Dance, Dancers and the Performance Cohort in the Old Kingdom 9781407302966, 9781407333038

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright
Acknowledgements
Glossary
Abbreviations and Bibliography
Introduction
Chapter 1:1 Typology
Chapter 1:2 Performers, their institutions and titles
Chapter 1:3 Terminology
Part II: The Genres
Chapter 1 Dance Style 1 – Diamond Dance
Chapter 2 Dance Style 2 – Salute
Chapter 2:3 Dance Style 3 - Swastika Pose and dances with batons
Chapter 2:4 Dance Style 4 – Harvest Dance
Chapter 2:5 Dance Style 5 – Pair Dance
Chapter 2:6 Dance Style 6 – Enchaînements: steps in Sequence including Pirouette, High Step, Stride, Kick, Linked Hand Dances and other Miscellaneous steps
Chapter 2:7 Dance Style 7a – the Dance of the Mww1
Chapter 2:8 Dance Style 8 – Boys’ Game
Chapter 2:9 Dance style 9 –The Hathoric Layout Pose
Chapter 2:10 Dance style 10 – Mirror Dance
Chapter 2:11 Observations and Conclusions
Appendix A
Appendix B

Citation preview

Dance, Dancers and the Performance Cohort in the Old Kingdom

Lesley Kinney

BAR International Series 1809 2008

ISBN 9781407302966 paperback ISBN 9781407333038 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407302966 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

Acknowledgements This book is based on my doctoral thesis which would not have been possible without the financial assistance of the Australian Postgraduate Award and the Macquarie University Postgraduate Research Award, which have allowed me to pursue, unencumbered and with total absorption, a vocation entirely of my choice. Many thanks to the staff of the Macquarie University Research office for their assistance in accessing these funds. In particular, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Naguib Kanawati, for his encouragement, support and ability to navigate tricky beaurocratic processes and for allowing me to use the Australian Centre for Egyptology drawings for this publication. To the following friends and colleagues at Macquarie I extend my gratitude: for technical support par excellence, I am indebted to Bronte Somerset, who put her faith behind my fledgling animation and multimedia projects with enthusiasm, sensitivity and the knowledge and skill to see them through to fruition; Dr David Phillips, for his sagacious advice and continued encouragement; Professor Chris Evans for wit when needed and technical support at conferences; Linda Evans for moral support, passing on relevant articles and conference details, advice on the dating of some tombs and publishing my animations on the web; Dr. Boyo Ockinga for his support, especially in the final stages of the thesis, with advice on references and translation; Mary Hartley, who assisted with the redrawing of some figures; Kim McCorquodale for passing on relevant articles; Suzanne Binder, for proofing and advice on layout; Andrew Miller and Veronica, the distance librarians, who made it possible for me to study at a distance from Sydney. To others outside Macquarie University, my thanks are extended to Dr. Tony Souter who generously edited a particularly wordy chapter; Kristy Overs for editing and last minute advice; Dianne Foster who opened her home to me during my visits to Sydney and who personally visited the Metropolitan Museum of Art to obtain a photograph of the dance scene from the tomb of Ra-m-kA.i; Valerie Walden, who tirelessly ploughed through and proofed the initial drafts and meticulously reconciled the numbers; Kate Burnham and Martin Stott for encouragement and Sydney accommodation; my new friends in Luxor, Ronnie and John, who took me off the beaten track and uncovered littleknown treasures – ancient and modern; Dr. Catherine Runcie for encouragement and conference opportunities and Patricia Rovik for encouragement, and enthusiastic guidance. This work is the result of a multi-faceted life and career path and I dedicate it to the mentors in my life, past and present: Beth Dean, AO, who taught me to dance and introduced me to the then new field of dance anthropology, of which she was a pioneer; Mr Davies, my primary schoolteacher, who encouraged me to be academic and introduced me to the fields of Egyptology and art; Kevin Connor, who taught me to paint; Dr Robert Mitchell, who taught me to sing and generously assisted with the editing of this book; and my supervisor Professor Naguib Kanawati,who provided scholarly support, wit, encouragement and who never doubted the topic of dance was a valid area of research in Egyptology.

i

Table of Contents Acknwledgements ............................................................................................................................................................... i Glossary of terms used....................................................................................................................................................... vi Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................................... viii Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 1

Part I: Typology, Titles, terminology ............................................................................................... 6 Chapter I: 1 Typology ...................................................................................................................................................... 6 Criteria for classification ......................................................................................................................................... 6 Overview of genres ................................................................................................................................................. 8 Chapter 1: 2 Performers, their Institutions and Titles ................................................................................................ 20 Performance Institutions........................................................................................................................................ 20 Xnr ......................................................................................................................................................................... 20 Gender of the xnr................................................................................................................................................... 20 function of the xnr ................................................................................................................................................. 21 The institutional aspect of the xnr ......................................................................................................................... 23 SnDt [Acacia House] ............................................................................................................................................. 23 ¤Smty n SnDt [Butchers of the Acacia House] ........................................................................................................ 24 Court musicians ..................................................................................................................................................... 25 Who was Who: A Prosopography of Performers and their Titles ......................................................................... 26 Roles of ritualists associated with dance ............................................................................................................... 33 ihAbw .................................................................................................................................................................... 33 Vocations and hierarchy within the xnr ................................................................................................................ 34 Status of the xnrwt ................................................................................................................................................. 36 Gender and hierarchy ............................................................................................................................................ 36 Embodiment roles.................................................................................................................................................. 37 Embodiment in the cult of Hathor ......................................................................................................................... 38 xnywt in the cult of Hathor .................................................................................................................................... 39 mnit, mnit wrt ........................................................................................................................................................ 40 Ihyw ....................................................................................................................................................................... 40 Chapter 1: 3 Terminology ............................................................................................................................................. 42 Captions and classification .................................................................................................................................... 42 Dance terms used to caption dance scenes ............................................................................................................ 43 Dance captioned HAt ............................................................................................................................................. 43 Dance captioned ibA .............................................................................................................................................. 43 Dance captioned xbt (xbi) ...................................................................................................................................... 44 Terms relating to accompaniment in dance scenes................................................................................................ 45 The terms Hst and mAHt and the differentiation of Musical vocations ............................................................................................................................................... 45 Dance terms ........................................................................................................................................................... 50 Terms related to Accompaniment in dance scenes ................................................................................................ 51 Names of Performance Institutions ....................................................................................................................... 51 Summary ............................................................................................................................................................... 51

Part II: The Genres ......................................................................................................................... 53 Chapter 1:

Dance Style 1 -Diamond Dance .............................................................................................................. 54

Typology ............................................................................................................................................................... 64 Distribution............................................................................................................................................................ 65 ii

Context And Scene Arrangement .......................................................................................................................... 65 Caption .................................................................................................................................................................. 67 Variations In Dance Iconography .......................................................................................................................... 68 Height Of Working Foot ....................................................................................................................................... 68 Arm Height Of Dancers......................................................................................................................................... 68 Costume Of Dancers ............................................................................................................................................. 71 Later Developments .............................................................................................................................................. 72 Chapter 2:

Dance Style 2 –Salute .............................................................................................................................. 73

Typology ............................................................................................................................................................... 73 Sub-Group 2.A - High Arm Bent Or With A Slight Curve ................................................................................... 73 Salute Cluster 2.A1................................................................................................................................................ 77 Salute Cluster 2.A2................................................................................................................................................ 77 Salute Cluster 2.A3................................................................................................................................................ 78 Salute Cluster 2.A4................................................................................................................................................ 79 Sub-Group 2.B - Straight Arm With Flexed Hand ................................................................................................ 80 Sub-Group 2.C - Xn Gesture .................................................................................................................................. 81 Sub-Group 2.D - Arm Bent With Hand Placed Against The Head ....................................................................... 82 Other ...................................................................................................................................................................... 83 Distribution............................................................................................................................................................ 84 Context .................................................................................................................................................................. 84 Foot Height ............................................................................................................................................................ 84 Costume ................................................................................................................................................................. 84 Associations With Other Genres ........................................................................................................................... 85 Later Developments .............................................................................................................................................. 87 Chapter 3: Dance Style 3 –Swastika Pose And Dances With Batons ...................................................................... 88 Typology ............................................................................................................................................................... 88 Sub-Group 3.A - The Swastika Pose Without Batons ........................................................................................... 88 Cluster 3.A1 .......................................................................................................................................................... 90 Cluster 3.A2 - Solo Swastika Dancer With Diamond Dancers ............................................................................. 90 Sub-Group 3.B - Boomerang Dance...................................................................................................................... 91 Sub-Group 3.C - Swastika And Salute Dances With Sistra .................................................................................. 93 Sub-Group 3.D - Static Poses With Various Batons ............................................................................................. 94 Distribution............................................................................................................................................................ 95 Costume ................................................................................................................................................................. 95 Batons .................................................................................................................................................................... 97 Context .................................................................................................................................................................. 98 Evidence Of The Genre In Early Writing .............................................................................................................. 98 Origin .................................................................................................................................................................... 98 Later Developments .............................................................................................................................................. 98 Purpose Of Throwing Sticks ................................................................................................................................. 99 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................................................... 100 Chapter 4: Dance Style 4 – Harvest Dance .............................................................................................................. 101 Sub-Group 4.A - Rhyhmic Movement With Long Sticks ................................................................................... 101 Sub-Group 4.B - Rhythmic Movement And Percussion .................................................................................... 104 Sub-Group 4.C - Combat With Sticks ................................................................................................................. 105 Caption ................................................................................................................................................................ 107 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................................................... 107 Chapter 5:

Dance Style 5 – Pair Dance ................................................................................................................. 108

Typology ............................................................................................................................................................. 112 Variations In Pose ............................................................................................................................................... 112 Distribution.......................................................................................................................................................... 113 Context ................................................................................................................................................................ 113 Tombs With Pair Dancing Performed Alongside Other Dance Genres .............................................................. 113 Caption And Pose ................................................................................................................................................ 117 iii

Dancers ................................................................................................................................................................ 120 Costume ............................................................................................................................................................... 121 Hairstyle .............................................................................................................................................................. 122 Associations With The Mww Dance Genre ........................................................................................................ 122 Chapter 6: Dance Style 6 – Enchaînements; Steps In Sequence Including Pirouette, High Step, Stride, Kick, Linked Hand Dance Sequences And Other Miscellaneous Steps ............................................................................ 124 Sub-Group 6.A - The Pirouette ........................................................................................................................... 124 Sub-Group 6.A1 - The Solo Pirouette ................................................................................................................. 124 Sub-Group 6.A2 - Partnered Pirouette, ............................................................................................................... 126 Sub-Group 6.B - High Step ................................................................................................................................. 128 Sub-Group 6.B1- Solo High Step ........................................................................................................................ 128 Sub-Group 6.B2 - Partnered High Step ............................................................................................................... 128 Sub-Group 6.C And 6.D - Kick And Stride......................................................................................................... 130 Sub-Group 6.C - Kick ......................................................................................................................................... 130 Sub-Group 6.D - Stride........................................................................................................................................ 131 Sub-Group 6.E - Linked Hand Dances ................................................................................................................ 132 Distribution Of Sub-Groups ................................................................................................................................ 133 Context ................................................................................................................................................................ 133 Captions............................................................................................................................................................... 134 Costume ............................................................................................................................................................... 134 Other Scenes With No Parallel ............................................................................................................................ 136 Chapter 7:

Dance Style 7a – The Dance Of The Mww ......................................................................................... 138

Distribution.......................................................................................................................................................... 139 Typology ............................................................................................................................................................. 140 Contextual Iconography ...................................................................................................................................... 140 Costume And Headdress ..................................................................................................................................... 141 Etymological Iconography of The Mww Headdress ............................................................................................ 142 Later Developments ............................................................................................................................................ 142 Dance Style 7b (W)nwn Funerary Dance............................................................................................................. 144 Chapter 8: Dance Style 8 - Boys’ Game .................................................................................................................. 146 Typology ............................................................................................................................................................. 147 Distribution.......................................................................................................................................................... 147 Context ................................................................................................................................................................ 149 Chapter 9:

Dance Style 9 – The Hathoric Layout Pose ....................................................................................... 154

Typology ............................................................................................................................................................. 157 Distribution.......................................................................................................................................................... 157 Context ................................................................................................................................................................ 160 Scenes With Mixed Genres ................................................................................................................................. 160 Hathoric Association ........................................................................................................................................... 161 Gender Of Dancers .............................................................................................................................................. 161 Variations In Pose ............................................................................................................................................... 161 Costume ............................................................................................................................................................... 161 Hairstyle .............................................................................................................................................................. 161 Accompaniment................................................................................................................................................... 162 Influences On Later Dance Styles ....................................................................................................................... 162 Chapter 10: Dance Style 10 – Mirror Dance ............................................................................................................ 164 Typology ............................................................................................................................................................. 164 Caption ................................................................................................................................................................ 165

iv

Chapter 11: Observations and Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 168 Relative size of dancers ....................................................................................................................................... 170 Chronological Distribution and developments ................................................................................................... 170 Geographic distribution of genres ....................................................................................................................... 171 Context ................................................................................................................................................................ 171 Mixed genres ....................................................................................................................................................... 172 Dance scenes with mixed Gender........................................................................................................................ 172 Costume ............................................................................................................................................................... 172 Chronological indicators ..................................................................................................................................... 172 Genre and Gender ................................................................................................................................................ 173

Part III: Appendices Appendix A: Appendix B:

Dating Legend ..................................................................................................................................... 174 Conspectus of dance scenes (prosopography) ................................................................................... 175

v

Glossary Ballet terms grand battement

Throwing the working leg to its maximum height with the knees straight.

développé

An unfolding of the working leg, through a bending of the knee, to a fully extended position in the air.

enchaînement

A number of steps executed in sequence.

demi pointe

half point, standing on the balls of the feet.

flick kick

Similar to a developpé but executed quickly and percussively.

layout

A grand battement to the front with the torso thrown backwards in counter balance.

pirouette

Pivoting on one leg with the other leg held in a particular position, usually a retiré.

retiré

The toe of the working leg is raised to a point just below the knee.

