Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation 9780801497599, 0801497590

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Illustrations
Preface
Introduction
1. "A Girl Wasn't Much”: Jewish Womanhood in Eastern Europe
2. Mothers and Daughters: Remaking the Jewish Family Economy in America
3. Unwritten Laws: Work and Opportunity in the Garment Industry
4. "All of Us Young People”: The Social and Cultural Dimensions of Work
5. Uprisings: Women and the Mass Strike Movement
6. "As We Are Not Angels”: The New Unionism and the New Womanhood
Notes
Index

Citation preview

Daughters o the Shtetl AND LABOR

THE IMMIGRANT GENERATION

LIFE

SUSAN

A.

IN

GLENN

Daughters of the Shtetl

"How

could a person, a

woman

not even

five feet tall,

change the

world? "I'll tell

you.

It's

a

good

story

." .

.

— Rose Chernin, In

as

quoted

My Mother's House

in

Kim Chernin,

Daughters of the Shtetl Life

and Labor

in the

Immigrant Generation Susan A. Glenn

Cornell University Press ITHACA AND LONDON

Copyright

©

1990 by Cornell University

Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, 124 Roberts Place, All rights reserved.

thereof,

Ithaca,

First

must not be reproduced

New

York 14850.

published 1990 by Cornell University Press.

International Standard

Book Number 0-8014-1966-2

Library of Congress Catalog Card

Number 90-1557

Printed in the United States of America Librarians: Library of Congress cataloging information

appears on the

0The

last

paper used

page of the book.

in this

publication meets the

American National Standard Z39. 48-1984.

for

minimum

Permanence of Paper

requirements of the

for Printed Library Materials

For

my

my

mother, Rhoda,

and

in

daughter, Rachel,

memory of

my grandmother, Jennie

Contents

Illustrations

ix

Preface

xi

Introduction 1.

"A

Girl

i

Wasn't Much": Jewish

Womanhood

in Eastern

Europe 2.

3.

8

Mothers and Daughters: Remaking the Jewish Family Economy in America Unwritten Laws:

Work and Opportunity

in the

50

Garment

Industry

90

Us Young People": The Social and Cultural Dimensions of Work

4. "All of

5.

6.

Uprisings:

Women

132

and the Mass Strike Movement

"As We Are Not Angels": The New New Womanhood

167

Unionism and the 207

Notes

243

Index

305

vii

Illustrations

1.

Brandsteter's clothing factory, Tarriow, Poland,

2.

Members

3.

1908 Orchard

1

910

39 Street, the heart of the

Lower East

Side,

1898

7.

A tailor from Bialystok and his family, New York, 19 10 A New York sweatshop at the turn of the century Jewish seamstresses in a New York sweatshop, c. 1905 Men and women in a small Chicago tailoring shop, 1905

8.

The female work

4. 5.

6.

c.

21

of the Jewish Workers' Bund, Gabin, Poland,

55 65

98 104 140

force in a large Chicago clothing factory,

141 161

1915

Jewish immigrant daughters at the beach, c. 19 17 10. Striking New York shirtwaist workers in their fashionable 9.

attire,

165

1909

A

gathering of striking shirtwaist workers, 1909 12. Picketing shirtwaist workers crowd the streets of 11.

170

Lower

Manhattan, 1909 13.

14.

171

Women workers selling the New York, 1909 Male and female

"Strike Edition" of the Call,

181

shirtwaist workers at a strike meeting,

189 206

1909 15. Parade of striking clothing workers, Chicago, 19 10 16. Executive Board, Local 25, International Ladies'

Garment

Workers' Union, 19 12 17. Sarah Rozner, union pioneer, with Adelia Bailey, 1961

229 23

ix

5

Preface

This book brings together three topics that have long engaged me: immigration and its consequences both for the migrants and for the life and the labor movement; and which gender-role socialization has informed all of these

society they entered; working-class

the

ways

in

issues.

To study

the experiences of Jewish immigrant workers in the Ameri-

can garment industry

reexamine

this topic

is

hardly to enter uncharted territory. Yet to

within the contexts of immigration and women's

me with a significant set of challenges. Although our understandings of acculturation and adaptation have been shifting as new studies contest older models of immigration history, and scholarship in women's history has been steadily breaking new ground, the disparate subfields of social history have not been well integrated. My goal has been to bring these subfields together with an eye to a deeper understanding of how ethnicity, class, and gender have informed one another and informed the consciousness and behavior of a particular group of immigrant working women. history has presented

Many

generous people and institutions helped to make

possible. For financial support

I

am grateful

to the

this

book

American Council of

Learned Societies, the National Endowment for the Humanities Summer Research Program, the Memorial Foundation for Jewish Culture, and the Mabelle McLeod Lewis Memorial Foundation.

Among search,

I

the

many

archivists

especially thank

and

librarians

who

facilitated

Marek Web and Fruma Mohrer

my reYIVO

at the

X!

xii

Preface

Institute for Jewish Research in New York; Richard Strassberg and Martha Hodges at the Labor-Management Documentation Center, Catherwood Library, Cornell University; Debra Bernhardt at the Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, Bobst Library, New York University; the staff of the ILGWU Research Department in New York; and Ida Cohen Selavan at the American-Jewish Periodical Center, who saved me a trip to Cincinnati by helping locate and translate articles from the

Yiddishes Tageblatt. I

owe special

debts of gratitude to the late Arcadius Kahan, economist

and historian of eastern European Jewish

life,

who drew my attention to

the Columbia UniverContemporary Cultures, a little-known and extrasity ordinarily rich source on early twentieth-century immigrant folklife; and to Sherna Gluck for allowing me to use interviews from the Femi-

unpublished interviews collected

Research

1947—48 by

in

in

History Research Project. Various scholars read this book at different stages of its evolution, and

nist

I

am

grateful for their

comments.

I

thank Nancy A. Hewitt and Steve

Fraser for giving the manuscript thoughtful and critical readings and for

making suggestions that helped me improve the final version. Thanks also go to Roger Daniels, Lynn Dumenil, James R. Grossman, Jack Potter, Ann Schofield, and Robert Weyeneth for their valuable criticisms. Lizabeth Cohen, Jon Gjerde, Gerda Lerner, Alexander Saxton, Gerald Surh, and Kim Voss provided insightful critiques of individual chapters. Reginald Butler, Myron Greene, Barbara Loomis, and Richard Pells gave me advice, support, and encouragement. Peter Agree, my editor at Cornell University Press, has enthusiastically supported this project, offering

saved I

sound advice

at every step.

me from numerous errors in

owe

Roger Haydon's careful copyediting the final draft.

a different kind of debt to

my

teachers at the University of

me to me toward

California, Berkeley. Paula Fass continually forced

confront the

comLeon Litwack has been more than a scholarly adviser. His warmth, generosity, and unflagging support have eased my way over the years this book has been evolving. Finally I thank Jim Gregory for patiently reading, listening, discussing, criticizing, nurturing, and much much more. difficult

questions in social history and pushed

greater

plexity of analysis.

Susan A. Glenn Austin, Texas

Daughters of the Shtetl

Introduction

Seventy-four years old

when she was interviewed in the mid- 1 970s,

Mollie Linker, a grandmother living in Chicago, recounted her life history in terms that were familiar to a generation of Jewish immigrant

women. "When I came here I was thirteen and a half At fifteen I took almost three hundred people [out] on strike. ... I got married at eighteen. Then the babies came." Like thousands of other immigrant girls, she had left her home in Russia during the early part of this century to begin life anew in America. Forced to leave the American schoolroom .

.

.

because her family needed additional income, in 191 5 she found a job sewing men's clothing at the giant Hart, Schaffner 6c Marx factory in Chicago. There she joined the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, a socialist-led industrial union, and helped organize the workers in her factory. Not long afterward she left the factory and the union for marriage and motherhood. But hers was not to be the standard American middle-class version of domesticity. As Linker described it, her honeymoon was spent in the back of a candy store, where she and her husband would work side by side for the next fifty-five years. 1

Her story is not unique, and in many ways it encapsulates some of the most compelling themes in the experiences of Jewish immigrant women who came to the United States in the first two decades of this century. Wage labor, participation in the union movement, marriage and motherhood sometimes accompanied by "helping" in a family business or by a temporary return to the factory to bring in extra income these were the familiar cycles of immigrant women's lives. This book examines the experiences of a particular group of Jewish

—

— Introduction

2

immigrants, European-born daughters who, early in this century, went

work

American garment industry. It explores the life of Mollie and the ways these women understood and integrated the worlds of work, politics, and family, creating a Jewish version of what early twentieth-century contemporaries called New to

in the

Linker's generation,

Womanhood. Their story begins

in the

Old World

— the world of the Jewish

shtetl

and the burgeoning industrial cities of eastern Europe economic, and cultural upheavals were beginning to challenge long-standing customs and ways of thinking. Emigration represented both a response to and a symptom of those upheavals. Between 1880 and the outbreak of World War I, an estimated two million Jews left Russia, Poland, and other parts of eastern Europe and emigrated to (small town)

where

political,

America. of the migrants were unmarried

women

twenties. For countless Jewish immigrant

women,

Many

and American garment industry became a home away from home, a place where they spent eight, ten, even fourteen hours a day, six and sometimes seven days a week. Many probably knew the garment workroom more intimately than any other aspect of their new American environment. For immigrant garment workers, one Jewish unionist would write, "the sweatshop was America." 2 Even if that assertion is only partially true, there is little doubt that the work experience provided an important prism through which Jewish daughters viewed the world around them and understood their own position in society. The centrality of the work experience to women's identity emerges in the poetry of a female garment worker: I

would

But

I

like to write a

in their teens

the

poem

have no words.

