improve their quality of life and benefit in their dotage [5]. Smartphone usage is becoming increasingly ubiquitous across the globe [6], and numerous studies have found that older adults are likely to accept and adopt technology [7–10], particularly with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic [11]. However, the technological needs of older adults can be successfully met only when their unique abilities and preferences are considered [12, 13]. With age, comes declining physical and cognitive capabilities [3, 13, 14]. This includes slower response times, disruptions in coordination and flexibility, lesser visual and auditory acuity, as well as impact on working memory, attention and recall capacities [3, 13, 15]. Further, habits ingrained over a lifetime affect the elderly the most [11]. These effects of ageing intensify present physical limitations (screen size, storage, input and output mechanisms, etc.) of smartphones [13]. The 55+ age group is heterogeneous, containing distinct user segments based on lifestyles, values and motivations for using the Internet [16]. Segmenting elderly mobile phone users and identifying different attitudes towards adoption would enable designers to meet their needs and expectations through user-friendly solutions [17]. Prior studies have segmented general mobile phone users into distinct groups based on mobile phone usage, ownership, attitudes and preferences in America [18, 19] and Western Europe [20]. However, these groupings are not specific to the elderly. A Portuguese study carried out in 2016 identified three older-adult user groups based on attitudes towards mobile phones, designated as ‘Apathetic’, ‘Social and Hedonic’ and ‘Busy and Active’ [17]. A Slovenian study conducted in 2017 presents a tensegment classification of older adults in the mobile phone market, of which two are smartphone users [21]. However, we interpret these findings with caution as these studies have country-specific samples and do not probe the Indian context, utilise a telephonic survey modality which poses challenges to interpretation of nonverbal cues, investigate owners or ex-owners of ‘mobile devices’ and are therefore not specific to smartphone owners and restrict their segmentation criteria to sociodemographic and attitudinal variables rather than other psychographic dimensions. Thus, the research question tackled in this paper is—how can the elderly in urban middle-class India be classified based on their interactions and relationships with their smartphones?

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38.1.1 Aim Through empirical user research, to critically examine how the urban middle-class Indian elderly interact with their smartphones and to classify them based on smartphone usage, expectations, pain points and outlook towards technology in general.

38.1.2 Objectives 1. To conduct user interviews and understand physiological, cognitive, technological, and socio-cultural influences on smartphone usage by the Indian urban middle-class elderly. 2. To analyse the data and derive parameters to identify user segments based on: exposure to technology (particularly smartphones); key drivers for smartphone adoption and sustained usage; mindsets, notions, and expectations regarding smartphones; specific issues faced (physiological, mental, and socio-cultural); family structure and socio-economic-cultural background.

38.2 Methodology We conducted online semi-structured interviews with fifteen elderly smartphone users. For three, we used a hybrid modality with one interviewer physically present with the participant and the other communicating over video call. We conversed in English and used laptops. Of the interviewees, thirteen attended through laptops and two through smartphones. For thirteen interviews, we used the free videoconferencing platform Zoom; the remaining were conducted over Google Meet and textual communication over Gmail. We prepared 38 slides to screen-share, with a Hindi translation (See Appendix A) to structure and steer the conversation flow, reducing the impact of tangents and communicating effectively with the hearing-impaired. The visuals leveraged recognition over recall and presented alternatives for selection, useful for cognitively heavy questions. For the fourteen video conferencing interviews, one interviewer conversed with the participant, while the other transcribed simultaneously on a pre-segmented form corresponding with the interview structure. The fourteen video call interviews ranged between 80 and 120 min, with an average duration of 90 min. We recorded the interviews after taking consent from the participants. After an initial brief regarding the project topic and interview objectives, we divided the interview into five sections. The first addressed socio-demographics with questions on the respondent’s age, upbringing, and school and work experiences (and the role of electronic devices in the same). The second section involved understanding their day-to-day life and existing smartphone use-cases in their routine (e.g. their hobbies and fitness, staying in touch

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with close ones, consumption of news, etc.). Thirdly, we aimed to uncover context and intentions surrounding smartphone interactions. We asked what prompted them to start using a smartphone and how it was sourced; if they carried their phone around with them, whether it was generally on silent, ringer, or vibrate modes, and how they felt about notifications. Some more specific questions included the make and model of the phone, phone locking preferences (PIN, password, pattern, etc.), and what they did if they forgot the lock to their phone (or other password-protected applications). We concluded this section by using the critical incident technique [22] for twelve participants, to prioritise major experiences and quickly get insights into their past usage, by asking about the best and worst experiences with a smartphone: a time it made their life easier, and a time it caused frustration. The fourth section aimed to uncover the challenges faced while using a smartphone. We deliberately used specific leading questions (due to the scarcity of time and the fact that we had previously used the critical incident technique to elicit open-ended statements) regarding actions such as navigating, downloading, deleting, touchscreen keyboards, Voice Assistants and adjusting Settings. We asked how they resolved these issues and if they felt comfortable asking someone for help. Lastly, we probed deeper to understand their thoughts on digital privacy, the world becoming increasingly digital and how they felt a smartphone could further aid and add value to their lives.

38.3 Results and Discussion Participants ranged between 61 and 86 in age, with a mean age of 69.2 years. Five were female and ten male. All the selected participants belong to urban middle-class Indian families residing in Bangalore, Chennai, Thiruvananthapuram, Hyderabad, Guwahati and Ranchi. One lives alone (spouse deceased), nine with their spouses and five with their children and/or other relatives. The minimum education level of the participants was class XII (two till class XII, three with a bachelor’s degree, five with master’s and five with PhDs). They included five working university professors, five retired professionals (banker, engineer, IT/management), three working schoolteachers, one working doctor and one homemaker. Aided by the transcripts, we coded data for each user to analyse it. The codes captured the following data: Age, Technical Background (including exposure to nonsmartphone devices), High-level Smartphone Goals (e.g. Social connectivity, Family connectivity, Leisure, Work, Convenience), Low-level Smartphone Tasks (e.g. Booking cabs, navigating with maps, etc.), Mindsets/Notions/Expectations (e.g. ‘Sees smartphone as work tool’), and Pain Points (e.g. ‘Overwhelmed by pace of visual feedback’). Next, participants were evaluated and clustered along six inductively defined codes: (a) Frequency of use of/amount of time spent on smartphone; (b) Breadth of smartphone use-cases; (c) Technology exposure/Smartphone-savviness; (d) Comfort/Confidence with smartphones; (e) Self-reported receptivity towards new ideas and technological interventions in theory and (f) Proclivity to take action to adopt new ideas and technological interventions in practice (see Table 38.1).

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Table 38.1 Evaluation of participants along parameters to identify user segments Participant 1a 2b 3c 4d 5e 6f ID 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

High High High Med-High Med-High Med-High Low-Med High High High Low-Med Low-Med Low Low Low

High High High Med-High Med-High Med-High Med-High Med-High Med-High Low-Med Med-High Med-High Low Low-Med Low

High High High High High High High Low-Med Med-High Low-Med Low-Med Low-Med Low-Med Low-Med Low

Med-High High Med-High High High Med-High High Med-High Med-High Low-Med Low-Med Med-High Low-Med Low Low

High High High Med-High Low-Med Low-Med Med-High Med-High Med-High Low-Med Med-High Med-High Low-Med Low Med-High

High High High Med-High Med-High Med-High Med-High High Med-High Low-Med Med-High Low-Med Low-Med Low Low

Persona type 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5

a Frequency

of use of/amount of time spent on smartphone of smartphone use-cases c Tech exposure/smartphone-savviness d Comfort/Confidence with smartphones e Self-reported receptivity towards new ideas and technological interventions in theory f Proclivity to take action to adopt new ideas and technological interventions in practice b Breadth

We present below the five personas constructed from the data (see Fig. 38.1 for unique/overlapping character traits). Please note that gender has been assigned arbitrarily to structure the information.

38.3.1 Persona Type 1: Bold Bhoomika She is in her mid-60s. Compared to her peers, she is tech-savvy and exposed to the features and capabilities of smartphones and other devices. Social and family connectivity are critical drivers of her frequent usage. Her smartphone use-cases include leisure (social media, OTT platforms, games, hobbies, etc.) as well as work and convenience. She is sometimes overwhelmed by incoming media (“Uncontrollable number of WhatsApp groups... Can’t delete these good-morning messages in one lifetime, they keep piling up.”). She handles the setup of and day-to-day activities on her smartphone independently, and first tries to troubleshoot by herself through videos/FAQs before asking family or the younger generation for assistance. She has an optimistic attitude towards new technology (“It is a blessing.”), is enthusiastic

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Fig. 38.1 Mind-map of user segments’ mindsets, notions and expectations regarding smartphones

about exploring her smartphone for its own sake, even if an immediate benefit is not apparent (“Emojis look so cute! I love all that!” “I go down rabbit holes playing around with my smartphone.”). She is comfortable in her actions and confident in her ability to cope with consequences (“Nothing difficult, it is a process of understanding, you have to play with it.” “If you goof up, you can always go back.”). To boot, she is aware of some basic privacy and security practices (“If I use something for free, I know I’ll have to give up privacy... It’s good to use open-source when possible.”).

38.3.2 Persona Type 2: Practical Prakash He is in his 60s, sharing many characteristics with Bhoomika: a positive attitude towards technology in general, tech-saviness and overall comfort while using the device. He also handles the setup of and day-to-day activities on his smartphone independently and would try to troubleshoot by himself (“I go to Google and Youtube to find answers”) before requesting for help (“Why disturb anyone unnecessarily?”).

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However, he views his smartphone primarily as a work tool, for convenience and family connectivity, and engages in other use-cases less frequently (“I don’t wish to use it for leisure, I don’t want to waste my time.” “It’s convenient to attend work meetings from my phone.”). Moreover, he is wary of smartphone-based socialising (“I do not communicate on social sites unless I know the conversation will be private OR completely public.”). Additionally, he would only ‘explore’ if there is a robust apparent benefit (“There are so many features, but we just don’t need them.” “If I see someone using it and benefiting from it, then I would also like to know.”). He is also cautious about data privacy, leakages and scams (“I don’t know how much is hype and how much is fact.”).

38.3.3 Persona Type 3: Enthusiastic Eklavya He is in his mid-60s to early 70s. Compared to his peers, his tech-savviness is moderate, and confidence and satisfaction levels high (“Whatever features I use, work.” “I have become quite comfortable now.”). His usage is leisurely (“I take my time and use it.” “Good pastime for people like us!”). His use-cases are more basic than Bhoomika and Prakash; his phone is a tool for family and social connectivity, leisure and convenience (tracking e-commerce deliveries, recording audio and notes, etc.). He relies on his family and the younger generation for setup and periodic help (“I am worried about making a mess.” “If I don’t know, I can ask someone... Otherwise, I will try to figure it out; necessity is the mother of invention.”). He is also a less discerning consumer of digital content (“Daily, some two to three hours go in reading and enjoying WhatsApp.”). He may have misconceptions about storage (“I delete all the texts to clear space.”). Overall, his attitude towards new technology is moderate, but he is very attached to his smartphone (“It is like a part of my body.”). He is reluctant to carry out financial transactions using his smartphone. Interestingly, outside of finance, he is less concerned about digital privacy (“Who will see?”).

38.3.4 Persona Type 4: Hesitant Hari He is in his mid-60s. His use-cases are similar to Eklavya’s; he is moderately techaware and reliant on family and the younger generation for setup and troubleshooting (“I’m not that savvy.”). In theory, he is excited at the possibilities his phone offers (“We’ve come so far to have a globe at our fingertips!” “The phone is keeping us connected like never before.”). However, he is not attached to his phone (“I am not a phone addict, I have forgotten it in the car many times.”) and sees it as a distraction while working (“I keep it face-down.” “People get really involved in games and unnecessary chatting.”). He is also less confident and resistant to explore, due to cognitive load (“The screen is flying past you! I’m not able to handle that much

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information.” “I’ll admit to a certain degree of technology anxiety.”) and worries about scams (“I’m quite anxious about fraud during online transactions.”).

38.3.5 Persona Type 5: No-Thanks Naina She is in her mid-70s to early 80s. Her usage is infrequent and restricted to essential functions, mainly family connectivity (“I am not very comfortable depending on my smartphone.” “I have memorised a few actions after being shown a few times by someone.”). She owns her phone because of external drivers such as family or work. It is not an integral part of her life (“I don’t know where it is most of the time.”). Overall, she is disinterested and wary about the smartphone and its potential effects on her lifestyle and productivity (“My priorities are quite clear. I don’t want to waste my time.” “There is such a thing as being TOO available.” “It’s a loss of autonomy. I don’t seem to have freedom of my mood or time. I want to do things at my own time and pace.”). Her savviness and comfort are low compared to her peers; she is overwhelmed with affordances, perhaps due to a lack of mental model. This lack of knowledge makes her vulnerable to scams as she is broadly aware of privacy issues (“More and more, convenience depends on sharing your data.”), but does not understand how they relate to her digital activity. (“Someone called me pretending to be my bank, and I gave them an OTP.”). She does not feel the need to explore her smartphone, as she has other devices and non-digital systems to satisfy her needs (“I don’t want to do what I don’t need to do.”). She is resistant to technological change as benefits are not yet apparent to her (“Why are older people expected to learn new things? It feels like a race, and we are always trying to catch up.” “I think the smartphone will be more helpful when I can no longer be self-sufficient.”).

38.4 Conclusion We defined six behavioural and attitudinal parameters to describe elderly smartphone users, derived through semi-structured interviews and mind-mapping. Based on this, we identified five user personas with distinct usage, mindsets, notions and expectations. The outcomes of this study validate the findings of [17] and Petrovˇciˇc et al. (2017) in the Indian urban middle-class smartphone context: that senior citizens are a heterogeneous group with unique outlooks towards their mobile devices [17, 21]. We observe limited attitudinal parallels: [17] ‘Social and Hedonic’ segment with Bold Bhoomika and Enthusiastic Eklavya; ‘Active’ segment with Practical Prakash; and ‘Apathetic’ segment with No-Thanks Naina; Hesitant Hari is not indicated in this study. Further limited behavioural parallels were found between Petrovˇciˇc et al.’s (2017). ‘Smartphone well-off netizens’ and Enthusiastic Eklavya, and ‘Reluctant smartphone essentialists’ and Hesitant Hari as well as No-Thanks Naina; Bold Bhoomika and Practical Prakash remain absent in these findings. Our study was spe-

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cific to elderly owners of smartphones in the Indian urban middle-class context, and variables of both attitudinal and behavioural natures were identified and included in our classification. We observe overlaps between the segments (see Fig. 38.1). Practical Prakash, like Bold Bhoomika, is comfortable and confident with his smartphone usage, but views it majorly as a work tool. Enthusiastic Eklavya, Hesitant Hari and No-Thanks Naina are less smartphone-savvy. Eklavya is an active and comfortable user while Hari and Naina are wary, the latter more so. Limitations of this work include the sample size and online modality of most interviews. A small sample of fifteen participants was chosen to support the depth of case-oriented analysis in our qualitative research. Moreover, eight of our participants were academicians who regularly interact with younger generations, perhaps affecting their outlook towards technology and smartphones. We did not find strong socio-demographic correlations, perhaps due to the sample size and pre-decided target audience of the urban Indian middle-class. This pilot study is therefore not representative, rather, it sets future directions for research into a larger and more diverse sample to yield more reliable categorisation. An interesting future direction may include probing other demographics of the Indian elderly to identify and validate additional variables (such as educational, family, and professional backgrounds) that affect this segmentation. The pilot study reveals that smartphones play different roles in the lives of the urban Indian middle-class elderly. The generation of senior citizens taken into account in this study has been exposed to smartphones for the past decade at most. While the next generation may already be accustomed to using smartphones, these broad user segments may remain unchanged when defined against the backdrop of further technological advancements. We hope that this paper helps those who design and build technological solutions for this user group in recognising that a ‘one-sizefits-all’ approach will not suffice. Acknowledgements We would like to thank all interviewees for their valuable input.

Appendix A Visual Aids for Interviews

References 1. Raj, U., Galhotra, A., et al.: The maintenance and welfare of parents and senior citizens act, 2007-helping the conditions of the elderly in india. Ind. J. Commun. Fam. Med. 5(2), 157 (2019) 2. World population prospects: key findings and advance tables. 2015 revision. https://population. un.org/wpp/Publications/Files/Key_Findings_WPP_2015.pdf. Accessed: 07 Jan 2022

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3. Czaja, S.J., Lee, C.C.: The impact of aging on access to technology. Univ. Acc. Inf. Soc. 5(4), 341–349 (2007) 4. Charness, N., Boot, W.R.: Aging and information technology use: potential and barriers. Current Dir. Psychol. Sci. 18(5), 253–258 (2009) 5. Changing patterns of income and expenditure of older people in India: an assessment. https:// www.agewellfoundation.org/images/Changing%20Income-Expenditure%20Pattern%20of %20Older%20Persons%20Apr-2018%20-%20National.pdf. Accessed: 23 Feb 2022 6. Andone, I., Błaszkiewicz, K., Eibes, M., Trendafilov, B., Montag, C., Markowetz, A.: How age and gender affect smartphone usage. In: Proceedings of the 2016 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing: Adjunct, pp. 9–12 (2016) 7. Conci, M., Pianesi, F., Zancanaro, M.: Useful, social and enjoyable: mobile phone adoption by older people. In: IFIP Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, pp. 63–76. Springer (2009) 8. Mallenius, S., Rossi, M., Tuunainen, V.K.: Factors affecting the adoption and use of mobile devices and services by elderly people–results from a pilot study. In: 6th Annual Global Mobility Roundtable, vol. 31, pp. 12 (2007) 9. Hazer, O., Sanlı, S.: The technology opportunities in everyday life for the elderly. Int. J. Soc. Sci. Human. Stud. 2(2), 97–102 (2010) 10. Karaoglu, G., Hargittai, E., Hunsaker, A., Nguyen, M.H.: Changing technologies, changing lives: older adults’ perspectives on the benefits of using new technologies. Int. J. Commun. 15, 3887–3907 (2021) 11. Rao, P., Joshi, A.: Design opportunities for supporting elderly in india in managing their health and fitness post-covid-19. In: IndiaHCI’20: proceedings of the 11th Indian conference on human-computer interaction, pp. 34–41 (2020) 12. Rogers, W.A., Mynatt, E.D.: How can technology contribute to the quality of life of older adults. In: Technology of Humanity: Can Technology Contribute to the Quality of Life, vol. 22, pp. 30 (2003) 13. Gelderblom, H., van Dyk, T., van Biljon, J.: Mobile phone adoption: do existing models adequately capture the actual usage of older adults? In: Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Research Conference of the South African Institute of Computer Scientists and Information Technologists, pp. 67–74 (2010) 14. Yousef, M.K.: Assessment of metaphor efficacy in user interfaces for the elderly: a tentative model for enhancing accessibility. In: Proceedings of the 2001 EC/NSF Workshop on Universal Accessibility of Ubiquitous Computing: Providing for the Elderly, pp. 120–124 (2001) 15. Hanson, V.L.: Web access for elderly citizens. In: Proceedings of the 2001 EC/NSF Workshop on Universal Accessibility of Ubiquitous Computing: Providing for the Elderly, pp. 14–18 (2001) 16. Vuori, S., Holmlund-Rytkönen, M.: 55+ People as Internet Users. Marketing Intelligence & Planning (2005) 17. Vicente, P., Lopes, I.: Attitudes of older mobile phone users towards mobile phones. Communications 41(1), 71–86 (2016) 18. Horrigan, J.B.: A typology of information and communication technology users (2007) 19. Krum, C.: Mobile Marketing: Finding your Customers no Matter Where they Are. Pearson Education (2010) 20. Antoine, P.: Understanding the mobile phone market drivers. Alcatel Telecommun. Rev. (4/1):55–58 (2003) 21. Petrovˇciˇc, A., Slavec, A., Dolniˇcar, V.: The ten shades of silver: segmentation of older adults in the mobile phone market. Int. J. Human-Comput. Inter. 34(9), 845–860 (2018) 22. Flanagan, J.C.: The critical incident technique. Psychol. Bullet. 51(4), 327 (1954)

Chapter 39

Understanding the Challenges Students in Rural Areas Are Facing While Interacting with the Existing E-learning Platforms Apoorva Gandharve and Siddharth Singh Abstract Due to the sudden transformation to online education, there are various challenges school students are facing while using the E-learning platforms. This research is intended to understand what challenges students in rural areas are facing while interacting with E-learning platforms. Qualitative research methodology has been used to investigate the challenges faced, and thematic analysis and scenario planning have been carried out to analyse the qualitative data. The interviews were done with 80 students in three different schools in Himachal Pradesh, India. This research offers insights into the ground-level challenges faced by rural students giving way to further researchers or designers to come up with solutions to tackle the challenges.

39.1 Introduction The concept of traditional education has transformed after the COVID-19. Offline classroom education is not the only learning option anymore given the access to the technology. Today, we have access to quality education wherever we want if we have access to technology and the Internet. But is every student in this country privileged to have equal access to such luxury of online education. This change to online learning has put the spotlight on the existing digital divide, with a lot of students in rural areas have been struggling to cope with the new normal of learning due to the challenges of Internet access in rural areas and the lack of web-enabled gadgets. Schools shutdown in India in March 2020 and have opened up now. Post-COVID, few schools said that they were following the curriculum of the current class, others said that they were revising the material from last year’s curriculum, which states that A. Gandharve · S. Singh (B) National Institute of Fashion Technology, New Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Gandharve e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_39

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there is no standardization. When schools were closed, students had limited access to learning materials other than textbooks. How can we expect these students to cope with the curriculum of the current standard they are in? According to the teachers, they are facing challenges in teaching as students are unable to catch up with the current curriculum, the consequences of not designing efficiently. There was this overnight transition of traditional classrooms into E-learning which means educators shifted their whole pedagogical approach to cater to new needs and adapt to the new normal. The major concerns are if online teaching–learning methods can provide quality education and if the educational institutes will be able to adapt to online learning efficiently on this large scale. Distance, scale, and personalized experience of teaching and learning are the three biggest challenges for online teaching today. Through this research, we are trying to identify the challenges students in rural areas are facing with E-learning platforms, and how can we overcome these challenges and break the existing digital divide.

39.2 Paper Theoretical Foundation and Related Literature The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) is a survey that is done on children’s education across rural India, and learning outcomes are generated. As a part of this survey, children between the age of 5–16 years are assessed individually on their reading skills and basic arithmetic skills. After the schools reopened post-COVID19 lockdown, the quality of learning was assessed as a part of this research. In states where schools were still closed, it examined the progress made in remote teaching and learning processes. The report has been published on 17 November 2021 ASER [1]. The surveys had insights such as there has been a rise in the number of children taking private tuition, the number of families with children enrolled in government schools having at least one smartphone increased but only 27% of children who belonged to families owning a smartphone could access it anytime for studying, with an increase in the education level of parents, the accessibility to smartphones was higher, the availability of study materials like worksheets, online or pre-recorded classes, and videos sent through phones or received in person also increased. It was also realized that students in rural areas forgot to write and read in the online classes, and school closures led to learning loss. Digital content was generated and transmitted to help children learn from home. But the reopening of schools has now led to an understanding of ground realities—what impacts online education has made on students, the challenges they are facing because of this transformation, and what is the progress that schools had made in remote teaching–learning ASER [1]. Gone are the days when distance and online education were only starting to become more visible and easier to access and made the students curious. Nowadays, E-learning is probably as popular as classroom learning, and many students are seen opting for this mode of learning as it is a more flexible and cost-effective option [2].

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As students from different standards were exposed to E-learning, the effectiveness of E-learning has varied among different age groups. Younger students have a tendency to get distracted easily; hence, a structured environment is required for them which is not possible in online learning. To get the full benefits of E-learning, we have to look beyond just providing a structure and trying to imitate physical classrooms in an online setup. There is a need to come up with new collaboration tools and engagement methods that will help in the promotion of “inclusion, personalization, and intelligence”, according to Dowson Tong, Senior Executive Vice President of Tencent [2]. Since studies have shown that children extensively use their senses to learn, making learning fun and effective through the use of technology is crucial, according to BYJU’s Mrinal Mohit. “Over a period, we have observed that clever integration of games has demonstrated higher engagement and increased motivation towards learning especially among younger students, making them truly fall in love with learning”, he says [2]. As we talk about E-learning there are more terms related that cross our minds. Distance learning is defined as education provided to students which can be accessed remotely without regular face-to-face interaction with any teacher in the classroom [3]. Online learning education takes place with the help of the Internet. It can be part of distance education programmes, but it complements classroom-based learning. Online learning uses different mediums, often combining Internet-based technology and education technology applications which can be used offline as well [3]. Blended learning is done through multiple modes, including in-person learning, education technology applications, and students interacting with online learning [3]. E-learning is an umbrella term that is used to refer to a wide variety of electronic ways to give access to education which included: virtual classrooms, web-based learning, computer-based learning, collaboration, video, audio, etc. [3]. Elements of E-learning are as follows: • The teacher/instructor plays a vital role. The teacher provides necessary feedback to students. The teacher is responsible for keeping track of students’ progress in class [4]. • A well-defined learning management system is required. Teachers and students both should be easily able to navigate through it easily [4]. • The learning material is also a major part of E-learning. The course material is formulated in a manner that is easily accessible for students and easy to understand [4]. • Communication is very important for learning. To access online coursework from the teacher, students have to use various communication methods to be able to interact with the teacher or deliver the required coursework [4]. • Proper electronic devices are required to access online course material and a platform that allows teachers and students to share knowledge [4]. As the COVID-19 pandemic hit, technological and administrative systems that facilitated online learning, and the technological infrastructure that helps in accessing

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and delivering adapted to this new change very rapidly. Access to E-learning is still an issue for many but with the allocated resources an effort is put to connect learners with course activities and materials and to build communication between instructors and students. Next-generation will have a clear path to access all the available opportunities and it will seamless for them to adapt to the online learning. Paths for greater access and opportunities to online education have now been forged, and there is a clear route for the next generation of adopters of online education [5]. Studies say that screen time for students has increased drastically due to COVID19. Prolonged screen time is said to have negative impacts on physical as well as mental health. There is a need to include healthy digital habits since digital technology is here to stay [6]. Research suggests that the current E-learning system is experiencing potential challenges such as accessibility, availability, and usability, especially in rural India. Culture aspect is also critical and needs to be considered to make sure that all students with varied cultural backgrounds can use E-learning on a large scale [7]. Research has revealed opportunities to improve education technology for students in low-income schools in India. These opportunities require innovations in content development, hardware development, and socio-cultural integration. Transition is the psychological process people must go through to come to terms with new situations.

39.3 Methodology Exploratory research has been carried out to investigate challenges faced by students in rural areas of Himachal Pradesh post-COVID-19 Pandemic. It has been conducted to better understand the existing challenges. After preliminary research, it is found that the adoption of E-learning platforms is a major challenge, and hence, further study is focused on understanding the adoption challenges around E-learning platforms in rural areas. In this study, qualitative research is conducted, based on an unstructured interview method to obtain and analyse data. The qualitative method is designed to understand the E-learning system adoption from multiple sources as well as multiple perspectives. Initially, YouTube video showing the technological transformation in the education sector in terms of learning was played to set a context for students and start a conversation. Following open-ended questions were asked, and more questions were built on the basis of the responses of the students. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

What do you think about the video shown? How do you think technology in education has changed over the years? How has COVID-19 changed the learning system? What major changes technology has made in your life? Have you heard about platforms like Udemy, Coursera, etc.? How many of you use them and why? What subjects do you face problems with?

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7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

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Why do not others use online platforms? What subjects have you enrolled in E-learning? What do you do when you have doubts? Whom do you go to? Are your doubts always resolved? What idea do you have about technology in education? Do you face problems with mathematics? Are you able to find a solution online? Are you able to understand every piece of information you get online? If not, what is the next thing you do? What technology do you use in your classrooms? Are gadgets used in school post-COVID-19? How did you manage practicals in online mode? How was your experience of learning at home? What applications do you use for attending class? What all challenges did you face in online learning? How much time did it take to get used to the online method of learning? What do you like more? Online/offline learning? Were you able to use your time to the fullest when you were in online learning? Are there any effects on health due to increased screen time? Any language issues while using different E-learning platforms? How can E-learning be made better?

Given the COVID-19 situation, it was not favourable to conduct on-ground primary research at the national level so the primary research was conducted in Himachal Pradesh. The schools were covered in urban and rural areas. Research is carried out in the following manner: In phase one, a review of literature on E-learning adoption factors and challenges has been conducted. In phase two, primary research has been done to identify and classify E-learning adoption factors and challenges. In phase three, the qualitative data obtained during the interview is analysed using thematic analysis. In this study, one-on-one focus group interviews were conducted with 80 students who have non-technical backgrounds. The interview focused on several questions emerging from the primary research objectives of this study. The interview questions consisted of several aspects about the usage of E-learning systems, the main challenges they face in using E-learning systems, and the main factors that affect the successful usage of E-learning systems during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Participants: The interviews were conducted in three schools and three different focus group interviews were conducted with the strength of 24, 31, and 25, respectively. The age group of the participants ranged from 12–17 yrs. The schools are located in semi-rural and rural areas. The procedure for this research includes identifying schools in the residing locality and rural areas. A formal visit is made to the school and a meeting with the principals of schools and let them know about the ongoing research and the requirements. The interviews were conducted with a random sample of students from the 7th to 12th

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standard. In addition, headteachers and principals from the schools were included in the sample for school interviews. Thematic analysis is used for analysing qualitative data. It is applied to a set of texts, such as an interview or transcripts. The data has been closely examined to identify common themes—topics, ideas, and patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly in the insights. A six-step process has been followed to arise to the analysis: familiarization, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and writing up.

39.4 Results Personas: Based on the pattern recognized in the primary interview insights, three personas are built for technophiles, techno sceptics, and technophobes. The factors such as goals, motivations, and exposure to technology are put down to identify the challenges or the pain points. Technophobes are students who fear technology and are reluctant to use it. There is resistance to learning new technologies, and they are comfortable with traditional tools (Fig. 39.1). Technophiles are students who are enthusiastic about technology. They have wider exposure to technology as they have a laptop at home, own cellular phones, or have consistent Internet access in their own or a relative’s home (Fig. 39.2). Techno-sceptics are students who do not necessarily have a fear of technology, but they are sceptical of its relevance and value to their lives (Fig. 39.3). Empathy Mapping: For all three user segments, empathy mapping (Figs. 39.4, 39.5 and 39.6) has been done where the observations are noted such as what our user does, thinks, says, and feels. This layout helps us understand the pain point of the users in-depth. It is like putting yourself in their shoes. Journey Mapping: Discussion about student ambitions and fears was encouraged while the interviews were conducted to understand their daily routine and emotions attached to each task. Students were shown a video that represented the technological transformation that occurred in the educational sector. Their views on the content of the video were recorded, and their understanding was analysed. A journey map (Fig. 39.7) is designed to understand how the student is attending classes and what are the major touch points. Thematic analysis: Thematic analysis has been used for analysing qualitative data collected. It has been applied to the insights of the interview. The data has been analysed to identify common themes or patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly in the insights. Through this approach of analysis, I have tried to find out about students’ views, opinions, knowledge, experiences, or values from a set of interview transcripts. The following steps have been carried out as a part of the thematic analysis:

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Fig. 39.1 Technophobe persona

Data familiarization: In this step, data was transcribed, read and re-reading the data, and noted down the initial ideas. Major ideas were highlighted and written down for each transcript. Generating initial code: Interesting features of the data are coded in a systematic fashion across the entire data set, collecting data relevant to each code. While translating and transcribing, features were coded as a small phrase or keyword representing a specific idea.

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Fig. 39.2 Technophile persona

Searching for themes across the data: Codes are collated into potential themes, gathering all data relevant to each potential theme. The data were read and re-read, and the cycle was repeated several times to narrow down the number of codes and categorize them into identifiable themes. The codes were then analysed and grouped into four central themes. Reviewing themes: It is checked if the themes work in relation to the coded extracts at the first level and then the entire data set at the second level, generating a thematic map of the analysis. The complete interview data were re-read to validate the codes.

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Fig. 39.3 Techno-sceptic persona

The patterns are identified within the data, and these were used to draw thematic maps. Producing the report: The final analysis; selection of vivid, compelling extract examples, the final analysis of selected extracts, relating to the analysis to their search question and literature, producing a scholarly report of the analysis, several vital statements/features representing the data were extracted to showcase the resulting outcomes both as statements in the form of ideas and feelings, and visual representations drawn using interconnections between codes.

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Fig. 39.4 Technophobe empathy map

ATLAS.ti qualitative data analysis and research software have been used to uncover actionable insights faster and with an easier approach. On the basis of the report generated, a thematic analysis chart (Fig. 39.8) has been created to identify the major challenges students in rural areas are facing with the adoption.

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Fig. 39.5 Technophile empathy map

39.5 Discussion Internet access: Education is so much influenced by technology and the Internet that the lack of Internet penetration in low-income communities is a big issue. There are households that still do not have smartphones to support online learning and schools do not have proper infrastructure (Fig. 39.9).

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Fig. 39.6 Techno-sceptic empathy map

Distractions: Students with access to technology spend their time listening to music, playing games, and watching movies. They use technology more for their entertainment, so when they are exposed to educational games, they find them boring. Curriculum: There is no standardization of curriculum. The E-learning platforms are not aligned with the standard school curriculums.

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Fig. 39.7 Journey map—a daily learning routine of a student

Fig. 39.8 Thematic analysis chart

Safe browsing: There are no child-safe Internet filters to trust to monitor students’ Internet use. There have been instances shared by the participants that students used their parent’s bank information to pay for the online games.

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Fig. 39.9 Self-captured images of the field research

Language barrier: Students find it difficult to catch us with the native English accents of the teachers. There is a problem in understanding the concepts due to the existing language barrier. Infrastructure: Computer laboratories have poor student engagement. Schools face challenges with smart classes as they cannot afford enough smart boards to be used in every classroom. Doubt clearance: Given the limited period of online classrooms students are not able to get their doubts cleared right away, and they are still more comfortable with offline doubt-clearing sessions. Affordability: Not all students are capable of buying subscriptions to the Elearning platforms such as Byjus and Unacademy, and the free versions have a lot of distracting advertisements.

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39.6 Envisaged Impact of the Results Reimagining education in rural India: There has been a lot of research and interventions that have already taken place to improve education in India and we have come far from where were but still there are geographical locations which have not benefited much from these interventions and they still stand where they were ten years back. Making education affordable and accessible: Today, we have a lot of E-learning platforms that have made the life of many students easier as they learn from the comfort of their homes but students in remote locations coming from economically weaker sections of society have issues with electricity and Internet are not able to benefit from these platforms. The platforms are not affordable for them, there is a household that cannot even afford a basic smartphone. Overcoming the digital divide in the education sector: When there are still households that do not have a smartphone, how can we think the digital divide will just vanish. Villages in villages where basic education is a challenge, the gadgets are beyond their understanding, let alone usability. There is a need to facilitate each household with a smartphone or each student with a tablet/phone. Digital solution catering to all the challenges identified: Designing a product/platform that will cater to the challenges identified in the school education in rural India, considering the limitations and trying to overcome them. Understanding the psychology of students will help in user-friendly interface design.

39.7 Conclusion After COVID-19 hit, the sudden transformation from offline to online education happened. This rapid transition led to the immediate use of E-learning platforms, which led to a lot of challenges school students are facing this day. As a part of this research, ground data was collected which helped in identifying and understanding the challenges students in rural areas are facing. Qualitative research methodology has been used to investigate the challenges faced and thematic analysis and scenario planning have been carried out to analyse the qualitative data. This research offers insights into the ground-level challenges faced by rural students giving way to further researchers or designers to come up with solutions to tackle the challenges. Gaps identified are lack of Internet penetration, lack of infrastructure, language barriers, distractions, doubt clearing, etc. These challenges can be tackled in three ways—policies and administration, pedagogical structure, and UX of E-learning platforms. As a part of policies and administration, the policies can be re-looked at and framed aligning to the current scenario, and the pedagogical system can be restructured to make it simpler to understand and keep inclusivity in consideration

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which means catering to the needs of students coming from different cultural backgrounds, UX of existing government-run platforms can be revamped, or and new product can be launched catering to all the challenges.

References 1. Annual Status of Education Report (Rural). https://ruralindiaonline.org/en/library/resource/ann ual-status-of-education-report-rural-2021/ (2021) 2. The COVID-19 pandemic has changed education forever. This is how. https://www.weforum. org/agenda/2020/04/coronavirus-education-global-covid19-online-digital-learning/ (2020) 3. Aladwan, F., Al-Shboul, M., Al Awamrah, A.: Distance education, blended learning and elearning predictions and possibilities. https://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/mas/article/ view/0/38270 4. Why E-Learning: Insights into the World of Online Learning and Development, https://www. simplilearn.com/why-e-learning-article 5. Dhawan, S.: Online learning: a panacea in the time of COVID-19 crisis. https://journals.sag epub.com/doi/full/https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239520934018 (2020) 6. Front. Hum. Dyn.: Social Connectedness, Excessive Screen Time During COVID-19 and Mental Health: A Review of Current Evidence, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/https://doi.org/10. 3389/fhumd.2021.684137/full (2021) 7. Almaiah, M.A., Al-Khasawneh, A., Althunibat, A.: Exploring the critical challenges and factors influencing the E-learning system usage during COVID-19 pandemic. https://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7243735/

Chapter 40

Study and Evaluation of User Interaction and User Experience Design for the Development of a Fully Autonomous Passenger Drone Interior Cabin for India Meenakshi Mishra, Deepak John Mathew, and Ketan Madan Chaturmutha Abstract Passenger drones are currently being developed to solve the purpose of point-to-point commute. The user interaction for futuristic vehicles will play a vital role in enhancing the experience and making the passenger feel safe. The interior of the drone cabin should be passenger-centric, giving the user various experiences to choose from on the fly. This research paper addresses the user interaction and behavior within a fully autonomous passenger drone interior cabin in India. Brainstorming, mind mapping, and user survey were the methodology used to collect data. The data were analyzed using qualitative and quantitative tools. Brainstorming led to the mapping of user interaction from entry (ingress) to exit (egress), which was used as an input to develop an online survey to validate the design parameters. The paper predicts the various user experience design parameters for user interaction, including voice, gesture, and touch, within a fully autonomous passenger interior cabin. The results from this paper can be taken as recommendations for designing user interaction in the interior cabin space of passenger drones in India.

40.1 Introduction Passenger drones are being developed to solve the purpose of point-to-point commute as an alternative mode of transportation. David [1] states that the futuristic passenger drone cabin interior design should give a real-time adaptive environment experience to the passenger and should adapt to the needs and moods of the passenger. M. Mishra (B) · D. J. Mathew · K. M. Chaturmutha Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India e-mail: [email protected] D. J. Mathew e-mail: [email protected] K. M. Chaturmutha e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_40

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With the significant advancement and evolution in the automotive industry, driving experience has deeply impacted the user behavior and interaction with the vehicle interiors. The exterior aesthetics define the form of the brand, whereas the vehicle’s interior design makes the purchase [2]. With most companies aiming to achieve fully autonomous level 5 [3] vehicles, user interaction with the interiors plays a vital role [4]. Lambrichts [5] suggests that autonomous vehicles will redefine the user behavior and interaction. It should be passenger-centric giving them various experiences on the go from which they can choose. This research paper focuses on user interaction and user behavior within the fully autonomous passenger drone (FAPD) interior cabin in India. The purpose of this paper is to map various user experiences and interactions for the future fully autonomous vehicle used as inputs for developing an online survey to validate the design parameters for user interaction with the vehicle. The paper explores and discusses an overview of the possible inflight interactive scenarios in a FAPD. It also discusses the various activities and design parameters that can be explored to design and develop a more interactive FAPD cabin.

40.2 Aim and Objective The study aimed to address the user interaction and user behavior within the FAPD interior cabin in India. The main objective of this study was (1) to populate and create various possibilities of how a user will interact with a passenger drone interior cabin in the Indian context and (2) to validate the user behavior and interaction with a user survey.

40.3 Methodology This section defines the methodology used for deriving the scenarios and validating the possible scenarios. Process of developing user interaction design scenarios is done through brainstorming and is validated through user survey.

40.3.1 Brainstorming Brainstorming and mind mapping are an important tool can be used to explore, guide, and channelize concepts and ideas which may help to produce more robust research [6]. A brainstorming and mind mapping session were conducted with 5 graduate participants from the age group of 20–30 years in India to gain diverse insights. The brief given was activities that can be done inside a fully autonomous passenger drone in the future. Participants were asked to brainstorm for a duration of 20 min.

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The researchers and participants followed all the rules of brainstorming and mind mapping [7].

40.3.2 User Experience This section describes the methodology used for conducting the user survey. A user survey was conducted to study and validate the possibilities derived from the brainstorming session [8]. The questionnaire was circulated online. Refer Appendix for the questionnaire. It was divided into two sections. Current commute and vehicle interaction. The first section of the survey gathered demographic information from participants which included age and collected information on participants’ current commute ways to their workplace, activities during the commute, and commute time spent on work and leisure through a Likert scale. Future commute and vehicle interaction. The second section gathered the information for the interaction of futuristic fully autonomous vehicles where the participants were given options to choose from the activities they would like to perform during their commute. They were also asked to know their preference on human– machine interaction assistance via voice/touch/gesture. Refer to Appendix A for the complete list of questions. The phrase ‘passenger drone’ was nowhere mentioned in the questionnaire since the researchers’ wanted data on the user behavior with respect to vehicle interior of the current mode of transport in India for the everyday commute.

40.4 Data Representation and Analysis 40.4.1 Brainstorming Analysis The brainstorming session resulted in segregation of data based on interaction with the drone + safety, screen interactions, leisure activities, work-related activities, drone components. The data were further segregated into a complete journey mapping of the passenger. Seven different stages were identified in the journey such as ingress, sitting, starting of the vehicle, take off, in the air, landing, halt and egress as shown in Table 40.1. Table 40.1 suggests that most of the vehicle activity and user experience are controlled via display. Hence to validate the user experience parameters, a user survey was conducted, and the data were analyzed.

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Table 40.1 Journey map of the passenger from ingress to egress Action

Human

Vehicle reaction

1. Ingress (entry)

Approaching

Welcoming projector

Standing outside the door

Recognizes the presence/acknowledges/greetings

Getting inside

Door opens

Sit and adjust

Door close

Guiding floor lights 2. Sitting

Door close confirmation Wear seat belt

Seat belt sign Welcome passenger Safety signs and symbols

3. Starting of the vehicle

User feeds the location

Navigation/display asking for location to go

Fix the travel route

ETA Map showing journey Check for weather condition and safety

4. Take off

Indication—taking off Instruction—cabin atmosphere Projection on the floor Objects/obstacles on the vicinity

5. In the air

Choose to work/entertainment/relax/sleep

Work

Various options

Entertainment Video calling Check mails Connecting device to display Play music

Safety communication with icons

Display safety icons Altitude and weather conditions Heart rate monitor

6. Landing

User checks while landing

Ready for landing reminders Close all tasks (music/etc.) Wakeup call Safety belt Seat adjustment (continued)

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Table 40.1 (continued) Action

Human

7. Halt

Vehicle reaction Weather outside Unlock your seat belts

Gives journey feedback

Feedback Floor lights and indicator for exit Music and goodbye message

8. Egress (exit)

Indicates side to exit What all to indicate: take your bag Opens the door and walks out

Door opens of that side Door close Door close confirmation Screen display is shut

40.4.2 User Survey Analysis The survey was conducted online at pan India level. A total of 287 participants filled the questionnaire for the survey with an age ranging from 20 to 50 years and above. Complete sample size was taken for data analysis. Data analyses were done in four different categories: current commute ways and activity mapping, current commute time spent, future activity mapping while commuting, and future vehicle interaction analysis. Current commute ways and activity mapping. Data concerning the participants current ways of commute to the workplace was analyzed. Figure 40.1 displays the participants’ everyday commute to the workspace. 41.8% (n = 120) of participants travel via personal self-driven car. 32.1% (n = 92) of participants commute via bike, cycle, or walk. 13.6% (n = 39) of participants commute using public transport. 6.6% (n = 19) of participants commute using chauffeur driven cars, while 5.9% (n = 17) of participants used shared vehicle services.

Fig. 40.1 Everyday commute to workspace

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Fig. 40.2 Frequency analysis of current activities performed while commuting to the workspace

Figure 40.2 displays the current activities the participants perform while commuting to workplace. Frequency analysis was conducted. Maximum activities preferred by the participants were phone calls with 57.8% and listening to music/podcasts with 57.5%. 28.9% of the participants chose to drive only and no other activity. The other activities which were selected were surfing social media with 23.3%, checking mails with 21.3%, reading news with 15.3%, watching video’s/movies with 12.9%, share market and trading with 8%, and making video calls with 4.5%. The participants added other options like texting, just observing things around, and sleeping. Current commute time spent analysis. The current commute time spent by the participants on leisure and work-related activities was analyzed. Figure 40.3 shows 4.9% (n = 14) of participants spend 100% commute on leisure activities, 31.7% (n = 91) of participants like to spend 25% of their commute time on leisure activities. 29.3% (n = 84) of participants spend 50% of their commute time on leisure activities. 17.4% (n = 50) of participants spend 0% commute time on leisure activities. Mean = 1.59 of all participants suggests that majority of the participants spend around 25–50% of commute time on leisure activities as shown in Fig. 40.5. Figure 40.4 shows that 1.7% (n = 5) of participants spend 100% commute on work activities, 32.4% (n = 93) of participants like to spend 25% of their commute time on work activities. 29.6% (n = 85) of participants spend 50% of their commute time on work activities. 22.6% (n = 65) of participants spend 0% commute time on work activities. Mean = 1.39 of all participants suggests that the majority spend 25–50% of commute time on work as shown in Fig. 40.5.

Fig. 40.3 Commute time spent on leisure activities

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Fig. 40.4 Commute time spent on work-related activities

Fig. 40.5 Mean values of commute time spent

The data were further analyzed studying the different modes of current commute by the participants and their commute time spent in leisure and work-related activities on a scale of 0–4 (where 0: 0% of time, 4: 100% of time). Table 40.2 suggests that the participants commuting using chauffer driven cars prefer spending more commute time in work-related activities (mean = 0 2.16), whereas the participants commuting using public transport and shared vehicle prefer spending more commute time in leisure related activities (mean = 2.33, mean = 2.12, respectively). Participants using personal self-driven cars spent an equal amount of time on both leisure and work related (mean = 1.48, mean = 1.5, respectively). Future activity mapping while commuting. Data concerning the future activity mapping while commuting was analyzed. The participants were asked about the activities the vehicle display could perform while commuting in a fully autonomous Table 40.2 Mean value of commute time spent based on current mode of transportation Mean value for current commute time Mean value for current spent in leisure activities commute time spent in work-related activities Personal self-driven car 1.48

1.5

Personal chauffer driven car

1.68

2.16

Shared vehicle (Ola/Uber/Pool)

2.12

1.588

Public transport

2.33

1.256

Bike/cycle/walk

1.33

1.12

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Fig. 40.6 Frequency analysis of future activities that can be performed while commuting to workspace

vehicle, 78.4% of them chose to listen to music/podcasts, 63.4% preferred the display to make phone calls, 49.1% chose to read/watch news, and 41.5% preferred checking social media. Figure 40.6 shows the frequency of the activities which can be performed by the vehicle display. This data suggests the future of vehicle display activities and various modes that can be designed for a fully autonomous passenger drone. Future vehicle interaction. Data analysis was done on vehicle interaction preference in a futuristic fully autonomous vehicle. The participants rated the human vehicle interaction for a fully autonomous vehicle via voice/touch/gesture on a Likert scale. From the analysis of the values derived from the responses, mean values for the vehicle interaction with voice, touch, and gesture were derived, respectively, as shown in Figs. 40.7, 40.8, and 40.9 on a scale of 1–5 where 1 is least preferred and 5 is most preferred. The participants prefer interaction with the vehicle maximum via voice (mean: 3.95), second preference was given to touch (mean: 3.69), and least via gesture (mean: 3.03). Table 40.3 shows the vehicle interaction preferences with respect to age groups. Age group of 20–30 years preferred vehicle interaction maximum via voice (mean = 3.94), then touch (mean = 3.76), and least via gesture (mean = 3.21). Age group of 31–40 years prefer least vehicle interaction via gesture (mean = 2.82) and maximum via voice (mean = 3.89). Maximum vehicle interaction preferred via voice across all age groups as seen in Table 40.3 with the highest mean. Least vehicle interaction

Fig. 40.7 Vehicle interaction preference via voice on Likert scale of 1–5 (1: least preferred and 5 is most preferred)

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Fig. 40.8 Vehicle interaction preference via touch on Likert scale of 1–5 (1: least preferred and 5 is most preferred)

Fig. 40.9 Vehicle interaction preference via gesture on Likert scale of 1–5 (1: least preferred and 5 is most preferred)

was preferred via gesture across all age groups with the lowest mean across all age groups. All age groups preferred vehicle interaction via touch to be neutral. Further analysis was done by studying the different ways of currently commuting by the participants and vehicle interaction with respect to voice, display, and gesture on a scale of 1–5 (where 1 is least preferred and 5 is most preferred). Mean values in Table 40.4 suggest that the participants prefer interacting with the vehicle maximum Table 40.3 Mean values of vehicle interaction with respect to age group Age group

Mean for vehicle interaction via voice

Standard deviation for vehicle interaction via voice

Mean for vehicle interaction via display

Standard deviation for vehicle interaction via display

Mean value for vehicle interaction via gesture

Standard deviation for vehicle interaction via gesture

20–30

3.937888

1.15

3.7577

1.11

3.211

1.38

31–40

3.8987

1.13

3.544

1.24

2.82

1.41

41–50

4.28125

1.17

3.625

1.41

2.8125

1.28

51 and above

3.6667

1.05

3.8

0.68

2.733

1.16

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Table 40.4 Mean values of vehicle interaction with respect to current mode of commute Mean value for vehicle interaction via voice

Mean value for vehicle interaction via display

Mean value for vehicle interaction via gesture

Personal self-driven car

3.91

3.64

2.91

Personal chauffer driven car

4.16

3.47

2.632

Shared vehicle (Ola/Uber/Pool)

4.16

3.88

2.9412

Public transport

3.95

3.87

3.44

Bike/cycle/walk

3.935

3.674

3.13

via voice irrespective of their current mode of commute. The second preference of vehicle interaction was touch. The least preferred vehicle interaction was gesture.

40.5 Summary, Discussion, and Conclusion The analysis of the data led to numerous outcomes. The brainstorming and mind mapping session conducted with an age group of 20–30 years graduate students of India resulted in categorizing the passenger journey from ingress to egress for a FAPD. The categories were further fragmented into seven stages as shown in Table 40.1, highlighting an in-depth insight into user behavior and interaction with the vehicle. The survey outcome validates the interaction parameters such as activity mapping, time spent on work and leisure, and vehicle interaction via voice, touch, and gesture. The responses received for the current commute to the workplace suggest that the interior should be designed for both work and leisure. The assessment suggests that the vehicle display should perform various activities like playing music/podcasts, reading/watching news, making video calls, checking social media, doing online shopping, doing share market trading, and browsing through emails. These can be categorized into various themes: work mode, entertainment mode, and relax mode [9]. The vehicle interaction preferences resulted equally in the voice and touch assist. Gesture assist received the least preference across all age groups using different modes of travel. The data suggest the vehicle assist should be designed voice, touch, and gesture in decreasing order of preference. This study can be mapped to predict the user experience design parameters for the future FAPD interior cabin for a point-to-point commute. Results from this paper can be taken as a base for conducting further research for designing user interaction for FAPV cabins in India.

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Appendix 1. Age [Multiple choice question: 20–30, 31–40, 41–50, 51 and above] 2. How do you commute to the workspace every day? [Multiple choice question (Personal Self Driven Car, Personal Chauffeur Driven Car, Shared Vehicle (Ola/Uber/Pool, Public Transport, Bike/Cycle/Walk)] 3. What current activities do you do while commuting/travelling to your workspace? [checkbox (Phone Call, Video Calls, Check Mails, Share Market and Trading/Payments, Surfing social media, Reading News, Watching Video’s/Movies, Listening to Music/Podcast, Drive only, other)] 4. While travelling, how much time do you spend on leisure activities? Rate from 0 = 0%, 1 = 25%, 2 = 50%, 3 = 75%, 4 = 100% of time 5. While travelling, how much time do you spend on work-related activities? Rate from 0 = 0%, 1 = 25%, 2 = 50%, 3 = 75%, 4 = 100% of time 6. If given an opportunity to travel in a fully autonomous vehicle, what activities would you like your vehicle display to perform? [Checkbox (Music/Podcasts, Reading/Watching News, Phone Calls, Video Calls, checking social media (FB/Instagram/LinkedIn), Online Shopping and Payments, Watching Movies/Video’s/OTT Platforms, Browsing Emails, Share Market Trading, Other)] 7. If you are sitting inside a driverless vehicle, would you like to interact/communicate with the vehicle via Voice? [Rate on a scale of 1–5, (1: Not Preferred, 2: Least Preferred, 3: Neutral, 4: Slightly Preferred, 5: Most Preferred)] 8. If you are sitting inside a driverless vehicle, would you like to interact/communicate with the vehicle via Touch? [Rate on a scale of 1–5, (1: Not Preferred, 2: Least Preferred, 3: Neutral, 4: Slightly Preferred, 5: Most Preferred)] 9. If you are sitting inside a driverless vehicle, would you like to interact/communicate with the vehicle via Gesture? [Rate on a scale of 1–5 (1: Not Preferred, 2: Least Preferred, 3: Neutral, 4: Slightly Preferred, 5: Most Preferred)]

References 1. David, H.: Enhancing air travel experience. Aircr. Eng. Aerosp. Technol. 76(1) (2004). https:// doi.org/10.1108/aeat.2004.12776aaf.003 2. Moore, S.: Auto interior is the new exterior (2020) 3. SAE.: SAE levels of driving automationTM refined for clarity and international audience. SAE Blog (2021). https://www.sae.org/blog/sae-j3016-update 4. Miaskiewicz, T., Kozar, K.A.: Personas and user-centered design: how can personas benefit product design processes? Des. Stud. 32(5), 417–430 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud. 2011.03.003 5. Lambrichts, L.: Interior design of a future passenger car for Škoda (2019) 6. Crowe, M., Sheppard, L.: Mind mapping research methods. Qual. Quant. 46(5), 1493–1504 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-011-9463-8

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7. Kim, H.S., Yoon, S.H., Kim, M.J., Ji, Y.G.: Deriving future user experiences in autonomous vehicle. In: Adjunct Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications AutomotiveUI 2015, pp. 112–117 (2015). https:// doi.org/10.1145/2809730.2809734 8. Mao, J., Vredenburg, K.: User-centered design methods in practice : a survey of the state of the art Paul W Smith (2000) 9. Mishra, M.M., Mathew, D.J.: Study of form , color , and activity mapping for fully autonomous passenger drone interiors. Turk. Online J. Qual. Inq. 12(9), 2102–2107 (2021) [Online]. Available: https://www.tojqi.net/index.php/journal/article/view/6016

Chapter 41

A Design-Based Study to Assist Claustrophobics in Overcoming Their Fears Nikita Bhatnagar

and Shreya Maulik

Abstract Claustrophobia is the fear of enclosed spaces where a person avoids the feared situations or endures them with intense anxiety and a desire to escape. Objective: The aim of the study was to understand the behavioral issues, causal factors, and impact on claustrophobics, creating a solution that would help in coping with the fear and cater to their well-being. Methods: The study was conducted in Delhi and Mumbai where 73 participants took an online survey and 27 participated in empathy interviews with various stakeholder groups such as claustrophobics, therapists, and family members. Journey maps were created to understand user reactions in various trigger locations. A user testing protocol was created, and the solution features were tested with eight users. Results: The study indicated that the dominant triggers were elevators and MRI machines which claustrophobics tend to avoid resulting in missing out on experiences. Lack of acceptance and communication between loved ones and the community reduces the confidence level of claustrophobics. The proposed solution called ‘SPACE’ leverages experience design and IoT. It has three components—an app that motivates the user with positive affirmations and showcases progress through Aura, a virtual representation of the user. A lamp assists in an experiential hypnosis session which is personalized for her triggers. A wearable for stress detection which provides support in case of a panic attack. User feedback was positive overall and appreciated the interaction of the lamp. Conclusion: The solution seeks to strengthen the claustrophobic’s ability to cope with fear by targeting their subconscious minds and eradicating the fear from its core while also bridging the communication gap between families.

N. Bhatnagar (B) · S. Maulik NMIMS School of Design, Mumbai, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Maulik Atlas Skill Tech University, ISDI, Mumbai, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_41

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41.1 Introduction Mental health disorders are complex, and around 792 million people lived with a psychological well-being disorder which is more than 10.7% of the global population [1]. The mental health crisis has had a massive impact, with anxiety disorders being the most common. It is estimated that 33.7% population at some point in their life will experience an anxiety disorder [2]. In 2018, an estimated 284 million people worldwide suffered from an anxiety disorder. Around 63% (179 million) were females, and the remaining 37% (105 million) were males [1]. Claustrophobia is a specific phobia under anxiety disorders, defined as the fear of being confined in an enclosed space and not being able to control or escape from whatever may occur when trapped. While claustrophobia is not a disability, it affects 3–5% of the general population and may be extremely detrimental in terms of restricting employment alternatives, career growth, leisure, and significantly impacting both personal and professional relationships [3]. Current literature fails to provide conclusive causal factors due to the lack of knowledge about various individual’s symptoms. Inadequate treatments result in increase of the phobia affecting their life and can cause feelings of humiliation and depression, as well as a loss of self-confidence and selfesteem leading to a greater sensitivity to stressors like lifts, airplanes, etc., that cause other psychological issues like anxiety, depression, etc. [4]. Moreover, it also interferes with one’s personal life by causing them to alter their choices by avoiding the specific triggers [5]. Considering the above factors, there was a need to address this issue which would help the claustrophobics to lead a healthy life. The study aims to understand the causes and symptoms of the phobia to provide claustrophobics with the ability to cope with their fear subconsciously. Claustrophobia can be caused by a variety of circumstances and situations. Despite the minimal study, a single gene defect in the human GPM6A gene can induce claustrophobia [6, 7], which encodes a stress-regulated neuronal protein that is present in the amygdala and central nervous system. Secondly, individuals who had a traumatic experience in childhood may begin to make associations with related situations or objects in adulthood. Lastly, observational learning is when a person learns how to react in a situation by looking at other people (claustrophobics). It can impact the thought process and may contribute to the onset of claustrophobia as they associate that place with a negative feeling [8]. One of the most incapacitating and disruptive phobias is claustrophobia. Despite this, the vast majority of claustrophobia victims do not consider treatment. Studies have indicated that only 7.8% of people with claustrophobia seek professional care, with the main reason being that they are afraid to face the fear and relive it [9]. Various methods are used as treatments for claustrophobia, but each has its limitations like medicine can efficiently control symptoms, but the effects disappear quickly once the prescription is stopped, which is ineffective in the long term [6]. Secondly, traditional psychotherapy like cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is time-consuming and expensive as it relies on being present with a therapist. Lastly, exposure therapy uses immersive technology like virtual reality where the person experiences computer

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simulations of elevators or MRI machines. People who are terrified of being exposed to closed spaces as well as the headset making them nauseous and dizzy prevent them from participating in exposure therapy [7]. Several gaps in the existing literature were identified which results in claustrophobic people being unable to overcome the phobia. There are no conclusive causal factors and underlying variables due to a lack of knowledge of each individual’s triggers and symptoms, resulting in unidentified triggers. Due to inadequate treatments, users avoid seeking help, which can aggravate the intensity of the phobia and result in the creation of new phobias such as fear of the dark or fear of heights. A lack of understanding among loved ones is observed when they have to acclimate to the claustrophobic lifestyle, causing them to criticize the claustrophobic as they cannot understand how they feel. The study aims to understand the various causal factors and symptoms of claustrophobia, as well as the behavioral issues which create a negative impact on people and daily lifestyle. The study proposes a solution in an attempt to improve claustrophobics’ behavior while retaining their sense of self-esteem and independence. The solution also aims to bridge the knowledge gap by making the family aware of the situation.

41.2 Methodology 41.2.1 Participants The study group consisted of 33 claustrophobic women (aged 40–60 years), 10 claustrophobic young adults (18–25 years), 6 claustrophobic men (aged 40–60 years), 20 family members, and 5 psychologists/therapists from the cities of Gurgaon and Mumbai. They were chosen by random convenience sampling and prior consent was taken. As females were found to be more prone to anxiety disorders due to biological and psychosocial differences, claustrophobic women aged 40–60 years were chosen as the primary stakeholder group. Past studies also reported that women suffer from anxiety disorders at nearly twice the rate of men [10].

41.2.2 Materials and Procedure The design thinking framework helped conduct a comprehensive, qualitative, and quantitative study of the target audience and their perspectives on the issue of claustrophobia. The methodology was divided into five phases: Phase 1: Research. Both primary and secondary research was crucial to collect data. Secondary research aided in acquiring a comprehensive understanding of the chosen topic. Mind maps helped to thoroughly understand claustrophobia, role

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of genetics, gender-based personality factors, and emotional intelligence. Primary research consists of an online survey (73 participants) and empathy interviews (27 participants). These tools helped in understanding their thoughts, motivations, and behavioral traits, as well as looking for dichotomies to formulate insights. Phase 2: Data Synthesis. The data was analyzed, and similar data points were grouped to identify the behaviors of various user groups into various themes. How and why laddering was used to reveal behavioral patterns and themes like coping mechanism, triggers, paranoia, types of past experiences that propelled bold decisions with the potential to shape a solution by pointing to unexplored avenues. Gap analysis helped understand the key intervening points in the problem space. The study helped identify future aspirations of claustrophobics where they have overcome their fear and would be able to lead a healthy life. This assisted in visualizing the missing links, which served as intervening points for improvement such as mindset change, lack of knowledge, and coping mechanism. Phase 3: Ideation and Prototyping. While ideating, it was critical to correlate the user’s emotions with their behaviors throughout the procedure in order to detect behavioral patterns. Selected ideas emphasized on mindset change along with a coping mechanism. Low fidelity prototypes were created using green foam to understand the ergonomic aspect of the product which was then modified to create high fidelity prototypes with MDF to test the model with the participants. Phase 4: Design Validation. A usability testing protocol of predetermined questions and tasks was developed to generate a flow of tasks for the user to perform. The prototypes were tested in a 40-min session with eight participants. An expectancy test was performed to determine how participants felt when they first saw the product [11]. This enabled the moderator in understanding the first impression that the users had for the solution. The continual probing assisted in gaining additional insights into the specifics of how the user would engage with the product. The mobile app was tested using the prototype mode in Adobe XD, whereas the physical model was tested by providing interaction-based tasks (lighting the lamp, meditation etc.). A post-evaluation questionnaire with a 5-point rating system gathered overall feedback for the solution.

41.3 Results The intent of this study was aimed to understand the user’s mindset regarding claustrophobia while also taking into account behavioral issues which create a negative impact on people and daily lifestyles. The tools for data collection helped further streamline the data and paved the path for the synthesis of insights. This section states the findings of the study.

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41.3.1 Key Findings The genetic component of the participants was explored, which indicated that 41.7% of claustrophobics had family members who were claustrophobic and 29.2% of claustrophobics were unsure about their family members being claustrophobic. Figure 41.1 on a scale of 1 to 10, 1 being low intensity, and 10 being high intensity, claustrophobic participants rated their phobia intensity. It was found that 29 claustrophobic females (40–60 years) rated themselves between 6 and 10, whereas only 6 men (40–60 years) felt they were slightly claustrophobic as they rated themselves between 2 and 5. This can be correlated with past studies on MRI scans where characteristics like being female appear to correspond with an increase in claustrophobic emotions [12]. The survey results identified lift and MRI scans as the most dominant triggers. The results indicated that 18 participants felt trapped in a crowded space even when the space was not completely closed due to the crowd obstructing their personal space, which caused them to panic (Fig. 41.2). During empathy interviews, the participants reported that physical stimuli like light and sound were revealed to have a vital impact in the perception of space. They further mentioned that they seek an exit as soon as they exposed to a closed space. The cause of the phobia was unclear to participants. Many of them reported that it arises from traumatic childhood events. Others believed it to be caused by a specific gene which is by birth, or there could be other underlying worries, such as fear of losing control or fear of death, which may also play a role in the development of claustrophobia. As the reason is unknown, there is a lack of knowledge. These insights revealed gaps, which were then formulated into a focused problem statement that states ‘claustrophobic women (40–60 years) need to strengthen the ability to cope with their fear so that they can lead a healthy lifestyle.’ Fig. 41.1 Claustrophobics who had family members suffering from claustrophobia

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Fig. 41.2 Most common triggers

41.3.2 Intervening Points To solve the problem holistically, three aspects needed to be catered. Firstly, changing the perception of family members so that they do not blame the claustrophobic for altering daily routines which affect the family (travel restrictions, etc.). Claustrophobics’ mindsets must also be altered so that they can subconsciously let go of their fear. Secondly, a coping mechanism in case of a panic attack. Lastly, bring awareness to both family members and claustrophobics about the various triggers, symptoms and overcoming panic attacks.

41.3.3 Proposed Solution—SPACE The solution called ‘SPACE’ aims to assist claustrophobics to overcome their fear by targeting their subconscious mind to eradicate the fear by having the power to control what they think and do. It also helps the family to be empathetic of her situation and assist her in her journey of gaining self-confidence. The solution has four nodes—an app, a lamp, a stone, and a wearable as shown in Fig. 41.3. The app gives positive affirmations while also tracking the user’s emotional wellbeing. It also helps loved ones gain knowledge about claustrophobia via the app. The smartwatch monitors her emotions and stress levels throughout the day, providing her with insights into her everyday activities. It also helps her if she has a panic attack and is advised to engage in diverting tasks. The interactive lamp and stone guides

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Fig. 41.3 Components of the solution

the user through an experiential session to tap into the user’s subconscious mind via exposure therapy and cognitive behavioral hypnotherapy. Mobile App. It motivates the user with positive affirmations that are generated based on the data added by the user once she downloads the app. The app algorithm learns the user’s behaviors and provides customized suggestions. A character called ‘Aura’ is created based on her onboarding answers which represent the user’s feelings and acts as a guide in her journey. The user performs a mind fitness session that utilizes various therapy methods like exposure therapy and cognitive behavior hypnotherapy to target her subconscious mind. The session has four stages: Stage 1—Absorb attention: Aura’s voice simply guides the user to capture attention and focus. This is done by using voice tonality. Stage 2—Bypass the critical faculty: The critical faculty is the part of the mind that uses logic and reasoning to disbelieve, and Aura assists the user in lowering their resistance to hypnotic trance [13]. Stage 3—Activate an unconscious response: These responses are generated subconsciously and occur even when the user is not aware of them like a visible shudder when the user imagines themself in a closed environment. Stage 4—Leading to the desired outcome: Hypnotic suggestions in the form of commands or metaphors are used to produce an immediate or post-hypnotic effect. Aura carefully constructs and delivers it to help the subconscious mind become more resourceful, resulting in a more desirable outcome. Primary features of the app. The mobile has four key aspects catering to different problem areas: • Aura is a virtual representation of the user, based on what the user does and feels. They can also ‘talk’ about their daily experiences to Aura as if they are talking to themselves.

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• Conquer it is an interactive sensorial session involving visual, auditory, and tactile senses which allows the user to experience the environment where they feel claustrophobic, from the comfort of their own room with the help of a projection generated by the lamp. • Knowledge section enables the claustrophobic and the family members to learn more about claustrophobia and its symptoms, causes, etc. A self-diagnostic test can also be taken by the user which would provide insights. • Claustrophobics can build a community while also nudging the family members to connect with the claustrophobics especially in time of need. Wearable. It monitors the user’s emotions and stress levels throughout the day to provide insights. For this purpose, any smartwatch which has the necessary sensors for continuous biometric tracking can be utilized. The biometric sensors of the watch track the heart rate variability (HRV), skin temperature (ST), and electrodermal activity (EDA) to synthesize the physiological signals into tangible emotion and stress levels at a given time. When the emotion or stress levels go beyond the calibrated baseline, a prompt is provided to the user where she performs relaxing activities. At the same time, a message is also sent to the selected contacts for their knowledge (Fig. 41.4). Lamp. The lamp allows the user to experience the triggers in the comfort of her room through a projection that replicates the space. The shape resembles a closed cage with triangular light panels which turn on gradually as the user progresses in the session. The intensification of the light represents the user breaking free from

Fig. 41.4 Decision making module of the wearable data, (technology plan (a))

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Fig. 41.5 Interconnection between the nodes (technology plan (b))

the cage. The bottom part is the power supply of the lamp, and the small handheld device ‘stone’ is nested on the base. The working of the lamp was mapped out by creating a technology plan (Fig. 41.5). During the session, a projection of the trigger environment is projected from the lamp on the nearest wall in the room. The projector is enclosed inside the base of the lamp along with a speaker and LED lights which are used during the hypnotherapy session. It can also be used as a normal lamp. Stone. The soft silicone handheld device provides support to the user. When the user holds the stone in her hand, faint pulsating vibrations are felt which provide comfort to her during the session. Form testing was done for the stone, and the most comforting form was a curved elongated structure with a slight grip.

41.3.4 Design Validation User testing was conducted with eight participants—five participants were shown the physical model in person while three were conducted using online platforms

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to conduct virtual testing. Three tasks based on different scenarios were tested for the app, whereas for the wearable and experiential lamp, the complete concept was tested. The overall concept and need for such a service was validated with five claustrophobic women and three family members. All claustrophobic participants liked the anonymous feel of connecting with the community through Aura because they wanted to see how other people were doing without disclosing their personal information. The lamp design was regarded to be one-of-a-kind, and the light interaction was adored since the intensification of the light provided real time feedback to the user. The assistance feature on the wearable was appreciated by 70% of claustrophobic participants since they could relate it to their daily lives and the benefits it would provide.

41.4 Discussion The need for claustrophobics to strengthen their ability to cope with fear is identified as a key problem to be solved. The study observed 41.7% of claustrophobic participants had family members who were claustrophobic. Past studies have indicated that the human GPM6A gene, age, and gender also play a role in the occurrence of claustrophobia. The current study data says that females are more prone to claustrophobia and also the intensity of claustrophobia is high compared to males. Past literature has shown similar results where females were more prone to claustrophobia and the impact is greater in the age group of 40–55 years [7]. Claustrophobics were hesitant to express themselves to an outsider (e.g., therapist); hence, they refused treatments as it made them feel vulnerable. Also, there are no conclusive means to demonstrate the treatment’s efficacy. Due to inadequate treatments, they avoid seeking help, which aggravated the intensity of the phobia and resulted in the creation of new phobias such as fear of the dark or fear of heights. As claustrophobia is an internal dread, they felt that a therapist cannot assist them. Recent studies also indicated that claustrophobics are hesitant to initiate therapy as most treatment choices require them to address the feared environment in some way making them feel terrified [9]. Existing solutions do not address problems such as lack of knowledge of each individual’s triggers, symptoms, and coping mechanism in the event of a panic. The solution SPACE helps claustrophobics as well as others, to better understand claustrophobia and how it can be tackled. To have a genuine impact, an attempt was made to appeal to the desires of the users while also taking into account social and behavioral variables. Through Aura, a virtual representation of themselves, they can share their thoughts anonymously without having to think about what people may say and feel. The lamp attempts to showcase to the user that they can overcome this phobia which is represented by the shape of the lamp (i.e., cage) by performing a mindful exercise. The intensification of the light represents the user breaking free from the cage and conquering their fear.

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The proposed solution SPACE triggers one’s subconscious mind and gives an innate ability to cope with the fear. However, the current study was limited to a claustrophobic woman in the age group of 40–60 years, and the location selected was only Tier I cities.

41.5 Conclusion Claustrophobia is the fear of enclosed spaces, and it can have a significant impact on job opportunities, career growth, hobbies, and personal and professional relationships. It can also cause feelings of embarrassment and depression, as well as a loss of self-confidence and self-esteem. The proposed solution SPACE seeks to strengthen the users’ minds by targeting their subconscious minds so as to eradicate the fear from its core. It also aims to build a sense of community among the user to nudge them into sharing their thoughts without hesitation. This solution also aims to bridge the gap by making the family aware and empathetic of the situation to live a healthy, stress-free, and independent life without any hindrances. For the expansion of scope, the male audience of 40–60 years along with other age groups can be incorporated as well along with the younger audience to avoid an early onset. Other phobias which have similar parameters can be researched upon to integrate the solution for curing similar issues. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the faculty and staff at NMIMS School of Design for giving me the opportunity to explore and work in the mental health domain. I would also like to thank my mentor for her constant support and guidance on this project. I would like to express immense gratitude to the participants for dedicating their time in the study.

References 1. Dattani, S., Ritchie, H., Roser, M.: Mental Health—Our World in Data. Our World in Data (2021, August). https://ourworldindata.org/mental-health 2. Bandelow, B., Michaelis, S.: Epidemiology of anxiety disorders in the 21st century—PMC. PubMed Central (PMC) 17(3), 327–335 (2015, September). https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS. 2015.17.3/bbandelow 3. Björkman-Burtscher, I.M.: Claustrophobia—empowering the patient. Eur. Radiol. 31 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-021-07889-8 4. Rajput, D., Ola, M., Sharma, V.: Cognitive behaviour based hypnotherapy for panic disorders. Int. J. Soc. Sci. Human. Res. 8(1), 30–37 (2020) 5. Perry, A.: What is Claustrophobia? Total Health (2012, February 23). https://www.totalhealth. co.uk/clinical-experts/ms-andrea-perry/what-claustrophobia 6. El-Kordi, A., Kästner, A., Grube, S., et al.: A single gene defect causing claustrophobia. Transl. Psychiat. 3, e254 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2013.28 7. Vadakkan, C., Siddiqui, W.: Claustrophobia. StatPearls—NCBI Bookshelf (2021, July 29). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542327/

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8. René, G.: Neurobiology of fear and specific phobias. Learn. Mem. 24(9), 462–471 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1101/lm.044115.116 9. Mackenzie, C.S., Reynolds, K., Cairney, J., Streiner, D.L., Sareen, J.: Disorder-specific mental health service use for mood and anxiety disorders: associations with age, sex, and psychiatric comorbidity—PMC. PubMed Central (PMC) 29(3), 234–242 (2011, November 7). https://doi. org/10.1002/da.20911 10. Remes, O., Brayne, C., Linde, R., Lafortune, L.: A systematic review of reviews on the prevalence of anxiety disorders in adult populations. Brain Behav. 6(7) (2016). https://doi.org/10. 1002/brb3.497 11. Kluth, W., Krempels, K.H., Samsel, C.: Automated usability testing for mobile applications. Semantic Scholar. WEBIST (2017, January 1). https://doi.org/10.5220/0004985101490156 12. Dewey, S., Dewey: Claustrophobia during magnetic resonance imaging: cohort study in over 55,000 patients—PubMed. PubMed (2007, November 1). Retrieved 22 Oct. 2022, from https:// pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17969166/ 13. Watts, T.: The Conscious Critical Faculty—How Does It Work? (2021) https://www.selfhypno sis.com/the-conscious-critical-faculty/. 14. Solution Video Link: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1xjb5vckylMkwooddv9liP8Rbi2 MeVGIm?usp=sharing

Chapter 42

Use of New Media to Preserve Cultural Heritage in Museums Deepanshu Verma and Charu Monga

Abstract Cultural heritage is considered as an incredible resource and creates a unique experience for the community and comes out as a source to preserve deeprooted knowledge of our rich history. Due to various reasons, the number of people visiting museums in India and the entire world has declined. This ensures a slow extinction of cultural heritage on a community level. The study is focused on incorporating various new media technologies to provide knowledge and enhance visitor user experience. This study compares the effectiveness of various new media technologies affecting the visitors’ engagement in several types of museums and recreational centers to produce a comprehensive comparison to evaluate these technologies, which helps preserve cultural heritage. It has been reported previously that the use of various techniques such as projection mapping, gesture-based navigation, VR, use of ARbased applications, gamification of artifacts to provide knowledge interactively with the help of projection mapping and motion sensing helped increase visitors’ interest in particular antiques and enhance the experience of the whole museum in general. This paper shares various techniques which increase enthusiasm and provide a better user experience for visitors of different age groups. This directly affected the visitors’ engagement and made museum artifacts more interactive and engaging. It resulted in recognizing various elements and certain data points to identify the areas more prone to increase visitors’ interest.

42.1 Introduction Any form of communication involving the internet can be considered new media. However, the focus is on different realities such as augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and mixed reality (MR). Although these technologies are not new and have been there for a while, their usage is not explored in most sectors such as museums. Museums are a major source of diving deep inside the cultural heritage D. Verma · C. Monga (B) Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_42

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on a community level. Although many people visit museums, there has been a fall in the number of visitors recently. The main reason is COVID-19. COVID-19 [1], a pandemic that changed how we see our world, has drastically changed how society works daily. This is a significant push of humanity toward the concept of the metaverse. In the emerging world of the metaverse, these technologies can increase visitors’ engagement, which would help preserve cultural heritage. First, learning more about museums, these technologies, and how they can be included to make exhibits more engaging is required.

42.1.1 What Are Museums? The concept originated in the eighteenth century after the Industrial Revolution in Britain. British royal family established the British Museum. Since then, people have become more enthusiastic about gaining humanistic and historical knowledge from museums and recreational centers [2]. The traditional method of displaying is with the help of exhibits. However, the digitization of museums using different technologies, such as AR, VR, MR, HoloLens, 3D scanning, point cloud generation, holographic displays, is getting popularized. The main reason behind this is the need to increase visitors’ engagement in preserving cultural heritage.

42.1.2 Types of Museums There exist so many types of museums, all unique in their ways. Some of the varieties are archeology, anthropology, and ethnographic museums, art museums and galleries of complex heritage, tourism and migration museums, historical houses, history and cultural museums, museums without walls, natural history, agricultural, aquariums, zoos, science and technology, sites and memorials, small museums, and some other types of museums. However, there is one thing common in all these: low visitor engagement. This affects the standards of the museum and increases the risk of losing cultural heritage over time. This article showcases the initial research and findings of ground level truth that is currently the case in museums. A statistical report published by Department for Culture, Media and Sport in January 2017 [3] showed a significant decline in no. of visitors. This article explores various ways and new media technologies that museums use worldwide to tackle this problem. This exploration can further be used to analyze based on the gaze data to identify visual cues o further implement this as a design guide for museums. It helps in figuring out ways to develop a framework for the designers to be able to design a museum in such a way as to increase visitors’ engagement using new media tools to preserve the cultural heritage. The lack of visitors to these museums is pushing the existence of cultural heritage toward extinction. This forces the people to forget their roots and cultural heritage.

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There is a dire need to incorporate modern technology to make the artifacts and exhibits more interactive. It sparks excitement in people, which would directly increase visitors’ engagement. This article discusses the various methods and frameworks other museums have used previously to digitize the site and make artifacts more immersive. Furthermore, VR filmmaking in the context of museums is also discussed, including the artistic and cinematic sides. This helped identify elements and areas where we can use these technologies to increase visitor engagement.

42.2 Methods and Frameworks Data of various museums and how they have used new media to enhance viewers’ experience have been collected and tabulated in Table 42.1. This technology is being used worldwide, but the same has not been found in India. Table 42.1. It shows various museums, artifacts, software support, technology, and techniques. This offers a wide variety of technologies and gives a peek at how these technologies have been successfully used.

42.3 Results and Discussion Collected data show how different museums worldwide have used the latest technologies to digitize their respective artifacts. The main reason is to preserve cultural heritage and make history a future-proof solution. The cases mentioned above are further discussed based on the technology used in the succeeding paragraphs.

42.3.1 Various Technologies Among various technologies, those mentioned below are the most used ones. Other than the significant technologies, other technologies are separately discussed in the respective section.

42.3.1.1

AR/VR

AR and VR have been a focus of interest in museums for some time now, let it be to preserve the cultural heritage (CH), create a virtual experience, or increase visitor engagement. Lee et al. [4] studied the immersion of virtual reality and the effect of absorptive experiences such as escapism and aesthetics on immersion. Carrozzino and Bergamasco [21] investigated vital issues like cost, usability, and quality of sensorial expense while using virtual reality techniques. These were categorized as

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Table 42.1 New media technologies used by museums worldwide S. no.

Museums

[4]

Technology

Technique

Application

Artifacts

Geevor Tin VR Mine Cornwall, UK

Structural equation modeling

Samsung Gear VR

Three different stories about the museum

[5]

Archeological Museum of Parma

3D modeling

Photomodeller scanner

The Giulio-Claudio statuary

[6]

Castello del Photogrammetry Buon Consiglio Museum, Trento

3D modeling – and missing part reconstruction

Marble torso and Mars, the Roman god

[7]

Yorkshire museum

VR

Custom-built HMD

Viking VR

Four 3D environments of the Viking era

[8]

Palazzo Poggi Museum

Photogrammetry

3D modeling

Opensource software

Hercules, The Marsili Bust

[9]

Medieval castle Laser, of Haut-Andlau photogrammetry

Point cloud reconstruction

–

The whole castle was used

[10]

Moore Laboratory of Zoology (bird collection)

Photogrammetry

Image processing and 3D reconstruction

Photoshop, lightroom, and reality capture

40 specimens from Moore Laboratory of Zoology

[11]

Randers Cultural Historical Museum

Projection mapping

Storytelling, carving, and gamification

–

The Mejlby stone

[12]

Public exhibition

Revealable volume display

AR tracking

–

–

[13]

Actual heritage Photogrammetry site in Malacca

Image processing and 3D reconstruction

–

Statue of Sultan Hussein

[14]

Magdeburg Cathedral

Photogrammetry

Jigsaw approach to reconstructing broken parts

Zbrush, VR reconstruction software

A funerary monument that was destroyed during World War II,

[15]

Zeng Hou Yi mausoleum

Photogrammetry

Point cloud and model-based modeling

Zbrush, substance painter, 3DS max

Chime-bells of Marquis Yi of Zeng

Photogrammetry

(continued)

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Table 42.1 (continued) S. no.

Museums

Technology

Technique

Application

Artifacts

[16]

Mpu Tantular Museum, Indonesia

Photogrammetry

virtual reality (VR) and leap motion controller

Game engine

Garudeya jewelry

[17]

Itapeva Rocky Shelter

Laser scanners, drones, and photogrammetry

Point cloud data-based modeling

ArcheoVR

–

[18]

Digital virtual museum

HoloLens glasses Spatial mapping Unity3D, 3DS and the Vuforia and gesture max, Vuforia platform recognition, voice recognition

–

[19]

The Regolini Galassi tomb

Laser scanner, photogrammetric data

Point cloud data-based modeling

Unity3D

Grave of a princess in the Sorbo necropolis of Cerveteri

[20]

China Arts and Crafts Master Museum of Nanchang

AR, VR, computer vision

Image and light detection and ranging (LIDAR) 3D reconstruction

Unity3D, 3ds Max and Maya and Vuforia

–

the key issues that prevent the widespread of these technologies for cultural purposes. Lu and Bian [22] reported the distinct categories of VR systems such as desktopbased virtual reality, immersive VR, augmented VR, and distributed VR. A comprehensive comparison was carried out. Furthermore, various design principles for the techniques above virtual exhibits were also discussed. Designers should incorporate these principles to optimize the display format and provide the best user experience for museum visitors.

42.3.1.2

Gaze Data

A study predicting the head movement and head eye motion scan-path motion data was carried out by Zhu et al. [23]; areas of high color contrast were used to predict the saliency maps and scan paths. Another similar study by Lowe et al. [24] visualized and analyzed the head movement and gaze data to identify the moments of spatiotemporal agreement. This allowed the analysis of storytelling in immersive videos. This framework can be used for immersive videos to detect attention guidance.

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3D Scanning

It is a process of collecting real-life data and converting it into a digital replica [25]. The workflow includes a 3D scanner to mark 3D data points in real life and create point cloud data. At this point, cloud data is used for generating mesh. Further, post-processing is required to clean the mesh and separate the 3D model.

42.3.1.4

Photogrammetry

Dall’Asta et al. [5] reported the techniques used for photogrammetry to promote Archeological heritage. A case study of the museum in Parma (Italy) was highlighted. This technology was used to preserve cultural heritage by creating virtual models of different mesh qualities. The various issues regarding photogrammetry were discussed based on the devices used to capture the pictures and the multiple drawbacks of using a smartphone. Similarly, the problems of using photogrammetry while on problematic artifacts were reported by Nicolae et al. [6]. Issues while capturing objects with challenging textures and complex shapes having various properties.

42.3.1.5

Other Technologies

Other than the technologies mentioned, certain different technologies are being used by museums worldwide. One of the significant technologies is a revealable volumetric display. Guefrech et al. [12] reported a new class of mixed reality displays. It allowed the holographic approach of 3D exploration for the public in exhibitions. It allowed visitors to have an immersive experience and helped preserve artifacts because of the display cases. It consisted of transparent panels in front of the artifacts. AR and projection mapping allowed the information to be revealed in front of the visitors with difficulties, such as incorrect gestures and disrupted depth perception cues. This study also discussed the use of mixed reality in different fields such as mediation, public contexts, guided exploration. This is reasonably modern technology, and different versions to produce a 3D display also exist. Some involve a 3D array of LED panels, while others involve a rotating screen on which a projection is mapped. The technique discussed in the study could place a 3D mesh anywhere within the volume of the display cabinet. This study concluded that this type of mixed reality successfully reduced the exploration time due to the virtual contours, dynamic guides, and amplified depth movements. Furthermore, the use of HoloLens with the help of the Unity3D game engine and 3DS max was explored by Tian-Han et al. [18]. Figure 42.1 shows that the technology used most of the time is photogrammetry, followed by VR (360° images) and 3D laser scanners. On the other hand, in Fig. 42.2, point cloud reconstruction to produce a 3D model is the widely used technique to digitize the heritage. Other methods involve model-based 3D reconstruction and image

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processing-based 3D reconstruction. Based on the data available, it was observed that the visitors who experienced most of the immersion and virtual engagement were involved in the cases of 3D model-based digitization of heritage. Moreover, the cases of gamification using projection mapping with AR were also found to be able to bring the exhibit to life via integrated use of new media technologies [11].

Fig. 42.1 Amount of different technologies used

Fig. 42.2 Amount of usage of different techniques

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42.4 Conclusions Museums, a major source of cultural heritage, are facing a major issue of less and less visitors’ engagement with time. There is a need to preserve the heritage. This article discussed the technologies and techniques used worldwide for the same. It was observed that out of many technologies, the most used technology is cloud and model-based 3D reconstruction. Although these technologies are not very new, exploration in this sector is still an infant. Other technologies include revealable volumetric displays, drones photography, 3D laser scanners, Microsoft HoloLens, etc. have their own positive and negative points. These technologies are expensive and require expertise in the corresponding area. Furthermore, in some cases, visitors found the 3D model-based digitization more entertaining and immersive than other techniques such as storytelling and gamification, projection mapping, motion controllers. Most of these techniques are yet to be explored further in the area of digitization of museums to preserve cultural heritage. This article discussed the exploration of various technologies currently being used in museums worldwide. Further studies to analyze which technology is better based on the context are yet to be explored. The current article provides users with brief and concise knowledge of the ground truth of these technologies and how they have been implemented.

References 1. Pourmoradian, S., Farokhi, O.S.: Museum visitors’ interest on virtual tours in COVID-19 situation. J. Environ. Manage. Tourism (2021). https://doi.org/10.14505/jemt.v12.4(52).02 2. Guo, Z.: Research on application of digital interactive display technology in digital museum. In: Proceedings—2020 International Conference on E-Commerce and Internet Technology, ECIT 2020, pp. 54–57 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/ECIT50008.2020.00020 3. Department for Culture, Media and Sport Sponsored Museums Performance Indicators 2015/16-Statistical Release 2 4. Lee, H., Jung, T.H., Tom Dieck, M.C., Chung, N.: Experiencing immersive virtual reality in museums. Inf. Manage. 57, 103229 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2019.103229 5. Dall’Asta, E., Bruno, N., Bigliardi, G., Zerbi, A., Roncella, R.: Photogrammetric techniques for promotion of archaeological heritage: the archaeological museum of parma (Italy). Int. Arch. Photogrammetry Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci. ISPRS Arch. 41, 243–250 (2016). https://doi. org/10.5194/isprsarchives-XLI-B5-243-2016 6. Nicolae, C., Nocerino, E., Menna, F., Remondino, F.: Photogrammetry applied to problematic artefacts. Int. Arch. Photogrammetry Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci. ISPRS Arch. 40, 451–456 (2014). https://doi.org/10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-5-451-2014 7. Schofield, G., Beale, G., Beale, N., Fell, M., Hadley, D., Hook, J., Murphy, D., Richards, J., Thresh, L.: Viking VR: designing a virtual reality experience for a museum. In: DIS 2018— Proceedings of the 2018 Designing Interactive Systems Conference, pp. 805–816 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1145/3196709.3196714 8. Apollonio, F.I., Fantini, F., Garagnani, S., Gaiani, M.: A photogrammetry-based workflow for the accurate 3d construction and visualization of museums assets. Remote Sens. (Basel) 13, 1–40 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13030486 9. Grussenmeyer, P., Landes, T., Voegtle, T., Ringle, K.: Comparison methods of terrestrial laser scanning, photogrammetry and tacheometry data for recording of cultural heritage buildings

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C3. Int. Arch. Photogrammetry Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci. ISPRS Arch. 2008 21st ISPRS International Congress for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 37, 213–218 (2008) Medina, J.J., Maley, J.M., Sannapareddy, S., Medina, N.N., Gilman, C.M., McCormack, J.E.: A rapid and cost-effective pipeline for digitization of museum specimens with 3D photogrammetry. PLoS ONE 15, 1–14 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236417 Basballe, D.A., Halskov, K.: Projections on museum exhibits—engaging visitors in the museum setting. In: ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, pp. 80–87 (2010). https://doi. org/10.1145/1952222.1952240 Ben Guefrech, F., Berthaut, F., Plenacoste, P., Peter, Y., Grisoni, L.: Revealable volume displays: 3D exploration of mixed-reality public exhibitions. In: Proceedings—2021 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces, VR 2021. Di, pp. 31–39 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1109/VR50410.2021.00023 See, Z.S., Santano, D., Sansom, M., Fong, C.H., Thwaites, H.: Tomb of a Sultan: a VR digital heritage approach. In: Proceedings of the 2018 3rd Digital Heritage International Congress, Digital Heritage 2018—Held jointly with the 2018 24th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia, VSMM 2018, pp. 18–21 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/DigitalHe ritage.2018.8810083 Saalfeld, P., Bottcher, C., Klink, F., Preim, B.: VR system for the restoration of broken cultural artifacts on the example of a funerary monument. In: Proceedings—2021 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces, VR 2021, pp. 739–748 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1109/VR50410.2021.00101 Wu, L., Su, W., Ye, S., Yu, R.: Digital museum for traditional culture showcase and interactive experience based on virtual reality. In: 2021 IEEE International Conference on Advances in Electrical Engineering and Computer Applications, AEECA 2021, pp. 218–223 (2021). https:// doi.org/10.1109/AEECA52519.2021.9574421 Sumpeno, S., Achmadianto, Y.R., Zaini, A., Purwitasari, D.: Virtualization and exploration of the Garudeya historical objects using immersive devices. In: 2019 International Conference on Computer Engineering, Network, and Intelligent Multimedia, CENIM 2019—Proceeding (2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/CENIM48368.2019.8973295 orba, E.Z., Montes, A., Almeida, M., Nagamura, M., Lopes, R., Zuffo, M.K.: Archeo VR : Exploring Itapeva’s Archeological Site, pp. 463–464 (2017) Tian-Han, G., Qiao-Yu, T., Shuo, Z.: The virtual museum based on HoloLens and Vuforia. In: Proceedings—2018 4th Annual International Conference on Network and Information Systems for Computers, ICNISC 2018, pp. 382–386 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICNISC. 2018.00084 Pietroni, E., Ray, C., Rufa, C., Pletinckx, D., Van Kampen, I.: Natural interaction in VR environments for cultural heritage and its impact inside museums: the etruscanning project. In: Proceedings of the 2012 18th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia, VSMM 2012: Virtual Systems in the Information Society, pp. 339–346 (2012). https://doi.org/ 10.1109/VSMM.2012.6365943 Tao, Y.: A VR/AR-based display system for arts and crafts museum. In: Proceedings—2020 International Conference on Cyber-Enabled Distributed Computing and Knowledge Discovery, CyberC 2020, pp. 124–129 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/CyberC49757.2020.00029 Carrozzino, M., Bergamasco, M.: Beyond virtual museums: experiencing immersive virtual reality in real museums. J. Cult. Herit. 11, 452–458 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher. 2010.04.001 Lu, W., Bian, X.: Design principles of virtual exhibits in museums based on virtual reality technology. In: DEStech Transactions on Social Science, Education and Human Science, pp. 978–983 (2018). https://doi.org/10.12783/dtssehs/adess2017/17899 Zhu, Y., Zhai, G., Min, X.: The prediction of head and eye movement for 360 degree images. Signal Process Image Commun. 69, 15–25 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.image. 2018.05.010 Löwe, T., Stengel, M., Emmy-Charlotte, F., Grogorick, S., Magnor, M.: Visualization and analysis of head movement and gaze data for immersive video in head-mounted displays. In:

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Chapter 43

Exploration of Visual Cues and Guidelines to Increase Visitors’ Engagement and Immersion in Virtual Museums Deepanshu Verma and Charu Monga Abstract Museums are buildings where a collection of artistic, cultural, historical artifacts, and scientific objects are kept for display which disseminate particular kinds of knowledge. Several ways are being used to digitize these museums. The most commonly used technology is the production of virtual environments using game engines like Unity3D or Unreal Engine. Digitization becomes possible with the help of 3D scanning technologies such as photogrammetry to make 3D assets. But identifying various visual cues and guidelines to enhance narrative and technical immersions is still challenging. This paper explores these parameters based on the data collection for three different case studies. The first case comprises in-person visits where the regular visitors were the prime source of data collection. The second case involves a 360° video of the same museum presented using VR to another set of users. The third case consists of creating a digital version of the museum where people can roam around in a virtual space, interact with artifacts, and attain knowledge about them. While the first case involved collecting information based on the qualitative questionnaire-based surveys and focused group interviews, gaze data to identify the point of interest and visual cues were used in the remaining two cases. Color-coded heat maps were plotted to identify points of interest throughout the test using gaze data. This information set is further analyzed to determine visual cues based on the collected dataset. With the help of this collaborative approach, guidelines to enhance visitors’ immersion and engagement can be created. Using this, it is possible to increase narrative immersion and generate interest in the artifacts, enhancing visitors’ engagement to preserve cultural heritage using new media in virtual museums.

D. Verma · C. Monga (B) Department of Design, IIT Delhi, Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_43

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43.1 Introduction Museums are a great source of cultural heritage and a rich history collection [1]. They provide vast knowledge from a small community to the entire world. Cultural heritage is the legacy received from the past that we are experiencing in the present and then transmitted to our future generation [1], which should be the duty of the current generation to preserve the cultural heritage and allow people to stay connected to their roots. But due to many reasons, the engagement of visitors is declining. Museums worldwide are already using the latest technologies to make artifacts more engaging, but the same has not been seen in Indian museums [2–5]. The lack of digital infrastructure is one of the reasons behind this. Continuing this trend would force us to forget about history and how humanity has evolved in general. There have been various attempts to digitize museum artifacts worldwide. Lee et al. [6] used structural equation modeling for showcasing information and management using Samsung gear VR. The main aim of this study was to investigate absorptive experience on immersion and the intention to visit a museum. Nicolae et al. [7] reported the use of photogrammetry to reconstruct the Marble torso of a Roman god at the Castello del Buon Consiglio Museum. Several difficulties were discussed that caused significant challenges for 3D reconstruction. Similarly, the bust of Hercules at Palazzo Poggi Museum was reconstructed in 3D using laser photogrammetry and some open-source software for stitching the images. Several other museums have used photogrammetry for the same purpose, and a 3D model of artifacts was generated similarly [8–12]. One method to preserve the cultural heritage is digitizing the museums, increasing interest and making visitors more engaged in visiting a museum. As mentioned by Wu et al. [11], when participants experienced the virtual interactivity with HTC Vive, there was a strong sense of immersion. Participants could interact with most of the objects, which provided a new form of virtual immersion and protection of cultural heritage, due to which a further increase in no. of visitors is expected. Hence, a research question arises that is, “What are some modern approaches using which visitors’ engagement can be increased?”. There are many ways to tackle this problem [10, 13, 14], but this article focuses on a design point of view. The focus is to explore visual cues and guidelines to increase visitors’ engagement and immersion. Some of the case studies were considered before approaching the solution to this problem. From the knowledge acquired, the study was divided into three cases. The primary case is data collection based on interviews. The second case study was the museum’s showcase using 360° images and collecting the gaze data based on head movement. The tertiary case includes digitizing some parts of the museum and then using this model to give visitors an immersive experience and get their feedback. Game engines like Unity3D and Unreal Engine were used to produce a digital version of the museum. For the first case, the collection of gaze data is not possible without some expensive apparatus; hence, it was limited to interviews only; for the rest two cases, a similar Gaze data-based approach was considered. This data was then further used to identify different visual cues and focus of interests of

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visitors, which was further used to produce design guidelines to enhance visitors’ experience and engage more people.

43.2 Methodology To tackle this problem, a music-based museum in Bangalore was chosen. Indian Music Experience (IME) is the first music-based museum in India. It was opened in 2019. This museum comprises hi-tech multimedia Exhibit Galleries, a learning center for music education, a Sound Garden, and several performance spaces. To tackle this problem, three different approaches were used. These three cases were taken into consideration based on the latest technological trends versus the current method to visit a museum. Other approaches may exist to solve this problem; hence, a further exploration will be required. The first approach was to interview young individual visitors aged between 18 and 28 were considered. They were asked questions like, “How easy did you find the visual guidelines and navigation?,” “What was your primary motivation to visit this museum?,” Which artifact did you find most interactive?,” Would it be helpful if there was a 3D version available on the website to visit it virtually first?.” Qualitative data was collected based on this approach. The second approach involved using 360° images on the museum’s website. With the help of a mobile VR headset, data was shown to a different group of museum’s visitors aged between 18 and 28. Gaze data based primarily on head movement was recorded as suggested [15–17]. More emphasis was given to exploring various visual cues around the museum and their effectiveness [18, 19]. The last approach involved recreating certain parts of this museum [9, 20]. For this, 3D scanning apps based on AR and photogrammetry were used. One app named 3D Live Scanner, which is available on Android, was used to 3D scan the site segments. This app produced a 3D model using AR tracking based on the camera and the device’s orientation, processing this data to form a 3D mesh. It was then exported as a .OBJ file format. Another 3D scanning option was an app named Widar, and this was used to get a detailed 3D model of some specific artifacts available on site. This app uses several images of the object being 3D scanned. There should be an overlap of 30–40% in images while capturing to help the app build a more refined 3D model [21]. This app allows the model to be exported as a .OBJ file. These 3D scans were then imported into a multi-purpose 3D software, Blender. With the help of 3D scans, new geometry was built, and all the textures were clicked using a smartphone and then projected on the model. This process was used to create a more accurate replica of the museum. The 3D model produced was then exported as a .FBX file format. This model was then imported into the Unity3D game engine. It is used to create a VR Android app where we can roam around the site and view certain artifacts virtually. This was shown to a group of college students who have never visited the museum in person, aged between 18 AND 28. Gaze was then collected based on the subject’s interest. This data was further used to plot heat maps to show how the subjects perceived the information in front of them. It was possible to get

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Fig. 43.1 High end 3D scans of the museum

some visual cues based on visual interest in analyzing this information. The data produced has the potential to create visual design guidelines to enhance engagement in visitors. Figure 43.1 shows a finished 3D model reconstructed based on the low fidelity 3D scans. Other than that, high-fidelity 3D scans were used as-is.

43.3 Results and Discussion For the first case, some visitors’ interviews were taken, and a pie chart was plotted based on the data. Figure 43.2 shows the number of visitors out of 25 who agree with the respective option. The blue sector shows the people who wanted playable instruments. For reference, all the visitors wanted the same hence this sector is taken as the standard for comparison. Only a few people knew about the virtual museum and had no prior knowledge about new media such as AR and VR. People found the site easy to navigate, all the visual cues were well defined, and visitors faced almost no difficulty navigating. Most of the visitors showed interest in visiting a virtual museum before visiting the museum in person. Most of the visitors were disappointed because there were no musical instruments to interact with. However, there was a sound garden that had some unconventional musical instruments. Visitors wanted similar interactive or fully immersed experiences in other museums as well. Although the exhibits were very interactive, the lack of technology was observed, like AR-based artifacts using projection mapping, etc. This collected data showed the potential of AR and VR to enhance visitors’ engagement. On the other hand, case no. 2 focused on the 360° images that visitors were shown using a VR headset. Gaze data was recorded using the free software Gazerecorder.

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Fig. 43.2 User feedback based on the interviews

It used a webcam to register the gaze of a particular user. This data was collected for a set of visitors. A heat map for the same was plotted as shown in Fig. 43.3. From the recorded VR video, four examples of heatmaps are shown. The first image is the museum entrance and other images of different artifacts and posters. The focus was mainly on Headings at eye level. It was observed that the focus of viewers was mostly on something new, for example, an exotic mask, a celebrity dress, etc. Similarly, the gaze data was recorded for the third case, as shown in Fig. 43.4, based on previously reported information [17]. An Android app was developed in Unity3D where anyone can visit this museum in a virtual space. Low-fidelity 3D scans of the site were used to map the area, and some high-fidelity 3D scans were used for specific artifacts. Similarly, some screenshots of recorded gaze data are shown in Fig. 43.4. In the second case, the free movement was impossible, and viewers were limited to roam around as they could only view a certain amount of 360° images. On the other hand, in a virtual museum, as in case 3, viewers could freely roam around and experience the museum in the first person. This allowed them to have a look at artifacts from different angles as well as from various positions. VR locomotion was provided when the viewer looked down more than a defined angle; this helped in controller-less navigation. It was observed that the area of interest is shown as red in gaze data. This implied that viewers either looked at these points for a longer duration or viewed these areas repeatedly. Most affected zones were near the edges of pillars, on big headings, interactive displays, and authentic artifacts like Daler Mehendi’s dress, different types of masks hung on a black wall, and a curved wall decorated using various kinds of

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Fig. 43.3 Gaze data for 360° images are available on the museum’s website

Fig. 43.4 Gaze data for the virtual museum as shown using a VR

instruments, etc. This data provided visual cues regarding where to place navigation marks, headings, artifacts, and exhibit information. A framework to digitize any museum or any artifact in general was produced based on which a 3D replica of the same can be generated to produce a virtual environment or an interactive model. This framework can be used to design virtual libraries which can be used for remote gaze data collection, which can be further used to carry out primary research while designing a new museum or redesigning an existing museum. Currently, no cheap

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and fast framework to carry out the forementioned work exists which increases the demand for the same. Thus, a framework is needed in this context. The steps for the same are as follows. • 3D scans for different details should be captured. • For low-fidelity 3D scans like walls and posters, an AR-based “3D live scanner” app should be used with a detail level of 8 cm to reduce computational time. • For high-fidelity 3D scans, an application named WIDAR based on photogrammetry should be used (considered after trying several options). • The produced models should then be arranged based on the low-fidelity scans, and a high LOD (level of detail) model can be created. • Some minor 3D reconstruction and high-quality textures can be applied once the model is finished. • A prefab using Google Cardboard SDK and Unity3D should be used to create a simple VR app. • Locomotion based on head movement or wireless controllers can be added based on the availability of the hardware. • Certain visual elements for better visual cues and navigation can be added to detected areas based on the gaze data to enhance the visitors’ experience further.

43.4 Conclusions Digitization is one of the approaches to preserving cultural heritage; in this article, specific visual cues were identified. With the help of these cues and experimented data, a framework to digitize any museum or artifact was developed. This framework is not only very cost-effective but also able to produce high-fidelity digital replicas. Some difficulties were faced during the 3D reconstruction and applying high-definition textures. Only those specific processes are time-consuming. Other than that, the whole process is relatively faster and easier. Furthermore, the produced model can be used to visit the site virtually from anywhere. This approach is much better compared to the photospheres available on the website. Viewers can roam around freely. Although the current model is not very realistic, efforts are being made to produce a photorealistic virtual environment.

References 1. Pelegrini, S.: World heritage sites, types and laws. Encyclopedia Archaeol. 2215–2218 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012373962-9.00323-X 2. See, Z.S., Santano, D., Sansom, M., Fong, C.H., Thwaites, H.: Tomb of a Sultan: a VR digital heritage approach. In: Proceedings of the 2018 3rd Digital Heritage International Congress, Digital Heritage 2018—Held jointly with the 2018 24th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia, VSMM 2018, pp. 18–21 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/DigitalHe ritage.2018.8810083

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3. Saalfeld, P., Bottcher, C., Klink, F., Preim, B.: VR system for the restoration of broken cultural artifacts on the example of a funerary monument. In: Proceedings—2021 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces, VR 2021, pp. 739–748 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1109/VR50410.2021.00101 4. Borba, E.Z., Montes, A., Almeida, M., Nagamura, M., Lopes, R., Zuffo, M.K.: Archeo VR : Exploring Itapeva ’ s Archeological Site, pp. 463–464 (2017) 5. Pietroni, E., Ray, C., Rufa, C., Pletinckx, D., van Kampen, I.: Natural interaction in VR environments for cultural heritage and its impact inside museums: the Etruscanning project. In: Proceedings of the 2012 18th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia, VSMM 2012: Virtual Systems in the Information Society, pp. 339–346 (2012). https://doi.org/ 10.1109/VSMM.2012.6365943 6. Lee, H., Jung, T.H., Tom Dieck, M.C., Chung, N.: Experiencing immersive virtual reality in museums. Inf. Manage. 57, 103229 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2019.103229 7. Nicolae, C., Nocerino, E., Menna, F., Remondino, F.: Photogrammetry applied to problematic artefacts. Int. Arch. Photogrammetry Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci. ISPRS Arch. 40, 451–456 (2014). https://doi.org/10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-5-451-2014 8. Apollonio, F.I., Fantini, F., Garagnani, S., Gaiani, M.: A photogrammetry-based workflow for the accurate 3d construction and visualization of museums assets. Remote Sens. (Basel) 13, 1–40 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13030486 9. Grussenmeyer, P., Landes, T., Voegtle, T., Ringle, K.: Comparison methods of terrestrial laser scanning, photogrammetry and tacheometry data for recording of cultural heritage buildings C3—International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences—ISPRS Archives. In: 2008 21st ISPRS International Congress for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, vol. 37, pp. 213–218 (2008) 10. Medina, J.J., Maley, J.M., Sannapareddy, S., Medina, N.N., Gilman, C.M., McCormack, J.E.: A rapid and cost-effective pipeline for digitization of museum specimens with 3D photogrammetry. PLoS ONE 15, 1–14 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236417 11. Wu, L., Su, W., Ye, S., Yu, R.: Digital museum for traditional culture showcase and interactive experience based on virtual reality. In: 2021 IEEE International Conference on Advances in Electrical Engineering and Computer Applications, AEECA 2021, pp 218–223 (2021). https:// doi.org/10.1109/AEECA52519.2021.9574421 12. Sumpeno, S., Achmadianto, Y.R., Zaini, A., Purwitasari, D.: Virtualization and exploration of the Garudeya historical objects using immersive devices. In: 2019 International Conference on Computer Engineering, Network, and Intelligent Multimedia, CENIM 2019—Proceeding (2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/CENIM48368.2019.8973295 13. Guo, Z.: Research on application of digital interactive display technology in digital museum. In: Proceedings—2020 International Conference on E-Commerce and Internet Technology, ECIT 2020, pp. 54–57 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/ECIT50008.2020.00020 14. Franco, S., Giannachi, G.: Moving Spaces Enacting Dance, Performance, and the Digital in the Museum (2021). https://doi.org/10.30687/978-88-6969-534-6 15. Xu, Y., Dong, Y., Wu, J., Sun, Z., Shi, Z., Yu, J., Gao, S.: Gaze prediction in dynamic 360° immersive videos. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 5333–5342 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPR.2018. 00559 16. Bender, S.: Headset attentional synchrony: tracking the gaze of viewers watching narrative virtual reality. Media Pract. Educ. 20, 277–296 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/25741136.2018. 1464743 17. Löwe, T., Stengel, M., Emmy-Charlotte, F., Grogorick, S., Magnor, M.: Visualization and analysis of head movement and gaze data for immersive video in head-mounted displays. In: Proceedings of the Workshop on Eye Tracking and Visualization (ETVIS) 2015, vol. 1, pp. 1–5 (2015) 18. Pillai, J.S., Ismail, A., Charles, H.P.: Grammar of VR storytelling: visual cues. In: ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, pp. 1–4 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1145/3110292.311 0300

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19. Pillai, J.S., Verma, M.: Grammar of VR storytelling: analysis of perceptual cues in VR cinema. In: Proceedings—CVMP 2019: 16th ACM SIGGRAPH European Conference on Visual Media Production (2019). https://doi.org/10.1145/3359998.3369402 20. Georgopoulos, A., Ioannidis, C.: Photogrammetric and surveying methods for the geometric recording of archaeological monuments. In: FIG Working Week, pp. 22–27 (2004) 21. Bugeja, A., Bonanno, M., Garg, L.: 3D scanning in the art & design industry. Mater. Today Proc. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATPR.2022.05.069

Chapter 44

On Defining Interactive Visual Narratives (IVNs) Krishna Kumar Radhakrishnan and Ravi Poovaiah

Abstract To arrive at a definition of Interactive Visual Narratives (IVN), we begin our inquiry by looking at its hypernym, the Visual Narratives. We then proceed to gather a better understanding of the fields that influenced and fuelled the growth of IVNs, the multifarious experiments and implementations that have assisted in intensifying the scope of the field. The comprehensive examination of the varied spectrum of IVNs revealed that they are not a discrete phenomenon that needs isolated review but a specialised field that demands scrutiny as a unified whole. There exists a lacuna in the investigation of what constitutes an IVN. What are its components? How do they function? The definition of an IVN as a conceptual entity having its definitive structure will lead to the examination of its structure. This definition will help answer the questions sighted and further the knowledge on its construction, making IVNs an intelligible phenomenon. This understating will be of immense benefit to practitioners of design, researchers and students. The review of terms used to denote IVNs brought to light that all of the categories mentioned share certain commonalities. With this endeavour, we present a definition of Interactive Visual Narratives and enumerate the characteristic features.

44.1 Introduction An oral or written story can be represented in a multitude of ways as a visual narrative. The designer of the narrative decides the events that need to be conveyed from the story. When the mode of narration becomes interactive, the audience’s role changes to that of a participant, collaborator and co-creator of the narrative. While the field of Interactive Visual Narrative (IVN) is deeply intertwined with design [1], the focus has primarily been technological and has been studied as fragmented research areas. K. K. Radhakrishnan (B) · R. Poovaiah IDC School of Design, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Mumbai, India e-mail: [email protected] R. Poovaiah e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_44

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We postulate that these individual research areas and numerous forms are various manifestations of IVNs. We propose the establishment of IVN as a distinct category of Narrative Studies. As part of this paper, we undertake to define the IVN. To arrive at a definition of IVN, we begin our inquiry by looking at its hypernym, the Visual Narratives. We then proceed to gather an understanding of the fields that influenced and fuelled the growth of IVNs, the multifarious experiments and implementations that have assisted in intensifying the scope of the field.

44.2 The Visual Narratives Visual Narrative, a term proposed by Dehejia [2], represents a visual that is narrative in nature. It is synonymous with visual stories, narrative images and picture stories. The application of visual narrative spreads across various media, cultures and genres. Pimenta [3] provide a comprehensive definition of a Visual Narrative (VN) as: A visual that essentially and explicitly narrates a story; where – Visual signifies—something that can be seen using the human eye. Story signifies—a series of events linked by causality, temporality or sequence or the order of occurrence. The narrative conveys—the act of telling a story or the story itself or the order of presentation. (30) They have identified the characteristic features as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The presence of a story is an essential feature of the VN. The designer constructs the visual with the idea of communicating a story. There is a presence of actors (participants). The VN has a ‘universe’ of its own where the participants exist. The designer can express a VN on any medium. (31)

Pimenta further delineates VNs into three categories: Static Visual Narrative (SVN), where the visual is frozen in time; Dynamic Visual Narrative (DVN), where the visual and narrative unfolds in successive moments; and Interactive Visual Narrative (IVN), where viewer interaction facilitates the progress of the narrative. SVN has been studied as a distinctive field, whereas IVN continues to be studied under its various forms.

44.3 Rational for a New Definition While the characteristic features [3] form a foundation to commence our study, the definition is partial and overlooks several narrative practices found in explorations and mainstream samples of IVN. Hence, we survey the wide gamut of IVNs to

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understand and chronicle its characteristics and arrive at a working definition of IVN. We belief that this exercise would unify the various forms under a single domain, thereby encourage sharing of knowledge between its sub-fields. The new definition would unveil new areas of research to students and professionals dealing with VNs.

44.4 Influencing Fields We trace the early research on story generation back to the 1970s [4]. Interactive Narrative emerged as an independent stream on account of some pioneering academic research during the 1990s. The early influential fields that nourished the advancements have been: (1) artificial intelligence and computational linguistics, (2) cinema and generative computer graphics, (3) computer and video game design and (4)human–computer interaction (HCI). Artificial intelligence (AI) techniques have focused on five areas of Interactive Narratives. Firstly, to computationally generated story content [5]. The second was to model the creative authoring processes by computers that would traditionally be carried out by a human author [6]. The third aspect is the simulation of virtual worlds in which narratives can unfold [7, 8]. The fourth aspect, the development of the plot in reaction to the participants’ actions [9]. The final area of work is computational linguistics [10] that used narrative theories to provide a computational model of the narrative structure. The early attempts at interactive cinema provided the audience multiple choices at specific key decision points in the narrative. The audience could use the seat-mounted joysticks to choose an option. Based on the audience preference, the system displays a pre-recorded scene [11, 12]. Advances in computer technologies and animation enabled the population of virtual worlds with characters. The creators provided these characters with ‘intelligent’ behaviour, and their movement and abilities can be rulebased. Video games, especially Role-Playing Games (RPGs), lends itself to fitting narratives into the game. For most RPGs, the basic plot is predetermined, and there is a goal that the player has to achieve. The narratives are available in the form of mise-enscène, which are presented differently from the game itself. The player manipulates the actions of the character in the game world, leading to an immersion. The human–computer interaction (HCI) discipline attempts to make computer applications more understandable and compelling to its user by applying storytelling. It integrates narrative elements and sees ‘the computer as a stage’ [13]. The neoAristotelian concept of interactive storytelling viewed human–computer interactions as a conversation between agents, where an agent initiates and performs actions.

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44.5 Forms of Interactive Narratives Having looked at the influencing fields that have shaped IVNs, we will now look at the multifarious forms in which they occur. We limit the scope of survey to visually oriented interactive narratives and excluded text-based and audio-based interactive narratives.

44.5.1 Hypermedia Hypermedia is a denotive term representing the amalgamation of a multitude of data types offered by multimedia and the content-based information association facilities of hypertext—narrative text in the form of nodes connected by links. Hyperstories follow hypertext or ‘choose your own adventure’ stories and presents the player with a short linear segment. At the end of each segment, few choice options are provided, each leading to a new linear segment and so forth. They are modelled around the idea of a virtual world that includes the elements of a story. Plot, roles, characters, static and dynamic objects embedded in nested context allow flexible navigation through virtual worlds [14]. Hypermovie is a hyperdocument that consists of movies as its nodes. Its creators have extended the navigational concepts from hypertext documents to integrate dynamic, time-dependent media [15, 16].

44.5.2 Interactive Cinema and TV The early attempts at interactive cinema provided the audience with multiple choices at specific key decision points in the narrative. The system displayed a segment depending on the popular selection of choice. The resultant narrative is one of the several storylines possible. Kinoautomat [11] and ‘I’m Your Man’ [12] follow this structure. A City in Transition: New Orleans, 1983–86 [17] allows the viewer to have a linear viewing experience or do peripheral activities. M-Views [18] provides a context-sensitive, mobile cinematic narrative experience based on participant location. Depending on how the user moves through a geographic area, it sends a location appropriate video message. The media clip, its order and timing is unique, and each person experiences a different story. ShapeShifting [19] provided the foundation for the widespread deployment of digital video-based interactive TV services like BBC Red Button. Logtell interactive TV environment [20] conciliates both plot-based and character-based modelling. Users can interact at various levels in both active and passive modes.

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Netflix’s interactive artefact Black Mirror: Bandersnatch presents the user with a choice point or plays a default decision. It is considered a harbinger of such experiences.

44.5.3 Interactive Drama Laurel [13] conceived interactive drama as a thought experiment involving dramatic stories. It became the basis for practical experiments using AI. Oz Project implemented a virtual world inhabited by autonomous agents which users could interact with [9]. Façade [21] created a one-act interactive drama in which the player played the role of a character. The player could actively and seamlessly converse in natural language and move around the 3D virtual world freely with other characters. In IDtension [22], the narrative allows for interactivity through actions rather than larger units like scenes.

44.5.4 Interactive Fiction Interactive fiction [23] is a term used to describe the genre of computer games that were formerly referred to as text adventures. These quest or goal-based games have a story at its core. The predecessor to adventure games did not have a graphical presentation and was solely text-based. Experts consider King’s Quest series and the Monkey Island series to be the graphical successors of adventure games.

44.5.5 Virtual Storytelling Virtual storytelling [24] tells stories via a virtual reality (VR) medium. In CaveUT 2.0 [25], the user participates by playing the role of Rodolphe or Charles, one of the novel’s characters. They respond to the main character’s actions, thereby influencing the emotional states of other actors, which in turn affects the future events in the narrative and the overall unfolding of the story.

44.5.6 Environmental Storytelling Geist [26], a collaborative augmented reality environment for storytelling, provides a unique historic sightseeing tour at the ‘olde town’ and castle at Heidelberg. Individual story for each user is displayed using location-based service and augmented reality based on user’s movement. The story is based on Propp’s structural model for stories.

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CHESS aims at enriching the museum visit experience. It employs mixed reality and pervasive games techniques like narration and augmented reality. It follows a plot-based approach with predefined content to provide stories tailored for a specific user that is adapt in real-time based on changing parameters during the visit [27]. These projects follow Jenkin’s definition of [20] ‘Environmental Storytelling’, where the spatial design enhances immersion or communicates a fresh perspective on that story.

44.5.7 Story Space In StoryRoom [29], the interactive elements convey a story to the participants when they carry out specific actions and participate in the theatrical experience. The experience varies from story narration to nonlinear experience. oTTomer [30], an interactive adventure story for young children, takes place in a large room. It presents an episode of life on a faraway planet based on users’ location and the story’s timeline. Users interact with the planet and its inhabitants with interactive installations distributed along with the room.

44.5.8 Digital Heritage Narratives Microsoft Research’s Interactive Multimedia Framework for Digital Heritage Narratives [31] enables the amalgamation of multiple media with diverse technologies into a coherent narrative. It supports the coexistence of guided narration and interaction and exploration. The framework creates a compelling narrative using multiple media elements like slideshows, Photosynth, audio, video and gigapixel images, ambient audio, voiceover, overlaid images, videos and clickable annotations.

44.5.9 Video Games and Cyber Drama Murray surveyed how the narrative has been incorporated into the gameplay and heralded a new and evocative form of digital storytelling: Cyberdrama [32]. She viewed video games as a medium closely related to narrative. Many computer games use menu-based communication that allows the player to select a dialogue from a list of canned utterances. The system uses this as the response of the character that the player controls, like in The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind. The system can respond coherently to any choice, at the cost of the fluidity of the narrative, which is blocked until the player makes a selection. The Last Express [33] is a narrative game where players take the role of a character in the game along with AI-powered characters who have their own individual

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agenda. They strive to complete their personal goals and change it based on player intervention. The actions or inactions of the player lead to varied solutions to puzzles and different outcomes of the narrative. Dear Esther [34] is presented as a first-person game with no represented avatar. It focuses on the player’s engagement. Narrative is delivered as audio fragments as they navigate through the virtual world with no other agents. The player has to negotiate narrative’s randomisation, fragmentation and contradiction while playing the game. Many recent mainstream Role-Playing Games (RPG) like Half-Life 2, Journey, Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPG) like World of Warcraft, and video games like LA Noire and Zombies, Run! are considered as narrative games—where the narrative enhances the gameplay.

44.5.9.1

Emergent Narrative

Aylett, who coined the term emergent narrative [35], refers to it as a form of interactive storytelling, where the interaction between intelligent synthetic characters facilitates the narrative’s formation. The author of an emergent narrative system provides a virtual world with characters and specifications of their goals, motivations, actions and emotions—programs the characters instead of defining plot segments. FearNot! [36] has a collection of episodes. The user can interact with one of the characters by providing advice on coping with previous events. The advice delivered influences the character’s behaviour, consequently affecting the story’s development, and the content emerges. Virtual Storyteller [37] is another emergent narrative system based on an enhanced version of FAtiMA, the agent architecture of FearNot!

44.5.9.2

Simulations

Penny [38] remarks that simulated worlds are not just visual representations; they are embodied enactments—staged encounters. This viewpoint means that the game spaces are also dramatic spaces. Simulations like The Sims represent a model of how narrative possibilities get mapped onto a virtual game space [28]. In The Sims, narrative generation is possible either as interpretations of the player’s experience or the planned enactment of a story by the player using characters and props available within the virtual world. Having witnessed a veritable smorgasbord of Interactive Visual Narratives, we will provide a comprehensive definition of the IVN.

44.6 Defining an Interactive Visual Narrative (IVN) The comprehensive examination of the varied spectrum of IVNs in the previous section has revealed that they are not a discrete phenomenon that needs isolated

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review but a specialised field that demands scrutiny as a unified whole. Appreciation of IVN as a unified body of investigation will facilitate the study of these categories using the same set of tools, leading to a cross-pollination of ideas and methodologies. This coalescence opens up the study of IVN structure at the phenomenon as well as the sub-genre level. Researchers can then compare and contrast the results of this. There exists a lacuna in the investigation of what constitutes an IVN. What are its components? How do they function? The definition of an IVN as a conceptual entity having its definitive structure will lead to the examination of its structure. This definition will help answer the questions sighted and further the knowledge on its construction, making IVNs an intelligible phenomenon. This understating will be of immense benefit to designers of IVN, researchers and students. The review of terms used to denote IVNs brought to light that all of the categories mentioned share certain commonalities. Kriegel [39] defines Interactive Narratives as: Computer-based storytelling systems that dynamically respond to the audience and adapt the plot during its presentation. (73). Riedl [40] brings in the aspect of the virtual story world and define it as: A form of digital interactive experience in which users create or influence a dramatic storyline through actions, either by assuming the role of a character in a fictional virtual world, issuing commands to computer-controlled characters, or directly manipulating the fictional world state. (67). Sgouros [41] while trying to provide plot resolution, defines Interactive Stories as: Narratives in which the user takes part as one of the characters and interacts with the rest of the cast to influence dynamically the development of the plot. (239). Rank [42] define Interactive Digital Storytelling while discussing intelligent agents for interactive storytelling as one that, is concerned with the creation of a new media art form that allows for real-time interaction with a developing narrative. (165). Lathem [43] maintains that: Digital storytelling is a combination of traditional, oral narration with different types of multimedia (like image, text, video and music) with communication tools. Spierling [44] views Interactive Digital Storytelling as: A hybrid form of game design and cinematic storytelling for the understanding and creation of future learning and entertainment applications. (1). We are inclined to use the term Interactive Visual Narratives (IVNs) in the same sense as defined by Pimenta [3]; as an expression that signifies and fulfils three requisite conditions: (1) that it is essentially visual in nature, (2) has a narrative aspect to it and (3) involves interaction from the viewer. (40)

The term interactive is used not just to signify the trifling act of pressing the pause, play or stop button, but to denote the interaction between actors in the narrative and the viewer’s interaction in the virtual story world that can lead to changes in the course of the narrative. The term visual emphasises the distinct category that distinguishes it from genres such as text-based interactive narratives like hypertext narratives and

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audio-based interactive narratives, like Hopstory [45]. Narrative is used as a term that does not foreground the ‘telling’, rather signifies the narrative experiences that are not ‘told’ in a traditional way [46]. It also reflects the ‘storymaking’ [47] process. We define Interactive Visual Narrative as a notion that comprises a set of virtual markers in a digital medium, which presents the content (story) through a temporal and spatial visual representation mechanism that the users can interact with to experience, manipulate and co-create a narrative. As Spierling [44] rightly points out, a mere definition—is not sufficient to explain the nature of that specific concept. There are different ways for interaction to influence the story, different levels of content at which the influence can take place, and different distributions of agency between authors, digital agents and users. (6). Hence, the characteristic features of IVNs are enumerated as: 1. 2.

3.

4. 5.

6.

7.

An IVN is a visual that tells a story. The narrative being an essential feature of the IVN. The story may be pre-existing, constructed or contingent. Medium—A narrative unfolds across time and space. The space in an IVN can be a virtual space or an augmented physical space that can have reference markers. IVNs can be viewed entirely through a digital medium with no reference to the physical space, where the virtual space is independent of the surrounding physical space of the participant, like a computer screen, mobile device, a VR headset and specialised multimedia approach, or augmented on to the physical space. Space—IVN has a universe of its own, the virtual story world. The user enters the virtual space (immersion) or a physical space where the story space is augmented. The virtual space facilitates the temporal movement of users across the narrative. Order of space—Depending on the flexibility provided, user may be allowed to revisit a location and witness the same event or a different event unfold. Knowledge of the narrative—In an IVN, the user may or may not have a comprehensive understanding of the narrative. The user might follow a predefined narrative or co-create the narrative. The narrative system may brief the user about the incidents that happened in the past or about other characters in the narrative. They could discover more about other characters and the story world as they navigate the virtual world and interact with it. Intend of IVN—IVNs can have multiple intents to communicate a story or generate a story. The visuals could be part of an existing story, or the user could generate it as they interact with objects and characters within the virtual world. Movement of user—Viewer could be at a fixed location as seen in computer games, or moving along physical space as they explore the area. If the user is a participant in the IVN, the movement becomes immersive as the narrative follows the user. The system can create the perception of motion due to a) the participation of the user, akin to the perception of movement in an SVN, b) the change in visuals when the user plays the role of a passive viewer like in Dynamic Visual Narratives (DVNs), c) immersion in the virtual world of an active user, d) movement in a physical world.

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10.

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13.

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The pace of viewing—In most IVNs, the user controls the speed at which they view the narrative. There could be areas in the narrative where part of the narrative is presented to the user without any control over the pace of narration, like the mise-en-scène. The pace of presentation and its control can influence the contemplation time, or ‘the ruminative viewing’ [3]. Presence of an actor—In IVNs, the presence of an actor is imperative. The actor may or may not interact with other actors in the narrative or the narrative space. The user may or may not play the role of a character in the story. Order of presenting the narrative—If the events are predefined, the author may define the order of events to be seen by the user. An IVN system might decide the sequence and present the events to the viewer based on specific parameters like user action or location. The order of viewing the narrative—The order of events in the narrative could be predefined by the author or could be laid out dynamically by the system based on the user’s actions, or the event itself gets generated as the user co-creates the narrative. If the IVN presents the events like a DVN, the user will have no say in the viewing order. If the user is offered the choice, and based on whether it is accepted, the user may decide the sequence in which they view the events. There could be a predefined starting point for IVNs. They may not necessarily have a single endpoint. It could be multiple predefined endpoints or an infinite possibility of endings. The entirety of viewing the narrative—While it is possible to see the narrative in its entirety, for some narratives, the user most likely will not see the IVN in its entirety (or possible entirety) even if they want to. The agency or the rule engine that renders the narrative path decides it. The ability to control what the user can view is a concept contrary to SVN or DVN, where the author lays out the narrative and can be seen in its entirety if the user prefers to. In IVNs, users might have the choice of skipping some parts of the narrative, like narrative satellites, without hampering the overall flow of the narrative. Control of viewing and contemplation time—In IVNs, the user may or may not be in control of the viewing time. There could be scenes that are pre-decided and recorded. Users will have much less control over the time of unfolding in these scenarios, except for playing our pausing it. When the user interaction leads to events in the narrative, the user can decide the pace of unfolding events. The user might assume different roles—Some IVNs allow the users to be in a spectator or audience mode without interacting with the IVN. This experience is analogous to SVN or DVN where the narrative unfolds without user interaction. The other possibility is where the user interacts with virtual characters and the virtual world, or the user becomes a character in the IVN and influences one or more of the characters in the IVN, actively participating in the narrative to change or influence its course. While active participation increases immersiveness, it is not mandatory for a user to actively participate in the narrative. The motion of visual—In IVNs, the author of the narrative could determine the visuals that the participant can see and provide it as a choice to the participant, or

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the user might be allowed to completely change the view or look around freely by virtue of being in a virtual world. Visual might be in a state of constant motion, like in a DVN, or entirely controlled by the user. 16. Experiencing the narrative—In IVNs, users might experience the same narrative at all times, irrespective of whether they have experienced the narrative before or not, or they might have a different experience when visiting the narrative at another time. All of these characteristic features can be established in an IVN. The spectrum of occurrence of these features might present a variant of IVN that we have not observed from the examples sighted.

44.7 Conclusion There exist a substantial body of work in the area of Interactive Visual Narratives. They have been investigated in isolation by scholars. Through this paper, we establish and acknowledge the common characteristic of its various forms, thereby recognising IVN as a distinct overarching field. Doing so opens up areas of further research and interest in the domain.

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Chapter 45

Graphic-Based Healthcare Information: Evaluation of Suitability Qualities for the Intended Population Rohit Kumar and Shatarupa Thakurta Roy

Abstract The availability of health information in graphic format is quite common across different health issues. Graphic medium poses several advantages, such as being easy to understand, individuals can read and comprehend at their pace, and individuals can mark and review it for future reference. On the other hand, healthcare professionals use graphic health information material to complement verbal discourse. Several rural health missions in India and other organizations use this medium to create awareness on health issues, government-supported schemes, policies, and health guidelines. However, many studies on health communication through graphic mediums raised concerns about the required reading level and suitability of these materials. We reviewed ten maternal healthcare information materials to assess their quality in terms of readability and suitability for the targeted user group. Two assessment tests, Simple Measure of Gobbledygook (SMOG) and Suitability Assessment of Materials (SAM), were performed with the help of community health workers. The assessment scores categorized the health materials under inadequate, adequate, and superior qualities. The evaluation results showed that the majority of the materials were framed at higher reading grades and had inadequate suitability qualities. Commonly observed readability issues were medical jargon, long sentences, blurry text, etc. Commonly observed suitability issues were unclear graphics/illustrations, no caption for images, inconsistent layout, pixelated graphics, inappropriate font sizes, etc. The evaluation result points to a lack of design approach toward framing/developing the healthcare materials. The discussion section touches on key points for consideration to improve the readability and suitability appropriateness. The study concludes with future research objectives to design and develop healthcare information materials for the target user group.

R. Kumar (B) · S. T. Roy Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, India e-mail: [email protected] S. T. Roy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_45

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45.1 Introduction Health information communication using printed and graphic materials hold several advantages. Individuals can control the pace at which they understand the printed information [1]; they can also mark and use it according to their convenience for future reference or review. Many healthcare practitioners use this medium as a teaching tool or to assist key messages taught verbally. Printed materials are common for disseminating information related to government health services, health precautions, disease control, or communicating necessary healthcare guidelines [2]. Printed materials can be produced in many forms (booklets, leaflets, posters, etc.) and can be implemented as an assistance tool for the general public at varying locations such as primary health centers, public places, schools, public libraries, and many more. Printed or graphic health information materials, if not designed properly, can lead to a barrier to understanding health messages. According to a study by Doak, Doak, and Root [3], low-literate individuals have a limited ability to read and understand health-related terms and medical conditions. Their study also points out that health information materials written at a 5th-grade reading level are most appropriate, materials written at a 6th to 8th-grade reading level are appropriate, and higher than 9th grade not appropriate. In addition to the reading grade, other factors, such as design, layout, typography, the inclusion of images, etc., also contribute to the accessibility and use of printed health information. A study by Houts and colleagues concludes that including graphics and pictures in health messages increases the attention span, comprehension, and recall of health information [4]. The availability of information material with an inappropriate design consideration can act as a barrier for individuals with limited or low literacy. Not many health professionals and creators involved in producing printed materials know the readability and suitability issues. As printed materials are commonly available and accessible at many places that may or may not require additional assistance to read and understand, evaluating the readability and suitability qualities of the materials available in the community and rural health centers would provide a better understanding of the underlying problem associated with these materials.

45.1.1 The Readability Factor Associated with Printed Materials The readability of written text refers to the literacy skill required to read and understand a written piece of information, and it can be accessed through several available formulas [5]. Majorities of these formulas consider the length of the sentences, the number of sentences in the paragraph, and the number of multi-syllable words in the sentences to estimate an equivalent literacy skill (in grade) required. Some of the readability measure tools are the Simple Measure of Gobbledygook (SMOG) [6], The Fry Index Measure [7], and The Flesch-Kincaid method [8]. A study on

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the readability grade of health information booklets on smoking using the formulas mentioned above showed a positive correlation (r = 0.93–0.99) between these three different methods [9]. In our study, we used the SMOG method to evaluate the reading grade as it was easy to use with the available grade conversion table. Studies on health information materials in the Indian context are very scarce. We found no studies evaluating the appropriateness of printed/graphic health information content. However, several studies in developed countries have identified that most health information materials are written at higher grades. A study by Wilson [10] on the patients receiving treatment at an oncology center identified that one-fifth (around 22%) of 238 patients had a literacy level below 8th grade, and about half (48%) of 238 patent scored below 60% in cloze reading comprehension. Thus, indicating patient had limited ability to read and needed assistance to access the printed/graphic health materials. Also, only one booklet out of 20 available at the oncology center was of 8th-grade reading level.

45.1.2 Readability Issues and Their Effect Studies have found that low-health literacy individuals do not consider printed materials beneficial [11]. Printed materials with a higher reading grade are challenging to read and interpret and are less effective than materials with low reading grades. A study by Calabro and colleagues reviewed responses of women attending maternal health centers on the effectiveness of printed health information. They concluded that the information written at the lower grade (3rd grade) is more effective than the information written at the higher grade (10th grade) in creating awareness of alcohol avoidance during pregnancy [12]. Wolf and colleagues, in their study, reviewed 40 medication pamphlets that have been approved by “Food and Drug Administration.” Their assessment showed medication pamphlets to have a reading grade of 11th to 12th, and none of the pamphlets met the recommended reading grade of 6th to 8th. They further interviewed and accessed the visiting patients’ literacy level to understand the pamphlets’ use and accessibility [13]. They concluded that patients with higher literacy were more likely to access health information from pamphlets than patients with lower literacy.

45.1.3 Suitability Qualities of Printed Materials Apart from the readability factor, design elements such as layout, typography, cultural inclusiveness, and modeled behavior must be considered during the development phase. Material missing design elements also affect its acceptance [9]. Proper consideration of design elements shows how suitable the materials are. Johansson and colleagues, in their study, developed an evaluation framework for the suitability qualities of printed information material, including language and structure, aesthetics,

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content, and modeled behavior [14]. Doak and colleagues, in their study, proposed Suitability Assessment of Materials (SAM), an assessment tool to evaluate the suitability qualities of printed and graphic health information material. This assessment tool includes six evaluation areas: content organization, readability, images and graphics, information layout and typography, motivation, and cultural orientation [15]. The evaluation results produce three suitability categories: superior, adequate, and not suitable. In a study by Weintraub and colleagues, findings from SAM evaluation of prostate cancer information materials showed that 75.7% of the 28 materials reviewed are of “adequate” quality. However, areas such as graphic inclusion, learning motivation, and modeled behavior still had lower scores than other evaluation areas [16]. We used the SAM tool developed by Doak and colleagues [15] to evaluate the suitability qualities of collected maternal health information materials, as it enabled us to perform numerical comparisons.

45.1.4 Significance Health information materials in print and graphics format are one of the low-cost, easiest, and most useful tools to create awareness of public health issues. However, this format’s materials must be suitable for the intended audiences for a desirable effect. Healthcare awareness is one of the essential areas of nursing care. The use of appropriate tools to evaluate the quality of health information materials is necessary for developing printed materials for health awareness. However, no research in the Indian health context has looked at and evaluated existing public health information materials. This study aims to evaluate the readability and suitability of existing maternal healthcare materials available in print and graphic format and to provide recommendations on improving these materials. Comprehensive knowledge of the material’s quality will assist in further revision to improve its acceptance and accessibility by intended audiences.

45.2 Method 45.2.1 Materials We collected ten printed maternal healthcare material samples (six handbooks, two pamphlets, and three posters) from the primary health center and rural Anganwadi of different states. The collected handbooks were used as an assistance tool to disseminate health information by the community health workers. Fifteen community health workers evaluated the collected materials.

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45.2.2 Assessment Tools Mclaughlin [6] developed SMOG, a readability assessment tool for written health information. We used this tool to estimate the equivalent reading grade required to read/understand the existing health information materials. The assessment was based on the number of multi-syllable words present in the paragraph. For paragraphs containing 30 or more sentences, we considered ten sentences from the top, ten sentences from the middle, and ten from the end to count the number of multisyllable words present in these sentences. We then calculated the square root of the number √ obtained and added 3 to get the reading grade (SMOG reading grade = 3 + multi-syllable words). For paragraphs having less than 30 sentences, both the number of sentences present and multi-syllable word counts were required to estimate the grade. Based on the grade score, we categorized the collected materials into three groups: superior quality (5th grade or below), adequate quality (6th to 8th grade), and not suitable quality (9th grade and above). Doak and colleagues [15] developed the suitability assessment of material (SAM), a quality assessment tool for print and graphic health information materials. The assessment tool consisted of six evaluation areas: content organization, literacy demand, images and graphics, typography, motivation and behavior change, and cultural appropriateness. Further, these areas contain 22 more items (see Table 45.3). These 22 items were rated as 0—for not suitable, 1—for adequate, and 2—for superior or N/A—for not applicable. A summative score was obtained from the SAM items. Further, SAM percentages were evaluated by dividing the summative scores by the total possible score (total SAM item × 2, excluding N/A). Items scoring a SAM percentage of 70 to 100 were rated as superior, 40 to 69 as adequate, and 0 to 39 as not suitable.

45.2.3 Data Analysis Each maternal health material (included in the envelopes) was analyzed and evaluated by 2 or 3 participants; therefore, reading grade and SAM percentage corresponding to each topic were considered from the results of the 2 or 3 participants and were represented as an average score. We rounded the reading grade and SAM percentage to the closest whole number while classifying each health topic into the respective SMOG and SAM table. For example, a value of 8.7 reading score was rounded to 9 (9th grade), and the health topic was categorized as not suitable. Percentage and frequency were used to rate health topics as superior, adequate, and not suitable.