Acrobatic terms bend-back The back is arched backwards from a standing position, to a point at which the hands reach the ground behind, sometimes referred to as a ‘bridge’. Tinsky/ walkover A Tinsky is an acrobatic movement which may be executed in a forwards or backwards direction. In the backwards direction, the back is arched backwards from a standing position, to a point at which the hands reach the ground behind (as for a ‘bridge’), the legs are then thrown over behind the hands in a slow and controlled manner until the feet touch the ground, the performer then recovers to an upright position. Acrobats call the movement a Tinsky and gymnasts call the movement a ‘walkover’. Terms related to accompaniment rhythmist For the sake of clarity the word ‘rhythmist’ in this thesis refers to people who clap their hands as a rhythmic accompaniment, usually for dance. clapper The term ‘clappers’ is reserved for the sticks, often hand shaped, which may also be struck together as a rhythmic accompaniment to dance. Clappers may be held by the dancers themselves and used as self-accompaniment. Terms employed to describe contexts Presentation Scene Dance scenes appear in a number of contexts the most common of which is the Presentation Scene. This is typically a scene with the large figure of the tomb owner viewing various entertainments including the playing of board games, dance and musical items. Usually an offering table is included at the top of the scene, with the presentation of offerings, bread baking and other food preparations in the registers below. Sometimes presentation scenes are placed in an outdoor setting, particularly a marshland.

vi

Funerary scenes Dance also plays a major role in funerary scenes, in both processional and ritual contexts. Since there is discrepancy in opinion as to whether funerary scenes actually depict the funeral of the tomb owner, the term funeral is avoided. In the Old Kingdom, dance scenes are placed in funerary contexts either as part of the funerary procession, or as rituals performed at the door of the tomb or at other stations during the funerary procession. Marshland setting Scenes which include water pursuits such as fowling, herds fording water, fishing, and boating are typically placed in a marshland setting. Often these scenes are teeming with plant, animal and birdlife creating an impression of abundance and fecundity. Sometimes elements of the presentation scene such as dance and orchestral recitals are placed in a marshland setting. Statue procession Dance appears in some scenes depicting the transport of the ka statue. This appears to be part of the funerary ritual in the old Kingdom. Harvest festivals Some dances are performed at the harvest and may be part of the festivities celebrated at this time. Sed-festival Some dance scenes at Abusir appear to belong to the wider context of a Sed-festival, a jubilee usually celebrating 30 years of the king’s reign, although instances of the celebration after other durations of a king’s reign are well documented.

vii

Abbreviations and Bibliography A.M.I., BMMA (1953): A.M.I., ‘Recent Egyptian Acquisitions’ in BMMA (1953), pp. 220-223. Al-Faruqi, Dance Scope 11:1 (1976-77): Al-Faruqi, Lois Ibsen, ‘Dances of the Muslim Peoples’ in Dance Scope 11:1 (1976-77), pp. 43-51 Allen, Book of the Dead: Allen, Thomas G., The Book of the Dead: or, Going Forth by Day: Ideas of the Ancient Egyptians Concerning the Hereafter as Expressed in Their Own Terms (Chicago, 1974) Altenmüller, Altägytischen Kulture 2 (1975): Altenmüller, Hartwig, ‘Zu Frage der Mww’ in SAK 2 (1975), pp. 1-37. Altenmüller, Hartwig. Bestattungsritual: Altenmüller, Hartwig, ‘Bestattungsritual’ in Lexicon Der Ägyptologie (Weisbaden, 1975), Vol. I, pp. 744-746 Altenmüller, Mehu: Altenmüller, Hartwig, Die Wanddarstellung im Grab des Mehu in Saqqara (Mainz am Rhein, 1998) Anderson, Catalogue: Anderson, R. D., Catalogue of Egyptian Antiquities in the British Museum: Volume III, Musical Instruments (London, 1976) Anderson, Civilizations: Anderson, R. D., ‘Music and Dance in Pharaonic Egypt’ in Sasson, Jack M. (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, Vol. IV, (New York, 1995), pp. 2555-2568 ANET: Pritchard, J. B. (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton, 1969) Arroyo, Music in the Age of the Pyramids, (Madrid 2003) ASAE: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypt (Le Caire) Assman, Search for God: Assman, J., The Search for God in Ancient Egypt (London, 2001) BACE: Bulletin of the Australian Centre for Egyptology (Sydney) Badawy, ‘Ankhm’ahor: Badawy, Alexander, The Tomb of Nyhetep-Ptah at Giza and the Tomb of ‘Ankhm’ahor at Saqqara (Berkeley, 1978) Badawy, Iteti: Badawy, Alexander, The Tombs of Iteti, Sekhemankh-Ptah, and Kaemnofert at Giza (Berkeley-Los Angeles-London, 1976) Baer, Rank and Title: Baer, K., Rank and Title in the Old Kingdom: The Structure of the Egyptian Administration in the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties (Chicago, 1960) Baines-Málek, Atlas: Baines, J., and Málek, Jaromir, Atlas of Ancient Egypt (Oxford, 1980) Baud, Famille Royale: Baud, Michel, Famille Royale et pouvoir sous l’Ancien Empire égyptien, 2 Vols. (Cairo, 1999) Berlandini, Meret: Berlandini, J., ‘Meret’, in Lexicon Der Ägyptologie, Vol IV (Weisbaden, 1975), pp. 8088 BES: Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar BIE: Bulletin de l’Institute Égyptien BIFAO: Bulletin de l’Institute Français D’archeologie Orientale BiOr: Bibliotheca Orientalis

Blackman, JEA 7, (1921): Blackman, A. M., ‘On the Position of Women in the Ancient Egyptian Hierarchy’ in JEA 7 (1921), pp. 8-30 Blackman, Meir: Blackman, A. M., The Rock Tombs of Meir, Vols. I-IV (London, 1914-1924) Blackman-Apted, Meir: Blackman, A. M. and Apted, M. R., The Rock Tombs of Meir, Vols. V-VI (London, 1953) BM: British Museum BME: British Museum Entry BMFA: Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts (Boston) BMMA: Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) Bochi, Time in the Art of Ancient Egypt: Bochi, P., ‘Time in the Art of Ancient Egypt’ in Kronoscope 3:1 (2003), pp. 51-82 Borchhardt, Ne-user-Re: Borchhardt, L., Das Grabdenkmal des Königs Ne-user-Re, (Leipzig, 1907) ¤aAhu-Rea: Borchhardt, L., Das Borchhardt, Grabdenkmal des Königs SaAhu-Rea, 2 Vols. (Osnabrück, 1981-82) Brack, A., Haremheb: Brack, Annalies and Artur, Das Grab des Haremheb: Theben Nr. 78 (Mainz am Rhein, 1980) Brovarsky, Naga Ed-Dêr: Brovarsky, E, The Inscribed Material of the First Intermediate Period from Naga Ed-Dêr, 3 Vols. (Chicago, 1980) Brovarsky, Senedjemib Complex: Brovarsky, Edward, The Senedjemib Complex, The Mastabas of Senedjemib Inti (G 2370), Khnumenti (G 2374), and Senedjemib Mehi (G 2378), 2 parts (Boston, 2001) Brovarsky, Mélanges I: Brovarsky, Edward, ‘Akhmim in the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period’ in Mélanges Gamal Eddin Mokhtar, Vol. I (IFAO, 1985) Brown, New Shorter Oxford: Brown, Lesley (ed.), The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford, 1993) Brunner, Texte: Brunner, Helmut, Die Texte aus den Gräbern der Herakleopolitenzeit von Siut mit übersetzungund Kommentar (Glückstadt, 1937) Brünner-Traut, LÄ: Brünner-Traut, Emma, ‘Der Tanz’ in Lexicon der Ägyptologie Vol. V (Wiesbaden, 1975) Brünner-Traut, Seschemnofers III: Brünner-Traut, E, Die altägyptische Grabkammer Seschemnofers III aus Giza (Mainz am Rhein, 1977) Brünner-Traut, Tanz: Brünner-Traut, Emma, Der Tanz im alten Ägypten (Glückstadt-Hamburg-New York, 1958) Bryan, BES 4 (1982): Bryon, Betsy M., ‘The Etymology of xnr “Group of Musical Performers”‘ in BES 4 (1982), pp. 35-54 BSFE: Bulletin de la société française d’égyptologie (Paris) Cameron, Symbolism: Cameron, Dorothy, ‘The Symbolism of the Ancestors’ in ReVision 20 (1998) Capart, BIFAO 30 (1931): Capart, Jean, ‘Note sur un fragment de bas-relief au British Museum’ in BIFAO 30 (1931), pp. 73-75 viii

Capart, Primitive Art: Capart, Jean, Primitive Art in Egypt (London, 1905) Capart, Rue de tombeaux: Capart, Jean, Une rue de tombeaux à Saqqara (Brussels, 1907) CASAE: Cahier no._ Supplement aux Annales du service des Antiquités de l’Egypte (Cairo) CG: Catalogue Générale des Antiquités Égyptiennes du Musée du Caire (Cairo) Champollion, Monuments: Champollion, Monuments de l’Égypte & de la Nubie (Geneva, 1973) Chassinat, Denderah: Chassinat, Emile, Le temple de Dendera, 11 Vols. (Cairo, 1934-2000) Chassinet-Palanque, Assiout: Chassinet, Jean, and Palanque, Une campagne de fouilles dans la nécropole d’Assiout (Cairo, 1911) Cherpion, Mastabas: Cherpion, N., Mastabas et hypogées d’ancien empire: le problem de la datation, connaissance de l’Égypt ancienne (Brussels, 1989) Chujoy-Manchester, Dance Encyclopedia: Chujoy, A., and Manchester, P. W., The Dance Encyclopedia (New York, 1967) Civilizations: Sasson, Jack M. (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East (New York, 1995) Cohen, Encyclopedia of Dance: Cohen, Selma J. (ed.), International Encyclopedia of Dance: A Project of Dance Perspectives Foundation (New York: Oxford, 1998.) Crawley in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics: Crawley, A. E., ‘Processions and Dancers’ in Hastings, (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 13 vols. (Edinburgh 1908-26), Vol. 10, pp. 356-362. Crossley-Holland, Non-Western Music: CrossleyHolland, Peter, ‘Non-Western Music’ in Robertson, A. and Stevens, D., The Pelican History of Music I: Ancient forms of polyphony (Bungay, 1960) CT: Coffin Texts Cummins, Temple Dance in Ancient Egypt: Cummins, Janice M., Temple Dance in Ancient Egypt (New York, 2000) Curto, El-Ghiza: Curto, S, Gli Scavi Italiani a el-Ghiza (1903) (Rome, 1963) Daressy, ASAE 16 (1916): Daressy, Georges, ‘La nécropole des grands pêtres d’Heliopolis sous l’Ancien Empire’ in ASAE 16 (1916), pp. 193-220 Dasen, Dwarfs: Dasen, Véronique, Dwarfs in Ancient Egypt and Greece (Oxford, 1993) Daumas, BIFAO 52 (1953): Daumas, François, ‘Le trône d’une statuette de Pepi Ier trouvé à Dendera’, in BIFAO 52 (1953), pp. 163ff. Daumas, Mammisis: Daumas, François, Les mammisis de Denderah (Cairo, 1959) Davies, Scenes from Some Theban Tombs: Davies, Nina de Garis, Scenes from Some Theban Tombs: (Nos. 38, 66, 162, with Excerpts from 81) (Oxford, 1963) Davies, Menkheperrasonb: Davies, Nina de Garis and Davies, Norman de Garis, The Tombs of Menkheperrasonb, Amenmose, and Another (Nos. 86, 112, 42 and 226) (London, 1933) Davies, Amarna: Davies, Norman de Garis, The Rock Tombs of el-Amarna, 6 Vols. (London, Boston, 19031908) Davies, Deir el-Gebrâwi: Davies, Norman de Garis, The

Rock Tombs of Deir el Gebrâwi, 2 Vols. (London, 1902) Davies, Five Theban Tombs: Davies, Norman de Garis, Five Theban Tombs: (Being Those of Mentuherkhepeshef, User, Daga, Nehemawäy, and Tati) (London, 1913) Davies, JEA 11 (1925): Davies, Norman de Garis, ‘The Tomb of Tetaky at Thebes (no. 15)’ in JEA 11 (1925), pp. 10-18 Davies, Kenamun: Davies, Norman de Garis, The Tomb of Kenamun at Thebes (New York, 1930) Davies, BMMA, 1928: Davies, N. de G., ‘The Graphic Work of the Expedition 1925-1927’ in BMMA, 1928, pp. 59-72 Davies, Neferhotep: Davies, Norman de Garis, The Tomb of Neferhotep at Thebes, 2 Vols. (New York, 1953) Davies, Ptahhetep: Davies, Norman de Garis, The Mastaba of Ptahhetep and Akhethetep at Saqqareh, 2 Vols. (London, Boston, 1900-1) Davies, Rekh-mi-Re: Davies, Norman de Garis, The Tomb of Rekh-mi-Re´ at Thebes, (No. 100) (New York, 1944) Davies, Sheikh Said: Davies, Norman de Garis, The Rock Tombs of Sheikh Said (London, 1901) de Buck, CT: de Buck, Adriaan, The Egyptian Coffin Texts (Chicago, 1935-1961) de Morgan, Cat. Des Mon.: de Morgan, Jacques, et al., Catalogue des monuments et inscriptions de l’Égypt antique. 3 Vols. (Vienna, 1894-1909) de Morgan, Dahchour: de Morgan, Jacques, Fouilles à Dahchour en 1894-1895, 2 Vols. (Vienna, 18951903) Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport: Decker, Wolfgang, and Herb, Michael, Bildatlas zum Sport im alten Ägypten Corpus der bildlichen Quellen zu Leibesübungen, Spiel, Jagd, Tanz und verwandten Themen, 2 Vols. (Leiden, 1994) Dodson, Monarchs: Dodson, Aidan, Monarchs of the Nile (London, 1995) Dominicus, Gesten und Gebärden: Dominicus, Brigitte, Gesten und Gebärden in Darstellungen des Alten und Mittleres Reiches (Heidelberg, 1994) Duell, Mereruka: Duell, Prentice, The Mastaba of Mereruka, 2 Vols. (Chicago, 1938) Dümichen, Baugeschichte: Dümichen, Johannes, Baugeschiche des Denderatempels und Beschreibung de einzelnen Theile des Bauwerkes nach den: An seinen Mauern befindlichen Inschriften (Starnberg, 1988) Dümichen, Denderah: Dümichen, Johannes Bauurkunde der Tempelanlagen von Dendera: in einem der geheimen Corridore im Innern der Tempelmaver aufgefunden und erläuternd mitgetheilt (Leipzig, 1865) Dümichen, Historische Inschriften: Dümichen, Johannes, Historische Inschriften altägyptischer Denkmäler, zweite Folge/ Nebst einigen geographischen und mythologischen Inschriften gesammelt und herausgegeben (Bad Honnef, 1982) Dunham Studies: Simpson, W. K., (ed.), Studies in Ancient Egypt, the Aegean, and the Sudan, Essays in Honor of Dows Dunham on the Occasion of His 90th ix