My

grammar was ladies waists And my schooling skirts. 3 These young

women do

not

fit

neatly into the established models of

immigration, labor, and women's history. literature ries

A

substantial

and growing

on the female experience has provided many excellent

of both middle- and working-class

the implications of immigration

and

women

in the

ethnicity for

histo-

United States. But

women's

culture

experience have not been adequately explored. 4 Even the growing ature

on wage-earning women, which acknowledges the important

that immigrants played in early twentieth-century industrial

life,

and

liter-

role

focuses

Introduction

3

mainly on questions of gender roles and relations, paying only passing attention to the ways in which immigration and ethnic group culture informed the lives of women at work, at play, and in protest and political activity. 5

One

of the goals of this

book

is

to bring together the

study of work, gender, and ethnicity and to describe working women's it was mediated not only by sex and class but which ethnic group culture shaped female culture

particular experience as also by the

ways

in

and consciousness.

The distinctiveness of eastern European Jewish culture was critical for women, especially in two related contexts. The first is the broad cultural orientation that Jews brought with them to the United States and its bearing upon questions of acculturation and social change. The

these

second involves the particular understandings of gender that

distin-

guished Jews from other groups.

Jews were neither the "uprooted," culturally dislocated immigrants in the 1950s nor the stubborn traditionalists romanticized by more recent studies of immigration and labor history. Neither of these polarities is complex enough to capture the enormous range of Jewish immigrants' attitudes and responses or the profoundly ambivalent nature of their cultural adaptation. 6 Many immigrants attempted to transplant and conserve Old World traditions. Yet the very act of emigration symbolized a willingness to take risks and a receptivity toward change. Throughout this book I have identified this receptivity as an orientation toward "modernity." By that I mean an openness to experimentation and sometimes even a conscious rebellion against the traditions of the Old World. I use the term deliberately, so as to distinguish it from the portrayed by Oscar Handlin and other historians writing

concept of "Americanization." The

latter implies a

wholesale accep-

tance of American values and institutions, a process that did not characterize the experience of

"Modernity"

is

more

most of these women

until the period after

1930.

neutral in terms of specific national values and

includes a constellation of symbols and opportunities denied or limited

by the traditional boundaries of Jewish participation, education, freedom of

life in

the

Old World:

political

movement and choice of residence,

opposed to theocratic concepts of authority and status. 7 For women, in particular, modernity meant breaking down traditional negative female stereotypes and expanding the feminine presence and voice beyond the customary spheres of home and marketplace. America offered various opportunities to step into the modern world, but immigrant women embraced these opportunities selectively and adopted them within a largely Jewish social and cultural orbit.

and secular

as

Introduction

4

As the chapters that follow make

clear, this orientation

was not

simply a product of emigration and resettlement, not simply the result of the

Old World confronting the economic and

urban-industrial

life in

cultural currents of

the United States. Traditional understandings

were being reexamined within Jewish society even before Mollie Linker and her generation crossed the ocean. The shtetl was neither a culturally stagnant nor a culturally insulated world, and many of the dilemmas physical uprooting, prothat immigrants faced in the United States letarianization, class conflict, politicization, generational conflict, and emerging redefinitions of gender roles occurred on both sides of the Atlantic. Thus we should think of the cultural renegotiations that took place among eastern European Jews in the decades after 1880 as part of a trans-Atlantic phenomenon, a process that began in the Old World but accelerated and took on new dimensions for immigrants in the United

—

—

States. 1

Jewish daughters experiences in the American garment industry and the union movement were central to this renegotiation. Yet the specific nature of their factory and union experience, especially as a crucible for

feminine

identity',

has not received nearly the attention

argue, as one historian has, that Jewish immigrant

themselves exclusively within the domestic sphere

is

it

deserves.

women

To

defined

to ignore the for-

activities in shaping their female consciouswage-earning daughters one of the central issues was the relationship between domestic and nondomestic life, a relationship that had particular relevance for the emergence of a specifically Jewish immigrant version of New Womanhood.

mative influence of external

ness. 8 Indeed, for

which Jewish immigrant women understood their place were in some respects unique. x\s Jews, they brought to their work a set of concerns, expectations, and values that grew out of the peculiar historical circumstances of their east European past and reflected their hopes for the future. As females, their situation differed in many respects from that of Jewish men. Feminine socialization and the special status of women affected their understandings, identities, and purposes, as well as their position within the industrial system. And to a considerable degree these two identities Jewish and female together defined immigrant women's special place in the his-

The ways

in

in the industrial setting

—

—

tory of working-class America. 9

The work experience of Jewish daughters resembled but also differed from the patterns described by recent scholarship in women's labor history, much of which tends to dichotomize the shopfloor and union experiences of women and men. Most histories have described the

— Introduction

working both

lives

division of

of

women and men

as essentially separate

job structures and in their

in their

work shaped

work

5

and

cultures. 10

A

distinct,

gendered

the labor market in the garment factories and

shops, reinforcing patterns of patriarchal dominance. Nevertheless, as this

book makes

clear,

women

filled a

range of positions and

skill levels

within the several branches of the clothing industry, from relatively highly paid status-bearing occupations to the most exploited realm of

women in the garment indusnor an identification with their work.

the unskilled "learner." Moreover, Jewish try lacked neither craft traditions

Many

Jewish daughters came to America as highly skilled needle workers dressmakers, seamstresses, and tailors. They brought with them a well-developed craft pride and a sense of competence that stood in sharp contrast to the stereotypic images of female workers as insecure, unambitious, and apathetic toward their jobs. Understandings about the legitimacy and necessity of female labor provided a sense of entitlement to this group of wage earners. 11 That sense of entitlement helps us explain why Jewish women played

—

such a highly visible role in the early twentieth-century labor movement.

On

the lookout for higher wages, interested in opportunities to imple-

ment

their skills, deeply concerned about the plight of less fortunate workers in their industry, they not only spearheaded a campaign for union organization but earned a reputation for being among the most dedicated and idealistic participants in the labor movement. This book attempts to understand why the same young immigrant women who considered themselves only like other female laborers in America temporary wage earners took more than a passing interest in their jobs and fought to improve the conditions of employment they would eventually leave behind. Several writers who have sought to account for the

—

militance of these

women

correctly attribute

it

to their

Old World

backgrounds. Jews in Russia were exposed to and affected by socialism and were experienced in class struggle, the argument goes, and thus were better prepared than many other groups for union organization. 12 But that is only a partial explanation. Other

socialist

and

class

factors helped shape their activism, including family

and communal

dynamics and the compelling new opportunities for public recognition, dignity, and respectability that young women saw in the union movement.

For Jewish participation

own

women

—

labor protest also represented a form of civic

a vehicle for exercising a political voice not only in their

behalf but also in defense of their families, their class, and their

ethnic group.

Here once again, group experience and understanding

fit

Introduction

6

uncomfortably within the established paradigms of women's history. Jewish women exhibited what feminist scholars have called "female consciousness" and looked to other women for support and emotional sustenance. Yet their activism sprang not from an idealized genderspecific sense of "sisterhood"

but rather from an evolving notion of

partnership and coparticipation with Partnership with

lines.

men

men

along class and community

in the struggle to

earn a living,

new

ideas

about romantic and companionate marriage, and community and radical socialist support for female activism all helped break down the barriers between the sexes, even if it did not dissolve them. It was this orientation toward partnership that gave Jewish women's activism its distinctive cast and its strongest contrast to the woman-centered politics of American middle-class reformers. The search for self-esteem through political involvement was part of a larger transformation of feminine social identity, one that was evolving even before Jewish daughters had left their homes in eastern Europe. Emigration to America represented an opportunity to extend that process. In traditional eastern European Jewish culture, women were viewed as inferior beings. At the same time, however, both married and single

women

received positive social recognition for their abilities as

women who emigrated to America moved environment where female labor was seen as a necessary

breadwinners. But Jewish into a cultural evil,

an activity to be tolerated only when the family was

in difficult

economic circumstances or, for single women, a brief interval between adolescence and marriage. In America a woman's social role was more exclusively domestic than it had been for females in Jewish culture. And far from viewing the female sex as inherently inferior, Americans tended to idealize and elevate womanhood and its distinctly feminine qualities. Elements of both of these cultural models entwined themselves in the emerging identities and self-perceptions of Jewish daughters in America. As they made the transition from the Old World to the New, young women drew upon the most positive and complimentary features of womanhood in each setting. They took strength from Old World traditions of women's work, which included a sense of artisanal pride and self-sufficiency,

while rejecting Jewish notions of female inferiority.