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45.3 Results 45.3.1 Readability Grade of Collected Maternal Health Materials Community health workers (n = 15) reviewed and evaluated the readability grade of the maternal health materials (n = 10) collected from the rural health center and Anganwadi. The reading grade of all the contents combined was 9.2 (ranging from 7 to 9). Contents on a diet during pregnancy and correct postures scored a reading grade of 7. Reviewers reported that these contents were easy to read and understand. Thus, they rated them as “adequate.” Table 45.1 represents readability grades of different health contents. Other contents, such as necessary supplements, tetanus toxoid, and government-supported health schemes, scored a reading grade of 8. Contents that included descriptive text to elaborate the information contents, such as antennal checkups, anemia, do and don’t during pregnancy, antenatal exercises, and contraception, scored a higher reading grade of 9. Participants reported that these contents were readable but challenging to understand and required additional verbal instruction to complement the information in the materials. Thus, they rated them as “not suitable.” Table 45.1 Readability grade of maternal health contents Health content

Average grade Nos. of words Nos. of sentence > Nos. of illustrations 30 words

Antenatal checkups

9

82

0

4

Necessary supplements

8

42

0

2

Tetanus toxoid

8

63

1

3

Anemia

9

54

2

2

Diet during pregnancy

7

32

1

12

Do and don’t during 9 pregnancy

83

3

4

Antenatal exercises

9

78

4

4

Postures

7

68

2

5

STD and contraception

9

76

3

2

Health schemes

8

32

1

5

All content combined

9.2

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Table 45.2 Suitability quality score of maternal health contents Health content

SAM % (X ± SD)

SAM classification

Antenatal checkups

51.3 ± 9.2

Adequate

Necessary supplements

54.6 ± 8.3

Adequate

Tetanus toxoid

66.3 ± 7.6

Adequate

Anemia

38.3 ± 6.3

Not suitable

Diet during pregnancy

43.7 ± 8.1

Adequate

Do and don’t during pregnancy

63.6 ± 9.3

Adequate

Antenatal exercises

36.2 ± 6.3

Not suitable

Postures

37.8 ± 9.6

Not suitable

STD and contraception

39.6 ± 8.4

Not suitable

Health schemes

32.6 ± 7.6

Not suitable

All content combined

46.4 ± 8.0

45.3.2 Suitability Quality Score of Maternal Health Contents Community health workers evaluated the suitability qualities corresponding to each maternal health topic illustrated. The combined SAM percentage of the collected materials was 46.4 (range 38.3–66.3). Half of the collected materials (n = 5) were rated as “not suitable” and had a SAM percentage below 40. Interestingly, materials on antenatal checkups scored higher on the reading grade, but their suitability qualities were of an “adequate” level. In contrast to that, materials on correct postures during pregnancy were readable. Still, they had poor suitability qualities as they had fewer supporting images, technical terms, and less written content to describe key messages. Table 45.2 represents the SAM percentage score of the materials.

45.3.3 Percentage Comparison of SAM Items Table 45.3 represents the SAM percentage score of the 22 specific items under six evaluation areas. Participants (42.6–63.3%) rated items under graphic and layout, such as graphics with purpose, cover page with the relevant illustration, layout, subheading used, and supporting images were of not suitable quality (with SAM score below 40). Participants (48.4%–63.2%) rated items under content and literacy such as typography, scope limited, purpose evident, the caption for illustrations, and self-efficacy, were of adequate quality (with SAM score between 40 and 70). Participants (40–60.2%) rated items under cultural relevance, such as cultural image and cultural match, were not suitable quality (with SAM score below 40).

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Table 45.3 Percentage comparison of SAM items by the reviewers SAM items

Not suitable (%)

Adequate (%)

Suitable (%)

Graphic with purpose

62.3

15.2

20.5

Cover page with graphics

63.3

16.3

21.4

Layout

54.1

33.4

13.5

Subheadings

52.7

23.1

24.2

Illustration relevance

44.5

32.5

24

Context given

42.6

48.3

10.1

Typography

26.1

63.2

11.7 13.5

Scope limited

33.3

54.2

Purpose evident

23.2

52.6

24.2

Caption for illustration

44.3

32.6

24.1

Writing style

42.2

48.4

10.4

Self-efficacy

22.7

36.3

42

Advance organizer

26.1

40.7

34.2 50.1

Reading level

32.1

17.8

Behavior modeled

40

35.6

15.3

Content on behavior

64.4

15.2

20.2

Summary included

46.3

25.2

32.8

Vocabulary

46.1

40.1

13.8

Table explained

47.3

30.2

43.5

Interaction used

52.6

38.1

10.3

Cultural match

60.1

20.2

20.7

Culture relevance images

62.2

8.4

30.4

However, some of the materials included folk art (traditional art and patterns) only on the cover page of the printed materials.

45.4 Discussions The majority of the Indian population lives in the rural region and has low literacy skills; however, healthcare organizations continue to produce materials that are not suitable for the intended audiences. Current healthcare strategies, for example, the patient and family-centered model, focus on both patient and family members as they are also part of the decision-making [17]. However, this model considers that patients and family members can assess complex health messages, which is not the case. Healthcare organizations should ensure that the health education materials are explicit and appropriate for the targeted audiences.

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This study examined ten maternal health materials collected from the rural health centers and the Anganwadi of different states. Evaluation results of our study showed (a) the reading grade of all the material combined was above 9th grade and were rated as not suitable for low-literate individual, (b) the suitability qualities of the material was 51.6% and were rated as adequate; however, these materials could be redesigned to improve suitability by adding a modeled behavior, summary statement, inclusion of interaction questions and more illustration and graphics to support the written health messages. Our evaluation results on the readability factor, which is a higher reading grade, are congruent with other studies from developed countries [18–20]. In our study, most of the materials were written at higher grades than the recommended (6th to 8th grade). If low reading grade is the recommended level for print and graphic mediums, then why were most of the materials framed at a higher grade? In a study by Gail and Pright, they concluded three regions that affect the readability quality, (a) when the creator faces multiple targets to fulfill, it becomes difficult to create new materials with new content; hence creator may revise the material by adding more text to the existing one to improve accuracy and legal defensibility, (b) when the creator has no clear vision of the content and respective audience and consider the general public as their audience, (c) when the creator does not perform a pilot test to get constructive feedback to improve the content and format of the materials. Improving the readability grade of the collected materials is suggested. These materials require pilot testing before finalizing the information content. For example, a study by Trifiletti and colleagues on formative evaluation showed methods to improve written material with the help of pilot testing. Their result showed comprehension of the information increased from 41 to 64% after revising the written text messages [21]. Designing health information materials that aim to increase knowledge and behavior change requires appropriate framing of the message so that they are relevant, clear, and easy to read for the targeted audience. Some of the commonly observed issues associated with the existing materials were medical jargon, use of allcaps sentences, use of long sentences, and use of figures/graphics without captions. Figure 45.1 represents some of the observed issues from the collected guidebook. The appropriateness and readability issues can be improved through: • Provide important information first: Since many people read the first few sentences, it is important to provide information that matters the most to the viewer. The information should include what action needs to be performed. • Careful choice of short and easy sentences: The sentence framing should consist of easily pronounced words with short sentences or paragraphs. • Use of steps and bullet points: Information presented in a list and bullet format can assist the reader through lengthy or complex information. For example- A list of food diets or health precautions that one should take before/after surgery can be presented in a list or bullet points. • Less use of medical jargon: Information materials should present commonly used words with less or no medical jargon that the average user/reader can relate to.

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Fig. 45.1 Images showing readability and suitability issues. Source Sahiya Guidebook, from Jharkhand and Odisha

• Avoid statistics and numbers: Too much use of numbers, percentages, and data may complicate the critical information. Hence, the material should have less statistical data. • Careful choice of font style and sizes: Sarif font can be used for body text, as it is easier to read than Sans. All caps for long sentences must be avoided. Fancy or script fonts can also reduce readability due to inconsistent letter strokes. Also, different font sizes can be used to distinguish headings, sub-headings, and body text. The suitability qualities of the collected materials were either adequate or not suitable. The collected materials lack qualities like modeled behavior, summarized statements, and reader interactions. Other studies on written material and its suitability qualities also identified inadequate qualities in these SAM items [22]. Any health information material aims to bring awareness and behavior change [23]. Including summarized statements at the end, interactive questions and answers, and modeled behavior are some of the contributing design elements to enhance behavior change. Summarized statements and the inclusion of images may help in the recall of critical messages and may affect behavior change [24]. In a study involving a quasi-experimental design to evaluate a cardiac information booklet with a few sets of questions on meditation. The study found that the individual who received the booklet with adjunct questions could recall health information compared to those who received a plain text booklet.

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Some commonly observed suitability issues of the reviewed materials were blurry or unclear images, use of graphics without captions, inconsistent layout, unrecognizable graphics, and low aesthetics. Such suitability issues can be improved through consideration of: • Properly defined layout for image and text presentation: A well-defined layout can guide the reader’s eyes through the presented information in a more desirable way. Once the user gets familiar with the layout, it becomes easier for the reader to understand rest of the presented information. • Use of relative scale for images: Multiple images, if presented consecutively, should be such that a viewer must get a desired sense of scale. • Use of good quality visuals: The graphics and illustrations used to support the text must be clear, unpixelated, aesthetically pleasing, represent the true color, be of suitable contrast, and have good visual composition. Seeking the help of a professional designer/artist may help in getting the required suitability qualities. • Use of cover page to represent contents: A cover page should provide the initial introduction and list of content included, before presenting the actual message, such that a viewer can get a sense of what to expect. • Use of caption and proper spacing: Any illustrations or graphics included must be complemented with captions to assist and guide the viewer on what the graphic represents/means. Also, two consecutive images should be separated with proper white or negative space to create a sense of distinction. • Use of summarized comments and interactive questions: The information presented can be summarized into key points to give a brief revision to the viewer. And the use of interactive questions helps the viewer recall the important message.

45.4.1 Future Research Objectives The readability and suitability analysis pointed out several problems related to graphic design elements and the health message appropriateness. These issues point to lack of a systematic design approach for preparing the existing graphic health materials. The future research objective to continue this study are as follows: • To focus on the intended user group and identify the critical health issues. • To assess the literacy/education level of the user group. • To frame concepts and healthcare messages based on the literacy/knowledge of the targeted user group. • To develop and draft healthcare information with the help of a professional graphic designer and test it with real users to get formative feedback. • Develop/frame strategies to communicate the designed healthcare information (any additional assistance through audio/verbal/motion graphics, etc.). • To develop tailored evaluation tools to assess the appropriateness of the designed healthcare information materials.

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• To publish and distribute at a small scale to evaluate material appropriateness and audience satisfaction.

45.4.2 Conclusion This study reviewed ten maternal healthcare materials collected from rural health centers and Anganwadis of Jharkhand and Odissa to assess readability and suitability for the targeted population. The evaluation result showed that the majority of the materials were framed at high reading grades, and their suitability is of inadequate quality. The findings of this study point to several graphic design flaws and health message inappropriateness. It indicates that no consideration had been given to appropriate health message design research. The discussion section provides how the observed issues of readability, suitability, and appropriateness can be improved. To design an effective healthcare information material, a few future research objectives are provided to take this study further.

References 1. Clark, L., Redman, R.W.: Mexican immigrant mothers’ expectations for children’s health services. West. J. Nurs. Res. 29(6), 670–690 (2007) 2. Gal, I., Prigat, A.: Why organizations continue to create patient information leaflets with readability and usability problems: an exploratory study. Health Educ. Res. 20(4), 485–493 (2005) 3. Doak, C.C., Doak, L.G., Jane, H.R.: Teaching patients with low literacy skills. AJN Am. J. Nurs. 96, 12 (1996) 4. Houts, P.S., Doak, C.C., Doak, L.G., Loscalzo, M.J.: The role of pictures in improving health communication: a review of research on attention, comprehension, recall, and adherence. Patient Educ. Couns. 61(2), 173–190 (2006) 5. Redman, N.: Food Safety: A Reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO (2007) 6. McLaughlin, G.H.: SMOG grading-a new readability formula. J. Read. 12(8), 639–646 (1969) 7. Fry, E.: Fry’s readability graph: clarifications, validity, and extension to level 17. J. Read. 21(3), 242–252 (1977) 8. Flesch, R.: Flesch-Kincaid readability test. 26(3) (2007) 9. Meade, C.D., Smith, C.F.: Readability formulas: cautions and criteria. Patient Educ. Couns. 17(2), 153–158 (1991) 10. Boyle, P.A., Yu, L., Wilson, R.S., Segawa, E., Buchman, A.S., Bennett, D.A.: Cognitive decline impairs financial and health literacy among community-based older persons without dementia. Psychol. Aging 28(3), 614 (2013) 11. French, K.S., Larrabee, J.H.: Relationships among educational material readability, client literacy, perceived beneficence, and perceived quality. J. Nurs. Care Qual. 13(6), 68–82 (1999) 12. Calabro, K., Taylor, W.C., Kapadia, A.: Pregnancy, alcohol use and the effectiveness of written health education materials. Patient Educ. Couns. 29(3), 301–309 (1996) 13. Wolf, G.L., Arenson, R.L., Cross, A.P.: A prospective trial of ionic vs nonionic contrast agents in routine clinical practice: comparison of adverse effects. Am. J. Roentgenol. 152(5), 939–944 (1989)

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14. Lindquist, A., Johansson, P., Petersson, G., Saveman, B.I., Nilsson, G.: The use of the Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) among personnel and students in health care: a review. J. Med. Internet Res. 10(4), e1038 (2008) 15. Doak, C., Doak, L., Root, J.: SAM: Suitability Assessment of Materials for evaluation of health-related information for adults. In: Teach Patients with Low Lit Ski, pp. 1–2 (1996) 16. Weintraub, D., Maliski, S.L., Fink, A., Choe, S., Litwin, M.S.: Suitability of prostate cancer education materials: applying a standardized assessment tool to currently available materials. Patient Educ. Couns. 55(2), 275–280 (2004) 17. Yin, H.S., Sanders, L.M., Rothman, R.L., Mendelsohn, A.L., Dreyer, B.P., White, R.O., Perrin, E.M., et al.: Assessment of health literacy and numeracy among Spanish-Speaking parents of young children: validation of the Spanish Parental Health Literacy Activities Test (PHLAT Spanish). Acad. Pediatr. 12(1), 68–74 (2012) 18. Cotugna, N., Vickery, C.E., Carpenter-Haefele, K.M.: Evaluation of literacy level of patient education pages in health-related journals. J. Community Health 30(3), 213–219 (2005) 19. Freda, M.C.: Perinatal Patient Education: A Practical Guide with Education Handouts for Patients. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins (2002) 20. Freda, M.C.: Nursing’s contribution to the literature on preterm labor and birth. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonatal. Nurs. 32(5), 659–667 (2003) 21. Trifiletti, L.B., Shields, W.C., McDonald, E.M., Walker, A.R., Gielen, A.C.: Development of injury prevention materials for people with low literacy skills. Patient Educ. Couns. 64(1–3), 119–127 (2006) 22. Naunheim, K.S., Wood, D.E., Krasna, M.J., DeCamp Jr, M.M., Ginsburg, M.E., McKenna Jr, R.J., et al., National Emphysema Treatment Trial Research Group: Predictors of operative mortality and cardiopulmonary morbidity in the National Emphysema Treatment Trial. J. Thoracic Cardiovasc. Surg. 131(1), 43–53 (2006) 23. Johansson, K., Salanterä, S., Katajisto, J., Leino-Kilpi, H.: Written orthopedic patient education materials from the point of view of empowerment by education. Patient Educ. Couns. 52(2), 175–181 (2004) 24. Webber, D., Higgins, L., Baker, V.: Enhancing recall of information from a patient education booklet: a trial using cardiomyopathy patients. Patient Educ. Couns. 44(3), 263–270 (2001)

Chapter 46

Exploring New Idioms for Books as Interactive Experiences in Digital Domain Ankita Roy

and Mahima Nareshchandra Dahekar

Abstract Books—traditional repositories of knowledge—have been evolving continuously since time immemorial. From clay tablets to hand-painted illuminated manuscripts, and finally, after the Chinese and Gutenberg’s printing technology, the idea of mass production of printed volumes has changed immensely, and new technologies have made variations beyond imagination. The introduction of eBooks has further initiated a drastic shift toward the digital platform. Although books in electronic formats have widely been adopted by a diverse range of readers, their overall interactivity has often been debated. Have digital reading experiences reached their zenith? Or are there new unexplored avenues for making them more interactive? This research investigates the many possibilities that can be integrated into a digital reading experience. Focusing on the Ancient Indian script—Brahmi as a reference model, this study aims to investigate the many aspects affecting the translation of traditional text-heavy and fewer image-based subjects into immersive digital experiences. The design processes adopted, rationale behind decision-making, content structuring & aesthetical fine-tuning, and the development of the final design solution reveal crucial leads for creating effective digital reading and learning experiences. This paper also evaluates numerous ways to add 3D technology interactions for an immersive user experience. Also, making use of 3D technology adds an eye-catching visual experience for the readers. The effectiveness of adding 3D virtual museums and virtual learning techniques to enhance digital reading and learning experiences has also been studied during the research. Feedback received from real-time users has conclusively validated the efficacy of the digital experience achieved through its novel approaches, pioneering use of 3D modeling techniques, and layering of multisensory elements. The application of these learnings can be effectively used for transforming traditional knowledge into interactive digital platform learning experiences for enhanced comprehension. A. Roy (B) · M. N. Dahekar Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] M. N. Dahekar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_46

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46.1 Introduction Books, as we know today, have traditionally been known as repositories of documented knowledge [1], starting from the terracotta tablets, seals, manuscripts, codices, and to modern paperbacks. Since the very beginning, graphic elements have been incorporated into books not only to engage the reader more effectively but also to enhance the overall reading experience [2]. The nearly linear advent of book design that matured over centuries was subjected to a bolt from the blue with the advent of the digital age. Digital tools and techniques opened infinite possibilities for book design [3]. Innovations were accomplished by putting together the graphic elements in an engaging and interactive way for the overall enhancement of the narrative, thereby facilitating an increased transfer of knowledge. Starting with the Internet, a host of unstoppable technological intrusions have transformed books forever, bringing in new formats—from eBooks to audiobooks. These changes have also brought in a paradigm shift in the role of Graphic Design, bringing in a plethora of new ideas hinged on enhancing the human experience. In recent years, 3D technology has also been used to enhance the experience of the digital learning [4]. The adoption of 3D has proven to be much more effective in better learning [5] when compared to 2D imagery that often misses out on the finer intricacies. Various methods of presenting and learning new materials have been employed in this age of rapid advancement of 3D learning, virtual reality and augmented reality, and visual technology. The electronic online environment provides a much richer set of resources to a much wider audience and to remove the barriers of space and time which applied to traditional, print-based collections [6]. Is it possible to employ 3D technology to create interactive reading experiences in the digital domain? Can we take out the inherent challenges of reading on a screen by redefining the user interface? Can the screen’s digital DNA be fine-tuned to enhance the whole reading experience? Digital learning technology has been termed the “next generation” of communication technology for engaging and encouraging people [7]. Research from over the world indicates that teaching with 3D technologies is effective, so can we apply the same for translating book knowledge into digital reading and learning experiences? This paper undertakes the novel aspect of making use of the latest 3D technologies to translate traditional—historical, archaeological, epigraphical, and typographical—knowledge from books into an interactive digital platform. The paper focuses on this aspect by working on creating a digital reading and learning experience for the book, “Brahmi—Rediscovering the lost script.” Brahmi, India’s most ancient script by virtue of its time, depth, and influence, describes our country’s cultural and intellectual standing in ancient times. It has the earliest post-Indus corpus of texts and some of India’s earliest historical inscriptions. The proposed UI design solution for digitizing the book aims to provide an interactive digital learning and reading experience that will not only create digital documentation of our Indian heritage but also pique public interest.

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46.2 Literature Review The most effective methods for displaying text have been established throughout a decade of book publication. Over the years, books have evolved into an incredible reading experience, from the size and shape of the books to the composed pages. Not only is it cost-effective, but it also holds books of these weights, sizes, and forms that create a great reading experience. More than that, readers have learnt routines and patterns that help with quick page-turning or bookmarking, scanning, and textskimming [8]. The majority of readers seek to adapt their reading habits to modern technology, making use of immersive and interactive reading experiences. Due to its ability to revise a reader’s reading experience, products such as the iPad and Kindle have developed a reading culture [9]. It is cutting-edge and digital, and because of this, readers can control settings that modify their reading experience to suit their preferences. Are readers prepared for the tremendous possibilities for new features and innovations? Software and product designers have consulted user experience experts for interface guidance for products, websites, and mobile applications. It is well-recognized that people are more likely to purchase a device, place an online order for a product, or view advertisements across several screens on websites or applications when they can easily customize or interact during reading or learning. When creating a digital learning application, it is important to follow UI Design concepts and rules effectively, as it helps create a great user experience for a product or platform [10]. Users can be made to understand complex subjects by using interactive solutions. A simple uncluttered user interface and interaction design will undoubtedly encourage reading and encourage readers to explore more reading materials [11]. Although a broad concept, user interface and experience can be customized to meet the users’ expectations. It will provide users with the ideal solution as they will be able to decide what exactly they want. It helps us in identifying and proving or disproving our assumptions, as well as identifying the needs, goals, and mental models of our target audience [12]. Diverse, immersive technology concepts can be integrated while developing an interactive product or platform, such as integrating 3D representations of the content to provide readers and learners with a perspective of what they are reading and to engage them in the whole experience of digital reading. The 3D interface allows improved spatial memory [13]. In another research experiment, the results seem to confirm an improvement in performance with the 3D realistic display. The results related to the correct location of the alphanumeric character in the depth level reveal that this played a role in increasing performance [14]. To create a better digital reading user experience, this study proposes user-centered research to gauge their expectations. The implementation is based on an integrated approach to these technologies: 3D models of Brahmi Script Characters and a walkthrough in a Brahmi museum to engage the readers with interactive technology while creating an eye-catching user interface. It is valuable to visit a museum or

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art gallery because the learning environment is rich and dense, and more opportunities for fresh ways of thinking can occur. Therefore, it is necessary to promote teaching and learning arts in museums even though it is always limited by space and time [15]. Nowadays, museums are focusing more on digital technologies for wider reach, preservation, and documentation purposes. In 2011, Google Inc. released its product, Google Art Project, in 2013, the BBC offered users its Painting project about online British paintings. In October 2013, FINNA was published online, it provides access to the collections and services of archives, libraries, and museums in Finland. All the above offer the possibility of digital arts and heritage to users [15]. For the purpose of this research, 3D models have been created using high-resolution texturing, accurate lighting placement, and comprehensive polygon modeling for high precision, thereby resulting in 3D models that appear authentic and genuine. Similarly, the user experience for the interactive web platform has been designed to make reading and learning as seamless as possible for the users. A host of elements have also been added to the web platform for increased user interaction.

46.3 Methodology To conduct the research, we first started with primary research of understanding the script and taking a closer look at the Book—Brahmi Rediscovering the Lost Script. For the study, a survey was conducted with 300 people (from the age of 16–65 years) to find out their understanding of India’s most ancient script, Brahmi, for achieving the optimum results. The survey was conducted at the author’s university resulting in the majority (95%) of the responses being received from young individuals who are currently students from design and engineering backgrounds. The majority of users were found to have no prior understanding of Brahmi script or what it looked like (as shown in Fig. 46.1).

Fig. 46.1 Statistics of participants: what do you understand by the word “Brahmi?”

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The users’ preferences were taken into consideration to pan out the key elements in developing the learning module. After finalizing the key elements, different approaches were designed to help users learn the origins and history of Brahmi as well as how to write each Brahmi character. Essentially, new technology provides narrative with greater potential for reader immersion and reader control [16]. The following steps were adopted to accomplish the objectives.

46.3.1 3D Modeling To approach the 3D modeling feature, a simpler approach of low-poly modeling was chosen to implement the proposed idea. The implemented approach differs from photogrammetry, which is fully automated and uses a variety of black-box tools, but the simpler approach applied here is manual and thus gives higher control of output accuracy over the 3D models. At first, each Brahmi character and a museum view were illustrated in a 2D flat view to capture in-depth details for clear reference in 3D modeling making use of firsthand photographs clicked in various sites and museums. Then, using a 3D graphics software called Autodesk Maya, the models were built. The gathered visuals were used as a guide for achieving accuracy. Initially, primitive shapes such as squares, spheres, and lines were used for the basic structures. The initial 3D models were built by tweaking the shapes, terrain, materials, and lighting using convertible polygons. The 3D models were then compared to reference sketches and 2D illustrations to ensure accuracy. Finally, textures were applied to the final rendering of the 3D models to achieve realism. Figure 46.2 shows the process for 3D modeling in a block diagram. Figure 46.3 presents the 3D model of the Brahmi character “sa” and the museum.

Fig. 46.2 Block diagram of the 3D modeling process

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Fig. 46.3 a Different view of the Brahmi character “sa”, b Museum’s 3D model using Autodesk Maya. @ Sketchfab, Richard’s Art Gallery by Shinymagic

46.3.2 Digital Archive Design and Interactions The aim was to create a digital archive to preserve the 3D models after successfully creating the models of the museum section and Brahmi characters. To serve as a digital archive, a website was designed for a wider reach. A questionnaire was circulated among three hundred people aged between 16 and 65 to understand their expectations regarding the application educating them on Brahmi. Table 46.1 shows the user preference for visuals to learn about the Brahmi script. After finalizing the key elements in learning about the script, different approaches were designed to help users learn the origins of Brahmi and how to write each Brahmi character. Figure 46.4 shows the process of the design approach in a block diagram. The user research studies revealed that when defining and operationalizing each of these aspects, features such as effective navigation, including the availability of prominent and consistent menu/navigation bars, navigation aids (e.g., visible links), and easy access to pages (easy pathways/user flow and limited clicks) are needed. An engaging, interactive web platform for the target audience requires (1) images with text, (2) multimedia/video content, (3) appropriate color, font, and size of text, (4) fantastic visual layout, (5) interactive language learning, 96) effective content on the subject, and (7) narrative for an enhanced immersive experience. Immersion is the feeling of being inside the story. Although the reader of a book often has the feeling of being immersed in the story, new technology offers additional potential as the reader could explore a virtual world, perhaps from the viewpoint of one of the characters in the story [17]. For the user interface design, many design elements Table 46.1 Type of visuals to use for learning about the Brahmi script based on user preference (300 participants)

Types of visuals

User preference

% User preference

Images

133

44.3

Text Images and Text Video and Animation Museum

15 149 3 276

5 49.7 0.9 92.6

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Fig. 46.4 Block diagram of the design process

were explored. The initial device approach for the user interface was an android mobile phone (360 × 640 pixels). The user interface for a mobile application was designed based on observational and primary research analysis. The web UI design was finalized after the results were compared to the existing non-digital/book design (discussed in Sect. 46.6—Conclusion). Figure 46.5 illustrates the user flow for a mobile application user interface design, and Fig. 46.6 illustrates different wireframe layout screens designed during the design process. Digital learning could be divided into four parts: (1) digital teaching materials, (2) digital tools, (3) digital delivery, and (4) autonomous learning. Digital delivery: It emphasizes that learners’ learning activity could be delivered through the Internet, e.g., Intranet, Internet, and satellite broadcasting, using digital tools, such as desktop computers, notebook computers, tablet computers, and smartphones [18]. According to the survey and study, it was found that designing for a web-based platform, such as a website, is preferable to designing for a mobile application. A total of 300 people were questioned about their expectations and platform preferences. Based on user

Fig. 46.5 Illustration of the user flow for the mobile application

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Fig. 46.6 Illustration of the wireframe layout for the mobile application

Table 46.2 Which platform to use for learning about the Brahmi script based on user preference (300 participants) Platform

Mobile application

Website

Books

All of them

None of them

User preference

80

89

76

115

17

% User preference

26.7

29.7

25.3

38.3

5.7

preference, the website frame size of 1920 × 1080 pixels was chosen as the representative web-based platform. A discussion was also conducted with the designer who worked on the subject’s non-digital/book design to get an understanding of the concept and idea. Table 46.2 shows that for learning about the Brahmi script, 29.7% of respondents preferred a website platform, 26.7% preferred a mobile application, and 25.3% preferred a book, respectively.

46.4 Final Design After finalizing the web-based platform for learning about the Brahmi script, the user interface for testing was designed using various visual languages. Figure 46.7 shows the selected fonts, colors, graphic elements, and illustrations with their unique characteristics, which make the user interface more readable, enjoyable, and appealing. In the final design, an interactive website with a 3D museum is envisaged. For the user interface, Cormorant Infant and Montserrat fonts were used because they are crisp, clear and have good readability and legibility factors. Font sizes from 16 to 88 pixels were used because they are ideal for reading on a website. The color palette and graphic elements were selected to reflect an earthy and ancient aesthetic. According to

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Fig. 46.7 a Readable font used in the UI design, b color palette that complement the theme of Brahmi, c graphic elements that complement the theme of Brahmi, d illustrations used as background visuals in UI @Anato Finnstark (Illustrator) and Robert Smith (MutualArt)

the user’s preferences, the frame size for the interface was set to 1920 × 1080 pixels. The primary and user-based study validated that digital learning is the most suitable today. Users also preferred to visit a museum to study Brahmi inscriptions from King Ashoka’s reign, which they found more interesting and educational. Figures 46.8, 46.9, 46.10 and 46.11 show a frame of the final user interface design which includes micro-interactions and animations. Table 46.3 explains one of the user’s consolidations for the digital learning approach. The user gave the learning experience 8 points, 9 points for aesthetically pleasing, and 10 points for an entertaining, educational approach out of 10 points. In terms of fun, learning, and aesthetics, the user regarded the user interface design to be more acceptable. Although digital learning could not completely replace traditional learning, it could achieve the best teaching effect and make learners glad to learn by reinforcing traditional teaching with digital learning and comprehensively practicing both methods in teaching activities [19].

Fig. 46.8 a User interface for the home page, b user interface for the menu page

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Fig. 46.9 a User interface for learning the script, b user interface for learning to trace a character

Fig. 46.10 a User interface for explore page, b user interface for the museum interaction

Fig. 46.11 a User interface for the understand page, b user interface for the interactive reading page

46.5 Discussion The research aimed to use digital learning techniques for designing interactive experiences and user interfaces for an effective learning experience and added comprehension. While documentation and preservation could be another area when looked from the perspectives of a specific subject area like in this reference model of Ancient Brahmi script—it allows us to document the invaluable heritage and present the topic more engagingly. So the whole project is very context-specific, and one may make

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Table 46.3 User’s consolidation for the user interface of the digital archive website Parameters

Points for the digital solution Comment

Digital Learning Experience 8/10

“I loved the Understand section and the section where we learn the alphabet. It was a fun way to learn to write and learn each alphabet. I will learn the script and try to write my name.”

Aesthetically Pleasing

9/10

“Aesthetically, it’s really good. It gives an ancient feeling.”

Interactive & Entertaining

9/10

“The museum section was a fun interaction. It gave me an overview of what it would have been like if I had visited an in-person museum.“

good use of these digital technologies along with 3D models to represent any relatively complex subject and make the entire learning easier. In this research, although the factual contents are largely restricted to archaeological reports, epigraphical stampings, and books, which preserve only 2D perspectives, all of them are less user interactive. As the new digital user preferences are changing, a whole new approach of translating the existing wisdom into interactive systems with 3D has been adopted. The proposed design solution proves to be better in terms of learning efficacy both in terms of comprehensibility and transfer of knowledge and may help demonstrate any complex subject more effectively. Similarly, other heritage preservation concepts, and complex subjects could also make use of these technologies to provide a safe and cost-effective way for anyone, anywhere, to immerse and learn immensely.

46.6 Conclusion Digital learning is a cutting-edge technology of the twenty-first century. The study shows that when it comes to human interaction, these new technologies cannot be ignored. As technology advances and data processing accelerates, digital technology evolves, allowing for the exploration of new documentation and visual data to improve content accessibility and relevance. Traditional knowledge of books can be presented in the digital domain to a range of readers with increased interactivity. This can also help immensely in the digital documentation of the book knowledge. Digital technology also provides a safe and space-effective platform for readers. Individuals and organizations dealing with digital reading and learning will benefit from this research. Because this design demonstrates users’ interest in learning new concepts not only through books but also digitally, it could serve as a model for future user interface design explorations for various learning platforms.

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References 1. Hesse, C.: Books in Time. The Future of the Book, pp. 21–36 (1996) 2. Zhou, J.: In graphic design-design and thinking from plane to screen. In: International Conference on Cognitive based Information Processing and Applications (CIPA 2021), pp. 760–766. Springer, Singapore (2022) 3. Korn, K.C., Pine, B.J.: The typology of human capability: a new guide to rethinking the potential for digital experience offerings. Strategy Leadersh. 39(4), 35–40 (2011) 4. Latif, M.A., Widiaty, I.: Technology Implementation to Promote Digital Learning. IOP Publishing (2021) 5. Huang, H.M., Rauch, U., Liaw, S.S.: Investigating learners’ attitudes toward virtual reality learning environments: based on a constructivist approach. Comput. Educ. 55(3), 1171–1182 (2010) 6. Wells, D., Sallenbach, A.: Books and ebooks in an academic library. Austr. Libr. J. 64(3), 168–179 (2015) 7. Arreymbi, J., Agbor, E., Dastbaz, M.: Mobile-Education—A Paradigm Shift with Technology (2008) 8. Davidovitch, N., Yavich, R., Druckman, E.: Don’t throw out paper and pens yet: on the reading habits of students. J. Int. Educ. Res. (JIER) 12(4), 129–144 (2016) 9. Karim, N.S.A., Hasan, A.: Reading habits and attitude in the digital age: analysis of gender and academic program differences in Malaysia. In: The Electronic Library (2007) 10. Pearson, J., Buchanan, G., Thimbleby, H.: Designing for digital reading. In: Synthesis Lectures on Information Concepts, Retrieval, and Services, vol. 5, issue 4, pp. 1–13 (2013) 11. Seraj, M., Wong, C.Y.: A Study of User Interface Design Principles and Requirements for Developing a Mobile Learning Prototype (n.d.) 12. Complete Beginner’s Guide to UX Research (2018). Retrieved from UXBooth: https://www. uxbooth.com/articles/complete-beginners-guide-to-design-research/ 13. Cockburn, A.: Revisiting 2D vs 3D Implications on Spatial Memory (2004) 14. Tavanti, M., Mats Lind.: 2D vs 3D, implications on spatial memory. In: IEEE Symposium on Information Visualization. INFOVIS 2001, pp. 139–145 (2001) 15. Zhao, P., Sintonen, S., Kyanäslahti, H.: The pedagogical functions of arts and cultural-heritage education with ICTs in museums–a case study of FINNA and Google Art Project. Int. J. Instructional Technol. Distance Learn. 12(1), 3–15 (2015) 16. Ryan, M.: Beyond myth and metaphor: the case of narrative in digital media. Game Studies (1) (2001) 17. Mulholland, P., Collins, T.: Using digital narratives to support the collaborative learning and exploration of cultural heritage. In: Proceedings. 13th International Workshop on Database and Expert Systems Applications, pp. 527–531, IEEE (2002) 18. Keane, D.T.: Leading with technology. Austr. Educ. Leader 34(2), 44 (2012) 19. Lin, M.-H., Chen, H.-G.: A study of the effects of digital learning on learning motivation and learning outcome. Eurasia J. Math. Sci. Technol. Educ. 13(7), 3553–3564 (2017)

Chapter 47

An Exploration on Interactive Educational Games for Teaching Primary School Students of Vernacular Medium Banamita Sarma, Debarshi Kumar Brahma, Abhijit Padun, and Anowar Hussain Mondal Abstract The education system is constantly evolving. Teaching has been around since ancient times from Guru–Shishya (apprentice) method to the popularity of books after the invention of the printing press to modern schools with e-learning, and now educational games with AR and VR. Educational games can play an important role on students to make them understand various subjects in a playful manner by coming out of conventional teaching–learning methods. This study explores the implications of educational games for vernacular medium school students and evaluates their improvements. An experiment was carried out in a few vernacular medium schools of Kokrajhar, Assam, where the majority of the students are from the Bodo community who face difficulty in understanding different languages except the Bodo language. A survey conducted among the students outlines the fact that they face such difficulty due to the unavailability of appropriate course contents and study materials in vernacular medium. Hence, to address the issue, an interactive educational game has been designed and developed in three languages—Bodo, English, and Assamese to help students understand their course subjects with fun. Further, the study explores the scope of aligning the educational game with the regular course curriculum of schools to make learning enjoyable and fun. The study further explores the possibility of conducting practical classes in digital mode as well as offering attractive rewards to engage students in their studies. A survey conducted among the students on the educational game gave a strong affirmative response to implement the experiment practically. B. Sarma (B) · D. K. Brahma · A. Padun Department of Multimedia Communication and Design, CIT Kokrajhar, Kokrajhar, India e-mail: [email protected] D. K. Brahma e-mail: [email protected] A. Padun e-mail: [email protected] A. H. Mondal Department of Computer Science and Engineering, CIT Kokrajhar, Kokrajhar, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_47

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47.1 Introduction Having fun while learning can help keep children’s attention and motivation on studies and educational games can help achieve that. Previously, games were seen only as a source of entertainment but nowadays games are widely used in many different areas like education, healthcare, marketing, and industries as a tool to teach specific skills and knowledge through game content [1]. Games that have learning or prosocial benefits other than entertainment are called ‘Serious Games.’ Serious games have a large impact on the game industry as they are entertaining, engaging, and immersive. Educational games are the most well-known application of serious games which are designed to teach certain subjects, and concepts, improve concentration, or assist to learn new skills [2]. Games have both costs and benefits but may vary depending on the game and how it is played [3]. Video games may lead to addiction and health issues but recent research results prove that if the contents of the video games are well-intended, games can be beneficial for enhancing many skills like planning, quick thinking, making fast analysis and decisions, concentration, multitasking, improving learning ability, and social skills [4]. The study also shows that educational games can have a positive impact on students by making education more appealing [5]. Another study introduces a game ‘Lino has an idea!’ to develop children’s creativity, innovation, and teamwork [6, 7]. The obvious reason to use educational games for learning is to make learning fun. Theory-oriented and monotonous teaching can make students easily bored and less interested in their studies [8]. Interactive learning is important as it creates deeper engagement and improves academic achievement. This paper explores an interactive educational game for primary school students to help the students understand the course better with fun. Further, the study explores options to align the game with regular courses to improve the learning method.

47.1.1 Background Study 47.1.1.1

Evolution of Education System

Over the last few decades, the education system has seen drastic changes. In the beginning, the education system was more like an apprentice system—‘Guru–Shishya Tradition’ which includes a broad range of studies from Mathematics, Science, Sanskrit, History, Hindu scriptures to Buddhist Texts, Martial arts, Music to Painting, etc. After the invention of print media, the popularity of books grew and it has become an important part of the education system [9]. But in the last twenty-five years, new media has changed the way of teaching and learning. The internet made it easy to access information all over the world and people started browsing content to learn new skills and gain knowledge. Learning from videos has become a trend, and many e-learning applications have started growing. Nowadays, educational games,

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augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR) applications are gaining popularity. Digital education is making the education system more practical-oriented. Digital content like 3D models, pictures, images, videos, and educational games help students’ cognitive functions like imagination and visualization.

47.1.1.2

Field Visit

A survey was conducted with the teachers and a total of 72 students from three vernacular medium schools and one English medium school to know more about the current scenario of education systems and the difficulties faced by the teachers and students. Students from Class 1 to Class 10 were mostly asked questions related to subjects, experiments or activities, use of digital mediums like computers, mobiles, and games (Fig. 47.1). As per the study, Mathematics was found to be the most difficult and boring subject among the students. Science although difficult, was also interesting for the students. Almost 70% of students had access to mobile phones but only 30% knew how to use a computer. Most students watch entertaining videos and play games like Candy Crush, Temple Run, Mobile Legends, and Free Fire. In some schools, only a few textbook activities are done due to the lack of facilities and equipment. In most schools including government schools, projectors are set up and digital classes are held sometimes. Students and teachers were asked to give feedback on our proposed application—One student said, ‘I don’t understand Physics and Math, and it is difficult for me to memorize formulas of Chemistry and names from Biology. Also, I feel lazy to write notes.’ A teacher said, ‘Books are boring, even we get bored by teaching this way. Children also get bored. When we show videos on mobile and projectors, that is much more fun. That’s why we give activities to them sometimes.’ On being asked about their view on educational games, a teacher said, ‘It will be fun if videos and games can teach the students as they will be more interested.’ While another said, ‘If exercises and activities written in the book will be in video or game format then we can show it to students. We don’t have many videos to show to the students.’ 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Difficult Mathemacs

Boring Science

English

MIL

Interesting Social Science

Fig. 47.1 Percentage of subjects that are difficult, boring, and interesting

Others

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47.1.2 Problem Statement From the survey, we realized that the current scenario of the education system is more theory-oriented which makes students, as well as teachers, get bored easily. Books are the primary study material in schools, and, in many schools, activities related to textbooks are not done often enough because of the lack of materials. Students require different types of involvement from teachers to understand the subject. As new media is developing, students from urban areas who have access to mobile phones and computer devices are more interested in watching videos and playing games on these devices. As of writing this paper, although educational games and digital media are being used in urban areas, the use of digital media in rural areas is still a challenge especially for underprivileged students because of the language barrier between the digital content and vernacular medium students. Even though projectors are available in most schools, not all teachers know how to operate them. Videos and images can be boring sometimes as there is no interactive element that can make students more interested in learning. To address this issue, an interactive educational game based on the content of textbooks has been created which can be implemented in schools as an additional educational medium. The game is particularly designed for primary school students based on the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) textbook content as most schools follow the NCERT course curriculum. It is designed in three languages—Bodo, Assamese, and English focusing on the Bodo community students who face difficulty in understanding different languages except for the Bodo language.

47.1.3 Aim and Objectives Aim: To concept design and implement an interactive educational game for primary school students of vernacular medium. Objectives: • • • •

An approach that can make students more interested in studies. Easily comprehensible by students. A fun and practical way to gain knowledge. Vernacular language support.

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47.2 Literature Review 47.2.1 Child Psychology and Development with Technology Every child has a different perception. The way children learn and develop can vary. A child’s development can be influenced by various factors—gender, environment, culture, parenting, etc. This is the reason some children learn skills faster than others. Many factors should be checked before designing a game. As some children may use the technology a lot of time but some may be using it for the first time [2]. In the early stages of development, children mostly learn by playing. The use of technology to enhance learning has become a common practice. It has been shown that video games develop hand–eye coordination and decision-making skills in school-age and young preteens. Children who interact with the screen make fewer mistakes and learn faster. They are more attracted to technical tools. But excessive use of technology can pose risks, so parental supervision is recommended for it to be useful for children. Technology is becoming a great factor in contributing to children’s learning [10].

47.2.2 Related Works Educational Games: Most educational games are kids-oriented focusing on alphabets, animals, numbers, shapes, etc., while some focus on strategy and brain development but games related to course topics are too less. These are mostly available in the Play Store/App Store or websites. E-learning Applications and Videos: Many e-learning applications and websites like Byju’s, Unacademy, and e-learning for kids are there, but most of them are business targeted and provide less free content. It has only class-wise content access and lacks vernacular medium content. Many educational videos are available online, but it lacks interactivity and animated content is less. Initiatives by the Government of India for Digital Education: The Government of India is encouraging educational institutes to provide digital education and started implementing projectors, and computer laboratories in the schools. Also, several initiatives like PM eVIDYA Programme, Virtual Labs, DIKSHA, and ePathshala Portal offer students online and distance learning. But most of them lack interactive elements.

590 Table 47.1 Game specifications

B. Sarma et al. Game genre

Serious games, educational games

Age range

6+

Mode

Single player

Medium

English, Bodo, Assamese

Platform

Microsoft Windows, Android

47.3 Methodology 47.3.1 Game Idea Development To make the education system more enjoyable and fun-oriented for students, brainstorming was done for different ideas. An approach for an interactive educational digital game for primary school students has been finalized to make the foundation strong in an interesting way. Mathematics and Science are the primary focus subjects for the game as students find them difficult to understand. The name of the game is ‘Edventure – Learn and Fun.’ It has been developed using Unity Engine. ‘Edventure’ is an educational game where students can play different minigames, watch videos, simulations, and quizzes according to the course structure. Table 47.1 shows the specifications of the game ‘Edventure – Learn and Fun’. There are many activities, and experiments in the NCERT textbook to make education more engaging and fun. But only some of them are practiced in schools because of the lack of materials. ‘Edventure’ mainly focuses on those activities, and experiments along with the theory part of the topics through games and videos so that students can practice digitally and learn in a fun way.

47.3.2 Game Structure ‘Edventure’ contains different types of activities depending on the course topics. On entering the game, the player can select between three languages—English, Bodo, and Assamese. Next, the player has options to go through the class-wise contents where different activities are available. In-game achievements can be earned throughout the game. A leaderboard system is implemented in the game to view other players’ scores. Figure 47.2 describes the game strategy. After choosing the class, the player can go through five different activities—Introduction Video, Minigames, Videos, Time Trials, and Edquiz to learn a topic. The player will need to complete all chapters of one class to level up to the next higher class. The navigational flowchart (Fig. 47.3) shows how the player will start the game and go around.

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Fig. 47.2 Flowchart of the ‘Edventure’ game strategy

Fig. 47.3 Navigational flowchart of the ‘Edventure’ game

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47.3.3 Game Mechanism 47.3.3.1

Language

‘Edventure’ is in three different languages. The primary reasons for choosing these three languages are: • English: It is widely used all over the world. • Assamese: Assamese is one of the official languages of Assam, India. • Bodo: Bodo is another official language of Assam, India, which is mainly spoken in the Bodoland Territorial Region (Figs. 47.4, 47.5, 47.6 and 47.7). Fig. 47.4 Language selection screen

Fig. 47.5 English home screen

Fig. 47.6 Assamese home screen

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Fig. 47.7 Bodo home screen

47.3.3.2

Lobby

A game lobby containing the game modes, player names, achievements, scores, and leaderboard has been created similar to commercial games to attract more players.

47.3.3.3

Activities

Introduction Video: Introduction video is a summary of the topic to make players familiar with the topic. These videos are meant to be seen before playing other games to get an idea of the topic. Minigames: Games are designed based on the textbook and relevant topics. These are designed to give them knowledge while having fun. These games are mostly randomized to make them seem new every time the player plays. As children need guidance, in each minigame tutorials are made available (Figs. 47.8 and 47.9). Videos: Since all topics cannot be gamified, animated videos based on the topic, stories, and poems are made. These contents focus theory part of the topics. Time Trials: This is the competitive section where minigames are made harder with time constraints and negative scoring so that players can play the minigames with higher difficulty and challenge other players to compete. Fig. 47.8 Class 4 Minigame—fun with dates

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Fig. 47.9 Class 4 Minigame—pop the balloon

Edquiz: Edquiz is the evaluation section of each topic. It contains comprehensive quizzes and games to test the knowledge of the player after completing all the other activities. This will also be the deciding factor for unlocking the higher-class content.

47.3.3.4

Scoring System

Each minigame has a different scoring system. The key factors for score calculations are time and correct/wrong answers. In general, for every correct answer, a fixed point is added and time taken is multiplied by a constant and then subtracted from the total score. For example, total score = (N × 800) − (T * 35), where N is the total number of correct answers and T is the total time taken in seconds.

47.3.3.5

Achievement System

Since children are more attracted to rewards, prizes, etc., achievement features are implemented in the game. Each player’s rewards and achievements will be displayed on their profile. The following features are implemented: • Badges and Titles: Based on performance and specific task completion. For example, after completing all the minigames ‘Champion’ title is given to the player. • Digital collectibles: Avatar, profile frame, player clothes, and cosmetics. • Leaderboard: A ranking system based on overall experience points.

47.4 Results A prototype of the game ‘Edventure’ was developed, and a survey was conducted to test its usability. Reduced Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (RIMMS) [11] is used for the usability test. It consists of 12 items, three items in each of the four subscales to measure students’ needs and reactions to engaging with instructional materials based on the Attention Relevance Confidence Satisfaction (ARCS) model

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Table 47.2 Cronbach alpha table (N = 29) Items

Cronbach alpha

Std. alpha

G6(smc)

Average R

All Items

0.9431

0.939

0.987

0.5619

Attention

0.8969

0.8976

0.8627

0.745

Relevance

0.7229

0.7035

0.709

0.4416

Confidence

0.6884

0.6699

0.7036

0.4036

Satisfaction

0.8631

0.883

0.8913

0.7155

which is one of the popular frameworks for measuring student motivation [12]. According to the ARCS model, four factors must be present to motivate a student: • Attention: The learning experience must capture and hold the student’s attention [13]. • Relevance: The learning experience must feel personally relevant to the student [13]. • Confidence: The learning experience must elicit a sense of confidence in one’s ability to learn [13]. • Satisfaction: The process of results of the learning experience must feel satisfying to the student [13]. The survey was among 29 students from regional vernacular medium schools from classes 4 to 7. Students were given to play games for one hour with one teacher to assist them. Then students were asked to fill out a paper version of the RIMMS survey in simpler terms understandable to them. The survey data is calculated to find out the Cronbach alpha for each subscale and the overall items [14] (Table 47.2).

47.5 Discussion The overall Cronbach alpha = 0.9431 which signifies excellent and the removal of a question has less impact on the alpha value which suggests that it is acceptable. As for the individual score for confidence, it is 0.6884 which is questionable on the Cronbach alpha scale. The game was well-received by the students and teachers during the survey. Most students wanted to play more and were very keen to use it. The game is in an early stage of development with only a few minigames and contents of a few classes. More content can be added, and features can be improved to keep attracting the students to play more. Contents from the State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT), Assam, books can also be added to the game which are also being used in schools of Assam.

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47.6 Conclusion This study found that learning through games can attract students to spend time studying and paying attention to educational content. The game ‘Edventure’ can help students stay focused and learn while having fun. The lack of materials for activities can be resolved by this game. It will be much easier for vernacular medium students to learn through interactive games in their language. The achievement and leaderboard aspects of the game can make the student competitive in studies. Interactive educational games can bring attractiveness with interaction which is not possible in textbooks. Students can know if they made a mistake on their own with the help of the scoring system and immediately try to resolve it. ‘Edventure’ can be used as an addition to textbooks in the course curriculum. It can be used by individual students on their own or teachers can instruct students to do it as homework. Edquiz can be used as an assessment tool by the teacher. In addition to using it on Android, a school having a computer laboratory or projector can implement this as a class period. Educational games like this can provide an interesting yet fun learning experience that is not theory-oriented. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the students and teachers for participating in the usability test survey. The authors are also grateful to all the translators who translated from English to Bodo and Assamese and the artist of Freepik Service from where some of the graphics elements have been used for the game.

References 1. Egenfeldt-Nielsen, S., Smith, J.H., Tosca, S.P.: Understanding Video Games: The Essential Introduction, Chapter 8, pp. 240–242 (2016) 2. Fisher, C.: Designing Games for Children: Developmental, Usability, and Design Considerations for Making Games for Kids, Chapter 1, pp. 4–5 (2015) 3. Griffiths, M.: Video games and health. BMJ (Clin. Res. Edn.) 331(7509), 122–123 (2005) 4. Ibrahim, R., Jaafar, A.: Educational games (EG) design framework: combination of game design, pedagogy and content modeling. Int. Conf. Electrical Eng. Informatics 2009, 293–298 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICEEI.2009.5254771 5. Yin, S., Yin, N.K.: Application of the Educational Game to Enhance Student Learning, Frontiers in Education (2021).https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.623793, https://www.frontiersin.org/ article/10.3389/feduc.2021.623793 6. Boyet, E., Couture, L., Granier, L., Roudes, T., Vidal, A., Maranzana, N., Jean, C.: A new serious game for children to explain innovation and enhance creativity. In: DS 110: Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Engineering and Product Design Education (E&PDE 2021), VIA Design, VIA University in Herning, Denmark, 9th–10th Sept 2021 7. Enoc, R., Kerloc’h, R., Jean, C., Maranzana, N.: How to professionalise a serious game? Application to “LINO HAS AN IDEA!”. In: DS 117: Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Engineering and Product Design Education (E&PDE 2022), London South Bank University in London, UK, 8th–9th Sept 2022 8. Kapur, R.: Problems in the Indian Education System (2018) 9. Scharfe, H.: From Temple schools to Universities. In: Education in Ancient India: Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004125568, pp. 176–182 (2002)

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10. Kaushik, K.:Child Psychology and Education with Technology, pp.41–45 (2014) 11. López, B.C., Ashour, O., Cunningham, J., Tucker, C., Lynch, P.: The CLICK Approach and Its Impact on Learning Introductory Probability Concepts in an Industrial Engineering Course (2020). https://doi.org/10.18260/1-2--35297. 12. Keller, J.M.: Motivational Design for Learning and Performance: The ARCS Model Approach. Springer, New York (2010) 13. Wang, S., Christensen, C., Xu, Y., Cui, W., Tong, R., Shear, L.: Measuring Chinese middle school students’ motivation using the Reduced Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (RIMMS): a validation study in the adaptive learning setting. Front. Psychol. 11, 1803 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01803 14. Wessa, P.: Cronbach alpha (v1.0.6) in Free Statistics Software (v1.2.1), Office for Research Development and Education (2021). https://www.wessa.net/rwasp_cronbach.wasp/

Chapter 48

Investigating Work-on-the-Move Scenarios and User Experience in Autonomous Vehicles Sandipana Das, Mamata N. Rao, and Vipul Vinzuda

Abstract Driverless automation in the transportation industry will redefine the journey experience of in-vehicle activities and lifestyle priorities shortly; as autonomous vehicles (AV) with artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) capabilities will handle complex tasks and help in efficient decision making. There is a need for designing for the working professionals as one of the potential early adopters of autonomous vehicles with tremendous scope to generate design solutions complementing vehicle-to-people (V2P) and people-to-vehicle (P2V) interactions and catering to their situational needs. The objective of the research is to understand and evaluate the key touch points within the transit journey map, and the multimodal interactions that can be carried out with the customers along with each touch point activity. The study focuses on passenger-to-vehicle (P2V) and vehicle-to-passenger (V2P) scenarios, passengers’ mental models, and expected professional activities based on passenger-to-passenger (P2P) interactions during and after meetings with clients, and colleagues. The professionals who frequently traveled in business class/first-class cabin train/luxury vehicles for the work purpose were approached for this research study. 15 participants joined the in-depth interview study. One of the central activities focused on in the interviews was asking the participants to role-play the travel scenario and capture their reflections on their travel experiences. The reflections from participants on their travel experiences were collected to understand specific user experience (UX) design parameters for AVs. Emotions, humane courtesy, and the learning curve of new interactions were considered as parameters to analyze the user narratives. The findings demonstrate the need to alternate between two types of interaction modes—relaxation and work. Currently, familiar touch and other interactions with users were suggested to be given priority S. Das (B) · M. N. Rao · V. Vinzuda WIRIN Lab, National Institute of Design Ahmedabad, Ahmedabad, India e-mail: [email protected] M. N. Rao e-mail: [email protected] V. Vinzuda e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_48

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in work mode compared to glanceable and exploratory interactions prioritized in relaxation mode.

48.1 Introduction Workspace culture plays an important role in the users mental satisfaction levels within an organization. Key parameters that should be encouraged by the company, contributing to the employees’ satisfaction include—productivity, efficiency, mental wellbeing, and healthy lifestyle. These parameters in synergy play a pivotal role in the growth of the organization, through retention of their employees who subsequently continue to deliver innovative outputs at work. Many professionals struggle to achieve these parameters in harmony, due to their majority of time being spent in-between travels to client meetings, onsite inspections, office transits, etc. [1]. Time management through automation of repetitive and routine tasks with the help of AI-assisted task automation systems can be achieved inside an AV. This can help working professionals in delivering their daily outcomes with more time available now, for sensitive tasks that require human intelligence and emotional perspective for decision making throughout the process. Therefore, the interactions designed for human–computer interaction (HMI) in AVs need to be more ubiquitous and multisensory for passengers to explore the spatial space— extended by mixed reality interfaces and audio-visual touch interfaces overlaid on car interiors. Car hardware components including seats, door panels, car walls, floor as well as top hood act as tangible interfaces to display and for users to interact with the information. The objective of this study was to derive a spatial zone mapping of the interactive components within the interfaces designed to enhance productivity of the working professionals traveling within an AV built with AI assistive technology. Hence, the aim of the current research was to understand and evaluate the key touch points within the transit journey map, and the multimodal interactions that can be carried out with the passengers along with each touch point activity. The study focuses on passenger-to-vehicle (P2V) and vehicle-to-passenger (V2P) scenarios, passengers’ mental models, and expected professional activities based on passenger-to-passenger (P2P) interactions during and after meetings with clients, and colleagues.

48.2 Literature Review AVs remove the need for human drivers and foresee all occupants to be passengers. The interactions hence need to be designed to be more focused on passenger-related activities that extend beyond driving-related road information displays. Activities [2] can include individual work activities, shared work collaborations, meetings, 3D walkthroughs through AR/VR, or mixed reality explorations of data visualizations

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(e.g., blueprints, charts, and data graphs of mapped charts, etc.). Study on expanding capabilities of AVs to transform work culture has become an emerging domain in which experimental research has been carried out in Research and Development (R&D) units within automotive and technology (A&T) manufacturing companies; they have been testing intensely on AV prototypes and capturing feedback to create user anticipatory activity-database for ML and AI systems [4], embedded inside the AV as learning reference database framework. Considering that vehicles are personally regarded as more than just a means of transportation, we can assume that people will expect future vehicles to fulfill their various needs. Therefore, AVs should be designed in a way that supports people’s expectations, needs, and requirements of the service in AVs interactions between vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), P2V, V2P, and P2P [3] play an important role in determining the overall “journey experience” of the passengers. To first understand the types of activities working professionals would be carrying out inside an AV, the first step was to identify these activities and categorize them. It has been found that people expect to use more exploratory and new activities that use task automation, data visualization through 3D environment navigations, and AI suggestions [4]; beyond the general work-related functionalities like software access, ability to open, view and edit data files, work and comment on collaboration files with co-workers. Efforts are required to include considerations from the various groups before moving to the phase of automated driving. In-vehicle activities [5] were mapped out from the secondary research data, considering various populations, for designing in-vehicle information and interfaces. There has been detailed research done on determining user needs for AVs [4] and AV interactions with other AVs, pedestrians and passenger safety, and embedded sensor technology, but there has been limited research on creating a UX design framework for providing interactions within AVs for working professionals in a systematic way [3]. Therefore, in the present study, we have developed the mapping and justification of interaction zones spread across the AV interior and analyzed user needs and requirements of the working professional user persona based on the user narratives and anticipatory features and requirements suggested by them during the interview session.

48.3 Methodology The objective of the present study was to investigate user interaction (UI)/UX needs and design requirements in the context of AVs through multilayered user case studies followed by observation and note-making on interview data. Involving potential users in such a process was contested with parallel arguments. One argument states that potential users’ narratives can help identify opportunities and challenges for users. To create a wholesome understanding of the research spectrum from all viewpoints, we conducted semi-structured interviews with the potential end-users. This format has been used to probe complex issues arising due to situational needs during the passenger’s journey and provide more clarity. Following this approach to analyzing the data captured, the interviews started with the predefined questions, and then, the

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second step of the interview was continued with probing follow-up questions to users’ responses to the predefined questions, using a semi-structured interview format and the interview materials depending on the topics addressed in each session.

48.3.1 Research Study Based on the literature review, we prepared all possible user scenarios along with activities along with major touch points that were listed out (Table 48.1), as interview materials, to provide foreseeable user situations in AVs as interview materials [1, 5]. This enabled our participants to imagine potential scenarios and role-play their associated similar past experiences along with emotions that accompanied them. The detailed discussion on the design interactions at different journey touch points through think-out-loud activity, helped us in understanding user needs for the different kinds of interactive displays (heads-up display (HUD), head-mounted display (HMD), Touch 2D tabletop displays, etc.) [4] and analyze the ease of use of the following interaction modes—voice user interface (VUI), touch and midair gestures, haptic feedbacks and sound systems.

48.3.1.1

Interaction Modes for AVs

In addition to the literature review of research papers and published journals, we analyzed industry trends to specify UI/UX design requirements for AVs. The following keywords were combined to search: Fully autonomous vehicles, future workspace, concept, level 5 AV systems, user interface [1, 3], user experience automotive design, and relaxation [1] inside AV. The data collection was focused on the topics related to automotive concepts and automotive vehicle UIs. Overarching ideas and trends from each research keyword (AVs in Indian, Interaction Modes, HMI, etc.) were listed, and then, these were translated into sticky notes. Various interaction modes were merged (e.g., VUI + haptic, Touch + Sound, Hand gesture + VUI, etc.) for different activities emerging from the mapping [1, 5]. We considered that there could be different perspectives in the user use cases. For example, sleeping-related functions or tasks might not be important considerations in AVs while working during travel; however, some people can still expect to destress themselves in-between intense work sessions and meetings. Therefore, we first categorized all possible activities in AV and later categorized them (Table 48.2) according to user activity mode—relaxation/work/entertainment mode [1, 5] (Table 48.3).

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Table 48.1 User journey parameters listed out—user scenarios, activities, and major touch points throughout the journey Activity

Touch points

Foreseeable situations User scenarios

Booking AV

Scheduling with AI Intimation details on Pickup

Syncing with AV for update in change of travel schedule Guidance in booking multiple travel journey Adding pickup of co passengers

Services

Dining Relaxation Sleeping

Request for specific restaurant/gourmet options related to healthy preferences Team party arrangements Massage and therapy settings mode switch

Working while travelling alone conducting meetings with the team exploring physical locations within AV through mixed reality and VR platforms with co-workers Onboarding Passenger onboarding Intimation details of 3D data and object himself in AV the journey analysis and Co-workers Intimation to fellow information extraction onboarding physically passengers with report making on the in AV passenger details data extracted, data Client joining about upcoming statistics extrapolated in-between meeting co-passenger by AI with teams onboarding soon Entertainment with Providing work inputs Logging in Interacting with office co-workers Data Analysis VR/AR/MR Platforms blueprints, Data set – team dinners AV assistance visualization – relaxing while (suggestions, task Task automation, working together automation) suggestions and inside AV Switching between assistance Working individually meetings and team Demand for unique on separate files with collaboration platform contents (e.g., copassengers using Opening files in location-based different workspace software contents, ongoing platforms Editing files in 2D/3D meetings discussion Relaxation while modelling and data material, copassengers are VR/MR Platforms visualization on the working Interaction gestures work-in-progress Working while prompts from AV Switching between copassengers are Assistant clients presentation relaxing and work-in-progress files with the team during client meetings

(continued)

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Table 48.1 (continued) Activity

Touch points

Foreseeable situations User scenarios

Offboarding

Intimation of co-passengers offboarding soon intimation about own offboarding Destination details and planned schedule after offboarding

Change in destination details Edit on multiple drop-off locations

48.3.1.2

User Scenarios (UCs)

User scenarios including potential user activities related to work were used as a reference for mapping the user statements into categories of possible intervention areas. P2V, P2P, and V2P interactions within AV through in-vehicle information systems Table 48.2 Various interaction modes merged (e.g., VUI + haptic, Touch + Sound, Hand gesture + VUI, etc.) for different activities inside AV based on secondary research Haptic based Kinesthetic mode

Multimodal based Tactile mode

Perception of Understanding body position information from and movements the skin Gesture based interactions

Process two or more combined use input modes such as speech, pen, touch, manual gestures, gaze, and head and body movements—in a coordinated manner with multimedia system output

Systems involving Temporary the use of cascaded wearable sensors modalities (accelerometers, RFID Tags/data gloves.)

Redundant modalities

Fused modalities

• Touch sensitive interfaces

It is a special form of cascaded modality wherein given multiple modes of interaction each modality is available at each step

Multiple modalities can be fused as part of a single interaction step

Two or more modalities temporarily sequenced such that the partial information which is recognised from the earlier modality is able to constrain the possible interpretations of the later modality

(continued)

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Table 48.2 (continued) Haptic based

Multimodal based • Non contact technologies depth cameras, thermal imaging cameras, ultrasonic tracking

Tactile perceptions

If the user provides a speech input to change the menu on the head-down display screen and immediately uses the central control knob to • Novel tactile descriptors were manipulate it, the used to classify intelligent vehicle various actions assistant (VA) already can and gestures provide the (scratching, intended menu as tickling, it has recognised rubbing, poking, as well the earlier command as a

Navigation systems that can be controlled by the touchscreen inputs and equivalently by voice inputs

Painting at a structure while travelling and asking “what is that” to the virtual assistant fuses gesture, speech, and gaze

combination of the gestures) • Used to learn and recognise objects in contact Recognizing gestures to actuate parts of the AV • Active armrest designed with capacitative proximity sensors having both – Touch-based gestures – Air gestures

were mapped with the following major design parameters—task-related, systemsrelated, and user perception. As a result, a total of 15 use cases were included (6 task perspective—individual work, daily follow-up on work-in-progress projects, meetings team and analysis report making, relaxation, and sleeping; 4 system perspective—in-vehicle user client, collaboration on shared files, interface and the external user interface; 5 user perspective—work interactions, entertainment, health care, relaxation, accessibility).

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Table 48.3 Features of working professionals mapped according to activity modes based on primary research User activity mode Relaxation mode Zen ambiance controls—the primary task Sound effects Mixed reality interactions—for 2D/3D data visualizations – Data Analysis – Audio/visual/Haptic feedback Zen features and controls – Resting – Therapy – Massage – Sleep Fine dining with Butler AI & Beverages

Work mode Individual mode Flexible seatings [1] – Adjustable for dynamic conversations between coworkers and client Interactive touch Tabletop [3]

Collaboration mode Oncoming coworkers joining the workspace 2D Touch tabletops & car walls transforming into 3D holographic projection surfaces Flexible seatings [1] – Layout: reconfigurable for Intense work session dynamic AI assistive conversations suggestions through between coworkers i. Interior car walls [3] and client ii. Pop-up panels – ergonomically iii. Seating surfaces as reconfigurable display areas [1, 5] iv. Configurable seats Interactive touch Tabletop [3] to multiple furniture Task automation by Intense work session Assistant [6] AI assistive sugestions through i. Interior car walls [3] ii. Pop-up panels iii. Seating surfaces as display areas [1, 5] iv. Configurable seats to multiple furniture Task automation by Assistant [5]

Entertainment mode Ganing ambiance controls—the primary task Sound effects Game mode—VFX Effects Discoverable features and controls Hidden/surprise services (e.g., – bonus rounds – metaverse live shows [1] – winning streaks Fine dining with Butler AI & Beverages Group and individual mode entertainment features: – Karaoke – Team dinner – Office Outings

48.3.2 Primary Research After gathering the observation data from the analysis, the following research methods were employed to understand the user mental models and real-time needs to be identified from the data captured in these interview interactions between the researcher and the participants.

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Semi-structured Interview (Key Method of Data Collection)

The primary research was conducted in the following steps: (1) An online survey form asking for user demographics-related questions, agerelated/income-related/societal–cultural-related generic data mapping. After the participants consent to participate, (2) The first step of the interview was to kick off the interview with (i) Travel planning and booking-related questions—How long ago were you on work-related trips? What is the frequency of such trips for you annually? Based on the participants’ responses, the interviewer here went ahead with probing questions according to their personal experience narratives to capture their situational needs such as—“How comfortable has the booking experience been on an immediate basis? since you mentioned that you had 3–4 back-to-back meetings overlapping with your flight timings to reach the site location for meeting with your prospective client to finalize the project with your company ?” (ii) Onboarding-related questions—travel lounges pre-boarding experiences/amenities/hygiene and services, seating and waiting periods, onboarding process on the flight/train/luxury cars, guidance from staff, and intimation messages about travel and planned services throughout the journey including availing of all services included in the package. (iii) On coming of other passengers-related questions—intimation regarding other co-passengers boarding the flight/train cabin/car, waiting for period ambiance and entertainment during the onboarding, comfortability factor with activities of other passengers onboarding such as—Did physical challenges of the copassengers onboarding, cause discomfort for you; in being accommodating of their needs? Did it compromise your overall travel excitement? (iv) Activities carried out during the travel-related questions—working while traveling on their laptops, syncing of data, and Internet connectivity issues faced during the transit time, which were further probed into inability to collaborate online with the teams during connectivity issues while traveling. (v) Amenities and services-related questions—How has been their sleeping experience? What sort of features were provided—massage recliners, seat cum bed, dining, and culinary services by staff, Personal assistance for health and lifestyle-related miscellaneous requirements and needs (e.g., hot water bags, oxygen inhalers, etc.) (vi) Offboarding-related questions—intimation regarding the end of the journey and upcoming destination details, assistance while offboarding, overall experience from the halting of the vehicle to offboarding completely on the ground for the passenger, which was followed by probing questions specific to the experiences such as—“ While getting off the flight, how would you describe the assistance being provided by the flight attendants until reaching the lounge area ?.” The third and final step of the interview was recording role-playing activities with candidates—(i) reliving their personal experiences and (ii) playing out expectations

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at every touch point (booking, onboarding, activity such as working and resting inside AV, dining, travel fatigue, amenities, entertainment, lighting ambiance and offboarding) during hypothetical user scenarios presented by the interviewer to them (Table 48.1).

48.3.2.2

Participant Criteria

In March–April 2022, a preliminary in-depth interview (online meeting) was conducted in India on the user perception toward automated vehicles. The inclusion– exclusion criteria for selection of participants who hold top positions as MDs, CEOs in companies with higher levels of education, and who have traveled business class for work purposes. The selected controlled group of participants consisted of the age group within the range of the 25–60-year-old population. A total of 15 professionals participated (9 male and 6 female participants; 32.9% age group of 25–31 years, 49.2% middle-age group of 31–45 years, 17.9% 46–60 years; 46.3% graduates and 44.7% postgraduate or more; in total 91% were either graduate or postgraduate. 91.5% had a monthly income of more than INR 150,000. 89.4% own personal vehicles, while 60.2% use their company car for daily travel for work purposes. The main intention of the interview was to understand the situational needs arising during their travel timeframe, as they role-played and relived the transit touch points and their experiences were recorded as possible user scenarios with a focus on intervention by a solution-based approach in designing novel interactions and AV intelligence systems for an in-vehicle passenger-to-vehicle interactions.

48.4 Analysis and Evaluation: User Needs Along with AV Journey Touch Points The analysis of the data collection involved the following steps—(i) Note-taking done during the interview—to capture answers laden with emotional tonality, (ii) audio recordings of all interviews were later transcribed and classified into various categories using Microsoft Excel. (iii) Researcher analysis notes based on the transcription notes. Further affinity mapping was done to discover inter-linkages between user interest and responses given by study participants. This involved a detailed descriptive analysis to inspect probable inter-linkages between user interests and the answers given by the controlled group of participants.

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48.4.1 Findings: User Needs Along with AV Journey Touch Points Based on the analysis, working professionals could be categorized according to their needs in three broad scenarios—working mode, relaxation mode, and entertainment mode. The working mode includes intense work sessions both alone and along with the team where the user expects the vehicle AI to know his location and reach within 5–7 min of booking the ride. The onboarding needs to be swift and seamless with minimal to zero waiting time for user authentication to process. The way of taking the seat within the AV for the user needs to be natural with suggestive prompts through micro-interactions, and audio sounds (e.g., loading animation displayed on the seat surface, or user face displayed on the seat head to indicate his allocated seat, etc.). After the user settles down, the interactions to be activated and displayed include car controls—ambiance, micro-climate systems, projections of route information and synced work details sprayed over the car interior in 360-degree 3D geometry. After this, initial onboarding is completed, and the user primarily focuses on the floor in front and the full-length car wall for work mode; on their sides primarily to be interacted through air gestures along with VUI as its beyond hand length. They can always access a universal menu accessible near tabletop/projected outwards from the car side walls; to switch between work/relaxation/entertainment modes. Information displayed zones are categorized into—(i) focused (ii) secondary (iii) exploratory zones. During work intense sessions, the focused zones are used 80% of the time; with 15% secondary zones—interactions extend the work area beyond the visual periphery to explore huge data visualizations through VR/MR platforms enabled by built-in headsets. Design requirements to satisfy user needs were listed and grouped into categories. During relaxation sessions: focused zones 20%; secondary ubiquitous zones 75% when the interactions need to be minimal and decisions made by AI intuitive. Ambiance, sound systems, thermal sensitivity, climate controls, airflow, and seat adjustments play an important role followed by dining services. Entertainment sessions have: focused zones used 52% of the time; exploratory zones 30%—when new interactions used to unlock new features and MR/VR dimensions. Users need to be wowed by exciting features and the experiences followed are given utmost importance while designing for this mode. Ambiance, sound systems, thermal sensitivity, climate controls, airflow, seat adjustments, and dining services play as omnipresent features (Fig. 48.1; Table 48.4). UIs in AV on the basis of the number of passengers and the relationship between them can be displayed in various modes: (a) Situation 1—The passenger either expects to use the vehicle alone or with other passengers, which hence affects the kind of activities they perform inside the vehicle and how they do it in both situations differently. (b) Situation 2—If passengers having low intimacy between them are traveling together in the vehicle, they would prefer to be seated such that their activities or work-related information are kept secured and non-revealing (e.g., private mode). (c) Participants also suggested a need for—“focus mode” to carry uninterrupted deep work, irrespective of the different kinds of activities performed by other passengers

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Fig. 48.1 Interaction type zones mapped out for placing of data information and interactable content in AV sitting human reference

simultaneously. (d) While designing for AV interactions, characteristic behaviors of various population groups should be kept in consideration (Fig. 48.2). Participants experience narratives on focusing during work with digital screens that are stretched beyond their hindsight, showing that they failed to realize the prompts and information displayed in those zones. Similarities of interactions and Table 48.4 Activity of working professionals mapped accordingly User interface

Interactions

Activities Passenger to vehicle

Vehicle to passenger

Input controls

Personal control, Shared control Touch interface, physical control interface, Air gesture control, Voice controls

CTA Buttons, Onboarding, Information architecture Instructions, Data Touch interface, information Physical control interface, air gesture controls, voice controls

Displays

Personal displays, Shared display Windshield display, window display, Connected outer device, external display, Auditory display, Multimodal display

Workspace, collaboration platforms, 2D/3D softwares Entertainment, music, 2D games Work files, spreadsheets, Data Visualizations

Data files, AI suggestions, recommendations, exploratory interactions, working on spreadsheets, visualisations Collaborative real-time updates made by multiple users interacting in the AV

Novel user interface

VR/MR/AR Artifical intelligence and ML (assistance, Robot, etc.)

Interacting with Office Blueprints, Data Visualization Task automation, suggestions, and assistance

Spatial interaction with 3D elements form and functions Curated work-related information projected in 3D (continued)

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Table 48.4 (continued) User interface

Interactions

Activities Passenger to vehicle

Vehicle to passenger

Information and contents

Journey-related information Contents

Current location, destination setting and change, traffic information Unique contents (e.g., location-based contents, ongoing meeting discussion data material. Visualization on the work-in-progress)

Onboarding, upcoming destinations and onboarding coworkers Unique contents (e.g., location-based contents, ongoing meeting discussion data material, visualization on the work in progress)

Interior space

Physical configurations Environmental settings

Seats, displays, table Light, temperature, smell

Auto adjustable—seats, displays, table Auto adjustment—light, temperature, smell

Fig. 48.2 Interaction type zones mapped out for placing of data information and intractable content in AV sitting human reference

gestural CTA buttons were used more often. Such display zones were considered to be explorative and discarded during primary work intense sessions since most of the time their heads’ central loci [4] were static and their action space covered the 60degree space covered by the visual spectrum (30 to left, 30 to right). Hence, for work intense sessions carried out in individual as well as collaborative environments—(i) All primary interactions have to be organized, grouped, and displayed within the

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frontal focal zone of 60 degrees, as immediate intuitive action space. (ii) Interactions need to have strong prompt/cues to transition the user visual field from the AV spatial zone A to zone B for carrying out future interactions and include more physical displacement laterally.

48.4.2 Conclusion 48.4.2.1

Potential Intervention Areas in AV Passenger Needs

The determining factors for designing AV for working professionals derived from the primary research of interviews and contextual inquiry to be—(i) lifestyle factors, (ii) spatial orientation of multisensory interactions concerning the physical proximity of cues. (iii) material and texture sensitivity to user’s contextual need.

48.4.2.2

Role of Lifestyle Factors for Designing Interactions

Designing interactions for users are heavily dependent on technology to visualize their data for analysis and implementation, lifestyle factors play an important role in determining the type of interactions to be designed. From secondary market research data, we derive that this user profile of younger, educated, and more technological savvy groups will define to be the early adopters of the proposed AV features. In the Indian context, with the majority of the workforce being Indians—the user perception needs to be addressed from an Indian perspective. Research study findings show that (i) trustability (ii) accountability and (iii) reliability play key factors in people’s agreeability to interact with new technology in Indian society. Having a backup plan for the existing proposition is a necessary step in guiding users to freely interact with the AV. Fully autonomous driving with no human interference is a point to be considered while designing for Indian users since trust and self-protection during machine error need to be addressed. Incorporation of feature—driver hand over from AV intelligence system to human; as emergency means can be a possible solution to assure the user of the power of control in their hands (Table 48.5).

48.4.2.3

Spatial Orientation of Multisensory Interactions

The interaction mediums explored in this study include audio, visual, and haptic systems. The auditory space spans along the front and rear space; comparatively covering a broader spectrum than the visual space which is concentrated toward the frontal region and the rapid declination of the visual acuity at peripheral locations away from the fovea, makes the placement of secondary intractable activities and information lesser concentrated as we move away from the frontal zone.

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Table 48.5 AV features are categorized in terms of priority for different user types under working professional user persona User type

Primary feature

Secondary feature

Exploratory feature

(i) Engineer/Developers

• Setting controls • Drafting/CAD Modelling softwares • Collaboration

Automation/suggestions Meetings Dinings Entertainment

Ambiance controls

(ii) Designer

• Online collaboration platforms, e.g., Figma, Miro, etc • Drafting/Modelling design softwares, e.g., Photoshop, Unity 3D, Unreal engine, etc • AR/VR/MR Platforms for designing in 3D • Automation/suggestions

Settings controls Relaxation Dining

Entertainment Ambiance controls

(iii) Manager

• Meeting space • Collaboration with teams/clients/on field colleagues • Inspection of work done by teams • Compiling Data and Analysis/report making

Relaxation Dining Automation/suggestions

Entertainment Ambiance controls

(iv) Architect

• 3D Visualization of Relaxation Blueprints Dining • 2D drafting/3D CAD Settings controls modelling softwares • Collaboration Tools with design team/clients • Construction site visits & inspection with structural engineers/construction contractors • Revision files management • Experiential walkthroughs of site Design through mixed reality/VR • Meetings

Entertainment Ambiance controls Ambiance controls

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48.4.3 Future Work and Recommendations 48.4.3.1

Material and Texture Sensitivity to user’s Contextual Need

Travel jet lag and prolonged seating time during a commute are common problems highlighted as user pain areas. Human posture relaxation and support through—(i) material texture, (ii) adaptive adjustable seat surface form to the human body, and (iii) heating and cooling through seat material can act as key design features in addressing user experience while being seated inside the enclosed AV space.

48.4.3.2

Potential Benefits of AVs in Indian Roads

The road infrastructure systems need to be designed with the V2V connectivity and transportation monitoring network systems in Indian roadways with huge scope for AVs to reduce human driving error on calculated rough steep zones.

48.4.3.3

Ergonomics and Anthropometry

There is scope to develop an optimal workspace ergonomic design for vehicle interior with anthropometric considerations. Additionally, cognitive load on end-users and their interaction experience while vehicle is in the motion opens up opportunities for research work.

References 1. Tang, P., Sun, X., Cao, S.: Investigating user activities and the corresponding requirements for information and functions in autonomous vehicles of the future. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 80, 103044 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ergon.2020.103044 2. Choi, J.K., Ji, Y.G.: Investigating the importance of trust on adopting an autonomous vehicle. Int. J. Human-Comput. Interaction 31(10), 692–702 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318. 2015.1070549 3. Alessandrini, A., Alfonsi, R., Site, P.D., Stam, D.: Users’ preferences towards automated road public transport. Transp. Res. Proc. 3, 139–144 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2014. 10.099 4. Bansal, P., Kockelman, K.M., Singh, A.: Assessing public opinions of and interest in new vehicle technologies: an Austin perspective. Transp. Res. Part C: Emerging Technol. 67, 1–14 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2016.01.019 5. Woldeamanuel, M., Nguyen, D.: Perceived benefits and concerns of AV: an exploratory study of millennials’ sentiments of an emerging market. Res. Transp. Econ. 71, 44–53 (2018). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.retrec.2018.06.006

Chapter 49

Framework for Visual Experience in Designing Digital Twin for Smart Cities—Dubai Expo 2020 Perspective Ramesh Manickam , M. B. Padmaavathi, Priyanka Bharti, Afzal Shabaz Mohammed, Jagannayakam Sundaram, and Steffen Appel Abstract The manuscript exhibits the visual experience framework of the digital twin executed at the Dubai Expo 2020. It is a complex digitalization project where the UX design team supported the Expo MindSphere team, in designing the digital twin catering to multi-perspective experiences through visualization and interaction. Dubai Expo consists of various buildings, humongous data points, and KPIs responsible for producing data at every moment. The design challenge was to visualize the data points effectively and efficiently, so that it could be handled and comprehended easily by the team managing it to achieve the goal of sustainability. The problems identified were to compose an experience that helps command and control enabling a bidirectional communication for the end-user. Designing the smart city’s infrastructure without overloading cognition and ease of decision making was also identified as a problem. The challenge was to create a visual experience as a blueprint for future smart cities. Dubai Expo 2020 seamlessly connects the physical and digital. It also includes the spatial awareness in the application through which users can experience the holistic involvement in the Expo space without tangibly interacting with it. Visual design covers the instant visual appeal of moment of experience, visual experience framework extends till creating an emotional arousal creating an engaging, R. Manickam (B) · M. B. Padmaavathi · P. Bharti Siemens Technology, Bangalore, India e-mail: [email protected] M. B. Padmaavathi e-mail: [email protected] P. Bharti e-mail: [email protected] A. S. Mohammed · J. Sundaram · S. Appel Siemens Industrial LLS, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates e-mail: [email protected] J. Sundaram e-mail: [email protected] S. Appel e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_49

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motivational, dependable, memorable, and long-lasting experience that remains as the memory of experiences. Expo MindSphere application is being used by multiple stakeholders like operations team, sustainability team, security team, HSE team in creating meaningful experiences with a sea of data, enhancing visual experiences at every touchpoint across the user journey.

49.1 Introduction Smart cities as a research topic with the expertise developed in digitalization have become a reality in the recent past. Data of the cities, as 3D models with the data layer of live information flowing from the physical assets, paves the way to digitalization and information visualization in real time on the digital version of the physical asset. The digital twin enables the stakeholders to take effective decision making. The visualization is the key to cognitively be aware of the situation, and this paper provides a framework for visual experience and application of that framework on a live project as in Dubai Expo as application of design in practice. Figure 49.1 shows the visuals of the Dubai Expo city in reality and the same experience through multiple devices. The artifacts in the devices were created by this paper authors with visual experience framework.

49.1.1 Dubai Expo, Smart City, Digitalization, and Visual Experience Dubai Expo 2020 is a smart city, built on a ground of 4.38 km2 ; it includes more than 130 smart buildings connected and with them more than 3500 doors and 15,000 cameras. This adds up to more than 200,000 data points. The goal is to become the most sustainable Expo and to serve as a blueprint for future smart cities around the globe. Dubai Expo site is having thousands of visitors visiting to witness the

Fig. 49.1 Digital twin visualization of city—designs created by authors

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Table 49.1 Recent research findings on smart cities and digitalization Research work

Key findings

Mervi Hämäläinen [1]/2021

A Framework for a Smart City Design – Provides a performance optimization framework focusing on strategy and governance

Jakob Trischler and Jessica Westman Trischler Design for experience—a public service design [2]/2021 approach in the age of digitalization – A multilevel user value creation approach to digitalization, user experience, and service design Matthias Finger · Mohamad Razaghi [3] 2016

Conceptualizing ‘Smart Cities’ – From digitalization perspective to smart cities approach through socio-technical systems

Willem van Winden and Luís de Carvalho [4]/2017

Cities and Digitalization – Cover the trends, benefits, and the threats of digitalization in cities

great event. Smart cities optimize performance and services through modern digital technologies [1] (Table 49.1). The designed applications take care of significant aspects for greener earth by facilitating efficient and effective monitoring solutions to attain sustainability in a smart city. The need for achieving sustainable living is the core of the future, due to which design-driven approaches are employed in catering to the diverse requirements with context and time. Expo goals were to make a digitalization framework for sustainability. Further, it needed a digitalization monitoring application which can be used by smart city operators and maintenance engineers. For any smart city to operate efficiently, it needs to satisfy its people and sustainability needs. Our design creates the connecting layer between technologies and people, by effectively leveraging various data [2] and touchpoints available with cognitively crafted designs to help city’s management groups to achieve their goals. Data from sensors were received from various IoT systems in the city is brought to a city’s digital twin through visual experience. The penetration of cities by information and communication technologies is the phenomenon called as digitalization [3] (Table 49.2). By creating 3D models with a layer of data is relating to context eases out the human interaction in decision making for all downstream activities and improves the quality of life [6, 7]. Smart cities with big data pose challenges in the areas of managing data quality, integrating different data, and understanding the needs of citizens [9]. Apart from this, an experiential perspective visualizing the humongous amount of data relating to context for decision making [8] was the design contribution to the Dubai Expo project. Human visual perception, the cognitive understanding, and responses generating an emotional arousal from the use of product or service are defined as visual experience (Table 49.3).

Key findings Digital twin (DT) technologies and Smart Cities – Challenges, guidelines, and expert recommendations are provided for DT application in smart cities Digital twin modeling of smart cities – A framework for building digital city models from information models to support decision making Smart city platform enabling digital twin – Digital twin of city for user participation provided with 3D model to visualize building and information Methodological Framework for Digital Transition & Performance Assessment of Smart cities – Framework for smart cities improving quality of citizen life through digital modeling and performance assessment

Research work

Maryam Farsi, Alireza Daneshkhah [5]/Book 2020

Dessislava Petrova-Antonova and Sylvia Ilieva [6] 384/2021

Timo Ruohomaki, Enni Airaksinen [7] 2018

Dessislava Petrova, Sylvia Ilieva [6]/2020

Table 49.2 Recent research findings on smart cities and digital twin

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Table 49.3 Recent research findings on visual design for smart cities Research work

Key findings

Neshenko et al. [9]/2020

A survey of methods supporting cyber situational awareness in the context of smart cities – Situational awareness in smart cities assisting in decision making

Chiehyeon Lim et al. [9] 2018 Smart Cities with big data: Challenges – Transforming data into information for smart cities – Challenges in smart cities in managing data quality, integrating different data, understanding needs of citizens Fan Yao, Yan Wang [10] 2020 Toward resilient and smart cities: geo-visual system – Increasing response rate through real-time data-driven analytical and geo-visual system through situation awareness

This paper details out a live case study of application of the visual experience and situational awareness frameworks [10], explained with concepts generated for the Expo, validation of the concepts with TOBI eye tracking and finally re-conceptualizing based on feedback to create the final set of visual experiences implemented at the Expo.

49.1.2 Use Case Challenges from Expo Perspective With every new additional sensor, a city can get more data points to take effective decisions, at the same time the sea of data brings an immense cognitive load to the decision-makers and make it difficult for them to exploit the full potential of these modern technologies [9]. • • • •

Expo generates humongous live data through 2,00.000 sensors data points Challenge is fit into a single application using live sensor data + BIM + GIS Help Expo achieve its sustainability goals Keep its visitor experience high.

Although it sounds like a clear solution to create a digital twin of the physical asset to connect them both, it comes with great challenges as it has vast amount of data from different sources of data points must be collected, maintained, and visualized in one single application by different set of personas with different set of tasks for each individual in various modes of devices. The solution must promote sustainable development practices to address growing urbanization challenges. Key Performance Index (KPIs) should be indicating how sustainable our smart city is? What actions must be taken to achieve the maximum sustainability. The person using this application can be anywhere and everywhere, and hence, it needs to be scalable in different set of devices with optimum workflows which is task effective and usable. Anthropological aspects also play an important role. Every idea must be designed

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for users with different cultural backgrounds, different mental models, and different working memory capacity. Application needs to give user a sense of control, and hence intuitiveness must be the driver of this application as the quarter will be visualized in a Digital Twin 3D Model (also on 2D Model) to locate the places/rooms to monitor them. It is essential that the application prioritizes the data and smartly raises the red flag for immediate attention areas where it needs human interventions to manage the event. Data visualization must help in reducing the load off the users by giving them only what is needed.

49.1.3 Visual Experience Framework Smart cities are visualized as digital twins, and there is various literature about performance of digital technologies [1], value creation by user experience [2], information overlay on cities [3], big data challenges in integrating different data [9]. The challenge that is addressed in this paper is about visualization of the humungous amount of data that comes to the digital twin. Siegel (2011) explains visual experience is a kind of conscious mental state. A visual experience is one of the states (among many others) that you are in when you see things. Designing for the conscious state of mind that the user enters when they see things can be categorized as visual experience design. It is not just the ‘look and feel’ but much more than that—it is about creating a memorable encounter for the person interacting or using a product, application or even service. It is the layer of design that elevates the user’s experience to create engaging and exciting encounters. To craft these pleasing experiences, the visual experience framework was developed which starts from the momentary experience as ‘moment of experience,’ till you complete your activity and when looking back thinking about the experience, the positivity that is left as ‘memory of experiences,’ represented in Fig. 49.2.

Fig. 49.2 Visual experience flow framework

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Fig. 49.3 Framework for moment of experience

Visual experience starts from the ‘moment of experience’ as represented in Fig. 49.3, at a glance or a quick fraction of time one should be able to feel the Wow experience. The first few seconds help the user perceive the product’s credibility, trustworthiness, quality, and appeal by looking at a glance. The ‘love at sight’ experience sets a positive context for all further interactions. It has also been established that users are more likely to forgive faults down the line if the initial experience was overwhelmingly positive and encourages positive socialization of the product. Few laws that validate this concept: • Aesthetic Usability Law: Users often perceive aesthetically pleasing design as design that is more usable. • Anchoring: Focus on a single, initial piece of information, which influences how user estimates value and makes subsequent decisions • Primary Effect & Recency Effect: The improved recall of words/experiences at the beginning is called the primary effect; that at the end, the recency effect. To understand the relevance of primary effect and recency effect in this context, let us consider the following two statements: • STATEMENT 01: Steve is smart, diligent, critical, impulsive, and jealous. • STATEMENT 02: Steve is jealous, impulsive, critical, diligent, and smart. These two sentences contain the same information. The first one suggests positive trait at the beginning while the second one has negative traits. Researchers found that the subjects evaluated Steve more positively when given the first sentence, compared with the second one.

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49.2 Research Perspective The design challenge was to visualize the data points effectively and efficiently, so that it could be handled and comprehended easily by the team managing it to achieve the goal of sustainability. Composing an experience with a design that helps command and control enabling a bidirectional communication for the end-user, of the smart city’s infrastructure through a single application without overloading cognition and ease decision making was the problem.

49.2.1 Case Study: Visualization of Concepts and Validation The challenge was to create a visual experience as a blueprint for future smart cities, Dubai Expo 2020 seamlessly connects the physical and digital. It also includes the spatial awareness in the application through which users can experience the holistic involvement in the Expo space without tangibly interacting with it. The chapter summarizes the first set of wireframes (Fig. 49.4) that showcase different compositions and high-fidelity screens (Fig. 49.5) that were developed. The screens (Fig. 49.6) are composed of the overall picture at a high level showcasing the different KPI’s at a glance and then drill down on to specific KPI’s, these were taken for user testing with TOBI eye tracking (Fig. 49.7).

Fig. 49.4 Visual composition layouts

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Fig. 49.5 Visual design concepts

Fig. 49.6 Visual design of a typical dashboard

Fig. 49.7 Design validation with TOBI—heat maps

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49.2.2 Application of VX Framework Defining Experiences With the results of the testing, another round of reconceptualization exercise was done. The validation showed the interest toward the 3D views, so in the final design, the 3D model was brought to the center stage (Fig. 49.8). The digital twin of the Expo pavilion as a 3D model was overlaid with the sustainability KPI parameters like electricity, waste generation, and air quality. The objective of monitoring the Expo sustainability parameters was visualized creating a digital twin of the city with evident product purpose of visualizing the sustainability parameters (Fig. 49.9) and persona purpose of maintaining the Expo and take quick decision making based on the KPI visualization. The brand perspective of Siemens and Expo was reinforced with visual elements that define the Expo personality (Fig. 49.10). Drill down on the KPI’s was overlaid on the main screen to give a seamless interaction experience with less cognitive load. The information to reduce the cognitive load was layered (Fig. 49.11) and presented to the user for ease of understanding. Situational awareness framework of perception—recognizing the problem, comprehension—understanding the problem and projection—project consequences of the problem was used as the information overlay. Expo MindSphere application is being used by multiple stakeholders like operations team, sustainability team, security team, HSE team in creating meaningful experiences with a sea of data, enhancing visual experiences at every touchpoint across the user journey.

Fig. 49.8 Digital twin visualization of city

Fig. 49.9 Sustainability KPI visualization

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Fig. 49.10 Visual design inspiration image map and typical screens

Fig. 49.11 Visual layering of layouts

The visual design covers the instant visual appeal of moment of experience, visual experience framework extends till creating an emotional arousal creating an engaging, motivational, dependable, memorable, and long-lasting experience of usage of the Expo application that remains as the memory of experiences.

49.3 Contributions and Conclusion The human-centered design approach by visual experience framework brings forth a novel perspective for the varied users looking to operate and manage a smart city in a sustainable manner. By using the right approaches, such as bringing Live Sensor Data superimposed on BIM and GIS models, the designs help uncover new insights into city performance that otherwise might be missed when these data are viewed individually. The visual experience framework contribution deconstructs the experiences. The model acts as a guideline to develop engaging experiences, starting from the ‘moment of experience,’ till the ‘memory of experiences’ that gives a long-lasting impression. Application of this design framework on a live Dubai Expo, smart city digitalization project. This paper contributes to how this problem was solved. The paper also gives a realistic picture of the events that happened during the design phase from the first set of iterations till design validation. Based on the TOBI testing, reconceptualization with the visual experience framework of the updated designs is presented

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which are the final set of screens that have been implemented now at Dubai Expo 2020.

References 1. Hämäläinen, M.: A framework for a smart city design: digital transformation in the Helsinki Smart City. In: Contributions to Management Science, pp. 63–86 (2019) 2. Trischler, J., Westman Trischler, J.: Design for experience—a public service design approach in the age of digitalization. In: Public Management Review, pp. 1–20 (2021) 3. Finger, M., Razaghi, M.: Conceptualizing “smart cities.” Informatik-Spektrum 40(1), 6–13 (2016) 4. Cities and Digitalization: How Digitalization Changes Cities (2017) 5. Springer International Publishing: (n.d.) Digital Twin Technologies and Smart Cities. SpringerLink. Retrieved 22 June 2022 6. Petrova-Antonova, D., Ilieva, S.: Digital Twin Modeling of Smart Cities. SpringerLink (1970). Retrieved 22 June 2022 7. Ruohomaki, T., Airaksinen, E.: Smart city platform enabling digital twin. In: 2018 International Conference on Intelligent Systems (IS) (2018) 8. Neshenko, N., Nader, C.: A survey of methods supporting cyber situational awareness in the context of Smart Cities. J. Big Data 7(1) (2020) 9. Lim, C., Kim, K.-J.: Smart cities with big data: reference models, challenges, and considerations. Cities 82, 86–99 (2018) 10. Yao, F., Wang, Y.: Towards resilient and smart cities: a real-time urban analytical and geo-visual system for social media streaming data. Sustain. Cities Soc. 63, 102448 (2020)

Chapter 50

A Conceptual Framework for Conversational Human-AI Interaction Design (CHAI) Shridhar Marri

Abstract Artificial intelligence is transforming the sociocultural and economic fabric of the world today, paving the way to a new era of Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI). Being embryonic in its evolution, CHAI poses a broad range of challenges, opportunities, and perspectives, rendering any existing general design frameworks, models and approaches insufficient and ineffective. With the advent of generative technologies such as ChatGPT built on Large Language Models, AI has begun to emulate human cognitive ability in handling seamless multi-turn conversations while traversing interchangeable contexts with humanlike dexterity. At this backdrop, Human-AI interaction has become one of the most complex emerging fields of design today with an urgency to prioritize widespread research studies. As the field lacks requisite standards, guidelines, and benchmarks, we have undertaken an exploratory study through qualitative methods and proposed a conceptual framework for Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI) considering the challenges, opportunities, and perspectives surrounding this nascent yet invigorating field. The framework identifies and integrates the principles of CHAI within the larger latitude of contextual, sociocultural, and psychological dimensions. The proposed conceptual framework attempts to act as a stepping-stone for further research in validating and extending it to a broader range of industries, applications, and usage scenarios.

50.1 Introduction Today, smart speakers engage people with news, jokes, and stories. Maps direct you with step-by-step instructions to your destination. Machines diagnose themselves and tell you what is wrong with them. We can easily imagine a future where AI would provide career advice, negotiate a deal on your behalf, pull you out of depression, and even engage in an intellectual exchange of ideas. But currently, with the sole exception of ChatGPT, Human-AI conversational interfaces do not sound humanlike S. Marri (B) National Institute of Design, Paldi, Ahmedabad, Gujarat 380007, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_50

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beyond a couple of turns. Due to a lack of systematic approach to facilitate design and development of Conversational Human-AI Interaction, users get disillusioned and frustrated with their efficacy and poor experience. The research question therefore is, what could be a design approach that makes Human-AI interaction effective and engaging while integrating sociocultural, economic, and psychological dimensions. Although human–computer interaction (HCI) has been explored and studied thoroughly in the past, the same is not true with Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI). As recent debates in CHAI focused only on generic directions with broad brushstrokes, an in-depth study of CHAI, its drivers, dimensions, approaches, and challenges leading to a discussion and analysis has become critical. This paper presents the state of the art in Conversational Human-AI Interaction, highlights the significant gaps, and establishes the need for design approaches. From this backdrop with a qualitative study, a conceptual framework for Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI) is proposed for further research and exploration. It was also clear from the study that CHAI needs inputs from various fields such as design, behavioral sciences, linguistics, and psychology, to imbibe a richer humanlike experience. And design practice could potentially be the fulcrum to advance this transdisciplinary field of Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI).

50.2 Art of Conversation Conversation is central to understanding humanity. Historians estimate that humans invented language about 50,000 years ago which anthropologist Richard Klein called the dawn of human culture [1]. Conversations are the cornerstone of human cooperation which set in motion the progress of human civilization. Conversational skill turned us into a social being with an extraordinary impact on the evolution of society and thereby human behavior. Conversations range from light, small talk to an intellectual exchange of knowledge. Writers, historians, and researchers have studied human conversations extensively and proclaimed that conversations not only help us exchange ideas but also teach us about human nature. Throughout our lives, we indulge in millions of conversations of various types at work, home, and play. In all these conversations, we follow certain unwritten rules, open-ended guidelines, and fluid conventions. Having evolved over millennia, human languages are extremely varied and complex in structure, grammar, and expression. Resilience threshold of human languages is also very high and malleable. Hence, human conversations tend to be complex, nuanced, and spontaneous.

50.3 Human-to-Human (H2H) Conversations—What Makes Them Effective and Engaging? While human-to-human conversations appear seemingly simple and easy to engage in, there is a vast set of characteristics that make them effective and engaging. Several

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researchers tried to understand the nuances of human-to-human conversations and attempted to outline their characteristics. While conversation typically is an exchange between two people, there is more than meets the eye to make them work. Martin Warren in his extensive research on naturalness in conversation [2] studied a list of seven principles proposed by John Sinclair and added two additional principles. These nine principles are, namely multiple sources, determination, language as doing, cooperation, unfolding, open-endedness, artefacts, inexplicitness, and shared responsibility. Apart from these generic principles, there is a whole array of features that make conversations effective and engaging. For example, silences enrich a conversation as much as the utterances. Sacks et al. defined pauses, gaps, and lapses in human conversation as three kinds of acoustic silences [3]. Overlaps or barge-ins are another naturally occurring phenomenon in human-to-human conversations. Interjections such as ah!, uh!, oh!, huh!, ouch! are another salient feature of human-to-human conversations. People also mix conversations with jokes and storytelling. Researchers have also pointed out that non-verbal cues such as gestures, eye contact, body language, and personality traits enrich human conversations further. Someone turning away her face, a twitch in the eye, a subtle smile, an abrupt frown, or a casual shrug have significant contextual meaning. They express far more than just verbal communication. Human conversation is conducted based on certain implicitly understood and tacitly acknowledged rules. Even breaking away from these rules have interpretations. Sometimes no response in a human conversation could mean one of the speakers is sulking or angry, and subtext plays a critical role as well. Sarcasm, humor, or flirting make conversations even richer and more complex. Prosodic elements such as intonation, stress, inflection, and expressivity also carry essential emotional cues. Affability can be traced through politeness, empathy, and niceties. Human-to-human conversations are also highly context driven, and that context is inherently intelligible to the participants. Context provides implicit cues for much wider meaning and connotation. Changing the subject and digression handling are two other crucial factors in human conversation. All these aspects contribute to making human-to-human conversations effective, engaging, and fundamentally humanlike. While there is a vast body of knowledge in each of these specific areas, the current research landscape does not provide a holistic view of these disparate elements into a cohesive set of attributes. Obviously, these attributes are far from being used in today’s Conversational Human-AI Interactions (CHAI) and hence rendering them subhuman or machine-like.

50.4 State of the Art in Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI) Artificial intelligence (AI) has finally poised for explosive growth after a couple of AI winters between 1960s through 1990s. The drivers for this new advancement include rapid progression of new technologies such as speech recognition, ML, DL, NLP, NLU, and NLG, access to higher computing power with GPUs/TPUs, and

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cloud-based infrastructure. Mounting pressure on human capital and rising costs in deploying humans on mundane and repetitive tasks, extreme ease of use offered by natural language interfaces with zero learning curve, the ability of AI systems to learn from user interaction, further provide the impetus. It is at this backdrop, Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI) assumes much significance. While conversations are historically defined as face-to-face spoken exchange of dialog between two speakers, that definition is now extended far beyond its narrow confines. Conversations today include a whole range of communications ranging from phone conversations, online chat conversations, video calls, messaging/texting, and device conversations. And even the exchange of dialog has gone beyond human-to-human speakers and now includes human-to-human, human-to-machine, human-to-application, and even human-to-organization/enterprise. Inanimate objects ranging from appliances to automobiles and private/public spaces such as homes and airports can also potentially hold a conversation with humans by integrating with IOT and backend systems. For a field that is poised to transform the way we work, learn, and play, the current research seems fragmented and disparate. Human–computer interface (HCI) on the other hand has been around ever since computers were invented, and there are exhaustive set of models, guidelines, and frameworks available for HCI practitioners. The abysmally low research footprint in Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI) can be attributed to fast-paced emergence of this space amidst cutting-edge technological changes altering the course of its evolution. HCI focuses broadly on understanding requirements, generating designs, and evaluating designs, and hence it does not seem suitable for the wide spectrum needs of CHAI. While there is a lot of ongoing research revolving around technologies such as NLU, AI, ML, and speech recognition, the opportunities and challenges that this field poses for design have not been studied extensively. Only notable research done by Amershi et al. [4] proposed a set of eighteen general guidelines for Human-AI Interaction. These guidelines, however, are highlevel directives (e.g., “show contextually relevant information” or “remember recent interactions”) and hence do not provide a holistic approach to Human-AI interaction design. Besides, since Conversational Human-AI (CHAI) Interaction demands neither additional cognitive load nor a new learning curve they require a paradigm shift in thinking. As CHAI is also expected to handle multimodal, multi-channel, and multilingual interaction with one-to-many, one-to-one, and many-to-one conversations simultaneously, the need for new design approaches, models, and frameworks becomes paramount. Proactive engagement is seen as another key guiding spirit of CHAI, and hence it transcends the reactive interaction paradigm of HCI. Besides, CHAI offers tremendous benefits to humanity at large as it has the power to break the access barriers of technology for billions of underserved people. It can enable people with zero computer literacy to seamlessly interact with machines in a language of choice and bridge the digital divide between technology “haves and have-nots.” CHAI can also liberate humans from the drudgery of repetitive tasks and enable them to focus on more creative and analytical tasks. Hence, it has become imperative for CHAI to be a stand-alone field drawn from its HCI and Design Thinking ancestry and yet infused with several new disciplines making it a transdisciplinary field of importance.

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50.5 Methodology In this exploratory research, we used content analysis [5] as the qualitative methodology to determine the presence of words, themes, and concepts, analyzed their relationships, and made inferences within the given qualitative data. Content analysis is a well-established research method and has evolved over the decades in its treatment of unstructured data. The methodology helped us identify the intent of the user, purpose of interaction, and reveal patterns in content and communication. Once the conclusions were drawn and insights generated, we used expert reviews to further complement and enhance the insights. Here is an outline of the six-stage methodology. Data Collection: As part of this phase, data was collected from three primary sources. First, a large corpus of 100,000+ Human-AI conversations from the financial services industry comprising a large corporate bank in India, a mid-sized financial services company in India and a small insurance company in Indonesia, were collected. Second, 67 sample audio recordings of call center data comprising human-to-human conversations from a large bank were also collected. Determine the Coding Categories: Based on the research question, coding categories were determined in order to ascertain latent and manifest intentions from the conversational data. Code the Content: The data is categorized and analyzed in order to ascertain useful information, draw inferences, discover themes, and find patterns. Draw Conclusions and Map Insights: Key insights around themes, concepts, and related dimensions were generated from the data analysis. The insights were then grouped into distinct categories and established relationships. Expert Review: Insights mapped along with their conceptual relationships were presented in a conceptual framework which was examined and discussed by a panel of three design experts. Synthesis and Integration: Based on the feedback collated from the experts, the insights were further realigned and the conceptual framework was refined in an iterative process.

50.6 Purpose of Conversation Design is an applied discipline, and its purpose is “to change existing situations into preferred ones” [6]. On the other hand, conversations are a result of social activity embedded in social structures and hence require interpretation. From these two vantage points, it would be necessary to understand the purpose of conversation even before attempting to define its evolving nature and emerging applications. The broad purpose of conversation is to understand the intent, behavior, motivation, thoughts, ideas, and actions of its participants. In this process, participants make inferences, assumptions, and judgments to draw conclusions not only about the persons involved, their skills, abilities, and expectations but also their

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sociocultural and economic situations. For this, they use tone, intonation, subtext, gestures, facial expressions, gaze, pauses, silences, posture, etc. We indulge in several types of conversations all through the day across our life. And in every conversation, intents are expressed, meanings are deciphered, interpretation figured out and response delivered, and the perpetual cycle continues without it ever becoming dull or repetitive. Understanding the purpose of conversation obviously is vital whether you are bargaining for a better price or resolving a concern facing a family member. Even casual water cooler conversations have an underlying purpose to connect with other people and exchange thoughts. Conscious understanding of the purpose of conversation makes it useful in the context of study and design of CHAI.

50.7 Classification of Conversations We traced a few attempts in the past at categorizing conversations. Wangel, David grouped conversations into four types, as Debate, Dialogue, Discourse, and Diatribe [7]. Clark, Leigh classified the purpose of conversation into two broad categories, namely social purposes and transactional purposes [8]. Both these are generic classifications and are not sufficient in the context of Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI) design. This gap in the current research is notable. As part of this study, we have gone through a corpus of 100,000+ Human-AI conversations in financial services and unearthed a range of four conversation types, namely request, inquiry, complaint, and advisory. These are further broken down into 33 subcategories. Further, investigation with user groups revealed that this preliminary classification still has limitations and cannot be used in certain specific contexts. For example, negotiating for a better price, or conducting a transaction require completely different approaches. Conversation contexts like these could not be fitted into the four main categories and 33 subcategories. Besides, this preliminary classification is still not aligned to “purpose” of a conversation. For example, making a complaint is not the purpose in itself, as seeking a resolution is the real purpose of making a complaint. With this insight, we have aligned the preliminary categories to a multitude of human needs both professional and personal arriving at an overarching Purpose-Driven Conversation Typology with 12 conversation archetypes.

50.8 Purpose-Driven Conversation Typology You can make or break relationships, heal personal ills, solve problems, brighten up a moment, or even inspire social movements through conversations. The 12 conversation archetypes defined below as part of the Purpose-Driven Conversation Typology can cover a wide array of conversations. The 12 archetypes have also been plotted along a scale of complexity from low to high based on the skills required to conduct these conversations along with the breadth and depth of knowledge mandated. While

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each archetype has its own unique approach, operating procedure, and inherent stylistics, the outcome of a conversation depends on the competency levels of the participants. Understanding these archetypes would help in unlocking the potential of these conversations even as technology makes rapid strides in increasing its own competency in handling these archetypes. Currently, CHAI is mostly dabbling in three of these archetypes such as informational, promotional, and transactional at best, driven by early adopter industries such as financial services. There are a few successful attempts at casual conversations with the development of Generative Pretrained Transformer-3 (GPT-3) technology. But not only AI technology, even humans are not adept at handling rest of the 8 archetypes. They require special skills, training, and talent. But these archetypes with emerging rapid strides in technology will forever alter our relationship with technology (Table 50.1). An explanation of these archetypes with examples is provided below. Informational Conversation: Conversation that helps with requests for specific information. Probably the simplest of all conversational archetypes, e.g., seeking flight timings. Promotional Conversation: Conversation that aims to create awareness about a product/service or entity/topic. Mostly used to draw attention to a specific aspect, e.g., marketing communication. Transactional Conversation: Conversation that helps fulfill tasks and get stuff done through transactions, e.g., transferring money or making a payment. Casual Conversation: Pleasantries, lighthearted chitchat, or small talk over coffee, e.g., water cooler conversations in the office or between strangers on a train. Analytical Conversation: Conversation intended to analyze a problem, interpret, and find patterns, e.g., institutional settings such as courtrooms, police stations, or job interviews. Table 50.1 Twelve conversational archetypes

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Resolution Conversation: Conversation that helps find resolutions to various grievances, complaints, or problems faced by people, e.g., credit card overcharge or data roaming not working. Persuasion Conversation: Conversation aimed at influencing someone to take an action or believe in something, e.g., sales conversations or debates for policy changes. Advisory Conversation: Conversation to make suggestions, provide recommendations, and offer advice, e.g., career advice for students or investment advice for professionals. Educational Conversation: Conversations conducted to teach, educate, or train people to impart or enhance their knowledge and skills, e.g., classroom teaching or washing machine instructions. Negotiation Conversation: Conversation to achieve beneficial outcomes regarding one or more issues borne out of conflict, e.g., bargaining for a better price or international peace talks. Motivational Conversation: Conversation that helps arrive at outcomes like improved performance, enhanced wellbeing, personal growth, or a sense of purpose, e.g., to win the world cup. Intellectual Conversation: Conversations that help people engage in critical thinking and reflect on society including politics, religion, art, or philosophy, e.g., debate on capital punishment. We expect these 12 archetypes to help in situating existing conversations accurately and assist in designing future conversations appropriately. These archetypes are not mutually exclusive, and they tend to overlap with each other. Depending on the situation, one archetype meanders into another while co-existing with one or transforming into another. These conversation archetypes could be further mapped to respective skillsets, competency levels, and their quintessential structures. In order to arrive at independent structures for each of the archetypes, it was essential to study and assess the possibility of formulating a generic conversation construct first.

50.9 Generic Conversation Construct A generic conversation construct with basic elements can provide a common spine, and it can be further modified to suit the 12 conversational archetypes. While some researchers have suggested the conversations contain initiation, preview, talking points, feedback, and conclusion, Fred Dust proposed creative conversations for making social impact and proposed seven Cs of conversations, namely commitment, creative listening, clarity, context, constraints, change, and creation [9]. Winograd and Flores [10] proposed a structure to the conversational action between people in organizations with three outcome modes: agree, decline, or counteroffer. Goutsos [11] proposed a generic schema for IRC two-party messages with speech acts by the initiator and responder. As these early examples are not close enough to a generic

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Table 50.2 Generic conversation construct

conversation construct, this research study analyzed 67 call center logs and discovered common patterns in them. Based on these patterns, a generic conversation construct is proposed that can be used as a wireframe to further map the needs of all 12 conversation archetypes and arrive at different constructs for each of them (Table 50.2).

50.10 Conversation Value Dimensions Understandably research in tracing the value dimensions of Conversational HumanAI Interaction is even more rudimentary than the design approaches. Coppola et al. [12] have synthesized their research into four main macro-categories: relationship, conversation, application usability, and application metrics. While some researchers suggested a few limited evaluation methods, there is no articulation of value dimensions for Human-AI conversations yet. To address this gap, we have studied five key methods of research, namely conversation analysis, discourse analysis, interactional sociolinguistics, discursive psychology, and critical discourse analysis to explore possible emergence of a set of value dimensions. From these five methods, we have collated the value dimensions covering a broad range of topics with increasing complexity from mechanics of interaction to power dynamics. While the current Human-AI interactions have not even evolved to address all the aspects of mechanics of interaction, this matrix would potentially guide the next phases of evolution of CHAI (Table 50.3).

Table 50.3 Conversation value dimensions

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50.11 Conceptual Framework for Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI) Jabareen [13] defined conceptual framework as a network of interlinked concepts providing a comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon with each concept playing a representative role. A framework proposed by Moore et al. [14] for natural conversational AI suggests a sequence-based interaction model, reusable modules of common conversational activities, a conversation navigation method, and a set of metrics to measure effectiveness in terms of sequence organization. This framework is found to be more tactical and operates at the intersection of mechanics of interaction. Several strategic aspects of Human-AI interaction do not get featured in this framework. The framework proposed by Telang et al. [15] for engineering chatbots deals with the subject even more technically with a technical architecture depiction. We have tried to address the conceptual framework synthesizing various insights by defining their relationships to the main concepts expressed in the insight generation stage. Four distinct facets assume significance in the framework proposed by us. 1. The Purpose-Driven Conversation Typology with 12 conversation archetypes lays the foundation for this framework. This typology helps situate most conversations between humans and AI in the present or future. Each of these archetypes comes with their own conversation constructs that define generic structures for those archetypal conversations. These constructs act as wireframes to design conversation flows for a broad range of use cases. 2. Conversational value dimensions drawn from five different research methods influence the 12 conversation archetypes while bringing together a wide range of concepts and their relationships on a progressive value scale. The five stages begin with mechanics of interaction, contextual setting, sociocultural situation, psychological implications, and power dynamics. Mechanics of interaction helps in designing the turn-taking organization, adjacency pairs, sequencing, repair, and implicatures. The second stage helps in arriving at the situated meaning through contextual and textual analysis. The third stage involves identifying the sociocultural context through conversation cues, framing, and footing. The fourth stage helps take a closer look at the psychological implications such as emotion, behavior, attitudes, and responsibilities while understanding the versions of reality from the perspective of age and gender. The fifth stage helps in ensuring that the practitioners carefully evaluate the significance of a conversation from the realm of values and beliefs. This final stage aims to decipher and understand the power dynamics of a conversation to ensure fairness. 3. The third important facet of the proposed framework is the seven overarching principles of Human-AI interaction. These principles, collated from insights, data analysis, interviews, and prior research provide a consolidation of concepts that Human-AI interaction is concerned with. These seven principles are, namely engagement, intelligence, expertise, personality, ethics, emotion, and empathy. All these principles directly influence the Human-AI interaction and determine its efficacy, effectiveness, and influence.

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4. Finally, Dialog Systems comprising of structure, domain and action are proposed to help establish specific conversational constructs for different domains and situations. These Conversational Interaction Constructs can ultimately have a multiexperience manifestation across channels, devices, machines, spaces, avatars, robotics, and immersive worlds. Thus, the framework establishes causal relationships between the concepts with one-to-one and one-to-many relationships. Finally, a feedback loop across the framework helps analyze, diagnose, retrain, and revise the interactions continuously. The proposed framework tries to address the needs of both abstraction, specificity, and relationships of entities. This allows design practitioners to make informed design decisions both at conceptual and implementation levels in designing effective and engaging Human-AI interactions (Fig. 50.1).

50.12 Conclusion We proposed a conceptual framework for Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI) interlinking several related concepts and depicting their associations. The study has presented the state of the art in Human-AI Interaction from the current fragmented research and drew attention to the significant shortcomings and highlighted the missing approaches in this space. The four key drawbacks discovered were, the lack of a distinct and well-defined classification of conversations, lack of clear mapping of value dimensions, lack of a comprehensive articulation of salient principles of Human-AI interaction, and lack of Dialog Systems that stitch together structure, domain, and action of a conversation. The proposed framework consolidates all these relevant concepts and organizes them according to their interrelationships. The central component of the Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI) framework is the Purpose-Driven Conversation Typology with 12 conversation archetypes. Second, a five-stage progressive scale of Conversation Value Dimensions to help determine the mechanics of interaction, contextual setting, sociocultural situation, psychological implications, and power dynamics. Third, seven principles of HumanAI Interaction with 33 attributes were identified to act as overarching guideposts for design practitioners. Fourth, Dialog Systems are established with the combination of structure, domain, and action resulting in specific Conversational Interaction Constructs. Thus, the proposed framework addresses the research question to make Human-AI interaction effective and engaging while integrating sociocultural, economic, and psychological dimensions. As the framework aims to augment the work of design practitioners, technologists, industry, and academia, further testing will provide the basis to improve the model and its associate components.

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Fig. 50.1 Conceptual framework for Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI)

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50.13 Future Work While initial discussions with design practitioners suggest that the framework is suitable for reimagining the transdisciplinary field of Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI), additional research work needs to be carried out to harmonize and optimize the framework for applications in different industry sectors and usage scenarios. Supplemental research work also needs to be undertaken to originate design pedagogy for Conversational Human-AI Interaction (CHAI) and formulate skill sets and training required for aspiring practitioners.

References 1. Miller, S.: Conversation: A History of a Declining Art. Yale University Press, Print (2007) 2. Warren, M.: Features of Naturalness in Conversation. J. Benjamins, Amsterdam , Print (2006) 3. Sacks, H., et al.: A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking for conversation. Language 50(4), 696–735 (1974) (JSTOR). https://doi.org/10.2307/412243 4. Amershi, S., et al.: Guidelines for Human-AI interaction. In: Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ‘19). Association for Computing Machinery, New York (2019). https://doi.org/10.1145/3290605.3300233 5. Krippendorff, K.: Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, Print (2004) 6. Simon, H.A.: The Sciences of the Artificial. M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Print (1969) 7. Wangel, D.: The Four Types of Conversations: Debate, Dialogue, Discourse, and Diatribe. https://davidwangel.com/the-opportune-conflict/2016/12/28/the-four-types-of-conversationsdebate-dialogue-discourse-and-diatribe, Chicago 2016 8. Leigh, C., et al.: What makes a good conversation? Challenges in designing truly conversational agents. In: CHI ‘19: Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (2019) 9. Dust, F.: Making Conversation: Seven Essential Elements of Meaningful Communication. HarperCollins, USA (2020) 10. Flores, F., et al.: Computer systems and the design of organizational interaction. ACM Trans. Office Inf. Syst. 6(2), 153–72 (1988) 11. Goutsos, D.: The interaction of generic structure and interpersonal relations in two-party e-chat discourse. Language@internet, 2, article 3 (2005) (urn:nbn:de:0009-7-1885) 12. Coppola, R., Ardito, L.: Quality assessment methods for textual conversational interfaces: a multivocal literature review. In: Information (2021) 13. Jabareen, Y.: Building a conceptual framework: philosophy, definitions, and procedure. Int. J. Qual. Methods 8, 49–62 (2009) 14. Moore, R.J., et al.: Conversational UX design: a practitioner’s guide to the natural conversation framework. In: Association for Computing Machinery, New York (2019) 15. Telang, P.R., et al.: A conceptual framework for engineering chatbots. In: IEEE Internet Computing, vol. 22, no. 6 (2018)

Chapter 51

Design Guidelines for an Immersive Auditory Experience Ganesh Kailas and Nachiketa Tiwari

Abstract Even though the metaverse is gaining attention from numerous industry domains, auditory aspects of immersive experience design are often overlooked. Realistic three-dimensional audio scenes are lynchpins in most metaverse applications. Design guidelines for creating auditory elements in three-dimensional virtual scenes are necessary for an engaging experience. However, the literature is sparse on it. This work proposes a set of design principles for assessing spatial audio scenes efficiently and effectively. Various insights have been collected through qualitative data analysis. Comprehensive contextual interviews of experts, stakeholders, and users have been conducted to gather information and understand pain points in the audio design process. An organized and systematic qualitative investigation was conducted using a prototype-based semi-structured technique for user interviews and the Delphi methodology for expert interviews. Adoptable components from visual design guidelines have been identified through a meta-analysis of psychological principles and existing heuristic principles. Such extracted knowledge has been combined to formulate audio design guidelines that can establish consistency and cohesiveness in the immersive auditory experience.

51.1 Introduction Our lives have been fundamentally redesigned as a result of the COVID pandemic in various ways. One among them is the transition of many of our real-world activities to their digital equivalents called metaverse. A growing number of applications have recognized the value of providing users with an engaging virtual experience. The trend has been accelerated by the emergence of cost-effective head-mounted virtual reality (VR) systems. As a result of an increase in requirements and use cases, the G. Kailas (B) · N. Tiwari Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, India e-mail: [email protected] N. Tiwari e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_51

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metaverse has begun to gain a significant amount of momentum. The use of auditory senses, in addition to one’s visual senses, is crucial to the process of creating a metaverse experience that feels realistic. Although the field of user experience design is expanding quickly, there are still few works that are specifically focused on the virtual reality environment. The available design guidelines and heuristic principles for immersive experiences are focused mainly on the visual elements of the virtual space [1–4]. Most works undervalue the importance of the aural senses in creating realistic immersion. Numerous research indicates that spatial audio scenes have a significant impact on how users perceive space in all three dimensions [5–9]. These have been discussed in several studies that have attempted to examine the current state of the art for audible interactions in virtual reality [10–12]. However, only limited attempts have been made to understand more about spatial audio components in these virtual environments [13]. An overall design framework that assists audio designers and usability specialists in creating and evaluating user experiences for auditory elements is relatively scarce in the existing body of research. In this work, a set of design guidelines for creating auditory elements in threedimensional virtual scenes is proposed. In-depth contextual interviews with specialists and stakeholders using the Delphi approach have been done to collect data and identify areas that cause pain in the audio design process. To better understand how spatial audio is perceived, semi-structured user interviews were exercised to undertake a qualitative analysis of the listeners’ subjective experiences with the prototype of spatial audio scenes. As an outcome of this, a set of design guidelines for auditory elements in virtual scenes that adhere to Nielsen’s design guidelines [14] for visual elements has been developed.

51.2 Design Research Objectives The term ‘design guidelines’ refers to collections of recommendations that aim to promote ‘good practice’ in the field of design. They are meant to give designers and developers specific guidance on how to apply particular principles, like intuitiveness, discoverability, effectiveness, and uniformity. These frameworks help designers to provide a compelling experience. However, there are no established design guidelines for audio designers to adhere to in order to create successful spatial auditory environments. Auditory perception does not always follow the same rules as vision does. One viable strategy to comprehend spatial audio design is to engage in a group communication process with experts and stakeholders to reach a reliable consensus on multidimensional sounds and how they are perceived. Enquiring users about their immersive aural experiences is another potential strategy for the same. Contextual inquiry is a field data collection technique used to capture detailed information about how users of a product interact with it [15].

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The key research objectives of the contextual user study presented in this work are: (1) Design considerations that should be addressed when creating immersive experiences based on spatial audio (2) The development of a set of design guidelines that provide a systematic approach to dealing with those design considerations.

51.3 Organization of Design Research Methodology Two stages of qualitative research have been constructed. (i) Expert/Stakeholder interviews (ii) User interviews.

51.3.1 Expert/Stakeholder Interviews—Delphi Technique In this study, the popular Delphi technique is employed to conduct contextual interviews with experts and stakeholders to collect the most pertinent insights. It is a technique that was initially employed in warfare but has widespread application as a structured qualitative tool in design research, forecasting studies, and the medical fields [16–20]. The Research and Development (RAND) Corporation [16, 18] created the Delphi approach in the late 1950s as a means of enabling a group of individuals to collaboratively handle a complex problem through a structured and organized group communication process without physically bringing participants together. It is a method of deriving information from experts using their opinions. In most cases, the technique requires iteration, controlled and consistent feedback among participants, maintenance of anonymity, and the aggregation of group responses. Delphi eliminates some of the problems that are inherent in other qualitative research approaches (such as panel discussions and focus group studies), including dominant personalities, pressure from the group, and non-relevant data. The critical steps in the procedure are—identifying experts, establishing the research objectives, conducting round-robin interviews, consolidating findings at each round, and analyzing and concluding the final results. In this study, a three-step Delphi technique was utilized to conduct interviews with specialists from the fields of spatial audio, including three audio designers (AD1-AD3) and five researchers (AR1-AR5). They all have a minimum of 1.5 years of experience in the field. To communicate with the participants, both offline and online approaches are used. With the aid of the literature and early brainstorming sessions held among the facilitators, the initial interview script was created. Simple and open-ended questions were included in the script. The following template was the primary focus of the questions during the first round of interviews:

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(1) Tell us about your observations, thoughts, and ideas on how sounds are perceived spatially and their significance. (2) Can you talk about your experiences with virtual spatial audio scenes? (3) What aspects would you consider while producing these spatial audio scenes for a product? Participants’ responses covered a wide range of topics, including ‘presence’ and ‘immersion’ of the spatial audio scenes as well as the technical difficulties in developing engaging experiences. The following are some interesting statements that were noted from both their opinions and their responses: EO1: ‘Even though research is being conducted in this area, the audio design industry hasn’t really paid attention to it yet.’ (from the responses from AD1,3). EO2: ‘I think it’s hard to make smooth 3D audio rendering work practically. Lag can ruin the listening experience in a big way.’ (AD3, AR2). EO3: ‘I’ve used some spatial audio rendering plugins, but I’ve never made anything valuable with them’ (AD2). EO4: ‘Some listeners may not like spatial audio because it may disturb them and give more cognitive overload while listening’ (AD2). EO5: ‘The measurement of HRTF, which is a person-specific function used in creating binaural spatial audio, is very complicated and challenging’ (AR1-AR5). EO6: ‘When designing audio scenes or researching on signal processing, you need to pay attention to how a sound source moves’ (AD1, AR2,4). EO7: Environment design is an important criterion (AR1, 3-4, AD2-3)’. These insights are presented to the same set of participants in the second round of the Delphi procedure while maintaining anonymity. These presented opinions prompted the participants to make more introspective and thoughtful comments in the second round. Responses to some concerns, such as cognitive overload during virtual spatial listening (EO4), were mixed. While some of them voiced the opinion that virtual spatial audio might lead to an increase in cognitive overload, others claimed that this wouldn’t be the case because the real world is multidimensional. A final set of insights has been produced after a detailed analysis of the responses. Following are the key takeaways from the second-round expert interviews: EO8: Even though three-dimensional hearing may cause cognitive overload, listeners are accustomed to that in real-world situations. So it’s safe to state that listeners won’t experience any additional strain as a result of three-dimensional sound. However, keeping the virtual scenes simple and realistic is important. Additionally, it is essential to consider the cocktail party effect [21] while designing for auditory immersion to imitate the real-world situation and reduce the cognitive load (AD3, AR1-3, 5). EO9: The location of the sound source must be accurate, and their movement must be taken into account. Creating realistic scenes also requires careful consideration of the environment. There aren’t many tools for an objectoriented audio design that can simplify these dynamic designs (AD1-3, AR5). EO10: Virtual reality applications using portable devices are becoming more and more popular. However, spatial audio played through headphones depends on person-specific information, which is a considerable challenge (AR2-4). EO11: Sound features like pitch, frequency, clarity, timbre, and intensity significantly impact the immersive listening experience. The impact can be more in spatial audio due to a higher signal processing load (AD1-2, AR2-4).

The user interviews, as outlined in the following section, were conducted before the Delphi procedure’s third round.

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51.3.2 User Interviews The prototype-based semi-structured user interview was carried out with a total of 23 participants. Before participating in the interviews, users listened to two types of spatial audios played through headphones: 360-degree music and interactive storytelling audio [22]. Both physical and online communication methods were employed to capture the responses. All the listeners used headphones which has similar technical specifications. None of them have known hearing issues. The user interview questions were based on the below-mentioned template. (1) (2) (3) (4)

Talk to us about your experience with two audios you have just listened. Are you going to put yourself through this once more? Were you able to spot the locations of the sound you heard? What haven’t we asked you that you think would be valuable for us to know?

The following observations were made after analyzing the user responses. UC1: Most listeners responded positively with the immersive experience that the headphone-based spatial audio offered. UC2: Some users could not hear the sound in the correct locations, and some others heard most sounds inside their heads. UC3: Some users had the opinion that the movement of the sound sources was too rapid and repetitive, which is something that does not happen very often in real life. UC4: There were users who expressed their dissatisfaction with the lack of environmental design. They had the impression that it was unreal because it lacked natural echo. UC5:- At times, the clarity of the sounds was poor. UC6: The interactive audio was more engaging than the music.

51.4 Design Guidelines for Immersive Audio Experience A set of design guidelines has been derived using the insights and considerations gleaned from the two rounds of the Delphi study and user feedback. It was shared with all experts and stakeholders during the third round of the Delphi procedure. All of the following points received more than an average score of seven when they were asked to rate the guidelines on a scale of 1 to 10. 1. Know your audience and context Similar to the fundamental design principle, it is vitally important to comprehend the context of the aural environment and be aware of the intended audience. The context makes it realistic. (EO8-11, UC1, 4, 6). 2. Match between the virtual and real world The more disconnected the user’s aural experience is from real-world scenarios, the more the user experience will be negatively impacted. It is critical that the design

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incorporates various audio aspects that are more realistic. The design of the environment and the dynamic movement of the sound sources play a vital role here (EO8-09, 11, UC3-6). 3. Consistency and standard Maintaining consistency in the design elements is important since it helps to improve both the user experience and the user’s expectations. The same ideas can be conveyed in exactly the same way (EO01-2, 4-11, UC2-6). 4. Simple is better than complex The essence of simplicity is to retain just what is meaningful and to remove what is clearly unnecessary. Auditory elements, in contrast to visual features, are difficult for users to ignore, and excessive use of such elements might give users a negative experience (EO4, 6, 8, UC3, 6). 5. Smooth Onboarding The human brain is capable of object-based attention in audio streams and is surprisingly good at discriminating between elements of sound that overlap. The audio experience can be significantly enhanced by paying close attention to the design of the onboarding process for individual audio components (EO4, 8, UC3, 6).

51.5 Limitations of the Study The Delphi technique is not intended to compete with model-based or statistical approaches, both of which have typically been shown to be more accurate than human judgment. Another important detail to keep in mind is that headphone-based spatial audio is utilized in the user study. These insights have not been tested using spatial audio technology implemented with loudspeakers.

51.6 Conclusion A combination of qualitative research methodology using the Delphi approach and a semi-structured user interview is carried out to identify different perspectives of spatial audio experiences. Five important guidelines are proposed to improve the spatial audio design process and its immersive experiences. The proposed set of design rules is beneficial to audio designers to create compelling multidimensional audio scenes with consistency and cohesiveness. It can also be utilized for heuristic evaluations of spatial audio scenes.

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References 1. Argyriou, L., Economou, D., Bouki, V.: Design methodology for 360° immersive video applications: the case study of a cultural heritage virtual tour. Pers. Ubiquitous Comput. 24(6), 843–859 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/S00779-020-01373-8/TABLES/6 2. Regazzoni, D., Rizzi, C., Vitali, A.: Virtual Reality Applications: Guidelines to Design Natural User Interface, Nov 2018. https://doi.org/10.1115/DETC2018-85867 3. Start Designing and Prototyping—Mixed Reality. Microsoft Docs. https://docs.microsoft.com/ en-us/windows/mixed-reality/design/design. Accessed 30 Jun 2022 4. Jerald, J.: The VR Book: Human-Centered Design for Virtual Reality, p. 599. Accessed 30 Jun 2022 (Online). Available: https://books.google.com/books/about/The_VR_Book.html?id= ZEBiDwAAQBAJ 5. Brinkman, W.-P., Hoekstra, A.R.D., van Egmond, R.: The effect of 3D audio and other audio techniques on virtual reality experience. Stud. Health Technol. Inform. 219, 44–48 (2015) 6. Rajguru, C., Obrist, M., Memoli, G.: Spatial soundscapes and virtual worlds: challenges and opportunities. Front. Psychol. 11, 2714 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3389/FPSYG.2020.569056/ BIBTEX 7. Kailas, G., Tiwari, N.: Design for immersive experience: role of spatial audio in extended reality applications. In: Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 222, pp. 853–863. Springer, Singapore (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0119-4_69 8. Riecke, E., Väljamäe, A., Schulte-Pelkum, J.: Moving sounds enhance the visually-induced self-motion illusion (circular vection) in virtual reality. In: ACM Transactions on Applied Perception (TAP), vol. 6, no. 2 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1145/1498700.1498701 9. Serafin, S., Serafin, G.: Sound design to enhance presence in photorealistic virtual reality. In: ICAD (2004) 10. Candusso, D.: Designing spatial sound: adapting contemporary screen sound design practices for virtual reality. In: SMPTE 2017: Embracing Connective Media, pp. 1–10 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.5594/M001749 11. Chaurasia, H.K., Majhi, M.: Sound design for cinematic virtual reality: a state-of-the-art review. Lect. Notes Netw. Syst. 391, 357–368 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94277-9_31/ COVER 12. Serafin, S., Geronazzo, M., Erkut, C., Nilsson, N.C., Nordahl, R.: Sonic interactions in virtual reality: state of the art, current challenges, and future directions. IEEE Comput. Graph Appl. 38(2), 31–43 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/MCG.2018.193142628 13. Jain, D., et al.: A taxonomy of sounds in virtual reality a taxonomy of sounds in virtual reality. In: Designing Interactive Systems Conference. https://doi.org/10.1145/3461778.3462106 14. Nielsen, J.: Enhancing the Explanatory Power of Usability Heuristics 15. Holtzblatt, K., Beyer, H.: Contextual Design: Design for Life. Elsevier Science (2016) [Online]. Available: https://books.google.co.in/books?id=rdMVBQAAQBAJ 16. Delphi Method. RAND. https://www.rand.org/topics/delphi-method.html. Accessed 25 Oct 2022 17. Mozuni, M., Jonas, W.: An introduction to the morphological delphi method for design: a tool for future-oriented design research. She Ji: J. Des. Econ. Innov. 3(4), 303–318 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1016/J.SHEJI.2018.02.004 18. Dalkey, N., Helmer, O.: An Experimental Application of the DELPHI Method to the Use of Experts, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 458–467 (1963). https://doi.org/10.1287/MNSC.9.3.458 19. Beech, B.: Go the extra mile–use the Delphi Technique. J. Nurs. Manage. 7(5), 281–288 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1046/J.1365-2834.1999.00125.X 20. Fink-Hafner, D., Dagen, T., Dousak, M., Novak, M., Hafner-Fink, M.: Delphi method: strengths and weaknesses. Metodoloski Zvezki 16(2), 1–19 (2019). https://doi.org/10.51936/FCFM6982 21. Marinato, G., Baldauf, D.: Object-based attention in complex, naturalistic auditory streams. Sci. Rep. 9(1) (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/S41598-019-39166-6 22. Tucker, J.: Tucker Zone 1. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3txhT2ncNOU

Chapter 52

Factors Influencing Adoption and Use of Digital Wellbeing Interventions Stuti Prakashkumar, Aditya Wadher, Swati Pal, and Debayan Dhar

Abstract The addictive nature of social media applications requires ways to support user wellbeing through digital self-control tools (DSCTs) that help users manage and limit use. In this paper, we aimed to firstly understand problematic social media usage patterns and coping strategies through group interviews. Based on these insights, we designed three digital wellbeing interventions to explore factors influencing the likelihood of adoption of DSCTs by proposing the strategy of providing users with alternative activities to limit social media so that we may support the user’s subjective wellbeing. The three DSCT interventions were: (a) To-Do List Mode where user was reminded about other tasks in their To-Do List when they frequently used social media application, (b) Garden Mode game where users build a garden using points collected when social media applications are resisted, (c) Language Learning Mode that redirected the user away from social media towards learning a word from a foreign language. We present quantitative and qualitative results generated by adopting the motivation, engagement and thriving in user experience (METUX) model to evaluate the proposed interventions. Finally, we discuss design implications for digital wellbeing interventions that affect the users’ adoption and perceived desire to sustain the use of the DSCTs.

S. Prakashkumar · S. Pal (B) Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Mumbai, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Wadher · D. Dhar Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, India e-mail: [email protected] D. Dhar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_52

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52.1 Introduction As per the 2021 Kaspersky report, 53% of people are using social media more than they were before the pandemic due to negative feelings [1, 2]. People start exhibiting addictive behaviours and build poor usage habits to avoid discomfort [3]. There has been a growing interest in improving people’s relationship with their devices. Companies such as Google, Apple and Microsoft are also taking steps to help users manage their time online through digital wellbeing intervention [4]. Interventions such as DSCTs are behaviour change technologies that help users self-monitor through interventions like timers, lockout mechanisms and blocking help manage digital device usage [5]. Such solutions may only temporarily effective in reducing social media use because they do not support the formation of new healthier device usage habits, are bypassable and can be frustrating to use [6, 7]. In this paper, we present the process that helped identify factors that may be considered when designing DSCTs so that users may be more likely to adopt DSCTs and continue sustained use to improve their device usage habits over time. We did this through a two-part study that consisted of introductory interviews and evaluation three digital wellbeing DSCTs to manage social media overuse. Introductory interviews conducted in Part 1, emphasized that users were bothered by the impact of social media applications on their lives. User felt a ‘lost sense of time’, ‘frustration due to low self-control’, ‘post-device-use guilt’ and inability to change usage habits as a result of the ‘lack of something better and easier to do’. Users who opted for existing DSCT such as ‘Bedtime Mode’, ‘Focus Mode’ [8] or ‘Screen Time’ [9] found these solutions restrictive without any real positive impact on their device usage habits. We attempted to address user needs and the limitations in existing DSCTs, by designing concepts to three DSCTs solutions that employed a unique strategy of redirecting the user to alternative activities. Part 2 of this study aimed to understand (1) the acceptance around the proposed strategy that offers users with alternative activities to nudge them away from social media and (2) a perceived effectiveness of less-restrictive self-control mechanisms within the DSCTS that occasionally redirected users away from distracting applications in a way that supported user autonomy and competence to manage their device overuse. Findings from the evaluation done in Part 2 of this study showed that users were likely to adopt the strategy to offer alternatives to social media that made them feel that the time they spent on their smartphones was meaningful and aligned with their goals or interests such as learning a skill. We also saw that users would be more likely to adopt DCST if they received positively framed insights about their non-usage. Additionally, a less-restrictive mechanism in the DSCT design was appreciated, as such functionality allowed users to make the decision to voluntarily disengage based on the context within which a social media application is being used.

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52.2 Background and Related Work Impact of social media: More users are actively downloading social media applications resulting in a daily usage of over 4 h daily [10]. This overuse is because social media is designed to be engaging and exploits human vulnerabilities that lead to the formation of problematic habits [12]. People are conditioned to the triggeraction-reward sequence where the phone acts as a ‘pocket slot machine’ [13]. Such persuasive technologies call for attention to build solutions that may help users selfregulate their social media use and be more mindful about how they spend their time to promote their wellbeing [14, 15]. Understand Digital Wellbeing: Digital wellbeing in its broad definition is ‘the extent to which the user feels their digital device use is well-aligned with their personal, valued, long-term goals’ [16]. Constant and unmoderated engagement with social media content can impact user wellbeing. It is thus important that designers focus on the user’s subjective wellbeing by creating tools to support user needs to moderate social media overuse. Designing for self-control: DSCTs have been designed to support users’ selfmonitoring abilities by tracking and providing feedback on their technology usage habits [2]. These tools may be in the form of applications, plugins or products. Users who wish to combat the effect of their overuse on their wellbeing may benefit from tools that suit their individual needs. Existing DSCTs (Envelope [20], Post Box [21], Forest [22]) employ unique mechanisms that may help users disengage and change overuse habits. These mechanisms are built upon successful behaviour change strategies such rewards, goals and awareness [23]. Despite the presence of many solutions, the likelihood of adoption and use of DSCTs are under-explored. This paper took the opportunity to dive deeper into understanding how to support user wellbeing and then designing suitable and contextual solutions that may improve the user’s desire to adopt DSCT.

52.3 Method The study was conducted in two parts (see Fig. 52.1). The duration of Part 1 was approximately 40 min, and Part 2 was 1.5 h. Participants (n-20) were divided into groups and were present for both parts of the remote synchronous sessions. Participants: We recruited 20 participants ages 18–56 years (M = 22.4 years, SD = 2.9) with 6 males and 14 females owning high-end smartphones. Participants consisted of students (16) and remote employees (4) that formed 5 groups. All participants were from Mumbai and were recruited after a brief screening call only if they self-reported addiction to social media [19].