Birthday, June 1, 1980 (Boston, 1981) Dunham, Stelae: Dunham, Dows, Naga ed-Dêr Stelae of the First Intermediate Period (London, 1937) Dunham, The Art News: Dunham, D, ‘The Art News’ in the journal for the Nelson Gallery of Art, (Kansas, December, 1933) Dunham-Simpson, Mersyankh III: Dunham, D. and Simpson, W. K., The Mastaba of Queen Mersyankh III: G 7530-7540, Giza Mastabas, Vol. I (Boston, 1974) Edel, Akazienhaus: Edel, E, Das Akazienhaus und seine Rolle in den Begräbnisriten des alten Ägyptens (Berlin, 1970) Edel, MDAIK 13 (1944): Edel, Elmar, ‘Untersuchungen zur phraseologie der ägyptischen Inschriften des alten Reiches’ in MDAIK 13 (1944) Edel, ZÄS 96, (1969): Edel, Elmar, ‘Beiträge zum ägyptischen Lexikon V’ in ZÄS 96, (1969) Edgar, Kom El-Hisn: Edgar, E., ‘Recent Discoveries at Kom el-Hisn’ in Maspero, G., Musée Égyptien, Vol. 3 (Cairo, 1909) Eliade, Archaic Techniques: Eliade, Mircea, Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (Princeton, 1974) el-Khouli-Kanawati, el-Hammamiya: el-Khouli, A., and Kanawati, Naguib, The Old Kingdom Tombs of elHammamiya (Sydney, 1990) el-Khouli-Kanawati, Quseir el-Amarna: El-Khouli, A., and Kanawati, Naguib, Quseir el-Amarna; the Tombs of Pepy-Ankh and Khewen-Wekh (Sydney, 1989) Emery, GT, Great Tombs: Emery, E, Great Tombs of the First Dynasty, 3 Vols. (Cairo, 1958) Epigraphic Survey, Kheruef: Epigraphic Survey, Oriental Institute, The Tomb of Kheruef, Theban Tomb 192 (Chicago, 1980) Epron-Wilde, Ti: Epron-Wilde, H., Le Tombeau De Ti, 3 Fascs. (Cairo, 1939-66) Erman-Grapow, WB: Erman, Adolf, and Grapow, Hermann, Wörterbuch der aegyptischen Sprache / im Auftrage der deutschen Akademien herausgegeben, 7 Vols. (Berlin, 19551) (reprint, 1971) Fakhry, ASAE 42 (1943): Fakhry, Ahmed, ‘A Note on the Tomb of Kheruef’ in ASAE 42 (1943), pp. 447508, pls. 39 -40 Faulkner, Dictionary: Faulkner, Raymond O., A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian (Oxford, 1996) Faulkner, Pyramid Texts: Faulkner, Raymond O., The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts (Oxford, 1969) Fechheimer, Plastik Der Ägypter: Fechheimer, Hedwig, Die Plastik Der Ägypter (Berlin, 1920) Firth-Gunn, Teti Pyramid Cemetery: Firth, Cecil M. and Gunn, B., Excavations At Saqqara, Teti Pyramid Cemeteries, 2 Vols. (Cairo, 1926) Firth-Quibell, Step Pyramid: Firth, Cecil M. and Quibell, J. E., Excavations At Saqqara; the Step Pyramid, 2 Vols. (Cairo, 1935) Fischer, Denderah: Fischer, H. G., Denderah in the Third Millenium B.C. Down to the Theban Domination of Upper Egypt (New York, 1968) Fischer, Egyptian Women: Fischer, H. G., Egyptian Women of the Old Kingdom and of the Heracleoplitan Period (New York, 1989) Fischer, Metropolitan Museum Journal 11 (1976):

Fischer, H. G., ‘Some early monuments from Busiris in the Egyptian Delta’ in Metropolitan Museum Journal 11 (1976) Fischer, JAOS, 76 (1956): Fischer, H. G., ‘A Daughter of the Overlords’ in JAOS, 76 (1956), pp. 106-10. Fischer, JARCE I (1962): Fischer, H. G., ‘The Archer as Represented in the First Intermediate Period’ in JARCE I (1962) Fischer, JEA 67 (1981): Fischer, H. G., ‘Brief Communications: Notes on Two Tomb Chapels at Giza’ in JEA 67 (1981) Fischer, JNES, 18 (1959): Fischer, H. G., ‘A Scribe of the Army in a Saqqara Mastaba of the Early Fifth Dynasty’ in JNES, 18 (1959), pp. 233-272 Fischer, Orientalia, 29 (1960): Fischer, H. G., ‘The Butcher PHr-nfr’ in Orientalia 29 (1960) Fischer, Orientation: Fischer, H. G., Egyptian Studies I, the Orientation of Hieroglyphs, Part I, Reversal. (New York, 1977) Fischer, Varia Nova: Fischer, H. G., Egyptian Studies III, Varia Nova (New York, 1996) Fischer, Varia: Fischer, H. G., Egyptian Studies 1: Varia (New York, 1976) Fisher, Minor Cemetery: Fisher, C. S., The Minor Cemetery at Giza (Philadelphia, 1924) Foucalt, Order of Things: Foucalt, M, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York, 1970) Fraser, PSBA 15 (1893): Fraser, G. Willoughby, ‘El-Kab and Gebelên’ in PSBA 15 (1893), pp. 494-500 Fraser, ASAE 3 (1902): Fraser, M. George, ‘The Early Tombs at Tehna’ in ASAE 3 (1902), p. 67ff, pl. 3 Galvin, Priestesses: Galvin, M., The Priestesses of Hathor in the Old Kingdom and the First Intermediate Period (Michigan, 1981) Garcia-Galloway-Lomell, Prehistoric and Primitive Art: Garcia, L. Pericot, Galloway, J. and Lomell, A., Prehistoric and Primitive Art (London, 1969) Gardiner, Grammar: Gardiner, A. H., Egyptian Grammar: Third Edition (Oxford, 1996) Gardiner, JEA 41 (1955): Gardiner, A. H., ‘A Unique Funerary Liturgy’ in Gardiner in JEA 41 (1955), pp. 9-17 Gardiner, JEA 45 (1959): Gardiner, A. H., ‘A Didactic Passage Re-Examined’ in JEA 45 (1959), pp. 12-15 Gardiner, Onomastica: Gardiner, A. H., Ancient Egyptian Onomastica, 3 Vols. (Oxford, 1947) Gardiner-Davies, Amenemhet: Gardiner, Sir A., and Davies, Nina de Garis, The Tomb of Amenemhet (No. 82) (London, 1915) Gardiner-Davies, Antefoker: Davies, N. de G., and Alan H. Gardiner, The Tomb of Antefoker, Vizier of Sesostris I, and of His Wife, Senet (No. 60) (London, 1920) Garstang-Newberry, El-Arabah: Garstang, John, and Newberry, Percy E., El-Arabah: A Cemetery of the Middle Kingdom: Survey of the Old Kingdom Temenos: Graffiti from the Temple of Sety (London, 1901, reprint 1989) Gauthier, ASAE 19 (1920): Gauthier, Henri, ‘Les Statues Thébaines de la déesse Sakhmet’ in ASAE 19 (1920), pp. 177-207 x

Gauthier, Fêtes du dieu: Gauthier, Henri, Les fêtes du dieu Min, Recherches d’Archéologie II (Cairo, 1931) Gauthier, Personnel: Gauthier, Henri, Le personnel du dieu Min (Cairo, 1931) Gillam, Egyptian Nome: Gillam, R. A., Topographical Prosopographical Studies in the 14th Upper Egyptian Nome, 2 Parts (Michigan, 1991) Gillam, JARCE 32 (1995): Gillam, R. A., ‘Priestesses of Hathor: Their Function, Decline and Disappearance’ in JARCE 32 (1995), pp. 211-37. Gimbutas, Language of the Goddess: Gimbutas, Marija, The Language of the Goddess (San Francisco, 1991) Goedicke, Königliche Dokumente: Goedicke, H., Königliche Dokumente aus dem Alten Reich (Weisbaden, 1967) Goedicke, Re-Used Blocks: Goedicke, H., Re-Used Blocks from the Pyramid of Amenemhet I at Lischt (New York, 1971) Goyon, Nouvelles Inscriptions: Goyon, G., Nouvelles inscriptions rupestres du Wadi Hammamat (Paris, 1957) Grdseloff, Das Ägyptische Reinigungszelt: Grdseloff, Das Ägyptische Reinigungszelt, (Cairo, 1941) Griffith-Newberry, El-Bersheh: Griffith, F. L., and Newberry, P.E., El-Berscheh, 2 Vols. (London, 18934) Guglielmi, MR. T: Guglielmi, W., Die Gottin MR. T Enststehung und Verehrung eine Personifikation (Leiden, 1991) Gunn, MSS: Notebooks and other papers from Battiscombe Gunn, with photographs from various sources (1883-1950) Hall, Egyptian Collections: Hall, H. R., Egyptian Collections in the British Museum (London, 1930) Hanks, Collins Dictionary of the English Language: Hanks, P. (ed.), Collins Dictionary of the English Language (Sydney, 1979) Hannig, Grosse Wörtebuch: Hannig, Rainer, Ägyptisches Wörterbuch (Mainz am Rhein, 2003) Hannig, Handwörtebuch: Hannig, Rainer, Grosses Handwörterbuch Deutsch-Ägyptisch : (2800-950 V. Chr.) : Die Sprache Der Pharaonen (Mainz, 2000) Harpur, Decoration: Harpur, Y., Decoration in Egyptian Tombs of the Old Kingdom (London, New York, 1987) Hassan, Giza: Hassan, S, Excavations at Giza, 10 Vols. (Oxford, Cairo, 1929-1960) Hassan, Saqqara I: Hassan, S, Excavations at Saqqara 1937-8 Vol. I, Mastaba of Neb-Kaw-Her (Cairo, 1975) Hassan, Saqqara II: Hassan, S, Excavations at Saqqara 1937-8 Vol. II, Mastaba of Ny-Ankh-Pepy & Others (Cairo, 1975) Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics: Hastings, James (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 13 vols. (Edinburgh 1908-26 Hawass, MDAIK 47 (1991): Hawass, Zahi, ‘The Statue of the Dwarf Pr-n(j)-anx(w) Recently Discovered at Giza’ in MDAIK 47 (1991), pp. 157-162 Hay, MSS: British Museum archive, Add, MSS. 2981260 31054. Drawings and photos from Hay’s expedition to Egypt from 1824-1834.

Hayes, JEA 32 (1946): Hayes, William, ‘Royal Decrees from the Temple of Min at Coptus’ in JEA 32 (1946), pp. 3-23 and pls. 2a-5 Hayes, Scepter of Egypt: Hayes, William, The Scepter of Egypt before 1600 B.C (New York, 1953) Helck, Beamtentitel: Helck, W., Untersuchungen Zu Den Beamtentitels Des Ägyptischen Alten Reiches (Glückstadt, 1954) Helck, LÄ V: Helck, W., Seschat’ in LÄ V, pp. 884-888 Helck, Thinitenzeit: Helck, W., Untersuchungen zur Thinitenzeit (Weisbaden, 1987) Herbert in Larousse World Mythology: Herbert, J., ‘Mythology of Jainism’ in Larousse World Mythology, Grimal, Pierre (ed.), (London-New YorkSydney-Toronto, 1965) Hickmann, Ägypten: Hickmann, H., Ägypten (Leipzig, 1961) Hickmann, ASAE 52 (1952): Hickmann, H., ‘Miscellanea Musicologia: les luths aux frettes du Nouvel Empire’ in ASAE 52 (1952), pp.157-162 Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5): Hickmann, H., ‘La danse aux miroirs’ in BIE 37 (1954-55), pp. 151-90 Hickmann, Catalogue Général: Hickmann, H., Catalogue général des Antiquitiés égyptiennes du Musée du Caire, Instruments de Musique (Cairo, 1949) Hickmann, Dieux et déesses: Hickmann, H., Dieux et déesses de la musique, Cahiers d’histoire égyptienne VI (Cairo, 1954) Hickmann, 45 Siècles: Hickmann, H, 45 Siècles de musique dans l’Egypte ancienne (Paris, 19556) Hickmann, Le Métier: Hickmann, H., Le métier de Musicien au temps des pharaons (Heliopolis, 1954) Hornblower, JEA 15 (1929): Hornblower, G. D., ‘Predynastic Figures of Women and their Successors’ in JEA 15 (1929), pp. 29-47 Hornemann, Types: Hornemann, B., Types of Ancient Egyptian Statuary, 7 Parts (Copenhagen, 1951-1969) ICE: International Congress of Egyptology James, Hieroglyphic Texts: James, T.G.H., Hieroglyphic Texts from Egyptian Stelae etc. in the British Museum, Part I (London, 1961) James, Ikhekhi: James, T.G.H., The Mastaba of Khentika Called Ikhekhi (London, 1953) JAOS: Journal of the American Oriental Society (Baltimore) JARCE: Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt (Princeton) JEA: Journal of Egyptian Archeology (London) Jequier, Monuments funéraire: Jequier, M. G., Le Monument funéraire de Pepi II, 3 Vols (Cairo, 193640) Jequier, REA 1 (1927): Jequier, M. G., ‘À propos de la danse des Mouaou’ in REA 1 (1927), pp. 144-151 JNES: Journal of Near Eastern Studies (Chicago) JT: Jones, Dilwyn, An Index of Ancient Egyptian Titles, Epithets and Phrases of the Old Kingdom, 2 Vols (Oxford, 2000) Junker, Giza: Junker, Hermann, Bericht über die von der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien auf gemeinsame Kosten mit Dr. Wilhelm Pelizaeus unternommen Grabungen auf dem Friedhof des Alten xi

Reiches bei den Pyramiden von Giza, 12 Vols. (Vienna, 1929-1955) Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940): Junker, Hermann, ‘Der Tanz der Mww und das Butische Begräbnis im Alten Reich’ in MDAIK 9:1 (1940), pp. 1-39 Kamal, ASAE 13 (1914): Kamal, M. Ahmed Bey, ‘Rapport sur les fouilles de Saïd Bey Khachaba au Deîr el-Gabraouî’ in ASAE 13 (1914), pp. 161-178 Kanawati-Hassan, Ankhmahor: Kanawati, N., and Hassan, A. The Teti Cemetery at Saqqara, Vol II: The Tomb of Ankhmahor (Sydney, 1997) Kanawati, Administration: Kanawati, N., The Egyptian Administration in the Old Kingdom, Evidence on its Economic Decline (Warminster, 1977) Kanawati, Akhmim: Kanawati, N., Akhmim in the Old Kingdom, Part I: Chronology and Administration (Sydney, 1992) Kanawati, El-Hawawish: Kanawati, N., The Rock Tombs of el-Hawawish: The Cemetery of Akhmim, 9 Vols. (Sydney, 1980-1989) Kanawati, Giza I: Kanawati, N., Tombs at Giza, Volume I; Kaiemankh (G4561) and Seshemnefer I (G4940) (Wiltshire, 2001) Kanawati, Giza II: Kanawati, N., Tombs at Giza, Volume II: Seshathep/Heti ((G5150), Nesutnefer (G4970) and Seshemnefer II (G5080) (Wiltshire, 2002) Kanawati, Iconographic Peculiarities: Kanawati, N., ‘Some Iconographic Peculiarities in the Teti Cemetery’ in L’art de l’Ancien Empire égyptien (Paris, 1999) Kanawati, SAK 4 (1976): Kanawati, N., ‘Polygamy in the Old Kingdom of Egypt’ in SAK 4 (1976), pp. 14960 Kanawati, Tomb and Beyond: Kanawati, N., The Tomb and Beyond: Burial Customs of Egyptian Officials (Warminster, 2001) Kanawati-Abder-Raziq, Unis Cemetery II: Kanawati, N. and Abder-Raziq, M., The Unis Cemetery at Saqqara, Volume II; the Tombs of Iynefert and Ihy (reused by Idut) (Oxford, 2003) Kanawati-McFarlane, Deshasha: Kanawati, N. and McFarlane, A., Deshasha: The Tombs of Inti, Shedu and Others (Sydney, 1993) Kantor, JNES 3: 2 (1904): Kantor, Helene J., ‘The Final Phase of Predynastic Culture: Gerzean or Semainean (?)’ in JNES 3: 2 (1944), pp. 110-136 Kaplony, BiOr 28 (1971): Kaplony, P., ‘Boekbesprekingen-Egyptologie’ in BiOr 28 (1971): Kaplony, Inschriften: Kaplony, P., Die Inschriften der ägyptischen Frühzeit, 3 Vols (Weisbaden, 1963) Kaplony, Methethi: Kaplony, P., Studien zum Grab des Methethi (Bern, 1976) Kaplony, MIO 14 (1968): Kaplony, P., ‘Neues Material zu einer Prosopographie des Alten Reichs’ in MIO 14 (1968), pp. 192-205 Kaplony, Rollsiegel: Kaplony, P., Die Rollsiegel des Alten Reiches II. Katalog der Rollsiegel, 2 Vols. (Brussels, 1981) Kayser, Ägyptisches Altertümer: Kayser, H., Die ägyptisches Altertümer in Roemer-Pelizaeus-Museum in Hildesheim (Hamburg, 1973) Kees, Kulturegeschichte: Kees, Hermann, Ägypten

