Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning [1st ed.] 9783030449469, 9783030449476

Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-xix
Introduction: Why This Book Is Relevant and Critical Today (Tom Culham, Jing Lin)....Pages 1-9
Front Matter ....Pages 11-11
A Personal Journey and Introduction (Tom Culham, Jing Lin)....Pages 13-20
Daoist Cosmology and Axiology, or the Philosophy of Qi and Virtues (Tom Culham, Jing Lin)....Pages 21-32
Virtue and Qi: The Pursuit of Immortality in Daoism (Tom Culham, Jing Lin)....Pages 33-41
Daoist Epistemology: Integral Cultivation of Knowing and Being (Tom Culham, Jing Lin)....Pages 43-57
Front Matter ....Pages 59-59
My Personal Journey and Is It Good for You to Be Good? (Tom Culham, Jing Lin)....Pages 61-67
A Brief Comparison of Daoist Philosophy and the Enlightenment (Tom Culham, Jing Lin)....Pages 69-79
Integrating Reason, Emotion, Subjectivity, Spirituality, and Neuroscience (Tom Culham, Jing Lin)....Pages 81-91
The Technology of Cultivating Virtue and Qi—an Overview (Tom Culham, Jing Lin)....Pages 93-105
Alignment of Being Human with Virtue and Qi (Tom Culham, Jing Lin)....Pages 107-163
Front Matter ....Pages 165-165
Insights from within the Daoist Tradition: Incorporating Qi and Virtue into Contemporary Education (Tom Culham, Jing Lin)....Pages 167-174
Cultivating Qi and Virtue, Daoist and Current Thought: Education Insights (Tom Culham, Jing Lin)....Pages 175-199
Back Matter ....Pages 201-210

Citation preview

SPIRITUALITY, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION

Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning

Tom Culham · Jing Lin

Spirituality, Religion, and Education Series Editors Jing Lin University of Maryland College Park, MD, USA Rebecca Oxford Huntsville, AL, USA Sachi Edwards University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, HI, USA Edward J. Brantmeier James Madison University Harrisonburg, VA, USA

This series publishes books that examine fundamental questions of life, touching on the meaning, purpose, and mission of education from a variety of spiritual and religious perspectives. The series provides a forum for scholars to explore how to engage learners spiritually and holistically. It studies how spirituality, religion, and education intertwine with the learning of wisdom, peacebuilding, cultural and interfaith dialogues, and the integration of learners’ body, mind, emotions, and spirit. Commonalities and differences among spiritual and religious traditions are explored alongside new developments from science that bridge the spirit and the mind. The series especially pays attention to the educational initiatives, outcomes, and programs that simultaneously engage the cognitive, affective, and spiritual dimensions of both students and educators. The world we live in focuses mostly on education for the intellect, thus restricting our ability to explore and understand deeply the nature of the cosmos and the meaning of our life. Although education is accessible to more people than ever before in human history, the dominant paradigm focuses solely on knowledge, skill, and material acquisition that neglects the meaning and purpose of life. This creates a huge void in learners and produces a huge number of people who are unhappy, unfulfilled, restless, lost, or desperate. An education that distills and recovers wisdom from spiritual and religious traditions can fill the void and help cultivate citizens who have love, compassion, knowledge, and the capacities for enlightened action. Books in the series address these age-old pursuits of inquiry, meaning, purpose, growth, transformation, and change. To submit proposals to the series for consideration please contact Jing Lin at [email protected]. More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/15331

Tom Culham • Jing Lin

Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning

Tom Culham Beedle School of Business Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada

Jing Lin University of Maryland College Park, MD, USA

Spirituality, Religion, and Education ISBN 978-3-030-44946-9    ISBN 978-3-030-44947-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44947-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: © Thang Tat Nguyen / Moment / gettyimages This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

I dedicate this book to my Teachers of Life, to an upcoming movement that will center on the cultivation of virtues and our life energy for good health, longevity, and peace in the world and respect for Mother Nature. I also dedicate the book to an exploration of our cosmic citizenship in the new eras to come. —Jing Lin I dedicate this book to my parents Eileen and Doug Culham, my wife Eugenia and children Felicia and Nathaniel. I am grateful for their care and love. I have gone through quite a transformation from engineer to educator philosopher. Their support throughout my life has been invaluable. —Tom Culham

Foreword

Now and then a book comes along that surprises you, puzzles you, delights you, and energizes you to dream beyond where you are, and perhaps in a way you have never done before—at least not in education. I have been a reader in educational discourse for over 25 years, and this book is one of these rare books. It urges us toward quantum re-thinking about education, including the aims of education. Who would have thought of immortality—one of the major notions in this book—as an educational project? But if we take seriously the idea that all of life phenomena are interconnected, and there is no end to life as there is no end to energy (qi in the Daoist context) in this universe, then perhaps immortality is not as preposterous as it may first seem. There is an undebatable logic to the immortality thesis: if the essence of life is qi (vital energy), and qi cannot be destroyed (just as energy cannot be destroyed), then so are human beings as they embody qi and are part of life. We are then essentially immortal. But not statically immortal: we are constantly and dynamically changing, and the art of living, from the Daoist viewpoint, is the art of change. As many of you readers may know, there is the ancient Chinese text titled The Book of Changes or I Ching. We are immortals who practice the art of changes. How wonderful it would be if our school curriculum includes programs and courses on the art of changes toward a better world! It is one thing to be hit on the back of the head, as it were, by changes, and another to enact changes, consciously and deliberately. The current (2020) COVID-19 crisis attacked us seemingly out of nowhere and pushed us into gargantuan systemic changes. It is safe to say that life after

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COVID-19 will not be the same as life before COVID-19. Seeing how the mighty financial empires in the world are convulsing under the viral spread is a totally humbling experience. We are forced to make changes to the way we see the world, treat the world, and live in the world. This is the perfect context for appreciating the new book by Professors Lin and Culham. For the time is now for making significant changes to ourselves and how we live in our world. Today, there is every sign that this civilization has reached its crisis point. Daoist teachings, as explored in this book, emphasize cultivation of vital life energy (qi) and virtues. What I am particularly appreciative about the Daoist virtues is that they embody the feminine (yin) qualities, in contrast to the masculine (yang) qualities that have been dominating the human civilizations for a few millennia. The results of this yang domination are a state of imbalance for the whole world, including human psyche. We valorize strength, commanding, domination, achievement, accumulation, winning, competition, progress, pride, knowledge, and so on. The more is the better; the bigger is the better; the faster is the better; and so on. The Daoist virtues valorize humility, compassion, gentleness, softness, non-forcedness, nourishing and nurturing, servicing and resourcing, wisdom, and so on. These are feminine (yin) virtues. Seeing where we as a civilization have ended up, namely being very destructive of and damaging to the planet, and promulgating ills and inequity to human community, it would indeed be wise to address the feminine–masculine, yin–yang, imbalance by adopting the Daoist virtues and walking the path of compassionate care and mutual flourishing. These are veritable educational aims and goals. As the authors of this book announce, “[t]he world we live in calls for a new ontology, axiology, and epistemology that works to maintain the order and functioning of the universe and human society” (Chapter 1). The new they are calling for happens to be an old that has been with us since ancient times: Daoist understanding and ways of life. It is just that humanity has chosen, rather consistently, to go the other way, creating a yang-imbalance that has gone too far into bloody, life-destroying violence, domination, and exploitation. Cultural historian William Irwin Thompson suggested that ancient China faced a forking point in their civilizational history to go down the path of either feminine world-making of Daoism or masculine world-making of Confucianism. The choice made two thousand years ago reached this point in time today as we face the COVID-19 crisis that threatens to shut down the world as we know it. Perhaps, we are

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once again facing that forking point in history. Could we choose, this time, to go on the path of feminine world-making? I am ready to join Culham and Lin for the Daoist world-making. The Daoist world-making does not start with the usual modus operandi of doing something to the world, typically conquering, seizing, colonizing, forcing, exploiting, controlling, and making profits. On the contrary, it starts renouncing the modus operandi of colonialism and turning one’s attention inwardly, to the self. Self-examination, self-reflection, and self-cultivation—these are the primary aims of Daoist educational effort. Virtue, health, wellbeing, knowledge, and wisdom are not out there; rather, they lie within, to be uncovered and discovered through these practices. We welcome their emergence within ourselves and allow them to transform our lives. Daoist practice and philosophy valorizes alignment with Nature, and the harmonization and unification of all of Nature with the nature of the individual is central. In particular, for the Daoist, the self is a microcosm of the entire universe, endowed with qi, “the energy and spirit that permeates all existence and interconnect all existence” (Chap. 1). Infinite mystery awaits students of Daoism to explore the depth of this energy and spirit, and to cultivate their patterning and manifestation. Such cultivation is synonymous with Daoist virtue education. As such, it is this cultivation that can support the health and harmony promoting relationship that we may have with every thing/being in Nature, including human beings. Hence, at the foundational level, there need not be separate civic education, mindfulness education, empathy and social-emotional learning, ecological/environmental education, or any other branches and sub-branches of education that currently bulge and overwhelm school curricula. These fragmented bits and pieces of learning end up competing against each other for space, time, and attention. Daoist education supports the roots and the very soil that holds and nourishes the tree (of Life). Daoist practice is the transformation of all that might impede the interconnection and interbeing of all things. Another point that I wish to make in support of this book: the Daoist penchant for impartial observation of all phenomenon is a point of intersection with Modern Western Science since they both emphasize observation. At the same time, the Daoist thought takes its departure from the latter since the latter, for the most part, precludes spirit as a subject of inquiry. In this book, Daoist openness to all phenomena invites contemporary science to observe spirit as an observable phenomenon. This

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approach offers insights not available through one or the other perspective. This reader-friendly and comprehensive book grew out of, in academic parlance, interdisciplinary scholarship and research: Western philosophies, Eastern philosophies, Asian studies, wisdom traditions, Western sciences, especially neurobiology and brain sciences, consciousness studies, literature and narrative writing, educational discourse, and more. All make their respective contributions to the scholarship undergirding this book. And most importantly, this book demonstrates the very educational process it is advocating by offering fluid integration between theory that informs and practice that transforms the reader. All the comments that I made in this Foreword only touch the tip of the wealth of wisdom, knowledge, and information offered in this text. I sincerely hope that this book reaches a wide audience and inspires people everywhere to dream, imagine, and hope for a different world—a more peaceful, kind, compassionate, richly meaningful, fulfilling world than the one that is currently staggering to stand up under the heavy weight of all its malaises. April 14, 2020 Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, BC, Canada

Heesoon Bai

Acknowledgements

I am grateful for the great teachers in Daoism and spiritual teachers around the world. I am grateful for the time we live in where the once secret texts are made available. I am most grateful for having the opportunity to embody and experience the teaching of Dao in the Daoist texts, rendering the study of the perennial wisdom an integral living, being experience. I thank my family members who have always loved me, my students who have given me a lot of inspirations, my colleagues and friends who have supported me in many different ways, and finally all the energies that have supported me and nourished me. — Jing Lin Thank you to all the teachers who helped me along the way. I am grateful to you for your presence in my life. May you be an example to others on the path. — Tom Culham We are grateful to Heesoon Bai for writing the Foreword to this book. We are grateful to Heesoon Bai and Jack Miller for the time they took to review our draft and provide their thoughts and insightful suggestions. This was an important contribution to our work. — Tom Culham and Jing Lin

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Praise for Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning “Inspiring, insightful, and informative, this book illuminates a deeply transformative vision for the Daoist way of life and education in contemporary society. Blending philosophy, spirituality, and science, it calls for cultivating qi and virtues for well-being, compassion, integrative power, and ecological sustainability. Conveying profound wisdom and complex systemic thinking with accessible language, the collaboration of two authors from different backgrounds embodies the synergism of East/West dialogues.” —Hongyu Wang, Professor of Curriculum Studies, Oklahoma State University, USA “A courageous undertaking that bridges ancient wisdom to modern aspects of education and personal growth. This is a very well researched and very practical book and it ‘moves the needle forward’ considerably as we collectively evolve into this ‘second axial age.’ In this time of global health and climate challenges, business leadership scholarship and practice will benefit by taking this work to heart.” —Don Morrison, Chair of Dalai Lama Center for Ethics and Transformative Values at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA, and former COO of Blackberry “In the conventional perspective, learning is a function of logical analysis. Ego takes us to personal power. Yet, modern science is moving us to a radical perspective, one long recognized by the major religious traditions. Transcendence of ego and the embrace of virtue enlarges understanding and capacity. In this book, you will discover that for which you have long yearned.” —Robert E. Quinn, Professor Emeritus at the Ross School of Business, University of Michigan, USA, and co-author of The Economics of Higher Purpose (2019)

“This rich volume on Daoism, qi, and virtue is an essential antidote for our warring, despairing world. Speaking deeply, holistically, personally, and approachably, this book addresses perennial spiritual questions. It reveals classical Daoist wisdom and cosmology and timeless Daoist practices and compares all these with themes from western philosophy and technology. Having long awaited such a book, I am grateful for and awed by this masterwork.” —Rebecca L. Oxford, Professor Emerita and Distinguished Scholar-Teacher, University of Maryland, USA, and Adjunct Instructor, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA “In this book, Tom Culham and Jing Lin bring their deep understanding of Daoism to explain how qi and virtues are central to living a healthy and fulfilling life. Their scholarship and wisdom are evident throughout this book. In the last section they explore how Daoist principles can be applied to education. Education needs a new story that can address the problems we face today including climate change. Daoism, which is rooted in nature, can help in shaping a new story. Culham and Lin’s book helps us in this important work.” —Jack Miller, Professor, University of Toronto, Canadato “The book is a very interesting and insightful take on the Dao that can help Westerners understand Eastern thinking in new ways. The more holistic, systemsbased approach embedded in Daoist thinking is much needed in Western approaches to societies and to the Earth itself.” —Sandra Waddock, Galligan Chair of Strategy, Carroll School Scholar of Corporate Responsibility, and Professor of Management, Boston College, USA “This well-researched volume looks at the application of Daoist thinking and practice to contemporary education from two unique perspectives. Jing Lin draws on personal experience and quality research in focusing on the importance of qi and the cultivation of values. Tom Culham utilizes a comparative approach, looking at these issues from western, scholarly understandings and practical application. Together they show how Daoist practice and virtue cultivation can help foster individual wisdom and goodness for the whole world.” —Ramdaas Lamb, Professor of Religion, University of Hawaii, USA

“The dynamic interplay between spiritual and scientific ways of knowing, between scripts and rituals/practices, and between time and space, are nicely covered in this book. Jing Lin, grounded in years of Daoist practices, provides a rigorous reading and knowledgeable understanding of the classic Daoist texts, while Tom Culham, equally grounded, examines Daoism through the lens of Western philosophies, reasons, science, and research. Finally, the authors share pioneering insights on how Daoism might inform contemporary educational practices. It was really a joy to read this exciting book, and I would highly recommend it!.” —Xiaoan Li, Senior Program Officer, Fetzer Institute, USA

Contents

1 Introduction: Why This Book Is Relevant and Critical Today  1 Tom Culham and Jing Lin Part I Daoist Aspiration for Immortality through Cultivating Qi and Virtues  11 2 A Personal Journey and Introduction 13 Jing Lin 3 Daoist Cosmology and Axiology, or the Philosophy of Qi and Virtues 21 Jing Lin 4 Virtue and Qi: The Pursuit of Immortality in Daoism 33 Jing Lin 5 Daoist Epistemology: Integral Cultivation of Knowing and Being 43 Jing Lin

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Part II Daoism as a Holistic Paradigm: A Unity of Spirit and Science  59 6 My Personal Journey and Is It Good for You to Be Good? 61 Tom Culham 7 A Brief Comparison of Daoist Philosophy and the Enlightenment 69 Tom Culham 8 Integrating Reason, Emotion, Subjectivity, Spirituality, and Neuroscience 81 Tom Culham 9 The Technology of Cultivating Virtue and Qi—an Overview 93 Tom Culham 10 Alignment of Being Human with Virtue and Qi107 Tom Culham Part III Education Insights 165 11 Insights from within the Daoist Tradition: Incorporating Qi and Virtue into Contemporary Education167 Jing Lin 12 Cultivating Qi and Virtue, Daoist and Current Thought: Education Insights175 Tom Culham Index201

List of Tables

Table 8.1 Comparison of right brain and Buddhist states of awareness Table 10.1 The Element-Organ-Emotion-Spirit-Virtue Links (Cohen, 1997, p. 237, Ni, 1995, p. 16) Table 12.1 Comparison of Education Cosmology, Ontology, Epistemology Assumptions

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Why This Book Is Relevant and Critical Today Tom Culham and Jing Lin

Many problems we have in our world today are based on a narrow vision about life that attends to the short term, the self only, or for our family or community only. People are driven by selfish desires and take power and wealth as indicators of our life’s worth. The intellect and mind are given priority above all other ways of knowing cutting us off from our origins and the richness of our humanity. We see people, nature, and the cosmos as separate. Nature is seen as a resource, where possession of a large quantity of material things is perceived to give us power and value. Virtues are taken as moral options, wherein as long as we do not violate laws we can do what we want to benefit ourselves. The consequences of this perspective are all around us. Degradation of the environment, interpersonal and global conflicts, excessive levels of stress and over medication, and unhappiness despite wealth accumulation are strikingly prevalent around the world. The world we live in calls for a new ontology, axiology, and epistemology that works to maintain the order and functioning of the universe and human society. Virtues in Daoism are not simply moral rhetoric, but are vital for understanding the mechanism sustaining the cosmos; they are vital for the individuals’ cultivation of good health, longevity, personal success, and achievement of immortality. At the collective level, virtues © The Author(s) 2020 T. Culham, J. Lin, Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning, Spirituality, Religion, and Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44947-6_1

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enable the structuring of a society working for the common good through which everyone gives up something and also gains something. Individually, Daoist cultivation of qi and virtues is deemed as technology for knowing the self and the universe. Qi is the energy and spirit that permeates all existence and interconnect all existence; virtue is the mechanism for qi in everything and in every being to resonate and collaborate with each other. There are subtle energy networks on earth and in the cosmos that sustain each other, including the constellations, the stars, and the life system on earth. Because qi is subtle and invisible to the naked eyes, it takes opening our inner vision and elevating the capacities of our body’s sensory system; and this requires reducing the distractions in our life and turning inward to experience this subtle and yet powerful information/energy in all existence. Therefore, while everything is moving and vibrating, achieving a deep level of tranquillity is essential. Daoism holds that through cultivating tranquillity we become returned to our root, Dao, which is the primordial energy among all existence. Tranquillity is obtained not just in tuning or shutting down the sensors and sitting quietly; most importantly it is to contain our desires and to expand our resonance with other existence by doing good and virtuous deeds. In Daoism, virtues are methods which harmonize, regulate, attract, or dispense qi. Qi flows to those who nurture life and serve others, who are humble and soft, as Laozi posits in Dao De Jing. Virtuous deeds accumulate qi and those who want to have good health and attain immortality must have accumulated a lot of virtues hence a vast amount of qi. Qi can be built up in the body for good health, career success, and longevity, and be refined to give birth to the “inner child”, or spiritual child, who is one’s Immortal Self. The pathway to Dao is an intensive process of meditation and aligning one’s body, heart, mind, and spirit with virtues. The Daoist cultivation gives practitioners direct experience knowing qi and how it works in the cosmos as well as in one’s daily life. This has a great implication for our world today. We want the best for ourselves and our families; we want good health and career success; if possible, we would give everything to achieve immortality. We also want the ecological system to be healthy and sustainable, and the world to have peace, but we are reluctant to let go of old habits and change ourselves. A deep understanding of the relationship between qi and virtues in Daoist cultivation urges us to take doing virtuous deeds as following the natural laws of the universe, and the mutual cultivation of qi and virtues as technologies which we can practice and master to achieve our goals.

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The Daoist philosophy and practice may provide solutions to our world’s dire problems. Instead of engaging in fierce competition for the limited resources on earth, we can enhance our heart’s capacity for loving and caring for others as our qi can connect with and impact other beings in multiple levels, physically, emotionally, morally, and spiritually. Daoists have committed themselves to the exploration of the deep secrets of life and the cosmos for thousands of years. They take the human body as an experimental site, and refine and optimize its function through infusing it with vital life energy qi, and they have found virtues to be technologies for harnessing qi and transforming qi; in the simultaneous cultivation of qi and virtues, sages were born (Lin, 2018). Daoism aims to achieve what is considered impossible, that is, immortality. Before achieving immortality, Daoists go through intensive efforts to: strengthen their body; adjust their heart and mind; calm their emotions; elevate their vision, and engage in the life-long process of “doing good”. These are all techniques to cultivate longevity and immortality. This process enables Daoists to build strong connections with all beings and existence so that in giving and serving, without thinking about the return for their actions, they receive the support of the powerful primordial energy qi. In other words, they become connected to Dao, which is the inexhaustible energy, the unfathomable spirit, and the all-pervasive consciousness behind everything and binding everything in the whole universe. Qi is invisible to the flesh eyes, but can be experienced, through reactions in one’s body, and through deep knowing emerging from within when one is in touch with Dao. Qi moreover can be refined to be extremely powerful and used to affect changes in the world and nature positively (Lin, Culham, & Oxford, 2016; Lin, 2018, 2019). In our education and daily life, cultivation of qi can enhance the learners’ physical, moral, emotional, and spiritual development. It can develop an ecological consciousness that links all existence to enter a state of interbeing. In this book, we explore the relationship between qi and virtues and examine Daoist ways to arrive at deep knowing about life and the universe. We hope this book leads to: • An ecological and cosmic consciousness that sees connection and interdependence as vital for our survival and for the harmony of an intelligent and moral universe;

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• A new understanding of virtues as a natural mechanism and hence we frame new organizational ethos of our world; • A world view connecting “doing good” with our wellness in body, mind, heart, and spirit; and • A new form of education that takes cultivating qi and virtues as technology.

Arrangement of the Book into Three Parts Since the authors Jing Lin and Tom Culham write in a rather different style and have overlapping yet somewhat different understanding of Daoism and ways of expression, we consider it makes sense to organize the book into two parts. This arrangement provides the authors to address the topic of qi and virtues in their unique ways. This arrangement allows us to explore the topic from distinct perspectives. Jing is the author of Part I, and Jing’s writing style is narrative in general, and her part primarily refers back to the ancient Daoist texts in Chinese. The ancient Daoist cultivation texts written in Chinese often use metaphors and vague expressions. Understanding these Daoist texts, especially deciphering and delineating the process and stages of Daoist cultivation, which is mainly alchemy for immortality, requires direct, personal, practical embodiment of the phenomenon described in the texts. Hence Jing’s part draws greatly from her own Daoist practical experience to interpret the wisdom in the Daoist classical texts. If we consider the pinnacle of Daoist cultivation as the peak of a very high mountain, this part takes the perspective of a student and a practitioner standing at the top of the mountain gazing at the cosmos and Dao to consider Daoist cultivation. In Part II, Tom takes a comparative approach considering Daoist views and practices in light of western philosophic and scientific scholarship. He cites current literature from various disciplines to argue his points while he also draws from his personal experiences to paint a picture of the process and details of cultivating virtue. This perspective is represented by an ordinary person standing at the base of the mountain considering a climb to the peak shrouded in mists. Finally, in Part III of the book, we work together to integrate the key themes of the book and contemplate on the implications of Daoist cultivation of qi and virtues for contemporary education. Below we provide more details.

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Part I by Jing Lin Part I by Jing turns to the traditional Daoist texts to tease out an understanding of the highest pursuit of Daoism, that is, immortality. Integrated with her personal experience and understanding, she brings forth a systematic understanding of Daoist ontology, axiology, and epistemology. Central in Part I is how qi and virtues are vital for the Daoist practitioners who understand the cosmos as being sustained by qi, and qi is guided by a mechanism of virtues, such as love, compassion, interdependence, humility, service, softness, simplicity, etc. The ultimate goal of Daoist cultivation is to return to the source and merge with the Dao thereby endowing the sage with immortality, perfection, and great wisdom among other attributes. Immortality is one of the ultimate outcomes anticipated through Daoist cultivation. We understand that this claim and perspective is a challenge for secular society, yet we believe it can offer helpful practical insights in a secular setting. More concretely, Jing discusses how Daoism takes the whole universe as its subject for understanding. Daoists do not believe that we can live only a very short life; instead, through cultivating life energy as an ultimate science, they come to knowing the deep working of the universe based on the principles of virtues, that is, interdependence, mutual support, harmony, love, compassion, selfless giving, yielding and softness, among others, which are mechanisms knitting together not only the human society but more importantly sustaining the whole universe. These virtues are mechanisms that regulate qi, preserve qi, augment qi, and distribute qi. It is understood in this way of thinking that qi can be gathered through virtues which can be stored in one’s body’s energy centres thereby transforming the body to a much higher energy level causing a total transformation of a person. Immortality is the result of achieving oneness with Dao, birthing the Immortal Self that transcend death and limitation of the three-dimensional world. For thousands of years, Daoists relied on the cosmology, axiology, and epistemology underpinned by virtue and qi to guide their pursuit of immortality. In this process, there is no separation of oneself from the cosmos or nature, no separation of oneself from the society, as qi links up all beings and all existence. The body can be transformed through engagement in meditation and the simultaneous accumulation of qi through virtuous mind and deeds. Qi is stored in one’s elixir centres and refined to reach incredible power, activating dormant functions in one’s body and

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allowing extrasensory abilities and many “supernatural” abilities to appear. Only then immortality becomes possible. Daoist texts number in the thousands or tens of thousands; all aim at alchemy or a transformation of the body for immortality. Qi and virtues are deeply woven threads throughout these texts. Meditation is central to engaging the link between qi and virtues. Meditation is paramount in Daoism as it is called xiudao, or the cultivation of Dao. Jing provides a detailed description of the Daoist ways of gaining knowledge and learning by being good and tapping into the deeper working of the universe. Please note she will directly quote from the Chinese original texts, as she feels that she understands the contents of the texts through her embodied experience of cultivation, which more correctly reflect her understanding the essence of the texts. She will provide websites from where Chinese original texts have been downloaded. There are many versions of translation of Daoist classics online, so if readers want to see other translations, they are readily accessible. Part II by Tom Culham In Part II, Tom provides an overview of the Daoist approach to cultivating virtue as a technology defined as a capability given by the practical application of knowledge in a particular area. This Daoist technology involves actions and practices that are engaged at four human levels: the body, emotions, mind, and spirit. He takes each of these levels in turn and expands on the methods proposed by Daoists and where possible how they relate to current science-based knowledge. Daoists envision a parallel development of awareness of one’s innate self and virtue involving a process of peeling away successive layers of cultural, familial, and educational conditioning to reveal one’s authentic Dao-given self. Part II attempts to take the reader from a western perspective through progressively deeper steps to the core of Daoist practice and thinking as we understand it. Using comparative analysis, Tom provides a discussion of the similarities and differences between the view of Daoist enlightenment and western enlightenment. While both emphasizes individual effort in coming to an understanding of the truth and relying on the principle of objective impartial observation of phenomenon, western discourse emphasizes intellect, reasoning and conscious thought which can be traced back to Socrates, while Daoists were and are concerned first and foremost with experience rather than ideas (Kirkland, 2004). Daoist philosophy holds that conscious thought is an impediment to achieving enlightenment. The

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Daoist approach was not as concerned about whether their basic ideas were 100% accurate, rather they are more interested in refining and transforming themselves “to attain full integration with life’s deepest realities” (Kirkland, 2004, p.75). They hold that this is achieved through direct perception of the truth enabled by personal contemplative practices accompanied by living a virtuous life (Culham, 2013). Tom begins Part II with the examples of virtues such as prudence, temperance, gratitude, and honesty because it’s possible to suggest a relationship between a virtue and an outcome. That is, if one is virtuous there is a good outcome. The ancient Greeks and Chinese proposed a much broader definition of virtue than our current understanding, and the ancient Daoist Chinese held that there was a direct cause and effect engaged through life energy known as qi when one practised any kind of virtue, whether it be physical, emotional, mental, or spiritual. In Part II, Tom examines Daoism and its associated contemplative practices which perceive the Good as a phenomenon just like sunlight or gravity and the implications this has for thinking, behaviour and how we might see the world and our place in it. Tom incorporates contemporary scholarship to understand cultivation of qi and virtues. He brings in philosophy, and contemporary science in a number of fields to build a bridge to Daoist notions and practices. Positing cultivation of virtue and qi as a technology, Tom facilitates an understanding of qi and virtues in the context of people having a given innate nature. Tom brings in western perspectives and current scholarship to build a bridge for people who have little knowledge about the notion of qi. He lays out detailed arguments in Daoism that cultivating virtue impacts the physical, emotional, mental, social, and spiritual aspects of life. Tom begins by briefly comparing Daoist philosophy and western enlightenment philosophies and takes a shallow dive into key Daoist concepts of virtue, and qi, followed by a sketch of the Daoist technology for cultivating virtue and an outline of the claimed benefits of cultivating virtue. Next, current western understanding of the brain and the limits of and societal consequences of western emphasis on left brain consciousness, which is thought according to neuroscientists to be judgemental, time bound, linear, and constrained by accepted knowledge. An argument is made that Asian practices such as Daoist contemplative practices may balance the leftbrain orientation with the emergence into awareness of the open, inclusive, holistic, and empathetic right brain consciousness. Tom considers Daoism through successive steps starting with the body as the foundation through all aspects of being to spirit. With training, qi

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can not only be sensed physically but can be very helpful to one’s health, wisdom, spiritual growth, and service for the community. He discusses qi as subtle yet also powerful energy in us and in nature, using our emotions and examples such as humans harnessing the energy in matter (waterfall, electricity) to better our life. Rather than building a structure like a dam to generate electricity from falling water, in Daoist technology one must put oneself personally in alignment with the underlying patterns and life energy (qi) inherent in nature through a process of inner work and self-cultivation. Part III Contemplating a New Paradigm of Education In Part III we bring together our two parts and consider Daoism from within the tradition to inform contemporary educational practices. Jing’s examination of the Daoist thinking from within the tradition provides a view unbounded by western and left brain thinking. She proposes qi-based learning and considers learning as a cultivating, becoming experience, reaching beyond the individual to the world and even the cosmos. Tom gives priority to Daoist thinking yet develops parallels in western thinking that provide some support for what might be traditionally considered on the margins. Tom references Ian McGilchrist (2009) who proposes that the left and right hemispheres of the brain each have very different perspectives and sets of values. The right perceives itself to be in unity with the world and expresses altruistic values, whereas the left sees itself as separate and expresses self-centred values. We need both hemispheres, but the left brain dominates current culture and education causing much of the self-centred destructive behaviour witnessed in the world (2009). McGilchrist proposes that a balance of left and right hemispheric orientation is needed to improve the deteriorating social conditions. Further, he proposes that Asian contemplative practices may augment the characteristics of the right hemisphere. Our approach is to articulate the ideal secular education from a Daoist perspective without consideration of the practicalities or limitations imposed by the current paradigm dominated by left brain thinking. This is done to answer the question: what would a right hemisphere education look and feel like? What would the world look like if we fully integrate qi and virtue cultivation into education? It therefore is, we hope, unbounded by the current paradigm and is aspirational for transformation in education in a comprehensive and fundamental way for the future to come.

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References Culham, T. (2013). Ethics education of business leaders: Emotional intelligence, virtues and contemplative learning (J.  Lin& R.  Oxford, Eds.). Book Series: Transforming Education for the Future. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing. Kirkland, R. (2004). Taoism: The enduring tradition. New York: Routledge. Lin, J. (2018). From self cultivation to social transformation: The Confucian embodied pathways and educational implications. In Y. Liu & W. Ma (Eds.), Confucianism and education (pp. 169–182). Albany, NY: SUNY press. Lin, J. (2019). Enlightenment from body-spirit integration: Dunhuang’s Buddhist cultivation pathways and educational implications. In D.  Xu (Ed.), The Dunhuang Grottos and global education: Philosophical, spiritual, scientific, and aesthetic insights (pp. 113–131). New York, NY: Palgrave-Springer. Lin, J., Culham, T., & Oxford, R. (2016). Developing a spiritual research paradigm: A Confucian perspective. In J.  Lin, R.  Oxford, & T.  Culham (Eds.), Toward a spiritual research paradigm: Exploring new ways of knowing, researching and being (pp. 141–169). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. McGilchrist, I. (2009). The master and his emissary. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

PART I

Daoist Aspiration for Immortality through Cultivating Qi and Virtues

CHAPTER 2

A Personal Journey and Introduction Jing Lin

More than twenty years ago, I embarked on the journey of practising mainly Daoist meditation methods. What I expected was to get better health and lose some weight. However, I experienced so much more than I expected that literally I felt “born again”. Shaken to the core, new horizons, new knowing engulfed me and I transformed from focusing mostly on myself, family, and my career to experiencing a strong and compassionate connection with the world, nature, and the cosmos! I became open to the human potentials for knowledge, health, longevity, immortality, and total freedom. The philosophy and religions of the world came to life. I realized that great wisdom and love shared by the great teachers of humanity are achieved through intensive meditation, which resulted in their expanding inner awareness and obtaining expansive abilities to resonate with the consciousness of all life forces. Nature and the universe become animated and alive, as all throb with the vital life energy qi and resonate Love. I realized there is an intensive existential/spiritual energy that unites All That Exist, and that All That Exist come from the same source, co-­ evolve, and share a common destiny. There is a force which Einstein called Love that is behind everything, and that this Love is the Primordial Qi some call Dao, others call God, or Allah, or Brahman… From my new understanding, I transformed to be a scholar that focuses on Love, Peace, and Wisdom in Education, which provided the title of a book I published in 2006 (Lin, 2006). I became committed to peace and sustainability © The Author(s) 2020 T. Culham, J. Lin, Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning, Spirituality, Religion, and Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44947-6_2

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education; I embarked on the pathway to explore ways to heal ourselves and the world, and to develop human potential that has been supressed or neglected hitherto. The new way of knowing I experience is that of knowing by sensing qi, and sensing the spirit and intelligence of people and all existence. This state of being, called “joining life” by Gordon (2019), or “interbeing” by Bai, Scott, and Donald (2009), brings me to be in direct immersion with the heart and soul of others and all existence. I realized the gate that once blocked my awareness was caused by my body and ego focus, and the limited knowing through my six senses. This limitation, since I embarked on the cultivation journey, was replaced by a new type of knowing revealed to me, that emerged from within, or swelled up spontaneously, or felt as intuition, as I continue with my Daoist meditation practice and intensify the accumulation of the vital life energy qi propelling all existence. Dao became real and I came to the full realization that virtues exist as natural mechanisms or natural principles governing the functioning of the universe. The supportive nature of everything on earth became obvious, and the harmony of the solar system and the whole universe presented a picture of cooperation and mutual support and enhancement. The writings in Daoist classics or sutras became alive. I began to see through the smog of Daoist classics that use vague metaphors about energy cultivation, terms such as tigers and dragons, black gold and white lead, match makers and inner babies, sacred water, and golden flower. As I continued my cultivation and experience, the life energy qi flowed in my body, condensed in different energy centres, and was refined to become more powerful energy. Today I continue to align my heart and mind through virtues such as living in line with love, forgiveness, service, and humility. I feel more and more in touch with my higher Self, which is connected with Dao and has always existed as my eternal Spirit. Daoist cultivation has transformed me and my understanding of my place in the universe. Daoism is about seeking unity with the highest truth, Dao; it is also about cultivating Dao as the unfathomable energy which is eternal and immortal. Dao is invisible in form but is manifested through virtues and grounded in virtues. Daoism as a cultivation system emphasizes the accumulation of virtues which are technologies that enable energies that are exchanged and returned to us. Meditation and doing good for the world (or accumulating virtues) inextricably go hand in hand. Meditation is the alignment of one’s posture, breathing, focus, mind, heart, and spirit with the fundamental force that propels our life and everything. The string that

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connects all beings is Dao Primordial Qi, and this creative energy propels all existence with virtues as a built-in mechanism to transmit, balance, regulate and exchange qi. Meditation holds the key to align our body, posture, and breathing to reduce distractions and concentrate the mind which is essential for us to achieve deep levels of tranquillity. In Daoism this means returning to our root enabling the preservation and accumulation of qi. Virtues are vital to reduce distractions and most importantly to open up the sources of qi energy as we build positive, generative relationship with other beings and engage in the exchange of energy qi. The more virtues one accumulates, the more qi one amasses, and the more one transforms one’s body and extends one’s life. The ultimate goal in Daoist cultivation is to achieve immortality. The highest achieving Daoist figures are richly described in Daoist classics such as Dao De Jing, Zhuangzi, The Book of Changes, and The Yellow Emperor’s Hidden Code Sutra. These immortal beings are called Zhen Ren (Real People) or Shen Ren (Godly People) who can live either as a physical being or as an energy/light being, transforming into either physical form or light being at will. There are no physical limitations as they can travel through multiple dimensions of the universe, transcending death. The secrets held by many mystical traditions in the world are essentially about seeking immortality, or freedom from death. While Daoism holds this pursuit, so does Buddhism (Lin, 2019). Daoism has a complete cosmology, axiology, epistemology, and technologies/techniques to help practitioners achieve this goal. Daoism holds that the universe operates in a cycle of being born from a void, expanding and consolidating, decaying as energy is spent and finally collapsing back to nothingness (as a void of pure energy), and afterwards the cycle starts again. Those who have achieved the highest level of cultivation are not affected by these changes. Daoist immortals do not want to live a short life of just less than 100 years, hence they have given huge and persistent efforts to finding ways to transform the body into immortality. Essentially, they believe we are all made of qi, as is everything in the universe, and there are ways to reach the primordial Dao energy that is moving the whole universe. As Dao governs the universe through virtues or principles of interdependence, mutuality, cooperation, and harmony, we as human beings have a highly powerful conscious mind to adjust our mind and heart and follow the same principles to gather great amounts of the vital life energy qi. Hence, we need to simultaneously practice meditation to achieve deep levels of tranquillity and practice virtues taking this as a science of life. With advancement in science and technology, especially

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quantum physics, hopefully we will have breakthroughs in the science of consciousness and spirit to understand the Daoist technologies for life. In Part I, I will discuss Daoist cosmology and its theory of qi and virtues, or its axiology. Further, I will explore Daoist epistemology and contemplate on the implications on education.

The Origin and Foundations of Daoism Daoist cosmology comes from ancient sages who were deeply engaged in understanding the Dao, the force that creates everything. The I Ching, or the Book of Changes, describes how the ancestors of China acquired their knowledge by observation of the sky and earth, examining the symbols of birds and animals, conducting self-observation, and comparing them with things afar. From this work, they drew the symbols of I Ching to connect with the divine forces, emulating virtue present in the universe, and delineating the heart-mind of all existence1 (Book of Changes, The Great Commentary, 易经系辞). I Ching, or the Book of Changes, is called “the King of Classics on Immortality for Ten Thousand Years”. The original author of the book, Bao Xi, was an emperor and he gained his knowing of the universe by doing the studies outlined above. In the Book of Changes, it is described that sages like Bao Xi: • Deeply understood and explored the working of the universe through I Ching, the Yi (夫易, 圣人之所以极深而研几也). • So deeply their knowledge was that they could connect to the Will of All (唯深也, 故能通天下之志). • And so detailed and explicit they knew how things work they could accomplish all tasks in the world (唯几也, 故能成天下之务). • And so mystical and miraculous they cultivated to the extent that they could reach anywhere at great speed without having to travel (like teleportation) (惟神也, 故不疾而速,不行而至) (Book of Changes, The Great Commentary, 易经系辞). These sages achieved unity with Dao: they mimicked the virtues of Heaven and Earth; they shone like the sun and the moon; they 1  The original text of I Ching is this: 古者包羲氏之王天下也,仰则观象于天, 俯则观法于 地, 观鸟兽之文, 与地之宜, 近取诸身, 远取诸物, 于是始作八卦, 以通神明之 德, 以类万物之情.

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accommodated the orders and changes of all seasons; and they worked with hidden and heavenly forces to divert misfortune and to direct the course of events toward peace (与天地合其德, 与日月合其明, 与四时合其 序, 与鬼神合其吉凶) (I Ching, Qian 易经:乾卦). Chapter 1 of the Huangdi Neijing (The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Medicine, also translated as Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor) describes how the Yellow Emperor (who was believed to be the first emperor in Chinese history, born in 2717 BC and died in 2599 BC) sought secrets of longevity and immortality from Sage Qi Bo: Huang Di [the Yellow Emperor] asked, “I’ve heard of people in ancient times, spoken of as the immortals, who knew the secrets of the universe and held the world in the palm of their hands. They extracted essence from nature and practiced meditation and various stretching and breathing exercises, and visualizations, to integrate body, mind and spirit. They remained undisturbed and thus attained extraordinary levels of accomplishment. Can you tell me about them?” Qi Bo responded, “The immortals kept their mental energies focused and refined, and harmonized their bodies with the environment. So they did not show typical signs of aging and were able to live beyond their biological limitations.” (The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Medicine, Mao Shing Ni translated, 1995)

Hence, the Daoist cultivation of Dao is based on a cosmology that has been revealed and relayed by the ancient sages who have reached incredibly high levels of wisdom and energy. There were many Daoist sages who were highly accomplished in their cultivation and had achieved immortality. Besides Laozi, there were Zhuangzi and other masters who wrote books and essays describing the achievements of the immortal sages and their cultivation methods. There are 5600 volumes in a 1997 collection of Daoist Canons called Daozang 道藏 which contains texts on meditation, talismans, commentaries, biographies, illustrations and diagrams, hymns and precepts, etc.; it is said there are 36 million methods of cultivation in Daoism including meditation, bigu (fasting or forgoing food), activating celestial forces, teleportation, and rainmaking. Laozi is the most revered figure in Daoism. He lived during the Zhou Dynasty, about 2500 years ago, the same time as Confucius. He was said to be in his mother’s womb for 81 years and when he was born he looked like an old man hence he was called Laozi, the Old Wise Man. He was a bookkeeper in the court, and when he saw that the Zhou Dynasty was hopelessly corrupt, he rode on his oxen to the west. At the border before

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he left China, he was stopped by Yin Xi, the officer who guarded the border. Yin Xi respectfully asked him to leave something behind, and Laozi wrote the Dao De Ching (or Tao Te Ching, used interchangeably), which has 81 sections with 5000 words. No one knew where Laozi went after that. As an immortal sage, Laozi is said to have come back to human society time and again, just as Krishna described himself in the Bhagavad Gita, and he revealed different texts to different people in different periods of time to enlighten them. Besides Dao De Ching, revealed texts by Laozi include The Tranquility Sutra (Qingjing Jing 清静经), The Treatise of the Original God on Resonance and Retribution (Tai Shang Gan Yin Pian 太上感应篇), The Great Peace Sutra (Tai Ping Jing 太平经), and many others. Zhuangzi, perhaps the second most famous Daoist, was born in 369 BCE, 232 years after Laozi’s birth in 601 BCE. Zhuangzi wrote a series of 32 essays which was compiled into a book also called Zhuangzi 庄子. It differs from the Dao De Jing in that it contains many vivid stories of the accomplishments and life styles of the Daoist masters. These people are called Zhen Ren, or the Real People, who have attained cosmic wisdom and transcended the limitation of the physical world and overcome death. Other important and monumental Daoist texts include Book of Changes, The Seal of the Unity of the Three (Zhouyi Cantong Qi 周易参 同契), The Yellow Emperor’s Hidden Code Sutra (Yin Fu Jing 阴符经), Awakening to Reality (Wu Zhen Pian 悟真篇), The Fundamental Teachings of Cultivating Character and Life Energy (Xingming Guizi 性 命圭旨), and the Secret of the Golden Flower (Huiming Jing 惠命经). Daoist cultivation methods are also included in novels such as The Creation of the Gods (封神演义), The Monkey King’s Journey to the West (西游 记), Romans of the Three Kingdoms (三国演义), and Dreams of the Red Chamber (红楼梦). There is also a range of novels and legends that describe the life and deeds of Daoist sages who lived a life of cultivation and freedom from secular worries and death. The key focus in Daoism is to harness the subtle and powerful energy qi, which pervades all existence, and to transform our life for health, longevity, immortality, and spiritual perfection. It is a life science, not a mere religion. For Daoists, for millennia, understanding the human body as the most intricate energy and spirit system connected with All That Exist in the universe, and Dao as primordial energy undergirding the universe, is their life-long mission and pursuit. Daoism is also based on a mystical tradition. In prehistorical China, legends told that many figures with mystical and supernatural powers

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existed, like those in Abrahamic religions and Greek mythologies. A Daoist myth tells of the genesis of a God called Pangu 盘古 who was born out of an infinite void of energy. He divided heaven and earth and after he died his body became various parts of the universe such as the sun and moon, mountains and rivers, forests, wind, and thunder. A Goddess called Nuwa is said to have created the human species by making them out of mud and blowing life into their nostrils. The myths include the story of Kuafu 夸父 who chased the sun, and Houyi 后羿 who shot down nine suns in the sky as the earth was being scorched by ten suns hanging in the sky. A story of a Great Flood spoke of the Goddess Nuwa 女娲 who refined five coloured stones to seal up the hole from where the rain was pouring onto the earth from the sky. A story told of Changjie 仓颉 who had four eyes, two between his eyebrows, who invented the Chinese characters by observing phenomena in heaven and earth. He incorporated the natural phenomenon and inner principles governing the universe into the characters and words. The origin of Chinese medicine was credited to Shennong 神农 who had extrasensory abilities to sense the various features and healing elements in plants, animals, and minerals. Another version of the great flood story also existed in China, like that in the Bible, where revered emperor Yu was shown sacred signs and diagrams that guided him to divert the flood and save the people. All in all, the pursuit of Daoism is about becoming immortal like the Dao, and become sages who save and sustain the world and maintain the order of the universe.

Philosophical, Perennial Daoism versus Religious Daoism Dao has been defined as the creative force of the universe, as the primordial energy that creates all existence, as perennial wisdom and not a religion, and as a pathway of cultivation for wisdom and immortality. Dao as a system of cultivation can be traced back to six thousand years ago when the first emperor Shennong used his body to test the medicinal effects of various herbs, minerals, insects, and animals and wrote the first medicine book titled Shennong Bencao Jing (神农本草经). Daoism is also defined as a religion, and Laozi is revered as the founder of Daoism, but he never founded the religion. A Daoist named Zhang Daoling 张道陵 (34–156 AD) established Laozi as one of the three highest Gods in Daoism during the Han Dynasty. Laozi is made part of the Daoist Trinity being called the God of Virtues (道德天尊), while the other two Gods are God of the Original Beginning (元始天尊 Yuanshi Tianzhun)

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and God of Magical and Precious Treasures (灵宝天尊 Lingbao Tianzhun). Religious Daoism produced many texts describing the functions and power of various deities who are assigned roles governing heaven and earth, as well as governing our inner organs. It has numerous mantras and methods to call on the power of these deities to assist with solving problems in the human society such as calling for rains to end a big drought or transporting a dead person’s spirit to heaven. Here I generally take Dao as the universal force but also acknowledge and include many Daoist texts revered by religious Daoism.