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Fig. 52.1 Two-part study design to understand device overuse patterns and assess three design concepts

PART 1: Introductory group interviews The goal was to understand current smartphone usage pattern, coping strategies, attitudes and feelings around social media usage. This was done by prompting the groups of 3–5 participants to share their experience, reflect and discuss their overuse habits. Next, we introduced the groups to ‘digital wellbeing’ and gained their perspective on their ideas of wellbeing, needs and experience with DSCTs. Design implications: The introductory interviews provided useful design insights. Firstly, users felt social media is important to stay social and entertained but became problematic when it affected their routines and activities. Participants wanted to manage distractions and are aware of their poor usage habits but find it challenging to break them. The temporal nature of social media meant designs should nudge users towards for mindful self-tracking. Secondly, the restrictive mechanisms in DSCTs such as blocking applications and setting short timers interfered with the way smartphones are used today. Social media applications are also mediums for collaboration, learning, sharing, conducting business and leisure. DSCTs may thus offer mechanisms that are flexible and give the users control to restrict phone usage based on their context such as activities they do, time of the day and routines. Finally, it was found that DSCTs can move beyond monitoring usage and explore such as redirecting them to pursue habits or activities that social media has replaced.

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Design of the Interventions: Based on insights from Part 1, we proposed, designed and prototyped three digital wellbeing DSCT interventions to reduce social media usage. The three concepts aimed to help users self-regulate their social media overuse by redirecting them away from social media applications and nudge them towards alternative activities that they are interested in. The solutions targeted to alter feelings of ‘guilt’ that rise as when users perceive that they chose to waste their time on social media. This was done by interrupting the user periodically and offering alternate activates so that it is easier for users to decide what to do with their time instead of impulsive social media use. Each of the three solutions consisted of the following elements that were considered to assess the usability and perceived impact of the DSCT: • Setting up the feature: The designs were conceptualized to be integrated into the phone settings—‘digital wellbeing and parental controls. The set-up required users to set the number of application opens (n) (Fig. 52.2a). For example, if a user sets the option to ‘Every 3 taps’ the setting would will redirect the user to an alternate activity when they tap on a distracting application the 3rd, 6th, 9th…3(n)th time. This ensures that users are aware of their usage and have autonomy to manage what they do with their screen time. • Adding friction: We call friction as an interruption in the user flow where the user can reflect and decide their next action. In the designs, we provided users that could prompt them not to use the social media application. This was done by: (1) directly opening an alternative application such as a To-Do List when they tried to open a social media application (2) showing usage statistics and giving users the option to ‘Resist’ (see Fig. 52.2b) (3) blocking the distracting application and giving users the option to engage with the alternative instead (see Fig. 52.2c). We

Fig. 52.2 Design of the DSCT, a Phone settings to set the DSCT, b Usage stats and entry point to an alternative activity, c Dialog to redirect users

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aimed to investigate if an intermediate step would be perceived as a factor that could influence user’s decisions to voluntarily resist using social media usage. Supported by literature from the study conducted by Lyngs et al. [7] and the introductory group interviews, we took forward the suggestion for future DSCT work to explore ways to (1) scaffold new, desirable habits (2) redirect the user to an alternate activity that will automate the implementation intention (if-when rule) [2, 7]. The 3 DSCT design concepts prototyped were: (a) To-Do List Mode (see Fig. 52.3a) that interrupted users to remind of alternate activities they could through a To-Do List application that they maintained (chores, tasks, etc.), (b) Garden Mode, (see Fig. 52.3b) was a 5-min game designed to reward coins every time users resisted opening social media applications and users could buy artefacts to build a personal virtual garden with earned coins. The game was designed in greyscale to minimize engagement, similar to Android’s bedtime mode [8] (c) Language Learning Mode (see Fig. 52.3c) let users learn a new word from a language of their choice instead of spending time on social media. Users could listen to the word; practice pronouncing the word and match the word with its meaning. PART 2: Evaluating the Design Interventions We chose the METUX model developed by Calvo, Peters & Ryan in 2018 to evaluate the three DSCT design interventions [24]. The model, grounded in psychological research, leverages Ryan and Deci’s self-determination theory (SDT) for practitioners to form actionable insights on the impacts of technology design on user’s basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness. SDT identified three

Fig. 52.3 Design for three digital wellbeing DSCT. a To-do list mode, b Garden mode, c Language learning mode

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basic psychological needs that are essential to people’s self-motivation and psychological wellbeing, namely autonomy, competence and relatedness. We focused on ‘perceived use’ of the DSCT through the lens of SDT that has been defined, as ‘the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her sense of autonomy, competence or relatedness in any facet of life’ [24]. Based on the develop design concepts, we found it relevant to assess the designs from the lens of supporting user autonomy and improving their competence to manage their over habits. Data Collection: The quantitative study collected data using questionnaire from the METUX model for (1) Anticipated need satisfaction at the point of adoption, (2) Need satisfaction from interaction with the interface (Assesses the usability of the design as poor usability will cause need frustration), (3) Need Satisfaction From Engagement With a Technology-Enabled Task (Assesses if users perceive the solution as potentially effective) [24]. Procedure: We shared clickable prototypes of the three design concepts with each participant in the groups. Participants completed a list of tasks using the prototypes and then fill a 33 questions post-test questionnaire with a 5-point Likert scale. The questionnaire included adopted questions from: (1) Autonomy and Competence in Technology Adoption Questionnaire (ACTA) (2) Technology-based Experience of Need Satisfaction—Interface questionnaire (TENS-Interface Autonomy and Competence) (3)Technology-based Experience of Need Satisfaction—Task questionnaire (TENS-Task Autonomy and Competence). All questions that had been adopted were adjusted to achieve a satisfactory Cronbach’s alpha of A > 0.07 for the adoption and interface spheres. Although the task sphere was eliminated during the analysis due to a low alpha, we also discussed each of the three concepts to understand (a) What are the key factors that will deter the user from using this feature? (b) Why do they think such a feature will not help reduce their social media time? (c) Possible improvements or changes to the design.

52.4 Results Quantitative results: Users rated the overall DSCT design concept on a scale of 1 to 5, 1 being bad and 5 being good. Mean scores ranked the Language Learning Mode the best among the three with a mean score of M = 4.15 (SD = 0.81), then M = 3.4 (SD = 0.75) for the To-Do List Mode and finally M = 3.3 (SD = 0.92) for the Garden Mode. In terms of likelihood to use the 3 features in the future, participants rated the question on a scale from 1—‘Would not use the feature’ to 5-’Would use the feature’ with mean scores of M = 4.25 (SD = 0.85) for the Language Learning Mode, M = 3.2 (SD = 1.32) for the Garden Mode and M = 2.5 (SD = 1.05) for the To-Do List Mode. Next, for the adoption sphere and interface sphere-autonomy, we conducted a one-way ANOVA and a post hoc test using Tukey with a significance level of

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Table 52.1 Mean Likert scale score for adoption and interface spheres Sphere of UX/design concept

Adoption sphere

Interface sphere

Mean

To-do list mode

3.65

3.66

3.66

Garden mode

3.51

3.63

3.56

Language learning mode

4.04

4.04

4.04

p < 0.05 since the data was normally distributed. Whereas for the interface spherecompetence we conducted a Kruskal–Wallis test. We also report means for the two spheres (see Table 52.1) although correlation between the 2 spheres was not analysed in this study. There was a statistically significant difference between the three groups as determined by the one-way ANOVA (F(2,57) = 4.813, p = 0.012). The ANOVA results support the previous conclusion based on mean scores where the Language Learning Mode was the preferred solution. The Tukey post hoc test revealed that adoption was significantly lower for the Garden Mode (38.65 ± 7.909, p = 0.011) than the Language Learning Mode (44.40 ± 4.684). There was no statistically significant difference between the To-Do List Mode and Language Learning Mode (p = 0.700) as well as the Garden Mode and the To-Do List Mode (p = 0.082). The Garden Mode virtual coins as rewards did not seem to be a motivating factor for users to adopt the solution. Whereas the Language Learning Mode offered an incentive in terms of ‘meaningfulness’ to the digital activity the user engaged with. The Kruskal–Wallis test revealed no significant difference between the solutions (p = 0.124), within the interface sphere. Additionally, there was no significant difference in interface-autonomy (p = 0.457) and interface-competence (p = 0.220). Qualitative results: The post-design discussions were transcribed using audio recordings, and an inductive approach was taken to collate insights discussed below: • DSCTs and context of use: For most participants, the usefulness of the features was highly dependent on the context within which they were. Users felt that the To-Do List Mode was productivity centric and would help avoid distraction during focused periods. A participant said, ‘It helps me prioritize that there must be other things I might want to do’. This accountability might nudge users to get off social media, whereas ‘Garden Mode’ or ‘Language Learning’ were both other activities that could take up time and be useful during leisure scrolling for long periods. Most participants felt that the three solutions were suitable for varying context. • Flexibility of DSCT interventions: Participants felt that allowing them to use such application with periodic (nth application open) interruptions was a better approach than restrictive timers as it improved perceived control on-screen time management. Adding the ‘Resist’ option to the intermediate dialog box improved the perception of autonomy to voluntarily disengage. ‘Custom Taps’ option was also received positively, a user said ‘it gives me more control and I like having the power to decide how I use my phone’ thus supporting autonomy. • Motivating users to limit use: The interface showing users the usage statistics provided a point to reflect-in-action to reduce social media use [26] (see Table

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52.1 and Fig. 52.3). Self-monitoring, control on how to self-manage restricting social media use and doing activities of interest could improve accountability and motivation. • Redirecting to alternatives as an effective strategy: The positive response for the Language Learning Mode showed that users may be willing to perform short and rewarding activities instead of mindless social media use. A participant said that ‘having such a feature, distracts me from using the dating application or social media’ and another said ‘increasing your knowledge will be much better than scrolling through memes’. Enabling users to participate in a personally meaningful activity and align with their goals could help them say motivated to stay off social media. One participant said, ‘I always wanted to learn a language but never go the time to do it properly so this will help me’. This approach to designing DSCTs can be useful to sustain healthier technology usage behaviours although a key challenge with adopting such solutions was the need for self-regulation from the user’s side to manage their habits. • Diversity of alternatives offered: Participants wished to have a variety of alternatives that suited their moods and needs throughout the day, workdays and weekends. Alternatives may distract users away from social media towards other activities and meaningful information such as sports scores, news, factoids, music playlists, photo memories and breathing exercises. Additionally, users were keen on receiving performance metrics and goal advancement to self-track and monitor changes in their usage habits. • Experience effect of the alternative offered: DSCTs may cause users frustration if they interrupt or restrict device functionality at unwanted times. Solutions should thus be designed and provided with controls to set contexts and routines. Introducing the Garden Game Mode saw low enthusiasm as it still increased overall screen time. The game should have been more engaging and complex to motivate users to choose the game over social media scrolling. Additionally, social aspects such as competition among friends or providing financial incentives could probably boost motivation to use the solution. We believe a gamified approach with rewards could be a useful first step to ease users into internet de-addiction.

52.5 Discussion In this study, we showed how providing meaningful alternatives to users may motivate them to resist social media usage. Our work tried to address limitations of restrictive DSCT mechanisms and provide insights into ways to make these tools more sustainable for long-term use. Through group interviews in Part 1, we were able to understand user’s attitudes around their social media usage habits and perceptions of their subjective digital wellbeing. We found that users want to manage rather than completely restrict their device use. Users were aware about overuse but did not have the motivation or contextually relevant tools to successfully self-regulate. We found that the context of use of social media applications is important factors to

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consider when designing such interventions which can be done by providing flexible mechanisms as proposed in this paper. Additionally, providing users with means to reflect and enable them to do activities valuable to them could motivate sustained management of social media overuse. Our results revealed that the Language Learning Mode was the preferred feature as it added value and may help reduce the feeling of guilt and frustration with social media overuse habits. The proposed limiting mechanism of ‘n number of open’ may be effective to sustain management of overuse by improving autonomy and perceived-competence. Our results supported recommendations by Lyngs et al. [7] and Biedermann [23] to redirect users and scaffold new habits [16, 23]. Future DSCTs can develop designs that make it easier for users to participate meaningful digital or off-screen activities of individual interest. Such solutions may allow users to build skills, incorporate a new healthier habit or simply distract the user away from impulsive use of social media. Alternative activities may be more likely to be adopted if they are of short durations and progress towards relevant user centric milestones, thus supporting the user’s subjective wellbeing.

52.6 Conclusion and Limitations The findings from this study revealed insights to help design DSCTs that users may adopt to manage the time spent on social media. Our work generated quantitative and qualitative results that demonstrated pros and cons of three design interventions. We found that users opted for the ‘Language Learning Mode’ over the ‘To-Do List’ and ‘Garden Mode’ as it redirected users towards meaningful and short alternative activities, thus validating the promise for our recommended design strategy and approach. We were able to demonstrate the use of the METUX model for design projects in the early stages where adoption and interface usability may be tested before deploying behaviour change technologies. Future work may design and deploy DSCTs with diverse, personalized, on-screen and off-screen alternatives and use METUX to evaluate the impact of technology features on user wellbeing across all six spheres including task, behaviour, life and society spheres. The validity of this study may be limited because of a small number of participants (n = 20) and that users did not use the interventions but just performed primary usability tasks. Additionally, we may highlight that a higher fidelity working prototype and a longitudinal study could generate more robust results. Analysis of the quantitative results has treated ordered data as continuous; results are to be interpreted accordingly. Despite that, we believe insights from this study can help build contextually relevant and sustainable DSCTs for better management of overuse of social media.

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19. Griffiths, M.: Addicted to Social Media? Psychology Today (2018). https://www.psychologyto day.com/us/blog/in-excess/201805/addicted-social-media 20. Special Projects (2020). Envelope. Experiments with Google. https://experiments.withgoogle. com/envelope 21. Special Projects.: Post Box. Experiments with Google (2019). https://experiments.withgoogle. com/post-box 22. (2022). Forest. Forest App. https://www.forestapp.cc/ 23. Biedermann, D., Schneider, J., Drachsler, H.: Digital self-control interventions for distracting media multitasking-a systematic review. J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 37(5), 1217–1231 (2021) 24. Peters, D., Calvo, R.A., Ryan, R.M.: Designing for motivation, engagement and wellbeing in digital experience. Front. Psychol. 9, 797 (2018) 25. (2022). Material design. Google Material Design Guidelines. https://m2.material.io/ 26. Ploderer, B., Reitberger, W., Oinas-Kukkonen, H., van Gemert-Pijnen, J.: Social interaction and reflection for behaviour change. Pers. Ubiquit. Comput. 18(7), 1667–1676 (2014) 27. Khare, A., Dhar, D.: Affecting technology consumption—role of designers in ushering behaviour change. In: International Conference on Research into Design, January, pp. 517–527. Springer, Singapore (2021)

Chapter 53

Who to Blame—User Interface Design or Learning Content? A Neurophysiological UX Assessment of e-learning Process Abhijeet Kujur, Naveen Kumar, and Jyoti Kumar Abstract While the phenomenon of e-learning is still relatively young, it has moved from the margins to the mainstream of educational thinking and practice during the past decade. Successful e-learning website design is an iterative process where user feedback is used constructively and creatively at various stages. Usability and user experience (UX) testing are two formal methods used at various stages of user interface (UI) design of e-learning websites. As the practice and impact of e-learning have increased extensively, there is a need for UX assessment and Usability testing of e-learning platforms. However, the behavioural observations and self-reported measures that are used in website assessment have limitations in e-learning as they cannot give detailed information on the experience generated during learning process. This paper argues that there is an opportunity to move beyond the subjective reports and observations in UX assessment of e-learning and go towards multimodal neurophysiological assessment using electroencephalography (EEG), eye tracking and galvanic skin response (GSR). These tools are more objective, give deeper insights and are now available easily. However, there is a dearth of UX assessment for elearning using physiological methods in the literature. Therefore, this paper has proposed neurophysiological assessment method of UX of e-learning platforms. In this paper, the neurophysiological UX assessment has been conducted through experimental study with 24 participants who used an e-learning system. The multimodal neurophysiological tools were employed to gather data for two different stimuli conditions, while participants were watching the tutorial video about performing a task and while participants performed the task on the online portal. Results show a significant correlation between neurophysiological responses of the users and the user interface of e-learning website. A. Kujur (B) · N. Kumar · J. Kumar Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, New Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected] N. Kumar e-mail: [email protected] J. Kumar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_53

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53.1 Introduction One of the objectives of e-learning designers is to ensure user satisfaction with respect to learnability. Users who are satisfied with the user interface of e-learning website may spend more time on the website, revisit it and suggest it to others. User satisfaction is becoming important as more people rely on e-learning websites for knowledge acquisition, and commercial training and workshops. Consequently, it is essential to evaluate and identify the cognitive and emotive components of what makes a user satisfy with an e-learning website and what may possibly dissatisfy them. Even if the user is engaging in self-paced and self-regulated learning, it is crucial to understand why some learners are unsatisfied with their e-learning experience. The need for developing a theoretical framework and testing some assumptions is important which were earlier taken for granted in existing empirical studies of websites [1]. Inadequate usability and functionality are one of the possible causes of website usability failures leading to poor UX [2]. Numerous e-learning website design checklists have been created in an effort to define design and assessment criteria for ‘good’ and ‘bad’ websites. The majority of them are based on the ideas and tastes of individual authors, on standards defined for other media, or for conventional user interface [3, 4]. According to [5], three uncertainties exist regarding the website testing methods: (1) it is unclear whether there is an exhaustive collection of UI design factors; (2) it is unclear whether some of these UI factors are more useful than others and in what way; and (3) it is unclear whether addressing these factors is sufficient to make users satisfied with the websites, to maintain their interest in the websites and to ultimately motivate the users to return to the websites. The tangible question at hand is to identify the design factors that can: (1) make an e-learning website usable and learnable, shielding users from frustration or dissatisfaction; (2) build more vivacious, visually appealing, extensive and commercially viable e-learning websites; and (3) help engage users to the e-learning website, maintain their attention and motivate them to learn, thereby enhancing the UX of e-learning. Existing flaws in e-learning systems provide a problem for e-learning UX designers and testers. They may resolve challenges in an e-learning framework from the development through delivery stages [6]. Using neurophysiological technologies including electroencephalography (EEG), eye tracking (ET) and galvanic skin response, the goal of this research is to determine if learning content or user interface design of the online learning platform is responsible for either a positive or negative user experience during e-learning processes. In this study, the author investigates the cognitive and emotional responses of user’s neurophysiological data while they engaged with an e-learning platform. This research will assist not just e-learning designers, but also the e-learning content creators by enhancing their in-depth understanding about learning experience.

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53.2 Literature Review 53.2.1 User Interface Design of an e-learning System User interface (UI) is the interaction point between the user and computer programme. User interface design (UID) determines whether a software programme will succeed or fail. UID influences topics such as UX, usability and learning in the case of e-learning platforms. In UID for e-learning, along with UID principles, the learning principles and ideas are suggested to be incorporated [7, 8]. It is advised that e-learning platforms be designed with the psychology of learners in mind. Numerous researches have been conducted on the nature of learning and its influencing elements [9]. User interface (UI) is one of the psychological factors that must be taken into account in e-learning since it is the interface between the user and the educational body. Even though the learning content is well-crafted, and the user is eager to learn, user may not satisfy if this association between user and interface of educational platform fails. Regardless of the learning content it displays or the functionality it offers, a learner will dislike an e-learning platform if it is challenging to use. As the interface shapes a user’s perception of the software, user interface is suggested to be perfect [10]. According to previous studies, the three laws of UI design are: (1) Put the user in charge; (2) reduce the user’s memory burden; and (3) maintain a consistent interface [11]. As a result, a user interface (UI) could only be beneficial to a small subset of computer users, rather than all users. In this study, researchers try to assess both the user interface design and learning content to assess the UX of an e-learning platform.

53.2.2 Learning Content of an e-learning System The training materials or the video tutorials used in e-learning may also play a supporting and facilitative function in the learning process. The support provided by learning content may provide effective communication between students and their lessons through sight and hearing, maintaining student’s interest in the topic [12]. Research demonstrates that people are capable of learning 10% of what they read, 20% of what they hear, 30% of what they see and 50% of what they see and hear together. Similarly, research demonstrates that people are capable of remembering 70% of the items that communicate with people, 80% of the things that they encounter and 95% of the things that they teach others. In addition, it has been mentioned that about 75% of general human learning is accomplished via the use of sight, 13% through hearing, 6% through touch, 3% through smell and 3% through taste [13, 14]. E-learning material facilitates the acquisition of knowledge by seeing, listening, conversation and experiencing. In reality, it is far more difficult to acquire all of the senses by standard learning methods (without adopting e-learning). An

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e-learning content may be created such that the overall sensation of need and motivation develops with time while the overall feeling of coercion decreases [15]. To boost motivation via e-learning material, the concerns related to layout, sequence, appearance and presentation may also be taken into account. Research has suggested some of the ways by which we can engage the learners are by using speech-based content, informal communication style, animated content, variety of colours, elements of real world and multimedia lessons [16]. Research suggests that, if at all feasible, it is preferable to employ both the hearing and the visual channels while consuming multimedia information [17].

53.2.3 UX Evaluation Using Neurophysiological Measure Electroencephalogram (EEG), galvanic skin response (GSR) and eye tracking are the neurophysiological instruments chosen from the literature for UX evaluation in this study. The concept of employing a neurophysiological technique for UX evaluation is based on a simplification of the physiological processes of the human neural system during e-learning [18]. Learning is an experiential process. There is a need to understand the role of emotions, learners’ satisfaction and intentions and to understand the overall experiential aspect of the learning process. It is argued here that a neurophysiological assessment of e-learning experience will give a detailed view of the learning process to the designers of e-learning systems. Need for such detailed insights has been argued in order to develop a good design of e-learning systems [19]. The attempted neurophysiological method for UX assessment will be a functional method of how an individual ‘thinks’ and ‘feels’ during the learning process. In order to develop a working neurophysiological model, prevalent arguments from the literature on use of physiological tools, which have the potential to give insights into a learner’s experiences, have been summarized below: I.

EEG has been used to understand the ‘flow’ of experience during learning [20]. Mental loads while learning have also been estimated using EEG data [21]. Electroencephalography (EEG) has been used to study coherence between verbal-analytic and motor-planning brain regions [22] which this author argues has the potential to indicate learning experience. II. GSR has been reported to have a correlation with emotion, attention, stress, attitude, empathy, social interactions and as a measure of attention, GSR relates to learning [23]. Good learners were found to exhibit higher GSR measures, probably due to being ‘more reactive’ to the learning content (higher GSR measures). III. Eye tracker is another tool which has potential to provide information about the learning process. An eye tracker can capture micro-indicators that may remain unnoticed in face-to-face communication [24]. Eye movements have been used

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to get an indication of learner interest and focus of attention and to provide feedback in e-learning systems.

53.3 Method and Materials 53.3.1 Stimuli Two web pages constituted the stimuli set. The first website included a video lesson on how to use a digital prototyping platform online. The second website was the real-time usage of same online platform for digital prototyping. This research analysed the neurophysiological responses of individuals who interacted with the two websites. On the first website, users were required to watch a video lesson which was the learning content for building a mobile application prototype. Participants were required to immediately do the identical activity shown in the training video on the second website. Both the websites were run in the Google Chrome browser version 103.0.5060.53. The snapshots of the online tutorial video and the prototyping website are shown (Fig. 53.1).

(a)

(b) Fig. 53.1 a Screenshot of the video lesson and b Screenshot of the prototyping platform

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53.3.2 Participants This study was conducted on 24 participants (16 Male, 8 Female; mean age of 24.8, SD = 2.9). All the participants were undergraduate students of design and non-design backgrounds from IIT Delhi. Even though they were regular e-learning website users, it was made certain that they had not consumed any drugs or alcohol within a month before the trial. All the participants were residents of urban areas and had a lesser chance of not using online learning modes.

53.3.3 Procedure Participants in the research were asked to wear an Emotiv Epoc 14-channel EEG system headset, an Empatica E4 wristband GSR system, and the stimulus was shown on a 43-inch Dell monitor with a Tobii X3-120 standalone eye tracking system installed at the base. Imotions version 8.2.5, a software for integrating biosensors, was used to gather all the neurophysiological data. Imotions software synchronized the EEG, eye tracking and GSR recordings into a single timeline. After placing all three biosensors on their respective body parts, participants were given the task to view the online training video and then immediately do the identical activity as shown in the tutorial video. The overall duration of the experiment was thirty minutes, including ten minutes of EEG, GSR and eye tracking calibration and setup, ten minutes of watching online instructional video and ten minutes of online handson prototyping. During the experiment, their neurophysiological data were captured simultaneously. The participant activity is shown in Fig. 53.2.

Fig. 53.2 Participant activity during the multimodal neurophysiological experiment

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53.4 Analysis and Results There were three main sources (EEG, GSR and eye tracking) from where the data was collected. Raw data for all the three modalities were exported through the software. In EEG, frequency band power data was analysed for both the stimuli situations. Standard pre-processing techniques were used to clean the raw EEG data in order to eliminate numerous artefacts caused by electrostatic devices and muscle movements. Eye fixation, saccade eye blink, pupil dilation and scan route are some of the most common characteristics of human eye tracking used in this research. Pupil dilation was assessed while the participants were undergoing the tutorial video and hands-on prototyping activity. Electrodermal activity is the alteration of the electrical characteristics of a person’s skin caused by environmental and psychological factors. Skin conductance level or arousal level was measured through GSR. The three data kinds were assessed and analysed as described in next section.

53.4.1 EEG Findings The link between the EEG frequency band power of various channels and two stimulus conditions of participants has been analysed in depth and displayed. EEG is classified into five frequency bands based on brain functions: delta (1–3 Hz), theta (4–7 Hz), alpha (8–13 Hz), beta (14–30 Hz) and gamma (31–50 Hz) [25, 26]. Delta and theta brain waves are often present during sleep or a tranquil state of mind. Alpha is mostly present during periods of low mental activity, while beta and gamma are generated when the brain is engaged in more complex cognitive processes. However, there is a paucity of research on EEG-based UX testing but EEG measurements of emotional states have been recorded repeatedly [27–29]. In addition, EEG has been utilized to test cognitive functioning. Lower EEG frequency bands, such as Alpha, stay synchronized throughout the resting state and increase in synchronization with task complexity [25]. It is revealed that, when cognitive stress rises, the power of higher frequency bands such as beta and gamma increases. Since UX includes both the cognitive and emotive states of the user, EEG is a good method for measuring UX in terms of brain activity. In this research, the frequency band power of EEG data was employed as a characteristic to determine the relationship between brain activity and user experience during interacting with online tutorial video and online prototyping activity. The figure below shows the EEG frequency band power when participants watched an online tutorial video and while during performing the online prototyping activity. The alpha band which is the marker of relaxation is increased while watching the tutorial video. Similarly, beta band which is the marker of higher cognitive function is increased while the users performed the online prototyping task. The inference that can be drawn from this graph is that while watching the tutorial video the users were more relaxed and while performing the task, due to poor user interface the users were struggling and got stuck in complex cognitive processes

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Fig. 53.3 Alpha, beta and gamma frequency band power for the two different stimuli conditions

which increased their beta band power. Likewise, gamma band power which usually occurs in brain when there is a demanding task can be seen increasing while the users were performing the task. In the context of UX, it can be concluded that the users were not satisfied and had an unpleasant experience with the poor interface design of that e-learning platform, and it got reflected in EEG data. EEG data explains about the relaxation, cognitive processes and stress of the users which may help in determining the experience of the users (Fig. 53.3).

53.4.2 Eye Tracking Findings In addition to being a measure of arousal, pupil dilation was discovered to have a positive association with enthusiasm, tension and threatening situations. Eye tracking findings reveal that a lack of desired information while performing the online prototyping activity led to a greater percentage of participants with small pupil dilation and, therefore, less engagement and enthusiasm. This may be due to the lack of excitement in the prototyping task, although its instructional video was shown just a few moments ago, and the presence of complicated visuals, which causes confusion and a dip in pupil size. Confusion is physiologically related to pupil size [30]. According to the eye tracking results, it can be inferred that poor navigation and inefficient information design of the online prototyping website, resulted in increased searching and tension among participants, which manifested as change in pupil dilation. Surprisingly, change in pupil dilation was shown to correlate with perplexity. It can be concluded that perplexity caused a loss of attention and, thus, reduced arousal, resulting in a reduced pupil dilation for all the 24 participants while they were

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Fig. 53.4 Rate of change of pupil dilation under two different stimuli conditions

performing the online prototyping task as shown in the figure below. In the context of UX, eye tracking data indicates about the engagement, enthusiasm, confusion and attention level of the users and eventually helps us estimating the experience of users more objectively (Fig. 53.4).

53.4.3 Galvanic Skin Response Findings Galvanic skin response is used to determine the electrical conductivity of skin. It alters as the asymptomatic nervous system (ANS) regulates sweat gland activity [31]. Previous studies have shown that skin conductivity increases in sync with emotional arousal. To measure the GSR signal, a commercial sensor was used (Empatica E4 wristwatch sensor). The sensor was attached to the individual’s wrist. For the purpose of defining the GSR signal’s variability, data was examined and analysed in the temporal domain. Using normalization methods, data was filtered. Using the following formula, normalized data was obtained: Experimental GSR—Baseline GSR = Normalized GSR. The rate of change of arousal for two different stimuli conditions is shown in the figure below. The graph shows that the arousal level of the participants was high while watching the tutorial video as compared to the arousal level while performing the online prototyping task. This means that while performing the task, the interface was complex and not arousing enough to engage the users. In the context of UX, GSR data exhibits insight about the arousal level in the experience of the users (Fig. 53.5).

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Fig. 53.5 Rate of change of skin conductance level or arousal level under two different stimuli conditions

53.5 Discussion and Conclusion Through the analysis, it is known that EEG, eye tracking and GSR data can display certain emotional and cognitive states like engagement, stress, relaxation, arousal and cognitive processes can be determined. It is also evident that the positive emotions like relaxation, engagement, enthusiasm and arousal were reflected in the case of watching learning content. Similarly, negative emotions like stress, confusion, discouragement and cognitive load were found to be prominent in the case of users performing the prototyping task. Therefore, in the neurophysiological assessment of UX of e-learning platform, the user interface design must be blamed for reducing the felt pleasant experience of the users leading to poor UX. This objective and accurate information can be used by the e-learning designers to create the user interface design and learning content such that positive emotions are prominent when the platform is assessed. This neurophysiological research has shown that user interface design impacts the e-learning and physiological concerns of humans while digital interaction. This research will assist not just user interface designers for e-learning, but also the content creators and students in future by enhancing their learning experiences. E-learning is not limited to digitizing conventional educational resources. User interface is crucial to attaining educational goals and experience in e-learning. In e-learning, working memory of our brain plays an important part in learning process, and it should not be overloaded with irrelevant information in interface design. Similarly, whenever feasible, it is preferable to employ both hearing and visual channels while creating learning content in an e-learning setting to generate a good experience for the user. User interface design should not just be considered an aesthetic phenomena, but

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creative instruments like graphics, music and animation must also be compatible with educational psychology difficulties. Usability issues such as inconsistent layouts, bad navigation, poor visibility of pictures, and the inclusion of irrelevant content, among others, negatively impact user experience, which is directly connected with physiological reactions of users. In addition, physiological data revealed more specific user experience patterns about usability difficulties than behavioural assessments. This research proposes that although observation and self-reported user experience testing of e-learning systems may continue to be utilized as UX measurements, neurophysiological data might probe deeper into the cognitive and emotional influence of temporal occurrences during e-learning website interactions. This study has succeeded in mapping user experience and identifying relation between user interface design, learning content and user experience in e-learning using neurophysiological data. This study shows the neurophysiological measurements of EEG, eye tracker and GSR that may be employed in UX assessment of an e-learning website.

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Chapter 54

Proposal of an e-learning Evaluation Model for Online Design Courses and Its Psychogalvanic Validation Aarati P. Khare, Abhijeet Kujur, Greeshma Sharma, and Jyoti Kumar

Abstract Among the numerous usages of computers today, e-learning is emerging as an important use for mass education at low costs. However, failure of e-learning courses and high dropout rates has raised concerns about the success of e-learning courses. There is a dearth of e-learning evaluation models and hence there is a need to develop models for evaluation of e-learning systems. The success of e-learning systems depends as much on the content of learning as on the design of e-learning systems. The e-learning evaluation models, therefore, need to accommodate for both the quality of design of the e-learning system, as well as the quality of the e-learning content. While the learner’s experience of the e-learning system may be a wholesome experience of design and content together, the evaluator will need to differentiate between them in order to fix issues related to each. This paper thus has argued for the need of an evaluation model and has proposed a model. The model further has been verified using an experimental study with participants who used a broken website for e-learning of animation courses. Findings suggest that the model was useful in identifying difficulties at different levels of interaction of users with the e-learning system.

54.1 Introduction Changed world scenarios post-COVID-19 has accelerated the use of e-learning. E-learning offers opportunities for mass education at low costs [1]. Internet-based online courses have started facilitating all levels of education, including elementary, A. P. Khare · A. Kujur (B) · G. Sharma · J. Kumar Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, New Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected] A. P. Khare e-mail: [email protected] J. Kumar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_54

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secondary and technical, etc. There have also been reports of high drop off rates of online courses [2]. There is a need to evaluate online learning courses. There is a gap in the existing literature on e-learning evaluation models. So far the models of e-learning evaluation have not explicitly argued for the need to evaluate the quality of online learning platforms along with the learning content. The proposed evaluation model in this paper has been the first attempt reported in literature. The proposed evaluation model in this paper consists of six stages. The model starts with an evaluation of attitude towards e-learning, proposes to measure initial reaction towards the e-learning platform design, measures the ease of use of the learning platform, measures the engagement a learner has felt while exploring and learning from the elearning platform, measure the learning which the learner has undergone and finally evaluate the skill the learner has acquired. The proposed model has then been used to investigate learners’ attitudes, behaviours, and outcomes through experimental studies. An e-learning platform was designed and developed with seeded usability problems. Participants were invited in lab experiments to undergo learning using the platform. During the usage of e-learning platform, Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) and behavioural data were collected, also before and after samples of drawing skills were collected. The findings suggest that difficulty in usage of the e-learning platform directly affects the engagement levels of the participants and learning outcomes from the e-learning exercise. The findings of this paper have illustrated how usability of the e-learning websites directly affects the learning of the students from the website. The findings of this study have further established the need to evaluate e-learning platforms differently than the existing learning evaluation methods due to this dependence of learning on the learning media itself.

54.2 Literature Review Kirkpatrick’s methodology of appraisal has been the most widespread in the industrial training world [3]. This section provides a new assessment methodology for e-learning course evaluation. There is a lack of e-learning assessment models in general, as well as evaluation models for e-learning courses that result in skill development, such as animation classes. The goal of the proposed new model is to address the dearth of adequate e-learning assessment models that assess the impacts of mediating technology on the learning process and result. Currently, the most prominent models concentrate on evaluating the efficacy of training in which a human trainer facilitates the learning. The effect of technology as opposed to the teacher has not yet been accounted for in an assessment methodology. For the aim of evaluating the e-learning system as a whole, it will be necessary to evaluate both the design of the technology-based interactive interfaces and their role in the efficient delivery of the material, as well as the efficacy of the learning content itself.

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54.2.1 Existing Evaluation Model The Kirkpatrick model of learning evaluation focuses on achieving organisational objectives via behaviour modification. It has been stated that Kirkpatrick’s model is a helpful paradigm for initial training assessment [3]. Kirkpatrick’s model has also served as a source of inspiration for a number of other assessment methods [4–6]. Kirkpatrick model was developed with the evaluation of training and trainer in situations where a human trainer is part of the training process in mind, with evaluations assessing trainees’ affective responses to the quality (e.g. instructor satisfaction) or the relevance (e.g. work-related utility) of training [7]. In the case of e-learning, however, the ‘human’ trainer is missing. The presence of a human trainer in conventional learning settings provides the advantage of the trainer’s ability to comprehend the learners in situ. Humans have the ability to comprehend other humans, but machines are incapable of doing so. Even while e-learning systems are interactive, they are incapable of sensing the attitudes, behaviours, and emotions of the students. In the context of e-learning, learning evaluation models are few [8]. E-learning is characterized by computer-mediated learning as opposed to human trainer-mediated learning. Therefore, a new learning evaluation paradigm is required.

54.2.2 Proposed Evaluation Model The suggested approach was built with the ability to assess e-learning courses aimed at skill development in mind. It has especially considered the assessment of animation-related e-learning courses. The objective of animation courses is the development of animation skills as a result of progression via the e-learning platform. The concept proposes evaluating the various levels of interaction inside the e-learning system in order to detect any shortcomings at each step and to then be able to take remedial action. The suggested approach borrows the evaluation philosophy of consecutive levels from the common assessment paradigm created by Kirk Patrick [9]. However, the suggested model considers the sequential phases of a learner’s participation in online mode as distinct from offline mode. In the new approach, the recommended phases of assessment include learning attitude, response to the learning platform, platform use, engagement with the material, learning from the content, and growth of the required skill (Fig. 54.1).

54.2.3 Comparison of Kirkpatrick Model and Proposed Model The Kirkpatrick model intends to analyse the commercial advantages of a person’s learning, which is not immediately applicable to vocational and design courses such

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Fig. 54.1 Proposed paradigm for e-learning evaluation

as animation. Further, the business benefits (at level 4) are measured in terms of the employee’s changed behaviour (at level 3), which is not applicable for animation courses because there is no intrinsic behaviour change leading to the business, but rather the skill acquisition based on the actual learning and practice of the modules taught and practiced. The first level of the Kirkpatrick model focuses on evaluating the learner’s response to the trainer and the training environment, which in the proposed model corresponds to the learner’s reaction to the e-learning platform. The second degree of ’learning’ described by the Kirkpatrick model may be kept in the new paradigm. In order to account for the e-learning environment and the incorporation of technology into the teaching–learning set-up, extra phases have been introduced to the new assessment model (Fig. 54.2). One of the objections of Kirkpatrick’s approach is that the causal linkages between the various levels of assessment are not explained. Using the model presented here, this study has suggested that the initial attitude towards the e-learning system influences following phases of response, use, engagement, etc. Each step’s judgement will have an immediate impact on the future level. A high degree of engagement with the learning material will result in enhanced learning, which will then result in enhanced

(a)

(b)

Fig. 54.2 Comparison between a Kirkpatrick’s model and b Proposed model

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skill development. Thus, the suggested model resolves one of Kirkpatrick’s model’s flaws.

54.2.4 Description of the Proposed Model This study proposes a new e-learning assessment model since the prevailing methods do not seem to facilitate the progress of e-learning courses, particularly in the context of animation courses that entail the supply of tacit knowledge. Existing assessment methods do not account for the ’design’ quality of technology-mediated e-learning platforms, which plays an important role in e-learning platforms. The proposed model begins with an evaluation of attitude towards e-learning, proposes to measure initial reaction to the e-learning platform design, proposes to measure the ease of use of the learning platform, proposes to measure the engagement a learner has felt while exploring and learning from the e-learning platform, proposes to measure the learning the learner has experienced, and proposes to evaluate the skill the learner has acquired. Detailed explanations of each phase of the proposed evaluation model are provided below.

54.2.4.1

Attitude

The first step measures the learner’s attitude towards e-learning. It is conceivable that the end output of the e-learning course, in this example skill, may be influenced by the learner’s unfavourable attitude towards e-learning technologies. Attitude has been described as ‘a psychological inclination exhibited by assessing a certain thing favourably or unfavourably’ [12]. Learning behaviour is particularly influenced by attitude [13]. The theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour have contested the attitude-behaviour link [14]. Even though there is substantial discussion concerning the amount of attitude’s effect on behaviour and its causes, the suggested model has incorporated an attitude measure in order to comprehend the learner’s dispositions. On the basis of the attitude-behaviour theory, it is suggested here that the attitude towards e-learning systems would influence the initial like and disliking of the e-learning system, which has been tried to be captured in the following stage of evaluation, ‘reaction’ [14].

54.2.4.2

Reaction

Second, the new approach evaluates the learner’s first response to the e-learning platform. Visual impressions of a website may impact user behaviour. Initial visual response is often termed ‘visceral appeal,’ and it has a direct link with object acceptance [15]. Visual attractiveness impacts initial impressions of website design and content. Visual appearance produces a ’framing effect’ that impacts website

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behaviour. The ’framing effect’ may impact ’brand effect’ and ’brand trust,’ which favours online content. The visual appearance and feel affect everything from the split-second response to the e-learning site to content loyalty and learning behaviour. The second round of assessment measures the first e-learning platform response. In this study, no experiment was conducted to quantify response, however, the literature is full with reports of similar trials [16, 17]. The first response to the visual interface of the e-learning system will affect the following level of assessment and ’use’ of the system.

54.2.4.3

Usage

The student in an e-learning course must first utilize the system to go to the right page of the website or portal using clues from the landing page before the learning can commence. From the landing page to the required content module, users must make sense of menus, buttons, page headers, images, etc., and click on needed clickable components. E-learning system design incorporates learner-system interactions. This is HCI design. HCI design emphasizes system usability. Though many definitions of ’usability’ exist [18], ease of use, efficiency, effectiveness, and satisfaction are prevalent. The suggested evaluation model’s ’use’ stage will assess the e-learning system’s usability. In terms of user navigation ease, e-learning system efficiency, and design effectiveness (as per ISO 2001), etc. In the usability measure, the system design and learning material are separated for assessment, even though they may seem inseparable to the user/learner of the e-learning system. This study measures usability using an e-learning website with usability flaws. The ease or difficulty of ’using’ the system influences ‘engagement’ with the e-learning system.

54.2.4.4

Engagement

Along with using e-learning technology, the delivery of learning material must interest the student. The suggested evaluation model measures ‘engagement’ stage. Engagement is a key component of successful learning [19]. Engagement may be assessed through presentation design and e-learning material. Personal relevance, motivation, originality of information and presentation, simplicity of content, teacher presenting style (in case of videos), language, etc., may impact student engagement with e-learning content. The ‘engagement’ stage measures the learner’s attention to the lesson. If the student, although possessing the appropriate attitude, response, and use skills, cannot pay attention to the given topic, then learning will not occur. This study uses physiology to gauge engagement. This study looked at learning engagement as a user experience (UX) characteristic and performed a UX test to quantify engagement using behavioural observations and GSR.

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Learning

Once the student is engaged, the following inquiry is if they mastered the methods. In animation courses, where the information may be absorbed but not reflected in the learner’s abilities, the learning phase and skill phase may be different, hence, they are divided in the suggested model. E-learning, which is mediated by technology, may be evaluated using language methods, such as multiple-choice or essay questions. The assessment methodology proposes separating ’understanding’ from real competence. As noted above, learning may be assessed by multiple-choice questions or other language-based assessments, but skill evaluation may need a sensorimotor demonstration. The effect of attitude, response, use, engagement, and learning on e-learning skill development is asserted.

54.2.4.6

Skill

Online courses containing tacit knowledge, like animation, may focus on evaluating real skill development. In animation classes, the skill should be shown. This study established an e-learning website to teach size and proportion in animation drawing, and participants drew real things to evaluate their abilities. The suggestion of a novel assessment model aims to address a vacuum in the literature by evaluating the impact of technology on e-learning systems. The proposed model measures attitude, response, use, engagement, learning, and skill. This study contends that the multiple phases of interaction by the learner with the e-learning system are interdependent and offers to quantify them using semantic differential, usability testing of the system, user experience testing, and skill demonstration. According to the proposed assessment model, it has been stated that the use behaviour would affect the learner’s engagement and that engagement will affect the learner’s competence, thus it was chosen to test the model.

54.3 Methodology 54.3.1 Participants This research included 42 students, 29 boys and 13 girls in total. 20 participants used the website with the usability issue, whereas the remaining 22 utilized the website without the issue. All participants were students in the programme for industrial design. The participant’s average age was 21, 6 years, with a standard deviation of 2.7 years. The participants were vetted based on their desire to study animation. All participants were design students who were interested in sketching and drawing. The pre-test assignment assured that students had no previous knowledge of the scale and proportion approach covered in the course.

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Fig. 54.3 Experimental set-up for e-learning website usage

54.3.2 Experimental Set-Up Experiments were done in a laboratory using a one-way mirror configuration, allowing observers to see participants across the mirror while subjects were unable to see observers (Fig. 54.3). This design prevented participants from being distracted while experimenters captured their data and observers noted their behaviour in real time. Participants were shown the stimuli on a 21-inch screen equipped with a mouse, keyboard, and camera. Two 15-inch computers were utilized by the observer to capture and document the real-time behaviour of experiment participants. The MORAE programme was responsible for data logging and behaviour labelling. During the experiment, a Neulog GSR sensor with a sampling rate of 100 Hz was utilized to capture the skin reaction of the participants. A GSR sensor was inserted on the bottom of the participants’ fingers.

54.3.3 Stimuli A module for an animation course was developed based on the researcher’s knowledge in teaching animation courses. Two e-learning websites with identical content but distinct navigation structures were established. Participants were required to complete two activities on the website. The first goal was to locate the learning video module specified in the work description using navigation. The second objective was to view a 12-min film on sighting methods for understanding scale and proportion. The navigation on one website was straightforward, whereas the navigation on the other website was inconsistent on purpose. The 12-min video has an educator who narrates and explains how to use the method using narration and graphics. The video demonstrated how to draw proportional objects. The video’s content was developed and delivered by a fine arts instructor with 25 years of expertise teaching scale and proportion. The video was a live demonstration of the sighting method taken by a camera and afterwards edited and uploaded to the website (Fig. 54.4).

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Fig. 54.4 a Screenshot of e-learning website home page and b Seeded navigation difficulty in the e-learning website

54.3.4 Procedure A website containing instructional modules for animation classes was developed. A comprehensive e-learning package for studying ‘size and proportion’ in animation sketching was developed and posted. Additional mock courses were created to make the e-learning site authentic and content rich. Two versions of the same e-learning website were developed. One of the versions was contaminated with errors, resulting in navigational and content-finding difficulties. The other version was simpler to use and browse in order to get the necessary material. Participants were instructed to use the e-learning platform to study scale and proportion. During website usage for learning, participants’ behaviour was observed using software called Morae, in which behavioural markers were set and a human observer concurrently noted participants’ behaviour while they utilized the website to study the course. In addition, Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) was measured when participants used the website to gain knowledge. The association between use and engagement was determined by analysing behavioural and physiological characteristics.

54.4 Analysis and Results During the experiment, two distinct sets of data were gathered. Firstly, participant behavioural observations, and secondly, GSR physiological data. All of the information has been compared between the website with usability issues and the website without usability issues. Following is a description of each discovery in detail.

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54.4.1 Behavioural Findings Three input device metrics were recorded in total: time spent per job, number of mouse clicks, and mouse movements (pixels). In addition, behavioural markers were developed using the Morae programme, and an observer documented the participants’ behaviour throughout task completion. During the first activity, which consisted of participants navigating to the right page on the Internet where the instructional video on scale and proportion was to be seen, one behavioural marker, namely ‘frustration’ was established. During the second task, i.e. the viewing of the learning film, a total of six learning behaviour indicators were developed: engagement, distraction, enthusiasm, boredom, confidence, and uncertainty. During the observation, the human observer had noted these behaviours. ‘Facial expressions are the most natural means of deducing and interpreting a person’s emotional state.’ [20]. Separately, a two-tailed ANOVA with a 95% confidence interval was conducted on the two tasks using SPSS. Table 54.1 displays the results of two-tailed ANOVA for the first test, navigation. As seen in the table, there is a statistically significant difference in the behaviour of participants using the two websites. Figure 54.5 depicts the box plot of the four behavioural data for which ANOVA showed significance in Table 54.1. The box plot clearly demonstrates that throughout the navigation task, the time required, the number of mouse clicks, and the total mouse movement were significantly greater for websites with usability issues than for websites without usability issues. In addition, the reported ‘frustration’ was much greater on the website with the usability issue. A website with usability issues was shown to have a considerably higher irritation marker count. In the light of the tasks assigned to the users, these data show that the usability of the two e-learning websites vary in terms of the number of mouse clicks and mouse movements, the time of navigation, and the number of instances of dissatisfaction. Due to the fact that one of the websites was purposely designed with poor navigation and uneven layouts, the researchers anticipated these outcomes. The purpose of comparing these criteria was to validate the difference in usability between the two websites in order to identify the relationship between usability and learning behaviour. Table 54.1 ANOVA on users’ behaviour during navigation between the two sites Without usability problem With usability problem

ANOVA

Mean

F

Sig.

Std. deviation

Mean

Std. deviation

Time spent (Min)

0.302

0.121

1.267

0.705

40.028

0.000

No. of mouse click

1.50

0.512

5.33

3.181

31.144

0.000

Mouse movement (px) Frustration

3196.77 2.35

2648.91 0.462

11,108.33

4246.88

51.871

0.000

5.72

2.54

27.214

0.001

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Fig. 54.5 Participants’ usage behaviour during the navigation of websites

Next, the observed behaviour for the second task, which consisted of memorizing scale and proportion instructions from the film, was analysed. As the website was static and the video had the same duration, no analysis was performed on variations in mouse movement, number of mouse clicks, or time required. Nonetheless, a substantial difference was seen in the behavioural indicators, confirming the prediction that website using behaviour would influence involvement during learning. Table 54.2 displays the results of the two-tailed ANOVA. Four of the six learning behaviour indicators, namely, engagement, distraction, confidence, and dubious, had statistically significant differences in the number of counts between the two websites, as given in Table 54.2. Box plot showing the change in user behaviour throughout the learning task is shown in Fig. 54.6. Engagement and confidence had a much larger number of marker counts for websites with no usability issues. The results demonstrate that the usability of an e-learning website may attract learners’ attention and increase their engagement while using the system. Effective usability of an e-learning website may increase coherence and have a favourable impact on the learning environment, hence boosting user confidence.

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Table 54.2 ANOVA on behavioural markers during learning between the two sites

Engaged

Without usability problem

With usability problem

ANOVA

Mean

Std. deviation

Mean

Std. deviation

F

Sig.

26.95

9.589

19.61

5.822

8.091

0.007

Distraction

3.32

4.487

8.28

5.074

10.755

0.002

Excitement

3.55

0.858

2.33

0.767

2.665

0.120

Boredom

2.41

0.850

3.94

0.918

2.550

0.221

Confidence

5.41

1.333

0.61

3.973

4.779

0.040

Doubtful

2.64

0.902

7.28

2.742

7.253

0.012

Fig. 54.6 User behaviour difference in two websites during learning

54.4.2 Psychogalvanic Data Findings During the experiment, physiological data were obtained from the skin of the participants using the GSR sensor. GSR data was pre-processed using MATLAB’s Leda lab integration. 10 s of both pre- and post-recorded data were eliminated, and a previously recorded baseline was deleted. Time series of skin conductivity data include both slowly changing skin conductance level (SCL) owing to global responses and

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Fig. 54.7 Difference in skin conductance level between the two websites

rapidly changing skin conductance response (SCR) due to event-related responses. In the Leda laboratory, a de-convolution technique was used to separate these two. Since website responses were being measured, SCL chose a GSR feature for this study. The mean SCL was determined for all 42 participants across both websites. Using a two-tailed t-test with a 95% confidence interval, the Skin Conductance Level (SCL) of Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) was compared across the two websites throughout the browsing and learning stages of user engagement (Fig. 54.7). Skin conductance level (SCL) during navigation in e-learning websites with usability difficulties was considerably (f = 18.63, p0.05) higher (mean = 5.26 and std. dev. = 1.51) than for websites without usability problems (mean = 2.16 and std. dev. = 1.57). Based on the acquired results, it is obvious that task difficulty while navigating was greater on websites with usability issues, which is consistent with the findings of the behavioural observations. Comparing SCL for learning, websites with usability problems were found to have substantially higher (f = 13.25, p0.05) values (mean = 4.86, std. Dev. = 1.96) values than websites without usability problems (mean = 2.57, std dev. = 0.95) values. A greater SCL value during learning indicates a greater user stress level. These findings indicate that the uneven interface design and poor usability of e-learning websites increased navigational stress. Higher SCL during learning indicates that navigation-related stress was carried out while viewing the video instruction.

54.5 Discussion and Conclusion The new model proposes assessing interactive learning media together with course content. The learner’s propensity towards the media will affect the overall learnerlearning module relationship. Literature discusses personal attitudes concerning electronic media. Some people prefer electronic media. Using electronic media for learning may have given people diverse experiences owing to different exposures.

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The new approach proposes understanding initial learning disposition. Next, this approach proposes measuring the first visceral appeal of the e-learning platform or the learner’s initial response before navigating the system or commencing the learning process. This is like a student assessing a classroom before beginning a new course. Next is the interaction of the e-learning platform with the student, where the ’learner’ becomes a ’user’ of the system and the ’use’ must be evaluated. This is similar to usability testing done with any interactive system to determine its suitability, to see whether the user can grasp the navigation system, menu organization, terminology, etc. The latter three levels concern learning content and quality. The argument of this model is that e-learning system interface design affects learning quality. Learning achievement is heavily influenced by motivation. In different phases of e-learning engagement, learning motivation may be measured. Next, the study empirically validates the model’s assumption. Usability issues affect learning engagement and learning outcome. The physiological data of Galvanic Skin Response, learning assessment, and behavioural observations imply that increasing the complexity of the e-learning platform decreases engagement during learning, which leads to poor learning and poor post-learning performance. Considering this conclusion, it is stated that, like teacher-student contact in conventional learning settings, human–computer interaction affects learning process and outcome. Similarly, if the intended system for e-learning causes trouble for the learner, then the learner will also have problems. The discovery has several implications for e-learning. First, interface designers must engage with instructional designers in e-learning teams to produce an interesting, effective learning system. Next, an integrative approach for the student’s experience while learning will need to be devised since the learner perceives the complete e-learning system as a united whole. All system stakeholders must agree on the learner’s experience strategy and design objectives. The assessment will evaluate whether objectives were met, and if not, the next cycle of redesign, development, and evaluation may begin.

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Chapter 55

Neurophysiological UX Evaluation of Industry 4.0 Technologies: E-commerce, e-learning Websites, and VR Simulation Abhijeet Kujur, Sadaf H. Khan, and Jyoti Kumar Abstract Industry 4.0 technologies are a product of human computer interaction (HCI). Users may engage with online instructors and virtual chatbots in e-commerce, e-learning, and virtual reality (VR) interactions, depending on the epistemology behind the design of Industry 4.0 technologies. E-commerce, e-learning, and virtual reality are one of the powerful forces advancing the industrial world. Rapid technological improvements and the way people do business through e-commerce, elearning, and VR-based applications can only add to the reality that Industry 4.0 is an intrinsic part of this process. Numerous designers invest a substantial amount of time and energy in designing adaptive technology training and user-friendly interfaces to optimize the value of digital interactions. Regardless of the strategy used, a number of questions always arise: How efficiently do Industry 4.0 technologies interact? Is the interaction consistent with the UX expectations of the customers? How may they be enhanced further? Traditional approaches include UX evaluation, interaction design, and interface analysis for answering these problems. The UX evaluation and usability analysis of Industry 4.0 technologies have been hampered by the limited quantity of data from busy users unwilling to share at the conclusion of a digital interaction, the limited quality of self-reported and retrospective data, and a significant lag between the reported events and the implementation of an intervention. Therefore, researchers performed three distinct studies on e-commerce, e-learning, and virtual reality to assess the user experience (UX) provided by neurophysiological devices such as EEG and GSR. The proposed neurophysiological measure of UX of Industry 4.0 technology investigates the numerous methods by which we may quantify varying degrees of successful engagement and improve UX in any digital transition.

A. Kujur (B) · S. H. Khan · J. Kumar Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, New Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected] J. Kumar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_55

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55.1 Introduction Industry 4.0 is becoming more significant in numerous manufacturing areas, as it enables broad, rapid, and inexpensive production. The new Industry 4.0 paradigm transcends the existing manufacturing structure and foresees tight and direct collaboration with computers in order to boost productivity. In Industrial Revolution 4.0, humans and computers may function as a team via interaction that is more adaptable [1]. But the question arises, how can a flexible interface design be developed in an Industry 4.0 environment that fulfills customer satisfaction? A response to this question is user experience (UX), which, according to [2], is relevant anywhere when people engage with a technology. This encompasses not just interaction and usability, but also perceived cognition and emotion. This research demonstrates how a neurophysiological user experience (UX) study aided in comprehending the usability design aspects of e-commerce, e-learning, and virtual reality, hence identifying the emotional user experience. In order to evaluate the UX, which may have been influenced by the usability design of e-commerce, e-learning, and virtual reality, we used a multi-modal method that included techniques such as EEG and GSR [3]. Moreover, in recent years, new ways of investigating human behavior and emotion based on physical and physiological assessment have been created to provide a more objective inquiry. In general, monitoring instruments such as heart rate (HR), electrocardiogram (ECG), electroencephalogram (EEG), and electro-dermal activity (EDA) are used mostly in medical research to analyze illnesses and other ailments. Electroencephalography (EEG) is the most used technique for measuring brain activity owing to its cheap cost and minimally invasive equipment. Studies have also demonstrated a link between brain activity and stress while digital interaction [4]. In UX evaluation, electro-dermal activity (EDA), also known as galvanic skin response (GSR), is often used. It involves measuring the flow of electricity through the skin of a human, which creates a continual fluctuation in the skin’s conductance. Due to an increase in moisture on the skin’s surface, skin conductance rises during stress, hence increasing the flow of electricity [5]. Due to the downsizing and cost reduction of the majority of these technologies, their use in design and engineering settings for behavioral analysis, stress monitoring, and UX assessment is increasing. This research tries to provide a complete analysis of usability design aspects in existing Industry 4.0 technologies and their impact on user actions, emotions, and behaviors which may influence the UX and overall productivity. User’s workload, stress levels, and UX are traditionally monitored by direct observation, user interviews, and surveys. However, such techniques only give a retrospective evaluation of the working circumstances and are heavily impacted by the subjectivity of the participating users. Late assessment permits the examination of issues, but does not assist a human-centered process to significantly examine the performance. Therefore, this research focuses specifically on the examination of user experience (UX) using neurophysiological tools. Usage of neurophysiological tools refers to the analysis of human behavior and perceived experiences when engaging with Industry 4.0 technologies like e-commerce, e-learning, and virtual reality.

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55.2 Literature Review 55.2.1 E-commerce in the Era of Industry 4.0 and Its UX Assessment If this new Industrial Revolution 4.0 digitalizes all logistics, purchasing, and selling procedures, then e-commerce will comprise more than 90% of worldwide commercial transactions [6]. Utilizing e-commerce is one approach to take advantage of technological advancements in the age of Industry 4.0 that transform the way work is performed from the conventional to the digital. In order to harness opportunities in this technological era, stakeholders in the Industry 4.0 era may employ the following strategies: designing the user/customer experience and crafting the user/customer interface or usability [7]. It is suggested to design the experiences that are expected for customers to get from e-commerce. Here are the steps suggested in research in constructing a client’s user experience. 1. Usability and Ease of Navigation: Measuring how effectively a website anticipates user demands, which are impacted by several factors, such as load speed, page structure, and visual design. 2. Speed: The time required to show a web page on a user’s screen. 3. Reliability: Indicates the extent to which a website encounters downtime or the amount of time a user is unable to access the website due to maintenance. 4. When security and convenience are coupled, the customer experience is enhanced for consumers who want to know they can trust a website. 5. Media accessibility is the capacity of a website to access data from diverse media outlets [8]. The aesthetics and functionality of an e-commerce website must be captured visually and physically. The primary emphasis is on aesthetically pleasing graphical displays, colors, and design elements, but others have stressed functional goals such as facilitating navigation. Section breakdown, connecting structure, and navigation tools are three crucial aspects of a website’s visual design. All digital aspects of a website may be used to verify the website’s content. Text, video, audio, and pictures or graphics that can effectively express messages, such as goods, services, and information, are used. The formation of relationships based on a shared interest, both between users and businesses, might encourage customers to revisit a website. In user experience, each behavior and action is explored in depth, and attempts are made to discover user expectations. The purchasing experience on an e-commerce website is an example of user experience. When shopping on an e-commerce website, identical transactions and experiences are performed each time. The user visits the e-commerce site, selects the desired product (often by using a search engine or browsing through categories), fills out the address and credit card blanks on the payment page, and the e-commerce site verifies that the product will be shipped to the user. It produces a succession of minor and significant choices about how the e-commerce website appears, how it informs

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the user, and what actions are permitted. In user experience research, the subject, experimental procedure, sample group, data gathered, and findings obtained are all genuine. Consequently, these investigations are of the utmost importance since they are based only on the phenomena of reality [9].

55.2.2 e-learning in the Era of Industry 4.0 and Its UX Assessment Recent expansion of electronic media-based learning and the Fourth Industrial Revolution have opened the way for education 4.0. Within the Fourth Industrial Revolution, one of the most common challenges that businesses face in order to sustain themselves and their goods and services over time is the need for continual training of learners. If ongoing education is a challenge, then e-learning is the obvious answer [10]. Currently, the learning process is impacted by technology advancements. Learners in the age of Industry 4.0 are technologically sophisticated, and virtually all of them have access to technology, allowing them to receive information quickly and efficiently. Knowledge in the technological age has its own personalization, interaction, and user control. Neurophysiologically, all such motives, drives and emotions may play a pivotal role in assessing UX and understanding users’ expectations. Research suggests that knowledge in the technological age stresses to enable individuals to follow their passion and objective, and to give a rich social learning environment for people to study what they want and become the sort of person they want [11]. User experience (UX) evaluation in the context of e-learning is difficult since UX has numerous characteristics. UX quality is a crucial competitive aspect for any system development. When a user interacts with an e-learning platform, a subjective physical and emotional sensation of the user starts developing. To enhance the UX of the e-learning platform, a strategic assessment methodology is required, since typical UX evaluation methodologies are insufficient [12]. User experiences in an e-learning system entail the user’s mental model in relation to the system’s operating pattern [13]. User experience design for learning systems necessitates the following system capabilities: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Strongly convey the e-learning system’s strengths. Create guided information and features. Develop affordances to make the UI intuitive. Maintain uniformity across the whole system [14].

All e-learning system capabilities might enhance learnability, usability, memorability, effectiveness, and efficiency [14].

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55.2.3 Virtual Reality in the Era of Industry 4.0 and Its UX Assessment Virtual reality enables the viewing of virtual things in both the professional and public sectors due to adequate computational capacity. With virtual reality, tackling difficult projects, particularly those based on Industry 4.0 standards, has become considerably simpler. Industry 4.0 projects are used, among other things, for monitoring operating conditions and sharing virtual models during the development cycle, both of which can be visualized in virtual reality [15]. In actuality, sophisticated VR and AR technology are adequate for a designer or architect to evaluate many ideas and offer them to their clients, who can view the findings for themselves and make choices much more easily before the building process begins [16]. Industry 4.0 aims to superimpose a simulation on a real-time manufacturing line that may explore poorly understood phenomena and help in the elimination of bottlenecks. The implementation of VR in Industry 4.0 enables businesses to cut design and manufacturing costs, maintain product quality, and shorten the time required from product conception to production. In virtual reality, it is crucial to evaluate user experience in a number of ways, such as flow of the VR, presence, usability, and workload, since user experience relates to emotions arising from traits such as efficiency, effectiveness, pleasure, and appeal. According to flow theory for VR, this research tries to assess the UX of VR based on different metrics like ‘a situation that is within users’ control’, ‘mental demand of the users’, and ‘possibility for the users’ to assess their performance’ [17].

55.3 Methodology and Materials 55.3.1 Stimuli For this investigation, three distinct experimental settings with identical circumstances were developed. In the first experiment, an e-commerce website’s UX was evaluated. In the second experiment, an online cybersecurity educational course’s user experience was evaluated. In the third trial, a VR learning simulation was evaluated for user experience. During the experiment, individuals were observed via a one-way mirror while their EEG and GSR data were concurrently captured. For the first two tests, e-commerce and e-learning websites that already existed were selected. Usability problems in both the two websites were identified and marked through a standalone usability expert review before exposing them to the participants. Further, ‘Sketchup-Pro VR’ and ‘Simlab Composer-10 VR’ were used to create the stimulus for the UX evaluation of the VR simulation. VR simulation consisted of three learning environments with different virtual layout designs. The HTC vive pro-eye VR Headset was used to expose the stimuli to the participants. The snapshots of the stimuli can be seen in Fig. 55.1.

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(c) Fig. 55.1 a Existing e-commerce website, b existing e-learning website, and c bird-eye view of the VR simulation

55.3.2 Participants For the UX assessment of e-commerce and e-learning websites, a total of 45 college students (31 male and 14 female) with a mean age of 22.4 years and a standard deviation of 2.3 years were involved in this study. Even though they were regular e-commerce and e-learning website users, it was made certain that they had not consumed any drugs or alcohol within a month before the trial. Similarly, the UX assessment of VR simulation was conducted on 11 participants (9 males, 2 females; mean age = 23.15 years, SD = 2.98 years). All the participants were undergraduate and post-graduate students of design and non-design background from IIT Delhi. All the participants were residents of urban areas and had a lesser chance of not using Industry 4.0 technologies.

55.3.3 Procedure A. UX testing experiment of e-commerce and e-learning websites Participants were provided with comprehensive information on the research and a screening questionnaire. After meeting the inclusion criteria, participants completed an informed consent form and later they were brought to the EEG data collection laboratory. All participants were given the hypothetical scenario and

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directed to purchase Indian organic groceries and enroll in an online cybersecurity course on e-commerce and e-learning websites, respectively. Experiments were done in a laboratory equipped with a one-way mirror so that experimenters could monitor participants without the participants being able to see experimenters. This design prevented participants from being distracted as experimenters captured their data and noted their conduct in real time. Attempts were made to maintain steady room temperature and ambient lighting during the experiment. Before beginning the experiment, participant’s written agreement was acquired, the task and situation were given, an EEG cap was put on their heads, and GSR sensors were placed on their wrists. For raw EEG data collection, a 14-channel Emotiv Epoc EEG equipment based on the 10/20 method was used. In order to preserve impedance, the electrodes of the Emotiv headset were prepared using a conducting electrolytic liquid. For GSR data collection, Empatica E4 wrist watch GSR sensor was used. Each participant sat in a comfortable chair around 75 cm from a 52-inch computer display. B. UX testing experiment of VR learning simulation The HTC vive pro-eye VR Headset was used to expose the stimuli to the subjects. Participants in the research were helped to wear a 64-channel active electrode system (ActiCHamp, Brain Products GmbH, Germany), a virtual reality (VR) headset, and a galvanic skin response (GSR) sensor Empatica E4 wristwatch. They were told to familiarize themselves with HMDs, observe, and immerse themselves in the VR experience. Later, participants were virtually teleported to the VR learning environment for ten minutes. They were required to complete some activities inside the VR experience. Participants were tasked with counting the number of blocks in the virtual reality learning environment. The purpose of these exercises was not to obtain a substantial result, but to fully immerse participants in the VR simulation so that their user experience can be measured. Each person was exposed to the stimuli for 10 min, excluding 15 min for EEG and VR preparation. During the experiment, EEG and GSR data were simultaneously collected from each subject. The experimental setup can be seen (Fig. 55.2).

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Fig. 55.2 Participant preparation and participant activity during the VR experiment

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55.4 Analysis and Results This research used two methods (EEG and GSR) and three primary sources to obtain data. Neurophysiological sensors were used to capture the participants’ experiences and emotions while they interacted with e-commerce and e-learning websites, and a virtual reality learning simulation. The first and second sources of EEG and GSR data were from e-commerce and e-learning websites’ UX evaluations, respectively. UX assessment of VR learning simulation provided the third source of EEG and GSR data. The three data types were assessed and analyzed as described in this section. A. UX evaluation results for the e-commerce and e-learning Using EEG and GSR sensors, the participants’ sensations and arousal levels were mapped while they engaged with the two websites. As shown in Fig. 55.3a, the y-axis label denotes the relative power and the x-axis is for the frequency (Hz), demonstrating a correlation analysis between EEG frequency band power and navigational span spent by the participants’ tackling usability difficulties of the two websites has been displayed. The power of the three EEG frequency bands, alpha, beta, and gamma was shown to be correlated with the length of time participants spent dealing with various usability issues during task completion. Beta power band which is a marker of mental activity gets increased during the span of usability problems as compared to the span of no usability problems. In addition, in Fig. 55.3b, the emotional intensity (MicroSiemens—µS) is represented by the radar plot for GSR measurement of the GSR data revealing that skin conductance level and arousal were elevated during the period when participants had to cope with the observed usability issues. Similar correlations were observed between EEG frequency band power and skin conductance level during the smooth navigation of these websites. In light of the acquired data, it is obvious that these two websites had a larger usability difficulty, which was represented by the neurophysiological sensors. The significance level was set at 0.05, and it is adjusted using the Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons to account for the number of segments with and without navigational issues being evaluated.

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Fig. 55.3 EEG and GSR data while navigating e-commerce and e-learning website

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Fig. 55.4 Interpreted emotions based on EEG and GSR data during UX evaluation of website

On the basis of the association between usability issues and neurophysiological data, it can be concluded that neurophysiological data is capable of more accurately measuring the UX of the users. From the obtained GSR data and regionspecific EEG analyses, emotions that are more prevalent in user experience were determined. Participants’ user experience when interacting with e-commerce and e-learning websites was shown to correlate most strongly with the prefrontal and occipital areas. It was shown that confusion and frustration are positively correlated with frontal areas across all EEG frequency power ranges. This may be due to lowquality information and extensive searching on the websites. This can be seen in Fig. 55.4. B. UX evaluation results for the VR learning simulation When considering UX in VR environments, each VR environment has its own benefits and drawbacks. To grasp the UX of VR in the real world, it is necessary to choose the appropriate environment. Similarly, EEG and GSR sensors were used to capture individuals’ experiences during VR learning simulations. The association between the time span of navigational issues in virtual reality environments and EEG frequency power bands is well-established. As demonstrated in Fig. 55.5a, (the yaxis label denotes the relative power and the x-axis is for the frequency (Hz)), the beta band, which is a measure of mental activity, is elevated during the period of navigational problems in VR compared to the period of no navigational problems. In addition, GSR data, which represents skin conductance level and arousal, reaches a high when participants experience a situation that is within their control, ‘mental demand’, and ‘possibility to assess their performance’. This can be seen in Fig. 55.5b (where the emotional intensity (MicroSiemens—µS) is represented by the radar plot for GSR measurement). The significance level was established at 0.05 and was modified using the Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons to account for the number of analyzed segments with and without navigational problems.

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Fig. 55.5 EEG and GSR data while interacting with the VR simulation

According to region-specific frequency analysis of EEG data that also includes removal of baseline EEG, the most significant emotions recognized by the participant’s user experience measurement in VR learning simulation are engagement and excitement. This research indicates that usability concerns in virtual reality may impact UX-related parameters such as presence, workload, and flow. Measures like presence and flow of immersion are essential since they represent the basis of VR technology [18]. The virtual environment offers components that immerse people in the computer-generated world. According to a number of studies, the more experienced virtual immersion and fluidity, the better the overall satisfaction with virtual reality [19] (Fig. 55.6).

Fig. 55.6 Identified emotions based on EEG and GSR data during UX evaluation VR simulation

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55.5 Discussion and Conclusions Therefore, from the above experiments performed for the user experience assessment of e-commerce, e-learning, and virtual reality technologies, it can be derived that neurophysiological assessment of these Industry 4.0 technologies can be a better approach for analyzing the user experience created by these technologies. GSR, EEG, and other neurophysiological tools can better track the pain points, stress levels, and current emotional states of the users during the whole user experience. There is an existing need to involve these neurophysiological UX evaluation tools to provide better user-immersion in case of virtual reality environments, better usability and control in case of e-learning and e-commerce settings.

References 1. Webster, J., Trevino, L.K., Ryan, L.: The dimensionality and correlates of flow in humancomputer interactions. Comput. Human. Behav. 9, 411–426 (1993) 2. Kuniavsky User experience and HCI.: The Human-Computer Interaction Handbook (2007). https://doi.org/10.1201/9781410615862-60/user-experience-hci-mike-kuniavsky 3. Kumar, N.: Development of user’s cognitive load centric methodology for HCI based control panel design (2022). http://eprint.iitd.ac.in/bitstream/handle/2074/8016/TH-5800.pdf?sequen ce=1. Accessed 28 Jun 2022 4. Rothkrantz, D.: Analysis of computer game player stress level using EEG data. In: 11th international conference (2007) 5. Liao, W., Zhang, W., Zhu, Z., Ji, Q.: A real-time human stress monitoring system using dynamic bayesian network. In: 2005 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR’05)—Workshops. pp. 70–70. (2005) 6. Hitpass, B., Astudillo, H.: Industry 4.0 challenges for business process management and electronic-commerce. theoretical and applied electronic commerce … 7. Mohammed.: Internet Marketing Building Advantage In :A. A Nerworked economy (2004) 8. Tarafdar, M.: Analyzing the influence of web site design parameters on web site usability. Inform. Resour. Managem. J. (IRMJ) 18(4), 62–80 (2005) 9. Karaman, Ö.: Bayhan Users’ emotional experiences in online shopping: effects of design components. OPUS J. Soc. 10. Clarizia, F., De Santo, M., Lombardi, M., Santaniello, D.: e-Learning and Industry 4.0: a Chatbot for training employees. In: Proceedings of Fifth International Congress on Information and Communication Technology, pp. 445–453. (2021) 11. Collins, A., Halverson, R.: Rethinking education in the age of technology: the digital revolution and schooling in America. Teachers College Press (2018) 12. Laugwitz, B., Held, T., Schrepp, M.: Construction and evaluation of a user experience questionnaire. In: HCI and Usability for Education and Work, pp. 63–76. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg (2008) 13. Deaton, M.: The elements of user experience: user-centered design for the Web. Interactions 10, 49–51 (2003) 14. Nielsen, J.: Usability Engineering. Morgan Kaufmann (1994) 15. Berg, L.P., Vance, J.M.: Industry use of virtual reality in product design and manufacturing: a survey. Virtual Real. 21, 1–17 (2017) 16. Peng, Q.: Virtual Reality Technology in Product Design and Manufacturing. PCEEA (2007). https://doi.org/10.24908/pceea.v0i0.3792

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17. Hufnal, D., Johnson, T., Yilderim, C., Schofield, D.: Impact of VR and desktop gaming on electroencephalogram (EEG) ratings. In: 2021 International Conference on Electrical, Communication, and Computer Engineering (ICECCE), June, pp. 1–6. IEEE (2021) 18. Bian, Y., Yang, C., Zhou, C., Liu, J., Gai, W., Meng, X., Tian, F., Shen, C.: Exploring the weak association between flow experience and performance in virtual environments. In: Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, pp. 1–12. (2018) 19. Reinhard, R.T., Kleer, M., Dreßler, K.: The impact of individual simulator experiences on usability and driving behavior in a moving base driving simulator. Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 61, 131–140 (2019)

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User Experience of Virtual Reality Showcasing Sham Sunder Das Archive: A Case Study of Digital Preservation of the Archival Artifact Ankana Sen and Deepak John Mathew Abstract In the past two decades, Virtual Reality (VR) technology has been employed in a broad spectrum from entertainment to the engineering and medical field. However, the recent development in digital technology provides new opportunities for curatorial practices, museum experience, learning methods, and public education. This paper presents the virtual photographic exhibition Timeless memory: Chamba through the Lens of Sham Sunder Das, conceptualized and designed in an interactive and innovative method. This pilot exhibition is created using VR technology to demonstrate the 120-year-old photographic collection of an Indian photographer. The research focuses on usability aspects of building an interactive environment that integrates diverse data into one space. The paper brings out the potential approaches about how this interactive method allows sharing the data in a more tangible and informative mode that could be reachable to a wider audience at any time. In order to be able to assess the structure, presentation, and navigation of the VR exhibition the user study was conducted. That enabled us to optimize the exhibition in a more efficient and comprehensible way. Along with the pragmatic qualities the hedonic qualities were taken in account to examine how participants perceive the usability and aesthetic of the virtual environment. The results of the AttrakDiff questionnaire reflect the positive graph of user experience. However, the qualitative content questions showed the scope for the revision of the features.

A. Sen (B) · D. J. Mathew Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology, Kandi, Hyderabad, India e-mail: [email protected] D. J. Mathew e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_56

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56.1 Introduction Designing photographic exhibitions is progressively seen as a storytelling genre. The photographs, photographic tools and materials, and archives are the essential elements for narrating the story visually [1]. Monographs, letterpress, publications, journals, painted portfolios, and photographic prints are traditional ways to present and preserve visual data. The museums, libraries, art collectors, and archival galleries are the custodians of archive materials [2, 3]. They collect, maintain, and exhibit the archives for the end-user, commonly for the public and dedicated viewers. However, printed portfolios and web-based libraries provide detailed information and easy accessibility, but exhibitions are widely used approaches to promote, learn, and display the work. Physical exhibitions (PEs) have limitations of approachability, transportation, space, and afterlife of physical display material. In the last decade, with the advancement of digital technology, many libraries, archival galleries, museums, and individuals have shifted to virtual exhibitions (VEs). Cultural computing (CC) is a fast-evolving field that employs “computer technology” and “scientific methods” for cultural, social, and artistic practices [4]. The surveys on immersive reality technology suggest that high-tech intervention in the cultural heritage domain broadly benefits users [4–6]. Virtual Reality (VR) [4] is an advanced technology in the CC field to create an immersive experience for visitors and users [7]. Since digital practices have already become part of museums and galleries, VRbased exhibitions and tours have become medium for persevering, maintaining, and disseminating the work. VR creates a virtual environment using computer simulation to stimulate the senses that provide the user feeling of the real world [8]. VR and other three-dimensional (3D) technologies are altering the practice of interaction toward an expanded reality in the present scenario. The engagement of this cutting-edge technology with various fields has revealed a significant perspective in education [9], research [7, 10, 11], heritage preservation [12, 13], and entertainment [14, 15]. These flexible and advanced technologies raise the question of how researchers and curators integrate VR to build an information-based design and provide compelling experiences. The evaluation of content is an important part of user-centered design development. The interface should be optimized by considering the usage, presentation, and interaction. This study is a part of “research” and “designing” a virtual walkthrough of the VE Timeless memory: Chamba through the Lens of Sham Sunder Das. This research pursues visualizing, and designing of VE using VR technology to showcase the 120-year-old Sham Sunder Das photographic collection. The application was implemented with Unity (VRTK framework) and optimized for the HTC Vive Pro and hand controllers. The research highlights approaches and methods that are applied to prototyping and user experience and implementation. This functional prototype allows users to access and explore the displayed images with a VR headset and interact with the historical content in a more informative and tangible form.

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56.1.1 Characteristics of Virtual Exhibition An exhibition effectively presents any piece of work or concept through an assemblage of creations. Like PEs, VEs must be designed carefully to engage the viewer in various aspects. Advanced digital technologies open the limitless potential to provide viewers with a user-friendly environment and vital information related to the data. While transferring the info into a virtual mode, several key factors need to be addressed to make it more effective. The exhibitions can be divided into four primary categories based on the central theme and purpose of the exhibits. An aesthetic exhibition is purely curated to appreciate the beauty and style of the artifacts. In the case of archival shows, the aesthetic exhibition might focus on precious materials or prints and photographs. Emotive exhibition targets primarily to develop emotions in the viewer. Such exhibits contain strong power to connect viewers with deep emotions. It can also raise feelings of catharsis in the viewers. Sometimes, it evokes a sense of tragedy, pain, fear, and sadness. An evocative exhibition is to create a particular atmosphere for the viewer. It also can transmit feelings of desire and anxiety to the viewers. An entertaining exhibition commonly has the element of entertainment, which separates the exhibitions from the textbook or lectures. It is an alternative way to teach various topics to the viewer through visual communication. The primary purpose of these exhibitions is to educate, make aware, amuse, or inform the viewers. The aura of such displays has a strong impression on the viewers. While dedicating the show, curators try to incorporate various elements into the exhibits to make them more effective. The Digital Working Group [16, 17] described the virtual exhibition as integrating interlinks to interactively share or present digital data and enhance the user experience. The quality characteristics to improve the user’s engagement with the digital display: • Localization: Designing the environment and interaction in a user-friendly way. Visitors should relate to the cultural elements offered as a part of the exhibition. • Relevance: Offer users the significance and context of the content that brings a sense of connection. • Interaction: Encourages users for their physical and tactile involvement. • Maintainability: The ease of adding/dropping and organizing the data anytime to enrich the experience. • Accessibility: Provides flexibility to access the work from anywhere at any time.

56.2 Related Works In recent years, various concepts and approaches have shown enormous opportunities in preservation, recreation, and educational fields in VR technology practices [13, 17–19]. Technological advancements offer users new perspectives and experiences to

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create exploratory interactive applications for the contemporary audience. A detailed study was conducted to understand the state of the art and possibilities in VR domain. Artist Mat Collishaw restaged the world’s first photographic exhibition in his artwork “Thresholds” using VR technology [7]. He created an incredibly immersive user experience incorporating visuals, interaction, and sound. The well-researched data, historical scenario, and involvement of historical archival images provided an opportunity for the public to revisit and experience the unimaginable past. It demonstrated the faded paper prints of William Henry Fox Talbot [20] that he first showcased in 1839 to the public. VR and advanced digital technologies are forming a way for new audiences to view and explore fragile archival material and historical data in diverse ways. The Swiss pavilion at “Biennale di Venezia” created an interactive explorative experience for users [21]. It uses VR technology to showcase the shift in Swiss art tradition from the early 1950s to contemporary times. The exhibit visualization integrated multiple layers of archival material, interactive interface, and spatial movement and incorporated metadata. This immersive portal engaged users with time travel and connected through an essential part of history. World Press Photo Foundation (WPPF), working toward promoting visual journalism and storytelling worldwide, deconstructing the concept of a physical gallery. In collaboration with Canon, WPPF displayed 45 award-winning images in a virtual space [22]. Stuart Franklin, the Magnum photographer, provided the voice-over for audio narratives. Creating an environment to display 2D images in VR within the 3D space offers an enormous opportunity to enhance the quality of visual material, provide viewers with new experiences and enrich the approach of traditional storytelling. Orange and Emissive are creating Eternal Notre Dame, [12] an interactive VR experience of Notre Dame de Paris. The exhibitions include the historically accurate recreation of the structure and restoration of art and design of the cathedral. These advanced technologies include audio-visual simulation of the 800-year rich record [23]. The development of digital experiences offers uninterrupted immersion into the imagery world. The “Dreams of Dalí” [23] in Virtual Reality created an adventure to explore Dali’s painting by entering it. It allows users to be part of the composition and experience it and broadens how people perceive art. Similarly, the new advanced fields are on the verge of opening up novel prospects and industry through the usage of VR technology. An extended research was carried out to understand the present scenario and possibilities with the medium. User experience and usability are major factors in order to be able to utilize any application with efficiency. The advanced technologies are not only providing creative and interactive solutions for display but also are opening new ways for preserving, presenting, and dissemination of archives or artifacts. However user experience and usability factors need to be considered while ideation, designing or execution of the application in VR. The assessment of outcome is becoming very crucial in user-centered design execution.

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56.3 Building Up of VR Exhibition Timeless Memory: Chamba Through the Lens of Sham Sunder Das During the nineteenth century, European photographers dominated photographic history in India. After the 1860s, the western Himalayan regions became popular among several European landscape artists and travelers due to their mountainous terrain. Photographs of the nineteenth and early twentieth century related to Punjab hill provinces reflect pictorial themes and glamor that embody pictures of sprawling landscapes, royals, tribes, and architecture. The content of VE in VR is photographic images that are part of ongoing research on early Indian Photographers. The exhibition contains photographs of the hill state of Punjab Province, Chamba, India. The pictures were captured during the nineteenth and early twentieth century by an Indian photographer. Sham Sunder Das (b.1884−d.1977) was one of the unmapped photographers whose cameras extensively documented the society and people of Chamba. Surprisingly, his photographic work rarely appears and is uncredited in the published histories of Indian photography. For decades, the 120-year-old legacy of Chamba valley had been locked in old wooden boxes at his vintage home. Das’s archives offer a regional perspective on late nineteenth and early twentieth-century photography. The collection comprises seven categories and reflects portraits as his main photographic interest. Although most of these photos were taken for consumption by local families and domestic audiences, Das’s archival collection is precious for tracing the social photographic history of Chamba state. The choices of forty images for creating the pilot exhibition were made from the repository of Das collection determined by themes developed after content analysis [24, 25]. These images are scanned and reproduced digitally from various sizes of glass plate negatives. The SSDA images consist of royal portraits, family group photos, tribals, and landscapes of Chamba, India. The high-resolution images were post-processed for setting exposure, spot removal, cropping, and perspective correction. The data was organized into stratified groups and grouped by analyzing their condition, content, composition, and aesthetics. In 2021 these images were part of the physical exhibition and showcased for the first time in India Photo Festival at the State Art Gallery Hyderabad [26].

56.4 Methods and Process This research explores the prospective of VR technology for exhibiting and preserving the photographic archive and research data. The overall roadmap for the prototype of the VR exhibition, “Timeless memory: Chamba through the Lens of Sham Sunder Das”, is schematically shown in (Fig. 56.1). The study develops in three categories, and the workflow deals with mixed methods. Here, the primary

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Fig. 56.1 Workflow for the development of the virtual reality exhibition

focus is to exhibit the visual data and offer users widely accessible exploratory interactive environments often lacking in PEs. The initial phase of the research deals with interacting with physical material, and another step deals with designing the virtual medium. Translating physical images into a completely virtual environment juxtaposes two technologies from different periods, using contemporary VR technology to witness the nineteenth and early twentieth-century photograph. The user experience and usability assessment was carried out with participants using two different methods to validate the prototype.

56.4.1 Visualization and Interaction The research involved a viable form of visualization for exhibition production. This interactive walk-through is optimized for the HTC Vive Pro headset and hand controllers. The inspiration was built from the regional vernacular architecture and locations Sham Sunder Das used in his photographs. Some of the frequently used areas in the pictures were Akhand Chandi Palace (ACP), Pink Palace, Bhuri Singh Museum, and Circuit House. Current photographs of these places aided in sketching the layout plan to design the gallery space. Here, the virtual gallery has two main areas–the courtyard and the corridor. The building structure of the virtual walkway is inspired by the ACP design and interior aesthetics envisaged as per Bhuri Singh Museum and the traditional architecture of Chamba. Visualization: The synchronization of diverse materials constantly challenges the construction of the representation and visual language of the exhibit. The 3D model and texture detailing was developed with the help of Blender software. After importing Blender files to Unity the game engine deals with creating the ambience,

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lighting, interaction, and setting of the content in the dimensions. In addition, traditional motifs, stone sculptures, and Pahari paintings are added to the interior to enhance the aesthetics and beautification. A walk-through from the corridor to the courtyard is designed with the images displayed on both sides. The space is provided with artificial light, and images are backlit to enhance visibility. The courtyard is used to exhibit photographs in cubicles and engage the viewer with a single category of pictures at a time. The position of every four images is cubical, facing toward the center from all directions. The photos are placed using the rule of thumb for the ideal viewing distance for the viewer. The voice-over and interactive features are added to engage the audience and provide informative data to the dedicated users. Research has also been carried out regarding navigation, user instructions in the digital environment, and VR’s interaction with the time dimension. The focus was on decisions regarding visual narration, user movement, and interaction with educational material. The synchronization of diverse materials constantly challenges the construction of representation and visual language of the exhibit (Figs. 56.2 and 56.3). Interaction: The prototype offers users to interact with this three-dimensional content of the past to provide users an immersive experience. The spatial movement of the application contains a navigation concept that allows the user to move within the virtual room with the help of positioning tracking. Since the spatial movement is limited parallel to the floor plane, the prototype provides navigation buttons on Fig. 56.2 Development of the 3D model

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Fig. 56.3 Explorative interactive feature

the controller’s trackpad. Teleportation is not required in this space as the room is visible from every other point on turning around with the head-mounted VR device. The additional information for dedicated viewers will only pop out with the laser ray aiming at the desired feature. Certain interactive features were created to enhance the viewers’ experience with controllable data with supplementary hotspots.

56.4.2 User Experience and Usability Testing The user experience and usability of the VR exhibition followed the Lean and Agile UX development method [27, 28]. To gain the best possible experience, the ideation and prototyping process focuses on the build-measure-learn cycle. During the design development, features were tested with the users in fragments, and based on feedback the rapid prototyping was carried out with other best alternatives or ideas. The AttrakDiff method, with 7 points Likert scale, for 28-word pairs was used to understand how users perceive the usability and aesthetic of the VR exhibition. The participants have been interviewed with the help of a qualitative content method. Semi structured and open ended questions were asked to collect the additional data. The examination of the interviews was positioned using content structuring. Openended questions were also included to collect additional information. The focus was given to the following points: (a) The sync of voice-over in time and space. (b) The visibility and dimension of interaction. (c) The viable time duration for the exhibition tour to avoid any physical stress. (d) The irregularity or laps.

56 User Experience of Virtual Reality Showcasing Sham Sunder Das … Table 56.1 Details of participants

709

Category

Sub category

Interview and AttrakDiff survey

Gender

M

11 9

9

Age

20–40

16

16

40–60

4

0

Student

12

14

Others

3

0

Design professional

5

2

New users

9

12

Moderate users

11

4

Hyderabad

15

16

5

0

F

Occupation

Location

Chamba

Interview 7

56.4.3 User Selection In order to examine the user experience, usability or aesthetics of the exhibition “Timeless Memories” a survey and interview was conducted among participants. Usually exhibitions are open for public and diverse viewers the selection of samples were mixed among new and moderate users of VR technology. To get the insights regarding handling of the device and experiences the relevant categories were organized based on age, gender, location, occupation. Working professionals and students from design background were involved to get reviews concerning aesthetics. A small user-testing was conducted among people of Chamba (regional people) to understand their reaction toward experiencing the new medium, emotions, and connectivity. The interview and survey was conducted among 20 participants in two phases by showing them first prototype (first look) and after alterations (based on feedback from phase 1). Other 16 samples were interviewed by asking semi-structured questions (Table 56.1).

56.5 Results In order to evaluate the usability and design of the interactive explorative VR exhibition the AttrakDiff2 was used as a measuring tool. It is basically based on the twomodel framework of perceived pragmatic quality (PQ) and hedonic quality (HQ) and attractiveness of the interactive application. For this intent, 28 at odds factors with 7 Likert scales are mapped. A variation is made between–Pragmatic quality (PQ);

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Fig. 56.4 AttrakDiff presentation evaluation Portfolio-result

Hedonic quality stimulation (HQ-S); Hedonic quality identity (HQ-I); Attractiveness (ATT). Portfolio presentation: The portfolio presents two axes of the surface Fig. 56.4. The graphical values on the vertical axis are the HQ and horizontal axis PQ. It represents survey data taken during first prototyping and second prototyping of the VR exhibition. The blue rectangle represents the survey results taken after first user testing and orange represents the results of the second survey. The light part of the rectangle illustrates the confidence area and solid color is the medium value. The first survey report lies in one character neutral toward the self-oriented. In the orange rectangle the confidence rectangle is smaller than the blue and lies over the desired region. The results are considered to be more reliable if the confidence rectangle area is small. Whereas bigger rectangles are insignificant and show scattered opinions. Since it was new technology for most of the participants the reliability in the first survey was neutral. Furthermore, the light blue rectangle reflects that the experience is slightly more neutral but not negative. After resolving the issues based on the

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Fig. 56.5 AttrakDiff evaluation result: diagram of average value

feedback in the second test the most of the samples evaluation ratings was similar and lies over the desired group. In both graphs the pragmatic qualities are higher than hedonic quality (Fig. 56.5). Description of Word pairs: The values of word pair are presented in Fig. 56.6. This shows the in depth evaluation that presents the detailed categories with negative and positive values. The broader categories are showcased along with the word pair level. The graph shows the comparison between both the prototype along with the critical points and extreme values. In the blue graph the results show the two parameters “confusing-clearly structured” and “cautious-bold” are toward the negative line (−0.5) however the other values are also in between values of (0–1). Few words are not directly related to the VR efficiency or usability that created some issues in the beginning of the first phase of the test. However, that was cleared during interview sessions. The orange graph result represents that two parameters “technical-human” (−1.9) and cautious-bold” (−0.3) are toward negative zone, and is thus some kind of negative–the word pair “technical-human” (−02 in the ranking) in not an extreme value but the only negative evaluated word pair. For the project Timeless memories VR exhibition, the reason for such value could be: Since VR technology deals with tools and equipment users might have considered it more technical. There are other word pairs that are on the positive side but lower in ranking “cautious- bold, tackystylish, undemanding–challenging” it indicates that it needs to be more finished and appealing. The ATT qualities are high in values indicates the positive response of the users. The result for the word pair “conservative-innovative” chosen in a positive value but still needs improvement on the prototype. The overall results represent that prototype of VR exhibition timeless memory is engaging and advanced representation of technologies, usability, and aesthetics (Fig. 56.6).

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Fig. 56.6 AttrakDiff evaluation result: diagram of average value

56.6 Discussion Design research and practice are a gateway to several interdisciplinary approaches and methods to interact with historical material. With the advancement of technology, Virtual Reality applications are contributing significant roles in various fields. Physical museums, galleries, and exhibitions are traditional methods of disseminating information and interacting with data. VR technology provides the extended liberty to reconstruct the virtual exhibition that offers an immersive experience. Research and design are closely woven processes but differ from each other. Both are intended actions to provide or validate something new. They have different methods and approaches to conduct and the parameters for validation [29]. The traditional presentation methods are standard or limited in ethnography, cultural,

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or anthropological studies. However, presenting theoretical or visual data based on ground research is often challenging. The development of Timeless memory: Chamba through the Lens of Sham Sunder Das integrates Information-based Design Research and Inspiration-Based Design Research [30]. The first phase of the research deals with “Doing Research”–hypothesis, theory investigation, inspiration, validation, and discovery [29]. The second phase involves more “Doing Design”–concept generation, development, integration, prototyping, invention, implementation, and realization [29]. This application deals with multiple layers of material and poses a challenge to sync the diverse form of data in one language. The key exhibition content comprises (photographic images by SSD), additional information and interpretational data (images by European photographers or artifacts), and spatial mapping (placement & aesthetics). The amalgamation of these data provided the experimental curative process and first-hand interactive VE experience. Acknowledgements Our sincere thanks to Mrs Kshama Mahajan, granddaughter-in-law of photographer Sham Sunder Das for offering us the opportunity to research and experiment with the SSDA collection. We would like to express our gratitude to Mr Udhayan and Mr Raj Narayana for technical support and for providing expert knowledge while designing the Virtual Reality Exhibition ‘Timeless memories”.

References 1. Beale, G., Reilly, P.: After virtual archaeology: rethinking archaeological approaches to the adoption of digital technology. Internet Archaeol. 44 (2017) 2. Kalfatovic, M.R.: Creating a Winning Online Exhibition: A Guide for Libraries, Archives, and Museums. American Library Association (2002) 3. Dunford, H.: Organizing Exhibitions: A Handbook for Museums, Libraries and Archives’. Taylor & Francis (2015) 4. Bekele, M.K., Pierdicca, R., Frontoni, E., Malinverni, E.S., Gain, J.: A survey of augmented, virtual, and mixed reality for cultural heritage. J. Comput. Cultural Heritage 11(2) (2018). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3145534 5. Anthes, C., García-Hernández, R.J., Wiedemann, M., Kranzlmüller, D.: State of the art of virtual reality technology. In: 2016 IEEE Aerospace Conference, pp. 1–19. (2016) 6. Adhani, N.I., Rambli, D.R.A.: A survey of mobile augmented reality applications. In: 1st International Conference on Future Trends in Computing and Communication Technologies, pp. 89–96. (2012) 7. Tennent, P., Martindale, S., Benford, S., Darzentas, D., Brundell, P., Collishaw, M.: Thresholds: embedding virtual reality in the museum. J. Comput. Cultural Heritage 13(2) (2020). https:// doi.org/10.1145/3369394 8. Lin, C.L., Chen, S.J., Lin, R.: Efficacy of virtual reality in painting art exhibitions appreciation. Appl. Sci. (Switzerland) 10(9), (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/app10093012 9. Som, S., Mathew, D.J., Phillipson, S., Saha, I.: Enhancing creative learning methods by immersive virtual reality: a pilot study in classroom environment. In: Design for Tomorrow—Volume 2, Springer, pp. 745–756. (2021) 10. Willcocks, J.: Archives, collections and curatorship: live archive projects in a design history learning setting. J. Des. Hist. 34(2), 166–177 (2021)

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11. Koebel, K., Agotai, D., Arisona, S., Oberli, M.: Biennale 4D—a journey in time: virtual reality experience to explore the archives of the Swiss pavilion at the “Biennale di Venezia” art exhibition’. In: Proceedings of the 2017 23rd International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia, VSMM 2017, April 2018, vol. 2018-January, pp. 1–8. (2018). https://doi.org/10. 1109/VSMM.2017.8346280 12. Carlton, B.: VR restores the notre-dame cathedral to its historic glory (2022). https://vrscout. com/news/vr-restores-the-notre-dame-cathedral-to-its-historic-glory/. Accessed 30 Jun 2022 13. Walmsley, A.P., Kersten, T.P.: The imperial cathedral in Königslutter (Germany) as an immersive experience in virtual reality with integrated 360° panoramic photography. Appl. Sci. (Switzerland) 10(4) (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/app10041517 14. Jain, R., Iyengar, S., Arora, A.: Virtual world for education and entertainment. In: 2013 Fourth International Conference on Computing, Communications and Networking Technologies (ICCCNT), pp. 1–6. (2013) 15. Abdelmaged, M.A.M.: Implementation of Virtual Reality in Healthcare, Entertainment, Tourism, Education, and Retail Sectors (2021) 16. Hagedorn-Saupe, M., Schweibenz, W., de Francesco, G., Natale, M.T.: Digital exhibitions, a powerful tool for cultural institutions audience development the international working group on digital exhibitions. In: 2015 Digital Heritage, vol. 2, pp. 203–204. (2015) 17. Dumitrescu, G., Lepadatu, C., Ciurea, C.: Creating virtual exhibitions for educational and cultural development. Inform. Econ. 18(1/2014), 102–110 (2014). https://doi.org/10.12948/iss n14531305/18.1.2014.09 18. Squire, K.: Making Games for Impact. MIT Press (2021) 19. Oyelere, S.S., Bouali, N., Kaliisa, R., Obaido, G., Yunusa, A.A., Jimoh, E.R.: Exploring the trends of educational virtual reality games: a systematic review of empirical studies. Smart Learn. Environ. 7(1), 1–22 (2020) 20. Daniel, M.: ‘William Henry Fox Talbot (1800–1877) and the Invention of Photography’, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History (2000) 21. Koebel, K., Agotai, D., Arisona, S., Oberli, M.: Biennale 4D—a journey in time: virtual reality experience to explore the archives of the Swiss pavilion at the “Biennale di Venezia” art exhibition’. In: 2017 23rd International Conference on Virtual System and Multimedia (VSMM), pp. 1–8. (2017) 22. Fulford, L.: VR brings World Press Photo winners’ stories to life (2017). https://www.canoneurope.com/pro/events/world-press-photo/vr-exhibition/ 23. Marasco, A.: Beyond virtual cultural tourism: history-living experiences with cinematic virtual reality. Tour. Heritage J. 2, 1–16 (2020) 24. Rose, G.: Visual methodologies: an introduction to researching with visual materials. sage (2016) 25. Lutz, C.A.: Reading national geographic. University of Chicago Press (1993) 26. Sen, A., Mathew, D.J.: Timeless memories: chamba through the lens of Sham. Indian Photo Festival, State Art Gallery, Hyderabad (2021). https://www.indianphotofest.com/exhibitions? pgid=kuw7halc-9cabb1fa-6a8a-4ddf-97f9-681d3ea75c1c 27. Gothelf, J., Seiden, J.: Lean ux. ‘ O’Reilly Media, Inc.’ (2021) 28. Aarlien, D., Colomo-Palacios, R.: Lean ux: a systematic literature review. In: International Conference on Computational Science and Its Applications, pp. 500–510. (2020) 29. Stappers, P.J., Giaccardi, E.: Research through design. In: The Encyclopedia of HumanComputer Interaction, The Interaction Design Foundation, pp. 1–94. (2017) 30. Sanders, E.B.-N.: Information, inspiration and co-creation. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference of the European Academy of Design (2005)

Chapter 57

User Interface Design Recommendations for Mental Health Mobile Application Design Amol Pakhale

and Venus Kashyap

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic’s devastation resulted in millions of deaths, economic turmoil, and unprecedented curbs on social interaction. These had a significant impact on people’s mental health (Abbott in Depression, 2021). According to a study conducted by the National Mental Health Program by the Government of India in 2020, 6–7% of the Indian population, which was estimated to suffer mental illness issues in 2001, has now increased to more than 15%. Thus, addressing this issue is of utmost importance in today’s time. A considerable amount of mobile apps and software are launching every day to address this issue but aren’t proving to be as effective as envisioned. One of the main causes for this is that people who are primary users of these apps face challenges in accessing the user interface due to their mental health state when it comes to absorbing instructions and information provided by the system. As a result of inappropriate UI-UX, these solutions became inefficient. The purpose of this study is to identify the patterns (design recommendations) for mobile applications that influence end users’ ability to interact with the application. The methodology applied to the study firstly identifies suitable graphical components such as color, typography, shapes, images, illustrations, and background to design UI components. These components are then used to generate Mockups. For testing the Mockups, participants are recruited from the mental health community. In this phase, documenting user reactions through interviews aids in qualitatively assessing and identifying critical errors. These logs are further analyzed and synthesized to provide design recommendations. It is anticipated that design recommendations from this study will assist in creating standards, guidelines, and procedures to expand the effectiveness of mobile applications for people with mental illnesses.

A. Pakhale JP Morgan and Chase, Hyderabad, India V. Kashyap (B) Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_57

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57.1 Introduction The devastating effects of the COVID-19 epidemic resulted in millions of deaths, economic hardship, and severe restrictions on social interaction. People’s mental health suffers as a result of this [1]. Stress, worry, depressive symptoms, insomnia, denial, rage, and dread are among the major mental health disorders linked to the COVID-19 epidemic worldwide [2]. This is a phenomenon that also affects India [3]. Mobile mental health apps are a promising strategy for addressing mental health impacts of the pandemic because of their potential scalability, reach and utility, particularly during a time when in-person care may not be accessible due to social distancing and safety regulations [4]. Though the ubiquity of smartphones is wellpoised to address the mental health provider shortage, the efficacy of mental health apps remains contested [5]. One of the main causes for this is that people who are primary users of these apps face challenges in accessing the user interface. As a result of inappropriate UI-UX, these solutions became inefficient. This paper aims at assessing the user interface guidelines that are suited for mental health app design. The objective of the study includes to identify patterns (graphical components) and give design recommendations for mobile application design that influence end users’ ability to interact with the application.

57.2 Methodology The methodology applied to the study firstly identifies UI components that users struggling with. At the later stage by synthesizing literature study, Mockups are generated. In the testing phase, participants are recruited to conduct a comparative usability study between existing mental health app and Mockups. In this phase, documenting user reactions through interviews aids in qualitatively assessing and identifying critical errors. These logs are further analyzed and synthesized to provide design recommendations. Figure 57.1 illustrates the overall research process for the study.

57.2.1 Identifying Usability Issues in Mental Health Apps To identify issues pertaining to usability, apps reviews written by actual customers of an application were used. Reviewing user feedback on an App Store and Google play store assisted in identifying usability concerns, as well as desired improvements, and provided insights that can be used to guide the design of future apps. Selection of sample Apps and reviews. The initial list of more than 3000 apps was retrieved via a keyword search on the App Store and Google Play. The keywords used

57 User Interface Design Recommendations for Mental Health Mobile …

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Identify Useability issues in mental health App Selection of Benchmark Application

Sample app

Selection of

Patterns Identi-

Mockup

fication

preparation

reviews and

sample Apps

analysis

Literature study of graphical components Assessing usability of mockup

Design Recommendations

Results

Survey

Participant

conducted

recruitment

Fig. 57.1 Research process of the study (author)

were as follows: “mental health,” “stress,” “depression,” and “anxiety.” Top recommended “useless apps” [6] were shortlisted for the purpose of the study. Figure 57.2 explains the process of selection and analyzing existing mobile apps. Sample App reviews and Analysis. The objective of this part of the study is to look at perceived usability and user reviews to provide qualitative usage data. The negative comments that focused on UI-UX were further analyzed and categorized into five main categories. Figure 57.3 explains the categories of usability issues and count mentioned by users. These reviews have been categorized.

Total number of Apps retrieved

Positive, requested features

N=more than 3000 (App store

and not useful reviews were

& Google play)

excluded N = 2151

Top recom-

Total number

Total number

mended “Useless

of collected us-

of collected us-

Apps” shortlisted

ers’ reviews

ers’ reviews

N=7

N =2183

N =2183

Fig. 57.2 Process of selecting the apps and UI-UX focused reviews (author)

Total number of negative comments focused on UI-UX N =32

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Issues highlighed in user reviews

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Navigation Typography Unsatisfied UI

Colour

Image & Illustration

Issues highlighed in user reviews Fig. 57.3 Categories of usability issues focusing on UI-UX patterns identified of mental health apps through user reviews on open-source platform (author)

57.3 Patterns Identification Figure 57.3 identifies UI patterns from user reviews of these apps. The crowded user interface and architecture caused navigation concerns. Unsuitable colors for UI components make them harder to perceive, track, and interact with. Because of the wrong color scheme, users struggle to find relevant features on the screen. Unhappy users find it difficult to attain the results they want. Inappropriate usage of typography makes it harder to read and understand instructions, topics, and the content of the app, for example, improper text size margins and font color choices hinder user to segregate information visually.

57.4 Literature Study The purpose of literature study is to study the UI components selected, namely colors, shapes, typography, images, and illustrations that would assist in creating Mockup for the mental health app design.

57.4.1 Colors The results of the study by Lubos [7] reveal that there was a modest difference in the stress levels of people exposed to blue and pink color therapy. Thus, demonstrating that color has a substantial impact on mood and experience. Although both the blue and pink colors have their soothing effects, the levels in which they can reduce stress significantly vary. According to studies, red is a stimulant whereas blue is calming to all systems. Given that pink is a blend of red and white, blue has a more

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calming impact than pink. Despite this, the color pink reduces the level of stress. The two hues are used in treatment for their relaxing and soothing effects. Jacob’s research [8] reveals that high anxiety is linked with the color red, and the relatively low anxiety associated with the color green. The similarity of effects between red and yellow is that both colors are unpleasant. His “most pleasant” hues are green and blue [8]. Inadequate color contrast creates visual stress that leads to cognitive fatigue, efficiency, and productivity [9]. The high-anxious individuals may prefer more pastel shades compared to the low anxious [10].

57.4.2 Shapes Many investigations have shown that forms have an unconscious link with semantics and emotions. Curve shapes have been described as the expression of grace and beauty. On one hand, research shows that people prefer curved shapes to angular shapes because the spiky transitions in an angular contour convey a sense of danger. Positive input from second-order associative processes may improve the visual attraction for curves. According to the research, curved polygons generated faster responses. Overall, these findings point to an approach response to curved polygons over an avoidance response to angular polygons [11].

57.4.3 Typography Typography is the cornerstone of app experience [12]. The guiding principles for a good UI typeface are legibility, readability, and scalability. The choice of typeface will have a significant impact on the entire user experience of the mental health mobile application. If someone cannot distinguish between 0 and an O, or if they must squint to see a line of text, this is a strong indication of typographical error [13]. Another approach that can be applied is using responsive text, to make texts on a Web page that can be read well on a variety of devices and screen sizes. It encompasses high readability and harmony between text and surrounding elements [14].

57.4.4 Images and Illustrations Images help overcome linguistic obstacles. They can facilitate interaction [15]. Seeing soothing imagery is a form of mindfulness meditation that stimulates the parasympathetic system, which helps us relax and “quiet fear and anxiety-related brain regions.” Visuals matter [17]. Fractals relax the parasympathetic nervous system. Observing fractals boosts alpha brain waves and blood flow to emotional

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Fig. 57.4 A compilation of screenshots depicting various features of existing mental health app

brain regions, studies show leaves, snowflakes, lightning, clouds, ferns, cacti, and snail shells include fractals [16]. Seeing static nature photos also reduces stress [17].

57.5 Selection of Benchmark Application Multiple apps that claim to improve users’ mental health fall short in terms of quality, substance, and interface design. There are some poorly designed mental health apps which fail to serve its purpose [6] (Fig. 57.4).

57.6 Preparation of Mockup/Prototype Mockup has been created by identifying some major user workflows. These designs are created by keeping the information architecture as it is. As a result, navigation and content architecture would not influence the purpose of the study. Only UI elements are getting umpired by the survey. The screen consists of a “Home” page where users may track their progress, examine their statistics, the daily recommended articles and can “Take Assessments.” The second screen refers to the activities and tracks. The final screen is “More Actions,” which has various menus and the “Profile” section. Figure 57.5 showcases the images of prototype. This prototype was installed on the facilitator’s mobile phone in order to conduct the survey.

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Fig. 57.5 A compilation of screenshots of Mockup/prototype (author)

57.7 Assessing the Usability of Mockup by Comparative Analysis To evaluate the usability and user engagement two digital platforms (Existing mental health app and Mockup) aimed to collect user feedback. Survey responses and usage data were collected for the app and Mockup (in comparison). Participants used an adapted “Usefulness, Satisfaction, and Ease of Use (USE) Questionnaire” to rate the platforms’ usability [18]. User engagement patterns on the aforementioned applications were examined.

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Table 57.1 Demographic information of survey participants (author) Characteristic

Number of participants (total n = 48)

Characteristic

Gender

Female

27 (56.3%)

Male

21 (43.8%)

Non-binary

0

Participants experience stress

18–25

24 (50%)

25–40

11 (22.9%)

40–60

Age

Level of education

Mobile user type

Living location

Number of participants (total n = 48) (%) Rarely

25

Frequently

54.20

Very frequent

20.80

Urban (Metro)

70.80

Urban village

20.80

13 (27.1%)

Non-Metro cities

6.30

High School

18 (37.50%)

Countryside/village

2.10

Undergraduate

Beginner

20.80

Master’s degree

17 (35.41%) Level of 10 (20.80%) English understanding

Intermediate

39.60

Doctorate

3 (6.25%)

Advanced

37.50

Novice Users

41 (85.4%)

Unable to read

2.10

Expert Users

7 (14.58%)

57.7.1 Selection of Participants Individuals between the ages of 18 and 60 who suffered/suffering from stress and anxiety were eligible to participate in the study. Table 57.1 summarizes the demographics of participants who participated and completed the survey for analysis.

57.8 Results Documenting user reactions through interviews and survey aids in qualitatively assessing and identifying critical points. These logs are further analyzed and synthesized. 37 participants (77.1%) of total 48 participants liked the usability of the Mockup over existing mental health app. The reasons behind their choices were colors, images, illustrations, fonts, and overall visual designs of the interface.

57.8.1 Usefulness The characteristics of the survey scores are shown in Fig. 57.6. The average total usability score of Mockup survey score was 75.7%. “More effective” scored higher

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Usefulness

120 100 80 60

Existing mental health App

40

Mockup

20 0 More Effective

Meet Expectations

Easy to do

Total

Fig. 57.6 Total usability score (author)

than other usability components. 37 participants (77.1%) voted that Mockup helped more to accomplish their goals easily. 34 participants (70.8%) stated that Mockup does everything that they expect it to do.

57.8.2 Ease of Use The characteristics of the survey scores are shown in Fig. 57.7. The average total “Ease of Use” score of Mockup survey is 77.25%. “Easy to Use” scored higher than other usability components. 37 participants (77.1%) voted that Mockup UI was understandable, and 39 participants agree that Mockup design can be used without any written instructions. Ease of Use

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Existing Mental health App Mockup

Learned Quickly

Easy to do

Quickly became skillful with

Fig. 57.7 Total ease of use score (author)

Can be used without written instructions

Total

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57.8.3 Design Observations for Color 37 participants think the colors used in the Mockup are much more appropriate if compared to existing mental health app. On the other side, 23 participants say color of existing mental health app should be on lighter or smoother side.

57.8.4 User Satisfaction Survey also shows that, Mockup is calmer to the users total 48 participants (72.9%) voted. Satisfaction rate of users was also high as 75% people voted for the Mockups.

57.9 Discussion To evaluate the usability and user engagement of two digital platforms (Existing mental health app and Mockup), survey responses and usage data were collected for the two apps (in comparison). Participants used interface for both apps. On the basis of colors, interface, esthetic appeal, and its usability, participants evaluated the Mockup to be more user-friendly than the present existing mental health app. These factors likely made them calmer emotionally. Some of the users also liked existing mental health app, but the number of participants was subsequently less. People who are not familiar with English did not have any major concern on usability of both options, since they faced challenge understanding the language.

57.10 Design Recommendations Based on the literature study and the survey analysis, few design recommendations can be drawn on color, typography, shapes, images, and illustrations. The following recommendations for the UI design of a mental health app are offered considering the study. This may help in significantly improving usability of these apps.

57.10.1 Colors The color systems may aid in the meaningful use of color in designing UI. In this system, one may select a primary and a secondary color to represent the design UI. Dark and light variants of each color can then be applied to the designed UI in different ways.

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Top Priority (Brand colors/primary colors). Blue is on high priority due to its calming effect. Shades of blue such as indigo, cobalt blue, teal, and navy blue can be taken. Ideally, this primary color or brand color should be applied at CTAs (Call to action buttons), check boxes, radio buttons, icons, action buttons, and many more components. A primary color is the color that appears most frequently on the screens and components of a designed application. Second Priority colors. Pink, or combination of both blue and pink, for example, purple, violet, magenta, baby pink, rose pink, lavender, and wine color. Least Priority colors. Greens, yellows and its shades, parrot green, foliage green, olive, yellow, mustard, honey lemon. Colors not recommended. Red, orange and shades of both saffron, scarlet, as these colors are unpleasant to the mentally ill users. And if it is necessary to use these colors, the screen area of these colors should not be more than 5% of total screen area. Overall, highly saturated colors are not recommended due to adverse effect to the high-anxious persons. Color contrast. Text and interactive elements should have color contrast ratio of at least 4.5:1 as per the WCAG.

57.10.2 Shapes The UI surfaces can be displayed in different shapes. Shapes direct attention, identify components, communicate state, and express emotions. The size of shape changes can be subtle or more significant. Figure 57.8 shows shape recommendations. Recommended shapes. Smooth shapes, for example, circles, ellipse, organic smooth shapes or rectangle with rounded curves, icons with rounded corners. Shapes recommended to avoid. Sharp cornered, for example, triangles, arrows with sharp edges, rectangle with right angled edges, and icons with sharp corners. The size of the shape should be subtle and more significant. If design requires any shape with sharp corners, avoid repeating it on the same screen.

Avoid

Recommended

Fig. 57.8 Shape recommendations for mental health apps (author)

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Avoid

Recommended

Fig. 57.9 Recommended typography for mental health apps (author)

57.10.3 Typography Typography is another design tool to present UI and content clearly and efficiently. Selecting a beautiful font is not only the one aspect of designing UI. The choice should be influenced by other elements such as readability, legibility, and scalability. Recommended Text. It is recommended to use responsive text to make text readable across a variety of devices and screen sizes. Roboto, Nunito Sans, Montserrat, Open Sans, Source Sans, Lato, and San Francisco are some recommended free fonts. There are numerous color combinations from which the designer must select one for the text base and another for the background. Designer can start with using a neutral color for the background and a dark color for the text. The designer may use dark color text on a white background or vice versa (Fig. 57.9). Line spacing recommendations. Line length should be limited to 70–80 characters. Longer lines of text might be difficult to read, especially on a screen. Increase the line spacing to help protect readability in case longer lines is needed. Font size of minimum 14pt is recommended. Small fonts need more spacing. Line spacing as a percentage should increase as font size decreases.

57.10.4 Images and Illustrations It is recommended that the pictures used in mental health applications be soothing to the user’s eyes. Images include clouds, bamboo, night lights, fall foliage, desert, twilight, waterfalls, ocean, coastal beaches, ice and snow, starry skies, mountains, natural fractals, man-made fractals.

57.11 Conclusion Mobile applications have evolved into essential aids for the self-management of mental health difficulties by patients. However, based on the study conducted, several of mental health apps have usability issues. In this paper, analysis of user reviews

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for mental health apps on App Store and Google Play revealed the usability issues. This further helped in identifying the UI design patterns. Relevant literature study aided in re-designing the Mockup for an existing mental health app. Further, with the help of survey conducted with participants, the study was able to rectify the usability issues, by revamping the visual design, of the existing app. This assisted the authors to provide design recommendations for colors, shapes, typography, images, and illustrations. These conclusive design recommendations from this study may be utilized in creating effective mobile application for mental health domain.

References 1. Abbott, A.: COVID’s mental-health toll: how scientists are tracking a surge in depression. Depression. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-00175-z 2. Torales, J., O’Higgins, M., Castaldelli-Maia, J.M., Ventriglio, A.: The outbreak of COVID-19 coronavirus and its impact on global mental health. Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry 66(4), 317–320 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020915212 3. Roy, A., Singh, A.K., Mishra, S., Chinnadurai, A., Mitra, A., Bakshi, O.: Mental health implications of COVID-19 pandemic and its response in India. Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry 67(5), 587–600 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020950769 4. Jaworski, B.K., Taylor, K., Ramsey, K.M., Heinz, A., Steinmetz,. S, Pagano, I., Moraja, G., Owen, J.E.: Exploring usage of COVID coach, a public mental health app designed for the COVID-19 pandemic: evaluation of analytics data 23(3), e26559. https://doi.org/10.2196/ 26559 5. East, M.L., Havard, B.C.: Mental health mobile apps: from infusion to diffusion in the mental health social system. JMIR Mental Health 2(1), e3954 (2015). https://doi.org/10.2196/mental. 3954 6. Nanou, E.: 7 useless mental health apps you should avoid. In: MUO—Make Use of (2022). https://www.makeuseof.com/useless-mental-health-apps-avoid/ 7. Lubos, L.C.: The role of colors in stress reduction 5(2). https://doi.org/10.7828/ljher.v5i2.39 8. Jacobs, K.W., Suess, J.F.: Effects of four psychological primary colors on anxiety state. 41, 207–210. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1975.41.1.207 9. Dupree, N.: Colour contrast for visual stress and why it’s important to optimise it. – ScreenRisk (2022). Retrieved November 6, 2022, from https://www.screenrisk.com/blog/colour-contrastvisual-stress-important-to-optimise-it/ 10. Ireland, S.R., Warren, Y.M., Herringer, L.G.: Anxiety and color saturation preference. Percept. Mot. Skills 75(2), 545–546 (1992). https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1992.75.2.545 11. Palumbo, L., Ruta, N., Bertamini, M.: Comparing angular and curved shapes in terms of implicit associations and approach/avoidance responses. PLoS ONE 10(10), e0140043 (2015). https:// doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140043 12. Babich, N.: Typography font design and style guide for UI|Adobe XD Ideas. In: XD Ideas (2019). https://xd.adobe.com/ideas/process/ui-design/typography-in-ui-design/ 13. W M.: 10 best free fonts for UI design —the designership. In: The Designership (2022). https:// www.thedesignership.com/blog/best-free-fonts-for-ui-design 14. Tham, K.: Responsive text: building readable text across screen sizes | by Kelvin Tham|UX Collective. In: Medium. https://uxdesign.cc/responsive-text-56af87ba4586 15. Open university.: Designing the user interface: text, colour, images, moving images and sound: view as single page. In: Designing the user interface: text, colour, images, moving images and sound: View as single page (2012). https://www.open.edu/openlearn/mod/oucontent/view. php?id=2801&printable=1

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16. Pitrelli, M.B.: “Mental vacation” pictures relieve stress. Here’s what they look like. In: CNBC (2020). https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/31/mental-vacations-and-travel-photos-relieve-stress. html 17. Dockrill, P.: Just looking at photos of nature could be enough to lower your work stress levels. In: ScienceAlert (2016). https://www.sciencealert.com/just-looking-at-photos-of-nat ure-could-be-enough-to-lower-your-work-stress-levels 18. Lund, A.M.: Measuring usability with the use of a questionnaire12. Usability Interface 8(2), 3–6

Chapter 58

Can Children Be Taught Values Using Game Designs? Insights from a Neurophysiological Experimental Study with Children Chirag Rajyaguru, Pooja Sahni, Manvi Jain, Rohit Pandey, and Jyoti Kumar Abstract Today, design professionals often use their creative abilities to influence the decisions of customers. Advancement in technology has the potential to influence individual values in decision-making. On the other hand, there is a societal need to develop human values toward a harmonious coexistence. Designers thus today have these twin responsibilities to both aid consumerist marketing and societal values through their designs. Today, brain research is advancing at a rapid pace, and it has the potential to provide insights into the value-based decision processes within users as well as within designers. This paper reports a neurophysiological study on value-based decisions in children during gameplay. A visual story-based interactive game was designed to elicit value-based decisions from children. Eighteen children (age group of 5 to 9 years) participated in the pilot study. The neurophysiological data were derived using an electroencephalography (EEG) device during the story interaction. These paper reports findings on how the proposed design in this study can be implemented for eliciting specific values and therefore be applicable in acting as a value-based education system for younger populations.

C. Rajyaguru (B) · P. Sahni · M. Jain · R. Pandey · J. Kumar National Resource Centre for Value Education in Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected] P. Sahni e-mail: [email protected] M. Jain e-mail: [email protected] R. Pandey e-mail: [email protected] J. Kumar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_58

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58.1 Introduction Technological development has played a major role in the advancement of the economy from an agrarian economy to an attention economy. In this journey of influencing an individual, often a compromise of human values can be observed while forcing through design toward making a favorable decision. Values play a role in decision-making and also in hijacking the decision-making process. Various sociopsychological variables (e.g., attitudes, judgments, choices, attributions, actions) are important determinants of understanding and predicting human behavior [1, 2] Human values carry different subjective information in different demographic and even individual levels depending on perceived situational characteristics. The game-based task led to increased activation in brain areas associated with emotion and reward processing [1]. Inferring from Lemmens and Peter’s research on the effect of pathological on aggressive behavior of 851 Dutch children, they have concluded that aggression from game-based tasks also leads to physical violence [2]. On the one hand, we have the cultural knowledge to maintain society through nonviolence, and on the other hand how an individual is prone to engage in an activity where their joy in the form of instant gratification compels them to lose self-control. The Game Research and Interaction Design lab (Australia) has studied the various games and categorized them on the basis of the reward system and how rewarding it is for users. Often designers design to elicit a particular type of behavior and collect subjective feedback on their design, whether it is fulfilling the preferred or expected action or not. This study complements this process of feedback with neurophysiological data. Neurophysiological data while making decisions give insight into the state of the brain. In this paper, we have carried out an investigational approach to understand how designing a game would help us to engage participants at the same time through neurophysiological instruments and computation we can record the affective and cognition behavior of the human brain while making decisions. The whole purpose was to learn about rewarding patterns in the brain when it is at the developmental stage in children. The research done by Qi Wang on children from two different cultures suggested that value systems are formed in 6-year-old children [3]. Through narratives and stories, the researcher derived 4 value systems in a cross-cultural study. Those value systems are Social Engagement, Moral Code, Concern with Authority, and Emotional Expressiveness. At this juncture of research, we have focused on children’s inclination toward immediate gratification. Through literature studies, we can infer that the relationship between instant gratification on digital media and the effect on schoolwork. How the temptation to select instantly gratifying activities reduces self-control. Greater delayed gratification is related negatively to conservation values, specifically to security and tradition, and positively to self-enhancement values, especially power and achievement [4]. Dianne Tice’s study on self-regulation suggests how feel-good activities compel users to lose self-control.

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58.1.1 Human Values in Schwartz’s Theory and Patanjali Yogsutra Self-regulation has been widely discussed in Schwartz’s theory of human values under the self-transcendence [5]. A psychological framework is based on human motivation to understand human values. Schwartz’s theory on human values shows six dimensions that are implicit in many theories [3]. As we discussed earlier, even if the types of human motivation that value expression and the structure of relations among them are universal, individuals and groups differ substantially in the relative importance they attribute to their values. This brings to look at values as a belief system that is not limited to only learned behavior of humans but also the possibility that the spiritual values of meaning, coherence, and inner harmony through transcending everyday reality might be considered another universal value [4]. Very similarly in the Eastern philosophy unequivocally argues that the self is an illusory fiction and that it does not exist in reality [5]. On the subject of self-regulation, along with the western philosophical understanding of Schwartz, there is a complementary understanding from Patanjali Yoga Sutras given below in the Table 58.1. A recent study on yoga affecting self-regulatory behavior integrating existing constructs from behavior theory and cognitive neuroscience research asserted that self-regulation via an ethically motivated monitoring and control process that involves initiation and maintenance of behavioral change as well as inhibiting undesired output by both higher-level and lower-level brain networks [6]. From the Patanjali Yoga Sutra, Yama refers to ethics regarding the outside world and therefore is particularly important in social contexts. It comprises non-violence (Sanskrit: ahimsa), truthfulness non-stealing, moderation of senses, and greed lessness [7]. The yogic path of self-regulation lie ethical and moral precepts, which

Fig. 58.1 Schwartz’s model of human values [7]. Six dimensions of Schwartz’s Theory

732 Table 58.1 Patanjali Yoga Sutra has described eight limbs [6]

C. Rajyaguru et al. Patanjali Yogsutra

Relevant vocabulary in English

Legend of modern usage

Yamas

Moral observance

Ethics

Niyamas

Self-discipline

Asana

Postures

Postures

Pranayama

Breath regulation

Breath regulation

Pratyahara

Sensory withdrawal

Meditation

Dharana

Concentration

Dhyana

Meditation

Samadhi

Integration

are specific examples of the standards or guidelines that contribute to self-control suggested by Zell and Baumeister (2013). The Eastern philosophy, more particularly Indian Knowledge System (IKS), focuses on Dharma. The central essence of maintaining human values was stories. Two epics, Mahabharat and Ramayana, have been narrated, sung and acted throughout India. That has become a lived experience for every individual. These stories imbibed so much that these values emerge in the decision-making process. On the basis of literature on Schwartz’s theory of human values, interpretation of Patanjali Yoga Sutra and Universal human values from the National Education Policy of India, two components have been identified. These two components are “Instant gratification” and “Self-regulation.” The combination of these two terms provided us with a spectrum of decisions. For a given scenario, a child can choose to be either take decisions which are more toward universalism in the Schwartz’s model and moral observance (Yama) according to Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra or toward immediate gratification.

58.2 Methodology Participants: In the present pilot study, eighteen healthy children (age group 5–9) participated [3]. All the participants belonged to similar socio-economic as well as socio-emotional backgrounds. The mix of ten males and eight females was taken into the consideration for the study. There were three more students whose data were found unsatisfactory and hence not taken into the consideration in the analysis. In the further part of this section, the experimental tools are discussed. Task and tools: The task used in the study is designed by the authors in form of an interactive game design proposed to be implemented in value education. The game contains a storytelling pattern that builds a gradual background of the story, then asks questions to stimulate the decision-making process in the participants. The story scenarios have been created in order to avoid any social conformity biases; this

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has been done by replacing human characters with monkey characters (refer to Table 58.2). The game design developed by the authors in the present study stimulates proactive decision-making. The participants’ behavioral response can be objectively classified into binary behavioral tendencies—inclination toward “self-regulation” or “instant gratification.” The pilot study focuses on observing the behavioral reactions of the participants toward the scenarios. In the future, the game shall be redesigned with a focus on value education among young children. When unsure about the desirability of some scenario, the value learner could attempt to model the amount of reward that the human would receive from living in the circumstances implied by that scenario, and use this to evaluate what value the human would then come to place on the scenario. Neurophysiological observations of behavioral responses made by the participants in the game have been studied using neural signals collected using a neurophysiological tool called electroencephalography (EEG). The 64-electrode EEG device is a wet EEG device covering the whole brain surface according to the 10–10 international system of electrode placement. The device was worn by the participants while they performed the game task on a 47 inches wide screen. The neural signals were collected for events when the participants were given certain scenarios after the storytelling part of the game. The behavioral responses were recorded and correlated with neural signals for precise analysis, as discussed in the next section.

58.2.1 Experimental Methods Gamification of education is a strategy for increasing engagement by incorporating game elements into an educational environment [8]. Gamification would help to design a learning curve for children based on their personality traits [9]. Combining an understanding of self-regulation from the literature, the overall context of the story has been described in Table 58.2. On the basis of decisions taken in each question, we recorded the data on EEG. We observed the values like “Self-regulation” and “Instant gratification.” We hypothesized that, if a child is more inclined towards “Self-regulation,” then data would be distinguishably different from the one who is inclined toward “Instant gratification” (Table 58.3). Pattern A shows that the inclination of a child is more toward self-regulation. Pattern B shows that the inclination of a child is more toward instant gratification.

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Table 58.2 Experimental design of game story The story starts with two monkeys. They are friends and roaming around in a jungle. The narration (with frames) goes further till they find their favorite fruit bananas

In the frame, the appearing question is, “Does each monkey have one banana?” A participant would reply either “Yes” or “No” by pressing one of the assigned response keys

In the further story narration, one of the monkeys wants to swim around, she asks the other monkey to come along to which she refuses

In this frame, the monkey, who decided to stay back, is seen with two bananas nearby her

In this situation, we asked the participant, “Think, what would this monkey do, if the circumstances appear as narrated further?”

(continued)

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Table 58.2 (continued) Situation 1: The monkey is starving and wants to eat something; the appearing question is, “Whether this monkey would wait?” The participant has to answer either “Yes” or “No”

Situation 2: “Will this monkey eat one banana?” The participant has to answer either “Yes” or “No”

Situation 3: “Will this monkey eat both the bananas?” The participant has to answer either “Yes” or “No”

Table 58.3 Scenarios and data patterns: Out of eight possible scenarios, we have received four scenarios. Each scenario would represent the data pattern codes to assist neurophysiological data analysis Scenario 1

Scenario 2

Scenario 3

Scenario 4

Question 1 “Would this monkey wait?”

Yes

No

Yes

No

Question 2 “Will this monkey eat one banana?”

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Question 3 “Will this monkey eat both the bananas?”

No

Yes

No

No

Data pattern codes

A

B

C

D

58.2.2 Analysis Methodology The neural signals pertaining to different data patterns as mentioned in the previous section were collected using a neuropsychology tool called electroencephalography (EEG). There were two major categories of active responses based on the data

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patterns (data patterns code A and B) given in the previous section, namely selfregulation (scenario 1) and instant gratification (scenario 2). The analysis of neurophysiological signals was completed in MATLAB-based open-source neural analysis tool Brainstorm [10] using two major EEG analysis techniques: spectral analysis and source analysis. Spectral analysis: The brain functions at different frequencies that determine various cognitive processes. These frequencies can be spectrally disintegrated using advanced techniques and algorithms. In the present study, we have applied an algorithm to measure the power-spectrum density (PSD) of neural signals collected when the questions (in Table 58.3) were presented. The PSD of neural signals represents the intensity or power of the spectrum of frequencies obtained by the brain during the cognitive processes in the time window of 2 s (or 2000 ms) post-question is studied in this technique. The frequency spectrum was plotted against its corresponding power in the time period, averaged over trials across subjects. The prominently visible frequency bands are defined in the following range: theta (4–8 Hz), alpha (8–15 Hz), beta (16–30 Hz), and gamma (30–60 Hz). Source analysis: The source of specific brain activity can be traced by the location of maximum activation (in terms of amplitude) in the brain at a particular time event. The same time epochs of 2000 ms were averaged over time within trial conditions to extract the coordinates of maximum activation. The most widely used source localization technique in EEG analysis, standardized low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA) [11] was implemented in MATLAB. The brain regions depicting the largest positive activation were highlighted for neural signals collected for 2000 ms post-question.

58.3 Neurophysiological Results Spectral analysis: The power-spectrum density depicting the global (brain-wide power) spectrum across the two cognitive states (self-regulation and instant gratification) is plotted in Fig. 58.1. The plot represents a significant rise in power during different frequency ranges in both cognitive states. In alpha range (8–15 Hz), denser power appears in instant gratification (IG) signals. In beta range (16–30 Hz), denser power appears in the signals of self-regulation (SR). Statistical results show significant differences (p < 0.05) between both cognitive states in separate bands. Source analysis: The recursive source localization technique of sLORETA was applied over the neural signals averaged over a time span of 2000 ms after response. Figure 58.2 represents the brain regions that show the highest positive activation in different scenarios under study, i.e., self-regulation (SR) and instant gratification (IG). Frequency modulation between theta-alpha is common in children. We have observed alpha frequency level activation at the junction of the temporal frontal cortex area while in the same area, beta frequency emerged for the self-regulation choices.

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Fig. 58.2 Instant gratification (IG) indicated in blue color segments shows alpha dominance (6– 12 Hz) as compared to self-regulation (SR), whereas self-regulation (SR) indicated in red color shows higher beta frequencies (20–30 Hz) as compared to instant gratification (IG)

Fig. 58.3 Left first two: Instant gratification observed in pre-supplementary motor area and premotor area. This area activates when an individual is initiating either simple or complex organized movements [8]. Right last two: Self-regulation observed in right temporal pole which is concerned with socially relevant memory [12]

From this information, we can infer that participants, when making choices for selfregulation behavior, have alpha attunement and are replaced by beta frequency as soon as higher mental activity begins [13].

58.4 Discussion The present study introduces an innovative, interactive game design that teases out specific behavioral patterns of human values and cognition. The major behavioral patterns under study include two contrasting values: Self-regulation that is depicted by an “Altruistic or proactive” approach to the problem scenario introduced in the

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game. According to Schwartz’s model of values, the most prominent and significant value is benevolence and/or universalism. The altruistic behavior lies under the umbrella of benevolence, thus nearing the game design toward Schwartz’s theory of values. In the Patanjali Yogsutra, a value called “Yama” meaning moral behavior; in context, it represents self-regulation. All the behavioral data patterns as discussed in Table 58.3 including pattern A, C, and D represent values of self-regulation and ethical behavior. In contrast to the major value under study, the self-regulation ability, there appears instant gratification in most cases where participants tend to develop data pattern B. Human values drawn from the Schwartz (under self-transcendence) and Patanjali (under Yaa-Niyama) represents as instant gratification vs self-regulation behavior pattern (Discussed in Table 58.3). Similarly, brain cognition through EEG and by designing decision-making games here in this paper, we are not drawing a conclusion from the affective behavior of the individuals. However, during the learning of a person, affective modeling will be preferable to enhance certain human values in children. The neurophysiological observations are viewed as important contributions to this paper since these findings validate the use of proposed designs capable of eliciting specified cognitive processes as targeted by the stimulus. In this pilot study of story-based game design, more number of such questions would enhance the validity of the observation through ERP analysis.

58.5 Conclusion The results of EEG data analysis have demonstrated that it is possible to objectively observe value-based decisions using neurophysiological tools. This paper thus claims that the design of novel pedagogical tools using digital media and their subsets can pave the way for the integration of values in the educational system. The use of neurophysiological tools for the assessment of the effectiveness of the design has been calibrated as a method by past researchers [14]. However, to the present paper’s validation, this is the first reported paper where a neurophysiological tool has been used to assess the value-based decision process within a children’s game. It is argued here that further design of such games can benefit humanity in producing value-based citizens of the world.

References 1. Greipl, S., et al.: When the brain comes into play: neurofunctional correlates of emotions and reward in game-based learning. Comput. Hum. Behav. 125, 106946 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.chb.2021.106946 2. Lemmens, J.S., Valkenburg, P.M., Peter, J.: The effects of pathological gaming on aggressive behavior. J. Youth Adolesc. 40(1), 38–47 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9558-x

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3. Wang, Q., Leichtman, M.D.: Same beginnings, different stories: a comparison of American and Chinese children’s narratives. Child Dev. 71(5), 1329–1346 (2000). https://doi.org/10. 1111/1467-8624.00231 4. Twito, L., Israel, S., Simonson, I., Knafo-Noam, A.: The motivational aspect of children’s delayed gratification: values and decision making in middle childhood. Front. Psychol. 10, 1649 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01649 5. Schwartz, S.H.: an overview of the Schwartz theory of basic values. Online Read. Psychol. Cult. 2(1) (2012). https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1116 6. Gard, T., Noggle, J.J., Park, C.L., Vago, D.R., Wilson, A.: Potential self-regulatory mechanisms of yoga for psychological health. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8 (2014). https://doi.org/10.3389/ fnhum.2014.00770 7. Coelho, G.L.D.H.: Which values are similar? Introducing new methodologies to map the structure of human values and value-expressive behaviours (2018). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2. 2.25462.04166 8. Tanji, J., Hoshi, E.: Premotor areas: medial. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, pp. 925–933. Elsevier (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008045046-9.01323-1 9. Luijkx, T., Di Muzio, B.: Temporal pole. Radiopaedia.org (2015). https://doi.org/10.53347/ rID-34748 10. Samson, D., Apperly, I.A., Chiavarino, C., Humphreys, G.W.: Left temporoparietal junction is necessary for representing someone else’s belief. Nat. Neurosci. 7(5), 499–500 (2004). https:// doi.org/10.1038/nn1223 11. Decety, J., Lamm, C.: The role of the right temporoparietal junction in social interaction: how low-level computational processes contribute to meta-cognition. Neuroscientist 13(6), 580–593 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858407304654 12. Luijkx, T., Di Muzio, D.: Temporal pole. Radiopaedia.org (2015). https://doi.org/10.53347/ rID-34748 13. Moini, J., Piran, P.: Cerebral cortex. Functional and Clinical Neuroanatomy, pp. 177–240. Elsevier (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817424-1.00006-9 14. Santiesteban, Banissy, M.J., Catmur, C., Bird, G.: Enhancing social ability by stimulating right temporoparietal junction. Curr. Biol. 22(23), 2274–2277 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub. 2012.10.018

Chapter 59

Online Education in India: Challenges and Opportunities Surbhi Pratap, Abhishek Dahiya, Shaurya Rawat, and Jyoti Kumar

Abstract The boom in online education during the Covid-19 pandemic has resulted in a shift in conventional roles of teachers and students. It has led to the development of new norms for interaction and learning, where online education platforms play a key role. This paper examines the affordances and challenges experienced by users of online education platforms popular in India. The paper presents the outcomes of an online survey of 205 users (95 men and 110 females), which included teachers, facilitators and students aged 15 years and older. The survey sought to ascertain the most frequently used, liked and problematic aspects of India’s popular online education portals. This research is pertinent in light of the shift towards a global online community in which high-quality education may be provided regardless of physical location. The study aims to be a way forward in determining how research might contribute to online pedagogy and development of educational technologies.

59.1 Introduction Online learning is one of the fastest growing fields of educational technology [1]. It provides access to subject-matter experts across fields in even the most remote regions of the globe, which enables global democratisation of education. Consequently, online education platforms have grown to prominence and garnered the support of academia [2]. This has led to a quick growth in the number of users, platforms as well as institutions, attracting significant attention from a multitude of sectors. In tandem with this expansion, a range of concerns have come to light like poor user experience, limited user retention, mismatch between user demand and accessible content, etc. [3]. These factors need to be identified and considered by both suppliers of online education platforms as well as education policymakers [4] S. Pratap (B) · A. Dahiya · J. Kumar Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, New Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Rawat The Geeks Lab, New Delhi, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_59

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to contribute to overall improvement of online educational materials in a targeted manner [5]. Besides, online pedagogy must move from using technology to imitate existing teaching techniques to providing examples that can help to modify teaching practises to maximise potential affordances of new and evolving technologies [6]. Emergence of Industry 4.0 has placed emphasis on automation, decentralisation and system integration [7], which requires an adaptable mindset across sectors, including education. To keep up with this, academic institutions that set the groundwork for future talents need to upgrade their present programmes and infrastructure [8]. This requires schools and higher education institutions to collaborate with policymakers and platform developers [9]. For any change to be effective and for intended goals to be attained, meticulous planning is essential. However, change in education is determined by several factors like varied educational systems and organisations, making it difficult to apply a standard change formula to all cases. Long-term readiness to use online education platforms is determined by perceived utility, expected dependence, flexibility and perceived switching cost [10]. Besides, factors like students’ demand for online learning content vary by their gender, grade and the subject studied [11]. With the above premise, this paper reports a survey-based study that examines aspects of online education platforms that influence learning and teaching preferences of students and instructors. Factors that determine user inclination to use online platforms were also examined, offering a theoretical basis to promote virtual education. This study was undertaken during the Covid-19 pandemic outbreak, which pushed a shift towards online schooling worldwide and had specific ramifications in developing nations like India with recent internet growth and limited adoption of internet-based technologies. Subsequent sections of this paper briefly cover related literature, methodology used, findings and conclusion of this study. The paper ends with a discussion on the relevance, contributions and limitations of this study, along with future work that can continue efforts towards building better methods of online instruction.