Kulturegeschichte des Alten Orients I, (Handbuch Der Altertumswissenschaft) (Munich, 1933) Kees, ZÄS 57 (1922): Kees, Hermann, ‘Ein alter Götterhymnus als Begleittext zur Opfertafel’ in ZÄS 57 (1922), pp. 92-120 Kinney, BACE 15, 2004: Kinney, L., ‘The Dance of the Mww’: BACE 15, 2004, pp. 63-75 Kinney, BACE 18, 2007: Kinney, L., ‘Dancing on a Time Line, 4th Dimensional Representation in Ancient Egyptian Wall Art’, BACE 18, 2007, pp. 145-159 Koefoed-Peterson, Recueil: Koefoed-Peterson, O., Recueil des inscriptions hiéroglyphiques de la Glyptothèque Ny Carlsberg (Brussels, 1936) Kuhlmann-Schenkel, Ibi: Kuhlmann, Klaus P. and Schenkel, Wolfgang, Das Grab des Ibi, Obergutsverwalters der Gottesgemahlin des Amun (Thebanisches Grab Nr. 36). Band 1, Beschreibung der Unterirdischen Kult-und Bestattungsanlage (Mainz am Rhein, 1983) LÄ: Helck, W., Otto, E. and Westendorf, W. (eds.), Lexicon der Ägyptologie (Wiesbaden, 1975) Lacau, Sarcophages: Lacau, Sarcophages antérieurs au nouvel empire I, Nos. 28001-28086, (Catalogue Géneral Du Musée Du Caire), 2 Vols. (Cairo, 1904) Lange-Schäfer, Grab und Denkstein: Lange-Schäfer, Grab und Denkstein des Mittleren Reiches im Museum von Kairo, 4 Vols. (Berlin, 1902-1925) Larousse World Mythology: Grimal, Pierre (ed.), LarousseWorld Mythology, (London-New YorkSydney-Toronto, 1965) Larsing, BMMA, 1923: Larsing, Ambrose, ‘The Egyptian Expedition 1933-1934’ in BMMA, November 1934, pp. 36-37 Lauer-Lacau, La pyramide: Lauer-Lacau, La pyramide à degrés I-V, (Fouilles à Saqqara 15) (Cairo, 19361965) Lepsius, Denkmäler II: Lepsius, R., Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien, 12 Vols. (I, II& III) (Leipzig, 1901 (orig. 1849-59) Lepsius, Ergänzungsband: Lepsius, C. R., Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopian, Ergänzungsband. Edited and Revised by Naville, E., Borchardt L. and Sethe, K. (Leipzig, 1913) Lesko, Book of Two Ways: Lesko, Leonard H., The Ancient Egyptian Book of Two Ways (Berkely, 1972) Lesko, Earliest Records: Lesko, Barbara (ed.), Women’s Earliest Records from Ancient Egypt and Western Asia (Atlanta, 1987) Lexova, Ancient Egyptian Dances: Lexova, I., Ancient Egyptian Dances (New York, 2000) Lichtheim, Literature: Lichtheim, Miriam, Ancient Egyptian Literature, a Book of Readings, 3 Vols. (Los Angeles, London, 1973-1980) Lindsay, Leisure and Pleasure: Lindsay, Jack, Leisure and Pleasure in Roman Egypt (London, 1965) Lutz, Steles: Lutz, H. F., Egyptian Tomb Steles and Offering Stones (Leipzig, 1927) Macramallah, Idout: Macramallah, Rizkallah, Fouilles à Saqqara: Le Mastaba d’Idout (Cairo, 1935) Malaiya, Animals in Art: Malaiya, Sudha ‘Dance in the Rock Art of Central India’ in Morphy, H (ed), Animals in Art (London, 1989), pp. 357-68 xii

Málek, LÄ: Málek, J, ‘Sais’ in LÄ, vol. V, p. 355 Manniche, Ancient Egyptian Instruments: Manniche, Lise, Ancient Egyptian Musical Instruments (Berlin, 1975) Manniche, Lost Tombs: Manniche, Lise, Lost Tombs; a Study of Certain Eighteenth Dynasty Monuments in the Theban Necropolis (London, New York, 1988) Mariette, Abydos: Mariette, A., Abydos description des fouilles éxécutés sur l’emplacement de cette ville (Paris, 1880) Mariette, Denderah: Mariette, A., Description générale du grand temple de cette ville, 5 Vols. (Paris, 18701880) Mariette, Mastabas: Mariette, A., Mastabas de l’ancien empire: fragment du dernier ouvrage de Auguste Edouard Mariette, (Hildesheim, 1976) Maspero, ASAE 8 (1907): Maspero, M. Gaston, ‘Sur une statuette de chanteur en bronze’ in ASAE 8 (1907), pp. 282-83 Maspero, Musée Égyptien: Maspero, M. Gaston, Le Musée Égyptienne, Recueil de Monuments et de notices sur les fouilles d’Égypte II and III (Cairo, 1907,1915) Maspero, Trois Années: Maspero, M. Gaston, Trois années de fouilles dans les tombeaux de Thébes et de Memphis (Paris, 1889) McFarlane, God Min: McFarlane, A., The God Min to the End of the Old Kingdom (Sydney, 1995) McFarlane, Mastabas at Saqqara: McFarlane, A., Mastabas at Saqqara; Kaiemheset, Kaipunesut, Kaiemsenu, Sehetepu and Others (Oxford, 2003) McKechnie, (ed.), Webster’s New: McKechnie, (ed.), Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary, 2nd Edition (New York, 1979) MDAIK: Mitteilungen des Archäologischen Instituts für Ägyptischen Altertumskunde in Kairo (Weisbaden, Mainz) Medineh, Paheri at El Kab: Medineh, Ahnas el, The Tomb of Paheri at El Kab (London, 1894) Meeks, Oxford Encyclopedia: Meeks, D,’Dance’ in Redford, Donald, (ed.), Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, (Oxford, 2001) MFA: Museum of Fine Arts (Boston) MIO: Mitteilungen des Instituts für Orientforschung (Berlin) MM: Mariette, A., Les Mastabas de l’ancien Empire (Completed by Maspero) (Paris, 1889) Mohr, Hetep-her-Akhti: Mohr, H. T., The Mastaba of Hetep-her-Akhti, Study on an Egyptian Tomb Chapel in the Museum of Antiquities Leiden (Leiden, 1943) Montet, Everyday Life in Egypt: Montet, Pierre, Everyday Life in Egypt (London, 1958) Montet, Scènes: Montet, Pierre, Scènes de la vie privée dans les tombeaux égyptiens de l’Ancien Empire (Paris, Strasbourg, 1925) Moussa-Altenmüller, Nefer: Moussa, A., and Altenmüller, H., The Tomb of Nefer and Ka-Hay. Old Kingdom Tombs at the Causeway of King Unas at Saqqara (Mainz, 1971) Moussa-Altenmüller, Nianchchnum: Moussa, A., and Altenmüller, H., The Tomb of Nianchnum & Chnumhotep. Old Kingdom Tombs at the Causeway

of King Unas at Saqqara (Mainz, 1971) Moussa-Altenmüller, SAK 9 (1981): ‘The offering Table of Khentikha from the causeway of Unas at Saqqara’ in SAK 9 (1981), pp. 289-294 Moussa-Junge, Two Tombs: Moussa, A., and Junge, F., Two Tombs of Craftsmen. Old Kingdom Tombs at the Causeway of King Unas at Saqqara (Mainz, 1975) Munro, Unas-Friedhof: Munro, Peter, Das UnasFriedhof Nord-West: Topographisch-Historische Einleitung der Unas-Friedhof Nord-West I. (Mainz am Rhein, 1993) Murray, Saqqara Mastabas: Murray, Saqqara Mastabas, 2 Vols. (London, 1905, 1937) Myśliwiec, Rewelacyjne: Mysliwiec, K., Rewelacyjne Odkricia Polskich Archeologów W Egipcie, Nowe Oblicza, Sakkary (Warsaw, 1998) Naville, Bubastis: Naville, E., The Festival Hall of Osorkon II in the Great Temple of Bubastis (18871889) (London, 1892) Naville, Deir El-Bahari IV: Naville, E., The Temple of Deir El Bahari, 7 Vols. (London, 1894-1908) Newberry, Beni Hasan: Newberry, P. E. Beni Hasan, Vols. I and II (London, 1893-1904) Newberry-Griffith, Beni Hasan: Newberry, P. E. and Griffith, F. L. et al., Beni Hasan, Vols. III and IV (London, 1893-1904) Nord, Dunham Studies: Nord, Del, ‘The Term xnr: ‘Harem’ or ‘Musical Performers’ in Studies in Ancient Egypt, the Aegean, and the Sudan, Essays in Honor of Dows Dunham on the Occasion of His 90th Birthday, June 1, 1980 (Boston, 1981), pp. 137-145 Oxford Encyclopedia: Redford, Donald, (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt (Oxford, 2001) Paget-Pirie, Ptah-hetep: Paget, R.F.E. and Pirie, A.A. The Tomb of Ptah-hetep (London, 1898) P. Berlin: Papyrus Berlin P. Chester Beatty: Chester Beatty Papyrus P. Lansing: Papyrus Lansing Peck, Drawings: Peck, William, Drawings from Ancient Egypt (London, 1978) Petrie, Antaeopolis: Petrie, W. M. Flinders, Antaeopolis, the Tombs of Qau (London, 1930) Petrie, Koptos: Petrie, W. M. Flinders, Koptos (London, 1896) Piankoff, Pyramid of Unas: Piankoff, Alexandre, The Pyramid of Unas (Princeton, 1968) Pirenne, Institutions: Pirenne, J., Histoire des institutions et du droit privé de l’ancienne Égypte, 3 Vols. (Brussels, 1932-1935) PM: Porter, B. and Rosalind Moss, L, Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs and Paintings, Vols. I, III, IV (Oxford, 1968) Posener-Kriéger, Archives: Posener-Kriéger, Les archives du temple funéraire de Néferirkarê-Kakaï: les papyrus d’Abousir, 2 Vols. (Cairo, 1976) PSBA: Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology Quibell, Saqqara III: Quibell, J. E., Excavations at Saqqara Vol. III, 1907-1908 (Cairo, 1909) Quibell-Green, Hierakonpolis: Quibell, J.E. and Green, F.W., Hierakonpolis, 2 Vols. (London, 1900, 1902) Raffe-Purdon, Dictionary of the Dance: Raffe, W. G. xiii

and Purdon M. E., Dictionary of the Dance (New York, London, 1975) RdE: Revue d’égyptologie (Paris) Reeder, KMT 5:3 (1995): Reeder, Greg, ‘A Rite of passage: the Enigmatic Tekenu in Ancient Egyptian Funerary Ritual’ in KMT 5:3 (1995) Reeder, KMT 6:3 (1995): Reeder, Greg, ‘The Mysterious Muu and the Dance They Do’ in KMT 6:3 (1995) Reisner, BMFA 25 (1927): Reisner, G. A., ‘Hetep-Heres, mother of Cheops’ and ‘The tomb of Meresankh, a great granddaughter of queen Hetep-Heres I and Seneferuw’ in BMFA 25, Supplement (1927) pp. 1-36 Reisner, BMFA 32 (1934): Reisner, G. A., ‘The Servants of the Ka’ in BMFA 32 (1934), pp. 2-12. Reisner, G. A., Tomb Development: Reisner, G. A., The Development of the Egyptian Tomb Down to the Accession of Cheops (Cambridge, 1934) Reisner, Giza I: Reisner, G. A., A History of the Giza Necropolis I (Cambridge, 1942) Reisner-Smith, Giza II: Reisner, G. A., and Smith, W. S. A History of the Giza Necropolis Ii, the Tomb of Hetep-Heres the Mother of Cheops (Cambridge, Mass., 1955) Ripinsky-Naxon, Nature of Shamanism: RipinskyNaxon, Michael, The Nature of Shamanism: Substance and Function of a Religious Metaphor (Abany, 1993) Ritner, Egyptian Magical Practice: Ritner, Robert Kriech, The Mechanics of Ancient Egyptian Magical Practice (Chicago, 1993) Robins, Women: Robins, G., Women in Ancient Egypt (London, 1993) Roth, JEA 78 (1992): Roth, A. M., ‘The PsS-kf and the ‘Opening of the Mouth’ Ceremony: A Ritual of Birth and Rebirth’ in JEA 78 (1992), pp. 113-47 Roth, Palace Attendants: Roth, A. M., Giza Mastabas Vol. 6; A Cemetery of Palace Attendants Including G2084-2099, G2230+2231 and G2240 (Boston, 1995) Rouget, Music and Trance: Rouget, Gilbert, Music and Trance; a Theory of the Relations between Music and Possession (Chicago, London, 1985) Saad, CASAE 3: Saad, Zaki, ‘Royal Excavations at Saqqara and Helwan (1941-1945)’ in CASAE 3 (Cairo, 1947) Saleh, Encyclopedia of Dance: Saleh, Magda, ‘Ancient Egyptian Dance’ in Cohen, Selma J. (ed.), International Encyclopedia of Dance: A Project of Dance Perspectives Foundation (New York: Oxford, 1998.) Saleh, Ethnic Dance Traditions: Saleh, Magda, ‘Ethnic Dance Traditions’, in Cohen, Saleh, Tombs at Thebes: Saleh, Mohamed, Three Old Kingdom Tombs at Thebes (Mainz, 1977) Sameh, Daily Life: Sameh, Waley-el-dine, Daily Life in Ancient Egypt (New York, 1964) Schäfer, Principles: Schäfer, Heinrich, Principles of Egyptian Art (translation J. Baines: Oxford, 1986) Scharff, ZÄS 59 (1924): Scharff, ‘Briefe aus Illahun’ in ZÄS 59 (1924), pp. 20-51 Scott-Moncrieff, BM Stelae VI: Scott-Moncrieff, P. D., Hieroglyphic Texts from Egyptian Stelae in the British