They aspired to the respect and admiration they believed was the birthright of American women. Yet what they borrowed from American culture they altered and made uniquely their own. Although most of these young wage earners did not consider themselves "feminists," their public behavior as workers, consumers of mass culture, and political activists clashed with conventional American and "Victorian" doc-

—

—

Introduction

woman's proper

trines of

place.

Even

7

their version of domesticity

brought together elements from several cultural frameworks. This melding of images partially explains why the motivations and aspirations of Jewish women sometimes appeared contradictory. Like Mollie Linker, most Jewish immigrant daughters aspired to conceptions

womanhood which stressed that their primary role after marriage would be domestic. Thus they planned to marry out of the factory into a home-centered existence. At the same time many were highly motivated and ambitious wage workers, militant participants in garment strikes and active union members. And they saw little contradiction in this of

mixture of womanly pursuits. What enabled Mollie Linker and other immigrant women to move easily from the arena of wage work and activism to the world of domesticity was the fluidity of their value system. As a transitional generation they were of Jewish

still

defining the terrain

womanhood.

By focusing upon Jewish immigrant women in the garment industry, book seeks to illustrate the significance of gender and culture in the lives of industrial workers and to illuminate the diversity of workingthis

class experience in

America. This

included discussions of

is

not a comparative study, but

women from southern

Italy

who

have played a major I

garment industry and its unions. Where their lives and values intersected with or differed from those of Jews, I have attempted to explain why. For the most part, however, I have chosen to probe the meanings of work experience in the lives of one particular group of role in the

women. Wherever possible I have drawn upon the personal testimonies of immigrant women themselves. These women included some of the most articulate members of the immigrant generation. Some recorded their experiences and memories in autobiographies, both published and unpublished. Others told the details of their lives to contemporary investigators. Still others

recounted their personal histories to interested Some of these immigrants had once occupied

scholars in later years.

positions of leadership within their unions; others

important

strikes.

Many more were

ordinary

had helped organize

women who

led unspec-

and undistinguished lives but shared features of a common background and had many of the same aspirations and goals as their more illustrious sisters.

tacular

I "A

Girl Wasn't

Jewish

Women

Much"

Womanhood

in

Eastern Europe

in eastern European Jewish and early twentieth centuries. On the one hand, they were excluded from the main lines of public authority in matters civic and religious; on the other, they played a central role in economic life and were charged with the important task of maintaining the fundamental religious rituals of private life. Women's work, economic and domestic, was acknowledged as an essential component of physical and cultural survival, but women as a sex were considered

occupied a paradoxical place

society in the late nineteenth

This paradox had both constraining and liberating consequences for

Jewish women.

them to participate as quasi-independent brokers in the public world of the marketplace and vested them with the rights and responsibilities of breadwinners. But it limited their activities to work and domestic cares, privileging higher pursuits, such as education, for men. The result was that although women were looked upon as freed

It

breadwinning partners

in the

Jewish family, they remained second-class

citizens in the larger society.

Old World, many Jewish women worked in artisan's shops or ready-made clothing factories. Others made cigars, cigarettes, stockings, and various consumer goods. Thousands worked in a family business or as a last resort went into domestic service. Although not all Jewish women in eastern Europe worked, the vast majority had been raised in a social environment in which the labor of wives and daughters was considered a vital part of the family economy. Thus the Jewish immigrant women who went to work in America's Before they

8

left

the

"A

Girl

Wasn't

Much"

9

garment industry were not peasants who moved from the Russian field to the American factory. Nor were they strangers to the workplace. Their childhoods and young adult years had been spent in eastern European towns and cities undergoing economic change. By the 1880s industrialization, commercialization of the economy, and a shifting political climate had created the conditions that drew increasing numbers of young Jewish women into workshops and factories. Along with these changes came the spread of new, Western, ideas. By the turn of the century female roles too were poised for change. The powerful transformations that would encourage a massive out-migration of eastern European Jews would also open the possibilities for reconstructing the relationships between women and men and between women and Jewish society.

Women s The was

Status,

tradition of

Women s Work

women's work

in eastern

European Jewish society

well established generations before the mass migration of Jews to

America. In the shtetlekh millions of Jews

made

— the small Russian and homes —Jewish men were

Polish

their

ble for supporting their families, but

women

towns where

legally responsi-

took an active part

in

breadwinning, sometimes assuming entire responsibility for the family's

economic imperatives. Although women in the preindustrial and industrializing economies of western Europe commonly shared economic tasks with men, Jewish women in eastern Europe were expected to work not only as a practical matter but as an extension of their religious duties. In the shtetlekh of eastern Europe the social system was organized along religious lines with authority based in Jewish law and leadership. Although Jews officially lived under the jurisdiction of state authorities, within their own communities they maintained a large degree of autonomy. A Jewish community council, made up of prominent members of the local synagogue, oversaw both civil and religious affairs: collecting taxes, dispensing charity, establishing local policy for Jews. Although Jews did not live an isolated existence and had frequent commercial contact with Russians, Poles, Lithuanians, and other gentiles, in many ways their lives were circumscribed by separate cultural, religious, and welfare. This pattern reflected cultural as well as

1

communal

concerns. 2

Nineteenth- and early twentieth-century east European Jewish society

was highly

stratified

and highly patriarchal. Within Jewish

culture,

Daughters of the Shtetl

io

without exception men, were the most respected people in the social order. Jews knew no loftier goal than the pursuit of religious learning, and no sacrifice was too great to send a son advanced religious school. Parents hoped their sons might to Yesbiva religious scholars, almost

—

become rabbis and bring great prestige to the family name. 3 Women, who could not become rabbis and whose place in the community depended upon their husband's or father's status, considered it a mark of great success to marry a learned man. "Learned people were more important than rich people and a girl would be happy to marry a boy that sits and studies" all day, one Russian Jewish that does nothing

—

woman

recalled. 4

Religious scholars received the support of the family.

When

a

men became

the

boy went away to attend Yeshiva, the townspeople

provided free board of

community and

or, as

it

was

rabbis after they

called, "eating days." 5 left

A small number

Yeshiva and had their salaries paid

by the community. But most simply acquired the title of "reb" (teacher) and continued their studies in the besmedresh (study house) of the shtetl, serving as unpaid community leaders, taking part in the religious activities of the town, and acting as authorities on Jewish law. Yet without a subsidized rabbinical post, scholars had to find a means of support. Most looked for a wife who could manage the household and earn enough to free her husband from major economic responsibilities. Jews considered it something of a religious obligation for the wife of a Torah scholar to work while her husband devoted most of his time to study and prayer. Jewish folk culture acknowledged that a

woman

might even earn a place in Paradise if she labored to support a religious man. This belief reflected women's inferior status in the traditional culture, for once she arrived in Paradise, according to Jewish lore, she served as her husband's "footstool." 6 As Ida Richter, an immigrant from a small town near Minsk put it, "In Russia, a [Jewish] woman was nothing. [But] A boy was very important in Jewish life for a lot of things. When my father used to pray in the morning with his prayer shawl, I used to hear him say in Hebrew, 'Thank God I'm not a woman.' A girl wasn't much." 7 Barred from playing any important role in religious leadership and excluded from positions of authority in the community, women found their "sphere" confined to domestic and economic functions.

which stressed the piety and acknowledged woman's sexuality, her earthiness, even her ability to corrupt a man's morals. And while middle-class Victorians argued that woman's moral and domestic reIn contrast to western Victorian ideas,

purity of

womanhood, Jews

freely

1

"A

Much"

Girl Wasn't

1

should take precedent over any income-producing role, European Jews, who expected females to be both pious and

sponsibilities

eastern

worldly, thought

while the

women

perfectly proper for

it

men pursued

a

life

to help earn a living

of religious scholarship. 8

In Tarnoruda, a small town in Galicia (a region of the Austro-Hungarian Empire bordering on the Ukraine), Fannie Edelman's parents

manner common to the scholarly class. "My father was a Jew .... When he married my mother he was promised a year's

lived in a

learned

board so that he could sit in the synagogue and study the Torah." With the money from her dowry, her mother opened "a little store" and sold flour, salt, and barley to support her husband after the year was over. 9 A Jewish woman from Sandemish, a small shtetl near Warsaw, explained that most women felt "happy" and "proud" to support a man of learning: "There were thousands like that who worked very hard while their husbands sat and studied. They were pregnant, gave birth, breast-fed children, carried on the business, and served him as well. They used to take young boys from the Yeshivas, marry them off and give them room and board with a wife to work for them while they studied further." But she claimed that the women "didn't complain because it was already a form of life for many generations and they were free

.

.

.

.

used to

.

.

it."

10

Eva Broido,

who would

father only rarely.

With some

In the Lithuanian countryside of her youth, later

become

bitterness,

a revolutionary,

Broido recalled

saw her

detachment from the family and her

his

mother's almost heroic struggle to earn a living.

There were three of us children the head of the family,

its

living in the country.

driving force and

its

.

.

.

Our mother was Our father, a

breadwinner.

kind and not unintelligent man, looked upon us children as something

He was an unand knew nothing worldly Talmudic scholar, who needed of our needs. He was on his own and we were on our own. It was left to our mother to provide for us all. It was left to her ... to toil and to worry, to run extraneous, with which he would not concern himself. for himself

little

the forest holding

Whatever

.