References Bai, H., Scott, C., & Donald, B. (2009). Contemplative pedagogy and revitalization of teacher education. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 55(3), 319–334. Book of Changes or I Ching. Retrieved from http://www.quanxue.cn/CT_RuJia/ ZhouYiIndex.html Gordon, M. A. (2019). Aikido as transformational and embodied pedagogy: Teacher as healer. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Huangdi Neijing, or The inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor. Retrieved fromhttp:// www.quanxue.cn/CT_ZhongYi/HuangDiIndex.html Lin, J. (2006). Love, Peace and Wisdom in Education: Vision for Education in the 21st Century. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education. Lin, J. (2019). Enlightenment from body-spirit integration: Dunhuang’s Buddhist cultivation pathways and educational implications. In D. Xu (Ed.), The Dunhuang Grottos and global education: Philosophical, spiritual, scientific, and aesthetic insights (pp. 113–131). New York, NY: Palgrave-Springer. Ni, M. (1995, translated). The Yellow Emperor’s classic of medicine. Shambhala.

CHAPTER 3

Daoist Cosmology and Axiology, or the Philosophy of Qi and Virtues Jing Lin

Cosmology: Dao as the Primordial Energy and the Creative Force What is Dao? There is a universe creation model that has guided Daoist practice. In Dao De Jing, Laozi maps out the cosmological model held by Daoism. “Dao gives birth to one, one gives birth to two, two gives birth to three, and three gives births to the thousands of myriad things” (Dao De Jing, Chap. 42). Laozi also states that “the myriad things in the universe are born from visible forms, and visible forms are born from an invisible realm”.1 While there is a visible and an invisible part of the universe, there is also the yin and yang aspect in everything. Laozi states: Dao begot one. One begot two. Two begot three. And three begot ten thousand things.

This chapter discusses Daoist cosmology and axiology, or its philosophy of qi and virtues. 1

 The original text in Chinese is: 天下万物生于有, 有生于无.

© The Author(s) 2020 T. Culham, J. Lin, Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning, Spirituality, Religion, and Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44947-6_3

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And ten thousand things all carry yin and embrace yang. They achieve harmony by combining these forces and blending their Qi. (Dao De Jing, Chap. 42, Author’s translation)

The Book of Changes or I Ching delineates a universe originating from qi, stating: Wuji (the Infinite One) is the primordial realm which generates taiji (The Supreme Field), and taiji is formed of yin qi and yang qi, which then generates four different states of qi, old yang and young yang, and old yin and young yin, which eventually generate eight elements of existence, followed by events fortunate or unfortunate due to the movement of the eight elements. (无极生太极, 太极生两仪, 两仪生四象, 四象生八卦, 八卦定吉凶. (Book of Changes, The Great Commentary. Author’s translation)

Similarly, translating and interpreting the Universe Creation Model, Elizabeth Reninger (2019) puts it this way: 1. In the beginning, there was an endless void, known as Wu Chi, or Dao. The Dao is a universal energy, from which all things emanate. 2. From this vast cosmic universe, from Dao, the One emerges. 3. As the One manifests in the world, it divides into two: the Yin and the Yang, complementary conditions of action (Yang) and inaction (Yin). This stage represents the emergence of duality/polarity out of the Unity of Dao. The “dance”—the continual transformations—of Yin and Yang fuels the flow of qi (chi). In Daoist cosmology, qi is in constant transformation between its condensed material state and its dilute energetic state. Reninger continues to discuss the five elements that emerge from yin and yang energy interaction and how the hexagrams that I Ching illustrates also were produced in the process. Yin and yang are in the fundamental elements of the universe including human beings. Yin and yang manifest as five forces, or five elements. She notes: Spiritual growth and change, for Daoists, is a matter of balancing the Five Elements within the person. Unlike many religious systems, human beings are not regarded as something separate from the natural world, but as just another manifestation of it.

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How do we understand this highly abstract description of the universe? In my understanding, Dao is the conscious creative force, the Mind/Heart, the Way, the energy field of Love; it is transcendental yet it also embodies all; it is the order of the universe incorporated into every existence; it is empty as the immensurable energy but it also encompasses everything; it is the Soul/Spirit/Creative Energy behind everything. Dao is the feminine gate that creates all existence. Dao is the Primordial Qi and the Spirit that forms into countless sparks or archetypes. Existing as spirit templates they form into things or physical objects when qi fills them up in the right conditions (such as when frogs appear after rain forms a pool of water). Hence Dao is said to be creating myriads of things spontaneously. The Dao creative energy, the Primordial Qi (炁), comes from a void, and is also called Hun Yuan Qi (混元气). Hun Yuan Qi is the creative energy that is in all beings and things. The Hun Yuan Qi can also be thought of as Ideas, the divine spark, or the spirit behind everything. In this perspective, all existence is divinely created and interconnected. There are other forms of qi, such as the qi generated by food, which nourishes the body. Qi can be said to be the energy field around someone’s body, as may be seen as an illuminating light field around one’s body. Today, with Kirlian photography technology, one is able to film that energy field around a person or a plant. Dao is so vast and boundless that it is beyond description. We are like fish in the ocean of Dao. Yet we also have a consciousness which allows us to see the world as separate from us. In Daoism and Buddhism, this is a precious gift as we can consciously make choices and evolve to a very high spiritual level and be united with Dao. However, this requires that we increase and expand our energy through meditation, which in Daoism is considered “cultivation of Dao”. In Chinese history, meditation is equivalent to xiu dao (修道), literally meaning “cultivating Dao”, or cultivating Dao energy to become One with Dao. Dao can be known by meditation when one penetrates into the deeper levels of our consciousness, and eventually reaching the Dao unselfconsciousness (Culham, 2013; Lin, 2018; Lin & Parikh, 2019; Lin, Culham, & Scott, 2020). Through meditation, ancient sages realized that we are made from the same template as everything but only manifest our different features and abilities. In human history, people who cultivate Dao reached such a level that they open their energy system and sense Dao as an All Powerful Spirit, a pounding Heart vibrating energy throughout all existence, giving all existence Love and Bliss. All existence resonates with this Heart, those who can engage this

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Heart to change all things are called a Buddha (Lin, 2019). In Neo-­ Confucianism, this is expressed as All Existence has One Unified Heart (万物一心). The Primordial Qi then is energy with feelings and it sustains life as well as acts as the medium to connect the heart of all existence. In other words, all existence has an intrinsic connection and shares a common destiny through this Primordial Qi. In this process of cultivation, virtues are vital for people to remove interferences and penetrate the deeper reality (Lin & Parikh, 2019). Hence, Laozi called his work Dao De Jing, translated literally as the Dao and Virtue Cannon, in which Dao manifests as virtues and is attainable through virtues. In sum, virtue is the foundation and core of Dao; it is the technology to reach Dao. In the perennial pursuit of humanity for immortality, it is the technology to access and accumulate the Primordial Qi which is the vital force to birth the Immortal Self. In simpler terms, if one cultivates virtue, one returns to the Dao. Laozi lays out in great detail that Dao is invisible and omnipresent, but Dao is also compassion, love, service, humility, tranquillity, softness, reconciliation, peace, etc. He also describes Daoist sages who can know what happens in the world without travelling (clairvoyance), and travel without using their feet (teleportation). Through non-action they cultivate tranquillity and observe how Dao moves, and they affect the world comprehensively with their supernatural powers guiding the world through their virtues and qi. The word Dao in Chinese is written as 道. In my understanding, it denotes not only the creative force and energy field, it also relays the idea that through cultivating qi, one opens the Third Eye (目) and their energy increases so much that they glow like light (光), which represents a state of enlightenment. In a way, Daoist cultivation is no different from other spiritual/religious pursuits such as those in Buddhism and Christianity where deities who have achieved enlightenment are portrayed to shine with a strong aura around their head and body. In sum, all existence has qi. Dao is the Primordial Qi, the Spirit in everything, but it can manifest in different forms and functions with distinct qualities. Qi can be viewed as the spirit energy that is the foundation of all existence allowing all existence to support each other through virtues of cooperation, resonance, and interdependence. The well-being of all existence is connected with virtues serving as the underlying structure. If one is extremely wealthy one must not take this as his own possession but he is to use the assets to benefit other fellow being, so to speak. Hence the sages emulating Dao’s virtues work in the interests of all people and all

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existence, and through active cultivation of virtues and meditation to accumulate qi, they garner creative and transformative power. In brief: • The world is One from Dao, and Primordial Qi is the origin of life that penetrates all existence. • Humans, nature, and all existence in the cosmos have qi. • Qi is vital life energy, the dynamic life force. • The universe is generated and sustained by qi. • Qi can be understood as the interaction of the yang and yin energy. • Virtues sustain the function of the universe, guiding qi and sustaining qi.

Daoist Aspirations: Controlling One’s Destiny through Attainment of Immortality Daoism attends to the world both on its physical realm and quantum energy realms. Similar to quantum physics that sees two realities, one of particle and one of wave-like energy, Dao De Jing emphasizes both the matter and energy state of reality. The latter, the energy state, is called “emptiness”, “nameless”, “invisible”, “inaudible”, “mysterious”, “miraculous”, “essence”, “information”, etc. This state is qi that is all pervasive but not visible to the naked eye such as electricity. These realms can be accessed through meditation when we transform into a subtle energy state of being and awareness, and energy of these realms can be accessed through tranquillity, yielding, giving, softness, humility, appreciation, etc. Daoism stresses the interaction of human actions with the Dao energy field in this way. As Dao is moving automatically without differentiation or preference for anyone or anything, we can emulate Dao in a spontaneous state called wuwei. Dao creates without appearing to claim its glory, and when we serve the world without claiming the fruits of our action, we are attuned to the energy of Dao. Laozi also indicates that sages, by abiding by the principle of wuwei (无为), are able to let go of one’s sharp edge of competitiveness, reduce selfish desires, forgo obsession for excessive sensory pleasures, live a grateful and simple life, and focus serving the world like the virtue of water. Laozi states it is through these acts of “eliminating” or “giving up” (Dao De Jing, Chap. 48 损之又损) that the sages restore and accumulate high level of energy and develop their extrasensory, supernatural abilities to such an extent that they can accomplish

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everything (无为而无所不为). Indeed, in Daoist classics, there are many stories about Daoist sages who can exert great impact on physical matter with their exertion of will and deployment of their pure energy qi. The sages can also be great politicians using their abilities to govern a big country like stir-frying a small fish, in Laozi’s words. He was in fact talking about sages who, through cultivation of Dao, knowing how everything intricately works, can impact the world profoundly with only their mindful intentions. Hence, I Ching talks about sages who, through touching the heart of the people, bring peace to the world (I Ching: Xian 易经: 咸卦, 圣人感人心而天下平). In Laozi’s teaching, the sages are those who are good in accumulating and being nourished by the creative Primordial Qi, like a child getting milk from his mother (貴食母, Dao De Jing, Chap. 20); those who achieve immortality are those who “die without death” (死而不亡者寿 Dao De Jing, Chap. 33), as they can usher in a new life without having to let go of the body, or they can let go of the physical body but can come back in various forms while they are being permanent citizens of the universe. Deborah King (2011) has an interesting anecdote about her own experience with a shaman, who helped her to usher in a new life without her having to leave her present body and come back again. Having mastered the ultimate secrets of physics and life, Daoist sages can transform from a physical being into a light/energy/qi being with their intentionality and come and go at will. In Laozi’s words, the sages have the abilities to see what is happening in the world without looking outside their window, and without travelling the world (Dao De Jing, Chap. 47). This is because, as Zhuangzi put it, “I am good in connecting with the Spirit of the whole universe” (Zhaungzi 吾与天地精神相往来), and as Mencius said: All That Existare is connected by Qi (Mencius 通天下一气也). The sages are able to do what Confucius said: The One allows me to connect with everything (吾一以贯之). Daoism holds that there are ways we can find to be like the Dao, which is eternal and immortal. The key is to accumulate qi, to transform and refine qi. Daoism sees the universe as an interconnected web of energy and the universe has a moral structure through Dao which sustains the universe, and we human beings are made in the same structure of the universe, hence having a moral conscience. This is a holographic view, where, as sun and moon are in the sky, we have a left eye and a right eye. We have the meridian paths and acupoints in the body that connect us with energy of the wider environment; similarly the earth has energy ley lines. The universe is a conscious Spirit and it continues to evolve and refine itself,

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and we as a small universe also evolve and can refine our energy and spirit similarly. There is a constant exchange of energy between Dao and all of its creations. Dao takes energy from everything, and everything takes energy from human beings, and human beings take energy from every existence (The Yellow Emperor’s Hidden Code Sutra 阴府经: 天地万物之盗, 万物 人之盗, 人万物之盗). This denotes a circulation of qi among all existence. Through meditation methods which involve breathing, visualization, mindfulness, movements, etc., we can harmonize the qi in our body and also harness the qi energy in everything, from the earth, wind, water, fire, moon, sun, and the stars in the universe. We can build it up in our body’s energy centres and refine it into the more subtle and powerful qi called Zhen Qi 真气 (Real Qi), which is just like the creative force with immense power. We can elevate the power of the qi we have accumulated to be like the power of a deity, Shen Qi (Divine Qi 神气), meaning this energy has miraculous power and can exert great impact on things and events. Through further cultivation, the Immortal Being called Yang Shen (阳神), or sacred inner child (圣婴), is born and we can foster it and grow it so that it becomes mature and learns to return to the Origin of the Universe (xu), a realm of pure spirit and energy (also called the void 虚). When we reach this stage, there is no longer restriction on where we can go and higher dimensions are reachable. Through even further cultivation, we are fully united with Dao and become an Immortal Real Person (练精化气, 练 气化神, 练神还虚, 还虚合道, 了道归真). Hence, alchemy for unity with the Dao and for attainment of immortality is the aspiration of Daoism. In Daoist alchemy, reversion is the movement of the Dao (Dao De Jing, Chap. 40). Basically, in our life, we follow a process from birth to adult life, then to old age and death. This linear process features young childhood, growth and adulthood, and old age toward the eventual decay and death as qi energy in the body dissipates. In Daoism, the reversal of Dao means to reverse the order of death to restore energy and accumulate energy and to transform ourselves back to be like a child when we are pure and full of the Original Qi we are born with. Returning to be like a child is physical, psychological as well as energy-­ based. The newborn child is more energetic than physical and represents a new being that is a cosmic citizen. As everything contains both the yin qi and yang qi, our cultivation needs to be able to balance the yin and yang energy so that it is harmonious in our body which maintains good health. Such a balance is based on

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not being excessively stimulated by desires or emotions. Daoism stresses that maintaining a tranquil state is how our Primordial Qi is preserved. The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor stated: through reducing desires, maintaining tranquillity, being empty and meditating, our Zhen Qi remains with us (恬淡虚无, 真气从之). In Daoism, there are 33 dimensions in the universe, the higher the dimension, the higher the energy level. To be immortal is to be able to go to these dimensions and rise above the formation, growth, decay, and death process that affects physical things and beings on earth, as well as all other physical matter in the universe, including the stars. So as a result of cultivation the sages have these abilities: “five eyes” (abilities to see invisible worlds, hear inaudible vibrations, and use energy and intention/mind power to impact things and heal people); and “six penetrating abilities”, which include the “five eyes” abilities and also ability to know the hearts of all people and things, to travel anywhere in the universe, to know all the causes behind things and events, and to no longer lose one’s energy—this is the highest level called “lou jing tong” (漏尽通), indicating the sages no longer lose any energy and have attained immortality. In sum, • Daoism is a philosophy about the cosmos and its working. • Dao is the vast, boundless energy that enwraps everything. • The Daoist dream is to understand the cosmic law, the law of life and energy transformation, to ultimately reach the stage whereas the Hidden Sutra of Sacred Codes says: The Universe is held in my hand, and All Creations come from my body; everything in Heaven and Earth is with me and in me. (The Hidden Code Sutra 阴府经: 宇宙 在乎手, 万化生乎身; 天下万物皆备于我)

Daoist Axiology or Philosophy of Virtues: Unity of All Existence and Equanimity In the previous section, I posit that Daoism is a human/spiritual life science; it aims at a scientific understanding about the art and technology to harness the vital life force qi that penetrates all existence, including human beings, natural things, the stars, and constellations. With such a broad mindscape, Daoist masters are unconcerned about obtaining short-term, material gains; their ultimate pursuit is to realize freedom from death and be united with the eternal Dao.

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In Daoism, we are living in a moral universe. Dao is the creative energy of All That Is. All things exist according to the law of Dao and all existence respect the law of virtues (Tao Te Ching, Chap. 51: 万物莫不尊道而贵德). For example, in the solar system, the stars orbit the sun harmoniously, with each star giving energy to the other and engaging in a collaborative relationship. To become a great human being, one must follow the way of Dao through virtuous minds and deeds. Through cultivating special abilities such as clairvoyance by the Third Eye which opens with the increase of energy, and experiencing energy currents flowing in one’s meridians when one has helped other people or things, Daoist masters intuitively know that virtue regulates the exchange and cooperation of life energies qi, or spiritenergies of All That Exist. They therefore willingly abide by the teaching of virtues by ancient sages. Those who historically have been recognized as immortals were Daoists who have done countless good deeds. They emulated the example of Dao, that is, Dao creates all existence without claiming fame, hence they also accumulated hidden virtues, which is doing good without letting others know it. Meanwhile, virtues are also manifested in their everyday conduct, such as maintaining a positive social relationship with others by being soft, kind, grateful, respectful, yielding, giving, compassionate, tranquil, … as outlined in Dao De Jing. In Daoism, the whole universe is connected. All is connected by the Primordial Qi; all corresponds through qi. Although things manifest as different and diverse, they are all immersed in qi, and qi forms the template or spirit behind all things. Dao as the creative Primordial Qi is in everything, hence everything is in Dao—hence there is a spirit in everything and all existence is equal. In Dao De Jing, Laozi said: The heavenly Dao, Is like the arching bow! Those on top are repressed, Those below are raised; Those who have excess are reduced, Those who are deprived is supplemented. This is the way of the Heavenly Dao. (Dao De Jing, Chap. 77: 天之道, 其尤张弓矣。高者抑之, 下者举之; 有余者损之, 不足者补之。天道损有 余而补不足)

Hence, the universe is fair and just. This is reminiscent of Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount: blessed are those who are meek….

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In Zhuangzi’s essay, “Treatise on All Things Being Equal” (齐物论), there is no separation of superior or inferior, as all exist as a vital part of the whole, and indiscrimination should be our true nature. He said: My hundreds of bones, my nine openings, my six organs, make me who I am. Which of them is closest to me? Do you like them the same? Or do you like one better than the other? If so, are they superiors and subordinates who can order each other around? Who is the king and who is the official? (Zhuangzi, Chap. 2, “Treatise on All Things Being Equal”)

In the Daoist non-anthropocentric view, humility is extremely important in knowing our interdependence with nature. Zhuangzi illuminates our relative position in the universe by asking eloquently: When sleeping in wet places, while humans will have back pain and paralysis, will eel also suffer these? When humans are in the tree they shake with fear, are monkeys also like this? Of humans, eels and monkeys, who knows where is the ideal place to reside? (Zhuangzi, Chap. 2, “Treatise on All Things Being Equal”)

We should refrain from using our own viewpoints to judge other species. Zhuangzi mused: Mao Xiang, Li Ji, two women who are recognized by humans to be very beautiful, yet when fish see them (humans) they dive deep into water; when birds see them, they fly high to flee them; when dear see them, they dash away as fast as they can. Of these four, humans, fish, birds, and deer, who knows what is most beautiful in the world? (pp. 12–13). (Zhuangzi, Chap. 2, “Treatise on All Things Being Equal” 毛嫱丽姬, 人之所美也; 鱼见之深入, 鸟见之高飞, 麋鹿见之决骤, 四者孰知天下之正色哉?)

Zhuangzi held that refusing to dichotomize “you” and “me” is to reach “dao shu” or the Axis of Dao: Understanding daoshu will allow us to reach the center of Dao (huan zhong) which allows us to deal with endless array of things and events. All exist in oneness, in unity. (Zhuangzi, Chap. 2, “Treatise on All Things Being Equal”)

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In Daoism, therefore, human, nature and the cosmos are one. Not only do we need energy from the earth, sun, moon, and the larger cosmos, internally we also have a built-in mechanism that corresponds with the larger forces outside. For example, women’s menstrual cycle corresponds with the moon’s cycle of orbiting the earth, and moon and women both represent yin energy. The sun gives the earth yang energy, which grows plants and animals, and humans rely on them to survive, while humans also give back to other forces such as human’s out breath produces carbon dioxide that serves as the food for plants and the out breath of trees, oxygen is vital for humans. Hence the orderly change of seasons, the orbiting of stars in their place, and humans and animals supporting and caring for each other are all part of the natural laws or internal setup of Dao based on the principles of virtues. Diversion from virtues disrupts not only our body’s energy system but also the balance and sustainability of the wider environment including the earth’s ecosystem, the solar system, and even the universe. In the virtue-based cosmological mechanism, there is the aspect of aspirational striving and creative growth, which features the yang qi, or masculine energy that facilitates growth; and there is also the aspect of tranquillity and humility, as is the function of the yin qi, the feminine energy that shoulders the role of nurturance and preservation. It should be noted that men do not rigidly represent yang energy, as neither women represent rigidly yin energy. We all have both yin qi and yang qi in our body. Regardless of our gender or social status, in Daoism, we should all aspire to give to the world without seeking excessive returns, emulating the virtue of water nurturing all lives and existence, which Laozi praises as the highest kind of virtue, and we should be tranquil and soft to be in tune with the Dao. However, as Laozi criticizes, the greatest disaster is that we are not content with what we have; he advocates humility, compassion, frugality, love, softness, service, reconciliation, non-competition and peace (Lin et al., 2020). In Daoist axiology, there is a force of love that governs the universe, and we need to emulate it if we are to cultivate Dao. In sum: • In Daoism, the cosmos is governed by the principle of virtues. Virtue is the moral, spiritual, energetic, and scientific mechanism upholding the structure of the universe. Hence, Laozi names his text Dao De Jing, De being virtues, which are the essence and manifestations of Dao. Dao and virtues are one and the same. Dao as energy is upheld

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by virtues and Dao energy can be harnessed through acts of virtues. Virtues ensure the universe functions in an integral and sustainable manner. • Dao is manifested through virtues which guide qi. • The world is fair and just: Energy flows to those who do good.

References Bohm, D. (1980). Wholeness and the implicate order. Routledge. Book of Changes or I Ching. Retrieved from http://www.quanxue.cn/CT_RuJia/ ZhouYiIndex.html Confucius. The Analects. Retrieved from http://www.quanxue.cn/CT_RuJia/ MengZiIndex.html Culham, T. (2013). Ethics education of business leaders: Emotional intelligence, virtues and contemplative learning (J.  Lin & R.  Oxford, Eds.). Book Series: Transforming Education for the Future. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing. Dao De Jing (or Tao Te Ching). Chinese original text. Retrieved from http:// www.quanxue.cn/CT_DaoJia/LaoZiIndex.html King, D. (2011). Be your own Shaman. New York, NY: Hay House. Lin, J. (2018). From self cultivation to social transformation: The Confucian embodied pathways and educational implications. In Y. Liu & W. Ma (Eds.), Confucianism and education (pp. 169–182). Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Lin, J. (2019). Enlightenment from body-spirit integration: Dunhuang’s Buddhist cultivation pathways and educational implications. In D.  Xu (Ed.), The Dunhuang Grottos and global education: Philosophical, spiritual, scientific, and aesthetic insights (pp. 113–131). New York, NY: Palgrave-Springer. Lin, J., Culham, T., & Scott, C. (2020). Virtue as emergence from contemplative practices. Journal of Character Education: A Special Issue on Virtuous Leadership, 16(1), 39–53. Lin, J., & Parikh, R. (2019). Connecting meditation, quantum physics, and consciousness: Implication for higher education. In J.  Lin, S.  Edwards, & T. Culham (Eds.), Contemplative pedagogies in K-12, university, and community settings: Transformation for deep learning and being (pp. 3–25). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Mencius. Retrieved from http://www.quanxue.cn/CT_RuJia/MengZiIndex.html Reninger, E. (2019). An insider’s look at Taoist cosmology. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/Daoist-cosmology-3182590 The Yellow Emperor’s Hidden Code Sutra 阴府经. Retrieved from http://www. quanxue.cn/CT_DaoJia/YinFuIndex.html Zhuangzi. Retrieved from http://www.quanxue.cn/CT_DaoJia/Zhuang ZiIndex.html

CHAPTER 4

Virtue and Qi: The Pursuit of Immortality in Daoism Jing Lin

What does it mean to be human in the universe? Why is human’s life so short? Are there ways to maintain our life so that we witness life as long as we want, and also be able to transcend the limitation of the body and travel the universe? What is our true nature? Can we be like the eternal Dao? Daoists have devoted endless efforts in the past thousands of years to explore these questions. They realized that humans are made in the same blueprint of the universe, that is, what exists in the universe also exists in humans; and that if Dao can exist forever, so can humans, provided they follow the way of the Dao. As Laozi describes it, Dao’s way is love, softness, service, humility, compassion, respect, fairness, peace, etc., all of which are methods and techniques we need to cultivate in order to pursue immortality. The virtues laid out by Laozi are not moral rhetoric but seen as laws governing all existence in the universe by way of qi exchange. As the universe is fair and upholds equality, we should contain our desires and not seek excessive possession, and we should not compete but yield gains to other. In this way we contribute to the harmonious working of the universe, and in this process we transform from a small self to a larger Self, becoming a sage. The higher Self, our original soul, is pure energy, pure light, that is incredibly powerful and that can create things and affect changes in things and events according to the intention of the person. © The Author(s) 2020 T. Culham, J. Lin, Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning, Spirituality, Religion, and Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44947-6_4

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Many Daoist masters or immortals are able to perform acts, which we call miracles, but actually are the effect of their high energy that they can use just with their intention. It is worthy of note that these sages are one with the Dao and have cultivated their virtue to the highest level, thus their intentions are not self-serving. Daoists practice ways to first maintain good health, then to transform energy into Pure Yang Energy or Zhen Qi, which fills up the body concentrating in the energy fields (the lower, middle, and upper dan tian) eventually giving birth to the “immortal child”, also called the “spirit child” (Wong, 1998, pp. 16–17). Those who are immortal are as pure as babies, as Laozi said, they “live in an extremely empty state and sustain their tranquility, and return to the state of a baby” (Tao Te Ching, Chap.16, 致虚极, 守静笃, 复归于婴儿). The baby lives in a state of being nourished by the Original Qi, or the most powerful and yet very soft qi. More specifically, energies are accumulated in the three energy fields: the lower dan tian at the abdominal level, the middle dan tian in the chest level, and the upper dan tian on the forehead between the two eyebrows. Energy also circulates in the meridians of the spine called du mai, and in the meridians of the front of the body called ren mai. Breathing techniques and visualizations attract qi, propel qi, and refine qi in the body, and also exchange qi with the universe. The Daoist canon The Fundamental Teachings of Cultivating Character and Life Energy, or Xingming Guizi (性命圭旨), gives elaborate descriptions on how the immortal child is born. It contains diagrams and pictures, and it corroborates teachings from Buddhism and Confucianism as well. Bigu, or forgoing of food, is one important stage in the process of energy purification and refinement. In the state of high energy, Daoist practitioners do not need to rely on food for nourishment, as their energy system becomes completely open and they can draw from the highly energetic qi of everything. They can also prolong their lives with many methods, including avoiding accidents as they have achieved the “seventh consciousness” or energy consciousness to correct convergence of karmic forces, and they can most importantly use their “eighth consciousness” to change negative forces and heal people and elevate others’ energy for spiritual growth. In this state, using a Buddhist term, one “shines with the allpervasive Buddha Light” (佛光普照). Throughout the history of Daoism, indeed throughout the history of China, perhaps throughout the history of humanity, the pursuit of immortality is a great aspiration and recorded in thousands of texts. Here in this book, we mainly highlight that there is rich wisdom in the Daoist texts

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teaching about alchemical transformation and metamorphosis of the body to be immortal (Wong, 1998). Humans can rejuvenate themselves if they effectively preserve and accumulate qi energy through accumulating virtues.

Qi, Meridians and Resonance Human beings are viewed by Daoists as an integration of qi (which forms the invisible energy body) and the physical body. Qi as invisible energy flows in the meridians of the physical body. In fact, Daoists can see the qi flowing in the body through meditation. They see the meridians run through the whole body linking up the organs and also connecting the body with the qi of the wider environment. Human emotions significantly affect the function of the qi energy in the physical body. Too much anger, for example, damages the liver, and too much sadness damages the lung (The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor). The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor is the ancient classic which forms the foundation of traditional Chinese medicine. This book details the relationship between qi in a person and that in the wider environment, and the relationship between one’s emotions and the well-being of the inner organs. In another text, the Heavenly Palace Book in the Book of History (史记天宫书), it is discussed how human behaviours are affected by the energy state of the stars and how human activities also affect the working of the sun, moon, and various constellations in the universe. All existence resonates with each other and impact each other. In Daoist teaching, when one is born, one comes into the world with the pure energy called Yuan Qi (元气), or the Original Qi. Yuan Qi is the finite amount of vital Primordial Qi we are born with and it affects our health and longevity. After birth, a child’s energy is still well connected with the qi of other beings and things, hence, a consciousness of interconnection prevails in the child. This is why children feel connected to people and animals, and their spiritual propensity enables them to trust and believe everything is possible (such as the tooth fairy). As the child reaches six or seven years old, the Original Qi, which is the powerful creative force harboured in the human body (in Daoist thinking, it is concentrated mainly in the kidney and the abdomen area), is still at its fullest so that when the child loses his teeth he can grow all of them back. After that, the child starts to expend his reserve of the Original Qi, and when he is in his 20s, the Original Qi is still very strong, but the quantity of the Original Qi

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decreases as he ages. At 49 for women, menopause’s onset denotes the depletion of the most of the Original Qi in a woman and, hence, childbirth is no longer possible. Men may also have menopause which often shows up in health problems but the menopause dawns a few years later than women. In a way, the process of the human life is a process of expending and losing the Original Qi one is born with. The Original Qi propels us through life stages such as growing and losing teeth, puberty, adult age, and menopause (The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor). When that energy is gone, the body decays and disintegrates. For Daoism, there are effective ways for preserving and enhancing the vital life energy qi, and measures can be taken to revert the process of energy depletion and in fact to accumulate more energy and strengthen one’s body as time goes on. Finding these methods means finding the gateway to preserve life and to prolong it forever. It is through Daoist inspiration and practice that traditional Chinese medicine has developed a vast system of methods to maintain the balance of yin and yang energy in one’s body and to cure all kinds of health problems. In Daoist cultivation of immortality however, virtues generate and contribute to accumulation of the highest power energy, Zhen Qi; therefore, cultivation of virtues is most important. The Treatise of the Original God on Resonance and Retribution quantifies the amount of virtues one needs to accumulate to achieve higher levels of being. According to the treatise, Tai Shang (God) instructs, in order to live a long life and become an immortal being, one must avoid doing many unvirtuous deeds that lead one to disaster and peril; and Tai Shang also details many virtues one can “accumulate”. Essentially, if one has accumulated 300 good deeds, many of which the treatise specifies, one can be assured of a life like a sage on earth (地仙 di xian) living a good life with great health. If one has accumulated 1300 good deeds one will be elevated to the level of a heavenly being (天仙 tian xian). It also states that bad deeds by people can negatively affect future generations, and similarly good deeds will positively benefit one’s future generations. Hence, through virtuous deeds which guide the movement of qi, people and things resonate with each other and exchange energy, and those who have done many good deeds open up wide channels for receiving and gathering qi energy via the subconscious support of others. It takes life-long effort to do good deeds and be engaged in meditation to cultivate energy in order to have dramatic results. Some people however can transform themselves quickly due to their dispositions, good deeds

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they have done in many previous lives, or because their ancestors have accumulated many virtues that can be tapped into through meditation and the virtue of piety. Therefore, in Daoism, piety is a critical virtue, as one needs to be connected back to the ancestral energy to have a boundless source of energy. In daily life, this means Daoist practitioners set very high standards for loving one’s parents, and in extension, loving others’ parents, and eventually extending that love to all elderly people, and in fact, to all people as our own family members as we are interconnected. This notion is understandable nowadays as genetic science indicates we inherit traits and illnesses from our parents, and our parents are connected to many others. Not only in Daoism, piety is also greatly emphasized in Confucianism and Buddhism as they both see piety as the connecting mechanism to our ancestors (Lin, 2018, 2019). Another vital condition is finding an enlightened teacher; the disciple who follows the teachings with perseverance and sincerity in their cultivation can have a major jump in energy and can undergo significant transformation in their body, heart, mind, and spirit. Without a teacher who knows the working of qi in our body, and who emphasizes the importance of virtues, it is unlikely one can reach a very high level. Also importantly, enlightened teachers can impart energy to the disciples and teach through energy and transmission of methods directly into the subconscious mind of the students. This is called “heart-to-heart transmission”. In brief, in practice, Daoists go through the process of accumulating energy, refining energy, doing good to increase their energy source, and eventually accumulating a high level of Zhen Qi, which can be exerted by one’s intentionality to work with people and things. Healings by Daoist masters are often done in such a way. The highly powerful energy can be used to change weather patterns, such as indigenous shamans causing rain to fall. Eventually, Daoist practitioners transform their energy state and foster a “spiritual embryo”, which is viewed internally as an immortal child. Eventually this being can exit the body and travel in the universe with one’s full consciousness. In Daoism, this being, often called Yang Shen, or Zhen Ren, is an immortal being that can defy death. Buddhism basically has a similar objective and process of cultivation (Lin, 2019). This being, as one’s Immortal Self, has no limitation in life span. The Immortal Self is not bound by matter, time and space and can travel faster than light and can manifest in all realms. A famous novel in China, the Monkey’s Journey to the West, details such a process of cultivation using story-telling to inform people. The Immortal Self at last has risen above

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the human cycle of life and death and the cycle of formation and disintegration of the universe, and can watch how mountains turn into oceans and how oceans rise to form mountains while they are being unaffected.

Qi and Virtues, and Becoming Sages and Cosmic Beings Guan Zhong (管仲), also called Guanzi, in his book, of the same title, contains a brief statement regarding Inner Work, or Neiye 内业 considered to be vital to cultivating the Dao: The Primordial Qi gives birth to the crops on earth and the stars in the sky, and those who harbour the Primordial Qi will become sages. This qi can only be acquired through the heart and maintained through virtues, and with qi one grows virtues and wisdom is bred, benefiting all existence in the universe. (Guanzi, Chap.49)

Guan Zhong makes a direct connection between qi and becoming sages. Early Confucianism was closely linked with Daoism, and it also linked longevity with virtues. Confucius said in the Analects, those who have ren (仁) or loving-kindness achieve tranquillity (仁者静), and those who live by ren live a long life (仁者寿) (Analects, Yong Ye Pian 6–23).The Great Learning says: virtues nurture the body (德润身) (Great Learning, 3). Finally, the Doctrine of the Mean says: people of great virtues will be rewarded with long life (大德必得其寿) (Doctrine of the Means, 16) (Lin, 2018). Daoist master Zhuangzi described sages who lived a very long life in these words: In the south of Chu there is the Mingling (mysterious, divine) people who count five hundred years as their spring, and five hundred years as their fall, (楚之南有冥靈者、以五百歲爲春、五百歲爲秋) (Zhuangzi, Chap.1 Wandering Around)

Zhuangzi also said: There is a divine being living in Mt. Mò Gūyè. His skin is white like ice and snow, and he is slender as a maiden. Without eating the five grains, he breathes in the air and drinks the dew. He rides the clouds and drives the dragons, ranging out beyond the four seas. Focusing his spirit, he prevents people from getting disease and ripens the yearly harvest. (藐姑射之山, 有

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神人居焉, 肌肤若冰雪, 淖(绰)约若处子。不食五谷, 吸风饮露。乘云气, 御 飞龙, 而游乎四海之外。其神凝, 使物不疵疠而年谷熟) (Zhuangzi, Chap.1 Wandering Around)

In Zhuangzi, the Prime Masters are the Real People (Zhen Ren) who defeat death: What do I mean by a Real Person? The Real Person of antiquity did not try to stave off poverty, did not try to force success, and did not try to devise schemes. A person like that feels no regret when he errs and no self-­ satisfaction when his actions are on target. He feels no fear when he climbs to great heights. He can plunge into water and never get wet; he can walk into fire and never feel the heat. Wisdom that can ascend to the Dao itself is like this. (何谓真人?古之真人, 不逆寡, 不雄成, 不谟士。若然者, 过而弗悔, 当而不自得也。若然者, 登高不栗, 入水不濡, 入火不热, 是知之能登假于 道者也若此) (Zhuangzi, Chap. 6 The Prime Master)

Zhuangzi described how the Real Person cultivated: The Real Person of antiquity slept without dreaming and woke without anxiety; he sought no sweetness in his food and he breathed as deeply as could be. The Real Person breathes from his heels, where the common person breathes from his throat. Those who have surrendered gasp out speech as though choking; their desires are deep, but their Heavenly sensitivities are shallow. (古之真人, 其寝不梦, 其觉无忧, 其食不甘, 其息深深。真人之息以踵, 众人之息以喉。屈服者, 其嗌言若哇。其耆欲深者, 其天机浅) (Zhuangzi, Chap. 6 The Prime Master)

The Yellow Emperor’s Hidden Code Sutra (阴府经) states that when one reaches the stage of an immortal being, “the whole universe is held in his hands, and all things are created out of his body” (宇宙在乎手, 萬化生 乎身). This denotes ability to be like the creator Dao, using Zhen Qi to alter matter and create matter using the original templates of qi. Hence, those who live with Dao and become one with Dao live a tranquil and simple life; they are loving, pious, compassionate, humble, soft; they have an unbelievably long life span and have incredible abilities. Although nowadays we do not have examples of these people in our daily life, by the fact they can transcend physical limitation and death, they may be among us but prefer not to be known.

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Summary and Conclusion Daoism is a cosmic philosophy. According to Laozi, the origin of the universe, Dao, is a vast void (無), and it is unfathomable, inaudible, invisible, and beyond description. It is the emptiness, the Infinite, the creative energy, the source of All That Is. This void is called wuji (無極). Then from the void appears the One, taiji (太極), the Primordial Qi energy or the Creator Spirit Qi. The Primordial Qi becomes two, which when resting and descending is called yin energy, and when moving and uprising is called yang energy. These two energies interact and generate myriad qi forms, archetypes, and images. Leibniz (1991) called them Monads, and Plato called them Ideas or Forms (Ross, 1951), and when conditions are right, out of the energy field physical matter manifests, rendering matter basically to be energy locked up in pre-determined forms. Although the universe has countless beings and things, the energy of the Primordial Qi is in everything, as it is the foundational energy and spirit that connects all existence. As qi forms into things and holds things, qi also can dissipate and be depleted which leads to decay and death, returning things back to their formless state, as spirit templates or shadows. The universe is perpetually engaged in the transformation of qi into physical manifested forms then returned back to the spirit plane as yin and yang interaction continues; hence, birth and death form a natural cycle that is hard for humans to escape or transcend. However, as human beings, we are blessed with the distinct gift of consciousness, as we have the capacity and agency to choose and act, to transcend the limitation we have and to follow the way of Dao which always exists. The Daoist sages teach that when we engage in meditation and emulate the virtues of Dao, we can become an immortal. Qi willingly supports those who do good. As Daoist sage Liu Hua-Yang said: “The relationship of virtue to the Tao is like the relationship of a bird to its feathers: one cannot exist without the other” (Wong, 1998, p. 30).

References Guanzi. Retrieved from http://www.quanxue.cn/CT_FaJia/GuanZiIndex.html Leibniz, G.W. (1991). La Monadologie (établie par E ed.). Boutroux: Paris LGF. Lin, J. (2018). From self cultivation to social transformation: The Confucian embodied pathways and educational implications. In Y. Liu & W. Ma (Eds.), Confucianism and education (pp. 169–182). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

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Lin, J. (2019). Enlightenment from body-spirit integration: Dunhuang’s Buddhist cultivation pathways and educational implications. In D.  Xu (Ed.), The Dunhuang Grottos and global education: Philosophical, spiritual, scientific, and aesthetic insights (pp. 113–131). New York, NY: Palgrave-Springer. Ross, W. D. (1951). Plato’s theory of ideas. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Wong, E. (1998). Cultivating the energy of life by Liu Hua-Yang. (Translated and Introduced by E. Wong). Boston: Shambhala. Zhuangzi. Retrieved from http://www.quanxue.cn/CT_DaoJia/ZhuangZi Index.html

CHAPTER 5

Daoist Epistemology: Integral Cultivation of Knowing and Being Jing Lin

Daoism has very profound wisdom on our ways of knowing. In Daoism, knowledge first comes from our ways of being, and this informs our ways of knowing which in turn transforms and deepen our ways of being.

Ways of Being: Transformation of Our Heart-Mind The alignment of our life with the energy of Dao requires deep and profound transformation of our heart-mind. In Daoism, the heart-mind is the totality of our beliefs, values, mindsets, attitudes, dispositions, habits, intentions, speeches, actions etc. To adjust all of these so that we are aligned with Dao virtues requires a lot of effort, both in terms of doing inner reflection and meditation, and in terms of how we conduct our daily life and work. The heart-mind adjustment has the impact of regulating and increasing the qi energy in the human body, and also facilitating the exchange of one’s qi with the wider environment, social or natural, and even cosmological. These efforts attempt to align the energy in our conscious and subconscious mind as well, so that we reach the collective unconscious mind, and our body, mind, heart, energy, and spirit are integrated, and we form a supportive, reciprocal energy feedback loop with the outer world free from interference (Lin & Parikh, 2019). © The Author(s) 2020 T. Culham, J. Lin, Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning, Spirituality, Religion, and Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44947-6_5

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Tranquillity In Daoism, tranquillity has an important role. Tranquillity is required for one to sense the energy state of our reality. In Daoist teaching, it is through reaching profound and deep levels of tranquillity that one can reach Dao. These levels are achieved through efforts from having a harmonious relationship with society, to emptying excessive desires, to becoming open to inner reality of the world, to be shining with inner light and being connected to the spirits of all existence. In the Tranquility Sutra, Laozi states Dao creates heaven and earth and myriads of things but does not show Itself and does not claim Its achievements; people who want to find Dao and achieve immortality must emulate this virtue, that is, when free of selfish desires, one can let go and reach a state of freedom, peace, and serenity. When desires are contained, people are able to sense and resonate with the deeply ingrained vital energy in everything and every being. Gradually one enters Dao, seeing everything as energy and becoming non-obsessive and unattached, thereby reaching a very deep state of tranquillity, wherein one can sense the intricate working of the universe. At this stage, one finally reaches Dao, becomes awakened to the inherent responsibility of finding Dao, and only then one is finally united with the Dao, to spread the teaching of the Dao (The Tranquility Sutra). It has to be pointed out though, that tranquillity does not mean forgoing movement, where one is just sitting motionless. In fact, many people practise movements to achieve tranquillity. Tai Chi is one good example. In Tai Chi, one moves slowly and senses the qi flowing in one’s hand and body and the movement facilitates the flow of the qi and enhances the qi. So, tranquillity, movement, and qi can be integrated. Hence, tranquillity is more about sensing and allowing energy to guide and flow, which is a subtle state of being that sees the ego recede and qi take its spontaneous course. This tranquillity can be achieved through many different methods including movements and martial arts.

Qi Resonance and Interconnection In addition to tranquillity, the Daoist ways of knowing and cultivation importantly stress resonance and interconnection with All That Exist. The Britannica Online Encyclopaedia says this very well while explaining the microcosm-macrocosm concept in Chinese philosophy:

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The conception of the cosmos common to all Chinese philosophy is neither materialistic nor animistic (a belief system centering on soul substances); it can be called magical or even alchemical. The universe is viewed as a hierarchically organized organism in which every part reproduces the whole. The human being is a microcosm (small world) corresponding rigorously to this macrocosm (large world); the body reproduces the plan of the cosmos. Between humans and the world there exists a system of correspondences and participations that the ritualists, philosophers, alchemists, and physicians have described but certainly not invented. (Daoism, n.d.)

This system of human and cosmos correspondence, as explained by Daoist philosophy, proposes that for humans, the five organs of the body and its orifices, and humans’ dispositions, features, and passions all correspond to the five directions, the five holy mountains, the sections of the sky, the seasons, and the Five Elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, and water), which in China are not material but are more like five fundamental forces of any process that give rise to each other and negate each other. The Britannica Online Encyclopaedia states: Whoever understands the human experience thus understands the structure of the cosmos. (Daoism, n.d.)

In sum, in essence, we are made in the same construct of the universe. We are an energy system vibrating with the information, energy, spirit of the universe. While we are impacted by energies of the world and the cosmos, we also impact them. There is an “implicate order” undergirding all events, people and things and we are all interconnected (David Bohm, 1980).