Museum, 8 Parts (London, 1911-1939) Sethe, Dramatische Texte: Sethe, K., Dramatische Texte Zu Altägyptischen Mysterienspeilen (Leipzig, 1928) Sethe, Pyramidentexte: Sethe, K., Die Altägyptischen Pyramidentexte (Leipzig, 1910) Sethe, Urgeschichte: Sethe, K., Urgeschichte Und Älteste Religion Der Ägypter (Leipzig, 1930) Sethe, Urkunden: Sethe, K., Urkunden Des Ägyptisches Altertums I: Urkunden Des Alten Reiches, 2nd Edition (Leipzig, 1933) Settgast, Bestattungsdarstellungen: Settgast, Jürgen, Untersuchen Zu Altägyptischen Bestattungsdarstellungen (Glückstadt, 1963) Shaw-Nicholson, Dictionary: Shaw, I., and Nicholson, P., British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt (London, 1995) Siebels, Agriculture: Siebels, Rhodna, Agriculture in Old Kingdom Tomb Decoration, an Analysis of Scenes and Inscriptions, 2 Vols. (Sydney, 2000) Seidlmayer-Ziermann, MDAIK 48 (1992): Seidlmayer, Stephan J. and Ziermann, Martin ‘Eine Friesinschrift von einem Mastaba-Grab des Alten Reiches aus Elephantine’ in MDAIK 48 (1992), pp. 161-176 Simpson, Kawab, Khafkhufu: Simpson, W. K., Mastabas of Kawab, Khafkhufui and Ii: G7110-20, 7130-40 and 7150 (Giza Mastabas 3) (Boston, 1978) Simpson, Kayemnofret: Simpson, W. K., The Offering Chapel of Kayemnofret in the Museum of Fine Arts Boston (Boston, 1992) Simpson, Qar and Idu: Simpson, W. K., The Mastabas of Qar and Idu G7101 and 7102 (Giza Mazstabas 2) (Boston, 1976) Simpson, Western Cemetery 4, Part I: Simpson, W. K., Mastabas of the Western Cemetery 4, Part I (Giza Mastabas 4) (Boston, 1980) Smith, History: Smith, W. S., A History of Egyptian Sculpture and Painting in the Old Kingdom (Harvard, 1946) Sourdive, BSFE 97 (1983): Sourdive, Claude, ‘La main dans l’Égypt pharonique’ in BSFE 97 (1983) Spencer, Early Egypt: Spencer, A. J., Early Egypt (London, 1993) Spiedel, Friseure: Spiedel, M. A., Die Friseure Des Ägyptischen Alten Reiches: Eine HistorischProsopograhische Untersuchung Zu Amt Und Titel (Zürich, 1990) Steindorff, Egyptian Sculpture, Walters Art Gallery: Steindorff, G., Egyptian Sculpture, Walters Art Gallery (Baltimore, 1946) Stewart, Egyptian Stelae: Stewart, H. M., Egyptian Stelae, Reliefs and Paintings from the Petrie Collection, Part Two: Archaic Period to Second Intermediate Period (Warminster, 1979) Strudwick, Administration: Strudwick, N., The Administration of Egypt in the Old Kingdom: The Highest Titles and Their Holders (London, 1985) Swinton, Dating: Swinton, J., Dating of Old Kingdom Tombs (Sydney, 2001) Troy, Queenship: Troy, L., Patterns of Queenship in Ancient Egyptian Myth and History (Uppsala, 1986) Tylor, Renni: Tylor, J. J., Wall Drawings Andf Monuments of El-Kab: The Tomb of Renni (London, xiv

1895-1900) Tylor-Griffith, Paheri: Tyler, J. J., and. Griffith, F. L, The Tomb of Paheri at El- Kab (London, 1894) van der Walle, Neferirtenef: van der Walle, B., La Chapelle funéraire de Neferirtenef (Brussels, 1978) van Lepp, ICE 4 (1985): van Lepp, J., ‘The Role of Dance in Funerary Ritual in the Old Kingdom’ in Akten des Vierten Internationalen Ägyptologen Kongesses, München 1985 (Hamburg, 1989), pp. 38594 Vandier d’Abbadie, BIFAO 56 (1957) ‘Deux ostraca figures’ in BIFAO 56 (1957) Vandier, Manuel IV: Vandier, J., Manuel d’archéologie égyptienne IV, bas reliefs et peinture, scènes de la vie quotidienne (Paris, 1964) Vandier, Mo’alla: Vandier, J., Mo’alla: la tombe d’Ankhtifi et la tombe de Sébekhotep (Cairo, 1950) Vandier, RdE 16 (1964): Vandier, J, ‘Iousaas et (Hathor)-Nebet-Hetep’ in RdE 16 (1964), pp. 55-146 Vandier, RdE 18 (1966): Vandier, J., ‘Iousaas et (Hathor)-Nebet-Hetep’ in RdE 18 (1966), pp. 67-142 Varille, Ni-Ankh-Pepi: Varille, Alexandre, La tombe de Ni-Ankh-Pepi à Zâouyet el-Mayetîn (Le Caire, 1938) Verner, Abusir III: Verner, Miroslav, Abusir III, the Pyramid Complex of Khentikaus with Contibutions by Paul Posener-Krieger and Peter Jânosi (Prague, 1995) Verner, Forgotten Pharaohs, Lost Pyramids: Abusir: Verner, Miroslav, Forgotten Pharaohs, Lost Pyramids: Abusir (Praha, 1994) Verner, Ptahshepses,: Verner, M., Abusir: The Mastaba of Ptahshepses (Prague, 1986) von Bissing, Mädchentracht: von Bissing, Friedrich W., ‘Eine altägyptische Mädchentracht’ in ZÄS 37 (1967), pp. 75-78 von Bissing-Kees, Ne-woser-Re: Bissing, Friedrich W. and Kees, Hermann, Das Re-Heiligtum des Königs Ne-woser-Re, 3 Vols. (Leipzig, 1905-1928) von Känel, Prêtres-Oûab: von Känel, F., Les PrêtresOûab de Sekhmet et des conjurateurs de Sekhmet (Paris, 1984) Ward, Feminine Titles: Ward, W. A., Essays on Feminine Titles of the Middle Kingdom and Related Subjects (Beirut, 1982) Wassell, Ancient Egyptian Fauna: Wassell, Belinda Ann, Ancient Egyptian Fauna: A Lexicograpgical Study, 2 Vols. (Durham, 1991) Watterson, Gods: Watterson, B., Gods of Ancient Egypt (Gloucestershire, 1996) Watterson, Women: Watterson, B., Women in Ancient Egypt (New York, 1994) WB: Erman, Adolf, and Grapow, Hermann, Wörterbuch Der ägyptischen Sprache / Im Auftrage Der Deutschen Akademien, 7 Vols.and 5 Belegstellen (Leipzig, 1926-31) (reprint 1971) Weeks, Cemetery G. 6000: Weeks, Kent R., Mastabas of Cemetery G 6000: Including G 6010 (Neferbauptah), G 6020 (Iymery), G 6030 (Ity), G 6040 (Shepseskafankh) (Boston, 1994) Wegner, Musikinstrumente: Wegner, M., Die Musikinstrumente Des Alten Orients (Münster, 1950) Wente, Wilson Studies: Wente, Edward, F., ‘Hathor at

the Jubilee’ in Studies in Honor of John A. Wilson, September 12 (1969), (Chicago, 1969), pp. 83-91 Werbrouck, Pleureuses: Werbrouck, M., Les pleureuses dans l’Égypte ancienne (Brussels, 1938) Whitehall (ed.), Webster’s Dictionary: Whitehall, H. (ed.), Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged (New York, 1949) Wild, Danses sacrées: Wild, H. ‘Les danses sacrées de l’égypte ancienne’ In Sources Orientales VI (Paris, 1963) Wilkinson, Symbol and Magic: Wilkinson, R. H., Symbol and Magic in Egyptian Art (London, 1994) Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians: Wilkinson, Sir John Gardiner, The Ancient Egyptians; a Popular Account (London, 1988) Wilson, ANET: Wilson, ‘Egyptian Myths, Tales, and Mortuary Texts’ in Pritchard (ed.) Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton, 1969) Wilson, JNES 3 (1944): Wilson, John A., ‘Funeral Services of the Egyptian Old Kingdom’, in JNES 3 (1944), pp. 201-18 Winkler, Hans, Völker und Völkerbewegungen: Winkler, Hans, Völker und Völkerbewegungen im Vorgeschichtlichen Oberägypten (Stuttgart, 1937) Winkler, Rock Drawings: Winkler, Hans, Rock Drawings of Southern Upper Egypt, 2 Vols (London, 1938) Wreszinski, Bericht: Wreszinski, W., Bericht über die photographische Expedition von Kairo bis Wadi Halfa zwecks Abschluss der Materialsammlung für meine Atlas zur altägyptischen Kulturgeschichte (Schriften der Königsberger gelehrten Gesellschaft, 4 Jahr, Heft II) (Halle, 1927) Wreszinsky, Atlas: Wreszinski, W., Atlas zur altägyptischen Kulturgeschichte, 3 Vols. (Leipzig, 1938) (Geneva, 1988) ZÄS: Zeitschrift für Ägytpische Sprache und Altertumskunde Ziegler, Achethetep: Ziegler, Christiane, Le mastaba d’Akhethetep: une chapelle funéraire de l’Ancien Empire (Paris, 1993) Ziegler, Catalogue: Ziegler, Christiane, Catalogue des stèles, peintures et reliefs égyptiens de l’Ancien Empire et de la Premiere Périod Intermédiare vers 2686-2040 avant J. C. (Paris, 1990) Ziegler, Statues: Ziegler, Christiane, Les statues égyptiennes de l’Ancien Empire (Paris, 1997) Electronic sources Video Kanawati, Seni: Kanawati, N., Seni The Celebrity Artist of Akhmim [Videorecording] (Sydney, 1981) Potter, The Tango Lesson: Potter, Sally, The Tango Lesson [Videorecording] (Culver City, 1998) Websites Washington Post, Nuer-Dinka, website: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpxv

srv/inatl/galleries/sudan/gallery3_1.htm: Kinney, Lesley, Sydney, 2000: http://galliform.bhs.mq.edu.au/EDG/dance.html Format abbreviations Dyn. ed. f ff fig. p. pp. n vol.

Dynasty editor following page pages following figure page number page numbers footnote number volume

Conventions used in transliteration and translation s ( ) in transliteration: grammatical additions [ ] in transliteration and translation: restoration of original text { } in transliteration: error in original text < > in transliteration and translation: doubtful reading Conventions used in title references () Tomb or stela owner holds the title [] Title holder is known but a different identity to the tomb or stela owner {} Title holder is anonymous

xvi

Introduction scenes classified as dance by other authors did not necessarily fall into my own understanding of what is encompassed by the term ‘dance’. According to the Oxford Dictionary the modern word dance is of unknown origin, Webster’s suggests;

Ïryw.k nb Hr ÏbA n Hr.k ‘Everything that you have created, dances before you’.1 The above extract from a hymn to Aten found in two tombs at Amarna is indicative of the level of importance and high regard that the Ancient Egyptians accorded dance throughout their culture’s long history.

‘… probably from the Old High German, ’Danson,’ to draw or drag along’. 2 However, the Raffe-Purdon, Dictionary of the Dance suggests its origin lies in the Sanskrit root tanha meaning ‘desire of life’3 and offers the interpretation:

The purpose of this thesis was to reveal as much information as possible on the nature of dance in Old Kingdom Egypt. This was achieved through the thorough examination of the primary evidence pertaining to dance in the old Kingdom, which comes to us in the form of pictures, letters, captions and titles. Scenes of dance abound in tomb decoration, in particular, but can also be found in solar temples attended by the living. Indeed, when a clear definition of what constituted dance in Ancient Egypt was reached, the number of pictorial examples relating to dance became so vast that it necessitated restricting this study to material from the old Kingdom.

‘desire for action, for movement, for life, for rhythmic dance in the joy and experience of living’. 4 Mainstream dictionaries furnish surprisingly limiting definitions of dance. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary entry includes: ‘(noun) An arrangement of steps and movements constituting a specific form of dancing, often given a particular name’. ‘(verb) Move with rhythmical steps, leaps, glides and other gestures, usually in time to a musical accompaniment, alone or with a partner or set’.5

While the study of pictures of dance reveals much about the history and development of art, much regarding the nature of dance can also be perceived. It is reasonable to assume that much of the information recorded regarding dance; the poses, costumes, props and gender of dancers as depicted in scenes of dance, should reflect the nature of dance as it was performed at the time and even the region in which it was recorded. Therefore, the developments traced in the course of the thesis relate to the art history record of dance as much as to dance itself. Much can also be gleaned from the textual information pertaining to dance and dancers. This evidence comes to us in the form of letters, captions accompanying pictures of dance and from the record of titles held by performers during the Old Kingdom. The aspirations and status of dancers have been elucidated by compiling and translating a list of over 100 titles held by dancers and other performers, and by reconstructing the hierarchical structures that existed within the establishments of the xnr, SnDt and the court of the king. Dance scenes are often accompanied by captions with terms relating to dance, dance accompaniment and the relevant performance institutions. The meaning, and distribution of these terms, chronologically and geographically is also considered.

The Collins English Dictionary offers: ‘1. (verb) to move the feet and body rhythmically esp. in time to music. 2. To perform a particular dance, 3. to skip or leap, as in joy, etc. 4. to move or cause to move in a light rhythmical way, 5. Dance attendance on (someone). 6. a series of rhythmical steps and movements, usually in time to music’.6 Both of these entries imply that dance necessarily involves movement of the feet and legs, thereby excluding dance forms which are performed seated or standing in the one place and dancers who are unable to move the legs.7 As far as mainstream dictionaries are concerned, the definition of dance that comes closest to my concept of what physically constitutes dance can be found in Webster’s New World Dictionary: ‘(verb) To move the body, especially the feet, in rhythm, ordinarily to music’. 8

2

Whitehall (editor), Webster’s Dictionary, 1949, p. 435. The Zendic h transformed to k as the term moved east, becoming Tanka in Tibetan and s as it moved west, becoming Tansa and then Tanza, Tanz and also Danza, Danz, Danse, and Dance as the word moved across Europe. (Raffe-Purdon, Dictionary of the Dance, p. 139). 4 ibid 5 Brown (editor), New Shorter Oxford, 1993, p.590. 6 Hanks (editor), Collins Dictionary, 1979, p. 593. 7 There is at least one successful, contemporary dancer who is legless (David Toole, who featured in the Sally Potter film, The Tango Lesson). 8 McKechnie (editor), Webster’s New, p. 460. 3

Defining dance is not as straightforward as may be presumed and while I could not take for granted that my concept of dance was the generally accepted view, some 1

Davies, Amarna IV, pl. 33, Tombs of Ïpy and Twtw (transcript, Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 77).

1

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM the accompaniment as in unaccompanied tap or Irish dancing. At times Egyptian dancers wore belts that rattled and often held articles such as batons, sistra and menits that were percussive, it is quite possible that this resulted in a similar self-accompaniment. This is hinted at in the Story of Sinue when the princesses bring forth their menits and sistra with no other accompaniment mentioned.