.

.

status a

while he remained

in

town throughout. 11

woman's family gained by her marriage

scholar, she paid dearly with her

own labor. Although most women who

supported religious scholars accepted their duties without complaint, clearly

it

was not because

in the

next world but had

much

overt

Burdened wife might hope to scholar's

their lives

with domestic as well as economic tasks, a

go to Paradise

to a

little

were

easy.

earthly pleasure in this

Daughters of the Shtetl

12

one.

Miriam Shomer Zunser,

one humorously

bitter

psychic release to such

had

his

head

in the

recalling her girlhood in Russia, told of

Yiddish song that no doubt provided a certain

women. As

the song suggests, the scholar often

clouds while his wife worried about more

mundane

matters.

He runs to the synagogue And reads all the laws, He runs here and there Growling

like a bear.

To market she must hurry Wood to buy and worry Bread she must bake Kindling she must break; The children she must care for That's what she's there for, Put this one to bed, Smear up that one's head;

Soothe

this one's

ache

To the out-house that one take, And for measure full or near A baby every year. 12

The Breadwinning Partnership

Women's economic

its most extreme degree in where wives performed a religious mitzvot (good deed) by working so their husbands might pursue a

obligation reached

the families of religious scholars,

higher purpose.

ment of the

And

although the scholarly class was only a tiny seg-

society, as the cultural elite they set the tone for the society

The hard-working scholar's wife acted as a legitimating symbol of the female breadwinner for the masses of east European Jews. If the scholar's wife worked, then why not the merchant's, the trader's, as a whole.

the watchmaker's, or the tailor's?

And

that

was

the pattern. In every

stratum of Jewish society the work of women was considered both necessary and respectable. The hundreds of thousands of Jews who eked in small commercial enterprises and artisanal trades relied upon the labor of all family members, including wives and daughters. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Jewish families made their living mainly from various forms of commerce and

out a living

"A

Girl Wasn't

Much"

By the 1880s larger industrial enterprises also provided work but still had not supplanted the small, home-centered producer. In addition to work in handicrafts and petty commerce, Jews supported themselves by running taverns and inns, dealing in various commodities such as grain and alcohol, and working as teamsters, draymen, and coachmen. Thousands of others were unskilled laborers, often without a regular occupation, drifting from job to job. 13 Although Jews traded in agricultural products, theirs had never been a peasant economy. Legal restrictions kept most Jews from working the land. In the early nineteenth century only 8 percent of the Jews in Russia were farmers, most of them living in government-sponsored agricultural colonies. By 1900, with the imposition of new restrictions on Jewish residence, fewer than 14 3 percent of Jews in Russia were earning a livelihood from the land. Most Jews lived in villages, small towns, and cities in what was handicrafts.

known as the Pale of Settlement. Ever since the partition of Poland at the end of the eighteenth century, Jews living under Russian rule had been confined to fifteen provinces in western and southwestern Russia and ten eastern Polish provinces designated as the Pale. Permission to live in cities

and towns outside the Pale of Settlement had been granted only to

master artisans, merchants of the sionals,

and

prostitutes.

guild, university students, profes-

first

At the end of the nineteenth century

all

of these

groups, with the exception of Jewish prostitutes, saw their special

resi-

dential privileges revoked by the Czarist government. 15

Over the thirtyyear period from 1880 to 19 10, the Pale was a world squeezed ever more tightly by political restrictions and by the economic consequences of industrial change.

Women played a major role in this economy. Although statistics on Jewish working women in the Pale are not completely reliable, they provide important insights into women's economic role at the end of the nineteenth century. The Russian census of 1897 counted 307,038 Jewish women in the Pale who were considered "economically active." This represented roughly 21 percent of Jewish females in the 14-to- 5 9-year old age group, the cohort likely to be engaged in

some

sort of breadwin-

ning activity. Economist Arcadius Kahan, however, challenged this

fig-

count women working in small home-based workshops and omitted thousands of females laboring in

ure, noting that the census failed to

the industries of several large

number

cities.

Kahan estimated

women was

that the total

undercounted by at least a hundred thousand, which would raise the portion of economically active females to between 27 and 28 percent. 16 Such statistics also hide an important feature of women's work experience the fact that female breadwinof working

—

14

Daughters of the Shtetl

ning roles were sometimes part-time or intermittent, geared to particu-

phases of the

lar

life

cycle as well as to times of family need. After

women worked

marriage some

continuously, leaving the care of chil-

dren to other members of the household or to servants. Others made their economic contribution as various domestic responsibilities permitted

and when needs and opportunities were

frequency of married women's cultural support to

make

it

greatest. 17

But overall the

work was high enough and had sufficient

something of a norm.

had important implications for the position of women in and the society. The paradigm of Jewish marriage, with the exception of those in which scholars' wives supported their husbands, involved some expectation of a male-female partnership in the responsibilities of breadwinning. Even though women remained in a decidedly subordinate position in Jewish society and enjoyed little of the moral All of this

the family

religious authority of their western bourgeois counterparts, the bread-

winning partnership gave Jewish wives some family authority, a knowledge of the marketplace, and a certain worldliness. In the absence of a husband, a woman could assume most of his duties, except, of course, his formal role in the synagogue. This flexibility in gender roles along with the shared responsibilities for earning a living helped modify patriarchal dominance and blurred the lines between gender roles. 18 x Although many women pursued their own trades, a woman's work frequently depended upon her husband's occupation. 19 As in most artisanal economies, a wife typically assisted her husband with the ancillary tasks of his trade. A traditional Yiddish marriage song spelled out the pattern:

Cobblers' wives must

make

the thread

must sit up late Coachmen's wives must tar the axles Tailors' wives

Butchers' wives

.

.

.'.

.

.

must carry the meat

.

wives must turn the wheel

Painters' wives

.

.

.

.

.

And if her husband engaged in some form

.

.

.

must mix the paint saw the boards

Carpenters' wives must

.

.

Weavers' wives must throw the spindle Filers'

.

.

.

.

.

.

20 .

of commercial enterprise, she

him there as well. Large numbers of married women worked

assisted

in business or trade, either

helping in a store formally run by their husbands or keeping a store or

5

"A

Girl Wasn't

Much"

.

1

on their own. Women ran produce stores, dry goods stores, sold home-baked goods and various home-produced items, and traded herring, chickens, and other products in the marketplace. Other women ran timber businesses, sold grain and flour, and operated taverns and inns. 21 Even the most prosperous male members of a community often depended upon the labor of their wives. In Vilna, for example, Abraham Cahan recalled that one herring dealer in his neighborhood prospered stall

largely because of his wife's business

acumen. 22 In Nieszawa, Lottie

Spitzer's family considered their jewelry business a joint enterprise

shared by husband and wife. In

reality,

however, Lottie's mother kept

the business going.

My father was a jeweler, but he did not make a living only from jewelry he used to be an interpreter in court ... he used to write for the paper. Poetry. So he in the

was always busy

back of the store doing a

business

woman. He was to

make

spent the whole day

A woman's

lot of writing.

really the

.

Hebrew

My father used to be

And my mother was

buyer of the store, but

the

my mother took

We had a maid in the house. The maid used to dress us.

care of the store

Mother used

in those things.

.

breakfast and send us out to school.

And mother

in the store. 23

ability to

run the family business or to oversee her own was sometimes necessitated by the peculiar

small business enterprise

economic life. Jewish men often engaged in occupations that required them to travel. Artisans such as tailors and cobblers as well as commercial peddlers left the shtetl for long periods of time to structure of Jewish

surrounding countryside. In their absence had to learn a certain degree of economic independence. Fannie

their products in the

sell

women

Edelman recalled the regular disruptions of family life after her father became a "custom peddler." While he traveled through the countryside selling prayer shawls and other religious articles, her mother sold flour and other staples in the family store: "My father would come home only for the Jewish High Holy Days, that is, a few times a year. The rest of the time he traveled around with his merchandise but my mother could not depend too much upon his earnings, and therefore kept the store

—

going." 24 In

who was critical of these somewhat exaggerated terms the quality of shtetl Fannie Edelman's father were away peddling their

1868 Yiddish novelist Isaac Meier Dick,

practices, described in life

when men

like

wares: "The hamlet looks dead during the whole week;

semblance of a gynocracy, that

is

a

it

has the

kingdom inhabited only by women.

1

Men

Daughters of the Shtetl

6

spend the week

wander from remain only women, children, unemployed men." 25 communal officials, students and a few By the end of the century, as the economy diversified and middlemen took over much of the distribution for artisans, fewer men took to the road. Nevertheless, women continued to play a key role in the family commercial enterprises that made up such an important part of the Jewish economy. Daughters, as well as wives, assisted in the workshops and businesses of their parents. Not only did girls help their mothers with domestic and child-rearing tasks, but they were also expected to share in the process of earning a living. Beginning at an early age, some middle-class daughters the children of merchants were groomed for a career in 26 commerce. As young girls, they spent time waiting upon customers in the family store or helping with the accounting. By the time she was nine years old, Rose Pesotta's Ukrainian-born mother had been inducted into the family business: "Aunt Sheba set out to train her charge to become a my mother became the bookkeeper in Aunt business woman. Thus until Friday in the country, they

village to village. ... In the

hamlet

itself

.