Cultivation Pathways for Finding Dao The Daoist cultivation pathway is similar to what is outlined in the Monkey King’s Journey to the West (西游记) which several Buddhist monks took to achieve Buddhahood. The Monkey King’s and his fellow monks’ pathway contains these elements:

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. Aspiration to seek Dao and immortality; 1 2. Finding the teacher or teachers who will guide their way and protect them; 3. Establishing big goals; 4. Cultivating jin (spirit or essence), qi, and shen (magical and divine spirit powers); 5. Birthing and growing the inner child; 6. Revealing, refining, and demonstrating human latent supernatural powers; 7. Embarking on a long journey to accumulate more virtues and cultivate profound compassion and wisdom; 8. Demonstrating resilience and determination despite great trials and obstacles hence they were able to pass various kinds of tests (81 tests); and 9. Finally achieving Buddhahood (who are like the Daoist immortals). The novel is known for its splendid imagination of scenes and the monks’ encounters with various figures (deities or devils) in heaven and earth, and their use of special abilities as demonstrated by the Monkey King to overcome evil forces. The novel points out that we must treasure our blessing being human, and what really matters in our life is cultivation to seek enlightenment. The book also highlights the merging of yin and yang energy. The novel contains methods of meditation and stages of cultivation, emphasizing the importance of cultivating both of one’s character and life energy.1 There are thousands of methods in Daoist cultivation. Two emphases underlie these methods: one is to cultivate qi and build up one’s energy through meditation, and the other is to cultivate one’s character, to be aligned with virtues of the Dao so that one accesses a boundless source of energy and in reciprocity contributes to the maintenance of the harmony of the universe as well. This is called the mutual cultivation of Xing (one’s

1

 The teaching of immortality is embedded in this poem: 显密圆通真妙诀, 惜修生命无他说. 都来总是精气神, 谨固牢藏休漏泄. 休漏泄, 体中 藏, 汝受吾传道自昌. 口诀记来多有益, 屏除邪欲得清凉. 得清凉, 光皎洁, 好向丹台 赏明月. 月藏玉兔日藏乌, 自有龟蛇相盘结. 相盘结, 性命坚, 却能火里种金莲. 攒簇 五行颠倒用, 功完随作佛和仙. (西游记 菩提祖师言)

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inner character and heart-mind) and Ming (one’s life energy) which is the pursuit of Daoists over millennia. Energy cultivation methods are explored by Daoists generation after generation to work with the qi energy of everything. The core practice aims at refining the body’s Jin/essence (such as bone marrow, blood, saliva, and sperm in the body), qi (the energy flowing in the meridians and organs working to maintain the vitality of the body), and Shen or the new Self equipped with powerful Zhen Qi which guides us to reach beyond the physical realm and allows us to have significant impact on the world. The ultimate principle is for one to accumulate qi and not “leak” energy, so that energy returns to oneself through doing good, and qi can be refined to birth the Immortal Self. Further, in Daoism, energy is never lost when someone dies; rather it is stored in the DNA of the future generations. Through virtues such as piety and respect for the elders and ancestors, one is connected to the huge reserve of the ancestral energy and becomes linked to the energies of generations and generations of people. This emphasis on piety is also evident in traditional societies and among indigenous groups, who see ancestors as still alive or energetically and spiritually connected to the living people. Overall, the scope and span of life in Daoism is very long and elastic.

Meditation as Energy-based Learning and Knowing to Reach Dao Meditation is a requirement if one wants to reach Dao. In Daoism, meditation is referred to as xiu dao (修道), meaning the cultivation of Dao, so meditation is seen as a way to achieve Dao; it is not just a few simple breathing and visualization techniques. There are thousands and thousands of meditation methods, some familiar to the general public but many are maintained as secrets passed onto only small select groups of people; this phenomenon is true in Daoism as well as in mystical traditions around the world. The key is often not in verbal teaching or textual learning but in finding the teacher who can impart energy to bring life to the texts and render the meditation method an energy-elevating experience, so that the disciple is “filled with spirit”, or “spirit fills the disciple”, so to speak. An important result in meditation is we learn to control the mind and open up our extrasensory and clairvoyant capacities to work with qi

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energy. Many Daoist practices stress the importance of shutting down our sensory organs to avoid excessive stimulation from the outside world and preserve the qi in our organs. For example, too much seeing hurts the liver’s energy; too much hearing depletes the kidney’s energy. With accumulation of qi energy, one can open one’s Third Eye which is the door to see into the inner universe and work with our reality in its ethereal and spiritual energy level. As the Yellow Emperor’s Hidden Code Sutra (阴府经) said: The mind is quickened (to activity) by (external) things, and dies through (excessive pursuit of) them. The key is to open our Third Eye to revert the process of death. The spring (of the mind’s activity) is in the eyes. (心生於 物, 死於物, 機在目)

In Dao De Jing, Laozi said: in a meditative state, there is jing (精) essence, there is xin (信) medium or information, and there is wu (物) matter (Dao De Jing, Chap. 21 恍兮惚兮, 其中有精, 其中有信, 其中有物). Here, it is helpful to use the understanding of quantum physics to delineate what Laozi is saying. In quantum physics, everything exists both as matter and wave/energy. Therefore, in mediation, we can say one achieves an altered state of consciousness and changes from a matter based, physical, particle state of consciousness, to a wave-like energy state of consciousness, which is often called emptiness or void in eastern religions, that allows one to tap into the realms that are connected with the subtle energy of everything (Lin & Parikh, 2019). World spiritual and religious teachers often undergo long periods of meditation to arrive at the Universe Mind (Dao), experiencing a state of being which is connected to the immense void, or the Infinite Energy Field, as many spiritual and energy healers call it today. Meditation is vital for opening up our hidden energy sensors such as our meridians and acupuncture points. It is meditation that allows us to access the various levels of consciousness, including the subconscious level, the energy consciousness level, and even the collective unconsciousness which Buddhists call the alaya consciousness (Lin & Parikh, 2019). Aligning our different levels of consciousness involves clearing away shadows in the subconscious mind and reprogramming it with positive energy connections through love, forgiveness, repentance, etc. so we can form a positive energy network with others. Conscious efforts of virtue

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cultivation hence enable us to work with the subconsciousness and positively vibrate with the energy of other people and things and eventually connect us to Dao’s Infinite Energy Field.

Dedication, Concentration, and Perseverance Are Crucial in Knowing Dao For Daoists, knowing Dao requires great dedication, concentration, and perseverance. The Yellow Emperor’s Hidden Code Sutra (阴府经) said: The blind are good in hearing, the deaf are good in seeing; when one eliminates other distractions and focus only on one organ, one is like having a pair of ears and eyes ten times better; one is able to persist days and nights without stop, the sharpness of your hearing and seeing multiplies by ten thousand times. (瞽者善聽, 聾者善視, 絕利一源, 用師十倍, 三 反晝夜, 用師萬倍)

Doing Good, Accumulating Virtues, and Refraining from Doing Evil In Daoism, doing good opens ways to knowing and energy. In The Treatise of the Original God on Resonance and Retribution (Tai Shang Gan Yin Pian, 太上感应篇), it states: The Great God said: Disasters and good fortunes do not have a will; they are attracted by people; the karmic impact of good and evil follow people like their shadows. (太上曰: 祸福无门, 惟人自召; 善恶之报, 如影随形)

The text said that there is a mechanism in the universe that determines people’s fortune and destiny based on their deeds. Those who aspire to be immortal must avoid doing bad deeds and persist in doing good deeds. The text provides an exhaustive list of bad deeds and good deeds. Good deeds include compassion, caring for the old and young, helping others and being humble, being pious and trustworthy, and having empathy even for insects and plants. Bad deeds include cursing and mistreating others, killing trees with medicine, aggression, faction fighting, spreading rumours, and being greedy. Those who do three good deeds a day and persist for three years will be rewarded by Heaven with good fortunes; those who do three bad deeds a day and do so for three years, will cause

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disasters to fall upon them. There are spirits hovering above a person recording every deed of people, and energy of life will be deducted from people doing bad and added to people doing good. A translation of the text can be found online: https://terebess.hu/english/The%20 Treatise%20of%20the%20Illustrious%20Sage%20on%20Response%20 and%20Retribution.pdf Hence, the way of Dao is to give and serve and not to hurt and exploit others. In Dao De Jing, Laozi said the greatest kindness is like that of water (上善若水); water nurtures all lives but does not aim for glory; water being very powerful yet very humble is willing to stay in lowly place hence it is closest to Dao. Dao does not claim fame for all its creations and this is how energy returns to Dao. The Dao’s law of energy is to reward those who serve without thinking about their own benefits. A sage therefore aims to accumulate hidden virtues just like Dao does. In other words, hidden virtue (阴德) is accumulated when one does good without letting others know about it, and one is unconditionally loving and kind to all in existence. Sages accomplishes their highest goal by forgetting themselves or giving themselves fully to serving others, and in return they are rewarded not by fame or wealth but by qi energy, and it is through this process, they unite with Dao. Therefore, the sages accumulate an ever-expanding ranges of virtues: by reducing desires, balancing themselves, and achieving tranquillity, they experience real growth of energy that benefits their body; by doing good for the family, they have a surplus of virtues; by doing good for those in the villages and communities, their virtues are extended; by serving the country, their virtues are richly multiplied; and by serving the world, their virtues spread to people and all existence (Dao De Jing, Chap. 54: 修之于 身, 其德乃真; 修之于家, 其德乃余; 修之于乡, 其德乃长; 修之于邦, 其德 乃丰; 修之于天下, 其德乃普). It has to be highlighted here that in Chinese, the word virtue De 德 has the same sound as the word 得 which is translated as “achieved” or “received”. Hence, Laozi also implies that virtues one does are equivalent to the energies one receives or achieves. In sum, one needs to expand one’s willingness to help others and see one’s self as intrinsically interconnected with others, and in doing good without claiming the benefits of one’s actions one receives unlimited inflows of energy which foster the growth of their powerful Zhen Qi and the birth of the Immortal Self.

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Observing the Principles of Preserving Life and the World In Daoism, tranquillity, compassion, humility, and simplicity are ways of knowing and being, as energy flows to those who are kind, tranquil, and humble. Daoist sages follow the flow of life naturally: they recognize the power of softness, frugality, and wuwei (non-action). They do not clash with others or compete with others as “peace is precious” (和为贵). In Dao De Jing, Laozi said: too much daring and bravery causes killing, whereas bravery in willingness to yield leads to peace (Dao De Jing, Chap. 73: 勇于敢则杀, 勇于不敢则和); water is the softest in the world, yet nothing can compare with it when it comes to overcoming the strongest force (Dao De Jing, Chap. 78: 天下莫柔软于水, 而攻坚强者, 莫之能胜). Sages live simply and are content with what they have; this contentment enables them to avoid insults or downfalls (Dao De Jing, Chap. 44: 知足 不辱); and those who are content with what they have are rich (Dao De Jing, Chap. 22: 知足者富). Laozi thinks the greatest crime for humans is to be controlled by reckless desires, and not being content and appreciative with what we have is the greatest cause for disasters (Dao De Jing, Chap. 46: 罪莫大于可欲, 祸莫大于不知足). Living in the world, Daoist sages blend in rather than compete with others. Laozi said: sages blunt their sharpness, untangle arguments, blend with the light, and co-habit with the dust (Dao De Jing, Chap. 56: 挫其 锐, 解其纷, 和其光, 同其尘); they do not judge as they accept and embrace both the black and the white (Dao De Jing, Chap. 28: 知白守黑). This means they see things holistically, knowing the dialectic dynamics of negative and positive forces, and the interdependence of things and events; this means they allow ambiguity to exist and see opposites as possibilities for transformation. Sages achieve deep levels of tranquillity and maintain keen observation and reflection about the cyclical nature of all things (Dao De Jing, Chap. 16: 至虚极也, 守静笃也, 万物并作, 吾以观其复). Although the sages have vast spans of knowledge they often speak few words; they do not boast about their knowledge rather they close their eyes and shut all gates that leak energy and blend into the existence of Dao, living in a state which Laozi calls a state of “miraculous harmony” (Dao De Jing, Chap. 56: 大 智若愚; 知者不言, 言者不知; 塞其兑, 闭其门, 挫其锐, 解其纷, 和其光, 同 其尘, 是谓玄同). However, in the meditative state they connect with all existence at the energy level, and the energy emitting from their heart

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touches the hearts of people in the whole world and impacts the world for peace (I Ching: Xian, 圣人感人心而天下平). Hence, the sages embrace peace and non-competition; they are not aggressive or angry; they often do not directly confront their enemies and are willing to stay below those they lead. This virtue of non-­competition, in Laozi’s words, is a virtue that matches with the virtue of Heaven and that of the Eternal Origin (Dao De Jing, Chap. 68: 善为士者不武, 善战者 不怒; 善胜敌者不与 (正面冲突); 善用人者为之下; 是为不争之德; 是为配 天, 古之极). He also said if the sages are forced to fight a war, they would treat victory as a funeral (Dao De Jing, Chap. 31).

Learning Attitude Knowing the way of Dao and adhering to it in one’s actions is not easy. One has to have high aspirations and determination; one needs to be willing to let go of excessive desires and adjust one’s heart-mind to align with the virtues of the Dao, focusing on service, giving, softness, humility, doing good for others, etc. Hence, in learning about the way to Dao, the attitudes of three kinds of people described by Laozi are: Superior learners are those who persist in their practice as soon as they know what cultivating Dao is about; the middle level learners hear about Dao and practice but slack in their cultivation; and the lowest level learners laugh hysterically about Dao—their laughter shows how incredible and mysterious the Dao is and that it is not for the small minded people. (Dao De Jing, Chap. 41: 上士闻道, 勤而行之; 中士闻道, 若存若亡; 下士闻道, 大笑之. 不笑不足以为道)

The Importance of Teachers Teachers play a vital role in one’s cultivation of Dao. In Dao De Jing, the sages are described as profound, who know things so subtle, so miraculous, and so mysterious that it is hard to fathom their depth (Dao De Jing, Chapter 15 圣人微妙玄通, 深不可测). Teachers of Dao are sages; they take serving the people as the sole concern of their life (Dao De Jing, Chapter 49 圣人无常心, 以百姓心为心); they are compassionate and save both the good and bad people; they give up on no one (Dao De Jing, Chapter 27 圣人常善救人, 故无弃人).

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Teachers in Chinese culture are treated like one’s parents. Respect for teachers in Chinese tradition can be traced to Daoism and Confucianism. There is a saying that “if someone teaches you for one day, you should treat him/her as your father/mother in your whole life”. To put this in context, the notion of a teacher in Daoism entails the teacher is not only teaching through words or texts, but most importantly through giving his/her vital life energy to the students. The teacher imparts his or her life energy to students, causing fundamental elevation of their energy levels. Teachers literally enlighten their students with their life energy, just how the Buddha taught his disciples (Lin, 2019). So, the new life and knowledge the students experience is directly related to the teachers’ imparting of life energy. The teachers’ visible teaching is in words, but the invisible teaching is by energy. This is similar to the Christian Bible in which Jesus’ disciples were said to be “filled with spirits” by their teacher Jesus. On another level, teachers are critically important guides and protectors of their students as the cultivation pathway is long and complex involving very subtle steps of transforming the body and energy levels of the students. Overcoming death involves facing one’s past incarnations and dealing with shadows and problems with courage and effective methods. Not having a teacher to guide the pathway is like trying to reach the other end of the ocean by peddling a small boat in the rough water without any guidance. In sum, the energy of the teacher is critical for students to undergo fundamental changes in their body, mind, heart, energy, and spirit. Critical learning is provided through the teachers’ direct transmission of energy and knowledge. In Buddhism, this energy is often depicted as light around the Buddha while students sat around him. In Dunhuang in the western part of China, there are more than 700 caves that have Buddhist murals and sculptures. For more than 1300 years people dug caves and created Buddhist murals and sculptures there. Many Dunhuang murals show disciples surrounding the Buddha, listening to him while he sat in the centre emitting a splendid ball of light that enwrapped the disciples. My interpretation is that this aura is the subtle qi energy that the Buddha had built up by doing good accumulating countless virtues in many life times and by being engaged in prolonged periods of meditation (Lin, 2019).

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Opening the Heaven Gate and Working with Creative Energy In Daoist knowing and being, one aims to be supple and flexible and in so doing, one returns to a child’s state of mind thereby cultivating the immortal internal child. Hence an enlightened person is like a child: intuitive, sensitive, kind, soft, pure in energy, and free from negative emotions and greed (Dao De Jing, Chap. 10: 专气至柔, 能婴儿乎?). Through meditation and energy accumulation, one opens one’s heaven gate, tian men, or bai hui, the major acupuncture point at the top of the head, its name having the literal meaning of hundreds of openings converged here. With the heaven gate opened, cosmic energies can be guided with our breathing and visualization to enter our body, and we can create things like a woman who can give birth to children (Dao De Jing, Chap. 10: 天门开 阖, 能无雌乎?).

Developing Extraordinary Abilities The ways of knowing taught by Laozi are connected to developing extrasensory and extraordinary abilities. For example, Laozi described people in Dao De Jing who did not need to look outside the window but know everything in the world. Laozi talks about the dialectics of give and take: when we learn to gain knowledge, we benefit ourselves; when we learn to give up, we are emulating Dao; the more we are able to let go and give up, the more we reach wuwei, a state of low desires and spontaneity, and from there we open up our extraordinary abilities and with them we can accomplish everything (like the sages described in Zhuangzi) (Dao De Jing, Chap. 48: 为学日益, 为道日损; 损之又损, 以至于无为, 无为而无所不为).

Teachers of World Religions: Their Practices and Teaching What I am talking about here is not only the practice and teaching in Daoism. The Axial Age (from approximately the eighth to the third century BCE) represents a singular period in human history when new ways of thinking about human beings and the world cropped up in the East (China, India, Persia) and West (Greco-Roman), laying the spiritual and philosophical foundations for humanity (Bai, 2013). During

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this period, contemplative methods like meditation were employed by sages/philosophers such as Pythagoras, Plato, Laozi, Zhuangzi, Confucius, and the historical Buddha to gain profound wisdom about cosmic forces and the working of the human society. I postulate that the wisdom shared by the philosophers of the Axial Age was obtained by cultivating powerful intuitive and extrasensory abilities that enabled them to know the world through higher levels of consciousness (Lin, 2019). Their vision went beyond the physical reality and reached the principles and a priori designs underlying the universe. From the life stories of the Daoist masters and the work of the sages of the Axial Age, it is evident that there are multiple ways of knowing that is integrated with our being and virtues. They can be phrased this way: • Knowing by Body: this means doing somatic meditative and mindfulness practices, streamlining the functions of our body, mind, heart, and spirit. • Knowing by Qi: this means connecting with all the vital life forces and building a sense of oneness, which results in “re-animating the universe” and obtaining a sense of “interbeing” with all existence (Bai, 2009, 2013). • Knowing by Virtues: this means that doing good for the world fosters abilities and methodologies that generate reciprocal interdependence among all beings, which contributes to the harmonious working of the cosmos and the human society. I posit that there are fundamental similarities between eastern and western spiritual teaching. While Laozi’s Dao De Jing presents the eastern blueprint of cultivation, Plato’s Allegory of the Cave implies the pathways of cultivation and attainment of enlightenment. Socrates’ words of “A life not reflected upon is not worth living” similarly indicates deep knowing through meditation and contemplation, and Aristotle’s observing the physical world and knowing the principle behind everything is further very similar to the teaching of Confucius in the Great Learning to achieve perfect kindness and enlightenment (Lin, 2018). The discussion on the virtues of the Philosopher King by Plato is very similar to the virtues that accompany the Daoist sages and the Buddha and his disciples. The similarities among these traditions indicate there is a universal way to achieve Sagehood, and these ways of knowing amount to the scale of cosmic wisdom and development of exponential abilities that humans have.

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Summary and Synthesis In sum, knowledge gained through cultivating the body informs the Daoists to integrate themselves physically, spiritually, and morally with Dao, as they know: • The body is holistically linked to the universe; • The self and the world interact and exchange qi; • Qi as vital life energy is fundamental for people to have expanded awareness, good health, and longevity, and most importantly for cultivating immortality; • Meditation is the mechanism to know ourselves and the universe; it is required to enter the gateway to Dao, to connect with the qi of everything; • Meditation must be practised along with cultivating virtues. In meditation, breathing and visualization are vital for returning our attention to the energy centres of the body, such as the “xia dan tian” in the abdominal area, where the “life gate” or ming men is. In Daoism, there is a need to know the body’s intricate functions, and how energy flows in the body just as how electricity powers a machine. The qi energy can be guided to move in the meridians, and once the blockage of energy in the meridians are gone, one achieves a very high level of tranquillity, and then one is much more able to interact with other existence as energies. Daoist practitioners can communicate with animals, mountains, rivers, stars … things that we call sentient or insentient, but all of which have qi. They arrange their life rhythms according to the energy patterns of different seasons. To them, this is the knowledge of life. They take the whole universe as a furnace to refine their Immortal Self and in this process Daoists develop methods which enable them to cultivate great abilities. Many can do things that are called “supernatural”, “miracles”, divine acts, etc., which are essentially acts of energy exertion, manipulation, and mobilization through one’s intentionality or power of consciousness.

References Bai, H. (2009). Re-animating the universe: Environmental education and philosophical animism. In M. McKenzie, H. Bai, P. Hart, & B. Jickling (Eds.), Fields of green: Restorying culture, environment, education (pp. 135–151). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

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Bai, H. (2013). Philosophy for education: Cultivating human agency. In W. Hare & J.  Portelli (Eds.), Philosophy of education: Introductory readings (4th ed.) (pp. 35–54). Calgary: Brush Education. Bohm, D. (1980). Wholeness and the implicate order. New York: Routledge. Daoism. (n.d.). Britannica Online Encyclopaedia. Retrieved from https://www. britannica.com/topic/Daoism/Basic-concepts-of-Daoism Lin, J. (2018). From self cultivation to social transformation: The Confucian embodied pathways and educational implications. In Y. Liu & W. Ma (Eds.), Confucianism and education (pp. 169–182). Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Lin, J. (2019). Enlightenment from body-spirit integration: Dunhuang’s Buddhist cultivation pathways and educational implications. In D.  Xu (Ed.), The Dunhuang Grottos and global education: Philosophical, spiritual, scientific, and aesthetic insights (pp. 113–131). New York, NY: Palgrave-Springer. Lin, J., & Parikh, R. (2019). Connecting meditation, quantum physics, and consciousness: Implication for higher education. In J.  Lin, S.  Edwards, & T. Culham (Eds.), Contemplative pedagogies in K-12, university, and community settings: Transformation for deep learning and being (pp. 3–25). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Tai Shang Gan Yin Pian. Retrieved from http://www.quanxue.cn/CT_DaoJia/ GanYingIndex.html Tao Te Ching. Retrieved from http://www.quanxue.cn/CT_DaoJia/ LaoZiIndex.html The Tranquility Sutra. Retrieved from http://www.quanxue.cn/CT_DaoJia/ QingJingIndex.html

PART II

Daoism as a Holistic Paradigm: A Unity of Spirit and Science

CHAPTER 6

My Personal Journey and Is It Good for You to Be Good? Tom Culham

A Personal Journey This part of the book is inspired by my personal journey of understanding the unity of science and spirit. It began 50 years ago when I first encountered the I Ching described in Part I which is a book of divination. The first question I asked was: what is this book? “The Power of the Great” (Blofeld, 1968) is the response I received. I was intrigued and developed an abiding interest in Daoism and Asian philosophies. I went on to study engineering becoming fully immersed in the positivist paradigm of the 1970s. Following graduation, I made my way in the world first as an engineer, then as a manager, and finally as an executive. During this time, I maintained an intellectual interest in Asian philosophy and thought. About 1995 I took up the practice of vipassana meditation and in 1998 started learning qigong which I continue to the present. Qi is life energy, and “gong means work or benefits acquired through perseverance and practice”. Qigong therefore involves “working with life energy, learning how to control the flow and distribution of qi to improve the health and harmony of mind and body” (Cohen, 1997, p.3).

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In 2004 in my mid 50s, I was laid off due to a take-over of my company and was faced with the question of what to do with the rest of my life. The opportunity to enter the field of post-secondary education presented itself which appealed to me. I was encouraged to do a Ph.D. which I thought, at my age, was out of the question. In any case I said if I can study something dear to my heart, I would consider it. It turned out that Heesoon Bai at the Faculty of Education at Simon Fraser University was interested in applying contemplative methods in education and this opened a door that satisfied my interests and intensified my engagement with contemplative practices. This was an unusual opportunity as there were few universities addressing the topic of contemplative practices in education and fewer still prepared to take an engineer into a Ph.D. programme in the arts. In retrospect the opportunity to shift from engineering and business management into the faculty of education to study the philosophy and contemplative practices was unusual. There are times when I wonder how it all came about. It certainly wasn’t anything I imagined during my life in the twentieth century. The combination of meditating and intellectually engaging in a Ph.D. programme deepened my practice. Contemplative practices provided me with experiences I couldn’t explain or reconcile with my western training some of which I wrote about (Culham, 2013). One of those experiences provided the inspiration and theme for this part of the book. I graduated from my programme in the spring of 2012 and had the opportunity to teach in Shanghai in the summer. While there, I was able to spend a weekend at a Buddhist temple on Jiu Hua Shan (Nine Flower Mountain) where three friends introduced me to the senior monk and translated the encounter for me. I was particularly interested in exploring his thoughts regarding my view of the irreconcilable differences in spirituality and science. “He said that science and spirit are a unity. When science advances spirituality advances, and when spirituality advances science advances” (Culham, 2013, p.11). It was a profound statement for me that helped me see science and spiritual experiences as complimentary and mutually supportive. In the spirit of mutual support and complementarity, this part of the book is my personal exploration and attempt to consider how Daoism representing spirit as a phenomenon might be considered in light of scientific knowledge. I prioritize Daoist concepts and its paradigm for investigating phenomenon while considering how contemporary science might

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support the concepts. To position the Daoist perspective I take, I provide a brief account of its approach to investigating and understanding phenomenon which will be elaborated later. Daoists hold that the individual’s experience and observations in context of the universe, and community within which he or she cultivates is the locus of inquiry and most important. Access to true or objective knowledge is possible because each person originates in the Dao and is endowed with essence of the Dao, the source of everything (Roth, 1999). This knowledge is obscured from the individual by the conditioning of culture and life experience. The means of gaining access to true knowledge is achieved through inner cultivation practices that remove layers of condition revealing the Dao within, providing access to universal knowledge. The path of cultivation provides ambiguous, paradoxical, and unique subjective experiences. Inquiry is internally focused with an emphasis on discovering that which is innately pure within (Culham & Lin, 2016). Knowledge gained in this way is subject to evaluation and consideration by others, but the subjective experience of the individual is held to be vital. This stands in contrast to contemporary scientific inquiry which focuses on investigating external phenomenon and requires the agreement of a community of scientists to validate the acceptability of findings. Science highly values consistency of methods, prediction, and replicability of findings (Culham & Lin, 2016; Kuhn, 1970). In traditional science, the subjective experience of the individual is ignored or diminished. If one takes both approaches as a means of investigating phenomenon, the result is much richer than if only one or the other is considered as the sole means of inquiry. Therefore, I utilize both approaches in this part of the book. This book inquires into the nature of virtue as conceived by Daoists who hold that it is good for you to be good; however, contemporary behaviour suggests that being good is an option and not very important; therefore, I begin with a short personal, irreverent, quasi-­scientific inquiry into these alternative views.

Is It Good to Be Good?1 When I was very young, 5 or 6, my parents were always telling me: “Tommy, be good”. But all I wanted to do was run in the woods, play in puddles, eat fast, swim, and have fun. I didn’t have time for manners. 1  An edited version of this article was published in The Conversation, (Culham, 2018). https://theconversation.com/is-it-good-for-you-to-be-good-97231.

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Being good seemed always to benefit someone else not me. Why do I have to follow rules, not butt in line, say pleasant things to others when all I feel like doing is telling them off. It’s good for others, right? Well…..yes and maybe no. Maybe it’s good for me too. It’s easy to see how following the rules of the road is good for you. In the late 1970s I was doing a master’s of applied science in urban transportation engineering. At that time, I was a fan of the Rhinoceros party (an off-the-wall, tongue-in-cheek party) because they promised to solve the traffic problems in our cities by changing the direction of traffic on the roads. They were going to do it gradually and start with big trucks first. But I digress, what about other more subtle virtues like being polite, empathetic, generous, grateful, honest, and even altruistic? The ancient Greeks had the view that the good or virtue was broader than our current understanding of morality (Nehamas, 1999). They believed virtue could be witnessed in any object or behaviour of persons as the expression of excellence or perfection of the object or behaviour. For example, they felt one could hear virtue in music or see it in a horse. In music, virtue might be described like it is in Johnny B. Goode as ringing a bell or in Beethoven’s Ode to Joy as heavenly and could be generalized as excellence. Physically, a horse that is healthy and perfect in every way might be considered an excellent (virtuous) specimen of a horse. The ancient Chinese also held a similar expansive view of virtue. They believed that the more virtuous one was the more virtue was apparent in the physical attributes of the person. It could be seen in the quality of their eyes and skin and there were positive consequences. A virtuous person would live a healthy long life (Csikszentmihalyi, 2006). If we think of human virtue as not limited to moral matters but to physical, emotional, mental, and moral matters, then it’s possible to understand how being virtuous might be good for you. Take the physical level. We all know what it takes to be physically healthy: good diet; exercise; adequate sleep; etc. One could say that when we do these things, we are being physically virtuous and we attain the virtue of good health. Similarly, from an emotional perspective we know that having a good positive social network and having a positive state of mind by avoiding ruminating on anxious negative thoughts (Amen, 2010) are but two of many virtues we can practise to be emotionally virtuous. Both these examples illustrate the virtues of a kind of discipline and moderation known as

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prudence, and temperance.2 These examples illustrate that by being virtuous, physical and psychological health sciences have found this to be good for you. So, what about virtues apparently unrelated to health such as generosity, gratitude, and integrity or honesty. Considering generosity, Smith and Davidson (2014) said that: “Generosity is paradoxical. By giving ourselves away, we ourselves move toward flourishing”, and the opposite holds true, “By grasping onto what we currently have, we lose out on better goods that we might have gained” (p. 2). With respect to gratitude, Robert Emmons (2013) has studied its impact on happiness and well-­ being and discovered that there is a positive relationship between gratitude and happiness. That is the more grateful one is that happier one will be. These are matters of interpersonal affairs but even in business there is an argument that integrity (Erhard, Jensen, & Zaffron, 2016) produces positive payback for individuals and firms. They define integrity as “A state or condition of being whole, complete, unbroken, unimpaired, sound, in perfect condition” (p.17) and integrity is necessary to ensure optimal performance. It’s not difficult to see the parallels between integrity and the ancient Greek notion of virtue as a kind of excellence. We can understand that an automobile will not perform properly if one of the tires contains low air or is flat. You can probably still drive the car but it doesn’t work very well. From a human perspective, Erhard et  al. (2016) define integrity as “keeping one’s word” meaning in simple terms, doing what one says one will do and if unable to follow through as promised, then taking action to repair the damage or problems caused. They took some pain to describe exactly what keeping one’s word means and for those interested I recommend you look up this definition. We all know that when an automobile is whole and complete (in integrity), it performs effectively. Erhard et al. argue similarly, that when people in an organization act with integrity, that is, keep their word, the organization will perform much better than when they don’t. He provides the example of implementing integrity in his firm the Social Science Research Network and experiencing increased output of 300% with no increase in costs  Prudence is defined as “integrating the good of practical reasonableness into one’s deliberations, choices and execution of choices”, and temperance is defined as “integrating and governing one’s desires by genuine reasons” (Finnis, 2018, para 4.4.1) 2

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(Erhard et al., 2016). They propose that the interpersonal interactions of business are a factor of production just as adequate and effective utilization of capital and labour are necessary for the success of any business. The unique aspect of his argument is that he holds that integrity is not an option rather it is a necessary condition for performance. These are not unusual or unfamiliar ideas. We all have experiences with companies that we know we can trust and those we don’t. It’s not difficult to imagine that trustworthy companies will enjoy customer loyalty, repeat business, and likely better financial performance. Is it good for Tommy to be good? As a child, I thought being good was for the benefit of others and I thought it really wasn’t all that necessary. But I am learning at many levels that the virtues that contribute to good physical, emotional, mental, and interpersonal health defined as morals are good for Tommy. I would add one rider that applies to moral virtues: that is, if I am generous to you and expect something in return, this is not doing good in the true sense of the word; it is a business exchange.

References Amen, D. G. (2010). Change your brain, change your body: Use your brain to get and keep the body you have always wanted. Harmony. Blofeld, J. (1968). The book of change: A new translation of the ancient Chinese I Ching. (Yi King) with detailed instruction for its practical use in divination. Crows Nest, Australia: Allen & Unwin. Cohen, K. (1997). The way of qigong: The art and science of Chinese energy healing. New York: Ballantine Books. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2006). Material virtue: Ethics and the body in early China. Boston, MA: Brill. Culham, T. (2013). Ethics education of business leaders: Emotional intelligence, virtues and contemplative learning. Book Series: Transforming Education for the Future (J. Lin & R. Oxford). Charlotte: Information Age Publishing. Culham, T., & Lin, J. (2016). Exploring the unity of science and spirit: A Daoist perspective. In J.  Lin, T.  Culham, & R.  Oxford (Eds.), Toward a spiritual research paradigm: Exploring new ways of knowing, researching and being. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing. Culham, T. E. (2018). Is it good for you to be good? The Conversation. Retrieved fromhttps://theconversation.com/is-it-good-for-you-to-be-good-97231 Emmons, R. A. (2013). Gratitude works!: A Twenty-one-day program for creating emotional prosperity. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Erhard, W. H., Jensen, M. C., &Zaffron, S. (2016). Integrity: A positive model that incorporates the normative phenomena of morality, ethics, and legality— Abridged (English Language Version). Harvard Business School NOM Working Paper No. 10-061. Retrieved from http://emkayeastafrica.com/yahoo_site_ admin/assets/docs/_4_Pre-Course_Reading_Integrity_Abridged_-_400_ JE.31701714.pdf Finnis, J. (2018). Aquinas’moral, political, and legal philosophy.The Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy (Summer 2018 ed.). E.  N. Zalta (Ed.). Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/aquinas-moralpolitical/ Kuhn, S.  T. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed. Enlarged). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Ltd. Nehamas, A. (1999). Virtues of authenticity: Essays on Plato and Socrates. Princeton University Press. Roth, H. D. (1999). Original Tao: Inward training (Nei-yeh) and the foundations of Taoist mysticism. New York: Columbia University Press. Smith, C., & Davidson, H. (2014). The paradox of generosity: Giving we receive, grasping we lose. Oxford University Press.

CHAPTER 7

A Brief Comparison of Daoist Philosophy and the Enlightenment Tom Culham

Why Read about Cultivation of Qi and Virtue Why read about cultivation of qi and virtue; what is qi; what do we mean by virtue and how are they related and why cultivate qi and virtue? The simple answer is that according to the Daoists, virtue and qi whether we know it or not, are present within each and every one of us. Now you may say I don’t know what qi is and I always believed that virtue or morals are something that one learns from your family, culture, or religion. How can that be, and why bother with this at all? To answer these questions, I begin with a discussion of the difference between the view of Daoist enlightenment and western enlightenment. Two important similarities of Daoist and western philosophy are the emphasis on individual effort in coming to an understanding of the truth and the second is they rely on the principle of objective impartial observation of phenomenon. Western discourse emphasizes intellect, reasoning and conscious thought which can be traced back to Socrates. He was known as a gadfly for his persistent logical inquiry of other’s views. This emphasis continued through the Enlightenment to the present. The Enlightenment also known as the Age of Reason, of eighteenth century Europe, arose in opposition to established religion and scholastic-­ Aristotelians who opposed the development of the new science. It © The Author(s) 2020 T. Culham, J. Lin, Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning, Spirituality, Religion, and Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44947-6_7

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provided individuals a means to determine the truth rather than that given by authorities and the church. The means involved a process of “becoming progressively self-directed in thought and action through the awakening of one’s intellectual powers, leading ultimately to a better, more fulfilled human existence” (Bristow, 2017, para 4). Some of the prominent thinkers associated with this movement were Voltaire, Adam Smith, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant. The emphasis on reason, intellect, and conscious thought imbedded in the enlightenment as a means of understanding the laws of the universe contrast sharply with Daoist practice and philosophy. Daoists were and are concerned first and foremost with experience rather than ideas (Kirkland, 2004) and they have been for millennia keen impartial observers of their inner experiences of consciousness. Daoist philosophy holds that conscious thought is an impediment to achieving enlightenment, while practising individual personal meditative and ascetic exercises under the guidance of a master leads to enlightenment. This isn’t to say that conscious deliberative reasoning doesn’t have a role in helping one learn and understand the “truth”; rather, it is not the primary means of doing so. Given the differences in emphasis, it is understandable that Daoist approaches would be classed as religious, mystical, and/or superstitious from the perspective of western thinkers. Unlike the western enlightenment’s focus on clarification of ideas as a means to the truth, the Daoist approach was not as concerned about whether their basic ideas were 100% accurate, rather they are more interested in refining and transforming themselves “to attain full integration with life’s deepest realities” (Kirkland, 2004, p. 75). They hold that this is achieved through direct perception of the truth enabled by personal contemplative practices accompanied by living a virtuous life (Culham, 2013). From this perspective, Daoists believed that language is a poor representation of life’s realities and therefore plays a secondary role in understanding life. To know Daoist philosophy one needs to do it or experience it. To illustrate the difficulty in representing experience with language I turn to experiences in my class where I ask students to describe their emotional experiences. Except for dramatic situations that invoke joy or anger, students often have difficulty describing their emotional state in terms of the physical sensation that is the basis of the emotion. So, a student may say that they experience anxiety which isn’t really the foundational sensation of their experience, it’s a word they are using that they associate with the physical experience they are having. After practice they are better able to

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identify the sensation separate from the emotion that it evokes. This illustrates two aspects of my point: first we are disassociated from the physical origin of our emotional experiences, and second we tend to intellectualize our experiences. So, let us begin with experiences all of us have that can help understand the nature of qi and virtue.

What Is the Significance of Virtue and Qi to Daoists? According to Daoists, virtue and qi are fundamental to life. Qi is life energy and qi is everywhere and in everything. Cosmologically qi is both the matter and energy that form the universe. From a human perspective, it is vital energy or vital breath and is critically important in the process of cultivating virtue (Roth, 1999). Qi is the origin of the all beings, and shapes the substance of individual human life and the differences among people. All aspects of a person’s life: physical, intelligence, personality traits, and morality are a manifestation of his or her qi endowment (Chan, 2010). It is what animates people and all living beings. It is considered to always be in motion and in its basic form is intimately related to emotions which contain the literal and figurative sense of motion. According to Daoist thinking, everyone is endowed at birth with a unique nature formed by qi and it is one of five human attributes involved in the development of individuals. The other four attributes are: • the individual’s affectivity, emotions, and desires which is integral to one’s innate nature; • one’s inborn innate nature which guides but does not direct one’s heart-mind; • one’s heart-mind which feels and thinks and directs the movement of inborn nature; and • tranquillity, an inborn state which can be returned to through contemplative practices (Chan, 2010; Culham, 2013). Human life is determined by the four concepts outlined above, which in turn are bound by the nature of ones’ qi. Experiencing emotions is the entryway into the experience of qi. How is qi related to emotions? An example will help. When one hears a

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beautiful piece of music one can be moved to tears or perhaps one feels as though one is lifted off the ground, or perhaps one feels a tingling sensation running through one’s spine (Note these are physical sensations). Perhaps it isn’t music that touches one. Perhaps it is an experience such as your team wins a championship game and you feel elated, light, and energetic. Almost any experience with an emotional content provides the opportunity to sense the presence of an unrefined form of qi. Each of us can recount moving experiences that left us lighter, almost weightless, energized so that we felt we could do anything, or were involuntarily moved to tears or laughter. These experiences give us a glimpse of the motion and energy of unrefined form of qi. They typically involve a physical reaction that resonates with the emotional experience we have had. Daoists believe that qi can be refined through successive steps to the point where it is exceedingly subtle and paradoxically quite powerful. But with training, qi can not only be sensed but can be very helpful to one’s health, wisdom, spiritual growth, and service for the community. An analogy to refining the energy of emotions into a more subtle form of qi in our material world might be the energy we witness when we see a waterfall. Falling water is a very basic form of energy. We intuitively know there is energy in a waterfall. If you stand beside it, one can feel the vibration, the noise, and the movement even in a small stream. This is analogous to emotions. We certainly can feel the energy of someone’s anger, concern, sadness, or joy. Several hundred years ago, humans found a way to harness the visible and turbulent energy of a waterfall with a water wheel to grind wheat into flour. This might be considered a gross means of harnessing water’s energy. Then in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century scientists and engineers found a way to harness this turbulent energy into a more refined form by causing the water wheel to generate electricity. Over time scientists have found more ways to generate and refine electricity so that it is an invisible, ubiquitous force but very effective in helping us live our material lives. Today it is present in most of our modern machines whether it is computers, cars, or can openers. The generation, transmission, distribution, and application of electricity is a technology that manipulates the material world to harness the energy that is present in matter. That is, we have found a way to convert falling water, coal, natural gas, oil, uranium, and other materials into electricity. It is interesting to note that the most recent development of electricity production is through the use of uranium which literally converts matter

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into energy applying Einstein’s famous formula E = MC 2. This equation expresses a relationship between energy and matter. Imagine how far we have come since the early days of electricity when in the eighteenth century Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning rod.

Cultivating Virtue, a Technology Harnessing the Energy of Life: Qi Daoists and early Confucians have likewise developed a technology that refines and harnesses qi energy to benefit life. This technology refers to specialized techniques that have been for centuries and continue to be the subject of “specialized and highly elaborate discourses linking different body techniques to each other, as well as to cosmologies and intentional paths of life” (Palmer, 2007, p.  9). These technologies continue to be practised today (Kirkland, 2004) and reveal a sharp contrast in western versus Chinese perspectives on the body. For example, western sports training is primarily focused on developing physical power, speed, and flexibility and its power is evaluated against disembodied physical objects. While some sports training regimes now consider mental and emotional factors, for the most part they are addressed separately (Palmer, 2007). Chinese body technologies on the other hand involve the “concentration of all forms of power [physical, mental, emotional, and moral] into the cosmic center of the body” (the dantian located just below the navel) which “leads to an inner connection with the ultimate cosmic Power” and “unity with the dao” (Palmer, 2007, p.  292). The western approach is reductionist while the Chinese approach is holistic integrating all aspects of being in training. To some extent, Foucault’s (2005) term technology of the self and Hadot and Davidson’s (1995) related concept, care of the soul, bear some similarity to the Daoist technology in that both involve engaging in philosophy as a way of life to develop one’s capacities for wisdom and moral decision making through inner transformation. This is conceived of as embodied learning rather than mere intellectual development. The technology of the self, results in a transformation from an inauthentic state of ignorance and worry to contentment, inner peace, and authenticity (Hadot & Davidson, 1995). While transformation of the person based on a wider and more comprehensive personal view of one’s self is a common goal to these practices it doesn’t go as far as the Daoist concept in the

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sense that inner transformation develops a form of energy (qi) that can extend beyond the body and influence others. In simple terms, life energy qi is developed through these technologies by placing oneself in physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual alignment with virtue, which is greatly elaborated in Laozi’s book Dao De Jing translated variously as the Classic of the Way and its Virtue. Laozi posits that virtues such as kindness, compassion, humility, and selfless giving help one reach a state of tranquillity and enhance one’s qi. He held that the universe functions in this way as well as human society and individuals. Thus qi, values, and virtue are intimately related. The outcome of the process of working towards alignment with virtue is an enhancement of one’s own life energy, qi. The more one is in alignment with virtue the more qi one will have and the more one will experience virtue. It is a recursive process. The more virtue one experiences, the more quality of life one has in the broadest sense of the word. A virtuous life is seen as one where one has a long physically healthy life and one is able to express one’s unique authentic self within the context of family, community, country, and the world. Western science has developed wonderful technologies for manipulating the physical world to meet our physical needs. I argue that the Daoists and Confucians developed technologies that enable humans to live in sync with the animating subtle life energies of qi and virtue, thus transforming us into wiser, healthier, and happier people living in wiser, healthier, and happier communities. This Part of the book is dedicated to exploring the underlying concepts and applications of this ancient technology.

Daoist Virtue Daoists articulate quite a different view of virtue than the west with some parallels. A feature of Daoist virtue that stands apart from contemporary western philosophical understanding is that it exists as a phenomenon independent of human agency. Virtue in Daoist thinking is the expression of the totality of the universe (Dao) in the unique aspects of all phenomenon in the world including but not limited to humans. It (virtue) is said to be localization of the dao in a particular thing; but it retains its dao-character—it enables that thing to be what it is, alive, intelligent, causally interconnected with other things, as the case maybe. Dé (virtue) thus is what the thing ‘gets’ from the dao to be itself. (Nivison & Van Norden, 1996, p. 33)

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Meyer succinctly states: “Whenever any being or thing perfectly embodies the Way (dao) in space and time, its unique Potency (virtue) is on display” (2010, p. 872). One might think of it as a phenomenon like gravity or sunlight. In Daoist terms, human virtue is only a limited but important aspect of the phenomenon of virtue1 and human virtue as experienced by Daoists is broader than the western concept of virtue as it includes physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual aspects of virtue (Roth, 1999). Daoists hold that human agency is involved in the choice to put oneself in alignment with the phenomenon of virtue through proper cultivation which results in virtue emerging in all aspects (physical, emotional, mental, spiritual, and social well-being) of one’s life. Daoists hold that everyone is endowed with the presence of the Dao; however, awareness emerges in the mind only through cultivation resulting in increased power or capacity, energy, longevity, well-being, wisdom, and the ability to contribute to society (Culham, 2013; Roth, 1999). In western terms, virtue or morality is considered to reside only in the human realm and is a matter of human choice to follow accepted norms of conduct which may or may not reference a universal higher power. In the sense that humans can choose their behaviour and beliefs, Daoist and contemporary western perspectives on virtue are similar. Ancient Greek understanding of virtue known as arête was much broader than the current western view and contains more parallels to Daoist virtue; for example, virtue was considered to be observed in everything and was visible when something expressed the unique excellence of its kind. Arête (virtue) is much broader than the narrower, strictly moral English word and also applies to animals as well as to inanimate objects. In the Republic, for example, Socrates speaks of the arête of eyes and of knives (352–353). Anything that has a function has a corresponding arête which it exhibits when it performs that function well… Far from being confined to morality, arête refers to whatever it is that makes something a good instance of its kind. (Prior, 1991, p. 319)

1  “Potency (virtue) and Moral Potency (a moral component of virtue) are two distinct phenomena” (Meyer, 2010, p. 873); rather, moral virtue is part of a continuum with primordial forms of virtue.

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Another parallel can be found in Plato’s description of the good which appears to be similar to the Daoist concepts of Dao and virtue. “The goal of (the) philosopher is to seek and know the first principle, the good, the source of all value” (Prior, 1991, p.  120). Plato said that the good is “beyond knowledge and truth while being their source, it is beyond being while being the source of the being of the forms” (Prior, 1991, p. 120). Elaborating, the good is ineffable (it is beyond our ability to know it); the good is the source of all in the intelligible world; the good, like the sun, nurtures (it causes growth), and while it cannot be known, it is the source of knowledge and truth (Prior, 1991). This description bears many similarities to the Daoist description of Dao (Roth, 1999) and in particular it proposes the Good is a phenomenon like sunlight or gravity. From a western scientific perspective, the idea that virtue as an objective phenomenon is a controversial claim. In this chapter I explore this claim through consideration of current knowledge and research regarding human activities in the physical, emotional, mental, social, and spiritual realms. Before I do that, I provide a summary of the claims made in the Daoist book Inward Training2 (the Neiye) regarding the outcomes of cultivating virtue as a reference point from which to consider current research and experience on the matter.