59.2 Literature Review 59.2.1 Online Education Versus Traditional Modes of Education Developed countries have led research on online education [12]. Prevalent literature reports ways for enhancing student–teacher engagement using methods like topic discussions [13], role-playing [14], positive affirmation [15], communication [16] and gamification [17]. Application modalities, online education psychology and instructional resource sharing have been the primary focus of theoretical studies, while online education platforms have been the subject of fewer studies [18]. These studies have reported advantages of e-learning platforms over traditional modes of

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education like convenience, greater freedom of access, lower education costs, flexibility of modules and defined assessment criteria, which has been demonstrated to improve student performance [19]. Resource wastage, content duplication and tedious extensive functions are main shortcomings reported with respect to use of online education platforms besides limited interactive features and inflexibility of learning assessment methods [14]. Blended learning approach, which combines traditional and online educational methods, has been reported to provide more time flexibility and improved learning outcomes [20]. However, technology needs to be leveraged to facilitate learning experiences that would not be feasible otherwise [21]. Challenges like lack of time, support and resources for course redesign, development of new tech-skills have been identified with blended learning methods along with benefits like improved student-centeredness [22], student retention [23] and student engagement [24]. It has been reported that instructors find blended courses to offer better opportunities for teacher–student interaction while students reported having problems with time management, accepting responsibility and utilising new technologies. Administrators reported that blended learning may improve an institution’s reputation, increase access to its educational programmes and reduce operating expenses but can also lead to problems like misalignment with institutional goals and priorities and organisational resistance to change and new partnerships [25].

59.2.2 Impact of Covid-19 on Education Amongst other effects of Covid-19, there has been a radical shift in emphasis to remote access, monitoring as well as education. With an estimated 1.6 billion students, the closure of schools and other educational institutions affected more than ninety per cent of students globally. Digital learning has been promoted in schools and universities, resulting in a substantial growth in the number of online education platforms and e-platforms [26]. Due to variances in culture and technological development between nations, it has been recognised that online education methods should not be replicated, rather changed to fit each country’s needs optimally [27]. A study that evaluated impacts of the Covid-19 outbreak on Indian education system reported four main kinds of obstacles faced during online instruction and evaluation [28]: (a) Lack of basic facilities, external distractions and family interruptions during homebased instruction and evaluation; (b) Institutional support obstacles, such as funding to acquire new technology, inadequate training and a lack of vision; (c) Technical issues, such as limited technical support, infrastructure, online teaching platform awareness and security concerns; (d) Personal issues of teachers, such as a lack of technical skills, negative attitudes, course integration with technology and a lack of motivation. Besides there are other factors that had detrimental consequences of the epidemic on schooling in India like unprepared instructors and students for online education, diminished global career opportunities, enhanced parental obligation to educate their children, lack of nourishment as a result of school closure of midday meals, excessive digital world exposure amongst adolescents, access to global

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education reduces the number of international admissions and delayed payment of school and college fees. Another research identified the following advantages of Covid-19 on the Indian education industry [29]: (a) Transition to blended learning; (b) Increasing prevalence of learning management systems; (c) Improvement in use of digital learning materials; (d) Enhancement of collaborative work; (e) Increase in online meetings; (f) Enhanced use of electronic media; (g) International exposure; (h) Better time management; (i) Demand for distance education. Research conducted on e-education platforms found that Microsoft Teams, Google Classroom, Zoom and WebEx are the most popular platforms in India [18] for content sharing, including video, documents and instructional materials. These platforms enable monitoring of student learning and evaluation through assessment forms and have been utilised by educators for online classroom instruction. Majority of whiteboard software applications are offered for free with limited functionality, but a few have premium editions (paid versions) with complete functionality. The educator picks software based on requirements like expected number of students, hosts, working hours, amount of data transmission and the time duration [26].

59.3 Research Methodology and Observations 59.3.1 Content Analysis of Popular Online Portals in India The study presented in this paper comprised two parts: First, user-posted online reviews of three most popular online education platforms in India, namely, Zoom, Microsoft Teams and Google Classroom were examined to determine their differentiating aspects. The examined parameters were number of allowed users, accessibility from different devices, compatibility with different operating systems, account management, sharing and privacy features, scheduling, note-taking, comment boxes, assignment uploads, quality of video/audio and co-visibility of peers.

59.3.2 Questionnaire Data Collection and Processing Next, a survey was developed based on the findings of the analysis discussed above to determine how users in India engage with these platforms. The survey was administered online to 300 + users of online education portals. 207 valid responses were

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collected from participant educators, students, attendants and moderators. The questions of the survey were designed to determine the most utilised, loved and problematic aspects of prevalent online education platforms in India. Aspects regarding experience with limited internet speed at certain areas in the country were also covered in the survey. Questionnaire Design The questionnaire was designed such that 18 distinct questions covered information on the following categories: 1. Basic information—included demographic questions on age, gender, device and online platform employed and respondent’s role in the online class. 2. Aspects of online classes—included questions related to class duration, format, internet bandwidth, attendance and assignment submissions. 3. Availability of offline features—included enquiries about the mode of instruction (live or recorded), screen-sharing access, visibility of peers during the class and whether virtual teams were formed during class interaction. 4. Usefulness of features of online Edu-platforms—included rating questions on features likes live messaging, sticky notes, scheduling, inbuilt assignments, virtual backgrounds, screen sharing, ability to mute/unmute, ability to record the session, ability to form teams, ability to rename other participants, etc. 5. Technical issues—included questions on technical aspects like modes of login, freezing of screens due to low bandwidth, accessibility to different devices, privacy issues, echo-sound lags, pop-ups during live lectures, etc. 6. Subjective responses—included queries on participant’s experiences in an online class using the education platform. Participants’ Details There were a total of 207 participants, out of which 92 were males, 109 were females while 6 preferred not to reveal their gender identity. These and other demographic details of participant profiles are presented in Table 59.1. Table 59.1 Demographic details of the participants Gender

Male

Female

92

109

Prefer not to say 6

Device used

Mobile phones

Tablets

Laptops

57

8

142

Role in the class

Students

Instructors

Facilitators

147

40

20

Age group

15–20 years

21–25 years

26–30 years

Above 31 years

72

67

32

36

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Table 59.2 Responses on different aspects of online classes Class duration

55% participants (115) reported the class duration to be between 1–2 h; 26% (53) said it was more than 2 h; 19% (39) reported it to be within an hour

Assignment submissions 69% participants (143) used emails or WhatsApp to submit assignments. Only 31% (64) reported submitting assignments directly on the platform Freezing of screens

87% participants (180) reported loss of instruction due to freezing of screens during live lectures owing to limited internet bandwidth

Attendance

Less than 2% (4) participants were aware of the auto-save feature for attendance in the platform. 41% (86) marked attendance using a chat box while 19% used a screenshot of the attendees list. The rest didn’t mark the attendance

Collaborative teamwork

71% participants (148) were not aware of the option to create virtual teams within an online class for collaborative work

Type of instruction

93% participants (193) reported that the majority of online classes were live demonstrations by the instructors and not pre-recorded sessions. 73% (151) also preferred live instructions to pre-recorded sessions

Screen sharing

41% participants (86) reported using screen-sharing features to share study material. 44% (92) reported that instructors used online screen sharing to demonstrate concepts similar to the physical class blackboard

Visibility of peers

55% participants (114) reported that visibility of peers and the instructor is important during an online class

59.4 Findings Collected responses from all 207 participants were categorised in three areas, namely (1) Aspects of online classes, (2) Features provided by portals and (3) Feedback on the experience of attending online classes, which are summarised below in Tables 59.2, 59.3 and 59.4, respectively.

59.5 Conclusion This paper acknowledges that the physical presence of peers and personal connections between students and professors cannot be duplicated. Covid-19 has prompted a focus in this area, which has resulted in surge of studies that may eventually lead to improved online learning experiences. An interesting observation of this study is the challenge faced by students in remote areas of developing nations like India where bandwidth challenges cause sound delays, echoes, screen freezing and more. When majority of online users report that they are unfamiliar with platform features like auto-attendance, virtual

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Table 59.3 Responses on different features of online education portals No. of users (out of 207) who found the following online platform feature USEFUL:

No. of users (out of 207) who found the following online platform feature PROBLEMATIC:

Feature

No

Feature

No

Screen sharing

146

Echo/lag in audio

137

Recording

131

Simultaneous sounds from multiple sources

124

Ability to mute/unmute other participants

114

Freezing of screens

120

Scheduling

111

Pop-ups during lectures

97

Live message box

92

Privacy concerns

60

Inbuilt assignments

89

Logging in through an external authority

42

Ability to create teams

85

Inability to access from multiple devices

40

Sticky notes

69

Virtual backgrounds

48

Ability to rename other participants

46

teams, integrated assignments, etc., it highlights the limitations of both student and teacher technical training. These issues raise concerns at three levels, which need to be addressed through future endeavours. They are listed below and presented in a schematic in Fig. 59.1: 1. User experience design of online education systems must be intuitive in order to facilitate quick and easy learning. 2. To impart technical training to both teachers and students, sufficient time and resources must be made available. 3. The incorporation of online education as an integrated component of the current educational system must be a strategic goal of education policies. New technologies may still face hurdles of time, support, models, infrastructure and culture. However, change agents need to provide multiple types of assistance and incentives to overcome these barriers to the spread of technology [30]. The incorporation of technology into educational programmes is essential. While training, time and effort are often instructor concerns; equipment, space and technical assistance are administrative issues. This paper argues that tech-savvy instructors will support techenabled infrastructure. In order for systemic changes to be accepted, policymakers must exhibit cognitive flexibility and the ability to embrace ambiguity [30]. Strong pedagogical design and suitably designed digital technologies will allow students to maintain synchronous and asynchronous engagement with peers, instructors and course content [20].

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Table 59.4 Feedback on the experience of attending online classes Positive feedback

Negative feedback

“They are accessible any time and ability to connect to professors more frequently”

“You cannot connect to what the teacher is saying. You cannot interact with fellow student and teacher”

“It’s more concise and quick. less time wasted” “Reviews on personal basis is absent” “No need to go somewhere else far or unknown place to learn as it is online”

“Everything. Not being able to connect we’ll or understand well. No opportunity for doubts or any other form of extra help from faculties Work that normally took an hour to do on campus, now takes a day over video calls”

“Work can be done from the comfort of home” “There is almost zero coordination between the teachers and the students and that makes the seemingly interesting assignments and discussions eventually boring and pointless” “Becomes more goal oriented and less personal”

“Peer learning is difficult”

“Concentrated time in a focused manner allows lectures to be more meaningful”

“Bandwidth issue leading to missing of the information being taught”

“Presentations and videos can be viewed “It is. not interactive enough and loses human simultaneously without setting up projectors in touch” offline mode” “One has a lot of time to work on extra stuff”

“Account syncing issues and bad Internet”

“That the recorded lectures could be viewed to “Self- discipline and vigour. It’s very much up backtrack any doubts or content” to students. However hard a teacher tries on this online medium”

Fig. 59.1 Factors required to improve the experience of online education

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59.6 Discussion Limited previous research on relevant themes related to online education may have contributed to the challenges faced by online education platforms during the Covid19 pandemic’s boom in online education. This study identifies aspects to improve online education platforms and instructional paradigms. The authors do note the rapid advancement of online educational platforms during the Covid-19 pandemic. However, accommodating a wide range of use cases takes time, effort and resources, which is a persistent problem in online education. Online education remains relevant after the pandemic lockdowns, even if it was urgently needed during them. There are few case studies that investigate the issues of online education in India from a design perspective. This study addresses this gap. Global teaching paradigms are evolving, and blended learning is a solution way forward. This paper provides system-level considerations for integrating online education into the current educational system and enhancing the overall learning environment. This paper also notes certain limitations of the study. First, that the study only provides attitudinal data from a survey which gives a broad picture of user preferences, problems and needs. Limitations of this data gathering technique include the assumption that all users understand and answer each question honestly. In future studies, in-depth interviews or behavioural research can be used to gain a deeper understanding. Second, this paper has considered online education as a single entity. However, several forms of education co-exist, each significantly different from the other. For instance, studio-based design education is very different from instructor-centred theoretical lectures. There are unique pre-requisites for each type of education, which cannot be generalised. This aspect can be explored in future studies.

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Chapter 60

Auditory Interactions: A Potential Way for Managing the Children Living with ADHD Sandesh Sanjeev Phalke, Abhishek Shrivastava, and Mridumoni Phukon

Abstract ADHD stands for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. It is a neurological disorder, seen in children at an early age. It has a negative impact on the social and academic life of children living with ADHD (CHADHD). Recently, it has been observed that management methods involving the use of technology-based methods have been comparatively effective to the existing pharmacological interventions and remedial methods. Within technology-based methods, use of auditory interactions (sounds and voice) has been the primary interest of the experts in the field as an effective treatment for the ChADHD. Further, experts and researchers have observed that the sound of animals and birds, water flow and other natural entities help these children to attain a higher attention span while performing the attentiongrabbing activities. The use of voice-based remainders and planning assistants has helped in effective management of these children. In recent times, a large set of experts and researchers have emphasized the use of voice user interfaces (VUIs) in managing these children. However, there are only countable existing assistances or interfaces that use auditory interactions as an effective management of ChADHD. Thus, through this paper we emphasize on using voice as a medium to manage the ChADHD. However, the limited knowledge is the current short falling that prevents the use of such effective technique in management of the children living with ADHD. This paper is a combination of field survey and systematic review of the literature over the years to identify the potential research gaps and scope for future research.

S. S. Phalke · A. Shrivastava (B) · M. Phukon Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam 781039, India e-mail: [email protected] S. S. Phalke e-mail: [email protected] M. Phukon e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_60

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60.1 Introduction ADHD is a neurological disorder affecting around 2.2% of the children population and 2.8% of the adult population worldwide [4]. In the recent times, nonpharmacological methods, techniques, and tools have proven to be effective in managing the ChADHD [3]. Further, sounds and voice have shown positive impacts in managing the ChADHD in distinct ways. One such example is the use of voicebots to assist children in carrying out their daily activities [8] and online chat-bots to generate peer support within the adults [6]. Sounds of different birds and animals and music have also been proven to impact the children living with ADHD (ChADHD) is some or the other way [2, 10]. The exact impact is however very unclear. Thus, it is evident that voice, sound, and music (auditory interaction) have an impact on the ChADHD. Further, if these auditory interactions are designed, and developed in a systematic way they can be used as an effective way to manage the ChADHD. Hence, the current study identifies the potential research gaps which future researchers can study and provide effective solutions. The identification of the potential research gaps in this paper is based on the study of the literature and expert interviews and survey. As the existing literature regarding the auditory interactions is limited, we extend the study further by carrying the expert interview and survey to generate a strong proof for the identified research gaps. A systematic and wellplanned combination of literature review and field study to identify and address major research gaps about the use of auditory interactions for the effective management of ChADHD.

60.2 Method 60.2.1 Literature Survey We carried out the literature survey across three parts: identification, screening, and analysis. For the whole of the literature survey, we use the same method as followed by Beuckels et al. [1]. For the identification of relevant literature, we followed a strict procedure and used two databases, Web of Science and Scopus. Further, we used specific and relevant keywords and their combinations to identify relevant articles using “title-abstract-keyword” search. A total of 23 articles were generated in the initial stage, and the results were stored in RIS format. That way, each article included all the necessary information for subsequent analysis, such as title, abstract, author(s), keywords, year, and references. During the screening process, we screened the identified articles under strict inclusion and exclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria were: (a) studies focusing on children community living with ADHD, (b) articles in English language only as it is the most used language in research [5], (c) articles focusing on the use of auditory interactions to manage ChADHD. Further, the exclusion of the studies was carried

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out if (a) the language of the article was other than English, (b) articles focused on the use of any method, and technique other than auditory interactions, and (c) article identified as a duplicate study. Through this screening process, we obtained 5 relevant articles for our study. In bibliometric analysis, it was evident that the sample size of the papers identified was very small and this itself was a huge research gap. Hence, further to simplify the research gaps we conducted interviews and survey with the field experts who had an experience of more than 10 years.

60.2.2 Interviews and Surveys We carried out two interviews and validate the outcomes of these interviews with another set of eight experts through a digital survey. Both, the experts were interviewed virtually through MS Teams and were asked about the use and impact of different auditory interactions to assist and manage the ChADHD. The interviews were open-ended questions and based upon the Government of India design guidelines for the disabled’s. The detailed information of the interviewers and their recommendations can be seen in Table 60.1. These outcomes were further evaluated by eight different experts having a background of education, psychology, and remedial education. These experts provided similar outcomes as that of the two experts from the interviews. The survey outcomes had a similarity percentage of 92% with the outcomes of the interview. All the questions were either in the form of yes/no or in the form of suggestions. Further, the eight experts could also add some extra suggestions other than the question from the interview if they wished. Figure 60.1 depicts the typical interview session. Table 60.1 Expert interviews S. No.

Expert profile

Recommendations

1

Remedial teacher. Center head Experience: 13 years Qualification: Masters in remedial education

• Use sounds of animals and birds to interact with the ChADHD • Use jingles as light music in the background • Use non-irritating sounds • Use sounds with low pitch • Use narration-based interactions • Use cartoon-based voices for digital interactions

2

Child psychologist Experience: 11 years Qualification: Masters in child psychology

• Digital narration-based sounds to generate interest of ChADHD • Conversation-based interactions and alarms can be useful to assist ChADHD • Use sounds of cartoons which children like • Use soft and low pitch music to manage the ChAHD

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Fig. 60.1 Typical interview session with the expert

60.2.3 Analysis of Literature and Expert Survey We carried out a combined analysis of the outcomes of literature and the field experts. The outcomes of literature survey and field experts were check for co-relation with each other. This helped to evaluate the relevance of the limited research with the needs and recommendations of the experts. The relevance was tested for the reliability using the inter-coder reliability. For the inter-coder reliability, five different research scholars were involved who had a previous experience of carrying out inter-coder reliability and field expertise in interaction design. Finally, the relevant research gaps were identified and stated serially.

60.3 Results The outcomes of the outcomes of this study are in two forms (a) literature survey and (b) field study. In the whole literature study, only five papers were relevant to the scope of the current study. These studies can be seen in detail with their outcomes in Table 60.2. Here, the count of papers about using auditory interactions to manage individuals with ADHD is limited to only five articles. This itself shows a limited research toward the field. Further, these papers also suggest the need of identifying the relevant auditory interactions that can help to manage ChADHD effectively. However, most of the studies based on the auditory interactions are within last six years this shows how limited the current research is and is stating the need of future research. In the interview and survey with total of ten remedial experts resulted in seven different suggestions. The similarity in these suggestions is of 92%. The outcomes

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Table 60.2 Studies on auditory interactions to manage ADHD S. No. Title

Year

1

Music and sound in time processing of children with ADHD [2]

2015 The study outcomes suggest that when the music and sound are designed in a specific and systematic way they can help in positive management of ChADHD

Outcomes

2

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: 2017 The study suggests that there isn’t any is there an app for that? suitability specific voice-based application that assessment of applications for children will interact to manage the ChADHD. and young people with ADHD [9] However, the use of narrative and expressive voices in applications can help in management of ChADHD

3

Designing chat-bots for guiding online peer support conversations for adults with ADHD [6]

4

Designing a voice-bot to promote better 2020 Voice-bots and conversational mental health: UX design for digital interaction have a therapeutic effect therapeutics on ADHD patients [8] and can be used in effective management of individuals living with ADHD

5

The effect of SMS reminders on adherence in a self-guided internet-delivered intervention for adults with ADHD [7]

2019 Chat-bots have proven to be effective in helping and supporting the conversations in an online self-help program. Chat-bots help in establishing structure, predictability, and encouragement in peer support conversations

2022 SMS-based remainders don’t increase the number of task but they enhance the task-performing capabilities on a digital interface

of the interview and survey were very relevant to the limited existing literature. The outcomes of the field study are: • Digital interactions should incorporate interactive voices, sound, narrations, and music to enhance the engagement and attention of ChADHD. • Interactive and narrative conversations help in effective management of ChADHD. • Conversations should be short, to the point, positively noted, and clear. • Conversations should have feedback loops and should not make the user stressed. • Voice of favorite cartoons should be used as narrations and conversations while using auditory interactions. • Music and sound have positive impact on managing the ChADHD. • Light and smoothening jingles and music should be used in the background while children perform task and activities. Thus, the outcomes provided by the experts were highly relatable with the existing literature. Considering the expert’s suggestions and literature survey, it is evident that the auditory interaction can effectively help in managing the ChADHD positively. To discuss the outcomes, we further identified three relevant themes across which

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the research can be conducted so as to use sound as an effective medium from the management of ChADHD. These three themes were identified by carrying out intercoder reliability with five different researchers and had a reliability of 87%. The different themes identified are: (a) use of music and sound as a management tool, (b) use of interactive digital conversations, and (c) systematic design of sound, music, and conversation. All the three themes suggest the urgent need of designing and using sound for the management of ChADHD.

60.4 Discussion Auditory interactions are an effective way to manage the ChADHD. Further, auditory interaction needs to be designed in a systematic way to have a positive impact while managing the individuals with ADHD [2]. Thus, it becomes very necessary to systematically design auditory interactions for the ChADHD. An unplanned or badly designed auditory interaction can have a negative impact on the ChADHD. These interaction can work as a distractor for the ADHD individuals. Further, a small external stimulus distracts the ADHD individuals and thus to reduce these distractions it is necessary to design and develop engaging and interactive interactions for the individuals with ADHD. However, there is a limited existing study on how to use auditory interactions to enhance the management of ChADHD. A total of only five research articles could be identified which described the use of various auditory interactions to manage the ChADHD effectively. Also, the field experts who use these interactions regularly to manage the ChADHD, also suggest different research gaps which future researchers can study and address. Further, in this study we classify the research gaps into three major topics.

60.4.1 Topic 1: Use of Music and Sounds as a Management Tool Auditory interactions, especially in form of different sounds and music, have proven to be effective in managing the ChADHD. If the music is well set as per the needs of the children, it can prove to be effective in bringing positive changes in ChADHD [2]. Further, during the field study it was the observation of the teachers that these set of children like to interact with the sounds of different animals and birds. The sounds of different bids and animals help to enhance the engagement of the children with a given task. To note one instance one of the children had pet a parrot and used to study along with the parrot. The parrot used to repeat what child say and this help the child to engage in a positive way with the academic studies. Further, if such music or sound is distracting or non-engaging it can further create a negative impact on the ChADHD and lead to worsening of ADHD over time.

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Thus, it is very important to use a systematic set of music or sounds for the ChADHD. The use and engagement of such sounds also vary child to child. The likes of each child are different and thus designing and incorporating the sounds which children like in their management becomes a difficult task. Here, the researchers can study into various aspects of music and sound production and design effective interactions that can assist in management of ChADHD. User-centric and systematically developed sounds and music can create significant impact to manage ChADHD. Thus, designers and researchers can consider this as one of the potential research gaps.

60.4.2 Topic 2: Use of Interactive Digital Conversations Interactive conversations have been effective in tackling certain basic problems of ChADHD. Chat-bots have helped the individuals in the online peer-help group, similarly voice-bots have proven to be effective in managing the ChADHD. At place, like peer support group and mental health support the voice-based interaction technology has proven to be effective [6, 8]. Such interactions can be effective then we can say that these voice user interactions can further be explored to assist and manage the ChADHD. Field experts have also provided with similar insights, that conversationbased interaction tools, where the child can converse with the tool like a friend can assist in bringing positive behavioral modifications in the ChADHD. The experts further state that these voice interactions should be monitored and controlled by the parents or the experts. Further, the experts also stress on designing the conversations that might happen between the child and the tool. Today, conversation design is a major area of focus, and in case of ADHD, it remains highly unexplored. The future researchers can consider this as a potential research area to study and explore. Developing effective and intelligent voice-bots, chat-bots, or interfaces can help in number of ways to manage the ChADHD. These interactions can help in monitoring the behavior of ChADHD, assisting in daily activities (both academic and non-academic), as remainders, assistants, and many more ways. But, these all need to be researched systematically and design potential solutions.

60.4.3 Topic 3: Systematic Design of Sounds, Music, and Conversations Sounds, music, and voice-based interactions can have a positive impact on the ChADHD. However, it is very necessary to design these interactions in a systematic way. It is observed that the conversations when are more expressive and detailed then the ChADHD engages better with the interactions. Thus, it is necessary to design any

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voice-based interaction in such a way that it is user-centric and engaging. Further, field experts state that if the interacting voice if of the child’s favorite cartoon, then the child engagement increases with the tool and the management becomes easy for the child. Not every child likes the same cartoon or voice to interact with, therefore while designing it becomes necessary to design in such a way that maximum number of children can interact with the tool effectively. Further, the background sounds and music used should be within specific pitch range, and also the sound should be smoothening to the years. Thus, the designing of these auditory interactions becomes very necessary. Especially while designing the conversations if the conversation is badly designed it can negatively impact the child or create a hatred in the child’s heart toward the tool. All these factors make designing of auditory interactions very necessary for the ChADHD, and this also becomes a highly potential research gap for designers and researchers working within the domain. Thus, researchers can consider all the three domains as the potential research areas for the future researchers to work in. Considering the limited study carried out in this area, it becomes more necessary to study the field and design and develop potential auditory interaction for the ChADHD. This type of interactions can further be used along with other type of interactions such as touch and visual to enhance the management experience of the ChADHD. Thus, auditory interaction is a less studied interaction and needs focus of the research community to design and develop effective management techniques for the ChADHD.

60.5 Conclusion ADHD can be managed by a number of ways, and almost all the methods have their pros and cons. Auditory-based interactions are one of the recent and effective management ways to manage the ChADHD. However, there has been a limited study on how auditory interactions can help in management of the ChADHD. Through this paper, we have identified three major topics which researchers and designers can study and experiment to design and develop effective auditory interactions. As the existing literature is very limited, this study also takes back up from field study to highlight the importance of this field and relates to the existing research. Thus, this study stands very useful for future researchers and designers as a guide to design and develop effective auditory interactions. Acknowledgements This study is approved by the Institute Ethical Committee, IIT Guwahati. We thank all the remedial centers and teachers who have been a part of this study. We thank department of design and all IIT Guwahati for letting us utilize the resources and successfully carry out our study.

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References 1. Beuckels, E., Ye, G., Hudders, L., Cauberghe, V.: Media multitasking: a bibliometric approach and literature review. Front. Psychol. 12, 2322 (2021) 2. Carrer, L.R.J.: Music and sound in time processing of children with ADHD. Front. Psych. 6, 127 (2015) 3. Cibrian, F.L., Lakes, K.D., Tavakoulnia, A., Guzman, K., Schuck, S., Hayes, G.R.: Supporting self-regulation of children with ADHD using wearables: tensions and design challenges. In: Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 1–13 (2020) 4. Fayyad, J., Sampson, N.A., Hwang, I., Adamowski, T., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Al-Hamzawi, A., ..., Kessler, R.C.: The descriptive epidemiology of DSM-IV adult ADHD in the world health organization world mental health surveys. ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disord 9(1), 47–65 5. Guo, F., Ye, G., Hudders, L., Lv, W., Li, M., Duffy, V.G.: Product placement in mass media: a review and bibliometric analysis. J. Advert. 48(2), 215–231 (2019) 6. Nordberg, O.E., Wake, J.D., Nordby, E.S., Flobak, E., Nordgreen, T., Mukhiya, S.K., Guribye, F.: Designing chatbots for guiding online peer support conversations for adults with ADHD. In: International Workshop on Chatbot Research and Design, pp. 113–126. Springer, Cham (2019) 7. Nordby, E.S., Gjestad, R., Kenter, R.M., Guribye, F., Mukhiya, S.K., Lundervold, A.J., Nordgreen, T.: The effect of SMS reminders on adherence in a self-guided internet-delivered intervention for adults with ADHD. Front. Digit. Health 4 8. Park, D.E., Shin, Y.J., Park, E., Choi, I.A., Song, W.Y., Kim, J.: Designing a voice-bot to promote better mental health: UX design for digital therapeutics on ADHD patients. In: Extended Abstracts of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 1–8 (2020) 9. Powell, L., Parker, J., Robertson, N., Harpin, V.: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: is there an APP for that? suitability assessment of apps for children and young people with ADHD. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth 5(10), e7371 (2017) 10. Yeh, S.C., Tsai, C.F., Fan, Y.C., Liu, P.C., Rizzo, A.: An innovative ADHD assessment system using virtual reality. In: 2012 IEEE-EMBS Conference on Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, pp. 78–83. IEEE (2012)

Chapter 61

Role of Multi-experience Developmental Platforms (MXDP) in Futuristic Classroom Education Srinidhi Ramprasad

and Ankit Jain

Abstract Technological advancements in recent years have raised the need for transformation in traditional education making way for e-learning to provide instant information and learning, causing attention deficiency and leading to diminished receptive powers of the brain. This leads to the most important question; how can we provide and promote immersive and panoptic solutions for reaching new heights in the realms of education and learning experiences? The inclusion of mixed reality experiences has encouraged innovators and thinkers to derive a more nuanced approach to catering to educational requirements. Psychological responses of the brain toward interactive learning are highly advantageous as all four systems within the brain synchronize for deeper engagement, the four systems of the brain being, cognitive, behavioral, experiential, and emotional learning systems. Through this paper, researchers wish to highlight the gaps and potential opportunities in the world of immersive experiences and technological advancements that may be adapted into modern-day education and explore possible innovations. As futuristic classrooms are the topic of discussion and recognition, what role does the top technology trend, multi-experience play?

61.1 Introduction Creating an imitation of the physical world with the help of technology through a digital medium can be defined as “Immersive Media.” With over 16 decades of its existence in the field of technology, immersive media and its elements had enough time for development and implementation with virtually limitless possibilities. However, there is negligible to extraordinarily little development and its implementation in fields including education and modernization to meet the need of the hour. Immersive media can be categorized into virtual reality (VR), augmented S. Ramprasad (B) · A. Jain Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT World Peace University, Pune, India e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] A. Jain e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_61

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reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR). Before going ahead, let us try and understand what the abovementioned terms mean.

61.2 Virtual Reality (VR) The computer-generated simulated environment replaces the user’s physical environment to provide an interactive experience. This typically requires head-mounted displays also known as VR headsets/goggles.

61.3 Augmented Reality (AR) Computer-generated images are superimposed on a real-world environment to enhance the reality for the user. This does not require a head-mounted display; it uses the feed from a live camera of a smartphone and composites it with computer-generated images.

61.4 Mixed Reality (MR) Mixed reality (MR) can be understood as a combination of AR and VR to create an immersive experience for the user. It creates a blend of computer-generated simulated environments and the physical world along with interactions between them. This typically requires head-mounted displays. Headsets, simulated sounds, multi-projected environments, and other sensations (like fog, water splashes, chair movements, etc.,) are being used to create a simulated physical environment with a computer-generated virtual environment. Bloom’s taxonomy gave educators and mentors a common terminology to talk about and share training and assessment strategies (Fig. 61.1). The taxonomy helps in shaping precise learning outcomes, with recurrent application toward evaluating cognitive learning levels. The learning outcomes aim to boost knowledge (cognitive domain), enhance skills (psychomotor domain), or improve emotional aptitude or balance (affective domain). One may resort to this as a checklist to ensure all domain levels are evaluated and match assessment techniques with the right courses and approaches. However, this principle may not prove to be as effective for disciplines with practical approaches and experimental-based learning, in which case, concepts being clarified on the conceptual level is of importance. To bring out the ability of innovation among learners, modern-day education has witnessed the dawn of a more interaction-based module of the curriculum. This is referred to as the space learning method, keeping a check on the learner’s journey, and gaining one-on-one insight about their understanding by switching roles, i.e.,

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Fig. 61.1 Bloom’s taxonomy framework: a taxonomy for teaching, learning, and assessment

knowledge imparted with the right mix of relaxation [1]. It is also interesting to note the unification of gamification that has been introduced by numerous educational and learning giants. Web portals and applications not only impart education but provide a hands-on approach to education. Additionally, it is essential to keep in mind the seven different learning styles for student engagement. These styles are mathematical, solitary social, verbal, auditory, visual, and physical. With the rising involvement of immersive learning technologies, the e-learning industry is soon to become the fourth largest sector that will engage with VR solutions. Several studies have predicted VR in the education, and learning industry is going to be around $700 million by 2025 [2]. In the case of complex theories and concepts, visual aids and auditory materials might not prove to be helpful. On the contrary, experimental-based learning allows students to experience complex concepts and ideologies. As one experiences materials, curiosity and creativity are tapped upon thereby leading to innovation in current world problems. The amalgamation of immersive technologies with devices is the new future of education and learning [3]. Essentially, we aim to reach a practical, intriguing area of education where a novice learner can understand and develop skills based on his preferred learning style while interacting with several different solutions that immersive technology offers. We navigate across the existing patterns of immersive virtual reality (IVR) [3] and propose a different outlook for futuristic classroom education in the form of multi-experience developmental platform-aided technologies.

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61.5 Literature Review and Gap Analysis The printing press is one of the earliest technological developments influencing education, resulting in learning materials, textbooks, and reading materials being produced in copious quantities. Further, developments in communication technologies, including the telegraph, telephone, radio, and cinema, made it possible for new types of learning to take place remotely, outside of the classroom or using a customized method [4]. Due to its nature of enhancing flexibility, simple access to knowledge, encouragement of learner accountability, and collaborative learning, as well as how it may assist those students who cannot meet face-to-face, educational technology has proved to reinforce the learning process. However, there is a glaring discrepancy between various academic delivery principles and the ideal of today’s education model in various institutions. The world has gone digital, and it is time to gradually introduce technology to both learners and their teachers. By doing this, novice learners may also learn the fundamentals of utilizing technology effectively to improve their educational experience and develop early digital citizenship skills. How therefore can we ensure that students, instructors, and learners in most conventional institutions do not fall behind in the development of learning? [4]. All smart learning platforms give students engaging learning opportunities that inspire a passion for learning. Learners may learn on their own to strengthen and improve their foundations in math and science thanks to BYJU’S learning software. Students and teachers across the world may take an interactive coding course through Michelle Sun’s First Code Academy [5] founded by Mark Luo, which aims to transform young learners from test-takers into rational thinkers. Silicon Valley has its eyes on the schoolyard. But, how much further can it go than taking the books out of the classroom? How far can software make the transition from conventional classrooms to smart classrooms? [5–13]

61.6 Pedagogical Approach of Imparting Education Conventional forms of teaching included practices that have been proven successful over the due course of time, every classroom is known to have followed a certain learning model which involves a series of activities and exercises that in return benefits students’ learning experiences holistically. The learning pyramid is a framework that categorizes the learning styles and calculates the success of each approach. In general, it gives passive forms of learning (lectures, reading) a lower % efficacy and active forms of learning a lot greater percentage effectiveness (group discussion, practice by doing). Edgar Dale, a specialist in audiovisual education, initially introduced the concept of the learning pyramid in his 1946 book, “Audiovisual Methods in Teaching,” where he referred to the various methods of information transfer as the “Cone of Experience.” (Ref. Fig. 61.2). This was transformed by the National Training Laboratories

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Institute for Applied Behavioral Science at Bethel, Maine, USA into the idea of “The Learning Pyramid.” [14]. As advancements in the digital and physical world are being embraced, it is certain for educators to innovate and adapt to the traditional methodologies to cater to the minds of future creators and inventors. However, one must be mindful of the learning principles introduced to us through tried and tested practices since they are the backbone of the core philosophy of education. Here is where the innovation factor comes into play, i.e., how can one develop and design solutions catering to the upcoming technological advancements while conferring outputs which will further enhance experiences. A student-centered approach to learning and education has a significant contribution and helps to learn and assess, to have an interaction-based module and a digital orientation. Simply put, the ability to be able to execute skills and practices to their utmost efficiency proves to be far more beneficial than mere proficiency in the prose or the quantitative content. Miller’s pyramid (Ref. Fig. 61.3) indicates eventual proficiency in matters of skills seems to be a better bargain as compared to conventional blackboard expectations. It is possible to make the switch from the classroom to the clinical setting using Miller’s pyramid. Physicians continually progress up the knowledge pyramid from knowing to doing as lifelong learners of fresh information [15]. Miller’s pyramid may be applied on a much smaller frame, even if practicing medicine has been separated into specialties on a larger scale, as skill proficiency increases for providers, the evaluation must be divided into graded, quantifiable goals for a variety of abilities and knowledge bases. To achieve this feat, more personalized quantifiable approaches owing to the distinctive nature of learners at various levels are required [15].

Fig. 61.2 Edgar Dale the learning pyramid or “the learning cone”

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Fig. 61.3 Miller’s pyramid of competency evaluation through performance

Technology has opened multiple new avenues for collaboration and communication for learners from around the world. Learners and educators are now switching to more self-directed and personalized methodologies of learning to create a self-paced learning environment. Multiple solutions being blended in with classroom education have made it simpler for students and learners to think actively and collaborate in real time [16]. The cognitive system of the brain was widely tapped in traditional learning methodologies, focusing immensely on the cognition, and recalling abilities of the brain. However, as newer immersive solutions are being adapted to replace the traditional outlook, there is a noticeable synchrony of different performance and learning systems of the brain [16]. Textbooks allow for the presentation of a large quantity of information in a compact, user-friendly way, being able to retrieve data in longterm memory efficiently. The cognitive learning system in the brain is responsible for information processing, although this processing may appear to be a simple and uncomplicated task, the neurobiology of learning suggests otherwise. Experience, as Einstein so brilliantly observed, is at the center of learning. The sensory qualities of an event, whether visual, aural, tactile, or olfactory, have evolved into the experiential learning system. Every experience is one-of-a-kind, provides a rich context for learning, and is fully immersive. The occipital lobes (seeing), temporal lobes (sound), and parietal lobes (touch/smell) are the essential brain regions related to experience learning [16]. The cognitive learning system was previously described as the “everything else” part of learning that Einstein refers to as the cognitive processing of information. This is not to imply that information is not valuable; it certainly is. Instead, information is best absorbed and maintained when it is combined with a wealth of experience. The brain’s behavioral system has developed to learn motor abilities,

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helping to develop “muscle memory.” The striatum is the critical brain structure for behavioral learning, and processing in the corpus striatum is further optimized when behavior is interactive and usually pursued by a prompt feedback system. The emotive education system provides the rendezvous and enthusiasm for learning but also signifies anxiety and concern when they are present. The expressive education system in the brain helps shape interpersonal understanding, consciousness, and sympathy [16]. The comprehensive processing individualities are less well tacit than the cognitive and behavioral skills education systems, but emotional learning, when combined with context-rich involvements, builds rich collections of interpersonal understanding and behavior, and a capability to do the right thing in every condition. Immersive learning methods are efficient because they simultaneously engage the brain’s behavioral, experiential, emotional, and cognitive learning systems. Consider learning about the physical laws while being able to apply their applications in their true sense. Finally, consider how simple chemistry may be.

61.7 What Is Multi-experience Developmental Platforms With the onset of applications being adaptive across various devices such as mobiles, laptops, iPad, smart home devices, and wearables, the need for a more integrated experience is felt. This has brought about the advent of the term, multi-experience. Introduced by Gartner in 2019 (Fig. 61.4), multi-experience is the next biggest technological advancement that developers can tap into to provide a complete experience for the said application, seamlessly across various digital touchpoints [17, 18]. Digital touchpoints primarily consist of every interaction a user has with an application to reach the desired result. Such interactions are spread across platforms such as mobile applications, Web sites, SEO, chatbots, wearables, AR VR applications, etc. Users can now interact with these touch points using a combination of interaction modalities such as gesture, voice commands, motion, and vision. Multi-experience is about engaging and adapting across multiple devices and tapping their respective experiences, focusing on a seamless adaption of experiences as the user switches channels from mobile to laptop to wearables [18]. During a digital journey, users interact with several combinations of digital touchpoints and modalities while immersing themselves in the experience that the application promises. Consequently, multi-experience developmental platforms can be understood term by term for gaining insights into the technicalities and functioning of this innovation which promises to aid the existing experiences into more refined ones. As users interact within an ecosystem of digital touchpoints, multi-experience plays a key role in identifying and upgrading the journey of the user by incorporating targetspecific, goal-oriented interaction, i.e., between a voice command and intelligent virtual assistants which rely wholly on the synchronization of the same. Multichannel and omnichannel platforms have been prevalent in due course of time; however, with multi-experience, development now refers to an amalgamation of both what the user must experience and how exactly one should interact with

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Fig. 61.4 Gartner emerging tech hype cycle including multiexperiences

digital touchpoints. Essentially, we are looking for a connection-oriented approach to systems to move to an integrated effortless framework, to provide and dwell upon the next best thing that customer interaction has to offer. Since the intent is to engage in a smarter system that analyzes and derives customer touch points, actionable now consists of platforms that allow users to track user’s action steps through multisensory platforms. What was previously believed to be thriving in an application and channel-oriented approach must now be replaced with a multimodal interaction. With the integration of multi-experience platforms in the developmental stages of building a strong software network and experience channel, one can easily develop and innovate on a touch point basis with modalities efficiently. It thrives on product and platform development which provides seamless user journeys and efficient outputs.

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61.8 MXDP as a Futuristic Classroom Education Technology Multi-experience platform-led digital alteration involves all client-centric policies [Physical, contextual, and experiential] being talked about for the end users to enjoy the journey. Gartner also prophesied that by 2023, over 25% of all apps on the Web and mobile devices will integrate multi-experience expansion platforms. This is an advancement in the digital experience expedition, and with education systems moving toward capitalizing state-of-the-art solutions to ensure a complete, all-around holistic development for students, MXDPs will be the new future in the world of elearning [18]. Digital innovation plays an active role here, allowing teachers to gather data that gives a comprehensive picture of their pupils. That is, the strengths and weaknesses of the student, how to enjoy learning, and the ineffectiveness. Teachers can customize their teaching style to provide students with a more personalized experience. With ample classroom experimentation, few trends are rapidly catching up with educational modes and have proven to be game changers not only in terms of performance but also in terms of global recognition. The adaptive learning system, a computer-based arrangement that changes the way information and constituents are presented conferring to student scores, takes this personalization to a different level. Essentially, adaptive learning technology accumulates data about students’ thoughtfulness and behavior as they answer queries and rapidly regulates the learning experience consequently. Blended learning is an additional prodigious instance of personalization at work, associating traditional one-on-one instruction, and interactions with technologybased learning. The idea here is that with a balance between teacher-led and studentled technology-supported learning, students get the chance to control their learning environment, speed of working through materials, and the kinds of subjects to explore [1]. Virtual reality and augmented reality, once considered as gimmick game technology, permeated the classroom, replacing history textbooks with virtual trips to ancient Greece and taking students hiking the rainforest for ecology lessons. This brings us to collaborating with these systems on a more harmonious zone such that while learners are “Inside their history textbooks,” they can now interact with the digital touchpoints. Classrooms can now be converted into an immersive environment, such that students not only interact with one another but also have an immersive experience by the virtue of a 360 effect within the classroom, with the aid of technologies such as projection mapping. Virtual reality (VR) is a technology that creates a synthetic or virtual environment that is almost real and/or believable. Immersive VR’s purpose is to thoroughly immerse the user in the computer-generated reality, providing the sense that the user has “stepped inside” the artificial world. These false realities might be wholly abstract, with exaggerated characteristics and settings, or they can be used to imitate a specific real-world experience, such as touring the Vatican or using Google Earth to explore your street. Unsurprisingly, something so powerful can also be a very

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effective teaching tool. VR has head and position-tracking capabilities, as well as the ability to produce a separate image for each eye, creating visual cues for depth perception. VR differs from mixed and augmented reality technologies in that they allow the learner to experience both the virtual and real worlds at the same time, whereas VR fully shuts off the actual world, isolating the learner psychologically in the virtual environment. The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL) presents a theory of change that illustrates how the instructional approach employed in a VR lesson will be lessons effective if it promotes the medium’s unique affordances, rather than the medium itself causing learning [3]. With immersive media, students’ presence, and agency, which are psychological conceptions that originate from immersion and involvement, will be generally higher. With the underlying principles of the success of the immersive reality and the support that CAMIL offers, it is hence essential to tap into multi-experience platforms for students to collaborate and engage with their preferential form of learning. Multi-experience design entails the use of high-end AI tools to create seamless multisensory user journeys across video, voice, apps, text, and digital touchpoints. With AI technologies and the onset of immersive technologies, playing a vital role in the learning sector, MXDP promises limitless possibilities for the consumer experience journey for both students as well as educators.

61.9 Conclusion As the world is heading toward the much-awaited reshaping of technological paradigms, it is essential to create future innovators and thinkers who can steer mankind toward a pragmatic approach to solutions. Education is the primary sector that is sure to enable this shift and implement solutions that are hence designed to improvise learning and enable educators to engage students uniquely. With VR and CAMIL ideologies, the definition of the curriculum will witness a drastic shift, as we are now heading toward a learner-centric education. Further, one needs to engage in an immersive environment to ensure progressive outcomes which will shape the journey of learning while incorporating all the neurological prowess. The inclusion of several different touchpoints and coexisting with them in a learner’s environment is a novice and requires further research conducted in it, especially concerning learning theories. This would further help one understand the technical nuances of multi-experience platforms and their potential into becoming one with mainstream education, alongside different other pre-existing immersive solutions. Considering the democratization of education, MOOCs are important digital tools for the availability of knowledge in modern education systems. However, they suffer from a major problem: They have a dropout rate of almost 90% [19]. Several studies have explored the reasons for this very high dropout rate and found that the main contributing factors are activity discouragement and general dissatisfaction with the structure of the course (e.g., lack of delivery). Immersive experiences bring content

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and experiences to life in ways no other medium can match. Therefore, it turns out that immersive education is potentially the perfect delivery method to further develop these uninteresting MOOCs, as it can help solve the dropout scenarios. Access to a similar educational experience for students of all socioeconomic backgrounds is central to the idea of democratizing education. This simply means that the quality of experiential education will certainly evolve as technology advances. This is due to multi-experience and the immense potential of immersive technologies. In the future, we envision increasing the use of immersive digital technologies such as multi-experience to close this gap and move toward a more equitable, accessible, and democratic education system.

References 1. Steelcase, [Website]. Retrieved from https://www.steelcase.com/research/articles/topics/tec hnology/howtechnologyischangingeducation/ 2. Vlasova, H.: Getting Smart [Website] (2020). Retrieved from https://www.gettingsmart.com/ 2020/09/12/thefutureofvrarineducation/ 3. Makransky, G., Petersen, G.B.: The cognitive affective model of immersive learning (CAMIL): a theoretical research based model of learning in immersive virtual reality. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 33, 937–958 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648020095862 4. LessonDesk [Website]. Retrieved from https://www.lessondesk.com/news/article/604f14455 d6d44001aea5629/bridgingthegapbetweenonlinelearningandtraditionaleducation 5. Soulunii, S.: EdTechReview [Website] (2019). Retrieved from https://edtechreview.in/trends insights/insights/3553challengestraditionaleducationfacestodayandtheneedtoshifttosmartclas sroom 6. Jha, A.K., Arora, A.: The neuropsychological impact of e-learning on children. Asian J. Psychiatr. 54, 102306 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102306 7. Hamilton, D., McKechnie, J., Edgerton, E., et al.: Immersive virtual reality as a pedagogical tool in education: a systematic literature review of quantitative learning outcomes and experimental design. J. Comput. Educ. 8, 1–32 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692020001692 8. Penman, J., Ellis, B.: Psychosocial factors in the success of electronic learning groups. In: IMSCI 2012 6th international multiconference on society, cybernetics and informatics, proceedings (2012). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282943020_Psychosocial_Fac tors_in_the_Success_of_Electronic_Learning_Groups 9. Geary, C.: BSD Education [Website] (2021). Retrieved from https://bsd.education/howtechno logyisshapingthefutureofeducation/ 10. Maryville University, [Website]. Retrieved from https://online.maryville.edu/blog/augmented realityineducation/ 11. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Playful Learning Lab [Website]. Retrieved from https:// playful.mit.edu/projects/playfulassessment/ 12. Bonasio, A.: Medium [Website] (2019). Retrieved from https://medium.com/edtechtrends/rep ortimmersivelearninganeuroscienceperspective46c62a45b25b 13. Loomis, J.M., Blascovich, J.J., Beall, A.C.: Immersive virtual environment technology is basic research tool in psychology. Behav. Res. Methods Instrum. Comput. 31(4), 557–564 (1999). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200735 14. Khan, S.: EdTechReview [Website] (2019). Retrieved from https://edtechreview.in/trendsins ights/insights/5979understandingthelearningpyramid 15. International Clinical Educators, Education Theory Made Practical, Vol 4, Part 5: Miller’s Pyramid [Website]. Retrieved from https://icenetblog.royalcollege.ca/2020/03/03/education theorymadepracticalvolume4part5/

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16. Purdue Online, [Website]. Retrieved from https://online.purdue.edu/blog/education/howhastec hnologychangededucation 17. Gartner, [Website]. Retrieved from https://www.gartner.com/en/informationtechnology/glo ssary/multiexperiencedevelopmentplatformsmxdp 18. Mahajan.: Hcltech [Website] (2021). Retrieved from https://www.hcltech.com/blogs/designing multiexperiencecontactcenterspoweredai 19. Onah, D.F.O., Sinclair, J., Boyatt, R.: Dropout rates of massive open online courses: behavioural patterns (2014). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2402.0009

Chapter 62

Users’ Spatial Experiences in a Public Plaza Developed Under the Bhubaneswar Smart City Project Ashaprava Mohanta and Rabi Narayan Mohanty

Abstract Urban design is the art of making useful, efficient, inclusive and attractive public spaces. The literature review on urban design suggests that safety, accessibility, comfort, esthetics and diversity are the prime factors for users in public spaces. Bhubaneswar is the capital city of Odisha state of India. Based on its infrastructure and design proposals, the Janpath stretch of the city was selected under the Smart City project in 2016. Under this project, several public plazas and street junctions were developed with modern facilities. This paper explores users’ overall experiences at one of these developed and redeveloped public spaces: Ekamrakshetra plaza. This plaza acts as a bridge between the new and the old settlements of Bhubaneswar. This research adopts techniques such as site observation, documentation (through photography and field notes), behavioral mapping and a questionnaire-based faceto-face survey of 92 users. Google reviews of this plaza are considered secondary data to understand the perceptions of users at this site. The results of the paper reveal that the majority of the respondents are satisfied with the safety, accessibility and attractiveness-related factors of the redeveloped plaza. However, facilities such as the presence of toilets, food outlets and shaded spaces are major concerns for the respondents at this plaza. Also, some discrepancies are observed between the ratings of the face-to-face survey and Google reviews. These similar trends are also applicable to the other redeveloped plazas under the Smart City project. The outcomes of this research could be used to improve the shortcomings of plazas of similar nature.

A. Mohanta School of Architecture and Planning, KIIT Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, India e-mail: [email protected] R. N. Mohanty (B) Department of Architecture, Planning and Design, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_62

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62.1 Introduction For ages, public spaces have been playing a significant role in the development of civilizations across different countries [1]. An inclusive open public space is essential for the mental and physical well-being of residents [2]. Urban design is an act of making inclusive, memorable and attractive public spaces [3]. The scope of this branch of design focuses on outdoor public spaces from street to city scale. Activities in a public space are categorized into three groups, i.e., necessary, optional and social activities [4]. A well-designed public space encourages users’ social activities for a longer duration irrespective of climatic conditions. The extant literature suggests that factors related to accessibility, safety, comfort and attraction affect the spatial experiences of users in any public space [4, 5]. Also, some researchers have emphasized that factors related to pleasurability, esthetics and diversity affect users’ experiences in a public space [6, 7]. Accessibility is associated with ease of egress, level of accessibility, connectivity and universal design features. A sense of safety from crime and violence and vehicular accidents is essential for the safety of visitors [6]. Maintenance of infrastructure, site cleanliness and street furniture are essential attractiveness-related parameters that affect the spatial experiences of users [5]. Further, the presence of public amenities such as toilets and drinking water facilities and seating spaces is essential for the long duration of stay of users in outdoor public spaces [8]. A well-designed place aims to attract regular visits from users; however, flawed spaces discourage users [4]. Assessment of users’ spatial experiences is essential to improve the quality of public spaces [6]. In recent years, the government of India has initiated several urban regeneration projects such as the Smart City project, JNNURM, HRIDAY and others to improve the quality of public spaces, street surroundings, junctions, parks and other spaces [9, 10]. Also, some new public spaces were developed for the recreational usage of users under these implemented projects. These projects mostly focus on the beautification and improvement of the civic services of existing public spaces. Being designed by architects, planners and urban designers with modern facilities, the newly developed and redeveloped spaces in these schemes are expected to provide better spatial experiences to users. However, acceptance (functionality and usability) of the redeveloped and new-designed public spaces is uncertain as postoccupancy evaluation of these projects is seldom done in India. This paper explores the successes of a redeveloped public plaza and users’ overall experience at the plaza. This knowledge of users’ experiences will help to understand the merits and challenges related to contemporary Indian urban design practices. Ekamrakshetra plaza, developed under the Bhubaneswar Smart City project, is selected as a case study in this research article.

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62.2 Research Method The users’ perception plays a crucial role in the inflow of potential visitors [11, 12]. The methodology formulated is two-staged data collection as mentioned in Fig. 62.1. This exploration to understand the overall perception of the selected site: Ekamrakshetra plaza (Fig. 62.2, Sect. 62.2.1) is based on both primary and secondary data. The primary data involve techniques such as visits, observations and documentation of the selected site and behavioral mapping of users. 92 respondents were interviewed for first-hand data. A five-point Likert scale-based (1 = very bad and 5 = very good) questionnaire survey was administered to understand the perceptions of users on the existing situation of the public space. The questionnaire is categorized into two groups, i.e., the socioeconomic profile of users and the urban design characters of the site. 13 important factors (Fig. 62.6) related to accessibility, safety, comfort and attractiveness factors were used in this survey. These factors play a vital role in defining the spatial experiences of users [3, 13]. This survey was conducted in March 2022. The minimum age criteria for respondents were 18. The secondary data were collected from Google place reviews of 33 respondents. The Google ratings of users were used to understand the users’ experiences at the site. Ratings 1 and 5 are selected as worst and best, respectively. Users’ comments were analyzed through content analysis to understand the overall experience of users at the site [14]. The results were analyzed according to the average footfall on this

Fig. 62.1 Adopted methodology

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Fig. 62.2 Location of Ekamrakshetra plaza (top) and night views of the plaza (bottom)

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plaza, preferred activities, overall rating of the place and the users’ perception and recommendations were proposed.

62.2.1 Site Brief Bhubaneswar, renowned as the temple city of India, is the capital city of Odisha. The origin of this city is traced back to the third century B.C. [15]. The new part of the city was designed by German architect Otto Koenigsberger in 1946 for administrative, residential and commercial usage [15]. Wide roads with plantations, sidewalks, open spaces and services were provided in the planned city of this city. Janpath road, such designed roads (length of 5 km and width of 200 m), is surrounded by residential, commercial and institutional buildings. This road and its surrounding buildings were selected under the Smart City project in 2016. Ekamrakshetra plaza, the entry junction of this road and a common junction between the old and new parts of the city, is one of the most iconic nodes of the city. This junction is redesigned under the Smart City project in 2018 for the Men’s Hockey World Cup [16]. The area of this plaza is approximately 900 m2 . This plaza is located beside Sishu Bhawan Square. This junction is also referred to as the gateway to the Old Bhubaneswar area. Figure 62.2 shows the location of the plaza and its night views. The plaza is well connected to other important landmarks of the area: Airport (1.8 km), the market building complex (1.2 km), Bapuji Nagar: electronics hub (0.9 km), Bhubaneswar railway station (2 km) and the Old town area (0.6 km) through frequent bus and auto-rickshaw services. Due to its proximity to the city airport and railway station, this plaza was one of the major attraction points in the 2018 Bhubaneswar Men’s Hockey World Cup.

62.3 Results and Discussion The users’ perception of a place promotes/demotes the ingress of new visitors to a place. To understand the overall users’ experience, survey data and Google reviews were analyzed. Details of these results are as follows:

62.3.1 Respondent Profile The majority of the respondents are male (69%) and are in the age group of 26–35 followed by 18–25. 59% of the respondents have done graduation courses, and 29% of the respondents are self-employed. Also, 60% and 13% of the respondents visit

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Table 62.1 Respondents’ profiles Gender

%

Education

%

Occupation

%

Male

69

Matric

15

Student

23

Female

31

Intermediate

26

Salaried

19

Age

%

Graduation and above

59

Self employed

29

18–25

26

Frequency of visit

%

Retired

9

26–35

28

First time

13

Not applicable

20

36–45

20

Once a month

8

46–60

12

Once a week

19

61 and above

14

Daily

60

this plaza daily and for the first time, respectively. Table 62.1 shows the detailed respondents’ profiles.

62.3.2 Average Footfall With an average outdoor temperature above 32 °C, Bhubaneswar comes under the hot and humid climate region of India [17]. Site visits have revealed that the average footfall is comparatively high during evening and night hours in comparison to the morning and day hours. Figure 62.3 highlights the hourly average footfall across days. The footfall for Monday morning is high in comparison to the rest of the mornings. Mostly, this plaza is lively in the evening and nighttime, especially on Sundays.

62.3.3 Survey Results A total of 92 responses were collected for 13 factors on a five-point rating scale. Respondents gave maximum ratings to maintenance (mean value 4.185) and least ratings to the presence of public toilets (mean value 2.228). Figure 62.4 shows the distribution of responses and mean values of different factors. These ratings have highlighted that users are satisfied with factors of attractiveness, safety and accessibility; however, they are least satisfied with factors related to comfort. Also, respondents who visit this site for the first time and rarely have more positive ratings than the respondents who visit this site regularly. The presence of sitting furniture promotes the ingress of more visitors to the place, which also promotes interaction among the visitors. Moreover, the plaza is designed considering the human scale, lit properly with well-designed lighting fixtures and a beautiful landscape. In addition, the well-managed and maintained plaza attracts

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Fig. 62.3 Average footfall at the Ekamrakshetra plaza

Fig. 62.4 Users’ responses on the characteristics of the plaza

visitors or any passer-by toward it. However, the absence of public toilets in close vicinity, protection from weathering agents and the absence of eatery outlets reduces the duration of stay at this plaza. The iconic features, strategic location and proximity to the major landmarks make the plaza one of the best gathering and selfie points for

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youngsters in the city. Based on the responses, some aspects were identified where improvement is needed for engaging the users to stay for a longer time.

62.3.4 Users’ Reviews on Google Content analysis confirms that defined this plaza is one of the popular spots for users for its ambience and design features (Fig. 62.5). This place is quite well maintained and consists of excellent design elements such as lighting arrangement. The plaza is to promote social interaction among users and creates a lively environment. The most preferred user activity is clicking photos and shooting videos. Also, this place provides a good spot to hang out with friends, and it encourages users to relax while enjoying the nightscape. Similarly, in the morning, this is an ideal place for pranayama and yoga. Figure 62.6 shows the users’ preferred activities at the plaza. The ambience of this plaza is appropriate for all age user groups. However, this plaza is hardly in use during the daytime because of no provision for shade. As the plaza is located beside a major traffic junction (Sishu Bhavan square), the perceived safety is high due to the presence of traffic policies and surveillance cameras. Moreover, this plaza does not have a physical enclosure which enables people to visit this place freely without any hindrances. In Google place reviews, the majority of the users have positive reviews of this plaza. The overall experience is pleasing with an average rating of 4.7 out of 5. The overview of the users’ experience ratings shows that 73% and 24% of users have provided five and four stars ratings, respectively. Further, no ratings were observed for the bad and worst categories. However, no detailed ratings or comments are

Fig. 62.5 Content analysis of the users’ experience

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Fig. 62.6 Preferred activities

available on factors related to the comfort and safety of users on the Google review platform.

62.4 Conclusion The governments of India and Odisha have initiated several programs to create attractive public spaces under different projects to improve the quality of life and well-being of residents of different cities. Some of the newly developed and redeveloped public spaces are attracting a large number of users for recreational activities, whereas others are failing to do so. This paper discussed one of such redeveloped public spaces in Bhubaneswar. Ekamrakshetra plaza, a recently designed public space under the Smart City mission project of the Government of India, is one of the most visited public spaces in Bhubaneswar. This vibrant plaza was a major attraction point during the 2018 Men’s Hockey World Cup. In recent years, this plaza has gained a reputation for being a selfie point and chill zone. Results of this research discourse that users of this plaza are satisfied with the maintenance, cleanliness, accessibility, safety and attraction aspects. However, factors such as the absence of toilets, food facilities and shaded spaces are major concerns for the users. Also, site visits have confirmed that in public spaces regeneration projects, major emphasis is given to esthetic-related factors, and less emphasis is given to factors related to the comfort of users. The results of this research support the existing researches that the city development authority needs to emphasize the comfort-related infrastructure of the city [3, 16]. Visitors’ reviews on Google of users have shown that almost everyone is happy with the existing settings of the selected site. However, survey results have proved that respondents are dissatisfied with the comfort-related factors of the site. These results indicate that the Google review and personal survey responses for any site can differ. Also, frequent users have different spatial experiences than first-timers.

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Nevertheless, despite the absence of these facilities, this site is visited by a large number of crowds each day; however, the duration of their stays is less. Similar patterns are noticed in the other plazas of the city. This research showcases the quality of recently redeveloped built public spaces under the Bhubaneswar Smart City project. Also, site visits and interviews of experts have confirmed that in the Ekamra plaza project, major emphasis is given to esthetic-related factors and less emphasis is given to factors related to the comfort of users. The outcomes of this research could be used to improve the shortcomings of this plaza and other spaces of similar nature. Future regeneration projects should focus on the overall development of public spaces than the mere beautification of the existing spaces. This research has a few limitations, i.e., first, the impact of socioeconomic aspects of respondents on their spatial experiences is not studied in this research. Second, this research has selected a few significant urban design-related factors. More factors could be used to understand the spatial experiences of users in future research.

References 1. Carmona, M., Heath, T., Oe, T., Tiesdell, S.: Public Places Urban Spaces: The Dimensions of Urban Design, 2nd edn. Architectural Press, Oxford, UK (2010) ˇ Public spaces as the reflection of society and its culture. 2. Siláˇci, I., Vitková, L., Vitková, L: IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 245, 042009 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/245/ 4/042009 3. Mohanty, R.N., Chani, P.S., Mohanta, A.: Measuring the impact of the built environment on pedestrians in the old Bhubaneswar precinct. J. Herit. Tour. 16(2), 181–200 (2021). https://doi. org/10.1080/1743873X.2020.1779730 4. Gehl, J.: Life Between Buildings: Using Public Spaces, 1st edn. Island Press, Washington (2011) 5. Mohanty, R.N., Chani, P.S.: Assessment of pedestrians’ travel experience at the religious city of Puri using structural equation modelling. J. Urban Des. 25(4), 486–504 (2020). https://doi. org/10.1080/13574809.2019.1677147 6. Mehta, V.: Evaluating public space. J. Urban Des. 19(1), 53–88 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13574809.2013.854698 7. Ewing, R., Handy, S.: Measuring the unmeasurable: urban design qualities related to walkability. J. Urban Des. 14(1), 65–84 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1080/13574800802451155 8. Mohanty, R.N., Chani, P.S.: Evaluation of senior pedestrian’s travel experience at Ekamara Kshetra Bhubaneswar. Transp. Res. Proc. 48 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2020. 08.206 9. “About Smart Cities | Smartcities,” Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (2017). https://sma rtcities.gov.in/about-scm (accessed 29 Apr 2022) 10. MHUA and NIUA, “Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana,” MHUA. https:// www.hridayindia.in/ (accessed 11 Feb 2016) 11. Rodríguez-Díaz, M., Rodríguez-Díaz, R., Espino-Rodríguez, T.F.: Analysis of the online reputation based on customer ratings of lodgings in tourism destinations. Adm. Sci. 8(3) (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci8030051 12. Song, Y., Fernandez, J., Wang, T.: Understanding perceived site qualities and experiences of urban public spaces: a case study of social media reviews in Bryant Park, New York city. Sustainability 12(19), 1–15 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12198036

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13. Kozlova, L.V., Kozlov, V.V.: Principles of improvement of large city public space (by example of Irkutsk City). IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 262(1) (2017). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757899X/262/1/012228 14. Ekamrakhetra—Google review. Google Maps. https://www.google.com/maps/place/Ekamra khetra/@20.2569132,85.8227467,3196m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m12!1m6!3m5!1s0x3a19a726c8f fc807:0x212845f89456a2cd!2sLingaraj+temple!8m2!3d20.2372637!4d85.8337086!3m4!1s0 x3a19a74aecf74d7d:0xf1b63dc750407f03!8m2!3d20.2556444!4d8 (accessed 21 May 2022) 15. Kalia, R.: Bhubaneswar From A Temple Town To A Capital City, 1st edn. SIU Press, Delhi (1994) 16. BSCL.: Bhubaneswar Smart City Limited. Bhubaneswar Smart. https://smartcitybhubaneswar. gov.in/Janpath (accessed 21 May 2022) 17. Climate-Data.: Average temperature, weather by month, weather averages. Climate-Data.org, 2021. https://en.climate-data.org/asia/india/odisha/bhubaneswar-5756/ (accessed 26 June 2022)

Chapter 63

Encouraging Better Food Inventory Management: A Mobile Application-Based Solution Nidhi Kastiya and Indresh Kumar Verma

Abstract There is a severe problem of food waste in domestic environments. Most food items get wasted because of non-consumption before the expiry date or overpurchasing and throwing without consuming. It is estimated that about 90% of the food thrown away is still good. Consumers usually get confused while reading expiry dates due to different labeling types. While most consumers are conscious of the expiry of the food item while purchasing it, most tend to forget about it later in the kitchen. This research paper aims to propose a system that helps make consumers more informed of the expiry date of the food item they are consuming in a hassle-free manner. The study involved an online survey, empathy interview, market research, competitive bench-marking, and consumer journey map. Multiple concepts were built and iterated to arrive at the final idea of a Smart AI mobile application. The application helps group similar food types together in a refrigerator, monitors food expiration dates, and sends automatic notifications to consumers before the purchased food expires or when the quantity of the item is low. The application also helps create an automated customized shopping list. The mobile application was found to be userfriendly and easy to use during user testing. It is anticipated that the developed mobile application would help decrease domestic food wastage by making the consumers aware of the expiry dates of food items in their kitchen.

63.1 Introduction In the current situation where everyone is busy in their fast lifestyle, the use of prepacked food has increased massively. About 45% of people reported that they buy prepackaged food items in stock once a week. More and more people are buying N. Kastiya School of Design, NMIMS University, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India e-mail: [email protected] I. K. Verma (B) Symbiosis Institute of Design, Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Pune, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_63

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and consuming ready-to-eat packets like chips, chocolates, juices, and other snacks as they are less effort taking to prepare. To save time, money, and trips to grocery stores people usually buy products in bulk assuming everything will be consumed in time. One of the reasons for food waste is that the consumer forgets the expiry date of the food after purchase and thus, doesn’t consume it in time, and when he/she finds out that the food is expired, it is swayed out. It is also tedious to manually check and track the expiry dates of all the items in the refrigerator/pantry. In the United States, 40% of the food produced goes uneaten, translating to about $218 billion in food wasted each year only because people forget about the expiry dates of items in their kitchens [4]. This problem occurs at every point in the food system, from farm to table; however, the consumer is responsible for more waste than grocers, restaurants, or any other part of the supply chain. Expiry dates are a problem that all of us have experienced some time in our lives, either while throwing an expired product or because of buying the items in bulk or mistakenly consuming the expired item and then realizing about it. Therefore, better management and organization of items in the kitchen would help consumers use the items in time. Thus, this study aims to create a systemic solution that helps consumers at home to be informed about the food label dates and suggest alternate ways to consume food and items close to expiry dates which will help reduce food wastage in a hassle-free and accessible manner.

63.2 Literature Review 63.2.1 Food Wastage Around the World In the research done by Nadya Zdravkova, 30–40% of all food produced in the United States ends up in landfills [10]. American families throw away 25% of the food and beverages they purchase which is between 95 and 115 kg of food a year. The best way to reduce food waste is to use it before it expires. Post-harvest losses in India were worth |926.51 billion in 2014 [1]. India ranks 94th out of 107 countries on the 2020 Global Hunger Index [1]. In the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development to transform our world, the United Nations has included the food waste issue as part of the concept of sustainable consumption and production, which is one of 17 Sustainable Development Goals [6].

63.2.2 Food Waste by Household/Supermarkets/Restaurants The household food wastage (FW) has doubled up in last five years, and thus, researchers are mainly focusing on identifying the factors associated with the behaviors of people toward FW at homes [8]. Statistics from the United States (US) and

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European Union (EU) indicate that restaurants and supermarkets are responsible for 12% and 5% of food waste, respectively; the largest share of food loss 53% comes from households [8]. Only 9% of people reported that they throw out no food at all [9].

63.2.3 Food Expiration Dates Contributing to Food Waste and Environmental Issues A recent study published in 2018 by the FW estimated that up to 10% of the total amount of the FW generated annually in the EU is associated with misunderstanding the expiration dates which result in wasting more food [6]. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reported that about 1.6 bn tons of food go to waste globally each year (Food loss and waste, 2021). When date labels understanding is improved, consumers can save money; the nation’s food security will be strengthened, and many environmental issues associated with producing more food than needed can be addressed [2].

63.2.4 Misinterpreting Expiry Date Labels Research conducted by Boxstael explains that 80.1% of the people were familiar with the terminology of the label “Use By” and “Best Before” of which 69.6% indicated not knowing the difference between the meaning of the two labels [7]. Consumers have been trained to see expiration dates for years now. The majority of people misinterpret date labels and throw away food early, under the misconception that it is important to protect their families health [7]. Therefore, it is very important to inform consumers about how the two terms differ. There are two different dating systems: (1) Best if Used By/Before (2) Use-by dates. A “Best Before Date” would refer to food quality (not food safety) while “Expire Date” would refer to food safety.

63.2.5 Food Products Date Labelling Federal regulations do not currently apply to date labels on food products except baby formula. It is not mandatory for food firms to use “expired by,” “use by,” or “best before” dates on food products, stated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Food manufacturers decide how to deal with this information. According to the Harvard survey, more than a third of respondents believe date labels are regulated by the government [2]. It is crucial because if people believe that the federal government is mandating the labels, they are more likely to take them seriously, explains Emily

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Broad Leib, director of the Harvard Food Law and Policy Clinic [2]. In India, the Food Safety and Standard Authority of India (FSSAI) now mandates the food companies to display the “expiry dates” instead of “best before date,” so the food product can be utilized till its last edible state.

63.2.6 Consumer Behavior Toward Expiry Dates In India, nearly one-third (37%) of the population says they always or usually throw out food when the date appears on the package and interestingly; younger consumers were more likely to discard food based on the date label than older consumers [4]. About 90% of consumers read food labels before buying from which 84% of people look only for the expiration/best before date on the label and forget within three minutes of their reading. Senses are often leveraged to understand freshness and quality, which are determined through taste, smell, and touch [6]. In order to judge whether a food product is edible, most people check it visually and smell it (82.5%), then look at the shelf-life date (67.5%), or taste it (50.4%) [7]. Consumers feel guilty while throwing away the food straight to their bins. Around 66% of families throw away food because of not being utilized on time, while the other 33% throw because of cooking excessively [4].

63.2.7 Health and Food Labels According to a study, 76% of participants checked food labels every time they bought food. Pregnancy, noncommunicable diseases, weight loss plan, first-time purchase, and preference for organic foods were the crucial reasons to check the labels on food products. Food that is expired or contaminated can cause mild to serious health problems. Poor quality food can cause symptoms such as vomiting, fever, cramping in the stomach area, dizziness, diarrhea, and dehydration. Even food stored past its useby date can become contaminated with bacterial infections, mold, and mycotoxins if stored in poor conditions [3].

63.2.8 Existing Solutions in the Market There are several existing solutions in market like: An application makes it easier for visually impaired individuals to identify a product and recognize an expiration date using their smartphones [5]. The Samsung Family Hub refrigerator comes equipped with 3 cameras for taking images of items inside the refrigerator and an attached large display unit. The user can manually set expiry dates for items visible by the cameras. There is no way to use the manual entry in a crowded fridge because the

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Fig. 63.1 Phases of the study

front cameras cannot see too many items (Samsung Family Hub refrigerator, 2018). Apps like Beep, smart inventory, and Best Before Manager app generate expiration reminders and store pantry item information. The apps require users to manually enter product name, purchase date, and expiration date, and send them reminders two days before expiration. This manual entry of the name and expiration date of each purchased product is tedious, inefficient, and time-consuming.

63.3 Methodology 63.3.1 Participants The study participants were recruited using simple random sampling, and the study area was Mumbai, India. The participants came from four target groups; (a) home/families who cook and consume food from kitchen, (b) people living alone, (c) grocery supermarkets, and (d) restaurants. in total 34 interviews were conducted from the target groups and 29 locations were captured in the camera study. Finally, household consumers were narrowed down as the target audience.

63.3.2 Materials and Methods The entire procedure of the study is divided into 4 major phases: research and data collection, data synthesis, conceptualizing, and design validation (Fig. 63.1). Phase 1: Research and data collection In this phase, firstly, literature survey was conducted gathering information from the research articles from various databases (Science direct, IEEE Xplore, etc.). Keywords such as expiry date, food waste, self life, and food labeling were used. A total of 50 research papers were analyzed, out of which 19 articles were considered relevant. An online survey was conducted which

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Fig. 63.2 User-testing protocols

included questions related to consumer perception of expired product, food wastage in daily life, and grocery shopping behavior. Data were collected from a total of 80 respondents. To observe the users in their natural setting, camera study was also conducted for an average of 2 h/day for 4 day in locations like household kitchens, supermarket, and restaurant kitchen. An interview session (telephonic/video call/inperson) was conducted for 34 participants for an average of 30 min after taking written consent from the participants. Three user personas were created to analyze frustrations and opportunities for problem-solving. User journey map was created from purchase to product discard, to understand user’s motivation, emotions, touchpoints, difficulties and opportunities for improvement on each step. Phase 2: Data Synthesis User empathy map was prepared and organized into categories like what is user doing, thinking/feeling, seeing, and pains, so as to create an impact-full solution. Phase 3: Conceptualization In this phase, the concepts and scope of the solution was developed. Brainstorming was done to generate multiple ideas for solutions. Methods such as SCAMPER and 6 thinking hats were used. A minimum viable product (MVP) was prepared based on the user priorities and needs. A low-fidelity paper prototyping was created to understand the visual and placement aspects of the MVP, a mid-fidelity prototyping was made without any distractions of colors or images. These screens were used to conduct usability testing in Adobe XD. Highfidelity prototyping was created with colors and images to give more feel and context to the screens. Phase 4: Design Validation In this phase, usability of the design solution was tested with users (shown in Fig. 63.2). The usability testing (UT) was conducted with 5 participants (3 females, 2 males), who were selected using simple random sampling. Each session lasted for 30–45 min per participant. The participants signed a consent form to record the UT session and answered a few demographic questions, during the UT the participants completed pre-defined tasks (add items to food inventory, find recipes from ingredients at home, and plan a meal were assigned to users). The participants were given the background about the project and were asked to be honest and calm throughout the test.

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Fig. 63.3 Insights from online survey

Fig. 63.4 Camera study a Household b Supermarket

63.4 Results and Discussion 63.4.1 Outcome of Research and Data Collection (Phase 1) In the online survey conducted, a total of 80 responses were captured, insights from the survey are given in Fig. 63.3. All the participants, whose interview was conducted, were told to send images of their fridge, pantry, and storeroom to observe their storing and organizing behaviors. Some of the findings were that a minimum of 15 items were removed while cleaning drive per household; it was difficult to track food items in the fridge as they are out of sight; usually, users are careful about looking at expiry dates while buying the products; it often skips their mind to check the dates of an article already at home (Fig. 63.4). Insights from user survey User survey and interviews were conducted, and the following insights were drawn. Users feel that their food inventory is more in control of them when they organize it in their way. It was also observed that they don’t mind sharing grocery shopping responsibilities with other people. The users also feel guilty about throwing food because not consumed in time; this makes them sense responsible for the loss of food and money. It was also found that it was difficult for them to plan their menu and meals every day as they wish to eat something different but don’t know what.

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63.4.2 Outcome of Data Synthesis (Phase 2) An empathy map were prepared and organized into categories like what is user doing, thinking/feeling, seeing. Pain points and opportunities were also identified. Insights drawn from empathy map were used to identify user needs. It was identified that, users want to organize food in their own system or ways, they wanted to learn about alternative ways to consume food, they wanted a reminder about the products in their inventory before they are spoiled or expired, need to communicate the food inventory status to other members of the family, and the users also wanted a help in planning their meal.

63.4.3 Outcome of Conceptualization (Phase 3) Brainstorming had been conducted on the lines of a product vision and had helped to create a range of varying ideas. The most feasible and strong concept of creating an application was executed. In order to gain feedback for further implementations, a minimum viable product, low-fidelity, mid-fidelity, and high-fidelity prototypes were created, which included a paper prototype for a mobile application and an interactive XD prototype. Solution concept: A smart, efficient, and advanced tracking system of expiry dates of their inventory was designed, which was named “Infree” is a mobile app for people to keep track of the food in their pantry and fridge in order to reduce food waste. It combines smart shopping assistance, complete household food inventory, a precise expiry date tracking system, collaborative shopping lists, a customized meal planner from ingredients from your inventory, and a collaborative meal planner to avoid the stress. The low-fidelity and hi-fidelity of the app are shown in Figs. 63.6 and 63.7. How it works: The expiry date is typically written in bar code as well as in English on the packaging. After the user chooses the product and is going for checkout, the bar code at the product is scanned by the checkout operator, using a barcode reader. This step is repeated for all of the bought products that have expiry dates. The system used by the checkout operator’s computer decodes the barcodes, receives the product names from the store’s barcode-to-product call conversion database, and creates a new table that includes the purchased product names and expiry dates. The table gets uploaded to the cloud. After the user completes the payment, the same table gets downloaded from the cloud to the Infree application. The entire process is shown in Fig. 63.5.

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Fig. 63.5 Flow diagram of backend working of the system

Fig. 63.6 Low-fidelity (paper) prototype of the proposed application

63.4.4 Outcome of Design Validation (Phase 4) The insights from the user-testing session were categorized into three sub-divisions: success, patterns, and comments, shown in Table 63.1. Further iterations were made in design on the basis of user-testing feedback. Further fine tuning was done, and final hi-fidelity prototype was developed (shown in Fig. 63.7). A comparative analysis of various features of the existing products and a the proposed solution (InFree app) is also shown in Table 63.2. Key features of the app a few of the salient features of the mobile app are listed below: • Smart shopping list, items can be added to the list by simply scanning a written note. • Virtual representation of the kitchen, helping to track product expiry/use-by date in real time. • Meal Planner—allows user to plan breakfast, lunch, and dinner. • Expiration reminder—notifies which products are reaching expiry.

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Fig. 63.7 Hi-fidelity prototype of the proposed application Table 63.1 Insights from the user-testing Success Pattern 100% participant successfully logged into the app

40% participants did read but randomly selected the products when asked to find recipes 100% participant successfully 60% of participants edited created new shopping list item details before adding them to a list 100% participants successfully 40% of participants edited added item to fridge item details after adding them to a list 80% participants successfully 80% participants felt edited “real orange juice” disconnected in inventory icon without error and spaces page

User comments 60% of the participants had difficulty registering inventory and seeing spaces 80% of participants felt having a separate activity page is a distraction 80% of participants liked finding recipes based on available ingredients 60% of the participants felt the need to make the app more interactive

63.4.5 Limitations and Scope of Improvements The study has a few limitations which leads to scope of future improvement. The solution caters to only the consumers and inventory at households, other stakeholders and spaces like supermarkets or restaurants inventory could also be looked upon in future. Currently, solution will only work if partnered with supermarkets. Solution could be expanded to local grocery stores in future. The study is based on users/participants located in Mumbai and its suburbs; other locations can also be explored. The study is more focused on prepacked food packets, but food leftovers at home can also be explored further. The solution currently doesn’t have any subscription plan model; iterations could be made to make a subscription plan model to earn more revenue in future. Apart from an application, some IoT systems or AR/VR solutions can also be made to solve this problem in future and with advancement of technology.

63 Encouraging Better Food Inventory Management: A Mobile … Table 63.2 Comparison of the proposed and existing products Product name InFree (proposed Out of milk No waste solution) App description

Key features

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Food inventory, grocery shopping, list manager, reduce food waste Home Inventory: List of food with expiration indications Reminders: reminders for items about to expire soon of should be re-stocked

Shopping list, pantry managing list, To-do list

Pantry inventory tracking, shopping list

Food expiration date tracking

Bar-code scanner Scan barcode to add items to shopping list

Barcode scanner Scan barcode to add items to shopping list

Barcode scanner Scan barcode to add items to shopping list

Reminder: a reminder for expiry dates

Reminder: a reminder for expiry dates Custom space: organize food in different spaces

Shopping list: Collaborative and shareable list, helps users avoid double buying of products

Shopping List Sharable shopping list

Icon display: Food icons displayed with item

Adding from history Quick access to items to recent history

Shopping List Sharable shopping list

Default pictures: Show default items with pictures and description

Plain-text display Statistics: inform Items are Inventory displayed without monthly food Shopping List consumption data Shareable group: Preset images groups—fridge, shopping list Custom list and Meal Plan: freezer, and create meal plan Integration pantry category list for efficient across the list: Voice Command management move items Voice assistance to create lists across list Multiple ways to allows google enter products: home and eco integration Recipe Finder: Find top recipes from the inventory at your home Meal Planner: Plan meals with your family and get rid of “What to make?”

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63.5 Conclusion The present research work developed a mobile application-based solution for tracking of the expiry dates. The mobile application provides an easy and hassle-free user experience. A systematic user research was performed followed by development of mobile application. It is expected that the developed mobile application would suggest consumers with alternate ways to consume food items nearer to expiration date, thereby reducing food wastage. The provided solution can further be expanded for use in local grocery stores, supermarkets, and restaurants apart from household consumers. The provided solution would help in developing sustainable environment around everyone.

References 1. Agarwal, M., Agarwal, S., Ahmad, S., Singh, R., Jayahari, K.: Food Loss and Waste in India: the Knowns and the Unknowns. Mumbai, India, World Resources Institute India (2021) 2. Chelsea, H.: The expiration dates on our food could be contributing to a huge environmental problem. Online (May 2016). https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/ wp/2016/05/19/the-surprising-factor-thats-causing-people-to-throw-away-perfectly-goodfood/ 3. Lawler, M.: How bad is it really to eat expired food? Online (2020). https://www.livestrong. com/article/480566-effects-of-expired-foods/ 4. Leib, E.B., Rice, C., Neff, R., Spiker, M., Schklair, A., Greenberg, S.: Consumer perceptions of date labels: national survey. Safety 23(54), 19 (2016) 5. Peng, E., Peursum, P., Li, L.: Product barcode and expiry date detection for the visually impaired using a smartphone. In: 2012 International Conference on Digital Image Computing Techniques and Applications (DICTA). pp. 1–7. IEEE (2012) 6. Secondi, L.: Expiry dates, consumer behavior, and food waste: how would Italian consumers react if there were no longer “best before” labels? Sustainability 11(23), 6821 (2019) 7. Van Boxstael, S., Devlieghere, F., Berkvens, D., Vermeulen, A., Uyttendaele, M.: Understanding and attitude regarding the shelf life labels and dates on pre-packed food Products by Belgian consumers. Food Control 37, 85–92 (2014) 8. Vassilissa, I.: Btv: A foodie shares she has cut down on food waste by 75 percentage. Online (2020). https://cozzo.app/news/foodie-shares-she-cut-down-on-food-waste-by75-with-cozzo-app/ 9. Yildirim, H., Capone, R., Karanlik, A., Bottalico, F., Debs, P., El Bilali, H.: Food wastage in turkey: an exploratory survey on household food waste. J. Food Nutr. Res. 4(8), 483–489 (2016) 10. Zdravkova, N.: 7 practical ways to win the costly food expiry labeling game. Online (2020). https://cozzo.app/blog/practical-ways-win-costly-food-expiry-labeling-game/

Chapter 64

Design Considerations for X-ray Software Controls Anshuman Sharma, Shweta Kamble, and S. B. Kiran Kumar

Abstract Designing software for healthcare needs to go through several stages of reviews, validation, and user testing. Several guidelines and parameters need to be adhered to before a product hits the market. Designers constantly strive to reduce errors and increase the efficiency and productivity of clinical users. Patients are the ultimate beneficiaries of accurate image acquisition and accurate diagnosis. Intuitive application design plays a huge role in achieving this goal. Designers on the one hand focus on designing intuitive and user-friendly applications, and on the other strive to make them clinically accurate by constantly reviewing them with clinical and usability experts. X-ray is one of the most commonly used radiology imaging tests to diagnose ailments related to internal body parts and organs. X-ray software has controls to adjust radiation-related aspects so that an optimal exposure (scan) can be performed without any unwanted radiation or exam repeats on the patients. Technologists and clinical users strive for efficiency and error-free image acquisition and diagnosis. Due to many repetitive tasks and the pressure to quickly complete pending exams and scans, technologists often rely on their memory and experience to quickly change positioning and radiation-related controls. This paper enlists challenges, design considerations, and principles that were adopted for fixed and mobile X-ray systems, especially for the tube head controls related to the radiation generator area.

A. Sharma (B) · S. Kamble · S. B. Kiran Kumar Philips Experience Design, Philips, Philips Innovation Campus, Manyata Tech Park, Bangalore, India e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] S. Kamble e-mail: [email protected] S. B. Kiran Kumar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_64

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64.1 Introduction Healthcare is complex, and learning even one vertical slice of a vast field is a significant undertaking [1]. Precision diagnostics is one of the crucial imaging modalities in healthcare that includes MRI, X-ray, CT, and more. X-ray and CT are based on radiology and there is always a consideration for clinical users to minimize radiation exposure to patients. Due to the nature of X-ray tests, they are high throughput in nature and there is a high possibility of errors and exam (scan) repeats. The X-ray devices have software controls at two locations where the clinical users can access them—the console software and the tube head software. The tube head software is embedded into the hardware and is usually used for positioning and adjusting the radiation-related parameters inside the X-ray room, while the console software is accessed on standard monitors from the console room which is outside the X-ray room. Due to safety issues and to protect technologists from excessive X-ray exposure, the X-ray can be fired only from the console room by pressing a hardware button (Fig. 64.1). The tube head is an easy-to-learn touchscreen interface for a fast workflow. Technologists can check or change the most vital exam parameters directly at the tube head [2]. The console UI is also touch-enabled along with access to the keyboard and mouse (Fig. 64.1). For the last fifteen years, end-user satisfaction levels are being tracked and there is a conscious effort from all service providers to address the usability and aesthetics of applications [3]. Jakob’s law doesn’t advocate the sameness or identical nature of every product and experience. Instead, it is a guiding principle that reminds designers that people leverage previous experience to help them understand new experiences [4]. For healthcare applications, design and usability are the most critical aspects which bring the end-users’ perspective into application design and development. Clinical users are under a lot of pressure to complete the pending activities and minimize the patient wait times for X-ray exams. Due to the repetitive nature of many tasks and work pressure, an efficient and intuitive design of software not only reduces errors but also increases the trust of clinical users toward the application’s behaviour and workflow.

Fig. 64.1 View of an X-ray facility, tube head focus (left), console UI focus (right) [2]

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64.1.1 Objective To discuss the design considerations for designing radiation generator controls in tube head software of X-ray systems.

64.1.2 Need The X-ray devices have two displays—a console and a tube head. The tube head has radiation and patient positioning-related controls and it is used in both portrait and landscape orientations. The need is to arrive at an embedded software for the X-ray so that the tube head controls are arranged in a layout such that the technologists get a consistent experience in multiple screen sizes and orientations. There is a need to establish if the existing design framework can be used for the design and layout of radiation generator area controls.

64.1.3 Scope This paper focuses on design parameters and considerations that are relevant to radiation controls in X-ray tube head software for X-ray-related imaging tests. This paper does not include clinical aspects related to radiation and generator area. Design and consistency of console software controls with tube head software controls are also excluded from the scope of this paper.

64.1.4 Methodology A standard double-diamond design process was followed for this project. Design professionals across sectors (and design disciplines) contribute to their ability to design for the continuous life cycle of patient-centered service experiences [1]. The process involved engaging clinical and usability experts throughout the stages of the design process (Fig. 64.2).

64.2 Radiography Context and Clinical Considerations With the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the ever-increasing need for imaging studies, there is a global shortage of radiologists. From a training perspective, the way

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Fig. 64.2 Design methodology followed for X-ray tube head application design

to address a shortage of radiologists would be to increase the number of radiology resident positions [5]. Errors and discrepancies in radiology practice are uncomfortably common. Possible systemic issues leading to error may involve staff shortages and/or excess workload, staff inexperience, inadequate equipment, a less-than-optimal reporting environment or inattention due to constant repetition of similar tasks [6]. Radiologists are often consulted remotely for diagnosis and consultation. Technologists and supporting staff have started owning the X-ray image acquisition space based on the need of the hospital or a diagnostic center. Due to this trend, the X-ray and other radiology fields need to become even more patient-safe and easy to operate. This demands a reduction of mental load and the training effort of technologists and other clinical staff who operate such radiography devices. Testing applications like x-ray and making them safe to deliver in all scenarios is a challenge that all OEMs are working hard to address. In all branches of medicine, there is an inevitable element of patient exposure to problems arising from human error. Human error can be viewed in either a personcentered or system-centered way or both. Longer work days can only exacerbate this

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decline in performance, and therefore safety [7]. Doctors do not want a machine that does just medical diagnosis; rather, they want a machine that enables them to make a more accurate, and reliable diagnosis [8]. Understanding radiology work should be done with a comprehensive taxonomy of diagnostic errors that must incorporate all the choreographic steps involved in radiology: (1) the medical request, (2) the image acquisition procedures, (3) the radiological reports, and (4) the communication with the treating team [9]. Hence, reduction in image acquisition errors in radiology is the main topic for an accurate patient diagnosis [10]. When a skill is practiced and well-learned, it is done primarily in an unconscious way. But even if someone is an expert at a well-learned task, then performance stress may cause errors [11]. Comparative decision-making enables good decisions from experts but it is time-consuming. As per Klein, in high-stress environments, intuitive decision-making may be more reliable than rational decision-making methods [12]. It is not sufficient for a good design to be rational and logical. Great, intuitive designs are those that allow us directly, and correctly, to see what we can do with a thing [13].

64.2.1 Tube Head Controls Definition The tube head application appears to be very simple with fewer controls but this needs to be tested from all perspectives. The tube head application must work as a standalone application and also work consistently with the console application (Fig. 64.3). Tube head application has been designed with an easy-to-learn touchscreen interface, for a fast workflow. Utilizing the tube head application can speed up the workflow by 28 s per examination [2] (Fig. 64.4). Fig. 64.3 X-ray generator controls as displayed in the X-ray tube head [14]

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Fig. 64.4 Technologist operating generator area controls from the tube head of X-ray device [2]

64.3 Design Framework To design a complex clinical interaction such as an X-ray application, the design team needs to adopt a model which includes the best design, clinical, and usability aspects. Since the focus is on design considerations, one single model may not achieve the desired goal. Multiple frameworks, laws, and principles were referred to define the way. To differentiate the UX elements, the design team identified a “layered framework for the conceptual model” [15]. This model consists of the following layers. Some of these elements are also a part of other frameworks and design principles (Fig. 64.5). This paper focuses on the first two layers of this framework. However, it is useful to understand other layers of this model in context. The “function” layer could be loosely mapped to clinical function chunks like patient type, exposure parameters, tube head parameters, and collimation controls (Figs. 64.3 and 64.7). Other clinical details related to functionality and grouping are not included in this paper. BoƩom Layer

Top Layer

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Routes to go to places Details of conceptual elements (transiƟon from concept to detailed design) User-Interface elements (detailed look and feel of each UI element)

Fig. 64.5 Layered framework for conceptual model [15]

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64.4 Design Considerations The design process brings much-needed empathy into the design of software and hardware. Designers are the bridge between the product management, clinical, and software development teams. The design has a critical role in the wellness care of the future, ensuring that every provider and patient is empowered with the services and tools they need for healthcare quality, safety, and efficiency [1]. A well-designed user interface will facilitate correct user actions and will prevent or discourage actions that could result in harm (use errors) [16]. The system-based approach accepts that humans are fallible and errors inevitable, and seeks to address contributing system causes for these errors [7]. Usability testing helps reduce and prevent potential errors. Usability certification criteria must be constantly updated to make them relevant and useful [17]. Sometimes there are tradeoffs between providing a simple answer or the complexity of multiple options. Safety rules—the risk to a health seeker making the wrong choice should be the guiding principle [1]. When usability engineering approaches are used during the design development process, particularly if the perspective of users is taken into account, the overall ease of use and appeal of a device can simultaneously be enhanced [16]. Users want to be empowered by technology to apply their knowledge and experience to make judgments that lead to improved job performance and greater personal satisfaction [8]. Factors and design principles related to tube head design for X-ray are listed below.

64.4.1 Responsive Layout The tube head can be used in two orientations—portrait and landscape. Technologists use the tube head in these orientations by rotating the tube head by 90°. The expectation is to have a consistent layout of controls in both orientations. Multiple aspects helped to achieve this target.

64.4.2 Design and Usability The second factor was the thoughtful design and thorough usability testing through which a consistent layout was achieved for the tube head user interface. This needs a persistent effort between clinical, design, and usability teams to achieve a design that is effective in both orientations.

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64.4.3 Hardware Aspect Ratio The third factor is the tube head hardware screen aspect ratio of 4:3. Due to this aspect ratio, a consistent layout of the tube head controls was achievable. A consistent layout with all benefits including the live image capture is quite difficult to achieve in a 16:10 screen aspect ratio. Although the availability of screens with an aspect ratio of 16:10 is more prevalent as compared to 4:3, the usability benefits of screens with 4:3 surpass the need for change in orientation (Fig. 64.7).

64.4.4 Consistency Between Console and Tube Head UI Both the console and tube head UI are used interchangeably by the technologist or clinician and sometimes used by two users simultaneously. A console screen is typically a monitor with a 16:9 aspect ratio versus a 4:3 aspect ratio of the tube head. Since the tube head has limited controls, through consistent design efforts it is now possible to achieve harmonization between the console UI and the two orientations of the tube head UI (Figs. 64.1 and 64.6).

Fig. 64.6 Variations in different X-ray console and tube head sizes and orientations

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Fig. 64.7 Tube head controls in portrait and landscape orientations

64.4.5 Maintaining the Proximity of Similar Controls/Similar Buttons As per Hicks law, simplifying an interface or a process helps to reduce the mental strain, but we must be sure to add contextual clues to help users identify the options available and determine the relevance of the information available to the tasks they wish to perform [4] (Figs. 64.3 and 64.7). If there is a lot of information and it is not in categories, people will feel overwhelmed and try to organize the information on their own [11]. Miller’s law was used for grouping or chunking similar controls (Fig. 64.7). Miller’s law teaches us to use chunking to organize content into smaller clusters to help users process, understand, and memorize easily [4]. It is a guiding principle that reminds designers that people leverage previous experience to help them understand new experiences [4]. Tube head controls also need to be tested for priority, hierarchy and grouping/chunking in both portrait and landscape orientations to ascertain the same user experience and similar location of buttons within the tube head controls area (Fig. 64.7).

64.4.6 Priority and Sequence of Controls A key responsibility we have as designers is to ensure the interfaces that we create augment human capabilities and experiences and don’t distract from or deter them. Mobile interfaces are especially susceptible to Fitts’s law due to the limited screen real estate availability [4] (Fig. 64.7).

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The size and location of critical controls were organized so that the clinical users could easily access them and the distance for the finger to travel and tap could be minimized for related controls. Fitts’s Law has implications for the design of controls, control layouts, and any device that facilitates movement to a target [18]. Discussions were carried out to define the priority and sequence of controls based on clinical priority. Controls were designed around existing mental models to ensure users can immediately be productive instead of first needing to learn how a website or app works [4].

64.4.7 Visual Consistency and Visual Memory Designers can support the transition from controlled processing to automatic processing and, therefore, help the user take advantage of perceived affordances, by making sure their designs are highly consistent [13]. The design of the widget employs certain visual features that make it possible for the user to perceive the widget’s affordances without reading the names of the options [13]. People tend to perceive a set of individual elements as a single, recognizable pattern, rather than multiple, individual elements [18]. Chunking information is useful when people are required to recall and retain information [17]. Chunking was used to maintain visual consistency (Fig. 64.6). Visual consistency in orientations like portrait and landscape helps not only in visual consistency but helps build a visual memory over some time (Figs. 64.3 and 64.7).

64.5 Conclusion Increasingly, user interfaces for new medical devices are software driven [16]. Image acquisition in radiology is a potential error source that should be considered in radiology patient safety [10]. Design diligence can make or break an application. It is critical that design can augment and enhance a clinical user’s experience and in turn reduce errors. When a fight-or-flight response is triggered, the user’s rational mind is no longer in charge. The original objective may not be achieved as survival is the only goal [12]. While these aspects are beyond the control of the design team, the design community can focus on making a software product more robust, intuitive, and error-free. This can be achieved by collaborating with all stakeholders like clinical, business, and usability. Consistent effort to arrive at a balanced solution which meets the clinical needs is the primary goal of design teams. Design principles and considerations play a major role in the success of a product in a critical domain like healthcare. A designer must strive at design enhancement

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and usability validation to consistently improve the overall product use and clinician experience. Good designs are intuitive [13]. Other features of the user interface include the manner in which data is organized and presented to users [16]. Design is still a field where the solutions are refined by doing. Due to the varied nature of clinical needs, environments, and healthcare models, no single solution fits all. An intuitive interface can become an extension of the user, allowing the user to focus on solving the problem at hand. There are environments where the subconscious ability to match patterns and automate decision-making is helpful [12]. Users do not want a device that automatically does their job rather they want one that increases their productivity, reduces their error rates, and enables them to handle special cases or emergencies effectively [8]. This research elaborates on the design framework used for designing the X-ray generator controls. The design team has collaborated to come up with a state of art X-ray solution, but the spirit to reach the next level is still high!

64.6 Next Steps The next step in this direction is to test the tube head application with new features and enhancements with real clinical users for the release of an upgraded solution. The design team strive to engage with all stakeholders to continuously improve the application. Not all the proposals can be included in the product release at any point in time. The design team follow the agile process for the implementation of design solutions and maintain a backlog of all the recommendations and solutions for upcoming releases as well. The design team also need to address possible challenges of the 4:3 screen aspect ratio that need to be addressed for the availability of these screen sizes. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge Harold Peeters and Suganya Selvaraj. Working with them and getting their support and insights was an honour. Disclaimer A released version of the X-ray application has been included to showcase the design considerations.

References 1. Jones, P.H.: Design for Care: Innovating Healthcare Experience. Rosenfeld Media, New York, USA. ISBN-13: 978-1-933820-23-1. Kindle (supplemental) (2013) 2. Eleva User interface for X-ray. Philips Healthcare [Online]. https://www.usa.philips.com/hea lthcare/resources/landing/eleva (last viewed on 10 June 2022) 3. Sharma, A.: Institutionalization of usability in banking software environment: tasks and challenges. In: Research into Design: Supporting Sustainable Product Development. Research Publishing Services, Singapore. ISBN: 978-981-08-7721-7 (Jan 2011)

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4. Yablonski, J.: Laws of UX. O’Reilly Media, Inc., CA, USA. ISBN: 978-1-492-05531-0 (2020) 5. Henderson, M.: Radiology Facing a Global Shortage. https://www.rsna.org/news/2022/may/ Global-Radiologist-Shortage (last viewed on 18 Oct 2022) 6. Brady, A.P.: Error and discrepancy in radiology: inevitable or avoidable? Insights Imag. 8, 171–182 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13244-016-0534-1 7. Brady, A., Laoide, R.Ó., McCarthy, P., McDermott, R.: Discrepancy and Error in Radiology: Concepts, Causes and Consequences [Online]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art icles/PMC3609674/ (last viewed on 01 June 2022) 8. Shneiderman, B., Plaisant, C.: Designing the user interface: strategies for effective humancomputer interaction, 4th Ed. Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN 0-321-19786-0 (2005) 9. Heriot, G.S., McKelvie, P., Pitman, A.G.: Diagnostic errors in patients dying in hospital: radiology’s contribution. J. Med. Imaging Radiat. Oncol. 53, 188–193 (2009) 10. Serranheira, F., Proença, J.: X-ray active failures: Behind radiographer’s errors. In: Albolino, et al. (Eds) Healthcare Systems Ergonomics and Patient Safety. Taylor & Francis Group, London. ISBN 978-0-415-68413-2 (2011) 11. Weinschenk, S.: 100 Things Every Designer Needs to Know About People. New Riders, CA, USA. ISBN 13: 978-0-321-76753-0 (2011) 12. Swindler, K.: Life and Death Design What Life-Saving Technology Can Teach Everyday UX designers. Rosenfeld Media LLC, NY USA. ISBN: 1-933820-84-5 (2021) 13. Kaptelinin, V.: Affordances and design. In: The Interaction Design Foundation, 1st Ed. ISBN eBook Edition: 978-87-92964-13-7 14. DigitalDiagnost C90 workflow benefits of the Eleva Tube Head with Live camera and touch screen. Philips Healthcare [Online] https://youtu.be/eZVwPe7INX4 (last viewed on 10 June 2022) 15. Parush, A.: Conceptual Design for Interactive Systems Designing for Performance and User Experience. Morgan Kaufmann, MA, USA. ISBN: 978-0-12-419969-9 (2015) 16. Applying Human Factors and Usability Engineering to Medical Devices—Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff [Online]. https://www.fda.gov/media/80481/ download (last viewed on 10Jun 2022). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration - Center for Devices and Radiological Health Office of Device Evaluation. Docket Number: FDA-2011-D-0469. (February 3, 2016) 17. Sharma, A.: Usability certification metrics for banking software. In: Research into Design— Supporting Sustainable Product Development. Research Publishing Services, Singapore. ISBN: 978-981-08-7721-7 (Jan 2011) 18. Lidwell, W., Holden, K., Butler, J.: Universal Principles of Design. Rockport Publishers, Inc. USA. ISBN eBook Edition: 978-1-61058-065-6 (2011)

Chapter 65

Design Fiction: A Way to Foresee the Future of Human–Computer Interaction Design Challenges Suvodeep Misra, Debayan Dhar, and Sukumar Nandi

Abstract Human–computer interaction is centred around exploring the relationship between computational technologies and their users. HCI designers address the concerns of users by making innovative use of computational technologies but they seldom consider the potential impact of their conceptualized interventions on societies at large. There is a dearth of studies that explore how the impact of technologybased concepts on the futures of societies and long-term user behaviour can be anticipated. Awareness of future scenarios by designers during the design phase of HCI products is important because technology adoption brings about unexpected, diverse ways of user interaction that influence local beliefs and behaviours. The impact of these interventions on existing practices can be either enriching or detrimental. To ensure that the conceptualized interventions do not end up negating societal practices and give rise to anxiety amongst individuals or groups of individuals in future, designers need to pre-empt the effect of their conceptualizations before the intervention becomes mainstream. It is in this direction that the study is conducted and reported. The study highlights the inability of existing HCI practices in anticipating long-term scenarios and their impacts on society. In order to ensure HCI designers foresee such scenarios, practices from design fiction, a scenario generation methodology can be adopted. This study further proposes a theoretical method of grounding design fiction scenario-building strategies in the HCI process. We believe this framework will support HCI designers to successfully envisage the impact of their design concepts on societies and their practices in the long term.

65.1 Introduction The advancement of technology has afforded designers and innovators new ways of solving problems faced by society. Designers make use of emerging technologies like Artificial Intelligence or the Internet of Things to solve an identified problem or S. Misra · D. Dhar (B) · S. Nandi Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam 78103, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_65

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improve the life of a target group of individuals or users. Designers first examine the users and their lives to better understand the problems they face and if there are any areas where their quality of life can be improved. Designers conduct this examination using a number of design methods centred within a broader set of methodologies. One of the more widely accepted methodologies includes the User-Centred Design (UCD) approach. This design methodology supports the designer to understand the needs of the user and create interventions to resolve those needs. A second driving force behind the use of technology-based interventions is market forces and competition. As companies attempt to establish themselves in a challenging market, designers are forced to find new and innovative ways of solving user needs that will capture a large market segment. The main aim of designers is to find new and creative ways of meeting users’ needs using new technologies that will attract users and generate revenue for the company. The impact of these interventions is generally measured in terms of whether they have successfully met the need identified during the early stages of the design process and whether they are being adopted by users. However, these interventions also come with hidden impacts and challenges once they are adopted by users and are diffused into society. It is difficult to ascertain how these interventions will affect users and the stakeholders around them. These hidden impacts include the impact on health, impact on human rights, impact on the environment, impact on social networks and communication, etc. Not all these impacts affect the user directly or even immediately; they are often hidden and can impact individuals apart from the user or society at large [1]. A commonly observed ill-effect of products is long-term harm to the physical health of individuals [2, 3]. Products and services are often designed to achieve certain goals but rarely consider the harmful effects they have and thus go unaddressed. The norm has been to identify discrepancies in current systems and resolve them using designed interventions which are built leveraging the properties of specific technologies [4, 5]. Amongst the methods that a designer has at their disposal, there is currently a lack of method that helps designers uncover these hidden impacts. The study focuses on exploring the different ways designers have looked to uncover these long-term hidden impacts. It utilizes a scenario-based speculative methodology called design fiction (DF) in revealing these impacts. DF is an artefact-making practice which emphasises enabling designers to think about technology in unorthodox ways. The subsequent sections elaborate on how these impacts can negatively affect society and how design fiction can aid designers in revealing and exploring these impacts.

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65.2 Background Study 65.2.1 Technology Adoption in HCI The first part of this research work includes a systematic literature review. The review was done to understand how researchers have explored technology adoption in HCI and how they have studied the impacts of technology adoption. The review begins with identifying the relevant studies published across the globe. This is done through a keyword search that could be used on a chosen database to return a broad set of results. The keywords identified were used in combination with Boolean operators “AND” and “OR” to get the appropriate results. The review targets the last ten years of research done in technology adoption in HCI. The search terms can be found in Table 65.1. The original results returned a total of 66 results. The results of this keyword search are then restricted to the years 2011–May 2022, which returned 53 of the 66 results. The remaining 53 articles are screened first based on their abstracts and then based on reading the full-text paper. Based on this exclusion a total of n = 20 papers were identified to review. The articles included were those which studied the factors that affected technology adoption and spoke to the consequences of technology adoption to some extent. While there are no articles that directly speak of the consequences or impacts of technology adoption, they speak of how the perceived impact of technology amongst users can affect technology adoption. The list of all the papers finalised can be found in Table 65.2. The remainder of this section summarises the kind of studies and research conducted in this field and the results and implications they have had. From the 20 papers, it is evident that there is very little research done on exploring how the adoption of technology-based interventions impacts individuals and societies in terms of culture, beliefs, economics, physical and mental well-being and so on. The papers focus on studying the factors that influenced the adoption of technology in different contexts amongst multiple user groups. The studies can be broadly categorized into two kinds, the first are those which focus on studying existing factors [6, 7] that would improve adoption or acceptance rates of interventions and the others that study on uncovering new factors that would describe acceptance ratings amongst users [8–10]. In all these studies, researchers take into consideration a specific technology and position it in a certain context and then explore the responses of potential or existing users and the factors that influence their acceptance or adoption pattern. The technologies examined in these studies range from the use of short social media Table 65.1 Keywords used Search terms TITLE-ABS-KEY ((“impact” OR “implications”) AND (“technology adoption”) AND (“HCI” OR “Human Computer Interaction” OR “Human-Computer Interaction”))

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Table 65.2 Included studies No.

Authors

Paper title

Source title

Year

1

Papa L. E., Hayajneh T.

A survey of defensive measures for digital persecution in the global south

Future Internet

2020

2

Wang Y.

Humor and camera view Computers in Human on mobile short-form Behavior video apps influence user experience and technology-adoption intent, an example of TikTok (DouYin)

2020

3

Moody G. D., Wu D.

Security, but at what cost? an examination of security notifications within a mobile application

Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)

2013

4

Parker C., Caldwell G. A., The impact of Fredericks J. hyperconnectedness on urban HCI: challenges and opportunities

ACM International Conference Proceeding Series

2019

5

Hastall M. R., Dockweiler Achieving end user C., Mühlhaus J. acceptance: building blocks for an evidence-based user-centered framework for health technology development and assessment

Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)

2017

6

Karlin B., Sanguinetti A., Davis N., Bendanna K., Holdsworth K., Baker J., Kirkby D., Stokols D.

Diffusion of feedback: perceptions and adoption of devices in the residential market

Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)

2015

7

William J. A., Murugesh R.

Cognitive modeling in human computer interaction: understanding technology usage in elderly people

2016 IEEE International 2017 Conference on Advances in Computer Applications, ICACA 2016

(continued)

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Table 65.2 (continued) No.

Authors

Paper title

Source title

Year

8

Mendelson J., Romano Bergstrom J. C.

Age differences in the knowledge and usage of QR codes

Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)

2013

9

Crawford E. G., Toft Y., Kift R. L.

Attending to technology adoption in railway control rooms to increase functional resilience

Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)

2014

10

Partala T., Saari T.

Understanding the most Computers in Human influential user Behavior experiences in successful and unsuccessful technology adoptions

2015

11

Lee C., Mehler B., Reimer B., Coughlin J. F.

User perceptions toward in-vehicle technologies: relationships to age, health, preconceptions, and hands-on experience

International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction

2015

12

Alagöz F., Ziefle M., Openness to accept Wilkowska W., Valdez A. medical technology - A C. cultural view

Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)

2011

13

Álvarez Márquez J. O., Ziegler J.

Acceptance of an AR-based in-store shopping advisor-the impact of psychological user characteristics

Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)

2021

14

Eschenbrenner B.

Information technology adoption: do performance objectives and incentive structures make a difference?

Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)

2016

15

Pohlmeyer A. E., Blessing L.

A conjoint analysis of attributes affecting the likelihood of technology use

Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)

2011

(continued)

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Table 65.2 (continued) No.

Authors

Paper title

16

Molinillo S., Muñoz-Leiva F., Pérez-García F.

The effects of Industrial Management human-game interaction, and Data Systems network externalities, and motivations on players’ use of mobile casual games

Source title

Year 2018

17

Nienaber A.-M., Spundflasch S., Soares A., Woodcock A.

Employees’ vulnerability—the challenge when introducing new technologies in local authorities

Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)

2020

18

Fournier H., Kondratova I., Molyneaux H.

Designing digital technologies and safeguards for improving activities and well-being for aging in place

Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)

2020

19

Ku W.-T., Lai H.-M., Hsieh P.-J.

Understanding continuous wearable technology use behavior for fitness and self-health management among middle-aged and elderly people

Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics)

2020

20

Ibrahim S., Vasalou A., Benton L.

Understanding the Conference on Human situated practices of Factors in Computing school technology Systems-Proceedings leaders in the early stages of educational technology adoption

2022

video content [11], wearable devices [12], augmented reality [13], emerging medical technology [14], interconnected urban technologies [15] and blockchain technology [16]. The responses collected are either through questionnaires and surveys, interviews or both. In each of the research papers, researchers introduced the technologybased intervention to the user and asked them questions to elicit responses related to pre-identified factors related to technology adoption. They draw factors from models like TAM or UTAUT or define new factors that are specific to the context identified. The usage pattern of users was divided into two kinds: voluntary and involuntary. Voluntary adoption is when the user gets to decide whether they wish to use a specific intervention or not, but involuntary adoption is when the user is compelled to use the intervention, like in an office setting that has introduced a new software tool [16], or a railway control centre that has adopted a new software [17]. In voluntary adoption

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settings, the goal of researchers has been to improve rates of adoption, while in involuntary settings, the aim has been to study factors that improve adoption efficiency and keep error rates to a minimum post-adoption in [17]. Several of the studies focused on factors related to age [18–20] and the relationship between new interventions and an ageing population, where the emphasis was on how users above the age of 65 would interact with new technologies and what were the barriers to adopting them in their daily lives. Another common theme in these studies is understanding the role of security in technology adoption [21, 22]. The focus of the studies has been on discovering factors that would lead to an increased rate of adoption of these technologies [23] and understanding the current attitudes of users towards technologies and their applications [24]. A distinct drawback of these studies is that the results are only applicable to the technology and context they were originally situated in. The results of these studies. The gap identified here is the dearth of research in exploring the aftereffects of technology adoption and the challenges that come with this adoption. Current research that focuses on studying the adoption of technology is driven from the perspective of the spread and adoption of the intervention and its return on investment. The goal of these studies is to uncover ways to increase adoption that would lead to a surge in revenue. These studies rarely investigate the adoption of technology from the standpoint of the user and its psychological, financial and social effects. There is hardly any literature that focuses on post-adoption of these interventions and the effects it may have, be it positive or negative on the individual and society at large.

65.3 Research Gap It is evident that there are a scarcity of methods and/or frameworks that focus on exploring the aftereffects of technology adoption. With the increasing diffusion of technology into society and the advancement of technology, it is extremely crucial that designers take into consideration the possible impact or aftereffects of technology adoption could be. Designers should be able to make decisions on whether their interventions would negatively impact individuals or society at large. Currently, there is a lack of frameworks or tools to assess such impacts directly. The popular UserCentred Design or UCD framework [25] places emphasis on certain activities and on, how an intervention can be designed to solve a problem of the user, and how the users can be motivated to purchase and adopt the intervention. It hardly highlights the aftereffects of the design concepts on an individual or a society, emotionally, socially or financially.

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65.3.1 Objectives 1. To explore ways from existing literature studies in the area of design to envision a theoretical framework whose main purpose is to uncover and evaluate the potential aftereffects and implications of the adoption of technological interventions. 2. To identify a framework and the possible advantages and disadvantages of using such a method.

65.4 Methodology To address the first objective, we explore the literature on scenario-creation methods and future design methods to identify possible practices that could form the basis of the theoretical framework being proposed. From these methods and practices, design fiction was identified as the practice most appropriate to form the basis of the framework. In order to achieve the second objective, we take the help of expert designers to map out and identify the possible advantages and disadvantages of this framework. We speak to six different design researchers with varying fields of expertise, of the six, two were experts in product design, one specialized in the design of medical devices and the remaining three specialized in design theory and pedagogy. The main aim of interacting with these experts is to understand their views on technology adoption and its aftereffects. The interaction with these designers is through interviews and a focus group. The focus of the interviews is on understanding their individual views of technology adoption. The interviews also focus on which stage of the design process can designers investigate, assess and articulate potential aftereffects. The primary goal of holding a focus group discussion is to see if these experts can come to a common consensus about technology adoption and its aftereffects. Based on the inputs of these experts, it is possible to propose a theoretical framework.

65.5 Defining Theoretical Framework Based on Design Fiction Design fiction is an emerging practice that focuses on describing future scenarios. It is based on speculative design which uses the process of creating and studying artefacts to explore how the future world could be. It is debated that DF can be seen as either a method of narrative creation or an exercise in creating story-worlds. The term design fiction was first used by Alex Milton in 2003 [26], but he used it mainly in terms of film and theatre. The current use of the term was popularized by Julian Bleecker in 2009 where he defined DFs as a scenario that used diegetic prototypes to suspend disbelief about change [27]. The term diegetic prototype describes a kind of fictional artefact that exists in a story-world or a diegesis [28]. These story-worlds

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are descriptions of a possible future state of the world we currently live in. The use of the phrase “suspend disbelief about change” is mainly interpreted by researchers as an attempt to make an audience believe the fictional artefact, and the story-world it is situated in as something real. DFs have previously been used to explore the application of emerging technologies and what kind of effect they could have on the future. It is important to note that these scenarios are not meant as predictions but rather as explorations. The goal of these explorations is to create a discursive space that can form the basis of debate and discussion that informs the present trajectory of the design of technological interventions. Another way in which DFs have been used is as a participatory research method [29] where participants were involved in either creating or analysing DFs to help them think of technology and its implications in unorthodox ways. Prior work using DF primarily focuses on revealing unexpected ways in which technology could be used and how they affect society [30, 31]. Practitioners envision future scenarios by identifying a technology and a context within which it can be situated or applied. Ideally, these scenarios are envisioned to illustrate the impact of technology (design intervention) in future contexts. Using prototypes and artefacts, these scenarios are described to provide the audience with an insight into the future world, similar to how movies describe the fictional world they are set in [32]. This allows the audience to explore and express their interpretations and views about the scenarios. The difference between the scenarios created in DFs and standard scenario-based methods found in design is that DF scenarios are not based on any present situation and are mainly explorative. Standard scenario-based methods are based on an existing situation, wherein a problem or issue is identified in a specific situation and the scenario created tests whether the intervention solves the identified issue or not. Another key difference between DF and other scenariobased methods is that artefacts are central to the scenarios that are visualised and the audience gets to immerse themselves in the context by interacting with these artefacts. Literature highlights different kinds of artefacts that were explored by designers including imaginary abstracts [33], fictional research papers [34], videos [35], workbooks [36] and so on. The selection of a specific artefact depends on the practitioners and the effect they choose to achieve. A proposed application of design fiction is in using it to understand the implications of technology adoption [37]. The authors suggested that design fiction may be used to envision scenarios which outline the pros and cons of technology through an imaginary abstract and that the analysis of the said abstract would reveal the possible aftereffects. Another proposed usage of DF that is relevant to technology adoption is the use of concept videos as a type of DF to explore possible futures of a product while it is still fictional [38]. This application highlights the use of concept videos as a way to represent certain possible futures related to the product and proposes that the analysis of such videos would reveal more about how these products would be positioned in future society. Based on these two examples, it is evident that DF is well-positioned as a method to explore the possible aftereffects and nuances of post-technology adoption. While the properties of DF make it well suited to explore the aftereffects of technology adoption, there are certain drawbacks to be mindful of. There is no fixed process for creating and analysing DF. Researchers who work with DF have yet

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to reach a consensus on a fixed process or procedure for creating DF scenarios. Depending on the technology and the context they are studying, researchers use varying different processes and artefacts to explore future implications of technology interventions. This makes it a challenge for practitioners to identify how they may go about creating a DF scenario to effectively explore potential social, emotional and financial aftereffects. For DF scenarios to be effective, there is a need for a clearer, concise framework with fixed goals that would ensure designers can follow a standardized process in creating these scenarios. Designers using the UCD process lack the means to understand how their designed interventions would affect individuals and society once they are adopted. The focus of this proposal is on the concept evaluation stage, which is a part of the design evaluation stage of the UCD process. The method is based on using DF to generate scenarios about what the future could possibly look like based on the concepts generated by the designer. In Fig. 65.1, it can be seen that the scenario generation method is positioned at the concept evaluation stage. Once multiple concepts are generated, they are used as input to generate DF scenarios. The designers proceed by taking three important decisions. The first is to decide what era the scenarios are based in, that is to say, which time period for which the scenario is being created. The second decision is whether the designer generates the scenarios or the designer takes the help of participants to come up with scenarios. The

Fig. 65.1 Design fiction scenario generation and decisions involved in UCD

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participants could either be stakeholders or users that the designers have targeted, or they could be experts in the problem area that the designers are attempting to solve. In the case of the participatory mode, participants are introduced to the concepts, and they come up with different scenarios and put them into the form of artefacts with the help of the designer. It is important to keep in mind that the designer must not take an active role in creating the scenario but must only aid the participants in creating the artefact to represent the scenario. The third decision is the form of the artefact to use in the scenario created. The scenarios are created by keeping track of the dimensions of how the interventions could exist in future. These scenarios are not meant to be predictive but rather are explorative, they are meant to describe one or multiple possible configurations of the intervention. Scenarios are generated for every concept independently. The analysis of these scenarios is done by expert designers who break down the scenarios along the identified dimensions and look for factors which describe the possible aftereffects. The framework is meant to be used by multiple designers who examine the generated scenarios individually and then compare the results of their examination to draw a collective conclusion on what the aftereffects of technology adoption could be. The analysis of the social effects includes looking for indications or signs of impacts on how individuals interact with each other and the possible changes to social norms and cultural customs. Understanding the value systems of individuals and groups becomes crucial to understanding the social effects of technology adoption. This includes looking at changes in the value systems of different kinds of stakeholders adopting the intervention. Financial factors include the initial cost borne by individuals or groups in purchasing a product or intervention, the maintenance cost involved for long-term upkeep and use of the intervention, and the cost for disposal of the intervention once it is no longer usable. To understand the financial aftereffects, designers should look to gauge factors like financial stability post-adoption and the impact on individual and social expenses and incomes. The emotional effects of the scenarios are analysed by examining signs of changes in the long-term behaviours of individuals, their emotional state, how their perception of the world has altered, and whether they show signs of addiction or over-dependency on technology. This entails understanding how much autonomy an individual retains once a technology gets adopted. Designers compare the scenarios for all the concepts and use the results of the analysis of the scenario as one of the key factors in concept selection and finalization, or to re-ideate and come up with new concepts that would not have the same issues as the initial concepts. The aim of this method is to be a new tool for designers who use the UCD process to uncover and take into consideration the possible impact of technology adoption.

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65.6 Conclusion Designers today use the UCD process to identify and solve problems faced by individuals or groups of individuals through the use of technology. However, these interventions or solutions often come with aftereffects of their own once they have been adopted and are fully diffused through society. The goal of this research work is to propose a theoretical method or tool that would allow a designer to uncover and analyse the potential social, emotional and financial impacts of technology adoption on individuals and society at large. The focus of the method is on leveraging the futuristic and exploratory nature of a speculative design practice called design fiction to uncover possible negative aftereffects. It looks at the possible negative effects once an intervention has diffused throughout society and has been adopted by a majority of individuals in society. Such a method is currently missing from the UCD process, and the method tries to fill this gap. The method is a result of a theoretical analysis of the literature on both technology adoption and design fiction and is in its infancy. It is expected that the method will play a crucial role in averting potential negative social, emotional and financial effects of technology adoption on individuals and society.

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Chapter 66

Enhancing User Experience of Mobile OTT Platforms—A Case Study of Redesigning Netflix for Indian Market Aditya Wadher, Nidhi Meena, and Debayan Dhar

Abstract There are more than 40 Over-the-top (OTT) platforms for Indian subscribers. Users have limited leisure time which they generally spend watching their preferred content, however, it has been observed that before they reach their preferred content, they spend a considerable amount of time browsing to locate the content. This leads to an accumulation of negative experiences that can affect the platform’s adoption and its future use. This study focuses on investigating viewers’ browsing experience (in Netflix) to locate their preferred contents, the facilitators and barriers encountered by the viewers, and the factors influencing their decisionmaking. This study reports the use of a user-centred design approach to address the decision-making barriers of Netflix platform viewers. Open-ended interviews were conducted using the Critical Incident Technique approach to identify the concerns of users while browsing their preferred content. The study identified features that hinder viewers’ browsing experiences and proposes new interventions to ensure the conversion of their negative experiences into preferred ones. The proposed designed interventions have shown a positive impact in addressing viewers’ negative experiences. The study results in highlighting specific challenges that are contextual to OTT platforms (specifically Netflix) only and provides an approach to address these concerns using HCI-based interventions.

66.1 Introduction Over-the-top (OTT) video streaming services offering direct streaming services to viewers have gained popularity in India in the past few years. As of 2022, more than 40 primary streaming services, paid or free (ad-supported), are running in India. Out of them, the leading three platforms are Disney + Hotstar (20%), Amazon Prime (20%) and Netflix (15%), accounting for 55% of the market share [1]. Interestingly, Netflix has a hidden user base of 100 million worldwide which is unaccounted for A. Wadher · N. Meena · D. Dhar (B) Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, Assam, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_66

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in the official data, and these hidden user bases are the ones who use the service by sharing someone else’s password. Adding this to their paid user base of 222 million raises their actual base to 322 million [2], suggesting the popularity of the platform. During the COVID-19 lockdown in 2020, Netflix was the most preferred OTT platform (31.13%) [3]. Millennials and Gen Z account for 68% of Indian users of these OTT platforms [1]. Particularly for the study reported here, the focus was on Gen Z, as they influenced the behaviours of Millennials and Gen X [4] hence taking the mantel of the influencer from their predecessors. Netflix India offers 4706 titles [5], with hundreds of titles arriving and leaving the platform monthly. The availability of multiple options makes viewers confused and perplexed while deciding on a particular one [6]. A side effect of this giant library is that users spend an average of 17.8 min in a day browsing before selecting a programme to watch on Netflix [7]. This eats up significant leisure time and causes user frustration. In this investigation, therefore the focus is to identify factors that affect browsing and selection of a particular programme by the viewers and to suggest design interventions to reduce time spent in selecting a particular programme in the Netflix platform.

66.2 Literature Review Users on Netflix find titles through the recommendation system (80%) or the search feature (20%). About 33% of viewers, who are unsure about what exactly they would like to watch, rely on the recommendations, which start from the homepage with a personalized video ranker (PVR) algorithm [8]. Such a user when visits the Netflix home page get exposed to information presented in 40 rows, with each row containing 75 thumbnails of titles [9]. Majority of such users have voiced their concern regarding such type of information display and have highlighted that such designs of the content makes it harder for them to choose what to watch [4]. Interestingly, about 30% of the users have highlighted that they failed to find anything to watch at least once a day [10]. Therefore, they spend 9 min each session trying to decide what to watch [8], overall, in a day that figure averages around 17.8 min daily [7]. After spending 60–90 s to narrow down a few titles (having reviewed 10–20 titles) to watch, users lose interest [9]. 43% of users give up browsing if they fail to find any title in the first few minutes [4]. Literatures highlight that people are more likely to select from a limited array of 6 choices with greater satisfaction rather than 24 or 30 [6]. However, for users who knows what they want to watch or have a specific item in mind (about 66% of the viewers), they rely on the search option [8]. While interacting with the search feature, Netflix users have three different mind-sets: Fetch, Find and Explore. Users who fetch have clear intend to retrieve a specific item from the catalogue. Those who find know their entertainment needs but do not have any particular title in mind. Lastly, those who explore, typically enter much broader queries like comedy movies [11]. At times, when titles searched by the user are not available in the Netflix library (about 13% of searches), [11] makes users frustrated

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[4]. In such scenarios, some of the users revert to what they do the most in case of linear TVs, re-watch their favourite shows, few decides not to watch any content and do something different (about 21%) [8]. During identifying a particular title to watch in such platforms, there are few existing features that assist the users in deciding what to watch. These are text descriptions, categories, and thumbnails. They have a significant influence on viewers’ decision-making. Apart from this, literatures highlight that “trailers” are a good influencer, while “popular” and “more like this” shares moderate importance. On the contrary, features like new releases, lists of actors and lists of directors were the least influential [12]. Satisfaction of users is directly related to space to watch series or movies with or without family, time of using the platforms and quality of content on the platform. People working from home during lockdown spent more time on the platforms. Findings also revealed that the frequent usage of the platform has a relationship with annual income. Tier-1 city comprises a significant chunk of users (55.71%) watching 2–5 h weekly, mostly (44%) watching late night, (24%) night and (21%) afternoon. The majority of them (41%) watch series, while 38% of the users watch movies and 16% documentaries [3]. Literatures highlight how availability of more than required choices to watch from makes it difficult for viewers to identify a specific title (programme) to watch. Sheer amount of choices leads to wastage of time for the user, creating a bad user experience. Though it is evident what is currently the state with OTT platforms displaying content, specific factors that are responsible for clumsy display of contents are yet to be identified. The study reported in this paper, focuses on identification of such factors that affect browsing and selecting of titles. Further, specific design interventions have also been proposed to highlight, how we may design so that these factors become a feature in reducing the above-mentioned side effect.

66.3 Aim and Objectives To discover factors that cause friction in browsing and selecting titles on Netflix for Gen Z users in India and prescribe design features to reduce time spent. The objectives of the study are as follows: (1) To conduct an ethnographic study to define end-user pain points, frustrations, user groups and factors that affect their browsing and selecting of titles. (2) Survey to corroborate and pinpoint specific opportunity areas where intervention can occur. (3) To design a solution that can address the needs of the user, followed by KLM GOMS analysis to validate the solution.

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66.4 Methodology Studies reported in this paper focus on the context of the OTT platform Netflix specifically while being used in smartphones. First, to understand the facilitators and barriers encountered by the users and the factors influencing their browsing and selection behaviour on the platform primary research was conducted. For this, open-ended, structured interviews were conducted along with a Critical Incident Technique-based questioning with seven users. The participants were aged between 19 and 24 and were based throughout India. The questions included specific inquiries about platform usage, visual interface, process followed to find content and influencing factors. Broader questions that investigated the reasons how users decided what to watch on the platform were also included. The answers to the interviews were then transcribed, and protocol analysis method was used to code the problem areas, followed by charting out cultural, sequence and flow models. Trigger points were identified. Furthermore, with the identified codes, a structured quantitative online survey was floated among 85 participants to validate the data collected. Participants were aged between 19 and 24 and were based throughout India. Further, data collected from the survey were converted to insights. Secondly, Hick’s and Fitts’ laws were applied on each screen, involving the journey of browsing and selection of titles; on Netflix for mobile to optimize for faster decision-making and improving functionality. Solutions were proposed for the same. Third, opportunity areas identified and a redesign of the browsing and selection experience on the Netflix mobile application was proposed. Finally, based on the identified user group, the Keystroke-Level Model GOMS (KLM GOMS) quantitative benchmarking was conducted between the existing and proposed redesigned screens to validate the new and the old designs.

66.4.1 Interview We conducted an interview to corroborate the literature review with the users of Netflix mobile. It aimed to understand the place and time the platform was used, the process users followed to find their desired titles, their average searching time for titles, the features that were their go-to options, the friction points and how visual interface features influenced their decision. Furthermore, Critical Incident Technique-based question enquiring about the user’s elaborate experience while finding what to watch? And, what did they end up doing? was also used. This openended structured interview was conducted with seven users, 19–24 in age and was based throughout Tier-1 cities of India. Each interview lasted one hour and thirty minutes, and the transcripts were recorded and coded using the protocol analysis method. Furthermore, cultural, sequence and flow models were made to identify more trigger points.

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The insights from the study revealed that users preferred using the platform during their meals, especially dinner followed by lunch. They often enjoyed watching alone before nap time, as it was their leisure time. Users would heed the words of their friend who has a similar taste and would have watched more titles than the user. They often get frustrated if the recommendation shows a title they have already watched or are not interested in. The endless scroll they get into while searching titles or that absence of duration on the title card causes friction. Valuable features like “My list”, which takes more taps to access, were also a frustration point. Users frequently resorted to the “more like this” feature to find similar shows, which they access by going to the title they liked, creating unique ways to find titles. Moreover, several users reported that their mood dictates their primary guide to watching. The study helped in finding two distinct user groups according to the knowledge on titles: expert user who is a cinephile, is aware of the platform’s features and has good knowledge about the titles. They have been using the platform for a while, and the recommendations are tailored for them. They are consistent with the platform. Their expectation of good recommendations is high. They feel frustrated when titles repeat in the form of different thumbnails or the titles disappear without notifying them, which they had in their “My list”. These users are the ones whom others approach for recommendations. They use the search feature often and would get annoyed when their title isn’t available on the platform, i.e. out-of-catalogue videos. Novice users are the ones who know the platform’s features, however, has recently taken an interest in the field of TV shows and movies. They are unaware of titles; hence, their expectation is relatively less from the platform. They resort to watching the platforms’ top shows or the ones most talked about on social media. Since the limited knowledge, these users end up watching the same shows again if they can’t find anything new to watch. They are not brand loyal and would be easily enticed by cheaper OTT services. They are more loyal to titles than platform.

66.4.2 Survey After conducting qualitative research, insights pointed towards the platform’s features that were creating friction. To get validation on this data, a short online survey was conducted. Questions of the survey were closed-ended and structured with multiple-choice options. Participants consisted of GenZ users based on random sampling. The results were as follows: 52% of the respondents said their average screen time is 6–8 h per week. This rise is credited to people finding balance in the hybrid work model. 56% of users prefer watching content while having meals, and 61% before bed. Users watch whenever they can get leisure time. 61% of the users head straight for home screen recommendations for the content discovery, 23% rely on the search option to search specific titles. 65% of the users say that their mood is a significant factor in deciding what to watch—followed by genre, reviews and descriptions in that order. 64% of the users prefer “more like this”, which shows similar shows

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they liked, while 40% use “My List” to curate their list. 56% of the users have to scroll a lot to find what to watch. 55% User find the searching experience difficult due to repetitive suggestions, 72% of the users get frustrated with long searching experiences and switch to other OTT platforms when unable to find what to watch.

66.4.3 Analysis Using Hick’s and Fitts’ Laws To analyse the platform using Hick-Hyman law and Fitts’ law, the user flow of finding “Trailer Park Boys” the series used as a goal. The title was picked as it had multiple iterations: a series, a movie, an anime, etc. Findings have been listed in Table 66.1. Table 66.1 Analysis using Hick’s and Fitts’ laws Screens

Law

Analysis

Account selection

Fitts’ Law

Icons are bigger

Hick’s Law Icons are unique/customised Homescreen

Fitts’ Law

Difficult to reach to the icon as it is on the top and the target area is small Icons are close hence there’s a possibility of Midas touch

Hick’s Law Profile and search Icons are distinctive hence no confusion Hick’s Law Users can’t find the ‘My List’ section easily Search screen

Fitts’ Law

Cursor is automatically blinking on the search bar and the keypad pops up, which saves time

Hick’s Law The search button gives results by any keyword we search like movie name, cast name, genre, keywords etc., hence it’s very efficient Search result screen

Fitts’ Law

For results, the user need not press the enter button on the keypad Thumbnails are big which makes them easier to reach

Hick’s Law Multiple similar options create confusion and take more reaction time Bottom sheet

Fitts’ Law

Requires 2 taps to go on the info page of the show, from the search results via a bottom sheet

Hick’s Law Play button and episode and info button is highlighted with the large target area, hence reaction time is less Title information screen Fitts’ Law

The drop down is on the left side where the main options are present, hence the time taken is less

Hick’s Law Seasons drop-down is highlighted, and easier to pick Hick’s Law Close button is highlighted and easier to find

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66.5 Results The results implied that users have personal preferences on the platform and the browsing experience is influenced by various factors which also differ for each user. Hence, finding what to watch becomes a difficult process. However, what can be done is to remove the friction points in recommendations and search on the platform to deliver responses faster. Ultimately reducing the time to find what to watch. All insights from the interviews, survey and Hick’s and Fitts’ law were then summarized into consolidated categories. Based on these insights, further design changes were made to the platform (Table 66.2).

66.5.1 Redesign Consolidated insights were used to perform redesign decisions on some screens and propose unique features on some to enhance the user experience of Netflix mobile. Table 66.2 Consolidated insights S. No.

Factors

Insights

1

Presentation of titles

Users wish to go through limited options and personalised recommendations while selecting titles they want to watch

2

Excess of title options

Scrolling a lot on the OTT platform is one common problem faced by viewers

3

Ease of accessibility of features

Most used features like search, my list and more like this need to be easily accessible

4

Ease of accessibility of features

Users use the information page (bottom sheet) quite regularly, which requires two taps to access. Reducing the steps will reduce their efforts

5

Clear feature use-case

Users wish to search based on the director, genre, cast etc. subsequent search feature must be highlighted

6

Error message

Users seek clear and actionable messages in case a title isn’t present on the platform

7

Title labelling

Titles which are available in varied forms such as movies, series, anime etc. must be labelled to avoid confusion among the user

8

Repetition

Repetitive recommendations of the content hinder the viewers browsing experience

9

Mood

To decide what to watch, users reflect on their mood and then convert the mood to the genre and then browse. The time and cognitive load could be reduced by relevant effort

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Fig. 66.1 Redesigned home screen of Netflix mobile (Single screen in scroll format)

The solution concepts and interface elements are closely modelled on the user’s desires and pain points.

66.5.1.1

Home Screen

To optimize on account of the Fitts’ law The two most used features “My List” and “Search” are moved to the bottom navigation bar for ease of access and the “Download” button is moved to the top. It was stated that 54% of users find too much content overwhelming, and an option to hide/unhide sections was included in the redesign. Furthermore, 56% of users agreed that they have to scroll a lot in order to find the appropriate content to watch, hence, the category titles are displayed at the bottom to expand the search radius for the users (Figs. 66.1 and 66.2).

66.5.1.2

Search Screen

Netflix often removes TV shows/movies and doesn’t prompt the users when they search for any such content. 60% of users interviewed want to know a clear message for the unavailability of a movie/show. When a specific searched content is removed from the platform, users often want to search for a similar genre and struggle to find more similar options. Hence, to fulfil the needs and to reduce longer reaction time on account of Hick’s law a clear message of unavailable content and “more like this”

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Fig. 66.2 Redesigned search screen with clear message (States)

option for similar content is provided to help users save time and effort in searching for content they like. Moreover, titles can be searched based on title, genre, cast, etc. This information is unavailable for the novice user; hence, incorporating them helps reduce their effort.

66.5.1.3

Search Result Screen

The multiple similar options for some specific contents create confusion and require more reaction time from the users; hence violating Hick’s law. Tags for different titles (animes/movies/series, etc.) are provided on the thumbnails which help the users to decide when there are multiple similar options (Fig. 66.3).

66.5.1.4

Information Screen

It requires 2 taps to navigate to the information page of a movie/show from the search results via a bottom sheet, hence violating the Fitts’ law. Therefore, to optimize functionality of the interaction (Fitts’ law), the bottom sheet is replaced by a screen which can be removed by a swipe-down gesture. The mention of genres and autoplaying trailers on the info page is some additional features preferred by the users (Fig. 66.4).

66.5.1.5

Category: Watch by Mood

54% of users decide on what to watch based on their mood during browsing for content. Therefore, adding a “Watch by Mood” section in the categories helps users to find the preferred content in less time (Fig. 66.5).

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Fig. 66.3 Redesigned search screen wiith clear tags

66.6 KLM GOMS Analysis Testing was conducted on the current and the redesigned interfaces by using KLM and GOMS methods. A goal to find “Trailer Park Boys” the series was assigned to both expert and novice user segments (Table 66.3). For expert users, incorporating the bottom sheet as a swipe-down screen helps save time, as they would be accessing a few information pages of titles before fixing on to one. On the other hand, adding signifiers in the thumbnails of titles to differentiate them as series, anime, movies, etc., and adding appropriate unavailability messages on the search screen helps reduce their time in searching titles. Moreover, the new feature “Watch by Mood” will also conserve time for users as it lessens the cognitive load to figure out titles according to their mood.

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Fig. 66.4 Redesigned information screen of Netflix mobile

Fig. 66.5 New feature in category: Watch by Mood for Netflix mobile

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Table 66.3 KLM GOMS analysis for expert and novice users User segment

Current screen (Time in seconds)

Redesigned screen (Time in seconds)

Improvement (in time)

Improvement (%)

Expert

10.58

8.18

2.4

29.3

Novice

17.04

8.18

8.86

108.3

66.7 Conclusion Given the rapid growth of OTT platforms in the Indian subcontinent, providing top user experience and content is crucial for any platform. One of their primary goals should be assisting the user in finding what to watch, using their recommendation engine or smart search, reducing the time in doing so and saving users valuable leisure time makes retain their users. This case study identifies the friction factors of the user in deciding what to watch. Moreover, it shows an insight on the factors and then converts them into design interventions that would help save users browsing time. The solution is then validated through KLM GOMS analysis, which shows a 108% reduction in time for novice users and 29% in time reduction for expert users.