While this definition refers to the use of the feet in dance, it does not preclude bodily movement independent of the feet. The physical nature of dance is perhaps most simply expressed in the term ‘rhythmic motion’.9 However, this definition leaves itself open to the inclusion of many instances of rhythmic motion, especially involving machinery, that are irrelevant to dance and result in an ever-expanding meaning as technology advances. Not all rhythmic motion can be considered dance and not all types of dance covered in the present study are necessarily rhythmic in nature.

‘Then the Royal daughters were brought in’...’Now having brought with them their necklaces, rattles and sistra, they held them out to his majesty’.13 While it cannot be asserted that this ritual is universally accepted as dance, dancers holding instruments are often depicted in New Kingdom dance scenes, suggesting that they accompany themselves as they dance. Some Old Kingdom dances are performed with batons, suggesting the dancers provide a percussive accompaniment to their movements.14

Definitions of dance as a purely physical action deny the underlying principal of what motivates the action. What differentiates dance from mere rhythmic movement is that it is quintessentially the use of body as a vehicle for the outward expression of an inner emotion or motivation. Turning to more anthropologically based descriptions of dance, one arrives at definitions that encompass the essence of dance as perceived by those who perform it or are intimately involved with it. Levinson adds the aspect of conscious mechanism to his more general understanding of dance:

Of course the ancient Egyptian concept of dance may have been quite different from ours and the breadth of their understanding of what constitutes dance is suggested by the numerous terms, both specific and general, that were employed to define dance. Even as early as the Old Kingdom, the vocabulary of terms encompassing different kinds of dance included: ÏbA, ÏhAb, wnwn, Trf, nwn, xbt, HAt, xnÏ, and perhaps dxn. This is not at odds with our own rich vocabulary for dance: jitterbug, jive, jig, tango, cha cha cha, Charleston, fandango, tarantella and ballet are just a few of the words encompassed by our understanding of the broad generic term ‘dance.’

‘Dancing is the continuous movement of the body travelling in a predetermined space in accordance with a definite rhythm and a conscious mechanism’.10 While Diderot-d’Alembert gives precedence to movements of the body while emphasizing steps: ‘Ordered movements of the body, leaps and measured steps made to the accompaniment of musical instruments or the voice’.11

Apart from the Egyptian understanding of dance, it is important to set the parameters of what is considered dance and related to dance in this work. Elements of dance such as gesture and pantomime, for example, are not necessarily dance in themselves but may at times be included if they are relevant components of specific dance genres. This is particularly evident in the Boys’ Game genre which appears to be a pantomime. Yet, the appearance of the dance term xbt in the caption accompanying one example of this genre indicates that the ancient Egyptians considered this performance as part of the dance repertoire.

Desrat goes even further, defining dance as an expressive action regardless of the involvement of the feet: ‘Dancing is the action of moving the body in harmony with a determined measure and in allocating a given expression to the movements’.12 The concept of dance can be elaborated through having any of the following elements: Dance can be ritualistic or social, for purposes of display or purely expressive; it can be performed for an audience, as a social display, or in solitude, or it can involve a whole community as in tribal dance; dance can be gender segregated or mixed, both in social circumstances or in formal theatrical performance; it can be choreographed or improvised; the performers can be professional or amateur; partnered dance can be executed by opposite or same sex pairs. While dance is most often performed to a musical accompaniment, music is not a prerequisite. At times dance, by nature can create

While it may be argued that some scenes of mourners participating in funerary ritual, which are included here, do not constitute dance, the following criteria have been used to identify funerary performance as dance: 1) it is choreographed (the same movements and gestures are

9

Raffe-Purdon, Dictionary of the Dance, p. 139. Chujoy-Manchester, Dance Encyclopedia, p. 248, citing Levinson in Beaumont, Miscellany for Dancers (1934). 11 ibid. citing Diderot-d’Alembert, Encyclopedia (c. 1772). 12 ibid. citing Desrat, Dictionary of Dancing (1895). 10

13

Lichtheim, Literature I, p. 232. This is particularly evident in the Boomerang Dance (DS 3.b, see Chapter 2:3), Sistrum Dance (DS 3.c), Harvest Dance (DS 4) and perhaps Mirror Dance (DS 10).

14

2

INTRODUCTION repeated in many examples),15 2) it is performed by professionals, 3) it has an audience (the rest of the funerary train), 4) it expresses an inner emotion or motivation (grief), 5) it is usually performed to a musical or rhythmic accompaniment (rhythmists appear in most Old Kingdom examples of funerary dance).

required, particularly one which tracks the differences between pictures.17 One of the most thorough essays on dance is the relatively recent article published in KMT by Greg Reeder, entitled ‘The Mysterious Muu and the Dance they do’.18 This articulate and searching work brings together the ideas of previous writers on the subject: Junker, Altenmüller, Brunner-Traut and Settgast, and traces the development of their ideas while adding some further associations of his own.

There have been no substantial studies on ancient Egyptian dance in English. The most comprehensive work solely devoted to a study of ancient Egyptian dance is Brunner-Traut’s Der Tanz im Alten Ägypten. This scholarly and thorough work has been extremely useful in identifying examples and classifying them into genres, and particularly for her precise etymological information and extensive referencing of texts containing dance words. However, many scenes of dance have been excavated since the book’s publication.

Hickmann, a prominent ethnomusicologist, has written extensively on the subject of music in ancient Egypt and perhaps one of the most detailed essays on Old Kingdom dance is his article ‘La danse aux miroirs’,19 which examines the Mirror Dance scene from the mastaba of Mrrw-kA.Ï as well as the Pair Dance genre. In particular he has conferred with other scholars in attempting to decipher the caption accompanying the Mirror Dance scene from the mastaba of Mrrw-kA.Ï. Hickmann’s research into contemporary tribal dance in Egypt informs his understanding of ancient Egyptian music and dance.

Despite the obvious emphasis on sport, the most complete documentation of dance scenes is published in Decker-Herb’s Bildatlas zum Sport. Volume II includes one of the most comprehensive pictorial records of dance published to date. As pictorial information has proven very difficult to obtain, this work in particular has been extremely useful, some of the examples being so obscure as to not even raise a mention in any other work. Other examples are here published with the complete dance scene, some of which include extra dance styles or more dancers than shown in other publications.16

Vandier devotes a large portion of volume IV of his Manuel d’archeologie égyptienne to a study of dance. The work largely describes scenes but also gives valuable insight by associating dance genres with specific cults. The accompanying volume of plates has been the source of some obscure or otherwise unpublished dance scenes.20

Wild’s account of ancient Egyptian dance in Les danses sacrées de l’Égypte ancienne, gives an interesting interpretation of the personalities who danced and the cults and rituals associated with a number of dances. His concept of dance is very expansive: the work encompasses pantomime and has a chapter solely devoted to masks. While there are no pictorial examples in this book, Wild’s bibliography presents a particularly comprehensive listing of the dance record, both visual and textual.

Junker’s thorough and articulate study, Der Tanz der Mww und das butische Begräbnis im Alten Reich21 probably has revealed more about the mww than any other publication. In this work he is the first to identify Old Kingdom examples of the Dance of the Mww and he presents a thorough examination of the iconography associated with the Butoesque funerary ritual. Of particular interest is his illustration of the development of the mww headdress. He also identifies an Old Kingdom example of (w)nwn Dance, which does not appear to have been explored further since.

Lexova’s work, Ancient Egyptian Dances, entirely dedicated to the topic, provides a very worthwhile collection of drawings of examples that are rather difficult to find in other publications or are better served as line drawings than photographs. There is also a small number of references to dance terms in text which has proved useful.

Despite the material already in circulation, there are some avenues that required further investigation and some that had not been previously addressed. For example, no one had compiled a truly comprehensive collection of dance pictures. Even lists of references with dance pictures such as those in Klebs, Die Reliefs und Malereien des Alten Reiches and Porter and Moss, Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts,

More recently, Arroyo, in his book, Music in the Age of the Pyramids, devotes a chapter entirely to dance. It provides a good overview of dance in the Old Kingdom but he admits that a work entirely dedicated to the topic is

17

Arroyo, Music in the age of the Pyramids, p. 341 Reeder, KMT 6:3 (1995). Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5). 20 For example, The Chicago Fragment (unfortunately, the holding museum is not specified) does not appear to have been published anywhere else. 21 Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), pp. 1-39. 18

15

Some scenes appear to have recorded a sequence of movements. A reconstruction of the movement of the mourners from the tomb of NfrHtp can be accessed at: http://galliform.bhs.mq.edu.au/EDG/dance.html 16 For example the Salute dancers in the dance scene from the tomb of KA-gm-n.Ï are omitted in most publications.

19

3

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM The sample distribution across the Old Kingdom dynasties is, however, uneven, a situation that is largely due to the nature of the material itself. As mentioned above, very little remains of IVth Dynasty mastabas because, for the most part, they were executed using less permanent materials than those of the Vth and VIth Dynasties. Political instability appears to be the explanation for the paucity of material representing the late Old Kingdom. However, the IVth Dynasty forms such an interesting bridge between the Early Dynastic Period and the Old Kingdom that I believe its study is both interesting and important. Similarly, the material from the late Old Kingdom is revealing from the point of view of the transition into the First Intermediate Period, especially in light of the recent reinterpretation of the dating of this material.25

Reliefs, and Paintings, while invaluable tools, were incomplete and had insufficient information for the examination of the developments in dance and its representation. No one had put forward a comprehensive, formal typology for the classification of dance genres. Earlier publications had also failed to address the issue of differing views as to what constitutes a dance scene. While this work may not have the final word on the matter, I hope some light is thrown on the more obscure possibilities. The first task in undertaking a project such as this is to collect a comprehensive sample of examples. This proved to be surprisingly difficult and time consuming for a number of reasons: Firstly, the scenes still extant represent only a fraction of the original material, due to various factors. Most of the tombs of the IVth Dynasty are damaged or destroyed because they were built from impermanent materials such as mud-brick. Because dance scenes are particularly appealing they have been the subject of much theft and vandalism, many having disappeared into obscure private collections or have been lost or destroyed. In many cases, this happened during early excavations and before being recorded adequately. Secondly, there were a number of factors hindering the access to material which has been excavated. There is a body of primary source material still in situ that remains unpublished necessitating first hand visits to view and record it for the purposes of study. However, it is not always permitted or even possible to gain access to the required sites.22 The installation of some entire mastabas into the collections of museums again necessitates first hand excursions to view still unpublished material.23 Added to this is the problem that the location of a number of tombs has been lost and the potential size of the sample diminishes still more.

Dance scenes appear in a number of contexts, the most common of which is the Presentation Scene. This is typically a scene with the large figure of the tomb owner receiving offerings and viewing various entertainments including dance and musical items, as well as the playing of board games. Bread baking and other food preparations often also appear in the lower registers and frequently an offering table is included. Sometimes presentation scenes are set outdoors, particularly in a marshland setting. Dance also plays a major role in funerary scenes, in both processional and ritual contexts. Since there is discrepancy in opinion as to whether funerary scenes actually depict the funeral of the tomb owner,26 the term ‘funeral’ is avoided. For the sake of clarity the word ‘rhythmist,’ in this thesis, refers to people who clap their hands as a rhythmic accompaniment to dance, whereas the word ‘clappers’ is reserved for the sticks, often hand-shaped, which are also used as a rhythmic accompaniment to dance (particularly in the Mirror Dance27).

Finally, in some cases, certain extant material has been recorded inaccurately. Some of the scenes that are no longer extant or have been lost were recorded by the ardent efforts of early travellers. These sketches, while valuable, cannot be assumed to be correct. Even drawings by highly regarded Egyptologists have proven to be inaccurate in parts and/or inconsistent with other publications.24 Further, relatively few publications contain good quality photographs that can be used as a cross-reference to line drawings.

In conclusion, in presenting a comprehensive study of dance as represented in the wall art of the Old Kingdom, this thesis aims to identify and classify into genre groups, scenes that can be interpreted and categorized as representations of dance. To achieve this it has been necessary to analyze the nature and purpose of dance and trace its development during the epoch; to establish an

In spite of the above difficulties, it has been possible to collect over 100 pictures dating from the Old Kingdom which may be considered to be representations of dance.

25

For example, Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 297, gives a range of dates for anx-ty-fy at el-Moalla which include the Old Kingdom, whereas Harpur, Decoration, p. 353, Vandier, Mo’alla, p. 35, and Fischer, Denderah, p. 97, date the same tomb to the First Intermediate Period. 26 In a number of tombs, the tomb owner is depicted overseeing or participating in his own funerary rites. e.g. In the tomb of ¡nÏ at elHawawish (Kanawati, el-Hawawish II, p. 21, and fig. 10), ¡nÏ himself is seen standing at the prow of the funerary barge transporting his own sarcophagus in the depiction of his funerary rites. In the tombs of Iynfrt (Kanawati-Abder-Raziq, Unas Cemetery II, pl. 38) and Nb-kAw-Hr (Hassan, Saqqara I, figs. 2-4) the tomb owners are depicted overseeing their own funerary processions. 27 DS 10, Chapter 2:10

22

For example, The mastaba of Nswt-pw-nTr, which has an unpublished dance scene, is not accessible for security reasons because it is used to store sculpture. 23 Such as the mastaba of Ra-m-kA.Ï, installed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, which is still only partially published. 24 For example, Junker inaccurately recorded the species and position of some birds in the tomb of KA.Ï-m-anx at Giza. (Kanawati, Giza, I, pp. 9, 30).

4

INTRODUCTION overview of the evolution of dance genres as they were favoured at certain times; to trace the changes in the manner in which dance was depicted in art within each genre and to investigate the function of dance, the performance institutions in which dancers operated and dancer’s vocations and status aspirations throughout the course of the Old Kingdom. Unless otherwise referenced the pictures in this publication have been redrawn by the author.

5

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Chapter 1:1 Typology Classification criteria

criteria of date, form of pose and context, which provided a useful starting point, yet she omitted some genres with smaller samples,1 partly because some crucial material had not yet been excavated when her work was published. Wild, in Les danses sacrées, organized categories in separate lists according to audience, context, performer and form of dance and then organized his chapters according to the period and function of the dances and the context in which they appeared. Other authors classified a number of dance forms together, which are here considered as sub-groups or distinct genres.2 Further, no previous study has organized dance scenes into a formal and comprehensive typology. Arroyo’s book, Music in the Age of the Pyramids, primarily aimed at examining Old Kingdom music, devotes one chapter to the topic. His classification is based largely according to dance terms but space does not allow for a comprehensive typology.

Before a comprehensive analysis of any collection of dance pictures can be made, it is necessary to classify them into manageable groups and establish a working typology of genres. Because we are not able to witness ancient Egyptian dance first hand, we can only classify representations of dance according to the criteria apparent in them, such as: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)

grouping of dancers form of pose performer context and function costume props type of accompaniment label or identifying caption dating of example to a particular period

During the course of this study it became apparent that the criteria present in most scenes would be the best starting point - the information that could be gleaned from examining the form of the dance and the grouping and gender of the dancers. Out of well over 100 pictures of dance, form of pose could be discerned in all but three cases.3 Once pictures were restricted to the general time frame of the Old Kingdom, form proved to be the best choice for the process of classifying dance scenes into genres. Once arranged into genre groups, much of the analysis of scenes would consist of tracking variations and developments in the form and depiction of the dance throughout the history of the Old Kingdom and across various regions.