The Relationship of Virtue and Qi According to Daoists, the Dao encompasses the universals of limitlessness, tranquillity, and perfection as well as the specifics of particularity, uniqueness, and motion. We as humans live as unique individuals always in motion. Rather than seeing the gateway for enlightenment and development as external, residing in some transcendent being, Daoist see access to an expansion of one’s view, experience, and life as available in the body here and now. Daoists propose that one must engage and encompass the particularity, uniqueness, and motion of the innate self where life energy 2  Much of Daoist thinking and practice can be traced to the Neiye (Kirkland, 2004) dated to the late fourth century BCE and parallels the Daodejing which was compiled later in the mid-late fourth century BCE. Both texts are based on an older oral tradition (Roth, 1999). People at that time and down to the present are considered Daoist because they followed and recommended to others a practice of inner cultivation first enunciated in the Neiye (Roth, 1999). The Neiye proposed a model of cultivating virtue where the practitioner purifies him or herself through stillness, restraining thoughts and desires, and clearing the mind of clutter (Kirkland, 2004).

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or qi animates the life of every being including persons. “At a higher conceptual level, the movement of qi remains vital to cosmic and human flourishing” (Chan, 2010, p. 11). While emotions positive and negative, upset the tranquillity that is the fundamental principle of the innate self, Daoists argue the solution is not to eliminate emotions in one’s life as they are intimately linked to qi and as qi is the source of life this would be suicidal (Chan, 2010). Therefore, we have a paradox: achieve tranquillity in the presence of motion. This is the key to Daoist cultivation of Virtue.

Impact of Cultivating Virtue Daoists held that cultivating virtue would impact the physical, emotional, mental, social, and spiritual aspects of life. In the following I provide quotes from the Neiye (Roth, 1999) and an interpretation that address the impact of cultivation on these aspects of one’s life. 1. Physical Health and Longevity: From a personal perspective, you will be healthy, have great vitality and will have long life. Your “skin will be ample and smooth,… eyes and ears will be acute and clear,… muscles will be supple and their bones will be strong”. (Roth, 1999, p. 76) This can be summarized as you will have good health and a long life. 2. Emotions and character—Happiness, Positive Psychology, and Ethics: You will return to your innate nature, see profit and not be attracted to it, you will perceive harm and not be afraid, and you will delight in your own person. (Roth, 1999, p. 115) This can be summarized as you will know yourself, (a foundational element of virtue ethics) be content with yourself, and you will be virtuous (see profit and not be attracted to it) and have courage (perceive harm and not be afraid). 3. Knowledge Wisdom and Its Application: You will be able to mirror things with great clarity, and your perception and understanding will be grea0t (Roth, 1999). “With a well-­ ordered mind within you, (w)ell-ordered words issue from your mouth, (a)nd well-ordered tasks are imposed upon others” (Roth, 1999, p. 64).

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This can be summarized as you will acquire great knowledge, will be wise, and will be able to influence others consistent with that knowledge. 4. Social Well-being: You will have good fortune; you will not be exposed to disasters and will not be harmed (Roth, 1999). “It will be known in your countenance, and seen in your skin colour… Others will be kinder to you than your own brethren” (Roth, 1999, p. 80). This suggests a kind of protection will be available to you, and that you will get along with others well. 5. Spiritual Insight and Contentment: With respect to spiritual benefits, “the far off will seem close at hand” (Roth, 1999, p. 82). “you will return to the Way and its dé (virtue)” (Roth, 1999, p. 78), “you can rely on and take counsel from it [the Way]” (Roth, 1999, p. 5). In Daoist thinking the Way or Dao is the origin of everything that exists and virtue is closely associated with the Dao and yet resides in our heart and available through cultivation. The remainder of this Part of the book will explore more deeply: the cosmology of Dao, Virtue, and Qi; the parallels between Daoist and contemporary practices and science regarding excellences in body, emotions, mind, and spirit; the process of cultivating virtue in each of these aspects of life; the outcomes; and the implications for education.

References Bristow, W. (2017, Fall). Enlightenment. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/ fall2017/entries/enlightenment/ Chan, A. (2010). Affectivity and the nature of the sage: Gleanings from a Tang Daoist master. Journal of Daoist Studies, 3(2), 1–27. Culham, T. (2013). Ethics education of business leaders: Emotional intelligence, virtues and contemplative learning. Book Series: Transforming Education for the Future (J. Lin & R. Oxford, Eds.). Charlotte: Information Age Publishing. Foucault, M. (2005). The hermeneutics of the subject, lectures at the College De France (G. Burchell, Trans.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

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Hadot, P., & Davidson, A. I. (1995). Philosophy as a way of life: Spiritual exercises from Socrates to Foucault. New York: Blackwell. Kirkland, R. (2004). Taoism: The enduring tradition. New York: Routledge. Meyer, A.  S. (2010). Appendix A: Key Chinese terms and their translations. In J. S. Major, S. A. Queen, A. S. Meyer, & H. D. Roth (Eds.), The Huainanzi: A guide to the theory and practice of government in early Han China (pp. 869–913). New York: Columbia University Press. Nivison, D.  S., & Van Norden, B.  W. (1996). The ways of Confucianism: Investigations in Chinese philosophy. Chicago: Open Court. Palmer, D. A. (2007). Qigong fever: Body, science, and Utopia in China. New York: Columbia University Press. Prior, W. (1991). Virtue and knowledge: An introduction to ancient Greek ethics. London: Routledge. Roth, H. D. (1999). Original Tao: Inward training (Nei-yeh) and the foundations of Taoist mysticism. New York: Columbia University Press.

CHAPTER 8

Integrating Reason, Emotion, Subjectivity, Spirituality, and Neuroscience Tom Culham

This chapter refers to an emerging conversation in the west that integrates reason, objectivity, emotion, subjectivity, spirituality, philosophy, and neuroscience. This might appear to be a daunting task; however, Ian McGilchrist1 (2009) in his work the Master and his Emissary: the Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World has taken it on. Much of what he has to say is quite helpful in providing context for my approach. In simple terms, McGilchrist (2009) proposes that the left and right hemispheres of the brain each have very different perspectives and sets of values. The right perceives itself to be in unity with the world and expresses altruistic values, whereas the left sees itself as separate and expresses self-­ centred values. Further, that while we need both hemispheres, he proposes that left brain perspectives and values dominate our society and threaten our happiness, humanity, and possibly our survival. Next I consider this view in more detail.

1  Ian McGilchrist was the Clinical Director at the Bethlem Royal & Maudsley Hospital, London and has researched in neuroimaging at Johns Hopkins University Hospital, Baltimore and taught English at Oxford University.

© The Author(s) 2020 T. Culham, J. Lin, Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning, Spirituality, Religion, and Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44947-6_8

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The Right Brain as Master I start with the McGilchrist’s (2009) premise that the right brain is the master and the left brain is the emissary or servant. What is the nature of the left and right brain? At its very core, the right brain connects with change, movement, and life, while the left is oriented to matter, stasis, and non-life. Consequently, the right brain connects to and is oriented to creativity, while the left is oriented to organization and structure. Life cannot exist without structure; even viruses, the simplest life forms, exist because of the structure of their genetics which enable them to reproduce, yet it is the ability of viruses to adapt and respond to their environment creatively that enables them to survive over time. This could be said of all life forms. Structure is important yet it’s the ability to evolve, adapt, and create the new out of matter in the moment and over time that enables continued survival. In McGilchrist’s words the left hemisphere is: “dependent on denotative language and abstractions, yields clarity and power to manipulate things that are known, fixed, static, isolate, decontextualized, explicit, disembodied, general in nature, but ultimately lifeless”. On the other hand, the right hemisphere is experienced as: “changing, evolving, interconnected, implicit, incarnate, living beings within the context of the lived world, but in the nature of things never fully graspable, always imperfectly known—and to this world it exists in a relationship of care” (p. 174). So why the view that the right brain is master? McGilchrist asks the question: “if the two hemispheres produce two worlds, which should we trust if we are after the truth about the world?” (p. 177). The response is to compare the results if one were to accept the world view if either one was adopted to the exclusion to the other. If one was to boil down the principles of the left and right hemisphere to one word, the left hemisphere is driven by the principle of division, meaning it unpacks experience into small bundles for the purpose of understanding by the cognitive mind, on the other hand the right hemisphere is driven by the principle of union or unity. That is, it perceives experience in its totality as a unity, not focusing on any given component. According to McGilchrist (2009), “the generation of the greatest feats of the human spirit require integration of both hemispheric worlds” (p. 198). If the left hemisphere dominates, the world becomes denatured and lifeless leading to a sense that something is lacking—“nothing less than life” itself (p. 199). To regain the vitality of life, the left hemisphere seeks out the

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attributes of life: “novelty, excitement, stimulation” (p. 199); yet this is a futile effort because the left hemisphere is trapped by its desire to define and control. That is, how it perceives experiences it seeks falls within the realm of what it has previously defined. In the process of defining the world through an unpacking process for understanding the left hemisphere creates models of experience and is caught in a self-referential, self-­ reinforcing circle as McGilchrist (2009) explains. The left hemisphere knows things the right hemisphere does not know, just as the right knows things of which the left hemisphere is ignorant… the right hemisphere is in direct contact with the embodied lived world: the left hemisphere world is, by comparison, a virtual, bloodless affair. In this sense, the left hemisphere is ‘parasitic’ on the right. It does not have life itself: its life comes from the right hemisphere. (pp. 199–200)

This is why the right is the master and the left, the emissary or the servant. For most of us educated in western thought, the master is logic, reason and objective thinking. We identify with our conscious reasoning mental processes and generally, we shy away from and are suspicious of emotion, intuition, and the unconscious. How, given the generative capabilities of the right hemisphere does the left so dominate our experience and the world as McGilchrist (2009) claims?

Why Dominance of the Servant Left Brain The answer lies in the difference in the nature of “cognitive and perceptual styles” (McGilchrist, 2009, p. 217) of the hemispheres; the fact that there is competition over which dominates, and the inhibitory function of the left over the right. The right brain has the ability to perceive the whole, for example, the Gestalt of an image, while the left sees only components and accepts only what it sees. For example, people with split brains, where the connection between left and right brain is severed, the right brain consistent with its holistic perceptual style perceives sight and sound from both left and right eyes and ears even though it is primarily wired to receive sense from the left side of the body. On the other (right) hand (pun intended), the left hemisphere which is neurologically wired into the right side of the body only accepts what is perceived by the right eyes and ears (McGilchrist, 2009).

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Neurological experiments that assessed the dominance of hemispheres in situations where there is an option to accept the knowledge and perceptions of one or other of the hemispheres, found that the left has a greater inhibitory effect over the right hemisphere. This is likely because the left only accepts its own style of perception, while the right is holistically open to both right and left perspectives (McGilchrist, 2009). It has been observed that people develop biases towards one or the other hemisphere, and McGilchrist (2009) argues that western society as a whole has developed a left hemisphere bias over a period of centuries, most pronounced in the modern and post-modern era. The emphasis of the left over right has significant negative consequences on how we behave as beings in the world and our physical and mental health. McGilchrist (2009) cites evidence of record levels of depression in young people and death of all sorts likely caused by a lack of social connection due to our emphasis on left hemisphere mode of being.

Other Views on the Brain Others have proposed human behavioural operations of the mind similar to McGilchrist’s proposal that the right brain is the master and the left brain the servant. In the discussion that follows, I provide information from a number of sources that don’t necessarily refer to left and right hemisphere functioning but rather refer to conscious and unconscious processing and or rational and intuitive knowledge. McGilchrist (2009) explains that left and right hemisphere distinctions are somewhat arbitrary as localization of processing is a tendency rather than absolute, that is large parts of the brain can be active when a particular part of brain is processing information. Of interest in the discussion that follows is the observation that the “right hemisphere is more in touch with the embodied lived world” provided by its connection to ancient sub cortical regions of the limbic system” (p. 199) than the left. With respect to the process of scientific discovery and a wider societal orientation, Einstein said “The intuitive mind is a sacred gift and the rational mind is a faithful servant. We have created a society that honors the servant and has forgotten the gift” (Calaprice, 2011, p.  477). He credits the source of scientific discovery to intuition, and a state of mind similar to that of a “religious worshipper or lover” who’s motivation comes “straight from the heart” (Calaprice, 2011, p. 363). Intuition and love have been associated with the right hemisphere operation. Kuhn

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(1970) similarly identifies two aspects of scientific development: (i) logic and reason, requiring step-by-step linear approaches associated with left brain functioning, are utilized to confirm and expand existing paradigms and (ii) intuitive insight associated with the right brain is responsible for the development of new paradigms. Interestingly, the intuitive insights scientists speak of bear striking similarities to the description of spiritual revelation: “the scales falling from the eyes”, “the lightning flash”, an illogical, transformative experience (Kuhn, 1970, p.  123). Given, McGilchrist’s description of the operation of the left and right brain it appears that scientific progress depends on the utilization of both left and right hemispheres of the brain. Others involved in the fields of neuroscience and psychology have come to similar conclusions as McGilchrist. Cotterill (1998) proposed that the role of the consciousness mind is to obtain information from the environment and memory, which serves as input to unconscious processes for decision-making purposes. Therefore, consciousness is an “indispensable servant of the unconscious” (Cotterill, 1998, p. 344). Panksepp (2009) noted that recent neurobiological findings demonstrate, regarding psychological therapy, therapists should give as much attention to the emotional as the cognitive properties of the brain. For example, he proposed that personal transformation observed in therapy is primarily due to healing at the emotional level which subsequently appears as cognitive insight. With respect to recent moral psychology and neuroscience findings, emotions have been found to be critical to ethics decision making (Damasio, 1994). For example, individuals with brain damage only in areas dedicated to processing emotion were still able to reason their way through complex moral problems; however, they did not have the ability to make good decisions in life “particularly when it involved personal or social matters” (Damasio, 1994, p. 43). Brain scans show that prior to a decision being made consciously, unconscious portions of the brain that process emotions and associated with the body are active. Some milliseconds later, a signal is sent to the consciousness, where it appears that the decision was made but in fact it was made earlier in the unconscious. This is the basis for neuroscientists suggesting that emotions and the unconscious are critical in ethical decision making (Cotterill, 1998; Greene & Haidt, 2002; Haidt, 2001). Greene (2009) said, “emotion in all of its functional and anatomical variety” is a significant factor in moral decision making (p. 26). Further, neuroscience has overturned the enlightenment

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notion that cognitive processing or logic is “the basis of sound decisions” while “emotions can only cloud the mind and interfere with good judgment”. Rather, “good decision making depends on effective processing of emotions” (Bechara, Damasio, & Bar-on, 2007, p. 273).

Brain Hemisphere’s Values Orientation As the matter of virtue is of concern in this work, it is worthwhile to consider what McGilchrist has to say regarding the values expressed by the left and right hemisphere of the brain. First, McGilchrist held that moral values are not reason based, rather he is in agreement with social intuitionists (Bechara et  al., 2007; Damasio, 1994; Greene 2009; Haidt, 2001) who hold that “moral judgments are not deliberative, but unconscious and intuitive” (McGilchrist, 2009, p.  86). He argues that the right hemisphere is responsible for impulse control, the ability to foresee the consequences of actions, our sense of justice, our ability to be altruistic, and our ability to act selflessly. In addition, the right hemisphere by its ability to take a broader or more holistic perspective that “includes both its own and the left hemisphere’s” is able to consider another point of view (McGilchrist, 2009). Whereas the left hemisphere tends to be self-­referential and therefore unable to consider other perspectives. While the concept of self is composed of the totality of the brain function, there are distinct differences in the nature of hemisphere’s self-concept that relate to values. The right tends to be empathetic and sees itself as inseparable from the world and in relationship with others. On the other hand, the objectified self and the expression of will are more dependent on the left hemisphere (McGilchrist, 2009). It was noted earlier in this chapter that the left hemisphere is: “dependent on denotative language and abstractions, yields clarity and power to manipulate things that are known, fixed, static, isolate, decontextualized, explicit, disembodied, general in nature, but ultimately lifeless”. On the other hand, the right hemisphere is experienced as: “changing, evolving, interconnected, implicit, incarnate, living beings within the context of the lived world, but in the nature of things never fully graspable, always imperfectly known—and to this world it exists in a relationship of care” (McGilchrist, p. 174). What can be done to balance left and right brain ways of being and expression of values? Not all societies and cultures have emphasized left hemisphere being and thinking. In particular, McGilchrist notes that Asian cultures, in particular the Chinese culture, before modernization took a more balanced approach to being in the world.

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A Doctor’s Personal Experience of Right Hemisphere and Consciousness Jill Bolte Taylor’s personal experience illuminates right brain being described above. In the nature of right brain being, this description is not general, it is specific to an individual, it is drawn from lived experience, and represents something that we might consider atypical or an outlier. It is through observing outliers that it is possible to learn about the potential inherent in human nature (Achor, 2010; Gladwell, 2017). Another reason for providing these examples is that they bear remarkable similarity to the experiences described by advanced Daoist sages. While much of Daoist descriptions of meditative experiences are considered mysticism, the point here is that they are thought of as mystical not because they can’t be experienced but because they are experienced so rarely by a few individuals who are dedicated to cultivating the faculties of the right hemisphere, something that is not normally done. I maintain, just as left-hemisphere-oriented education has produced physicists, doctors, engineers, etc. who are able to create or produce amazing outcomes, with the same dedicated education focused on the right brain, equally amazing but different outcomes are possible. I maintain that just because we don’t understand how or why these states of mind come about is not a reason to explore how they are achieved and what outcomes are produced from these states of mind. Later I will propose that a kind of technology is involved in developing these states of mind. I refer to the experiences of Jill Bolte Taylor who had a stroke that shut down her left brain and is a respected and highly trained doctor who brings the credibility of her qualifications as a western trained doctor. She claims to describe the kind of Being and awareness that is available to the right hemisphere when the left is not playing its inhibitory role. Later I will relate her descriptions to the experiences of Daoist sages. When her left hemisphere function was impaired, she claims she gained access to the “intuitive wisdom of her right brain” (Bolte Taylor, 2006, p.  168). Consistent with McGilchrist’s suggestion that there is a difference in the character and being orientation of the left and right hemisphere, Bolte Taylor (2006) observed that when her left brain shut down. its isolated, language-oriented, and small feeling faded and she perceived herself as being expansive, without boundaries, connected to everything; in addition, other things were not solid, rather they were appeared to be energy.

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Bolte Taylor’s experience provides a lived experience supporting McGilchrist’s assertion that the left and right hemispheres are quite different including their: value sets; perception of the world; the perception of one’s place in the world; and nature of Being. In addition, her experience appears to confirm McGilchrist’s claim that the left hemisphere asserts a dominance over the right. McGilchrist argues that the left and right hemispheres need to be brought into balance or integrated. That is, domination of one or the other is not ideal. The question then is how to achieve balance in a culture that shows such disdain and disregard for the fruits of the right hemisphere. McGilchrist proposes that we consider non-­ western cultural practices that have not completely abandoned right hemisphere modalities and here he points to Asian practices.

What can be Learned from Asian Perspectives? Geoffery Lloyd (1996) compared the ancient science of Greece and China posing the question “what can we learn from such an investigation about more general issues to do with the relationship between culture and cognition”? (p. 303). He observed: Wherever ancient Greeks and Chinese may have started, as infants, they certainly seem to have ended with quite different sets of beliefs about the stars, the human body, health, and disease, indeed I would also add about space, time, causality, number and nature themselves (1996, p.  312). In both ancient cultures the investigations undertaken were influenced by the particular values of the society in question and the particular institutions within which the investigators worked. (p. 314)

The ancient Greeks attended to and focused on reason and logic, clarifying principles through adversarial argument. While the Greeks considered philosophy to be a way of life to be practised (Hadot & Davidson, 1995), they emphasized “understanding the realities of life through argument of the logic of abstract ideas” (Culham & Lin, 2016, p. 73). I suggest that this aligns with McGilchrist’s description of left hemisphere functioning. The ancient Chinese on the other hand attended to and focused on “living embodiment of wisdom in sages and the Dao” (Culham & Lin, 2016, p. 173). Articulating or defending specific propositions about life was not the priority of Daoists; rather, they focused on refining and transforming themselves to “attain full integration with life’s deepest

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realities” (Kirkland, 2004, p.  75). They achieved this through practice, embodied experience, and the guidance of sages as a means to flourish in the Greek sense of the word (Culham & Lin, 2016). This approach appears to align with McGilchrist’s description of right hemisphere functioning. I concur with Lloyd’s observation (1996, that both modalities offer the means “for the transformation of cognitive capabilities” (p. 314).

Right Hemisphere Consciousness and Virtue from an Asian Perspective Summarizing, McGilchrist (2009) proposed that the west has over-­ emphasized left brain thinking and being to the detriment of health and possibly our survival and he argued for the need to balance and integrate left and right hemispheres through placing an emphasis on right hemisphere being and practices that are still alive in Asian cultures. He makes a compelling intellectual argument for this position. Below, I compare the personal experience of Jill Bolte Taylor to the description of mind states of experienced Buddhist meditators to round out the understanding of the possibilities that an increased right hemisphere orientation might offer. No one would choose to have a stroke to achieve the kind of awareness that Bolte Taylor describes but it is my contention that the technologies developed and practised by Asian sages offer the potential to achieve such an awareness. Davidson and collaborators have been conducting research on the effect of contemplative practices for many years and note that they have the effect of quieting the default mode network that produces a stream of self-focused talk usually that makes us unhappy (Goleman & Davidson, 2017). They held that as long as one focuses on the self, “one is bound to the world of suffering” and an effective way to relieve this burden is to engage in meditation which reduces our sense of self (p. 153). Long-term meditation enables letting go of self-attachment, resulting in “joyousness, and warmth…achieving ongoing compassion and bliss… and delight in sheer being” (p. 159). Vokey (2001), an educator and practicing Buddhist, spoke about the kind of awareness that one can access through meditation and I believe it is similar to that described by Bolte Taylor. He states that: Buddhist thinking holds that, “if we learn to relax our clinging to a sense of self, then in the gaps between our thoughts we can discover an awareness that is completely unconditioned” (p. 257). Contemplative practices such

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Table 8.1  Comparison of right brain and Buddhist states of awareness Right brain Bolte Taylor (2006)

Buddhist Vokey (2001, p. 257)

As the language centers in my left hemisphere grew increasingly silent and I became detached from the memories of my life, I was comforted by an expanding sense of grace (p. 41)

It is unconditioned in the sense that it is not created or manufactured, but is always already there, primordial. It is only our habit of imposing the reference points of self and other that obscures the boundless clarity and warmth of ‘our’ basic nature.

In this void of higher cognition and details pertaining to my normal life, my consciousness soared into an all-knowingness, a ‘being at one’ with the universe, if you will (p. 41).

It is unconditioned also in the sense that it is prior to and so free from all reference points, including the basic duality of self and other

All I could perceive was right here, right now, Unconditioned awareness naturally and it was beautiful. It is completely committed manifests as inseparable insight and to the expression of peace, love, joy, and compassion. compassion in the world (p. 140)

as meditation are a means of discovering unconditioned awareness. Buddhism, Daoism, yogic, and other Asian contemplative practices and the mind states they claim to engender are seen as esoteric, mystical beyond the reach of scientific inquiry. Goleman and Davidson (2017) speculate on the brain processes that enable such states and offer the thoughts of Asian contemplatives as to the nature of these states. In Table 8.1, I pair up statements made by Bolt Taylor a western trained scientist and Vokey as a way of suggesting that such states are present and available. In Part II of this book, I focus on considering, understanding, and articulating the outcomes of utilizing the technology developed by Daoists designed to provide access to the awareness and values expressed by the right hemisphere.

References Achor, S. (2010). The happiness advantage: How a positive brain fuels success in work and life. Currency. Bechara, A., Damasio, A.  R., & Bar-on, R. (2007). The anatomy of emotional intelligence and implications for educating people to be emotionally intelligent. In R. Bar-On, K. Maree, J. Maree, & M. J. Elias (Eds.), Educating people to be emotionally intelligent (pp. 199–210). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

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Bolte Taylor, J. (2006). My Stroke of insight: A brain scientist’s personal journey. New York: Penguin Group USA. Calaprice, A. (2011). The ultimate quotable Einstein. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Cotterill, R. (1998). Enchanted looms: Conscious networks in brains and computers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Culham, T., & Lin, J. (2016). Exploring the unity of science and spirit: A Daoist perspective. In J.  Lin, T.  Culham, & R.  Oxford (Eds.), Toward a spiritual research paradigm: Exploring new ways of knowing, researching and being. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing. Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes error. New York: Putnam. Gladwell, M. (2017). Outliers: The story of success. Audio-Tech Business Book Summaries. Goleman, D., & Davidson, R. J. (2017). Altered traits: Science reveals how meditation changes your mind, brain, and body. Penguin. Greene, J., & Haidt, J. (2002). How (and where) does moral judgment work? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(12), 517–523. Greene, J.  D. (2009). The cognitive neuroscience of moral judgment. The Cognitive Neurosciences, 4, 1–48. Hadot, P., & Davidson, A. I. (1995). Philosophy as a way of life: Spiritual exercises from Socrates to Foucault. New York: Blackwell. Kirkland, R. (2004). Taoism: The enduring tradition. New York: Routledge. Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108, 814–834. Kuhn, T.  S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). London: University of Chicago Press. Lloyd, G. (1996). Adversaries and authorities, investigation into ancient Greek and Chinese science. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK. McGilchrist, I. (2009). The master and his emissary. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Panksepp, J. (2009). Brain emotional systems and qualities of mental life: From animal models of affect to implications for psychotherapeutics. In D.  Fosha, D. J. Siegel, & M. F. Solomon (Eds.), The healing power of emotion: Affective neuroscience, development and clinical practice (pp.  27–54). New  York: WW Norton & Company. Vokey, D. (2001). Moral discourse in a pluralistic world. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.

CHAPTER 9

The Technology of Cultivating Virtue and Qi—an Overview Tom Culham

Cultivating Virtue, a Technology? How can cultivating virtue and qi be a technology? Isn’t virtue a subjective matter determined by one’s cultural tradition, religion, or spiritual experience? What has technology got to do with these matters? Just as rational scientific thinking has provided a technology for understanding and working with the material world, I argue that the traditional culture of China as informed by the ancient forms of Daoism and Confucianism provide a technology for understanding and working with life energy and spirit in the form of qi and perhaps the not so subjective matter of virtue. To address this question further consider the definition for technology below: • the practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area; • a capability given by the practical application of knowledge; • a manner of accomplishing a task especially using technical processes, methods, or knowledge; and • the specialized aspects of a particular field of endeavour (Merriam-­ Webster, Technology, 2019). A technology is the practical application of knowledge however gained and in the western way of thinking this is usually associated with scientific © The Author(s) 2020 T. Culham, J. Lin, Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning, Spirituality, Religion, and Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44947-6_9

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inquiry but may come about through other means such as practical experience. Lloyd and Sivin (2002) examined the nature of science and its application as understood by the ancient Chinese. Their findings are helpful to understand the application of a science and technology that integrates both the left and right brain hemisphere’s abilities and consciousness. It is worth noting that ancient Chinese science and the technological developments that flowed from it far surpassed anything in the west up until the advent of the age of the Enlightenment. In fact, early advances in western science can be traced to knowledge gained from Chinese science. With respect to science it excelled in the fields of astronomy, biology, mathematics, to name a few and with respect to technological developments that flowed from their science: paper, printing, gunpowder, health, diet, endocrinology, and ship building were notable areas of advance (Needham & Colin, 1995). Fundamental features of Chinese science similar to western science are its emphasis on impartial observation of all phenomena and its acceptance of all phenomena as worthy of study (Needham, 1954). The ancient Chinese approach is informed by a cosmologic view as expressed in the Dao De Jing that articulates two aspects of the Dao as: “the one that can be spoken of, that was the mother of the myriad creatures but is not the constant Way, and there is the nameless one, the beginning of heaven and earth, the Way that is constant” (Lloyd & Sivin, 2002, p.  204). This division describes a difference between common daily experiences which are visible and definable and a deeper mystical reality that is beyond description subtle and mysterious. Since the deeper Dao is mysterious it is impossible for the sage who knows it to provide an account of it “to the unenlightened without lapsing into paradox” (Lloyd & Sivin, 2002, p.  204). The ancient Chinese were not the only civilization to develop the concept of two separate but important realities: one that describes normal daily life and the other that describes a universal ineffable reality. Buddhism which entered China around 60 CE, long after the Chinese developed this concept, held there is an everyday truth that is relative and changing and an absolute nondual truth that is ineffable and impossible to grasp through language (Vokey, 2001). The ancient Chinese involved in developing their science held there were two ways to understand the Dao: “Cognitive understanding gained through induction and deduction, on the one hand, and the fruit of intuition, contemplation, insight, visualization, and allied nonrational means, on the other” (Lloyd & Sivin, 2002, p. 191). These were seen as complimentary ways of gaining knowledge and wisdom. Reading, writing,

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and didactic learning are typically considered to be the primary and most important means of learning in current western thinking. Indeed, in ancient China study was considered a kind of self-cultivation but not the only means of learning. “Self-cultivation also included a process of engaging in inner work through contemplative exercises that provided access to the deeper reality of the Dao that is so subtle that one can penetrate to it only through noncognitive means” (Lloyd & Sivin, 2002, p.  191). Further, this is clarified with the following observation drawn from the Huainanzi: What the feet tread does not take up much space; but one depends on what one does not tread in order to walk at all. What the intellect knows is limited; one must depend on what it does not know in order to achieve illumination (Lloyd & Sivin, 2002, p. 195).

For the ancient Chinese and Daoists, cultivation for the purposes of scientific inquiry required a balance of cognitive intellectual study and contemplative practice that provided access to the practical on the one hand and to the mysterious and subtle on the other (Lloyd & Sivin, 2002). Given McGilchrist’s (2009) description of the left hemisphere that is oriented to language, structure and focusing on components and the right hemispheres oriented to the implicit, interconnected, imperfectly known living world, it appears that the ancient Chinese utilized both sides of their brain to conduct scientific inquiry.

Daoist Concept of Virtue The ancient Chinese developed a technology that work with qi to concentrate all forms of human power: [Physical, mental, emotional, and moral abilities]. The use of the word “power” here is synonymous or parallel and associated with the western concept of virtue as I explain next. Sinologists have noted the word virtue is an uncomfortable translation of the Chinese word 德 pronounced dé in Pin Yin, the Romanization of Mandarin. The following concepts have been linked by sinologists to the word 德: charisma; force; psychic power (Nivison & Van Norden, 1996); power; moral force (Waley as cited in Van Norden, 2007); inner power (Roth, 1999); life energy in things; Confucian sense of morality (Henricks, 1989); that which nourishes (Lai, 2004); potency (Major, Queen, Meyer, & Roth, 2010); and capacity or receipt (Wagner, 2000). Force, energy,

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potency, and capacity, all associated with power come up in words associated with 德 as well as morality and virtue. Wing (1996) translates the Dao De Jing as the “Tao1 of Power” and stated “This power… emerges when one is aware of and aligned with the forces of nature (Tao)… Our cooperation with the forces in nature make us a part of those forces” (p. 12). Therefore, the Chinese technology considered here develops not only the moral component of virtue, but all aspects of human virtue and power through the process of aligning oneself with the forces of nature. It is worthy considering the concepts of nourishing and receipt also associated with the word 德. When one aligns oneself with the forces of nature, one’s existing levels of qi energy are augmented providing nourishment and a sense of having received gifts, the extent of gifts can range from better overall health to becoming a sage with great wisdom and the ability to influence others without effort (Wing, 1996). The foundation of the power referred to here is intimately linked to qi, or the energy and information of life. Verse one of the Neiye (Inward training) stated that people can become sages by aligning themselves with the Dao whereby vital essence, a highly refined type of vital energy (qi) (Meyer, 2010) and a physiological correlate of virtue2 (Roth, 1999), is augmented and “stored within the chests of human beings” (Roth, 1999, p. 47). The augmentation and storage of qi (vital life energy) within one’s chest is what ultimately enables one to become more virtuous and reach sage levels of being (Roth, 1999). Above I discussed in broad terms the cultivation of virtue from a Daoist perspective but it’s worth understanding why the cultivation of virtue enables an individual to become a sage with the “moral powers” alluded to above. The philosophical argument is relatively simple. Dao while being empty and formless is present everywhere and becomes form or is manifested through virtue 德; that is virtue, in Daoist terms, is the expression of Dao in the world. Therefore, Dao and virtue are intimately linked. Further as I noted above by aligning oneself with virtue by practising virtue one is able to connect with Dao and thus benefits from the connection (Culham, 2013). Roth’s (1991) translation of Techniques of the Mind Part I explains this relationship:

1  In this text we use the word “Dao”, the current pin yin Romanization of the word, except when quoting authors who used the earlier form, Tao. 2  Power and virtue are synonymous in this context.

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Inner power (virtue) is the lodging place of the Way (Dao). Things attain it and are thereby generated. Human awareness attains it and thereby directs the vital essence (qi) of the Way (Dao). Therefore, inner power (virtue) means, “to attain.” “To attain” means to attain the means by which it is so, and to lodge the Way (Dao) characterizes inner power (virtue). (p. 135)

Interpreting this passage line by line from a human perspective: Virtue (inner power) is the expression of Dao in humans; When one is virtuous, one is nourished and receives Dao gifts such as long life and wisdom; When one cultivates virtue, one achieves awareness of the Dao and is able to direct the energy (qi) of the Dao (the universe); Therefore, cultivating virtue (through aligning with virtue) enables one to attain the Dao which manifest as virtue in oneself; To gain constant awareness of the Dao (lodge the way) is virtue (inner power).

What is the nature of awareness of the Dao? The outcome of cultivating virtue is the development of “The ideal ethical and spiritual state” (Chan, 2010, p.  14) where: “Despite ceaseless transformations, the dao never becomes exhausted … The inexhaustibility of dao reflects not only its power and also purity; that is to say, its operations are clear of pathological movements” (2010, p. 11) where, “ethicality is defined in terms of purity and limitlessness” (Culham, 2013, p.  73) resulting in a return to the source of life. “That which gives life is the dao” (Chan, 2010, p. 8), and the “spirit of a person receives its essence from the dao” (2010, p. 11). “Because the essence of the dao, free of pathology, pure, and inexhaustible is within each person, it is possible for most to access or return to the state of purity and limitlessness (Culham, 2013, p. 73) or become virtuous.

The Concept of Cultivating Virtue How does one cultivate virtue? According to Daoists, the simple answer is by cultivating virtue 德. Philosophers (Nivison & Van Norden, 1996) have observed, to develop virtue according to Daoist texts, one has to have it already and seeking virtue to develop virtue is not virtuous (Culham, 2013). In Daoist thinking this problem is resolved through the process of

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aligning oneself with tranquillity which enables virtue that is already present within to emerge. Alignment is similar to the process we experience every day when we fall asleep. We can’t fall asleep through force of will, rather we must mirror or align ourselves with the state of sleep by lying down, relaxing our mind and then sleep so to speak arrives (Culham, 2013). In Daoist thinking, qi and virtue are closely related and augmenting one’s qi also augments virtue. Verse two of the Neiye provides guidance on the process of cultivating virtue through augmenting one’s qi. One cannot augment one’s qi through force nor by will or command, rather it is welcomed through a tranquil open awareness. Further, it can be secured through reverence and being virtuous, implying that it is a recursive process (Culham, 2013; Roth, 1999). An important principle in enabling virtue to emerge is tranquillity (Roth, 1999). Together, aligning with virtue and the principle of tranquillity enable virtue to emerge in people (Culham, 2013; Roth, 1999). The concept of tranquillity is not complete stillness; rather, it is “not passivity but an ongoing, dynamic achievement of equilibrium” which “stands in a dominant relationship to agitation rather than excluding it utterly” (Hall & Ames, 1998, p.  49). The concept of tranquillity is similar to that of homeostasis which occurs in biology where cells that must maintain equilibrium or hold the middle ground in the presence of constant change in their environment (Culham, 2013). In the Chap. 7, I discussed how the process of generating and harnessing electric energy required the development of a technology oriented to manipulating the energy inherent in matter whether it is a waterfall or heat available in fossil fuels or radiation of uranium. These forms of matter all contain an innate energy that can be harnessed with the application of technology. The technology developed by Daoists is designed to harness the energy of life and there is a significant difference in the means by which that energy is harnessed. Rather than building a structure like a dam to generate electricity from falling water, one must put oneself personally in alignment with the underlying patterns and life energy (qi) inherent in nature through a process of inner work and self-cultivation. Next, I discuss the principles through which this energy and power is accessed by people. As noted above alignment of all aspects of one’s being is vital as it is a necessary condition to enable tranquillity to arrive. That is one must align the body, limbs, breath, emotions, qi, mind and spirit in a particular way in order for tranquillity to arrive (Roth, 1999).

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Elaborating on the process of alignment and cultivation of tranquillity and virtue, the Neiye offers the following additional information. Conceptually, connecting the physical body to the subtle and nonmaterial qi and jing (vital essence) is a critically important aspect of cultivating tranquillity. The physical conditions required for enabling mental tranquillity are: Being seated in a stable position with erect spine erect and limbs aligned or squared up with one another (Roth, 1999, p. 110); Relaxed, expanded and tranquil breathing (Roth, 1999, pp. 111 & 114); and Revolving or regular circulation of the vital breath (qi) (Roth, 1999, p. 111)

In ancient Daoist and Confucian thinking it was held that there were underlying natural patterns for everything. Therefore to cultivate virtue all one has to do is adjust all aspects of one’s being to be in alignment with the ideal form of the human being. When this is achieved, the mental state of tranquillity arrives which then permits one to develop a stable and concentrated mind, the foundation of virtue development (Roth, 1999).

The Purpose of the Technology: Return to One’s Innate Nature Daoists believed that people are given a unique innate nature at birth formed by qi and situated within three other components that are vital to human beings: emotions, the heart-mind, and tranquillity. Next an account of the four components and their relationship is provided: emotions originate in one’s innate nature are associated with qi and movement; innate nature is inborn and unique to the individual directs the heart-mind; the heart-mind feels and thinks and can in turn direct the movement of innate nature; tranquillity, a universal and original nature of humans, can be regained through Daoist contemplative practices (Chan, 2010). In sum, the four components are interrelated and innate nature believed to originate in the Dao is involved in all of them. Knowing one’s unique innate nature means that you merge with the Dao and become authentic. Further, it is believed that awareness of one’s innate nature, as understood when the Huainanzi was written in 139 BCE, provides one guidance based in knowledge of the universal Dao and personal contentment (Roth,

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2010). The concept of inner nature remains an important element of Daoist thinking and practice down to the present. At the time when the Huainanzi was written, Buddhism had not entered China from India while Confucianism and Daoism originated in China and had a similar root. Later however, their orientation diverged: Confucians were focused on social affairs and human affairs in their philosophy and practice while Daoists focused on the natural world as a model for philosophical discourse and practice. More than 1000  years later, a Daoist, Li Daochun (thirteenth century CE), a practitioner and scholar of inner work (known as inner alchemy), considered the importance and conceptual similarity of innate nature in the three teachings of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism (Crowe, 2010). For Li, while the three teachings use different words to represent innate nature, they referred to the same phenomenon. In Buddhist terminology “Original Spirit” refers to something “not born and never destroyed” (p.  69), in Confucian terminology “Supreme Ultimate” is synonymous with “Original Spirit” meaning “original or fundamental nature” (p. 69). The Daoist definition of innate nature at the time of the writing of the Neiye and Huainanzi provided above hadn’t changed at the time of Li. Crowe (2010) in summarizing Li’s comparison of the three teachings’ view on innate nature stated that: [Innate] Nature, in its most fundamental sense, is presented as a significant shared concept useful for articulating a method of achieving transcendence and uncovering one’s “true nature” as conceived by Buddhists, or as means for the individual to realize integrity or integration…within a larger cosmic process, as understood by the [Confucians] Ru3” (p. 69).

Importantly, innate nature is a phenomenon existing prior to the three teachings and understood to be the foundation of cultivation in each of the teachings (Crowe, 2010). The significance from the perspective of the overarching topic of this book is that by coming to know one’s innate nature one merges with the Dao (Crowe, 2010), resulting in a transformation whereby ethical actions are guided by the authentic self (Culham, 2013). Because tranquillity is the ruling principle of human beings, it is the vehicle that enables realization of one’s innate nature (Roth, 1999). 3

 Ru is a specific philosophic term for Confucian.

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Innate Nature, Tranquillity, Qi, Virtue Here I attempt to describe the relationships of innate nature, tranquillity, qi and virtue. The Dao is limitless and encompasses everything. It includes the universals of limitlessness, tranquillity, and perfection and their apparent opposites, particularity, uniqueness, motion, and good and evil. The metaphor Daoists use for tranquillity is provided by the cycles of nature such as night and day, the seasons, and the motions of the sun and moon, which appear at any given time to be in constant motion and change, yet over the long term they exhibit underlying patterns that are constant and apparently unchanging. The practical value of cultivating tranquillity in the form of harmony in everyday life is exemplified by the ideal behaviour of the sage: Therefore, the way of the sage is   lenient yet firm,   strict yet kind   pliant yet upright,   forceful yet humane.   Too much hardness leads to inflexibility;   too much softness leads to laxity. Sages properly reside between hardness and softness and thereby obtain the root of the Way. (Major et al., 2010, p. 498)

Cultivation involves developing tranquillity, to gain awareness of innate nature, in the presence of change, because the movement of qi is vital to human flourishing. The paradox is that innate nature is upset by emotions which are intimately linked with qi. If one stops qi and emotions, death is the result. The goal, therefore, “is to achieve a state where the mind is quiet and qi moves about smoothly and calmly or phrased differently, the body is active and the mind is quiet” (Chan, 2010, p. 11). Another way of stating it is that tranquillity is an achievement of mental equilibrium that is dominant rather than completely excluding movement or agitation (Hall & Ames, 1998) or stillness in the presence of motion (Crowe, 2010). Virtue arises in a Daoist perspective through reconciling and transcending the apparent contradiction of motion and tranquillity resulting in “The ideal ethical and spiritual state” (Chan, 2010, p. 14). This is thought to be an ethical state because: “Despite ceaseless transformations, the dao never becomes exhausted … The inexhaustibility of dao reflects not only its

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power and also purity; that is to say, its operations are clear of pathological movements” (Chan, 2010, p. 11). In Daoist terms, ethicality is understood as purity and limitlessness which can emerge from one’s innate nature by aligning oneself with the Dao, the source of one’s essence, spirit, and life (Chan, 2010; Culham, 2013). Since Dao is within every person in the form of innate nature, it is possible for humans to access or return to the state of purity and limitlessness. The process of inner cultivation is “led by the mind through which one learns to simultaneously accommodate motion, and stillness, emotion (qi) and tranquillity” articulated in the Neiye (Roth, 1999). The concept of tranquillity as a foundation of cultivation is not limited to Daoist practice (Crowe, 2010). Just as I noted earlier, innate nature and the effort to return to one’s original nature is an objective of practice in Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism, through cultivating tranquillity (Crowe, 2010). Crowe (2010) quotes Li to illustrate the Buddhist perspective on the relationship of innate nature, and cultivating tranquillity in the presence of motion: Not moving in the midst of movement is true discipline. [Through] true meditative concentration you will be united with the patriarchal ancestors. With wisdom you ascend the entire Dharma realm. The emotions that cause recklessness and deception will be completely dissolved. (p. 84)

According to the Huainanzi, it is vital to know one’s innate nature; however, tensions arise between emotions related to engaging in the external pleasures of life and the requirement to cultivate inner tranquillity to gain awareness of one’s innate nature. The passage, Originating in the Way in the Huainanzi, describes the tension and consequences for leaders of ancient China in pursuing excessive pleasures at the expense of focusing on the innate within which is the path to cultivating the Way (Roth, 2010). There are two messages: one relates to the consequences of seeking out pleasures such as: music; celebrations; beautiful women; drinking; feasting; hunting; and horse racing, not recognizing that: “Sadness and happiness revolve and generate one another” (Roth, 2010, p. 70). This is a reminder that seeking moderation and emotional equilibrium in daily life is a process

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of aligning oneself with tranquillity the ruling principle of the Dao and vital to cultivation. The other is that:   All these (pleasures) may bring you contentment, consume you with a blazing passion, and tempt you to lust after them. But when you unhitch the chariot, rest the horses, stop the wine, and halt the music, Your heart suddenly feels as if it is in mourning, And you are as depressed as if you had a great loss. (Roth, 2010, pp. 70–1)

The sense of loss is due to using external experiences to develop contentment when relying on the innate within generates real and deep contentment. Also, attention and fascination with external pleasures deplete one’s vital life force, quintessential qi and draws one’s attention away from one’s deepest realization or innate nature. Further, when one tries to study and enact virtue one is not capable of understanding its deepest meaning, and therefore, one is inauthentic (Roth, 2010).

A Technology of Cultivating Tranquillity to Return to One’s Innate Nature As I have stated above, tranquillity is the basis for self-cultivation because it is the ruling principle of the universe and a human inborn state which can be achieved (Chan, 2010). In the Neiye, tranquillity is linked to mental states such as peace of mind, a calm mind, stable mind, well-ordered mind, and concentrated mind and it mirrors or aligns with the fundamental nature of the Dao (Culham, 2013; Roth, 1999). A vital characteristic of developing Daoist virtue in human beings is the manifestation of tranquillity because it is the very essence of the Dao. In simple terms the technology Daoists employed to return to one’s innate nature (and I propose access right hemisphere consciousness) involved developing inner tranquillity through the following steps: • Alignment of the Body and Breath with Virtue and qi • Alignment of Emotions with Virtue and qi • Alignment of Mind with Virtue and qi • Alignment of Spirituality with Virtue and qi The next chapter provides Daoist thinking regarding the alignments noted above and how they relate to the development of tranquillity. Since

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the language and ideas of Daoism have been considered a form of mysticism, I weave Daoist explanations of each of the steps with knowledge drawn, where possible, from contemporary science. I propose that rather than mysticism the Daoists were articulating human experiences.