References 1. Statista.: OTT Video—India (2021). https://www.statista.com/outlook/amo/media/tv-video/ ott-video/india#media-usage 2. Richter, F.: The state of Netflix mooching. Statista Infographics (2022, April 27). https://www. statista.com/chart/27333/netflix-password-sharing/ 3. Madnani, D., Fernandes, S., Madnani, N.: Analysing the impact of COVID-19 on over-the-top media platforms in India. Int. J. Pervas. Comput. Commun. 16(5), 457–475 (2020). https://doi. org/10.1108/ijpcc-07-2020-0083 4. Westcott, K., Loucks, J., Downs, K., Watson, J.: Digital media trends survey, 13th ed. Deloitte Insights (2019, March 19). https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/insights/industry/technology/dig ital-media-trends-consumption-habits-survey/summary-2019.html 5. Hutchison, M.: Netflix India vs the world: movie & TV libraries compared. Finder India (2020, February 16). https://www.finder.com/in/netflix-india-vs-world-content 6. Iyengar, S.S., Lepper, M.R.: When choice is demotivating: can one desire too much of a good thing? J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 79(6), 995–1006 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79. 6.995 7. Maglio, T.: Netflix users spend 18 minutes picking something to watch, study finds. TheWrap (2016, July 21). https://www.thewrap.com/netflix-users-browse-for-programming-twice-aslong-as-cable-viewers-study-says/ 8. Katsingris, P.: The nielsen total audience report Q1 2019. The Nielsen Company (2019, March). https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.mediapost.com/uploads/NielsenTotalAud ienceReportQ12019.pdf 9. Gomez-Uribe, C.A., Hunt, N.: The Netflix recommender system. ACM Trans. Manag. Inf. Syst. 6(4), 1–19 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1145/2843948 10. ConsumerLab report on TV and Media 2017.: Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson (2017). https:// www.ericsson.com/en/reports-and-papers/consumerlab/reports/tv-and-media-2017

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11. Lamkhede, S., Das, S.: Challenges in search on streaming services. In: Proceedings of the 42nd International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (2019). https://doi.org/10.1145/3331184.3331440 12. Patch, H.: Which factors influence Generation Z’s content selection in Ott Tv? Kth royal institute of technology school of electrical engineering and computer science (2018). https:// www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1232633/FULLTEXT01.pdf

Part III

Enabling Technologies and Tools (Computer-Aided Conceptual Design, Augmented/Virtual Reality, MEMS, Haptics, Smart Technologies, IoT, Cobotics, Etc.)

Chapter 67

Interactive 3D Marathi Language Alphabets: AR-Based Mobile App in Context of Rural India Sanika Pareek, Aventika Khemani, Namrata Dhobale and Shrikant Salve

Abstract  India is a developing country having a rural population of near about 65.5%, and the literacy rate in rural areas is 61.14%. So, there is a need to improve the education system for rural people in India. It is evident from many researches that traditional teaching from books is failing to engage children. Also, unable to create their interest and motivation. To bring in active participation of children, the education process needs to be creative and interactive. Currently in rural schools of India, many information and communication technologies (ICT) like computers, laptops, tablets, projectors, and Internet facilities have been introduced to support the existing teaching–learning methods. Augmented Reality (AR) is one such growing technology that can be used in educational settings to enhance traditional learning methods. Therefore, we have proposed an AR-based mobile application, named as ‘ॲनिलर्न’, (Anilearn) which means ‘anyone can learn’ for rural pre-primary school children. We have prepared 3D alphabets in Marathi language using Blender software. These 3D alphabets are incorporated in the proposed AR-based application which is developed using Unity with Vuforia software development kit (SDK). The 3D alphabets include the 3D letter and 3D interactive objects associated with each letter. In Marathi language, there are fifty-one alphabet including fifteen swar (vowels) and thirty-six vyanjan (consonants). ‘ॲनिलर्न’ (Anilearn) displays 3D alphabet along with corresponding 3D object. These alphabets have audio support (pronunciation) and also children can interact with 3D objects. This

S. Pareek (*) · A. Khemani · N. Dhobale · S. Salve  MIT Academy of Engineering, Alandi, Pune, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Khemani e-mail: [email protected] N. Dhobale e-mail: [email protected] S. Salve e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_67

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form of 3D interaction can create interest and motivation among pre-school children. This AR-based application would help to improve the education system of India especially in the rural areas. In future, we are planning to incorporate computer vision so that the static markups become dynamic.

67.1 Introduction India is a developing country, and according to the 2011 census report, the rural population is 65.5% [1] having a literacy rate of 61.14% [2]. The schools in rural India have been taking many initiatives to improve learning outcomes like increasing student–teacher ratio, providing training to teachers and additional infrastructure [3]. Therefore, with advancement in technology, many schools in India are adopting additional infrastructure by incorporating different Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) like mobile phones, tablets, desktop computers, smartboards, projectors, etc. [4]. ICT also includes the use of Learning Management Systems (LMS) [5], mobile and desktop applications [6] which has changed the teaching– learning process. One such technology is Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR). The researchers have said that the content and images in the textbooks are not interactive which becomes a barrier for students while understanding, grasping, and remembering it [7]. Also, children tend to grasp easily when taught through stories and illustrations rather than printed books [8]. It is also proved that the use of technology in education enables the learning process to be more active, attractive, motivating, simulating, and meaningful to the student [9–11]. Among these technologies, AR-VR is an upcoming and widely used technology for education across the world. Augmented Reality (AR) is defined as a real-time direct or indirect view of a physical real-world environment that has been enhanced/augmented by adding virtual computer-generated information to it [6, 12]. AR is used in many fields such as medical training, fashion, interior design, education, entertainment, gaming and military. During our initial investigation, we have explored various existing AR-based applications in different fields which are illustrated in Table 67.1. We have explored existing AR-based applications in the field of games, interior design, medical training, education, entertainment and fashion. The various applications listed in Table 67.1 are developed from 2012 to 2021. Games which are developed using AR technology are ‘PokemonGo’, where people collect pokemons in a real environment and ‘Jurassic World Alive’ which creates a world of dinosaurs. Interior designing-based AR applications like ‘Houzz’, ‘IKEA Place’ and ‘Amikasa’ helps the user to place their furniture at different locations to check for the perfect size and location of the furniture and ‘AirMeasure’ measures any object around the user, it is like a virtual ruler. Medical training applications like ‘Complete Anatomy 2022’ helps medical students to learn about different parts of the human body using 3D objects. Educational application like ‘BBC Civilization AR’ is used for exploring history, ‘Math Worlds AR’ is an application of mathematics for grade K-6 students. ‘Curiscope’ uses a Virtual Tee to show the user’s inner parts of the human body. ‘Catchy Words AR’ supports languages like English, German, Italian, Russian and Spanish and is used by kindergartens

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Table 67.1  Study of existing AR applications Field

Application

Developer

Niantic, America Ludia Inc Houzz Inc, America Interior design Inter IKEA Systems B. V Laan Labs, USA (New AirMeasure York) 3D4Medical from Medical training Complete Anatomy 2022 Elsevier, Ireland BBC Civilizations AR BCC Media App Education (History) Technologies, UK (London) Houghton Mifflin Math Worlds AR Harcourt Curiscope, UK Curiscope Gleb Revkov and Catchy Words AR Vladislav Simanonvich Active Theory World Brush Moatboat MoatBoat Paint AR James Tunick Entertainment Burberry Burberry Snap Inc, America Snapchat Wanna Kicks WANNA Fashion Lenskart, India Lenskart

Games

Pokemon Go Jurassic World Alive Houzz IKEA Place,

Inkhunter

Inkhunter Inc, US (New York)

Year 2016 2018 2012 2017

Android/IOS/ Windows Android, IOS Android, IOS Android, IOS Android, IOS

2018

Android, IOS

2018

Android, IOS

2018

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2017

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Android, IOS IOS

2017 2016 2019 2021 2012 2020 2015

IOS Android, IOS IOS Windows, IOS Android, IOS Android, IOS Android, IOS, Windows Android, IOS. Windows

2016

and elementary schools in US, UK, France and other countries. ‘World Brush’ enables the user to paint in the real world and ‘MoatBoat’ converts whatever you speak or write into images. AR-based entertainment applications like ‘Snapchat’ is for clicking pictures using 3D filters, ‘Paint AR’ is for painting and ‘Burberry’ is for watching the digital sculptures made by the users. AR-based applications in Fashion are ‘Wanna Kicks’ which is for trying sneakers, ‘Lenskart’ for trying specs and ‘Inkhunter’ for trying tattoos. Majority of the above-mentioned applications are developed in the UK, USA and America and can be used in Android and IOS devices. ‘Lenskart’ is an AR-based application which is developed in India and launched in 2015. Out of all these applications six are of education, for subjects like History, Mathematics, English, Arts, and Science. Augmented Reality is one of the emerging technologies which can help in making the learning process more fun and interactive. Children no longer have to just see the 2D picture of an object and imagine it, they can actually visualize the 3D object as if they are in reality and interact with them which will make their

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learning process simpler yet interesting. In this paper, we are exploring the use of AR for building a mobile application for pre-primary children which teaches them alphabets of their local or regional language. Rest of the paper is organized as follows: the next section discusses literature study which is divided into user study which is done by talking to rural children, parents and teachers, comparative study that compares the existing AR applications in field of education and analysis of papers based on AR in education, the later section describes the methodology and the last section discusses about conclusion and future scope.

67.2 Literature Study After going through the background of Augmented Reality, its application and impact in the field of education, we have also explored the current educational conditions in rural India and difficulties children face to learn and grasp things. In addition, we have investigated the use of ICT in rural education of India through user surveys and related research work. To understand and have in-depth knowledge about this topic, we conducted a literature survey. The literature study is divided into three parts: first user study, which is a survey conducted to know about education and teaching–learning techniques used in rural India from teachers, children and their parents. Second, is the comparative study where the existing Augmented Reality-based application in education are compared. Third, is the study of existing paper to gain knowledge about the existing developments in Augmented Reality and what impact it has on education.

67.2.1  Identifying User Requirements This study was initiated during COVID-19 period so user interviews were conducted in both online and offline mode. This research work is a part of ‘Unnat Bharat Abhiyaan’ (UBA) which is an initiative of Ministry of Education, Government of India for development of rural villages. As a participating institute in UBA, we have adopted five villages such as Dhanore, Markal, Golegaon, Nirgudi and Pimpalgaon. Therefore, the user study was conducted in above-mentioned five villages in online mode through Google Forms and offline/physical mode to reach out to maximum numbers of children, their parents and teachers. This study was proposed for pre-primary children that is nursery, LKG and UKG. We have taken twenty responses through questionnaire in online and ten responses in offline mode. The responses include fifteen parents, five teachers in online mode and seven parents, three teachers in offline mode. The questions were helpful to find out various issues like electricity conditions, awareness about technology, level of comfort while using the technology and difficulties faced by them. It was found that most of them use smartphones but are unaware of educational

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applications, especially applications related to learning alphabets. We have also found that the majority of schools use projectors for teaching along with chalk and board methods. It is observed that in many schools’ computers are available for use. There are schools which do not have such facilities and use the traditional chalk and talk method for teaching. Many teachers know how to use technology. In this study, it was found that many people in rural India use their smartphones for communication, gaming or social media but not for educational purposes.

67.2.2  C  omparative Study of the Exiting Augmented Reality-Based Applications We have conducted a comparative study of nine existing AR-based applications. These applications are developed by using AR based technologies like Unity and Vuforia for educational purposes. After comparing these applications, we came to know that some applications conduct quizzes/games to test knowledge acquired by the user after a particular concept is taught. Most of the apps use mobile animations and videos for better understanding. Some apps give users the facility to create/import new objects/projects. It is also observed that the majority of the applications require Internet connectivity to work. Table 67.2 illustrates the list of applications along with their features. The first row and first column denote applications and features, respectively. In Table 67.2, ‘Y’ denotes that the particular feature is present in that application and ‘N’ denotes it is absent. After studying these AR-based applications, it is observed that they have an interactive and attractive environment which can be used to enhance the teaching–learning process. Use of various 3D interactive AR objects can increase the engagement and interest of students. Many applications do not have multi-language support, voiceovers, text displayed corresponding to the 3D objects which are shown, and educational games/puzzles to test the knowledge. Majority applications help in the creative development of a child’s mind. Existing AR applications are in the field of Science, Mathematics, History, and English.

67.2.3  Augmented Reality in Education Augmented Reality (AR) has become popular in recent years as a result of which many researches are being conduct on it across the world. In this section, we have listed some research work which is done in AR in the field of education. ‘ScholAR’ [13] is an AR-based application designed for encouraging collaborative learning in rural schools of India. In rural schools due lack of space children from different standards are made to sit together in one classroom and are taught. Sarkar et al. [14] have developed ‘ScholAR’ to study the mathematics topic ‘Introduction to 3D Solids’. Through this application, children learn about the difference

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Interactive interface Create 3D effects of objects Creative writing with AR Safety education with AR Bring safety learning to life Health and Fitness Thinking and reasoning Critical thinking Cognitive development Fun augmented reality Engagement and usability Creative development Preview of continuous study plan Reading No 3rd party ads Multilanguage support Educational games/puzzles Sound of object Help parents teach their kids

Application Leo Narrator App App

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Moon Kids’ AR educa- Kid’s phases Kit 4D tion

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(continued)

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Table 67.2  (continued) Features

Attractive interface (Aesthetics)

Application Leo Narrator App App

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Moon Kids’ AR educa- Kid’s phases Kit 4D tion

Pico christmas

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between 2D and 3D objects, types of 3D shapes and vertices, edges and faces. Tezer et al. [15] have done a review on one thousand and eight research papers published between 2001 and 2019. They have found many areas where AR is used, such as education, engineering arts, visual arts and special education. From one thousand and eight selected research work, 21.2% of the research work is done in the areas of education, and among which only 0.1% is for pre-school education. Their study includes less research work from developing countries and does not include any research related to rural area. Sun et al. [16] proposed a prototype design of an AR-based system with gesture recognition. In this design, children can interact with virtual objects easily by using gestures. Binoy and Srivastava, 2020 [17] have proposed AR-based application ‘Pump Fit’. This app was made as a replacement for a person as a trainer with a virtual trainer. It projects a hologram in front of us which tracks our body movement so that the user checks whether the exercise poses they are doing are correct or not. The application was developed using Unity. Recent developments in AR include smart learning objects [18], AR kids’ book [19], magic book and e-learning courses [20–22]. These literature studies cover different user groups in the education domain but do not include research on rural areas. Therefore, in this study, we have tried to address the different issues of pre-primary children from rural backgrounds. Children are growing up in the world of digitalization [23]. They have become disinterested with traditional teaching techniques like ‘chalk and talk method’ or PowerPoint presentations [24]. In this regard, AR applications will play a pivotal role in enhancing the teaching– learning process which will grab the attention of students [25].

67.2.4  Inference from Literature Survey Literature survey was conducted in three parts: first the user study, second the comparative study of existing AR-based applications in the field of education and third the study of existing papers. User study was conducted at different rural places to know about the Information and Communication Technology used for teaching–learning process and their impact on children. Also, to find out the awareness people have about the technology and its usage in education. The main

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focus of the study were pre-primary children. Study was conducted in both online and offline modes by circulating Google Forms and conducting interviews of parents and teachers respectively. In majority of the schools, teaching is done using primitive methods like chalk and talk method and projectors. People in rural areas are aware of technology but it is primarily used for communication, gaming and entertainment purposes only and very few use it for education. The second part is comparative study of existing AR-based applications in the field of education. The applications studied are developed in different countries. In this study, it was found that majority of applications are developed for subjects like Mathematics, History, English and Science but very few are developed for regional languages. These applications have an interactive and attractive environment which engages the children and increases their creative thinking. Many existing applications are not multilingual, and they do not have voiceovers or texts displayed corresponding to objects displayed to make them more informative. It is also observed that, the students in rural India are taught through the traditional 2D books which fail to engage students and create their interest. Due to a less interactive environment and monotonous teaching, students are not able to understand the basics properly which leads to a poor base. AR is an emerging technology which is extensively used in education. AR provides an interactive environment which can be used to engage students, increase their grasping power and make the teaching–learning process more interactive and fun.

67.3 Methodology The literature study indicates that interactive AR-based technology can be incorporated in designing the user interface to learn Marathi language alphabets for pre-primary children. Therefore, we hypothesize that ‘3D Marathi alphabets helps pre-primary children to increase their performance in comparison to 2D/text book alphabets’. To test this hypothesis, following experiment has been conducted.

67.3.1  User Study The AR-based mobile application, ‘Anilearn’ which we developed was implemented, as illustrated in Fig. 67.2, and a user study has been conducted for its usability evaluation. Participants: The user study was conducted in two schools, one is Shri Dnyaneshwar Prathmik Vidyamandir, Alandi, Maharashtra which is a Government School that follows state board syllabus and another World Peace

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Fig. 67.1  Left side figure illustrates one of the authors of this paper explaining the children how to use Anilearn app and on right side one UKG child is interacting with Anilearn

School, Hanuman Vadi, Maharashtra is a private school that follows CBSE syllabus. Twenty children (13 male and 7 female) belonging to age group 4 to 6 years (ten from each school) from Lower Kindergarten (LKG) and Upper Kindergarten (UKG) participated in this study along with four teachers. Figure 67.1 illustrates the children using Anilearn app. Instrument Used: A specially designed AR-based mobile application has been used for this experiment. Figure 67.2 illustrates the screen-shot of Anilearn app. Working of Anilearn is as follows: to start the application the user needs to login using the correct credentials and provide access to the camera of his/her smartphone/tablet in order to scan the markup. Markup are scanned and then searched for its corresponding 3D object after which an interactive augmented object along with the voiceovers is displayed on the screen of the user. The screenshots of Anilearn are given in Fig. 67.2a which is the starting page of Anilearn. By ­clicking on ‘चला शकिूया’ button, the login page appeares. After completing the login process, we enter into actual application. This application accesses the mobile camera through which we can scan the markup image. After scanning a 3D object with animation and voice overs corresponding to the scanned markup alphabet is displayed on the screen. Figure 67.2b is of the marker image of Marathi alphabet ‘स’ and its corresponding object ‘सफरचंद’ that is an apple along with it 3D object and text displayed on the 2D marker image. Figure 67.2c is of the marker image of Marathi alphabet ‘ळ’ and its corresponding object ‘कमळ’ that is a lotus along with it 3D object and text displayed on the 2D marker image. The objects displayed by Anilearn are not only in 3D but are also animated that can grab the attention of children. Also, these alphabets are supported with audio. Children feel that these objects are interacting with them, which motivates them to study and learn.

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Fig. 67.2  Screenshot of Anilearn. a Starting page, b ‘स’ for ‘सफरचंद’, c ‘ळ’ for ‘कमळ’

67.3.2  Procedure The experiment is divided into two parts, first is learning of alphabets and second is evaluation of performance. Prior to the experiment, children and teachers were explained about the design and purpose of AR-based Anilearn app. Group based experiment design was adopted and children were divided into two groups. In first part of the experiment, a group of children were provided ‘Balbharati’ which a text book of Marathi alphabets, it has images in 2D format with alphabets and its related text and another group of children were given Anilearn app which is specially developed for this experiment, it has alphabets and text in 3D format. The task was to learn five Marathi alphabets in five minutes. The second part of the experiment was to evaluate the performance of children. As a part of evaluation children were asked to identify the alphabet name and object associated with it. Each child was given five alphabets for identification. Figure 67.3 illustrates the graph of alphabets (Y-axis) verses children (X-axis) for both 2D and 3D alphabets, which identify the performance of each child for a particular alphabet. The upper red line and lower blue line indicates the count of correctly identified alphabets by the children who learnt using 3D and 2D alphabets respectively. For example, if the value is five, means all five alphabets were correctly identified by the participant. The graph shows that, the performance values of participant (child) 1, 2, 3, 7 are 5, 5, 4, 3 and 2, 2, 3, 2 for 3D and 2D respectively. The results corresponding to 3D are comparatively higher than 2D. Four children out of ten who were given Anilearn for learning, correctly identified more alphabets as compared to the children who were given Marathi textbook. The remaining values are equal. Figure 67.4 illustrates the graph of

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children (Y-axis) verses alphabets (X-axis), which gives the collective performance of children for particular alphabet. This graph illustrates that for alphabet 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (X-axis), the number of children who correctly identified alphabets are 8, 8, 7, 8, 6 and 7, 7, 6, 5, 4 for 3D and 2D alphabets respectively. It is observed that for almost all alphabets’, children who learnt from 3D alphabets identified more alphabets correctly as compared to 2D. Therefore, from our experiment it is proved that, 3D Marathi alphabets helps pre-primary children to increase their performance as compared to 2D/text book alphabets. We have also conducted usability evaluation of Anilearn using System Usability Scale (SUS) [26, 27] to check usability which is discussed in section below.

67.3.3  Usability Evaluation of Anilearn We have used System Usability Scale (SUS) [27] for usability evaluation of Anilearn. Standardized SUS questionnaires are frequently used to evaluate perceived usability. All ten questions are rated by the user, with scores ranging from 0 (the lowest rating) to 4 (the highest rating). SUS score is computed based on user answers. For questions with odd numbers, the intermediate score is reduced by 1, and for questions with even numbers, the score is reduced by 5. A standard score is calculated using the sum of the above scores, then multiplied by 2.5. For usability testing, ten children including 6 male and 4 female, from LKG and UKG of age group 4 to 6 years were selected. These children have used the Anilearn app. We have filled the SUS questionnaire by explaining the questions to children and recorded their responses for SUS score.

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The SUS questionnaire is investigated for assessing usability of Anilearn. The graph in Fig. 67.5 represents the SUS score of all ten participants. The mean of all SUS scores of ten participants is 87/100. There are rules for interpretation of the SUS score [28]. If the SUS score is 85, the system/product is highly usable, if it is in the range of 70 to 85, it is characterized  to be good system. If the SUS score is in the range of 50 to 70, it shows that the system is acceptable, but it has some usability problems and needs improvement. Therefore, according to the criteria of Bangor et al. [29], the Anilearn app is highly usable. The graph shown in Fig. 67.5 illustrates the SUS scores of all ten participants, which indicates that developed app is highly usable. The Y-axis represents the SUS score and the X-axis represents the participants (children).

67.4 Conclusion The result shows that children who learnt using 3D alphabets showed better results as compared to the children who learnt using Marathi textbook. The SUS score for this app is 87 out of 100, which suggests that it is a highly usable system. Therefore, the traditional methods of teaching and use of textbooks may fail to engage students. Augmented Reality helps to illustrate 3D objects anywhere which makes the imagination of things easier and more interactive. To provide an interactive environment for learning, we decided to use AR technology to develop an application for pre-primary children of rural India. This application scans the markups and shows its corresponding 3D object which is interactive and is supported with 3D alphabet and voiceover which will make the learning process more interactive and fun. This application can be used both on Android and IOS devices. We have observed that the pre-primary children are learning Marathi language from their traditional ‘Balbharti’ text book which is provided by Government of Maharashtra. So, in future we are going to use this traditional textbook as markups. We will also incorporate image processing so that we can make the static markups as dynamic that is 3D objects will be displayed corresponding to any scanned Marathi alphabet.

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References 1. Rural population (% of total population)—India. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS?locations=IN. Last accessed 10 June 2022 2. Census of India. https://censusindia.gov.in. Last accessed 10 June 2022 3. Naik, G., Chitre, C., Bhalla, M., Rajan, J.: Impact of use of technology on student learning outcomes: evidence from a large-scale experiment in India. World Dev. 127, 104736 (2020) 4. Ratheeswari, K.: Information communication technology in education. J. Appl. Adv. Res. 3(45) (2018) 5. Al-Rahmi, W.M., Alzahrani, A.I., Yahaya, N., Alalwan, N., Kamin, Y.B.: Digital communication: information and communication technology (ICT) usage for education sustainability. Sustainability (2020) 6. Sinha, K., Priyadarshani, M.: Impact of information and communication technology in the Indian education system during COVID-19. IGI Global (2021) 7. Subhashini, P., Siddiqua, R., Keerthana, A., Pavani, P.: Augmented reality in education. J. Inf. Technol. Digit. World 2(4), 221–227 (2020) 8. Nigam, A., Bhagat, K.K., Chandrakar, M., Goswami, P.: Design and development of an augmented reality tracing application for kindergarten students. In: Tenth International Conference on Technology for Education, IEEE, vol. 4, pp. 240–241 (2019) 9. Singhal, S., Bagga, S., Goyal, P., Saxena, V.: Augmented chemistry: interactive education system. Int. J. Comp. Appl. 49, 0975–8887 (2002) 10. Raja, R., Nagasubramani, P.C.: Impact of modern technology in education. J. Appl. Adv. Res. 3, 33–35 (2018) 11. Murati, R., Ceka, A.: The use of technology in educational teaching. J. Educ. Pract. 8(6), 197–199 (2017) 12. Azuma, R.T.: A survey of augmented reality. Presence: Teleoper. Virtual Environ. 6(4), 355– 385 (1997) 13. Sarkar, P., Pillai, J.S.: User expectations of augmented reality experience in Indian school education. Proc. ICoRD 2, 745–755 (2019) 14. Sarkar, P., Pillai, J.S., Gupta, A.: ScholAR: a collaborative learning experience for rural schools using augmented reality application. In: IEEE Ninth International Conference on Technology for Education, Chennai, pp. 8–15 (2018) 15. Tezer, M., Yıldız, E.P., Masalimova, A.R., Fatkhutdinova, A.M., Zheltukhina, M.R., Khairullina, E.R.: Trends of augmented reality applications and research throughout the world: meta-analysis of theses, articles and papers between 2001–2019 years. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. (iJET) 14(22), 154–174 (2019) 16. Sun, M., Wu, X., Fan, Z., Dong, L.: Augmented reality based educational design for children. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. (iJET) 14(03), 51–60 (2019) 17. Binoy, A., Srivastava, A.: PUMP FIT: an augmented reality application which helps people with their workout more efficiently. In: Companion Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Interactive Surfaces and Spaces (ISS’20) Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, pp. 91–93 (2020) 18. Srivastava, A., Yammiyavar, P.: Design of multimodal Instructional tutoring agent using augmented reality and smart learning objects. In: Proceedings of the 18th ACM International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (2016) 19. Nanda, S., Jha, S.K.: Augmented reality: an application for kid’s education. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. (IJERT) (2017) 20. Yang, Y., Liu, Q., Wu, L., Xu, S., Yu, S., Zhang, N.: Design and development of mobile augmented reality for mathematical experiments. In: International Symposium on Educational Technology (ISET), pp. 139–143 (2019) 21. Minghui, S., Wu, X., Fan, Z., Dong, L.: Augmented reality based educational design for children. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. 14(3), 51–60 (2019)

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Chapter 68

Proposal of an ARVR-Enabled Digital Archive: Preserving Archaeological Data Through Emerging Technologies Shraddha Govindraj, Pranita Ranade , and Tanmoy Goswami

Abstract Archaeology is the field of study that aims at identifying and understanding human existence and past cultures through ancient remnants. Ideally, a significant amount of information in this division is gathered through analysing and studying the existing artefacts found during excavations through a different set of manuals as well as tech-based procedures. There are three stages of archaeology that are of utmost importance, the primary one being field investigation and identification of the site, the second stage comprising the actual excavation and the tertiary stage encompasses data gathering, evaluation and retrieval of artefact along with ensuring that it is safely transported to the final destination. There is a demand for immense workforce, funds and high-tech machines during this process. Archaeology is a vast domain branching into different sectors such as landscape, nautical, primatology, biblical, and paleo archaeology, among others. Each of these sectors has its own set of challenges, the one being common to all is the need to preserve and conserve the procured data so that it can be accessed easily at any point in time with minimal effort. This paper aims to propose a virtual design concept for archaeologists and history buffs that allows the digital preservation of archaeological data with the help of emerging technologies.

68.1 Introduction Archaeology and anthropology is a colossal field that provides infinite opportunities to learn and comprehend the previous cultures and the reason behind the existence of life and livelihood. Gaining a past perspective would greatly help build and create a better future. Though there is a vast scope in this domain, individuals are less likely to opt for this field due to a lack of public interest, a lower pay scale, high involvement of health risks, the requirement of large amounts of funds and the need for immense S. Govindraj · P. Ranade (B) · T. Goswami Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Symbiosis Institute of Design, Pune, Maharashtra, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_68

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human resources, time and efforts. It is problematic to pinpoint and identify suitable locations for conducting an excavation, post-excavation processes that involves studying the gathered data are also tedious due to the absence of reliable methods for preserving, conserving, security and surveillance of the obtained artefacts, and no available means to revisit the sites virtually [1]. High-tech machines are required to do the same, and developing countries would find it difficult to make considerable investments in this domain. Another concern is that, after investing time and funds in abundance, the artefacts procured from excavations are illegally smuggled or destroyed as a result of natural disasters without any way of retrieving valuable information [2]. The emergence of mobile-based applications can help deal with some of the issues mentioned earlier.

68.2 Literature Review Emerging technologies such as augmented, virtual and mixed reality combined with IoT and artificial intelligence can be a boon to the archaeological industry. A mobile-based application can work phenomenally and solve some of the significant challenges experienced by archaeologists, such as: (a) Pinpointing location; (b) Field survey; (c) Conduction of the excavation; (d) Post-excavation analysis; and (e) Converting data in digital formats [3]. The literature review focuses on the various facets of archaeology and the different possibilities of technological advancements in this discipline.

68.2.1 Immersive Technologies in Archaeology Luca Andrea Constantine points out that work is being carried out on an application that aims at associating the details of history with an immersive experience based on the concept of augmented reality. It would work through a notion known as positioning or recognition of an image that would identify the object through AR. The end product would be in-depth information about the object along with an overall experience that is emotional and relatable to the users. The product would be a source of infotainment and entertainment for different user groups. It can be applied to various settings, such as at a museum, heritage village, or an excavation site, giving them the freedom to choose how they would like to consume data. It comprises two sets of features, one being static and the other being dynamic. The static aspect of it allows clicking of pictures, and users can post questions about the object; the application supports posting questions in the form of three-dimensional images, videos, or photos from the Internet. The system works in the following way. The app interactivity comes into force when the user contacts an archaeological site.

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They can access all kinds of data concerning that particular site/monument and an augmented version of that specific destination [4]. Nicholas claims that virtual reality also has numerous possibilities; something used only for gaming and leisure activities can significantly impact archaeology, especially in gaining public interest and funding. The fascinating experience of getting to explore and documenting the surrounding of excavation sites through 3D and 4D models is worthier than entering it in a file comprising of written text. VR can lead to significant advances in the scientific field, which would not only give a delightful experience to the user but could also be used for solving deep-rooted problems faced in this zone. Archaeology and anthropology are set for an enormous transformation in the future if invested in the right technology and teamwork [5].

68.2.2 Mixed Reality in Cultural Heritage and Archaeology Microsoft Hololens can detect the area of excavation/monument/artefact, analyse it and make information available to the user in three modes: video, text, audio-based information and post, which the user is asked to select and obtain the information. The following concept can be judged from two points of view, the hardware and the software. From the hardware perspective, the user is wearing the Hololens glasses, and with the MR application being viewed on the glasses, this has been made possible through machine learning. From the latter’s scenario, it is created through visuals that have been wholly designed through the UNITY software. The application of this product, other than the field of archaeology, can be utilised in the tourism sector to create an intelligent guide application since it deals with interactive elements as well as 3D modelling, providing a rich experience to the end-user [6].

68.2.3 Visualisation of Historical Heritage for Learning Purposes There are numerous ways of teaching learners about archaeology and cultural heritage. To ensure that it has the maximum impact and lasts long in the learner’s memory, a few methods have been suggested below: 1. Object annotation in the real world: This can be done by combining objects in real time with copies of texts/visuals. 2. Object-centred learning: This concept focuses on the object, making it the centre point for learning purposes, and it could be incorporated with augmented reality. 3. Learning using multimedia: A complete shift to AR with the help of video, audio and other interactions enabled in the learning process. 4. Vigorous tracking using sensors with cameras.

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5. A standard plan is implemented for different purposes, such as data analysis, structures, documentation and language marking. 6. Better user experience: Helping users identify their areas of interest instead of several sites being displayed to them. 7. Tangible AR: A real-time system that allows users to interact with objects. 8. Immersive VR experience: This gives users a fulfilling experience. 9. Multi-interactions: This concept is based on the multimodal principle in which more than one interface exists, and both work in harmony, given that many interactivity techniques exist [7].

68.2.4 An Overview of Existing Digital Applications Laia Pujol Tost reports that 3D COD is a digital solution that archaeologists can use mainly to develop 3D models [8]. Subarna Shakya explains the functioning of the EIN Scan Pro 3D software in terms of the restoration of artefacts virtually. (1) Artefacts selected for this experimentation should not have any limitations in colour, shape, size, etc. (2) Using the 3D scanner, the artefact needs to be scanned with a handheld device. (3) During the scanning process, there shouldn’t be any movements with the device to avoid distortions; the process would take around 10 to 15 min at most. (4) The 3D version of the artefact is created using computing based on the 2D images from different angles. (5) Missing sections in the artefact, if any, developed virtually using a flashlight. (6) The colour of the artefact is revived and restored using augmented reality [9].

68.2.5 Emerging Technologies in Underwater Archaeology Alexandra mentions that the photogrammetry technique is based on digital restoration or repatriation, which claims that the artefacts can be reproduced virtually and is gaining much importance in the archaeological sector. The digitally reproduced items can be shared with their source communities through a series of knowledge-sharing resources or networks and cultural heritage sites such as museums. The concept of 3D models is widely popular in archaeology, as it aims to share visually enriching information specific to time and has spatial properties as well. In comparison with hand-drawn material, 3D scanning is always preferred due to it being cost-efficient and a simple technology to use. The 3D outcome has an excellent level of scope. Still, making it work is tedious, time-consuming and requires a specialised group of training for its operation, which is why it is not commonly used in museums or heritage sites. Due to this, archaeologists tend to target specific and selected sets of

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items from the whole project rather than converting the entire project into virtual elements by implementing the photogrammetry technique [10]. Liao reports that UCH, which stands for Underwater Cultural Heritage, is a new sector emerging in this field of underwater archaeology; it helps by building systems that are based on artificial intelligence. ARVR can reach in-depth marine locations that cannot be accessed by humans physically. They also believe in sustainable ways of excavation that would lead to minimal site destruction. Also, there could be the use of robotics and IOT for a one-stop solution that allows the collective functioning of all activities in one single platform, from documentation to analysis to monitoring different tech-based systems [11].

68.3 Methodology The user-centric, double diamond design thinking process was followed, which consists of four phases that include research and discovery, defining the problem statement, ideation and design, followed by delivery of the prototype. The design thinking processes were thoroughly followed at every stage of proposing the concept. The initial step is a discovery comprised of primary and secondary research methods. The primary research was carried out through a questionnaire sent to respondents to understand their viewpoints and perspectives about the archaeology sector. The questions asked were open-ended, and a good amount of insights were gathered from this activity. The participants were either pursuing archaeology or practising it as a full-time profession. The literature review was conducted as a part of secondary research wherein a selected number of papers aligned with the concept and met the requirements were reviewed out of twenty-five papers. Later, the definition and ideation stages were implemented, wherein the existing technologies in this area were studied. In the define stage, common challenges were identified and reported by respondents who had participated in the primary research and insights gained from the literature review. The challenges common to both these stages were selected as the problem statement, which was further taken forward for the ideation and prototyping stages.

68.3.1 Primary Research-Understanding User Personas The users who were studied were primarily professional archaeologists or history enthusiasts. The problems faced by the archaeologists differed from that of history buffs. The former pointed out looting or illicit trafficking of artefacts, insufficient funds, lack of workforce and equipment, security and preservation of items, unpredictable climate, publicity, political strains, procedures to identify specimens, difficulty in pinpointing the right place to search as some of the major issues, whereas the latter mentioned, keeping a record of all their findings, unavailability of sources

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for the common public to review the results as matters of concern. Their goals and needs were to document the entire process to prevent data loss in the future, keep track of the current conditions and track the location of the valuables, a smooth procedure from start to end of the excavation as well as post the excavation. Some of their other demands were a repository that saves all the data for easy information retrieval. After learning about the user requirements, journey mappings were carried out to gain better insights.

68.3.2 Defining the Problem Based on the observation drawn from the personas and the scenarios, the defined problem states that there is an immense loss of precious information related to the artefacts caused by illicit trafficking and natural events, without anyway of retrieval, due to inadequate measures for preservation, conservation, maintaining of records and surveillance of data in archaeology. The need of the hour is to analyse this matter and ideate relevant digitised design concepts for the same.

68.4 Ideation and Conceptualisation The next stage after defining the problem was brainstorming and coming up with a list of features as a part of ideation. Points listed in the brainstorming and mind mapping are: user group, underwater archaeology, excavation types, tools and techniques, photogrammetry techniques, pain points, frustrations, positive points, user requirements, retrieving data of the findings, investigations, etc. In the next stage, the processes, such as open card sorting and prioritising tasks through metrics, helped create task flows and construct the Information Architecture (IA) diagram. IA was the backbone of the final design proposal, a mobile application.

68.5 Proposed Design Concept The proposed design concept is a mobile application meant exclusively for those with a background in archaeology and history. It is a VR-enabled mobile application that allows users to visit archaeological sites through digital preservation. Currently, using the photogrammetry technique in which ROV—remotely operated vehicles are sent out to places of extreme depths (which are behind the reach of humans) [12], images are captured, which are later converted into 3D models at the laboratory settings using high-tech computerised solutions [13]. The same concept can be applied to the proposed concept. Images captured using photogrammetry can be stored in the

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Fig. 68.1 Conceptual renderings for tracking artefacts using GPS to know their current location

application database to be viewed through virtual reality. Letting them track and locate artefacts, scan damaged artefacts to get a view of completed forms using AR, post queries and connect with other archaeologists in a community and a platform for raising funds for excavation-related activities. The design proposal would have different interfaces for its two user groups. Below is a detailed description of how it would function: a. Features Specific to Archaeologists Tracking artefacts using GPS, through the vehicle numbers, to check if they have reached the destination. Locating any artefact by entering its name, identifying its current location, and viewing it in VR. Adding new excavation sites and the latest updates about the ongoing in the archaeological field (Fig. 68.1). b. Features for Archaeologists and History Buffs It can visit the archaeological sites in real time using virtual reality. The latest updates and news related to excavations and archaeology are being made available. • Capturing the picture of a damaged artefact to get its completed view (Fig. 68.2). • A repository/a Q & A section to answer all your doubts or queries by other history enthusiasts. • Post-donation requirements for carrying out excavations and raise funds (Fig. 68.3). c. General requirements for the App users (1) A stable Internet connection; (2) Basic literacy skills; (3) A smartphone; (4) Virtual reality headsets; (5) VR hand controllers for management of movement and direction within the app.

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Fig. 68.2 Conceptual renderings for completing damaged artefacts through AR

Visiting a site through VR

Track / Locate an artifact in the museum.

Fig. 68.3 Visiting a site through VR and track/locate an artefact in the museum

68.6 Design Testing The summative testing method was applied for the design testing. The application prototype was tested with five users from different backgrounds, some being archaeologists or archaeology students and others being history enthusiasts or tutors. The SUS metrics were considered for testing purposes; the metrics comprise ten questions that aim to understand the level of ease of the application.

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Fig. 68.4 Sample of one of the SUS metric score cards with suggestions and feedback

68.6.1 Testing Criteria Eligibility

Any person who has basic literacy skills, and an interest in history and archaeology

Skills

Have an elementary level of technology-oriented knowledge

Prerequisites and tools

You should have a stable internet connection. Own a smartphone/desktop/tablet

68.6.2 Procedure Video-based testing. No prior training is required for the participants; they took part in the usability test through a questionnaire. The facilitator provided a brief to the participant and a video of the working prototype, which the user reviewed. Post reviewing, they answered a set of questions (Fig. 68.4).

68.7 Results and Discussion The results provided by the users during the testing phase were in favour of the proposed design concept. The average score of Systematic Usability Metrics secured was 80.5, which makes it fall under the A-range, thus validating the idea. The qualitative feedback provided by the users stated that it is a unique design concept, and they would prefer using it if it was developed for real. Some participants also

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Table 68.1 Table representing novelty, performance and applicability of design concept Novelty

Cost-effective learning tool for archaeology students, professionals, as well as history enthusiasts A responsive version can be made available for multiple devices

Performance

A mobile-based application that the users can easily download; novice users can learn through the instruction walkthrough

Applicability Education: Immersive technology can add fun and classrooms live Infotainment and Training Purposes: Educating a group of history enthusiasts in museums and other places of public interest about past historical events through tech can also be used for training beginners Researchers: For tracking and recording historical data, working in archaeology by focusing on capturing information visually and maintaining digitised records related to artefacts would be easier, more convenient, accessible and comprehendible

reported that a suitable application of this design concept would be classrooms, which can contribute significantly towards an immersive learning experience. It was also observed that those from an archaeology background had a higher rating than the other participants. One of the participants pointed out the need for technical assistance when using the application, especially for beginners who aren’t tech-savvy. Unique selling points of the proposed application are unlike the other existing design concepts available only to professionals in this field, this cost-effective mobile application aims to accommodate archaeology students, professionals and history enthusiasts. It can be incorporated by academic institutions and by archaeologists, anthropologists, geologists and historians for reviewing artefacts. The proposed design also has a future scope of being made responsive and accessible on multiple devices, which could exist in the form of mobile and web applications. Table 68.1 represents the proposed design concept’s novelty, performance and application.

68.8 Conclusion and Future Scope In conclusion, the proposed design concept will improve the archaeological sector. The main features offered in the application are (1) Enables revisiting of excavation sites through VR; (2) Provides a completed view of broken artefacts through AR; (3) Tracking of artefacts in real time when it is being transported from one place to another using GPS; (4) Training novice archaeologists and researchers; (5) Raise funds for excavations; (6) A repository/community for history enthusiasts. Apart from the field of archaeology, some of the other domains and industries, wherein this solution can be applied are education, infotainment, training purposes and research. The tool can be introduced as a supportive aid in the education sector, museums, public places, and historical events. Dull history classes could be fun and engage students through immersive technologies. It will help provide training for underwater

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archaeologists through VR before getting real-world experience to track and record historical data with a simplified process since it focuses on capturing information visually, maintaining digitised records related to artefacts would be more convenient, accessible and easier to comprehend.

References 1. Kintigh, K.W., Altschul, J.H., Beaudry, M.C., Drennan, R.D., Kinzig, A.P., Kohler, T.A., Limp, W.F., Maschner, H.D., Michener, W.K., Pauketat, T.R., Peregrine, P.: Grand challenges for archaeology. American Antiquity 79(1), 5–24 (2014) 2. Lothari, S.: Loss of cultural artefacts.In: Heritage Conservation in Postcolonial India: Approaches and Challenges, vol. 7 (2020) 3. Khelifi, A.L.: The archeology field in the mobile era: a roadmap to catch-up. Int. J. Interact. Mob. Technol. 12(1), 73–94 (2018) 4. Bernardini, A., Delogu, C., Pallotti, E., Costantini, L.: Living the past: augmented reality and archeology. In: IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo Workshops (2012) 5. Botto, A., Campanella, B.L.S., Lezzerini, M., Lorenzetti, G., Pagnotta, S., Palleschi, V.: Applications of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy in cultural heritage and archaeology: a critical review. J. Anal. Atomic S 34(1), 81–103 (2019) 6. Debandi, F.I.R., Messina, A., Montagnuolo, M., Manuri, F., Sanna, A., Zappia, D.: Enhancing cultural tourism by a mixed reality application for outdoor navigation and information browsing using immersive devices. In: IOP, in Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 7. Challenor, J., Ma, M.: A review of augmented reality applications for history education and heritage visualisation. Multimodal Technol. Interact. 3(2), 39 (2019) 8. Pujol-Tost, L.: A new methodology for the design of virtual reality-mediated experiences in digital archeology. Front. Digit. Human. 4(16) (2017) 9. Shakya, S.: Virtual restoration of damaged archeological artifacts obtained from expeditions using 3D visualization. J. Inno. Image Process. (JIIP) 1(02), 102–110 (2019) 10. DeHass, M.K.C., Taitt, A.: 3D technology in collaborative heritage preservation. Museum Anthropol. Rev. 12(2), 120 (2018) 11. Liao, V.T.C.: Marine spatial planning connects digital technology, excavation equipment with artificial intelligence. In: Internet of Things for underwater heritage investigation (2020) 12. Bass, G.F.V.D.F.H., Bryant, V.M.: “Yassi Ada,” Texas A & M University Press (1982) 13. Durisch, P.: Photogrammetry and computer graphics for visual impact analysis in architecture. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 29, 434–434 (1993)

Chapter 69

Enhancing the Perfume Buying User Experience Through AI and Machine Olfaction Pradnya Agarwal, Pranita Ranade , and Tanmoy Goswami

Abstract The lifestyle industry today is the heart of the supply chain evolution. One of the growing branches of lifestyle is purchasing scented products, especially perfumes. People are pleased by fragrances that provide calmness and rejuvenation. In aromatherapy, different aromas arouse different feelings in humans. This therapy helps to remember memories. It is observed that people are used to their body odour and are sometimes unable to notice the malodour smell from their bodies. When selecting a perfume, people also have many questions, such as how to get the right fragrance that suits one’s personality and whether the chemicals harm one’s skin. What will happen if one keeps smelling bad in a social environment? This research paper aims to study the effect of machine olfaction on modern lifestyle. It proposes a design solution using contemporary technologies for a practical perfume buying experience. The design thinking process is applied to present the new design proposal. The proposed concept has been taken through many stages, e.g. research, user study, ideation, conceptualisation, prototyping, final visual design and usability testing. The proposed futurist lifestyle design concept using AI, AR and odour monitoring systems will benefit people before they buy or apply perfume. The paper presents the design proposal for a mobile application with features such as an AR scan, AI quiz, odour and scan, which can be used before applying any perfume.

69.1 Introduction Olfaction means the ability of human beings to identify airborne molecules with sensitivity and understand the type of odour with the help of neurons. It is an ability and a critical role of the sensory system in perceiving various odours discrimination [1]. Perfume is a lifestyle product; in recent years, customers have been buying it on digital platforms. Perfume buying is a complex experience, as it involves aroma, P. Agarwal · P. Ranade (B) · T. Goswami Symbiosis Institute of Design, Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Pune, Maharashtra, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_69

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fragrances, evaporative qualities and various base materials, e.g. petroleum jelly. Many new technologies, such as artificial intelligence and augmented reality, are implemented in this sector. These recent trends have influenced many industries to change their working procedures to accommodate new technologies. The sector has grown significantly and is predicted to grow even more. Artificial intelligence is the parent of machine learning, and it helps in conceptualising unthought-of solutions from an extensive collection of information which in turn helps to come up with predictions. Personalised services result from an effective recommendation system. Recently, this mechanism has been used in identifying chemicals which are known as chemoinformatics. Such networks help analyse the chemical compositions and classify them into odorants and anti-odorants [2]. There are various upcoming possibilities in the field of AR. It has been used in entertainment, market and social media, and new usages are emerging. AR is predicted to increase its use in the coming time [3]. Machine olfaction means that technology can detect and classify odours and gases. It is also known as the electronic nose, which comprises a sensor and identifying area. This technology should not only identify but also emit odour. Such a system has two parts, one in which it senses smell and the other in which it emits odour [4]. The study shows that people are conscious towards cosmetic products and their ingredients. Such products are known as cruelty-free, and the opinions towards them depend upon the marketing of the product, its credibility, and personal attitude towards it [5]. Many people face difficulty in finding personalised fragrances and perfumes that will not only suit their personality but also make the entire process free of problems like the reduced sense of smell, etc. The awareness of the product’s composition is increased nowadays amongst consumers, making people more aware of how a particular perfume smell. All the above issues are discussed in the paper. This study helped determine how an effective system can resolve worries before buying perfume. The design thinking approach is implemented to propose a plan which will be helpful to perfume buyers.

69.2 Research and Design Methodology The user-centred design approach has been followed in several stages to propose the innovative design. The research stages include brainstorming, literature review, user study, user survey analysis, formulating contextual work models and competitor analysis. A detailed literature review has been conducted on different keywords, e.g. augmented reality, artificial intelligence, technology, machine olfaction, odour control, user experience, etc., through several online search tools, including Scopus, WoS, Google Scholar, Research Gate, etc. A combination of survey and contextual inquiry was conducted to gain essential insights about the user’s needs and uncertainties. The contextual inquiry was conducted at places across Pune city, India, with perfume enthusiasts to perceive better users’ desires and issues faced in the current context of the perfume buying experience. Later, through the user-centred design

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(UCD) method, an innovative design has been proposed in this paper. This proposal includes features such as AR scan, AI quiz, and odour scan.

69.3 Literature Review Numerous types of research are available in the sector of the perfume industry, and it shows how people have been attracted to fragrances and personalisation. Machine olfaction has been used in many industries and has several applications. A theoretical framework was formed using the design thinking approach. Through brainstorming, a detailed literature review was conducted on the selected domain to get information on various aspects of the current situation. The finding of the literature review has been discussed below:

69.3.1 Perfumes, People, Cultures and Trends Perfume has been worn and applied by people for thousands of years in many civilisations and has a long cultural history. In Egypt, mainly the use was for religious rituals. The essential ingredients for most perfumes are made from natural resources such as rose, rosemary, olive oil, aloe, sesame oil, and almond oil [6]. King has taken a historical overview of mediaeval Islamic perfume-related old scriptures and culture with the context of the perfume-making formulae, their medicinal properties and aromatherapy. Various ancient authors have mentioned that perfumes have been practised for therapeutic purposes. However, it could be dangerous for bodily conditions. Aromatherapy helps elicit different moods [7]. Pheromones, a chemical substance produced and released into the environment by a human being, help stimulate positive moods in women [8]. Apart from scented perfumes, other popular consumer products in recent times are air fresheners, cleaning and laundry products. The three-factor framework, which works on functional, emotional and in-user experience, is based on the basic principles of olfactory psychological science. Eventually, it helps users elevate their mood and the satisfying experience of completing work and increases confidence [9]. Perfumes and deodorants help in boosting confidence, enhance mood, trigger memories and make one feel attractive. It has many other health benefits by avoiding annoying body odour [10]. People are often pleased by fragrances that provide calmness and rejuvenation, intensifying the purchase of scented products like candles and perfumes. In aromatherapy, different aromas arouse different feelings in humans and can help one remember memories. Fragrances give people a sense of pleasantness. Such kinds of businesses are booming more than ever. Scents in hundreds of numbers have been added daily to attract such people. The future trends in fragrances depict that people will become more conscious about such things and start buying sustainable products. Natural products are being used in perfumes in many cases. People have started

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searching for more natural resources to create scents since many raw materials are reduced due to climate issues, lack of economical materials, etc. [5, 11–13].

69.3.2 Artificial Intelligence (AI), Augmented (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) Artificial intelligence is the parent of machine learning; it proposes unexpected solutions from an extensive collection of information, which helps recommend predictions. The system collects user data and then processes it using AI to produce results [2, 14]. There are a lot of upcoming possibilities in the field of AR. It has been extensively used in entertainment, market and social media, and new usages are emerging. AR is predicted to increase its use in the coming time [3]. People are often pleased by fragrances that provide calmness and rejuvenation, intensifying the purchase of scented products like candles and perfumes. In aromatherapy, different aromas arouse different feelings in humans and can help one remember memories. Fragrances give people a sense of pleasantness. Such kinds of businesses are booming more than ever. Scents in hundreds of numbers have been added daily to attract such people. The future trends in fragrances depict that people will become more conscious about such things and start buying sustainable products. Natural products are being used in perfumes in many cases. People have started searching for more natural resources to create scents since many raw materials are reduced due to climate issues, lack of economical materials, etc. [5, 11, 13].

69.3.3 Machine Olfaction and Sensing Applications Machine olfaction means that technology can detect and classify odours, gases, etc. A system with sense detection is also known as the electronic nose, which comprises a sensor and identifying area. This technology should not only identify but also emit odour. This machine has two parts, one in which it senses odour and the other in which it emits odour [4]. Different odours have a direct impact on the citizens. An apparatus that can keep checking the air odour levels and maintain quality will help make this impact helpful. Such a system can effectively check if there is any harmful substance and alert the system. It can also make differences between various sources and help make the environment pure. It can detect gases at low levels. The system which can emit good odours consists of a controller, blender and an app. The blender mixes 16 different odours to produce them. If there is any alarming situation, it provides two cues—visual and smell. Visual feedback shows the reasons for failure and provides a list of actions the user can take. Then, there will be smell feedback made of natural chemicals. Later, the user can adjust the situation through the device. The nose, headset and odour machine are all maintained in one device [4, 11, 14, 15].

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69.4 Research Methods 69.4.1 Primary User Research An online user study through a survey conducted with 45 samples, including young and older adults aged 18–64 years, to know the perception of people on perfume buying experience and their problems. The sample is of varying gender and educational backgrounds. The study found that: 1. 2. 3. 4.

47.1% of people (22 participants) find it challenging to get the right fragrance. 75% of people (34 people) did not come across any personalisation AI system. 52.6% of people (24 people) want a crucial solution to this problem. 52.2% of people are interested in the application, which can provide recommendations while buying perfume. 31.6% of people may use this application, and only 15.8% are not interested in using such an application.

69.4.2 Competitor Analysis Various competitors were studied to gain more evidence about currently available alternatives. Competitors from different sectors, such as odour testing and fragrance recommendations, were analysed. The data relating to its strengths, weaknesses and competitive advantages was formulated into a table. Table 69.1 represents the data collected and analysed.

69.4.3 Contextual Enquiry A contextual inquiry was conducted to understand the consumers and their needs while buying perfume and being aware of its composition of contents. It helped to discover real-life problems people faced, their needs, behaviours, goals and frustrations while buying perfumes. The study’s objective was to observe users in their natural environment and record the observations. After interacting with the users, a design thinking method was employed to understand the customer’s behaviour towards the proposed design. The formulated design thinking process involves; brainstorming, mind-mapping, persona development, task prioritisation, various task flows, card sorting, information architecture, navigation system, etc. Based on the result, different system contextual models, e.g. the flow model, contextual model and sequence model, were developed. Figure 69.1, a flow model of a personal fragrance assistant, represents the interaction and communication between users in their context. It helped in knowing the requirements of users. The sequential model in Fig. 69.2 shows the sequence of the steps followed and the associated frustration points.

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Table 69.1 Competitor analysis of perfume buying platforms Perfume buying platforms Perfumist

Smelly

U smell it

Home smell test

Nose (beta) Nivea men

Mobile app designed to rank a selection of the perfumes you are mkst likely to favor with an ever growing database of almost 50 k perfumes

Helps to identify and report foul smell in the communities

Test your smell abilities

Smell efficiency testing

Special sensors on a custom phone cover, to determine if you smell okay, bad or have a body odour emergency on your hands

Target audience

Every perfume lover

Alert citizens People Health Odour experience enthusiasts conscious temporary loss of smell

Strengths

Personal recommendations, large database, accurate prediction

Responsible environment reports, statistics

Comes with physical cards, helpful in smell loss

Available as physical cards and a variety to choose

Easy to handle sensors, odour prediction

Weaknesses Very old UI, bit complicated

Not able to understand smell nomenclature

Only useful if you buy the cards

Only useful if you buy the cards

Phone cover can be easily changed

Features

Check stats and reports of your community, submit a report

Scratch cards, smell it and select on the app, scan QR on the card

Scan QR of card, then select fragrance and test

Sesnsor will smell, predict and be helpful

Criteria for About comparison

Filter through notes, custom filter-based recommendation, top brands

Based on these insights, a complete perfume assistant system has been proposed for perfume buying. This system is explained in detail in other sections of this paper.

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Fig. 69.1 Flow model of personal fragrance assistant

69.5 Conceptualisation, Ideation and Design Methodology To provide personalised odour recommendations, the following features are suggested; • AI quiz; • AR scanning to know the chemical composition of the product; • Odour sensing device to monitor the odour with results displayed in the application; • Community discussion section in the application. Three frameworks with different working models proposed for an effective fragrance system are as follows: a. Enabled with Artificial Intelligence (AI) It comprises an input data creation block, AI processor block, output result block, in-app storage and data retrieval block (Table 69.2).

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Fig. 69.2 Sequence model of personal fragrance assistant

Table 69.2 Model enabled with artificial intelligence—fragrance recommendation system Input Block data creaƟon • Users answer quesƟons related to their perfume preference

AI based interpretaƟon and processor block

• AI-based system interprets and nalyses the answers

Output Block Results • The most compaƟble perfumes are suggested to users

In-App storage

• The preference s are stored in the app

Data Retrieval Block • The results can be accessed by the users later in app.

b. Augmented Reality (AR) It comprises an input data creation block, an AI processor block, an output result block, AR input block scanner, a data analyser block, in-app data retrieval and an output results block (Table 69.3). c. Sensor Based Technology for Odour Monitoring It comprises a sensor odour detection block, data interpretation and processor block, app-based feedback block and in-app data storage block (Table 69.4).

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Table 69.3 Model enabled with augmented reality - scanner system Input Block AR Scanner

Data Analyzer Block

In app data retrieval block

Output- results block

• Users scan the perfume boƩles using in app AR Scanner

• The AR system analyzes the names of the chemicals in the composiƟon

• The results are shown in the app, comparing how harmful they are for skin

• The results are stored and can be accessed by the users

Table 69.4 Model enabled with sensor based technology for odour monitoring Sensor Odour DetecƟon Block • The wearable worn will detect foul odour from the body

Data InterpretaƟon and Processor Block • The data detected by the sensor will be analyzed and processed

App-based Feedback Block

In-app Data Storage Block

• The alert will be prompted to the user on the app

• The scan reports will be saved on it for further referral

69.6 Usability Testing Visual screens have been designed for each task to provide a natural feeling for different use cases. As per the UCD method to evaluate the proposed design solution, the high-fidelity prototype has been tested with the prospective users. There were several use cases of the proposed system like AR scanner for searching or metadata, community discussion forum, AI-enabled quiz for personalisation, odour monitoring and scan. All the proposed features have been tested using usability testing to know users’ reactions to high-fidelity prototypes. The task was explained to the users before they proceeded with the testing. The following figures show the result of SUS testing. Table 69.5 gives that the scores of each user were calculated using the SUS formula. Later, the average of all the scores was taken out.

69.7 Discussion The literature review helped understand the current developments of AI technology in machine olfaction. However, no application is seen in the perfume industry. People often face many difficulties during the perfume buying experience. Such problems can be resolved through contemporary solutions. User survey provided the scope to develop the personal fragrance system as around 47.1% of the sample population find difficulties in choosing the correct fragrance, and 52.6% of the sample size is

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Table 69.5 System usability testing scores and average System usability questionnaire User 1

User 2

User 3

User 4

User 5

User 6

User 7

Uses app frequently

4

5

5

4

5

3

5

Found app complex

2

1

1

1

2

1

1

App was easy to use

5

4

5

4

5

5

5

Need of assistance

2

3

1

2

3

1

1

Well integrated

4

2

4

3

4

5

4

Inconsistency

1

1

2

2

3

2

1

Learn to use quickly

4

4

3

4

5

5

3

Cumbersome to use

2

1

1

2

1

1

1

Confidence while using

4

3

5

4

3

5

4

Learn things before

3

4

2

1

1

1

1

System usability score Participant

Score

User 1

75

User 2

72.5

User 3

77.5

User 4

80

User 5

82.5

User 6

90

User 7

90

interested in the robust solution. 75% sample size has never been exposed to the AIbased personalised option for choosing perfume fragrance. Hence, it was established that there is a scope to develop a system which will cater to the need for a personal fragrance system. Competitor analysis gave insights into how various applications are already established with sensor-based technology for odour scanning, QR code scanning, etc. The proposed solution considered all the strengths and suggested combined features in the 3 model system. Contextual inquiry helped in understanding users in their natural context and real-life data. It helped in making the work models. The models were used to comprehend the relationship between different stakeholders. It also analysed other triggers and frustration points. The score of usability testing, i.e. System Usability Scale average score, falls into the A category since it is 80.3 and higher. This indicated that people loved the solution and would recommend it to others. Most of them found it to be user-friendly. The SUS score also shows that the system is efficient in terms of usability, navigation and ease of use. The design thinking approach, including contextual enquiry, helped in knowing the consumer’s problems while buying fragrances and being aware of their composition. Based on these insights, a complete perfume assistant system has been proposed to solve all odour-related problems. The problem statement was formulated after detailed

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secondary and primary research. The designs were tested with users, showing that people liked the solution.

69.8 Conclusion Products with fragrance are a normal part of our life; from toiletries to cosmetics, they all contain it. People are a lot pleased with aromas that provide calmness and rejuvenation. Different scent arouses different feelings in us and can help us remember memories. However, consumers find difficulties while buying perfume which can elevate their mood or suit their skin. The proposed app combines different methods using technologies such as AI and AR. Firstly, the app presents users with a questionnaire requesting users relate their perfume and fragrance-related preference. The AI system analyses these answers and suggests users with the most matched aroma available to their personality. The second part presents users with the option to scan their perfume bottles using an in-app AR scanner. The customer can check the perfume bottle label using the in-built scanner in the application. Later, the system will analyse the ingredients of it and suggest which chemicals are harmful to their skin. The third part of the app is the odour sensor. For this, the user will have to wear a wearable band with an odour sensor. If the sensor detector senses any foul odour (which can be from their own body), it can analyse the data and provide alerts on the app saying that you need to use perfume. The colossal help of AI for the recommendation of fragrances and the ability to analyse the product composition and monitor odour at every point in time will help people live a more confident life. It will be beneficial for futurist lifestyle changes.

References 1. East, B.S., Wilson, D.A.: Olfaction. Wiley Online Library (2020) 2. Gupta, R.: OdoriFy: a conglomerate of Artificial Intelligence-driven prediction engines for olfactory decoding. J. Biol. Chem. (2021) 3. Omar, A.: Rise of augmented reality: current and future application areas (2013) 4. Wen, T.: Development of a piezoelectric-based odor (2019) 5. Grappe, C.: Not tested on animals: how consumers react to cruelty-free cosmetics proposed by manufacturers and retailers? (2021) 6. Chaudhri, S.K., Jain, N.K.: History of cosmetics. Asian J. Pharmaceutics, 164–167, July– September (2009) 7. King.: Medieval islamicate aromatherapy: medical perspectives on aromatics and perfumes. The Senses Soc. 17(1) (2022) 8. “Pheromones and their effect on women’s mood and sexuality,” Facts, Views and Vision in ObGyn. 5(3), 189–195 (2013) 9. Herz, R.S., Larsson, M., Trujillo, R., Casola, M.C., Ahmed, F.K., Lipe, S., Brashear, M.E.: A three-factor benefits framework for understanding consumer preference for scented household products: psychological interactions and implications for future development. Cogn. Res.: Principles Implications 7(1), 1–20 (2022)

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10. “Perfumes.com.ph,” [Online]. Available: https://www.perfumes.com.ph/blogs/news/10-greatbenefits-of-using-perfume [Accessed 23 Oct 2022] 11. Kenneth, S.: Temporal responses of chemically diverse sensor arrays for machine olfaction using artificial intelligence (2019) 12. Narula, A.P.: Fragrance and attraction. In: Sex, smoke, and spirits: the role of chemistry. American Chemical Society, pp. 1–16 (2019) 13. Bicchi, C., Chaintreau, A., Joulain, D.: Identification of flavour and fragrance constituents. Flavour Fragrance J. 33(3), 201–202 (2018) 14. Wang, J.: A conceptual design for smell based augmented reality: case study in maintenance diagnosis, pp. 109–114 (2018) 15. Das, Z., Rai, H., Ghosh, S., Das, S., Goswami, D., Neogi, B.: Virtually essence effect creator prototype development effort-a case study. J. Mech. Continua Mathe. Sci. 13(1), 66–83 (2018)

Chapter 70

E-commerce Platform for Sustainable Thrift Fashion Industry Powered by Blockchain Technology Senorita Dev, Tanmoy Goswami , and Pranita Ranade

Abstract The fashion industry is a massive industry whose impact on the environment and economy cannot be understated. ‘Fast Fashion’ endeavors to make trendy and good quality garments increasingly available to the masses. Currently, textile production and agricultural production are the top freshwater-polluting industries. It is high time to give serious consideration to the future of the fashion industry going forward and hold the various stakeholders accountable in order to ensure that fashion is sustainable. There is a shift happening in the consumer base as people are becoming aware of their contribution to the environment and society. There is an increase in demand for use in high-cost garments at discounted prices resulting in a boom in thrift fashion culture. Eventually, it supports sustainability in the fashion industry. The study aimed to gain insight into the existing fashion supply chain and measures to make it more sustainable. The user-centric design process has been followed to propose a design solution. In this paper, various solutions like a blockchain-powered tracking and green rating system for brands, and a circular fashion-driven digital platform for educating and allowing consumers to access more sustainable clothing options are proposed. Accessible sustainable fashion doesn’t have to be a choice only for the rich few, but a choice that millions of common buyers can make a part of their daily lives.

70.1 Introduction The industrial revolution specifically in fashion mass manufacturing brought many environmental issues along with it. At the heart of this issue, lies a fragmented supply chain and consumers who are not aware of the process that converts the raw S. Dev · T. Goswami · P. Ranade (B) Symbiosis Institute of Design, Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Pune, Maharashtra, India e-mail: [email protected] T. Goswami e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_70

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materials to garments, that make their way to the retailers and finally into the hands of the customers. Most fashion brands do not own a manufacturing facility, instead, their manufacturing units were set up all around the world and employ thousands of people. According to a 2016 report, the popular fashion brand H&M has an estimated one million supply chain workers, employed by approximately 820 suppliers and 1900 factories. [1]. One can say that the decreasing costs of garments are incurring increasing social costs characterized by environmental pollution, labor exploitation, health hazards, etc. [2]. The countless workers involved in the supply chain are subjected to the horrors of exploitation owing to the fragmented supply chain that inhibits any kind of transparency, in addition to holding brands responsible. Often children and women were the ones involved in the workforce, exposed to harsh working conditions and heavy chemicals, poorly equipped, and working in unsafe environments. However, as the supply chains were almost impossible to trace, it is hard not only to verify that child labor is not being carried out but also if the sourcing country is able to meet the minimal requirements for a living wage [1]. Fast fashion is accompanied by increased waste. Since fast fashion introduces new designs very frequently, the low production time is compensated by low quality, leading to a lot of garments ending up in landfills. Textile mills also release a high concentration of pollutants. The industry creates a large amount of wastewater, which if not treated properly, can cause severe damage to the environment. The dyes used can be hazardous both toward the workers as well as the environment as various toxic heavy metals like chrome, zinc, copper, etc., were involved in the process. These substances are carcinogenic in nature [3]. There is also the issue of stolen designs that occur because tracking is a serious issue in the fashion supply chain. Many are not aware of the various malpractices involved in the production or aren’t able to access the more sustainable alternatives. Hence, it is important to educate people regarding the same and provide them a platform where they can easily gain access to more sustainable fashion like circular fashion (e.g., thrift shopping). In this paper, an application-based design solution has been proposed through user-centered design method which can assure transparency using contemporary technology as the blockchain that would deal with all the abovementioned issues in the current fashion industry.

70.2 Methodology User-centered design method has been followed to propose the design solution. To gain a deeper insight of the subject matter, a literature review was conducted. Relevant research papers related to the topic were then selected for the review process. Following the literature review, both telephonic and in-person interviews were conducted to gain a better understanding of the issues and user needs. The information gathered in the research phase later formed the basis of the user-centered

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design approach to the conceptualized and making high-fidelity mock-up for the final proposed design solution.

70.3 Literature Review To conduct the literature review phase, a thorough brainstorming and a detailed mind map have been prepared. According to the mind map, using further LR had been conducted. A literature review was conducted with the help of keywords related to fast fashion, sustainable fashion, fashion supply chain, environmental impacts of the fashion industry, thrift shopping, counterfeit outfits, and blockchain technology. These searches were carried out through different search engines (e.g., Google Scholar and IEEE Explore). Relevant research papers related to the topic were then selected for the review process. The findings from the literature review are discussed below.

70.3.1 Rise of Fast and Vintage Fashion In the fashion industry, consumer spending is an important vertical in the fashion product range. Two different types of models emerged from the decline in the real income of the customer that led to a reduction in consumer spending. As a result, there was an increasing demand for affordable yet quality products. These two models are fast fashion and vintage fashion. Fast fashion was characterized by large companies manufacturing trendy outfits that were both affordable and of good quality. The outfits lasted for one season and catered to a wide audience. Reduced production costs helped fast fashion maintain a level of quality but also made the garments cheaper for the end user. Vintage fashion on the other hand was characterized by medium-quality outfits that were not associated with any seasonal trends. For vintage fashion enthusiasts, it was the quality of the materials and the packaging that was very important. As one can see, the nostalgic feelings for the past, the desire to be unique (individuality) and have outfits that can last for years, and the growing concern for the environment (sustainability) were the driving force for the demand for vintage fashion. Vintage fashion was after all rooted in repair, reuse, and recycle [4].

70.3.2 Emotional Association with Ethical Fashion There are a deeper connection one shares with ethical fashion that goes beyond just affordability. Status, a sense of belonging, and self-esteem are also noticed to be linked with ethical and sustainable fashion consumption. Sustainable options, however, contribute to both personal satisfaction as well as social responsibility. The

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current marketing message to consumers focuses more on appearance and is very pro-self in nature; thus, there is a need for the marketing message to encourage people to opt for more sustainable choices. Consumers do not have a clear idea about the various processes involved in fashion production as well, especially because most production is based in developing countries. There is a disconnect between the customers and the plight of the faceless workers involved in the supply chain, dehumanizing their experiences. Brands are hence not held accountable. Western consumers struggle to relate to the experiences of the workers or understand if the salary being paid to them is appropriate. It is also seen that they are not very serious about the threat of climate change since the detrimental consequences seem to occur far into the future. The responsibility to change doesn’t lie solely on the shoulders of the customers because there is only so much, they can do while using a mainstream market when only some high street brands make minimum efforts to address sustainability, and their only other choice is sustainable brands that are more expensive and harder to access [5].

70.3.3 Transparency in the Fashion Industry Global Reporting Initiative has established guidelines for companies to disclose their sustainability status. GRI guidelines also specify KPIs like raw material sourcing, waste and chemical management, carbon emissions, etc., that need to be measured and disclosed to the public. Disclosure of this information is crucial, especially in the case of labor rights as worker exploitation is so rampant in the fashion industry. Some companies are using blockchain and RFID technology to enhance the transparency of their supply chains. However, non-transparent policies are still used by many for a competitive edge. Transparency is the need of the hour. It establishes trust in the buyers and helps them compare and make well-informed purchases [6].

70.3.4 What is Blockchain Technology? Blockchain is a distributed ledger that is shared and agreed upon by a peer-topeer network. Each record of the data gets stored in blocks on every participant’s node. The blocks correspond with a timestamped record that is verified and secured. Blockchains do not operate under a central entity, and the provenance information can be traced across time. It allows information like the location and status of the product to be available to all the stakeholders in real time. This allows for efficient tracking of products and establishes transparency in the supply chain [7].

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70.3.5 How Blockchain Can Fight Counterfeiting? Luxury items are one of the most popular targets for counterfeiting. There are several anti-counterfeiting measures that are based on four different attributes: • • • •

That the item is not easy to duplicate Easy identification The item is visible without the need for special equipment Complexity of reuse.

BCT makes it possible for all stages of production and commercialization to be tracked, starting from the procurement of raw materials to the manufacture of the final product [8]. High energy consumption is one of the major drawbacks of blockchain. There are concerns if this can be a sustainable choice in the long run. Incorporating this system also requires a substantial amount of capital. Since this is a work in progress, it can be predicted that new upgrades to this technology would be more affordable and sustainable in the future [9].

70.4 Emphasize Phase and User Research In this phase, several primary research approaches have been taken to understand user needs. After LR, initially, 6 telephonic interviews were performed to get a better insight into consumers’ interest in the existing circular fashion options like thrift shopping and the condition of such businesses in India. For the purpose of the interview, 3 thrift fashion enthusiasts and 3 thrift fashion stores were contacted. Insights gathered from the interview are as follows: • All of the users used Instagram as a buying and selling platform for thrift shopping. The buyers were fine with the concept of lending clothes and renting outfits; however, personally, they would prefer buying the outfits, second-hand or not, and not renting it because they were hesitant about careful handling. • The urgency of the need was an important factor driving a buyer’s decision to opt for new or counterfeit outfits compared to sustainably sourced outfits as the former was more easily available. • The buyers do not check if a thrifted outfit is from a real brand or if it is a counterfeit. Sustainability, variety and affordability were the most important reasons that motivated them to try thrift shopping. • The buyers commented that some of the problems they faced while thrift shopping online were the items getting sold out quickly; sometimes the fitting isn’t right, the style looking much better on the model than in person and the items being unreturnable. • The sellers commented that there was a rise in thrift stores in India, especially after covid hit. With so many people forced to stay at home, they looked for alternate ways of making money.

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• Shop owners source their products from flea markets. Most of the items that come to the flea markets in India are factory surplus with minor defects and second-hand clothes from both domestically and abroad. While Indians normally do not sell their second-hand clothes, choosing to donate it to family and house helpers, they are slowly warming up to the idea. • There are however cases where certain stores buy new good quality clothes from sales and sell their ware at the original price. • Most sellers plan their launch according to their own sense of esthetics and the demand for a particular style. • Thrift shops generally have a very small team and are involved in the entire process from research, sourcing, sanitization, taking product photographs, marketing and delivery. Sometimes they face storage issues with their inventory as most of them work from their homes. • An Instagram algorithm is also an issue the thrift stores struggle with. • Customers are interested in knowing the history behind the outfits and do ask questions about the sanitization of the product. • The thrift stores strive to provide quality accessible outfits to consumers at affordable pricing. In order to collect some quantitative data regarding the general consumer outlook toward thrift shopping, counterfeits and sustainable fashion, a survey was sent to 49 respondents, and their answers were collected. Insight of the survey has been discussed below: • 36.7% of consumers had outfits that they never wore more than once. Most people did their thrift shopping online. • When asked if the consumers bought second-hand outfits/outfits with minor factory defects, 32.7% said yes, 22.4% said no, and 32.7% said no but, they were interested. • The reasons stated by the thrift shoppers for purchasing such items were sustainability (67.6%), affordability (82.4%), uniqueness (23.5%), variety (47.1%), availability (23.5%), quality (38.2%), guilt-free experience (32.4%), minor defect (2.9%), and packaging (2.9%). • The main reasons stated for not opting for thrifted outfits were uncertainty regarding the quality (58.3%), unavailability (45.8%), concerns regarding hygiene (41.7%), and price (16.75). 8.3% of consumers also stated that it was an embarrassing choice. • When asked if they were to buy an outfit from a popular brand, 49% of consumers stated that they would buy a new piece, 20% stated that they would rent the piece, and 30.6% stated that they would buy a second-hand or defective piece. • 98% of consumers would like to know where their outfit was being sourced from. Problems faced by consumers while buying thrifted outfits were unawareness that such options exist in India, inability to locate thrift stores nearby, items getting sold out too fast, and not enough size options being available.

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Fig. 70.1 Flow model of the fast fashion supply chain

70.4.1 Contextual Enquiry One has to study the existing fashion supply chain to understand its issues. A flow model was created from the insights gained and establishes the relationships between the various participants in this context (Fig. 70.1).

70.5 Conceptualization and Design Solution From the above research, it was identified that the lack of transparency in the fashion supply chain leads to many ethical, social, and ecological problems. Many consumers are not aware of the various processes involved in the production of their garments and their subsequent consequences like worker exploitation, global warming, and the impact of counterfeits. Consumers who are aware of the severity of this issue are also common buyers who don’t often have access to sustainable alternatives at an affordable price. Hence, the need arises for transparency in the fashion supply chain to account for each transaction. This could be used to hold brands accountable by rating them on the sustainability of their supply chain. An informative platform is also required that can educate the consumers about the malpractices in the fashion industry and make sustainable fashion more accessible to them. Indian consumers are turning toward thrift fashion for being a sustainable and affordable alternative. However, there is still

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a question of trust that we found while conducting user studies. The aim is to build trust in the consumers toward sustainable fashion with the help of new technology like blockchain. The idea proposed is a blockchain-powered tracking system that stores the details of each transaction in the supply chain and helps users differentiate between real and fake products by scanning the QR code tag attached to the item. Based on the data gathered from blockchain technology, brands can be given a green rating that would not only hold them accountable but also help consumers make more sustainable choices. An e-commerce mobile application would work in tandem with this solution, providing a place for buyers and sellers to exchange new and secondhand garments (Fig. 70.2). To educate the consumers about the various malpractices in the fashion industry, educational content in the form of articles and quizzes would be provided. Passing a quiz would generate points that can be converted into discounts for shopping. Such gamified features engage the user to the platform. The worker’s first name would be mentioned to generate familiarity and empathy in consumers toward them. At the end of the purchase, an e-receipt would be provided to tell the buyer how much resources they have saved with their purchase. To enhance the user’s experience of the platform, the personalization features can be designed where consumers can also customize the feed according to their style, measurements, and other preferences. This would reduce the problem of wrong sizes and uninteresting styles for a particular buyer. Notifications can reduce the chances of missing a sale as well. Besides this, ratings would be provided for product quality and sanitization to reassure the buyers (Fig. 70.2). Consumers would also be able to find nearby thrift stores and track the product (Fig. 70.2).

70.6 Usability Testing After designing the high-fidelity prototype, a test plan was devised with the purpose to evaluate the usability of the proposed design solution. Remote user testing was then conducted in a moderate manner. The prior screening was performed to screen out participants who were not interested in thrift shopping. Upon completing the screening, 6 out of the 10 participants approached were selected. The task tested was to track the source of the various components used in a garment. The test evaluation included user reviews and a satisfaction questionnaire. The results showed (in Fig. 70.3) that all the users were able to complete the task with an efficiency of 100% and rated the system with a satisfactory rating of 90.2 (> standard 80.3) implying that the system performed well in their expectations.

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Fig. 70.2 i Mobile platform for sustainable fashion e-commerce and educational content, ii, iii Ratings for quality and sanitization to assure the buyers, Product tracking powered by blockchain technology, respectively

70.7 Conclusion and Future Scope The study aimed to gain insight into the existing fashion supply chain and measures to make it more sustainable. It was found that due to the fragmented and opaque nature of the supply chain, coupled with the rise in fast fashion and lack of consumer awareness led to severe societal and ecological damage, pollution, worker exploitation, and counterfeits to name a few. The proposed design solution aims to make the supply chain more transparent and organized with the help of blockchain technology, so brands can be held responsible as well as educate consumers to make more sustainable choices. There was a limitation to this study as the prototype was tested with a small user group of expert users for now. The future scope of the proposed design solution can be tested with a larger sample size in the future which would help get more end-user insight.

Fig. 70.3 SUS result summary

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References 1. Jestratijevic, I., Rudd, N.A., Uanhoro, J.: Transparency of sustainability disclosures among luxury and mass-market fashion brands. J. Glob. Fash. Market. 11(2), 99–116 (2020) 2. Anguelov, N.: The dirty side of the garment industry: fast fashion and its negative impact on environment and society. CRC Press (2015) 3. Mukherjee, S.: Environmental and social impact of fashion: towards an eco-friendly, ethical fashion. Int. J. Interdiscip. Multidiscip. Stud. 2(3), 22–35 (2015) 4. Meraviglia, L.: From fast fashion to fashion vintage. Global Fashion 2014 (2014) 5. Ritch, E.L.: Socially responsible fashion practice: looking good and feeling good. In: Transitioning to Responsible Consumption and Production, 59 (2020) 6. Jestratijevic, I., Uanhoro, J.O., Creighton, R.: To disclose or not to disclose? Fashion brands’ strategies for transparency in sustainability reporting. J. Fash. Mark. Manage.: Int. J. 26(1), 36–50 (2021) 7. Blossey, G., Eisenhardt, J., Hahn, G.: Blockchain technology in supply chain management: an application perspective (2019) 8. de Boissieu, E., Kondrateva, G., Baudier, P., Ammi, C.: The use of blockchain in the luxury industry: supply chains and traceability of goods (2021) 9. Golosova, J., Romanovs, A.: The advantages and disadvantages of the blockchain technology. In: 2018 IEEE 6th workshop on advances in information, electronic and electrical engineering (AIEEE), pp. 1–6. IEEE (2018, November)

Chapter 71

Real-Time Digital Ecosystem for Effective Blood Bank Supply Chain Management in India Senorita Dev, Tanmoy Goswami , and Pranita Ranade

Abstract Healthcare technology has seen many advancements in the recent past, though there have not been any alternatives for blood transfusion. Blood transfusion services are invaluable to modern healthcare, saving many lives each year. From Thalassemia patients, patients with terminal illnesses like cancer and people suffering from shock or anaemia, blood transfusion is an essential part of their treatment. The task of providing blood to hospitals and patients lies in the hands of the blood banks in India. However, India as a nation faces a severe shortage of life-saving blood for transfusion, and available blood banks in India are not able to meet 100% of the demand. A deeper look into this shortage highlights the need for donor awareness and proper inventory management in blood banks. Blood being a perishable item requires proper monitoring. Donor awareness is also an essential step for tackling the issue of blood shortage. In this paper, a blood bank ecosystem powered by AR, AI, and IoT technology has been proposed to increase the efficiency of the blood supply chain. The proposed automated management system would be able to monitor the inventory in real time with the help of smart labelling, IoT sensors, and AI. The proposed system using AI would also communicate the requests for blood to the nearest donors or blood bank services in case of any predicted shortage. It would make it possible for patients to receive timely treatment as well as reduce blood wastage. Interactive advertisements could inform people about the need for blood in their area as well as provide facts that tackle fake news.

71.1 Introduction The blood supply chain consists of a complex set of steps. It begins with the step when the donor is selected. Once the donor is deemed eligible after thorough checking of their medical history, preparations for collecting blood are made. This is followed S. Dev · T. Goswami (B) · P. Ranade Symbiosis Institute of Design, Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Pune, Maharashtra, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_71

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by the internal assessment of blood where blood is tested for various diseases (e.g. Hepatitis, Malaria, TB, AIDS etc.). A health report card is then sent to the donor. Blood is then segregated into components and sent to hospitals and healthcare facilities [1]. Since a number of steps are involved, there is a high chance of errors. The entire process starting from collection and testing to transfusion is maintained in various records that are very cumbersome to manage, especially when tackling large amounts of data from a big blood bank. Although many blood banks do have a management system, physical records are still maintained simultaneously, if not more regularly than their digital counterparts. This can cause issues as real-time data regarding stocks would not be available. It is also noticed that there is a need for automating a major part of the data entry process and also to provide adequate training to operate the management system. There are millions of people who suffer because of the lack of timely access to safe blood. Fewer people have access to safe blood in developing countries, compared to developed ones. Measures should be taken to ensure that the blood used for transfusion is safe, in order to prevent transmission of severe diseases like HIV, Hepatitis, and various blood-borne pathogens. Ensuring the safety of the blood is as important as the timely availability of blood. Thorough screening of donors is hence a necessity. There are various stakeholders involved in the blood supply chain, mainly the blood banks, donors, hospitals, educational institutes, the government, and other organizations. Their collaboration is the key to the smooth functioning of the blood supply chain so the patients can get blood when they require it [2]. Another issue that contributes to the shortage of blood in blood banks is that a smaller number of people are donating blood. Since the major share of blood donated comes from voluntary donors, it is very crucial to look into their concerns and find the cause of their hesitance.

71.2 Literature Review To conduct the literature review phase, a thorough brainstorming and a detailed mind map have been prepared. According to the mind map using different keywords related to blood banks, blood donation, AR/VR in healthcare sector, and IoT have been searched through different search engines (e.g. Google Scholar). Relevant research papers related to the topic were then selected for the review process. It provided more insight about the shortage of blood in India, condition of Indian blood banks, as well as donors. The findings from the literature review are discussed below:

71.2.1 Blood Shortage in India Researchers, Vikas Babita and Jyotiranjan, presented the case of maternal deaths in India to showcase that one of the main causes of maternal deaths is post-partum

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haemorrhage and severe anaemia. Blood transfusion is very essential for treating this issue. However, due to the lack of availability of safe blood on time, complications result in fatalities. The situation is worse in the rural areas as compared to urban areas. In India, currently, one-third of maternal deaths occur due to this reason. These deaths could be reduced by simply providing safe blood on time to such patients. Poor management also causes blood wastage, with a minimum of 28 lakhs units of blood being wasted in the last few years. Another important issue is the improper management of records in blood banks [3]. India’s National Haemovigilance Programme is only affiliated with a few blood banks; hence, there is not enough data to show the adverse reactions following blood transfusion. This programme is responsible for monitoring the blood supply chain. 206 centres including hospitals, medical colleges, and blood transfusion centres have been enrolled under this programme. 2296 transfusion reactions have been received by NCC. India’s blood banks are in need of a robust reporting and information system [3]. India is currently inadequate in meeting the demands of the citizens. The annual demand for blood in India is 12 million units, but only 9 million units are available to meet that requirement. That only fills 75% of the requirement. Most of these donations are done voluntarily. Indian Red Cross Society is the largest organization in India with 166 blood banks. It is mostly made up of voluntary contributions (more than 90%) [1].

71.2.2 Reluctance in Donating Blood There are many factors that affect a person’s decision of donating blood• Fear of needles, blood, and contracting diseases or infections (e.g. human immunodeficiency virus HIV) • Limited opportunities to donate • Blood centres are not accessible • A decline in work-site blood drives • Medical issues • Assumptions that temporary ailments like low haemoglobin and haematocrit can cause permanent inability to donate blood. Most people think that if they feel the need to donate blood and the opportunity is one of convenience, they would certainly choose to do so [4].

71.2.3 Donors’ Attitude Towards Incentives The difference in the number of blood requests and the number of voluntary donors is still a concern. Hence, strategies like offering incentives to prospective and lapsed donors have been discussed for a whilst. Whilst blood donation is considered an

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altruistic endeavour and incentives are normally frowned upon, blood banks using incentives to attract donors are not something unheard of. One example of this is the American Red Cross’ 2008 campaign, “Give a Little, Buy a Lot.” In the said campaign, the donors were offered a chance to win a $1000 gift card for shopping. In the case of the United States, incentives like t-shirts, event tickets, and lottery tickets for expensive items are normally offered by many blood banks. Scholars still argue that monetary incentives discourage regular donors as it shifts the impression of blood banks from organizations dedicated to an altruistic cause, to non-altruistic organizations. Since many donors associate donating blood as a good cause that improves their self-esteem or have certain religious beliefs, they might not favour getting monetary compensation. Monetary compensation also increases the risk of paid donors donating blood during the window period and transmitting diseases. Hassan, Nasim, and Fariba hence propose that selective non-monetary incentives can be offered to lapsed donors in case of shortage. Studies have also shown that whilst donors are particularly hesitant about cash incentives, they do show favourable reactions to being rewarded in some sort (e.g. vouchers and lottery tickets) or gratitude [5–7].

71.2.4 Causes of Errors in the Blood Transfusion Process Some errors occur due to incorrect labelling, rush situations, labels coming off during transportation, mix-up due to handling multiple patient samples at the same time, inadequate cross-matching at blood banks or due to a storage mix-up when blood components are stored in the same container, and large amount paper forms and manual checking. 80% of blood transfusion errors are related to bedside or labelling errors. 13% of errors occur at the blood banks. For a system to be better, it needs to eliminate bedside and labelling errors and reduce paperwork and the requirement of cross-checking, position tracking of blood packets throughout the cycle, portability, and mobility [8].

71.2.5 An Ideal Blood Bank Experience It is prudent to develop a system that can trace the donors and keep track of their medical history. This ensures that the selected donors are eligible. This kind of professionalism is required from blood banks and can be set as a benchmark. It is also important for blood bank employees to maintain a neat appearance and to answer questions from donors. • Overall service quality is what attracts donors.

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• With India lagging in meeting the demand for blood, it fosters a feeling of callousness amongst the bank providers who do not pay attention to the quality of the service they provide, this in turn deters the donors from visiting. • If there is enough increase in the number of blood donors because of improvement in the blood bank’s quality of service, the per unit production cost may decrease. [1].

71.2.6 Notable Features of Blood Donation Websites • Blood donation schedule, blood donation history, and blood test results (previous blood advance test results as well). This would help the donor monitor his or her health closely every time they donate blood. • Information about the next event. • Current status of bloodstock—this keeps the donor informed about the need for blood [9].

71.2.7 Radio Frequency Identification and Bar Codes Traditional blood handling processes had a high chance of human errors as it involved many manual steps. Even though barcodes have certainly decreased transfusion errors, there are many limitations to this technology. Radio frequency identification (RFID) is one of the better technologies in comparison because it is not dependent on the line-of-sight, can include sensors to monitor time and temperature, reads multiple tags simultaneously, and stores its information in a chip. It also allows automatic identification as well as data capture. It can be easily paired with barcode technology as well. RFID is affordable and non-invasive [10]. Challenges with RFID Technology: • Speed and accuracy. • Failure read rates in the case of metal vials or vials containing liquids. • Challenging to tag liquid and biological substances due to issues in terms of spacing as well as the effects of radio waves on said products. It can also interfere with the wireless communication of medical devices [11].

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71.2.8 Use of New Technology in Healthcare and Inventory Management Min-Chai and Jia-Jin state that AR and VR technology have proved themselves to be an indispensable part of medical training, allowing surgeons to use superimposed holograms to study the insides of the body. Since doctors can practise without worrying about making mistakes, they can learn and retain the information better, which leads to an overall improvement in the quality of the service. AR phantom limbs are now being widely used for therapy purposes. Mixed reality devices are also gaining traction and being employed for medical education. Doctors can see underneath the skin and study muscles, tissues, and blood vessels [12]. Since AR and VR are still a new technology, more studies need to be conducted to understand their effects better. Organizations might initially face some issues whilst adopting the technology as well. There are obvious concerns about the infrastructure’s ability to adapt Bluetooth connectivity, platform compatibility, digital medical data, healthcare hardware and software, etc. Since these technologies are mostly used in the entertainment sector right now, many people are also not aware of their scope in healthcare [13]. Since perishable items do not last long, special care needs to be given to the environmental conditions of their transport and storage. The IoT layer uses its various sensors to gather the required information, and this helps in better monitoring and control processes. IoT also uses its actuators to enable environmental control in the event of an environmental change or when the threshold is achieved [14]. AR is also very useful in the case of inventory management and maps navigation because of its use in providing positioning instructions. It helps operators manage the logistics of large facilities [15]. The researchers have proposed the idea of a smart blood bank based on IoT which comprises two modules: a data processing module and a pack count module. Together they can help blood banks keep track of their stock and respond to blood requests more efficiently [16]. A cloud storage system would provide a real-time stock update. In another research, the author has suggested the use of GPS to identify nearby blood banks and app notifications to inform donors of upcoming blood drives [17].

71.3 Methodology In order to gain a deeper insight into the subject matter, a thorough literature review has been conducted with the keywords related to blood banks, blood donation, AR, AI, and IoT in healthcare sector. These searches were carried out through different search engines (e.g. Google Scholar and IEEE Xplore). Relevant research papers related to the topic were then selected for the review process. Following the literature review, both telephonic and in-person interviews were conducted to gain a better understanding of the issues and user requirements. The information gathered in the

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research phase later formed the basis of the user-centred design approach. Ideation and conceptualization have been done using user-centred design methods, and the final IoT and AR and AI-enabled blood bank ecosystem design has been proposed. Finally, usability testing has been conducted using a task-based usability method.

71.4 User Study In order to collect some qualitative data regarding frequent and prospective donors, a survey method was used. 40 responses were collected, and an analysis was made. The key findings are summarized below: • 85% of people conceded that they donate or plan to donate blood because it is a noble cause. 35% of people were willing to donate blood to help a family member or friend, with 20% stating emergencies as their motivation. • For 32.3% of the recipients, the primary cause for not donating blood was health issues. Besides this, the other two important factors that affected the donor’s willingness to donate blood were the phobia associated with blood and needles and the donor’s lack of awareness regarding blood drives happening in their area. Whilst not a significant percentage, 16.1% stated inconvenience as the cause. Smaller still at 6.5% people perceived that there is no shortage or feared that the loss of blood could lead to side effects. • About 42.5% of people were not aware of any blood drives happening in their locality, and 30% stated that they did not know there was a blood shortage. Along with the survey, few in-person interviews were conducted with blood bank technicians. These interviews were crucial to understanding the needs of blood banks, and how they can be made more efficient. Some of the questions asked for the user study were as follows: Does the hospital maintain a blood donor registry? What are the softwares used for that? How is the bloodstock maintained? What are the common cases in the hospital that require a blood transfusion? Does the hospital have a blood component separation facility? What are some of the common issues faced by the blood bank? The insights were summarized below: • Few blood banks have the facility to separate blood into components, others do not. • Data of bloodstock is maintained both in physical registers and online. • Physical records include details like records of blood and components, blood donor records, cross-matching registers, daily stock registers, complaint registers, etc. • A few issues faced by blood banks are lack of manpower, reliance on manual data entering, lack of certain blood types, expiry of blood bags, and screening challenges. • Barcode technology is available but not all hospitals have adopted them yet.

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Fig. 71.1 Flow model of the Indian blood banks

• Blood banks do not have access to all the medical history of a patient. • Cases that require blood transfusion often: RTA with massive blood loss, dengue, thalassemia, severe anaemia not responding to other treatments, post-partum haemorrhage, blood cancers, surgeries involving massive blood loss. • Blood bags are manually arranged in refrigerators that maintain an optimal temperature; date-wise. • Important information on blood bags includes unit number, date of collection, date of expiry, date of preparation, blood group, RH group, price, screening information, etc. To understand the issues faced by the users in their environment, a contextual enquiry was performed. A flow model was created from the insights gained and establishes the relationships between the various participants in this context (Fig. 71.1).

71.5 Ideation After conducting the secondary research and user study, it was identified that the blood banks faced difficulties in inventory management owing to a large amount

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of record keeping, manual environmental monitoring, and inability to monitor the passage of blood and its components in the supply chain. To resolve these issues, an AI/AR and IoT-enabled blood bank management ecosystem has been proposed. The blood banks need a centralized mostly automated management system using cloud storage that can facilitate data to and fro between the various stakeholders involved in the blood supply chain. With the help of smart packing and real-time tracking of blood, availability has been proposed. Smart labelling (like RFID/QR) can track the position of the blood component and provide more insights. AI systems create a model from data of blood supply, demand, and the general life expectancy of blood components to make smart predictions and provide auto order placement to the nearest blood bank recognized by GPS or send a request to registered donors in case of an approaching stock out to prevent wastage of blood. IoT sensors-based blood storage units would monitor positional and environmental changes. Operators would be able to access all the information in their dashboard and mobile application. The system would automatically match each blood request from doctors with the nearest blood bank that can fulfil its request. This would reduce the number of manpower required as well as ensure that blood banks have accurate information on the demand and supply. This proposed ecosystem would also combat any sort of forgery since all the stakeholders would be aware of the movement of blood and its components in the supply chain in real time. In the proposed blood bank ecosystem, a blood donor app was also conceptualized. Blood banks face the issue of not being able to track donor medical history or prevent ineligible donors from donating blood again. This can be tackled by requesting donors to upload their medical history and Aadhar card number on the donor app for being verified as potential donors. The application can then generate a QR code based on this information, serving as a digital ID card. Once the potential donors input their health history, the app can inform them about their eligibility as well as provide tips to become a fit donor. The donor on the other hand faces issues like a lack of awareness regarding the need for blood donation, misinformation, and not being able to access timely information about blood drives. AR posters, which would be much more cost-effective for regular promotions, in the long run, can be employed to generate awareness and provide facts as well as some non-monetary incentives. The information gained through interactive AR solutions would be easier to understand and retain. The donors would be prompted to download the mobile app for donors. It would have features like donation history records, blood requests, notifications for upcoming drives, nearby blood donation centres, donor ID, rewards, and FAQs. Donors would have the facility to fill out their consent forms and donor questionnaire through the app itself. This solution is proposed to make the blood donation process easy and rewarding. Based on the research and ideation, concept sketches were made (Fig. 71.2). These were made into low-fidelity wireframes on Figma, and later, the final high-fidelity prototype with visual has been designed for the blood bank app and dashboard to monitor the blood bank ecosystem (Fig. 71.3).

Fig. 71.2 Concept sketches of blood bank operator app, blood bank dashboard, and blood donor app

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Fig. 71.3 High fidelity prototype of blood bank operator app, blood bank dashboard, and blood donor app

71.6 Usability Testing A test plan was devised with the purpose to evaluate the usability of the proposed blood donation ecosystem from the perspective of donors and blood bank operators. Remote user testing was then conducted in a moderate manner. The prior screening was performed to screen out participants who were not interested in donating blood or would be unfit to donate blood due to health issues/phobia or age restrictions in

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the case of the donor app. Prior knowledge of any blood donation application was not necessary. A few of the major screening requirements for blood bank operators were for them to be comfortable using devices like smartphones and desktops and be involved in inventory management activities. Prior knowledge of any e-inventory management system, whilst welcomed, was not mandatory. Upon completing the screening, 6 out of the 10 participants approached were selected. 3 participants were then tested for the donor app, and 3 participants were tested for the operator app. Three tasks were tested: 1.to register on the donor application through the AR poster, 2. to add new bloodstock to inventory, and 3. to check the quantity of a blood component in the blood bank inventory. The test evaluation included user reviews and a satisfaction questionnaire. The results showed that all the users were able to complete the task with an efficiency of 100% and rated the system with a satisfactory rating of 92.083 (> standard 80.3) implying that the system performed well in their expectations. Additional feedback was also collected from the users (e.g. users failed to recognize that the logo in the awareness poster was scannable, a QR code was then added alongside it as a more obvious option). Due to the limitation of the small sample size, the tests were conducted on a small group of expert users with SUS serving as a measuring tool for validation.

71.7 Conclusion and Future Scope The study was aimed to gain insight into the Indian blood supply chain and how it contributes to the shortage of life-saving blood in India. It was revealed that issues with inventory management at blood banks and lack of donor awareness/interest were contributing factors in lowering the efficiency of the supply chain. Furthermore, the idea of providing incentives in the form of non-monetary rewards and how it affected donor behaviour was also studied. However, given the nature of this mixed study in limited sample size, further studies in this direction would greatly improve the condition of the Indian blood bank infrastructure. To conduct the usability testing of the proposed design, a small set of users was recruited, and usability testing was conducted on the prototype, but there is a future scope for usability testing on a larger user group and gain insights.

References 1. Jain, R.K., Doshit, Y., Sundari, J.T.: A study of service quality of blood banks (2015) 2. NACO and NBTC.: Assessment of blood banks in India-2016 (2016) 3. Bhatia, V., Raghuwanshi, B., Sahoo, J.: Current status of blood banks in India (2016)

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4. Mathew, S.M., King, M.R., Glynn, S.A., Dietz, S.K.C.S.L., Schreiber, G.B.: Opinions about donating blood among those who never gave and those who stopped: a focus group assessment (2006) 5. Abolghasemi, H., Hosseini-Divkalayi, N.S., Seighali, F.: Blood donor incentives: a step forward or backward (2010) 6. Lacetera, N., Macis, M.: Do all material incentives for pro-social activities backfire? The response to cash and non-cash incentives for blood donations. J. Econ. Psychol. (2010) 7. Stutzer, A., Goette, L.: Blood donor motivation: what is ethical? What works? ISBT Sci. Ser. (2010) 8. Dalton, J., Ippolito, C., Poncet, I., Rossini, D.S.: Using RFID technologies to reduce blood transfusion errors (2005) 9. Sulaiman, S., Hamid, A.A.K., Yusri, N.A.N.: Development of a blood bank management system (2013) 10. Katsiri, E., Pramatari, K., Billliris, A., Kaiafas, A., Christodoulakis, A., Karanikas, H.: RFCure: an RFID based blood bank/healthcare information management system (2016) 11. Matalka, M.S., Visich, J.K., Li, S.: Reviewing the drivers and challenges in RFID implementation in the pharmaceutical supply chain (2009) 12. Hsieh, M.-C., Lee, J.-J.: Preliminary study of VR and AR applications in medical and healthcare education (2017) 13. Sharif, M., Ansari, G.J., Yasmin, M., Fernandes, S.L.: Reviews of the implications of VR/AR health care applications in terms of organizational and societal change 14. Riad, M., Elgammal, A., Elzanfaly, D.: Efficient management of perishable inventory by utilizing IoT (2018) 15. Mourtzis, D., Samothrakis, V., Zogopoulos, V., Vlachou, E.: Warehouse design and operation using augmented reality technology: a papermaking industry case study (2018) 16. Mahalle, R.R., Thorat, S.S.: Smart blood bank based on IoT: a review. Int. Res. J. Eng. Technol. (IRJET) (2018) 17. Pandit, T., Niloor, S., Shinde, A.: A survey paper on e-blood bank and an idea to use on smartphone (2015)

Chapter 72

A Blockchain-Based Framework for Efficient Health Record Management Akanksha Goel and S. Neduncheliyan

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly changed the healthcare industry’s challenges. The main impediment in front of health workers is the monitoring of patients by maintaining proper distances. The most recent technological advances aided in the resolution of these challenges. Smart and connected health (SCH) devices are a viable solution for the prevalent healthcare issues. Treatment becomes more strategic, preventive, and tailored to the individual, making it more effective. The Internet of medical things (IoMT) technology allows data to be collected remotely and treated using cloud computing to analyze it. Personal privacy is very important when it comes to healthcare data. The collected data must be transferred securely from device to computing facility. Not only should data be transferred securely, but it should also be stored securely. It must be made available to the person, and all other aspects must be prohibited. As a result, we propose a blockchain-based framework for efficiently transferring and storing healthcare data. We have chosen the hybrid consensus algorithm for blockchain implementation. The evaluation outcome depicted that the healthcare blockchain approach exhibited better results in terms of number of processed records. The hash function applied in the proposed system provides the necessary confidentiality for patient records. The provision for a public–private key combination assures patients that their records are secure and transferred to the specific person or consultant to whom they wish to show.

A. Goel (B) · S. Neduncheliyan School of Computing, Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research, Chennai, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Neduncheliyan e-mail: [email protected] Dr. D. Y. Patil School of Science & Technology, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_72

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72.1 Introduction Mobile technology and smart devices have enhanced medical support on a large scale, as facilities are now underutilized in contrast to the population’s needs. With the rapid advancement of communication mechanics such as 5G, 6G, and many more wireless devices, IoMT combines medical equipment with the Internet and remotely provides the referring doctors with the real-time status of the patient’s condition [1]. Massive amounts of data are produced. IoMT combines complex IoT mechanization, such as radio frequency identification, sensors, and tracking technology, with higher bandwidth communication technology [2]. The relationship between patients, medical personnel, medical associations, and medical devices in hospitals is growing as a result of digitalization, automation, and artificial intelligence. The IoMT provides services in all areas of medicine, such as identity authentication, vital sign and remote monitoring, pharmaceutical medications, waste disposal, and asset tracking. The wireless sensor network [3] is comprised of various types of wireless medical sensors, such as pressure sensors, biosensors, and implanted sensors, all of which play an important role in gathering patient vital status data. Wireless sensors are now widely used in the operating room, emergency room, and intensive care unit (ICU) to record and display the most critical aspects of a patient’s health. This discussion demonstrates that medicinal big data resources will become increasingly diverse and expand rapidly. The ability to handle and evaluate gathered medicinal data in real time is critical for patient health [4]. Making critical decisions about patients’ health based on massive amounts of data from various data organizations is a challenge in integrating multiple technologies [5]. Furthermore, because medical data addresses the issue of patients’ personal privacy, it is critical to ensure the security of patient sensitive data. The Internet of things (IoT) based on cloud computing provides excellent IT fundamental infrastructure while significantly reducing medical costs. The Internet of things (IoT) based on cloud computing provides excellent IT fundamental infrastructure while significantly reducing medical costs. A cloud-based IoMT system provides various disadvantages in terms of service availability and privacy user interaction, safety, compatibility, and manipulation of data. Blockchain offers advantages in terms of trustworthiness, collaboration, organization, identity, credibility, and transparency [6]. Furthermore, blockchain technology provides excellent security and provenance in the application. Because of its immutability, append-only nature, and an accessible record of all transactions, blockchain can provide transparency for patients and physicians over every step taken throughout processes. As a consequence of the technical difficulty of fraudulent behavior, an environment is developed that does not require a trusted authority. As illustrated in Fig. 72.1, the blockchain-based IoMT area covers the following major and extensively used applications: remote health monitoring, emergency healthcare, and many more to note. As a result, this specific environment has created substantial privacy and security vulnerabilities that must be addressed: Healthcare information is critical data that

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Fig. 72.1 Blockchain-based IoMT architecture

must be carefully safeguarded throughout the network. The fundamental purpose of this research is to propose a framework for dealing with realistic medical big data as well as how to develop trustworthy, high-quality health resources. Since the cost of a patient’s care comprises a number of overheads confronted with numerous and legal issues, blockchain may provide a low-cost framework. The major contributions of the paper are as follows: • Use of new blockchain technology, which is designed for cryptocurrency, to benefit patients and doctors in the medical field. • In this paper, we proposed a system that uses blockchain for security and sharing of medical records, which come in a variety of digital formats. The manuscript is summarized as follows: In Sect. 72.2, discussed about blockchain technology in the area of healthcare systems. In Sect. 72.3, we explain our proposed system block diagram and the algorithm used for it. Section 72.4, concludes this article.

72.2 Literature Review 72.2.1 Related Works The study had discussed the advantages of blockchain in healthcare. Their solution enabled massive data to be securely stored in cloud-based blockchains while still allowing information to be quickly accessed using lite blockchains. The findings of their experiments suggest that the cloud-based blockchain solution is practical and efficient for accessing EHRs stored either locally or in the cloud [7]. The study

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intended to design an efficient telemedicine framework-BlockHeal-that unifies all important health services within one platform and offers a fully trusted environment in order to reveal the entire possibilities of telemedicine. The suggested framework overcame the restrictions and incorporated all healthcare system stakeholders in establishing a centralized platform to assure legitimate, secure, and effective health services. Furthermore, since the suggested framework being built on blockchain technology (BT), it assured the delivery of safe, fault-tolerant, transparent, and tamperproof information [8]. The research created a system to facilitate remote monitoring, specifically for chronic conditions that require continuous monitoring. To save hash data, the re-encryption proxy had been used in conjunction with blockchain to assure safety. They have employed an Ethereum blockchain-based proof of authorization to speed up the information storage procedure. The experimental solution had revealed a significant increase in healthcare system security when compared to conventional techniques [9]. A few alternatives for enhancing existing constraints in health services utilizing blockchain technology were being considered in the work, which include frameworks and tools for monitoring the effectiveness of such systems, like Hyperledger Fabric, Composer, etc. The study [10] had also proposed an access control policy algorithm for improving data accessibility between healthcare providers, as well as aiding in the simulation of environments to implement the Hyperledger-based electronic healthcare record (EHR) sharing system which employs the idea of a chaincode. In contrast to standard EHR systems that use client-server architecture, the suggested system employs blockchain to improve reliability and effectiveness. The study [11] had introduced a blockchain-assisted verifiable outsourced attributebased signcryption system (BVOABSC) for safe EHR exchange in a multi-authority cloud storage context. Furthermore, they had deployed blockchain technology to prevent unlawful users from interfering with outsourced EHRs. The safety analysis and performance assessment confirmed that the proposed BVOABSC scheme provides greater effectiveness and safety than existing schemes. For data sharing associated with blockchain network, the research [12] has established a solution. The system can build by mobile gate way, cloud server, and wearable sensor device. Ethereum blockchain platform is used for establishing blockchain network. Further smart contracts used for user access control to cloud. However, ownership required and it termed as centralized authority. Secure sharing is prioritized based on safeguarding the ownership. Fast healthcare interoperability resources (FHIRs) and smart contracts used in [13] recommended hypothetical blockchainbased fall prediction model. The four roles determined here as the healthcare provider, the temporary caregiver, individual receiving care, and the secondary care provider. The electronic health information management models were recent and can be used as data for last prediction model. Multiple access levels are also provided for various user categories leads to user-centric solution.

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72.2.2 Challenges For customized healthcare, the capable of share sensitive data publicly across healthcare organization and professionals is the major step permits in taking advantageous of machine learning models available. There exists different viewpoints in order to share the data using blockchain. They are data provenance exploitation which is important for storing the data position in blockchain performing as off chain storage, storing the data in blocks and decentralized storage. For healthcare information, different approaches are established for providing hope to users control and however issues in establishing the complete decentralized user-centric platform. The application of permissioned blockchain systems controlled by healthcare organizations can be unclear at times. The particular problem concerning safety in systems has an influence on the use of decentralized storages, which fear being spent because their worth has depreciated. The approaches fail to ensure data integrity, and even if user information is stored decentralized manner, they cannot ensure a user-centric framework.

72.3 Proposed Framework for Efficient Health Record Management The proposed system uses a blockchain model for storage and data transfer between different entities. The main entities in this outline are the patient, the doctor, the registration center (RC) as a trusted party, and the blockchain (BC). The doctors and other diagnostic centers like hospitals are already registered with RC. They have their public key (PubK). The patient registers himself with the registration center along with PubK of doctors and hospitals. Then, PubK of the patient is used by doctors to retrieve the patient’s record for updating. The data stored is done with BC technology, which uses connected documents along with their keys. As blockchain uses a scattered database that is mutual among the nodes of a computer system which holds data electronically in the digital format. It gives the advantage of availability and accessibility. Registration center (RC) is the system which interacts with patients for various purposes. One of the main purposes of RC is to avoid proxy requests from patients. As the patient has to be present at the RC center for registration, the patient cannot register himself with proxy data. RC uses cryptography algorithms to encrypt all data before processing data for further uses to prevent data leakage. As RC is assigned with its own unique ID to identify from where the patient is registered because of this proxy, RCs can be prevented to accept the registration process. The records of patients include medical prescriptions, diagnostic reports, and different images taken by MRI and CT scans. These records are generated at different locations of hospitals, laboratories, and diagnostic centers. Not only are these records generated at different locations but also in different types of digital

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formats. Blockchain technology helps to incorporate this problem by its inherent architecture. It confirms the accurateness and safety of a data record and fosters confidence deprived of the constraint for a trusted intermediary. That is an advantage in the medical field as patients get a guarantee about the security of their records which is their sole ownership. Patients can be made available when required by doctors. A blockchain, as seen in Fig. 72.2, organizes info in clusters with units identified as a block that comprise sets of data. Blocks have specific storing capacity and, when full, are closed and connected to the preceding block, generating a data chain known as the blockchain using encryption. Every block in the chain has a header consisting of the hash value of the page, the number of record counters as a nonce, and a pointer to the previous block in the form of the hash value of the previous block. As blockchain increases, this linking goes on expanding with the help of hash value which is calculated using mathematical functions. This hash value changes as a new record is added to the block. This procedure is reiterated until block capacity is complete. The individual block may be stored on different nodes as blockchain has a distributed storage system. The storage part of the blockchain is called a digital ledger. This is nothing but record entries as they appear in the system. All these entries are along with a timestamp and immutable. Hence, all updating is recorded with block reliability just like bank entries. Every change is traceable, hence increasing the trust of users in blockchain technology. All new information that follows that freshly added block is compiled into a newly formed block that will then also be added to the chain once filled. Each block in the chain is given an exact timestamp when it is added to the chain. These blocks are immutable; hence, all transactions are recorded permanently which increases it use as tracing of patient history. By providing a public–private, combination doctors can retrieve records for diagnostics. We implemented a hybrid consensus algorithm to take the advantage of blockchain technology in the healthcare system. Figure 72.1 displays how patients’ records will get shared among the different entities. The sharing of data does not need any special component like another system; rather it takes the help of the blockchain property of storage and sharing. The record may be stored on different machines or locations but they are traceable through a chain.

Fig. 72.2 Block forms in the blockchain technology

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Their sharing will not make much of a burden to any of the elements in the system. The advantage of implementing blockchain mechanism in the healthcare domain is listed below: • Personalized data may be tracked in real time, and data access rights can be regulated. • Single access storage for all health data. • Design individual treatment plans as the whole history is available. • The shared data system for patient records is generated in different geographic areas. • Considerable reduction in logistic cost. • Collection of health data over the lifetime of a person. • Multiple consultants can share an authentic record of the patient. • Remote consultation is feasible.

72.3.1 Hybrid Consensus Algorithms for Blockchain Implementation A consensus algorithm is a procedure through which all the nodes in the blockchain reach a common agreement about the current state of the distributed ledger. In this way, consensus algorithms achieve reliability in the blockchain network and establish trust between unknown peers in a distributed computing environment [14]. In a PoW system, blockchain validators take input data from a block header and continuously run this data through a cryptographic hash function. Validator’s does slight variations in the hash function of the input data by including an arbitrary number called a nonce; for every incident, the input data is run through the cryptographic hash function, namely SHA-256. It needs high processing time and hence power to run on a specialized machine. Proof-of- stake (PoS) is a consensus algorithm that addresses the principal flaws of PoW. Each block is validated in this mechanism before the system adds a further block to the blockchain ledger. Proof-of-stake (PoS) is intended to alleviate the scalability and environmental sustainability issues associated with the proof-of-work (PoW) protocol. It is less secure, however, than the completely decentralized POW algorithm. In our proposed system, while evaluating transaction validation rights, hybrid PoW/PoS consensus mechanisms employ aspects from both PoW and PoS models, with the goal of mitigating the flaws of each consensus mechanism. As shown in Fig. 72.3, it operates in two stages. When a patient introduces a new record containing health data to be stored using blockchain technology, the block’s hash value is computed using a mathematical formula. If another record for the same patient is created, the second round helps determine whether or not to confirm it. It is the record affirmation stage, in which each affirmation must have a minimum votes based on factors such as the record’s criticality and size. After that, the record is validated and ready to be appended to the distributed ledger. The

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Fig. 72.3 Hybrid (PoW+PoS) consensus flowchart for addition of patient record block

nonce value is incremented to mark a number of records in the block. The new hash value is again generated, and this value is provided as a link to the previous block for tracing of blocks in the chain. This chain is generated and extended for each patient independently. The generation and maintenance of these chains are done in a distributed environment. Hence, the security of records and their sharing is done with help of blockchain architecture. In the hybrid (PoW+PoS) scheme, data fitted in one block is consumed fully, then a new block is generated. This new block is connected to the previous block by means of the hash function. Therefore, more records of patients can be uploaded in a different format. It ensures that all PoW-generated patient records are verified by PoS before they can be added to the chain. With both participating in block production, hybrid greatly reduces the possibility of hash power domination and guarantees network security. The distributed nature of blockchain architecture helps in the medical field as data is generated at different hospitals and diagnostic centers. Therefore, the record can be created and stored at different locations and shared smoothly with different medical consultants. We take the help of third-party registration for common record distribution of patients. Using the public key of the patient, doctors can retrieve the patient’s record for updating. The patient gets assurances about his records being shared with to exact target. The data stored is done with blockchain technology, which uses connected documents along with their keys. Hence, access is controlled by the patient. He can get remote consultation if required by just sharing his public key with a doctor at a remote location. Doctor at a remote place can use his private key to access blockchained records of the patient. He gets patient reports along with historical treatment of him. By using this can give better advice for patents problem. On a

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similar line of action, private keys of doctors or hospitals, or laboratory centers, may update the blockchain using their private key patient and can be viewed by a public key shared. This public–private key sharing is a peer to peer; hence, access control is possible.

72.4 Experimental Results and Discussion 72.4.1 Experimental Setup The proposed consensus-based PoW approach for healthcare experimental results depicted in this section. The environmental configuration involves Windows 10, Intel(R) Core(TM) i5-8256U CPU, and 64-bit operating system. The blockchain nodes (caregiver nodes) employed in consensus step which validate the every patient health record transactions. Min of 50 caregiver nodes simulated and network adaptability is verified through expanding of 100, 150, 200, and 250 numbers. For every health appointment, 1MB block size has used for transactions. In block body, the patient HER data included and block header also included. In our experiments, we employed the SHA-256 hashing algorithm. A criticality score ranging from 2 to 20 was assigned to each appointment. We used a random criticality score for each patient because the criticality score implies the number of health records generated based on each caregiver initially visited by the patient. Figure 72.4 compares the hybrid healthcare blockchain to the PoW blockchain. The proposed model, which is developed based on the patient’s medical history, processes operations. The amount of processed health records in the hybrid healthcare system tends to increase as the number of blockchain nodes tends to increase, as new nodes join the network and participate in the consensus stage for block validations; as a result, the hybrid network’s effectiveness in terms of the number of recodes processed advances.

72.5 Conclusion and Future Scope Due to new norms of contactless maintenance of records in post-COVID period, the healthcare industry also needs a secure and reliable record-keeping system. As diagnostic centers and hospitals are connected by a public network, it is need time to provide a secure, sharable, and cost-effective solution of record sharing. Here, we proposed blockchain technology in sharing and transmission of patient records. We provide a hybrid healthcare blockchain model and compare it to a PoW healthcare blockchain model in this study. The simulation results revealed that our proposed approach performed better in terms of adaptability and reliability. Due to distributed nature of blockchain, its sharing becomes easy and transparent. Distributed storage

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and security lead to a reliable solution for the health industry. Third-party registration is proposed to assure that records are shared between known sources. Many functional adjustments must be considered in future study after the effective implementation of healthcare blockchain, including modeling associated security risks, EHRs management, and quick patient record updates.

References 1. Navaz, A.N., Serhani, M.A., El Kassabi, H.T., Al-Qirim, N., Ismail. H.: Trends, technologies, and key challenges in smart and connected healthcare. IEEE Acess. 9 (2021) 2. Shit, R.C., Sharma, S., Puthal, D., Zomaya, A.Y.: Location of things (loT): a review and taxonomy of sensors localization in IoT infrastructure. IEEE Commun. Sur. Tutorials 20(3), 2028–2061 (2018) 3. Liu, X., Liu, A., Qiu, T., Dai, B., Wang, T., Yang, L.: Restoring connectivity of damaged sensor networks for long-term survival in hostile environments. IEEE Internet of Things J. (2019) 4. Yu, J., Liu, J., Zhang, R., Chen, L., Gong, W., Zhang, S.: Multi-seed group labeling in RFID systems. IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/TMC.2019.2934445 5. Baby Shalini, V.: Smart health care monitoring system based on Internet of Things (IOT). In: Proceedings of IEEE Information Technology, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankoil, India. (ICAIS) (2021) 6. Leible, S., Schlager, S., Schubotz, M., Gipp, B.: A Review on Blockchain Technology and Blockchain Projects Fostering Open Science (2019) 7. Thamrin, A., Xu, H.: Cloud-based blockchains for secure and reliable big data storage service in healthcare systems. IEEE (2021) 8. Bawany, N.Z., Qamar, T., Tariq, H., Adnan, S.: Integrating healthcare services using blockchainbased telehealth framework. IEEE Access 10, 36505–36517 (2022) 9. Azbeg, K., Ouchetto, O., Andaloussi, S.J.: BlockMedCare: a healthcare system based on IoT, blockchain and IPFS for data management security. Egyptian Inf. J. (2022). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.eij.2022.02.004 10. Akkaoui, R., Hei, X.: EdgeMediChain: a hybrid edge blockchain-based framework for health data exchange (2020) 11. Yang, X., Li, T., Xi, W., Chen, A., Wang, C.: A blockchain-assisted verifiable outsourced attribute-based signcryption scheme for EHRs sharing in the cloud. IEEE Access (2020)

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12. Nguyen, D.C., Nguyen, K.D., Pathirana, P.N.: A mobile cloud based IOMT framework for automated health assessment and management. In: Proceedings of the 2019 41st Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Berlin, Germany, 23–27 July 2019; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, pp. 6517–6520 (2019) 13. Rupasinghe, T., Burstein, F., Rudolph, C., Strange, S.: Towards a blockchain based fall prediction model for aged care. In: Proceedings of the Australasian Computer Science Week Multiconference, Sydney, NSW, Australia, pp. 1–10 (2019) 14. Pan, Y., Wei, W., Liu, Y., Zhu, C.: Hybrid consensus algorithm based on hierarchy authority. In: 2021 IEEE International Conference on Electronic Technology, Communication and Information (ICETCI), pp. 553–559 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1109/ICETCI53161.2021.956 3559 15. Tanwar, T., Parekh, K., Evans, R.: Blockchain-based electronic healthcare record system for healthcare 4.0 applications. J. Inf. Sec. Appl. (2020) 16. Chang, Y.N., Ishak, M.K.: Internet of Things (IoT) based Flex Force Smart Glove for Physical Rehabilitation (2021) 17. Khatoon, A.: A blockchain-based smart contract system for healthcare management. Electronics 9(1), 94 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics9010094

Chapter 73

Augmented Reality App for Science Pre-university Students Shivanshu Sagar and Shazia Aziz Bolwar

Abstract With the spread of the COVID-19 virus, schools and universities are forced to close their campuses and find an online mode of teaching. A lot of EdTech companies started digitizing the syllabus but this only changes the mode of teaching, not the problems faced by students. Learning should be interactive where students get more hands-on experience with study materials, especially in Science subjects. Student engagement plays an important role in learning as the subject includes hypotheses about how phenomena work and experimentation to test under controlled conditions. Students always complain about the difficulties they face in understanding complex biological diagrams or the molecular structure of organic compounds. Another major problem faced in conducting experiments in the laboratory as some schools do not have the proper infrastructure or equipment required for the experiment, especially with pre-university students (11th and 12th). This paper focuses on the challenges faced by pre-university Science students in both theories and conducting experiments in the laboratory and how to make subject learning more interactive, engaging, and self-learning for the students. The study considers all four elements (pedagogy, technology, governance and process, and feedback) as a base model for the learning life cycle. The research is conducted with pre-university students and focuses on Science subjects including theory and experiment based on CBSE-based curriculum of Biology, Chemistry, and Physics only. The study proposes a solution in the form of an augmented reality app that allows students the freedom to experiment and manipulate complex structures through 3D modeling for better understanding.

73.1 Introduction We are in the era of the fourth industrial revolution where education, technology, and the growth of the country cannot be kept apart. Indian schools should introduce S. Sagar (B) · S. A. Bolwar Bengaluru, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_73

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technology in earlier years of education so that students are familiar with technological advancement in industries, and it does not feel like an outsider thing in their later stages [1]. With the introduction of technology, learning becomes more accessible and useful. Students will visualize the concepts through 3D modeling and remember them for a very long time. It also helps in developing their presentation and communication skills rather than listening to classes only, and even teachers can analyze the growth of each student. Ubiquitous learning (u-learning), augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), mobile learning (m-learning), games, gamification, or learning analytics are the recent technological developments in education which are used for children with disabilities or diverse educational needs. Teachers are using these technologies in the classroom to provide a better understanding of concepts to students. It can be utilized in many ways, such as to bring virtual field trips, visit world exhibition halls, and invigorate and improve course reading content. It helps make classes increasingly intuitive and allows students to concentrate more on training rather than just theory. Among these technologies, AR is the first preference as it adds virtual items to the present reality with physical devices like smartphones. So, rather than simply understanding concepts through books, students can learn using headsets and smartphones without any teachers’ involvement. This expands commitment and improves the learning experience [2]. NCERT is planning to digitize its syllabus by 2025. It launched e-Pathshala AR, an android-based AR application, as a first step that augments the concepts of the textbook. Researchers have noticed the positive effect that augmented reality has on students when contrasted with nonAR ones are increased content understanding, learning spatial structure and function, learning language associations, long-term memory retention, improved physical task performance, and improved collaboration. Despite these benefits, there is a certain measure to be considered when building an EdTech application with augmented reality is necessary training among teachers as this technology is new for them [3].

73.2 Literature Review Education is the founding stone of a nation’s economy. A nation that neglects to give its people the privilege to learn lags behind. Schools play a vital role in forming an individual’s social and professional growth. According to the National Survey conducted, it uncovers that over 70% of the school principals in India felt that the educational program followed in India today does not give an adequate extension for creative thinking [4]. The focus of education will no longer be limited to providing education only but also to making it interactive and fun-loving. To improve the life of Indian youth and provide quality education, India needs an immediate change in the education system which includes rote learning, an exam evaluation system, equal respect to all subjects, better training of educators, introduction to technology, personalization education, and explain the benefit of education [1, 2].

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Canadian philosopher, Marshall McLuhan said, “the medium is the message,” and to overcome the pandemic crisis, online education is the winning strategy. Government has to work with the EdTech Company so that they deliver courses to students as an alternative to traditional on-campus during these types of crises [5]. In tier 2 and tier 3 cities, people are getting high-quality learning due to the availability of smartphones, better Internet facilities, and study materials available on the Internet which are cheaper and easily accessible from anywhere [6]. A computer-assisted learning software developed by an Indian company, Mindspark comprises Hindi and Math lectures’ videos, games, and questions which shows a significant gain in the student’s progress, when a study was conducted on 619 students in government schools in Delhi [7]. Online education with the advancement in technology is benefiting students having learning disabilities such as dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, ADHD, and Autism as they use speech recognition tools, braille displays, and text-to-speech solutions for the visually impaired and video conferencing that facilitate lip reading for the hearing impaired and sign language [8]. It is estimated that by the year 2025, two billion of the worldwide population will be made up of the most youthful age: generation alpha otherwise called the iGeneration (children born between 2010 and 2025). These kids are born with technology all around and use technology, smartphones, tablets, computers, and AI-based virtual assistant devices like Alexa to learn and play. Alpha generations are accustomed to getting information by doing, screen-contacting, and experiencing. Schools need to give a satisfactory domain that improves this kind of learning. This kind of condition requires changes and another way to deal with training at all levels. Schools and universities ought to prepare by making projects of study that require deep learning which is easily adapted and modified quickly according to this generation’s needs and demands [9]. A study conducted in the US shows that the introduction of technology leads to 87% more attendance in the classroom and increases participation by up to 72% more. Students are already using smartphones and tablets, so it is easy to use Edtech apps in the classroom environment for learning. Augmented reality apps are preferred among other technologies because these applications allow students to interact with digital content in the real world and provide a more active educational experience [10]. Learning through AR gamification has brought students from all over the country together where they understand the subject by engaging in games through peer learning and helps to gain a new perspective on a particular topic [11]. Understanding the concept, sometimes, becomes difficult in studying science when we discuss the complex organic or molecular structure in Chemistry or Anatomy in Biology. This is because students cannot interact directly with these structures, and they have to reach a conclusion through abstract concepts. On the other hand, laboratories are the place where students get an opportunity to use the tools and justify why certain phenomena will occur through experimentation. Considering the safety of the students, some experiments (including corrosive acids like HCL) are not allowed to be experimented on by students and are demonstrated by lab assistants only. Few schools do not have proper infrastructure or lab equipment for conducting experiments. Considering all these factors, virtual labs are introduced which can be accessed anywhere through smartphones or tablets and do not

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require a physical laboratory. Virtual labs are software simulations of experiments having tools, equipment, and a step-by-step procedure for conducting an experiment same as physical laboratories [12]. According to Dr. Anita Zacharias, Lecturer in anatomy, La Trobe University said that AR and VR technology helps the students to understand anatomical structure through 3D modeling which can be manipulated for better understanding as university has installed anatomy laboratory and library in the campus. She said that cost per student is $10 in comparison with the $100 cost of a single textbook and can be accessed anywhere through phone or tablet [13]. USC Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute’s Professor of neurology and director of imaging technology innovation, Danny Wang and his team have developed and tried a non-invasive technique for envisioning small cerebral vessels, which can help in the examination and treatment of these vessel diseases. ScholAR is an augmented reality application which allows a realistic picture of these vessels, and users can manually enlarge, rotate, and explore the shape, size, and positioning of these vessels. According to Samantha, a member of the team said, “3D interaction provides more insight into where these arteries are situated within the context of important structures in the brain, and AR helps to understand the changes in these vessels with respect to age, disease, or both” [12]. According to DataLabs Analysis, the product life cycle of the AR/VR market is still in a nascent stage in India compared to its global counterparts in China, Japan, and the US due to slow-paced adaptation, but many companies have come forward and started working on this technology [11]. Digital literacy has often esteemed an ability that contributes altogether to active learning. Studies have shown that AR has a positive impact in motivating students toward learning science as it gives a unique experience to interact with the content. Another benefit of using AR apps is to operate anywhere whether it is a home, classroom, or park, and even parents can teach kids in their leisure time. Learning can be accomplished anyplace and whenever unbounded, and it can make a successful learning condition for teachers and students. Educational impacts can be acquired for the value of learning, inspiration, and intelligence. It is essential that self-directed and positive learning is delivered to the students through educational applications, and learning through smartphones is promoted as it allows the freedom to learn anytime, anywhere.

73.3 Research Gap and Research Model Science is a subject which is purely based on observation and systematic experimentation of the physical world. The research found that students are losing interest in studying science subjects, especially at the secondary level (Grades 9–12) as it is hard to visualize and understand the complex structure and concepts through textbooks’ content and diagrams. Lack of proper infrastructure, unavailability of lab equipment, and safety concerns during experimentation in laboratories restrict the students to conduct experiments by themselves.

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In order to make learning engaging and interactive, we need to find a different approach to a method of learning. Therefore, it became necessary to involve all possible stakeholders associated with them. The combination of funnel strategic elearning and e-learning life cycle research model is selected as it integrates all four elements—pedagogy, technology, governance and process, and feedback, starting from the point of institutional strategic goals development, including planning and resource allocation to the technology acceptance, course development according to the curriculum, and finalizes with the analysis feedback and control aspects of the evaluation process (Fig. 73.1). Fig. 73.1 Combination of funnel strategic e-learning and e-learning life cycle research model

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73.4 Methods and Methodology To understand the problem faced by students, the exploratory and experimental research method is used. An explanatory research study is constructed using quantitative and qualitative methods using survey questionnaires and personal interviews; then, data analysis is done to determine the result. The survey research sustains an objective approach. Software used to accomplish survey objectives: Google Docs and Microsoft Excel.

73.5 Sampling and Sample Size The triangular mixed design method and convenience sampling method are used to conduct the research. The sample population size is 300. Interview data is collected from 50 persons including students and faculties and a questionnaire survey from 250 students. The following questions are asked during the survey and interviews: (1) How comfortable are they with textbooks, (2) Problems faced in understanding the concept, (3) Comfortability in asking questions after lectures, (4) Media preference to understand the concept, (5) Preferable source for revision and case study, (6) Apps usually visit to understand the concept, (7) Which topics or subjects do they find hard to understand, (8) Problems faced during lab practical, (9) Do they get a chance to reperform experiment, (10) Any virtual lab or source they are using to conduct research? (11) Teacher’s approach to explaining a concept, (12) Ease for students to understand the concept, (13) Interaction and engagement of students in classroom, (14) Lab facilities for conducting experiments.

73.6 Findings: Data Collection Tool and Data Analysis While the data collection tool is being developed, the science subject experts’ opinions are consulted, and necessary arrangements are made for the interview questions. Interviews and questionnaires are developed based on the guidance of expert views and recommendations to receive the opinion of students and teachers regarding the problem faced in the traditional classroom learning environment. The questions are asked about educational usage, problems they face in conducting experiments and theories with the current model of education, and their interaction with online media. Features of online EdTech apps were shown to know what their expectations are. A questionnaire survey analysis is done to understand their problem with the current method of teaching. The linear regression model is used to understand the satisfaction level of students, and analyzes were performed in MS Excel. The final outcome comes

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in the form of an augmented reality application based on a curriculum comprising both lectures with 3D modeling of structure and the facility to conduct experiments.

73.7 Results and Discussion The study reveals that students face difficulties in understanding the topics in the class lectures. More than 40% of students said that it is not possible to clear doubts in the ongoing class because of the limited time period, and most of the time teachers are not available outside the classroom. As a result, students join coaching classes or online courses or search on online media like YouTube to understand the topics. But the problem with online sources is one cannot find exactly what they are searching for. When we dig deeper to look into actual problems, it is found that they lack visualization of the process of how certain things happen and slowly, and they lose interest in the subject. The majority of students said that during lab experiments, experiments are performed within a group of 5–7 students where teachers demonstrate the experiments and students note down the reading and some equipment showed errors in reading. While discussing with faculties, we find that safety is the biggest factor which restricts them to demonstrate experiments to students, especially during chemistry or physics experiments. Less attendance is marked during the lecture as most of the students are already joining the coaching classes (Fig. 73.2).

Fig. 73.2 Graph showing results conducting on different parameters

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Fig. 73.3 Regression graph showing satisfaction level of students

We used linear regression model to understand the satisfaction level of students with current mode of learning. R2 value found higher than 0.5 for the problem faced in revision of syllabus through notes and textbook (R2 = 0.6) and facing difficulty in understanding lecture (R2 = 0.5). For the problem faced in conducting experiments, R2 found 0.8 (> 0.5). This leads to the shifting toward social media, and their preference for online media found to be R2 = 0.7. According to students, learning should be interactive (R2 − 0.7) and more visual based (R2 = 0.9) so that one can easily understand the topic (Fig. 73.3). After interaction, we conclude that students are interested in understanding the process, visualizing the shape and structure of elements, and self-explore the experiments. Learning should be interactive and engaging so that they can learn through self-exploration without causing any harm to them (performing experiments with corrosive substances like HCL).

73.8 Designing a Learning Platform Based on Curriculum Includes Both Lectures and Lab Experiments After getting the insights, we started brainstorming all the possible ideas that fit into the objective of creating solutions to their problem like an application, workshops, or curriculum-based video lectures. While ideating, we have to keep in mind that the solution is designed for secondary school students to whom depth of understanding of topics is very necessary. Each topic and structure need to be clearly explained and a huge syllabus to cover in two years only. Whatever the topics they learn will help them not only clear the board exam but also build the base for further study. Before reaching the solution, first, we have to map out the syllabus and understand where students are facing problems. We did secondary research and try to understand the current solutions available like online study materials available and apps explaining various

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topics. To understand the issues in depth, we consult CBSE Science faculties and continue our process under their guidance. It helps us to mark out the difficult topics in lectures and understand the limitation of experiments. Insights from faculties help us to narrow down our search to key factors that need to be considered while ideating. Key factors include interaction with content, proper visualization, self-exploration with experiments, time management, curriculum-based study materials, and keeping track of the progress of the students. The solution should be designed in a way that can be accessed anywhere and is self-explanatory so that students can read anytime and also be ready for situations like a pandemic. After doing a lot of research and ideation, we came up with an augmented reality application containing all the above-mentioned features. We use augmented reality as a base for the application because it provides a real-time interactive experience to the students and teachers. While conducting an experiment or explaining a complex structure, the application resides computer-generated 3D modelling structure of the objects on the table which helps in better understanding and can be manipulated. The application is designed based on the NCERT curriculum for class XI and XII where each diagram is converted into 3D modeling and can be manipulated. Explanations are developed as text and audio. Lectures are organized in a way that teachers can use as teaching material, and students can directly go through the lecture by themselves. Similarly, for experiments, students have the freedom to do the experiments by themselves. Initially, a tutorial is provided as instruction for the entire procedure; then, materials are provided for performing experiments. Students have the freedom to perform different sets of combinations within an experiment so that they can understand the failure cases as well. After every session, a set of questions will be asked to check their learning, and this way we keep track of their performance growth. Interaction through chat or call is there to discuss a particular topic among themselves or with respective faculties (Fig. 73.4).

Fig. 73.4 Augmented reality app showing lecture and experiment view screen

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73.9 Review AR application was demoed to the school, and it received positive feedback from teachers and students. Teachers say that the application is more of a practical approach rather than a theoretical one. They appreciated the way topics are organized based on the syllabus with a detailed explanation of the topic through 3D modeling and concepts through voice and subtitles. Self-exploration of experimentation is very much appreciated and liked by teachers and students as it gives freedom to explore without considering any risk factor. The concern is shown by the faculties regarding excess use of the application as the AR app is only accessed through a smartphone or tablet, it increases the screen time of students causing strain to eyes and is not supported by the lower-end smartphone. The notable feedback was to make it centralized to the college authority so that they keep track of the student’s growth. Teachers can take live lectures and record and conduct examinations through the app. This will help students to attend class even if they are unable to come to school due to illness or other reasons.

73.10 Conclusion and Recommendations This paper has attempted to provide a solution as a shared vision of the educational system needed, shared among educational services, parents, and students to provide quality education. The way of teaching should create curiosity and interest among students to learn new things. Courses are designed in a manner that should be self-explanatory so that students can learn without the guidance of teachers. The application is designed by keeping these factors into consideration which encourages interactivity and engagement of students. The need of the hour encourages us to find an alternative method of teaching which can be accessible to the students of remote areas of the village. The pandemic comes as a warning alert to prepare us for situations like the lockdown of the country due to the COVID-19 virus. Research focuses on the problems faced by pre-university students of the Science stream for Physics, Chemistry, and Biology based on the CBSE syllabus. It can be used as a baseline for measuring the factors with closely related subjects like Mathematics and for other board’s syllabi.

References 1. Rawal, R.: 7 Immediate changes needed in the Indian education system. India Today. Retrieved from https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/featurephilia/story/7-immediatechanges-needed-in-the-indian-education-system-1579167-2019-08-09 (2019) 2. Victoria, S.: Use Cases of Augmented Reality in Education and Training. Retrieved from https:// rubygarage.org/blog/augmented-reality-in-education-and-training (2019)

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3. Blum, A.: The Multiple Uses of Augmented Reality in Education. Emerging EdTech. Retrieved from https://www.emergingedtech.com/2018/08/multiple-uses-of-augmented-rea lity-in-education/ (2018) 4. Fayz.: Indian Education System—A Call for Reform. Retrieved from https://fourthambit.com/ fa/blogs/102032 (2014) 5. Dayal, G.: How is Technology Changing the Dynamics of Education in India. Retrieved from http://bweducation.businessworld.in/article/How-Is-Technology-Changing-The-DynamicsOf-Education-In-India/24-08-2019-175209/#:~:text=Technology%20ha (2019) 6. Sawaikar, N.: Education technology and Indian schools. Retrieved from https://www.forbes india.com/article/weschool/education-technology-and-indian-schools/53149/1 (2019) 7. Birla, N.: Impact of Technology on Current Education System. Retrieved from https://educat ion.siliconindia.com/viewpoint/in-my-opinion/impact-of-technology-on-current-educationsystem-nwid-8970.html (2019) 8. Fourtané, S.: Augmented reality: the future of education. Interesting Eng. Retrieved from https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/augmented-reality-the-future-of-education (2019) 9. Hayath, Z.: The influx of technology and its impact on education in India. The Quint. Retrieved from https://www.thequint.com/voices/influx-of-technology-and-its-impact-on-education-inindia (2019) 10. Yilmaz, O.: Augmented Reality in Science (2021). 10.34293/ 11. O’Connor, K.: VR and AR Helping Students Ace Anatomy. Retrieved from https://www.lat robe.edu.au/news/articles/2019/release/vr-and-ar-helping-students-ace-anatomy(2019) 12. Greenbaum, Z.: Augmented reality app adds interactive enhancements to scientific posters, presentations. USC News. Retrieved from https://news.usc.edu/161786/augmented-realityapp-usc-scientific-data-3d-models/ (2019) 13. Molnar, M.: Education Seen as Strong Market for VR and AR By Industry Insiders. Retrieved from https://marketbrief.edweek.org/marketplace-k-12/education-seen-strong-mar ket-vr-ar-industry-insiders/ (2019)

Chapter 74

Astromos: An Astronomy Application for Augmented Reality-Based Learning Ayan Aggarwal, Manomay Singh, Shorya Kansal, Pankaj Badoni, and Avita Katal

Abstract Today’s educational system has progressed from the conventional technique of learning through textbooks to technology-based learning, in which students have access to a vast array of learning tools, without which learners are more likely to form misconceptions about the world around them. Today’s augmented reality (AR) technologies provide a more hands-on experience for their audience, which aids in the understanding of spatial ideas, academic motivation, and degree of focus. Compared to traditional learning methods, they can comprehend information rapidly and retain it for longer periods. Smartphones make learning portable because a user may readily investigate concepts by simply utilizing the camera. This paper focuses on the development of the mobile application ‘Astromos’ based on multi-viewpoint smartphone AR-based learning (M-VSARL) that further allows users to grasp astronomy ideas in an illustrated, easy-to-use, and descriptive manner. A study has been conducted for the developed application to see how AR can benefit secondary and high school learners. The findings of the study revealed that the system had a strong learning effect, assisting students in completing the observation job. The content, design, and navigation of the application were appreciated by more than 50% of the users. The SPSS software proved the questionnaire was reliable, and the conclusions drawn from it point toward positive impacts of the application. Furthermore, notably via the use of this technique, students’ interest in astronomy was piqued, and 76% of users would recommend the application to their friends.