.

.

—

—

.

.

.

By the age of sixteen, when Rose's mother married, she was running the store by herself. 27

Sheba's flour, grain and cereal store."

The Hierarchy of Female Occupations Because business provided a degree of economic independence,

Jews

in eastern

Europe favored

it

over

all

other occupations. As anthro-

pologists of the shtetl have observed, Jews

felt

that

it

was

better to

"work for oneself than for someone else" even if this independence meant smaller incomes and less security. Moreover, business was attractive because it required that one use one's head and was identified with intellectual activity. 28 If

business ranked highest in the hierarchy of occupations, domestic

service

was one of the lowest and

woman. Whatever

least desirable positions for a

Jewish

material comforts and security were afforded to

domestics, the benefits scarcely compensated for the humiliation associ-

Not only did it imply a loss of independence and an acknowledgment of inferiority, but it meant cleaning, sweeping, laundering, and other tasks labeled "dirty" work. Given Jewish concerns ated with servitude.

—

with ritual forms of cleanliness especially the preoccupation with kosher foods and the separation of clean from treyf (unclean) dishes and pots

—

it is

not surprising that domestic service seemed demeaning. As

"A

Girl Wasn't

Much"

17

one Jew from the Ukraine explained, "the physical strength

Unlike

women in

dirtier the work, or the more was required for it, the more proste [lowly] it was." 29 some western European societies, who viewed domes-

an acceptable occupation because of its protective social surroundings and the preparation it provided for future marital duties, tic

service as

Jews saw the occupation as decidedly odious. "For a Jewish girl to become a maid there's a tragic story behind it," another immigrant

—

insisted. 30 Reflecting

upon the number of Russian-Jewish girls who became domestics despite the low status of the position, one woman explained "they had no profession and the only thing was, to go for a maid." Yet because they were humiliated by the prospect, many left their home villages, instead finding domestic work in another community. There, if fortunate, a servant would save money for a dowry and eventually marry a worker or a man from a poor family. 31 Symbolic factors aside, the occupation had practical drawbacks. Domestic service had limited utility as an occupation for wives. A woman might continue to carry on a business or work at her own trade after marriage, but working as a live-in servant was not feasible once she started her own family. Many women, however, had little choice in the matter. Unlike dressmaking or other trades, domestic service required

no prior training or ate employment as substantial

skill,

and a poor

woman could at least find immedi-

a maid. Sheer poverty no doubt accounts for the number of Jewish women who became household servants.

The Russian census of 1897 reveals that 35 percent of gainfully employed Jewish women worked as domestic or personal servants. But as Arcadius Kahan suggests, this figure was probably exaggerated. Many women listed as domestic servants were more likely to have been live-in apprentices in the skilled trades, performing household labor for their master's or mistress's family. 32

Lower

still

in status

than domestic servants, and harder to count,

life, the burdak income for poor Jewish women in the villages as well. As one Jewish immigrant from Galicia remarked, "Sure we had a brothel. What shtetl and town didn't?" And added, rhetorically, "What's the matter, a Jewish girl can't become a prostitute?" 33 A Russian-Jewish immigrant woman from Lida remembered that in her town the burdak was run by a Jew and that most of the prostitutes were Jewish. Her own aunt ran a grocery store and a saloon, where local

were the

prostitutes. Usually associated with big city

(brothel) provided a source of

prostitutes sold their favors. "All the soldiers used to recalled. "Naturally

when

come in there,"

there were soldiers, there were

to wait for them." 34 "There

were a

girls

lot of girls that couldn't

she

who used

succeed

in

1

Daughters of the Shtetl

8

Dora Bayrack. Bobruisk, where she grew up, and those factories which did exist were very small. Aside from cigar and cigarette making, and a few bakeries and dressmaking shops, there were few jobs open to shtetl girls. Some of the most desperate women in her town went off to the interior of Russia and became prostitutes in the big cities. Although off limits to most other Jews, cities outside the Pale opened their gates to prostitutes who obtained the infamous "yellow ticket." 35 the small towns," recalled

had

little

industry,

Manufacturing and the Needle Trades

Much

preferred over domestic service and other disreputable oc-

cupations were handicrafts and manufacturing work. As Russia experi-

enced the early stages of industrialization in the 1880s, women found in a range of industrial trades. Factory work provided some of

work

economic need in Jewish families and manufaccheap labor opened the way for a small but growing Jewish female factory proletariat at the end of the nineteenth century, mainly consisting of unmarried women. In workshops that manufacthese jobs. Pressing turers' desire for

tured cigarettes, cigars, knit goods, gloves, textiles,

artificial flowers,

women and sometimes as helpers to the men. Typical was Handler's cloth factory in Bialystok, where unskilled girls worked for half the wages paid to skilled male weavers. 36 ~ Most of these "factories" were unmechanized workrooms employing between eleven and seventeen workers. Even those with machinery usually had only between twenty and forty employees. 37 There were some notable exceptions, however. Match, tobacco, and glove factories sometimes employed hundreds of Jewish women under one roof. Tobacco workers, more than others, resembled a modern industrial work force. Shereshevsky's tobacco factory in Grodno, one of the largest in the Pale, employed about a thousand people, most of them women and buttons, glass, bricks, soap, candy, and other products, children

worked

at unskilled

and semiskilled

jobs,

children. 38

More important than

factory

production was the home-based

putting-out system. At the end of the century, thousands of married and

women were employed on

an outwork basis, performing both and unskilled labor in their own homes. In the match industry, for example, the matches were made in large-scale factories, but packing was done by other female employees at home. 39 In Vilna province, the center of the stocking industry in the late nineteenth century, and in

single

skilled

"A

Girl Wasn't

Much"

19

Lodz and Bialystok, thousands of Jewish female homeworkers produced goods for contractors who provided them with machinery and yarn and paid them by the piece. 40 the great textile centers of

Married

women

usually considered industrial

homework

a

more

appropriate source of income than factory labor. The putting-out system offered them some definite advantages. It allowed the whole family to

work

together as a unit and did not disrupt a

responsibilities. Equally important, unlike factory

generally disapproved of for Jewish wives,

family norms.

It

woman's domestic work, which was

homework

did not violate

preserved a husband's authority over his wife because

it

women to labor all day under the direction of other men, women a great deal of freedom to arrange their own work

did not require

and

it

gave

schedules and thus had a strong appeal to

many Jews. 41

Neither outwork nor factory labor was as attractive as a skilled trade, in the turn-of-the-century Pale independent and semi-independent

and

artisans,

most of them working out of

their

own homes,

still

outnum-

bered other laborers in the manufacturing sector. Families that de-

pended upon women's earnings, and whose circumstances permitted it, hoped their daughters would become artisans. Outside of commercial business enterprise, a skilled trade was the most highly regarded form of women's work. Many young women learned crafts such as shoe- and bootmaking, baking, weaving, and lacemaking. Some also became glaziers,

bookbinders, even butchers. But the chief trade for

men) was garment making.

In 1898,

when

women

(as for

the Jewish Colonization

Association, a private philanthropic agency, conducted a massive inves-

economic condition of the Jews in Russia, it discovered thousand women in the Pale of Settlement were engaged some branch of the sewing trades. They constituted 70 percent of the

tigation of the

that over in

fifty

registered female artisans in the Pale. 42 In reality, the

dleworkers was probably

much

larger, since

number

many women

of neefor

one

reason or another did not register their occupations with local authorities.

The predominance of Jews in the needle trades apparently dates back centuries and seems to have been an outgrowth of religious customs. In the eighteenth century more than half of the Jewish artisans in Poland were working in the clothing trades, and it is likely that even then a large percentage of eastern European garment workers were Jewish. 43 Orthodox Jews were forbidden to wear clothing made of mixed wool and linen, and consequently came to trust only Jewish tailors to follow this rule. 44 Even in the early twentieth century, as one man from Bragin, Russia, explained, many Jews refused to wear clothes that were not

20

Daughters of the Shtetl

— that

were not made according to Jewish made clothes for gentiles, and in the Pale of Settlement they sewed for the peasantry as well as village and urban populations. By the end of the nineteenth century more Jews of both sexes worked in the garment trades than in any other occupation except commerce and trade. The Russian census of 1897 shows that 17 percent of all gainfully employed Jews in the empire listed their occupation as the manufacture of clothing. This was nearly 50 percent of all Jews engaged in manufacturing or mechanical pursuits. 46 The garment industry in eastern Europe was in a state of transition. As late as World War I, much of the clothing was still produced by independent artisans in their own shops. Most towns had tailors, tailoresses, dressmakers, and seamstresses who produced for individual customers, the former making men's and women's suits and coats, the dressmakers sewing bridal wardrobes and fancy gowns, and the seamstresses making blouses, skirts, underclothing, and linens. Some of these highly skilled needleworkers catered to a middle-class and wealthy Jewish and gentile clientele; others served the general urban population. A lower stratum of artisans sewed primarily for the local peasants, making cheaper garments and generally receiving less money for their work. In addition to filling orders for individual customers, some sold clothing in the marketplace or peddled their goods in the surrounding countryside. The least skilled and most poorly remunerated artisans were the "repairers" who patched, mended, and reconstructed old "kosher"

is,

clothes that

law. 45 But Jewish needleworkers also

clothing for the poor. 47

After 1890 this traditional system of artisanal production and dis-

growing ready-made clothing industry. In some locales the line between independent artisan and employee became increasingly blurred. Many needleworkers were artisans in name only: working independently in their own homes, they actually produced under contract for middlemen who distributed garments to stores. 48 Factories that mass-produced ready-made clothing for the stores or for export were also beginning to appear. Most of the new factories were still relatively small, commonly employing fewer than a dozen workers, but a few larger establishments had emerged as well. In Vilna and Pinsk, for example, ready-made tailoring factories employing as many as forty workers competed with the tiny artisans' shops. However, large-scale production was still very much the exception. For the most part the Jewish clothing industry remained concentrated in thousands of tiny enterprises employing no more than a couple of assistants or in home workshops. 49 tribution existed side by side with a

"A

i.