References Chan, A. (2010). Affectivity and the nature of the sage: Gleanings from a Tang Daoist master. Journal of Daoist Studies, 3(2), 1–27. Crowe, P. (2010). Nature, motion, and stillness: Li Daochun’s vision of the three teachings. Journal of Daoist Studies, 5(5), 61–88. Culham, T. (2013). Ethics education of business leaders: Emotional intelligence, virtues and contemplative learning. In J.  Lin & R.  Oxford (Eds.), Book series: Transforming education for the future. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing. Hall, D. L., & Ames, T. A. (1998). Thinking from the Han: Self, truth, and transcendence in Chinese and western culture. New  York: State University of New York Press. Henricks, R.  G. (1989). Lao-tzu: Te-tao Ching: A new translation based on the recently discovered ma-wang-tui texts. New York: Ballantine Books. Lai, C.  T. (2004). Commentary: A Daoist perspective. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 46(3), 279. Lloyd, G., & Sivin, N. (2002). The way and the word: Science and medicine in early China and Greece, Yale University Press. ProQuest Ebook Central, http:// ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/sfu-ebooks/detail.action?docID=Created from sfu-ebooks on 2019-01-29 09:54:41 Major, J.  S., Queen, S.  A., Meyer, A.  S., & Roth, H.  D. (Eds.). (2010). The Huainanzi: A guide to the theory and practice of government in early Han China. New York: Columbia University Press. Meyer, A. S. (2010). Appendix A: Key Chinese terms and their translations. In J. S. Major, S. A. Queen, A. S. Meyer, H. D. Roth (Eds.), The Huainanzi: A guide to the theory and practice of government in early Han China (pp. 869–913). New York: Columbia University Press. McGilchrist, I. (2009). The master and his emissary. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Merriam-Webster. (2019). Technology, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/technology Needham, J. (1954). Science and civilisation in China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Needham, J., & Colin, A. R. (1995). The shorter science and civilisation in China (Vol. 5). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Nivison, D.  S., & Van Norden, B.  W. (1996). The ways of Confucianism: Investigations in Chinese philosophy. Chicago: Open Court. Roth, H.  D. (1991). Psychology and self-cultivation in early Taoistic thought. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 51(2), 599–650. Roth, H. D. (1996). The inner cultivation tradition of early Daoism. In D. S. Lopez (Ed.), Religions of China in practice (pp.  123–145). Princeton: Princeton University Press. Roth, H. D. (1999). Original Tao: Inward training (Nei-yeh) and the foundations of Taoist mysticism. New York: Columbia University Press. Roth, H. D. (2010). Chapter 1. Originating in the way. In J. S. Major, S. A. Queen, A. S. Meyer, & H. D. Roth (Eds.), The Huainanzi: A guide to the theory and practice of government in early Han China (pp. 41–76). New York: Columbia University Press. Van Norden, B. W. (2007). Virtue ethics and consequentialism in early Chinese philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Vokey, D. (2001). Moral discourse in a pluralistic world. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. Wagner, R. G. (2000). The craft of a Chinese commentator: Wang bi on the Laozi. Albany New York: State University of New York Press. Wing, R. L. (1996). The I Ching work book. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc.

CHAPTER 10

Alignment of Being Human with Virtue and Qi Tom Culham

Alignment of the Body with Virtue and Qi The body and mind are intimately related; when one is physically exhausted it’s difficult to concentrate; or when rested, work can be done faster and with less mental effort. When emotionally calm, our body feels more at ease and comfortable. These everyday experiences suggest that the body, mind, and our emotions support/counter-support and influence each other. What if the body, emotions, and the unconscious play a much more significant role in our mental lives? What if these elements are critical foundations of our knowledge and ability to learn? What if, given the right conditions they can transform our way of being and behaviour in the world? This section addresses the question: Can Daoist body-mind contemplative practices be a vehicle for inner transformation, provide an ethical sensibility, and provide insights for new approaches to ethics education? I begin with a consideration of recent scientific findings that suggest: ethical decision making is closely linked to the body, emotions, and unconscious processes; the state of our breathing affects our mind-state and vice versa; the heart is involved in our thinking processes; the state of the heart is an important indicator of our overall mental and physical health.

© The Author(s) 2020 T. Culham, J. Lin, Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning, Spirituality, Religion, and Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44947-6_10

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The Role of the Body in Daoist Cultivation For many religious traditions, the body is a problem. Christianity while recognizing the body as a temple, for the most part sees it as the source of temptation and a hindrance to the development of the virtues. Daoists while acknowledging that the body-mind is tempted by worldly pleasures sees it as foundational to virtue cultivation. Down through the ages Daoists held this view. Verse 1 of the Neiye, written in the fourth century BCE, proposed that by storing vital essence (jing1) in their chest, people can become a sage (Roth, 1999). A fourth-century Daoist text, the Baopuzi states: “The Dao is not far off; it is here in my body” (Wang, as cited in Lai, 2004, p. 258). A fifth-century Daoist text, the Scripture of Inner Explanation of the Three Heavens, states: “A dead prince is not worth a live rat” (Lai, 2004, p. 280) emphasizing the importance of the body and life. “Daoism situates the power of the Dao in the reality closest to us, most importantly in our own physical bodies” (Lai, 2004, p. 280). Komjathy (2011) traces the Daoist view of the body as a vessel for spiritual and mystical cultivation down through the ages drawing a conclusion relevant to education and the role of science in completely illuminating our understanding of the mystical experience. Daoist cosmology is based on immanence, rather than transcendence, where adherents encounter the Dao (spirituality) in their bodies calling into question the commonly assumed dichotomies of body/mind, spirit/body. If the body is sacred, then these experiences may not be reducible or understood only through neuroscience or other scientific inquiry; rather, we may need to reconsider our understanding of the relationship between mystical experience and its trigger, the body. Further, understanding could be advanced by observing the role of the mystic in social, worldview context “as experiencing subject” (Komjathy, 2011, p. 92). The body is more than a vessel for spiritual experience; rather, it also provides one with the ability to intuitively understand the function of qi and virtues. Since Daoist cosmology holds that qi and virtue are in everything, highly cultivated individuals are able to understand one’s environment, and one’s response to it. In Chinese medicine, the first great book on herbal medicine was written by the great master Shen Nong (Gu, 1955). He tasted hundreds of herbs to decipher their medical use. He sensed directly the qi energy in various herbs and things and he 1

 Jing is a rarefied form of qi.

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experienced how qi worked in the body, and eventually summarized his findings in the book Shen Nong’s Herbal Classic (Gu, 1955). From the earliest time, embodied learning is a necessary feature of Daoism. Although we all have qi and qi allows us to live, we seldom know how it works as the knowing requires elaborate cultivation of qi in our body. The Daoist masters take their body as a laboratory, and they figured out how people, stars, plants, animals, mountains, and rivers all emit energy and absorb energy. The whole world is their cultivation ground and they needed to have very high wisdom about the intricate relations of the universe to grasp the interconnectedness of everything. In what follows, an account of body is provided based on current scientific understanding, and where possible, concepts related to Daoist claims are noted.

Current Science and the Body Tranquillity, Homeostasis, Allostasis As was noted earlier, tranquillity is an important universal principle in Daoist thinking and a vital aspect of cultivation because it is the very essence of the Dao and the ultimate objective of cultivation is to mirror the Dao. I now wish to consider tranquillity from the perspective of the body. For clarity I restate the meaning of mental and emotional tranquillity as “an achievement of mental equilibrium that is dominant rather than completely excluding movement or agitation (Hall & Ames, 1998) or stillness in the presence of motion” (Crowe, 2014). I argue here that the mental emotional tranquillity articulated is similar to the natural effort of the body to maintain a physiological state of equilibrium in the presence of change at the cellular and whole-body level. With respect to cellular homeostasis a molecular biology text states: (T)the metabolic balance of a cell is amazingly stable. Whenever the balance is perturbed, the cell reacts so as to restore the initial state… Thus, one of the amazing features of cell biology is its ability to maintain a state of equilibrium in the face of dramatic external differences and changes. (Alberts et al., 2002, p. 108)

Continuing with a biological perspective, as noted above, homeostasis operates at the cellular level while a similar process known as allostasis

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works to maintain equilibrium at the whole-body level. More specifically, allostasis regulates body functions such as temperature, oxygen, blood-­ glucose levels, and water content in a relatively narrow range. A specific example is sweating is a mechanism that cools the body when we are exposed to heat and shivering that warms the body when we are cold. In general, the body thrives and is healthy within a small range of variables. For example, body temperature can only vary by a small amount around the normal value of 37 degrees C.  We all know now we are sick if our temperature goes up one or two degrees from 37. An important aspect of allostasis is the ability to return the body to equilibrium following a stressful event. An allostatic response involves an increase in arousal when people experience good stress, tolerable stress, and toxic stress with the following definitions: Good stress: “the experience of rising to a challenge, taking a risk, and feeling rewarded by an often positive outcome”; tolerable stress: “situations where negative events occur, but the individual with healthy brain architecture is able to cope”; toxic stress: “situations in which negative events are experienced by an individual who has limited support and may also have brain architecture that reflects the effects of adverse early life events that have impaired the development of good impulse control and judgement and adequate self-esteem” (McEwen, 2016, p. 57). Further, allostatic load “refers to the wear and tear that results from either too much stress or inefficient management of allostasis (e.g., failure to turn off the response when no longer needed) (McEwen, 2016, p. 57). The concept of allostasis is important to introduce here not only because it supports the idea that maintaining a balance is of vital importance to whole-body health but that it is an important process by which the mind and body are integrated. It is the psychological interpretations of events that determine the bodily allostasis response and recovery to a stressful situation. This view is consistent with the Daoist view that body, emotions, mind, and spirit are intimately linked. Further, research supports a broad range of health benefits due to meditative practices which help the body’s allostatic response. Some of the benefits include increasing capability of individuals’ learning abilities, memory, emotional regulation, and self-awareness along with associated increases in the volume of brain components. In addition, functional connectivity within the brain is enhanced benefitting fluid intelligence, or the ability to be creative and respond to novel situations with effective thinking. Personal resilience, global network efficiency and cognitive abilities are enhanced, and

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age-related cognitive decline is reduced (McEwen, 2016). The matter of emotions and their regulation will be discussed more fully in the next section. In summary, allostasis or the ability of the body to maintain equilibrium in the presence of the vagaries of life stress is a vitally important function and meditation appears to assist this function. Returning to the concept of homeostasis, Culham (2013) stated: “It appears that cells work, in the face of dramatic change in their environment, to maintain equilibrium or homeostasis” (Culham, 2013, p.  91). Damasio (2010) takes this further and claims that homeostasis is a biological foundation for the values necessary to support life at all levels of being: body, emotions, and thought and action. That is homeostasis is the foundation of the values we hold. How does the principle of homeostasis become a set of values? At a very simple level we all know that we are healthy when our body temperature is within a very narrow range around 37 degrees C and that the principle of homeostasis holds for numerous aspects of bodily health from blood pressure to sugar, oxygen, and cholesterol levels in our blood stream to name but a few. When these levels are held within a certain range it is optimal for life and when they fall out of the norm, health is no longer optimal and may be under threat where disease and possibly death is the result. Given this Damasio (2010) states “It stands to reason that goods and actions that, in one way or another, will ultimately induce optimal life regulation will be regarded as most valuable” and further “optimal ranges express themselves in the conscious mind as pleasurable feelings; dangerous ranges, as not-so-pleasant or even painful feelings” (emphasis in the original) (p. 56). This means of life regulation present at every level of our being can be seen at work in “pain, pleasure, emotions, and ‑feelings; social behaviours; religions; economics and their markets and financial institutions; moral behaviours; laws and justice; politics; art, technology and science” (pp. 59–60). We observed earlier Daoists hold the view that tranquillity is the ruling principle of the universe and is the fundamental means through which one cultivates and returns to one’s innate nature. Repeating the definition provided earlier: tranquillity is not complete stillness; rather, it is “not passivity but an ongoing, dynamic achievement of equilibrium” which “stands in a dominant relationship to agitation rather than excluding it utterly” (Hall & Ames, 1998, p. 49). This definition appears to correlate with the concept of homeostasis articulate by Damasio and I conclude based on his argument that maintaining equilibrium in the presence of change is a ruling principle for human life from the cellular level to our values and to our

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most complex social and technical achievements and interactions. This understanding is particularly important in the context of this work which speaks to the development of virtues through cultivation of tranquillity. It also supports the concept held by Daoists that tranquillity is a ruling principle of life, and that it is associated with supporting life. Interdependence of Body and Emotions In recent research the body and emotions have been found to be functionally interdependent and integrated (Damasio, 1994; Frijda, 1986; Ogden, 2007; Schore, 1994). That is, the body’s physiological state can be an unconscious response to external stimuli that in turn is felt emotionally; conversely, emotional states can result in a corresponding physiological response (Porges, 2009). For example, people who took on postures and facial expressions associated with sadness, happiness, or anger would more likely develop an ability to recall past events having a similar emotional characteristic (Dijkstra, Kaschak, & Zwann, 2006; Schnall & Laird, 2003). Posture and facial expression, therefore, not only convey emotions but contribute to the experience and interpretation of emotion (Ogden, 2007). Therefore, the emphasis of a specific posture in meditation is an important foundation for enabling physical and emotional tranquillity to emerge from within. In addition, one can choose to cultivate an emotional state which will also impact the individual’s the overall tranquillity including physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual tranquillity. The practice outlined in the Neiye calls for “relaxed, expanded and tranquil breathing” (Roth, 1999, pp. 111 & 114). The effect of yoga on the breath, body, heart, emotions, the autonomic nervous system, and several neurological disorders was considered by Streeter, Gerbarg, Saper, Ciraulo, & Brown (2012). They held that for their purposes, “the term ‘yoga’ is used to encompass ancient and modern mind–body techniques, including all forms of yoga and other traditions that incorporate postures, meditation, chanting or breathing techniques” (p. 2). The significance of their findings in the context of how the breath impacts numerous physiological functions through the central nervous system (CNS) is relevant to our discussion. The CNS “consists of the brain and spinal cord, to which sensory impulses are transmitted and from which motor impulses pass out, and which coordinates the activity of the entire nervous system” (Merriam-­ Webster, 2018).

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The CNS contains the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) which is involved in enabling the fight-or-flight response and parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) which on the other hand relaxes muscles, stabilizes heart and breathing rate while activating digestion, and other bodily functions. When the SNS is activated, it causes a physiological response such as increased heart and breathing rate while suppressing the activity of functions not needed to respond to an immediate threat such as digestion. Emotions initiate the activity of both systems: emotions such as fear or anger, requiring high energy to engage the SNS while emotions such as love, empathy that require less physical energy, engage the PNS (Carroll, 2009). It has been found that controlled breathing patterns have a significant impact and change2 in emotions such as “anger, fear, joy and sadness” (Streeter, et al. 2012, p. 3). Breath is life; therefore, information about the state of breathing is continuously sent to the brain by the nervous system and any change has significant effects on brain function (Streeter, et  al. 2012). Several breathing styles observed in yoga, qigong, and recitation of the rosary were examined and it was found that they had beneficial effects such as improving heart function, promoting stress resilience, and balancing nervous system functioning (Streeter, et al. 2012). These findings suggest that tranquil breathing can contribute to a tranquil physical and emotional state and over the long term contribute to better health (Streeter, et al. 2012). The Body, Health, and Virtue Daoists claim that when people cultivate the Dao and are virtuous, they will have better health and live longer. Along with this claim comes the idea that virtue means having a purpose greater than one’s own interest and behaving on a daily basis in a way that is consistent with a larger purpose. It appears that science is confirming the idea that health and the choice of one’s purpose and related actions may be linked. These findings are part of research known as human social genomics that examines the impact of social-environmental influence on the human gene expression. Briefly, the understanding of genetics informed by the recent development of epigenetics has transformed in the past several decades. “Epigenetics refers to events ‘above the genome’ that regulate expression of genetic 2  Changes in breathing patterns account for up to 40% of the variance in emotions (Streeter, et al. 2012).

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information without altering the DNA sequence” (McEwen, 2016, p. 58). Where once it was thought you were dealt a genetic hand at birth that didn’t change throughout life, now science holds that the environment including one’s thoughts and behaviour determines the genes that are activated throughout one’s life (Lipton, 2010). In simple terms genes contained in our DNA are something like library books that provide instructions on how to create the necessary components of life. The creation of the components needed to support everyday life, known as gene expression, occurs when a signal external to the cell causes the gene to become active resulting in the manufacture of a protein like haemoglobin that carries oxygen in the blood or cortisol, a hormone generated in response to stress for example. A metaphor for this is the cook who takes a recipe book out of the library and then uses the instructions to make a meal. It turns out that different genes are expressed depending on the type of happiness one pursues in life and this can have an impact on one’s health. In general, the field of human social genomics has discovered that unfavourable social-environmental conditions such as social isolation are associated with the expression of genes that contribute to poor health and/or diseases such as cancer. Conversely favourable conditions contribute to expression of genes that promote health and prevent disease (Cole, 2014). A study conducted at UCLA considered two broad types happiness or well-being: “eudaimonic well-being”, where happiness is derived from having a higher sense of purpose and deeper meaning in life; and “hedonic well-being”, where it is derived from consumptive self-gratification (Cole, 2014). Researchers drew blood samples from 80 healthy adults who were assessed for hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, as well as potentially confounding negative psychological and behavioural factors. It was found that people with a eudaimonic disposition had good gene-expression profiles with low levels of inflammatory gene expression and strong expression of antiviral and antibody genes. Conversely people with hedonic dispositions had poor gene-expression profiles with high inflammation and low antiviral and antibody gene expression (Cole, 2014). It is interesting to note that people with high levels of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being were equally happy and had similar levels of positive emotion. While those who choose to serve a higher purpose and those who serve their own interests might be equally happy, their choices had a significant difference on their genome. It appears our bodily response through gene expression is more sensitive to different ways of achieving happiness than are conscious minds. Cole (2014) concludes: “Disease,

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death, threat, resilience, thriving, and generativity are not value-neutral in evolutionary terms nor are they in humanitarian terms” and “Perhaps the most transformative implication of prescriptive social genomics lies in the new opportunities it provides to us as individuals as we seek to optimize our own personal well-being” (p. 5). In sum our choice of how we pursue happiness impacts our long-term physical health and it appears our unconscious rooted in the body contains a kind of knowledge in the form of a set of values. It is interesting to note also that others conclude that the body and unconscious are an important source of knowledge. For example, Lakoff and Johnson stated: What we call ‘mind’ is really embodied. There is no true separation of mind and body. These are not two independent entities that somehow come together and couple… Mind isn’t some mysterious abstract entity that we bring to bear on experience. Rather mind is part of the very structure and fabric of our interactions with our world. (1999, p. 266)

Further they note “(A)ll of our knowledge and beliefs are framed in terms of a conceptual system that resides mostly in the cognitive unconscious” and “(U)nless we know our cognitive unconscious fully and intimately, we can neither know ourselves nor truly understand the basis of our moral judgments, our conscious deliberations, and our philosophy” (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999, p. 15). Daoists emphasize the importance of the body and the unconscious as a source of cultivation and knowledge. Daoists held the virtues are rooted physically in the body. Further, conscious expression of virtues was not considered to be as virtuous as an unconscious expression of virtues. Next, I will discuss further the integration of body, emotions, and values. The Body as an Energy Field Daoists hold that the body is not only physical matter; rather, it is also an energy body or energy field, connected through meridians that flow with qi energy. Qi moving throughout the body provides the force and energy to transport blood and maintain the function of its component parts, hence qi’s role is that of propelling life, protecting the body from outside negative energy attack, driving, and moving blood around, sustaining the rhythm of the heartbeat, and helping the lungs to breath.

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The physical body is an intricate assembly of matter and energy in motion, alive with information that is constantly exchanging qi with the environment and those around us. The concepts of a field of energy and of information being critical to the function of the body are relatively new but important concepts in western medicine. A few examples illustrate the role of energy fields, energy, information, and matter in the body. In fact, these elements rarely stand alone in the body but are interrelated and constantly in a process of interchanging with one another. The field of epigenetics illustrates this concept. In the early days of our understanding of DNA, it was thought that DNA contained within every one of our cells determined everything about us. As was noted earlier, it is now understood that the DNA is more like a library where information regarding how to manufacture the necessities of life such as proteins remains locked within the cell nucleus without an external signal causing them to be produced. What causes individual genes in DNA to become active and produce proteins or other necessary components is information from outside the cell and this information is often the result of our emotional response to external phenomenon (Lipton, 2010). In simple terms, matter becomes active in the body in response to environmental information. The shape of matter in the form of proteins is critical in enabling the body to function properly. Two examples of proteins are haemoglobin, which is contained in red blood cells and is involved in carrying oxygen in the blood; and insulin, which is involved in processing sugar. The shape and function of these proteins are determined by the energy of the atoms and molecules of which they are composed of. That is, the very shape of proteins is determined by their unique energy signature, which is information that determines how they function and interact with other elements of the body. Proteins function in a manner like a lock and key, where the shape of the key matches the shape of the lock enabling it to open the lock. If the key is damaged it will not open the lock. An example of how shape is involved, is a blood disorder known as sickle cell disease which initially causes: “swelling of the hands and feet; symptoms of anemia, including fatigue, or extreme tiredness; and jaundice” (NIH, 2019, para. symptoms). The fundamental cause of this disease is an abnormal protein in the haemoglobin of blood cells due to an incorrect reading of genes that are responsible for providing the blueprint for haemoglobin (Thom, Dickson, Gell, Weiss, 2013). Red blood cells that contain normal haemoglobin are disc shaped and flexible so that they can move easily through large and small blood vessels to deliver oxygen. Sickle cell disease is caused by

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mutations in a gene known as beta globin that make a single protein in haemoglobin. The result is that because the mutated beta globin is the wrong shape and despite being very small relative to the size of blood cells it causes them to be sickle-shaped. Due to the cells being sickle-shaped they are not flexible, stick to vessel walls, and die much earlier than normal blood cells resulting in several health complications. The point is that the shape of proteins is dependent on the energetic structure of atoms comprising the protein and the shape of molecules is information critical to the body’s functioning. In summary, at a molecular level, therefore, the body is a function of the energy of the molecules and component atoms comprising the body. Energy is not just a factor at the molecular level but can be observed at the level of organs. For example, the heart and brain both produce electric energy in order to carry out their functions. The heart produces the most energy of all organs in the body which also creates an electromagnetic field 100 times greater than the brain and can be measured approximately one metre from the body. The field produced by the heart provides feeling and emotional information to the rest of the individual’s body and transmits the information outside the body through the field to people nearby, or “biomagnetic communication between people” (McCraty, 2014, p. 38). The perspectives provided above originate within the traditional western medical view of the body which is dominated by describing health in terms of matter; nonetheless as discussed above, matter and energy are seen to work together. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) on the other hand, with origins in Daoist thinking, envisages the body primarily as an energy system that manifests as matter where energy in the form of qi operates through acupuncture points and meridians (Liu, 2018). Liu makes the claim that to obtain a full understanding of health and disease, it is important to consider the perspective of an energy paradigm provided by TCM and this will augment the understanding provided by the materialist western paradigm. Qi is affected by our emotions. When one is in a balanced mood and has positive relationship with other people and the environment, the body’s qi flows smoothly. The qi of the body also connects with the qi of nature, and the universe. A body with an abundance of qi is one who is energetic and healthy. Cultivation of qi results in a person having a youthful look, healthy skin, and shining eyes. The Daoists say that such a person has strong “jin, qi, and shen”, translated as Essence, Qi, and Spirit respectively.

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Qi flowing in the body has yin and yang aspects and they need to be in balance. Too much yin or too much yang can cause problems in the body through illnesses, low energy, mental stress, etc. Qi can be blocked in the meridians, and acupuncture has been used as a method to remove the blockages and smooth and balance the qi’s circulation and flow. Building up Zhen Qi in the three energy fields—the Lower Dan Tian located just below the navel, the Middle Dan Tian located in the chest near the heart, and the Upper Dan Tian located in the centre of the forehead slightly above the eyebrows—is critical in Daoism. The lower energy field below the navel is believed by Daoists to be the holding place of our Original Qi. A lot of attention is given to meditation focused on this area in order to build up its qi. It is believed that once this area is filled up with Original Qi, the seed for refining our energy into a Golden Flower or the Immortal Self or the Great Dan is planted. Then it is also crucial to fill up the energy in the Middle Dan Tian in the chest area and in the Upper Dan Tian in the forehead. Energy stored up in the chest opens up the field enabling the heart to connect with and harbour other spirits, and then the individual can sense and resonate with a greater spectrum of forces and beings. When energy accumulates between the two eyebrows in the Upper Dan Tian, the Heaven Eye or our Third Eye can be opened. Opening this eye means gaining access to the invisible world and cosmic wisdom, and one can start having visions and obtain information about other dimensions of the universe, and a direct view of qi which manifests with images and intelligence. This eye is given a lot of attention in Buddhism (Lin, 2019, forthcoming), in Hinduism (Hindus paint a dot on their forehead to illustrate the centrality of this part in their life), and even in the western mystical cultivations, such as the eye in the American one-dollar bill. In Daoism, this eye allows one to have extrasensory abilities and teleportation abilities, and many other kinds of abilities that are often called supernatural or miracles. The three Dan Tians are connected through meridians which circulate energy throughout the body. We have two main meridians: the Du Meridian, which governs yang energy in the back of the body; and the Ren Meridian, which governs the yin energy in the front of the body. These two major meridians connect the organs and circulate energy within the body. When one cultivates qi to a certain extent, where the two meridians have no blockages, one becomes very healthy. This is called “having connected the Small Heavenly Circuit” within the body. But for our body to circulate with the energy of the universe, one needs to greatly expand

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one’s awareness and connect with the energy of other people and nature and stars etc. Eventually one’s energy enters an expansive circulation with the cosmos, and this is called “connecting with the Great Heavenly/ Cosmic Circuit”. At this level, one’s abilities are greatly elevated.

Benefits of Cultivating Virtue: Physical Health A healthy body is an important result of Daoist cultivation. The first step is to clear away blockages and cure illnesses; the second is to strengthen the body and gain comprehensive health benefits; the third is to increase one’s vital life energy qi and prolong one’s life, and eventually working on immortality and be able to transcend death and physical and three-­ dimensional world limitations. Becoming healthy by clearing away blockages of the qi energy flowing in one’s meridians and adjusting one’s emotions and doing good deeds are critical for the qi to work smoothly regulating the function of all organs. The most important Chinese medical classic, the Yellow Emperor’s Inner Sutra (Ni, 1995) greatly elaborates on this. Health is linked with the emotional, moral, and spiritual aspects of one’s life, not just the physical aspect. Health can hence be said to require holistic understanding and efforts. Daoism aims for longevity and even immortality. Qi is the critical energy in cultivating longevity and immortality. Our Original Qi can be preserved through emotional stability or tranquillity. Our authentic genuine Zhen3 Qi can be stored up in various meridian centres and points through cultivation of virtues and refinement of qi. The accumulation of qi, especially the life propelling Original Qi and high energy Zhen Qi, is directly related to our health and longevity. Breathing practice is vital for the body, as instead of depleting the Original Qi, breathing slowly and deeply, for example, can draw in more oxygen and qi that is present in everything into the body.

A Personal Example of Health Changes Over Time Below is an edited version of a journal entry I made in 2004 after practising qigong for about 6 years. 3  Zhen has the meaning genuine or authentic. In the Huainanzi it refers to “the embodiment of the Way in a person or thing. A Genuine phenomenon is thus replete with Potency” (virtue) (Meyer, 2010, p. 910).

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One idea I find intriguing from our practice is that physical changes and benefits come without my conscious knowledge. Rather, one just needs to persistently practice without expectation. I find myself taking comfort in this in two ways. I have begun to realize that I don’t have to actively control or direct things for good things to happen. I can let go of affairs, and life will look after itself provided that I practice virtue as best I can, contribute in some way to society, and consciously and persistently practice qigong. This doesn’t mean I won’t face hardships or difficulties, but it does mean I can let go to some extent. Second, it means a little more tranquillity in my life and a lot more confidence in learning qigong. I have always said that I did not join qigong to improve my health. But these thoughts about benefitting without consciously trying caused me to think about my health. I happen to participate in an annual health test that looks at a number of vital health signs. One of my co-workers who is more senior told me that he thought the tests were good and bad. They were good because they motivate you to look after your health. They are bad because no matter how much you try, year over year as you age, your results gradually get worse. So, I thought I would look at my results which are available since 1994 through to 2018. I noted in my journal that from 1994 to 2004 my health indicators have been stable. The results following 2004 were taken as part of my annual check-up with my family doctor. They vary somewhat but are all within the ideal range. I take vitamins daily but do not take any prescription medication. I recognize that this does not prove anything. It is simply my personal information and experience. There is considerable research, however, documenting the physical and mental health benefits of a range of meditation styles including Daoist contemplative practices (Goleman & Davidson, 2017; Tang, Hölzel, & Posner, 2015). An interesting and dramatic story about the health benefits of meditation and yoga was reported in Scientific American (Jabr, 2018) and the New York Times (Gelles, 2015). Mark Bertolini, CEO of Aetna, a large insurance company, experienced a debilitating ski accident that left him in great pain that could not be treated effectively with conventional medical intervention. He sought out alternative treatment trying both yoga and meditation both of which brought significant relief from his pain and disability. He was so impressed that he began a pilot project at Aetna, offering both contemplative practices in his company as he thought if it helped him perhaps it would help others. The project was evaluated by Duke University’s Integrative Medicine Program. To the surprise of the Aetna

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medical officer and statisticians, project participant’s health indices, including stress levels, sleep difficulties, heart rate variability, and cortisol levels, improved significantly, so much so that the project was made available on a volunteer basis to anyone in the company. While Bertolini’s goal was to help employees, the productivity of employees also improved. Contemplative practices appear to support a number of health indices as indicated by controlled experiments and larger population studies. In the next section I consider emotions. Traditionally we have thought of health as a phenomenon of the body; however, as we noted above, science is now recognizing a link between physical and emotional health. Next I consider more depth on recent science on emotional health in light of Daoists’ views on cultivation of emotional tranquillity, and its impact on emotional health.

Alignment of Emotions with Virtue and Qi In this section I explore the process of educating the emotions from a Daoist perspective and integrate this with current psychological and neuroscience thinking on the matter. First, I explore the Daoist concepts of emotions and how they are linked to qi, virtue, and our authentic selves.

The Role of Emotion in Daoist Cultivation In Daoist and TCM medical thinking, the body, emotions, mind, and qi are intimately related and have energies. In humans, innate nature is the foundation of emotions, and innate nature has deep roots in our past and physiology. “Our (innate) nature and destiny emerge from the Ancestor together with our bodily shapes. Once these shapes are completed, our nature and destiny develop; once our nature and destiny develop, likes and dislikes arise” (Roth, 2010a, p. 73). The interaction of mind, emotions and innate nature are described as follows: In the pure state the mind is still; however, when stimulated by external events, the mind responds with a wave of emotions or feelings which creates movement and sound “such as laughing and dancing in the case of joy or screaming and fleeing in the case of fear” (Meyer, 2010, p. 884). Negative emotions such as anger, sadness, worry, and even “positive” energy such as excessive excitement can all unbalance the qi in different organs. Hence, to be stable, peaceful, and serene, and to reduce our desires, we must enable our energy to work accordingly.

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There is a significant difference between the western and TCM view of the body, emotions, and health. The primary difference is that in TCM thinking, humans are understood to as “the operation of energy” or qi which is expressed as matter (Liu, 2018, p. 32). This inverts the traditional western medical understanding that “the tangible determines the intangible and material structure determines the operation of energy” (Liu, 2018, p.  32). In philosophic terms one might consider these views as incommensurate; however, as will be discussed later, discoveries in physics since the beginning of the twentieth century acknowledge that energies play a significant role in the make-up of matter. For example, the water molecule’s structure is determined by the electric charge of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms that make up water. TCM theory is informed by Daoist cosmology where emotions are intimately linked to qi and energy and, therefore, play a vital role in one’s health in TCM thinking. This thinking can be traced back to the Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Medicine dated to the middle of the third millennium BCE and is considered one of the most important Daoist texts (Ni, 1995). According to TCM, there are five internal energetic orbs (wu zhang4) that correspond to the physical organs. Each orb is considered to be composed of a specific kind of qi and correspond to elements, organs, emotions, spirit, and virtues as shown in the Table 10.1.5 In addition, qi flows within and between the organs forming a relationship of support as well as counter-support or control, meaning they give Table 10.1  The Element-Organ-Emotion-Spirit-Virtue Links (Cohen, 1997, p. 237, Ni, 1995, p. 16) Element

Wood

Fire

Earth

Metal

Water

Organ Emotion

Liver Anger

Heart Joy

Lungs Grief Sadness

Kidney Fear

Spirit Virtues

Soul Kindness

Spirit Order

Spleen Distress/Worry (Pensiveness, empathy) Logic Trust

Courage Integrity

Will Wisdom

4  “Each organ was thought to be the central coordinating point of a distinct ramified network of qi that pervaded the entire body, and it is to these five networks rather than to the specific organs themselves that the term wu zang refers” (Meyer, 2010, p. 900) 5  The first four rows of the table are sourced from (Ni, 1995) and the last row is sourced from (Cohen, 1997).

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Fig. 10.1  The Five Organs, Emotions, and Virtues According to Traditional Chinese Medicine

to each other as well as take from each other (Liu, 2018). For example, kidney qi associated with water, supports the liver qi associated with wood, which in turn supports the heart’s fire qi. Figure 10.1 shows the energetic orbs, their relationships and their corresponding emotions and virtues. It’s not difficult to understand that excesses in emotions such as anger, fear, and worry are harmful. This relates to the kind of qi that these emotions invoke and how they impact physiology. The underlying principle is “that many diseases come from disharmony of the qi. They often involve disharmony of emotion” (Ni, 1995, p. 149). Emotional excesses are considered harmful, for example, excessive anger weakens the liver, and causes muscular tension, headaches, eyestrain, and haemorrhoids (Cohen, 1997). On the other hand, one might wonder why joy, might be harmful. Joy, which is usually thought of as positive in western thinking, in the context of TCM means the characteristics of “excitability and a tendency toward

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giddiness, talkativeness, lavishness, and general excess” (Cohen, 1997, p.  235). An excess of this emotion disperses and scatters qi, and causes uneven pulse and cardiac issues. Worry is associated with empathy and pensiveness in Chinese thinking. While empathy is usually considered a positive trait, when excessive, it results in dissolution of boundaries and the taking on of other’s problems and potentially their illness. Here the concept is that one may absorb another person’s qi and thereby take on their illness. When we do too much thinking, we may draw too much from the wood energy in the liver, which draws too much from the water in the kidney… hence a person who has a heart problem may be traced to the kidney which becomes weak because of the heart. The ideal emotional stance is supported by self-acceptance, being true to one’s innate nature, and express one’s emotions appropriately in response to the situation including anger (Cohen, 1997). Just as one’s health may be harmed by excessive emotions, one may also be healed through virtues as practised by a noble person in early Confucian thinking. When embodied these virtues have the potential to heal6 (Cohen, 1997). For example, “The lungs are healed by yi, often translated as ‘righteousness’, in the sense of integrity and dignity” (Cohen, 1997, p. 236) and anger associated with the liver is healed by kindness or ren, a key Confucian virtue which also encompasses compassion and the ability to empathize with others (Cohen, 1997; Meyer, 2010). In sum, everything is interconnected, our emotions, thoughts, mental and spiritual state all can impact our body positively or negatively. Just as excessive thinking unbalances qi, excessive positive and negative emotions also disturb organ qi leading to difficulty in attaining tranquillity and health problems. From a Daoist perspective, emotional intelligence requires one to remain calm, peaceful, and tranquil, as this enables qi in the body to move smoothly without restriction, and all organs are nurtured and play their roles (Roth, 1991, 1999). According to TCM (Ni, 1995), when one has positive relationships with others and the environment, one is balanced, calm, and healthy and one experiences vital and smooth circulation of qi energy. When one’s emotions are negative, the movement and function of qi are disrupted in the organs and other people may also be negatively impacted. For example, it is thought that anger disrupts liver qi damaging its function, and 6  Cohen (1997) uses positive emotions and virtues to describe the same phenomenon. In this text I refer to them as virtues.

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anger spills out onto others, hurting others. As I noted earlier, all emotions are associate with qi energy. Great Daoist teachers like Laozi stressed the importance of kindness, tranquillity, compassion, love, reconciliation, forgiveness, etc., because these virtues generate positive emotions, positive qi energy, supporting positive relationships. To manage the ups and downs in life so that they do not cause extremes in emotions Daoists think of gains and loss differently. To Laozi, a house full of gold makes it hard for one to travel far as thieves may covet it. Too much fame can cause huge insult and shame as others will be jealous. Hence, softness, avoiding conflicts, keeping silent even when one knows a lot, being humble and peaceful, among others, are ways to keep one’s emotions in check. Daoists hold that within ceaseless change there is a constancy or equilibrium. Just as day and night revolve ceaselessly, good fortune is followed by bad and joy is followed by sorrow, etc. Therefore, one should maintain level emotions and not express excessive sadness or joy.

Current Science and Emotions We noted above that the path of Daoist cultivation involves working with the body, breath, emotions, vital energy or qi, innate nature, heart-mind, and tranquillity. When one achieves tranquillity in these aspects of being, a transformation of many aspects of our being takes place. In our account of Daoism, I noted that emotion is intimately linked with one’s innate nature and qi that is: energy, movement, and information. Further, it is a fundamental aspect of who we are as human beings. With respect to emotions, I explore scientific knowledge regarding: The nature of emotions; Emotions, the body, and innate nature; Emotions as an agent of change and healing, and integration; and Emotions in decision making. The Nature of Emotions Since emotions are paradoxically the entry point and obstacle to cultivation and, according to Daoists, intimately linked to innate nature, I provide a deep-dive into emotions and innate nature from a contemporary perspective. I start with a general perspective and then address the matter

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in more detail. From a philosophical source: “Emotions are a fundamental feature of human psychology. They are found in all cultures, and arguably, in all mammals. Indeed, we seem to share many emotions with other animals” (Prinz, 2016, para 3.3). According to Damasio (2010), a neuroscientist, emotions are “complex largely automated action programs” (p. 109) developed through evolution and are fundamental and critical to understanding mind, behaviour, consciousness, and the unconscious. Emotions have a cognitive component to them, “but the world of emotions is largely one of actions carried out in our bodies, from facial expressions and postures to changes in viscera and internal milieu” (p. 109). I noted earlier that Daoists view the body-emotions and mind as intimately linked and this statement supports that view. Affective neuroscience findings based on studies of mammalian brain structures indicate that emotions are “inherited ancestral tools for living” (Panksepp, 2009, p. 4). This work has helped inform means of “achieving emotional homeostasis, greater feelings of well-being, and healthier outlooks on life” for humans (Panksepp, 2009, pp. 4, 5). A clear separation of primary emotions and how we think about or interpret them has been demonstrated through research on the origins of emotion. That is, the brain is supplied at birth with structures that enable the basic primary emotion systems of: seeking, fear, rage, lust, care, panic, and playfulness. These systems are not created by lived experience; rather, they exist prior to thought and the overlay of cultural interpretations. “Affective ancestral voices of the genes arise from ancient, subcortical neurodynamics and proceed to profoundly effect (and affect) the whole cognitive apparatus” (Panksepp, 2009, p. 25). Cognitive interpretations arise in response to life experiences and/or trauma which may result in maladaptive emotional responses. With this new understanding, imbalances in emotional responses may be brought into homeostasis by working with the primary emotional systems (Panksepp 2009); that is, emotional and cognitive healing can be brought about by wisely working with the underlying inborn emotional capabilities. For example, the primary emotional systems of seeking, care, playfulness and even lust which are embodied giving rise to “psychic energies” may be recruited to enable transformation and healing of emotional trauma. Due to their embodiment, research suggests that it is more effective when treating emotional imbalance to work with body dynamics rather than cognition to get at and treat emotional trauma. This approach

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to healing and transformation relies on working with the body and emotions, such that cognitive insight “is not the primary agent of transformation but rather a consequence of it” (Panksepp, 2009, p. 25); overturning long-standing views that emotional trauma can be treated through cognitive psychotherapy. I noted earlier that Daoists view emotions as the vehicle providing access to one’s innate nature which when realized enables self-transformation. Also, Daoists view emotions as composed of energy and information, and are related to qi or life energy. It is interesting to note that Panksepp sees emotions also as involving both energy and information and a transformative capability. Another related and helpful perspective on emotions is provided by Siegel (2009), a clinical professor of psychiatry, who struggled with a definition of emotion that is consistent across scientific disciplines and subjective experience. He concluded that emotion is a verb not a noun, “Emotion-related words and concepts are active processes, not fixed entities. Seeing emotion as a verb opens our mind to a fluid, moving mechanism that acts, changes, transforms” (Siegel, 2009, pp. 148–9). He noted several diverse perspectives on what emotion is based through the lens of a particular discipline as follows: “(E)motion can be seen as a process that links people together (anthropology, sociology); a fundamental part of the continuity that connect a person across development (attachment research, developmental psychology, developmental psychopathology); or a way that the body proper—our somatic physiology—is connected to the brain and coordinated within its various layers (neuroscience with it branches in affective and social neuroscience especially)” (Siegel, 2009, p. 149). At its root, he concluded that “emotion is integrative” (p. 149). That is, “emotion shifts our state of integration… Emotion is the shifting in integrative states. Sometimes integration is enhanced, sometimes diminished. Herein we can see the verb nature of emotion: a shift in the state of integration” (p.  150). According to this definition, emotion is dynamic, involved in shifting our sense of well-being, and as such is associated with movement and the power to transform one either negatively or positively. “Emotion is a window into something changing” (p. 156). Emotions and Innate Nature as an Agent of Healing and Integration Panksepp (2009) poses a number of questions that relate to innate nature and its relation to emotions:

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How are primary-process emotions of anger and fear, joy and sadness actually encoded within the brain? What does it mean when libidinal7 energies and core emotional values become unbalanced? What does it mean when excessive emotional energies permeate human souls? “Souls?” Indeed, we may need such concepts—which may be isomorphic with the affectively rich core self around which so much of our mentation revolves. Although debatable, I suspect the biological “soul” or “core self” is a coherent and completely neurobiological process, barely studied, with its epicenter running deep in brain-mind evolution. (p. 23)

Here, Panksepp views the soul and emotional energies as arising from the human biology. Carl Jung spoke to the matter of soul in relation to our physical and psyche being in the following quote: Just as the human body is a museum, so to speak, of its phylogenetic history, so too is the psyche. We have no reason to suppose that the specific structure of the psyche is the only thing in the world that has no history outside its individual manifestations. Even the conscious mind cannot be a history reaching back at least 5000 years. It is only our ego-consciousness that has forever a new beginning and an early end. The unconscious psyche is not only immensely old; it is also capable of growing into and equally remote future. It moulds the human species and is just as much a part of it as the human body, which, though ephemeral in the individual, is collectively of immense age. (Jung, 1983, pp. 223–4)

Jung is claiming here that just as our genetics can be traced back centuries, so too can our underlying psyche. This appears to parallel Panksepp’s assertion that there is a physical basis for our “soul” or perhaps what the Daoists refer to as innate nature. Earlier I noted that the primary emotional categories inherited from evolution might be considered part of our innate nature. According to Fosha (2009a) and Doidge (2007), we also inherit “innate dispositional tendencies toward growth, learning, healing and self-righting [that] are wired deep within our brains” (Fosha, 2009a, p. 174). This disposition is an “overarching motivational force that strives toward maximal vitality, authenticity, adaption and coherence, and thus leads to growth and transformation” (Fosha, 2009a, p. 175). Siegel (2010) suggests that there is a core self that has “receptivity at its heart”, an “essential ‘you’ beneath narrative and memory, emotional 7

 Adverb referring to libido (Merriam-Webster, libidinal, 2019)

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reactivity and habit” that can be a sanctuary, receptive to all aspects of the self and a world of possibilities providing the opportunity for integration (p. 208). Emotions and Innate Nature as Agents of Healing and Transformation Emotion is fundamentally linked with change (Fosha, 2009a). That is, change is intrinsic to experiencing the evolutionary endowed emotions of seeking, fear, rage, lust, care, panic, and playfulness (Schore, 2001) and provides the opportunity for transformation. Emotions arise when something “has changed for good or bad and that it behooves us—if we’re interested in survival—to attend to the change and deal with it” (Fosha, 2009a, pp. 175–6). Evolution provides an intrinsic motivational response from the problem to solution: “between a danger and the escape lies fear; between novelty and its exploration lies joyful curiosity, and between the loss and its eventual acceptance lies grief and its completion” (Fosha, 2009a, p.  176). Transformation and healing through emotional experiences is intrinsic to humans. It is “the overarching motivational force that strives toward maximal vitality, authenticity, adaption, and coherence, and thus leads to growth and transformation” (Fosha, 2009a, p.  175). According to Doidge (2007), the brain has an appetite for growth and transformation where “it is always learning how to learn… like a living creature that can grow and change itself with proper nourishment and exercise” (p. 47). Positive psychology is beginning to describe the nature of proper care and exercises required to support healthy emotional transformation. Positive experiences which produce hormones enabling open exploratory states of mind provide the brain with motivation to grow and transform (Fosha, 2009a). Conversely, negative states of mind such as fear or anxiousness result in a desire for safety and a resistance to change. Therefore, emotional growth and transformation are enabled in safe, emotionally positive, caring environments (Fosha, 2009a) and through meditation (Fosha, 2009b). Meditation and contemplative practices have similar effects because the “phenomenon under consideration are not the epiphenomena of a particular practice; rather, they are qualities of mind that are wired within us, intrinsic properties of the organism associated with healing and well-being” (Fosha, 2009b, p. 252). For example, research on the effect of a loving-kindness mediation on practitioners found a range of

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impacts from increased positive emotions, to a greater sense of life purpose and decreased illness symptoms (Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, & Finkel, 2008). Plumbing the Depths of Love and Emotion At the time of writing this I had been involved in practising qigong for about 18 years. It’s a story of maturation and personal growth woven with my practice. One of the key objectives of practice is heart-mind adjustment. In general, the heart-mind shift that often occurs is a move from a narrow self-centred focus to a broader more expansive perspective. Like many who grew up in the White Anglo Saxon Protestant post WW II community, positive emotion and love were not something one expressed. More often than not, love was expressed through doing things together. Talking about, acknowledging love verbally, hugging, and physical expressions of affection were not part of the equation. Why I don’t know, it was just the culture. Of course, since that time I have experienced love, but still, for me, my ability to express love and feel love has been shaped by those early experiences. I unexpectedly felt a profound and deep sense of love when my daughter was born more than 30 years ago. After my wife went through a very long and arduous natural labour, I was holding my daughter while the doctor attended to my wife. I am an engineer and expected that meaningful interaction would begin when she was able to talk. Of course, I would be involved in feeding, playing, and diapering activities, but I thought language was when I could really relate to her. In any case moments following her birth she was calm, and her eyes were wide open. As I looked down at her while I cradled her, I noticed that she appeared to be looking back at me. I thought is she really looking at me? So, I moved my head back and forth, side to side, and she tracked my every move eye to eye. She was there: following my every move; announcing “hey, I am here; I see you!!” I was astounded and blurted out “let’s have another one!” This didn’t go over well after such a lengthy labour. I certainly got a different look from the nurse than my daughter. You might say it was a “you have got to be kidding” look. It was many years later that I discovered while reading A General Theory of Love (Lewis, Amini, & Lannon, 2000) that I had witnessed the relational love between caregiver and child that is the foundation of human survival and brain development. Lewis et al. said that the nature of this

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relationship is not always obvious to the conscious mind, but nonetheless it is vital. With a loving relationship babies thrive, without it they die. Humans as mammals have the ability to be in brain resonance with one another by detecting through sight and other senses the internal state of another human (Lewis, Amini, & Lannon, 2000). This provided me a couple of important insights: love is not a frill or nice to have soft fuzzy sensation; rather, it is necessary for physical, emotional, and mental well-­ being, and the power, content, and intent of love is expressed at a nonverbal level. The second point deserves elaboration. At the preverbal level of development, the limbic brain which works with emotion of child and care giver, often the mother, resonate through a nonverbal connection, and when this resonance is loving, the child’s brain synchronizes with the caregiver enabling it to develop in ways that are healthy for the child. Without loving resonance, developmental steps necessary for emotional and mental health are muted or missed (Lewis, Amini, & Lannon, 2000). Recently, love has come into my awareness in another way that I didn’t expect. I don’t mean I have a new love; rather, I experienced an intuitive insight into love that differs from my understanding of love as romantic or caring. It began when I was driving alone listening to CDs my wife had recorded of contemporary love songs by the likes of Adele. When I heard Celine Dion’s “My Heart Will Go On”, I reacted to the words: heart goes on in time and space before and after death. I have always been touched by this song even though I know it is made to pull at the heartstrings. Its over-the-top emotionality is designed, I think, to appeal to teenagers in love, so I have always felt it’s cheesy even though I have always been touched by it. Anyway, I was driving along listening and tears filled my eyes and then a stream of them so that I had tears running down my face. I am not crying but I simply have tears flowing for quite a long time. All of a sudden, I feel there is something about the heart that is more important than I can imagine. I don’t know what it is. I feel it represents some kind of connection to everything or something grand, very large. I feel energy and a great sense or need to honour the heart. It leads us, I feel it connects, I feel it is the source. While I’m experiencing this, I wonder: What is this? Is it the Dao, the mother of everything? Questions flood me. How can this kind of love be wrapped up in a romantic love song? Are care, empathy, romantic love, and selfless expansive love just expressions of one overarching archetypal love? It is my understanding that, according to Daoist thinking, the heart is vital and contemplative practices aim at transformation of the heart-mind.