74.1 Introduction Astronomical education, a field of Physics concerned with observational studies of the universe and learning about the origin and evolution of our surroundings, is fundamental to strengthening the scientific literacy of the country. The astronomical community holds the power to explore the future by understanding the behavior A. Aggarwal · M. Singh · S. Kansal · P. Badoni · A. Katal (B) School of Computer Science, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_74

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of the celestial bodies and answering the long-standing questions about what is outside the Milky Way Galaxy [1]. It is vital to expand the community, further delve into astronomy, and resonate with the wonder that everyone has about the universe. This can be done by developing the interest of the primary, secondary, and high school students by teaching them the fundamentals of discipline at various levels [2]. Yet, the education system is faced with the challenge of not having a well-defined course structure for it at the school level. Reading material related to astronomy is often included in the Physics section, in a less interesting and noninstructional manner which will not be enough for students to take interest in the subject and thoroughly inquire about it [3]. Research has proven that observational studies are limited by time, weather, and place [4, 5], making it difficult for teachers to obtain the right evaluation of the students’ understanding of the concept, and the retention of knowledge is difficult only through textbooks. With the digitization of teaching methodologies and classrooms shifting online during the COVID-19 pandemic, it is important to adapt the learning material accordingly. Everyone has become used to utilizing digital mediums for education, primarily smartphones, making various academic tools and technologies like animations, augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR) available to them. Scientific subjects often contain abstract concepts which are difficult for students to understand and engage with in the real world [6]. An introductory study was carried out by Gill and Burin [7] where they indulged the participants in activities like observing the moon using a telescope and using pre-existing apps such as Moon Globe on iPads to get a detailed view of the Moon [7]. AR assists the teachers in explaining the concepts better and developing a sense of visualization among the students, helping them learn effectively [8]. Yen et al. [9] examined the effects of 2D animation, 3D simulation, and AR on students’ moon phases concept learning and found positive impacts on the students’ academic performance. Fleck and Simon [10] investigated the assistance of AR during scaffolding as it provides enhanced interactions and representations, by clearing misconceptions that students might have formed due to the lack of such [10]. Multi-viewpoint smartphone AR-based learning (M-VSARL) has been tested by scholars to examine the effectiveness of the technology in astronomy education [11]. Five projects developed at HIT Lab NZ to explore AR application in educational exhibits were examined by Woods et al. [12]. Suajti et al. [13] carried out a study to integrate multimedia into applications that use AR technology. Setozaki et al. [14] developed an AR-based equipment that had a tangible user interface designed to analyze the behavior of the participants during collaborative learning tasks. Drawing on this modern technology and approach toward education, an application is developed ‘Astromos’, a simulation-based user interface that focuses on providing an immersive experience of the solar system. The application uses augmented reality (AR) to enable users to explore and study basic astronomical concepts in an exemplified and self-explanatory manner. The AR is aided by the informative UI design, and ‘Astromos’ currently contains the simulations for celestial objects like Blackhole, Nebula and its types, Milky Way Galaxy, Constellations, and the phases of the Moon which are unique to it when compared with other applications that only have the solar system. The users have the option to closely inspect the

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objects and read important information about them through the app, providing them with a digital handbook of sorts on important celestial bodies. The application can work in relatively darker environments, and the user gets a third-person perspective of the celestial objects, eliminating the chance of formation of misconceptions and confusion. The content is designed in such a way that it is easy to comprehend for both urban and rural users. All of these add to a new kind of immersive experience with a variety of environments that makes the application different from others.

74.2 Methodology This research was executed in two parts—first, developing the application using AR technology, and second, conducting surveys to answer questions about the competence, visual design, relevance, and user experience of the application.

74.2.1 System Design A virtual environment with a vibrant interface has been developed to boost the conceptualization of the different celestial bodies using software like Figma, Blender 3D, and Unity Game Engine. Figma, a free-to-use and collaborative prototyping tool, has been used to design an attractive and interactive user interface that is essential to engage the user. For modeling the components, Blender 3D and Unity were used in combination. A variety of textures were designed in Blender 3D and mapped on spheres that were later exported to Unity Game Engine. Figure 74.1 depicts the process diagram for the application. For assembling all the components and enabling the AR aspect of the application, C# language was used. Unity Game Engine is a framework based on the concepts of object-oriented programming that uses APIs to help the game designer, add a variety of features to the game, and integrate AR into it. Several APIs were used to build the system and provide functionalities like sound and simulation. Figure 74.2 shows the user flow of the application. It was deployed on the Google Play Store [15] with a privacy policy that states the application uses only the device’s camera, and no additional data is acquired by anyone.

Fig. 74.1 Process diagram

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Fig. 74.2 User flow diagram

During the testing phase, the application was launched successfully, and the main menu was displayed (Fig. 74.3). There are two actions for the user to take here— explore the application themselves or take a tour. If the user choses to take a tour, the chatbot displays a list of FAQs and answered each of them successfully (Fig. 74.3). Next, the user can come back to the main menu to use the application. Once the user gives permission to use the device’s camera and has the device in landscape orientation, it detects the marker and displays the solar system model (Fig. 74.4). Similarly, the testing for all other objects was done, and the markers were detected to display the 3D models. The user can freely move and zoom the objects, and the information related to that particular object can be read by clicking the prompt. The information displayed for every simulation contains its description and facts about its age, position in the solar system, shape, composition, gravitational acceleration, average surface temperature, etc.

Fig. 74.3 Main menu and tour through app

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Fig. 74.4 Marker detection for model display

74.2.2 Research and Analysis The application was designed to study the effect of AR learning in younger students prompting them to adopt new technology and learn in a collaborative manner. To measure the relevance of AR in astronomy education through our system, a qualitative study was conducted among 50 students from schools affiliated with the ICSE/CBSE board in metropolitan cities. The participants answered a questionnaire about the competence, visual design, responsiveness, and overall user experience of the application. It had 3 questions about competence, 2 for visual design, 1 for responsiveness, and 3 questions about their general experience with the application. This type of questions provides us the feedback about the user interface of the application and makes us understand about the quality of the visuals, and the AR experience of the user as this is application is purely based on graphics. These questions were raised to check the usability and relevance of the application. The questionnaire asked the participants to rate the application on a 5-point Likert scale along with collecting information about their awareness of astronomy, their preferred mediums of learning, and the circumstances they feel are barriers to their astronomical journey. To obtain a more detailed view of the situation, the following research queries were looked into: RQ1: What is the impact of the content and design on user engagement? RQ2: How helpful is the application to students of age 14–16 in visualizing concepts otherwise difficult to understand through textbooks? RQ3: What role does the navigation complexity play in the user experience? RQ4: Will this type of AR-integrated mobile applications facilitate learning among the users? The descriptive statistical analysis technique was used to comprehend the effectiveness and usability of the application from the obtained data. It provided information about the participant demographics, including their age, gender, their previous

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experience with mobile learning, and familiarity with AR. Then, the engagement of the users and the impactfulness of the content were measured. The statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS), generally known as IBM SPSS statistics, a statistical data analysis software package, was used to check the validity of the questionnaire. Through this study, it is also aimed to collect feedback on the application and improve it based on the user’s needs and how it can be optimized into a better learning environment.

74.3 Results and Discussion 74.3.1 Participant Demographics There are 50 users who fill the form out of 1000 who downloaded the application through play store. The respondents were students in the age group of 14– 20 years. There were majorly female students (70%) that participated in this survey as compared to male students (30%) between the ages of 14–20. The grade 9th and 10th students (54%, age 14–16) were higher in number in comparison with students in grades 11 and 12 (30%, age 16–18) and college freshmen (16%, age 18–20). The responses for students of age 17–20 were collected to understand if provided the opportunity will using AR-enabled applications in their early education prove to be beneficial or not. The reason for having a greater number of high school students participate in the study was to develop their interest in astronomy with the application. If we have a higher number of young students interested in the field, then only they would opt for science in their college. 72% of the participants had a basic knowledge of astronomy and only 28% identified as novices having a basic level of competency. Students also mentioned various reasons that set them back from gaining a higher level of astronomy education as depicted in Fig. 74.5. 30% felt the lack of access to adequate equipment and found it expensive, 50% of them did not have enough time available, 42% did not have suitable location due to poor skies and light pollution, 46% do not have access to the astronomy community, and 26% lack guidance from knowledgeable expert teams.

Fig. 74.5 Preferred mediums of learning and barriers to astronomy education

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It is important to assess the medium through which students prefer to develop their skills and knowledge (Fig. 74.5). Out of the participating students, 54% used textbooks, 58% used mobile applications and educational games, 48% refer to Websites, 54% use social media, and 28% are part of online communities.

74.3.2 Data Reliability To answer the research queries formulated earlier, we first need to check the validity and reliability of the instrument as they are critical in the collecting of research data. Consequently, accurate data will be used to determine the genuine quality of study results. While the data is largely dependent on whether the study instrument is real or false, the validity of a research instrument is assessed by its degree of validity. A valid instrument is one that can assess what is desired and disclose the data of the variables being studied. To measure the validity of the questionnaire, IBM SPSS software has been used to find the value of Pearson coefficient. The values of the Pearson coefficient based on the mean ratings obtained from the questionnaire corresponding to the research queries have been calculated. If the value of the Pearson coefficient is greater than 0.254, then the questionnaire is valid. Table 74.1 shows the value of the Pearson coefficient for different questions. From the above Table 74.1, it can be concluded that all questions are valid because the Pearson coefficient value is greater than 0.254 in all questions. The degree to which a questionnaire, test, observation, or other measuring method produce the same results on several tries is known as reliability. It is, in a nutshell, the consistency or stability of scores throughout time or across raters. Cronbach’s alpha is used to calculate the questionnaire’s reliability. If the value of Cronbach’s alpha is greater than 0.6, then the questionnaire is reliable. The value of Cronbach alpha is 0.785 which is greater than 0.6. Therefore, it can be concluded that the questionnaire is reliable. After validating the questionnaire, the participants were surveyed for Table 74.1 Pearson coefficient for different questions Questions

Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

Q5

Q6

Total

Q1 Q2

1

0.474

0.483

0.359

0.285

0.465

0.741

0.474

1

0.432

0.316

0.087

0.269

0.595

Q3

0.483

0.432

1

0.338

0.407

0.438

0.736

Q4

0.359

0.316

0.33

1

0.434

0.453

0.688

Q5

0.285

0.087

0.407

0.434

1

0.473

0.665

Q6

0.465

0.269

0.438

0.453

0.473

1

0.746

Total

0.741

0.595

0.736

0.688

0.665

0.746

1

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Table 74.2 ANOVA tests among the different age groups Sum of squares Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

Q5

Q6

Mean square

F

Sig

0.495

2

0.247

0.300

0.742

Within groups

38.785

47

0.825

Total

39.280

49

0.342

2

0.171

0.306

0.738

Within groups

26.238

47

0.558

Total

26.580

49

0.731

2

0.365

0.593

0.557

Within groups

28.949

47

0.616

Total

29.680

49

0.415

2

0.207

0.329

0.721

Within groups

29.585

47

0.629

Total

30.000

49

0.420

2

0.210

0.263

0.770

Within groups

37.500

47

0.798

Total

37.920

49

0.618

2

0.309

0.455

0.637

Within groups

31.882

47

0.678

Total

32.500

49

Between groups

Between groups

Between groups

Between groups

Between groups

Between groups

df

the usability of the app. Usability testing showed that AR did impact the students’ learning experience, and they found it more compelling. Table 74.2 shows the results of the ANOVA tests among the different age groups. The sig value is greater than 0.05 in all cases which means there is no significant difference among different age groups.

74.3.3 Relevant Findings The questionnaire assessed the level to which the user was able to immerse and visualize astronomical objects through the mobile application. It also helped us to understand if the person was immersed and liked the experience and if he/she recommended it to her peers as well. Each research query was mapped according to the questions from the survey. RQ1 corresponded to questions about the features that the participants liked and were they able to learn new terms/concepts from the application (visual design). Most of the participants liked the content and design of the application, rating it with either 4-point or 5-point on the Likert scale as depicted in Fig. 74.7. In Fig. 74.6, more than 50% of the participants found the design and content satisfactory and

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agreed to using the application because of these factors. As shown in Fig. 74.8a, 66% of the participants remembered the new terms they learned through the application. The intuitive design of the application gives the user ease of use, and the content is suitable enough for students with basic to no knowledge of the subject. Therefore, the content and design positively impact user engagement. RQ2 corresponds to the degree of helpfulness the application holds for students of age 14–16 in visualizing concepts otherwise difficult to understand through textbooks (competence). The competence of the application is measured by its ability to help students visualize different solar bodies, and if they are being able to remember the concepts better or not because humans tend to understand things better, if they see it in real form rather than their imagination. The 14–16 age group dominates the participant pool

Fig. 74.6 Rating the content and design of the application

Fig. 74.7 User’s preferred factor of use

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Fig. 74.8 a Retention rate of concepts among students and b rating of the aid in visualizing the concepts by the 14–16 age group

and consists of students who would choose their subject streams in the coming years. It is crucial for the application to help them visualize concepts better to be successful. As shown in Fig. 74.8b, most participants have rated it positively, and there is a higher rate of satisfaction among the female students. Therefore, the application proves to be helpful in this regard. RQ3 corresponds to the impact of navigation on user engagement and whether they think it will be beneficial for others or not (relevance). The majority of the participants were able to navigate the application easily, rating it with either 4-point or 5-point on the Likert scale as depicted in Fig. 74.9. In Fig. 74.9, 54% of participants also found the ease of use good enough. This firmly affected their likelihood of sharing the application with their friends, increasing the user engagement as depicted in Fig. 74.10. RQ4 corresponds to the role these kinds of applications play in facilitating learning among the users. It talks about the app’s performance, frequency of usage, and does the audience like the app or not (user experience).

Fig. 74.9 Participants’ rating of the ease of navigation

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Fig. 74.10 Likelihood of participants sharing application with their friends

Fig. 74.11 a Participants’ rating of performance, b frequency of usage

For this kind of application to be beneficial, the participants should use it frequently. As it can be in Fig. 74.11a, more than 50% of participants used the application frequently in a week, some even using it multiple times a day. This shows a high rate of user engagement, and more users find the app interesting. This also means that the users find the application’s performance to be adequate as depicted in Fig. 74.11b. In Fig. 74.12, the application was clearly accepted by the audience as 74% of participants gave it a rating of either 4-point or 5-point on the Likert scale. Therefore, applications leveraging AR technology can be the next pedagogy for astronomical education.

74.4 Conclusion This study was aimed at developing an application that sparks a sense of interest in the astronomy field and increases the awareness of the subject among its users.

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Fig. 74.12 Participants’ rating of the application

With reference to the survey conducted among the students, it was clear that the application holds potential and can benefit their learning experience. The design was appreciated by 52% of participants, and 76% of users could navigate the application very smoothly. The application also has a high retention rate of new concepts among 66% of its users. All these factors contribute to active user engagement, out of which 76% of users would recommend the application to their friends. Thus, the application facilitated their visualization of concepts and rightly aligned with the previous studies that proved the positive effect of AR technologies. The proposed questionnaire was reliable and managed to answer all the research queries. The findings of the study also helped us understand all the important functionalities that can be improved upon. Refining the design and adding more content and media such as audio will help enhance the user experience and keep the user engagement high, converting the partially active 14% of users to active users. The app’s performance also needs to be improved as rightly highlighted by 26% of participants. The question bank for the chatbot in the application can be expanded to emphasize new features. Since the application is currently available on the Google Play Store only, it limits the number of users. To rectify this, it needs to be developed according to iOS as well. Overall, the application would be beneficial for high school students, and AR technology can revolutionize the education field.

References 1. Astronomy and Astrophysics in the New Millennium.Astronomy and Astrophysics in the New Millennium (2001). https://doi.org/10.17226/9839 2. Astronomy. Astronomy and Astrophysics in the New Millennium (2009). https://doi.org/10. 459836983/5467 3. Lelliott, A., Rollnick, M.: Big Ideas: A Review of Astronomy Education Research 1974–2008. 32 1771–1799 (2009).https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690903214546 4. Tian, K., Endo, M., Urata, M., Mouri, K., Yasuda, T.: M-VSARL system in secondary school science education: lunar phase class case study. In: 2014 IEEE 3rd Global Conference on

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Consumer Electronics, GCCE 2014, pp. 321–322 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1109/GCCE.2014. 7031118 Méndez, D., Slisko, J.: Software Socrative and smartphones as tools for implementation of basic processes of active physics learning in classroom: an initial feasibility study with prospective teachers. Eu. J. Phys. Educ. (2013) Maleke, B., Paseru, D., Padang, R.: Learning application of astronomy based augmented reality using android platform. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 306, 012018 (2018) Gill, R.M., Burin, M.J.: Enhancing the introductory astronomical experience with the use of a tablet and telescope. The Physics Teacher 51, 87 (2013) Saidin, N.F., Halim, N.D.A., Yahaya, N.: A review of research on augmented reality in education: advantages and applications. Int. Educ. Stud. 1–8 (2015). https://doi.org/10.5539/IES. V8N13P1 Yen, J.-C., Tsai, C.-H., Wu, M.: Augmented reality in the higher education: students’ science concept learning and academic achievement in astronomy. Procedia. Soc. Behav. Sci. 103, 165–173 (2013) Fleck, S., Simon, G.: An augmented reality environment for astronomy learning in elementary grades: an exploratory study. In: IHM 2013—Actes de la 25ieme Conference Francophone sur l’Interaction Homme-Machine, pp. 14–22 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1145/2534903.2534907 Tian, K., Endo, M., Urata, M., Mouri, K., Yasuda, T.: Multi-Viewpoint smartphone AR-based learning system for astronomical observation. Int. J. Comput. Theory Eng. 6, 396–400 (2014) Woods, E., et al.: Augmenting the science centre and museum experience. In: Proceedings GRAPHITE 2004 - 2nd International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques in Australasia and Southeast Asia, pp. 230–236 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1145/988834. 988873 Sujati, D.A., Isnanto, R.R., Martono, K.T.: Pengembangan Aplikasi Multimedia untuk Pembelajaran Satelit Astronomi NASA dengan Teknologi Augmented Reality Berbasis Android. Jurnal Teknologi dan Sistem Komputer 4, 249 (2016) Setozaki, N., Suzuki, K., Iwasaki, T., Morita, Y.: Development and Evaluation of the usefulness of collaborative learning on the tangible AR learning equipment for astronomy education. Educ. Technol. Res. 40, 71–83 (2018) Astromos—AR Space Simulator—Apps on Google Play. https://play.google.com/store/apps/ details?id=com.Upes_GG.Astromos

Chapter 75

Visualization Techniques for Visibility Graph Analysis in Virtual Reality for the Case of the Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad Shilpi Chakraborty

and Shiva Ji

Abstract This article uses images to offer a syntactic space analysis of a street in virtual reality at the IIT Hyderabad (a residential academic campus) to improve visualization tools and social inclusion in urban planning. This technique empowers citizens by combining space syntax and virtual reality with photographs and other technological advances. The design begins with the creative process and continues with ideas into physical structures in architecture. Architects learn about problem formulation by imagining several ways to achieve the desired spatial arrangements. Architects gain from having a comprehensive knowledge of architecture through this technique. In other words, this comprehension is a mix of experience and theory, instinct, research, perception, and analysis. Space syntax attempts to decipher spatial forms and their implications on anthropogenic activities based on the parametric concept of space. The study represents a way to investigate and analyze architecture using user interfaces with realistic computer visuals and virtual reality technologies. Virtual inspection systems like these aid in the understanding and dissemination of architecture. So for technologies to be omnipresent, they must reveal a user-friendly platform that an inexperienced audience will find intuitive and entertaining, wherein space syntax in virtual reality alongside photographs gives such knowledge while also saving time when developing models for larger scales. Space syntax employs qualitative analysis to visually assess visual integration and movement patterns while simultaneously employing statistical analysis to link observable movement frequencies with visual integration values. With residents participating and the power to affect public choices for intelligent, sustainable cities, the approach will assist urban planners and designers in understanding and informing about the implications of desired urban transformation.

S. Chakraborty (B) · S. Ji Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, IITH main road, NH65, Sangareddy 502284, Hyderabad, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Ji e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_75

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75.1 Introduction The discipline of space syntax has evolved. Along with recent advancements in GIS and a greater knowledge of the complicated system of urban centers, the poise of space syntax is to enter the main stage in the primary fields for aiding urban centers all over the world enhance their decision-making processes in the face of mounting difficulties [13, 14]. This task entails adding characteristics to space syntax analysis to expand its capability and usefulness. This study introduces DepthmapX, a revolutionary mixed-method concept for urban planning in virtual reality (VR) that integrates spatial syntax using an interactive visualization framework. In essence, it is critical to visualize detailed information and procedures for different people to participate. As a result, we established the DepthmapX mechanism as a method that can be implemented and represented in virtual/mixed realities for interactive and participative activities, focusing on analysis and judgment assistance, at all scales, on numerous layers, and in all sets of variables. We employed interactive virtual reality settings for all participation procedures. The benefit of adopting VR settings enlightens people with varied professional and personal experiences simultaneously. Although there is a well-established transportation planning field [18] and lots of land use and construction volume planning study, the space syntax method doesn’t quite complement any of these fields. Moreover, contemporary transportation planning focuses primarily on automotive transportation, whereas space syntax excels in pedestrian transportation planning [11, 16]. Furthermore, syntactic space studies can influence judgments on land use distribution, particularly commerce and the position of important currently reside [8, 9]. Thus, the aim of research is to create a visual experience of space syntax analysis in virtual reality with the usage of the main road of the hostel block in IITH. The objectives of the research are • To identify the characteristics of hostel street, IIT, Hyderabad. • To examine connection in hostel street, IIT, Hyderabad, through space syntax analysis. • To develop space syntax as visualization tool in virtual reality.

75.2 The Space Syntax Method’s Fundamentals The denial of space’s measurable qualities underpins the entire notion of space syntax. Conversely, topological data is to express spatial arrangement. Topological diagrams display inherent traits. The portrayal of interactions between components constitutes the central focus of spatial analyses, which employ an urban grid to investigate social utilization space [4]. Analyses usually take into account a two-dimensional layout model. They all begin with a subjective procedure of distinguishing spatial arrangement pieces and what lies between each other. The initial personal objective was to assess all of the impediments to visibility. Spaces are gaps within walls, fences,

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and other obstacles or limitations restricting (pedestrian) movement and the visible horizon [15]. Consequently, a model is in which an open public area is bounded and colored in contrasting hues.

75.3 Virtual Reality in Architecture Virtual environments (VEs) are ideal for evaluating buildings. They enable systematic environmental modifications that are impossible (or ineffective) in real environments (REs) after being inhabited. While it would be difficult to modify the spatial pattern of an original system significantly, the impact of numerous redesigns on user behavior may be effectively replicated in VR without disrupting current building operations. VR has already been used in spatial cognition studies to examine navigation performance and spatial memory after deliberately reorganizing important circulation regions [22]. Virtual reality helps with ‘pre-occupancy assessment,’ which is an assessment of a building’s surroundings from the viewpoint of its users before it is occupied [7]. New studies looked into the possibility of employing virtual reality (VR) in design practice, intending to give architecture students user exposure to their structure ideas early in the design process [20].

75.4 Methodology 75.4.1 Data and Survey A design research methodology, which is a scientific method and compendium of ancillary methods and guidelines, provides a configuration for undertaking design research [3]. Figure 75.1 lists information-analytical techniques as well as study objectives, research methods, and anticipated study outcomes. The suggested design research methodology (DRM) and its approaches are intended to enable a more thorough data analysis technique by assisting in the planning and execution of design research. Using the technique dynamically should improve the effectiveness and efficiency of design research.

75.4.2 Analysis Method The initial stride for developing space syntax through the city magnitude is comprehending the metropolitan picture in character of a collection of structures connected through a space vector traveling between elements. Each set of road lengths is by the system. The paradigm that binds everything together is the greatest way to bring

Fig. 75.1 Design research methodology (adapted from [3] and modified by the author

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Fig. 75.2 Map of main street of IIT, Hyderabad [6]

all ambitions to wide objectives within the geographical environment together. It has a particular rhythm or metamorphosis of connection [1].Turner [21] established visibility graph analysis to effectively represent the spatial characteristics of environmental spaces [19]. Contrary to map-like depictions of area, they are highly versatile. Graphs, on the other side, provide the dynamic encapsulation of statistical features. Hübner and Mallot [12] as well as the connection of nonspatial data such in the form of behavioral or temporal information [2]. In addition, graph architectures allow for the representation of inconsistencies and partial knowledge, which appear to be essential aspects in explaining various human geographical comprehension quantitative results [17]. Franz discussed a comprehensive survey, and graph-based spatial concepts in architectural and behavioral research are compared [5]. Many VR research has found that a virtual environment’s movement patterns can predict mobility patterns in a real-world urban setting [23]. We investigate Visibility’s Effect upon Human Movement utilizing these environmental variables. The authors use the main street between the hostels in the Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, as the case study (Fig. 75.2).

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75.5 Result and Discussion 75.5.1 General Description In research, significant discoveries are framed including an axial map and a link map. The authors reconstructed and analyzed these maps in the DepthmapX tool for spatial analysis. The authors documented the street (photographs) used for the 3D modeling using Google SketchUp with V-ray as the rendering tool. DepthMap, an open-source tool for studying the visibility of urban tissue, was used in this study. DepthMap allows researchers to analyze a variety of parameters (Table 75.1) which can be seen in Table 75.2.

75.5.2 Visibility Graph Analysis in Virtual Reality The paper investigates many characteristics determining the intensity of spatial interaction via researching the a component of the space’s cohesion is critical for determining the intensity of connectivity of an area [10]. The fundamental information in this study is in the form of a linking map and an axial map; thus, it was possible to

Table 75.1 Visibility graph analysis parameters S. No. Metric Characteristics 1. 2.

Harmonic mean depth Mean depth

3.

Integration [HH]

4.

Choice

5.

Intensity

6. 7.

Relativized entropy Entropy

8. 9.

Control Controllability

The mathematical average of depth inverses from one space to all others Over the course of one grid unit, the average depth measurement is computed The approach of Hillier and Hanson compares the visibility of all grid points in the region to the proportion of each matrix cell’s visibility. It also shows how near an axial line is to other lines from a topological perspective Over all axial lines, the distance spanned by an axial line. The quantity of smallest pathways connecting two axial lines is referred to as the quantity of shortest route Calculates the degree of entropy shift relative to total depth to identify the asymmetrical geographical system being examined A calculation of the depth value range to be expected The analysis of a grid unit’s and its neighbors’ depth parameters Visually distinguishing dominant zones Highlights places that may be easily examined while walking

75 Visualization Techniques for Visibility Graph Analysis … Table 75.2 Visibility graph analysis S. No. Metric 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Harmonic mean depth Mean depth Integration{[}HH{]} Choice Intensity Relativized entropy Entropy Control Controllability

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Value Low High Medium Medium Medium High High Medium Low

analyze them as visibility graph characteristics and use them as a base map in a 3D model. An axial line is a geometric path that travels across a physical arrangement and connects two edges [10]. Axis lines depict connections between sites such as streets and other open spaces. The analysis from Figs. 75.3, 75.4, 75.5, 75.6, 75.7, 75.8, 75.9, 75.10, 75.11, and Table 75.2 shows that the value of mean depth, relativized entropy, and entropy is high, whereas Harmonic mean depth and controllability have the lowest value. The visibility graph analysis of the Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, is high/medium. Thus, the paper aids in providing the visibility graph analysis of location and correlates visually through the 3D model using photographs, which helps create a visual more realistic for virtual reality. The paper also helps to provide a method to visualize visibility graph analysis in 3D model, which aids in better comprehension of analysis of the street while simultaneously making it more interactive for the user.

Fig. 75.3 Degree of choice in IIT, Hyderabad, through VR (Source Author)

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Fig. 75.4 Degree of mean depth in IIT, Hyderabad, through VR (Source Author)

Fig. 75.5 Degree of Harmonic mean depth in IIT, Hyderabad, through VR (Source Author)

Fig. 75.6 Degree of relativized entropy in IIT, Hyderabad, through VR (Source Author)

Fig. 75.7 Degree of entropy in IIT, Hyderabad, through VR (Source Author)

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Fig. 75.8 Degree of intensity in IIT, Hyderabad, through VR (Source Author)

Fig. 75.9 Degree of control in IIT, Hyderabad, through VR (Source Author)

Fig. 75.10 Degree of integration(HH) in IIT, Hyderabad, through VR (Source Author)

Fig. 75.11 Degree of controllability in IIT, Hyderabad, through VR (Source Author)

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75.6 Conclusion This study employs photographs to provide a syntactic space assessment of a street in virtual reality at the Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, to enhance visualization techniques and social involvement in urban planning. This method enables citizens by merging space syntax and virtual reality with images and other technology developments. The design approach starts with the creative work and then progresses to transforming ideas into actual buildings in architecture. Architects learn to formulate problems by picturing several solutions to the required spatial configurations. Architects benefit from a thorough understanding of architecture with this method. Space syntax aims to decode spatial structures and their repercussions on anthropogenic activity relying on the normative idea of space; the research demonstrates a technique for investigating and analyzing architecture using user interfaces that employ realistic digital technology and virtual reality technology. These virtual assessment tools contribute to the comprehension and diffusion of architecture. So, for innovations to be ubiquitous, they must unveil a user-friendly framework that an untrained viewer will find convenient and captivating, where space syntax in virtual reality combined with photographs provides such understanding while also increasing efficiency when constructing models for higher densities. The assessment of the visual coherence and mobility sequences uses qualitative analysis, while statistical analysis matches observed movement intervals with visual coherence levels. The Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad’s visibility graph analysis is high/medium. As a result, the article facilitates offering a visibility graph analysis of place and corresponds visually via a 3D model utilizing photographs, which benefits in creating a more accurate vision for virtual reality.

References 1. Al-Sayed, K., Turner, A., Hillier, B., Iida, S., Penn, A.: Space Syntax Methodology. UK, Bartlett School of Architecture, UCL, London (2014) 2. Arbib, M., Lieblich, I.: Motivational learning of spatial behavior. Syst. Neurosc. 221–239 (1977) 3. Blessing, L.T., Chakrabarti, A.: DRM: A Design Research Methodology. Springer (2009) 4. Emo, B., Hoelscher, C., Wiener, J., Dalton, R.: Wayfinding and spatial configuration: evidence from street corners (2012) 5. Franz, G., von der Heyde, M., Bülthoff, H.H.: Predicting experiential qualities of architecture by its spatial properties. In: 18th International Association for People-Environment Studies (IAPS 2004). Hogrefe, pp. 157–166 (2005) 6. Google Earth: The map of Main street of I.I.T Hyderabad (2022). https://earth.google.com 7. Guski, R., Schuemer, R.: ‘Umweltevaluation’, Lantermann and V. Linneweber (Hrsg.). Umweltpsychologie 1, 785–810 (2008) 8. Hillier, B.: Cities as movement economies. Urban Des. Int. 1(1), 41–60 (1996) 9. Hillier, B.: Centrality as a process: accounting for attraction inequalities in deformed grids. Urban Des. Int. 4(3), 107–127 (1999) 10. Hillier, B.: Space is the machine: a configurational theory of architecture. Space Syntax (2007)

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11. Hillier, B., Penn, A., Hanson, J., Grajewski, T., Xu, J.: Natural movement: or, configuration and attraction in urban pedestrian movement. Environ. Plann. B: Plann. Des. 20(1), 29–66 (1993) 12. Hübner, W., Mallot, H.A.: Integration of metric place relations in a landmark graph. In: International Conference on Artificial Neural Networks. Springer, pp. 825–830 (2002) 13. Karimi, K.: Evidence-informed and analytical methods in urban design (2012) 14. Karimi, K.: The shifting paradigm of space syntax research and its future prospects: a reflection on the 10th international space syntax symposium in london, 2015. J. Space Syntax 6(2), 275– 278 (2016) 15. Klarqvist, B.: A space syntax glossary. NA 6(2) (2015) 16. Lerman, Y., Rofè, Y., Omer, I.: Using space syntax to model pedestrian movement in urban transportation planning. Geograph. Anal. 46(4), 392–410 (2014) 17. Mallot, H.A., Gillner, S.: Route navigating without place recognition: what is recognised in recognition-triggered responses? Perception 29(1), 43–55 (2000) 18. McNally, M.G.: The four-step model. Emerald Group Publishing Limited (2007) 19. Montello, D.R.: Scale and multiple psychologies of space. In: European Conference on Spatial Information Theory, pp. 312–321. Springer (1993) 20. Schneider, S., Kuliga, S., Hölscher, C., Conroy-Dalton, R., Kunert, A., Kulik, A., Donath, D.: Educating architecture students to design buildings from the inside out. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Space Syntax Symposium, pp. 363–75 (2013) 21. Turner, A., Doxa, M., O’sullivan, D., Penn, A.: From isovists to visibility graphs: a methodology for the analysis of architectural space. Environ. Plann. B: Plann. Des. 28(1), 103–121 (2001) 22. Werner, S., Schindler, L.E.: The role of spatial reference frames in architecture: misalignment impairs way-finding performance. Environ. Behav. 36(4), 461–482 (2004) 23. Yuan, S., Song, S., Zhang, Y.: Experimental research in urban spatial cognition by using virtual reality technology. Athens J. Technol. Eng. 1(1), 19–32 (2014)

Chapter 76

Projection Mapping on Building Facade Using Augmented Reality Tejas Pawar , Aman Sharma , and Shiva Ji

Abstract Projection mapping and augmented reality are evolving in the tourism sector and helping tourists interpret and understand tourist sites. These experiential features of these two technologies provide an immersive experience to visitors while keeping them engaged within the places where they can relate to the structure. Projection mapping has replaced the sound and light which show at different heritage sites by enhancing the experience. The limitation of projection mapping is that tourists can experience it for a limited duration at night time only when the projected graphics are clearly visible on the building façade. Augmented reality is proved to be the best experiential technology for individual sightseeing experiences. Its easy access, availability, and ease of use are engaging more people towards this feature. In this paper, the author focuses on integrating these two technologies where visitors can experience the projection mapping with the help of augmented reality on their mobile devices. Here, in this paper, the residential building is documented, and the methodology is explained for documentation of the structure as well as to develop an app for android phones where it can detect the façade and show motion graphics on it.

76.1 Introduction The majority of phones today support immersive media applications that integrate photos, videos, three-dimensional data, and audio in real time. Augmented reality (AR) is a rapidly developing technology that enables the visualisation of real and T. Pawar (B) · A. Sharma · S. Ji Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana 502284, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Sharma e-mail: [email protected] S. Ji e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_76

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virtual hybrid worlds. The latter term refers to all types of multimedia goods that are utilised to improve or supplement the real world [1]. One of the technologies that cover all aspects of reality, including physical reality, augmented reality, enhanced virtuality, and virtual reality, is known as mixed reality. The term “mixed reality” refers to a setting in which both actual and virtual components coexist and communicate with one another [2]. A combination of projection mapping and augmented reality increases the personal involvement when visiting a historic site; visitors are immersed in the experience by strolling around, gazing at, and feeling the environment [3]. To help visitors better understand the history of a site, such as a museum or historical site that has few tangible artefacts, audio tours, brochures and tour guides are useful [3]. This research focuses on developing an augmented realitybased solution for projection mapping with the help of photogrammetry, where one can experience the augmented objects/videos directly on the building facades using their mobile devices.

76.1.1 Photogrammetry Architectural heritage documentation is easier and more accurate with the help of photogrammetry and Lidar scans. Using a combination of analogue and digital photographs, the science and art of photogrammetry extract precise threedimensional measurements and detailed descriptions of objects [4]. In this technique, photographs of monuments are taken, which helps build a 3D model out of it. The objective of photogrammetry is to extract information about an object’s size, shape, placement, and texture from pictures [4]. The three-dimensional digitisation of existing monuments can be supported by a variety of approaches, including direct manual measurement, instrumental surveying, laser scanning, and photogrammetry [5]. In this research, photogrammetry was used to get the orthographic elevation of the building façade, which can be used as an image tracker for the augmented reality app.

76.1.2 Augmented Reality Augmented reality is the technique of putting virtual objects in physical space. It helps people to visualise informative graphics in the real world to which they can relate. This technology gives an immersive experience which is in real-time and real space [6]. Virtual reality and augmented reality applications have become practical in diverse fields such as modelling, teaching, recreation, medical, and gaming as a result of increases in computational speed and advancements in specific computer technology [2]. Augmented reality is based on a tracking system where it can identify a physical space or image trackers [7]. Here, in this research, augmented reality app

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is based on an image tracker system where it detects an orthographical elevation generated using photogrammetry and augments video on it.

76.1.3 Projection Mapping Projection mapping, a large consumer of hardware and software resources in information technology that is closely related to augmented reality, has the potential to be utilised in digital and connected manufacturing [8]. Realistic three-dimensional projection mapping comprised the projection of pictures (light) and augmented digital imagery onto physical objects [1]. It gives the tourists a memorable experience in which the building façade itself becomes their canvas or screen on which they can see the stories associated with the structure [1].

76.2 Methodology In the projection mapping application for augmented reality, the video was augmented onto the building facade. The building which was chosen is the Traditional House of Kalabgoor Village, Telangana. The traditional house was selected due to its exceptional condition and attention to detail, which makes it an exquisite example of traditional architecture in the state of Telangana. Primary data were collected to build photogrammetric model and graphics were produced to project on the surface, and at the end, augmented reality app was created which detects the building façade as an image tracker, and then, app was tested on-site.

76.2.1 Photogrammetric Data A DJI Mini 2 drone equipped with a high-resolution, precision camera was utilised to photograph the maximum surface area of the house. In photographs, shadows prevent the accurate capture of texture. To avoid strong shadows, a gloomy day was selected for photography. The desired weather offered excellent texture detail. The entire procedure was finished in a single day. Figures 76.1 and 76.2 depict an example of photographs taken for this study. The following are the camera properties for these photographs: Drone model: DJI Mini 2, sensor: 1/2.3 CMOS, effective pixels: 12 MP. Lens: FOV: 83° 35 mm format equivalent: 24 mm, aperture: f/2.8, focus range: 1 m–∞, frame rate: 30 fps.

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Fig. 76.1 Data processing and methodology. Source Author

Fig. 76.2 Drone photograph. Source Author

The 3D model was rebuilt using RealityCapture software using the raw data acquired, and the point cloud file and ortho elevation were generated, as shown in Figs. 76.3 and 76.4. Texture enhancement was done so that model gets true colours and will be easier to put as an image tracker. Floral ornamentation graphics, as shown in Fig. 76.5, were generated for projection mapping. Figure 76.6 shows video with a green and black background, which was used for projection.

76.2.2 Augmented Reality App Development App development is done using unity software, in which an image-based tracker was introduced. Figure 76.4 is used as an image tracker, which is an orthographical

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Fig. 76.3 Photogrammetry point cloud data. Source Author

Fig. 76.4 Orthographic elevation generated from photogrammetry model. Source Author

elevation of the building façade. Proportions were maintained, and visual graphics were created using the same canvas size as the image tracker. To place the video on a specific part of the façade, we made the video which has a green screen or monochrome overlay, as shown in Fig. 76.6. To remove the green screen, a chroma key shader was applied to the material, and the particular colour of the video was eliminated from the video.

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Fig. 76.5 Floral ornamentation graphics. Source Author

Fig. 76.6 Video with green screen and monochrome overlay. Source Author

76.2.3 On-Site Application Testing This app managed to detect the original façade through given input in the image tracker. Also, in real time, it eliminated the monochrome background of the video layer, and transparent background-less was augmented on the façade. Proportions of the video were maintained, as shown in Figs. 76.7 and 76.8.

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Fig. 76.7 On-site testing of app with an augmented projection on building. Source Author

Fig. 76.8 On-site testing of app with an augmented projection on building. Source Author

76.3 Results and Analysis In this research, we studied the possibilities of projection mapping using augmented reality to enhance user experience on heritage sites. The structure’s façade was used to project various graphical elements using an augmented reality app which depicts the culture. Photogrammetry helped to develop an orthoimage of façade elevation, which has been put as an image tracker. This image tracker also detects the original building façade and maintains the camera’s proportions and perspective vision and shows its graphics. To have background-free and canvas-free video, we used chroma key shader, due to which this application only shows the background-free video and animation on the building façade.

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76.4 Conclusion There are multiple possibilities to showcase the information about heritage on façade walls; using this technique gives you a live synchronised display on the façade, which can be used as an augmented reality guide. This same methodology can be used to visualise the conjectural models of missing parts of building elements, and we can also virtually recreate the iconography, wall tiles, mosaics, patterns, and motifs on the building façade which is destroyed. Acknowledgements This work is carried out under the research project titled "Creating Digital Heritage of Representative Architectural Marvels from Each State of Northeast India", PI: Dr. Shiva Ji, IIT Hyderabad, India, funded by Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, under ICPS/IHDSR scheme.

References 1. Jung, S., Biocca, F., Lee, D.: Effect of 3D projection mapping art: digital surrealism. In: Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics), vol. 9179, pp. 361–367 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-319-21067-4_37 2. Noh, Z., Sunar, M. S., Pan, Z.: A review on augmented reality for virtual heritage system. In: Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics), vol. 5670 LNCS, pp. 50–61 (2009). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-642-03364-3_7 3. Maples, D.H., Dima, D.M.: Affectual dramaturgy for augmented reality immersive heritage performance. Body, Space Technol. 20(1), 25–36 (2021). https://doi.org/10.16995/bst.368 4. AL-Ruzouq, R.: Photogrammetry for Archaeological Documentation and Cultural Heritage Conservation. In: Special Applications of Photogrammetry, InTech (2012). https://doi.org/10. 5772/35314 5. Portalés, C., Pérez, C.: Photogrammetry and Augmented Reality for Cultural Heritage Applications 6. Portalés, C., Lerma, J.L., Navarro, S.: Augmented reality and photogrammetry: a synergy to visualize physical and virtual city environments. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote. Sens. 65(1), 134–142 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ISPRSJPRS.2009.10.001 7. Adhani, N.I., Rohaya, D., Rambli, A.: A Survey of Mobile Augmented Reality Applications. 8. Schmitt, D., Thébault, M., Burczykowski, L.: Production and Dissemination (2020) [Online]. Available: http://industriedufutur.fim.net/

Chapter 77

A Bibliometric Analysis of Research in VR and Haptics Saptarshi Samanta , Sharmistha Banerjee , and Pankaj Upadhyay

Abstract The applications and uses of virtual reality (VR) and haptics are expanding at an accelerating rate. Several use cases have already emerged beyond providing entertainment and passive experiences. With the increased importance of haptics in VR, research in this area is growing at a steady pace. In this paper, we use a bibliometric analysis method to identify the most relevant areas of research in the domain of VR and haptics, and how this research has evolved over time. We also identified the most impactful publications in VR and haptics with the aid of this analytical method. The paper establishes the continual importance of research in haptic devices and haptic interfaces and user experience since its inception. The field of medical science was identified as the earliest adopter of VR and haptic technology and had several research publications related to its applications. Tactile Internet, remote teleoperation, and remote rehabilitation were identified as potential new areas of research in VR and haptic sensing and feedback systems.

77.1 Introduction The concepts of virtual reality (VR) and haptic sensing and feedback have been around for more than two decades. However, with the advent of the metaverse, Web3, and faster internet connections, we see an uptick in the number of publications in this field. From the Web of science (WoS) database alone, our analysis revealed that the number of publications in VR and haptics has been growing at 19% since 1994. The application of VR and haptic sensing and feedback technology extends far beyond the domain of entertainment. Its application in rehabilitation and other medical fields is well documented. In order to understand the scope and extent of the research in VR and haptics, we performed a bibliometric analysis of all related publications identified from the WoS database. Through this analysis, we answer the following research questions: S. Samanta (B) · S. Banerjee · P. Upadhyay Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_77

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• Which are the most relevant areas of research in the domain of VR and haptics? • How has the research in VR and haptics evolved? • Which publications have had the most impact in the identified research field? Literature about bibliometric analysis on research work in VR and haptic sensing and feedback is available. However, we did not find any bibliometric analysis in which VR and haptic sensing and feedback were taken in conjunction.

77.2 Methodology The WoS database was used to search for relevant literature. The keywords were selected to avoid eliminating pertinent literature and capture the maximum possible relevant literature. The primary search string used was “(VR OR “Virtual Reality”) AND haptic*.” This search yielded 1446 articles, review articles, proceedings papers, early access, and book chapters. We read through the title and abstract to identify relevant literature, resulting in the selection of 1139 documents. We performed a bibliometric analysis to analyze the selected literature as the volume of literature is large. We used the VoS viewer software [1] for visualization and aid in the bibliometric analysis. Thus, the data can be effectively analyzed to highlight the areas of relevance, the evolution of the domain, and the impact of the research. We performed science mapping (citation analysis, co-citation analysis, bibliographic coupling, and co-word analysis) on the bibliometric data [2] to examine the relationships between the different research papers and generate insights. Citation analysis helped to identify which publications have the highest impact in the domain. Co-citation analysis aided in determining the relationships between different publications and the broad research areas. Bibliographic coupling analysis and coword (co-occurrence) analysis helped us identify specific research areas and their evolution over time.

77.3 Results and Discussion 77.3.1 Citation Analysis Citation analysis is used for analyzing the relationships between publications by identifying which publication has the most impact in a research field [2]. We performed the citation analysis with VoS Viewer. We set 10 as the minimum number of citations for a document while performing the analysis. 540 documents out of the 1139 shortlisted documents met the above-mentioned threshold. The analysis revealed connections between 394 documents out of the 540 that met the minimum citation threshold. We display these 394 documents in the VoS Viewer analysis in Fig. 77.1.

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Fig. 77.1 Mapping the citation analysis (VoS viewer)

The analysis reveals that the publication by Perry et al. [3] has the most influence in the domain and has been cited the most number of times. This is evident from the size of the bubble in the analysis and the links of most research work to it. The work done by them focuses on building an exoskeleton or wearable robotic device for the human arm. Its potential uses are in the areas of neurorehabilitation, as an assistive device or a haptic device in VR. This wide area of application of the research done could be one of the reasons for its high citation. The number of citations has been increasing over the years. It is verified from the citation analysis of this publication in the WoS database. We can infer that this work is a seminal paper. Table 77.1 captures the top 5 most cited research, the area of research, and the total number of citations. From Table 77.1, we observe two distinct research themes. One research theme deals with wearable haptic devices, haptic interfaces, and force feedback. The other Table 77.1 Top 5 cited authors based on the total number of citations Author and year Area of research

Total number of citations

[3]

Rehabilitation, wearable robotics, wearable haptic 568 devices, exoskeleton design

[4]

Rehabilitation, haptic device, VR

418

[5]

Force feedback, haptic interface, VR

402

[6]

Haptic device, haptic feedback, VR

315

[7]

Surgical simulation and training, haptic feedback, VR

290

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Fig. 77.2 Mapping the normalized citation analysis (VoS viewer)

theme deals with the application of VR and haptics in the domain of medical rehabilitations and surgical simulation and training. We performed a normalized citation analysis to remove older publications’ advantages. The normalized citation analysis revealed interesting results (Fig. 77.2). Yu et al. [8] is identified as the author with the highest impact in the domain. Even though the paper was published in 2019, it has already been cited 257 times. From Fig. 77.2, it is also evident that [3] still significantly impacts the domain of VR and haptics in the normalized citation analysis. Yu et al. [8] has focused on skin-integrated haptic interfaces for VR and augmented reality. This might indicate that skin-integrated haptic devices and interfaces may be the next step in research related to wearable haptic devices and haptic interfaces in the context of VR. Another interesting insight is that wearable haptic devices for VR applications are an area of significant research interest.

77.3.2 Co-citation Analysis We performed a co-citation analysis to analyze and understand the relationships between cited publications and how the core themes developed in the domain of VR and haptics [2]. We used Vos Viewer to perform the co-citation analysis with “cited sources” as the unit of analysis. The choice of this unit of analysis helped in forming clearly defined clusters and helped identify the prevalent core themes. We set the

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minimum number of citations for a source as 10, resulting in the selection of 644 sources. The analysis resulted in the identification of 5 thematics clusters shown in Fig. 77.3. The five thematic clusters and their core themes are listed in Table 77.2. Cluster 1 is the largest cluster in the co-citation analysis and indicates that a significant amount of research is being done in the domain of haptic feedback systems and related interfaces in the context of VR. If we look at cluster 2 and cluster 3 together, we can conclude that in the field of medicine, VR and haptic feedback systems have a significant amount of application-oriented research in the areas of endoscopic surgery, brain, and neurology, medical education, and training and rehabilitation. Cluster 4 deals with the materials and sensors used to make haptic systems. Cluster 5 deals with communication technology associated with VR and haptic feedback systems.

Fig. 77.3 Co-citation analysis identified five broad research areas in VR and haptics (VoS viewer)

Table 77.2 Clusters identified from co-citation analysis Cluster

Cluster color Core theme

Cluster 1 Red

Haptics, haptic interfaces, robotics, teleoperation, and presence

Cluster 2 Green

Brain and neurology, medical rehabilitation, neuropsychology

Cluster 3 Blue

Endoscopic surgery, bio-medical engineering, medical education, and training

Cluster 4 Yellow

Materials, sensors

Cluster 5 Purple

Communication, IoT, electronics

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77.3.3 Bibliographic Coupling We performed a bibliographic coupling analysis to understand how the thematic clusters identified in the co-citation analysis evolved and the current status of research on those themes. We used Vos Viewer to do the bibliographic coupling analysis. Ten thematic clusters emerged from this analysis which is graphically represented in Fig. 77.4 and detailed in Table 77.3. In Table 77.3, we have captured the main research themes of each cluster in the context of VR and haptics. The earliest publication related to VR and haptics emerged in 1995 [15]. This article was the first to talk about combining tactile and kinesthetic feedback with haptic devices and VR to realize the full potential of VR. The research theme of cluster 1, as shown in Table 77.3, is one most active research areas in VR and haptics and has the highest number of research articles. Cluster 1 primarily deals with user experience in the context of VR and haptics as well as wearable haptic devices. Clusters 2, 4, 6, 7, and 8 are concerned with VR’s application in the medical science domain, particularly with training and simulation. Research related to the application of haptics and VR emerged around the early 2000s, and the medical field was one of the earliest adopters of the technology. This also indicates that research related to the application of VR and haptics for medical science is a mature field. Another interesting insight is that the origins of wearable haptics may lie in robotics or assistive robotics, as the earliest papers related to the matter seem to relate haptic devices to robotics. Cluster 10 seems to have become dormant as no publications related to that domain were visible after 1998. The broad research themes in VR and haptics that emerge from the bibliographic coupling analysis are immersive VR, haptic devices, haptic interfaces, medical education, training and simulation, HCI, and technical training and simulation. We perform a co-word analysis in the next

Fig. 77.4 Bibliographic coupling analysis revealed ten thematic clusters (VoS viewer)

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Table 77.3 Research themes identified from the ten clusters of bibliographic coupling analysis Cluster

Year range of publications

Research themes

Publications with high impact

Cluster 1 (212 items)

1995–2022

Immersive VR, haptic feedback, wearable haptic devices, user experience in VR

[9]—128 citations

Cluster 2 (143 items)

2000–2022

Medical education, surgical simulation, and training

[10]—143 citations

Cluster 3 (142 items)

1997–2022

Haptic interfaces, teleoperation, haptic devices, HCI, robotics

[5]—402 citation

Cluster 4 (116 items)

2001–2021

Endoscopy and laparoscopy surgical simulation and training, orthopedic surgery, and simulation

[7]—288 citations

Cluster 5 (114 items)

2004–2022

Tactile haptic systems, tactile Internet, sensors, and materials for haptic devices

[8]—255 citations

Cluster 6 (102 items)

2003–2022

Medical rehabilitation

[3]—567 citations

Cluster 7 (94 items)

1998–2022

Medical training and simulation, virtual soft surfaces, and deformable objects

[11]—180 citations

Cluster 8 (43 items)

2003–2020

Palpation simulation [12]—245 citations using VR and haptics, veterinary applications of VR and haptics

Cluster 9 (32 items)

2004–2020

Technical training and simulation, education

[13]—51 citations

Cluster 10 (2 items)

1996–1998

Modeling related to chemistry

[14]–12 citations

section to identify the most prevalent research areas related to the above-identified research themes.

77.3.4 Co-word Analysis A co-word or co-occurrence analysis is used to explore the existing or potential relationships between various topics in a research field. This analysis is usually done by analyzing the written content of the publications. We performed a co-occurrence

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Fig. 77.5 Co-occurrence or co-word analysis of author keywords resulted in ten clusters (VoS viewer)

analysis using Vos Viewer on the author keywords for the selected literature. The minimum occurrence for an author keyword was set as 5. The analysis resulted in 10 thematic clusters, as shown in Fig. 77.5. The most prevalent research themes that emerge from this analysis are VR, haptics, haptic interfaces, force feedback, haptic feedback, simulation, surgical simulation, training, and rehabilitation. In Table 77.4, we have captured the main research theme emerging from each cluster. The research themes that emerged from cluster 1 were related to the application of VR and haptic systems in medical science. The research themes of clusters 2 and 3 deal with haptic interfaces and interaction methods. In clusters 4 and 5, the research themes revolve around the overall user experience from interaction with objects in VR. Haptic devices are the focus of research in cluster 6, while cluster 7 focuses on the various feedback mechanisms associated with haptic devices. Clusters 8, 9, and 10 seem to be relatively newer research themes in the domain of VR and haptic sensing and feedback devices.

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Table 77.4 Clusters of most prominent research themes identified by co-occurrence analysis Cluster number

Research theme

Cluster 1

Simulation, surgical simulation, medical education, training

Cluster 2

Haptic interfaces, force, grasping, actuators, soft robotics

Cluster 3

Haptic interaction, teleoperation, human–robot interaction, robotics, dentistry

Cluster 4

HCI, user experience, collision detection, deformable objects

Cluster 5

Immersive VR, virtual environments, passive haptics, presence

Cluster 6

Haptic devices, force control, rehabilitation, wearable robotics

Cluster 7

Tactile feedback, kinesthetic feedback, human–machine interface

Cluster 8

Virtual assembly, virtual prototyping

Cluster 9

Augmented reality, mixed reality, tactile Internet

Cluster 10

Haptic i/o, modeling

77.4 Conclusion The bibliometric analysis of the 1139 shortlisted documents revealed several interesting insights about the status of research in VR and haptic sensing and feedback systems. The citation analysis revealed that [3] was the most cited article and was thus having the most impact. Its citations have steadily increased over the years despite being published long ago. The paper talks about wearable robotics or wearable haptic as it is now referred to today. Its growing citation indicates that wearable haptic devices in the context of VR are an important area of research and is still growing. The normalized citation analysis indicated that the work of [8] has the highest impact. Yu et al. [8] work is on skin-integrated haptic interfaces for VR and augmented reality. This probably indicates that the research into wearable haptics is now complementing functionality with a user-centric approach. We identified five core research themes through the co-citation analysis (refer to Table. 77.2). From Table 77.2, we can break down the core research themes into two categories. The first category would be associated with research about haptic devices, materials and sensors, and interfaces in the context of VR. The second category would deal more with research about the application of VR and haptic sensing and feedback technology in fields like medical science or communication technology. The bibliographic coupling analysis helped interpret how the research in VR and haptic sensing and feedback technology evolved. The initial research focused on haptic devices and interfaces and the overall user experience in VR, and it is still an important area of research at present. The analysis also revealed that the medical science field was one of the earliest adopters of the technology of VR and haptic devices. Due to the early adoption of this technology by the medical science field, there has also been focused research on the application of this technology in specific areas of medical science. This fact can be inferred from the bibliographic coupling analysis. While there has been research on the application of VR and haptic feedback systems in other domains, it has not been as detailed and focused as the research by the medical science domain.

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However, there seems to be a growing interest in research in applying this technology in other areas, but its extent is still not completely known. The co-occurrence analysis of the author keywords revealed VR, haptics, haptic interfaces, force feedback, haptic feedback, simulation, surgical simulation, training, and rehabilitation as important focus areas of research in the context of VR and haptic sensing and feedback devices. From the bibliometric analysis, we have been able to establish research in haptic devices and interfaces, the immersive experience of VR, and applications of VR and haptic feedback systems as the most relevant areas of research. However, with improving Internet speeds and communication technology, we may see increasing research in the areas of tactile Internet, remote teleoperation, and remote rehabilitation.

Bibliography 1. Centre for Science and Technology Studies LU. The Netherlands: VoSviewer—Visualising scientific landscape. https://www.vosviewer.com/. Accessed 12 April 2022 2. Donthu, N., Kumar, S., Mukherjee, D., Pandey, N., Lim, W.M.: How to conduct a bibliometric analysis: an overview and guidelines. J. Bus. Res. 133, 285–296 (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.jbusres.2021.04.070 3. Perry, J.C., Rosen, J., Bums, S.: Upper-limb powered exoskeleton design. Ieee-Asme Trans. Mechatron. 12(4), 408–417 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1109/tmech.2007.901934 4. Jack, D., Boian, R., Merians, A.S., Tremaine, M., Burdea, G.C., Adamovich, S.V., et al.: Virtual reality-enhanced stroke rehabilitation. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 9(3), 308–318 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1109/7333.948460 5. Adams, R.J., Hannaford, B.: Stable haptic interaction with virtual environments. IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom. 15(3), 465–474 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1109/70.768179 6. Bouzit, M., Burdea, G., Popescu, G., Boian, R.: The rutgers master II—new design forcefeedback glove. Ieee-Asme Trans. Mechatron. 7(2), 256–263 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1109/ tmech.2002.1011262 7. van der Meijden, O.A.J., Schijven, M.P.: The value of haptic feedback in conventional and robot-assisted minimal invasive surgery and virtual reality training: a current review. Surg. Endosc. Other Interv. Tech. 23(6), 1180–1190 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00464-0080298-x 8. Yu, X.G., Xie, Z.Q., Yu. Y., Lee. J., Vazquez-Guardado, A., Luan. H.W., et al.: Skin-integrated wireless haptic interfaces for virtual and augmented reality. Nature. 575(7783), 473–+ (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1687-0 9. Lecuyer, A.: Simulating haptic feedback using vision: a survey of research and applications of pseudo-haptic feedback. Presence-Teleoperators Virtual Environ. 18(1), 39–53 (2009). https:// doi.org/10.1162/pres.18.1.39 10. Lemole, G.M., Banerjee, P.P., Luciano, C., Neckrysh, S., Charbel, F.T.: Virtual reality in neurosurgical education: part-task ventriculostomy simulation with dynamic visual and haptic feedback. Neurosurgery 61(1), 142–148 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1227/01.neu.0000279734.229 31.21 11. Basdogan, C., Ho, C.H., Srinivasan, M.A.: Virtual environments for medical training: graphical and haptic simulation of laparoscopic common bile duct exploration. Ieee-Asme Trans. Mechatron. 6(3), 269–285 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1109/3516.951365 12. Coles, T.R., Meglan, D., John, N.W.: The role of haptics in medical training simulators: a survey of the state of the art. IEEE Trans. Haptics 4(1), 51–66 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1109/ ToH.2010.19

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13. Xia, P.J., Lopes, A.M., Restivo, M.T., Yao, Y.X.: A new type haptics-based virtual environment system for assembly training of complex products. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 58(1–4), 379–396 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-011-3381-8 14. Cruz-Neira, C., Langley, R., Bash, P.A.: Interactive molecular modeling with virtual reality and empirical energy simulations. SAR QSAR Environ. Res. 9(1–2), 39–51 (1998). https:// doi.org/10.1080/10629369808039148 15. Taylor, P.: Tactile and kinaesthetic feedback in virtual environments. Trans. Inst. Meas. Control. 17(5), 225–233 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1177/014233129501700502

Chapter 78

Insider–Insider Observations and Reflections from the Director, Cast, and Crew of Table for Two—A Parallel Interactive Narrative in Virtual Reality Delwyn Jude Remedios, Deepak John Mathew, and Max Scheleser Abstract This study reflects on the design and development processes of parallel interactive narratives in virtual reality (PIN VR) using an insider–insider practicebased research method. The outcome of this research is a PIN VR experience Table for Two. This experience is a one-shot motion picture captured simultaneously through three 360-degree cameras. It interconnects selected genres such as romance, supernatural fiction, and drama in a café. The user of such an experience is addressed as a navigator, as she is expected to teleport between genres to interconnect the parallel narratives. This study extends Aronson’s research on parallel narrative in cinema. It is evident that VR is one of the emerging technologies in the Industry 4.0 landscape. Cinematic VR (CVR) offers the possibility for the navigator to step into the frame and experience a 360-degree immersive environment. This radical transformation has led to challenges in the CVR production process. This questions the conventional grammar of cinema, role of cinema crew members, and how these roles could alter as per CVR and PIN VR. An insider–insider approach enables a discussion based on the reflections and observations of participants within the study. This perspective is significant to understanding PIN VR production processes through the lens of practitioners. A survey shared with the cast and crew addresses the new challenges and experiences encountered in Table for Two production. This study informs the narrative innovations, possibilities, and production challenges in designing and developing for VR narratives.

D. J. Remedios (B) · D. J. Mathew Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Kandi, India e-mail: [email protected] M. Scheleser Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Australia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_78

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78.1 Introduction Virtual reality (VR) is one of the emerging technologies that is advancing the Industry 4.0 landscape. Several conversations on Industry 4.0 have focused on the Internet of things (IoT), automation, and artificial intelligence (AI); however, lockdown restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic have led to a rise in interest and possibilities of VR [1]. Research on VR has primarily focused on the technological capabilities; on the contrary, there is limited research on the theoretical possibilities that additionally contribute to drive VR technology forward [2]. This research addresses the theoretical limitations by exploring narrative innovations in VR. Cinematic VR (CVR) [3] is one of the leading factors in the development of novel narrative, production, distribution, and exhibition formats [4]. CVR is transforming narrative and cinematic experiences [3, 5]. An advantage of CVR is that the viewer can step inside the frame, thereby opening a 360-degree immersive experience. This radical shift has led to queries if the established methods of cinema production would be applicable for CVR production. It is argued that CVR requires a new analysis and explorations from the perspective of narratives and production [6]. Furthermore, recent studies [7] propose that a VR experience creator should discover new approaches to narration in VR. There has been substantial research which has focused on filmic grammar to guide viewers to look at intended areas in a VR environment [8, 9]; however, it is argued that a VR experience should give the viewer the freedom to choose her own viewing direction [7]. This study explores viewer freedom through parallel interactive narratives in virtual reality (PIN VR). PIN VR is further detailed through a case study titled Table for Two. This paper discusses the conceptualization and production processes followed to design the narrative experience. An insider–insider practice-based research method has been adopted to gather the perspective from key production contributors of this experience such as the director/researcher, cast, and crew. The future scope of the study will examine the viewers’ experience of Table for Two. In this paper, the cast and crew members’ feedback are reported through observations, self-reflections, and a survey which will be used to formulate a discussion that informs the development of PIN VR experiences.

78.2 Parallel Interactive Narratives in Virtual Reality Parallel interactive narratives in virtual reality (PIN VR) are narrative experiences where a navigator can teleport from one narrative location to the next, while the remaining narratives run in parallel [10]. In this description, the viewer is addressed as a navigator due to the interactive role, they perform within the narrative experience. The navigator teleports by gaze selection of pinpoint areas defined in the VR environment. The unique attributes of a PIN VR experience are that the parallel

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narratives take place at the same time, and each parallel narrative will unfold irrespective of the navigator’s presence or absence. As the navigator would miss out on certain narratives due to their teleportation choices, it is envisioned that they would be encouraged to re-navigate the experience to identify the interconnections between the parallel stories. This study is an extension of Linda Aronson’s research on parallel narratives [11]. Aronson describes parallel narratives as. Several separate narratives running in parallel often involving non-linearity, time-jumps, large cast or all of these.

Aronson’s definition of parallel narratives is specific to cinema. However, many aspects such as non-linearity, time-jumps, and large casts are applicable in VR. Table for Two excludes non-linearity and time-jumps but explores large cast and narratives running in parallel. Here, the navigator’s teleportation choices alter their viewing perspective of the narrative. Aronson further identifies six forms of parallel narrative structures in cinema such as tandem narratives, multiple protagonist narrative, double journey narrative, flashback, consecutive stories, and fractured tandem [12]. These forms are applicable to literature as well. In cinema and literature, the parallel narratives are represented in different timelines within a film or a book. On the other hand, PIN VR has the potential to represent parallel narratives in real time. While each of these forms offer a unique representation of parallel narrative, Aronson states that there is a possibility to encounter hybrids within these forms as observed in cinema and literature. Similarly in PIN VR, Table for Two is an example of a hybrid between a tandem narrative and a multiple protagonist narrative. While Aronson’s work is limited to the context of cinema, this paper investigates the potential of Aronson’s parallel narrative structures and their applications in VR. Parallel narratives are emerging in VR experiences [13–15]; however, more experiments and knowledge about the production processes and navigation experience can contribute to expansion of these narratives in VR. For this reason, a practice-based research method is applied to develop a creative artifact titled Table for Two as a case study of PIN VR.

78.3 Table for Two Table for Two is a one-shot PIN VR experience that depicts conversations spread across three tables in an urban café. Each conversation represents selected genres such as romance, supernatural fiction, and drama. These conversations have interconnections between the events and characters at each table. This experience is captured simultaneously with three 360-degree cameras. The events in the café are taking place after the initial pandemic lockdown. The romance genre includes a couple meeting on a date. While they have been chatting online for several months during the pandemic, their encounter in the café plays a significant role to unfold the potential of their relationship. The supernatural genre shows a woman who hallucinates tragic events which occur shortly after her visions. She is distressed with these events

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and is meeting her friend, who has previously experienced such hallucinations. The drama table shows a freelance photographer who is preparing for a business meeting with his client. The photographer has recently lost his job during the pandemic, due to which, he is nervously awaiting this encounter. A waiter in the café is used as a mediator to interact with all characters in the café, therefore inviting the navigator to teleport from one narrative to another. Aronson describes a tandem narrative as equally important stories within the same theme. These stories run simultaneously at the same geographical area, with action jumping between stories. Table for Two is a tandem narrative as each genre takes place simultaneously, within theme of the pandemic. Here, each character is considered equally important; therefore, it is also considered a multiple protagonist narrative. The navigator is given the freedom to move from one table to the other. They decide which character is the protagonist, however, the characters, events in the café, and plot remain unchanged, irrespective of where the navigator is located. Therefore, the navigator’s choices will affect the viewing perspective of the narrative and not the events occurring in the café. This aspect of navigation within the narrative and simultaneously stories add novelty to experiment with parallel narratives in VR. The established guidelines of film grammar would limit the representation of PIN VR, due to which, adjustments were required in the production process of Table for Two. This led to unique methods which prescribe a new PIN VR grammar.

78.4 Summary of the Pre-production and Production Process for Table for Two User experience is the prime focus of most design activities. Similarly, the production of Table for Two was designed with a focus on the navigation experience such as teleportation, spatial experience, and perspective shifts within a parallel narrative in VR. The conceptualization of Table for Two began in a writers’ room, where it was discussed that a café environment would be a suitable space to experiment with multiple genres and parallel narratives. Identifying the space was a key point for navigation experience. After identifying the location, an extensive exploration was conducted with script writing approaches for Table for Two. Explorations such as a traditional script format, a tabular format, and a spherical display were presented to the cast and crew members. The limitations of these formats resulted in the development of a rotating cylindrical PIN VR display as shown in Fig. 78.1a, b [10]. The PIN VR display represented three scripts in parallel to the cast and crew. The cylindrical form of the display enabled the production members to understand the concept of Table for Two in a clear manner as well as rotate the display to interconnect the parallel timelines in the plot. Multiple studies on VR suggest that VR can draw references from theater productions as there are many similarities between these experiences [6, 17, 18]. As Table for Two is a one-shot ten-minute experience, casting talent experienced with theatrical performances would be more suitable to

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Fig. 78.1 a Director describing the script to the crew members, b Casting talent interacting with the rotating cylindrical PIN VR display during the shoot

perform long takes. Therefore, Table for Two casting talent was selected from the local theater group. While the cast members had experience in theater, this was their first involvement in a VR production. The objective of this paper is to report, reflect, and discuss the challenges of the PIN VR production crew members. This paper further details out the methodology used to address this enquiry.

78.5 Methodology To understand more about the development of a PIN VR experience, there is a need to document the experiences from multiple perspectives. Kerrigan and Callaghan discuss the significance of an insider–insider perspective as a practice-based research method [19]. In this article, they quote, Research in screen production is by no means a homogeneous activity but usually involves the production of a film (or other screen work), an iterative process of practice and reflection by a researcher who is also a screen practitioner, and a theoretical perspective that informs the overall research (2015,106).

While they are addressing film as a medium, this paper views CVR as an emerging format of screen production. The researchers involved in this study are screen practitioners in animation, photography, and smartphone filmmaking. Kerrigan and Callaghan explain that an insider–insider perspective allows a practitioner to research their own practice. In Table for Two, the director is the researcher. It is an account of this experience which adds value as the insights are not obtainable from other research conclusions. Therefore, in context of a PIN VR production, the director, cast, and crew members are collectively a part of the production experience and can provide unique insights that can significantly contribute to the knowledge of the PIN VR production. The knowledge gathered from these members can inform future PIN VR productions. In this study, insights are gathered from self-reflections, observations during the production and a survey shared to the production members.

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78.6 Observations and Reflections of Production Crew Members in Table for Two This section reflects and reports the observations of the director, set designer, cinematographer, and casting talent in the production of Table for Two.

78.6.1 The Director’s/Researcher’s Role in Table for Two The director of Table for Two is also the practiced-based researcher in this study. One of the initial roles of the director was to design the story world in Table for Two. In this story world, the events taking place within the café were in control of the director. The navigator of the experience cannot determine the outcome of these events and, however, has the exploration freedom in viewing the sequential order of these events. This attribute of PIN VR makes the experience different from several video games where the gamers choices can alter the outcome. In PIN VR, the director has already decided the outcome as the director’s vision. Just as it is in conventional cinema, the director’s role is to communicate the concept and explain to all crew members their roles in a clear manner. As the concept of this experimental narrative was challenging to comprehend, the rotating cylindrical PIN VR display was used as a communication tool to explain the concept of the narrative to the crew members. Figure 78.1a shows the director explaining the PIN VR script to the crew members. Figure 78.1b shows the casting talent interacting with the cylindrical display on the set. The script available on the display was useful for the casting talent for quick access to revise their dialogs. In conventional cinema, in most cases, the director is behind the camera. There are exceptions to directors’ cameos in films. In CVR, the camera sees everything on set. Table for Two had budget constraints, due to which the shoot was not broadcast outside the walls of the café in real time for the purpose of director’s review. The easiest way for the director to review the performance was to perform as an actor in the café. He was pretending to read a book and, however, was paying attention to acting in the café. The navigator could not teleport to the director’s table and was restricted to the three genres. This improvisation significantly contributed to the quality of acting performance by the casting talent

78.6.2 The Set Designer’s Role in Table for Two The director identified a local restaurant to perform the CVR shoot. The set designer was challenged to enhance the mood of the space and transform the restaurant into a café specifically for PIN VR. In a PIN VR experience, all cameras and lighting equipment are a part of the set as everything is visible in a 360-degree camera. The director discussed his vision of a “Bollywood theme” with the set designer. In

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Fig. 78.2 Customized lighting, props, and backdrops as per the genres in Table for Two: a represents the set design for romance, b portrays supernatural fiction, and c depicts drama

conventional cinema, each genre could have a separate set design. However, this PIN VR production was challenged to include the set design for all genres seamlessly into a single set. Since each table in Table for Two represented a specific genre, Bollywood posters were customized in correspondence with the genres as seen in Fig. 78.2a–c. Figure 78.2a shows the backdrop for the romance genre, Fig. 78.2b shows thriller posters for supernatural fiction, and Fig. 78.2c shows dramas posters. Paintings and abstract posters were used as fillers to transition from one genre of film posters to the next. Along with the film posters, the lighting for each table included customized table and floor lamps, fairy lights, and ceiling lights that represented the respective genres. Figure 78.2 showcases how the lighting and posters were customized as per the genre. Furthermore, the entrance door of the café was required to be closed immediately after it was opened by the café guests. This was required as the lighting would fluctuate if the door was left open for long durations. The fluctuation of light would affect the post-production of digitally removing the 360-degree cameras and monopods that were visible during the shoot. This responsibility was handed over to the actor playing the role of the waiter. He would check if the guests have not closed the café door and close it accordingly. In most conventional cinema, the cameras are not visible in the film footage. If a scene is shot by multiple cameras, they can be positioned outside the viewing frame, respectively. Since there are three 360-degree cameras capturing the PIN VR simultaneously, two cameras are constantly visible by third camera. Therefore, the set designer suggested specific locations to position the 360-degree cameras as it would be challenging to hide or remove it during post-production. The set designer’s responsibility was to ensure that the entire cafe had an esthetic quality that was appropriate for the PIN VR shoot as shown in Fig. 78.3. These decisions ensure a smooth post-production process and enhance the navigation experience.

78.6.3 The Cinematographer’s Role in Table for Two In CVR, the camera captures everything, and in the case of Table for Two, there were three Ricoh Theta V 360-degree cameras capturing the events in the café from different perspectives. There were two cinematographer selected to take on the

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Fig. 78.3 Set design in Table for Two

camera responsibilities in Table for Two. Conventional cinema offers the freedom of utilizing several camera angles and compositions such as close ups, mid shots, over the shoulder, canted angles, long shots, and establishing shots. In PIN VR, too many variations in camera positions, angles, and transitions would disrupt the navigation experience. This limitation was more challenging for the cinematographer to decide the location and height suitable to view the conversations at the tables. The height was decided to be at eye level of characters seated at the café. This immerses the navigator as a third guest on each table. Furthermore, the distance of each camera from the characters was important to engage the navigator with the conversation. However, the position was required to be appropriately placed from the view of the other cameras. This would ensure that there is less character movement in front or behind the camera for ease of removing the cameras and the monopods in the post-production. In conventional cinema, the cinematographer is often behind the scenes, however, the technical constraints of Table for Two production resulted in the camera operators acting as characters in the café. They were operating the 360-degree cameras through a smart phone. The navigator’s teleportation experience was limited to the three genres, and they could not teleport to the camera operators’ and director’s table. The cinematographers’ presence in the café resulted in effective coordination between the casting talent and the director.

78.6.4 The Casting Talents’ Role in Table for Two The director further worked with the casting talent to determine how their characters should be performed. Several auditions took place in an online manner due to the

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pandemic. Once the cast were selected, initial rehearsals took place in pairs. Once they learnt the dialogs and acting gestures, the director conducted group rehearsals. The group rehearsals were important in the context of a one-shot PIN VR production as the participants had to synchronize their performance with the other parallel narratives which were taking place simultaneously. The rotating cylindrical PIN VR display was also available during the rehearsals. This enabled the characters to refer to their dialogs at ease, in-between the practice sessions. A dress rehearsal was conducted on set so that each performer would get to absorb the mood of the set and understand more details of the 360-degree space that they would be performing. Familiarity with the set played a significant role in preparing the cast for their performance. The limitation of integrating microphones into the set resulted in dubbing sessions after the completion of the production. During these sessions, the 360-video was played, and each dialog was recorded in a sound studio. The cast and crew members were further approached with a survey to further understand their perspective of the experience.

78.7 Responses from the Production Cast and Crew Survey After the completion of the production, the director floated an online survey to the cast and crew members to further understand their experience. Seven members shared their written responses to the survey. The director has reported selected responses to avoid repetition of similar views. The questions and insights gathered from the survey are reported below. • Explain your feedback for the concept of Table for Two? I had previously not heard of parallel narratives nor was I aware of 360-degree cameras and how the VR production works. I was amazed by the concept, and the script was cleverly written. It was a nice and interesting experience being made using novel or unconventional cameras without all the usual paraphernalia of big lights and cameras. The idea of three simultaneous conversations and the audience is free to watch any table of their choice at the same time is amazing.

These insights reveal the unfamiliarity of parallel narratives and VR. Their opinions validate their interest in the concept of Table for Two. • What is your feedback for the design process followed to develop Table for Two? The most innovative part was the way in which the script was displayed. The cylindrical projection for parallel narratives made it very easy to comprehend what was going on in the movie besides my own scene. This helped us coordinate and improvise accordingly. The design process was on point, from scriptwriting, rehearsals, test shoots, and the sound design. The due process was followed and made it possible for us to make the film.

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I think it was really thorough with all the necessary steps taken under consideration. The most interesting process was carrying out the whole film in one go with proper rehearsals.

These insights reveal the effectiveness of the rotation cylindrical PIN VR display. Like conventional film productions, the importance of following a design process helped the cast and crew to perform their role effectively. In the context of PIN VR, the rehearsals played a significant role for the performers to act in a single take. • How different do you find Table for Two in comparison with conventional cinema, television, and theater? It was completely different from conventional theater and cinema, yet it was an amalgamation of it all. As an actor in theater, a lot depends on the live reaction of the audience and we improvise and time our dialogs accordingly. In VR with parallel narrative, we had to synchronize our dialogs with respect to the other tables and that meant, being alert and improvising instantly. When it comes to cinema, Table for Two gave us three different movies in one, where each is a prequel and sequel to the other one. This film takes it one step further in the way one experiences the film in space, in comparison with conventional cinema. This film makes the user a part of the act, rather than a mere observer, as she can change seats and look around her own and jump to different conversations on her own. Table for Two is totally different because of the parallel events happening at the same moment which helps the viewers to explore the expressions of other characters which are not in frame. They will experience the real moment which is not possible with conventional cinema. Unlike cinema, the whole thing was carried out at once, and unlike theater, Table for Two had a 360-degree approach, thus making it unique. In conventional cinema, films are more about entertainment. But when I went through the script of Table for Two, it rather appeared more realistic and down to earth. A simple script that would be appreciated by all kinds of audience.

These opinions validate the CVR is a medium by itself and PIN VR offers an experience which is completed different from conventional cinema, television, and theater. • Explain any challenges faced with Table for Two in order to perform your role. In conventional cinema, one is recorded with close-up shots. In Table for Two, we have been filmed from all angles, which challenged the body language in acting. It was a new experience operating the 360-degree cameras as I had never used them before. I faced many challenges with perfecting the lighting on set. Initially, I found it difficult to perform the body language with the right gestures.

These insights suggest the challenges experienced with body language acting and working with 360-degree cameras. These observations and reflections are used to formulate a discussion about the potential of VR narratives and the challenges with the production processes.

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78.8 Discussion and Conclusion This paper describes the concept of parallel interactive narratives in VR (PIN VR) and its potential in expanding VR narratives. Table for Two, a case study of PIN VR experiments with multiple genres portrayed simultaneously in café. This study addresses the challenges involved for designing and developing Table for Two. The insider–insider approach demonstrates the importance of the practitioner’s research perspective which gives rise to the opportunity for practitioners to provide their valuable insights on creative practices. In the context of this study, it is understood that the director of a PIN VR determines the story world, and the navigator’s teleportation choices do not impact the events with the narratives. In Table for Two, the set designer was challenged to seamlessly integrate aspects of multiple genres using artifacts and lighting devices within the 360-degree canvas. The limitations of camera angles, movements, and height in PIN VR were more challenging for the cinematographers in Table for Two. The casting talent was challenged with performing in a continuous take. They additionally discovered the importance of body language in acting in PIN VR as their gestures were captured simultaneously from multiple cameras. The lack of live audience feedback challenged the cast with different improvisations as the parallel scripts were synchronized with each other. The future scope of this study is to test and report the navigation experience of Table for Two. The insights from the casting talent and crew along with self-reflections from the director as researcher reveal that VR is an independent narrative medium that offers its own advantages and limitations in comparison with other narrative mediums. This study recommends that novel narrative experiments in VR can completely branch out from the conventional methods found in literature, theater, radio, cinema, television, and video games. The ability to view VR as its own entity will result in a variety of exciting narrative and non-narrative content specifically designed for VR.

References 1. Carter, R.: The role of virtual reality in industry 4.0. XR Today (2021). Industry 4.0 represents the next stage in our digital evolution—one defined by conc. Accessed 29 June 2022 2. Louchart, S., Aylett, R.: Towards a narrative theory of virtual reality. Virtual Real. 7(1), 2–9 (2003) 3. Mateer, J.: Directing for cinematic virtual reality: how the traditional film director’s craft applies to immersive environments and notions of presence. J. Media Pract. 18(1), 14–25 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1080/14682753.2017.1305838 4. Heath, S.: The cinematic apparatus: technology as historical and cultural form. Cinematic Appar. 1–13 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-16401-1 5. Demir, B.: How does VR effect the future of Cinema? (2015). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2. 1.4586.1607 6. Chang, W.: Virtual reality filmmaking methodology (animation producing). TECHART J. Arts Imaging Sci. 3(3), 23 (2016). https://doi.org/10.15323/techart.2016.08.3.3.23

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7. Gabler, F., Siegmund, D., Braun, A.: Cinematic Narration in VR—Rethinking Film Conventions for 360 Degrees Cinematic Narration in VR—Rethinking Film Conventions for 360 Degrees. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91584-5 8. Sheikh, A., Brown, A., Watson, Z., Evans, M.: Directing Attention in 360-degree Video. (2016). https://doi.org/10.1049/ibc.2016.0029 9. Pillai, J.S., Ismail, A., Charles, H.P.: Grammar of VR storytelling: visual cues. ACM Int. Conf. Proceeding Ser. 1–4 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1145/3110292.3110300 10. Remedios, D.J., Mathew, D.J., Schleser, M.: Rotating cylindrical PIN VR display—an ergonomic approach for VR scripts. In: HWWE: International Conference of the Indian Society of Ergonomics, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems (LNNS, volume 391) (2022). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94277-9_27 11. Aronson, L.: 21st Century Screenplay: A Comprehensive Guide to Writing Tomorrow’s Film. Allen & Unwin (2010) 12. Aronson, L.: Six categories of parallel narrative. In: 21st Century Screenplay : A Comprehensive Guide to Writing Tomorrow’s Films, pp. 171–176. Allen & Unwin (2010) 13. Pillai, J.S., Murugan, A., Dev, A.: Cinévoqué: design of a passively responsive framework for seamless evolution of experiences in immersive live-action movies. In: Human-Computer Interact. INTERACT 2019, vol. 11746 (2019) 14. Garcia, O.D.R., Tag, B., Ohta, N., Sugiura, K.: Seamless multithread films in virtual reality. In: TEI 2017—Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Tangible, Embed. Embodied Interact, pp. 641–646 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1145/3024969.3025096 15. Martin, K., Mills, T.: Parallel Narratives in 360 Video (2019) 16. Bordwell, D.: The Way Hollywood Tells It—Story and Style in Modern Movies, 1st edn. University of California Press; Illustrated edition (2006) 17. Gödde, M., Gabler, F., Siegmund, D., Braun, A.: Cinematic narration in VR—rethinking film conventions for 360 degrees. In: International Conference on Virtual, Augmented and Mixed Reality, vol. 10910 LNCS, pp. 184–201 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91584-5_15 18. Macintyre, B., Bolter, J.: Single-Narrative, multiple point-of-view dramatic experiences in augmented reality. pp. 0–17 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-003-0110-0 19. Kerrigan, S., Callaghan, J.: The filmmakers’ research perspectives: an overview of Australian and UK filmmaking research. Aust. Screen Prod. Educ. Res. Assoc. 1–16 (2016) [Online]. Available: http://www.aspera.org.au/research/the-filmmakers-research-perspectivesan-overview-of-australian-and-uk-filmmaking-research/

Chapter 79

Virtual Trial Room Simulation for Online Ordering and Alteration of Clothes According to Buyers’ Ergonomics Ritika Singh and Subhajit Chandra

Abstract Online ordering has always been a popular option among youth. It has seen an immense advancement in the midst of pandemic and even after it. Ordering clothes online can be convenient but also a hassle in many instances. It happens especially when the clothes do not fit the buyers. Fitting depends upon the body measurements including the height of the buyer. According to the National Institute of Nutrition (NIN), the average height of Indian women is 5.3 ft., while that of men is 5.8 ft. Clothes are usually manufactured taking into account the average heighted people. While the needs of the petite population are disregarded, presently, the shorter population has to spend extra time and money after receiving online orders to get their clothes altered according to height. This paper proposes how a solution in the VR system can be created such that the shorter population can shop according to their heights. Virtual reality could have a great impact when it comes to online shopping. The study revolves around creating a conceptual model using virtual reality which can be incorporated into any existing shopping website. It will be a trial model of a VR space where people can try clothes from the website and give requests for alteration according to their height. The user can enter the virtual trial room using a VR headset. Then, they need to create their avatars which can be done using haptic suits or image processing for data points. The haptic suit will take body dimensions of the user to create their avatar. It will also allow the users to feel the quality of clothes. The user can use controllers to try on clothes and adjust lengths according to their heights on their avatars. The adjustments will be sent to the online platform for alteration during ordering.

79.1 Introduction Online ordering has become a popular practice during and post pandemic. Consumers are already used to ordering most things online. It was limited to specific areas before R. Singh (B) · S. Chandra Shiv Nadar University, Delhi NCR, Greater Noida, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_79

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the pandemic struck the world. But after the pandemic, almost all the businesses are somehow trying to start selling their products and services online as they do not want to lag behind and face losses in their businesses. Shopping clothes online has become one of the most important parts of online shopping these days. It has made life easier for people as they get to see so many options while sitting at the comfort of their homes. But unlike traditional shopping, they are not able to try the clothes when shopping online. This leads to loads of fitting issues and customers being unsatisfied with the user experience. This is especially an issue for the short-heighted population. The petite section of the society orders clothes online and then run to their tailors to get the extra lengths trimmed. They are spending more time and money for the same clothes as compared to other people. A lot of research has been conducted about the fitting issues, but none talks about how this height gap can be reduced [1]. A few existing researches have also used the concept of virtual reality in the fashion field. Virtual reality is emerging as a next-generation technology and is gaining popularity in this field [2]. Researches have been conducted to forecast how popular augmented and virtual realities are going to be in upcoming years and how millions of devices are expected to be sold. With this, more and more businesses are somehow trying to step into virtual reality. The announcement of metaverse has given this a boost [3]. This study deals with finding a conceptual solution for the petite section of the society to help them order clothes online according to their height. The solution will be developed using the concepts of virtual reality.

79.2 Literature Review Before designing a new concept, few existing concepts and researches had to be studied to get a clear picture. Some research talks about how virtual reality has been used in relation to the fashion field or online shopping. A research paper studies how using virtual reality can be used to evaluate fashion retail stores and create virtual ones with better and engaging experiences [2]. It also sheds light on the advantages and challenges which might be encountered due to using virtual reality in retail. It allows the observation of behavior of users while shopping in an economical way which can further help the practitioners and scholars with their practices. A 3D model of a virtual apparel store was created using SketchUp software. It was tested where 40 women aged between 18 and 40 were participated in this experiment of experiencing the virtual model using this immersive virtual reality system. The experiment gave positive results as the participants were satisfied with the experience. This shows that virtual reality can be successfully used as one of the shopping alternatives with improved experience. It can also help to reduce the amount of time and money which is invested in developing physical fashion stores as virtual reality provides full-scale experience with realistic store designs. Though it was a 3D model of a virtual apparel store, users were not allowed to touch or move

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objects in it. They were just allowed to explore the VR store. This research was mainly focused on exploring user behaviors and not about the fitting of the clothes. Users were not able to try the clothes and customize them according to their size or height. It is difficult for people to imagine how the clothes will look on them while shopping online. Another research revolves around designing, implementing, and testing an application which would mitigate a virtual dressing room [1]. It will help the user check the fitness of the clothes and decide if it will look good on them. It uses image processing techniques by identifying critical points on the clothes and user’s body. In this application, the user has to stand inside the displayed hologram. An image of the user is then clicked. The user’s body is separated from the background in the image by ignoring the areas which were falling out of the hologram. The user selects garments which are then tried upon the image by identifying critical points on the image and clothes. There were a few challenges which were faced in this research. The user needs to be standing accurately within the hologram. The deviation of the camera can also affect the processing. In case of small-sized images, image zooming was used which was again affecting the accuracy. Another drawback here is that customization options are not available. They do not have the option of trying different colors and sizes of the same product. The user’s image is clicked in one pose and they have to try clothes in that pose only. Also, nothing has been mentioned about how the system will respond if the clothes do not fit the buyer. It remains questionable if this design would be able to help the petite population for trying clothes online. Another paper deals with studying how a virtual trial room can be created using augmented reality which would allow the users to try clothes virtually during online shopping [4]. This is done using Kinect sensor and processing. Kinect sensor is a motion sensing device which will be used to calculate the distance between the device and the user. Kinect helps in analyzing the user’s body measurements by providing video frames to the system as input. Processing is an Integrated Development Environment and also a language. The application first asks users to choose between male and female followed by apparel selection. After selection, the clothes are mapped on the user’s image considering the coordinates. The user can perform hand gestures to operate the interface making it convenient for the customers to choose clothes and perform other important operations. RGB pixel value was calculated using color stream, while the position coordinates were calculated using the depth stream. The corresponding coordinates were mapped using Coordinate Mapper. The male and female models and 3D meshes of clothes were created using Blender 3D software. Rigid transformations like rotation, translation, and scaling were used. The apparels which are displayed to the user are according to the positioning and measurements of the user. This means that all the options are not shown to them and they would not be able to try or make a choice from the other available options. For customization, different sizes are shown to the user for trial, but no other customization option is available. The users can just try the available clothes but not adjust them according to their body size or heights. Thus, this too does not help in the case of the petite section of society.

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Another research talks about how a 3D virtual trial room can be developed using augmented reality which can help the users to try clothes in different colors [5]. It uses OpenCV and webcam to capture video of the user. It then differentiates the user from the background so that the color of the clothes could be changed. The experiment showed that it works on some types of clothes but not all. A few platforms exist in the market which are trying to bridge the gap between online shopping and height differences of the users. Some of the platforms are as follows.

79.2.1 Case Studies There are few solutions available; however, they do not directly solve the problem of virtual trial rooms. One of them is ASOS, which is a platform based in London, England, which provides online fashion solutions. They have a ‘Shop by body fit’ section which includes clothes for petite women. They use a Fit Assistant tool to recommend the size of the clothes on the basis of body measurements of the user and similar experience of other shoppers. Unfortunately, they do not have any section for short men. Another one is Next which is an online shopping platform which has headquarters in Leicester, UK. It does not have any physical stores in India. They too have a section called Shop By Size Type in which they have a sub-section for petite. This platform is shortening fixed lengths according to different types of clothes for the petite customers whose height ranges between 4 feet 11 inches and 5 feet 3 inches. Again, they do not have any section for the short-heighted men. Forever New is another online fashion clothing platform which was founded in Melbourne, Australia, in 2006. It hosts around 250 physical stores in seven countries. They also have stores in India. They have a petite section which is again limited to women. The petite section for India has very limited clothing options and that too are very expensive. They too do not have any section for short men. To create the right fit for the petite women who are 5 feet 3 inches and under, the platform has reduced fixed lengths from the products depending upon the style of clothing. After going through the papers and related existing products, we came to know how various platforms are trying to bridge the gap between fitting issues and online shopping of clothes. We also found how virtual reality is being used for the same. However, no paper talks about how height differences can be bridged during online shopping of clothes.

79.3 Methodology A conceptual model of a futuristic virtual trial room had to be created which can be used as a feature and included in the existing shopping websites. The trial room would

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allow people to try clothes in virtual reality and send alteration requests according to their heights. To develop this virtual trial room, a real-time development platform called Unity was used. It is developed by Unity Technologies and is a crossplatform game engine. Unity also provides the software platform for virtual reality development [6].

79.3.1 Procedure The user will first add selected items from the website to the virtual trial room. Then, the user will create an avatar which will have the body measurements of the user. The user will be able to try selected clothes on the avatar and check how it is going to look on them. They can also customize the selected clothes by changing colors, selecting proper size, and adjusting the arm or leg length of the selected item depending upon the height of the user. The user can request for alteration from the platform in case. There are some changes in the length of the selected cloth.

79.3.2 Environment Basic Structure. A trial room structure was created in Unity. Four walls were created using the 3D cube gameObject, and a floor was created using 3D plane gameObject. A platform was also created for the avatar to stand using the 3D cylindrical gameObject [7] (Fig. 79.1).

Fig. 79.1 Basic structure

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Fig. 79.2 Mirror system

Mirror System. Mirror system was set. Four mirrors were created on all the walls. The mirror functionalities had to be adjusted according to real-world mirrors. They should reflect the environment in front of it but should also reflect the environment within other mirrors which are in its scope. Mirrors were also created using cube gameObject as there are very limited pre-defined 3D objects in unity. All the mirrors were supported by cameras on their back to produce a mirror effect. The environment which was captured by a camera was converted into a texture. The texture was then put onto the camera to give a mirror-like reflecting property. In this way, four mirror textures were produced (Fig. 79.2). Avatar. There are a few ways to create an avatar. In all the cases, we need to get body measurements of the users. We can ask the users to enter their body measurements manually and create an avatar according to the input received. But, this can be a tedious process as the user might not be aware of the measurements and will need to do it manually using tools like inch tape. We can use artificial intelligence and ask the user to upload a full body image. Body measurements can be captured from that image and an avatar can be created. But, it would be very complicated to get accurate body measurements from an image. Haptic suits can be used to get accurate body measurements to create an avatar. An image can also be uploaded to get the facial features and skin tone of the user. This will make the avatar look more realistic. The disadvantage of this method is that the concept of haptic suits is very new and they are still not being used very commonly. But, as this model is futuristic, this method can be considered. A sample model of avatar was created to represent a user. The model was created using a software called MakeHuman which is an open-source 3D graphics middleware. This software is used to create prototypes of humanoids and 3D character modeling. A camera was added to the eyes of the avatar which would act as eyes for

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Fig. 79.3 Avatar

the user. The user will be able to see through the camera from the body of the avatar using the reflection property (Fig. 79.3). Adding Details. Further details like the ceiling, details to mirrors, and texture to wall, ceiling, and platform were added accordingly. Lighting System. To create the lighting system for the trial room, one directional light was added outside the room in the form of natural light. Directional light reflects light in one directional and is located at an infinite distance. Four-point lights were added in white color. Point light emits light equally in all directions. The point lights were attached to four ceiling lights. Four spot lights were added in yellow color. Spot light emits light in the form of a cone. The spot lights were attached to four wall lamps which were placed on the top of each mirror [8].

79.3.3 User Interface There will be two augmented reality interfaces to the left and right of each mirror. The left interface will consist of the clothing items which the user has selected for the trial room. The items will be displayed according to their category and the user will be able to scroll through them. The right interface will consist of information and customization options for the selected piece of clothing. The user will be able to select clothes from the left augmented reality window and try them on their avatar. They will be able to mix and match clothes to check if the complete outfit looks good on them. They will be able to move around as in actual trial room. The user can customize the selected piece of clothing from the right augmented reality window. The lengths of arms and legs of the clothes can be adjusted according to the height

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of the user. The user can send these adjustments to the platform and request for alteration of the clothes (Fig. 79.4). Wireframing. The wireframing for the user interface of the trial room model was done using Figma. Wireframing was done to get a basic idea of the structure of the interface. We had a Trial Room Items window to the left which consisted of the shortlisted items from the website. The right side consists of a Customize Items window where users can customize the selected item and try it on avatar. The users can choose color, change size, and alter the length of the cloth depending upon the selected item (Fig. 79.5).

Fig. 79.4 Lighting system

Fig. 79.5 Wireframing in Figma

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Fig. 79.6 Final model with UI

Front-End UI Development. The front-end development for the user interface of this model was done using a visual authoring tool of Unity called UI Builder. UI Builder allows us to create UI assets like UI Documents and StyleSheets. It uses languages like UXML and USS which are inspired by HTML and CSS but are customized according to Unity. Back-End Development. The back-end development was done with C# language. The script was developed in a platform called Visual Studio to add actions to the UI elements. Visual Studio comes free with Unity and helps to develop and debug the Unity products. Final Model. The final model consists of trail room structure, mirror system, lighting system, avatar, and also the UI with which the user will be able to interact and operate over the avatar. Please find images of the final model which was created using Unity along with the UI system (Fig. 79.6).

79.3.4 Testing A conceptual model of the futuristic virtual trial room was created using Unity software. The virtual environment project created in Unity was built into an APK file suitable for Android devices. The APK was transferred to an Android device and was operated using an app called Unity Remote 5. Developer mode on the device had to be enabled. Seven candidates were asked to test the trial room model with the help of virtual reality headset and controllers.

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Fig. 79.7 Final model front and back views

Fig. 79.8 Changing color and length of clothes

Methodology: The methodology used for testing the VR model was Heuristic Evaluation. Participants were asked on the spot questions about their experience in the virtual trial room, how they are feeling, and if they are facing any issues. They were asked if they were able to understand and operate the environment with the help of headset and controllers by changing the colors, sizes, and lengths of the items. Conclusion: The response received from all the participants was positive. They had a good experience in the virtual environment, were able to understand and operate the environment easily, and did not face any issues. They were able to view the surroundings by moving the VR headset. They were able to operate the trial UI with the help of the controller. They could customize the clothes from the customization window and change colors, size, and lengths of the clothes (Figs. 79.7 and 79.8).

79.4 Results and Discussion The users were able to operate without any issue. They were able to perform actions using the controller and put clothes on the avatar easily. They also succeeded in changing the color and size of clothes. They could adjust the length of the clothes according to the height of the avatar. The trail room model can be expanded by including different genders. Adding haptic suits or other measurement options for creating avatars can result in avatars with genuine heights of the users making the

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platform more efficient. More customization options can be added depending upon the type or style of cloth.

79.5 Conclusion In this paper, an application that sensibly mirrors the look and feel of trying clothes in reality is executed in virtual reality. The VR environment simulates an actual trial room environment with mirrors on all four walls. With the help of VR equipment, users will be able to feel like they are in a real trial room. The application with the assistance of the user will complete the most common way of endeavoring the apparel quickly and effectively, and afterward choosing the best for the avatar, it will assist the user to customize the selected option. Thus, this model will allow the users to try clothes virtually on to their avatars, get clothes altered easily according to their heights and lengths, mix and match clothes to check if the outfit suits them or not, and feel the quality and texture of the clothes. The companies can consider removing the option of return as users will be able to try the clothes virtually, give requests for alteration according to their heights, and also check the quality of clothes. This will help the companies save the extra delivery and packaging cost which is spent in order returns. For the future scope, this model can be tested and implemented with the help of haptic suits. This model can be implemented in real-world scenarios when virtual reality starts to become common. It can specially help the short-heighted population with shopping online as now they would not need to search for suitable tailors and spend extra time and money to get their clothes altered. It will also help the online clothing businesses as the number of returns on the orders will be reduced. Users will be able to try the clothes on their avatars and feel the quality of clothes through haptic suits which will bring down the number of returns.

References 1. Niemann, J., Tichkiewitch, S., Westkämper, E. (ed.).: Design of Sustainable Product Lifecycles. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg (2009) 2. Simon, H.A.: The Science of the Artificial, 3rd edn. The MIT Press, London, England (1996) 3. Dusch, B., Crilly, N., Moultrie, J.: Developing a Framework for Mapping Sustainable Design Activities (2011) 4. Al-Qerem, A.: Virtual Dressing Room Implementation Using Body Image –Clothe Mapping. Int. J. Eng. Comput. Sci. 15859–15862 (2016) 5. Ramesh, A., Kushal, A.R., Brinda, D., Vaishnavi, S., Shrinivasacharya, P.: 3D virtual trial room. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. (IJERT) 6(13), 1–4 (2018) 6. Park, M., Im, H., Kim, D.Y.: Feasibility and user experience of virtual reality fashion stores. Fashion and Textiles (2018) 7. Shirsat, A., Sonimindia, S., Patil, S., Kotecha, N., Koparde, P.S.: Virtual trial room. Int. J. Res. 182–185 (2019) 8. Dionisio, J.D.N., III, W.G.B., Gilbert, R.: 3D virtual worlds and the metaverse: current status and future possibilities. ACM Comput. Surveys (2013)

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9. Lee, L.H., Braud, T., Zhou, P., Wang, L., Xu, D., Lin, Z., Hui, P.: All one needs to know about metaverse: a complete survey on technological singularity, virtual ecosystem, and research agenda. J. Latex Class Files (2021) 10. Ondrejka, C.: Escaping the gilded cage: user created content and building the metaverse. State of Play (2005) 11. Sheridan, E., Ng, M., Czura, L., Steiger, A., Vegliante, A., Campagna, K.: Framing the Future of Web 3.0 Metaverse Edition. The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc. (2021) 12. Daniel Livingstone, J.K.: Second Life. The University of Paisley, UK, San Francisco (2006) 13. Taguchi, A., Aoki, T., Yasuda, H.: A study on realtime virtual clothing system based on twodimensional plane. In: 6th Asia-Pacific Symposium on Information and Telecommunication Technologies (2005) 14. Le, Q.S., Tran, M.T.: Overlay upper clothing textures to still images based on human pose estimation. J. Mobile Multimedia, pp. 43–57 (2014) 15. Nokia.: Integrated Product Policy Pilot Project stage 1 final report: life cycle environmental issues of mobbile phones. IPP, Nokia Corporation, Finland (2005) 16. Eisert, P., Hilsmann, A.: Realistic virtual try-on of clothes using real-time augmented reality methods. E-Letter (2011) 17. Scholz, V., Magnor, M.: Multi-view video capture of garment motion. In: IEEE Workshop on Content Generation and Coding for 3D-Television (2006) 18. Taguchi, A., Aoki, T., Yasuda, H.: A study on real-time virtual clothing system based on two-dimensional plane model. In: 6th Asia-Pacific Symposium on Information and Telecommunication Technologies (2005) 19. Livingstone, D., Kemp, J.: Second life education workshop. In: Second Life Community Convention, San Francisco. The University of Paisley, UK (2006) 20. Goldstone, W.: Unity Game Development Essentials. Packt Pub (2009) 21. Jerald, J., Giokaris, P., Woodall, D., Hartbolt, A., Chandak, A., Kuntz, S.: Developing virtual reality applications with Unity. In: 2014 IEEE Virtual Reality (VR) (2014) 22. Wang, J., Phillips, L., Moreland, J., Wu, B., Zhou, C.: Simulation and visualization of industrial processes in unity. In: SummerSim ‘15: Proceedings of the Conference on Summer Computer Simulation (2015)

Chapter 80

“HappyBin” Remodifying Social Behaviors Priyabrata Rautray , Avik Roy , and Deepak John Mathew

Abstract In most Indian cities, the littering problem stems from a lack of awareness and the unavailability of resources. The new smart cities call for more innovative approaches to solve challenges related to waste disposal. Hence, engaging people and spreading awareness about the appropriate use of dustbins are essential. HappyBin is a design project that tries to modify people’s behavior by harnessing the power of positive reinforcement, IoT, and behavioral theories. The project aimed to change the perception of dustbins in India and make them an integral part of the urban landscape. This behavioral change will lead to efficient dustbins and improved waste disposal. The research project includes designing and prototyping HappyBin, testing and conducting a user survey. The various feedbacks from the users were analyzed to improve the product. We found that “HappyBin” achieved two critical goals: Firstly, it generated curiosity among the users due to its innovativeness and instant gratification. Secondly, the overall design of the HappyBin changed the perception of dustbins through its simple functionality and engagement with the users. Thus, this research paper highlights that the power of smart design combined with behavioral studies can develop a new genre of interactive products that leads to a better society.

80.1 Introduction The ever-increasing problem of garbage disposal is an undeniable fact of today. According to an article [1], with the increased population of urban India expected to reach 538 million by 2025, the waste generation in India will be more than 376,639 tons per day. Systematic waste management systems are vital in improving the environment and making the surroundings cleaner and healthier. However, maintaining decorum in the disposal of waste materials lies with every individual. Often, it is P. Rautray (B) · D. J. Mathew IIT Hyderabad, Kandi, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Roy KIIT Bhubaneswar, Bhubaneswar, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_80

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observed that people throw garbage or discard things like food wrappers, plastic covers, etc., on roads, drains, and roadsides even though dustbins are provided. At the same time, as dustbins contain garbage and are typically perceived as dirty, people often avoid getting close to them or using them. Hence, it is essential to engage users to use dustbins so that issues related to waste disposal can be minimized and behavioral change can be brought about in every individual.

80.1.1 Issues of Garbage in Indian Cities The world population has increased by four times in the last century. The urban population is expected to rise almost by 70% by the year 2050. A UN report published in 2007 projected that 40.76% of India’s population will be inhabiting the cities by the year 2030. The urban areas have faced various issues arising from this increase in population and migration, such as traffic, pollution, and lack of basic amenities such as water, electricity, waste management [2]. Over 100 million tons of solid waste in India are generated from various sectors. The amount of waste generated per capita in India varies between 0.2 and 0.6 kg depending on household and economic size [3]. Most Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) in India is also plagued by a lack of finance and innovative technology [4]. To solve these issues, the Government of India started the smart city initiative. According to this initiative, these issues were to be addressed through technology-driven methods. But, even after four years of the scheme’s launch, it is yet to achieve various targets and aims, significantly solving garbage disposal. Garbage collection and removal are a massive challenge for any large city. The garbage collection system is often old and inefficient, causing economic hardship and discomfort to city dwellers. Another critical aspect of the garbage problem is the citizens’ lack of awareness or general behaviors toward proper garbage disposal. This issue is compounded by the large population of the country.

80.1.2 Positive Reinforcement to Improve Public Behavior Positive reinforcement can be a handy design tool, defined by two theories: operant theory and expectancy theory [5]. In the case of operant theory, an individual will continue to maintain a particular kind of behavior if he is encouraged and eliminates the behavior or activity where he is punished. In the case of expectant theory, a sense of interest or desirability is needed in the user because the individual feels more driven to do a particular kind of activity. Once the action is achieved, it results in increased pleasure and satisfaction. Reinforcement is a behavioral process in which a reaction either creates a pleasurable stimulation (positive reinforcement) or reduces, terminates, or postpones an unpleasant experience (negative reinforcement), increasing the likelihood of the behavior occurring again in the future [6]. A learning process

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is successful when both the instructor and the students can learn effectively. Effective learning stresses internal motivation, social learning relationships, and learning culture as a whole. By using positive reinforcement, the intended behavior increases the possibility of the behavior continuing when the positive result is achieved. Through the application of reinforcement theory, motivation can be taught. B. F. Skinner developed the reinforcement theory, also known as the learning theory. Different stimuli produce desired behavior at specific times and by various means [7]. A positive reinforcement technique rewards and incentivizes new behaviors instead of eliminating existing benefits. There are two types of rewards, intrinsic and extrinsic. The first refers to something intangible such as praise and acknowledgement, while the second is a salary, promotion, gifts, and rewards [8]. Intrinsic Rewards An intrinsic reward is a type of positive reinforcement that does not involve financial motivation. Positive reinforcement can be simple praise, delegation, empowerment, or acknowledgement, but it positively impacts the person’s behavior. Intrinsic motivation comes from within, independent of external stimuli, because it is based on one’s desire and not on the wishes of others. Motivating ourselves is a fundamental property of human motivation and plays a vital role in our cognitive, social, and physical development [9]. When a person or child gets positive feedback from a person or parents for completing a job properly, they will feel appreciated and have a sense of achievement. The importance of motivation comes from the fact that it is a complex component of human psychology and behavior that influences how a person lives and impacts how they learn, behave, and act in society [10, 11]. This acknowledgement goes a long way in forming apt and acceptable behaviors without financial commitments. This project aims to design and develop an IoT-based dustbin that motivates users to use the dustbin as a step toward cleanliness. HappyBin is an intelligent dustbin project that addresses people’s ignorance and lack of civic sense by developing positive reinforcement toward properly using dustbins. The research paper introduces garbage disposal issues in Indian cities in Sect. 80.1. It is followed by a literature review on the impact of design, the role of IoT, and the working and prototyping of the HappyBin in Sect. 80.2. Section 80.3 describes the effects of innovation and the business plan followed by the users’ survey. The findings from the design project and the conclusion are described in Sect. 80.4.

80.2 Design as a Tool Due to various global issues such as overconsumption, climate change, financial inequalities, more and more designers consider “to do good for society” as their new motto. It can be divided into designers, firms, and companies developing more socially responsible products. Secondly, designers are tackling social issues with their design skills. Using design thinking and methodologies, these designers provide

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Fig. 80.1 Framework for socially responsible design [12]

innovative solutions to social problems. As a result, education, safety, and health care have become primary concerns for designers [12]. In education, design is commonly used to improve students’ motivation and strengthen their core values [13]. The design also plays an essential role in mobile games and the gamification of education. Systems are designed to motivate people to change their lifestyles by reflecting on an interpretation of targeted behaviors. The most prominent application of design as a tool for behavioral change is design for sustainability, crime prevention, wearable and health monitoring, and design for safety [14]. Figure 80.1 shows the framework for socially responsible design enhancing users’ experiences. They classify product influences into four types: decisive, coercive, persuasive, and enticing, which encourage desirable and discourage undesired behavior. HappyBin falls under a persuasive design with both weak and explicit influence (for example, the proper garbage disposal will make a cleaner city).

80.2.1 The Role of IoT The internet and the impact of its application in every aspect of our lives and interactions between users and devices have evolved due to fast communications [15]. Smart cities depend on interconnected and intelligent systems [16]. The smart city initiative aims to turn 100 cities into technologically advanced urban areas in habitability and sustainability in India. A wide range of processes are done with sensors in the IoT; they convert raw physical data into digital signals and communicate them to its control center. This proposed Smart Dustbin will interact with the city garbage disposal system in real time [17]. Firstly, the sensors are activated by users’ interaction with a dustbin and give instant gratification through audio or visual feedback (based on the design). Secondly, the sensor-based dustbin will be connected to a

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central control that will inform each bin’s status in real time and specify its location, thus allowing proper cleaning and maintenance of the dustbins. And finally, the Smart Dustbins can be connected to radio stations or broadcasting stations, allowing them to play music or video commercials. This attribute could help generate revenue to maintain and sustain such disposal systems. The revenue generated by the advertisements and social media can keep the dustbin and surrounding space clean and upkeep the garbage disposal system.

80.2.2 Working of HappyBin Psychologically, instant gratification boosts the habit of performing any action; for example, positive feedback from parents and teachers helps reinforce good habits in children [18]. According to the theory of uses and gratifications [19], behavior is motivated by emotional, cognitive, social, and habitual requirements that individuals fulfill through media use [20]. Media can be a powerful source of the intrinsic need for satisfaction [21]. For example, most players are like to be rewarded for their choices and dislike being punished in video games. This gratification is why game designers emphasize rewards while minimizing punishments [22]. Players who win competitive video games usually receive a higher ranking, while other games allow other players to view a player’s score. Most multi-player online games start with giving multiple instant gratifications to allure the players to play. The proposed Smart Dustbin has an in-built sensor that detects the usage and gives instant positive feedback in audio or visuals, thereby encouraging the good habit. This encouragement appeals to the child in us. It not only encourages children but also subconsciously helps elders to reinforce good habits. The second essential purpose of IoT is to enable the dustbin to indicate if the bin is full. It will notify the garbage collector when about 90% of the container gets filled up, specifying the location and bin number. Solar panels power the system; hence, these can be installed off grid near pedestrians or parks. Furthermore, all the electronics, batteries, and speakers are hidden from the public eye, enhancing the unique experience and preventing theft. LED lights illuminate the Smart Dustbin to improve its visibility and reduce vandalism. The concept of the Smart Dustbin was to recreate the whole experience of using the dustbin. The Smart Dustbin can be divided into two concepts, depending on the feedback systems, as shown in Fig. 80.2. Audio Feedback System (cost-effective) In this design, the sensor will detect the drop-off garbage and automatically deliver audio feedback of appreciation (e.g., “Good Job!” Or “Thank you”). The dustbin can play audio messages (e.g., music, advertisements, etc.) to generate revenue whenever it is not used.

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Fig. 80.2 Flowchart of the proposed Smart Dustbin system

Video Feedback System (premium) In this design, IoT-based sensor automatically scans and detects the user’s face and instantly displays the user’s picture with a textual caption and audio comment of appreciation. The user’s captioned image is indicated for the next 60 s, thereby celebrating an act of common people in a public forum. This system also allows the user to share the image on social media with unique QR codes, thus spreading the goodness of the activity to others. The dustbin can display creatives (e.g., awareness videos, music, advertisements, etc.) to generate revenue whenever the bin is not being used.

80.2.3 Prototyping Testing and implementation of both concepts were done in the lab. After creating detailed CAD 3D models of the dustbins, a 3D printed model was designed to simulate the working of the HappyBin, as shown in Figs. 80.3 and 80.4. The Infrared (IR) sensor mechanism was developed at the lab and tested for efficiency and accuracy. The voice feedback system was programmed on “Python” software and was based on the Arduino board. The signal from the IR sensors activates the audio feedback system, and instant feedback is delivered through an in-built speaker (Fig. 80.5). Similarly, the camera was connected to the overall circuit for the audio–video system and was activated by the IR sensors. Once activated, the screen notifies the user of a photograph of the user. The image is then displayed for a minute with a motivational caption.

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Fig. 80.3 3D CAD modeling of smart dustbin

Fig. 80.4 Scale model

Fig. 80.5 Voice feedback and IR sensor testing

80.3 Impact of Innovation The interaction between dustbins and technology is limited to indicating if the dustbin is full or needs emptying. But, no project has focused on attracting users, motivating them to drop the waste into the dustbin. The system is simple and robust enough

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to handle daily usage, and the system is similar to the traditional dustbin and does not require any training for garbage collectors. The project’s major innovation was combining intelligent technologies and human psychology and creating a product that enhances the user experience and reinforces good habits. Moreover, this project also creates awareness and motivates others to engage in waste disposal activities, suggesting cleaner surroundings.

80.3.1 Business Plan and Product Realization Before product finalization, detailed research and development are needed to create a small-scale system to test the feasibility and then scale it up to suit the need. Getting a suitable platform and technical inputs from the industry or developers can help realize the HappyBin. To begin with, this HappyBin is expected to be placed in secured areas such as metro stations, airports, and popular heritage sites of India. Hence, the market for the proposed product is significant but, at the same time, not infinite. Once the HappyBin is tested in these areas, the same can be modified to suit the need of other places such as parks, shopping malls, bus stops. These HappyBins can be incorporated under “Smart Cities Mission”, “Swachh Bharat Abhiyan”, and “Unnat Bharat Abhiyan”, thereby increasing the market size. Part of the revenue incurred in installation is expected to be collected from the sponsors of audiovisual commercials.

80.3.2 Users Feedbacks The HappyBin prototype was tested and reviewed by the user at the IIT Hyderabad campus. A one-to-one user survey was conducted, and the feedback and results of 174 users were recorded. The feedback parameters were based on a 1–5 rating system, five being the highest and one being the lowest. The questions gauge the users’ perception of innovation, gratification, awareness, and functionality. There were two open-ended questions on the project’s positive aspects and concerns. Figure 80.6 highlights the age groups of the users that took part in the survey; as shown, most users were young and satisfied our research criteria. Figure 80.7 shows the users’ rating of the HappyBin regarding innovativeness and novelty. Irrespective of the age groups, all the respondents appreciate the innovative way of persuading the users to use the dustbin properly. When users were asked to rate the experience of instant gratification, they felt that the “Fun Factor” was well integrated and captured their attention. The response from an inanimate object such as a dustbin was well appreciated, as shown in Fig. 80.8. Regarding spreading health and hygiene awareness, users had varying opinions (Fig. 80.9). They were unsure how this project would instill the excellent practice of health and hygiene among different socio-economic groups.

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Fig. 80.6 Age groups of the respondents

Fig. 80.7 Users’ perception of innovativeness

Figure 80.10 highlights the users’ perception of the functionality of HappyBin, and they felt that even with the addition of IoT and audiovisual feedback, the dustbin was quite simple. There was no significant change in the users’ act of disposing of the garbage, and the feedback system did not hamper the working of the dustbin. In terms of notification, HappyBin could notify the sanitation workers when to change the garbage bags. Changing the bags was straightforward and did not require any training. Finally, to understand users’ perceptions of the positives and negatives associated with the HappyBin, the answers to the open-ended questions were recorded. On

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Fig. 80.8 Users’ responses to instant gratification

Fig. 80.9 Users’ responses to HappyBin as an awareness tool

analysis of what features they liked the most and their concerns, we found that ninety-one percent of users were favorable to the level of innovation as a social behavior tool. They also appreciated the instant positive feedback from the inanimate object, such as the dustbin. The following quotes emphasize this attribute: “It was a pleasant surprise”, “I loved the way the HappyBin reacts to the menial job”, “It was a fun experience”. In response to the audio feedback system, users were quite happy with the impact of the HappyBin. Their excitement was evident from quotes such as: “This will really motivate young kids”, “I wish to hear iconic dialogue from Bollywood movies”. Several users favored generating revenue from the HappyBin system either by playing commercials or broadcasting messages (both government

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Fig. 80.10 Users’ perception of the functionality of HappyBin

and private). They found this to be one of the vital positives as it will help cover the cost of manufacturing and maintenance of HappyBin. This attribute can be validated from quotes like: “I like the way it can generate revenue on its own”, “The scope of income will boost the chance of commercialization”, “it will reduce the burden on the municipality”. On the other hand, vandalism was one of the major concerns. Users felt the need to test the device in a real-life environment such as a marketplace or railway station. This concern was evident in the quotes such as: “How will the HappyBin fare against unruly people”, “Who will guard the smart bin”, “Will the HappyBin last in the real world?”. A few respondents were not sure if the electronics would survive in a harsh external environment, which was evident from comments such as: “I like the idea but will the electronics last long?”, “Are the electronics robust enough to handle repeated usage?”.

80.4 Conclusion Smart cities call for more innovative approaches to solve issues, irrespective of how small or big the challenges are. In most cities, the littering problem stems from a lack of awareness rather than the availability of resources in India. HappyBin was envisioned as a design experiment to create awareness and motivate common people about the value of proper garbage disposal and the correct way of using dustbins. As a research project involved making prototypes, coding and testing the equipment, within the limited time and resources, “HappyBin” could not be tested in real-world scenarios. But, we plan to develop more Smart Dustbins and then deploy them in public spaces to conduct the lifecycle analysis and get more realistic feedback. The

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idea of integrating IoT, positive reinforcement, and behavioral theories to achieve a targeted social response was well received. We found that “HappyBin” achieved two critical goals: firstly, it generated curiosity among the users due to its innovativeness and instant gratification. Secondly, the overall design of the HappyBin changed the perception of dustbins through its simple functionality and engagement with the users. In response to the users’ concerns about vandalism, we found a few successful projects throughout India where civic bodies could modify public behaviors toward civic amenities by providing better and more innovative products. For example, the new stainless-steel bus shelters offered by the Delhi government were well received by the users, and there was a significant reduction in the cases of vandalism and littering near the bus stop. Thus, we believe that HappyBin can be introduced in regulated and unregulated cityscapes with proper design and testing.

References 1. Kumar, S.: Garbage Pollution (2018) [Online]. Available: https://www.indiacelebrating.com/ environmental-issues/garbage-pollution/ 2. Giffinger, R., Fertner, C., Kramar, H., Meijers, E.: City-ranking of European medium-sized cities. Cent. Reg. Sci. Vienna UT 1–12 (2007) 3. Balasubramanian, M.: Municipal solid waste management in India: status, problems and challenges. Int. J. Environ. Waste Manage. 21(4), 253–268 (2018) 4. Rathi, S.: Alternative approaches for better municipal solid waste management in Mumbai, India. Waste Manage. 26(10), 1192–1200 (2006) 5. Lovata, L.M.: Behavioral theories relating to the design of information systems. MIS Q. 147– 149 (1987) 6. Valdovinos, M.G., Kennedy, C.H.: Contextual determinants of reinforcement: a motivational analysis. Behav. Dev. 24(1), 18 (2019) 7. McLeod, S.: Bf skinner: operant conditioning. Retrieved 9(2009), 115–144 (2007) 8. Wei, L.T., Yazdanifard, R.: The impact of positive reinforcement on employees’ performance in organizations. Am. J. Ind. Bus. Manage. 2014 (2014) 9. Ryan, R.M., Deci, E.L.: Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 61, 101860 (2020) 10. Duta, N., Panisoara, G., Panisoara, I.-O.: The effective communication in teaching. Diagnostic study regarding the academic learning motivation to students. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 186, 1007–1012 (2015) 11. Amirkhanova, K.M., Ageeva, A.V., Fakhretdinov, R.M.: Enhancing students’ learning motivation through reflective journal writing. In: The European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences Ep-SBS (2016) 12. Tromp, N., Hekkert, P., Verbeek, P.-P.: Design for socially responsible behavior: a classification of influence based on intended user experience. Des. Issues 27(3), 3–19 (2011) 13. Nolen, S.B., Horn, I.S., Ward, C.J.: Situating motivation. Educ. Psychol. 50(3), 234–247 (2015) 14. Niedderer, K.: Mindful design as a driver for social behaviour change. In: Proceedings of the IASDR Conference 2013 (2013) 15. Murugaanandam, S., Ganapathy, V., Balaji, R.: Efficient IOT based smart bin for clean environment. Int. Conf. Commun. Sig. Process. (ICCSP) 2018, 0715–0720 (2018) 16. Kim, T.-H., Ramos, C., Mohammed, S.: Smart city and IoT. Fut. Gener. Comput. Syst. 76, 159–162 (2017)

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17. Mirchandani, S., Wadhwa, S., Wadhwa, P., Joseph, R.: IoT enabled dustbins. In: 2017 International Conference on Big Data, IoT and Data Science (BID), pp. 73–76 (2017) 18. Morin, A.: Using Positive Reinforcement to Improve Your Child’s Behavior [Online] (2020). Available: https://www.verywellfamily.com/positive-reinforcement-child-behavior-1094889 19. Katz, E., Blumler, J.G., Gurevitch, M.: Uses and gratifications research. Publ. Opin. Q. 37(4), 509–523 (1973) 20. Rosen, L.D., Carrier, L.M., Cheever, N.A.: Facebook and texting made me do it: media-induced task-switching while studying. Comput. Hum. Behav. 29(3), 948–958 (2013) 21. Hofmann, W., Reinecke, L., Meier, A.: Of sweet temptations and bitter aftertaste: self-control as a moderator of the effects of media use on well-being. In: The Routledge Handbook of Media Use and Well-Being, pp. 229–240 (2016) 22. Fullerton, T., Swain, C., Hoffman, S.: Game design workshop–designing, prototyping, and playtesting games, 2004. In: Google Scholar Google Scholar Digital Library Digital Library (2004)

Chapter 81

Virtual Reality for Creativity Practice and Art and Design Education: A Literature Review Sumana Som , Deepak John Mathew, and Kim Vincs

Abstract There is an inevitable demand for technology-aided reformed pedagogy in the current scenario. Virtual reality (VR) brings dramatic changes and provides various scopes for teaching, training, research, and artistic practice. But, there are number of conflicts between art and design teaching and practice of art and design by using VR technology. The study explores what is known about the artistic impact of digital mediated learning and relates it to interactive virtual worlds. To discover the synergy between art and design pedagogy and artist’s own practice, this study examines aspects of how virtual reality helps in terms of designing the teaching strategy and development of the artist’s own practice. This literature survey focused on significant immersive agency of VR technology for learning art and design.

81.1 Introduction Several virtual reality (VR) researchers have explained how VR impacts learning experiences and outcomes in relation to knowledge acquisition, interesting to acquiring information, immersive experience, longer retention, and playfully engaging [1]. Students explore subjects differently through VR. Interactive simulation technology, especially VR, plays a significant role in practical teaching and training (in other subjects in school such as Physics, Geography, Environmental science, vocational training, engineering, and medical education) [2]. Although VR technology has not been used much for teaching art and design until now, VR researchers and educators are trying to apply the technology to demonstrate creativity. S. Som · D. J. Mathew (B) Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Kandi, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Som e-mail: [email protected] K. Vincs Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_81

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Four types of virtual reality are used in teaching and training. These are desktop VR, mainly used for computer-aided design (CAD) education system; immersive VR system with head-mounted display; distributed (multiuser) VR system; and augmented reality. The essential characteristics of VR are immersion, interaction, and idea exploration [3]. Based on these three characteristics, art and design can be taught through this technology. There are a few examples of VR being applied to environmental art and design teaching [3], such as using three-dimensional (3D) rendering in VR to develop sketch learning [4], 3D visualization of virtual scene simulation for illustration learning [5], and digital art teaching system with interactive virtual technology [6]. Collaborative and creative learning through a virtual learning environment (VLE) is primarily a composite landscape of Art Creative Global (ACG). These education campuses are located in China [7], especially for the study of art and design. The relevance of art and design in educational practice is ‘hands-on’ or practicebased learning [8]. Hands-on learning provides an opportunity for authentic sensory experiences and encourages empathy, self- reflection, and a tangible connection to the real world [9]. Likewise, VR provides students with a 3D interactive environment where students learn through physical interaction with virtual objects [10]. By exploring the topic by arranging objects, keeping them separately or together with scale, location, and dense information, this immersive environment makes immediate sense and forms the foundation of deeper conceptual understanding for students [11]. But is this VR-based technology equally useful for learning art or innovative design learning?

81.2 Methodology The study follows the narrative literature review to identify various directions of VR application in creativity practice and art and design education. The review focused on key topic related to research question and provides the descriptive account of evidence in support of the conclusion. The process of data extraction is informal, and synthesis of the data is a narrative juxtaposition of evidence. The review is systematically presenting a persuasive support of overall conclusion [12]. The study is focusing on use of VR technology in the area of art and design education. There are two types of implementation factors for the use of VR technology in education pedagogy: first, its technological factors, and second, how it can be harnessed to advance teaching strategies. The literature survey focuses on different types of VR technology that have already been implemented in teaching platforms and discusses VR-based teaching strategies.

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81.3 Virtual Reality Technology in Art and Design Education Grau [13] described VR as a constant phenomenon in art history. Today’s VR is the illusionary visual space creation, and it is grounded in time, space, and perspective. For instance, the Pompeii wall paintings and Villa Barbaro in Maser are significant examples of illusionistic and immersive 3D spaces [13]. According to Grau, the significance of VR is an instructed phenomenon that encourages emotional, ecstatic participation by using symbolic visual representation and creating a fusion of viewer and the images. In this discourse, he stated that the technological aim of VR is ‘to immerse the onlooker deeper and deeper into the image’. However, his argument about artistic vision represents a search for illusion using advanced technology in order to address the conscious thoughts which may invoke the cognitive aspects rather than subject matter [13, 14]. According to Gilyazova [15], the idea of VR can be traced back to Byzantine and medieval philosophers, although it is put to use in a modern interdisciplinary study of science and technology. Therefore, Gilyazoya [15] addressed the philosophical approach (communicative, symbolic, technological, simulative, etc.) of the virtual phenomenon. The language of art always represents space, time, presence, and perspective. With VR technology, artists create an illusion with the same space, time, presence, and perspective, which helps viewers focus on and immerse themselves into the artist’s language or images. From the fourteenth century onward, artists invented and used a scientific perspective to create naturalistic art. They experimented with various natural pigments and applied color in paintings to represent a realistic feeling and played with chiaroscuro to create a dramatic atmosphere. For instance, Villa of the Mysteries located in Pompeii that shows the continuous visual narrative provides a immersive feel to the viewers. The history of art shows how artists have pursued naturalism to immerse viewers. Virtual reality creates an opportunity for artists and designers to go one step forward. In the context of imagery, creation, interaction, and confrontation of actual reality and virtual reality, Sommerer and Mignonneau’s [16] design of digital installation explored real-time communication and evolutionary image processing. They developed the concept of natural interface, which means how natural evolution and the process of nature can function as a tool of creation. According to them, most artwork is the final representation of art objects or artifacts or interactive art, although they created process-oriented art (It follows the digitalized procedure) that is not a predesigned, predictable, or object-oriented form of art. It represents the influence of viewers’ interaction and the internal principles of variation, mutation, and evolution [16]. Hu et al. [17] introduced 3D real-time VR technology for educational platforms, which was developed using plain image design, 3D model, and openGL language development. Zhou et al. [18] created a binocular stereo image on Google Earth for history lessons. Students can explore heritage sites using different perspectives, such as flying, walking. Liu et al. [19] developed a 3D scene management strategy

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called ‘Voxel of interesting’, an online 3D platform to engage students. The development process includes VR scene reconstruction, scene management, AI algorithms, and educational analysis. Chang [20] developed a multiscreen VR technology for teaching art painting. To develop this course and construct the teaching platform, he used VRML modeling and VRML-JAVA, combined it with the SQL server database. The VR-based teaching system contains four modules: (a) teaching management, (b) virtual teaching, (c) cooperative learning, and (d) intelligent evaluation. Bartosh and Anzalone [21] discussed about the conceptual capacity of digital aided design process in terms of critical component theories and practice. They focus on method of modeling using VR for visualization which helps student to develop content and reduce the learning curve of VR integration [21]. Hakkila et al. [22] indicated use of HMD-based VR for design education. The central concept nurtured the value of VR usability for designers who create artifacts, applications, and service concepts. The study finally stated that the VR tool is a empathetic tool which helps designer in the time of conceptualization, prototyping to final execution of design [22]. Rafi et al. [23] examined the potential of virtual reality curriculum for design education. They significantly addressed the effective approaches for content creation and problem-based learning. They initiated the VR-aided creative learning process through principle and elements of design. The study outcome efficiently shows the students understanding of design process, design appreciation, and perception toward objects [23]. Nishimoto [24] discussed introducing computing systems to bring out everyone’s potential creativity. He introduced new technology for the manifestation of creativity to engage ‘not yet creative’ people. The ‘creative mining’ technology contained three types of system setup in musical performances that can develop an uncreative stages within creative activity [24]. Songkram [25] demonstrated the implementation of the virtual learning environment, enhancing in-depth learning with emphasis on innovative skill. He introduced a virtual smart classroom system framework containing a 3D virtual world with simulation, communication, discussions forums, and gamification [25].

81.4 Interactive Technology in Art and Design Research Harman [26] described how painting can respond in the virtual space. Artists have used virtual tours to document a set of paintings called ‘show homes’ through real and imagined representation. These virtual tours provide a glimpse of local utopian domestic places that evoke feelings of quiet places. Throughout this mixed media work, the artist creates a simulation that represents the image and feeling of oasis with empathy and calmness, which takes the viewer away from their everyday suburban lifestyle [26]. Heller [27] described art through virtual reality as craftwork. Her textual illustration project, entitled ‘One for sorrow’, showed dichotomies between hand and digital manufacturing and the illusion of two-dimensionality versus threedimensionality [27]. This work of art is an excellent example of a collaborative art

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journey (between artist, programmer, and VR expert) from a two-dimensional (2D) space to a 3D space. However, since the artist McClyment’s 2D work sufficiently encourages the viewer to create their own world, the need to reconfigure this art as 3D, interactive, and virtual has been questioned [28]. The artist McClyment encountered that the VR simulacrum translated the analogue of images into digital space, and the VR environment does not exist without a participant. It provides a four-dimensional (4D) real-time experience where viewers interact, animate, and build their own realtime, expansive world. There are two possible pathways of working a VR environment. One is directed toward creating works of art, while the other one is to teach students through the virtual learning environment (VLE). Although there are some technical issues [29], cognitive issues, and cultural and philosophical argument [15], VR technology is beneficial for art practitioners, designers, art educators, and teachers. There is an impressive project by Smith and Coyle [30] that introduces digital art through VR. They introduced VR in 7–11-year-old children to encourage them to experience excitement and explore issues of consciousness, perception, and reality. To do this, they created a computer-based VR or desktop VR simulation, which represents the view of a garden through the eyes of a fly. This quasi-experimental project concluded that the idea of meta-consciousness could be simulated through VR tools to develop a constructivist learning experience [30]. VR is a useful tool for artists, art students, and art educators to create a prototype and demonstrate the process of making and understanding a complicated form. The work of Xi [31] serves as an example of the concept and method of the VR system in design and art. She demonstrated how to construct a virtual display system using 3DS MAX and Quest3D programs. Channels make the Quest3D programs, and channel groups can be connected to each other. Designers can set the values on the channels using the program, and by leading the channel group, they can create a simple VR system [31]. Professor Lu [32] provided a feasible procedure to engage students in a 3D exploratory teaching environment. She described intricately how ‘Second Life’, an online virtual platform, can be used vividly for teaching art and design. Teachers can design learning experiences based on their theoretical and philosophical beliefs, innovative ideas, and curriculum contents. According to her, this environment itself serves to create ground for exhibition where viewers can walk around [32]. Lu [33] again explained in another paper the advantages of a virtual setting for concept learning and art education. In this paper, she raised a concern about actual implementation in K-12 classroom [33]. Interaction with art through digital technology, in and of itself, is not a very recent research inquiry. In 1968, computer graphics was a form of art exposed to the public by Gorge Nees at the University of Stuttgart. Technology-based art emerged in the mid-1960s, and from 1980 onward, experimental art and technology had grown remarkably [34, 35]. To bring practice and research closer to technology, art, and design, researchers have deepened their knowledge of the creative process in art and technology. In the context of technology-based creative processes, the artist specifies the programs with benefits and limitations, performance of the technology, and its appearance to the viewer. According to Ernest Edmonds, in this process of creative

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practice, the computer or digital system is considered a critical element of the experience, and this type of work transforms the artist from a specialist in creating artwork to a catalyst for creativity. Interactive artwork offers the artist a unique opportunity to organize the principles of a work by specifying rules and relationships between objects that generate the visual sequence. The specified or programmed laws may govern the structure according to the personal criteria of the artist. Throughout the opportunity, the artist can bring the participant to focus on the essential characteristics of the work [34]. Creative practice using technology has also addressed some critical points, such as flexibility, which requires further exploration and indicates a profound, original, need-wise, implementation. The role of collaboration between artists and technologists is an integral part of creative practice. To integrate technology with art, the artist and technologist both supplement each other. The critical aspect of this process is the emergence of a structure. This shows how the artist focuses on the underlying structure of the artwork. The process of construction of the work then becomes evidence that digital technology used in the art had an impact on the underlying structure, leading to an original product. Candy and Edmonds have highlighted two reasons for this. One, the artist using digital technology is already inclined toward this concern, and that the very nature of the digital system is facilitated in pursuit of this concern. The other is that digital technology encourages the artist to be concerned about the underlying structure, because it is easily visible and allows the artist to add more effort to this aspect of their work [34]. In terms of art practice and technology, Whale [36] posed some questions based on the primary concern of integrative technology in art. In this endeavor, one question addresses significant issues of transmitting creative ideas to technology. Where precisely is the artist’s end product located? In the context of transmission of ideas on a digital platform, he stated that some artistic ideas were strong but incompatible with the application [36]. Conversely, some artists worked without preconceptions, and they only explore their ideas with various tools, without being strictly aligned with specific outcomes and received whatever possibilities are reviled or suggested.

81.5 Possibility of VR Application in Art and Design Pedagogy Teaching art and design through VR can help in developing an exploratory and problem-based pedagogy. Students are mainly confronted with the problem of creating 3D on a 2D surface. Organizing an area with an appropriate perspective is one of the challenges in the art and design study domain. As an example, western classical painting (Fig. 81.1) and Indian miniature painting (Fig. 81.2) show different types of space division. The scientific perspective says that traditional western art is more naturalistic than Indian miniature. However, both styles of art are equally unique in terms of subject matter, esthetics, and details of making. For instance, the

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images 1 and 2 show the structural difference between traditional western and traditional Indian arts. Regarding subject matter of art and design and its esthetic point of view, VR technology does not indicate any primary principle of style-oriented statement. VR technology does not define any derogatory understanding of language and the subject of western art and Indian art. For instance: 1. Naturalistic space division: It is photorealistic in western painting, but in Indian painting, space emphasis is based on the subject matter. 2. Focus on the subject: In western art, there is no focus on or unrealistic exaggeration of special characters (size, body color, etc.), but there is in Indian painting, and special characters are pointed out with sharp images such as size, color, halo. 3. Emotional saturation: In western art, the role of emotion is subjective. The artist’s passion is transmitted to the subject matter and is no longer distinguishable as an artist’s emotional presence. In Indian painting, more than subject matter, an artist or patron’s emotional indulgence is highly emphasized.

Fig. 81.1 Study of perspective and space division of western art using 3D modeling technique in desktop VR

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Fig. 81.2 Study of perspective and space division of Indian art using 3D modeling technique in desktop VR

Therefore, while VR technology is being used as a tool to teach art, it must not provide a concept of right or wrong ‘istoria’ (attention to visual richness). Still, it serves the objective of inquiry-based observation with a 360-degree simulation that is not possible through 2D printing. To understand a work of art, undergo a spatial experience, and germinate a new idea, the VR tool could be a new possibility. In the context of education, design and art are different from each other. Design mainly concerns user-friendliness, functionality, and making life easier [37]. On the other hand, art deals with society, culture, and human behavior. It provides a visual, language-based esthetic. But, elements of art and design principles are correlated and depended on each other in the context of a basic level of teaching. According to Siaw et al. [38], principle of design helps in creating a different form of expression in artistic execution, whereas elements of art are raw materials that should be arranged appropriately [38]. The principle of design carries seven essential elements, namely, rhythm, quality, harmony, proportion, scale, balance and visualizing 3D representation. Elements of art include line, shape, form, color, value, texture, and space. Teachers use various simulating ways to teach students to enhance their understanding. According to Chattin [39], in the very beginning, students learn the principles of design and successfully produce artwork through it, but there are certain difficulties for middle-school children to grasp the knowledge about design which helps

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them effectively communicate their artistic visions [39]. Therefore, VR technology helps them to observe and play with space and objects in a newer way.

81.6 Discussions and Conclusions The study comprehended a technology-aided methodical synergy of art and design education and artistic practice. Although integrating VR technology in art and design pedagogy is argumentative, as well as many fruitful results show the benefits of VR aided learning environment. On the other hand, the VR platform is not only a teaching aid but also helps to understand the pre-defined process of creating an immersive work of art. While creating artwork in a 3D immersive platform, it helps to develop a perception of designing artwork to teach art and design and incubate innovative thinking. The conflict between constraints at the conceptual level and software is at the center of the problem of technology integration in art. One set of solutions to resolve this is for artists to either produce customized software for particular works or to collaborate with software programmers. Given this situation, it is not easy to define conceptual and system limitation. Some limitations are real, and some are illusory. For example, while conceptualizing an idea, some artists fall into illusory constraints, either imagining system features that cannot be created or refraining from creative ideas on the assumption they cannot be created, when in fact they can. Along with these issues, the dilemma of an artist’s commitment to technology can be characterized by two choices. One is allowing technology to dictate the terms of the dialogue. The other is to adopt or reinvent technology to suit the artist’s language. Where the artist’s product is located precisely depends on how the artist executes the final result. The product or creative outcome can be a separate object/artifact, or it can be a documentation of a new process. Integrating digital technology into art is expected to provide a meaningful engagement involving the artist, the digital system, and the viewer as a ‘trialogue’. The artistic process and engagement with digital technology do not only mean the shaping of technology or being shaped by technology, but also how artists learned and conceptualized the technology [40]. In this study, an attempt has been made to bring the concept of using VR technology to the foundational level of learning art and design. As discussed above, this technology shows considerable potential to create art and develop a new social and cultural context of making art and seeing art, artists, and viewer interaction. The technology engendered collaboration among artists, designers, and programmers. The process of VR-based interactive art creates an emerging esthetic experience driven by digital devices and algorithms designed to capture artistic impulses. Designing a work of art through digital devices that effectively enhances creative knowledge as well as its application in creativity teaching is also impactful for the tech-savvy student. Teaching art using VR tools can help students understand invisible or abstract phenomena, which may not always be possible in a classroom, to demonstrate by traditional non-technology-based teaching methods. The abstract

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concepts are metaphorical, and metaphors are based on bodily experience. VR-aided learning experience helped to shape student’s understanding framed by bodily experience [41]. VR-based pedagogy also makes connections between theory and practice, decisively interacts with a topic with dense information, and creates visual richness, which is very important to teaching art and design.