Modern

Girl

Wasn't

Much"

21

factory production threatened traditional Jewish crafts and trades in

Russia and Poland. Brandsteter's clothing factory, Tarriow, Poland, 1910. Institute for

YIVO

Jewish Research.

This production system

women, combining

made

the needle trades an ideal occupation

work with the ability to carry out domestic responsibilities. Motivated by hopes for a secure economic future, thousands of Jewish women learned dressmaking, tailoring, and for

respectable

other kinds of needlework. Especially after the 1870s,

sewing machines arrived lieved that "those

who

in

Russia and Poland,

when

the

was commonly

first

be-

could afford to buy a Singer machine were

assured of a good livelihood." Journalist

many

it

parents, impressed by the

Abraham Cahan

recalled that

economic potential of the new technol-

ogy, hurried to apprentice their children to the "golden" trade. 50 Like so

many

other young Jewish women, Brucha Gutrajman was taught that sewing was a good trade for a girl, "a trade with a future," something she could depend upon to earn a living. 51 Indeed, a girl might take pride in the seamstresses' craft for it gave her a certain independence, a feeling of accomplishment, and some security against hard times. In a song that

Daughters of the Shtetl

22

traveled from the

workshops of Russia

women

York, Jewish

garment

to the

factories of

New

expressed this confidence: Seamstress

The

needle's

my

am

I,

possession

need no longer worry

I

For the coming days. Stitch, stitch, girly,

See the seams are straight.

Each pretty

Must be

little

a perfect

dress 52 fit.

The image of the independent seamstress also appeared in the writings of novelist Sholem Asch. In his 1925 novel The Mother he describes a poor girl's rise to respectability in a small town where she has become a seamstress: "Dvoyrele was sixteen years old then. Because she had set up her

own

dressmaking establishment, she earned for herself an enviable social distinction among the other girls of the town. The older girls were therefore anxious to be her friends." 53 To listen to young women who grew up in small towns in eastern Europe is to understand how in their eyes the seamstress could inspire respect. Fannie Shapiro, who grew up in an isolated village in White Russia, recalled how exciting the life of dressmaker seemed to her when she

I

was

a girl.

used to

or

little

come

5 girls in a

had

town and they had these little shops ... 2, 3, 4, making dresses and things. And they house, working to the small

.

a Singers, a

would be

.

sewing machine.

sitting

.

.

...

I

used to

and working and singing,

I

.

.

.

.

.

envy [them], and the

girls

was so much

fun.

thought

it

what I want!' Oh but I thought it was a lot of fun, sitting and singing. They worked about ten hours a day, and were sitting on these chairs, and sewed by hand, and some those [who] knew how to work by machine, those were the big shots. 54 Singing ...

I

says to myself, 'That's just

—

To

learn

how

not only with the

means

to be a seamstress or a dressmaker provided a

skills

husband and children later on. Knowing the woman's marriage prospects. Abraham Bisno,

to help support a

trade thus improved a

who grew up

in a small village

could be to her household

if

near Kiev, recalled

his father,

how helpful a woman

she could continue to follow her trade after

she married. Bisno's father, a tailor

from

woman

she could use to earn a living for her parents but also

had grown up

whose trade had been passed down

in the desperate

poverty that often

"A

Girl Wasn't

Much"

23

stalked an artisan's family. But because of his wife's ability to sew, economic conditions in his own family were improved. "My father was

perhaps a

little

more

fortunate, since

Mother had learned

the trade of

making peasants' bonnets. She would embroider lengths of cloth, make them up into women's bonnets and sell them in the open market." 55 Indeed, if a woman came from a poor family with little to contribute in the way of a dowry, her earning power as a seamstress became an important asset to a potential husband. Moreover, girls from poor families went to work in the needle trades in order to save money for the dowry that was essential to marriage arrangements. 56 A Yiddish love song, sung by young seamstresses in Russia, related a young girl's longing for the return of her sweetheart from the army and her willingness to toil at her trade in order to make money, perhaps for a dowry but in any case to provide an inducement for him to marry her. Let us

fall in

love,

Let us be a pair by heaven blessed I

swear to you by shear and iron

I'll

wait for you two, three years

I'll

wait for you two, three years

Even I'll

four's

send you

And

worth while.

money

to the regiment

myself will bear with tailoring. I

will

And

bear with tailoring

live

here in great want.

But when you return

Don't say I'm an old maid. 57

Jews regarded the needle trades differently for men and women. Gender mediated definitions of occupational status among the masses of Jews who generally held the seamstress in higher regard than her male counterpart, the tailor. This distinction reflected the inequality between men and women in the culture, particularly the stress upon the higher goal of learning for men and the correspondingly limited expectations for women. Jews assigned a low social status to male tailors and viewed the seamstress with greater respect because women did not compete for social prestige on the same basis as men. Women were supposed to aspire not to religious learning but to marriage. Consequently women's position in the social order depended less upon their occupation than upon whom they married. Although scholarly men and tailors stood at opposite ends of the male social spectrum, the same values were not

Daughters of the

24

Shtetl

women, and the position of seamstress had few of the negative stigmas associated with tailoring. In a comment revealing of the difference between male and female occupational status, Rose Cohen, who grew up in a small shtetl in Russia, related the contrasting images of the seamstress and the tailor. When Cohen's aunt left home at the age of sixteen and traveled to Minsk to become a nursemaid, it precipitated a minor family crisis. "As grandmother expected her to be a seamstress, this choice of occupation caused grandmother as many tears as father's becoming a tailor instead of a rabbi. For a nurse girl was thought to be as much below a seamstress as a tailor below a rabbi." 58 In the Reznikoff family, Sarah wanted consistently applied to Jewish

generally

much

was urged by her father to needed her earnings. However, when her brother, who had been singled out for a religious education, apprenticed himself to a tailor against their wishes they reprimanded him for disgracing the family. While they criticized Sarah for being too intellectually ambitious, they accused her brother of being "unambitious" and "low," saying that tailoring was not good enough for their educated son. very

become

to pursue her education but

a seamstress because the family

Father answered, "I should not like a child of mine to be a shoemaker or a tailor.

The ignorant people

of the

town have done

this

work

for genera-

When a family has a stupid or a bad child, they apprentice him to one Then Father turned to me and said, "Little girl, you these trades."

tions.

of

.

.

.

were born into the wrong family with your ideas." I became

"You were You can read and write. Many Jewish girls of the well-to-do families cannot do that. You are also handy with the needle. Now you must make plans to suit your

born the eldest

girl

and

this family

needs your help badly.

.

red.

.

.

circumstances." 59

Most

eastern European Jews considered the needle trades a respect-

able occupation for a

woman. Only among the

social elites of the shtetl,

the so-called sheyne yidn (beautiful or fine Jews)

labor

was beneath them, was

who

felt

that

manual

there any doubt about the propriety of this

work. Fear of downward mobility encouraged these families to try to keep their children out of the manual trades. Although they made special efforts for sons, the more socially prominent families evinced similar concerns about daughters' occupations. As Elizabeth Hasanovitz, the daughter of a Hebrew teacher, recalled, "The tradition of a respectable family in our town, no matter how poor, was to keep their daughters at home." The very idea that Elizabeth might become a

"A

Girl Wasn't

Much"

25

"working girl" was intolerable to her mother. 60 Leon Kobrin, who grew up in a Lithuanian shtetl, explained that it was only the "ill-favored" girls presumably those difficult to marry off who were sent away to a large city to apprentice to a dressmaker or, in the worst case, to

—

—

become a servant. 61 One Jewish woman who emigrated to the United States from the Bessarabian region of Russia in 19 14 had come from a family that had achieved sheyne status because there were educated people on both her father's and mother's side. But they were poor. Her father's tobacco business failed, and her parents concluded they must either apprentice their daughter to a trade or migrate as a family to

America to try to earn a living. As she remembered, her parents "would have preferred starvation" to the prospect of her learning a trade, and she was sent to America where her family would follow. 62 Especially as economic conditions worsened for Jewish families toward the end of the nineteenth century, concerns about social "pedigree" gave way to more immediate financial imperatives. 63 One woman who grew up in a middle-class household in a small shtetl in Russia recalled how her parents had to compromise their social status when they found themselves in increasingly difficult economic circumstances. Her father had once held a good job as a construction foreman, which at the time was an engineering post. But with changing conditions in the Jewish economy, he was no longer able to find enough work. As a result, she and her sister were sent to another city to learn the dressmaking trade, and her brothers also went away at a young age to learn trades. Later, some manufacturers built a glass factory in her home town, and her sister returned to

work

there until she married. 64

For Sarah Rozner, becoming a dressmaker's apprentice was at first a source of humiliation. Her father, a poverty-stricken but highly respected Hungarian-Jewish religious scholar, had little choice but to send her to learn a trade.