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While driving, I recalled from the Huainanzi (Major, 2010) and Chinese medicine originating with the Yellow Emperor (Ni, 1995) that the heart is the ruler of the body, spirit, and mind. I am left emotionally charged and wondering, what is this about? This was not the end of the story. Later that evening I picked up The Secret of the Golden Flower, a Daoist text by Thomas Cleary (1991, p. 11), and randomly opened the text to Chap. 1, The Celestial Mind, para 11, where it says: “The beauties of the highest heavens and the marvels of the sublimest realms are all within the heart; this is where the perfectly open and aware spirit concentrates”. I had the insight that Daoist practice calls us to adjust our heart-mind so that we expand our awareness from a narrow selfish perspective to one that encompasses a much larger perspective, the universe. In reading Cleary’s (1991) account of The Secret of the Golden Flower, where he distinguishes between the conscious mind and the original spirit. I’m guessing that the original spirit is the heart and perhaps I encountered it on the road while driving, even though my personal experience on the road was not the same as the description in the text. What I did feel was expansive and a connection to everything. At that time, I wrote in my diary that perhaps this is just about letting me know that I’m headed in the right direction. It’s a confirmation and a symbol or image of what I’m aiming at. Following this I didn’t really think about this experience or try to understand it any further although it was present in my awareness. Some years before this event, my wife and I encountered difficulties in our relationship involving a falling apart followed by reconciliation. Following the experience of listening to music in the car, I had an unrelated conversation with a couple where I stated that I was grateful that harmony had returned to my family and my relationship with my wife. They asked me: what was the reason for the shift? I said something like I changed and was more able to state my wants and needs in the relationship. The woman said: yes, men don’t like to talk about love, but love was most likely involved too. There was some chuckling and laughter as if to say: yeah, men won’t admit or talk about love. But it hit me that she was right, and I had completely missed that our love for one another was the foundation of the transformation. My children had asked me after they noticed a change in our relationship: What did you do? Did you sprinkle stardust or something? I didn’t answer because I didn’t know, and in particular, I didn’t know it was love. How can you love when you don’t know you love? Is this kind of love so different from what we normally think of as love? Or am I just completely unconscious about love? I obviously have

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a lot of more learning to do. I recall a good friend of mine telling me after I finished my Ph.D. that it was a Ph.D. of the mind but now, I had to work on a Ph.D. of the heart. At the time, I intellectually knew what he was talking about, but not really. After this experience I have a better understanding, but I perceived it as an invitation to explore further love in the context of Daoist practice and thinking. I feel this is a call to practice more than theorize. Below I leave some thoughts. Love is not directly mentioned in the Dao De Jing or the Neiye. However, the concept that the Dao gives continuously, without judgement, without expectation of return is a central theme of the Dao De Jing. This kind of non-judgemental and universal love has parallels in the Christian definition of Godly love, agape that is “spontaneous and unmotivated”, revealing not that we merit that love but that God’s nature is love (Nygren 1953b, p. 85, as quoted in Helm, 2017, LOVE para, 3 Preliminary Distinctions). Another related understanding of agape in the Christian sense is provided by Scheler who held that love is giving, and that human “spirit is motivated by the good and is structured according to agape, a charitable and self-sacrificing love” (Helm, 2017. Philosophical Anthropology and Metaphysics para 10). Scheler makes a distinction between the orientation of the body and the spirit. The body objectifies things for their utility while the movement of spirit reveals value (Helm, 2017). An interesting parallel can be found in the Dao De Jing. Dao is the origin and de, virtue, is the value of the Dao manifested in the myriad things of the world. We are one of the myriad manifestations and it seems to me that if we wish to align ourselves with the Dao, then we are called to love in the nature of agape.

Alignment of the Mind with Virtue and Qi The Role of Heart-Mind in Daoist Cultivation of Virtue  aoist Understanding of Heart-Mind D Just as the term virtue has different meanings in English and Chinese, the word mind also has similar but different meanings. Here I consider the common understanding of mind in the west as compared to the Daoist conception of the word. According to Daoists the mind is central to the process of one’s innate nature. The Chinese word xin is often translated as heart-mind which better represents the dual feeling-rational thinking

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concepts embedded in the Chinese word. It was understood by those who wrote the Huainanzi that emotional responses are rooted in the body and yet they penetrate and influence the rational regulating aspects of the mind. Stated another way xin, the heart-mind, “is a structural matrix of qi analytically distinguishable from, but pragmatically forming a seamless continuum with” emotions as experienced in the body (Meyer, 2010, p. 901), and therefore, whatever is experienced emotionally in the body is experienced in the mind. It can be seen that this definition bears some similarity to Siegel’s (2010) understanding of the mind. It was recognized by Daoists that indeed emotional responses can overthrow the regulatory function of the mind resulting in an impairment of rational thought and impulsive behaviour. It is for this reason that the technology I mentioned earlier involves developing inner tranquillity through the following steps: • Alignment of the Body and Breath with Virtue and qi • Alignment of Emotions with Virtue and qi • Alignment of Mind with Virtue and qi • Alignment of Spirituality with Virtue and qi  ultivating Body, Emotions, and Mind C The instructions provided in the Neiye (Roth, 1999) guide or enable the emergence of tranquillity by cleaning out the mind as follows: Empty out normal contents of conscious experience, the emotions, desires, thoughts, and perceptions (p. 113); Thinking is also an impediment to attaining the well-ordered mind, particularly when it becomes excessive (p. 114); and You clean out the lodging place of the numinous mind (p. 118). Contemplative practices are necessary but insufficient means of clearing the mind. The mind’s capability and power are connected to virtue and qi. Virtue practised in daily life and enhanced through contemplative practices also has the important function of clearing the shadows of the mind, as a person in negative connection with the world is limited in their vision and impact. The cultivation of qi has the effect of bringing tranquillity to the mind, correcting negative influences from the thoughts and emotions of others. Summarizing, the conscious mind is considered the home or lodging place of the numinous mind, but it must be tranquil for the numinous

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mind to emerge (Roth, 1999). Mental tranquillity is achieved by emptying the contents of the mind such as: emotions, desires, thoughts, perceptions, and thinking through contemplative practices and through behaving virtuously in daily life (Roth, 1999, Culham, 2013). The outcome of this cultivation is that the mind becomes stable and concentrated, and one is able to return to the natural state of tranquillity. When this is achieved, the numinous mind emerges, which is the gateway to Dao, spirit, a sense of oneness, and a much deeper and broader awareness. To provide a contemporary perspective on this practice I turn to Siegel (2010) who said that “modern clinical research, 2500 years of contemplative practice, recent neuroscience investigations, and my own experience all suggest: Mindfulness is a form of mental activity that trains the mind to become aware of awareness itself and to pay attention to one’s own intention” (pp. 85–6). He goes on to say that these practices are at the core of many contemplative activities such as: “yoga, tai chi and qigong; devotional practices such as centering prayer or chanting; and various forms of sitting and walking meditation” (p.  89). Daoist contemplative practices fall into this description. The “wheel of awareness” (p. 89) he developed to describe the mental processes involved in cultivation, therefore, is suitable for further explaining the processes described in the Neiye some 2400 years ago. The metaphor of a bicycle wheel is used to describe mental awareness and where it is directed. The centre of the wheel represents awareness of awareness. That is, I have the ability to attend to or observe my awareness. The spokes of the wheel reaching out to the rim represent my awareness of anything that might be outside of my awareness of awareness at the rim. For example, this could include awareness of: emotions, thoughts, the state of one’s body, other people, any of the senses such as sounds, sights, touch, taste, and hearing. The first step in meditative practices is to become non-judgementally aware of where and what one is experiencing. At first when one practices this, one is aware of many thoughts, feelings, and experiences often referred to as monkey mind where the mind appears to be scattered, moving from one random thought or experience to another. Over time, the scattered nature of the mind becomes calmer and less scattered. Ultimately, all awareness of external phenomena may fade such that one is aware of awareness itself. Numerous Daoist sources recommend shutting down awareness of and engagement in external experiences as a vital aspect of cultivation (Huainanzi, Dao De Jing Neiye). Verse 29 of the Neiye (Roth, 1999) stated:

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When the four limbs are aligned And the blood and vital breath are tranquil, Unify your awareness, concentrate your mind. Then your eyes and ears will not be overstimulated (p. 82).

This passage emphasizes the necessity of reducing stimulation of the senses, as well as developing tranquillity: physically (the limbs aligned); emotionally (tranquil blood qi and vital breath qi are related to tranquil emotions); and mentally. The result of this is the focusing of awareness on awareness itself, the hub in Siegel’s metaphor of the bicycle wheel. When one is able to do this, a quality of mind has been established that’s vitally important for the next step in cultivation. This is known as the “cultivated mind” and is described in the text in several ways as: “stable mind… excellent mind… concentrated mind…aligned mind” (Roth, 1999, p. 112) all of which enable the numinous mind to emerge and it is in this state of mind that it is possible to experience the Dao (Roth, 1999). According to Daoists, the final step in perceiving the Dao is to maintain awareness of the “One” as described by Roth (1999) in verse 24 of the Neiye: When you enlarge your mind and let go of it, When you relax your vital breath and expand it, When your body is calm and unmoving: And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances (p. 92).

Elaborating on the final step in cultivation and the outcome, Roth (1999) stated: Maintaining the One appears to be a meditative technique in which the adept concentrates on nothing but the Way or some representation of it (p. 116), and Holding fast to the One entails retaining a sense or a vision of the Way as the one unifying force within phenomenal reality while seeing this reality in all its complexity (p. 116).

Earlier I noted that there appears to be a paradox regarding how the mind can direct innate nature when mind from a western materialistic perspective apparently arises out of the nature of our physicality. Verse 14 of the Neiye appears to address this by stating that there is a mind within the mind that is a nondual awareness that precedes words that is free of

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usual human space, time, and individual limits (Roth, 1999). Thus, while awareness of the numinous mind is dependent on our physicality, it is not bound by or defined by our physicality. I will discuss this in more detail in the section addressing spirituality. Much attention is given to meditative practices but this must be accompanied by changes in one’s daily life and the presence of a teacher or master who has reached a high level of cultivation and can guide the learner through verbal and nonverbal energetic instruction (Hsu, 1999). Daoists believe that the natural state of the mind is the tranquil, excellent, stable, mind, but it is easily disturbed due to excesses of emotions, desires, thinking, and perception. Therefore, instructions are provided for daily living that guide returning the mind to its natural state. While the steps noted above appear to be sequential and linear that is not how they are experienced. Individuals for example whether they cultivate or not are able to experience fragments or moments of nondual awareness and those who cultivate tend to experience more of these moments. Musicians, dancers, and athletes are familiar with nondual experiences where separation between action and the mind falls away (Vokey, 2001). In Daoism, a range of daily contemplative practices are utilized to loosen the tension in the mind, to make room to feel and connect with qi in everything. Daoists utilize art as one means of clearing the mind. They also often go into nature and write poems and paint about nature. Artists who engage in Daoist contemplative practices can see and feel more, and images come to their mind before they write poems or do paintings. They sense the qi energy flowing in the natural scene and see the light of the objects before they paint. In China in the past, painting was a sacred act. Many artists meditated to penetrate the subtle energy qi state of the objects being painted in order to develop an emotional connection with the object of their painting. The ideal piece of art is one in which nature and people come out as alive with vibration of energy and dynamic spirit. Daoists, like Buddhists, emphasize the need to empty the mind first before creativity arises. An empty mind, rather than a cluttered mind, can perceive better and analyse better. Qi cultivation can greatly enhance the connection of the mind to the spirit, hence to the universe’s wisdom and forces. Many scientists experience breakthroughs through dreams or walking in nature meditatively as at this point the mind is in a relaxed state allowing the spirit to come forth and provide an answer. Earlier I noted that doing good deeds or behaving virtuously are critical for qi to work smoothly and regulate physical health. “The outcome of

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cultivating virtue is the development of ‘The ideal ethical and spiritual state’” (Chan, 2010, p. 14) where: “Despite ceaseless transformations, the dao never becomes exhausted … The inexhaustibility of dao reflects not only its power and also purity; that is to say, its operations are clear of pathological movements” (2010, p.  11) where, “ethicality is defined in terms of purity and limitlessness” (Culham, 2013, p.), resulting in a return to the source of life. “That which gives life is the dao” (Chan, 2010, p. 8), and the “spirit of a person receives its essence from the dao” (2010, p. 11). “Because the essence of the dao, free of pathology, pure, and inexhaustible is within each person, it is possible for most to access or return to the state of purity and limitlessness” (Culham, 2013, p. 73) or become virtuous. Consistent with this understanding of virtue, levelling one’s emotions and doing good deeds have a regulating effect on the mind. The most important Chinese medical classic, the Yellow Emperor’s Inner Sutra (Ni, 1995) greatly elaborates on this. Health is linked with the emotional, moral, and spiritual aspects of one’s life, not just the physical aspect. Health can hence be said to require holistic understanding and efforts. In a similar vein, the Neiye proposes that tranquillity of the mind is lost due to desire, excessive emotions, and profit-seeking, and therefore states: If you are able to cast off sorrow, happiness, joy, anger, desire and profit-seeking, Your mind will revert to equanimity. The true condition of the mind (Roth, 1999, p. 113).

And in a related passage Pleasure and anger, accepting and rejecting are the devices of human beings Therefore, the Sage: Alters with the seasons but doesn’t transform, Shifts with things but doesn’t change places with them (p. 58).

In both of these passages the objective is to align the mind with the principle of the Dao and that is unchanging in the presence of change. When one does this, the Dao in the form of tranquillity or equanimity emerges in the mind. Paradoxically, achieving tranquillity or equanimity does not mean eliminating emotions; it simply means being calm in the presence of emotional experiences. From a practical perspective for example, emotion is linked

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with intuition, manifested by someone having a gut feeling, a direct sensation. Openness to new learning can come from meditation, as it can effectively clear away shadows in the subconscious mind and hence opens up the pathway to the unconscious force of Dao. The virtues related to this openness are humility, being non-judgemental, softness, tranquillity, unselfishness, kindness, receptivity, etc. These virtues are essential for removing interference and blockages to direct knowing. Current Thought on the Mind The return to one’s innate nature is the objective of cultivation, and the mind is very important in Daoist cultivation because it feels, thinks, and directs innate nature, while being simultaneously guided by one’s innate nature (Chan, 2010). But what is meant by the word mind and is there a paradox in that innate nature can be directed by the mind? Doesn’t mind arise from innate nature? The answer to the question of mind is not simple and the paradox of the relationship between mind and innate nature will be addressed later. Just as there are many current understandings and definitions of emotions, a similar observation might be made about the mind (Siegel, 2010). Theories of mind have been a subject of discussion and debate around the world for millennia and continue to be debated. For example Buddhists and ancient Greeks developed theories of mind dating back approximately 2500  years (Coseru, 2017; Shields, 2016). Several contemporary theories are provided here. The mind brain identity theory “holds that states and processes of the mind are identical to states and processes of the brain” (Smart, para 1, 2017). This theory proposes that experiences such as pain or pleasure are no more than brain processes. Other philosophers think that processes of the mind may also be composed of non-physical psychic properties. The computational theory of mind enjoyed prominence in the fields of cognitive science in the ’60s and ’70s. This theory proposed that the mind is a computational system, although this has recently been challenged by other paradigms (Rescorla, 2017). Another theory of mind is that of modularity, which holds that the brain is divided into modules that involve for example perception and language. This theory relies on several features used to define modules of the mind. As we are considering innate nature, the feature of innateness is of interest and it is defined as a property that develops based on internally innate patterns under the influence of environmental conditions. Language

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is a good example of this module which has clear common patterns of development in children over time across all cultures (Robbins, 2017). Siegel (2010) summed up the plethora of views and definitions of the mind with the following observations from across several disciplines: computer scientist—mind is “an operating system”, neurobiologist—“the mind is just the activity of the brain”, anthropologist—mind is “a shared social process passed across the generations”, psychologist—“mind is our thoughts and feelings” (pp. 51–52). Siegel (2010) sought a definition of mind in collaboration with these experts and found unanimous agreement on “The human mind is a relational and embodied process that regulates the flow of energy and information” (p. 52). Elaborating, “Energy is the capacity to carry out an action—whether it is moving our limbs or thinking a thought… Information is anything that symbolizes something other than itself” (p. 52) and “Finally, the mind is a relational process. Energy and information flow between and among people, and they are monitored and modified in this shared exchange” (p.  55). There are several other features of the mind according to Siegel that are worth considering as this is helpful in considering the Daoist perspective on cultivation and the mind. The first is that the mind is capable of monitoring and regulating the flow of energy and information that moves through the mind. This is similar to the act of driving a car where one monitors, steers, and controls (regulates) the direction and speed (flow) of the car (Siegel, 2010). Finally, and what might appear to be obvious, the mind is embodied in the brain but perhaps less obvious; the mind is present throughout the nervous system and the entire body including for example the heart and the immune system (Siegel, 2010). We will see later that there are similarities to this view of the mind in Daoist thinking. Daoist Cultivation of Body, Emotions, Mind Daoists consider the body, emotions, and mind to be an integrated whole; therefore, cultivation takes them into account holistically. While they might appear to be different, in the Daoist view they are simply different manifestations of qi or life energy and therefore made of the same basic energy. The key principle is to achieve tranquillity in the qi of each form. According to Daoists, the energy field of the body is much larger than one’s body and it is connected to the energy of the universe. For example, women’s menstrual cycle is affected by the moon’s cycle; the birth of a person in a certain location and time imprints one with certain

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compositions of electromagnetic energy that can affect one’s dispositions. With one’s mind’s awareness the connection can be consciously made beyond oneself with the others or other phenomenon. Some places on earth can have a stronger energy field than others; hence, Daoist practitioners often search for those places that can elevate their energy. Many Daoist and Buddhist temples are located in mountains where the energy is purer. North American natives also are familiar with the location of energy centres. The body’s qi field reacts with the energy information of places and people and things, and conscious cultivation elevates the body’s functions which result in good health, longevity, and even immortality. While this is the case, it is not necessary to cultivate in a high-energy location. The foundation of cultivation is the body which requires sitting and breathing in a specific way to engage the external energies and calm the internal state. Sitting with back and neck straight, legs in single or double lotus position and hands in the classic meditation pose aligns one with earth energy from below which enters the body through the perineum and heaven energy which enters the body through the top of the head, palms and bottom of the feet which are turned upward in the classic pose. Tranquil deep breathing also contributes to a tranquil physical and emotional state (Streeter, et al. 2012). Many people have the experience of feeling more peaceful after they practice meditation. However, to maintain such a state, one must form the habits of virtues, that is, being caring and considerate for others, and being forgiving and loving, etc. These attributes establish a positive reciprocal network of energy that circulates among people. Therefore, practising virtue in everyday situations is important because one is aligning oneself with the fundamental nature of Dao in the world and, from a more practical perspective, is an antidote to negative emotions with an emotionally calming effect (Amen, 2010; Cohen, 1997; Emmons, 2013; Smith & Davidson, 2014). While one is building a foundation of calm body, breath, and emotions, the effort of letting go of the outcome is required to develop mental tranquillity. Effort involves one to engage in contemplative practices and virtues daily while letting go involves one to have no expectation of results. Consistent regular practice is required regardless of the apparent success or lack thereof. This is where will and effort are directed. This is not unlike the metaphor of a farmer. Ploughing, planting, watering, and harvesting the crop are where effort and will are directed. Will has no say in whether

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the crop will grow and bear fruit; there are many conditions out of the control of the farmer that will and effort cannot influence. Letting go of the outcome is articulated in the Dao De Jing as wuwei. It has drawn much attention and is usually interpreted as non-action, or doing nothing, whereas what it really means is that we need to be tranquil, to have less desires, and not to force things to happen according to our wishes. One is to be spontaneous and in a state of low interference allowing nature or Dao to take its course. In so doing, one becomes more sensitive to the subtle movement of energy: when one has a tranquil heart, one senses and feels the presence of nature and others more, and one is more likely to be present for others and build authentic qi connections with all beings and existence emulating Dao. When this condition is met, then it is more likely that deeper levels of mental tranquillity will emerge transforming one’s life experience often in unexpected ways. Wuwei also carries with it the meaning of not overstressing one’s mind, heart, and body. Developing tranquillity in the presence of motion is the outcome of Daoist contemplative practices, and it is from this foundation that the numinous mind emerges (Roth, 1999) which I will consider in the section addressing spirituality. Cultivating the Mind and the Subtle 8 It may seem it takes many years of cultivation of the mind to see results, but this is not always the case. An important means of cultivating the mind, developing awareness of qi and its effects, is to pay attention to the subtle and be open to wonder. Paying attention to the subtle is not a new idea or an idea exclusive to Daoist contemplative practices. Those in touch with nature have noted that something changes in one’s awareness when one encounters nature with an openness to wonder. For those of us who grew up in British Columbia, the beauty and majesty of nature are in our bones. For those who hail from cities large and small, where nature isn’t so close, it doesn’t take long to fall in love with the beauty at our doorstep. A walk on the beach or in the mountains often fills us with wonder or a sense of serenity and may invite us to see that we are not at the centre of everything. Paul Bramadat, Director of the Centre for Studies in Religion and Society at the University of Victoria, talked about his experiences

 The names and circumstances have been altered to protect the privacy of the individuals.

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when encountering the mountains, ocean, and sky of British Columbia. He said: There are moments where I stop, get off my bike, and stand there, and think not just ‘my goodness am I ever lucky’, but ‘what is happening here? How am I being—in some sense—reconfigured, challenged to see myself not simply as a consumer of this image, and of this moment, but rather as something that is transformed, transfixed by that experience? Sometimes I think that when I’m in the presence of these reconfiguring or transfixing moments, it’s actually challenging my ego, because the thing about a sublime experience, or reverential naturalism, is that it changes your sense of yourself being at the centre of everything. (Bramadat, 2018)

This passage illustrates the sense of wonder experienced in the presence of the majestic beauty of nature and how it has the potential to change perceptions of the self. If one was racing, or focused on a goal, it’s not likely that the shift recounted here will occur. What is required is an openness and a willingness to be amazed or experience the beauty, wonder, mystery, and subtlety of nature. When one is open, there is a responsiveness to something beyond the mere scene or image in front of one’s eyes. Chapter 6, Surveying Obscurities, of the Huainanzi (Major, 2010) proposed “That things in their (various) categories are mutually responsive, is (something) dark, mysterious, deep, and subtle. Knowledge is not capable of explaining it; argument is not capable of explaining it” (p. 216). The subtle refers to the operation and effect of qi when virtue is cultivated. Thus, those who are learning to develop virtue are advised to pay attention to the subtle, which when acknowledged, may provide access to deeper and profound wonders. This is part of a process of opening the mind to a deeper awareness of the subtle that is always present but is usually lost in the rush of our everyday lives. It is a kind of mental training that requires a quietening of the usual discursive thoughts running through our heads. At a session in New York, where beginners gathered to learn qigong, the facilitator had been reading Wild Stone Heart (Butala, 2001?). A chapter of the book relates Butala’s experience of walking undisturbed native lands in the province of Saskatchewan Canada. In one of her walks she observed a white wolf. Later at the local university she read up on the flora and fauna of Saskatchewan with a focus on wolves. She discovered that there were no wolves ever reported in that part of the country and that

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many stone circles and native burial sites were to be found in that location. That part of the country was important to the natives who had lived there for centuries prior to the arrival of Europeans. She returned to the site several times and sighted the wolf again and had other similar unexplained experiences. The facilitator of the qigong session planned to read a portion of the book related to this experience as an example that educated people were capable of subtle and perhaps not-so-subtle experiences that were difficult to explain. The normal procedure for the session was to spend half an hour in a contemplative practice followed by a discussion. When the contemplation was completed the facilitator informed the participants that the discussion was going to focus on subtle experiences with a reading from Wild Stone Heart. Following the reading one of the men present said: “I have a subtle wonder for you, all throughout the contemplative practice, I had an image of a white wolf in my mind that I couldn’t get rid of”. There was a collective response from the group of something like “oh my god what just happened” following this statement. The facilitator did not inform anyone that the book or any particular passage were planned to be read as part of the session. The significance of Chap. 6, where the subtle is emphasized, is provided in the final chapter of the Huainanzi which states: “Had we discussed Heaven, Earth, and the four seasons and not introduced examples and elucidated categories, you would not recognize the subtleties of the Quintessential qi” (Major, 2010, pp. 212–13). Quintessential qi is defined as; “intensely potent energy that constitutes the mind and gives rise to consciousness and illumination” (Meyer, p. 878). Illumination is understood to be a “state of mind of exceptional cognitive and perceptual sensitivity and incisiveness” (Meyer, p. 882).

Alignment of Our Spirituality with Virtue and Qi Current Thought on Spirit So far, I have explored body, emotion, and mind. While I didn’t explore whether there is a debate on the definition of the body, I did find a variety of definitions and conflicting views on the nature of emotions and the mind. When it comes to spirit the conversation is more fractious as some don’t believe in the presence of spirit at all let alone consider a definition. The western view on spirit is to say the least schizophrenic. There are

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those who swear that it is a fundamental reality and those who swear that it is a fantasy of the deluded. It seems that there is no room for compromise. A Personal Perspective on Spirit As I have noted, spirit, religion, mysticism are all loaded words in contemporary western science and thinking. After all, they are worlds apart, separate, at a place where the twain shall never meet. Correct? Brought up in the western positivist paradigm in the ’50s and ’60s, I had this mindset. Over my life and career, these worlds have merged but, I must say, in the face of great internal resistance. Recently in the past 10 years I struggled with the question of how to reconcile the two. My first conscious brush with spirit came in 1974 when with a group of fellow engineering students, we took a ten-day canoe trip into the wilderness of Northern Ontario down the Missinaibi River with the ultimate destination of Churchill on James Bay. The trip ended in disaster when one of the canoes and fellow student went over the 30-foot portion of Thundering House waterfall. Miraculously he survived. Following the accident, we were informed by locals that a young male native spirit inhabits the falls. The myth goes that he was the first young man to canoe down the river and was mesmerized by the fast-flowing river above the falls. He became so engrossed in shooting the rapids that ultimately he went over the falls to his death. Downstream from the falls the river flows through a gorge created by an earthquake. In the centre of the gorge just below the falls is a large spire of rock known as Thundering House Rock. It was said that the spirit of the brave lives in this rock, and because he is lonely, he calls the young men to join him. Whether this native myth is true or not has not been verified. Regardless, it was the story we were told. We were also informed by locals that almost every season someone canoeing the river goes over the falls to their death. No one in our group had canoed the river before, and as engineers we had been careful to buy maps and study the terrain. We had a rule that prior to any fast-flowing water we would get out and inspect the river before proceeding. Unfortunately, in this one instance on the river that rule was not followed ending in the disaster. Prior to this trip, the fellow who went over the falls experienced what was later recognized as possible premonitions. First when he was deciding to purchase a life jacket for the trip, he asked his friend if should he buy the cheap one or the expensive one. The reply was if it saves his life once it’s worth it, so he bought the expensive one. Did

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the life jacket save his life? Possibly, it was designed to protect the neck, probably important in a fall of 30 feet. The second premonition occurred just at departure when the student bought a postcard with the picture of the falls and scrawled on the back of it “we are going to be shooting rapids like these” and sent it to his girlfriend. Basically, he was telling her that he was going to go over the waterfall. Of course, all of this could be coincidence and the native myth could be just a made-up story (I haven’t been able to confirm it) but it started me thinking what happened here? Is it possible that people have meaningful premonitions? Was such a thing as spirit involved? Native cultures have a different way of seeing things. Is there something to be learned in their ways? These questions while interesting were not pressing matters for me. Nonetheless they sat with me for many years. Since that time, I developed an interest in eastern philosophies and practices. Despite all my reading and practice, I still saw science and spirit as irreconcilable. Fast forward more than 40 years to 2012 during a visit with Buddhist friends to Jiu Hua Shan (Nine Flower Mountain) about 6 hours bus ride from Shanghai: I had the experience that seemed to help me understand better the question I had about the separation of spirit and science which I related in Chap. 6. The reply from the monk that addressed the apparently irreconcilable was that science and spirituality are a unity (Culham, 2013). This experience helped me see spirituality as something that could be observed and studied while being at the same time mystical. I am fond of a saying attributed to Einstein: “There are only two ways to live your life: as though nothing is a miracle, or as though everything is a miracle” (Gurteen, 2019). I prefer seeing life as a mystery to be discovered as I am sure Einstein did. Unfortunately, western science has avoided the mystery of spirit as a subject of inquiry; however, it has not been completely neglected. Western Thought on Spirit The west has a love-hate relationship with spirit. There are those who think it’s a vital force in life and those who declare that it is superstitious bunk. It is not possible to survey the range of western views on spirit here. Given my engineering background, I find myself aligned with pragmatists. If something works and it’s a mystery then I feel observation, impartiality, patience, and openness, not rejection and derision are called for. When Newton proposed the concept of gravity he was pilloried by his

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contemporaries as a sorcerer (White, 1997). We still don’t fully understand gravity but we accept it as a force in our lives and have found ways to work with it that are helpful to humans. William James (1902), a pragmatist, dedicated effort to investigating religion and spirit because he held that whatever one may think about religion, it plays a practical and meaningful role in human life. He used empirical psychology and “a broad sample of firsthand reports of religious experience and religious autobiographies—to arrive at a tradition-independent appraisal of the practical value of religious faith” (Slater, 2018, p. 214). In a similar vein, Daoists, while labelled as mystics, I believe were and are more aligned with science due to their penchant for objective observation of nature. Much has been written about spirituality from a range of perspectives including philosophy, anthropology, religion, and science, to name a few. Also, near-death experiences have been a source of much new thinking on spirituality enabled by advances in medical care that has brought people back from what has commonly been defined as death. I do not provide an exhaustive view on spirituality; rather, I refer to the spiritual experiences of scientists who started as I did fully invested in the positivist paradigm and have crossed over to an alternative perspective due to their personal experiences. I am comfortable with this due to my training as an engineer and because it is consistent with teachings of the Daoists, Buddhists, and Confucians, who held that while teachings and texts are important in enlightenment, one should believe based on personal experience. Earlier I provided a glimpse of my experiences which opened me up to the possibility of a reality beyond everyday experience. The people discussed next were trained in western science methods, had experiences that surpass mine, and therefore, provide a deeper view on the nature of spirit. Some, such as Jill Bolte Taylor, had traumatic health experiences while others, such as Matthieu Ricard, experienced shifts that occurred over time due to their contemplative practices. A premise that I hold in taking this approach is that spirituality is a universal phenomenon not restricted to any given religious tradition or perspective. The common theme in these individuals is a shift from what might be called the dominant western science paradigm as a basis for understanding reality to something that is spiritually oriented. The means by which this transformation occurs is different in each case but the shift in consciousness is similar in that it is a move towards oneness. Oneness is an experience of the self as more expansive than usual: “a self that is seen as intimately connected with other people, creatures, and things in ways that conduce to their greater

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happiness, advantage, and well-being” (Ivanhoe, Flanagan, Harrison, & Schwitzgebel, 2018, pp. 1,2). Ricard obtained his Ph.D. in molecular genetics in 1972 at the Louis Pasteur Institute in Paris. Upon completion of his degree he went to Tibet to take up Tibetan Buddhism, where he has lived and has practised for more than 45 years. Since about the 2000, he has published many books and articles on the matter of meditation and Buddhist practice. He has contributed to the scientific understanding of meditation as an author and subject of brain research that illustrated long-term meditators achieve unique and beneficial brain states not observed in healthy non-meditators (Lutz, Greischar, Rawlings, Ricard, & Davidson, 2004). While Ricard does not discuss his personal experience, the evaluation of his brain activity using EEG to observe high gamma-band oscillations9 indicates changes in the quality of his consciousness and awareness (Ricard, Lutz, & Davidson, 2014). In another article, Ricard also considered the relationship of self-­ conception, happiness, meditation, and spirituality. Meditation appears to reduce self-centred conceptions and increase openness to other people and selflessness. Individuals who are spiritual tend to understand themselves better and can overcome their ego (Dambrun & Ricard, 2011). These are third-hand accounts of one scientist’s experience and views on meditation experiences and spirituality. But perhaps more importantly is the commitment of a highly trained scientist to a lifetime of contemplative practice who now is involved in demonstrating its impact on a range of human indicators of human well-being including spirituality. Philip St. Romain (1994) spent nine years in university earning a master’s of science degree in biology and completing the course work for a Ph.D. in the same topic, after which he studied to become a lay minister in the Catholic Church. He was a practising Catholic during his post-­ secondary studies and at that time was dismayed by the materialistic reductionist approach to biology, and the denial of the possibility of a role for god or divinity in the institution. It was at this time that he began to pray one hour a day which was something he loved to do. After a time at prayer, he began to experience a bright light and a wonderful sense of peace which he attributed to the presence of God. However, as his prayer deepened the 9  Research has found in advanced meditators that synchrony increases in neural circuits across the brain as measured through observation of changes in gamma wave lengths in the 25–70 Hz range producing very ordered thought and emotional functions (Ricard, Lutz, & Davidson 2014).

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experience shifted to darker colours and a range of extreme emotional and physical pains. At one point he thought he was mentally ill. It was around this time that he discovered a description of the process of kundalini10 awakening and realized he was experiencing it. The process which took approximately three years involved clearing emotional pain and blockages related to each of the seven chakras or energy points in the body, the first of which is associated with the base of the spine and seventh with the top of the head. When it was complete, he experienced the ability to see with the mind “with a sense of everything-as-one-arising-out-of-nothingness-every moment” where “the transience and oneness of life is all pervading” (St. Romain, 1994). This description bears similarity to nondual awareness as articulated in Daoist, Buddhist, and Confucian writings. He comments on the spiritual significance of this development for him in his Christian faith God is the center of everything … it is also true that God is the circumference of no-thing… there is a sense of God as unbounded mystery and of creation arising out of no-thingness in each second, solely by the will of God… All that oneness makes it difficult to manage the practical affairs of daily living. (p. 40)

Nevertheless, he is able to drop out of this level of awareness to engage in the world in a practical way. He comments on the role of the body and the energy body which has parallels to Daoist thinking. They are distinct but united in that the physical body is the womb for energy body. After his awakening however, the energy body draws on a Source for energy that transcends the physical. In this context the physical body is necessary as a vessel for the energy body and “must be cared for… but mostly to avoid conflicting with the laws that govern the activity of the energy body” (p.  45). Throughout his account he discusses how he must change his diet, emotions, and ways of thinking to avoid causing himself pain because his old ways conflict with the laws of the energy that has been awaken in him. His transformation was also accompanied by an ability to perceive energy in others and to heal others through the ability to extend his own energy to others.

10  Understanding of kundalini and teachings on how to awaken it has a long history in India.

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Now I would like to turn to Joyce Hawkes, who completed her Ph.D. in biophysics 1971 and spent the next 15 years to investigate the nature of life at the extremely small molecular and atomic level. She was a Fellow of the American Association for Advancement of Science. During this time, she published many papers in reputable peer-reviewed journals on cell biology, and she did not believe in religion or god. Then she had a near-­ death experience when a leaded-glass window fell on her head. She said this provided her with a new form of consciousness that: established a connection between me and something much, much bigger than myself. If it is a part of God, the Source of Creation, the bond has never failed. I lost my fear of death, and with it, my fear of separation from the Source. (Hawkes, 2010, p. 8)

She felt called by the Source to heal others and, through exposure to traditional energy healers and experience, learned that the body houses the spirit and is an expression of one’s consciousness. While she really appreciated studying cells as a scientist she developed a new appreciation for them after her accident. In her view, all life is sacred and the “body can be experienced as a sacred temple of the spirit and an expression of consciousness” (Hawkes, 2010, p. 9). While she learned to use life energy to heal others, she came to understand that anyone can change their consciousness and perception of themselves to heal the body. This is possible because there is an energy and consciousness bridge from the soul through our emotions and mind to all cells in our body (Hawkes, 2010). Several of her insights parallel Daoist thinking for example: we are one with a much larger reality she calls Source; everyone consists of a unique energy signature; energy and thought give rise to matter; the body is vitally important in making connection with spirit; and it is possible for anyone to change their consciousness thereby healing and living a fuller life (Hawkes, 2010). David Hawkins, an M.D., Ph.D., psychiatrist, experienced trauma early in his life that opened him to a different view of reality which has informed his work. While he experienced several events, on one occasion while he was delivering newspapers in rural Wisconsin he was caught in a blizzard and sought refuge in a snowbank from the wind and minus 20 degree F temperatures. It was during this time that he experienced “a state of peace beyond description… as suffusion of light and a Presence of infinite love, which had no beginning and no end, and which was indistinguishable from my own essence” (Hawkins, 2002, p. 10). Prior to this time he had

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been provided no context for spiritual experiences except as something that saints had. Later as an adult and practising professional he had a near-­ death experience due to a serious illness where he accepted the presence of a God that transformed him completely: The person I had been no longer existed, there was no personal self or ego left—just an Infinite Presence… The world was illuminated by the clarity of an Infinite Oneness, which expressed itself as all things revealed in their immeasurable beauty and perfection. (Hawkins, 2002, p. 12)

Hawkins says he took up meditation and began studying the spiritual teachings of the sages confirming that his experiences weren’t unique. He speaks of the presence of an energy that healed all his ailments and which he was able to extend to others to heal them including those with conditions deemed incurable by medical specialists. One example is noteworthy. A wealthy family brought their mute catatonic daughter to his clinic. She was unkempt, in a strait jacket, unable to talk, walk, or relate in any way to others. Hawkins asked God what he should do and realized that only love was necessary. At this insight, he connected with the loving essence within her and she was healed because she recognized in that moment who she really was. He concluded that illness is caused by the ego and healed with unconditional love (2002). There are others who have had similar shifts from the normal self-­ centred perspective that most of us share to what might be called a spiritual view or in academic terms a form of oneness perception. The point is that these experiences had a dramatic transformative impact on the lives of these scientists and their professional practice. Further, there are many similarities between their experiences and Daoist claims encompassing the body, energy, spirit, and healing. I believe that mysticism is a word describing something science can’t explain and therefore excludes it as non-­ scientific. Investigation of spirit as a scientific phenomenon is “not valued in secular universities and nor seen as a legitimate part of the western research paradigm” (Culham & Lin, 2016, p. 174). On the other hand, spirit is commonly referenced in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) texts which have their origins in Daoism and are used for practical purposes (Hsu, 1999). Hsu notes, it is odd that westerners rarely represent the role of shen (spirit) in their translations and interpretations of these texts reflecting their bias against spirit as a phenomenon worthy of investigation (Hsu, 1999). Now I turn to consider the Daoist perspective on the matter of spirit.

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Daoist Understanding of Spirit In Daoism, spirit is called “shen”, or the force that provides consciousness. The spirit we have can be the Original Qi that guides us and maintains the integration of the heart, mind, and body. It is connected to the larger force, the Dao. When people cultivate qi, the force of the spirit can be greatly enhanced, and manifested as an aura circling the body. A great master can have such strong aura that a camera can capture it. The master’s realm of energy can be so vast in span and range that she/he can affect many people and things, and the energy can last millennia, such as that people still worship Laozi, Confucius, Buddha, etc. In Daoist thinking, spirit is considered an “integral aspect of all living human beings” and “the site of all awareness and cognition” (Meyer, 2010, p. 885). “Spirit and body form a single organic system of qi; they are thus pragmatically inseparable” (Meyer, 2010, p. 886). Similarly, spirit and mind are inextricably linked. While the mind embodies ordinary experience of consciousness, spirit is the foundation of awareness (Meyer, 2010, p. 886). Through meditative practices it is possible to return to the Dao-given authentic self and merge one’s unique individual spirit with the limitless Dao. “One escapes the (ordinary) mind in favour of the unmediated experience of ‘spirit’” (Meyer, 2010, p. 886). “The more the ordinary contents of consciousness are stripped away, (through alignment with the principles of Dao) the closer one approaches fusion with the cosmic ultimate and embodiment of its unlimited potential” (Meyer, 2010, p. 886). When one reaches such a level one is said to have achieved “spirit illumination” (Meyer, 2010, p. 888) which is the faculty by which the sage comprehends the entire phenomenal universe (Meyer, 2010). Spirit illumination which is a very subtle and an extremely refined form of qi is similar to sunlight in that it is all-pervading but unlike sunlight it cannot be blocked by walls, doors, and shutters (Meyer, 2010). This appears to be a mystical description of Daoist experience. What I plan to do in this section is compare some of the claims made by Daoists with experiences of credible western scientists. Cultivating Spirit Cultivating spirit has three basic components: the first involves contemplative practice as outlined in the Nei-yeh (Roth, 1999); the second involves the guidance of a sage; and the third involves the attitude, actions, and

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behaviour one takes into the everyday world. The first is a foundation upon which the second operates but the second is necessary to fully cultivate spirit.  he Role of Contemplative Practice in Cultivating Spirit T Earlier, I addressed the means of cultivating body, emotions, and mind, and it was noted that when all of these are tranquil, particularly the mind, the numinous mind will arrive. Numinous in this context also has the meaning of divine. Such a mind has “The ability to foretell the future or perceive current events from great distances” and people who possess a numinous mind “display the same capacities as spirits, as they are able to transcend the ordinary limits of time and space” (Meyer, 2010, p. 880). The cultivation of and accumulation of highly refined forms of qi known as quintessential qi provide these capabilities. The process of cultivating the numinous mind and the outcomes based on a reading of the Neiye translated by Roth (1999) involves a number of physical, emotional, and mental activities including: sitting and breathing in a specific way followed by a process of eliminating the usual contents of consciousness including emotions, desires, random thoughts, as well as purposeful thinking. It is a process of clearing out the mind to make it available for the numinous mind to arrive. When the usual contents of the mind are quieted then the practitioner becomes very sensitive which enables one to achieve a state of utter tranquillity and concentrate on “one thing, perhaps the One (the Dao) (Roth, p. 111). When this is achieved the numinous mind emerges into the available open empty mental space. This state of mind represents the unity of Dao and the individual’s innate nature. The final step in cultivation involves the activity of effortlessly concentrating and holding on to the Dao. This requires one to maintain a sense of the Dao as a nondual unity of everyday reality while simultaneously recognizing the myriad complexity of that reality. The outcome of the meditative process appears to be: the Dao is present in one’s mind, can be maintained, and won’t be disturbed by external stimuli; true knowledge is available from deep within the mind “experienced as a nondual numinous” preverbal awareness (Roth, 1999, p.  117); one is not bound by the usual spatial-time constraints of the world, yet one is able to function within it. It is not difficult to see the paradox in the process of cultivating the numinous mind. For example, “effortlessly concentrating” in itself is a paradox. The outcome from the perspective of everyday awareness also is

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a paradox or apparently impossible; perceiving oneself as unity with all. Yet contemporary highly trained people speak of these kinds of experiences.  he Role of the Sage in Cultivation T While a sage can be helpful at all levels of cultivation, to reach higher levels of cultivation the support of a sage is important because the sage has experienced the process of cultivation and developed his or her qi energy to the point where it can influence others in a positive way. The sage provides the practitioner with specific techniques for calming the mind and wordless teaching through his or her energy. All situations in life, good and bad, offer everyone the opportunity to learn, but not everyone takes the opportunity to learn from difficulties or positive experiences for that matter and rather enter a state of blame or anger when encountering difficulties. Often the combination of life situations and wordless teaching provide the springboard for developing deeper comprehension of life and mental tranquillity. People who go through near-death experiences often change their entire perspective on life which results in a significant change in their behaviour. Cultivation of the emotions and mind with the support of a sage offers the opportunity to gradually change without the trauma of near-death experiences. Ultimately, however, this kind of change is up to the practitioner to choose. Techniques that the sage may provide include forms of Tai Chi or internal visualizations all of which combine stillness and movement. The Dao De Jing held that through being tranquil we return to the root of Dao, and therefore, we can understand how Dao works, we grow light, and with the energy of Dao, we can work longer than if we hadn’t cultivated virtue, and we live and love longer. While stillness is important, which often requires meditation, movement is also important. There are a great variety of methods in Daoism that use all kinds of movements to balance the yin and yang energy in our body and also to build energy in the body. Tai Chi is one such example. By moving in patterns similar to the cosmic diagram of yin-yang interaction and transformation, one connects with the flow of the cosmic energy. To emulate Dao, in Tai Chi performance one needs to enter a deep state of tranquillity whereby the smooth and continuous movements transforms one’s energy.  he Role of One’s Everyday Life in Cultivation T As noted earlier ultimate cultivation depends on transforming one’s attitudes, beliefs, and actions in the world. This occurs on the foundations of

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contemplative cultivation and with the support of a sage, but in the final analysis it is the individual’s will and effort that is vitally important. As I noted earlier there are stages through which one reaches the Dao. When one is feeling connected with a larger force, with everything else, one can be said to have entered a Universal Consciousness. This Spirit is accessed through having achieved high levels of energy which expand our consciousness. Raising one’s energy relies on ridding the sense of division of self and others, and removing obstacles such as immoral thoughts and deeds; hence, cultivation of virtues plays a key role. Negative energy and shadows are stored in the subconscious mind, and active effort to do good and meditate together can reshape one’s energy field (Lin and Parikh, forthcoming). In sum, when we align our spirit with qi and virtues, our understanding of our life purposes is greatly expanded. We are no longer limited by a narrow vision of life being concerned with only our own wellbeing; rather, others are included in our sense of family. In Buddhism, doing good and helping all people and beings alleviate their suffering have the effect of expanding the Buddhist practitioners’ consciousness and energy range. Doing good and energy accumulation work together, but it is in doing good without thinking about return or benefits to oneself that truly gives one energy (Lin, 2019). In Daoism, the Daoist practitioner, before reaching the highest level of enlightenment, has to do good for society and other beings anonymously. The possibilities are endless, one could guide as a statesman, a commoner, or a beggar… and hide their light and just do good. In this process they become more connected to all people and beings subconsciously, and in their doing good the positive energy of those they have helped is reflected back on them. Eventually, the highly refined energy jingshen qi illuminates like the sun and helps a great number of people and things. In Daoism, the idea of xiao (piety) is very critical. If one is to reach a very high level of energy, one must be able to draw from the bank of energy from one’s ancestry. The belief is that although biologically ancestors are gone, genetically we are still linked through DNA which stores energy and information. This linkage is built into our genes and can manifest if we cultivate and abide by the virtues of piety and respect for everyone. A total metamorphosis of the body requires one to be genetically and energetically linked to the energy in the genes of the clan. Hence the past is not lost, and Fengshui or alignments of one’s energy with those who have passed have impact on the current generations’ fortune and wellbeing. The spiritual link is never lost. Further, piety to one’s parents is

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essential, as we also draw on from the gene bank of the mother’s side and the father’s side. Daoist teachers emphasize the importance of taking everything as sacred, because everything has qi and intelligence. As we become more sensitive to the energy that propels all lives, our understanding of the world and the universe reaches a much deeper level. People experience everything as participating in a symphony of universal love and joy. Ecstasies have been described as mystical experiences through spiritual elevation. We have the mechanism built into us (through our energy-wired body) that can connect us with all existence, and in Daoism, it is called Heaven-­ Human Oneness, or Human-Heaven Correspondence. Qi is the medium that connects all. Spiritual intelligence is an energy-based ability that connects us to All That Exist. We not only feel with our heart, but with our whole being. Quantum physics may illuminate us in the future as to how we are all intertwined and what we do impact others and vice versa. The universe has a reciprocal mechanism that regulates energy through virtues, which are pathways to connect with the qi of all existence. Virtues attract positive energy from others and things. Therefore, it is important to practice virtue in daily life.