The initial decision to limit this study to Old Kingdom depictions of dance made the selection of examples according to the criterion of dating the first priority. Historically, it has been difficult to accurately date tombs within the Old Kingdom because the name of the ruler of the time rarely appears in the tomb. Many works have been dedicated to addressing this and various means have been employed to establish a system for placing tombs accurately into specific periods. Consequently, the dating of scenes is not used to influence the categorization process within the framework of the Old Kingdom, because it was recognised that the classification of dance genres may in itself become a viable tool for the dating of tombs.

Yet, while most dances could readily be classified by form, others, such as the Dance of the Mww, appeared to be more accurately classified by considering other criteria such as grouping, costume and context. Similarly, Pair Dance, which has numerous postures, was more readily

While considered important criteria in the classification process, context and function were not the primary consideration for classification in this study because the context is damaged, absent or simply not published in a significant proportion of dance scenes. Further, various dance forms appear in more than one context and a number of apparently different dance forms appear together in some scenes. The application of the criteria of costume, props, and type of accompaniment is limited to only certain genres. The criterion of props, in particular, is especially relevant to the classification of the Dance of the Mww, the Mirror Dance and in the formation of subgroups within Dance Style 3.

1 For example, there does not appear to be a previous mention of the genre labelled here as Stride (Saleh alone describes the figures performing this genre in the tomb of WnÏs-anx as dancers (Tombs at Thebes, p. 14, ‘the dancers stride slowly’) and yet this genre has at least double the number of examples as Mirror Dance, which has been previously discussed at length (Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5), full article; Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 22-23). Another dance, identified by Junker who named it wnwn dance (MDAIK 9:1 (1940), p. 26), does not appear to have been mentioned by other writers. 2 In some previous studies (For example, Saleh, Encyclopedia of Dance, p. 483) the genre named Swastika Pose in this study is not covered, although the similar dances with batons are named ‘stick dances’ on p. 484, in Lexova Ancient Egyptian Dances, p. 44, dances with batons are classified in a category for ‘Dances with musical instruments’ and again Swastika Pose (ie. a similar dance form performed without batons) is not specifically classified. 3 Fragments from the Solar Temple of SAHw-Ra and the tombs of NfrmAat and KA.Ï-xnt (A2).

Previous Classifications Previous attempts at the classification of Old Kingdom dance pictures have resulted in different typologies, each being at variance with the others. Brunner-Traut established a classification system emphasizing the 6

CHAPTER 1:1 TYPOLOGY identified when the grouping of dancers was considered. It therefore became apparent that the grouping of dancers is an equally important consideration to the form of the pose depicted.

innumerable, k) drawn with a very fine camel hair brush, l) et cetera, m) having just broken the water pitcher, n) that from a long way off look like flies’.

Typologies based on grouping of dancers have been established for the classification of dance pictures in studies of ancient dance in other cultures. Malaiya uses grouping of dancers as the principle criterion for classifying dance scenes in the rock art of Central India.4 Dance scenes are first grouped according to whether they are performed by solo dancers, duos or groups and then the scenes are further classified according to form, accessories, context and function.

This system of classification is so far removed from our own post-Darwinian understanding of how animals differ from each other and how they can be categorized, that it cannot be assumed that systems of classification would be similar between cultures so separated in time and place, as are the ancient Near East and our contemporary global community. The same phenomenon can be observed in the classification of dance. Ancient Egyptian terms do not appear to lend themselves to a consistent system of dance classification because numerous apparently different forms of dance often share the same dance terms. There are also inconsistencies in the use of terms in various contexts. This is especially true of the dance term ÏbA, which appears as a caption with no less than four distinctly different genres and in more than one context.

Dance in the Old Kingdom could similarly be classified accordingly as: 1) Unison Dances (such as Diamond, Salute, Linked Hand and Layout) but poses such as Swastika would have to be split because some examples are unison and others are not; 2) Pair Dances, some of which feature unison pairs and others of which show different poses; 3) Interactive Group dances such as Boomerang Dance, Sistrum Dance, Mirror Dance and Boys’ Game; and 4) Solo Dances such as the scene featuring a dwarf dancing in the tomb of KA.Ï-apr(w). Only Decker, in Bildatlas zum Sport, primarily categorizes Old Kingdom dance scenes according to the grouping of dancers rather than pose alone, using such labels as Formationstänze for all unison dances including, Diamond, Salute, Swastika and Layout Poses, but does not use labels to differentiate each pose.5 It has proved difficult, in practice, to reconcile classification according to pose consistently with a system of classification according to grouping.

Perhaps a major reason for discrepancy in the way we classify ancient Egyptian dance to the way the Egyptians themselves classified the same dance is that, in most instances, we have only the evidence of isolated poses, as represented in wall art, whereas the ancient Egyptians knew the dance forms in their entirety and within the framework of the context in which they were performed. Similarly, some modern authors have attempted to classify according to dance genre,8 and others have classified according to the pose represented,9 whereas most appear to have classified according to dance style in some cases and pose in others.10 This exposes a flaw in the classification process according to the criterion of form. In some instances, only one pose or step is depicted and we are faced with the dilemma of whether to categorize according to pose or deliberating as to whether an entire dance form is based on this one characteristic step.

The occurrence of numerous Egyptian terms to describe dance, some of which indicate differentiation of purpose,6 suggests that the ancient Egyptians themselves may have had a concept of classification based on entirely different criteria to those employed by modern authors. Ancient systems of classification are not necessarily based on criteria or methodology similar to our own. A case in point is presented by M. Foucault,7 who cites the following list of categories for the classification of animals, from an early Chinese encyclopaedia:

Thus, what we perceive to be three or more entirely different dances, because the form of the poses are so different, may in fact have been steps belonging to the same dance classification and this would account for the Diamond, Salute and Layout genres sharing the term ÏbA in the context of the Presentation Scene, whereas Diamond and Salute Poses may also have the caption HAt in the funerary context. This appears to be the reason why

‘a) belonging to the emperor, b) embalmed, c) tame, d) sucking pigs, e) sirens, f) fabulous, g) stray dogs, h) included in the present classification, i) frenzied, j) 4 In a rare example of a formal typology of dance scenes, Malaiya uses the grouping of dancers as the principle criterion for the classification of dance scenes in the rock art of Central India. The scenes are first grouped according to whether they are ‘solo dance,’ ‘duet dance’ or ‘collective dance’ and then the scenes are further classified according to motivation, function, context and tribal or family groupings. Criteria such as form of pose, and accessories are used to identify the purpose of specific dances (Malaiya, Animals in Art, fig. 17.1). 5 Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport I, pp. 753 ff. 6 For example, the term HAt occurs only in funerary scenes. 7 Foucalt, The Order of Things, Preface.

8 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, Arroyo, Music in the Age of the Pyramids, and Anderson, Civilizations 9 Wild was particularly thorough in identifying poses, but still arrived at some genres based on overall dance style. Dominicus, Gestern und Gebärden, made the most consistent attempt at categotizing according to pose alone regardless of other criteria, but her thesis is not exclusively or comprehensively an examination of dance. 10 Because of the nature of some dance forms, even when categorized according to pose, the resulting classification may in some instances describe a whole dance genre rather than an isolated step or pose.

7

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM II). The resulting classification represents a dance style rather than merely a pose. This is especially true of the genre after the Old Kingdom, when the Mww are clearly depicted in three distinct poses but can still be identified by costume and/or context.

Brunner-Traut, Arroyo and Anderson considered the Diamond and Salute Poses as one classification and perhaps why Meeks, Saleh and Lexova have omitted Salute as a separate genre entirely (see below, this chapter, under ‘Overview of Genres’). Arroyo differentiates the two styles as representing two distinct tempos within the one dance genre. Clearly, both Diamond and Salute genres are performed in Presentation Scenes and also funerary ritual, so a classification of both forms belonging to the same genre is justified. Other poses introduced later in the Old Kingdom, such as the Swastika and Layout Poses, also labelled ÏbA, occur in the context of Presentation Scenes, but are considered as separate genres by most previous authors.

Yet another variation in classification is the grouping together of various dance poses in Chapter 2:6 because the steps included are sometimes represented in sequence. So while this chapter comprises a series of genres classified according to pose, the overall chapter represents a dance style (excluding some of the scenes with no other parallel included at the end of the chapter). Pictorial Overview of genres

Therefore, in instances where only one pose is depicted, the style or genre classifications in this thesis may, in the final analysis, be no more than a categorization of specific dance poses. Yet these poses may have been used in more than one dance form in more than one context, in much the same way that a modern dance step such as the pirouette, can be as much a part of the classical ballet repertoire as musical comedy, tap, folk or even ballroom dance genres all with different context, purpose and audience. For this reason, in attempting to classify according to style of dance, considerations such as context, function and even caption would take precedence over form of pose. It follows that a typology based primarily on the form of the pose represented allows for the most consistent classification: categorization according to genre of pose rather than genre of dance style.

Once a system of classification was established and examples were placed into their genre groupings, the next consideration was the application of suitable names to each of the categories. In some cases this was straightforward, since previous authors had furnished names that have been widely adopted and still appear to be appropriate for corresponding categories. As far as possible, these already well-established genre names have been adopted in this typology. When a suitable term had not already been established, a name has been applied which primarily describes the form of the dance. Following is a description of each dance genre as classified in this study with, where necessary, a brief explanation of the criteria used to establish the classification and references to the labels assigned by previous authors. The poses and dance genres are presented here in the chronological order of their earliest known appearance in the Old Kingdom.

Yet, there are genres that do not easily conform to this methodology because they are more readily identified by the grouping of the performers into a tableau than by a single distinctive pose or, in certain examples, a sequence of dance steps is depicted. Pair dancers, for example, are represented in numerous poses but, because they always appear in pairs, this group of poses is classified together and results in a classification of dance style rather than individual pose. Another such exception, the Boys’ Game genre, is here classified according to particular motifs or groupings of the performers, even though they are not all present in each example. In this case, more than one grouping of performers is used to identify the genre, which in turn makes this a dance11 genre rather than a classification of pose alone. The Mirror Dance, while it appears in much the same form in both Old Kingdom examples, is identified primarily by the interactive grouping of the dancers and the mirrors held by them. Similarly, while the Dance of the Mww, more readily identified by costume and context, can still be classified according to pose in the Old Kingdom (with the exception of a second representation in the fragment from the tomb of PtH-Htp 11

This genre is classified as dance because the dance term xbt appears in caption accompanying the Boys’ Game scene on the BM fragment.

8

CHAPTER 1:1 TYPOLOGY

Dances appearing from the IVth Dynasty Genre 1 – Diamond Dance The Diamond Dance is the most commonly depicted dance genre, appearing in both presentation and funerary contexts. Captioned ib3 by the Egyptians, the Diamond-shaped arm position in this stately dance resembles both cow horns and for k3. Perhaps the most problematic genre to name, the label Diamond Dance has been adopted for the symbol Dance Style 1 in this study. Numerous writers have commented on the resemblance of the form of the pose to the bucranium,12 although only Watterson has actually named it ‘Cow-dance’.13 The decision to apply the Diamond nomenclature was based on the geometrical configuration of the arm position rather than the assumption that the dance was necessarily associated with the cow-goddess Hathor. While there are indications that this is so, the same can be said for connections with other cults and ideas.14

Figure 1.1 Tomb of Idw, VI.2-4E Giza (after Simpson) Genre 2 –Salute Dance Style 2 was categorized previously by Wild, who named it Salute à la romaine.15 In this study it is named simply Salute as there are numerous variants, some of which do not resemble the salute associated with Rome. The Salute genre has been considered as a variant of Dance Style 1 by Brunner-Traut,16 Arroyo,17 and Anderson,18 and it has been omitted by Meeks, Saleh and Lexova, perhaps due to the same assumption. While the two forms appear in the same contexts with probably the same purpose, the categorization according to form was adhered to here for the sake of consistency and because form is an indicator of the nature of the dance, the study of which was a primary objective of this book. Sub-group 2.a Also labelled ÏbA by the Ancient Egyptians, this dance has a processional appearance. The forward arm is held up in front of the face and the elbow is bent, resembling a salute or greeting, hence the label of Salute in this study. This genre also appears in both funerary and presentation scenes.

12 ‘Stately dances’,which ‘might be taken to symbolize the horns of a Cow’ (Anderson, Civilizations, p. 2563), ‘la danse aux bras relevés, imitation ou symbole des cornes d’un bovidé’ (Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5), p. 154, ‘cow-dances’ (Watterson, Gods, p. 113). Other names include: ‘Purely movemental dance’ (Lexova, Ancient Egyptian Dances, p. 23), ‘offering table dance’ (Meeks, Oxford Encyclopedia, p. 357), ‘Strenger ÏbA-Tanz’ (Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 15), ‘dancing with upraised arms’ (Saleh, Encyclopedia of Dance, p. 483) ‘Rauten-Schreittanz’ (Brunner-Traut, LÄ, p. 219), ‘la station immobile’ (Wild, Danses sacrées, p. 38), ‘the more austere style’ (Sameh, Daily Life in Ancient Egypt, p. 124), ‘Dance of iba’ in which the dancers’ arms form ‘a rhombus shape’ (Arroyo, Music in the Age of the Pyramids, p.343). 13 Watterson, Gods, p. 113. 14 See discussion in Chapter 2:1 Dance Style 1, Diamond Pose. 15 Wild, Danses sacrées, p. 38. 16 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 19. 17 Arroyo, Music in the Age of the Pyramids, p.343. 18 Anderson, Civilizations, p. 2563.

9

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Figure 1.2 Tomb of Queen Mr.s-anx III, IV. 5-6, Giza (after Simpson-Dunham) Sub-group 2.b – straight arm with flexed hand A variation of 2.a, this pose has the forward arm held rigidly straight out in front at varying heights with the hand flexed back.

Figure 1.3 Tomb of ¡m-mnw, VI.1E, el-Hawawish19 Sub-group 2.c —xn gesture The arm position in this Sub-Group is the same as that in Sub-Group 2.a but the wrist is bent and the hand held parallel to the ground.

Figure 1.4 Tomb of NÏ-mAat-Ra, V.9-VI.1, Giza (after Roth) Sub-group 2.d – arm bent at an acute angle with one hand placed to head In Sub-Group 2.d, the front arm is lowered but the back arm is bent acutely and the hand placed against the temple or behind the ear.

19

Kanawati, el-Hawawish V, fig. 6.