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Chapter 82

Artificial Intelligence-Based Learning Toys: Exploring the Role of Tangram as a Tool to Develop Spatial Learning Among Children Brajesh Dhiman, Darshika Kantaria, Kashif Khan, and Hariesh K. Sankaran Abstract Tangram is a dissection puszzle toy which consists of polygons called tans which offer multiple combinations of shapes. The use of Tangram helps boost problem-solving skills among children. Playing is one of the best ways a child can start learning. Children are very active in learning and exploring new things at a young age. It has been observed that introducing educational and physical toys at a young age in a child’s development years helps them to develop their sensory, motor, visualization, and social skills. In relation to the aforementioned as an educational toy, Tangram offers the potential to promote problem-solving skills through the medium of play. In addition, Tangram has its own limitations as it requires dependence on a guide for a certain period of time when introduced to a child. Besides, after the usage for a certain period of time, users build an understanding of solving such puzzles which brings a saturation in terms of challenge. The study aims to how Artificial Intelligence can be used as an enabler of educational tools like Tangram to bring selflearning in an interactive way which has the potential to create interest among children by offering newness to puzzles every time, thereby helping facilitate problem-solving skills. Tangram being a traditional toy, the intervention of AI keeping its traditional key learnings intact for modern-day children brings interesting research challenges. In relation to the aforementioned, the paper looks into how the gaps in the current education can be addressed keeping in view the case studies for technology-enabled toys which bring self-learning in an interactive way. B. Dhiman (B) · D. Kantaria · K. Khan · H. K. Sankaran Karnavati University, Gujarat, India e-mail: [email protected] D. Kantaria e-mail: [email protected] K. Khan e-mail: [email protected] H. K. Sankaran e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_82

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82.1 Introduction With the help of Tangram and AI, designers discover how traditional principles can serve to create a great educational tool. Tangram is made by cutting a square into seven pieces of different geometric shapes and sizes, combination of these pieces can result in various types of different figures, and these pieces combine and form multiple numbers of a variety of different figures. Now in modern times, in primary schools, it is used as a medium for introducing geometry to children [1]. Introducing physical activity and educational toys at a very early stage of the developing year of the child has seen to evoke their senses, enlighten their imagination, and help improve their social skills. Figure 82.1 shows seven pieces of “TANGRAM” which comprise two large triangles, two small triangles, one medium triangle, one square, and one parallelogram. All triangles are right isosceles triangles [2]. Creativity has become one of the majorly important aspects of modern times, and creativity has no certain definition as it defers from person to person. It uniquely is a way of thinking or creating something very original by oneself. It is the combination of different skills and a variety of abilities one is gifted with. Creativity can be developed through fun activities that can be introduced to kids at an early age using some educational toys. Similar puzzles and playing activities help in improving sensory skills. Figure 82.2 explains the properties and the geometric factors of the Tangram polygons with their sides and angles, which are useful for a child to build a figure from the tans and help the child create combinations. Based on multiple existing studies and research done and based on the five dimensions of Torrance’s creativity [3], the following are the learning outcome of Tangram. Firstly, it enhances physical development. It was seen that stimulating sensory skills will further help in developing better personality and communication skills in children. Secondly, it increases IQ and promotes problem-solving skills. It also improves concentration. Using and playing with such educational toys, it is seen that children focus on a task for a larger period which increases concentration. It also instills creativity and imagination; Tangram fosters the learning and growth of the child and their ability to think creatively. Tangram promotes the child’s capability to imagine and helps in developing emotional and social intelligence. It was seen that Tangram helps children to practice social situations such as sharing, Fig. 82.1 Seven pieces of “TANGRAM”

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Fig. 82.2 Geometric factors of Tangram polygons with sides and angles

leading, bonding, caring, waiting. Playing also develops their emotional intelligence (Fig. 82.3). Children have access to all screens around them. Many homes have multiple TVs, computers, tablets, and phones for kids to find and play with. Also, some children can access their tablets and mobile phones from an early age. According to age studies, the average 8–10 year old interact utilizing various media and elder children and adolescents for about 8 h a day. They are no longer forced to wait because of technology [4]. They can watch TV shows instantly, and they do not get bored because there is always something to keep them engaged and entertained [5]. The Fig. 82.3 What children learn and develop by Tangram

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aforementioned puzzle toys like Tangram are losing popularity with this generation which required a lot of attention and focus, technologies like AI can bridge this gap, and this is further explained in Sect. 82.2 Methodology. But, however, not every child gets the chance to realize their imagination, and they lack opportunities and platforms, such as tools, supportive environments, involved parents who dedicate time, quality lessons, and more. So slowly and slowly, the child becomes afraid of exploring creatively and does not want to face their imagination anymore. They are creative but short in recognizing their creation because they do not have things to present. Without the stimulation, there would not be any more creativity. A toy can be built based on Tangram, while the traditional Tangram has seven pieces which can be used to make shapes, and forms, AI-enabled can interact with the user and behave like the form it is made like, for example, the child has joined all the pieces in a way which depicts a dog now with AI, forms can actually act like a dog, can bark, move the tail all the pieces will be made like seven Tangram shaped with some volume, it will have a connector which will help connect the different shapes together it will be a modular toy, which means you can change the way it looks simply by clicking and connecting. through connector. Modular design is just like magic so easy to use. That’s not all—one can also make variations by changing the way it acts by learning coding from the beginning. As the kid spends more time with it, it can adapt to your life in countless ways. It can do so many things, and all you need to do is imagine. This toy makes their imagination come true; then, they can show their work to parents, friends, and everyone online to gain recognition and a feeling of achievement.

82.1.1 Influence of AI on Education The new methodologies of learning, which motivate school kids and teachers to reciprocate productively and better, are increasing. AI is a part of computer science with the construction of intelligent machines, which consumes new ideas that sort the computers to perform equally to humans [6]. In modern terms, AI can be defined as intelligent agents, that act as the environment and change their actions into success. AI offers reliability and cost-effectiveness, solves complicated problems, and makes many decisions; also, in addition, AI prevents data loss, and AI is used in most areas today, both in business and technology. One of the great tools in AI is called “reinforcement learning” which is based on testing success and failure in real life to increase the reliability of applications [7]. This is because AI systems can process large amounts of data very quickly and identify patterns that we might not be able to see; AI has become a part of our lives in almost every sector, but it has impacted the education sector more as teaching and learning play a major role in everyone’s life. With time schooling has changed. Rather than replacing teachers, existing and emerging technologies will help them do their jobs better and more efficiently. AI can make learning interesting and can help students to grasp it with ease.

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The proposed AI-enabled educational tool is based on the following question from the users’ point of view: 1. How a user can make the most out of the tool at an early age. 2. How it helps the user to use it without a guide once practiced. 3. How AI is enabled in the tool keeping the base learnings of Tangram intact.

82.1.2 Use of Artificial Intelligence in Tangram AI can help create customized experiences of Tangram for children, making the Tangram—a traditional toy more engaging and personalized. A toy that can adapt to the child’s level of understanding is entertaining by understanding the child’s preferences and providing appropriate content that is more likely to be enjoyed by the child. For example, the “Intelligent Toy” developed by IBM uses AI to adapt the level of difficulty of the game to the child’s ability [8]. The game starts off easy and gradually gets more difficult as the child gets better at it; the “Toy Box” system developed by researchers at MIT uses AI to recommend new games and activities to children based on their preferences [9]. The proposed AI-enabled educational tool is based on user-friendly optimization and the following key features of AI in Tangram: 1. AI-powered Tangram teaches kids how to code. It can have modular pieces of code and hardware shaped as seven different Tangram shapes with magnetic faces that snap together. Even preschoolers can learn to connect them so that they light up, spin, and perform in different ways. It is “hands-on” coding where the actions of the robot will depend on the permutation and combination of the ways the child attaches it. As child progresses, they can design and program their robotic creations using an application, making this a set that will continue to grow with the child. Parents will find the play guide helpful in guiding children’s play and learning. AI can be used in making an application, which after making a form, kids can give it commands to perform different actions, or in the application, there could be a record feature which can be used to record the movements that you do on the figure. Once they learn the movements, then those movements can be performed using voice commands which will develop kids’ cognitive, physical, and emotional skills. It will also create more interest in the child to make new figures and go beyond this basic learning of Tangram and give the figure moments to act like the original character of the figure. It naturally arouses children’s curiosity and encourages rhythmic interactions 2. The figure created can also have the feature to be a personal voice assistant which can be done by adding a compact device with a speaker and mic to recognize speech like Google’s Alexa and is connected to the internet. A program can be built that stores all the data on a cloud server. The child can use the voice to give it a command or ask a question and it will answer if an answer exists or carries out a command if the request is possible. State a business, command, or question

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the device records what is said and uses the internet-connected Wi-Fi network to send the recording to address verification service (AVS), then AVS can turn the words into actual data that can be analyzed and passes the request to a third party service such as Accuweather for any weather-related questions or Wikipedia for any general information which delivers the correct information using the internet. It will be an internet-based service which means that you do not have only some limited fed replies, but voice assistance which is natural to us and uses all the data available on the internet to answer a question or carries out a command, and then, AI will help deliver those questions according to child’s age, likes IQ all this data ai will collect while interacting with the child then use that data to teach personalized lessons in languages, sciences, technology, and math. The voice assisting feature can also converse directly with the educational material that is present on the internet and the installed devices without any involvement from their teacher and also teach the child different shapes, forms, and mathematical formulas. A track record of the child’s development, abilities, weak area, and strong areas can also be generated using the aforementioned. It enables you to work on specific skills with the child and to follow his or her progress over the long term. The toy can also have a camera to analyze the user’s facial expressions or gestures which can be used to adapt the user interface accordingly and play games like hide n-seek.

82.1.3 Different Components of the Toy See Fig. 82.4. Fig. 82.4 Different components that make up the AI-enabled education tool

Variety of Sensors Camera Speaker Attachable Wheels Attachable Led Screen Suction Mounts Claw gripper Ball joints 7 Tangram-shaped pieces

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82.2 Design Methodology of AI-Enabled Education Tool The logical flow of AI-enabled education tool of how is its workflow and how it benefits young kids to learn Tangram can be seen in Fig. 82.5. The seven shapes of Tangram, two large triangles, two small triangles, one medium triangle, one square, and one parallelogram, and ball connectors can be used to connect different shapes together which will allow the movement of shapes when joined together. Children will use their imagination to create unique figures, where they try to manipulate, construct, and recognize geometric shapes or organic shapes which could depict things around them for instance “a dog” by using a combination

Fig. 82.5 Steps explained for building and working of the AI-enabled education tool

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of seven tans Tangram Then become acquainted with the qualities of the shapes they employ. They note, for example, that the triangles (large, medium, and small) are all the same shape. They represent a special kind of right triangle—an isosceles triangle with two 45° angles and one 90° angle. And if you put together two triangles of the same size, you can make a square. It will develop a positive feeling about geometry, understand how geometric shapes are decomposed, better understand spatial relationships, and learn the meaning of congruence. Once the figure is constructed by the child by snapping together different shapes and connectors, which have magnetic faces, it can be just like building a robot, and it can perform different actions on its own like spin, lighting up, moving according to its pre-coded combinations, which will create interest for the user. Initially, the child could use the pre-coded actions, but later custom actions can be coded by the user through an application program built for the toy. In the application, child can choose between two options whether to use coding where the user can make their custom movements and actions by arranging simple icons in different combinations or just physically make a different movement to the figure and record it using the record action feature in the pairable application or just by using voice command which will be stored in the toys’ data to perform the same movement later. It will develop problem-solving skill and enables computational thinking. It will also nurture the creativity and make the whole process interesting seeing the developed figures come to life. The toy will have speakers and will be able to perform various assigned tasks to it and respond to questions, like Google’s Alexa. It can have interesting games to learn while playing, perform quizzes with the child, and be a personal tutor after each season it can record the child’s performance and prepare statistics of the overall growth which could be insightful for the parents and also help teachers to pull out the best results from students.

82.3 Conclusion Based on the existing concern of the decreasing utilization of the traditional toy Tangram, a concept of how AI is helpful for education and how it can be merged with Tangram to ensure the learning of Tangram and the usage of AI remains intact for the cause is proposed. The conceptualized educational tool can be utilized based on the criteria studied in the paper on some existing research and data available, i.e., AI for education tools and the traditional outcomes of Tangram learning. These criteria can help both the booming of AI in today’s generation and engage the child by playing with a toy that helps them in their development, such as enhancing physical and emotional development. In particular, it increases IQ and promotes problemsolving skills. This tool may also facilitate better and improved concentration by playing with the tool which has an engaging and attractive way. In addition, it instills creativity and imagination by exposing the child to the AI aspect at a young age and also helps develop emotional and social intelligence in a child. Overall, the proposed tool can help a child grow and learn at a young age and in a fun way.

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References 1. Bohning, G., Althouse, J.K.: Using tangrams to teach geometry to young children. Early Childhood Edu. J. 24, 239–242 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02354839 2. National Council of Teacher’s Mathematics. Developing geometry understandings and spatial skills through puzzle-like problems with tangrams: Tangram challenges (2003) 3. Lucas, B.: A five-dimensional model of creativity and its assessment in schools. Appl. Measur. Educ. 29(4), 278–290 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1080/08957347.2016.1209206 4. Rideout V. Generation M2: Media in the lives of 8- to 18-Year-Olds. Kaiser Family Foundation, Menlo Park, CA, Google Scholar (2010) 5. Western Governors University. Impact of technology on kids today and tomorrow. Western Governors University, 25 Aug 2020 6. Beal, V.: Artificial Intelligence (AI). Webopedia, 24 May 2021 7. Sadek, A.W., Chowdhury, M.: Artificial intelligence applications to critical transportation issues (2012) 8. Takahashi, D.: Elemental’s smart connected toy CogniToys taps IBM’s Watson supercomputer for its brains. VentureBeat, 23 Feb 2015 9. Evans, M.K., et al.: Kids, AI devices, and intelligent toys—MIT Media Lab. MIT Media Lab

Chapter 83

Designing for Interactive Rehabilitation in Virtual Reality Achille Gakwaya, Yazan Barhoush, Vijayakumar Nanjappan, and Georgi V. Georgiev

Abstract Virtual reality (VR) offers excellent prospects for rehabilitation. The central concept of VR rehabilitation systems is to provide immersion and motivation to patients in the VR environment while they perform rehabilitation exercises in the physical world. However, existing VR-based rehabilitation solutions rely on conventional interaction devices, such as VR controllers. Specifically, they do not provide custom hardware or tailor the interactions in the physical world to the patients’ physical therapy requirements. This study focuses on designing an interactive VR device to help rehabilitate musculoskeletal elbow injuries or similar conditions. In such cases, the treatment involves exercises for the wrist and hand. The developed custom controller is implemented in a physical object with sensors to track rehabilitation performance. The object used for rehabilitation is represented and interacted with in a dedicated game-like VR environment. This environment targets user engagement, experience, and motivation. In this way, we realize rehabilitation-customized physical and virtual object interactions instead of the interactions that employ existing VR controllers. In the experiment, participants were asked to perform two rehabilitation exercises that involved interacting with the designed VR rehabilitation system. A series of questions were asked as part of the user experience evaluation. The results showed a positive participant experience. Based on the data from the sensors in the rehabilitation object, we can quantify the rehabilitation performance. In this way, the rehabilitation outcomes can be judged by the patient or the therapist. The approach described in this study allows for designing custom interactions tailored to specific rehabilitation cases.

A. Gakwaya · Y. Barhoush · V. Nanjappan · G. V. Georgiev (B) Center for Ubiquitous Computing, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland e-mail: [email protected] Y. Barhoush e-mail: [email protected] V. Nanjappan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_83

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83.1 Introduction Several common sports-related injuries require a considerable amount of rehabilitation time to recover. One example is forearm injuries, such as lateral epicondylitis or tennis elbow. Their rehabilitation involves various exercises, some of which focus on improving grip strength. These exercises require patients to squeeze, grasp, or fist clenching an object or rehabilitation device. The strengthening and stretching exercises in this rehabilitation case can benefit from improved user engagement, experience, and motivation. The accessibility of therapies in terms of cost, time, and location is an issue that has come into force during the COVID-19 pandemic. For this reason, recent technological advancements have focused on the development of devices that deal with some of the limitations of in-contact therapy by making it easy for the patient to carry out the treatment independently. A prospective solution should allow interactive rehabilitation by sensing the patient’s therapeutic movements (gestures). The development should target user engagement, experience, and motivation and apply them to independent rehabilitation.

83.2 Background Works 83.2.1 Designing for Interactive Rehabilitation of Wrist and Arm This review is centered on interactive rehabilitation approaches. Since the rehabilitation case of tennis elbow injury closely resembles other wrist and arm rehabilitation strategies, the review targets similar conditions and is thus not limited to this case. This kind of rehabilitation requires careful choice of interactions and sensing to tailor the rehabilitation process. For this reason, the review of the existing literature has two parts. The first one explores previous work on efficient sensing for interactive wrist rehabilitation. In this overview, different sensors that use various technologies are examined, and the working principle and accuracy of each work are reviewed. The second part investigates in detail the rehabilitation done using the previously mentioned sensors. This part describes the different techniques used for rehabilitation through wrist exercises. The methodologies in this review are diverse and employ creative approaches that range from actuation and virtual reality (VR) to telerehabilitation and more.

83.2.2 Wrist and Elbow Sensing Wrist and elbow exercises are commonly used in rehabilitation. A wrist-sensing wearable device for gesture recognition was developed by Liang et al. [1]. In this

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study, the authors used capacitive pressure sensors distributed around the wrist and wrapped around by a band. The experiment revealed high accuracy in identifying particular hand gestures. Another study [2] used electromyography (EMG) and forcesensitive resistor (FSR) sensors to predict hand gestures. Twelve participants wore the FSR sensor on the left wrist and the EMG electrodes on the arm. They were asked to perform fifteen gestures involving the wrist, fingers, and hand. The results showed considerably high accuracy and precise detection of a wide range of motions. A different kind of sensing approach is discussed by Ismail et al. [3]. This approach uses mechanomyography (MMG), which is the sensing of muscles’ mechanical activity to identify gestures. The participants in this study had four MMG sensors attached to the critical muscles for detection and were asked to perform three hand gestures (grip strength supinated, flexion fingers, and pinch grip) five times. The results of this study are based on the use of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and EMG for hand movement recognition [4]. These two sensors were placed on subjects who performed finger and wrist exercises at three force levels. The results after classification showed high accuracy for a combination of NIRS and EMG sensors for movement identification. The careful exploration of various sensors gives an idea about the complexity, accuracy, and efficiency to be expected in the implementation. Depending on the application, the sensors chosen should be tailored to the types of gestures to be sensed. Jiang et al. [5] make an interesting comparison between FSR and EMG, finding that FSR sensors were superior in accuracy. Furthermore, FSR sensors provide better accuracy as more sensors are incorporated into the design. Since the subject of this study relates to wrist pressure detection, an FSR sensor approach was followed.

83.2.3 Controllers for Rehabilitation VR offers various opportunities for rehabilitation [6], neurorehabilitation, and cognitive enhancement [7–9]. One study presented a VR-based solution for rehabilitating tennis elbow or similar conditions [10]. The device developed in this study is an exoskeleton system that is worn and extends from the forearm up to the outer arm. This device assists in the rehabilitation of patients by interfacing with a VR environment where exercises tailored to the patient’s condition are carried out. A more interactive study [11] described the development of an EMG-based rehabilitation system that gives feedback to the user via a video game. The assessment showed sufficient accuracy for six distinct types of rehabilitation exercises. Another study involved a device designed to assist in the rehabilitation of the wrist and forearm [12]. The system in question relies on a steering handle used by patients to play a game. According to the evaluation, after three weeks of use, the device increased patients’ range of motion (ROM). Similarly, a system designed by Chimsa et al. [13] provides massage therapy for tennis elbow patients. It uses computer-controlled bevel gears, one of which has a ball pressure that feeds to an armband and provides arm massage for good blood flow. One study suggested an

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Internet of things-based solution [14]. In this study, patient rehabilitation was first sensed from IMU and an optical heart sensor; it was then acquired for processing and ultimately saved in the cloud for further assessment and monitoring. The results after experimentation with a healthy user were in line with the doctor’s assumption concerning a healthy person’s ROM. An entertaining approach by Hsieh et al. [15] used a Bluetooth ball to perform four basic wrist movements. The results showed that the participants with wrist impairment improved for several ROMs. All the previously reviewed studies have one thing in common: the need to remove the necessity for the patient to visit a therapist. Several approaches are found in the literature review. Regarding the best method for rehabilitation, a number of criteria were set in terms of interactivity, simplicity, and appeal. This was important because the patients need to do something that they find exciting and immersive and from which they benefit completely. In the reviewed literature, virtual reality and games seemed to catch participants’ attention. Most previous works focused on detecting movements using wearables; hence, they did not leave the hand free to perform the rehabilitation gestures naturally and close to the actual rehabilitation contexts. A solution to this issue can be to move the sensing from the arm to the rehabilitation object and use an immersive VR environment where the interactions can be tailored to the patient’s physical therapy [16]. This study proposes and experimentally tests an interactive VR device to help rehabilitate tennis elbow or similar conditions. The approach is to move the controller to the physical object with sensors to track the patient’s rehabilitation performance, leaving the hand free from handheld controllers. The developed device (controller) and corresponding VR environment are intended to provide user engagement, experience, and motivation that can be observed in VR interactions [6, 8, 9, 17, 18], while simultaneously registering basic rehabilitation performance data.

83.3 Implementation 83.3.1 Design Approach The design approach of this study is focused on performing rehabilitation exercises in VR similarly to real-world exercises. The goal of the design proposed here is for a tennis elbow patient to perform an exercise interactively. Evidence shows that squeezing exercises can improve the tennis elbow condition by gradually increasing grip strength [19]. For this reason, an exercise was developed where the patient grabs a bottle several times within a certain period. This approach differs from controller sensing-based methods in that the sensors are placed on the interactive object, instead of being worn or on the handheld controller. This has the following insights and advantages: • The hand of the patient is free to perform grasping and squeezing naturally. • The grasp/squeeze can be measured on the object where it occurs.

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• The approach can be tailored to different objects and interactions. A game VR environment was developed to make the experience interactive and immersive, where the grabbing is translated to a score for encouragement. Moreover, the game setup means that no therapist must attend the patient’s sessions, allowing the exercise to be performed anywhere and anytime. The implementation of our system requires a hardware controller that can capture the patient’s grab pressure and send it to the VR game engine for inclusion. After careful hardware and software design consideration, a set of choices were made and are discussed in the following sections.

83.3.2 Architecture The general hardware architecture of the system is shown in Fig. 83.1. The development board is the central processing part of the controller; it continuously communicates FSR sensor values to the PC and sends them to the VR game engine. It uses Bluetooth for this communication. These FSR sensors are distributed on the surface of the bottle for the user’s grip to be detected. Moreover, for the user to be able to interact with the environment, VIVE trackers are attached to both the bottle and the arm so that the game can track them. We developed an Arduino-compatible board for the device (controller) with a dedicated interface of FSR sensors and a wireless Bluetooth module (Fig. 83.2). The virtual environment is based on the free unity asset, which is the coffee shop starter pack. In this scene, the user appears to be in a coffee shop, sitting at a table. The tracker fitted on his arm is rendered as an arm in the VR scene, and the bottle is modeled as a glass by using the tracker on the bottle. Figure 83.3 shows the look of the scene. The experiment was set up so that the FSR sensor values are continuously sent to the VR environment; from there, C# scripts compare sensor values with a threshold value above which a grab is detected. The threshold was determined after carefully studying the FSR values that best correspond to a grab. After a successful grab is detected, a score included in the scene is increased. As will be shown later, this becomes essential for the analysis.

Fig. 83.1 Architecture of the implemented interactive device (controller)

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Fig. 83.2 Experimental device consists of a prototype with FSR sensors, board, and HTC VIVE tracker (a); strap with HTC VIVE tracker (b); and HTC VIVE headset (c)

Fig. 83.3 VR scene used in the evaluation

Eight participants (seven men and one woman) were recruited for the experiment; their ages ranged from twenty-one to thirty-three. All the participants were healthy users and right-handed. All except one were students at the University of Oulu. Only three participants reported having a prior experience with VR. The participants were briefed about the experiment and its objectives and asked to read and sign an informed consent form. They also had to meet the requirements for participation (i.e., not being pregnant or suffering from epilepsy). After explanation and consent, the participants were given a questionnaire on demographic characteristics and prior experience with VR. Afterwards, they were asked to put on the VR headset and fitted with one tracker on the arm using a strap. They were then asked to perform two exercises. Repetitions are required in such rehabilitation exercises. In the first exercise, the participant had to grab and mildly squeeze the bottle fifteen times in forty-five seconds; in the second exercise, this action had to be repeated ten times within thirty seconds. As the repetitions of grab and release are carried out, the score increases.

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Figure 4a shows one of the participants performing the exercises. Figure 4b shows four grabs detected by the sensor (the peak values of the curve). After the experiment, each participant’s score was recorded. The participants were also asked to answer a post-experiment questionnaire based on the NASA Task Load Index (TLX) (https://humansystems.arc.nasa.gov/groups/TLX/). Figure 83.5 summarizes the result of the TLX.

Fig. 83.4 Participant interacts with the device during the experiment (a) and sensor values after four successful grabs (b)

Fig. 83.5 NASA TLX results (1—very low, 5—very high)

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83.4 Discussion 83.4.1 User Perceptions We discuss user perceptions when interacting with the posed system. According to the NASA TLX data collected from the users (shown in Fig. 83.5), the mental demand for the task was very low for the vast majority of participants; this provides a positive indication that real users might adapt to it easily. The majority of participants also saw the task as very low in terms of physical demand, although one person said that it was very highly demanding. A thorough analysis of that person’s case would be needed for further clarification. Concerning the pace of the experiment, the feedback was mixed; on average, the rate could be described as not too rushed. This can also be considered positive, as rehabilitation should be performed at a suitable pace for the patient. Most of the participants also reported a very high success rate in completing the exercises; in many cases, many of them finished before the required time. Finally, all the participants reported very low effort and frustration in completing the exercises. The scores show the need for repetition during rehabilitation exercises. Repetition not only contributes to fast recovery but also makes the exercises easy to master. As seen from the scores, some participants did not score better in the first exercise, but the score variations improved in the second exercise, as shown by the decreased standard deviation.

83.4.2 Limitations and Future Implementation Although the FSR sensors are one of the most researched, cheap, and stable compared to force myography (FMG) sensors, they are prone to hysteresis because of their voltage dependence. Therefore, readings vary from one experiment to the next. Piezo capacitive FMG sensors could be a better alternative, but the cost of the exercise device may increase. Another limitation may be the VR environment [6]. The current environment could be made more interactive and more game-like for the patients to be motivated to practice even more. However, the implemented score setting is a promising start because it motivates patients to achieve higher scores. As far as tennis elbow is concerned, a variety of exercises can help with fast recovery. There is a need to incorporate elbow exercises, such as elbow flexion and extension, as well as more wrist exercises, which involve more muscles. This could come with a new challenge to build a more suitable controller and implement complex algorithms to distinguish different kinds of movements and gestures. The sensors would also need to be more accurate and possibly use a combination of different sensors to achieve better results and performance. Evaluating participants’ sense of presence will help to understand the overall experience [20]. If these changes

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were successful, rehabilitation would make more sense for users because it would encourage them to stay longer in a game that is closer to reality.

83.5 Conclusion This paper presents the results of an experiment aimed at verifying the effectiveness of a VR, sensor-based solution for rehabilitation. We focused on a VR controller device for custom object interactions in an immersive VR environment for sportsrelated rehabilitation. This approach is an alternative to the interactions employing existing VR controllers. The device we developed includes a physical object with sensors that users interact with in a game-like VR environment. In an experiment, participants were asked to perform two exercises that involved interacting with the designed device. The results indicated a positive participant experience. The approach described in this study allows for interactions to be tailored to specific rehabilitation cases. Future design of rehabilitation devices should tailor the designed solutions for the particular rehabilitation conditions, customize the interactions, and provide direct measurements of the rehabilitation performance. Acknowledgements This research was supported by Academy of Finland 6Genesis Flagship [Grant Number 346208] and by European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme [Grant Number H2020-856998].

References 1. Liang, X., Ghannam, R., Heidari, H.: Wrist-worn gesture sensing with wearable intelligence. IEEE Sens. J. 19(3), 1082–1090 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2018.2880194 2. McIntosh, J., McNeill, C., Fraser, M., Kerber, F., Löchtefeld, M., Krüger, A.: EMPress: practical hand gesture classification with wrist-mounted EMG and pressure sensing. In: Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 2332–2342 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858093 3. Ismail, M.M., Lam, C., Sundaraj, K., Rahiman, M.: Hand motion pattern recognition analysis of forearm muscle using MMG signals. Bull. Electr. Eng. Inf. 8(2), 533–540 (2019). https:// doi.org/10.11591/eei.v8i2.1415 4. Paleari, M., Luciani, R., Ariano, P.: Towards NIRS-based hand movement recognition. In: 2017 International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics (ICORR), pp. 1506–1511 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1109/ICORR.2017.8009461 5. Jiang, X., Merhi, L.-K., Xiao, Z.G., Menon, C.: Exploration of force myography and surface electromyography in hand gesture classification. Med. Eng. Phys. 41, 63–73 (2017). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.medengphy.2017.01.015 6. Georgieva, I., Georgiev, G.V.: Reconstructing personal stories in virtual reality as a mechanism to recover the self. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17(1), Article 1 (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.3390/ijerph17010026 7. Georgiev, D.D., Georgieva, I., Gong, Z., Nanjappan, V., Georgiev, G.V.: Virtual reality for neurorehabilitation and cognitive enhancement. Brain Sci. 11(2), Article 2 (2021). https://doi. org/10.3390/brainsci11020221

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8. Hu, X., Nanjappan, V., Georgiev, G.V.: Bursting through the blocks in the human mind: Enhancing creativity with extended reality technologies. Interactions 28(3), 57–61 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1145/3460114 9. Hu, X., Nanjappan, V., Georgiev, G.V.: Seeing from the users’ eyes: an outlook to virtual-reality based empathic design research. Proc. Des. Soc. 1, 2601–2610 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1017/ pds.2021.521 10. de la Iglesia, D.H., Mendes, A.S., González, G.V., Jiménez-Bravo, D.M., de Paz Santana, J.F.: Connected elbow exoskeleton system for rehabilitation training based on virtual reality and context-aware. Sensors 20(3), 858 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/s20030858 11. Converse, H., Ferraro, T., Jean, D., Jones, L., Mendhiratta, V., Naviasky, E., Par, M., Rimlinger, T., Southall, S., Sprenkle, J., et al.: An EMG biofeedback device for video game use in forearm physiotherapy. Sensors 1–4 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSENS.2013.6688474 12. Phetnuam, S., Pintavirooj, C., Tungjitkusolmun, S.: Design and development of equipment wrist and forearm physical therapeutic in elderly persons. In: 2018 11th Biomedical Engineering International Conference (BMEiCON), pp. 1–5 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/BMEiCON. 2018.8609991 13. Chimsa, J., Seechaipat, T., Senavongse, W.: Design and development of massage therapy device for arm. In: 2017 10th Biomedical Engineering International Conference (BMEiCON), pp. 1–5 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1109/BMEiCON.2017.8229155 14. Bilic, D., Uzunovic, T., Golubovic, E., Ustundag, B.C. (2017). Internet of things-based system for physical rehabilitation monitoring. In: 2017 XXVI International Conference on Information, Communication and Automation Technologies (ICAT), pp. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICAT. 2017.8171641 15. Hsieh, W.-M., Hwang, Y.-S., Chen, S.-C., Tan, S.-Y., Chen, C.-C., Chen, Y.-L.: Application of the Blobo bluetooth ball in wrist rehabilitation training. J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 28(1), 27–32 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1589/jpts.28.27 16. Mengoni, M., Raponi, D., Ceccacci, S.: A method to identify VR-based setup to foster elderly in design evaluation. Int. J. Intell. Eng. Inform. 4(1), 46–70 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1504/ IJIEI.2016.074501 17. Berni, A., Borgianni, Y.: Applications of virtual reality in engineering and product design: why, what, how, when and where. Electronics 9(7), 1064 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/electroni cs9071064 18. Neroni, M.A., Oti, A., Crilly, N.: Virtual Reality design-build-test games with physics simulation: opportunities for researching design cognition. Int. J. Des. Creativity Innov. 9(3), 139–173 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/21650349.2021.1929500 19. Tiwari, M.: Effectiveness of flex bar eccentric exercises versus progressive resistance exercises of wrist on pain, pain free grip strength and functional activities in sub acute tennis elbow. Indian J. Physiother. Occup. Ther. 12(3), 28–32 (2018). https://doi.org/10.5958/0973-5674. 2018.00051.5 20. Barhoush, Y., Georgiev, G.V., Loudon, B.: Empathy and idea generation: exploring the design of a virtual reality controller for rehabilitation purposes. In: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Design Creativity (ICDC 2020), 287–294 (2020). https://doi.org/10.35199/ ICDC.2020.36

Chapter 84

Role of Human-Centered Design in Haptic-Enabled Virtual Reality Environments’ Research and Development Saptarshi Samanta

and Pankaj Upadhyay

Abstract With the increasing proliferation of virtual reality technology, there has been a rising interest in improving the sense of immersion in Virtual Reality Environments (VREs). Apart from the auditory and visual modalities, the modality of haptic sensing and touch is critical for the sense of immersion and presence in a VRE. Therefore, designers need to understand the human-centered design (HCD) considerations when developing such haptic sensing and feedback technology for its effective implementation in VREs. This paper critically reviews the role of HCD in haptic-enabled VRE and its applications. The critical review shows that the current research in haptic sensing and feedback is gradually complementing the functionality approach with HCD principles. This shift in the research focus has uncovered distinct directions for research into designing user-centered and practical solutions for immersive Virtual Reality experiences.

84.1 Introduction The proliferation of Virtual Reality (VR) and its associated applications and hardware is gradually rising. The increase in interest from the industry and general masses in the metaverse concept is further fueling the growth of VR and its supporting hardware. With the increasing spread of VR technology, there is an increasing demand for a greater sense of immersion in the VR Environment (VRE). Visual, audio, and vibrotactile cues are the current modalities for immersion in a VRE. The vibrotactile method is a haptic feedback system that deals with the sense of touch. The interest of this paper lies in haptic sensing and feedback research as applied to VR. This paper critically reviews whether the current haptic sensing and feedback research uses human-centered design (HCD) considerations at any stage of their research and in what capacity. S. Samanta (B) · P. Upadhyay Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_84

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This paper is structured into four sections. First, the introduction provides a brief description of haptic-enabled VRE and frames a working definition for HCD relevant to the context of this paper. Section 84.2 discusses the search criteria and the parameters used for the critical review method followed. Section 84.3 covers a critical review of the 28 selected articles. The main inferences from the review along with a conclusion are presented in Sect. 84.4.

84.1.1 Human-Centered Design ISO 9241-210:2019 defines HCD as “…an approach to interactive systems development that aims to make systems usable and useful by focusing on the users, their needs and requirements, and by applying human factors/ergonomics, and usability knowledge and techniques. This approach enhances effectiveness and efficiency, improves human well-being, user satisfaction, accessibility and sustainability; and counteracts possible adverse effects of use on human health, safety and performance.” [1]. Usability evaluation, user-elicitation study, and participatory design are some of the HCD methods observed during the critical review. The concept of whether the adoption of HCD was active or passive in a particular work is introduced in this paper by adopting the above definition of HCD. In the case of active adoption of HCD, we mean to state that users are integral to the design process, and user inputs are critical for design iterations. Identifying the research goal or question after studying the users is another aspect of the active adoption of HCD. In the case of passive adoption of HCD, the users have no direct involvement with the design process. The users’ role is restricted to aiding in generating data to evaluate the hypothesis or design of the researcher.

84.2 Methodology We searched peer-reviewed articles, review articles, and proceeding papers in the English language from the Web of Science database with the keywords mentioned in Table 84.1. Table 84.1 Keyword search criteria for identifying literature for critical review Keywords

Results

(“VR” OR “Virtual Reality”) AND “haptics”

241

(“VR” OR “Virtual Reality”) AND “haptics” AND “design”

91

(“VR” OR “Virtual Reality”) AND “haptics” AND “Interaction Design”

2

(“VR” OR “Virtual Reality”) AND (“HCI” OR “Interaction Design”)

166

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Since VR and haptics are the main concepts of this study, they were the primary keywords used in the search string. The review also focuses on the adoption of HCD in haptic sensing and feedback in the context of VR. Thus, the other keywords chosen are design, interaction design, and human–computer interaction (HCI). The search resulted in 500 papers in total, as shown in Table 84.1. Twenty-eight papers were shortlisted for the critical review post-screening the title and abstract of the results. A content analysis was performed to evaluate the adoption of HCD in the selected papers. The critical review is discussed in the next section. The parameters used to evaluate the adoption of HCD are as follows: • HCD adoption: Is the adoption of HCD active or passive? • Context: Have target user groups and use cases been identified? • Goal definition: Has the research goal/problem been arrived at after studying the users or use cases? • Focus: Is the focus of the problem statement/argument on the user or functionality and technology? • Outcome: Is the outcome of the research/design focused on usability or functionality?

84.3 Critical Review In this section, we shall critically review the shortlisted literature. Table 84.2 summarizes the key findings. The abbreviation PID used in the table stands for “Paper Identity Number.”

84.3.1 Is the Adoption of HCD Active or Passive? On the evaluation of the selected literature, we observe that PIDs 1 through 6 have actively adopted HCD as a part of the overall research process. This will result in more user-friendly outcomes as the research takes the users as a critical part of the research process. PID 4 is an example of the active adoption of HCD, as the focus is on novice designers who will be designing haptic systems. The outcome of this research was the creation of an open-source package to aid novice designers in the design of haptic systems. PIDs 7 through 17 have passively adopted HCD as a part of the overall research process. Since the adoption of HCD is passive, the research outcomes may not be adequately complemented with HCD factors. PID 7 is an example of the passive adoption of HCD. In PID 7, the focus of the research is on improving user safety and experience while engaging in locomotion in a VRE. Though the focus is on the users, the users are just a means to validate the research hypothesis and do not play an active role in the design process. Hence, PID 7 is tagged as a passive adopter of HCD. The outcome of PID 7 was expected to aid in

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

[9]

8

13

[8]

7

12

[7]

6

[12]

[6]

5

11

[5]

4

[10]

[4]

3

[11]

[3]

2

10

[2]

1

9

Reference

PID

_

_

_

_

Passive

Passive

Passive

Passive

Passive

Passive

Passive

Passive

Passive

Passive

Passive

Active

Active

Active

Active

Active

Active

Active or passive?

Table 84.2 Summary of key findings

No

No

Yes

No

No

No

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

No

No

Yes

No

No

No

Users identified

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Use cases identified

User

Functionality/technology

User

Functionality/technology

User

Functionality/technology

User

User

User

User

User

User

User

Functionality/technology

User

User

User

User

User

User

User

Focus of the problem statement/argument

Usability (continued)

Functionality/technology

Functionality/technology

Functionality/technology

Functionality/technology

Functionality/technology

Usability

Functionality/technology

Usability

Usability

Usability

Usability

Usability

Functionality/technology

Usability

Usability

Usability

Usability

Usability

Usability

Usability and functionality

Focus of the research outcome

1046 S. Samanta and P. Upadhyay

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

Active or passive?

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Users identified

PIDs 22–28 are review papers; hence, the columns are blank

Reference

PID

Table 84.2 (continued)

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Use cases identified

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Focus of the problem statement/argument

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Focus of the research outcome

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creating basic guidelines and safety precautions for users’ movement in VR. PIDs 18 through 21 have not indicated any adoption of HCD as a part of the research process, which might lead to the conclusion that these papers are more oriented to the functional aspects of haptic sensing and feedback devices in the context of VR. In the case of papers with PIDs 22 through 28, the papers are literature review papers, and checking for the nature of the adoption of HCD, in this case, would be irrelevant. However, we can garner some interesting insights about the adoption of HCD from the literature reviews. These reviews reveal that the research work while focusing on the functional aspects of haptic sensing and feedback systems has not been adequately complemented by applying HCD principles.

84.3.2 Have Target User Groups and Use Cases Been Identified? Even though PIDs 1 through 6 have been marked for active adoption of HCD, only PID 4 has clearly identified the target user group but has failed to specify the use cases. This could indicate that the research outcome is for generalized use across different application scenarios or that the authors are yet to establish specific use cases for the research. In the case of PIDs 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, target users have not been clearly identified; however, the use cases are clearly established. Focusing on the use cases does not necessarily mean that different user groups will be able to effectively meet the requirements of the use cases. This is a probable gap in the research process, for when the use cases are evaluated across wider demography, it could result in flawed results or inconclusive outcomes. Since these papers (PIDs 1 through 6) have been marked for active adoption of HCD, by clearly indicating the target users or use cases, it establishes the importance of HCD in their research process. However, a clear identification of the target user group might be more effective in the active adoption of HCD than use cases. PIDs 7 through 17, marked for passive adoption of HCD, were evaluated for identification of target user groups and use cases. In PIDs 10, 11, and 13, target user groups and use cases have been clearly established. This clarity will result in clear and focused research outcomes. However, since the adoption of HCD is passive in the evaluated research work, the outcome may not be completely user ready as the users were not actively involved in the design process. In the research work presented in PIDs 7, 12, and 14, only the use cases have been clearly identified. This fact, along with the tag of passive adopter of HCD, supports the rationale that in these research papers, although HCD is a part of the research process, it is not critical for the research outcome. In the case of PIDs 8, 9, 15, 16, and 17, even though they have been marked for passive adoption of HCD, they have not identified the target users or use cases. This might indicate that the users’ role is most likely associated with usability or user evaluation, and the research outcome of these papers is more

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related to the functional aspects and has not been bolstered with aspects of HCD. It also supports the rationale for tagging these papers for passive adoption of HCD. In PID 19, both the target user and use cases have been clearly identified, even though it has no tag for active or passive adoption of HCD. It might lead one to tag the paper for active or passive adoption of HCD. However, on reviewing the literature, it was evident that it had not involved the users at any stage of the research process, hence the decision not to give it a tag related to the adoption of HCD. Similarly, in the case of PIDs 18 and 21, even though the use case was clearly established, the research work was directed toward the functional aspects of the design and did not incorporate aspects of HCD. PID 20 was focused purely on the functional objectives associated with the haptic device under study and achieving those functional objectives.

84.3.3 Has the Research Goal/Problem Been Arrived at After Studying the Users or Use Cases? The next aspect used to evaluate the selected literature is whether the research goals or problems were arrived at after studying users. In the case of the papers marked for active adoption of HCD (PIDs 1 through 6), there are some interesting insights. The research goals have been arrived at for PIDs 1, 2, 5, and 6 after studying the use cases. This aligns well with the earlier analysis about target users and use cases because it links the research goals to the use cases and supports the active adoption of HCD. For the paper with PID 4, the research goals are established after studying target users. This will lead to better adoption of HCD in the overall research process and research outcomes. However, for the paper with PID 3 (refer to Table 84.2), there is an interesting contradiction. Even though this paper has actively adopted HCD and has clearly identified the target user group, the research goal has not been linked to it. This can probably result in a disconnect between the research outcomes and the adoption of HCD at later stages of the research. Similarly, the papers with PIDs 7, 10, 11, 13, and 14 have aligned their research goals with the use cases and user settings that were identified during the research process. The research paper with PID 12 had not aligned its research goals with its identified use case and user settings. This can indicate that aspects of HCD are not an important part of the research process for this paper. Hence, the rationale for tagging this research as a passive adopter of HCD is strengthened. The papers with PIDs 8, 9, 15, 16, and 17 have not established their research goals based on studying target users, use cases, or user settings. Furthermore, these papers had not identified the target users, use cases, or user settings in an earlier analysis in this paper. It may be inferred that HCD is not a critical part of the research process for these articles. Instead, aspects of HCD have been used for validating a functional design in which users had no significant role in the design process apart from providing data points for evaluation.

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When evaluating the papers which have been neutral toward the adoption of HCD, some interesting patterns were visible. In the case of the paper with PID 20, target users or use cases have not been identified. As a result, the research goal or problem did not link to HCD. This indicates an inclination of the research work toward the functional aspects of haptic devices in the context of VR. PIDs 19 and 21 have a research goal derived from the earlier identified user case or user settings, even though these papers might be neutral toward the adoption of HCD. This may lead to the conclusion that the research work is focused on the functional aspects associated with the use case or user setting. In the case of PID 18, the research goal has been derived from the functional requirements of the use case and is not associated with any aspect of HCD.

84.3.4 Is the Focus of the Problem Statement/Argument on the User or Functionality and Technology? Out of all the papers marked for active and passive adoptions of HCD (PIDs 1 through 17), only the papers with PIDs 8 and 16 had a different orientation compared to the rest. In the case of the papers with PID 8 and PID 16, the papers’ research premise has a functionality focus despite being tagged for passive adoption of HCD. This could indicate that users only serve as a concept evaluation tool and do not play a part in the design process. The rest of the papers (PIDs 1 through 7, 9 through 15, and 17) main arguments are focused on users or humans. This highlights the alignment between the adoption of HCD and the main research perspective. Papers with PIDs 18 and 20 are neutral toward the adoption of HCD, and this fact is bolstered by the observation that the main problem statement or argument is focused on the functionality of haptic devices. An interesting observation about the paper with PID 21 is that its problem statement has a user focus, even though the paper seems to have a neutral approach toward adopting HCD.

84.3.5 Is the Outcome of the Research/Design Focused on Usability or Functionality? The research outcomes for the papers which had been marked for active adoption of HCD (PIDs 1 through 6) are focused on usability. This confirms that HCD had a critical role in the research process for these papers, resulting in an HCD-oriented research outcome. An interesting observation about PID 1 is that the research outcome has complemented its functionality approach with usability resulting in a more balanced output. Among the papers tagged for passive adoption of HCD (PIDs 7 through 17), the papers with PIDs 7, 9 through 13, and 15 have indicated a usabilityoriented research outcome. One can infer from this analysis that these papers still

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considered the user and HCD important for the overall research process, hence the focus on usability. The papers with PIDs 8, 14, 16, and 17 have a functionalityoriented research outcome despite being tagged for passive adoption of HCD. In this case, it can be inferred that the users’ role was probably restricted to the evaluation of a proposed concept in the paper. For the papers that have remained neutral toward adopting HCD (PIDs 18 through 21), the papers with PIDs 18 and 20 have a functionality-oriented research outcome, and the papers with PIDs 19 and 21 have a usability-oriented outcome. One can conclude that some aspects of HCD will be a part of the research even though HCD was not a core component.

84.4 Discussion and Conclusion HCD principles have always been a part of the haptic sensing and feedback research process. However, its adoption as a core part of the research on haptics has varied. The analysis of the literature review papers revealed that several ongoing researches on haptic sensing and feedback devices focused on the functional aspects, and HCD principles have not adequately complemented the outcomes. In PID 22, [23] opines that most of the solutions were still restricted to the component level, making system-level integration a challenge. This challenge can be overcome by increased adoption of HCD in all researches associated with haptics. From the critical review, it was observed that for the papers, which were tagged for active and passive adoptions of HCD (PIDs 1 through 17), there is an increasing adoption of aspects of HCD in the research goals. This signifies the growing importance of HCD in research related to haptic sensing and feedback devices and VR. However, the analysis of the research outcomes shows that there is still a long way to go toward aligning research outcomes with HCD principles. In several cases, the research goals or arguments were established without considering the target users or use cases. This could probably result in a disconnect between the user and the functionality of the system when the research is adopted for a product. Furthermore, it can result in a delay in adoption for commercial purposes. The critical review has highlighted the growing importance of HCD in research related to haptic sensing and feedback devices in the context of VR. However, there is still a long way to go toward making HCD a critical element of the research process. The disconnect that exists between the research on haptic sensing and feedback devices for VR and what the user actually needs can be bridged with the increased adoption of HCD in research. This awareness already seems to be visible in the reviewed papers. With time, we may see a greater shift toward active adoption of HCD to complement existing research related to the functionality of haptic sensing and feedback devices for VR.

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19. Nakamura, S., Motoi, N.: Development of exoskeleton haptic device using powder brake and constant torque spring. Electr. Eng. Jpn. 214(2) (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/eej.23311 20. Brickler, D., Teather, R.J., Duchowski, A.T., Babu S.V.: A Fitts’ law evaluation of visuo-haptic fidelity and sensory mismatch on user performance in a near-field disc transfer task in virtual reality. ACM Trans. Appl. Percept. 17(4) (2020). https://doi.org/10.1145/3419986 21. Bouzit, M., Burdea, G., Popescu, G., Boian, R.: The Rutgers Master II—new design forcefeedback glove. IEEE-ASME Trans. Mechatron. 7(2), 256–263 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1109/ tmech.2002.1011262 22. Sidenmark, L., Gellersen, H.: Eye, head and torso coordination during gaze shifts in virtual reality. ACM Trans. Comput.-Human Interaction 27(1) (2020). https://doi.org/10.1145/336 1218 23. Yin, J., Hinchet, R., Shea, H., Majidi, C.: Wearable soft technologies for haptic sensing and feedback. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31(39) (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202007428 24. Biswas, S., Visell, Y.: Haptic perception, mechanics, and material technologies for virtual reality. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31(39) (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202008186 25. Jung, Y.H., Kim, J.H., Rogers, J.A.: Skin-integrated vibrohaptic interfaces for virtual and augmented reality. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31(39) (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202008805 26. Wee, C., Yap, K.M., Lim, W.N.: Haptic interfaces for virtual reality: challenges and research directions. IEEE Access. 9, 112145–112162 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2021.310 3598 27. Radhakrishnan, U., Koumaditis, K., Chinello, F.: A systematic review of immersive virtual reality for industrial skills training. Behav. Inf. Technol. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929x. 2021.1954693 28. Mercado, V.R., Marchal, M., Lecuyer, A.: “Haptics on-demand”: a survey on encountered-type haptic displays. IEEE Trans. Haptics 14(3), 449–464 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1109/toh.2021. 3061150 29. Yang, T.-H., Kim, J.R., Jin, H., Gil, H., Koo, J.-H., Kim, H.J.: Recent advances and opportunities of active materials for haptic technologies in virtual and augmented reality. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31(39) (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202008831

Chapter 85

Heritage Preservation with Virtual Reality (VR): Recreating the Lost Glory of the Medieval Metropolis of Mandu Mahima Nareshchandra Dahekar and Ankita Roy

Abstract Virtual reality (VR) offers a gamut of new possibilities for creating computer-generated environments that can be readily used for recreating lost landscapes. Although virtual in nature, such replenished surroundings can be immensely effective in depicting ruined/partially ruined heritage sites. Incorporation of architectural reconstruction in stereoscopic 3D imagery amidst VR scenarios is capable of transforming “real” heritage sites into “virtual” environs retaining much of their past glories. By carefully blending the aspects of topography, urban planning, and architectural features, VR landscapes can create immersive experiences providing rare glimpses of the old grandeur and aesthetics. This study is aimed at the preservation of heritage at the ruined metropolis of Mandu, now in the State of Madhya Pradesh, through Virtual Reality (VR). Mandu was also known globally for its urban city planning and celebrated architecture which was ahead of its time. Although it was considered a true representation of the “Eastern” imperial style, much of Mandu’s architecture was lost. Although much attention has been given towards 3D reconstruction of other disfigured historic sites, Mandu has been mostly overlooked. This paper conducts a thorough study of historical accounts, photographic samples, and in-person visits in order to reconstruct a 3D virtual representation of Mandu as close as possible to the documented records. The whole experience viewed through a virtual reality system showcases the real Mandu as it looked in its heyday. Learnings gained through this project can be used for documentation, recovery, preservation, and presentation of heritage to a diverse audience across India and the world.

M. N. Dahekar (B) · A. Roy Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Roy e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_85

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85.1 Introduction Our monumental heritage is an integral part of our identity. Heritage conservation is a subject of significant relevance for national identity and the preservation of prior knowledge and arts worldwide while also being viewed as influencing economic, social, and environmental growth [1]. In disseminating cultural heritage, immersive reality technology and Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) techniques have been widely used nowadays [2, 3]. India is fortunate to have a galaxy of heritage sites spread across its length and breadth. Mandu is one such invaluable cultural heritage site that represents the true microcosmic nature of Indian culture. Once the largest fortified capital in the whole world [4], Mandu’s urban perimeters ran over 60 km spreading over an area of 12,000 acres. Mandu was opulent and world famous for its ravishing architectural edifices, including mosques, pleasure palaces, stepped wells, hunting lodges, ceremonial pavilions, grand tombs, gateways, and caravan sarais. However, these gorgeous monuments have been demolished over time for various reasons, yet the ruins remain [5]. Today, Mandu’s destroyed fortress and its rugged yet beautiful scenery have become a popular tourist destination that draws visitors from around the world. This project aims to design high-resolution 3D models for three majestic monuments at Mandu. The prime cluster modelled on the lines of Timurid public squares includes (i) the tomb of Hoshang Shah, (ii) the adjoining Jami Masjid, and the westward (iii) Ashrafi Mahal. The project started with a collection of data for accurate 3D rendition, followed by the application of available virtual reality (VR) technologies. The approach was to expand access to information about its location in ways that go beyond the limitations of traditional architectural data collection methods. The project began in 2021 with photographic documentation of the site and phase one design being completed in early 2022. Multiple in-person visits were made to the site in order to iteratively corroborate the progress of the 3D model. This paper presents the final 3D rendition of the heritage site, including a discussion on the liberties taken for reconstructing missing portions as well as lost details. Finally, this paper also discusses a VR representation aimed at being an immersive digital aid for learners wishing to experience Mandu in its former glory.

85.1.1 Blending 3D and VR for Architectural Landscapes By combining 3D models with VR technologies, we can analyse any structure with respect to human size in high fidelity. Such immersive models can be virtually explored, providing a “better interpretation” of the cultural heritage [6]. They engage more of our senses and enable interactions with digital representations that potentially engage the complete range of physical motions. In museums and other institutions, the capture of 3D data is increasingly being used as a method of data collection and for the creation of digital replicas, which bridges cultural heritage

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preservation and scientific measurement methods, opening up new research, preservation, and exhibition possibilities [7]. However, the amount of data that can be recorded and presented using 3D/VR tools is limited [8]. 3D technology can only represent specific characteristics of physical objects in the world, allowing for highfidelity capture of specific attributes such as geometry but leaving behind other more challenging aspects to describe, such as colour and weight [9]. The 3D technique used in this virtual project was chosen because it can provide reasonably precise measurements of the spaces being studied (for architectural analysis) and can capture decent colour schemes and texture information, which is essential for representing the site’s artistic dimensions. In this project, 3D and VR have been blended to recreate a virtual representation of the lost beauty of Mandu.

85.2 Literature Review In the field of archaeology and for the digital reconstruction and preservation of cultural heritage sites, the use of 3D data capture to document spaces and artefacts has become prevalent [10]. In a rising field of research known as virtual heritage, 3D data acquisition has been combined with the reconstructive modelling [11]. Beyond the initial project, 3D data obtained from cultural heritage places and objects can be put to various uses. 3D capture techniques create a data repository that can be reused in the future, both in terms of written interpretations and, more crucially, in terms of scanned data [12]. The ability to reuse data is an added benefit that helps to justify the significant efforts of 3D data capture projects. Another novel approach to the digitisation of heritage sites includes the use of 3D scanners that can use the physical properties of photons or sound waves to capture intricate 3D details of their target [13]. However, such scanners have multiple limitations [14], including their need to be physically present at the target location while also not being able to generalise missing portions of structures lost over the years due to various reasons. Most of all, such scanners require significant monetary investments [15]. The paper discusses in the later section why appropriate data curation techniques are required to support data transparency and reusability while still being cost-effective. Nowadays, cultural heritage 3D/VR projects come in various shapes and sizes. They can be created in 3D software, based on archival papers and images, as in the Virtual Harlem Project [16], or archaeological evidence, as in the case of the MayaArch3D Project, which restored the landscapes of ancient Mayan cityscapes [17]. The preservation of historical monuments by digitisation is a cost-effective solution [18]. Observing fine details of historical work and seeing monuments in their original state are fascinating for the viewer. Virtual reality (VR) technology advancements in recent years have added a new dimension to heritage preservation [19]. Virtual reality appears to be a natural progression, bringing today’s 2D interactions on their devices’ screens to interactive, 3D environments. VR technology enables archaeologists, historians, and other scholars to inspect historical sites in a non-destructive manner, providing accurate and

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precise details of monuments (based on the resolution of the 3D model used) without damaging, dirtying, or altering heritage sites [20]. Beyond the constraints of traditional architectural approaches such as surveying, photography, and video recording, 3D and VR together give a means of studying and connecting with cultural and architectural places. This set of technologies has the potential to establish a 3D research ecosystem that aids in the investigation of cultural heritage sites [21]. In addition, virtual reality allows viewers to “walk through” architectural sites sized precisely and proportionately to the human form [22]. VR walk-throughs help analyse 3D data from the perspective of the human body and its relationship to space, which is especially important when comprehending complex architectural sites.

85.3 Methodology An initial survey was conducted to validate the motivation behind this work. A survey of 159 Indians from the ages of 12–64 was conducted to determine their prior knowledge of Mandu and its historical past as well as their willingness to know more. The survey was conducted at the author’s university resulting in the majority (76%) of the responses being received from young individuals who are currently students. Although not exactly representative, the survey target still manages to typify a random sample of the Indian populace which has more than 50% individuals below the age of 25. Also, given the use of modern technology like VR, it is inevitable that the majority of its users would belong to the younger generation. Most survey participants had no prior knowledge of Mandu’s existence or had never visited the city. The survey findings show that the majority of the survey participants had a very limited understanding of Mandu’s historical significance. According to the data, even the older age group did not understand these historical monuments and what they were famous for. When asked if they wanted to learn more about these historical sites, the participants were interested, with a sizable number preferring a virtual reality walk-through. Following the user research, many methods for learning the structure of the three monuments were explored. The structures were then 3D modelled and optimised to provide a virtual walk-through of the monuments (Fig. 85.1; Table 85.1).

85.3.1 Understanding the Mandu Architecture To approach the 3D modelling feature, a simpler approach of low-poly modelling was chosen to implement the proposed idea. The implemented approach differs from photogrammetry, which is fully automated and uses a variety of black-box tools, but the simpler approach applied here is manual and thus gives higher control of the accuracy of output over the 3D models. At first, each target structure was illustrated in a 2D flat view with a floor map to capture in-depth details for clear reference in 3D modelling. These detailed illustrations and floor maps were made by multiple

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Fig. 85.1 Statistics of participants: would you like to visit the ruins of the majestic palaces of Mandu or have an interactive walk-through in VR?

Table 85.1 User responses from the survey Survey questions

Yes

No

Maybe

Have you heard about the city, Mandu?

29.5%

65.1%

5.4%

6.4%

93.6%

–

Do you know what it is famous for?

15.2%

70.3%

14.5%

Would you like to know more about these historical places at Mandu?

73.3%

2.7%

24%

Have you heard about Jami Masjid, Hoshang Shah’s Tomb, or Asharfi Mahal?

52.7%

46.6%

0.7%

Have you visited the place?

in-person visits to the site as shown in Figs. 85.2 and 85.3. A final illustration was designed to create a reference to create a 3D model as shown in Fig. 85.4. Then, using a 3D graphics software, Autodesk Maya, the models were built from the ground up. The gathered visuals were used as a guide for achieving accuracy. Initially, primitive shapes such as squares, spheres, and lines were used for the basic structures. The initial 3D models were built by tweaking the shapes, terrain, materials, and lighting using convertible polygons. The 3D models were then compared to reference sketches and 2D illustrations to ensure accuracy. Finally, textures were applied to the final rendering of the 3D models to achieve realism. The choice of textures was governed by physical inspection of the surviving structures as well as visual analysis of the photographic samples of Mandu. The models were created and designed using Autodesk Maya, a 3D graphics software. Precision was gained by using the captured photos as references. For the initial stages of the 3D model, simple shapes like squares, spheres, and lines were used for the basic constructions. The 3D models were further refined by altering the shapes, terrain, surface, lighting, and detailed design using convertible polygons. The 3D models were then compared to the digital photographs to achieve an apparent resemblance. Finally, textures were used for the final rendering of the 3D models to produce photorealism. Figure 85.5 explains this process of 3D modelling the structures.

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Fig. 85.2 Illustrations designed after in-person visits. a Illustration of Jami Masjid, b illustration of Asharfi Mahal

Fig. 85.3 Images of Jami Masjid and its floor map illustrations

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Fig. 85.4 a Perspective illustrative view of Hoshang Shah’s Tomb, Jami Masjid, and Asharfi Mahal designed for reference, b a side map illustration of Hoshang Shah’s Tomb, Jami Masjid, and Asharfi Mahal designed for reference

Fig. 85.5 Block diagram of the 3D modelling processing

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Fig. 85.6 3D modelling processing of basic shapes to the detailed structure of Asharfi Mahal

Fig. 85.7 Final 3D model of Asharfi Mahal with textures

One of the major challenges while 3D modelling these structures was to develop the human-to-structure proportion ratio. Since the exact dimensions were inaccessible, the structure had to be given an estimated proportion. Later based on images on the internet, the human-to-structure proportions were decided to create a flawless VR walk-through experience. Another challenge faced was to texture these 3D modelled structures. Since the textures were not readily available, they had to be designed as closely as possible to the originals (Figs. 85.6 and 85.7).

85.3.2 Application of VR Unity game engine was used to implement the textured 3D models in VR. The textured 3D models of Asharfi Mahal, Jami Masjid, and Hoshang Shah’s Tomb were imported in FBX format using Unity engine for a VR-ready environment. The camera was moved to a suitable place that allows users to see the model from a comfortable eye-level vantage point. For a low-cost device to view a VR material, Google Cardboard can be picked as this makes the experience affordable. The camera in the scene is able to render directly to the head-mounted display. Here, the view and projection are automatically adjusted to account for head tracking and field of view to prevent motion blur and motion sickness for the viewers.

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85.4 Setup and Results As mentioned in the previous section, Autodesk Maya was used for creating 3D models of the heritage sites. In total, three 3D models of the sites have been built. The resultant models have the first Level of Detail (LOD). The first LOD has an accuracy rate of 65–70%. The implemented models include LOD1 details, as seen in these figures. With medium details and a low poly structure, the 3D model offers good depth accuracy in the shape of the doors and windows. Some intricate features or designs on window details have been omitted to keep the 3D models light, low poly, and cost-effective while still being geometrically accurate. Furthermore, the texture on the 3D model has been applied in such a way that the final rendered model is visually appealing and photorealistic. Figure 85.8 shows a digital photo as a reference image with the rendered 3D model of a heritage site, “Hoshang Shah’s Tomb” to examine the depth accuracy of the generated 3D models (Fig. 85.9). When comparing the 3D model of the Hoshang Shah’s Tomb to its digital image in Fig. 85.8, the rendered image is structurally accurate compared to the original monument. The four pillars on the monument’s corners and the towers built above them are correctly depicted in the 3D model. The model also depicts the intricate geometrical design on the pillars that indicate doors and windows. Compared to the rest of the structures, the 3D model correctly reflects the quadrangular geometry of the site with precise geometrical shapes covering the four towers. When comparing Fig. 85.8a–c, it is clear that the 3D model has relatively high accuracy in terms of the monument’s overall depth and measurement. Furthermore, the Hoshang Shah Tomb’s features, such as the pillars, doorways, and arches, are nearly similar to their real-life counterparts. In addition, as stated in the proposed model, the heritage sites’ 3D-rendered representations can be experienced in a virtual reality environment. It was made feasible using the Unity engine and a low-cost Google Cardboard VR headset.

Fig. 85.8 a Image of Hoshang Shah’s Tomb, 1875 @photograph by Lala Deen Dayal (British Museum), b image of Hoshang Shah’s Tomb in its present state, c a 3D representation of Hoshang Shah’s Tomb

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Fig. 85.9 Rendered 3D model of an overview of the whole scene

85.5 Conclusion In this paper, a digital methodology for preserving Mandu city’s heritage sites is presented and successfully implemented using 3D modelling techniques and virtual reality technologies. This model was created and developed with cost efficiency, ease of use, portability, application flexibility, and model size efficiency in mind. The resulting models are the initial step in documenting, researching, and conserving this cultural heritage site, although the procedure is time-consuming. Furthermore, instead of adopting costly and advanced technologies like laser scanners, a costeffective approach has been utilised for recording 3D models. As a result of the precision of the data obtained thus far using this method, we can infer that this approach of 3D modelling for heritage sites can efficiently serve the purpose of being an educational and learning aid while being documentary evidence for preserving the initial state of the heritage site.

References 1. Labadi, S., Logan, W.: Approaches to Urban Heritage, Development and Sustainability. Routledge (2015) 2. Addison, A., Gaiani, M.: Virtualized Architectural Heritage: New Tools and Techniques. IEEE (2000) 3. Anthes, C., García-Hernández, R.J., Wiedemann, M., Kranzlmüller, D.: State of the Art of Virtual Reality Technology. IEEE (2016) 4. Buch, M.: The Great Central Indian watershed. India Int. Centre Q. 27(28), 83–94 (2001) 5. Yazdani. Mandu: The City of Joy Oxford University Press (1929)

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6. Bec, A., Moyle, B., Timms, K., Schaffer, V., Skavronskaya, L., Little, C.: Management of immersive heritage tourism experiences: a conceptual model. Tour. Manage. 72, 117–120 (2019) 7. Apollonio, F., Fantini, F., Garagnani, S., Gaiani, M.: A photogrammetry-based workflow for the accurate 3D construction and visualization of museums assets. Remote Sens. 13(3), 486 (2021) 8. Cooper, C.: You can handle it: 3D printing for museums. Adv. Archaeol. Pract. 7(4), 443–447 (2019) 9. Hindmarch, J., Terras, M., Robson, S.: On virtual auras: The cultural heritage object in the age of 3D digital reproduction. In: The Routledge International Handbook of New Digital Practices in Galleries, Libraries, Archives, Museums and Heritage Sites (2019) 10. Milovanovic, J., Moreau, G., Siret, D., Miguet, F.: Virtual and augmented reality in architectural design and education: an immersive multimodal platform to support architectural pedagogy. In: 17th International Conference, CAAD Futures (2017) 11. Grayburn, J., Lischer-Katz, Z., Golubiewski-Davis, K., Ikeshoji-Orlati, V.: 3D/VR in the Academic Library: Emerging Practices and Trends. Council on Library and Information Resources. 1755 Massachusetts Avenue NW Suite 500, Washington, DC 20036 (2019) 12. Arayici, Y., Hamilton, A.: Modeling 3D scanned data to visualize the built environment. In: Ninth International Conference on Information Visualisation (IV’05), pp. 509–514 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1109/IV.2005.82 13. Kuen, S.: Application of 3D scanning technology in restoration of heritage site damaged by natural disaster. Int. Arch. Photogrammetry, Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. 46, 685–691 (2021) 14. Forge, F., Alliez, P., De Luca, L., Pierrot-Deseilligny, M., Preda, M.: Culture 3D cloud: a cloud computing platform for 3D scanning, documentation, preservation and dissemination of cultural heritage. ERCIM News 111, 64 (2017) 15. Wachowiak, M., Karas, B.: 3D scanning and replication for museum and cultural heritage applications. J. Am. Inst. Conserv. 48(2), 141–158 (2009) 16. Carter, B.: Virtual Harlem: Experiencing the New Negro Renaissance. Companion Harlem Renaissance, pp. 457–471 (2015) 17. Richards-Rissetto, H., Schwerin, J.v.: Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage. Elsevier Ltd. (2017) 18. Belhi, A., Bouras, A., Foufou, S.: Digitization and preservation of cultural heritage: The CEPROQHA approach. In: 2017 11th International Conference on Software, Knowledge, Information Management and Applications (SKIMA), pp. 1–7. IEEE (2017) 19. Mah, O., Yan, Y., Tan, J., Tan, Y., Tay, G., Chiam, D., Dean, K.: Generating a virtual tour for the preservation of the (in) tangible cultural heritage of Tampines Chinese Temple in Singapore. J. Cult. Herit. 39, 202–211 (2019) 20. Boeniger, U., Tronicke, J.: Improving the interpretability of 3D GPR data using target–specific attributes: application to tomb detection. J. Archaeol. Sci. 37(2), 360–367 (2010) 21. Limp, F., Payne, A., Simon, K., Winters, S., Cothren, J.: Developing a 3-D digital heritage ecosystem: from object to representation and the role of a virtual museum in the 21st century. Internet Archaeol. 30(30), 1–38 (2011) 22. Pober, E., Cook, M.: The design & development of an immersive learning system for spatial analysis and visual cognition (2019)

Chapter 86

A Review of the Potential and Path to the Large-Scale Adaptation of DIY in Assistive Technology Yash Bohre, Purba Joshi, and Rowan Page

Abstract Do It Yourself Assistive Technology (DIY-AT) refers to the development and/or adaptation of Assistive Technologies (AT) devices by non-professionals, including but not limited to family, friends, and caregivers of patients. This paper reviews the potential of Do it Yourself (DIY) and Maker Culture on Assistive Technologies, suggesting paths for the large-scale adaptation of DIY in developing bespoke Assistive Technologies. Three categories are identified through a systematic literature review of 27 publications: ‘Benefits’, ‘Barrier to Adaptation’, and ‘Path to large-scale adaptation’ of DIY or maker culture in Assistive Technology. The ‘Benefits’ were mapped on the critical elements the World Health Organisation (WHO) identified that need to be considered while developing a medical device. They are the 4 As—Availability, Accessibility, Appropriateness, and Affordability. The paper further compiles the barriers impeding various stakeholders in adapting DIY to their need for Assistive Technology. Although various researchers have suggested multiple ways to get more stakeholders on board, DIY-AT in its current form is mainly limited to people living in Developed nations with better access to DIY facilities, such as Fab-Labs, Makerspaces, and personal prototyping equipment. However, this review also identifies articles that outline promising paths to successfully adapting DIY techniques by underrepresented communities to develop Assistive Technologies for their usage and others.

Y. Bohre (B) IITB-Monash Research Academy, Mumbai, India e-mail: [email protected] P. Joshi IDC School of Design, IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India e-mail: [email protected] R. Page MADA, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_86

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86.1 Introduction Many physically challenged people across the globe rely on various kinds of Assistive Technology (AT) devices to perform daily tasks. These devices range from simple, low-tech devices like grippers, orthosis, and crutches to complex high-tech devices like powered wheelchairs and robotic prostheses [1]. According to WHO’s World Report on Disability [2], 15% of the world’s population (approximately 1 billion) live with some form of disability, of which 2–4% suffer predominantly in functioning. In India alone, 26.8 million people live with physical or mental disabilities [3]. Though ATs have the potential to have a significant benefit in case of physical disability for their users, specific issues in the Product life cycle of an AT device prevent them from large-scale adaptation and a high abandonment rate. 1 in every 3 AT devices procured for/by a user ends up being abandoned. Some critical predictors [4] for this high abandonment rate are. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Lack of user involvement in device selection [4]. Difficulty in device procurement [4]. Poor performance of Device [4]. Change in user’s need/ability [4].

There is a potential [4] to reduce the large-scale abandonment of ATs by developing policies and services that involve the engagement of end-users and considering the long-term usage of ATs. This paper focuses on the potential of DIY and Maker Culture to provide appropriate ATs and suggests the path for the large-scale adaptation of DIY in developing bespoke ATs.

86.2 Defining DIY and DIY-AT DIY or Do It Yourself refers to an activity of Making, Modifying or Repairing anything by oneself instead of taking direct help from professionals. Maker culture or Maker movement is a subset of DIY, which came into part because of people’s need to engage passionately with objects in ways that make them more than just consumers [5]. In the context of this paper, we’ll refer to Maker Culture/Movement similar to DIY, as an act of designing, building, and making modifications to an existing product by their users on their own. The Maker movement in its current form originated from the North American and European hackerspaces and fabrication labs [6], and most of the work reviewed in this paper has the Maker movement inclined towards the western (US/EU) context [7]. This is due to the Maker movement’s dependence on the socioeconomic settings of a community/country. A significant driving factor of Maker culture is the existence of new digital fabrication technologies [5]. A subset of the Maker movement is the ‘Maker movement in Medical Devices’, where enthusiasts develop/tinker with new medical devices or modify existing ones.

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The Term DIY-AT was first quoted academically in 2011 by Amy Hurst and Jasmine Tobias [1], which stands for Do It Yourself Assistive Technology (DIY-AT). DIYAT refers to the development and adaptation of AT devices by non-professionals, including but not limited to patients’ families, friends, and caregivers, DIY hobbyists, Clinicians, and AT users (patients) themselves [8]. Studies show several cases of non-professionals making ATs [1, 8–10] and many DIY enthusiasts contributing to Open-source designs of ATs [1, 10].

86.3 Methodology The study has been conducted in the form of a systematic literature review. For this review paper, Google Scholar and ACM Digital library were used as a database to identify relevant research published with a primary keyword of concern, ‘DIY-AT’. To search further, alternate keywords to DIY-AT like ‘Handmade Prosthesis’, ‘DIY Medical Devices’, ‘Maker culture in Medical Devices’, and ‘DFO-AT’ were also included in the search. The papers found were then screened based on their abstract fitting to the study’s inclusion criteria mentioned below. 1. Original research that was published in English between 2011 and 2021. 2. Abstracts fitting to the Aim of the study; Research conducted on Medical/AT devices that are either built from scratch or modified fitting to the idea of DIY and Maker culture. 3. Studies involving elements of the Participatory Design approach. Ten research papers were identified as fitting the above inclusion criteria and labelled as primary papers. On thoroughly reading these primary papers, the information cited led to additional documents that were labelled as secondary papers. Similarly, citations in these secondary papers led to tertiary papers. The information from the tertiary papers eventually started to go out of the scope of this literature review; hence the search was stopped. The information gathered from primary, secondary, and tertiary papers was then re-analysed based on the commonalities and differences and was grouped under three categorical keywords, ‘Benefits’, ‘Barriers’, and ‘Paths’. Table 86.1 maps the inferences from primary papers to the abovementioned 3 categorical keywords. The collected information was re-evaluated to develop arguments and is presented in the following sections of this paper. Table 86.1 Findings from primary papers Primary papers

[1]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[7]

[14]

Benefits

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

Barriers Paths

✓

[15]

[16]

[9]

[10]

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

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86.4 Benefits of DIY-AT On reviewing different research papers, multiple benefits of DIY-AT were identified; they are grouped under different keywords and alphanumerically coded as follows: B1: User Empowerment; The ability to build and/or modify their personal AT devices provides independence to users [1] and empowers them by creating a true sense of ownership of the device and leads to the users having an increased investment in the end product [13]. Modern rapid prototyping tools like 3D printing and laser cutting bypass the overwhelming manufacturing barriers [17] as they’re computercontrolled and only require user design inputs. Though building something using these rapid prototyping techniques requires the user to access a computer and create a design, in some cases, even that is unnecessary as many designs are now available online and have open access [17]. B2: Economical; AT devices made by users themselves are inherently more accessible [1, 16, 18, 19], economical, and have been shown to improve users’ relationships with the devices they use [11, 20]. In a 2011 study by Hurst et al., a user mentioned, ‘It’s (Traditional ATs) just more expensive because it’s ‘medical’. You can buy something and just modify it for less’ [1]. B3: Modularity; 3D printing provides the ability to make easily replaceable prostheses that can be modified based on the individual requirements of a user and their varying needs over time [19]. Users have shown a tendency to learn how to modify their personal AT devices and be involved in the design process [1]. The modern DIY culture not just offers a tool to make a new AT device but also a tool to modify an existing AT device to have additional features [1, 16, 18, 19]. B4: Repairability; A significant drawback of commercially produced AT devices is the affordance of repairs, as, with most AT devices, the users rely on professionals for repairs [16]. CAD and 3D printing can allow users to repair their AT devices on their own by making a spare part independently, which would be otherwise difficult or impossible to source [8]. B5: Bespoke Design; The advent of maker culture has enabled users to make bespoke devices based on their present and changing [19] medical needs, rather than relying on general-purpose devices built by large-scale manufacturers that are usually a poor fit for most users [13 in 1]. And it is not always that AT user needs to design their own devices, most of the time, they can get open-sourced designs from a different platform shared by others [13 in 1]. The modern CAD modelling tools are being created to support different aspects of device design [21] for ATs in particular [18, 22, 23]. B6: Collaboration; CAD and Rapid Prototyping allow the design to be shared online among professionals, improving the design through collaborative inputs from various stakeholders [11]. Many such platforms power the open-source movement, such as Instructables, Thingiverse, and The Make Magazine Blog [1]. Clinicians also

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Fig. 86.1 Amputee child with e-NABLE hand

acknowledge the benefits rapid prototyping brings to their practise, as it can help in making highly customised AT devices and advance clinical research [7, 11, 12, 14]. B7: No Alternative; For many potentials AT users from developing countries, building a makeshift AT device might be the only option due to either unavailability of AT devices in their country or the unaffordable price tag they come with [1, 13]. Created in 2011, e-NABLE (Fig. 86.1) is a global volunteer-run movement that provides amateur-buildable 3D-printed prosthetic-like devices. Anyone can download designs of prosthetic hands from their website, and 3D print them for anyone or themselves [24]. It has the potential to make AT devices accessible for underserved populations such as kids who outgrow their prostheses over time [19] or people in developing countries who have limited or no access to prostheses and other AT devices [25]. B8: Refined Product; Personal computers are getting more powerful day by day and provide non-professionals access to professional CAD software and the ability to design and build precisely engineered AT devices that are more practical and robust [1, 8]. The designs have much more refined aesthetics that make these devices acceptable to a broader range of users with varying aesthetic tastes [8]. DIY-AT can replace standard prostheses as it can produce highly customised and bespoke terminal devices, as customising traditional prostheses at times can be less practical or inaccessible [11].

86.4.1 The 4As of WHO To improve global access to appropriate medical devices, four critical elements are identified by the World Health Organisation (WHO) that need to be considered while developing a medical device. They are the 4 As [2]. Availability: If a medical device can be found on the medical device market.

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Table 86.2 DIY-AT benefits mapped against 4As of WHO Availability

Accessibility

B1: User empowerment

✓

✓

B2: Economical

✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

B7: No alternative

✓

✓

B8: Refined product

✓

✓ ✓

B6: Collaboration

B5: Bespoke design

Affordability ✓

✓

B3: Modularity B4: Repairability

Appropriate(ness)

✓ ✓

✓

Accessibility: refers to people’s ability to obtain and appropriately use good quality health technologies when they are needed. Appropriate(ness): refers to medical methods, procedures, techniques, and equipment that are scientifically valid, adapted to local needs, acceptable to both patient and healthcare personnel, and that can be utilised and maintained with resources the community or country can afford. Affordability: the extent to which the intended clients of a health service or product can pay for it. Evaluating 4As for a medical device is not an exact science. Instead, it provides a framework for Designers, Users, and Clinicians to stepwise evaluate an AT device [2]. A researcher can ask four questions about an AT device if it is Currently Available? Accessible? Appropriate to the specific context?, and Affordable? A negative answer provides a direction for further investigation into the contributing factors and postulates the paths to overcome these gaps [2]. The benefits were mapped (Table 86.2) to assess how each of them stands against the 4As of the WHO and to understand the gaps that DIY-AT might have. As the benefits of DIY-AT fit well with all aspects of the 4As of WHO, it can be inferred that DIY-AT has the potential to provide an appropriate medical device to most users.

86.5 Barriers to the Adaptation of DIY in AT Even with all these benefits, DIY-AT has failed to capture a larger share of AT market; the following section of this paper discusses potential reasons for this.

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86.5.1 Adaptation of DIY-AT by Clinicians Digital fabrication faces difficulties engaging with clinical infrastructure at a grassroots level [14]. Most clinicians lack the skill required to include rapid prototyping in their practise [11]. They’re reluctant to use these tools as they see CAD and Rapid prototyping as someone else’s job [7, 14, 24]. Clinicians do not see them taking a leading role when it comes to designing these devices [7, 14, 24]. They refrain from using these tools because they lack time to learn CAD and Rapid Prototyping, as it has a high learning curve and low usability [7], and they lack the understanding of the full potential of these tools [7]. Also, in many countries, insurance does not compensate clinicians’ time spent on prototyping [7]. Some clinicians also have a perceived job insecurity [20 in 2] that prevents them from engaging in the R&D of purpose-built CAD and Rapid Prototyping tools.

86.5.2 Lack of Collaboration Among Stakeholders Development of AT devices can primarily benefit by having all stakeholders collaborate in the design process, but the design process of AT devices lacks this collaboration; it mainly prioritises the device’s functioning rather than how the user feels about the device on a personal, intimate level [20]. As AT devices often become the identity of their users, a lack of collaboration with the user in designing or choosing an AT device often leads to abandonment [4]. No communication channel between different stakeholders of DIY-AT prevents effective collaboration, which prevents DIY-AT from expanding. DIY enthusiasts face barriers in sustaining their efforts for long due to a lack of basis for evaluating the long-term impact of their designs [10]. They acknowledge that they need professional clinical support to improve their design skills as in most cases, the acquisition and exercise of technical skills is the primary focus of their DIY activities [12]. And lack of focussed efforts to promote these open-sourced designs to potential users with disabilities [10] prevents DIY-AT from expanding faster.

86.5.3 Accessibility to DIY Ecosystem Lack of accessibility to the DIY Ecosystem is another barrier faced by DIY-AT. The maker culture in its current form is majorly dependent on a broader social-economic structure of a community that includes e-commerce platforms like Amazon.com that aid material procurements and online resources like Instructables.com that provide knowledge about techniques and material usage [13]. This limited access to Prototyping and learning tools prevent some AT users from benefiting from DIY-AT [14]. Lack of experience in DIY activities leads to reduced confidence in personal skills

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making people shy away from making their own AT devices or for the patients they care for [8].

86.5.4 Drawbacks and Risks Associated with DIY-AT Clinicians are bound by safety regulations or biomechanical constraints, limiting them from creating many open-sourced designs. Such laws are not in place for nonprofessionals so they can easily bypass them [11]. This could, in some cases, do more harm to the patient than good, as DIY methodology is trial-and-error based [11]. Even if clinicians do utilise DIY-AT in their practise, they can identify safety and biomechanical flaws at each stage of the design process [11, 15], so they often fall into the ‘do no harm’ conflict: as providing a non-approved AT device may put patients at risk, but not providing anything can lead the patients to seek unregulated treatment [11, 15] or no treatment at all. The availability of DIY-AT devices may delay access to professional devices and people’s loss of belief in traditional healthcare [11]. DIY materials might not be appropriate for long-term usage, they may damage the skin, or the biomechanical flaws might lead to long-term straining motion [11]. DIY-AT highly depends on DIY volunteers’ motivation; this review found that most DIY-AT designs came from individuals creating AT devices for immediate friends or family members [26] or for purposes other than targeting a disability [10]. Little information is known about the motivation driving DIY-AT for designing AT devices specifically for others, as is with e-NABLE [12]. Also there isn’t much information about the long-term effect of DIY-AT as there’s no following mechanism for DIY-AT [11].

86.6 Path to Large Scale Adaptation of DIY-AT If we do not overcome the above barriers, the gap between stakeholders may persist and worsen in the years to come [11]. This section of the paper discusses the potential paths suggested by various researchers to significantly increase the adaptation of DIY practises in developing bespoke AT devices.

86.6.1 Incorporating DIY-AT in Clinical Practise Having clinicians incorporate DIY-AT in their practise is a significant barrier that needs to be crossed, as clinicians hesitate to use CAD tools. A potential solution could be ‘Integrating CAD/CAM in academic curriculum & Clinical practise’ [15]. Improving the existing novice 3D modelling software that caters to the specific needs of medical professionals can primarily benefit physiotherapists and orthotics [15]. Tools that support selecting an Appropriate Design [14] of an AT device based

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on the symptoms/requirements of the patients, Tools that help Adaptive Design [14] & modifications of an existing design to suit the needs of the patient better [14], and Amplified Design [14] of CAD tools that support storing, exploring, and sharing standard designs can boost the use of CAD in professional practise. Most Physiotherapy students and practising physiotherapists were inclined to augment existing AT devices instead of making novel AT designs; the argument supported that augmenting has the benefit of reduced liability risk to physiotherapists as it relies on universal standards [15]. For medical professionals, high-fidelity AT prototypes are significant for evaluating their designs’ proper functioning [15]. Therefore, adjusting the DIY-AT designs for higher prototype fidelity is necessary. Most 3D printing filaments are not suited for medical devices, so other materials need to be explored to ensure the users’ safety and proper functioning of the AT device [15].

86.6.2 Amplifying Collaboration Among Stakeholders The mainstreaming of DIT-AT devices will rely mainly on the collaboration of all the stakeholders involved in the product’s life cycle, i.e. Engineers, DIY Enthusiasts, Clinicians, Patients, and their families/bystanders [19]. Using a DIY prosthetic hand created by e-NABLE, clinicians identified a few shortcomings and flaws in the socket design that could harm the patients/users [11]. Collaborating with clinicians while designing the e-NABLE hand could have prevented the flaw, as socket design is one of the most challenging parts of their profession [11]. The primary concern of Clinicians is patients’ well-being [12]. Their soft counselling skills can help their patients articulate their needs better, combined with professional knowledge about sockets, fittings, safety, and long-term use [12], which will provide better guidance to DIY makers in developing a utilitarian device for the patient’s needs [12]. Physical Therapists have shown an inclination towards customising off-the-shelf AT devices rather than creating an entirely new device due to the lower costs, reduced liability risks, and dependency on universal standards [7]. Many Occupational Therapists have shown interest in collaborating with DIY enthusiasts. They expect them to take the lead when developing the designs [7] and wish to play a supervising role in the development and testing loop. The complementing skill of volunteer fabricators and clinicians can lead to co-creating meaningful solutions for the end-users. A oneon-one relationship between a fabricator and an end-user can keep the fabricator motivated. At the same time, a professional understanding of the user’s medical needs can lead to a safer and more practical solution [11, 12]. Having a dedicated case management system [12] to make clinical expertise available to a larger audience can enhance the stakeholder’s abilities to work together and support co-design among various stakeholders of DIY-AT.

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86.6.3 Empowering People to Do It Themselves Having access to publicly shared designs can motivate individuals to build their own ATs and make them contribute to improving the designs [1]. There’s a diverse ecosystem of enthusiasts providing support [9] to DIY culture in every part of the product lifecycle, from DIY-AT (design, acquiring materials, prototyping etc.) to DFO-AT (Do it for Others). Participation and success of DIY-AT can be increased by building users’ self-confidence (in their DIY ability) by encouraging them to create a first simple device using pre-existing skills. This can motivate them to continue and learn even further [8]. Many users [27] foresee the importance of acquiring prototyping skills to augment their skills for accessibility, using their skills to help others, and gaining recognition by showcasing their DIY abilities [27]. Another critical factor for DIY deployment is bringing in the underrepresented community and people from developing countries by understanding and developing the local infrastructure and engaging/supporting end-users [13].

86.6.4 Designing AT for DIY One design doesn’t always fit all, one of the critical reasons for the abandonment of AT devices is poor performance or not performing as per the user’s requirement. Many AT users make changes to their devices based on their personal needs, so designing for modularity can provide a better experience for the end users. An AT device designed keeping modularity in mind can give its user better utility and better comfort features such as length, angle, rotation [9]. Having a communication channel between DIY Enthusiasts and the community of users with disabilities [10] can make the design more visible. The materials used also play a vital role in DIY-ATs to be reproduced personally. Using easily accessible household materials and processes encourage users to build prototypes by Doing-it-Themselves [9], and the tools that are accessible to users with disabilities should also be considered so they can develop the devices on their own [10]. Having sensors embedded in AT devices can provide long-term usage data about how the design is functioning and gain knowledge for future iterations [11].

86.7 Discussion The review provides an insight on DIY culture expanding to AT devices and how DIY-AT has the potential to cater for the issues of low accessibility and high abandonment rates of AT devices. DIY-AT provides an ability to make low-cost, durable,

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and easily replaceable AT devices that can be modified based on their current individual requirements and changing medical needs, rather than relying on generalpurpose devices built by large-scale manufacturers that are usually a poor fit for most users. CAD and Rapid Prototyping allow the design to be shared online among professionals, improving the design through collaborative inputs from various stakeholders. Designing AT for DIY ability/modularity can provide a better experience for the end-users as many AT users modify their devices based on their personal needs. This could empower end-users to do it themselves. For many potentials AT users from developing countries, building a makeshift AT device might be the only option due to either the unavailability of AT devices in their country or the unaffordable price tag they come with. DIY-AT has the potential to provide appropriate medical devices as per the critical elements identified by the World Health Organisation (WHO) that need to be considered while developing a medical device, i.e. Availability, Accessibility, Appropriateness, and Affordability. Even after acknowledging the benefits of DIY-AT, Clinicians are hesitant to use DIY in their practise due to the lack of CAD and rapid prototyping skills required and their innate behaviour of considering patients’ safety first. Integrating CAD into the academic curriculum & Clinical practise and developing CAD tools for clinicians’ specific needs can help onboard more clinicians to incorporate DIY-AT. Collaboration among stakeholders is the key to the success of DIY-AT as a collaboration between DIY Enthusiasts and Clinicians while designing the AT device could mitigate the risks associated with non-professional ATs and can lead to co-creating safer and more practical solutions for the end-users. In conclusion, this literature review provides knowledge about the benefits of DIY-AT, the barriers preventing the large-scale adaptation of DIY in AT, and the potential path that could lead to the expansion of DIY-AT on a broader scale. The papers presented in this review give a general representation of DIY-AT and can support researchers and design practitioners for their requirements.

86.8 Limitations and Scope There is a possibility that the authors of this review may have missed some important papers/contributions. However, the data presented in this paper can be taken as a supporting literature review on DIY-AT and its potential as a nascent research area. Medical professionals and DIY enthusiasts have different perceptions of risk, which may result in DIY-AT having uneven outcomes or missed expectations for end users. In its current form, research on DIY and Maker culture is heavily based on western countries with a well-developed DIY ecosystem, and we can’t be sure if similar findings will be reported in developing countries. One of the studies also reported that women and minorities are underrepresented in the maker movement [20]. More systemic level changes are needed to make DIY-AT more accessible in developing countries and underrepresented communities. This review lacked a design-centric comparison of mass-produced AT devices to DIY-AT; there’s a scope to have an independent design-focussed literature review. A follow-up study to this can include

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case studies and more examples of DIY-AT in practise in the Indian context. Design and Innovation centres (DIC) and Maker Spaces are gaining traction in India. DIYAT culture can be propagated in India by building a community of DIY practitioners to utilise the DIC infrastructure for making AT devices. There could also be a greater exploration of the specific issues that users face with their off-the-shelf AT devices and how DIY-AT can help rectify some of those issues.

References 1. Hurst, A., Tobias, J.: Empowering individuals with do-it-yourself assistive technology (2011) 2. World Health Organization. Medical devices: Managing the mismatch: an outcome of the priority medical devices project (2010) 3. Persons with Disabilities (Divyangjan) in India—A Statistical Profile: 2021, Government of India (2021) 4. Phillips, B., Zhao, H.: Predictors of assistive technology abandonment. Assistive Technol. 5(1), 36–45 (1993) 5. Dougherty, D.: The maker movement. Innov. Technol. Governance Globalization 7(3), 11–14 (2012). https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/499244 6. Dougherty, D.: The maker movement. Innov. Technol. Governance Globalization 7(3), 11–14 (2012) 7. Slegers, K., Kouwenberg, K., Louˇcova, T., Daniels, R.: Makers in healthcare: the role of occupational therapists in the design of DIY assistive technology (2020) 8. Hook, J., Verbaan, S., Durrant, A., Olivier, P., Wright, P.: A study of the challenges related to DIY assistive technology in the context of children with disabilities (2014) 9. Hofmann, M., Harris, J., Hudson, S.E., Mankoff, J.: Helping hands: requirements for a prototyping methodology for upper-limb prosthetics users (2016) 10. Buehler, E., Branham, S., Ali, A., Chang, J.J., Hofmann, M.K., Hurst, A., Kane, S.K.: Sharing is caring: assistive technology designs on thingiverse (2015) 11. Hofmann, M., Burke, J., Pearlman, J., Fiedler, G., Hess, A., Schull, J., Hudson, S.E., Mankoff, J.: Clinical and maker perspectives on the design of assistive technology with rapid prototyping technologies (2016) 12. Parry-Hill, J., Shih, P.C., Mankoff, J., Ashbrook, D.: Understanding volunteer AT fabricators: opportunities and challenges in DIY-AT for others in e-NABLE (2017) 13. Hamidi, F., Mbullo, P., Onyango, D., Hynie, M., McGrath, S., Baljko, M.: Participatory design of DIY digital assistive technology in Western Kenya (2018) 14. Hofmann, M., Williams, K., Kaplan, T., Valencia, S., Hann, G., Hudson, S.E., Mankoff, J., Carrington, P.: “Occupational therapy is making”: clinical rapid prototyping and digital fabrication (2019) 15. McDonald, S., Comrie, N., Buehler, E., Carter, N., Dubin, B., Gordes, K., McCombe-Waller, S., Hurst, A.: Uncovering challenges and opportunities for 3D printing assistive technology with physical therapists (2016) 16. Buehler, E., Kane, S.K., Hurst, A.: ABC and 3D: opportunities and obstacles to 3D printing in special education environments (2014) 17. Hurst, A., Kane, S.: Making “making” accessible (2013) 18. Buehler, E., Hurst, A., Hofmann, M.: Coming to grips: 3D printing for accessibility (2014) 19. Burn, M.B., Ta, A., Gogola, G.R.: Three-dimensional printing of prosthetic hands for children. J. Hand Surgery 41(5), e103–e109 (2016) 20. Bennett, C.L., Cen, K., Steele, K.M., Rosner, D.K.: An intimate laboratory?: prostheses as a tool for experimenting with identity and normalcy (2016)

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21. Koyama, Y., Sueda, S., Steinhardt, E., Igarashi, T., Shamir, A., Matusik, W.: Auto connect: computational design of 3D-printable connectors (2015) 22. Brown, C., Hurst, A.: VizTouch: automatically generated tactile visualizations of coordinate spaces (2012) 23. Cyborg Beast, College of Education, Health, and Human Sciences, Biomechanics, University of Nebraska Omaha 24. Koyama, Y., Sueda, S., Steinhardt, E., Igarashi, T., Shamir, A., Matusik, W.: AutoConnect: computational design of 3D-printable connectors (2015) 25. Ishengoma, F.R., Mtaho, A.B.: 3D printing: developing countries perspectives (2014) 26. Tanenbaum, T.J., Williams, A.M., Desjardins, A., Tanenbaum, K.: Democratizing technology: pleasure, utility and expressiveness in DIY and maker practice (2013) 27. Meissner, J.L., Vines, J., McLaughlin, J., Nappey, T., Maksimova, J., Wright, P.: Do-it-yourself empowerment as experienced by novice makers with disabilities (2017)

Chapter 87

Smart Refrigerator System: Enabling Healthy Cooking Nripan Nath, Rahul Prakash Salunke, and Wricha Mishra

Abstract With an increasing abundance of lifestyle diseases, people are advised to adhere to a strict diet and meal plan. Meanwhile, people with time constraints might feel that the processes of recipe selection and meal planning are very difficult. All of these factors can contribute to a less healthy lifestyle. This paper aims to create an outline of healthy home cooking and identify the problems and points of failure arising in the process. Preliminary research was accompanied by contextual inquiry with health-conscious people who cook at home on a daily basis, allowing them to outline the numerous challenges that they faced. For further understanding of the issues within this community, an online survey was conducted with a questionnaire comprising 35 questions which were circulated to more than 60 people ranging from 17 to 55 years. There were several issues faced by the users such as the influence of certain food items on health, lack of knowledge of alternative ingredients, fitness goals, meal planning, the influence of others, involvement of technology, and efficiency in cooking. After further research, an intervention that would streamline the cooking process and overall kitchen experience, based on a smart refrigerator with Internet of things (IoT) integration that can automate the prerequisites of healthy cooking was finalized. The system will be capable of identifying the food items and ingredients placed inside the refrigerator to come up with meal plans and recipes with respect to the health status of the users. Furthermore, it will create health profiles for each family member and continuously update them by extracting useful basic health parameters from smart fitness devices.

87.1 Introduction The health needs of individuals have changed over time as more and more people are finding themselves suffering from health conditions that require them to alter their lifestyles. Furthermore, the frequency of food allergies has increased over the N. Nath · R. P. Salunke · W. Mishra (B) MIT Institute of Design, Pune, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_87

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past 30 years, particularly in industrialized societies [1]. Cooking is a fundamental lifestyle factor that is inevitable. Hence, home cooking has to cater to the various health needs of consumers to lead a safe and sustainable life [2]. Home cooking has evolved phenomenally with the rise of technology. It has streamlined the process into simpler forms to make it easier for everyone to participate. The main inhibiting factors of home cooking are lack of time and inadequate cooking skills [3]. Home cooks are known to be aware of the fact that considering calorie values will improve the health benefits of their cooking, but fails to actually implement it due to the extra steps that would hinder their efficiency. A home cook would have to weigh each ingredient, look it up on a nutrition database, do the calculation for that ingredient, and then add it up to the calorie values of the rest of the ingredients. A home cook in their habitual cooking setup finds this process to be too cumbersome to adopt into their lifestyle [4]. With the right execution, this concept will be able to equip people with the freedom of fine-tuning their diet and lifestyle. In short, it enables the user to grab control of their dietary factors and health. The primary objective of this study is to identify breakdowns in the process of cooking and to analyze possible interventions.

87.2 Literature Review In 2008, conceptual research concluded that a holistic Human Computer Interaction (HCI) research agenda focusing on food will consider both aspects–both the design of corrective technology and the design of celebratory technology will make a better technology-driven cooking experience [5]. In 2019, carried out a study in order to understand how recipes from mobile applications lead to a positive influence on samples. Experimental groups were given recipe suggestions by mobile applications developed by the authors to understand the influence of mobile applications on sample behavior while cooking and shopping. They found that people who used the application showed a tendency to follow healthier dietary habits with frequent vegetables and fruits on plates. Also Boost in the confidence of the cook (here, mothers) as trying out new recipes increases the experience. And overall increase in satisfaction with the new modified approach to eating in their experimental families. Although this growth in the app’s apparent value contrasts with the finding that health apps wane in interest over time [6]. In 2019, carried out a study with the purpose to understand the confidence and attitudes regarding meal planning and preparation behaviors of low-income parents and caregivers who downloaded the Cooking Management (CM) App to their mobile phones. They found out that creating a shopping list may support healthy dietary behaviors, especially among adults with high-risk health issues. People who used the application have reported improved dietary behaviors (e.g., more fruit intake), food-resource management, and self-efficacy with regard to food preparation and cooking [7].

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The researchers came up with a smart kitchen system that would analyze the cook’s steps and give them a simple calorie value readout in real-time. It was found that all participants were able to cut down the calorie value of the food they prepared. The cooks were not given any instructions other than how the system worked. They made their own choices with ingredients and amounts. But since they were given a calorie value readout in real-time, they could easily switch an ingredient or reduce the amount if they saw that it was contributing high-calorie value to their recipes. Most people achieved calorie reduction by reducing small amounts of high-calorie ingredients [3].

87.3 Methodology 87.3.1 Design Study and Participants An online survey with 60+ participants from Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Kerala was conducted in the months of October and November 2021. The goal of the study was to find out how people cook and how health-conscious their cooking choices are, as well as the general health issues they face and the elements that influence their cooking.

87.3.2 Data Collection The criteria sample technique was used to select 60+ persons to participate in this study (Age group from 17 to 56 years). The primary criterion for selecting survey participants was whether or not they cooked in their leisure time. Further sampling was done on career (government and private employee, selfemployed, students, housewife), gender, living with other people, presence of children, health concerns, dietary plan, and education when picking and separating individuals into groups based on their age and gender.

87.3.3 Contextual Inquiry Contextual inquiries were conducted with 6 home cooks ranging from 22 to 53 years old. They were observed in their kitchens while they cooked in their habitual way. The initial consideration during the inquiry was to obtain insights about the factors that were influencing their recipe selection process. Following this, nuances in the cooking styles were observed. It was important to find out how people managed and

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kept track of time between the many recipe steps. Another area of importance was the different tools that were used in the kitchen.

87.3.4 Competitive Analysis A competitive analysis to aid in determining the product’s value propositions was conducted. Existing and potential competitors in the field of cooking were considered for the analysis. The insights gathered from this stage were used to streamline the development process.

87.3.5 Brainstorming & Conceptualization The term brainstorming was first introduced by Alex F. Osborn in 1953 in his book Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative Thinking. Since 1953, brainstorming as a word has spread around the world with a distinct interpretation in the minds of many people. Two brainstorming sessions were conducted with a total of four participants with a design background. Their inputs were tabulated to identify significant suggestions.

87.4 Results 87.4.1 Data Collection As Fig. 87.1, 25.4% of the participants reported that they were suffering from some type of food-related allergies that required them to modify their lifestyle. Diabetes comes in second place with 7.9% of people reporting it. As Fig. 87.2, 68.3% of people reported that time was the most important factor that influenced their recipe selection process. After that, 58.7% were focused on the availability of ingredients. Health and nutritional aspects of the diet were important to 39.7% of people.

87.4.2 Contextual Inquiry As Fig. 87.3, the flow model makes it clear that the absence of alternative components or a lack of information about them has a significant negative impact on the experience

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Fig. 87.1 Health conditions reported by the survey participants

Fig. 87.2 Factors that influenced the recipe selection process

of cooking for health. All of the failures and experiences that were noticed during the contextual inquiry are represented in the flow model. In Fig. 87.4, a sequence model of a person clearly showing various intents followed by breakdowns while attempting to make a nutritious dish was discovered using a digital medium. Figure 87.5 shows clearly how maintaining a diet on a regular basis, which is quite challenging, failed to create fresh recipes, and resulted in eating the same thing every day.

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Fig. 87.3 Flow model

Fig. 87.4 Depicts a sequence model of a user attempting to find a healthy recipe online

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Fig. 87.5 Depicts a sequence model of a user attempting to live a healthy lifestyle

87.4.3 Competitive Analysis We conducted a competitive feature analysis chart of existing platforms including YouTube, Fit Men Cook, Healthify Me, and Buzzfeed Tasty. Figure 87.6 is a chart illustrating the learnings of the analysis.

87.5 Design Intervention To decrease the time and effort required for meal preparation in our fast-paced world. We propose a smart refrigerator’ solution to assist streamline healthy cooking with less cognitive load and hassle-free cooking while considering the health characteristics of family members. The unique selling point (USP) of the system is the monitoring of health statistics of the user via connected IoT devices to maintain a health profile and suggest recipes as per requirements. The system will comprise a standard side-by-side smart refrigerator, with a touchscreen display on the door. It will be equipped with various sensors such as internal cameras to identify objects placed inside, weight-sensing surfaces, and a barcode

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Fig. 87.6 Competitive analysis

scanner to aid in inventory management. Apart from that, the refrigerator will have Wi-Fi and Bluetooth capabilities to communicate with other devices. The solution will also make it simple to monitor all of the health parameters acquired from all family members’ health-related Internet of Things (IoT) devices. Each family member receives a profile, which can be used to modify meal planning. The refrigerator will detect the food items placed inside and recommend that they be added to the inventory. The built-in scanner can read barcodes on packaged objects. A single platform or hub for all of your health requirements in a smart home. Using data from other devices, fine-tuning recipes will be made and meal plans will be done depending on the nutritional needs of each family member. Given that they are part of a smart home ecosystem; these procedures occur with little to no human interaction [8]. Recipes are automatically altered based on who is consuming the meal. The system can make recipe and meal plan suggestions based not just on the available inventory, but also on the users’ health state. IoT integration will offer inputs regarding fundamental health factors, as well as a system capable of doing automatic inventory management and intake nutrition analysis, as well as calculating the lifespan of vegetables to reduce food waste (Fig. 87.7).

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Fig. 87.7 System image showing the basic working protocol of the system

87.6 Discussion This study focused on the challenges that health-conscious people who cook on a daily basis face, specifically how they have managed to maintain good cooking despite external factors. A self-reported survey helps us understand that people find it challenging to make changes and remain following a healthy eating pattern in their daily lives. According to a self-reported poll, 65.1% of people have health issues that necessitate dietary changes, and 57.1% have restricted cooking time. 55.6% of individuals regularly try new meals. Another fascinating fact is that 80% of people who attempted to follow a diet failed. With the fast-paced daily lives, it is quite difficult to come up with healthier recipes due to constant internal changes occurring within the body such as glucose, blood pressure, and many more that contribute to higher cognitive demand for users in modern high-paced life and following this routine diet for a long time without proper ingredient management is the leading causes of diet failure in most people. Respondents were also concerned about a number of issues, including the impact of different meals on health, fitness, meal planning, peer pressure, technology use, and cooking efficiency. By studying human behavior and expectations, previous research investigations show how digital or mechanical technology may be used effectively to address these difficulties [1].

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A mobile application is a simple way to gather all of your data in one location for easy administration [9]. However, this benefit is negated by the fact that the smartphone must be carried by the user during the activity, which in this case is cooking. In order to speed up the cooking process, a cook would often bet on multiple items at once. Also, while cooking with a mobile app, there might be distractions. Following more discussions, the study concluded with a smart refrigerator interface as the final concept. The refrigerator is often the largest device with which a user comes into close contact in most kitchens. In many circumstances, the user will begin the cooking process by going to the refrigerator to get the essential ingredients. A smart refrigerator is an IoT device, and it makes sense for it to serve as the hub for the other IoT devices in the household. When the leftovers are stored in the refrigerator, the cooking step is complete. In a way, the cooking process begins and finishes with the refrigerator. The system may recommend recipes and meal plans depending on not just the available inventory, but also the users’ health state. IoT integration will offer inputs about health metrics to the refrigerator, allowing it to adjust meal plans based on these characteristics for individual members of the household [10]. Automatic inventory management and analysis will assist users in keeping track of consumed calories and incorporating ingredients into food on a regular basis in order to reduce food waste caused by expiry. It will also remind the user of a necessity for a specific vegetable or item that is now absent from the refrigerator and is scheduled to be purchased in the near future. Furthermore, this technology would encourage digital wellness by isolating the cooking experience from the user’s smartphone.

87.7 Limitations and Future Scope High fidelity wireframes were made, but the suggested solution was not validated. The study’s limitations include the need to thoroughly test this technology in order to comprehend any potential problems users may experience when accessing it.

87.8 Conclusion A system based on an already existing kitchen appliance that also happens to be one of the key elements of the kitchen would make it non-intrusive and more easily adaptable.

References 1. Valenta, R., Hochwallner, H., Linhart, B., Pahr, S.: Food allergies: the basics. Gastroenterology

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148(6), 1120–1131 (2015) 2. Wolfson, J.A., Leung, C.W., Richardson, C.R.: More frequent cooking at home is associated with higher healthy eating index-2015 score. Public Health Nutr. 23(13), 2384–2394 (2020) 3. Raber, M., Chandra, J., Upadhyaya, M., Schick, V., Strong, L.L., Durand, C., Sharma, S.: An evidence-based conceptual framework of healthy cooking. Preventive Med. Rep. 4, 23–28 (2016) 4. Chi, P.X.P., Chen, J.H., Chu, H.H., Lo, J.L.: Enabling calorie-aware cooking in a smart kitchen. In International conference on persuasive technology, pp. 116–127. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg (2008) 5. Murray, D.W., Mahadevan, M., Gatto, K., O’Connor, K., Fissinger, A., Bailey, D., Cassara, E.: Culinary efficacy: an exploratory study of skills, confidence, and healthy cooking competencies among university students. Perspect. Public Health 136(3), 143–151 (2016) 6. Grimes, A., Harper, R.: Celebratory technology: new directions for food research in HCI. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Apr 2008, pp. 467–476 (2008) 7. Clarke, P., Evans, S.H., Neffa-Creech, D.: Mobile app increases vegetable-based preparations by low-income household cooks: a randomized controlled trial. Public Health Nutrition 22(4), 714–725 (2019) 8. Nasir, H., Aziz, W.B.W., Ali, F., Kadir, K., Khan, S.: The implementation of IoT based smart refrigerator system. In: 2018 2nd International Conference on Smart Sensors and Application (ICSSA), July 2018, pp. 48–52. IEEE (2018) 9. Garvin, T.M., Chiappone, A., Boyd, L., Stern, K., Panichelli, J., Hall, L.A.E., Yaroch, A.L.: Cooking matters mobile application: a meal planning and preparation tool for low-income parents. Public Health Nutr. 22(12), 2220–2227 (2019) 10. Jiang, H., Wang, W., Liu, M., Nie, L., Duan, L.Y., Xu, C.: Market2dish: a health-aware food recommendation system. In Proceedings of the 27th ACM International Conference on Multimedia, Oct 2019, pp. 2188–2190 (2019)

Chapter 88

Mechanics of Pseudo-Haptics in Virtual Reality: Weight Perception Neelesh Kumar, Ravali Gourishetti, Madhan Kumar Vasudevan, and Muniyandi Manivannan

Abstract This study aims to understand the mechanism of pseudo-haptics in virtual reality (VR) by deriving an analytical relation between the displacements of the VR handheld controller and the virtual object using the work-energy conservation principle. We defined a new parameter called pseudo-haptic factor for two variations: pseudo-stiffness perception (PSP) to discriminate stiffness perception between two virtual springs and pseudo-weight perception (PWP) to discriminate weight perception between two virtual weights. We then evaluated our analytical relation with a psychophysical experiment for PWP. We chose the pseudo-haptic factor and derived the range of input stimuli 0.17 to 0.23 Kg. We measured the Weber fraction and Steven’s exponent, β. The Steven’s exponent value differed slightly from the literature values reported for similar experiments in real environments. This difference could stem from the effect of virtual environments and pseudo-haptics. The analytical relation reported in this study for pseudo-haptics can be extended to other haptic explorations such as pseudo-texture in the future.

88.1 Introduction Haptics in immersive virtual reality (VR) shows a valuable addition to the immersion and interaction in recent years with a wide range of applications. One of the significant challenges for different VR applications is to develop a haptic interface for the immersive experience during interaction with the virtual environment. Interfacing a haptic device with VR for several applications increases the cost and design complexity. To reduce these limitations, several haptic illusions are exploited in VR. Pseudo-haptics is a haptic illusion that simulates different haptic phenomena such as weight, stiffness, texture, or friction without using any actuator. This illusion is achieved by exploiting one or more sensory modalities such as vision and auditory N. Kumar · R. Gourishetti · M. K. Vasudevan · M. Manivannan (B) Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India e-mail: [email protected] R. Gourishetti e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_88

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[14] along with proprioception. For example [14] experimented with three different multisensory conditions for texture detection, roughness, and smoothness with both visual and audio feedback. The results showed that the subjects better experienced the experiment with the audio and rough-surfaced virtual object. Although few studies explored the effect of pseudo-haptics using multisensory modalities, most of the pseudo-haptic explorations in the literature are focused on visual modality. Pseudo-haptic feedback to simulate different haptic properties in VR was reviewed by Lécuyer et al. [11, 21] in detail, and [2, 6, 7, 10, 15] are a few studies reported on pseudo-haptics in VR using visual modality. Li et al. [12] proposed a method to generate the illusion of soft surface stiffness with a visual interface. Their approach used a combination of visual feedback of the soft surface and the speed control of the avatar for conveying the stiffness information of a soft object in virtual environments. Lécuyer et al. [10] presented a set of experiments in which different haptic phenomena such as stiffness and mass are explored using pseudo-haptics with visual effect. In their previous study [9], they employed a technique using pseudo-haptics to simulate friction, and their experiment concluded that changing the visual gain (control/display ratio, CD ratio) is a significant factor in influencing pseudo-haptic feedback. In human–computer interaction (HCI) literature [16], the CD ratio is defined as the ratio of the physical movement of the input device in the real world to the corresponding movement of the cursor in the virtual world. The rationale behind the choice of CD ratio, which we will refer to as a pseudo-haptic factor in our study, for the pseudo-haptic simulations in immersive VR is missing from the literature. None of the literature had explored the mechanics of pseudo-haptics which helps us understand the experimental design principles in a better way. It was only one of our earlier studies [8] that proposed the mechanics of pseudo-haptics for a computer mouse on a desktop screen. However, it has not explored the theoretical analysis of pseudo-haptics in VR. This paper as an extension of our earlier work [8] aims to propose a theoretical analysis and derive an analytical relation between the displacement of the VR controller to that of the virtual object for two haptic explorations: pseudo-stiffness and pseudo-weight. The proposed theory and the relations are evaluated with a classical psychophysical experiment. In this paper, the mechanics of pseudo-haptics in an immersive VR is derived with an assumption of equal work done in both the haptic explorations of displacement (controller and virtual object) similar to the assumption in our previous work [8]. In both experiments, the reaction force from the haptic interaction with the virtual objects through visual cues was recreated using pseudohaptics, exploiting the fact that the visual modality alone is powerful enough to induce illusory haptic sensations [8].

88.2 Proposed Mechanics of Pseudo-Haptics In this study, we explore the concepts of pseudo-haptics to perceive two different haptic modalities: stiffness and weight.

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When a real spring is subjected to a force, it undergoes a certain displacement proportional to the force. A stiffer spring will undergo lesser compression or displacement than a softer spring; this compression or the spring’s displacement results from work done upon the spring by the user. However, in VR, we can exploit the concepts of pseudo-haptics using visual modality to create the illusion of stiffness perception. We refer this phenomenon as pseudo-stiffness perception (PSP). Similarly, while comparing a heavier weight with a lighter one, we need to apply more significant force on the heavier weight to disturb its equilibrium. This large force results in a more considerable strain on muscles. Similar to PSP, in VR, we can exploit the concepts of pseudo-haptics using visual modality alone to create the illusion of weight perception to discriminate two weights. As we assume equal weights in both hands, the user relies on visual cues on the HMD to judge the weights of the objects. We refer this phenomenon as pseudo-weight perception (PWP).

88.2.1 Work-Energy Conservation Principle The main objective of this study is to propose an analytical model for the discrimination between two pseudo-haptic stimuli in immersive VR. This study considers pseudo-weight and pseudo-stiffness perceptions through an immersive VR simulation using visual cues alone. The model of PWP is an extension of Ashok et al. model of pseudo-stiffness perception [8]. However, their work emphasized only the PSP in a 2D desktop environment, whereas the current work extends the algorithm in [8] in 2D to PSP and PWP in an immersive VR environment. Therefore, we discuss PSP briefly first and then describe the model of PWP in detail. For the stiffness perception, a simple model of a spring attached to the ground is employed, as shown in Fig. 88.1a, and for generating the illusion, we only considered visual feedback as followed in most of the literature [6, 22]. Haptic displacement of the spring and visual displacement of the spring is shown in Fig. 88.1a, b. The haptic and visual displacements in a virtual system are related through the work-energy conservation principle [8] and Hooke’s law, with a set of modified assumptions that appropriately explains the mechanics of pseudo-haptics in VR. The relation between the visual and haptic displacement of a virtual spring is described in [8] as  Dv =

kh Dh kv

(88.1)

where Dh is the haptic displacement, Dv is the visual displacement, kh is haptic stiffness, and kv is the visual stiffness.

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Fig. 88.1 Schematic of a virtual spring attached to the ground a and a virtual weight attached to a virtual spring b for different pseudo-haptic factor σ . Left image shows σ < 1 and right image shows σ > 1 [3]. Figure adapted from [7]

88.2.1.1

Physical Spring

In a trivial case of a physical spring in a real environment, the haptic displacement is equal to that of the visual displacement of the spring, i.e., Dv = D h

(88.2)

and therefore, the visual stiffness and the haptic stiffness are the same.

88.2.1.2

Virtual Spring

From (88.1), kv can be assigned a value and Dh is the displacement of the user’s hand from the VR handheld controller which is a known value, whereas Dv and kh are unknowns. In case of virtual springs, we assumed that Dh is directly proportional to Dv . The relation can be represented as Dv = σ ∗ D h

(88.3)

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where the proportional constant σ is termed as a pseudo-haptic factor in this study.  σ =

kh kv

(88.4)

This pseudo-haptic factor determines whether the virtual spring is harder or softer, as described below: σ =1; σ >1; σ 1; σ ” buttons. • And finally, to close the book, there is an “X” button on the top right All of these UI components follow the user across the virtual world, wherever they go. The user has everything they need at their fingertips and in front of them in order to

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Fig. 93.9 Final VR scene of a study room

Fig. 93.10 Unity3D implementation screenshots

interact with the application. Calming music is playing in the background as the user reads the book. Overall, the current reading environment and its UI (Fig. 93.11) allow the user to read the book anywhere they want and perform any action necessary in an easy, simple way.

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Fig. 93.11 VR scene of comic

93.3.9 Testing The main area in which the user will be interacting with the application is relatively small with the focus being in a comic book. The user now can pick up the book and read. The directions on how to do so, as well as the panels and typeface of the book, are cleared so that the user can clearly see them in the virtual world. These act as the main directions for the user and are simple to follow. The user is advised in this manner so they can pick up the book by merely touching it in the instructions. The user would initially need to physically lift the book, but this was inaccurate and challenging to do consistently. To make the user’s experience more delightful, a more streamlined strategy was required. This is what led to the current approach being used, meaning that the user only has to touch the book, and it will open up for them (Fig. 93.12).

93.4 Conclusion In conclusion, this research provided an excellent opportunity to blend the disciplines of computer science and comic design. The research provides users with a new and interactive way to experience reading comics. The goal of the project was achieved using HTC Vive, where it was discovered, the principles used in reading comics and the result is a fully functional in virtual reality application. In all, this research provided a great opportunity to learn about the development process of a

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Fig. 93.12 Testing image

VR application. It furthers the research into the various uses of VR in the application of visual grammar.

References 1. Sreenivas, D.: Sculpting the Middle Class: History, Masculinity and the Amar Chitra Katha. Routledge, London (2010) 2. Dastidar, D.G.: Prospects of comics studies in India. GNOSIS, Special Issue-3, pp. 113–128 (2019) 3. Christou, C.: Virtual reality in education. IGI Global 2 (2010) 4. Nicolas Mollet, B.A.: Storytelling in virtual reality for training. Edutainment 3942, 334–347 (2006) 5. Pianzola, F., Balint, K.: Virtual reality as a tool for promoting reading via enhanced narrative. Scientific Study of Literature 9(2), 4–5 (2020) 6. Whalen, Z.: The Videogame Text. University of Florida, Gainesville (2008) 7. Wallner, L., Barajas, K.E.: Using comics and graphic novels in K-9 education: an integrative research. Studies in Comics 11(1), 37–54 (2020)

Part IV

Lexicon, Taxonomy, Ontology, Machine Learning and Data-Driven Design

Chapter 94

Innovative Design Platform on Hotel Industry 4.0 Using AI/ML Natarajan Vijayarangan, Kumari Rashmi, and M. Sakthi Priya

Abstract In the modern era of Industry 4.0, personalization and offerings play a major role in the commercial world. There is a challenge to implement personalized offering to customers in hotels due to demographic and behavioral issues for which our invention has brought out with an innovative approach “Personalization & Fluidic Offerings Platform” (PFOP) described in this paper. PFOP has the following three segments which help to provide packages for hotel rooms along with ancillary services by means of mass personalization and fluidic bundling at the time of booking. (1) Data models will be developed using a bucket of Machine Learning (ML) algorithms to predict the customer preferences from the historic hotel booking data and transactional data. (2) Based on the customers’ room type preferences, we bundle the predicted ancillary services along with room type as combo packages by means of AI Recommender System (AIRS) which prioritizes a list of preferred combos for customers. The system will project combos with preferred hotels along with top three statistical scores of bundles obtained from AIRS. (3) Computing fluidic and semifluidic offers from a deterministic offer or market price given by a hotel management, and we are optimizing the cost of bundles. Price mechanism—a complex problem: How the customers will prefer hotels while booking their rooms and services at the most appropriate pricing, which helps the hotels as well as their customers to understand the core relationship among the bundles. Hence, the proposed PFOP drawing the customers’ attention with the above features improves the growth of hospitality.

N. Vijayarangan (B) · K. Rashmi · M. Sakthi Priya Travel and Hospitality-Strategic Initiatives Group, TCS Ltd., Chennai, India e-mail: [email protected] K. Rashmi e-mail: [email protected] M. Sakthi Priya e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_94

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94.1 Introduction In the past, the hospitality industry adapted personalization [2–4] and pricing [6, 7, 9, 10] which were practiced at an assorted level. There is no full scope of product with personalization and offerings in hospitality so far. We have ventured into a new stream (calling pioneer in hospitality) where hotels will offer multiple ancillary products and services along with their core product offering—‘ROOM.’ The required combination of Room + Product/Service varies with each customer. One guest’s need may not be what other guests want. Mapping this combination of Room + Ancillaries is a daunting task since it differs with each customer. Our invented hospitality product fulfills this demand with mass personalization which is also known as “Personalization & Fluidic Offerings Platform” (PFOP). It enables personalization by creating a customer specific fluidic package which involves bundling of {Room + Product or Service offering} with packaging rules on customer specific demands. A customer specific fluidic package is a bundle of products, including the core product that is created on the fly by employing Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning/Deep Learning (ML/DL) techniques. The proposition of personalized packages results in higher conversion of bundled packages, thereby enhancing the gross operating profit per available room (GOPPAR) per hotel, pre-selling of hotel service, thereby enhancing the service standards with precise planning for anticipated volumes and also minimizing wastage by apportioning materials and deploying labors appropriately. New lines of services and products can also be introduced based on customer demand. Our invention of the hospitality fluidic packaging platform applies the “learning” to make real-time contextual suggestions which eventually benefits both customers and business for loyalty, non-loyalty, and even first-time customers. Usually, the historical data present with the hotels (contains stay records, transactional records, ancillaries and services, guest preference records, guest data, hotel property, etc.) is large in size, it is difficult to do data splitting, meta data conversion, filtering, smoothing, and prediction through human intervention. Our invention has identified a research domain to automate hotel data for personalization. Our invention, PFOP systems, has divided the process of mass personalization into three segments: a. Prediction of components preferred by the customers. b. Bundling of components as a combo package. c. Pricing of packages.

94.2 Prediction of Components Preferred by the Customers In order to develop prediction models for the components, historical hospitality booking data will play a major role. The following steps are taken to prepare the data.

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Fig. 94.1 Outlier analysis

94.2.1 Data Extraction Extracting data from various data resources such as cloud server or cloud database and store it in a local data repository in an accessible format.

94.2.2 Data Preprocessing Transforming the raw data into a format which is suitable to train a Machine Learning model. The following process has been taking place.

94.2.2.1

Data Cleaning

Handles the missing, noisy, and outliers/inconsistent data (Fig. 94.1).

94.2.2.2

Data Transformation

• Normalizing the data attributes to fit within a specified range. • Deriving relevant attributes from the existing data to contribute pattern recognition.

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Data Reduction

Removing the attributes and data which are not relevant to the target variable.

94.2.3 Data Exploration and Visualization a. Analyzing the preprocessed data, exploring the data in various angles will lead to obtaining insights. b. Insights help the organization to implement innovative ideas to increase revenue and improve customer satisfaction. c. Data visualization helps us to understand the distribution of data using plots, histograms, and correlation heatmap (Fig. 94.2). d. Statistical exploration will help in identifying the data distribution; skewness of the data and correlation leads to determine the relative dependency of the variable to the target variable. Once the data is prepared, a model building takes place. From the insights, a room booking is divided into three component models. They are

Fig. 94.2 Correlation of variables

94 Innovative Design Platform on Hotel Industry 4.0 Using AI/ML Table 94.1 Independent variables of hotel prediction

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Variables

Description

ADULTS

Total number of adults in the booking

CHILDREN

Total number of children in the booking

COUNTRY

Destination country (currently only India)

SINGLE_OCCUPANCY

If the user needs single occupancy or not

MULTIPLE_OCCUPANCY If the user needs multiple occupancy or not CITY

Destination city of user

Year

Year of visit of user

Month

Month of visit of user

Day_of_week

Day of week of the visit. Starting from Monday, we assign 0–6

a. Hotel prediction b. Room class prediction c. Ancillary service prediction Note: In ML, “target variable” is the prediction variable, and independent variables are the features that influence the prediction variable.

94.2.4 Hotel Prediction a. Target Variable: Hotel: Hotels available in the user visiting city. b. Independent Variables: See Table 94.1. c. ML model selected: Random Forest Classifier A large number of relatively uncorrelated models (trees) operating as a committee will outperform any of the individual constituent models.

94.2.5 Room Class Prediction a. Target Variable: Room_Class: Room class selected by user in a hotel b. Independent Variables: See Table 94.2. c. ML model selected: Random Forest Classifier

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N. Vijayarangan et al. Variables

Description

ADULTS

Total number of adults in the booking

CHILDREN

Total number of children in the booking

COUNTRY

Destination country (currently only India)

SINGLE_OCCUPANCY

If the user needs single occupancy or not

MULTIPLE_OCCUPANCY If the user needs multiple occupancy or not CITY

Destination city of user

HOTEL

Hotel selected by the user

Year

Year of visit of user

Month

Month of visit of user

Day_of_week

Day of week of the visit. Starting from Monday, we assign 0–6

94.2.6 Ancillary Service Prediction a. Target variable: Ancillary services with probability score b. Independent Variables: See Table 94.3. c. ML model selected: Random Forest Classifier (Table 94.4) Table 94.3 Independent variables of ancillary service prediction Variables

Description

ADULTS

Total number of adults in the booking

CHILDREN

Total number of children in the booking

CITY

Destination city of user

HOTEL

Hotel selected by the user

Arrival_Day_of_Week

Day of week of the user’s arrival. Begin with Monday, we assign 0–6

Departure_Day_of_Week Day of week of the user’s departure. Begin with Monday, we assign 0–6 Source_code

The source at which the booking is happening. It can be through the hotel website, third parties, or at the desk, etc.

Number_of_night

Number of nights in the duration of stay

Gender

Gender of booking user

OS

Operating system of device used by user

Trip Day of week

If a weekend falls during the duration of stay, we consider it as a weekend trip, if weekend doesn’t fall on the duration of stay, we call it weekday trip

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Table 94.4 List of ancillary services predicted by ML LADIES_AMENITIES_IN_ROOM

DINNER

SPA

IN_ROOM_BREAKFAST

SALOON

BREAKFAST

WEEKEND_SIGHTSEEING

BABY_SITTING

BAR

15%_OF_ROOM_CREDIT_VOUCHER

SHOPPING_ASSISTANCE

GOLF

94.2.7 Model Accuracy of Hotel, Room, and Ancillary Services A historical hospitality real data of 0.5 million records is used to train the hotel prediction and room class prediction models. Out of 12 distinct ancillary services (mentioned above), ancillary ML model predicts at most 5 ancillary services as per the generated data. In this regard, we have generated random data consisting of 0.1 million random entries from the synthetic data size of 1 million for ancillary services. Then, the training and testing data of ancillary services are split into the ratio of 90:10, respectively, and executed using the ancillary model. Then, the model predicts test data of 10,000 entries with the following statistics (Table 94.5). Out of 10,000 random records, 2 and 3 ancillary services predicted by the model contribute together 63%. Further, the 5 ancillary services predicted by the model will be less than 3% and the bundles with no services predicted (“0” service) less than 6%. Similar statistical distribution holds for the entire synthetic data for ancillary services (Table 94.6).

94.3 Bundling of Components as a Combo Package In bundling, we have the following three steps: Table 94.5 Count of bundles with number of ancillary services

Ancillary model prediction

No. of entries

“1” services

1704

“2” services

3707

“3” services

2691

“4” services

1037

“5” services

287

“0” service

574

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Table 94.6 Model accuracy of hotel, room, and ancillary

Models

Data split

Random forest (%)

XGBoost (%)

Hotel prediction model

Sequential split 70:30

82

84

Random split 70:30

71

72

Room class prediction model

Sequential split 70:30

62

84

Random split 70:30

62

76

Ancillary prediction model

Sequential split 70:30

100

100

Random split 70:30

100

100

94.3.1 Ranking of Ancillaries All ancillary services are ranked based on population scores (mean) predicted using ML models.

94.3.2 Bundle Forming The ancillaries will be listed in an order based on a given historical data. An offline (one time) process, a statistical method (population) computes a threshold value on the consumption of ancillaries (by the customers) from the historical data. Calculate Average Precision (AP) Scores of the ancillaries based on the ranking order AP = TP/(TP + FP); TP = True Positive, FP = False Positive

(94.1)

True Positive: Ancillary ML score greater than threshold value. False Positive: Ancillary ML score less than threshold value. The business has a prerogative to push certain ancillaries for sale, depending on existing market scenarios (trends). Business users (hotel management) can bump up scores manually overriding the ML engine. If a bump up is provided by the business team, then the scores will be bumped up for the respective ancillaries then AP will be calculated. Bundles are formed with the ancillaries having ML score greater than threshold value.

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Table 94.7 Eligible bundles with MAP score Bundles

Bundles amenities

Bundles score

Bundle1

(BREAKFAST, LADIES_AMENITIES_IN_ROOM, SALOON)

0.183273038

Bundle2

(BREAKFAST, LADIES_AMENITIES_IN_ROOM)

0.16661065

Bundle3

(BREAKFAST, SALOON)

0.135431407

Calculate Mean Average Precision (MAP) for the bundle formed to all the ancillaries (N) in the historical order. MAP = 1/N

N 

APi

(94.2)

i=1

Each bundle having a MAP value greater than the threshold value is considered as a valid bundle (Table 94.7).

94.3.3 Integration of Room Class with Bundles 1. Two rankings were calibrated for Room Classes. a. MAP overall: Mean Average Precision b. Population overall ratio: No. of customers occupied on the room classes 2. Based on relevancy rank, AP score for the Room Classes is calculated using Average Precision method. 3. To integrate valid bundles with room class using the following group structure [1, 8]. f (a, b) = a + b − ab

(94.3)

Equation (94.3) is a semigroup with identity on [0,1], where a = Bundle AP score, b = Room class AP score. 4. We have prepared two morphism tables on f (a, b) which are greater than MAP overall and population overall ratio, respectively. Then, it will be combined into a single table called complementary table through maximum voting method. Based on the valid occurrences/probability scores greater than or equal to 0.5, the complementary table gives the desired result of matching bundles with room classes. 5. In the next stage two scenarios shall be raised: (i) MAP overall and (ii) Population overall ratio. MAP overall means MAP score is computed on the training set containing room classes and ancillary services. Population overall ratio is the

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mean of the customers occupied the room classes. Both the values are computed through offline (one time process). 6. Steps 3 to 5 are followed for the Eqs. (94.4) and (94.5). g(a, b) = (a + b)/2

(94.4)

g(a, b) = (a + b)/2 is a group with identity on [0,1], where a = Bundle AP score and b = Room class AP score. h(a, b) = 2ab/(a + b)

(94.5)

h(a, b) = 2ab/(a + b) is a group with identity on (0,1] where, a = Bundle AP score and b = Room class AP score. 7. The optimized result of matching room classes with ancillary services when the complementary tables of “f ,” “g,” and “h” are combined. Based on the customers’ room type preferences, we bundle the predicted ancillary services along with room type as combo packages by means of AI Recommender System (AIRS) which prioritizes a list of preferred combos for customers. The system will project combos with preferred room classes along with top three statistical scores of bundles obtained from AIRS to customers (Tables 94.8 and 94.9). Table 94.8 Average probability score of room classes w.r.t bundles Bundles

Deluxe Standard Supreme Luxury Suite Premium

(BREAKFAST, 0.667 LADIES_AMENITIES_IN_ROOM, SALOON)

0.667

0.167

0.333

0.500 0.500

(BREAKFAST, 0.667 LADIES_AMENITIES_IN_ROOM)

0.500

0.167

0.333

0.500 0.500

(BREAKFAST, SALOON)

0.333

0.167

0.333

0.333 0.333

0.500

Table 94.9 Integration of room classes with bundles Bundles

Eligible room classes

(BREAKFAST, DELUXE, STANDARD, SUITE, PREMIUM LADIES_AMENITIES_IN_ROOM, SALOON) (BREAKFAST, LADIES_AMENITIES_IN_ROOM)

DELUXE, STANDARD, SUITE, PREMIUM

(BREAKFAST, SALOON)

DELUXE

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94.4 Pricing of Packages Price Mechanism is a complex way of describing how the customers will get connected to the hotel management to book their preferred rooms and services at the most appropriate price. It also helps the hotel as well as their customers to understand the correlation among the bundles, i.e., how the bundles are related to each other, positively or negatively. These positive or negative correlations signify the pattern/trend of procuring the bundles by the customers. For Price Mechanism, we are provided with the bundles made up of a combination of amenity services served by the hotels, the Bundle_Threshold values and the Actual Price for each of the bundles. The inventive steps involved in Price Mechanism are divided into four parts as follows.

94.4.1 Correlation Among the Bundles a. Initially, we find the number of services served by each of the bundles by summing up the number of amenities in that bundle. b. Then based on services value, we have to calculate the average, standard Deviation, and variance for all bundles, and with the help of these values, we are computing the Coefficient of Variation (CoV) and the Fanofactor for all bundles. c. Hence, we will calculate the correlation among the bundles using Coefficient of Variation and the Fanofactor value which help us in identifying how the bundles are related with each other, i.e., positively or negatively. Correlation among Bundles =

   Fanofactor/CoV2 − 1 /2

(94.6)

94.4.2 Clustering of Bundles into Buckets In order to perform clustering, the lower and upper bound for each bucket using the following formula: LB = Bundle Threshold − [(Bundle Threshold × CoV %)/100]

(94.7)

UB = Bundle Threshold + [(Bundle Threshold × CoV %)/100]

(94.8)

Then, we have to compare the Bundle_Threshold value of all the bundles with the lower and upper bound of each bucket and cluster all those bundles in the one bucket whose Bundle_Threshold value lies in the lower and upper bound of that bucket.

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94.4.3 Computing Linear and Stochastic Price by Using Different Promotional Offers a. Deterministic Offer: It is the fixed price offer provided by hotel management. This offer’s value varies from season to season, and for illustration purposes, we have taken max. 20% and min. 6%. Note: We have considered the deterministic offer for bundles and buckets equal as the number of buckets that we are generating is the same as the number of bundles. b. Semi-Fluidic Offer: We have used the Distance Model to compute the SemiFluidic Offer of each bundle. (In the Distance Model, we have taken the services in a binary form like if a service is available, then we have taken 1 for it, and if not available, then we have taken 0). For example: There are 8 bundles out of which the maximum number of services in a bundle (B1) is 4. Let B1 = {Breakfast (BF), Ladies amenities (LA), Saloon, SPA} whose binary equivalence 1111 as per historical ranking of services. We have another bundle B2 = {BF, LA, Saloon} whose binary equivalence 1110. Then the semi-fluidic offer of B2 = Max_offer * (Decimal value of (1110)/Decimal value of (1111)) = (20%) *(14/15) = 18.67%. c. Fluidic Offer: To calculate Fluidic Offer, we have used the Deterministic Offer and the number of bundles in a particular bucket. There can be multiple cases: • If a bundle belongs to only one bucket, then the Fluidic Offer for that bundle will be the same as the Deterministic Offer for that bucket. • If a bundle belongs to more than one bucket, then the Fluidic Offer for that bundle will be equal to the average of the Deterministic Offer for all those buckets. d. The Negotiated Discount value for each of the bundles is calculated by taking the average of Fluidic and Deterministic Offers. Negotiated Discount = (Fluidic Offer + Deterministic Offer)/2

(94.9)

e. The Negotiated Discount (d%) will be applied to compute the Stochastic Price by calculating the d% of Actual Price for each of the bundles, i.e., Stochastic Price(Discounted) = Actual Price × Negotiated Discount(d %) (94.10) Final Stochastic Price After Discount = Actual Price − Stochastic Price(Discounted)

(94.11)

f. In order to calculate Linear Price (Discounted), we will be using the Deterministic Offer value along with the Actual Price of each bundle, i.e.,

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Fig. 94.3 Let us discuss Normalized distribution values of Fluidic Offer. In the below graph, the slope of Fluidic offer is almost flat, which indicates the discounts offered on all the bundles vary slightly

Linear Price(Discounted) = Actual Price × Deterministic Offer Final Linear Price After Discount = Actual Price − Linear Price(Discounted)

(94.12)

(94.13)

94.4.4 Calculating bundle’s Normalized Value and Plotting Them on Charts with Different Promotional Offers Here, we have calculated the Normalized distribution for each bundle using the average, standard deviation, and services values for those bundles (Figs. 94.3, 94.4 and 94.5) (Table 94.10).

94.5 Example A customer (guest) “Mr. X” visits the hotel website to book a room. He will enter his requirements such as City (he wants to stay in), Number of Guests, Number of Rooms required, Gender details, and Number of Children. Based on the details provided by him, our prediction model will predict and showcase the list of hotels, room types, and ancillary services suitable for the guest. By taking guest’s hotel selection and room-type selection along with the top ancillary services into consideration, the invented PFOP system will generate bundles and extract the top three bundles of ancillary services significant to the guest. Then, the pricing system will offer the appropriate prices for the bundles by considering different promotional offers and the actual price of the bundles.

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Fig. 94.4 Normalized distribution values of Semi-Fluidic Offer. In the below graph, the slope of Semi-Fluidic offer is decreasing, which indicates the discounts offered on bundles 3, 4, 5 varying slightly, whereas the offered discounts on bundles 6, 7, 8 are varying more in comparison with bundles 1, 2

Fig. 94.5 Normalized distribution values of Deterministic Offer. In the below graph, the slope of Deterministic offer is decreasing drastically, which indicates the discounts offered on bundles 3, 4 varying slightly, whereas the discounts offered on the bundles 7, 8 are varying most as compared to bundles 1, 2 Table 94.10 Eligible bundles with price Bundles

Actual price

Final stochastic price after discount

Final linear price after discount

Final price of bundles

(BREAKFAST, LADIES_AMENITIES_IN_ROOM, SALOON)

4500

3705

3659.985

3659.985

(BREAKFAST, LADIES_AMENITIES_IN_ROOM)

4000

3360

3360

3360

(BREAKFAST, SALOON)

4000

3426.66667

3466.68

3426.66667

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94.6 Conclusion In the present study, we have come across some challenges like the hotels are unable to offer a mix of dynamic choices of products and services over digital channels, sales of ancillary services offered by hotels on digitally are negligible, and also, hotels have to spend 1/3rd of their revenue margins on Online Travel Agency (OTA) platforms in order to attract customers to the direct channels. In order to overcome these challenges, our invention hospitality product known as “Personalization & Fluidic Offerings Platform” (PFOP) is invented to enable personalization by creating a customer specific fluidic package which involves bundling of room and services/product. A customer specific fluidic package is a bundle of products, including the core product (i.e., rooms), that is created by applying AI and ML/DL techniques. Then, a price mechanism for the bundles helps the hotels to understand the pattern/trend of procuring the bundles by the customers. Hence, the proposed solution with mass personalization and optimized pricing draws customers’ attention and improves the growth of the hospitality industry. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to T&H-SIG and CTO teams of TCS for designing, developing, and patenting the prototype.