Transformative Capability of Daoist Cultivation Zaohua 造化, or creative or transformative power, is what Daoists seek to embody through cultivation. The character Zao 造 means to begin, build, or make and the character hua 化 means to transform, reform, or change thus the meaning creative power. Daoists seek to cultivate the creative power of the Dao. They know the power comes from refining of the energy in the body, which is attracted to oneself through doing good. They aim to reach this goal wherein “the whole universe is in my hand, and the whole creation comes from my Heart” (The Hidden Code Sutra 宇宙在乎手, 万化生乎心). They study the transformative power of the Original Qi, how it transforms from one thing into another. The Daoist classic Hua Shu (化书), or the Book of Transformation, describes this process. In it, Daoist master Tan Qiao (谭峭) describes how all things evolve out of qi and how qi transforms one being into another. Daoists believe they are studying the wisdom of Zaohua which cannot be easily revealed to people who have little or no virtues. The creative power of Dao is reserved for those who truly seek and have demonstrated

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“perfect kindness” like the sage as stated in Confucian classic The Great Learning. Daoist teachers look for students who meet the conditions and often they could not find one or find only one or two in their lifetime.

Consequences of Cultivating Virtue to Spirit Level Those who have cultivated to a certain level are known in the tradition as sages. Due to their connection with the ultimate, they do not value things as ordinary people do, as they see life as most important, and understand that all possessions will be gone in less than a hundred years and no one can take the possession with them when they die. They, therefore, see many things as temporary and by shedding excessive desires they reach deep levels of tranquillity, which produces a highly refined qi known as quintessential spirit resulting in spirit illumination that has been compared to sunlight (Meyer, 2010). Spirit is thought to be the part of us which is connected to all other existence. It is the part of us that stems from Dao and shares the fundamental essence with Dao. It is due to gaining awareness of our spirit, and through cultivation of high-energy spiritual qi, that we can consciously connect with other people and species and even all forces in the cosmos. But our spirit is concealed by the conditioning of our culture, family, or life experiences that result in misunderstanding, disconnection, forgetfulness of our unity with Dao the source of everything. Our behaviour that is not virtuous also has the effect of diverting us from knowledge of and connection with the Dao because it is not aligned with the Dao. Spiritual intelligence results from an expanded awareness. The expanded awareness is revealed in thinking abilities beyond logical thinking, and often manifests as imaginative thinking, image-based thinking, visual thinking, intuitive thinking, and creative thinking. These thinking abilities often emerge pre-reflectively or non-discursively out of our mind, heart, and spirit. For example, Jill Bolte Taylor (2008), a neuroscientist, had a stroke that shut down the left side of her brain and stopped her ability to think and do intellectual work. This, however, opened her up to experience the consciousness of the right brain which she said is expansive, connected to everything, non-judgemental, and accepting of all conditions. She called it connecting with the perfect. I would call it connecting with the Dao. She provided a description of her right brain experience as follows. “Although I could not walk or talk, understand language, read or write, or even roll

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my body over, I knew I was OK. The now off-line intellectual mind of my left hemisphere no longer inhibited my innate awareness that I was the miraculous power of life. I knew I was different now—but never once did my right mind indicate that I was ‘less than’ what I had been before. I was simply a being of light radiating life into the world… In the absence of my left hemisphere’s negative judgement, I perceived myself as perfect, whole, and beautiful just the way I was (pp. 68–71). This is not intended as proof but simply as a means of introducing the possibility that Daoist claims have a basis in human experience and there may be lessons applicable to education in their thinking.

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Gurteen, D. (2019). Quotations on living live and miracles by Albert Einstein. Retrieved April 29, 2019, from http://www.gurteen.com/gurteen/gurteen. nsf/id/X00405372/ Hadot, P., & Davidson, A. I. (1995). Philosophy as a way of life: Spiritual exercises from Socrates to Foucault. New York: Blackwell. Hall, D. L., & Ames, T. A. (1998). Thinking from the Han: Self, truth, and transcendence in Chinese and western culture. New  York: State University of New York Press. Hawkes, J. W. (2010). Cell-level healing: The bridge from soul to cell. New York: Simon and Schuster. Hawkins, D. R. (2002). Power vs. force. New York: Hay House, Inc.. Helm, B. (2017). Love, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2017 Edition), Edward N.  Zalta (Ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/ fall2017/entries/love/ Hsu, E. (1999). The transmission of Chinese medicine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ivanhoe, P. J., Flanagan, O. J., Harrison, V. S., & Schwitzgebel, E. (2018). The oneness hypothesis: Beyond the boundary of self. New  York: Columbia University Press. Jabr, F. (2018). Give Me a Break. Scientific American, 27, 22–27. James, W. (1902). The varieties of religious experience. New  York: Longmans, Green & Company. Jung, C. (1983). The essential Jung: Selected writings. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Komjathy, L. (2011). The daoist mystical body. In T.  Cattoi & M.  McDaniel (Eds.), Perceiving the divine through the human body, mystical sensuality. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Lai, C.  T. (2003). Rational suicide: Uncertain moral ground: Commentary: A Daoist perspective. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 46(3), 279. Lai, C. T. (2004). Commentary: A Daoist perspective. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 46(3), 279. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind and its challenge to western thought. New York: Basic Books. Lewis, T., Amini, F., & Lannon, R. (2000). A general theory of love. Vintage. Lin, J. (2019). Enlightenment from body-spirit integration: Dunhuang’s Buddhist cultivation pathways and educational implications. In Di Xu (Ed.), The Dunhuang Grottos and global education: Philosophical, spiritual, scientific, and aesthetic insights (pp. 113–131). New York, NY: Palgraves-Springer. Lin, J. & Parikh, R. (forthcoming). Connecting Meditation, Quantum Physics, and Consciousness: Implication for Higher Education. In Lin, J., Edwards, S., and Culham, T. (forthcoming). Contemplative pedagogies in K-12, university, and community settings: Transformation for deep learning and being. Charlotte, North Carolina: Information Age Publishing.

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Lipton, B. H. (2010). The biology of belief: Unleashing the power of consciousness, matter and miracles. ReadHowYouWant.com. Liu, T. (2018). The scientific hypothesis of “an energy system” in the human body. Journal of Traditional Chinese Medical Sciences, 5, 29–34. Lutz, A., Greischar, L. L., Rawlings, N. B., Ricard, M., & Davidson, R. J. (2004). Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice. Proceedings of the national Academy of Sciences, 101(46), 16369–16373. Major, J. S. (2010). Chapter 6 Observing Obscurities. In J. S. Major, S. A. Queen, A. S. Meyer, & H. D. Roth (Eds.), The Huainanzi: A guide to the theory and practice of government in early Han China. New York: Columbia University Press. McCraty, R. (2014). 14 The Energetic Heart. Bioelectromagnetic and Subtle Energy Medicine, 125. McEwen, B. S. (2016). In pursuit of resilience: Stress, epigenetics, and brain plasticity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1373(1), 56–64. Merriam-Webster. (2018). Retrieved June, 2018, from https://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/central%20nervous%20system?src=search-dict-box Merriam-Webster. (2019). Retrieved March, 2019, from https://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/libidinal Meyer, A.  S. (2010). Appendix A: Key Chinese terms and their translations. In J. S. Major, S. A. Queen, A. S. Meyer, & H. D. Roth (Eds.), The Huainanzi: A guide to the theory and practice of government in early Han China (pp. 869–913). New York: Columbia University Press. Ni, M. (1995). The Yellow Emperor’s classic of medicine. Boston and London: Shambhala. NIH. (2019). Sickle Cell Disease, National Institute of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Retrieved May 2019, from https://www.nhlbi.nih. gov/health-topics/sickle-cell-disease Ogden, P. (2007). Beneath the words. A clinical map for using mindfulness of the body and the organization of experience in trauma treatment. Paper presented at Mindfulness and Psychotherapy Conference, Los Angeles, CA. Panksepp, J., D. (2009). Brain emotional systems and qualities of mental life: From animal models of affect to implications for psychotherapeutics. In D. Fosha, D. J. Siegel, & M. F. Solomon (Eds.), The healing power of emotion: Affective neuroscience, development and clinical practice (pp. 1–26). New York: WW Norton & Company. Porges, S. W. (2009). Reciprocal influences between body and brain in the perception and expression of affect. In D.  Fosha, D.  J. Siegel, & M.  F. Solomon (Eds.), The healing power of emotion: Affective neuroscience, development and clinical practice (pp. 27–54). New York: WW Norton & Company. Prinz, J. (2016). Culture and cognitive science, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (Ed.). https://plato.stanford. edu/archives/fall2016/entries/culture-cogsci/

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Rescorla, M. (2017). The Computational Theory of Mind, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2017 Edition), Edward N.  Zalta (Ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/computational-mind/ Ricard, M., Lutz, A., & Davidson, R. J. (2014). Mind of the meditator. Scientific American, 311(5), 38–45. Robbins, P. (2017). Modularity of Mind. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2017 Edition), Edward N.  Zalta (Ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/ archives/win2017/entries/modularity-mind/ Roth, H. (1991). Psychology and self-cultivation in early Taoistic thought. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 51(2), 599–650. Roth, H. D. (1999). Original Tao: Inward training (nei-yeh) and the foundations of taoist mysticism. New York: Columbia University Press. Roth, H. D. (2010a). Chapter 1. Originating in the Way. In J. S. Major, S. A. Queen, A. S. Meyer, & H. D. Roth (Eds.), The Huainanzi: A guide to the theory and practice of government in early Han China (pp. 41–76). New York: Columbia University Press. Schnall, S., & Laird, J. D. (2003). Keep smiling: Enduring effect of facial expressions and postures on emotional experience and memory. Cognition and Emotion, 17(5), 787–797. Schore, A.  N. (1994). Affect regulation and the origin of the self. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Schore, A. N. (2001). The effects of relational trauma on right brain development, affect regulation, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 201–269. Shields, C. (2016). Aristotle. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N.  Zalta (Ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/ win2016/entries/aristotle/ Siegel, D. J. (2009). Emotion as integration: A possible answer to the question, what is emotion. In D. Fosha, D. J. Siegel, & M. F. Solomon (Eds.), The healing power of emotion: Affective neuroscience, development and clinical practice (pp. 145–171). New York: WW Norton & Company. Siegel, D. J. (2010). Mindsight: The new science of personal transformation. New York: Bantam Books. Slater, M.  D. (2018). Religious faith, self-unification, and human flourishing in James and Dewey. In P.  J. Ivanhoe, O.  J. Flanagan, V.  S. Harrison, & E.  Schwitzgebel (Eds.), The oneness hypothesis: Beyond the boundary of self. New York: Columbia University Press. Smart, J. J. C. (2017). The mind/brain identity theory. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2017 Edition), Edward N.  Zalta (Ed.). https://plato. stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/mind-identity/ Smith, C., & Davidson, H. (2014). The paradox of generosity: Giving we receive, grasping we lose. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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PART III

Education Insights

CHAPTER 11

Insights from within the Daoist Tradition: Incorporating Qi and Virtue into Contemporary Education Jing Lin

In the twenty-first century, we face grave challenges and have hopes for a better future. More than ever we see our world mired in tumultuous conflicts and lethal competition which dislocate our sense of calm and unravel our conscience. While some feel climate change, as an example, is either not human caused or is not real, many agree that our mindset and worldviews have contributed greatly to the breakdown of the ecological balance. The solutions nowadays tend to rely on competition, studying harder, fighting harder, more technology, building more, taming nature, etc. Drawing from Daoist worldview and practice, we believe we need to shift our consciousness to focus our society on the following: • Learn to live in peace and cooperation by prioritizing the learning and practice of love and wisdom (Lin, 2006); • Learn to tame our desires and aggressiveness so we step back from the point of no return in ecological destruction and global conflict; • Learn another view of the universe that sees virtues as technologies and with virtues we benefit in health, longevity, immortality, and peace and harmony in the world with nature; © The Author(s) 2020 T. Culham, J. Lin, Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning, Spirituality, Religion, and Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44947-6_11

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• Turn to a new form of education that attends to cultivation, of cosmic wisdom and personal enlightenment. These are grand and sweeping statements, but if we take them to our heart and act on them, it is possible they can turn into reality. John Kennedy had a vision of reaching the moon and Martin Luther King had a dream of racial equality. The former was achieved and the latter we are still working on but is not beyond the reach of imagination and possibility. Looking back over time it is possible to see change in fundamental aspects of human relations. This can be achieved through reviving our interest and curiosity in the profound secrets of life, going beyond the mundane and exploring the a priori principles of the cosmos (Anderson, 2016). We are in dire need of a bigger heart, a bigger mind, and we need to bring the quest of our fundamental being, that is, who we are, what are our roles in the universe, to the front of our awareness. The above statements are made in the context of modern education, in which we witness: • A loss of virtues education and cultivation in schools which are overtaken by an obsession with competition; • A focus on instrumentalism and intolerance of ambiguity; • A disconnection of body, heart, mind, and spirit while the predominant focus is on the mind as separate from matter and knowing through “abstract, explicit, precise, fragmenting, narrow, static, mechanical, and lacking empathic ways of being” (Bai, 2013). We cannot separate reason from our emotions, and we cannot separate our life force qi from others and from nature. Using the broad framework of virtues as technology and qi as our fundamental life energy, Daoist philosophy contains wisdom for us to focus on reducing selfish desires and aligning ourselves with the Way of Dao which gives to all and love and care without judgement or expectation of return. These will be not considered as lofty aspirations if we understand and embody virtues such as care, cooperation, respect, and compassion as important skills to learn, just as the importance we place on science and literacy. This new perspective holds the hope to drastically transform our world into a post-capitalist society where people resonate and empathize with all life forces with love and respect. We can have true peace in our heart and in our society by

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upholding new standards for success and happiness, based on the concept of co-existence, mutual responsibility, and holistic well-being in a virtue-­ guided universe.

Qi Knowing and Virtues In Daoism, true learning involves qi knowing, which means we are able to sense qi, resonate with qi, accumulate qi, transform qi, and apply qi in our life. With this perspective, it is not difficult to understand why qi is such a vital concept in the philosophical works of Daoism and Confucianism (Culham & Lin, 2016; Lin, 2018; Lin, Culham, & Oxford, 2016). Qi knowing enables one to directly understand the origin and essence of the Dao, the creative force in the universe which has been deeply investigated and practised in Chinese culture and philosophy. To know the teaching of the great sages such as Laozi, Zhuangzi, Confucius, and Mencius, we are reminded that: • Qi, virtue, and cultivating for health, longevity, and enlightenment are inextricably linked; • Qi-based education is about resonance. The universe is a qi field, the human body has a qi field, and a school as a collective entity and a society all have their own qi energy and spirit—all of these systems interact and resonate with each other and impact us individually and collectively; • Practices of meditation enable students to experience qi, embody qi, cultivate qi, and elevate their abilities including those that go beyond the five senses as their awareness are greatly expanded; • Virtues guide our mind, heart, and behaviours and guide the qi energy sustaining us and everything; • Virtues enable the accumulation of qi which is vital for our health and longevity, and our integral development of intellectual, emotional, moral, ecological, spiritual and peace intelligences (Lin, 2006). Daoism considers our individual self as a part of the vital forces in the cosmos. It emphasizes our whole being, and our capacities as a citizen of the cosmos. Our body, mind, heart, and spirit are all wired by qi, which can all bring forth knowledge and revelations. There is no separation of our being with that of other existence, and we have the ability to use our conscious efforts to work for the common good and the well-being of all existence.

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Qi Knowing and Meditation Qi is a fundamental concept in Daoism. Qi knowing takes a vital life energy perspective about learning. Through meditation we know qi and build up qi, and meditation enables us to enter a quantum energy state of being in which we can engage in transforming our conscious mind and reprogramming our subconscious mind and even tapping into our unconscious mind which can be linked to Dao, the all-pervasive energy forming the universe. Qi knowing results in an extension and expansion of one’s qi energy field which is connected to the whole, the implicit order of the universe (Bohm, 1980). In qi knowing one grasps the underlying principle of the universe, as we have a direct experience of the force that sustains human society, nature, and the cosmos integrally. Through integrating cultivation of our vital life energy and virtues into education, a larger awareness about the deep working of the universe is made possible for the learners. Learners will gain a direct understanding of the self at a much deeper level in relation to social and ecological contexts. Agency is elevated as one’s action is aligned with one’s innate sense of a higher Self that defies the narrow, ego-centric self. Qi resonance creates possibilities for individuals to have a major impact in the world, as one’s intentionality can affect changes in the world, as demonstrated by the Daoist sages. String theory and quantum theory about quantum entanglement are alluding to these possibilities through a scientific perspective. Meditation, introspection, mindfulness, and reflection should be included in education. I call these qi knowing. It is a new form of learning that should help students to calm down their heart and mind, and find meaning in their life in the interconnected world. Hence, breathing slowly and deeply, being mindful and present, using creative visualization and adopting an attitude of humility, gratitude, love, and respect for all beings and things, hold great potential for learners to tap into the much deeper level of reality in themselves and in the universe. Through these efforts, the students’ physical health, intellectual learning, and holistic growth are enhanced integrally. We should equip learners with abilities to reduce excessive desires, and take preserving and accumulating vital life energy as basic skills to acquire in life. Students should know that too many desires deplete energy, and conflicts with others can result in personal inner turmoil, all of which are not good for one’s physical and emotional health. More importantly, they should know personal happiness and success is connected with doing good for the world.

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Nature as Our Teacher The new form of education should take nature as our teacher. Nature is our home; natural things such as plants, animals, mountains, and rivers are part of ourselves as we are connected with all existence through qi and spirits. Students should be given ample opportunities to observe nature’s patterns and designs and gain an understanding of the laws governing nature. We should preserve young children’s ability to endear nature. Their abilities to resonate with all life forces are precious qualities that should be preserved and reinforced through education. Children are born with the capacity to genuinely take themselves as an organic part of nature, treating nature with respect and awe. Hence what we nowadays call alternative education such as Montessori education and Waldorf education should be mainstreamed. We are cutting down trees that contain hundreds or thousands of years of wisdom; they have sustained our community and taught us so much about humility, service, and persistence. We are causing the extinction of beautiful species who are designed so much like us with capacities for love and intelligence. All existences are precious lives; they are part of our earth family. Political movement is powerful to the effect of changing some policies, but for expanding our awareness to feel the vital life force of all existence, we need to awaken our heart to resonate with the Love throbbing through all existence; we need to open up our dormant abilities to sense all existences in the spiritual and soul energy level, that all have intelligence and the same will-to-live like humans. Education holds great potential when cultivation of qi and virtues are mainstreamed in education, awakening our capacity for unconditional love for All That Exist.

Science and Social Science Education Science education should incorporate virtues as a form of life science. Qi is like the force of electricity, which cannot be seen but can be utilized. Virtues accumulate qi, and qi accumulated to a certain level can be used by the learners for healing our body, and for transforming physical forces. The key is that people need to practice and sense the qi first. Fortunately, there are many publications now that are exploring our vital life energy, consciousness, the power of meditation and energy healing, etc. Many spiritual traditions are revealing their secrets about how to maintain a healthy body, mind, heart, and spirit (Church, 2018).

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The new form of education I perceive should maintain no separation of social sciences and natural sciences. Virtues such as love are not only physical forces but also moral and spiritual energy forces coordination and sustaining the universe. Love, as Einstein put it, is the most powerful force in the universe, and this corresponds with the Daoist view of the Primordial Qi which is behind all existence. The physical world is a manifestation of the Dao, the Dao virtues, as described in Dao De Jing. Qi is the original source of the physical, moral, and spiritual universe; hence, to understand the fundamental nature of our reality we need to integrate science and social science and see science and moral virtues in new light.

The Grand Mission of Education in the Twenty-First Century Drawing from Daoist philosophy and practice, a grand vision I propose for learners in the twenty-first-century education is: • To learn to observe the Dao 体察天地之道 and virtues as the source of everything; to perceive virtues as manifest in the invisible energy world and the visible physical; to perceive the invisible and physical as integral and in constant mutual exchange 体悟虚空宇宙和 物质宇宙的统一融合; • To see the universe as a moral universe: All existence observes the laws of virtues and is engaged in mutual support and mutual elevation; • To see all existence as energy of yin and yang but the ultimate source is the Universal Love. And for educators in curriculum and teaching: • The most important content for the learner to acquire is to learn to love 愛; • The goal of teaching is to help learners reach enlightenment and be united with Dao 光, 道; students understand the idea of qi, and know themselves and the world by experiencing qi, resonating with qi, working with qi, transforming qi, and accumulating qi, and refining it to be highly powerful energy that would greatly expand their awareness and abilities. In this context educators and learners:

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• Emulate the enlightened masters who understand the deep working of the universe, nature, and the human life, and study laws of nature experientially and integrally; • Use contemplative methods to gather energy and build positive energy fields for teacher-student mutual learning and holistic being; • Reduce desires, anger, ignorance, selfishness and are kind, respectful, and joyful; • Embrace inner peace, service, giving, and gratitude as Source of Happiness; • Work for peace with attributes of gratitude, humility, softness, reconciliation, and yielding. Education leaders orient their views around these ideals: • Education is about passing on Dao, stressing love, compassion, and wisdom seeking; • Education is designed to provide learners sustenance for body, heart, mind, and soul; energy is central; learning and healing taking place simultaneously; • Education aims to elevate the learner’s ability to feel, intuit, resonate with, know, and transform life energy; wisdom is the result of this type of learning which emerges from deeply within (Lin, Culham, & Scott, 2020); • Education transforms learners’ dispositions, while also boosting their energy and courage to fulfil their aspiration and calling in life. Overall, my view is that twenty-first-century education must be transformative education that facilitates our world to undergo major changes such as outlined below: • From Ego to Eros—Love, compassion, and cooperation are treated as fundamental in education and life; • From Ego to Eco—a dramatic focus on our interdependence with nature; • From the conscious mind to the subconscious and the unconscious mind, and to reach the Dao consciousness—contemplative learning becoming mainstream; • From separation to integration and wholeness; • From learning to Being and to Oneness.

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I believe with concentrated energy and persistent efforts these ideas can plant a seed somewhere and sprout into a forthcoming new spring for education and for our world.

References Anderson, A.  W. (2016). “Out of the Everywhere into Here”: Rhetoricity and transcendence as common ground for spiritual research. In J. Lin, R. Oxford, & T. Culham (Eds.), Toward a spiritual research paradigm: Exploring new ways of knowing, researching and being. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Bai, H. (2013). Philosophy for education: Cultivating human agency. In W. Hare & J.  Portelli (Eds.), Philosophy of education: Introductory readings (4th ed.). Calgary: Brush Education. Bohm, D. (1980). Wholeness and the implicate order. New York: Routledge. Church, D. (2018). Mind to matter: The astonishing science of how your brain creates material reality. New York, NY: Hay House. Culham, T., & Lin, J. (2016). Exploring the unity of science and spirit: A Daoist perspective. In J.  Lin, R.  Oxford, & T.  Culham (Eds.), Toward a spiritual research paradigm: Exploring new ways of knowing, researching and being (pp. 171–198). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Lin, J. (2006). Love, peace and wisdom in education: Vision for education in the 21st century. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education. Lin, J. (2018). From self cultivation to social transformation: The Confucian embodied pathways and educational implications. In Y. Liu & W. Ma (Eds.), Confucianism and education (pp. 169–182). Albany, NY: SUNY press. Lin, J., Culham, T., & Oxford, R. (2016). Developing a spiritual research paradigm: A Confucian perspective. In J.  Lin, R.  Oxford, & T.  Culham (Eds.), Toward a spiritual research paradigm: Exploring new ways of knowing, researching and being (pp. 141–169). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Lin, J., Culham, T., & Scott, C. (2020). Virtue as emergence from contemplative practices. Journal of Character Education: A Special Issue on Virtuous Leadership, 16(1), 39–53.

CHAPTER 12

Cultivating Qi and Virtue, Daoist and Current Thought: Education Insights Tom Culham

This chapter integrates the comparative analysis conducted in Chaps. 6 to 10 to provide insights for education in the twenty-first century. The orientation of this analysis is to consider the Daoist perspective as the model from which to develop insights and proposals for contemporary education. Where possible current and emerging scientific evidence is provided to support the proposals. First, however, I wish to position this conversation in the context of a recent trend around holistic education in the west. There is a long and continuous tradition of holistic education in Asia and in indigenous cultures around the world. Here I focus on Asian cultures which have developed exercises and practices including, but not limited to, various types of meditation, taiji, aikido, qigong, kung fu, karate, and yoga to manipulate, strengthen, store life force for the development of various human abilities and well-being. An integrated training of body, breath, emotions, mind, and even spirit in varying degrees and for various purposes is a unifying theme to all of these practices. This holistic approach stands in contrast to western education which primarily attends to education of the mind. Recently holistic education is emerging amongst western educators although it remains on the margins. Since the 1980s it has evolved to the view that it “is about educating the whole person—body, mind, and © The Author(s) 2020 T. Culham, J. Lin, Daoist Cultivation of Qi and Virtue for Life, Wisdom, and Learning, Spirituality, Religion, and Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44947-6_12

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spirit—within the context of an interconnected world” (Miller, 2019, p. 5). I feel the context of our work in examining the Daoist tradition best fits the definition for holistic education provided in the first edition of the Holistic Education Review: Holistic education, above all else, is an expression of the profound respect for the deeper, largely unrealized powers of our human nature. Holistic educators see each child as a precious gift, as an embryo of untapped spiritual potential. This attitude is similar to the Quaker belief that there is “that of God in every one”—or at least an unfathomed depth of personality, contained in the soul of every person. (R Miller, as quoted in J Miller, 2019).

In this context nothing of what it means to be human is left out of the question of what should education look like in the twenty-first century. Several themes arise out of the comparative analysis undertaken in Chaps. 6 to 10. McGilchrist (2009) was introduced early in Chap. 6 with his view that not just the field of education but western culture is dominated by left brain being and thinking. He articulates the nature of right brain being which I found to be supported by the experiences of Jill Bolte Taylor (2006), a neuroscientist who had a stroke that shut down her left brain and made it possible to experience right brain consciousness. McGilchrist proposes that we need to learn to develop a balanced left and right ontology as a means of recovering from the current narrow self-­ centred perspective of the left brain and literally save ourselves. He noted that the left brain is self-referential and self-centred leading to a narrow close-minded approach to the living and creative phenomenon of the world. Yet to be alive, to thrive, it needs to be connected to life at its most creative as this is the source of its being. Further because of this self-­ orientation it denies the value and need for this connection. He suggests that we need to turn to Asian cultures which historically have developed means of drawing out right brain consciousness and being. It is interesting to note that education modelled on a Daoist approach “calls us to journey toward an imaginative realm in which creativity, relationality, and emergence become main themes of education and pedagogy” (Wang, 2005). These are attributes that appear to be consistent with right hemisphere consciousness. Table 12.1 compares Daoist and current dominant assumptions relevant to education. The cosmological perspectives are provided for information. In what follows I summarize the results of the comparative analysis and provide education implications and suggestions.

Self in relationship

Nature of self

Ontology (Being) Phenomenon

Qi

Cosmology Dao Virtue

Category

(continued)

Matter is the foundation of everything including life of which energy and information play a role All are born with an innate self, originating in the Dao and Matter is the source of self although there is is usually obscured by life experiences. All aspects of self: some debate about this. Consciousness, physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual are manifestation thought, energy, and information are of energy, information, and matter (qi) phenomena that arise from matter The individual is unique, in relationship with and The individual is unique, self-focused, and an inseparable from an interconnected web independent agent

Energy, and information in the form of qi, give rise to all life and matter

No equivalent in secular terms A learned skill through socialization and education No equivalent

Current Dominant Approach (Left Brain)

The ineffable source of everything A phenomenon of the universe like gravity present visible or hidden in everything A phenomenon of the universe that gives rise to all phenomena through the interchange of yin and yang

Daoist (Right Brain)

Table 12.1  Comparison of Education Cosmology, Ontology, Epistemology Assumptions

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Transformation of the self to be in alignment with virtue. When the whole is benefitted due to behaviour of the individual, the individual benefits

The Nature of Knowledge

Source of Knowledge

Internal/External Body/Mind/Emotion/Spirit Unconscious/Conscious Intuitive/Rational Unstructured/Structured Open/Linear

Epistemology (Knowledge)

Purpose of self

Table 12.1 (continued)

External Mind Conscious Rational Structured Linear

Acting on the world. Achieve results for the benefit of self. All are benefitted from the self-­centred behaviour of individuals

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The Primacy of Cultivating Virtue The Dao De Jing is often translated as the Dao and its virtue, providing the sense that virtue belongs to the Dao and that it is a phenomenon of the universe. Daoists believe that virtue and qi (energy and information) are the foundation of life and that it is possible to enhance one’s energy (qi) by aligning oneself with the underlying virtue and life energy (qi) inherent in nature through inner work and self-cultivation. By alignment with virtue, one’s physical, emotional, mental, wisdom, social, and spiritual well-being are enhanced. Emerging western thinking indicates parallels in thinking around the fundamental importance of virtue to human flourishing. People who engage in pursuing happiness through eudaimonic means are likely healthier than those who pursue happiness through hedonic means even though they are equally happy (Cole, 2014). This suggests that the body response to our actions appears to value virtuous behaviour and intentions. Others have noted that our ethical decision making is based in our unconscious, emotions, and body with roots in evolutionary biology (Cotterill, 1998; Greene & Haidt, 2002; Greene, 2009; Haidt, 2001). Damasio (2010) proposed that homeostasis which occurs at the cellular level is a biological process that expresses the value of supporting life on a constant ongoing basis. In his view this process is holographic in that it occurs at the cellular, body, family, and society levels. These findings are hints from western science that virtue is more than a social construction and that it is important to our survival. From a Daoist perspective, virtue is fundamental and is necessary to cultivate at every level of being to develop fully as human beings. Given the Daoist perspective, virtue is the foundation: fundamental and first priority that informs all education effort. This is a radical shift from current secular education priorities, partly because the Daoist definition of virtue is different encompassing much more than ethical development as it is narrowly defined in contemporary western thinking. What am I talking about? The ancient Greeks and Chinese held that virtue could be found in everything; in humans it can be witnessed in their bodies, emotions, mind, and spirit. Earlier I provided the example of Mr Bertolini who introduced meditation and yoga to Aetna because he experienced the personal benefits of these practices in healing and relieving the pain of his life-­threatening ski accident. He was so impressed with the transformation in his health that he felt compelled to introduce it to his employees because he thought it would

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help them. When a pilot group of employees took up meditation, or yoga, their health indicators improved substantially. From a western view, these people were simply practising meditation or yoga. In the context of Daoism, they were engaged in developing physical, emotional and mental tranquillity which is a means of putting themselves in alignment with the underlying patterns of life and the Dao, thereby enhancing their life energy resulting in enhanced physical and emotional health. As was stated earlier, development of virtue in Daoist thinking is a matter of aligning oneself with the underlying patterns of the Dao. In this context, these people were practising physical and emotional virtue. It is not much of a leap to ask: if tranquillity is helpful physically and emotionally what about other aspects of being? Moving out of a Daoist context and into a contemporary perspective, for someone who has experienced health improvements practising tranquillity (meditation, yoga) they may be motivated to try other perhaps more advanced means of developing virtue, such as practising mental tranquillity. As was observed, earlier, regulation of emotions (a form of emotional tranquillity) is a foundation of ethics. Given the benefits achieved through these practices, individuals may be motivated to engage in more advanced levels of virtue development. Of course, there is more to virtue cultivation than practising tranquillity. Next, I discuss and explore the implications of the Daoist view on virtue and its cultivation in contemporary education. Education Implications From a Daoist perspective, virtue lies within each and every person, as innate nature is given by the Dao which itself is pure. Further, one discovers innate nature and virtue within, by aligning oneself by being virtuous. Since virtue occurs at every level of being, one aligns oneself physically, emotionally, and mentally with virtue by cultivating tranquillity at each of these levels. Interestingly the definition of tranquillity (maintaining equilibrium in the presence of change) mirrors the concepts of homeostasis, allostasis, and emotional regulation which are present in our cells, body, and emotional make-up. Emotional regulation was noted by MacIntyre (1984) as the foundation of ethics. • The most important goal of education is to help students discover virtue within by learning how to align themselves with the phenomenon of virtue through practising tranquillity, and taking virtuous actions in daily life.

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The Importance of Education as Self-Discovery A goal integrated with and of similar stature to discovering virtue is discovering the innate self within. Virtue is related because the innate self is assumed to be given by the Dao and therefore is pure and virtuous. An underlying principle articulated throughout this work is that personal transformation is a process of discovery of the innate within. The idea that education is a process of self-discovery dates back in the west to Socrates and Plato and continued with contemporaries such as Dewey (Morrison-­ Saunders & Hobson, 2013). It also has ancient roots in Asian philosophies as I have noted. A key distinction between contemporary forms of education that rely on the transmission of knowledge and education aiming at personal transformative through discovery of the innate within is that the former is about acquiring knowledge from external sources through didactic methods whereas the latter discovers knowledge within the individual through a process of experiential inner work. In Daoist thinking, Inner Training (Neiye) is the seminal text referred to by subsequent Daoist texts such as the Dao De Jing, Zhuang Zi, and Huainanzi as a vital guide for cultivation. The Huainanzi identifies Inner Training as the primary guide for both personal and leadership cultivation (Major, Queen, Meyer, & Roth, 2010). Contemporary commentators from neuroscience, psychology, and philosophy observe that something profound and very ancient is available within humans that provides guidance on living and thriving in life. Lakoff & Johnson (1999) emphasize this by stating: “All of our knowledge and beliefs are framed in terms of a conceptual system that resides mostly in the cognitive unconscious” and “(U)nless we know our cognitive unconscious fully and intimately, we can neither know ourselves nor truly understand the basis of our moral judgments, our conscious deliberations, and our philosophy” (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999, p. 15). Education Implications Inner Work “Know thyself”, well-known in Greek thinking and philosophy, referred to knowing the inner self, the soul obtained through inner introspective effort (Hadot & Davidson, 1995). The outcome of such a journey is a transformation from a state “darkened by unconsciousness and worry, to

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an authentic state, where self-consciousness, an exact vision of the world, inner peace and freedom are attained” (Hadot & Davidson, 1995, p.83). This approach bears similarity to the Daoist focus on self-cultivation “to refine and transform themselves to attain full integration with life’s deepest realities” (Kirkland, 2004, p. 75) through inner work as outlined in the Neiye (Inner Training) (Roth, 1999). Cohen (2009) provides a contemporary description of inner work as: “a way of working on and with perceptions, sensations, memories, and cognitions, all of which constitute a person’s experience” and “refers to reflective practices conducted under the gaze of consciousness, depends on the capacity to self-observe” (p.  31). According to Cohen (2009) knowing thyself or the process of becoming self-aware includes but is not limited to: . Observing experience while being engaged. 1 2. Reflecting through memory after the initial experience is past. 3. Imagining possibilities. 4. Staying focused on inner experience. 5. Employing a variety of methods and perceptual frameworks that allow and facilitate inner work (Cohen, 2009, p. 40). Actively engaging in a process of developing awareness of those aspects of us that are usually below the surface or unconscious is important in Daoist thinking therefore: • A range of activities can be utilized to support inner work including but not limited to meditation, reflective journaling, engaging in exercises that surface emotions to which one attends, all offering opportunities for developing this kind of self-knowledge. • The means of helping students engage in a process of self-discovery have been mapped out and should be evaluated for their applicability and effectiveness. • Such approaches should be implemented in a more comprehensive way in our education system. Given the current outward orientation of education it is not difficult to anticipate the question: how does inner work contribute to learning and knowledge? In her consideration of Jungian and Daoist thought regarding education Wang (2019) concluded “that the inner is always related to the outer, so the lens for the inner landscape of education does not intend to

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de-emphasize the outer world, as the two are intimately intertwined” (p.11). From a Jungian perspective, working with the unconscious (inner work) is a foundation enabling one to dialogue more effectively with others, particularly those who with differing views. From a Daoist perspective, the individual is always in relationship with self and others. Cultivation or inner work is a means of developing personal wholeness resulting in a simultaneous shift in relationship with self and others (Wang, 2019).

Education Insights Drawn from Comparative Analysis The Role of Virtues, Tranquillity, Innate Nature, Body, Emotions, Mind, and Spirit I observed earlier that Daoists believe people are: • born with a unique innate nature; • formed by qi (energy) and situated within three interrelated components: • emotions, • the heart-mind, and • tranquillity (Chan, 2010). I now summarize the parallels between these phenomenon and western science then I consider the implication to education if these concepts are taken as operating in our lives. Turning now to a summarization of education implications based on a comparative analysis of Daoist practices and current western thought. I found several parallels between Daoist cultivation and contemporary western science-based thinking that provide insight to contemporary education. They include: the role of virtues; tranquillity; innate nature; body; emotions; mind; spirit; in the process of personal transformation through discovery. Recall from Chap. 7 that in simple terms Daoist cultivation involves cultivating tranquillity in all aspects of one’s being including body, breath, emotions, mind, and spirituality to build and refine life energy qi. This process enables awareness of one’s innate nature, the emergence of one’s numinous mind, and the development of a highly refined form of qi known as quintessential spirit. Below I summarize the key points from contemporary sources regarding knowledge that lies innately within humans, and discuss the Daoist perspective related to each concept and implications for contemporary education.

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Tranquillity Life at all levels from single cells, to organs, the whole body, emotions, and mind is regulated by a process known as homeostasis that maintains a state of equilibrium in the presence of change. “Managing and safekeeping life is the fundamental premise of biological value… (and) naturally guides and colors, so to speak almost everything that happens inside our very minded, very conscious brains. Biological value has the status of a principle” (Damasio, 2010, p. 23). Homeostasis, also referred to as life regulation, operates for the most part unconsciously and is expressed consciously as pleasurable feelings when conditions are optimal for life and unpleasant when conditions are not optimal (Damasio, 2010). Homeostasis is an expression of value in the sense that even at the cellular level the process selects “goods and actions that, in one way or another, will ultimately induce optimal life regulation” (Damasio, 2010, p. 56). This means of life regulation is at the root of our values and can be witnessed in all aspects of society including but not limited to morals, and individual, social, institutional behaviours (Damasio 2010). Daoists claim that tranquillity defined as the dynamic achievement of equilibrium in the presence of change (Hall and Ames, 1998) is the ruling principle of the universe including humans. They propose that by cultivating tranquillity one is aligning oneself with the ruling principle of the universe and therefore, one will experience a positive transformation in respect of physical, emotional, mental health, and spiritual awareness. Given that our whole being as defined by Damasio (2010) works to maintain tranquillity, it is not a stretch to suggest that consciously engaging in the process of cultivating tranquillity holistically as proposed by Daoists will support health and general overall well-being. A compilation of research on the effects of mindful meditation indicates a range of physical, emotional, and mental benefits that result from the practice (Goleman, & Davidson, 2017; Seppala, 2013). While there are a number of types of contemplative practices that rely on different forms of meditation, they employ similar approaches that have the aim of calming the mind. A simple definition of mindfulness is “the meditator simply notes without reactivity whatever comes to mind, such as thoughts or sensory impressions like sounds—and lets them go” (Goleman, & Davidson, 2017). This statement illustrates the principle of holding a position of equilibrium in the presence of internal or external change or stimulation. Given that homeostasis is value laden in the sense that it supports life, by logical

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extension cultivation engages one in a process of practising the virtue of supporting and enhancing life. Is there a higher virtue? Others have noted that our health, and the expression of virtues are somehow related. According to Emmons (2013) and Smith and Davidson (2014) gratitude and generosity contribute to happiness and well-being. Cole (2014) studied the impact of happiness on health indicators derived from consumptive life style compared to serving a higher purpose and concluded that the latter contributes to good health while the former does not; further “Disease, death, threat, resilience, thriving, and generativity are not value-neutral in evolutionary terms nor are they in humanitarian terms” (p. 5). While this doesn’t speak to the matter of tranquillity it does speak to the concept that values are somehow expressed unconsciously in our bodies as Damasio (2010) proposes. Daoists preferred to understand the Dao as the Way of Nature as a whole and they thought that tranquillity or holding equilibrium in the presence of dynamic change was a path to cultivation of the Dao and its virtue. As mentioned earlier, Daoists held that tranquillity is the ruling principle of the universe and by cultivating tranquillity one is aligned with the underlying principle of the universe and therefore enables the Dao and its virtue to emerge in one’s life. Tranquillity occurs in nature in the movement between day and night, and summer and winter in the sense that there is a predictable constancy in the presence of change. It can be found in the state of mind we can bring to situations where our emotional response might pull us in one or another direction. The sage holds the centre despite the pull and thereby expresses the virtue of the Dao. A passage from the Huainanzi begins by describing the concept of tranquillity in the form of harmony as witnessed in nature and concludes (provided below) with how a sage mirrors nature by cultivating tranquillity, by holding a middle position. That is, the sage is: “lenient yet firm; strict yet kind; pliant yet upright; forceful yet humane” (Major et al., 2010, p. 498). By maintaining a position between softness and hardness in interactions with others, sages avoid extremes in emotions, cultivate virtue and thereby return to or realize the Dao. The concept of homeostasis and tranquillity as a process of holding to a state of equilibrium in the presence of change can be found in several ethical frameworks. The Confucian Doctrine of the Mean contains the idea that it is important to hold a middle position, not to go to extremes in many aspects of life including morals, thought, and behaviour (Confucius, 2018). “The Mean is the great root of all-under-heaven”

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(Confucius, 2018, para B) which bears similarity to the Daoist concept that tranquillity is the ruling principle of the universe. In the Confucian context, it is seen to be a path of cultivation to realize harmony in society. The concept of holding to the middle position between two extremes can be found in Aristotle’s concept of the golden mean. This specifically applies to virtues in that between the extremes of two vices one finds virtue: for example, courage is the mean position between foolhardy recklessness and cowardice. Find a moderate position between two extremes, and you will be acting morally (Aristotle, 2006). MacIntyre (1984) in the process of interpreting Aristotle’s ethics for the current era identified regulation of emotions as a foundation of the development of ethics. That is, one needs to be able to recognize one’s emotions, whether they be anger, joy, etc., and not act impulsively on them; rather, one should step back and make a conscious deliberate choice as to how to respond to one’s emotions. In this way one educates and regulates one’s emotions and makes the virtuous choice. Ultimate tranquillity occurs when the mind is empty of thoughts, and isn’t disturbed by external phenomenon, at which point one gains access to the numinous mind that provides nondual, preverbal true knowledge unbound by worldly space-time constraints. This is the realm of spirituality which will be considered later but in more prosaic terms it might be thought of more as developing one’s intuitive abilities providing one with an internal source of knowledge. Education Implications Cultivating tranquillity defined as maintaining equilibrium in the presence of change supports the development of virtue which manifests as health and well-being at all levels, and may provide access to intuitive knowledge. From an education perspective I offer the following suggestions: • Tranquillity through various methods should be implemented in education to draw out the life-supporting values inherent in our students. • Current examples of the concept of tranquillity applied in education include: meditation, yoga, emotional intelligence, art, literature, music, and other practices. These practices should be researched thoroughly to determine how they contribute to well-being, virtue, knowledge, and wisdom.