"My

people,

my

parents

came from

the

elite;

.

.

.

they were educated; even my grandmother knew how to read and But by write." They were also landowners, "big shots in the town. all

.

.

.

was born, they were down to nothing. We were starving; there wasn't even enough bread to go around." Unable to continue her education, Sarah dropped out of school and went to learn dressmaking. "I used to take the finished garments and deliver them to the customers. They would try to give me tips, but I was so God-damned proud that I even refused to take the tips or to kiss their hands as was the custom though I was starving." But she added, "I finally got wise to myself and the time

I

—

one day I took the tips." When her family later decided to emigrate to America to improve their economic circumstances, Rozner had ac-

Daughters of the Shtetl

2.6


3.i6

15 years T A/^'a rc 10 ycdib

4.30

3.81

88.6

5-5 2

5.60

17 years

£ 88 0.00

101.4 91.6

yctiirc 3

7.22 8 CO

t 1

52

j

^ yc 197-99, 2.03-4; marwomen's outside wage work, 70;

ried

Labor markets, 96 Labor movement in garment industry, 169; communal solidarity, 204-6; consumerism and, 164-66; contracts with industry, 223-26; control of working conditions through, 171, 224; discipline in workplace and, 153; discriminatory

223-27, 231-32; ethnic divi188-91; executive boards, women's participation on, 222, 227-28; family attitudes and, 194-97; gender cooperation, 186—88; growth of unions, 170-71; housewives' protests and, 176, 196, 211; humane treatment, demands for, 174-75; Italian community, opposition within, 198, 203-4; Italian-language locals, 198-99; Italian participation, practices, sions,

1

Index

188, 191-92., 193-95, 197-99; Jewish employers and, 203; Jewish women, responses of, 192—94, 199—200; married women's involvement in, 240—42; New

Womanhood

and, 210-12; organization and disorganization, pattern of, 176; political

awareness through, 169; radical

subculture: see Socialist

movement

America; reformers' support

in

176—77;

for,

200—204; shopfloor origins of militance, 173-75; skilled workers, importance of, 185—86; social environment of workplace and, 165—66; social justice as goal of, 211-12; women's militancy, 171-77, 185—86. See religious practice and,

also

New

unionism; Separatism

in

labor

movement; Strikes in America Labor movement in eastern Europe, 35—36, 178 Ladies' Garment Worker, 230 Ladies' Waist Makers' Union (New York Local 25), 168, 217-18 Lady, ideal of the, 79, 190—91 Leiserson Company, 167-68 Leisure activities, 159-60;

216

Levin, Sam, 232 Levin, Shmarya, 144 Licht, Nettie, 84 Life

and Labor

1 1

(WTUL

journal), 190, 191

Life Is with People (Herzog

and

Zborowski), 30 Linker, Mollie,

1, 43, 87, 150, 240 Sam, 109, 116 Lomonossoff, Raissa, 232, 235-36 London, Meyer, 182

Liptzin,

Lower East

Side of

New

158-59;

social status through,

Married women, Orthodox

rules governing,

81-82 Married women's involvement in American labor movement, 205, 240-42; housewives' protests, 176, 196, 211 Married women's work patterns in Amer-

abandonment of wage work follow239-40; boarders, taking in, 73—74; breadwinner ethic and, 77— 79; childcare and, 70-71, 72; commerica:

ing marriage,

74-76, 240; daughters, impact on, 79; domestic duties and, 71; cial activities,

homework,

72-73; immi76-79; patriarchal family system and, 69-70; in post— World War I period, 240; redistribution of economic responsibility, 89; statistics on, 67—68, 76; work outside the home, obstacles to, 66-67, 687i, 76 industrial,

grants' interpretation of,

145-48

New Woman-

187

Lieberman, Beckie,

of,

81

Masculine work environment, 11 6- 17,

hood and, 209, 218, 219 Lemlich, Clara, 165, 167, 168, 175, 185, Lerner, Elinor,

view

309

York, 54-56, 95,

96, 100, 159-60, 179, 182 Luise-Natarelli, Grace de, 194

MacLean, Annie Marion, 149 Mannes, Bessie, 184 Manning, Caroline, 129

Masilotti, Clara, 199

Maskilim, 33

Match

industry, 18

Matyas, Jennie, 54-55, 58, 71, 88, 105, 121—22, 126—27, 185—86, 196, 212 Mendelsohn, Ezra, 40, 178 Men's tailored clothing industry: gendered division of labor, 107, 108—10, 114; jobrelated ambitions of women, 127-28 Milkman, Ruth, 114 Millman, Mollie, 75, 84, 149—50 Mintz, Bessie, 191 "Modernity," Jewish orientation toward,

3-4 Morgenstern, Joseph, 45 Morgn Journal, 201 Mother, The (Asch), 22 Movies, 159, 162 Murtland, Cleo, 125

Needle trades. See Garment industry headings

Marimpietri, A. D., 199 Marot, Helen, 230 Marriage: abandonment of wage work following, 239-40; arranged marriages, 37;

Newman,

Pauline, 54, 151, 153, 155, 205,

230

New

23; New Womanhood and, 210; religious scholars as husbands, 10-12, 77-79; ro-

unionism: accommodation of women, 216-17; changes in unions' attitudes and procedures, 217; educational and recreational programs, 218— 22; illegal job actions, 223—26; labor turnover and, 217; radicals' perspective

mantic love and, 157-58, 238;

on, 219-20; shopfloor-level influence of

economic salvation through, 158; economic self-sufficiency as avenue to, 22—

socialist

necessity of,

1

Index

310 New

unionism

anthropic groups, assistance from, 53, 62—63; psychology of adaptation, 64; urban life, adjustment to, 54-55; women

{cont.)

women, 222-27; unique

aspects, 217.

See also Separatism in labor

New Womanhood,

2, 4,

movement

207-9; changes

in

meaning over time, 208; directions of women's life course, 238—42; education and, 220-21; gender relations, assumptions about, 210, 213-14; Jewish version, framework of, 209-16; labor movement and, 210-12; leisure habits, 209, 218, 219; models of female activism, 214-15; political behavior, 209; separatism, rejection of, 237-38; social justice,

crusade

for,

211 — 13. See also

New unionism New York Call (Socialist paper), New York Socialist Party, 182

woman's

place

in,

work

patterns; Married

204, 205

women's work

patterns

Residences for working girls, 62-63 Reubens, Walter, 152 Reznikoff, Sarah, 24, 62 Richardson, Nettie, 234, 236 Richter, Ida, 10, 158, Riis,

160-61, 200

Jacob, 95, 96

Rischin, Moses, 179 Rise of David Levinsky,

Occupational patterns of immigrants, 6566. See also Daughters' work patterns; Married women's work patterns Odencrantz, Louise, 129 Overtime work, 151 Paradise,

alone, problems of, 52-53, 60-63; work, focus on, 64-67. See also Daughters'

Romantic

The (Cahan), 78 157-58, 238

love, notions of,

Rosenberg, Abraham, 205 Rosen Brothers, 167 Rothenberg, Abie, 1 1 Rozner, Sarah, 25-26, 95, 127-28, 142, 143, 148, 196-97, "5. *3*> 2-33-34 Rudnitzky, Anna, 218 Russian revolution of 1905, 42 Russian Social Democratic Workers' partv

(RSDWP), 35

10

Parker, Cornelia Stratton, 129 Peiss,

Sabbath, work on, 139-43

Kathy, 156

Peretz,

I.