References 1. Apostol, T.M.: Introduction to Analytic Number Theory. Springer, New York (1976) 2. Xing, C.: Exploration of standardization and individualization of hotel services. J. Chengdu Univ. 4(47) (2001) 3. Bin, D.: Study on hotel service standardization process. J. Beijing Second Foreign Lang. Univ. 3(11) (2000) 4. Bin, L.: On improvement of hotel core competitiveness. J. Chongqing Jiaotong Univ. S1(114) (2003) 5. Lieberman, W., Raskin, M.: Comparable challenges: a new approach to performance measurement. J. Revenue Pricing Manag. 4(2), 174–184 (2005) 6. Lieberman, W., Shoemaker, S.: Revenue Management Workshop for Guatemalan Hotels, Presentation made to Guatemalan Hotel Executives, Guatemala (1995) 7. Marn, M., Roegner, R., Zawada, C.: The Price Advantage. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ (2004) 8. Saxena, N.: Morphisms of rings and applications to complexity, IIT Kanpur, Ph.D. Thesis (2006) 9. Qi, S.: Theory and Practice of Hotel Management Innovation. People’s Posts and Telecommunications Press, Beijing (2004) 10. Shoemaker, S.: Pricing and the consumer. J. Revenue Pricing Manag. 4(3), 228–236 (2005) 11. Yu, Y., Xu, S., Li, G., Kong, H.: A systematic review of research on abusive supervision in hospitality and tourism. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. 32, 2473–2496 (2020) 12. Zhang, C.: Research on humanized design of hotel in the era of experience economy. J. Modernization Shopping Malls 34(104) (2008)

Chapter 95

“This Has Been Written by a Bot”: A Bot Detection Study of the SubsimulatorGPT2 Subreddit Chaitanya Solanki

Abstract The r/subsimulatorGPT2 is an online forum in which all posts and comments are generated through automation using a fine-tuned version of the GPT2 language model developed using OpenAI. This subreddit has been created and is moderated by the Reddit user u/disumbrationist (Disumbrationist in What is R/subsimulatorgpt2? 2020). The intricate language model employed here results in very coherent, highly realistic, simulated content. Approximately, 1,00,000 users subscribe to the forum; however, the posting of content and comments is done only by bots trained by the moderator. The process of training a bot includes the machine learning of 5 lac comments from a particular subreddit, which then sorts those comments through their popularity on those respective subreddits. The casual employment of language model machine learning on a popular website like Reddit is unique and important. This study examines the comments and a title posted by the bots and tests them on a sample of 126 participants, where the survey places posts generated by human users versus posts created by bots. The study tries to gauge whether popular and public, social media websites like Reddit have the potential to host content that can be entirely generated through artificial intelligence and whether this content can be distinguished by the layperson. The study opens up vast avenues which indicate that automation during industry 4.0 would include huge sections of online information in casual settings that will purely be generated through machine learning. It also questions the authenticity of online found text and ponders upon its implications in the rapidly approaching technological change.

95.1 Introduction The phenomenon of social media has expanded globally and engaged billions of users. These online communities let users interact with each other in the form of content sharing and content generation [1]. The surge in the use of social media has C. Solanki (B) Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_95

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therefore resulted in lifting up social computing as an interesting area of research. This field can include web semantics, artificial intelligence, natural language processing, and big data analysis. It is known that over the recent years, these social media platforms have changed the mediums of communication and altered daily practices including influencing the user’s opinions, ideologies, and lives [2]. While the majority of social media users are humans, there are sections of automated accounts that operate within these platforms, called bots. Literature has shown that the capabilities of these automated agents have been employed to put out benign, neutral, humorous, and/or malicious content online [3–7]. In all cases, these bots reportedly manipulate discussions by putting out certain topics or through the frequency of posting. It then becomes increasingly important to understand the position of human users in gauging content generated through bots versus content generated through humans.

95.2 Background and Related Work Previous studies have employed various means to detect bots online. In doing so the methodologies of graph-based detection [8], machine learning [9], and crowdsourcing [10] have been adopted. Although every approach has its own advantages and disadvantages, this study concerns itself with the last approach of crowdsourcing. In this method, human intellect is employed to detect patterns across given account profiles, where they are asked to identify between human and social media bots. In a competition hosted by DARPA in 2015 which was called the “Twitter Bot Challenge,” teams were asked to identify influential bots that were pushing provaccination discussions [10]. Another study conducted by Alarifi et al. [11] tried to classify 2000 Twitter accounts by leveraging the distinguishing capabilities of ten volunteers who have B.Sc. degrees in computer science and were active and well versed on Twitter [11]. This team was used to create markers that could then be used by machine learning to better understand Sybils (fake identities and user accounts) [12]. The study by Wang and their team (2012) grouped their participants as experts, turkers (workers for hire on crowdsourcing websites), and sociology students and asked them to evaluate 25–100 social media profiles from Renren, Facebook US, and Facebook India. Their task was to identify which of the profiles appeared fake and which of them seemed to be genuine, made by human users [13]. The studies mentioned above have tried to crowd source human judgment to identify content that has been generated by humans versus that which was generated by bots. However, it can be seen that although the studies have targeted Twitter, Facebook, Renren, etc., none of them has browsed Reddit, which is also considered to be a social media platform and is largely more anonymous among the group. Therefore, this study found adequate motivation to inspect the elements of Reddit and whether they could be distinguished by human participants. The novelty of this study is in the intentional highlighting of the use of artificially generated text on social media platforms, Reddit.com in this case, and gauging human judgment against it. As shown above, there have been several undertakings

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to understand and evaluate the presence of artificial content using human intellect; however, the literature turns scarce when it comes to contextualizing the use of artificiality in casual spaces like Reddit.com. Therefore, this paper adopts the specific case of the r/subsimulatorGPT2 subreddit to investigate the same.

95.3 Experimental Methodology In order to understand the distinguishing capabilities of readers to gauge between AI written posts versus human written posts, a 20-item survey was conducted. Statistical analysis was performed to report on the findings. The tools provided by Google Forms were utilized for formulating results. The survey was limited to hosting two options per questions, as opposed to multiple options with one correct answer, as the research intended to try and focus on the increasing problem of fake information online in which there exist only two options, where the information could be written by a real person or could be generated artificially. There could have been two testing approaches to recreate this: (i) where the one item was shown to the participant with two options asking whether the item was artificially generated or written by a real person and (ii) where the participant was shown two items and had to select between them. The researcher chose to adopt the latter approach as the former appeared monotonous due to all the questions having the same options (generated artificially/written by a real author). Figure 95.1 provides for an example of both question types below.

Fig. 95.1 Questionnaire formation item testing

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95.4 Sample The participant population for this experiment was chosen through the process of convenience sampling. An online invitation was sent to the entire student population of IIT Hyderabad. This included undergraduate and postgraduate students along with PhD scholars. After a week, another reminder e-mail was sent to the community. A total of 126 responses were recorded, all of which were eligible for analysis.

95.5 Data The survey was constructed using the data from the subreddit r/subredditsimulatorgpt2 which is an online forum in which all posts and comments are generated through automation using a fine-tuned version of the GPT-2 language model developed using OpenAI. This subreddit has been created and is moderated by the Reddit user u/disumbrationist [14]. The intricate language model employed here results in very coherent, highly realistic, simulated content. Approximately, 1 lac users subscribe to the forum; however, the posting of content and comments is done only by bots trained by the moderator. The process of training a bot includes the machine learning of 5,00,000 comments from a particular subreddit, which then sorts those comments through their popularity on those respective subreddits. The creator then arranges submissions and comment chains in a text file which recreates Reddit’s sorting mechanism and then fine tunes for each subreddit dataset using GPT-2-345M [14]. According to the moderator, the process of acceptable generation of titles required training the dataset for 20,000 iterations. The subreddit contains 130 bots, in which each has been trained from the data sets of any one particular subreddit available. For example, a bot that has been trained on the data sets from the subreddit r/chess is called /u/chessGPT2Bot, and it is responsible for formulating posts based on its learning from the dataset and posting them on the r/subredditsimulatorgpt2 subreddit. This study took the posts made by 20 such bots and formulated them into one question each.

95.6 Survey An online questionnaire was used for data collection. The survey was a 20-item questionnaire in which each question was accompanied by two answer options (see Appendix). Each option is either a post made by humans or generated by a bot and posted on Reddit. The questionnaire is composed of 20 questions. Each question was generated by randomly selecting 20 posts from the r/subredditsimulatorgpt2 subreddit. The

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Fig. 95.2 First question, as seen by the participant

actual subreddit of each post was then visited, and a title which had more than 200 interactions was selected to accompany the original AI generated title. These two titles became the option for the participant to choose from, in which the participant was only made aware of the relevant subreddit and that one of these titles were generated artificially. The order of the 20 items was also randomized. The questionnaire was posed as a quiz to the participants in which they were informed that the quiz was intended to gauge whether they could distinguish between Reddit posts made by humans versus those made by bots. For participants who did not know about the website Reddit and/or about subreddits, website links explaining both were provided along with the introduction. The participants were informed that each item consisted of two options, in which one title was written by a human, while another was written by a bot, and they had to distinguish which statement was written by the human. A sample question, as seen by the participant, has been shown below in Fig. 95.2.

95.7 Delimitations Convenience sampling was employed for the purposes of this research, the findings of which may not be adequate for generalizing over the larger population. A future study spanning multiple demographics from varying backgrounds would be helpful. The questionnaire survey utilizes posts made within the last month for the respective subreddits. A longitudinal study which reports on the changing interaction traffic would also be pertinent in understanding these phenomena.

95.8 Analysis As the study did not compare results via any intervention, descriptive statistics were employed as for evaluating the answer pools. The results found that among the 126 participants, the average and median for answering correctly were similar at 10.06 and 10 points, respectively. The points achieved by the participants ranged between 5 and 17 points. The results formed a bell curve with the majority of the

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Fig. 95.3 Average, median, and range of the points distribution among 126 participants

participants scoring between 9 and 11 points (see Fig. 95.3). This finding indicated that most of the participants were only able to identify half of the real titles even after being informed of the presence of artificially generated ones. It also must be noted that the entire generation of text on the r/subredditsimulatorgpt2 is generated by an outdated version of language processing software. This test, if repeated with more sophisticated versions of the same tool (GPT-3), may yield with even more fascinating results. However, this study limited itself with the use of GPT-2 as currently it is the only tool being used on the website Reddit.com to generate and operate and entire subreddit.

95.9 Conclusion and Discussion In this experimental study, the research tried to test the layperson’s capabilities to detect which posts were generated by humans versus those that were generated by bots trained on certain data sets from the website Reddit.com. The study was implemented through an online questionnaire that contained 20 items, each posing two options, one of which, was formulated by a bot. Results found that the majority of the participants were able to score between 9 and 11 points out of 20. The average and median were both around 50%. The findings can be translated to mean that a majority of the participants (who are considered to be a layperson with respect to this study) were unable to identify 50% of the posts that were generated by bots. As the content of the questionnaire was taken from the website Reddit, which is a popular social media platform, the findings can represent an outline of concern that users may not be able to identify the fact that half of the posts they interact with may have been formulated by bots trained on data sets. It is also to be noted that in this controlled experiment, the participants knew that they were viewing at least one post (out of two options) by a bot in each item. Even as a guess, the participant only had one out of two chances to get the answer wrong, which may not be true

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in the future when scaled. This questionnaire did not pose multiple options, which might be even more difficult for the participants to judge. However, the approach of only two options was adopted as the real world scenarios comes with only standing options, where the text is real (human generated) or artificial (computer generated). With respect to the automation that is part of the upcoming industry 4.0, this study indicates that the use of bots or Sybils to disperse and generate content will be widespread and is 50% effective, at least in the case of Reddit.com. In its entirety, this study can be considered adequate as introductory research to open avenues for more rigorous and robust experiments which can be replicated on a larger scale and would yield findings that can be generalized for a larger population. However, that is the scope of future research.

Appendix Questionnaire Survey: https://forms.gle/8UKNB4HKxFStzUvYA.

References 1. Kaplan, A.M., Haenlein, M.: Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media. Bus. Horiz. 53(1), 59–68 (2010) 2. Luxton, D.D., June, J.D., Fairall, J.M.: Social media and suicide: a public health perspective. Am. J. Public Health 102(S2), S195–S200 (2012) 3. Stieglitz, S., Brachten, F., Ross, B., Jung, A.K.: Do social bots dream of electric sheep? A categorisation of social media bot accounts. Preprint at arXiv:1710.04044 (2017) 4. Xu, A., Liu, Z., Guo, Y., Sinha, V., Akkiraju, R.: A new chatbot for customer service on social media. In: Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 3506–3510 (2017) 5. Oentaryo, R.J., Murdopo, A., Prasetyo, P.K., Lim, E.P.: On profiling bots in social media. In: International Conference on Social Informatics, pp. 92–109. Springer, Cham (2016) 6. Veale, T., Valitutti, A., Li, G.: Twitter: The best of bot worlds for automated wit. In: International Conference on Distributed, Ambient, and Pervasive Interactions, pp. 689–699. Springer, Cham (2015) 7. Wilkie, A., Michael, M., Plummer-Fernandez, M.: Speculative method and Twitter: bots, energy and three conceptual characters. The Sociological Review 63(1), 79–101 (2015) 8. Adewole, K.S., Anuar, N.B., Kamsin, A., Varathan, K.D., Razak, S.A.: Malicious accounts: dark of the social networks. J. Netw. Comput. Appl. 79, 41–67 (2017) 9. Wang, A.H.: Detecting spam bots in online social networking sites: a machine learning approach. In: IFIP Annual Conference on Data and Applications Security and Privacy, pp. 335–342. Springer, Berlin (2010) 10. Subrahmanian, V., Azaria, A., Durst, S., Kagan, V., Galstyan, A., Lerman, K., Zhu, L., Ferrara, E., Flammini, A., Menczer, F.: The DARPA Twitter bot challenge. Computer 49(6), 38–46 (2016) 11. Alarifi, A., Alsaleh, M., Al-Salman, A.: Twitter during test: identifying social machines. Inf. Sci. 372, 332–346 (2016)

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12. Alsaleh, M., Alarifi, A., Al-Salman, A.M., Alfayez, M., Almuhaysin, A.: TSD: detecting Sybil accounts in Twitter. In: 2014 13th International Conference on Machine Learning and Applications. IEEE, pp. 463–469 (2014). 13. Wang, G., Mohanlal, M., Wilson, C., Wang, X., Metzger, M., Zheng, H., Zhao, B.Y.: Social during tests: Crowdsourcing Sybil detection. Preprint at arXiv:1205.3856 (2012) 14. Disumbrationist: What is R/subsimulatorgpt2? Reddit (2020). Retrieved 2 March 2022, from https://old.reddit.com/r/SubSimulatorGPT2/comments/btfhks/what_is_rsubsimulatorgpt2/

Chapter 96

Implementing Conversational AI to Enhance Critical Illness Communication Mily Lal and S. Neduncheliyan

Abstract Artificial intelligence (AI) enhances social communication by facilitating natural language dialogue exchanges between humans and machines. Critical illness communication (CIC) is traditionally understood as dialogues between doctors and critically sick patients about their interests, aspirations, and preferences. Conversational AI uses natural language processing (NLP) models to converse in a similar manner that a clinician would, assisting in more accurate diagnosis of patients with CIC needs, encouraging data collection to improve effective inperson collective decision-making, and reducing healthcare professional paperwork burden. The overall performance of the information compiled needs to be carried out with the participation of human evaluators from the healthcare system to improve the CIC documentation. The focus of this study is to enhance the effectiveness of critical illness communication (CIC) administration in hectic practice environments. The approach strives for consistency in meaning interpretation to enable significant in-depth involvement in predictive understanding and the transformation of patients’ interests and principles into patient-centered recommendations. The proposed system’s experimental findings reinforce the use of artificial intelligence to more accurately determine CIC-eligible patients and optimize process flow by assisting with vital mundane jobs, guaranteeing that more patients with chronic conditions receive CIC on time, freeing up healthcare professionals to concentrate on complex physiological and behavioral responsibilities.

M. Lal (B) · S. Neduncheliyan School of Computing, Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research, Chennai, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Neduncheliyan e-mail: [email protected] M. Lal Dr. D. Y. Patil School of Science & Technology, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_96

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96.1 Introduction Critical illness communication (CIC) is a vital part of palliative care that guarantees that goal-concordant care is provided. It is traditionally understood as dialogues between doctors and critically sick patients about their interests, aspirations, and preferences. The absence or limited use of CIC-specific performance indicators, as well as their application to those seen by specialized palliative and hospice support teams, stymies efforts to improve care coordination, patient care, and health outcomes for all seriously ill patients [1]. CIC information is acquired, evaluated, and integrated during a therapeutic interaction in the standard CIC delivery life cycle, followed by post-visit manual physician transcription in the electronic health record (EHR). This procedure can be broken down into the steps: determining patient eligibility for CIC; gathering and evaluating data, trying to clarify the patient’s illness knowledge and concerns; conducting counseling and continuing to assist the patient in dealing with potentially fatal sickness with the purpose of communal decision-making; recording the discussion, and making CIC information available to others in the community (Fig. 96.1). However, each stage has the potential to become a bottleneck. The majority of doctors are wary of having uncomfortable conversations with their patients. They could be unsure about the optimum moment to have such conversations and when they should be stressed. Therapists usually lack time to investigate and adequately record these discussions [2]. EHR standards are needed to promote uniform, accurate

Fig. 96.1 Critical illness communication documentation using conversational AI

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records that would be easily available to all healthcare team members [3]. To make sure that almost all critically ill patients are receiving immediate and adequate CIC that notifies their care on time and inherently results in documentation of patients’ requirements and goals that is observable to others, a novel model that attempts to address these hurdles will be necessary, in addition to training more healthcare professionals to be proficient in CIC. In palliative care, the deployment of conversational agents (also known as chatbots) has mostly gone unexplored. In health care, conversational agents seem emotionally sensitive or employ unrestricted natural language input, which is still in its infancy [4]. However, the technology has developed to the extent that it may be used in CIC as a simple data-gathering bot. Before in-person consultations, CIC conversational agents could gather information on the patient’s prognostic understanding and expectations. As a result, doctors would be able to invest more face-to-face interaction in significantly greater cognitive and emotional activities, leading to faster-shared decision-making. Before meeting with the therapist, conversational agents may allow patients to ponder and share concerns with reliable people. There seem to be no studies on conversational agents in people with critical illnesses. However, concrete evidence from investigations within the general population has shown that conversational agents that tackle palliative care-related issues are acceptable [5]. Natural language processing (NLP), a kind of machine learning aimed at reading, interpreting, or altering the human language, can also aid artificial intelligence (AI) in accelerating the CIC administrative procedures and, as a result, enhance the effectiveness of CIC documentation. Also, because the content of the conversation is analyzed and interpreted in real time rather than moments later, as is typical of documentation, such a system would reduce the time therapists spend physically taking notes and reduce remembering bias. As a result, small nuances in the discussion can be recorded instantaneously, leading to increased quality of recordings with significantly less effort on the therapist’s behalf [6]. This study proposed that hybrid conversational AI can improve this process by assisting healthcare providers in more accurately identifying patients with CIC needs. Moreover, the CIC supports the presented work through the chatbot applications. The succeeding sections of the paper are organized as follows: Sect. 96.2 highlights the research on conversational agents in health care. Section 96.3 outlines the development of a novel paradigm for CIC documentation that combines hybrid conversational AI with data summarization. Section 96.4 shows simulation results and responses to the proposed approach. Section 96.5 concludes the study with an important contribution to research development and the potential for future advancement.

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96.2 Literature Review 96.2.1 Related Works This section focuses on the ongoing and prospective paradigms and platforms for conversational AI development and execution. Conversational AI frameworks and platform breakthroughs are crucial components of the recent interest in conversational AI applications. For instance, vital breakthroughs include supervised machine learning for classification and information retrieval, for instance, intent prediction and user sentiment identification, both of which are essential to enabling taskoriented dialogues [7]. Moreover, there has been significant progress in using generative methodologies. End-to-end dialogue systems are used to anticipate appropriate responses to user input based on models constructed from large conversational corpora [8]. Eventually, the emergence of the transformer as a dominant and pretty successful architecture for natural language processing, including good open-source libraries, has reduced the obstacle and made it possible to build conversational models with high generalization and coherence [9]. For medical purposes, an increasing number of chatbots are now being developed. Recently, there has been a noticeable shift in machine learning-based approaches to creating chatbot technologies [10]. The study of AI-based conversational agents for medical disorders is sparse, mostly consisting of semi-investigations using chatbots at the concept level that use natural language processing and allow for bidirectional user engagement [11]. The efficiency, usefulness, and satisfaction of the conversational agents tested were usually favorable or mixed in the research, but qualitative user views were more mixed [12]. The study of chatbots in mental illnesses is still in its early stages. There are indeed a variety of chatbots that are used to treat a variety of mental illnesses and objectives [13]. Given the significance of the user’s emotional experience and participation in various social and health domains, multiple research has suggested ways to detect the user’s mood and provide an appropriate empathetic response. CAs with emotional competence can help users become happier and lead to more profound human– computer interactions. The Greek ML-based virtual assistant was specifically built to handle several frequent activities in the healthcare area, such as scheduling doctor’s appointments or managing distress (panic situations) [14]. The results suggest that effective Greek-speaking virtual assistants could be used to encourage the use of e-healthcare and that the proposed NLP workflow may be applied to additional languages without sacrificing abstraction [15]. The proposal of a conditional textgenerative adversarial network that uses a sentiment label as an input to determine the outcome yielded notable results [16]. Aside from empathy, presence, and expertise, the ability of conversational AI (CA) to adapt to the user’s preferences and needs is critical to engaging the user. A primarycare CA that acknowledges patients’ symptoms and generates correlating questions during the initial assessment to assist healthcare staff by streamlining the patientintake process has been proposed to offer customized intake service to patients

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by understanding their symptoms and trying to generate related questions during the initial assessment [17]. The End-to-End Knowledge-routed Relational Dialogue System (KR-DS) is a comprehensive medical learning program into topic transitions in conversation management that is compatible with natural language interpretation and creation. The research found that a system may be built that allows dialogue management, natural language interpretation, and natural language generation to all be improved through reinforcement learning [18]. A study indicated that intervention designers focusing on AI healthcare chatbots should employ user-centered and hypothesis concepts to address patients’ challenges and maximize user experience to produce the highest acceptance and utilization. When building and evaluating the success of health chatbots, patients’ viewpoints, motivation, and skills must be considered [19]. According to the Internet-based platform, chatbots could be used to deliver rapid solutions to health-related questions from patients while looking for specific symptom combinations in disease prediction [20].

96.2.2 Challenges While recent improvements in conversational AI frameworks and platforms have been made, several challenges remain. We especially lack the technical background to support a few critical features of conversational AI applications. Based on the background study, we perceive four such issues as hugely significant. First and foremost, recognizing input from the user continues to be a challenge. Even as machine learning approaches have improved natural language understanding and intent prediction, conversational AI interaction is susceptible to dialogue breakdowns due to interpretation issues, especially in everyday experiences [12, 13, 22]. Second, the challenge of modeling techniques and adjusting to the user and communicative context remains as essential as it has always been. For example, as AI systems are progressively deployed in the health domain, in potentially sensitive situations, it becomes critical for AI systems to adapt the conversation to users’ socioeconomic, sentimental, and even health literacy aspects [19, 20, 24]. Third, challenges still exist in solutions to support conversational AI development and formative assessments, such as studies designed to simulate mission-critical applications. Finally, as AI systems become a part of the software ecosystem, facilitating conversational AI integration in this perspective is a new emerging task, such as enabling conversational display of information and content that is also anticipated for other uses [21, 23].

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96.3 Paradigm for CIC Documentation Using Conversational AI The proposed model pipeline is as follows: Machine learning algorithms such as XGB and RF will be used in stage one of the proposed model to provide more precise mortality estimates, which could be used to promote timely CIC and palliative care delivery [26]. These algorithms help in identifying CIC-eligible patients. In stage 2, the model’s conversational agent would gather information about the patient’s prognostic awareness and priorities using NLP language models. Before meeting with the doctor, the patient may be given time to ponder and discuss concerns with the conversational AI. The pre-trained BERT model encodes the supplied conversation and answers differently in the training dataset. The output is passed to the Recurrent Convolution Network (RCNN) network that iterates through the elements of a sequence input to build final dialogue and response representations.

96.3.1 Pre-processing and Feature Extraction Here, the pre-processing function was performed with the help of the XGBoost parameters. It is the ensemble model. Usually, it has boosting parameters for filtering duplicate and noise content. Moreover, the feature analysis and the extraction have been different based on the different classifiers. If the classifier is best at analyzing and extracting the features, it will have earned the finest question analysis and response performance outcome (Fig. 96.2).

Fig. 96.2 Proposed hybrid conversational AI model

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96.3.2 Question–Response System The RCNN is trained on a dataset with positive samples of identical dialogue and utterance pairs and negative samples of dissimilar dialogue and utterance pairs. Here, the present work’s novelty involves the different classifiers in the RCNN models. Based on the classifier robustness, the performance of the chabot response system has varied. Hence, the classifiers that have been utilized for specifying the people’s questions are SNN, LR, SVM, and XGB. The dataset trained for this chatbot system has both questions and responses. During the testing process, if the question is raised, the question features are analyzed first, then the related response is retrieved. The layered diagram of the proposed AI-based model is shown in Fig. 96.3. A fine-tuned GPT-2 model [29] was fine-tuned by training it to predict the response to the query from the conversation history, passing the query, and passing semantically similar responses from the dataset in addition to the response itself. As shown in Fig. 96.2, in stage 3 of the proposed model, NLP text summarization models could be used to read, analyze, or alter the human language, thereby assisting the CIC documentation process and ultimately increasing the quality of the CIC document. The working process of the proposed system is described in Fig. 96.4.

Fig. 96.3 Layer diagram of proposed AI-based model

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Fig. 96.4 Flowchart of proposed hybrid conversational framework

96.4 Experimental Results and Discussion 96.4.1 Identification of Critical Illness Communication Eligible Patients The dataset was retrieved from Kaggle and comprises anonymized data from the University of California Irvine’s Machine Learning Repository at https://archive. ics.uci.edu/ml/datasets/Heart+Disease. Heart disease is the major cause of death in the developed world. As a result, effort must be made to reduce the risk of sudden cardiac arrest. The preliminary task is to predict patients most likely to suffer from heart disease and determine whether to confirm cases with a mortality risk.

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Table 96.1 Comparison of machine learning models used for diagnosis and fatality prediction Accuracy

Precision

Recall

F1-score

Logistic regression

79

94

70

80

Support vector Machine

58

91

25

32

Random forest

81

92

70

80

XGBoost

82

85

72

78

Self-normalizing neural networks

75

90

85

78

96.4.2 Machine Learning Methods and Model Selection The ability of machine learning algorithms to categorize and predict mortality risk is demonstrated in Table 96.1. The efficiency of the self-normalizing neural network (SNN), logistic regression (LR), support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF), and extreme gradient boosting (XGB) is analyzed. In terms of heart disease diagnosis and fatality prediction, XGB and RF outperform other classifiers. XGB and RF could be used for more accurate fatality predictions to enhance timely CIC and palliative patient care.

96.4.3 Critical Illness Communication Information Gathering and Therapeutic Conversation The experimental study is developed based on health information: Lasse Regin Nelson’s medical question and response dataset. He gathered these question–answer pairs from well-known medical websites, including eHealth Forum, iCliniq, Question Doctors, and WebMD, where genuine doctors have offered public responses to patients’ concerns. The study has revealed that BioBert excels at representing biomedical terminology [25]. RCNN and LSTM models are best suited for text classification because they can capture long-term dependencies between word sequences [27, 28]. We investigated the notion of adding an RCNN or an LSTM to the final fully connected layer of the transformers to extend an already outstanding model into a more efficient questionanswering architecture. BioBert-RCNN exhibited better performance, as given in Table 96.2. BioBert-LSTM considerably increased training time and yielded no more improvement than BioBert. In addition, cosine similarity is applied to embedding vectors derived from the language representation model. Finally, we compute the final similarity by combining the deep learning model’s similarity value and the value obtained from cosine similarity Hence, compared to normal machine learning models, the BioBert + RCNN has improved question response system performance by 3%. So, compared to the ML models, BioBert + RCNN was efficient in a chatbotbased question–response system. Overall, the model RCNN + GPT2 has earned the

1200 Table 96.2 Performance score of fine-tuned BioBert models

M. Lal and S. Neduncheliyan Model

Precision

Recall

F1

BioBert

85.02

87.22

85.2

BioBert + LSTM

82.78

87.02

85.91

BioBert + RCNN

87.08

92.58

90.21

RCNN + GPT2

89

93

93

LR + RCNN

84

85

85

RF + RCNN

83

82.1

82.2

XGB + RCNN

81

81.3

82

SVM + RCNN

79

78.5

78.8

finest answer retrieval outcomes: 89% precision, 93% recall, and 93% F1. Compared to other models, the question–response system was improved by up to 5%. In addition, RCNN has utilized different ML approaches as the classifier to attain the finest results. Therefore, hyper parameters are not defined. The pre-trained BioBert model independently encodes the training dataset’s provided dialogue and responses. The output is delivered to an RCNN network that iterates through the elements of a sequence input to build final dialogue and response presentations. The RCNN is learned on a dataset with positive samples of identical dialogue and utterance pairs and negative samples of dissimilar dialogue and utterance pairs. The model is then trained by comparing the expected cosine similarities of − 1.0 and 1.0 to the cosine similarities returned by the model using mean squared error loss. Upon experimenting with several thresholds to distinguish between positive and negative classes, we found the optimal model is very close to the threshold of 0.4, which fared well on both train and validation data. FAISS library from Facebook is used for semantic search to find similar responses and queries for each patient question in the training dataset. By using pre-computed embeddings of each response in the dataset and the embeddings of the current question, we perform a cosine similarity search. FAISS, to provide similar results, assigns a score to how similar they are and arranges them in sorted order. Stage two uses a fine-tuned GPT2 model to generate an answer for the new comment using the concatenated sequences of both the new input dialogue and the ranked responses after the first stage offers the answers that are linguistically tied to the supplied conversation. This GPT-2 model has been fine-tuned by training it to reliably predict the response to the query from the chat history, bypassing the query and semantically similar responses from the dataset and the response itself.

96.4.4 Critical Illness Communication Summarization From the conversation transcripts generated during the conversational agent interaction session, the doctor and patient roles are labeled and mapped directly to the

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Fig. 96.5 Precision, Recall, and F1-score of summarization model

targeted summary. The model, known as Facebook/Bart-large-CNN, was created by Facebook. It has 1024 hidden layers and 406 M parameters that were fine-tuned using CNN. We used the pre-trained neural network model weights as a reference point to increase learning and improve performance. Figure 96.5 shows the Precision, Recall, and F1-score of the summarization model.

96.5 Conclusion and Future Scope This study proposes that a hybrid conversational AI can help healthcare providers improve this process. By simplifying CIC administrative procedures through effective and precise identification of CIC documents, it is possible to more accurately identify patients with CIC needs, allowing for more effective in-person shared decision-making. The experimental results of the proposed system support the use of AI to identify CIC-eligible patients and streamline workflow by assisting with vital menial tasks, ensuring more critically ill patients receive CIC on time, and freeing healthcare professionals to focus on higher-order cognitive and emotional responsibilities. Improvements in natural language understanding will continue to be a key area of research interest in conversational AIs, as they have been in recent years. More high-quality training data in open repositories are required to enable natural language understanding. New end user design methods that support the active participation of domain experts in content creation, natural language processing, and conversation management could be useful. Contextual and user understanding challenges will continue to be important aspects of future research for long-term dialogue and conversation adaptation.

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References 1. Fulmer, T., Escobedo, M., Berman, A., Koren, M.J., Hernández, S., Hult, A.: Physicians’ views on advance care planning and end-of-life care conversations. J Am Geriatr Soc. 66(6), 1201–1205 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.15374. Epub 2018 May 23 PMID: 29797314 2. Lamas, D., Panariello, N., Henrich, N., Hammes, B., Hanson,L., Meier, D., Guinn, N., Corrigan, J., Hubber, S., Luetke-Stahl-man, H., Block, S.: Advance care planning documentation in electronic health records: current challenges and recommendations for change. Journal of Palliative Medicine 21 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1089/jpm.2017.0451 3. Tudor Car, L., Dhinagaran, D., Kyaw, B., Kowatsch, T.,Joty, S., Theng, Y.-L., Atun, R.: Conversational agents in health care: scoping review and conceptual analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research 22, e17158 (2020). https://doi.org/10.2196/17158 4. Chatzimina, M., Koumakis, L., Marias, K., Tsiknakis, M.:. Employing conversational agents in palliative care. A Feasibility Study and Preliminary Assessment. 489–496 (2019). https:// doi.org/10.1109/BIBE.2019.00095. 5. Holland, C.M., Blanche, E.I., Thompson, B.L.: Quantifying therapists’ activities during sensory integration treatment for young children with autism. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr. 41(3), 284–299 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/01942638.2020.1847235. Epub 2020 Nov 18 PMID: 33208000 6. Adamopoulou, E., Moussiades, L.: Chatbots: history, technology, andapplications. Machine Learning with Applications 2 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mlwa.2020.100006 7. Adiwardana, D., Luong, M.T., So, D.R., Hall, J., Fiedel, N., Thoppilan, R., Le, Q.V.: Towards a human-like open-domain chatbot. Preprint arXiv:2001.09977 (2020) 8. Han, X., Zhang, Z., Ding, N., Gu, Y., Liu, X., Huo, Y., Qiu, J., Yao, Y., Zhang, A., Zhang, L., Han, W., Huang, M., Jin, Q., Lan, Y., Liu, Y., Liu, Z., Lu, Z., Qiu, X., Song, R., Tang, J., Wen, J.-R., Yuan, J., Zhao, W.X., Zhu, J.: Pre-trained models: past, present and future. AI Open 2, 225–250 (2021). ISSN 2666-6510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aiopen.2021.08.002 9. Safi, Z., Abd-alrazaq, A., Khalifa, M., Househ, M.: Technical aspects of developing chatbots for medical applications: scoping review. J. Med. Internet Res. 22, 1 (2020). https://doi.org/10. 2196/19127 10. Schachner, T., Keller, R., Wangenheim, F.: Artificial Intelligencebased conversational agents for chronic conditions: a systematic literature review (Preprint). Journal of Medical Internet Research 22 (2020). https://doi.org/10.2196/20701 11. Milne-Ives,M., de Cock, C., Lim, E., Shehadeh, M., Penning- ton, N., Mole, G., Meinert, E.: The effectiveness of artificial intelligence conversational agents in healthcare: a systematic review (Preprint). Journal of Medical Internet Research. 22 (2020). https://doi.org/10.2196/ 20346 12. Abd-alrazaq, A., Alajlani, M., Alalwan, A., Bewick, B., Gardner, P., Househ, M.: An overview of the features of chatbots in mental health: a scoping review. Int. J. Med. Informatics 132, 103978 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2019.103978 13. Allouch, M., Azaria, A., Azoulay, R.: Conversational agents: goals, technologies, vision and challenges. Sensors (Basel). 21(24), 8448 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/s21248448.PMID: 34960538;PMCID:PMC8704682 14. Malamas, N., et al.: Upon improving the performance of localized healthcare virtual assistants. Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland) 10(1), 99 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare10010099 15. Jinyin, C., Wu, Y., Jia, C., Zheng, H., Guohan, H.: Customizable text generation via conditional text generative adversarial network. Neurocomputing 416 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neu com.2018.12.092 16. Srinath, S., et al.: Clinical practice guidelines for assessment of children and adolescents. Indian Journal of Psychiatry 61(Suppl 2), 158–175 (2019). https://doi.org/10.4103/psychia-try.Indian JPsychiatry_580_18 17. Uc-Cetina, V., Navarro-Guerrero, N., Martin-Gonzalez, A., Weber, C., Wermter, S.: Survey on reinforcement learning for language processing (2022)

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18. Miles, O. et al.: Health chatbots acceptability moderated by perceived stigma and severity: a cross-sectional survey. Digital Health 7, 20552076211063012 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/ 20552076211063012 19. Fan, X. et al.: Utilization of self-diagnosis health chatbots in real-world settings: case study. Journal of Medical Internet Research 23(1), e19928 (2021). https://doi.org/10.2196/19928 20. Ghandeharioun, A., McDuff, D., Czerwinski, M., Rowan, K.: EMMA: an emotion- aware wellbeing chatbot. In: 2019 8th International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction (ACII), pp. 1–7 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/ACII.2019.8925455 21. The Enterprisers project: https://enterprisersproject.com/article/2020/2/artificial-intelli-genceai-vs-natural-language-processing-nlp-differences. Last accessed 2022/05/04 22. Lin, Y., Xu, G., Xu, G., Chen, Y., Sun, D.: Sensitive information detection based on convolution neural network and bi-directional LSTM. In: 2020 IEEE 19th International Conference on Trust, Security and Privacy in Computing and Communications (TrustCom), pp. 1614–1621 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/TrustCom50675.2020.00223 23. Dhyani, M., Kumar, R.: An intelligent chatbot using deep learning with bi-directional RNN and attention model. Materials Today: Proceedings S221478532034030X (2020). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.05.450 24. Madasu, A., Rao Vijjini, A.: Effectiveness of self normalizing neural networks for text classification (2019) 25. Lee, J., Yoon, W., Kim, S., Kim, D., Kim, S.,So, C., Kang, J.: BioBERT: a pre-trained biomedical language representation model for biomedical text mining. Bioinformatics (Oxford, England) 36 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btz682 26. Sanders, J.J., et al.: Quality measurement of serious illness communication: recommendations for health systems based on findings from a symposium of national experts. J. Pal- liat. Med. 23, 13–21 (2020) 27. Luan, Y., Lin, S.: Research on text classification based on CNN and LSTM, pp. 352–355 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICAICA.2019.8873454 28. Nguyen, Q.T., Nguyen, T.L., Luong, N.H., Ngo, Q.H.: Fine-tuning BERT for sentiment analysis of Vietnamese reviews. In: 2020 7th NAFOSTED Conference on Information and Computer Science (NICS), pp. 302–307 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/NICS51282.2020.9335899 29. Zheng, X., Chao, Z., Woodland, P.C.: Adapting GPT, GPT-2 and BERT language models for speech recognition. In: 2021 IEEE Automatic Speech Recognition and Understanding Workshop (ASRU). IEEE (2021)

Chapter 97

A Review of Repositories of Design Methods Mayank Mayookh and V. Srinivasan

Abstract The overall objective of this research is to develop an open-access, online repository of design methods to support both design practice and pedagogy. In this paper, existing repositories of design methods are reviewed. This review is based on accessing literature and using repositories that have open access. The important findings are most repositories support only design practice, lack of a user-centric focus in ontologies for the structuring of repositories and information of design methods within them, lack of a glossary of terms linked to the repository, and absence of a discussion forum to share experiences of using methods. Through this review, important insights that will become the basis for the development of an enhanced repository to support design practice and pedagogy are identified.

97.1 Introduction Design methods have been developed in academia since the mid-twentieth century [1], primarily to formalize and externalize the design process, improve product quality, reduce time to market, improve the experience of existing products, etc. [2, 3]. Even though these methods have proven to be useful, their dissemination and acceptance in industries is still low [2, 4, 5]. This can be due to the complexity of methods, inflexibility of methods, lack of expertise about how methods can be appropriately integrated into product development process, etc. [5, 6]. To improve their dissemination, facilitate appropriate selection and correct use [7], and to provide information in a compact manner [8], repositories of design methods are developed (e.g., CiDaD [9], TheDesignExchange [10], InDeaTe [7, 11, 12], etc.). The primary means of transfer of design methods from academia, where they are created, to industries, where the methods are extensively used and tested, are students M. Mayookh (B) · V. Srinivasan Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India e-mail: [email protected] V. Srinivasan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_97

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[13]. Most existing repositories are aimed to improve design practice, which is the ultimate goal, but none of them target at improving design pedagogy. It can be argued that supporting design pedagogy can facilitate improved learning and assessment of methods for teachers and, consequently, students. Later, these students can facilitate the transfer of methods from academia to industry. Therefore, there is a need for a repository of methods to support both design practice and pedagogy. Before this can be developed, it is important to review and explore the existing repositories of design methods, to identify their pros and cons, which will be the basis for developing an enhanced repository. This paper presents a review of the existing repositories of design methods.

97.2 Research Methodology This section describes the methodology adopted for this research. First, various repositories of design methods (16 in number) are identified across literature. These are Methodos [14–16], CiDaD [9], WikID [8], TheDesignExchange [10, 17], InDeaTe [7, 11, 12], LUMA Systems [18], Human-Centered Design Toolkit [19], “Design Method” by Korea University [20], Usability.gov [21], Usability Body of Knowledge [22], Design Method Toolkit [23], Google Design Sprint [24], MEPORT [25], MAP-Tool [26], Design Methods Finder [27], and Design Innovation Methodology Handbook [28]. To identify these, searches are conducted on “Google Scholar” and “Web of Science” using keywords: “Design Methods,” “Design Practice,” “Teaching Design Methods,” “Design Methods” AND “Repository,” “Design Practice” AND “Repository,” and “Design Pedagogy” AND “Repository.” A review of these repositories is carried out by (a) accessing literature on these repositories and (b) using and exploring those repositories that have open access. When both these sources are not available, only one of them is used. These activities help to identify a set of criteria which helps differentiate the repositories. Therefore, these are used as the criteria for the review, and they are (a) intended purpose of repository, (b) number of design methods included, (c) ontologies used to structure repository and information within design methods, (d) accessibility (subscription based or free), (e) supplementary aids used (such as a glossary, discussion forum, etc.), (f) modality of methods’ description (textual, pictorial, or videographic), and (g) unique feature (if any) of the repository to aid design practice (and pedagogy).

97.3 Review and Analysis In this section, repositories of design methods are reviewed and then analyzed.

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97.3.1 Review The following is a detailed review of the sixteen identified design method repositories. Methodos [14–16] are a repository of 36 design methods developed at TU Braunschweig, to support design practice among students. In this repository, each method is explained through method description (purpose and where it can be used, expected outcomes), procedure (steps in method), strengths and weaknesses, and a list of methods which are similar to the method. Full access to this repository is provided only to the students of TU Braunschweig. All the information in this repository is in German, and “Google Translate” is used for comprehension. Competence in Design and Development (CiDaD) [9] consists of 80 design methods. It is developed for both students (for learning and guidance) and experts (to be used as a toolbox for solving design problems). It has two environments: “course environment” and “method environment.” In the Course Environment, the structure is based on the “Munich Procedural Model” which contains seven steps for problem solving (plan goal, analyze goal, structure task, generate solutions, assess properties, make decision, and ensure goals are achieved). For every step, there exists a course containing chapters on general design tasks and problems as well as chapters describing examples of specific design situations called “stories.” In the Method Environment, methods are described in terms of four attributes: purpose of method, situations in which it can be used, procedure of method, and intended-/side-effects. This repository also contains multimedia documents along with glossary entries (to explain important terms), abbreviations, and bibliographical references. In addition, related methods are listed for an efficient selection of alternative methods or to combine various methods. Methods can be selected from an alphabetical listing or through task-oriented queries. WikID [8] is a web-based repository containing 42 methods, intended to support design practice. The website is categorized into “Design Methods,” “Design Aspects,” and “Product Domains.” “Design Methods” includes design theories, methods and techniques, and “Design Aspects” includes the aspects usually found in lists of requirements for product designs (e.g., ergonomics, production techniques, aesthetics, safety, sustainability etc.). A Product Domain is the domain in which the to-be-designed product will be used. All the information in this repository is provided by a community of designers. So, it is open to practitioners and researchers to participate and populate this repository. TheDesignExchange [10, 17, 29] is an online repository containing 284 methods, intended to improve design practice in both academia and industry. This repository has the following features: library of methods, evolving taxonomy of design research methods, navigational interfaces, community-contributed method entries and case studies, project portal, and a method recommendation system. The methods include summaries from popular and academic literature (peer-reviewed publications and industry sources), the community of practice members can add and edit method entries; these can communicate to the design community which methods are effective in what kinds of situations. TheDesignExchange supports design practice through

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features such as the community-contributed library of methods, the project portal, and a feedback module. The content of this repository is categorized into five phases of design: Research (collect data to better understand user needs), Analyze (analyze collected data), Ideate (create innovative ideas/concepts), Build (turn ideas into prototypes), and Communicate (communicate all the stages of design process with others outside the design team). This portal is multi-disciplinary, i.e., the subject matter present on the portal draws on the diverse range of contributors engaged in “design thinking” such as engineers, designers, architects, businesspeople, and educators. The developers have also created a self-assessment matrix of design skills. This skillset matrix is designed for instructors of design courses to measure how their students value specific design skillsets and how their competencies in these skillsets change throughout the course [29]. Innovation Design Database and Template (InDeaTe) v3.0 [7, 11, 12] is an online portal, containing 152 design methods, developed to facilitate appropriate selection and correct use of design methods and tools, to aid design practice. Each method is tagged using the ACLODS (Action, Criteria, Life cycle, Output, Design stage, System type, System structure) framework. “Action” represents activities (Generate, Evaluate, Modify, Select, and Understanding) carried out by a method, “Criteria” refers to the design characteristics (performance, cost, environment, safety, styling, structure, quality, energy consumption, recyclability, efficiency, waste disposal, manufacturability, strength, time, social aspects, market requirements, customer requirements, technical feasibility, compliance with legislation, and price, along with triple bottom line (TBL) tags) addressed by a method, “Life cycle phase” represents the phase for which the method is designed which includes material (this phase includes deciding the type of material used for the product, shape of input/output, etc.), production (details about manufacturing and assembly), distribution (includes details about packaging, loading, and transportation details.), use (includes installation, use, maintenance, repair) and after use (includes reuse, recycle, disposal, etc.), “Output” refers to method output which can be in the form of requirements, solutions or both, “Design stage” refers to the stage in the design process (task clarification, conceptual design, embodiment design or detail design) where the method is best employed, “System structure” refers to the system levels (assembly, sub-assembly, part, interfaces or features, or the entire system) for which the method can be used, and “System type” which includes product, process, or service, for which method is most suitable. The information in method in the portal has the following categories: a method description, procedure of using the method, an “input–output” diagram (to represent the overall inputs and outputs of the method), key benefits of the method and references. Along with the methods, five design methodologies, namely Pahl and Beitz [30], Cross [31], Ulrich and Eppinger [32], Stanford design thinking model [33], and InDeaTe design template are also tagged with ACLODS. LUMA Systems [18] is an online repository of 36 design methods, developed to support design practice in industry. These methods are tagged with the following: Looking (methods for observing human experience), Understanding (methods for analyzing challenges and opportunities), and Making (methods for envisioning future possibilities). The ontology used to classify information within design methods in

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LUMA consists of a method overview, benefits, quick guide, and helpful hints. It provides premium services, recipes, video lessons, and downloadable method templates, through “LUMA Workspace.” Human-Centered Design Toolkit [19] is a web portal that has 77 design methods to aid practice. Each method is tagged with Inspiration (methods to identify user needs and pain-points), Ideation [methods to generate solution(s)], and Implementation [methods to test solution(s)]. Furthermore, the design methods within this repository can be searched “by question,” e.g., “how to conduct an interview?,” “how do I prototype my ideas?,” etc. The website contains three main sections, namely mindset, methods, and case studies. The “mindset” section consists of articles by designers (comprising experiences and ideology) from around the world. The section on case studies contains examples of implementation of methods on real-life design problems. The information within design methods is classified into method description (aim of method), steps, stats (suggested time, level of difficulty, material needed, participants), and process phase (inspiration, ideation, or implementation). Design Method [20] is an online repository containing 54 methods and is developed by Korea University, for design practice in academia. The methods are classified in one or more of the following phases: Definition, Research, Analysis, Synthesis, and Realization. The repository contains a method map, which displays all the methods categorized into one or more of the mentioned phases. Along with this, templates of only six design methods are provided in “toolkit” section; a template is an enabler of design practice and can be used to document output of the methods, general thoughts, comments, and insights. The description of a method is classified into inputs and outputs of the method, purpose of the method, steps of the method, and case studies. All the information in this repository is in Korean and Google Translate is used for understanding the content of this repository. Usability.gov [21] is an online portal that contains 53 methods to support practice. This portal also provides lessons for the discipline of user experience. The website is classified into three categories: methods (contains the design methods), templates and documents (such as template of consent form for user study, email templates, usability test plan template, etc.), and guidelines (information of this is not available). Each method in this portal consists of details of the method execution, the steps involved in application of the method and other details (varying across methods) like benefits, factors affecting cost, etc. Usability body of knowledge [22] is an online repository that contains 62 methods to aid design practice. The methods are described with their objectives along with pros and cons, cost effectiveness, procedure (only in some methods) and “special considerations” consisting of cost and scalability. This description’s structuring is inconsistent and varies from method to method. The repository also contains a separate glossary of design terms. However, the glossary of terms is not linked to the description where these terms are used. Design Method Toolkit [23] is a design method repository to support practice and consists of 60 methods. Each method is tagged with one of the relevant design process stages: define intentions (define scope and constraints); know user (understanding pain and pleasure points); frame insights (visualizing user emotional journey, drawing

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conclusions); ideation and concepts; and prototype and test. Methods in this repository are described using “When” (context of use), “Why” (purpose of use), “Note” (helpful information about method use), “Output” (of method), “References” (for further research), “Next” (what after getting the output?) along with steps of the methods to facilitate easy implementation of methods. Methods are also tagged with research (for gathering information) or create (for creating tangible objects). Google Design Sprint [24] is an online repository of 52 methods intended to aid practice. Each method is tagged with one or more relevant phases of design: Understand, Define, Sketch, Decide, Prototype, and Validate. Each method is explained using a description (purpose of the method and its outcome), stats (time taken to carry out the method, type of activity: individual or group and sprint type) and directions to apply the method. The repository also contains “case studies,” where details like team size required to apply a method, time required to apply a method and methods used in the case study are provided along with the description of the problem, the plan, highlights of execution, and results. Users of repository can submit design method and recipe [a collection of methods to tackle certain kind of design problem(s)] in resources. This makes Design Sprint flexible and an ever-expanding repository, which in turn aids in building a global design community. MEPORT [25] is a repository of 58 methods for design practice. Here, methods can be filtered based on “Method Type” (basic method, specialization method, procedure) and “Division” (administration/management, purchasing/procurement, research and development, maintenance/spare parts logistics, production/warehouse/logistics, cross-sectional functions, and sales). Apart from this, one can search methods based on problem (by selecting the relevant functional object and verb from the menu provided), or on the basis of process phase (strategic planning, structural planning, system planning, execution planning, and implementation. It is also possible to search using free text. Methods in this repository are explained through brief description, execution (aids, training needed, implementation steps), links and literature, evaluation (advantages/disadvantages), filter (what “method type,” which “division”), functional object and link (the functional object and verb associated with the method), and process phases (phase in which methods can be used). Full access to this repository is provided only to those who have registered on the repository’s website in [25]. This repository is in German and Google Translate is used for understanding the contents. Design Methods Finder (DMF) [27] is a website containing 70 design methods, intended to support practice. These methods are classified using the primary tags: Project Phase, Focus, Topic, and Activities. Each of these further contain secondary tags (to further classify the methods): “Project Phase” is classified into analysis, conception, realization, and evaluation; “Focus” is classified into user, ideas, and data; “Topic” is classified into empathy, innovation, communication, market, user group, forecast, process, and relation; and “Activities” is classified into question, testing, develop, design, evaluate, arrange, observe, combine, explain, and research. Methods are described using description (objective of the method), goals, preparation (how to gather input/prerequisites to the method), steps in the method, additional information (history and other trivia), tags, pros and cons of method, “combinable

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with” (list of methods with which it can be combined), “similar to” (list of similar methods), and links (for further reading). MAP tool [26] is a web-portal developed by Universität Karlsruhe and contains 143 methods. This portal contains a comprehensive classification of methods through a nested ontology. The umbrella classification is “From the market to the product idea,” “From the product idea to the product concept," “From product concept to product,” “From product to market,” and “From market to success.” The methods are further classified using “Plan product strategy,” “Generate and select product ideas,” “Determine product requirements,” “Design the product technically,” “Develop marketing concept,” “Analyze profitability,” “Develop product,” “Test product,” “Plan production,” “Manufacture and import product,” “Check profitability,” and “Check and adjust marketing measures.” Within these classifications, there are two more sub classifications, and so every design method has four layers of tagging. The methods are described using an abstract, requirements (only some methods), and “carrying out” tab. This “carrying out” page broadly carries a description, steps to apply, pros and cons, valuation method, sources of information (literature and publications), software support, variants (similar methods), and pre-requisites for using a method. The structure of description of methods is non-uniform and varies across methods. There are web links to download files which contain the anatomy of the method and an example for applying the method, but this is not provided for all the methods, and the information provided within this page also varies across methods. The repository is in German; “Google Translate” is used to translate it into English. Design Innovation Methodology Handbook [28] is a handbook of 33 methods developed by the Singapore University of Technology and Design-Massachusetts Institute of Technology International Design Centre. The methods are classified into Design thinking and Systems thinking. Methods are placed under the following umbrella classification: Discover, Define, Develop, or Deliver. Descriptions of each method contain time required to execute method, materials, objectives, outputs, and inputs. Apart from this, “procedure” is presented, along with best practices (what to do and what not to do), useful tips, and important things not to be missed (presented as key components, key elements, key questions, etc.), context scenarios and useful tips, but these are not provided with every method (except procedure). Along with this, examples are presented (in pictorial and textual form). Apart from the design methods, this handbook also provides two ways of method visualization, namely “Design flowchart” and “Design signature” (represents a trail or fingerprint of design methods executed in a project).

97.3.2 Analysis The review helped in the identification of the following salient points: Similarities and dissimilarities: The reviewed repositories of design methods have some portions that are similar to each other and other portions that are different

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from each other. The similarities are, for instance, purpose or objectives of methods, procedure of methods, inputs/outputs of methods, etc., as categories in description of design methods. The differences in the repositories are, for instance, in the information structuring of the overall repository as well as the structure of the information within the repository, their accessibility (freely accessible or subscription based), the supplementary aids provided to facilitate the purpose, etc. Ontology: Although the repositories, with their structuring through the ontologies used, have been found to be useful, it is not clear from the descriptions in literature whether the structuring of the various elements of the ontologies match with the intended purpose of developing the repositories. Moreover, the description in literature does not explicitly reveal whether the ontologies are developed after accounting the needs of the users of the repositories, i.e., whether the ontologies are user-centric. Purpose of use: Based on the content of the repositories, most of the repositories seem to support design practice but not design pedagogy. The description of design methods, in the repositories, which generally includes objective of methods, procedure to apply methods, examples, references for further reading on methods, etc., are adequate for using and applying methods. However, if a repository is intended to support pedagogy, it should include, for instance, content for how the knowledge of methods can be assessed through assignments and tests, what design problems can be used for class exercises, assignments, and assessments to test the application of methods, how the outcomes of methods should be graded to assess application of methods, etc. All these aspects are missing in the current repositories of design methods. It is also not clear whether the repositories are developed to support practice in academia, industry, or both. A repository that is intended for both academia and industry should contain multiple, relevant examples of various levels of complexity to cater to the respective needs. For users in academia, it would help to start with a relatively simple example to demonstrate the application of a method. However, users in industry, who are mostly experienced, would like to comprehend a more complex and industrially relevant example to be able to connect to and comprehend a design method. Lack of sufficiently complex and industrially relevant examples in the description of methods could be a cause for the low dissemination of methods in industry. Supplementary aid: A glossary of terms is an important addition to the repository of methods as a quick guide or reference to terms that are incomprehensible for users of these repositories. Among all repositories, only Usability book of knowledge [22] and CiDaD have a glossary. However, in these repositories, the glossary is like an addendum. It would help the users better if the glossary is linked to the description of design methods where the terms are used. Accessibility: There are various kinds of access to the repositories. Some repositories require payments for access (e.g., LUMA Systems [18]), while some others have free access for everyone (e.g., Google Design Sprint, Design Method Finder, Design Method Toolkit, Human-Centered Design Toolkit, etc.). Some repositories have restricted access, for instance, to the people within the university where they

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were developed (e.g., Methodos [16]) and some others require pre-registration for access (e.g., MEPORT [25]). Method contribution: Some repositories (such as WikID [8], TheDesignExchange [10, 17]) use open innovation, i.e., any users of repository or designers can contribute their experiences to the information hosted by the repositories. Method description/depiction: In almost all repositories (except for Design method by Korea University [20], TheDesignExchange [10, 17], and Design Innovation Methodology Handbook [28]), the medium of information is only in text form, i.e., image-, audio-, or video- based representation of information is not used. Since designers usually think visually, one would assume that it would be easier for them to comprehend when information is presented as a combination of text-, image-, audio-, and video- based forms. Means of feedback: Only a few repositories such as TheDesignExchange [10, 17] have a means for users to share feedback and comments of their experiences on using a method or the entire repository. This is a useful feature that can improve the use experience of methods based on their past experiences.

97.4 Discussion This research started with the motivation to develop a repository of design methods to support both design practice and pedagogy. Toward this objective, existing repositories were identified and reviewed. The reviews will be used for developing an enhanced repository. The reviews and the analysis presented in Sect. 97.3 were based on the descriptions in literature and the use of repositories if they were accessible for free. Many repositories such as InDeaTe [7], WiKID [8], CiDaD [9], etc., claimed to have online portals. However, these were not found. So, the reviews in such cases were based only on their descriptions in literature. Some repositories (such as MEPORT [25], LUMA Systems [18], etc.) allowed only limited exploration and usage. In these cases, the judgment of the authors based on the content in literature and limited exploration were used to draw inferences. For those repositories that provided full or restricted access, the first author, a PhD student with some experience of learning and applying design methods, explored the repositories to ascertain the reviews. Ideally, these reviews must be from the potential users (students, practitioners, course instructors, etc.) of the repositories. The reviews of the existing repositories helped identify their pros and cons. Based on these, the following features are planned for the enhanced repository: (a) to support both design practice and design pedagogy, (b) to support practitioners and instructors in both academia and industry, (c) the ontologies for structuring the repository and structuring information of design methods will be user-centric, i.e., based on the needs of users, to provide improved user experience, and consequently, increased

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adoption of design methods, (d) to be open access for practitioners and instructors in both academia and industry, for improved dissemination of design methods, (e) to have a glossary linked to the repository for helping users understand abstract terms, and (f) to include a forum where users can discuss and share their experiences of using design methods. In terms of similarity of the work described in this paper, Acharya et al. [7] reviewed ten repositories of design methods. In this review, they used the number of design methods and the ontological tagging used in the repositories as the review criteria. However, in this research, 16 repositories were reviewed through the criteria: (a) intended purpose of repository, (b) number of design methods included, (c) ontologies used to structure repository and information within design methods, (d) accessibility (subscription based or free), (e) supplementary aids used (such as a glossary, discussion forum, etc.), (f) modality of methods’ description (textual, pictorial, or videographic), and (g) unique feature (if any) of the repository to aid design practice (and pedagogy).

97.5 Summary, Conclusions, and Future Work A detailed review of repositories of design methods is reported in this paper. The important findings are (a) most repositories support design practice, but not design pedagogy, (b) lack of user-centric focus in ontologies for structuring of repositories and information of design methods within them, (c) lack of a glossary of design terms linked to the repository, and (d) absence of a discussion forum to share experiences of using methods. The review helped identify features for the new, improved repository of design methods, to support both design practice and pedagogy. The development of this repository along the described lines falls under the scope of the future work of this research.

References 1. Cross, N.: A history of design methodology. Des Methodol Relationships with Sci 15–27 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-8220-9_2 2. Jagtap, S., Warell, A., Hiort, V., Motte, D., Larsson, A. (2014) Design methods and factors influencing their uptake in product development companies: a review. Proc. Int. Des. Conf. Des. 231–240 (2014) 3. Guertler, M.R.: How to design methods for application—empirical insights from industry. Proc. Int. Des. Conf. Des. 3, 1161–1172 (2018). https://doi.org/10.21278/idc.2018.0169 4. Becerril, L., Guertler, M., Longa, E.: Developing design methods—a conceptual requirement framework. Proc. Int. Conf. Eng. Des. ICED 1463–1472 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1017/dsi. 2019.152 5. Eisenmann, M., Matthiesen, S.: Identifying reasons for a lack of method application in engineering design practice—an interview study. Proc. Des. Soc. Des. Conf. 1, 2495–2504 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1017/dsd.2020.261

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6. Albers, A., Reiß, N., Bursac, N., Urbanec, J., Lüdcke, R.: Situation-appropriate method selection in product development process—empirical study of method application. Proceedings of NordDesign 2014, pp. 550–559 (2014). https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.3924.8164 7. Acharya, S., Chatty, T., Ranjan, B.S.C., Ghadge, K., Bharath, P.A., Chakrabarti, A.: Indeate 3.0: an Ontology Based, Generic Design Process Guidance Web-Tool. In: Proceedings of the DESIGN 2018 15th International Design Conference, vol. 15, pp. 137–148 (2018). https://doi. org/10.21278/idc.2018.0456 8. Vroom, R.W., Olieman, A.M.: The Development of an Industrial Design Engineering Wiki: Wikid. TMCE2010 Symp, pp. 1449–1464 (2010) 9. Ponn, J., Lindemann, U.: CiDaD—a method portal for product development. In: 9th International Design Conference 2006, pp. 1221–1228 (2006) 10. Roschuni, C., Agogino, A.M., Beckman, S.L.: The design exchange: supporting the design community of practice. In: ICED 11–18th International Conference on Engineering Design— Impacting Society through Engineering Design, vol. 8, pp. 255–264 (2011) 11. Acharya, S., Bhatt, A.N., Chakrabarti, A., Nagai, Y.: Fostering creativity in design—an empirical study on improvement of requirement-satisfaction with introduction of indeate tool. In: Proceedings of the Design Society: International Conference on Engineering Design ICED, pp. 3631–3639 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1017/dsi.2019.370 12. Acharya, S., Ghadge, K., Ranjan, B.S.C., Devadula, S., Chakrabarti, A.: Evaluating the effectiveness of InDeaTe tool in supporting design for sustainability. Artif. Intell. Eng. Des. Anal. Manuf. AIEDAM 34, 45–54 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0890060419000337 13. Jänsch. J., Birkhofer. H.: Imparting design methods with the strategies of experts. In: Proceedings of ICED 2007, 16th International Conference on Engineering Design DS, vol. 42, pp. 1–12 (2007) 14. Franke, H.J., Löffler, S., Deimel, M.: The database “Methodos” assists an effective application of design methods. In: 14th International Conference on Engineering Design ICED 2003, pp. 155–156 (2003) 15. Bavendiek, A.K., Inkermann, D., Vietor, T.: Teaching design methods with the interactive “methodos” portal. Proc. Int. Des. Conf. Des. DS 84, 2049–2058 (2016) 16. Methodos. (2022) https://methodos.ik.ing.tu-bs.de/search.html 17. Kramer, J., Poreh, D., Agogino, A.: Using thedesignexchange as a knowledge platform for human-centered design-driven global development. Proc. Int. Conf. Eng. Des. ICED 1, 101–110 (2017) 18. LUMA Institute: (2022) https://www.luma-institute.com/ 19. Human-Centered Design Toolkit: (2014) https://www.designkit.org/methods 20. Design method: (2022) http://designmethod.korea.ac.kr/design-method/?ckattempt=2 21. Usability.gov: (2022) https://www.usability.gov/ 22. Usability Body of Knowledge: (2012) https://www.usabilitybok.org/ 23. Amsterdam U of applied sciences: Digital Society School (2022). https://digitalsocietyschool. org/event/online-education-training/ 24. Google Design Sprint. In: Google Des. Sprint. (2022) https://designsprintkit.withgoogle.com/ methodology/overview 25. MEPORT: (2022) http://www.meport.net/index.php?content=./lo_met_mngt/method_body_s hort_info.php&displayContext=unfilteredAccess 26. MAP Tool, RPK—Universität Karlsruhe: (2022) http://nosnos.synology.me/MethodenlisteUn iKarlsruhe/imihome.imi.uni-karlsruhe.de/map.html 27. Design Methods Finder: (2010) https://www.designmethodsfinder.com/ 28. Wood, K.: Design Innovation Methodology Handbook—Embedding Design in Organizations (2021) 29. BEST Lab-UC Berkely: (2022) https://best.berkeley.edu/best-research/thedesignexchange/ 30. Pahl, G., Beitz, W.: Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach. Springer, London (1996) 31. Cross, N.: Engineering Design Methods—Strategies for Product Design (2000) 32. Ulrich, K., Eppinger, S.: Product Design and Development. McGraw Hill (2017) 33. Stanford d.school: (2022) https://dschool.stanford.edu

Chapter 98

Machine Learning to Generate Knowledge for Decision-Making Processes in Product Portfolio and Variety Management Jan Mehlstäubl, Felix Braun, Emir Gadzo, and Kristin Paetzold-Byhain Abstract Product portfolio and variety managers are faced with increasing complexity in their decision-making processes due to the growing number of product variants offered by companies. The decision-making processes in industry are currently characterised using expert knowledge, which is no longer sufficient, as humans cannot handle the complexity anymore. In the era of Industry 4.0, an increasing amount of data is generated within the life cycle of a product. This article provides a generic framework for the systematic generation of knowledge for decision-making in product portfolio and variety management with the use of machine learning. This empowers companies to choose and cover-up specific knowledge needs by using machine learning and thereby support individual phases of decision-making. To demonstrate the applicability of the concept one use case to cover up a specific knowledge need, and support one phase of the decision-making process was implemented at an industrial partner from the commercial vehicle industry.

J. Mehlstäubl (B) · E. Gadzo University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Munich, Germany e-mail: [email protected] E. Gadzo e-mail: [email protected] F. Braun MAN Truck & Bus SE, Munich, Germany e-mail: [email protected] K. Paetzold-Byhain Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_98

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98.1 Introduction The number of product variants offered by companies has increased significantly in recent decades due to the demand for individual products, globalisation, shorter product life cycles and new consumption patterns [1]. This leads to higher internal complexity and product costs [2]. For example, a BMW 7 series today can have up to 1017 possible configurations [3]. This growing complexity of the product portfolio makes decision-making processes in product portfolio and variety management more difficult and pushes current experience-based and rule-based approaches to their limits [4]. In the context of Industry 4.0, more and more data is generated in industrial companies, and extensive data analyses are made possible [5]. Machine learning can be used to extract valid and previously unknown knowledge from large data sets to systematically support decisions in product portfolio and variety management [6]. Currently within industry, machine learning is hardly used in the overall environment of engineering design [7]. In literature, there are already first use cases of machine learning in product portfolio and variety management [8]. However, there is no systematic approach how to use the gained knowledge for decision-making. The described problem leads to the following research questions: RQ1: What knowledge needs can be addressed with machine learning in product portfolio and variety management? RQ2: How can the knowledge systematically be used for decision-making? Therefore, in Sect. 98.2, a short introduction to machine learning, as well as product portfolio and variety management, is given. Section 98.3 presents the research approach to answer the research questions. The main result of the paper is described in Sects. 98.4 and 98.5. There, the framework for the support of decisionmaking processes with machine learning in product portfolio and variety management is presented. Afterwards, the application of the framework is demonstrated with an industrial partner from the commercial vehicle sector. Finally, the results are discussed critically, and an outlook for further research activities is given.

98.2 Background Product portfolio management describes portfolio management in the context of product development. It contains the dynamic decision-making process in which a company’s product projects are constantly updated and reviewed [9]. Activities are for example market analysis and trend analysis. Variety management includes all measures to control the range of product variants offered by a company and to manage the effects over the entire product life cycle, e.g. modularisation or platform strategies [10]. Both disciplines are needed for the efficient and effective handling of a complex and multi-variant product portfolio.

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In machine learning, a distinction can be made between supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning. The focus of this article is on supervised and unsupervised machine learning. In supervised learning, the data contains the desired solutions, called labels, which are used to train and test the models [11]. Common supervised learning techniques are classification and regression. Classification involves assigning a data sample to one of several predefined classes. Regression models the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. In unsupervised learning, the training data is unlabelled. The goal is to discover patterns and knowledge in the data [12]. Common techniques are clustering and association rule learning. Clustering divides data points into groups or clusters so that objects in the same cluster are as similar as possible, and objects from different clusters are as dissimilar as possible. Association analysis expresses rules about frequently occurring relationships in transactional data.

98.2.1 Knowledge Generation with Machine Learning Knowledge generation is the process of linking information to a specific purpose. It implies an ability to relate inputs to outputs, to observe, codify, explain, and ultimately predict regularities in information [13]. Knowledge generation with machine learning follows a similar principle to human learning (see Fig. 98.1). The traditional human approach uses the experiential knowledge of designers to solve problems or manually examine data to generate knowledge. By formulating rules, the knowledge can be made explicit and evaluated (Fig. 98.1a). In the case of knowledge generation with machine learning, knowledge is gained from the data by training machine learning algorithms (Fig. 98.1b). In this way, large data sets can be analysed and complex relations can be represented in the models. The trained models and their behaviour can in turn be analysed by humans to understand the relations and acquire new knowledge (Fig. 98.1c).

98.2.2 Views and Levels of Decisions-Making In product development, several views on the product exist. For decision-making in product portfolio and variety management views on customer features and product components are important. Features are selected by a customer when configuring a product [14]. They form the target specifications of the product from a customer’s point of view. The component structure includes all hardware and software components of the final product [14]. In the conventional decision-making approach, the whole products or product variants are evaluated. However, the large number of possible features and product configurations cannot be evaluated efficiently [15]. Multi-variant product portfolios can have hundreds or thousands of features that can be chosen. Furthermore, the removal of product variants from the portfolio leads

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a) Traditional Approach Launch

Study the problem

Write rules

b) Machine Learning Approach Study the problem

Evaluate

Analyse errors

Launch Data Train ML algorithm

Evaluate

Analyse errors

c) Machine Learning can help humans learn Data Study the problem

Train ML algorithm

Solution

Inspect the solution

Knowledge

Iterate if needed

Fig. 98.1 Knowledge generation with a traditional approach and with machine learning [11] Reduction of Product Variants

Reduction of Features

Feature Categories: Features:

Product Variants:

Fig. 98.2 Decisions on product versus feature level [15]

only to a reduction of the possible combinations of features or components. The underlying features or components and their costs are not necessarily reduced (see Fig. 98.2). For this reason, knowledge about features and components is primarily relevant for decision-making in product portfolio and variety management today.

98.2.3 Decision-Making Process in Product Portfolio and Variety Management The subject of decisions in product portfolio and variety management is the inclusion and elimination of variants. Figure 98.3 visualises the decision-making process in product portfolio and variety management according to Vogel [16]. Through interviews with an industrial partner, it became clear that this process is nowadays characterised by manual and experience-based activities [17]. The decision-making process is triggered when a target/actual deviation is detected regarding the composition of the product portfolio. Typically, the product portfolio has historically grown in an uncontrolled manner, which results in the initiation of projects to reduce complexity.

98 Machine Learning to Generate Knowledge for Decision-Making … Triggering Decision Process

Seeking Information

Formulating Alternatives

Forecasting Impact

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Fig. 98.3 Decision-making process in product portfolio and variety management according to [16]

The analysis of the product portfolio begins with the search and selection of the essential information and its representation. This takes place at the component or feature level and consists today in the industry of the allocation of sold unit numbers. In some cases, cost and price calculations are also included in the considerations. The next step is to identify possible alternatives to the current product portfolio with which the target/actual deviation is to be reduced. In industry, it consists of the elimination of components, features or combinations of features that have not been sold at all or rarely sold. The forecasting phase aims to predict the impact of the changes to the product portfolio on internal and external targets. In industry, it is limited to the determination of the effect chains at components. This forms the basis for the evaluation and selection of alternatives in the final phase of the decisionmaking process. Based on the results, the proposals are evaluated by a committee and a decision is made. The use of machine learning has great potential in this manual and experienced-based process to support individual phases with valuable knowledge.

98.3 Research Approach In this article, first, the knowledge needs in product portfolio and variety management are identified. Therefore, existing use cases from literature and industry are analysed. As input, the results of an interview study with an industrial partner from the commercial vehicle industry [17] as well as a literature research [8] are used. In the literature, a total of 17 different use cases of machine learning in product portfolio and variety management could be identified. During the interview study with eight experts in product portfolio and variety management, seven new use cases could be elaborated. Commercial vehicle manufacturers have a particularly broad and deep product portfolio with a correspondingly high number of variants due to the multitude of different application scenarios and transportation tasks. Therefore, they are a representative for companies with a large variant-induced complexity. Subsequently, the use cases that did not contribute to the decision-making process were sorted out, leaving 17 use cases. It is not intended to be a complete representation of all possible machine learning use cases. Instead, it represents a current picture from the literature and industry, which is variable over time. The use cases were clustered from both sources to eight knowledge needs. In the second step, the knowledge needs, and the decision-making process are brought together, which enables systematic knowledge provision. Therefore, the knowledge needs, which can be provided by the analysis of data with machine learning, were assigned to the individual phases of the decision-making process.

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98.4 Support Decision-Making Process with Machine Learning In the following, the knowledge needs and use cases within the individual phases of the decision-making process are considered for the systematic use of machine learning to support product portfolio and variety management. To the first phase triggering the decision-making process and the last phase evaluating alternatives, a knowledge need and associated use cases could not be assigned. An overview of the use cases, the knowledge needs, and their allocation to the decision-making process from the literature review and the interview study can be found in Table 98.1.

98.4.1 Search for Information In the search for information phase, different information about the products, components, and features is collected and generated depending on the view and level of consideration. Machine learning can support this phase by providing three knowledge needs. Firstly, knowledge about the market-specific factors of products (K1) (e.g. payment willingness, revenues) can be generated. Regression and classification analysis can be used to identify correlations in the sold and produced products and make predictions based on them. For example, the price and the payment willingness can be predicted for new product configurations. This approach can be extended to other market-specific factors such as country of sales. Second to marketspecific factors, knowledge about the technical factors of products (K2) (e.g. weights, lengths) is also important in product portfolio and variety management. Factors such as weights, lengths, or performance parameters can be determined with a regression. This helps to find alternatives in the next phase of the decision-making process. In the described machine learning application, knowledge is generated at product level based on the configuration of components or features. To get from the knowledge on the overall product back to knowledge about individual components or features, the machine learning models can be analysed in more detail. The allocation of explicit market-specific or technical values to individual components or features is usually not possible with machine learning models, as they are not linear relationships and the values resulting from the combination with other features and components. However, the significant product features for the price, the costs or even for entire product families can be determined and the rules of the models (e.g. decision tree) can be extracted and analysed manually. Moreover, the effects of changes in configurations can be simulated with the models. Thirdly, knowledge about the trends of market-specific factors of features, components, or products (K3) can be created. Of particular importance here is the temporal variation of profit and customer demand trends for products, components, or features. Another interesting factor is cost trends, which must first be precisely assigned to individual features, components, or products. In these use cases, a special form of

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Table 98.1 Support of decision-making processes with machine learning Phases

Knowledge needs

Search for information K1: Knowledge about the market-specific factors of products

Use cases

Sources

Predict price and Literature, Industry payment willingness for new configurations Estimate purchase decisions

Literature

Determine significant product features for the price

Literature

Determine significant product features of the product families

Literature

K2: Knowledge about Predict technical the technical factors of information of new products product feature combinations

Industry

K3: Knowledge about Forecast profit Literature, Industry the trends of Forecast demand trends Literature, Industry market-specific factors of features, components, or products Formulate alternatives

K4: Knowledge about the features, components, or products to be eliminated

Generate proposals for portfolio decisions

Industry

K5: Knowledge about the similarity of features, components, or products

Segment markets

Literature

Standardise products

Literature

Identify similar components and assemblies

Industry

K6: Knowledge about Identify associations the correlation of between product features or components features

Literature

Identify associations between components

Literature

Identify sequential associations between product features

Literature

(continued)

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Table 98.1 (continued) Phases

Knowledge needs

Use cases

Sources

Forecast impact

K7: Knowledge about the consumer preferences of customers and customer segments

Allocate customer to market segments and configurations

Literature

K8: Knowledge about the effect of the product portfolio changes

Simulate the effects of portfolio changes

Industry

Determine correlations Literature, Industry between portfolio and company key indicators

regression, the time series analysis, will be used to make precise statements with machine learning.

98.4.2 Formulate Alternatives The next step in decision-making is to identify possible alternatives to the current product portfolio with which the target/actual deviation is reduced or eliminated. Today, many companies are struggling with the historical and uncontrolled growth of their product portfolio. Hence, part of this phase is the generation of knowledge about the features, components, or products to be eliminated (K4) from the portfolio. Machine learning can be used to classify products, components, or features based on past decisions and thus generate suggestions for portfolio decisions. To reduce variety, knowledge about the similarity of features, components, or products (K5) is important to standardise them. Machine learning can be used here on the one hand to segment markets based on customers and their features using clustering. On the other hand, the sold component structures can also be clustered. This enables standardisation by grouping features and product configurations. By analysing the clusters in more detail, knowledge about the similarity of features or components can be obtained. In addition to the similarity of products and components, the knowledge about the correlation of features or components (K6) offers value for decision-making in product portfolio and variety management. By knowing which components or features occur together, features or components can be combined into modules, or their combinability can be restricted. Sequential pattern mining can also be used to identify sequential correlations between product features over time and to analyse customer behaviour. All three types of knowledge can be used to reduce the complexity of the portfolio.

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98.4.3 Forecast Impact The task of the impact forecast is to predict and manage the effects of changes to the product portfolio on internal and external goals. The focus is on customers for which the current products are to be suspended. For this purpose, knowledge about the consumer preferences of customers and customer segments (K7) is determined with machine learning. Customers can be assigned to configurations or market segments by using a classification based on their characteristics and thus simulate customer behaviour when products are discontinued. Another important point is knowledge about the effect of the product portfolio changes (K8) (e.g. sales figures, revenues). By using machine learning, the effects of portfolio changes can be simulated. For example, the impact of the elimination of a certain feature on the number of sold units of other features can be investigated. Moreover, interdependencies between portfolio parameters and various business performance indicators can be captured and the effects of changes simulated.

98.5 Case Study To demonstrate the applicability of the concept, one exemplary use case to cover up a specific knowledge need and to support one phase of the decision-making process was implemented at an industrial partner from the commercial vehicle industry. At the industrial partner, the price is determined depending on the selected features and the country of sales. Therefore, a list price is defined based on the customer features. Depending on the country of sale, a certain percentage is waived, and each seller can give a discount to the respective customer. The problem of the industrial partner is that it is not possible to exactly specify what a customer will spend for each feature. In this use case, the payment willingness of customers for specific customer feature configurations is predicted with regression analysis to gain knowledge about the market-specific factors of products (K1). For the regression, the random forest algorithm and a neural network were implemented with python and the scikit-learn as well as Keras libraries. A total of 22,646 vehicle configurations were available for the implementation. These contain 885 feature categories and a total of 9877 features. The vehicle configurations were split 90% to 10% in training and test data. In the validation, the random forest algorithm performs slightly better than the neural network (see Table 98.2). Table 98.2 Results for the prediction of the payment willingness

R Squared

Mean absolute percentage error (%)

Random forest

0.91

3.99

Neural network

0.91

4.50

1226 Table 98.3 Exemplary feature importance of the power socket 230 V

J. Mehlstäubl et al. Feature category

Feature

Feature importance

Power socket 230 V (Importance: 3.32 × 10–4 )

Without power socket 230 V

1.51 × 10–4

With power socket 230 V

1.81 × 10–4

Although the number of data points is small compared to the number of different features, the validation results are promising. They resulted in an r squared of 0.91 and a mean absolute percentage error of 3.99%. The trained model makes it possible to predict the payment willingness for new vehicles that have not yet been built and sold. However, the predictions of the model are only at the product level and not at the feature level (see Sect. 98.2.2). Still the model can help engineers gain knowledge at the feature level. One way is the feature importance, which assigns a score for the importance of all features of a machine learning model and can be derived from the model for most algorithms such as linear regression, decision tree, or random forest. The sum of the importance of all features is one. The higher the score, the greater the influence of a feature on the payment willingness. In addition, features with little or no influence can be identified. Regarding the payment willingness, especially those features with the importance of zero should be critically analysed, as they seem to not offer any added value from the customer’s point of view. However, the feature importance itself does not provide any information on whether the presence of a feature positively or negatively influences the willingness to pay. Table 98.3 shows an example of the feature importance of the feature category Power Socket 230 V. The feature importance in the random forest model is calculated with the probability that the nodes of the feature are reached in the decision. Due to the large number of features of the industrial partner, the feature importance of the individual features is relatively low. Moreover, conclusions can be drawn about individual features by simulating changes to the configurations. In the validation, the payment willingness for the test data was calculated once with the feature without Power Socket 230 V and once with Power Socket 230 V for both the neural network and the random forest algorithm. The willingness to pay for the configurations with Power Socket 230 V was on average 0.071% higher with the random forest algorithm and 0.075% higher with the neural network.

98.6 Conclusion and Outlook In this work, use cases of machine learning found in literature were complemented with the ones mentioned in an interview study in the industry. Afterwards, the use cases were clustered to knowledge needs. Therefore, knowledge needs in product portfolio and variety management from literature and industry were identified, and

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thus, the first research question was answered. The consideration of use cases in the industry was limited to one company with a wide and deep product portfolio from the commercial vehicle industry. The systematic use of machine learning to support decision-making was reached with the assignment of the knowledge needs to the phases of the decision-making process in product portfolio and variety management, and this also answers the second research question. In a first step, a decision-making process from the literature was examined in an industrial context, and the associated weaknesses were identified. The applicability of the framework was demonstrated with one knowledge need at an industrial partner from the commercial vehicle industry. The validation of the framework with experts from product portfolio and variety management during a conference workshop is planned. Moreover, other knowledge needs and use cases are being detailed and implemented currently at an industrial partner. For example, the clustering of product features to identify similarities between product configurations. Acknowledgements This research work is part of “FORCuDE@BEV—Bavarian research association for customised digital engineering for Bavarian SME’s” and funded by the "Bayerische Forschungsstiftung (BFS)”. We direct special thanks to the Bayerische Forschungsstiftung (BFS) for financial support of the whole research project.

References 1. Krause, D., Gebhardt, N.: Methoden zur Entwicklung modularer Produktfamilien, Bd. № 3 (2018) 2. Agard, B., Kusiak, A.: Data-mining-based methodology for the design of product families. Int. J. Prod. Res. 42(15), 2955–2969 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1080/00207540410001691929 3. Hu, S.J., Zhu, X., Wang, H., Koren, Y.: Product variety and manufacturing complexity in assembly systems and supply chains. CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol. 57(1), 45–48 (2008). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2008.03.138 4. Mehlstäubl, J., Braun, F., Denk, M., Kraul, R., Paetzold, K.: Using machine learning for product portfolio management: a methodical approach to predict values of product attributes for multivariant product portfolios. Proc. Des. Soc., Bd. 2, S. 1659–1668 (Mai 2022). https://doi.org/ 10.1017/pds.2022.168 5. Helms, B., Kissel, M.: Engineering intelligence—Von der graphenbasierten Modellierung zur wissensbasierten Datenanalyse. Handb. Produktentwicklung, S. 979–1012 (2016). https://doi. org/10.3139/9783446445819.035 6. Moon, S.K., Kumara, S.R.T., Simpson, T.W.: Data mining and fuzzy clustering to support product family design. Proc. ASME Des. Eng. Tech. Conf. 2006(814), 1–9 (2006). https://doi. org/10.1115/detc2006-99287 7. Bertoni, A., Larsson, T., Larsson, J., Elfsberg, J.: Mining data to design value: a demonstrator in early design. Proc. Int. Conf. Eng. Des. ICED 7(DS87-7), 21–29 (2017) 8. Mehlstäubl, J., Braun, F., Paetzold, K.: Data mining in product portfolio and variety management—literature review on use cases and research potentials. In: 2021 IEEE Technology & Engineering Management Conference-Europe (TEMSCON-EUR), S. 442–447 (2021) 9. Cooper, R.G., Edgett, S.J., Kleinschmidt, E.J.: New product portfolio management: practices and performance. IEEE Eng. Manage. Rev. 28(1), 13–29 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1111/15405885.1640333

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10. ElMaraghy, H.: Product variety management. CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol. Bd. 62, Nr. 2, S. 629–652 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2013.05.007 11. Géron, A.: Hands-on machine learning with Scikit-Learn and TensorFlow: concepts, tools, and techniques to build intelligent systems (2017) 12. Murphy, K.P.: Machine learning: a probabilistic perspective. MIT press (2012) 13. Carnegie Bosch Institute (CBI): Knowledge in international corporations outline of research area. CBI Pittsburg (1995) 14. Braun, F.: Application of algorithm-based validation tools for the validation of complex, multivariant products (2021) 15. Heina, J.: Variantenmanagement. Springer-Verlag (1999) 16. Vogel, R.: Der Prozess der Produktelimination aus entscheidungsorientierter Sicht. Deutsch (1989) 17. Mehlstäubl, J., Braun, F., Paetzold, K.: Artificial intelligence in product portfolio and variety management in commercial vehicle industry—an overview about expectations, challenges and use cases. In: Presentation on the prostep ivip Symposium 2021 (2021)

Chapter 99

Ontology-Based Approach for Aesthetic Product Design Anuj Kumar and Abinash Kumar Swain

Abstract The purpose of this research is to propose an ontology to support the designer for aesthetic design. In this research, key aesthetic design parameters have been identified. A top-down ontology has been developed based on these key design parameters. OWL (Web ontology language) has been used to develop the product aesthetics ontology. The knowledge retrieval is in the form of different design suggestions of design for product aesthetics through Semantic Web Rule Language (SWRL) rule-based reasoning. Ontology-based information retrieval approach provides the different design decisions for different facets of product aesthetics like shape design methods, color hierarchy, materials, etc., which ensures the overall aesthetic visual and tactile appearances for a new product design. Information retrieval techniques based on ontologies are more sophisticated than other systems for sharing information. Log-aesthetic curves (LAC) have been used to treat the shape (form) of the product. The findings are clear and convincing enough to draw researchers interested in ontologies’ applicability in the broad field. When compared to traditional implicit and dispersed aesthetic design information, ontology-driven information retrieval makes designers’ jobs easier.

99.1 Introduction The significance of product design for any firm to remain competitive and assure success is increasingly recognized by marketing experts and consumer analysts. As time went on, the term “aesthetics” was also introduced to the market and began to play a significant role in the design of any product. Aesthetic design is carried A. Kumar · A. K. Swain (B) Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Kumar e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_99

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out during the early design stage of product development when the designer identifies the possibilities for aesthetic design and puts them into practice to make the product appealing to a wide range of market consumers. They also want to make design changes to existing products in the market so they can stay competitive and sustainable. The company’s design products must have a distinctive look, and aesthetic value since aesthetics has a big impact on consumer behavior, including purchase intent, product perception, customer satisfaction, and product assessment. Due to aesthetics becoming so important, it is also important to represent and reuse the aesthetic knowledge so that the designer can apply those aesthetic rules to the product and make them visually appealing. As a result, the process of creating an attractive design is still mostly unstructured and subjective. Current computeraided design (CAD)/computer-aided styling (CAS) systems capture some limitations during the sketching phase, but they hardly ever enable knowledge linked to aesthetics. Applying aesthetic design concepts requires giving careful thought to the options for creating the ideal aesthetic features. It would be difficult for designers who are new to product appearance design because this approach significantly relies on the perceptions and experiences of the designers. However, in our proposed methodology, we used ontology as a knowledge base to identify the critical aesthetic factor (shape, balance, proportion, etc.) for a particular product appearance design based on customer subjective perception of that product. Later we used a log aesthetic curve to treat the product form to evaluate product shape. The framework for the methodology is given below (Fig. 99.1).

Fig. 99.1 Framework for product aesthetic appearance design

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99.2 Literature Review The relationship between a product’s features and its aesthetic or emotional qualities has been the subject of numerous studies. Current revelations in many fields, such as aesthetic design, ontology, and semantic web, have inspired our proposed work. The inherent arrangement of visual design parts and the expression of design emotions implied in its design appearance serve as two leading indicators when individuals process aesthetic information, according to Schifferstein and Hekkert [1]. They asserted that this was how they were able to understand the aesthetic component of design information. Chek and Lian [2] attempted to give a geometric interpretation of several aesthetic measures they had observed in products. Hsiao and Chen [3] developed a computer-oriented methodology to build goods with aesthetic aims. According to Hekket [4], aesthetics is defined as the enjoyment derived from sensory experience and is based on the Greek term esthesis (understanding through sensory perception). By using an evaluation equation constructed from aesthetic theories, Lo et al. [5] measure product aesthetics. They use it as a fitness feature to help their product solutions develop into more appealing ones. Khan and Awan [6] suggest a method for using Jaya algorithms to obtain the optimal solutions for aesthetic design. They use it to create various items, including wine glasses, ceiling lighting, motorcycles, or loudspeakers. An interactive genetic algorithms (IGA) integrated with neural networks is proposed by Gu et al. [7]. Similarly, Sun et al. [8] provide an IGA for designing sunglasses lenses that use semi-supervised learning. For describing the style profiles of the products, Chen and Owen [9] presented a systematic methodology. Podehl [10] noted that the comprehension and application of the geometric principles underlying the terminology used by designers when evaluating/modifying the shape should improve the mapping between aesthetic characters and geometry. In order to quantify the information about aesthetic design, Hu et al. [11] applied Kansei adjectives and aesthetic design principles. A method for archiving conceptual design information was suggested along with a model employing knowledge-based information representation to represent and archive the aesthetic information in hierarchical connections. Marzal et al. [12] used three concepts: the notion of grammars to describe the appearance of the product, the application of sketching transformation rules to create design variations, and the utilization of a parametric modeler to create and build shapes. Cheutet et al. [13] suggested utilizing shape language and an ontology in a knowledge-based environment to close the gap between curve design variables and product semantics. Using an automobile aesthetic ontology, Catalano et al. [14] performed three-dimensional car annotation. Annotating the geometric features of a 3D automobile model was the aim. To organize the process of associating the shape features of the products to the aesthetic, Nagamachi [15] introduced “Kansei Engineering.” Tsutsumi and Sasaki [16] suggested a method for using aesthetic considerations to direct the design of the building’s roof. A semantically annotated product family ontology was put forth by Lim et al. [17]. A technique that helps designers use aesthetic design principles to enhance the appeal of product appearance was developed by Hu et al. [18]. Jitender and Sarkar [19] have done

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full literature survey on product design and aesthetics. Soni et al. [20] discussed the early attempts to create a knowledge-based assistance system for industrial products’ aesthetic designs. The methodology accounts for the cognitive process used in the creation of the design and incorporates this behavior into a group theoretic structure. By using a faceted search and retrieval framework, the designer can use the ontology to generate new product variants based on their requirements.

99.3 Aesthetics in Product Design It is quite difficult for any product in the present era to survive in the global market only based on practical attractiveness. Therefore, aesthetics is crucial for any product to succeed in the market. The term “aesthetics” is used generally in everyday life to refer to the appreciation of enjoyable goods and great arts in settings ranging from cosmetics galleries to beauty salons. We are influenced by aesthetics to test new products and to accept novel, unproven ones. It reveals usage, content, and purpose. It brings joy, fosters pride, and encourages fidelity. Numerous elements need to be addressed with the goal of increasing the attractiveness of the product look (e.g., subjective and objective aspects of the product). Subjective and objective aspects can be distinguished between these components. The expression of design information in the appearance of the product is the subjective aspect. This component, which influences how individuals describe and perceive product forms, is directly tied to an individual’s past and life experience (e.g., social status, age, gender, culture, etc.) [21– 23]. Contrarily, the objective aspect shows the deliberations over the composition and arrangement of visual design elements that provide universally appealing product appearances. The objective aspects that are considered for quantitative aesthetic design. Design components are recognized as the lexicon that makes up the design form in aesthetic design [24]. Line, shape, color, and texture were widely recognized design components [25]. Many researchers have contributed to tracing design principles for creating the psychologically appealing form. The principles of aesthetic design explain how to combine design elements in a way that produces and communicates beauty. Common applied aesthetic design concepts are form (shape), symmetry and balance, color, continuity, proportion, contrast, style, material, surface finish, and tolerance. Out of which, some are reviewed below. • Shape: An object’s form, outline, outer boundary, or outer surface are all examples of shapes in geometry. There are shapes to everything we perceive in our environment. • Symmetry: If a shape can be divided into two additional identical pieces and arranged in an orderly manner, it is said to be symmetrical. • Balance: Our eyes prefer that the visual weight be equal on the two sides of an axis, which is related to our physical feeling of balance. Visual balance can be classified into three categories: formal balance (symmetric balance), dynamic balance (asymmetry balance), and radial balance.

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• Proportion: When comparing the sizes and scales of the body and the elements, the proportion is taken into account. It is a crucial design principle in the styling field. Constant ratios, the foundation of the proportional system, are typically used to express proportions. • Contrast: Contrast is the placement of design components that are noticeably different from one another in a piece to attract and focus attention, evoke feelings, and emphasize information. Contrast involves strategies that are the opposite of visual harmony. • Continuity: Visual elements are joined together by continuous straight or curved lines, which indicates a trend or pattern. The eye wants to continue following a line when it does so. Studies on the evaluation of product aesthetics can be divided into three [18] categories: (1) understanding form preferences; (2) putting human sentiments or emotions into quantitative form; and (3) analyzing aesthetic design philosophy. The first category primarily concerned with determining the links between shape dimensions and user preferences and rating the product’s form aesthetics based on the form preferences. The second category translates the appearance of a product into semantic descriptors that convey certain emotional connotations. The third group examines the aesthetics of products using conventional aesthetic theories and aesthetic design principles. In our proposed method, we used the log-aesthetic curve (LAC) principle to examine the aesthetics of the product’s shape chosen as a case study.

99.3.1 Log-Aesthetic Curves (LAC) One of the most researched areas is the aesthetics of curves, and one of the most important factors that must be taken into consideration while judging an appealing curve is its curvature distribution. If the curve’s second derivative is monotonic and the variations in curvature are constant, the curve is beautiful. When a straight line can be used to depict the logarithmic curvature graph (LCG) of a curve, such curve is said to be a log-aesthetic curve (LAC). When Harada et al. [26] attempted to categorize all the curves utilized in automotive design, they came up with the concept of LCG. Initially, it was referred to as a logarithmic distribution curve diagram (LDDC). This graph shows the relationship between the arc length of the curve segment and the curvature radius (denoted by ρ). They discovered that every curve used in the design of automobiles has a linear gradient of LDDC. The formulation of LDDC, which is now known as LCG, was improved by Kanaya et al. [27]. The LCG’s vertical axis  and horizontal axis both represented by log ρ and log ρ ds  /dρ  . The two Euler spiral segments are shown in Fig. 99.2a, b. Let (C) be an arc-length s parameterized curve defined by the equations: r (s) = (x(s), y(s)), 0 ≤ s ≤ S,

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(b)

(a)

Fig. 99.2 a Two segments of Euler spiral. b Its corresponding logarithmic curvature graph

where S is the total length of the curve and r is a point of coordinates x, y on (C). The logarithmic curvature graph (LCG) gradient is given by the relation: λ(s) =

k  (s)k(s) − 1, 0 ≤ s ≤ S. (k  (s))2

A curve is said to be an aesthetic curve if its LCG gradient is either constant or the gradient is represented by a straight line with a nonzero slope [28].

99.4 Ontology-Based Approach An explicit, formal specification of a common conception of a field of interest is an ontology. The phrase comes from philosophy, where an ontology is a methodical explanation of existence [29]. The ontology offers a common knowledge of a field of interest to allow interaction between people and software [30, 31]. By explicitly expressing concepts, relations, and axioms in a domain, ontologies have the capacity to allow the sharing and reuse of formally documented knowledge. Being a knowledge-intensive endeavor, conceptual design requires a wealth of design information to support. In this situation, information representation is utilized to communicate the knowledge of certain domains, where the knowledge is generically structured and frequently thought of as a collection of concepts, properties, relationships, instances, etc. In the concept design, it is essential to build a solid knowledge model for obtaining and reusing information. In this proposed method, we only concentrate on the shape of the product to confirm aesthetic design based on customer aesthetic requirements (aesthetic perception). Ontology has different layers; the first layer populates with classic aesthetic design factors like shape, symmetry, balance, color,

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Fig. 99.3 Steering wheel assembly

continuity, proportion, contrast, etc. The second layer consists of customer aesthetic requirements, which are nothing but a subjective aesthetic aspect of the product. The third layer is domain-specific that populates with product assembly parts (Fig. 99.3) and their relationships.

99.4.1 Case Study An automotive steering wheel assembly (Fig. 99.3) component has been used as a case study to illustrate our methodology. Only those assembly components that could persuade the buyer to choose them over others were the focus of our attention. Depending on their needs, the steering wheel assembly components are thought to be designed to make the steering wheel aesthetically pleasing. The steering wheel assembly parts are steering wheel, boss, spokes, and wheel cover. Steering wheel is the first thing you touch when you sit in the driver’s seat that’s why aesthetics of a steering wheel assembly plays a critical role to choose over the other.

99.4.1.1

Development of an Ontology

Ontology has been developed, which is described above. OWL (Web ontology language) has been used as an ontology language. OWL-DL is built on Description Logics (thus the suffix DL) and is substantially more expressive. Protégé 5.5 has been used as a tool to develop the intended ontology. Because logics are a decidable part of First-Order Logic, they can be reasoned automatically. As a result, it is feasible to automatically compute the classification hierarchy and check for inconsistencies in an ontology that complies with OWL-DL. Different aesthetic design aspects are

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listed under the subclass of AestheticDesignFactor in the class hierarchy that has been constructed. The ontology that is being presented is an extended form that also include additional elements of aesthetic design, such as materials and procedures that could result in aesthetic product design, such as joining procedures and surface texturing procedures (some joining process also derive aesthetics, e.g., joint made with fasteners provides a robust look to the product or assembly parts). The ontology provides the linkages between customers’ subjective aesthetics and objective design principles, but our focus is solely on shape or style treatment, which is carried out at the very beginning of product design (Fig. 99.4). The subjective aesthetic aspects of the customer toward the product appearance are given in Table 99.1. Object properties have been defined using the object property tab available in the Protégé. After checking the consistency of the ontology, the relationship hierarchy has been generated using OntoGraph tab available in the Protégé. The developed taxonomy has been shown in Fig. 99.5. Fig. 99.4 Aesthetic design hierarchy

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Subjective aesthetics design aspects Classic Cool Glamourous Modern Premium Sporty Youthful

Fig. 99.5 Taxonomy of aesthetic design ontology

99.4.1.2

Ontology Reasoning and Shape Treatment

After querying the ontology using the SWRL rule, which is carried out using the SWRL Tab offered in the protégé tool, the developed ontology gives a crucial aesthetic design component (indicator). The following SWRL rules that we have created for suggestions on steering wheel design: [R1] autogen0:SteeringWheel(?SW) ^ autogen0:hasAppearance(?SW, ?A) ^ autogen0:hasAestheticDesignFactor(?A, ?ADF) - > autogen0:hasAestheticCharacter(?ADF, ?A) [R2] autogen0:SteeringWheel(?SW) ^ autogen0:hasAppearance(?SW, ?A) ^ autogen0:hasAestheticMeasurementRule(?A, ?AMR) - > autogen0:hasAestheticCharacter(?AMR, ?A)

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The first rule establishes the “sportiness” of the steering wheel’s appearance, and it requires particular attention of proportion, symmetry, balance, and shape. However, our goal is to treat shape alone, and we have done so by using the log-aesthetic curve (LAC). The second rule suggests giving products a “cool” appearance by emphasizing their symmetry, proportion, and color. The steering wheel has been given a “sportiness look” in our process, and we turned the case study model into a 2D graphic to reflect this. According to the customer’s concept of “sportiness look,” the key character lines are recognized and handled accordingly (Fig. 99.6). The concerned portions are treated. After the treatment process, the 2D image of the final look has a “sportiness appearance” (Fig. 99.7). Fig. 99.6 Aesthetic character lines of steering wheel

Fig. 99.7 Final 2D image of the steering wheel

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99.5 Conclusion The concepts of aesthetic design are widely accepted design techniques that are regularly used in the creation of product appearances. Although it can be difficult for inexperienced designers, putting aesthetic design ideas into practice relies heavily on the subjective intuitions and experiences of the designer. This study developed a strategy for supporting product appearance design that is based on aesthetic design principles. The idea of a log-aesthetic curve with an ontology-based approach has made it easier for designers to systematically create various aesthetic shapes for products. For a certain customer’s subjective perception, ontology provided a variety of combinations of aesthetically pleasing design elements. However, due to a lack of design samples, this study could only demonstrate 1 style design aesthetic factor. To provide more context for the suggested strategy, future work should take into account more aesthetic factors and design samples.

References 1. Hekkert, P., Schifferstein, H.J.: Introducing product experience. In: Schifferstein, N.J., Hekkert, P. (eds.) Product experience, pp. 1–8. Elsevier, Amsterdam (2008) 2. Chek, L.N., Lian, S.T.: A mathematical theory of interface aesthetics. Multimedia University, Malaysia (1999) 3. Hsiao, S.W., Chen, L.L.: Fundamental dimensions of affective responses to product shapes. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 36(6), 553–564 (2006) 4. Hekkert, P.: Design aaesthetics: principles of pleasure in design. Psychol. Sci. 48(2), 157 (2006) 5. Lo, C.-H., Ko, Y.-C., Hsiao, S.-W.: A study that applies aesthetic theory and genetic algorithms to product form optimization. Adv. Eng. Inform. 29(3), 662e679 (2015). https://doi.org/10. 1016/J.AEI.2015.06.004 6. Khan, S., Gunpinar, E.: Sampling CAD models via an extended teachingelearning-based optimization technique. Comput. Aided Des. 100, 52e67 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cad. 2018.03.003 7. Gu, Z., Xi Tang, M., Frazer, J.H.: Capturing aesthetic intention during interactive evolution. Comput. Aided Des. 38(3), 224e237 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CAD.2005.10.008 8. Sun, X., Gong, D., Zhang, W.: Interactive genetic algorithms with large population and semisupervised learning. Appl. Soft Comput. 12(9), 3004–3013 (2012) 9. Chen, K., Owen, C.L.: A study of computer supported formal design. Des. Stud. 19(3), 331–359 (1998) 10. Podehl, G.: Terms and measures for styling properties. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Design Conference, May 14–17, Dubrovnik, Croatia, pp. 879–886 (2002) 11. Hu, H., Liu, Y., Lu, W.F., Guo, X.: A knowledge-based approach toward representation and archiving of aesthetic information for product conceptual design. J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng. 22(4), 041011 (2022) 12. Alcaide-Marzal, J., Diego-Mas, J.A., Acosta-Zazueta, G.: A 3D shape generative method for aesthetic product design. Des. Stud. 66, 144–176 (2020) 13. Cheutet, V., Léon, J.C., Catalano, C.E., Giannini, F., Monti, M., Falcidieno, B.: Preserving car stylists’ design intent through an ontology. Int. J. Interact. Des. Manuf. (IJIDeM) 2(1), 9–16 (2008) 14. Catalano, C.E., Giannini, F., Monti, M., Ucelli, G.: A framework for the automatic annotation of car aesthetics. AI EDAM 21(1), 73–90 (2007)

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15. Nagamachi, M.: Kansei engineering: a new ergonomic consumer oriented technology for product development. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 15, 3–11 (1995) 16. Tsutsumi, K., Sasaki, K.: Study on shape creation of building’s roof by evaluating aesthetic sensibility. Math. Comput. Simul. 77, 487–498 (2008) 17. Lim, S.C.J., Liu, Y., Lee, W.B.: Multi-facet product information search and retrieval using semantically annotated product family ontology. Inf. Process. Manage. 46(4), 479–493 (2010) 18. Hu, H., Liu, Y., Lu, W.F., Guo, X.: A quantitative aesthetic measurement method for product appearance design. Adv. Eng. Inform. 53, 101644 (2022) 19. Jitender, P.S.: Understanding the relationship between aesthetics and product design. Int. J. Eng. Technol. Sci. Res. 5(3), 6 (2018) 20. Soni, S., Khanna, P., Tandon, P.: Knowledge support system for aesthetics in product design. J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng. 13(1) (2013) 21. Barnes, C., Lillford, S.P.: Decision support for the design of affective products. J. Eng. Des. 20(5), 477–492 (2009) 22. Crilly, N., Moultrie, J., Clarkson, P.J.: Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design. Des. Stud. 25(6), 547–577 (2004) 23. Ding, Y., Guo, F., Hu, M., Cao, Y.: Using event related potentials to investigate visual aesthetic perception of product appearance. Hum. Factors Ergon. Manuf. Serv. Ind. 27(5), 223–232 (2017) 24. Kim, N.: A history of design theory in art education. J. Aesth. Educ. 40, 12–28 (2006) 25. Spratt, F.: Art production in discipline-based art education. J. Aesth. Educ. 21, 197–204 (1987) 26. Harada, T., Yoshimoto, F., Moriyama, M.: An aesthetic curve in the field of industrial design. In: Proceedings 1999 IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages, pp. 38–47. IEEE (1999, September) 27. Kanaya, I., Nakano, Y., Sato, K.: Simulated designers’s eyes: classification of aesthetic surfaces. Proc. VSMM 2003, 289–296 (2003) 28. Gobithaasan, R.U., Miura, K.T., Ali, J.M.: The Elucidation of planar aesthetic curves. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Conference in Central Europe on Computer Graphics, Visualization and Computer Vision, Plzen, Czech Republic, 2–5 February 2009, pp. 183–188 29. Otte, J.N., Kiritsi, D., Ali, M.M., Yang, R., Zhang, B., Rudnicki, R., Rai, R., Smith, B.: An ontological approach to representing the product life cycle. Appl. Ontol. 14(2), 179–197 (2019) 30. Gruber, T.R.: Ontolingua: A mechanism to support portable ontologies. Technical report KSL 91–66. Stanford University, Knowledge Systems Laboratory (1999) 31. Noy, N.F., McGuinness, D.L.: Ontology development 101: A guide to creating your first ontology (2001)

Chapter 100

The Role of the Human-in-the-Loop in Industrial Digitalization and Automation N. Madhusudanan and Ramesh Manickam

Abstract With the advancement of technologies that are increasingly better at capturing, cleansing, and deriving insights from data, as well as closed-loop systems that achieve near-complete automation, it is understandable that there is a perception that the role of the human in industrial processes is diminished. However, despite decades of such advances, a great portion of such systems in the present and the foreseeable future are not going to achieve practically viable solutions by ignoring the role of the human in the process. This paper makes the case for the human-inthe-loop, where systems are expected to be designed to either continuously perceive feedback from the human or to serve the functionary who is a human. The scope of these discussions is set in the context of industrial digitalization and automation, where the influencing factors, and hence, the need for working with and for the human is presented. There are certain strengths that make the case for automation, and there are unique, irreplaceable skills and knowledge that a human possesses. For example, in digitalization, the automated systems are great at extracting raw data from huge number of documents. But the semantic richness and domain relevance of the data can only be realized in completion by a human expert. Similarly, industrial automation benefits immensely from artificial intelligence for detection and prognosis; however, course corrections needed, and interpretation of the outcomes is better left to the human to derive actionable directions. The underlying theme in the paper is the need to consider how modern artificial intelligence systems will need to work seamlessly with the expert human operator/maintainer while designing industrial digitalization and automation systems, to enhance productivity and address human factors.

N. Madhusudanan (B) · R. Manickam Siemens Technology, Bengaluru, India e-mail: [email protected] R. Manickam e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_100

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100.1 Introduction The rapid advancement of digitalization and automation technologies has enabled the deployment of Industry 4.0 (or smart manufacturing) at a mass scale. However, such advancements are not always linear in how they progress and must often consider many challenges. When one considers industrial sectors that operate assets whose lifecycle spans multiple decades, there is a significant overlap between various eras of digitalization (and pre-digitalization era) [1]. The onus for digitalization in such cases is to extract legacy data in a form that can be consumed by downstream tools that can store, retrieve, process, analyze, and convert these representations. For the purposes of this paper, we consider the terms digitalization and automation as follows: Digitalization is the process of converting data into one or more digital formats and providing a semantic layer on top to interpret this data. Automation is the continuous operation of one or more industrial processes by machines that requires little or no manual intervention. Both processes might suggest imagery of completely automated solutions that require little or no human involvement. However, there are multiple factors and circumstances where this generalization cannot be made. This paper discusses some of the challenges and attempts to formalize this gap, specifically in these domains of digitalization and automation.

100.1.1 The Role of the Human Due to reasons that are elaborated later in this paper, there are various limitations of automation technology, as well as the evolving nature of work. These factors contribute to the changing nature of the workplace in industries where automation remains a driving factor. The nature of these factors, the challenges, the importance of the human working with the machine, and various modes of doing so have already been espoused as the ‘missing middle’ in literature [2]. In processes for digitalization of information and automation of processes, there are multiple stages. At many of these stages, there is often the need for human intervention to aid in the process. Conversely, automation tools are being built to increasingly act and work alongside humans rather than being employed as external devices [3]. This paper stresses on the point that in the design of Industry 4.0 systems there are elements of digitalization and automation built-in and that the role of the human cannot be ignored and must be designed-in in such systems. The active presence of the human in the decision-making, feedback, and guidance in digitalization and automation processes is termed as the human-in-the-loop in this paper. Various literature has also referred to the same term along similar lines [4, 5]. The paper will touch upon the current literature, motivating factors, various modes of interaction, and the outlook for the involvement of the human-in-the-loop in the domains of digitalization and automation.

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100.2 Current Literature There are multiple dimensions in which the presence of the human-in-the-loop has been discussed in the literature. A sizeable chunk of the literature is about the involvement of the human-in-the-loop concerning machine learning systems and algorithms. For example, Wu et al. [4] talk about how to use the human-in-the-loop to help model training and still be cost-effective while doing so. Other parts of literature [e.g., 5, 6] also talk extensively about the challenges faced, and the motivation for the human to be involved with respect to aspects of machine learning (quality of data, its variety, and transparency) and in which activities the human could be involved. Smith et al. [7] demonstrate a study on a HITL system for topic modeling and the user experience while doing so. Wiethof [8] discuss both the human-in-the-loopuman-in-the-loop and the computer in the loop, on collaborative learning so that there is a mix of both human and machine intelligence. Cranor [9] mentions the importance of both having and not having a human-inthe-loop, particularly in the context of design of secure systems. Munir et al. [10] identify research challenges where there is a human-in-the-loop control as part of systems. In the domain of smart manufacturing, Jwo et al. [11] propose three aspects important for enabling factories to adopt smart technologies, namely knowledge, collaboration, and communication. Chiang et al. [12] propose an approach to design automation system with HITL to improve safety by determination of safe velocities and intervehicle distance. Interestingly, literature also exists about a legal perspective about the human-inthe-loop in automated systems [13]. In summary, there is significant literature about the use of human-in-the-loop, especially in machine learning and in the automation domain. Several of the factors mentioned in these papers are also common to the domains of digitalization and automation due to shared methods. In addition, there is the aspect of domain knowledge that is not comprehensively covered for the domains of digitalization and automation—we focus on these and develop the motivating factors and potential modes of interaction in this paper.

100.3 Motivating Factors for the Human-in-the-loop In this section, we dive deeper and detail out the various motivating factors for designing systems with a human-in-the-loop. As shown in Fig. 100.1, these factors as placed in the area to which they are largely relevant to either digitalization or automation or both. Let us look at these factors in more detail.

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Fig. 100.1 Factors that motivate the presence of the human-in-the-loop specifically for digitalization and automation applications

100.3.1 Multi-disciplinary Nature of Problems In most of the applications that pertain to digitalization and automation systems, the technical nature of the problem needs knowledge from various domains. For example, if one were to consider an automation solution for an offshore oil-drilling platform, knowledge of hydraulics, geology, electrical engineering, and dynamics are involved. Beyond a certain point, it is impossible to cover all eventualities which evaluate possibilities from the perspectives of all these domains. This is where solutions must consider and consult with domain experts as and when the automated solution by itself cannot conclude at a decision.

100.3.2 Domain Knowhow Much of the work concerning digitalization and automation spans multiple and sometimes intersecting domains that are of specialized nature. The experience of the expert is derived from years of experience and cannot be substituted easily. This is knowledge about the objects in the domain and the relations between them, as well as possible problems faced, and heuristic solutions adopted by them over time.

100.3.3 Procedural Knowledge Like the previous type, the domain knowledge, procedural knowledge is an expert’s specialized know-how of how to carry out certain repetitive tasks. Typically, it is coupled with the domain knowledge to make sense of the knowledge for representing knowledge. Both these types of knowledge may be explicit and implicit, but the tacit form of such knowledge is probably of most interest to organizations.

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100.3.4 Knowledge Completion When carrying out activities in industrial digitalization and automation, many of the generic patterns and processes can be identified, represented, and automated. However, most such generic patterns end up having domain-specific, or use-casespecific details that are difficult to capture. Consider the example of building an automation line for a bottling process. Even if there is a generic design available, if there are parts to be made for different geographies, the ability to handle different units of measure for different geographies will require domain expertise. Thus, to complete the knowledge of whether FPS system, or imperial system or SI units must be used, or whether conversions are needed, human expertise is invaluable. However, it may be possible that the intelligent systems also are able to work with the human to help clean up errors introduced in previous manual processes.

100.3.5 Context Awareness It may not be always possible to perfectly represent context for an automation use case where there are potentially hundreds of parameters that determine it. Just to define the set of cases that set the context, human knowledge is invaluable. An example is the correct temperature at which to maintain the automation line—this is dependent on the lubricant being used and the process being controlled.

100.3.6 Situational Awareness While context awareness deals with the largely static nature of parameters, there are many contextual decisions to be made while in operation. Though literature defines context in terms of situation [14], for the purposes of this paper, we make a distinction and term this as situational awareness, and it is more complex than simply defining parameters. An identifiable example is that of human safety while working alongside robotic machines. To define the range of operations and movements that are within the limits of human safety, a high-level definition of safety factors is first defined by a human expert. This is then translated into ranges of motion for the machine and the limits for the human. These considerations are made more complex by the fact that the number of possibilities is quite large and the values of parameters not necessarily cardinal in nature.

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100.3.7 Technological Limits While there have been immense developments in the domain of machine learning and artificial intelligence, the outcomes are nowhere near perfect in almost every single domain. For example, even with the best of algorithms, methods of computer vision and natural language processing hit a ceiling. Thus, there is always a human element needed to both correct the outcomes of using such methods in digitalization (e.g., digitalization of process documents, schematic diagrams), as well as automation (e.g., safe limits of operation), especially when it is domain specific.

100.3.8 Machine Capabilities The capabilities of existing machines are dictated by many factors; however, factors such as limits of their operation with respect to operational efficiency, limits of safe operation are dependent on the previously discussed aspect of human expert knowledge.

100.3.9 Reasoning Under Uncertainty Many dynamic situations in industrial automation are subject to various degrees of uncertainty of operation, due to real-world factors such as noise, vibration, and continuous interaction with other systems. For example, the actual real-time location of a product on a conveyor can be estimated within a certain tolerance based on the velocity and position data from a previous station. However, if an automated pick and place robot is being designed to pick the product off the conveyor, to even begin its finer operation of pick and place, there must be a trigger to know that the product is within range. Some human expertise may be needed to enumerate and reset any sources of noise and deviation in upstream processes that affect the position of the product.

100.3.10 Variety of Data and Dirty and Incomplete Data As an input to digitalization, the data that is processed is usually neither homogeneous nor clean. One could think of textual data, numerical data, sensor data, or image/video data among other modalities. The typical nature of data that is the target of digitalization activities is also quite noisy and prone to all the difficult factors that make up the bulk of any data analysis activity. Data cleansing is an often underappreciated but crucial activity to be carried

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out before any sense can be made of it. This challenge can often be seen in the form of technical language [15], or noisy image data. In summary, the role of the human in digitalization seems to be focused on the application of domain knowledge to ease out the complexities in language and representations, while in automation, it is the ability to reason using such specific knowledge to guide processes.

100.4 Modes of Interaction The various modes in which the human could contribute to digitalization and automation technologies are based off the different factors that are listed in the previous section. A summary is shown in Fig. 100.2, where we describe these in some detail.

100.4.1 Clarifying the Terminology and Procedures The knowledge from the human expert is invaluable in clarifying the terms used in digitalization processes, due to the technical nature of language. The role of technical language processing is gaining greater traction in recent years [15]. Issues such as semantic ambiguity and out-of-vocabulary terms affect the processing of natural language. Also, specific recipe-like procedures and remedies are often tribal or tacit knowledge that must come from the human-in-the-loop.

Fig. 100.2 Potential modes of interaction for the human with digitalization and automation applications

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100.4.2 Correct and Improve Model Performance The human-in-the-loop could also help to adjust the model performance by providing corrected answers to the outputs of algorithms. A popular example from document extraction is the AWS human-in-the-loop [16]. Beyond mere review and correction, it may also be possible to retrain or continuously train models based on the corrected output such the model gradually adapts to the human’s reasoning.

100.4.3 Reduce Complexity Sometimes the business logic of certain operations tends to be so difficult to represent that it may be simpler to employ heuristics that arise out of the tribal or tacit knowledge of humans. For example, in a steam plant, one need not consider all ranges of temperatures that have to be monitored—only the ranges of temperature that are in the proximity of the boiling points. Such heuristics reduce the complexity of monitoring and potentially save costs.

100.4.4 Factor of Safety and Contingencies Apart from the exact determination of inputs needed for automation systems, there are always elements of uncertainty. Human input is greatly useful to guide the practical levels of factors of safety such as safe distances between machines and humans. Similarly, defining and updating fail-safe mechanisms are also another area of work where the human-in-the-loop is useful. On the other side, the intelligent system can work with the human to keep within safe limits of operation.

100.4.5 Specifying and Correcting Context The specification of the parameters that dictate context of operation is a complex task and is also related to the above points on correcting model performance—sometimes, there may be additional factors that have not been considered by current models and this can amount to correction of context for actions performed based on these models.

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100.5 Conclusions and Discussion This paper describes some initial directions into formalizing the need for having a human-in-the-loop for digitalization and automation systems. Further, it also formally identifies some potential modes of how the human could interact with the systems. The larger objective behind both these parts is to move toward enabling the design of Industry 4.0 systems that consider a human-in-the-loop in a systematic manner, rather than bring in a human on an ad hoc basis. Such a formal process is necessary to have interfaces, and modes of interaction that are transparent and usable to make it successful. In essence, it is not a good idea to leave out the human element when designing such systems. Developing economies could take advantage of this opportunity by having a human-in-the-loop along with digitalization and autonomous systems to balance the economics of value and effective utilization of resources. This again stresses the importance of designing-in the human. The process of adoption could be accelerated by the fact that the general population is increasing technologically savvy.

References 1. Mayer, H.: Digitalization of legacy building data. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Smart Cities and Green ICT Systems, pp. 304–310 (2018, March) 2. Daugherty, P.R., Wilson, H.J.: Human+ machine: Reimagining work in the age of AI. Harvard Business Press (2018) 3. El Makrini, I., Elprama, S.A., Van den Bergh, J., Vanderborght, B., Knevels, A.J., Jewell, C.I., … Jacobs, A.: Working with walt: How a cobot was developed and inserted on an auto assembly line. IEEE Robot. Autom. Magaz. 25(2), 51–58 (2018) 4. Wu, X., Xiao, L., Sun, Y., Zhang, J., Ma, T., He, L.: A survey of human-in-the-loop for machine learning. Futur. Gener. Comput. Syst. 135, 364–381 (2022) 5. Wang, J., Guo, B., Chen, L.: Human-in-the-loop Machine Learning: A Macro-Micro Perspective (2022). https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2202.10564 6. Chai, C., Li, G.: Human-in-the-loop techniques in machine learning. IEEE Data Eng. Bull. 43(3), 37–52 (2020) 7. Smith, A., Kumar, V., Boyd-Graber, J., Seppi, K., Findlater, L.:. Closing the loop: User-centered design and evaluation of a human-in-the-loop topic modeling system. In: 23rd International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces, pp. 293–304 (2018, March) 8. Wiethof, C.: Hybrid Intelligence—Combining the Human in the Loop with the Computer in the Loop: A Systematic Literature Review. (ICIS 2021)At: Austin, Texas, US (2021) 9. Cranor, L.F.: A framework for reasoning about the human in the loop. In: Proceedings of the 1st Conference on Usability, Psychology, and Security, pp. 1–15 (2008, April) 10. Munir, S., Stankovic, J.A., Liang, C.J.M., Lin, S.: Cyber physical system challenges for {Human-in-the-Loop} control. In: 8th International Workshop on Feedback Computing (Feedback Computing 13) (2013) 11. Jwo, J.-S., Lin, C.-S., Lee, C.-H.: Smart Technology–driven aspects for human-in-the-loop smart manufacturing. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 114(5–6), 1741–1752 (2021) 12. Chiang, H.-H., Wu, S.-J., Perng, J.-W., Wu, B.-F., Lee, T.-T.: The human-in-the-loop design approach to the longitudinal automation system for an intelligent vehicle. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Part A Syst. Hum. 40(4), 708–720 (2010)

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13. Jones, M.L.: The right to a human in the loop: Political constructions of computer automation and personhood (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/0306312717699716 14. Dey, A.K.: Understanding and using context. Pers. Ubiquit. Comput. 5(1), 4–7 (2001) 15. Brundage, M.P., Sexton, T., Hodkiewicz, M., Dima, A., Lukens, S.: Technical language processing: unlocking maintenance knowledge. Manuf. Lett. 27, 42–46 (2021) 16. https://docs.aws.amazon.com/sagemaker/latest/dg/a2i-start-human-loop.html

Chapter 101

Video Games as Ontological Design in the Indian Context Mriganka Madhukaillya and Aman Chandra

Abstract Video games have become the defining form of entertainment and media in the pandemic and post-pandemic world, taking the equivalent position of cinema and television for the post-WWII era up to the early 2000s. This progress has been fueled by advancement in the affordable computer technologies and a general rise in tech proficiency among the masses. Despite only being a less than 40-year-old medium, it has already seen an evolution cycle faster than that of the medium of cinema. It has evolved from a medium for children’s entertainment to a powerful storytelling one, which in many ways surpasses its non-interactive audiovisual counterpart. Today, videogames carry a potential to impart value systems and imbibe morals to a global audience. In this paper, we will discuss the evolution of the videogame as a narrative medium, as well as a form of ontological design. We will discuss how we (India) can come up with an original approach to videogame making by understanding the implications of games not just as technical artifacts but also cultural ones.

101.1 Introduction Games have now become a very important aspect of public consciousness, particularly for the Western and East Asian countries. And ever since the pandemic, they have been very specifically used by various organizations like the military and automotive industries to promote and plant ideas of their interest into the players. Many Call of Duty© games were directly or indirectly funded by the US military. In fact, in one instance, the writer and producer of the series Dave Anthony was hired as an adviser for future conflicts at the Department of Defense, Washington DC [1]. This has been part of what is known as the military–entertainment complex. Regardless, computer games have also been widely used for educational and training purposes. M. Madhukaillya · A. Chandra (B) Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, India e-mail: [email protected] M. Madhukaillya e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Chakrabarti and V. Singh (eds.), Design in the Era of Industry 4.0, Volume 1, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 343, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0293-4_101

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In the early stages, game designers like Hideo Kojima brought in inspirations from Cinema bringing in concepts like mise-en-scene and making cinematic cutscenes. Now, videogames are inspiring filmmakers to tell stories from the lens of gaming. Films like Ready Player One is one such exhibit which imagines a world where one game is taken more seriously than reality. This is in line with what author Bernard Suits says in his book, The Grasshopper, ‘Should we one day create utopia, all we would have to do is play games.’ We need to look at video games like we started looking at cinema at the advent of the 50s and 60s, like a perfectly capable artistic medium with well-defined goals and influences on the human mind. Like Prof. Ute Holl wrote on experimental filmmaker Maya Deren’s writings, ‘The task of cinema or any other art form is not to translate hidden messages of the unconscious soul into art but to experiment with the effects contemporary technical devices have on nerves, minds, or souls’ [2]. In a similar way, we may start to look at video games as an expansion of this idea and a further progression in the evolution of media. This project aims to move the conversation toward that angle. The value system embedded in the current games is that of existing games belongs to a different narrative. One of the endeavors of this project was to envision whether we can make games that carry in more of coherent value systems as our values.

101.2 Research 101.2.1 Understanding Video Games Through Literature There is a sufficient lack of formal writing on video games. Fewer people in history have taken up this topic as an academic subject. But those who have taken it have written a great deal of theory and material on the subject. Authors like Chris Crawford, McKenzie Wark, and Ian Bogost have written some of the remarkable text regarding the subject. The key idea is to look beyond the technical aspect of video games. We are already living in an age where the technology of a couple of months seems old and outdated. So it’s clear that the idea that the understanding had to go beyond the nits and grits of what technology, as is the role of designer. Author Mckenzie Wark writes, ‘Ever get the feeling you are playing some vast and useless game to which you don’t know the goal, and can’t remember the rules? Ever get the fierce desire to quit, to resign, to forfeit, only to discover there’s no umpire, no referee, no regulator, to whom to announce your capitulation? Ever get the vague dread that while you have no choice but to play the game, you can’t win it, can’t even know the score, or who keeps it? Ever suspect that you don’t even know who your real opponent might be? Ever get mad over the obvious fact that the dice are loaded, the deck stacked, the table rigged, and the fix—in? Welcome to gamespace’ [3]. It is clear that Wark sees the real world as a less perfect representation of the game world. Referring to the Allegory of the Cave by Plato, where a bunch of prisoners are kept

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in a cave since birth having no idea about the real world. Shadows they see on the wall of the real world are what they perceive as reality. And when one of them gets to come out of the cave he cannot comprehend reality. Wark argues that the shadows in the cave are the reality itself and the outside world is the game. What if the games are the perfect and most fair versions of the rules of life and nature, and what if the real world is the imperfect facsimile of the perfect games. This is a groundbreaking idea as it challenges the very nature of reality and its relationship to games. This very theory itself asks whether we have to create games that imitate reality or redefine it. Whether games have to carry the essence of perfection or the fragility of reality. Chris Crawford, an American Video Game Designer, brings about an idea to take video games to an even higher pedestal. Despite being active in early years of video game when games were just simple run and jump and click systems, he ‘dreamed’ of computer games expressing the full breadth of human experience and emotion, of satirical games and political games; games about the passionate love between a boy and girl, and the serene and mature love of a husband and wife of decades; games about a boy becoming a man, and a man realizing that he is no longer young. Chris’ seminal speech at the Game Developers Conference 1992 on the video game design shook and inspired the designers all across the world [4]. Perhaps the most important and significant work of all the references was Johan Huizinga’s Homo Ludens. Homo Ludens, as an idea, is a very powerful one. This work defined the concept of ‘play’ and its relationship with human beings and the associated culture. Although this is an old piece of writing, originally published in the year of 1938, the relevance is no less important. Huizinga has defined the act or practice of ‘play’ as the following, ‘Play is a voluntary activity or occupation executed within certain fixed limits of time and place, according to rules freely accepted but absolutely binding, having its aim in itself and accompanied by a feeling of tension, joy, and the consciousness that it is “different” from “ordinary life”’ [5].

101.2.2 Insights and Thesis It is clear from the study that games are indeed a ‘serious’ medium with the potential to tell stories in a manner that is alien to the other contemporary media. It is also clear that unlike other media, video games cannot be produced with a unilateral vision. There are a number of minds and souls at work. That is why it is rare to see game designers like Hideo Kojima make a mark on the industry as an auteur, an idea that is still very new in this industry. Many have tried to make sense of this collaborative medium, through writings and research papers. But the problem remains that the technology is moving fast, faster than the research.

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M. Madhukaillya and A. Chandra

What is Even a ‘Game?’

It is clear that games are not simply an evolution of ‘Ludo’ or play into contemporary technological adaptation. Games are often narratives that can be played or ‘Ludonarrative.’ They are a culmination of a plethora of media disciplines, making it a transmedia routine. A videogame contains graphics, sound, animation, storytelling, codes, and much more. Although the field is wide open to approach from any standpoint, be it interaction design or filmmaking or education, there are certainly several common ways to approach the making. That is why there is even a term referred to as ‘Ludonarrative Dissonance,’ which basically is the conflict arisen by the difference in narrative told through the story of the game in relation to the narrative delivered by the gameplay of the game. For example, if a game wants the player to feel the importance of lives of humans but the gameplay is basically eliminating an army of faceless soldiers who are also human, the message, and impact is somewhat dampened [6].

101.2.2.2

Games as Storytelling Medium

The first way to approach games becomes that of the evolution of the storytelling medium. Games can be used to tell stories, and arguably, in a more engaging and effective manner. Games like The Last of Us, Uncharted, Metal Gear Solid, and Call of Duty are exhibits of this potential of video games. These games usually have been primarily a character-driven narrative where players assume the role of a single character that experiences a feature-length (sometimes, even longer) story. This character then becomes a lens through which the player looks at the game world. The player inhabits the game world by filling in the character’s shoes. Now the level of interactivity depends on the game’s approach. Several games have taken the idea much more forward, and many have stayed within the safe bounds. Although this is one of the oldest ideas associated with games, many game designers tend sway away from this definition or approach to games, as they believe games are much more than just ‘interactive cinema’ [7].

101.2.2.3

Games as Social Media

The idea of social media is nothing new. It has existed long before giants like Facebook or MySpace came. Children and people used to give New Year cards and Birthday wishing cards to their loved ones and friends. Printed Paper Cards were the ‘media’ of the ‘social’ interaction people were having. Similarly, celebration of festivals and visiting and wishing each was a physical practice, of which the current social media is reminiscent of. When compared to the traditional way of meeting and greeting and making friends, social media websites offer greater accessibility and reach with more visual features. And that seems to be the trend of general evolution of social media. Therefore, videogames fit aptly into this space. The ‘Social Media

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Fig. 101.1 Positioning of social media in the societal interactive space

Layer’ as we can call exhibits a sense of ownership over the communication by its user and helps them convey or carry their identity with a more coherent sense of being. It can be envisioned that videogames will take the place of social media, in the coming era, as is already evident, by looking at the Western countries and Japan. As many of the so-called Generation Z members are not even using last decade social media such as Facebook. Most don’t even have accounts on the platform. And with each version of social media being a feature advancement over the last, one can imagine the place of videogames of the youth (Fig. 101.1) [8].

101.2.2.4

Games as Narrative Museum

Veteran film critic Roger Ebert infamously regarded video games as inferior to other mediums like film or literature. Later, video game auteur Hideo Kojima once said in an interview, ‘Art is the stuff you find in the museum, whether it be a painting or a statue. What I’m doing, what video game creators are doing, is running the museum—how do we light up things, where do we place things, how do we sell tickets? For better or worse, what I do, Hideo Kojima, myself, is run the museum and also create the art that’s displayed in the museum’ [7].

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So there we have the next evolutionary phase of the definition of video games. They are not the art, but the museum that carries the art itself. Kojima also compared the process of making games with that of a Car. A car also has different visual elements associated with it. Those can be termed as art. But it’s hard to call the car itself an art, as it is more like a service or tool. There it leaves the car in the hands of its drivers, same as the game is left in the hands of its players. The designer or the creator has very little control after that. Regardless, this is a very fascinating way of looking at games as the idea of art is evolving, so is the case with games. As we are moving away from the concept of ‘aesthetic’ being absolutely necessary for art, so is the case with games. It is exciting to unravel this point of view.

101.2.2.5

Reality as Video Game

As McKenzie Wark elaborated in her book Gamer Theory, that videogames are an attempt to recreate the nuances of reality. Earlier we were making games that imitated or referenced reality. For example, racing games make sense because there are real cars and real races in real life. Military shooter games make sense because there are real military who are fighting somewhere around the world throughout the history of time. Of course, games exaggerate the way these concepts are portrayed in the virtual space. But that is the job of games, to provide an interactive environment which is referenced with the ‘ordinary’ yet out of the ‘ordinary.’ At the start of high fidelity gaming, the idea was to recreate or codify reality into something codified and coherent to make a quantifiable sense of things. A game is a simulation that allows the player or participant to safely play around with and within the rules of play. They allow you to do things that usually are not possible or safe to do in reality. In other words, they made sense of reality by taking an element and decoding the algorithm behind it (Fig. 101.2) [9]. Today, it’s a different world. There is an overuse of a certain term called, ‘Gamification,’ which is basically the process of inserting game elements such as scores, objectives, and progression mechanics into things which are not inherently game. This has been seen in the field of applications and digital products, as gamification has been done with every aspect of life, whether it is your bank credit score, mental health application, shopping application or as far as China’s Social Credit system which allows the govt. to judge citizens based on their day-to-day activities.

101.2.2.6

Games and Their Value System

Taking the idea of organizing the relationships around the ontology of videogames forward, we have to reach the coherent value system as we envisioned at the beginning of the project. It is certain that the games we play or have been playing contain values that are deep rooted in the western philosophy (or Japanese philosophy in the case of Japanese games). Why do we see a market full of shooter games? Does it have something to do with the arms policy of the USA? It seems to have a certain

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Fig. 101.2 Reality created games, now games are creating reality

connection to it. Though it doesn’t mean that others can’t play or enjoy those shooter games. In fact, the opposite is true. Shooter games are single-handedly the most enjoyed genre of games in the world [10]. So how do we make sense of the reality we live in and create games that imbibe the values that are not outdated and suitable for the contemporary world? That is a bigger project than the scope of this one. But we can attempt. There is an inherent feeling in the new world today that many of us feel insignificant and our actions feel nonconsequential. This is the side effect of globalization and an interconnected world, with super high information entropy.

101.2.2.7

Game as Ontological Design

The term ontological design, as well as its practical possibility, was explored by Tony Fry and the collaborative duo Fernando Flores and Terry Winograd, who built on the foundation of the work of twentieth-century philosophers Martin Heidegger and Hans-Georg Gadamer. Like the ontological turn in philosophy, ontological designing implies a radically different understanding of design as practice and object than those generally universalized; it also implies different ways of understanding how we, as modern subjects are and how we come to be who/what we are in the modern world. Video games could be possibly explored to investigate worldviews and building possible worlds [11]. What we are encountering at this point through video games is the possibility of worldmaking. With various tools and equipment available to the filmmakers, and

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video game developers primarily after the digital turn in cinema, various conventions of aesthetics and editing have become possible. With games like Death Stranding the conventions of games envisioned outside of western cosmologies. This is a productive arena for Indian content and games. Hideo Kojima, the creator of Death Stranding, created a game about delivering goods in a future where nobody meets or makes contact with each other. This setting resonated not only with the Japanese, its home country, but also with the rest of the world, because the very concept came from the Japanese ontologies of labor and compassion [12]. In similar ways, shooter games embedded with western ontologies of fluid gun rights and mass shootings, become hits all over the world. And the contrary can be observed with failure of some of the attempts at simulating other’s ontologies. Games like FAU-G failed not only because of poor development cycles but also a lack of connection with the Indian ontologies. We cannot just make another army shooter and just change the labels of soldiers and call it a day. To come up with a game in the Indian context, we must go through the ideas presented by the Indian worldview. Now, there is no one worldview in the Indian context, instead it’s a culmination of thousands if not more of those. Any of those could be a starting point, instead of just copying the west or rehashing the popular product.

101.2.3 Deriving Connections: Games and the Four Noble Truth of Buddha We can demonstrate the thesis using an example. There is an inherent sense of ‘suffering’ attached to videogames. Almost every game is basically about the journey of a certain character (or your own created character) into facing their fears and suffering and overcoming them. Although, in most cases, what happens after we finish the game? Do we get a new game where everything just works fine? Do we get to live a happy life in the game world once we cure the suffering? Definitely not. Even if we love the game world, we never get to see the happy version of it. The only way to relive the world is to re-play the game. The only way to enjoy the game again is to again play through the ‘suffering’ completing the objectives and markers only to reach the same (or in some cases, slightly different) conclusion again. This is inherently the fundamental teaching of Gautam Buddha. This is found in his Four Noble Truths, which are about finding the truth about the permanence of suffering. • • • •

Dukkha (the truth of suffering) Samudaya (the truth of the origin of suffering) Nirodha (the truth of the end of suffering) Magga (the truth of the path to end the suffering).

There is an innate connection between the two theories. Both are a journey into the path to unravel the truth of suffering, and the struggle to end it (Fig. 101.3).

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Fig. 101.3 Interpretation of the Four Noble Truths in terms of video game ontology

Based on the understanding of the terminologies, we translated and interpreted the four noble truths. No doubt, this adds to what we call the ‘gamer mindset’ on the Internet, which is basically the culmination of the general meaning of the above. Games, in that sense, represent the path to understanding and dealing with our sufferings. The very soul of any game carries this feeling somewhere or somehow. But we never see this being highlighted, because the games we play carry the ontology of a different value system. This creates a challenge to build games using the aforementioned system of thinking. To put this into picture, what the ideas of Buddhist cosmology did 3000 years ago not only connected with Indians but the entire world. In Thailand, Buddhist Monks are already looking at games as means to understand the reincarnation of life [13]. Similarly, building games based on the same carries a similar if not greater potential toward achieving an original ontological design. Video games, like other forms of media, carry the gene to intermix and modify the social fabric of the modern world. In similar ways, we can look at videogames from an ontological perspective so as to reach formidable interpretations that encourage an original approach to game-making, rather than making games as a form of culture imitation.

101.3 Conclusion One thing is clear from this small endeavor is that videogames are an equally if not more significant and in-depth form of medium as cinema or its other contemporary counterparts. The medium has the potential depth in terms of the techniques as well as the storytelling capabilities, maybe even greater in the later. There is an inherent

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value that is associated with the games. And the games we have seen so far have progressed the medium well afar, but there is still scope to bring sense and soul into it. This research showed that there can be ‘other’ ways of looking at it too. The connections drawn with the Four Noble Truths is the proof that the ontology of videogames has relevance in the Eastern context as well. According to many culture analysts, video games have already replaced film and music as the most defining aspect of youth culture [14]. Games like GTA-V and Cyberpunk 2077 are creating discourse which are compelling world thinkers to talk about and analyze them. The game designer of the popular shooter game Call of Duty was invited by the US Defense to assist their teams [1]. The scene is bigger than ever. Given that the upcoming era of tech users and enthusiasts is going to be dominated by Indians, Asians, and Africans, it is clear that we have to take charge of our own technology that we are going to use. And games are going to play an important role in society being part of the discourse, debate, and sociocultural definitions of the coming era. Therefore, it is important that we take charge of this domain. Like the Japanese have taken something which is not originally their own, like the Cyberpunk genre and even videogames, and put their own twist that not only resonated with the Japanese but with the entire world, we might also start looking at all things video game in that respect. To make an Indian game, we must approach videogames from an ontological point of view. Imitations will only result in failures or insignificant attempts.

References 1. How the military uses call of duty as a recruitment tool. Game Rant (2020, August 7). https:// gamerant.com/call-duty-modern-warfare-recruitment-tool/ 2. Maya Deren, M.: Maya Deren and the American avant-garde: includes the complete text of an anagram of ideas on art, form, and film. University of California Press (2001) 3. Wark, M.: Gamer theory. Harvard University Press (2009) 4. The dragon speech, and Chris Crawford’s improbable dream. The Life & Times of Video Games (n.d.). https://lifeandtimes.games/episodes/files/30 5. Huizinga, J.: Homo Ludens. Taylor & Francis (1998) 6. Ludonarrative dissonance meaning: how a galaxy brained video game term made it into the ‘New York Times’. Inverse (2020, June 28). https://www.inverse.com/gaming/ludonarrativedissonance-meaning-video-games-origins-definition 7. Games aren’t art, says Kojima (2006, January 24). Eurogamer.net. https://www.eurogamer.net/ articles/news240106kojimaart 8. Why the gaming industry could be the new social media. Forbes (n.d.). https://www.forbes. com/sites/forbesbusinesscouncil/2021/03/16/why-the-gaming-industry-could-be-the-new-soc ial-media/?sh=1a9c871b8f3a 9. If life is a game, then video games also reflect life. The Guardian (2014, May 13). https://www. theguardian.com/technology/2014/may/13/gaming-column-video-games-reflecting-life 10. Unity Technologies: Unity Gaming Report 2021. Emory Irpan, Arjun Gohil, Nathan TenBoer (2021). https://images.response.unity3d.com/Web/Unity/%7B4eb56531-e6aa-492f8fda-c68ae20af950%7D_2021_Gaming_Report_-_Operate_Solutions.pdf 11. Pragaya, L., Rasmussen, K.: Ontology of serious games. J. Educ. Technol. 5, 64–72 (2014). https://doi.org/10.26634/jet.5.2.551

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12. Long-distance empathy: An interview with Hideo Kojima about Death Stranding (2019, November 2). famitsu.com. https://www.famitsu.com/news/201911/02185866.html 13. Rath, R.: In Thailand, Buddhist monks grapple with the meaning of video games. VICE— VICE is the definitive guide to enlightening information (2018, February 5). https://www.vice. com/en/article/7xegk4/thailand-buddhist-monks-video-games 14. Video games have replaced music as the most important aspect of youth culture. The Guardian (2021, January 11). https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/jan/11/video-gamesmusic-youth-culture