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Innate Nature MacIntyre (1984), a contemporary scholar in the field of moral philosophy, drew from Aristotle’s Nicomachean ethics to propose that telos or one’s life purpose is an internal guide or ideal that one can use to help motivate one to pursue the ethical life through the development of virtues. Aristotle’s view was that all organisms develop from an imperfect to perfected state, where the perfect is innate within. Biologically this can be witnessed in the transformation of a seed into a plant. In the lives of individuals, it’s the achievement of that which is good for it to be. In this view every person has an ideal form that it naturally strives to realize. MacIntrye argued that knowing the difference between our current state and the ideal or our purpose provides the motivation to cultivate our virtues. While this can be as profound as Martin Luther King’s “I have a dream”, it can be simpler yet no less important for the individual. An example observed in shy students is the recognition that their current state is one of discomfort with public speaking and that speaking one’s mind is necessary to succeed in business. In order to achieve the ability to speak, one must perceive an ideal state (telos) which provides the motivation to change, have the courage to be vulnerable and regulate one’s emotion of fear to step out and practice public speaking. The concept of telos, while not exactly the same as innate nature, bears some resemblance in that it is an innate ideal that one has not reached, and it is an internally motivating force for change and growth. One of Aristotle’s concepts that MacIntyre does not address is that of the soul. Aristotle claims that all living beings have a soul including humans and that the soul is a cause and the source of the body. In Aristotle’s view the body and the soul are integrated and depend on one another; that is the soul depends on the body to reach its potential and the body cannot be animated with life without the soul. Further, the body is the means by which the soul can achieve the potential of the soul, its telos (Shields, 2016). It appears that contemporary thinkers and scientists are returning to this idea. Panksepp (2009) observed that there is a biological “soul” and Jung (1983) referred to it as an immensely old unconscious psyche that stretches back aeons and is capable of growth into the remote future. I noted that Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism all shared the concept that humans have an innate nature and that it is the goal of these traditions to realize it through various means of inner cultivation.

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Another aspect of innate nature described by Doidge (2007) and Fosha (2009a) is the claim that we inherit “innate dispositional tendencies toward, growth, learning, healing and self-righting (that) are wired deep within our brains” (Fosha, 2009a, p. 174). This disposition is an “overarching motivational force that strives toward maximal vitality, authenticity, adaption and coherence, and thus leads to growth and transformation” (Fosha, 2009a, p. 175). This motivational force can be engaged through providing the right conditions identified as providing safe, emotionally positive, caring environments and meditation (Fosha, 2009b). While the term qi or life energy is not used here I contend that the concept of a motivational energy oriented towards the flourishing of life is another way of thinking about the concepts described here. Further, Damasio’s observation that homeostasis is an innate biological process that values life suggests there is an energy or motivation with an intention towards flourishing inherent in the process. From a Daoist perspective, I observed that the innate self of all humans is animated by and moved towards flourishing through life energy or qi (Chan, 2010). Qi, body, and emotions will be considered next. Education Implications Several implications related to education arise out of this discussion. • If one has the sense of a purpose or calling that comes from within, then it is much easier to take on challenges that must be overcome to fulfil one’s purpose. One of the objectives of education should be to help students discover their innate nature, purpose, or calling. • Related to the above statement, we need to find a practical and consistent way to enhance education and the awareness of the good within students.  i, Body, Emotions, Love Q According to Traditional Chinese Medicine thinking, qi (energy) gives rise to the physical organs, and is involved in emotions and thought. In western thinking, the field of genetics and epigenetics provides several insights regarding the role of information and energy in our emotions and make-up: • The physical shape of proteins and molecules in the body is a form of information and is determined by the interaction of energy fields of molecules and atoms.

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• DNA is more like a library that is inactive. The instructions to create the molecules and proteins of life is often provided by information external to the cells which is frequently determined by our emotional response to situations. Therefore, it is not a stretch to conclude that at the very molecular level of being, energy and information are important and are integrated with our thoughts and experiences. We know from contemporary neuroscience that emotions are embodied and that emotions can be a force for healing and transformation as well as for decline as occurs with depression. Emotions, therefore, can be a transformative energy. Life appears to be imbued with a motivational force towards flourishing. A loving, positive, and caring environment, and meditation are means by which this force can be engaged Fosha (2009a). Is life energy or qi the same phenomenon as the motivational force described by Fosha (2009a)? Hard to say but what we do know is that life energy is recognized as a phenomenon in Asia: China—qi, Japan—ki, India—prana. In addition, there are well-established techniques designed to maintain, store, and enhance qi. In the Daoist tradition, cultivation of qi is seen as vital for overall well-­ being, health, and a foundation of Traditional Chinese Medicine and acupuncture. Qi is seen as integrated with every aspect of human being from the physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual. There is enough evidence in other cultures to indicate that qi energy plays an important role in life and we know that it is related to emotions. Emotions are paradoxically the entry point and obstacle to cultivation and, according to Daoists, intimately linked to innate nature and the qi life force. Our positive and negative emotions tell us what we desire and wish to avoid and information about our innate nature. Excesses in emotions, however, deplete our qi and keep us from achieving tranquillity. Perhaps the most powerful and potent emotion we know is love, yet it has not been deliberately engaged in education. Miller (2018) recommends that we overcome the embarrassment and fear we have in talking about and bringing love into the classroom. It is the “supreme emotion” that allows us “to see another person, holistically with care, concern and compassion” (Fredrickson, as quoted in Miller 2018. p. 4). Miller (2018) identifies eight kinds of love that can be brought into the classroom from self-love, to love of learning, to eros as universal love. Miller (2018) provides a caution with respect to the shadow side of eros which needs to be acknowledged and understood by the teacher.

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Working with emotions of any kind has its positive and negative sides just as when virtues and vices are paired, hate and love for example. To bring the energy of emotions into the classroom requires that the instructor must not just acquire intellectual knowledge and teaching techniques but must also develop the capacity and wisdom to manage their own emotional response and those of the students. Beyond bringing emotions into the classroom as a proxy for life energy qi, instructors will also need to be trained in the skill of developing their own qi energy so that they are able to recognize and manage the situations that arise among the diversity of students in the classroom. The types of love Miller addresses carry with them a sense of desire or attachment. For example, I teach because I love teaching, which is fine and important as it helps my motivation. I would add one more version of love that is required and consistent with Daoist thinking, and that is agape or giving, without judgement, and without expectation of return. It is this kind of love that enables one to cultivate tranquillity because one is not attached to the outcome, one just gives. Paradoxically it is impossible to be effective in the classroom without engaging all the levels of love Miller identifies. It is selfless non-judgemental love that is the antidote to the attachment arising from the other forms of love. Working with emotions naturally draws in the need to recognize the role the body plays in the unconscious storage and representation of emotions. There are techniques for working with the body-emotions. Developing awareness of one’s emotions is an important component of an ethics course that I teach (Culham Shivhare, 2019). I ask students to recall a positive or negative event in the previous week or so and then meditate. During the meditation they are asked to pay attention to their physiological experience. Following the meditation they are asked to consider and discuss in class whether there is a relationship between the emotion they recalled and what they noticed in their body. Frequently, a negative emotion results in a feeling of discomfort such as a pain and tension in a specific physical location such as the chest, back, or neck while a positive emotion results in pleasant experiences such as lightness, expansiveness, or a sense of calm. This exercise draws students out of their heads into their bodies and emotions. There are other techniques for integrating an awareness of the body-emotion connection that are helpful to students. This is one example of what has been termed inner work.

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Education Implications • Love and the antidote to attachment need to be consciously acknowledged and developed in educators and classrooms because it is a powerful positive force enabling learning and because students learn much from exemplars. • Educators should consider drawing on the deep traditions in other cultures to learn how to work with their own qi and that of others. This is a field relatively unknown and unrecognized in the west and has great depth, and great power and potential for misuse. Anyone embarking on this path is advised to train for many years within a given tradition under a qualified teacher. There are examples of those who have abused the power due to their lack of knowledge or self-­ centredness. Therefore, caution is advised. • Working with emotions is an important aspect of teaching holistically. Here again, given the view that emotions cause people to be irrational, and the penchant for objectivity over subjectivity in contemporary education, it is relatively new to think of education of emotions as a legitimate part of education. It is seen as belonging to the realm of psychologists. But now we know that emotions are integral and important to who we are and therefore rather than teaching about them in classes, instructors need to learn how to be with the full range of their own emotions and those of their students. Thus, a central component of educating educators requires development of emotional intelligence. • It is recognized that exercise is important for physical health. The connection between the body and emotions calls for an understanding of how best to create a regime that integrates the body and emotions for emotional health. As noted earlier there is much research indicating that meditation is helpful in this regard. At a minimum we could be integrating meditation into education to serve this purpose.  eart-Mind and the Numinous Mind H McGilchrist held that right hemisphere consciousness is guided by the principle of unity, and expresses the values of empathy, and relationship with the world. Further it is responsible for impulse control, the ability to foresee the consequences of actions, our sense of justice, our ability to be altruistic, and our ability to act selflessly. This stands in contrast to the left hemisphere which suppresses the consciousness of the right because it is self-referential rather than holistically oriented and can be described as

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guided by the principle of division for the purpose of getting things done. It is “dependent on denotative language and abstractions, yields clarity and power to manipulate things that are known, fixed, static, isolate, decontextualized, explicit, disembodied, general in nature, but ultimately lifeless” (McGilchrist, 2009, p.  174). A feature of ultimate right hemisphere consciousness appears to be a sense of: expansiveness, peace and contentment, connection, and oneness with all. As Jill Bolte Taylor said of her right brain consciousness following a stroke to her left brain: My soul was as big as the universe and frolicked with glee in a boundless sea… My right mind is open to the eternal flow whereby I exist at one with the universe. It is the seat of my divine mind, the knower, the wise woman, and the observer. It is my intuition and higher consciousness (p. 140).

Or Joyce Hawkes who following a near-death experience said it: established a connection between me and something much, much bigger than myself. If it is a part of God, the Source of Creation, the bond has never failed. I lost my fear of death, and with it, my fear of separation from the Source” (Hawkes, 2010, p. 8).

And David Hawkins who also had a near-death experience and observed: The person I had been no longer existed, there was no personal self or ego left—just an Infinite Presence… The world was illuminated by the clarity of an Infinite Oneness, which expressed itself as all things revealed in their immeasurable beauty and perfection (Hawkins, 2002, p.12).

Others have discussed the problems with the current consciousness that is focused on instrumental outcomes and the need for a more open expansive consciousness. Thomas Moore said: “Our current focus on facts and science and skills highlights a certain dimension of human reality but overlooks others. An emphasis on mind has generated a neglect of soul” (2005, p. 9). In his view the soul while different yet connected to the body and conscious mind is unique and requires different pedagogy “that brings the soul forward into our awareness and our list of priorities” (2005, p. 10). The qualities of the soul that need to be acknowledged and drawn out in pedagogy are that it is: “eternal, unique, contemplative, poetic, erotic, aesthetic, and transcendent” (2005, p. 10). Another perspective on working with the right hemisphere consciousness articulated above is that of the

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oneness hypothesis developed by considering “East Asian Conceptions of Virtue, Happiness and How We Are All Connected” the subtitle of the book Oneness (Ivanhoe, 2017). With the population of the planet exploding, and the consequences of global climate change becoming more apparent day by day, most can understand that we are connected; however, the conception of oneness goes beyond this observation. It suggests that recognition of oneness through our beliefs, choices, and actions contributes to “the health, benefit, and improvement of both individuals and the larger wholes of which they are parts” (Ivanhoe, 2017, p. 2), therefore, having practical implications. In simple terms we recognize that groups, whether teams of people, a pack of wolves, or gaggle of geese, participate in social communities that contribute to the well-being of the whole and individual participants. Ivanhoe (2017) argued that people with an expansive view of the self, who see themselves as part of a larger community and connected to nature forgo personal individual benefits as they may perceive these acts as helping themselves. This contrasts with the view based on the hyper-individualistic self-dominant in current philosophy, economics, and social theory which sees these acts as selfless and altruistic. The point of this observation is to offer another way to conceive of the self that might be helpful given the current challenges faced by humanity. Despite this expanded view of self, individuals remain responsible agents. There are practical benefits to conceiving the self differently than current dominant left hemisphere thinking, but Ivanhoe goes beyond this argument. He explores the full range of oneness as an experience from the simple recognition that I depend on others for my well-being to a larger sense of oneness perhaps reflected in the experiences articulated by Bolte Taylor, Hawkes, and Hawkins above. In the East Asian traditions of neoConfucianism and Daoism, the individual is seen as one with the universe where people “share an underlying pure moral core of principles and patterns … found throughout the universe” that is obscured by self-­centred desires, our bodily experience, and unequal endowment of qi. (Ivanhoe, 2017, p. 46). Perhaps neuroscience is confirming that patterns of morality are deeply embedded in our being. As stated earlier, the right hemisphere is responsible for impulse control, and the abilities: to be empathic; to foresee consequences of actions; to sense justice, to be altruistic, to act selflessly, and to take a broader and holistic perspective (McGilchrist, 2009). In support of this from a personal perspective, Bolte Taylor observed:

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My right hemisphere consciousness… is completely committed to the expression of peace, love, joy, and compassion in the world… In this shifted perception, it was impossible for me to perceive either physical or emotional loss because I was not capable of experiencing separation or individuality (p. 133).

According to Daoists and neo-Confucians, the deeper one’s self-­ cultivation, the more one is aligned with the universal principles and the more one feels a connection to the universe, virtue, and the Dao. This expanded sense of oneness provides access to pure knowing as a moral faculty unobstructed by self-centred desires. The means to achieve pure knowing is through “self-cultivation focused on removal of self-centered desires and the consequent refinement of one’s qi” (Ivanhoe, 2017, p. 65). “Pure knowing has the power to melt away and loosen the grip of self-centered desires and light our path along the Way (Dao). This process will move us from… ordinary knowledge… to real knowledge” (Ivanhoe, 2017, p.67). A broader view of pure knowing can be seen in context of the numinous mind discussed earlier. It is the ultimate awareness with “The ability to foretell the future or perceive current events from great distances” and those who possess it “display the same capacities as spirits, as they are able to transcend the ordinary limits of time and space” (Meyer, 2010, p.880). According to Daoists the means by which one achieves this state is through aligning oneself with the principles of the universe: tranquillity and virtue. A balance of left and right hemisphere consciousness would be a benefit to individuals and society and yet the concept of numinous mind or nondual awareness is barely known or spoken of in contemporary education. However, it is not unknown in the experiences of those untrained in Daoist or Buddhist practices. Recall the definition of oneness from Chap. 10 as an experience of the self as more expansive than usual: “a self that is seen as intimately connected with other people, creatures, and things in ways that conduce to their greater happiness, advantage, and well-being” (Ivanhoe, Flanagan, Harrison, Sarkissian & Schwitzgebel, 2018, pp. 1,2). Oneness is a range of experience from conscious recognition of my connection to others to profound nondual awareness experienced through contemplative practices or trauma such as near-death experiences. Vokey (2001) who considered the educational implications of Buddhist teachings regarding the concept of oneness or nondual awareness held that musicians, dancers, athletes, and other performers describe nondual

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experiences of oneness where “there is no separation between action and agent” (p. 270). Thus, oneness is available in many people’s experience whether it is those cited above who have gone through a profound awakening or others who come across it through the activities of their lives. I have witnessed students shift from a very self-centred perspective to that of caring and having empathy for others through the simple exercise of practising listening on a regular basis over a period of three months. Mona Lisa Schulz, M.D., Ph.D. (1998), a practising physician who calls herself a medical intuitive, discusses how she performs diagnosis over the phone: A person calls and tells me his or her name and age—nothing more. Then, having never met or even seen the individual in question, I perform long-­ distance ‘reading’. I discern both the person’s physical condition and the emotional state of his or her life, and explain how the two are linked together (Schulz, 1998, p. 1)

Schulz provides an account of how she not only diagnoses people’s illnesses through intuition but is able to utilize this ability to facilitate their healing (1998). Although Schulz does not discuss oneness or nondual awareness, her account reveals she experiences oneness as defined above because she is intimately connected with other people, in ways that contribute to their well-being. Further she provides instructions on how to develop intuition suggesting that pedagogy can be designed for this purpose. These are important observations in the sense that oneness is part of human experience whether profound or more mundane; therefore, it exists as a phenomenon, and the range of oneness experiences from fleeting nondual awareness of athletes to that of long-term meditators points to the possibility that pedagogy is likely available to support its development. Vokey concluded that, “the most important form of moral education we can undertake is to cultivate our own true nature so that we can be of genuine benefit to others” (2001, p.338). Cultivation in the sense used by Vokey involves acknowledging the existence of nondual awareness and engaging in practices that expand its presence in one’s awareness (2001). This has a moral or values-based aspect to it because nondual awareness1 engages reasons of the heart, enabling people to intuitively perceive 1  It is in the state nondual awareness “prior to the imposition of relative reference points— particularly and most fundamentally the reference points of self and other—that non-relative intrinsic value, moral and nonmoral, is apprehended” (Vokey, 2001, p. 269).

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intrinsic good or virtue within. Intrinsic value is defined as something or action that is valued for its own sake independent of human interests and desires (Vokey, 2001). An important insight paralleling Daoist thinking is that it is possible to discover virtue within one. As has been discussed, the orientation of Daoist practices is a process of returning to our innate nature involving a shift from a focus on the ego self to a broader awareness of one’s connection or oneness with everything. It is a process of an expansion of the self to the point where nondual experiences emerge more consistently and frequently. Vokey provides a caution with this approach in that due to our cultural and life conditioning it may be difficult for people on this path to discern the difference between intrinsic values as defined here from self-serving values dependent on human desires and interests. The investigations undertaken here indicate that oneness including nondual awareness is an aspect of our nature that is worthy of recognition and development. Education Implications • Oneness is an experience of self that extends beyond the body in a variety of ways. It can be cultivated and has a transformative impact on one’s values and relationship with others, and therefore pedagogy for developing the full range of oneness should be developed; • Investigation of the details of implementing pedagogy is called for. An example of the caution required in pedagogy is Vokey’s observation for the need to assist individuals in discerning the difference between intrinsic values and values serving human desires; • It would be a significant paradigm shift for contemporary education to integrate soul, spirit, and/or oneness into education. If we take the nature of what it means to be human as holistic, encompassing all of who we are, then expanding education from the narrow confines of mind in the sense of the left hemisphere to include—body, emotions, and the whole mind—others, the planet, and ultimately the universe, then it is likely that spirituality and a form of spiritual education will emerge from this more expansive view of education. It is proposed therefore that incremental steps of moving towards a more holistic approach to education be implemented.

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Index1

A Agape, 133, 190 Age of Reason, 69 Alchemy, 4, 6, 27, 100 Alignment, 8, 14, 43, 74, 75, 98, 99, 103, 107–158, 179, 180 All existence, 2, 3, 5, 14–16, 18, 19, 23–25, 27–33, 35, 38, 40, 44, 50, 51, 55, 156, 169, 171, 172 Allostasis, 109–112, 180 Altruistic, 8, 64, 81, 86, 191, 193 Ambiguous, 63 Ancestor/ancestral, 47 Anger, 35, 70, 72, 112, 113, 121, 123–125, 128, 138, 154, 173, 186 Anthropology, 127, 147 Anxiety, 39, 70 A priori designs, 55 Arête, 75 Aristotle, 55, 186, 187

Art, 28, 111, 137, 186 Astronomy, 94 Attachment, 89, 127, 190, 191 Authenticity, 73, 128, 129, 188 Autonomic nervous system, 112 Awakening to Reality, 18 Awareness, 6, 7, 13, 14, 25, 56, 75, 87, 89, 90, 97–99, 101, 102, 110, 119, 131, 132, 135–137, 141–143, 148, 149, 152, 153, 157, 158, 168–172, 182–184, 188, 190, 192, 194–196, 195n1 Axial Age, 54, 55 Axiology, 1, 5, 15, 16, 21–32 B Baopuzi, 108 Bhagavad Gita, 18 Bible, 19, 53

 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes.

1

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INDEX

Bigu, 17, 34 Biology, 94, 98, 109, 128, 148, 150, 179 Body, 2–7, 14, 15, 17–19, 23, 24, 26, 27, 31, 33–39, 43–45, 47, 50, 53–56, 61, 73, 74, 76, 78, 83, 85, 88, 98, 99, 101, 103, 107–119, 121, 122, 124–128, 132–142, 144, 149–156, 158, 168, 169, 171, 173, 175, 179, 180, 183–196 Bolte Taylor, Jill, 87–90, 147, 157, 176, 192, 193 Book of Changes or I Ching, 22 The Book of History, 35 Brain left and right, 8, 81–83, 85, 86, 94 Brain scans, 85 Breathing, 14, 15, 17, 27, 47, 54, 56, 99, 107, 112, 113, 119, 141, 153, 170 Breathing techniques, 34, 112 Buddha, 24, 34, 53, 55, 152 Buddhism, 15, 23, 24, 34, 37, 53, 90, 94, 100, 102, 118, 148, 155, 187 C Canoe, 145 Care, 73, 82, 86, 126, 129, 131, 147, 168, 189 Central nervous system (CNS), 112 Change, 2, 3, 15, 22, 24, 31, 33, 34, 37, 48, 53, 82, 98, 101, 109, 111, 113, 114, 119–121, 125–127, 129, 132, 137, 138, 142, 143, 148–150, 148n9, 154, 156, 167, 168, 170, 173, 180, 184–187, 193 Chanting, 112, 135 Character, 19, 46, 47, 77, 87, 156 China, 16, 18, 19, 34, 37, 45, 53, 54, 88, 93–95, 100, 102, 137

Chinese, 4, 6, 7, 17, 19, 23, 24, 35, 36, 44, 45, 50, 53, 64, 73, 86, 88, 94–96, 108, 119, 124, 132–134, 138, 169, 179 Christian, 53, 133, 149 Christianity, 24, 108 Church, 70, 148 Coherence, 128, 129, 188 Common destiny, 13, 24 Common good, 2, 169 Compassion, 5, 24, 31, 33, 46, 49, 51, 74, 89, 124, 125, 168, 173, 189, 194 Competition, 3, 83, 167, 168 Concentrating, 34, 153 Confucianism, 34, 37, 38, 53, 93, 100, 102, 169, 187 Confucius, 17, 26, 38, 55, 152, 169, 185 Conscience, 26, 167 Conscious, 6, 15, 23, 26, 43, 48, 69, 70, 83, 84, 111, 114, 115, 120, 128, 131, 132, 134, 141, 145, 169, 170, 173, 181, 184, 186, 192, 194 Consciousness, 3, 7, 13, 16, 23, 34, 35, 37, 40, 48, 55, 56, 70, 85, 87–90, 94, 103, 126, 144, 147, 148, 150, 152, 153, 155, 157, 167, 171, 173, 176, 182, 191, 192, 194 Constellations, 2, 28, 35 Contemplative practices, 7, 8, 62, 70, 71, 89, 90, 95, 99, 107, 120, 121, 129, 131, 134, 135, 137, 141, 142, 144, 147, 148, 152–154, 184, 194 Contentment, 51, 73, 78, 99, 103, 192 Cosmic wisdom, 55, 118, 168 Cosmology, 5, 15–17, 21–32, 78, 108, 122

 INDEX 

Cosmos, 1–5, 8, 13, 25, 28, 31, 45, 55, 119, 157, 168–170 The Creation of the Gods, 18 Cultivate/Cultivation, 1–8, 14, 15, 17–19, 23–28, 31, 33, 36, 37, 43–56, 63, 69–71, 75, 77, 78, 95–97, 99–103, 108–109, 111–113, 115, 117–119, 121–125, 133–142, 152–157, 168–171, 179–181, 183, 185–187, 189, 190, 195 Culture, 8, 53, 63, 69, 86, 88, 89, 93, 126, 130, 140, 146, 157, 169, 175, 176, 189, 191 D Dantian, 34, 56, 73, 118 Dao De Jing, 2, 15, 21, 22, 24–27, 29, 31, 48, 50–52, 54, 55, 74, 94, 96, 133, 135, 142, 154, 172, 179, 181 Daoist, 2–8, 13–38, 40, 43–56, 62, 63, 69–78, 87, 88, 90, 95–104, 107–113, 115, 117–128, 131–142, 147, 149–152, 155–158, 167–196 Daoist Trinity, 19 Dé 德, 50 Deliberative, 70 Didactic learning, 95 Direct perception, 7, 70 Discovering/discovery, 63, 84, 90, 181, 183 Disease, 38, 88, 114, 116, 117, 123, 185 Divination, 61 Division, 82, 94, 155, 192 DNA, 47, 114, 116, 155, 189 Doctrine of the Mean, 38, 185 Dreams of the Red Chamber, 18 Du mai, 34

203

Du Meridian, 118 Dunhuang murals, 53 E Earth, 2, 3, 14, 16, 19, 20, 26–28, 31, 36, 38, 44, 46, 94, 141, 144, 171 Effortless, 153 Einstein, Albert, 13, 73, 84, 146, 172 Electricity, 8, 25, 56, 72, 73, 98, 171 Electromagnetic, 117, 141 Embodied, 6, 73, 83, 84, 89, 109, 115, 124, 126, 140, 189 Embodiment, 4, 88, 119n3, 126, 152 Emotional intelligence, 124, 186, 191 Emotions/emotional, 3, 28, 35, 54, 64, 70, 77, 81–90, 95, 107, 112–113, 121–142, 168, 175, 183–196 Empathetic/empathy, 7, 49, 64, 86, 113, 124, 131, 191, 195 Energy, 2, 13, 21–25, 33, 43, 54, 61, 71, 73–74, 87, 93, 108, 115–119, 149, 168, 179 Energy field, 23–25, 34, 40, 115–119, 140, 141, 155, 170, 173, 188 field of energy, 116 Engineer/engineering, 61, 62, 64, 72, 87, 130, 145–147 Enlightenment, 6, 7, 24, 46, 55, 69–78, 85, 94, 147, 155, 168, 169, 172 Epigenetics, 113, 116, 188 Epistemology, 1, 5, 15, 16, 43–56 Equilibrium, 98, 101, 102, 109–111, 125, 180, 184–186 Esoteric, 90 Eudaimonic well-being, 114 Europe, 69 Evolution, 126, 128, 129 Excellence, 64, 65, 75, 78 Excitement, 83, 121

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Executive, 61 Extraordinary abilities, 54 Extrasensory, 6, 19, 25, 47, 54, 55, 118 Eye, 2, 3, 19, 25, 26, 48, 49, 51, 64, 75, 77, 83, 85, 117, 118, 130, 131, 136, 143 F Fear, 30, 39, 113, 121, 123, 126, 128, 129, 150, 187, 189, 192 Flexibility, 73 Force(s) of nature, 96 Forms, 4, 14, 15, 21, 23, 24, 26, 29, 35, 38, 40, 43, 48, 71–74, 75n1, 76, 82, 93, 95, 96, 98, 99, 101, 102, 104, 108n1, 112, 115–117, 135, 138, 140, 141, 150–154, 168, 170–172, 180, 181, 183–185, 187, 188, 190, 195, 196 Franklin, Benjamin, 73 Freedom, 13, 15, 18, 28, 44, 182 The Fundamental Teachings of Cultivating Character and Life Energy, 34 G Gene expression, 113, 114 Generosity, 65, 185 Genesis, 19 Genome/genomics, 113–115 Gestalt, 83 God, 13, 18–20, 36, 133, 144, 148–151, 176, 192 Golden Flower, 14, 118 Good, 1, 2, 6, 7, 14, 26, 27, 29, 32, 34, 36, 37, 40, 44, 47, 49–50, 52, 53, 55, 56, 61–66, 75–78, 85, 86, 101, 110, 111, 114, 119,

120, 125, 129, 133, 137, 138, 140, 141, 154–156, 169, 170, 184, 185, 187, 188, 196 Gratitude, 7, 65, 170, 173, 185 Gravity, 7, 75, 76, 146, 147 The Great Learning, 38, 55, 157 The Great Peace Sutra, 18 Greece, 88 Greek, 7, 19, 64, 65, 75, 88, 89, 139, 179, 181 Growth, 8, 22, 27, 28, 31, 34, 50, 72, 76, 128–130, 170, 187, 188 Guanzi, 38 H Haemoglobin, 114, 116, 117 Happiness, 65, 77, 81, 102, 112, 114, 115, 138, 148, 169, 170, 179, 185, 194 Harmony, 3, 5, 14, 15, 22, 27, 33, 44, 46, 55, 61, 101, 132, 167, 185, 186 Hawkes, Joyce, 150, 192, 193 Hawkins, David, 150, 151, 192, 193 Health, 1, 2, 8, 13, 18, 27, 34–36, 56, 61, 64–66, 72, 77, 84, 88, 89, 94, 96, 107, 110, 111, 113–115, 117, 119–122, 124, 131, 137, 138, 141, 147, 167, 169, 170, 179, 180, 184–186, 189, 191, 193 Heart, 3, 14, 15, 23, 24, 26, 28, 38, 43, 51–53, 62, 78, 103, 107, 112, 113, 115, 117, 118, 121, 123, 124, 128, 131–133, 140, 142, 152, 156, 168–171, 173, 195 Heart-mind, 16, 43, 47, 52, 71, 99, 125, 130–139, 183, 191–196 Heart, mind and spirit, 2, 4, 14, 37, 55, 157, 168, 169, 171 Heart-to-heart transmission, 37

 INDEX 

Hedonic well-being, 114 Hemisphere (brain), 8, 86, 94 Holistic, 7, 73, 83, 86, 119, 138, 169, 170, 173, 175, 176, 193, 196 Homeostasis, 98, 109–112, 126, 179, 180, 184, 185, 188 Huainanzi, 95, 99, 100, 102, 134, 135 Humanity, 1, 13, 24, 34, 54, 81, 193 Humility, 5, 14, 25, 30, 31, 33, 51, 52, 74, 139, 170, 171, 173 Hun Yuan Qi, 23 I I Ching, 16, 16n1, 17, 22, 26, 52, 61 Immortal child, 34, 37 Immortality, 1–6, 13, 15, 17–19, 24–28, 33–40, 44, 46, 46n1, 56, 119, 141, 167 Immortals, 14, 15, 17–19, 26, 28, 29, 34–37, 39, 40, 46, 49, 54 Immortal Self, 2, 5, 24, 37, 47, 50, 56, 118 Incarnations, 53 Individual, 1, 6, 8, 63, 65, 69–71, 74, 76, 85, 87, 96, 99, 100, 108, 110, 112, 115–118, 128, 137, 142n8, 147, 148, 152, 153, 155, 169, 170, 180, 181, 183, 184, 187, 193–196 Inflammation/inflammatory, 114 Information, 2, 25, 45, 48, 84, 85, 96, 99, 113, 114, 116–118, 120, 125, 127, 140, 141, 155, 176, 179, 188, 189 Inner alchemy, 100 Inner Canon, 28 Inner child, 2, 27, 46 Inner Sutra, 35, 119, 138 Inner work, 8, 38, 95, 98, 100, 179, 181–183

205

Integration/integrative, 7, 35, 70, 82, 88, 100, 115, 125, 127–129, 152, 173, 182 Integrity, 65, 66, 100, 124 Intellectual, 61, 70, 73, 89, 95, 157, 158, 169, 170, 190 Intelligence, 14, 71, 110, 118, 124, 156, 157, 169, 171, 186, 191 Intentionality, 26, 37, 56, 170 Interbeing, 3, 14, 55 Interdependence, 3, 5, 15, 24, 30, 51, 55, 112–113, 173 Intuition, 14, 83, 84, 94, 139, 192, 195 Intuitive, 54, 55, 84–87, 131, 157, 186, 195 J Jesus, 29, 53 Jing, vital essence, 99, 108 Jiu Hua Shan, 62, 146 Joy, 64, 70, 72, 113, 121, 123, 125, 128, 138, 156, 186, 194 Justice, 86, 111, 191, 193 K Kidney, 35, 48, 123, 124 Kirlian photography, 23 Knowledge, 6, 7, 13, 16, 43, 51, 53, 54, 56, 62, 63, 76, 77, 84, 93, 94, 99, 104, 107, 115, 120, 125, 143, 153, 157, 169, 181–183, 186, 190, 191, 194 L Language, 70, 82, 86, 87, 94, 95, 104, 130, 139, 157, 192 Laozi, 2, 17–19, 21, 24–26, 29, 31, 33, 34, 40, 44, 48, 50–52, 54, 55, 74, 125, 152, 169

206 

INDEX

Laws, 1, 2, 28, 29, 31, 33, 50, 70, 111, 149, 171–173 Learning, 6, 8, 47–49, 52, 53, 61, 66, 73, 95, 109, 110, 120, 128, 129, 133, 139, 143, 167, 169, 170, 173, 180, 182, 188, 189, 191 Leibniz, G.W., 40 Life energy, 3, 5, 7, 8, 13–15, 25, 29, 36, 46, 47, 53, 56, 61, 71, 74, 76, 93, 95, 96, 98, 119, 127, 140, 150, 168, 170, 171, 173, 179, 180, 183, 188–190 Life forces, 13, 25, 28, 55, 103, 168, 171, 175, 189 Life regulation, 111, 184 Life system, 2 Light, 4, 15, 23, 24, 26, 33, 37, 44, 51, 53, 62, 72, 121, 137, 148, 150, 154, 155, 158, 172, 194 Limitless, 101, 152 Linear, 7, 27, 85, 137 Liu Hua-Yang, 40 Liver, 35, 48, 123, 124 Longevity, 1–3, 13, 17, 18, 35, 38, 56, 75, 77, 119, 141, 167, 169 Love, 5, 13, 14, 23, 24, 31, 33, 37, 48, 84, 113, 125, 130–133, 142, 146, 150, 151, 154, 156, 167, 168, 170–173, 188–191, 194 Lung, 35, 115, 124 Lust, 103, 126, 129 M Mathematics, 94 Matter, 8, 22, 25, 26, 28, 37, 39, 40, 46, 48, 64, 65, 71–73, 75, 76, 82, 86, 93, 98, 111, 115–117, 120–122, 125, 128, 146, 148, 150, 151, 154, 168, 180, 185 Meditation/meditating, 2, 5, 6, 13–15, 17, 23, 25, 27, 28,

35–37, 40, 43, 46–49, 53–56, 61, 62, 89, 90, 111, 112, 118, 120, 129, 135, 139, 141, 148, 151, 154, 169–171, 175, 179, 180, 182, 184, 186, 188–191 Mencius, 26, 169 Mental, 7, 17, 64, 66, 73–77, 83, 84, 95, 99, 101, 103, 107, 109, 112, 118, 120, 124, 131, 135, 141–143, 153, 154, 179, 180, 184, 189 Mental and physical health, 107 Meridians, 26, 29, 34–38, 47, 48, 56, 115, 117–119 Metamorphosis, 35, 155 Mind, 1, 14, 23, 37, 43, 47, 48, 53, 54, 61, 75, 82, 98, 107, 168, 175 Mindfulness, 27, 55, 135, 170, 184 Miracles, 34, 56, 118, 146 Missinaibi River, 145 Monk, 45, 46, 62, 146 The Monkey King’s Journey to the West, 18, 45 Morality/moral, 1, 3, 26, 29, 31, 33, 64, 66, 69, 71, 73, 75, 75n1, 85, 86, 95, 96, 111, 119, 138, 169, 172, 184, 185, 187, 193–195, 195n1 Moral judgment, 86, 115, 181 Motivation, 84, 129, 187, 188, 190 Mountains, 4, 19, 38, 45, 56, 109, 141–143, 171 Mysterious, 25, 38, 52, 94, 95, 115, 143 Mystical, 15, 16, 18, 47, 70, 87, 90, 94, 108, 118, 146, 152, 156 Myth, 19, 145, 146 N Native culture, 146 Near-death, 147, 150, 151, 154, 192, 194

 INDEX 

Neiye (Inward training), 38, 76, 76n2, 77, 96, 98–100, 102, 103, 108, 112, 133–136, 138, 153, 181, 182 Neurological experiments, 84 Neuroscience, 81–90, 108, 121, 126, 127, 135, 181, 189, 193 Newton, I., 146 Noncognitive, 95 Non-competition, 31, 52 Nondual, 94, 136, 137, 149, 153, 186, 194–196, 195n1 Numinous, 134–137, 142, 153, 183, 186, 191–196 O Objective, 6, 37, 63, 69, 76, 83, 102, 109, 130, 138, 139, 147, 188 Ocean, 23, 38, 53, 143 Oneness, 5, 30, 55, 135, 147, 149, 151, 156, 173, 192–196 Ontario, 145 Ontology, 1, 5, 176 Origin, 1, 16–19, 25, 27, 40, 71, 78, 117, 126, 133, 151, 169 The Original God on Resonance and Retribution, 18, 36, 49 Original Qi, 27, 34–36, 118, 119, 152, 156 Original spirit, 100, 132 Oxygen, 31, 110, 111, 114, 116, 119, 122 P Panic, 126, 129 Paradigm, 8, 62, 85, 117, 139, 147, 151, 196 Paradox, 63, 77, 94, 101, 136, 139, 153, 154 Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), 113 Pathology, 97, 138

207

Peace, 2, 13, 17, 24, 26, 31, 33, 44, 51, 52, 73, 103, 148, 150, 167–169, 173, 182, 192, 194 Personality, 71, 176 Phenomenon, 4, 6, 7, 19, 47, 62, 63, 69, 74–76, 94, 100, 116, 119n3, 121, 124n6, 129, 141, 147, 151, 176, 179, 180, 183, 186, 189, 195 Philosopher, 45, 55, 76, 97, 139 The Philosopher King, 55 Philosophy, 3, 6, 7, 13, 21–32, 40, 44, 45, 61, 62, 69–78, 81, 88, 100, 115, 146, 147, 168, 169, 172, 181, 187, 193 Physical, 3, 7, 15, 18, 23, 25–28, 35, 39, 40, 47, 48, 55, 64–66, 70–77, 84, 95, 99, 108, 112, 113, 115, 116, 119–122, 128, 130, 137, 138, 141, 149, 153, 170–172, 179, 180, 184, 188–191, 194, 195 Piety, 37, 47, 155 Plato, 40, 55, 76, 181 Playfulness, 126 Politics, 111 Positivist paradigm, 61, 145, 147 Posture, 14, 15, 112, 126 Power, 1, 5, 18, 20, 24, 25, 27, 28, 36, 46, 51, 56, 70, 73, 75, 82, 86, 95–98, 96n2, 102, 108, 127, 131, 134, 138, 156, 158, 171, 176, 191, 192, 194 Practitioner, 2, 4, 5, 15, 34, 37, 56, 76n2, 100, 129, 141, 153–155 Prediction, 63 Premonition, 145, 146 Primordial Qi, 13, 15, 23–26, 28, 29, 35, 38, 40, 172 Principle, 5, 6, 14, 15, 19, 25, 31, 47, 51–52, 55, 69, 76, 77, 82, 88, 98, 100, 109, 111, 123, 138, 140, 152, 168, 170, 181, 184, 185, 191–194

208 

INDEX

Proteins, 114, 116, 117, 188, 189 Psychic energies, 126 Psychology, 85, 126, 127, 129, 147, 181 Psychopathology, 127 Pure, 15, 26, 27, 33–35, 54, 63, 97, 121, 138, 180, 181, 193, 194 Q Qi, 2, 13, 21–40, 43, 61, 69–71, 93–104, 107–158, 167–196 Qigong, 61, 113, 119, 120, 130, 135, 143, 144, 175 Qi knowing, 169, 170 Quantum physics, 16, 25, 48, 156 Quintessential qi, 103, 144, 153 R Rage, 126, 129 Reasoning, 6, 69, 70, 83 Reductionist, 73, 148 Religion, 13, 18, 19, 48, 69, 93, 111, 142, 145, 147, 150 Ren mai, 34 Ren Meridian, 118 Replicability, 63 Resilience, 46, 110, 113, 115, 185 Resonance, 2, 24, 35–38, 44–45, 131, 169, 170 Ricard, Matthieu, 147, 148, 148n9 Romain, Philip St., 148, 149 Romans of the Three Kingdoms, 18 Ruling principle, 103, 111, 112, 184–186 S Sadness, 35, 72, 102, 112, 113, 121, 125, 128 Sage, 3, 5, 16–19, 23–26, 28, 29, 33, 34, 36, 38–40, 50–52, 54, 55,

87–89, 94, 96, 101, 108, 138, 151, 152, 154, 155, 157, 169, 170, 185 Scholastic-Aristotelians, 69 Science/scientific, 4–7, 15, 16, 18, 28, 31, 37, 61–65, 69, 74, 76, 78, 84, 85, 88, 90, 93–95, 104, 107–119, 121, 125–133, 139, 145–148, 151, 168, 170–172, 175, 179, 183, 192 Scientific progress, 85 The Seal of the Unity of the Three, 18 The Secret of the Golden Flower, 18, 132 Self-centered, 8, 81, 130, 148, 151, 176, 193–195 Selfless, 5, 74, 131, 190, 193 Self-referential, 83, 86, 176, 191 Sensory system, 2 Service, 5, 8, 14, 24, 31, 33, 52, 72, 171, 173 Shanghai, 62, 146 Shen Nong, 108, 109 Shen Qi, 27 Sickle cell disease, 116 Simon Fraser University, 62 Simplicity, 5, 51 Sky, 16, 19, 26, 38, 45, 143 Social-environmental conditions, 114 Social well-being, 75 Society, 1, 2, 5, 18, 20, 44, 47, 55, 74, 75, 81, 84, 86, 88, 120, 142, 155, 167–170, 179, 184, 186, 194 Sociology, 127 Socrates, 6, 55, 69, 75, 181 Softness, 5, 24, 25, 31, 33, 51, 52, 101, 125, 139, 173, 185 Solar system, 14, 29, 31 Somatic, 55, 127 Soul, 14, 23, 33, 45, 73, 128, 150, 171, 173, 176, 181, 187, 192, 196

 INDEX 

Spirit illumination, 152, 157 Spiritual, 3, 7, 8, 13, 18, 22–24, 28, 31, 34, 35, 48, 54, 55, 62, 72, 74–77, 85, 93, 97, 108, 112, 119, 124, 138, 147–149, 151, 155–157, 169, 171, 172, 176, 179, 184, 189, 196 Spiritual child, 2 Spirituality, 62, 81–90, 103, 108, 134, 137, 142, 144–156, 183, 186, 196 Spontaneous, 25, 44, 133, 142 Sports, 73 Stars, 2, 15, 27–29, 31, 35, 38, 56, 64, 88, 109, 119 Stillness, 76n2, 98, 101, 102, 109, 111, 154 Subconscious, 36, 37, 43, 48, 139, 155, 170, 173 Subjective, 63, 93, 127 Subtle, 2, 8, 18, 25, 27, 44, 48, 52, 53, 64, 72, 74, 94, 95, 99, 137, 142–144, 152 Supernatural, 6, 18, 24, 25, 46, 118 Superstitious, 70, 146 Supreme Ultimate, 100 Surveying Obscurities, 143 Survival, 3, 81, 82, 89, 129, 130, 179 Sympathetic nervous system (SNS), 113 Systems, 2, 14, 18, 19, 22, 23, 31, 34, 36, 45, 84, 113, 115, 117, 126, 139, 140, 152, 169, 181, 182 T Tai Chi, 44, 154 Teachers, 13, 37, 46–48, 52–56, 125, 137, 156, 157, 171, 189, 191 Techniques of the Mind Part I, 96

209

Technologies, 2–4, 6–8, 14–16, 23, 24, 28, 72–74, 87, 89, 90, 93–104, 111, 134, 167, 168 technology of the self, 73 Teleportation, 16, 17, 24, 118 Theory of mind, 139 The Yellow Emperor’s Hidden Code Sutra, 15, 18, 27, 48, 49 Third Eye, 24, 29, 48, 118 Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), 35, 36, 117, 121–124, 151, 188, 189 Training, 7, 62, 72, 73, 143, 147, 175 Traits, 37, 71, 124 The Tranquility Sutra, 18, 44 Tranquility/tranquillity, 2, 15, 24, 25, 28, 34, 38, 44, 50, 51, 56, 71, 74, 76, 77, 98, 99, 101–104, 111, 112, 120, 125, 134–136, 138–142, 153, 154, 157, 180, 183–196 Transformation, 5, 6, 8, 22, 28, 35, 37, 40, 43, 51, 73, 74, 85, 89, 97, 100, 101, 107, 125–132, 138, 147, 149, 154, 179, 181, 183, 184, 187–189 Truth, 6, 7, 14, 69, 70, 76, 82, 94 U Unbalance, 121, 124 Unconscious, 43, 83–86, 107, 112, 115, 126, 128, 132, 139, 170, 173, 179, 181–183, 187, 190 Unique nature/innate nature, 7, 71, 77, 99–104, 111, 121, 124, 125, 127–130, 133, 136, 139, 153, 180, 183–196 Unity, 8, 13, 14, 16, 27–32, 61, 62, 73, 81, 82, 146, 153, 154, 157, 191

210 

INDEX

Universal knowledge, 63 Universe, 1–3, 5, 6, 13–19, 21–23, 25–35, 37–40, 44–46, 48, 49, 55, 56, 63, 70, 71, 74, 97, 103, 109, 111, 117, 118, 132, 137, 140, 152, 156, 167–170, 172, 173, 179, 184–186, 192–194, 196 moral universe, 3, 29, 172 University of Victoria, 142

118, 137, 156, 167, 168, 171, 173, 179, 186, 190 Worry, 18, 73, 121, 123, 124, 181 Wuwei, 25, 54, 142 Wuwei (non-action), 51

V Value, 1, 8, 43, 63, 74, 81, 86, 88, 90, 101, 110, 111, 115, 128, 133, 147, 157, 176, 179, 184–186, 188, 191, 195, 195n1, 196 Vipassana, 61 Virtue, 1, 14, 21–40, 43, 63, 69–78, 86, 89–90, 93–104, 107–158, 167–196 Visualization, 17, 27, 34, 47, 54, 56, 94, 154, 170 Vitality, 47, 77, 82, 128, 129, 188 Vital life energy, 3, 13–15, 25, 36, 53, 56, 96, 119, 170, 171

Y Yang, 21, 22, 25, 27, 31, 34, 36, 40, 46, 118, 154, 172 Yang Shen, 27, 37 Yellow Emperor, 15, 17, 18, 27, 28, 35, 36, 39, 48, 49, 119, 132, 138 Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Medicine, 17, 122 Yin, 21, 22, 25, 27, 31, 36, 40, 46, 96n1, 118, 154, 172 Yuan Qi, 35

W Waterfall, 8, 72, 98, 145, 146 Wellness, 4 Western philosophy, 69 Wisdom, 4, 5, 8, 13, 17–19, 34, 38, 39, 43, 46, 55, 72, 73, 75, 77, 87, 88, 94, 96, 97, 102, 109,

X Xin (heart-mind), 134

Z Zaohua 造化 , or creative or transformative power, 156 Zhang Daoling, 19 Zhen Qi, 27, 28, 34, 36, 37, 39, 47, 50, 118, 119 Zhen Ren, 15, 18, 37, 39 Zhuangzi, 15, 17, 18, 26, 30, 38, 39, 54, 55, 169