L., 28,

34

Pesotta, Rose, 16,

40—41, 45, 70, 126, 151 Philanthropic groups, 53, 62-63, 9 6- 97 Piecework: discipline in workplace and, 151-54; social environment, 149—51; union rules affecting, 225; wages for, 1

19-20

"Pig markets," 96

&

Cohen, 95 Pogroms, 32-33, 42 Poyntz, Juliet Stuart, 218 Priola, Rose and Lena, 195 Prostitution: in eastern Europe, 13, 17—18; white slavery, 52 Pilatsky

"Protocols of Peace" (labor agreement), 171, 223, 224 Putting-out system,

18-19

Rand School of Social Reformers, 176—77

200—204

77—

79 Resettlement process, 51; family life, reconstruction of, 63-67; housing and living conditions, 57—63, 71; immigrant processing, 51-52, 53; Jewish communities, in,

Schneiderman, Rose, 59, 175, 184 Schwartz, Sarah, 175 Section system, 99, 100-102, 103 Separatism in garment unions, 228-29; abandonment of, 234—35, 236; accomplishments of, 234, 235-36; American unions, 230-31; establishment of female locals, 232-34; ethnic values and, 236; gender assumptions and, 231-32; Jewish workers' rejection of, 236-38; pragmatic

Sexualitv, Jewish attitudes toward,

139-43

settlement

Schnall, B., 152

175

Religious attitudes of garment workers, Religious scholars as husbands, 10—12,

Schepps, Mollie, 207, 208 Schlesinger, Benjamin, 93, 203 Schlossberg, Joseph, 199, 232

basis of, 231; proponents of, 229-31 Sexual division of labor. See Gendered division of labor headings Sexual harassment in workplace, 145-48,

Science, 154

Religion and unionism,

Sadowsky, Reuben, 93 Sanrora, Mamie, 228

53 — 57; loneliness, 61; phil-

10— 11,

81-82 Shane Company,

the C. B., 190 Shapiro, Annie (Hannah), 174 Shapiro, Fannie, 22, 47, 52, 86, 128, 147,

148, 201, 223 Share, Goldie, 95

Sholem Aleykhem

tsu

Immigranten

(Yiddish-language guidebook), 77

8

Index

system

Shtetl, social

in eastern

Europe: au-

for Jews, 9; class differences, 3637; domesticity as female vocation, 34; generational differences, 39-41; married

tonomy

women, Orthodox

rules governing, 81 —

82; patriarchal nature, 9—12, 14; restructuring of traditional way of life, movefor, 33—35; upheavals of late 1800s, 30—33; women's paradoxical place, 8. See also Bund, the; Women's

in eastern

movement

European ibility,

roots,

181;

differing attitudes

57—60, 71

161—62

Woman, The

fire,

(Henry), 230

Company, 151, 153;

49, 83, 138; strike against,

167-68

Kingsbury, 71, 179

Tyler,

in America, 5, 177-78; 178-79; ideological flex-

illegal

life,

Tender, Leslie, 122, Tobacco workers, 1

factory

Slop trade, 91 Smith, Judith, 64 Smith, Leah, 129 Social housekeeping, 212-13 Socialist

Tenement

Triangle Shirtwaist

Europe

Mary

Simkhovitch,

and seamstresses,

toward, 23—24 Tannenbaum, Rebecca, 88 Task system, 100

Trade Union

ments

work

Tailors

311

job actions, support

226; immigrants, attraction for, 18081; Jewish nationalism advocated by, 181—82; Jews, attraction for, 179—81; labor organizing activities, 182-86; marriage, view of, 158—59; married women's activism, support for, 241; political strength, 182; radical women, authority of, 183—85; religious beliefs and, 142; separate female organizations, 229 Socialist movement in eastern Europe. See for,

Bund, the

Gus, 221

Udin, Bessie, 36, 184, 191, 221 Underworld, Jewish, 52 Union movement. See Labor movement headings; see also New unionism; Separatism in labor movement; Strikes in America

United Cloth Hat and Cap Makers' Union, 184, 219

United Garment Workers (UGW), 170 United Hebrew Trades (UHT), 183 Unity Houses, 219 "Uptown" and "downtown," images of, 143

Van Kleeck, Mary, 120, 130, 191 Vecoli,

and economic equality, women's desire for, 165—66, 211 — 13

Social justice

Rudolph, 197

Vulgarity in workplace,

145—47

Sorin, Gerald, 35

Wage Wage

Soskin, Rose, 119 Spenser, Pearl, 205 Spitzer, Lottie, 15, 37, 52, 61, 96, 104,

143, 150, 153, 155, 188, 190, 227,

no,

239-

40 Steinholtz, Mollie, 95, 128, Stern, Elizabeth, 72

225

Stocking industry, 18-19 Strikes in America: communal solidarity demonstrated through, 204—5; contract rules against,

223-26; demands of

169; family economic situation and, 196; family support, 196—97; gender cooperation, 187-88; married strikers,

women's involvement

in, 205; militancy 172; number and frequency of, 169—70; organizational strike of 1909— 1910, 167-69, 205; violence

of

women

strikers,

against strikers, 169 Strikes in eastern Europe, 178; by apprentices,

Suffrage

28

movement, 207, 215-16

Sweatshops. See Contracting shops Syrian immigrants, 56, 73

Earners' Suffrage League, 207

inequality, in, 113; job-changing and, 129-30; piecerates, 119-20; speed and ability factors, 1 18-19; statistics on,

117— 18, 119; wage bargains and, 120— 22, 129; week rates, 120, 121 Wagner, Ephraim, 72 Wald, Lillian, 163, 213 Wechter, Mollie, 84 Week workers: discipline in workplace and, 151 — 54; wages for, 120, 121 Weinstock, Anna, 149

Weisman, Dora, in Weisman and Son's, in, 113 Wexler, Mollie, 26, 28, 29, 30, 38-39, 47, 50, 51, 53, 102-3,

46-

237-38

White

slavery, 52 Wirth, Louis, 76 Wise, Stephen S., 177

Wolff, Ella, 60, 86-87,

Womanhood, new

140-41

definition of. See

New

Womanhood Women's

history

and immigrant experience,

relationship between,

238-39

312 Women's

Index

industries:

gendered division of

la-

no— 11,

112, 113, 114— 15; job-related ambitions of women, 1 10-1 1,

bor,

107-8,

Women's Trade Union League (WTUL), 83, 177, 188, 190, 213, 219, 229-30 Women's work in America. See Daughters' work patterns; Married women's work

in eastern

Eu

Workplace, social environment of, 122-23. 132-33; competition among workers, 150; cooperation among workers, 151; discipline in workplace and, 151-54; education, informal,

154—59, 183-84;

eth-

nic groups, relations between, 188;

atmosphere of small shops, 133life, outlet for, 159-66; female community, 143-45, M7 — 48; familial

patterns

Women's work

See also Garment industry rope

Europe, 8-9; artisanal trades, 19; commercial activities, in eastern

38; fantasy

prenticeship in eastern Europe; domestic

lunch time, 154, 225; masculine work en vironment, 116-17, 145-48, 175; mod-

service,

16-17; elites' attitude toward, 24-25; expectation of male-female part-

ern influences of factories, 133, 137—39; payment systems' effect on social dy-

nership in breadwinning, 14; factory work, 18; family economy, importance to, 12; hierarchy of occupations, 16-19; homework, industrial, 18-19; husband's occupation and, 14; independence, value of, 16; number of working women, 13— 14; part-time and intermittent work, 14; political restrictions on Jews and, 13; prostitution, 13, 17-18; religious scholars, support for, 10-12; tradition of, 9; traveling by husbands and, 15—16.

namics, 149-54; religious dilemmas,

14-16; daughters'

role, 16: see also

Ap-

139-43; 50,

socializing opportunities,

149-

153-54

Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia, 63-64, 77 Yezierska, Anzia, 71, 78, 139, 220 Yiddishes Tageblatt, 201, 202-3

Zionist movement, 35 Zuger, M.,

in

Zunser, Miriam Shomer, 12, 34, 37

—

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Glenn, Susan Anita. Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and labor p. cm. Includes bibliographical references

ISBN 0-8014-1966-2

(p.

in the

immigrant generation

/

Susan A. Glenn,

).

paper)

(alk.

clothing workers — United — History. Women, Jewish — Europe, — Social conditions. Women, Jewish — United — Social conditions. Jews, East European — United — Social conditions. Women immigrants — United 1.

Women

States

Eastern

States

History.

2.

States

3.

I.

5.

4.

States

Title.

HD6073.C62U54 1990 33 i.4'8i687'o89924

— dc20

90-1557

Sate t1

Boston Public

COPLEY

S

GENERAL L

The Date Due Card

pocket indicates the date on or before which this book should be returned to the Library. in the

Please do not remove cards from this pocket.

— Also from Cornell In the

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THE SECOND GENERATION

AARON HASS What are the effects of growing up in the shadow of the Holocaust? Drawing on interviews and survey materials, Aaron Hass provides a vibrant account of the experiences of survivors' children.

and

ties

forties,

men and women

these

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Now

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impact of the Holocaust feelings about which some of them have never spoken. Himself a child of survivors and a distinguished clinical psychologist, Hass writes about the lingering presence of the Holocaust in his own life as well. their parents

on

offer their perceptions of the

They

their families.

ISBN 0-8014-2477-1

give voice to

memories and

216 pages

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Brotherhood of

Memory

JEWISH LANDSMANSHAFTN IN

THE NEW WORLD

MICHAEL

R.

WEISSER

With a new Preface by the author

A

Brotherhood of Memory, Michael R. Weisser describes a fasand little-known chapter of the Jewish immigrant experience in America. Drawing on moving first-hand accounts as well as rare documentary evidence, he recovers the rich history of the landsmanshaftn, benevolent societies that provided immigrants from Eastern Europe with economic help, advice, and a psychic and spiritual haven in a frightening In

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