10

CHAPTER 1:1 TYPOLOGY

Figure 1.5 Tomb of KA-gm-n.Ï, VI.1, Saqqara (after Decker-Herb)

Genre 3 – Swastika Dance and Dances with batons Dance Style 3 is classified according to form and then divided into Sub-Groups according to the various batons employed by the dancers, although there is no certainty that these Sub-Groups are associated. A number of writers have considered the Dance Style 3 Sub-Groups as one and assigned general labels, which are mostly more appropriate to the variants performed with weapons than those variants executed without weapons.20 Sub-group 3.a1 – Unison Swastika Pose The arrangement of the dancers’ limbs in this genre resembles the shape of a swastika, hence it is referred to as Swastika Pose in this study.21

Figure 1.6 Tomb of Queen Mr.s-anx III, IV.5-6, Giza (after Simpson-Dunham) Variants appearing in the Vth Dynasty Sub-group 3.a2 – Solo Swastika Pose In this cluster, a soloist in the Swastika Pose, performs with a chorus of dancers executing the Diamond Pose.

20 ‘The war dance’ (Lexova, Ancient Egyptian Dances, p. 30), ‘war or combat dance’ (Saleh, Encyclopedia of Dance, p. 483), ‘so-called boomerang dancers of purported Libyan origin (ibid.), ‘Libyan type dance’ (ibid.). The various forms of this dance have been previously distinguished by Brunner-Traut as ‘Schwingtanz’ (for Swastika Pose) (Brunner-Traut, LÄ, p. 219) and both ‘Jagd Tanz’ (Brunner-Traut, LÄ, p. 219) and ‘Grüppentanz mit Hölzern’ (Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 29) for similar dances performed with batons, ‘ein Tanz nach Libyscher Art’ (Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport I, pp. 711, 715-716), Lexova, (Ancient Egyptian Dances, pp. 44-45) takes the gazelle-headed throw sticks of some of these variants to be ‘probably a rattle’ and includes them in her category ‘Dance with musical instruments’, Arroyo in Music in the Age of the Pyramids, also divides this genre into groups; a variation of the ‘Dance of Iba’ for the swastika pose, particularly when performed with the Diamond Pose, p. 348, ‘The Sistrum Dance’ given only to examples of dance with sistra, p.361, Clapper Dance’ for examples with clappers, p. 364). 21 The word ‘swastika’ has its origin in Sanskrit and the symbol is a recurrent motif originating in India as the first of eight symbols of Jainism, the central point (bindu) stands for life (Herbert in Larousse World Mythology, p. 251). It makes an appearance in the decoration on Greek vessels, in which context it is associated with the concept of life force. Interestingly, the English word ‘dance’ also has its origin in the Sanskrit word Tanha meaning ‘desire of life’ (Raffe-Purdon, Dictionary of the Dance, p. 139). Artemis is depicted in the Swastika Pose in the pediment of the Temple of Artemis at Corfu.

11

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Fig. 1.7 Tomb of KA.Ï-m-anx (G 4561), V.8L, Giza22 Sub-group 3.b – Boomerang Dance This sub-group is called Boomerang Dance because some or all of the dancers hold boomerang-shaped throwing sticks in one or both hands (although dancers hold zoomorphic throwing sticks in some examples).23 It is possibly a variant of Dance Style 3.a.

Figure 1.8 Tomb of KA.Ï-xnt (A3), V.E-M, Hammamiya24 Sub-group 3.c – Sistrum Dance The pose in Sub-Group 3.c is a less dynamic variation of the one represented in Sub-Group 3.b, with one or more dancers holding a sistrum in one hand.

Figure 1.9 Tomb of Nw-nTr, V.L, Giza (after Junker)

22

Kanawati, Giza I, pl. 35. The boomerang-shaped and the zoomorphic throwing sticks are hunting implements which appear to have originated in Southern France in the Magdalenian Period (Garcia-Galloway-Lommel, Prehistoric and Primitive Art, p. 251 and figs. 23, 363). 24 El-Khouli-Kanawati, el-Hammamiya. pl. 67. 23

12

CHAPTER 1:1 TYPOLOGY Sub-group 3.d – Static poses with batons Sub-Group 3.d includes examples in which figures in a variety of static poses hold various batons. The Swastika form is not apparent in any of these examples.

Figure 1.10 Solar Temple of NÏ-wsr-Ra, V.6, Abusir25

Genres appearing from the Vth Dynasty Genre 4 – Harvest Dance The Harvest Dance appears to represent field workers executing a rhythmic movement performed in unison as part of the harvest. This genre has been omitted as a dance category by some authors, perhaps because they do not consider it a dance form. It is included as a genre in this study because it has previously been classified as dance26 and because the unison running and clapping of sticks, at least in some examples, suggests rhythmic movement which is the essence of dance at its most fundamental level. The word rwi appears in the Pyramid Texts27 with stick-wielding figures as a determinative.28 and consequently, has been associated with this and Boomerang Dance. Yet, there do not appear to be any Old Kingdom dance scenes captioned with the word rwi and, since this dance only appears in harvest scenes, it is named after the context in which it appears rather than the form of the pose or the batons held by the performers. The Sub-groups within this chapter are classifications according to pose and type of baton. Sub-group 4.a – Rhyhmic movement with long sticks In Sub-Group 4.a the men hold long batons with no evidence of percussion.

Figure 1.11 Tomb of Iy-mry, V.6, Giza (after Weeks) Sub-group 4.b – Rhythmic movement and percussion with short sticks In Sub-Group 4.b the sticks are held in both hands and are struck together, suggesting rhythm and dance.

25

Borchhardt, Ne-user-Re III, pl. 16: 274. ‘Danses spontanées a la fin de la moissons’ (Vandier, Manuel IV, p. 415), ‘rwi – run away dance’ (Meeks, Oxford encyclopedia, p. 356), ‘Race Dance’ (Arroyo, Music in the Age of the Pyramids, p. 363), ‘dance at harvest time’ (Lexova, Ancient Egyptian Dances, p. 23), ‘agrarian work’ (Saleh, Encyclopedia of Dance, p. 482) and ‘stick dances at the harvest’ (ibid. p. 483). The label ‘Erntetanz des Alten Reiches’, is used in DeckerHerb, Bildatlas zum Sport I, pp. 840-841, but only a small sample of scenes (which correspond to those classified in Sub-group 4.b and 4.c in this study) are cited. 27 PT 884 (a) and 743 (d) 28 Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), p. 25. 26

13

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Figure 1.12 Nfr-bAw-PtH, V.6-8, Giza (after Weeks) Sub-group 4.c – Combat with sticks In Sub-Group 4.c, two men confront each other in a mock combat suggestive of a combat-style dance.

Figure 1.13 KAÏ-m-nfrt, V.6-9, Saqqara (after Simpson) Genre 5 – Pair Dance This dance has many poses but is always executed in pairs. It appears in both funerary and presentation scenes. A small number of examples are accompanied by the caption mk trf ÏTt … [behold the movement of…]. There has been almost unanimous agreement with the label Pair Dance for Dance Style 529 but it has also been named Trf dance,30 adopting the Egyptian term associated with dances in pairs. While the word Trf appears only in the captions accompanying this genre, it is present in only three out of 15 possible Old Kingdom Pair Dance representations of the genre.

Figure 1.14 Tomb of Iy-mry, V.6, Giza (after Weeks) Genre 6 – Enchaînements; steps in Sequence including Pirouette, High Step, Stride, Kick, Linked Hand Dances and other Miscellaneous steps A number of distinct poses are grouped together in this chapter because they are represented in sequence, therefore indicating a true dance genre.

29

‘The pair dance’ (Lexova, Ancient Egyptian Dances, p. 23), ‘Reigenartige Paartanz’ (Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 21) and ‘Paartanz’(Brunner-Traut, LÄ, p. 219), ‘pair dances’ (Saleh, Encyclopedia of Dance, p. 483), ‘paired dancers’ (van Lepp, ICE 4 (1985), p. 392), ‘Paartänze’ (Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport I, pp. 737 ff), “Pair Dance’ (Arroyo, Music in the Age of the Pyramids, p.356). 30 Meeks, Oxford Encyclopedia, p. 356.

14

CHAPTER 1:1 TYPOLOGY Sub-group 6.a – Pirouette Sub-Group 6.a, the Pirouette, has previously been classified for the Middle Kingdom31 but despite the appearance of identical poses in Old Kingdom examples,32 the genre has been ignored as an Old Kingdom genre by all scholars, with the exception of Hickmann.33 In this genre, the weight is on one leg, with the other leg bent and the foot or ankle held against the knee of the supporting leg. The pose resembles the most characteristic moment in the execution of a pirouette. This dance step appears in three forms in the Old Kingdom, the Solo Pirouette, the fouetté Pirouette and the Partnered Pirouette, the latter with examples representing both the pair facing each other and back to back. The Partnered Pirouette has been examined as part of the Pair Dance genre by numerous other authors, but has not been identified as a turning step. The one Old Kingdom example which may indicate the fouetté Pirouette (from the tomb of ÏHy at elKhokha) is considered as part of the Kick Step (below 6.c). 6.a1 – Solo Pirouette

Figure 1.15 Tomb of Mrrw-kA.Ï, VI.1, Saqqara (after Duell)

6.a2 – Partnered Pirouette The Partnered Pirouette also appears in a back to back form. The Partnered Pirouette is also examined with the Pair Dance genre.

Figure 1.16 Tomb of Mrrw-kA.Ï, VI.1, Saqqara (after Duell) 6.b High Step Like the Pirouette, High Step also appears in solo and partnered form. 6.b1 – Solo High Step

Figure 1.17 Watt-Xt-Hr Chapel, Mastaba of Mrrw-kA.Ï, VI.1, Saqqara (after Roth, Drawing by Mary Hartley)

31 Pirouette dancing’ (Lindsay, Leisure and Pleasure, p. 138), ‘the Pirouette’ (Saleh, Encyclopedia of Dance, p. 483; Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians, p. 505; Wild, Danses sacrées, p. 88 and on p. 38, Wild further differentiates two distinct variations as ‘Pirouette simple et Pirouette fouettée’). 32 In the tombs of Watt-Xt-Hr, IHy and perhaps Mrrw-kA.Ï. 33 Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5), p. 156, describes a dancer beside the Mirror Dance tableau in the tomb of Mrrw-kA.Ï as executing a sort of ‘pirouette’.

15

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 6.b2 – Partnered High Step The Partnered Pirouette and High Steps have previously only been considered as part of the Pair Dance genre, but they are considered here as a possibly distinct genre.

Figure 1.18 Tomb of ©aw, VI.4, Deir el-Gebrawi34 Sub-group 6.c – Kick Step The example of the Kick Step from the tomb of IHy could also be considered as a fouetté Pirouette.35 The example from Deir el-Gebrawi (Figure 1.18) is considered as part of the Layout genre but because there are significant exceptions in form of pose, it is also examined as part of the Kick Step genre.

Figure 1.19 Tomb of IHy, VI.3-4, el-Khokha (after Saleh) Sub-group 6.d – Stride The Stride genre has been omitted by previous writers, with the exception of Saleh who identifies the scene from the tomb of Wnis-anx as dance in the tomb report.36 This genre appears as a preparation for other steps in most examples in which it appears, however, one scene is dedicated to it in the tomb of Wnis-anx at el-Khokha.

Figure 1.20 Tomb of Wnis-anx, VI.1, el-Khokha, VI.1 (after Saleh) Sub-group 6.e – Linked Hand Dances A chorus dance in which the dancers link hands, this style was well represented in the Predynastic cave art of Upper Egypt,37 although the only Old Kingdom examples known to exist are found in the tomb of anx-ty-fy at el-Moalla. The

34

Kanawati, Deir el-Gebrawi II, pl. 69 Vandier describes this movement as ‘goose stepping’ (Vandier, Manuel IV, p. 418). Saleh, Tombs at Thebes, p. 14. ‘The dancers Stride slowly...’. 37 Winkler, Rock Drawings I, pl. 24:2. 35 36

16

CHAPTER 1:1 TYPOLOGY Linked Hand dance has been identified previously as dance by Vandier but he does not furnish any suggestions for naming the dance.38

Figure 1.21 Tomb of anx-ty-fy , VI.4-VIII.E, el-Moalla (after Vandier) Other scenes with no parallel A number of scenes which appear to depict dance do not fall into any of the above categories and are placed at the end of this chapter because some of them, particularly those appearing in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel, are depicted in sequence with other steps examined in this chapter. Various poses in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel, have been identified by Roth as a birthing dance sequence.39 Genre 7. – Dance of the Mww The Dance of the Mww was performed as part of the funerary ritual. Most depictions of Mww dancers occur after the Old Kingdom and indeed, the caption Mww only appears in one Old Kingdom scene in the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr. The dance term used in captions for Mww dance is xbi, but does not occur in this context until after the Old Kingdom. Because the dance is identified chiefly by the characters who perform it and their distinctive costume, previous labels for this genre have tended to refer to the Mww who perform it.40 Even when the dance itself was named, the labels always referred back to the performers (‘Dance of the Mww’ or ‘Mww Dance’)41 and even though the pose is consistent in the Old Kingdom examples, the resulting classification results in a dance genre rather than a particular pose.

Figure 1.22 Junker)

Tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr, V.L (usurped VI.E), Saqqara (after

38

Vandier, Manuel IV, pp. 418-422. Roth, JEA 78 (1992), pp. 141-143. 40 ‘muu dancers’ (Reeder, KMT 6:3 (1995) , p.1, Meeks, Oxford Encyclopedia, pp. 357-58), ‘Muu ritual dancers’ (Anderson, Civilizations, p. 2564). 41 ‘Muu-Tanz’ (Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 43), ‘Les danses des Mouou’ (Wild, Danses sacrées, p. 37), ‘La danse des Mouaou’ (Jequier, Rd’E 1 (1927), p. 144, ‘Der Tanz der Mww’ (Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), p.1, Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport I, pp. 723 ff), ‘dwarf dances’ (Lexova, Ancient Egyptian Dances, p. 62), ‘Dance of Muu’ (Arroyo, Music in the Age of the Pyramids, p. 362). 39

17

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Sub-group 7.b – (W)nwn Dance The (W)nwn Funerary Dance, formerly identified only by Junker,42 has had little previous analysis. It appears in a funerary context in the tomb of PtH-Htp. Since the actions and functions performed by the dancers (as described in the Pyramid Texts) are all the same as those performed by the Mww, the dance is considered to be a possible variant of the Mww genre. The posture identified with the Wnwn Dance is executed by female dancers in most examples occurring after the Old Kingdom, and in the hieroglyphs describing it in the Pyramid Texts.

Figure 1.23 Detail from funerary scene from the tomb of PtH-Htp (21), V.9, Saqqara (after Lepsius)

Genre 8 – Boys’ Game Dance Style 8 has been given various names which were suggestive of the intent behind the performance.43 The term Boys’ Game was coined by Wilkinson44 and this term has been adopted here, since it neither pre-suggests the purpose of the game or performance nor assumes that it is necessarily dance. The dance term xbt in the BME 994 suggests the genre was considered dance by the Egyptians. Since this genre appears near a depiction of the Mirror Dance, and because one participant carries a hand-shaped clapper similar to those held by dancers in the Mirror Dance scene, the impression is given that it is associated with dance.

Figure 1.24 Mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i, VI.1, Saqqara (after Duell)

Genres appearing in the VIth Dynasty Genre 9 – Layout Pose Dance Style 9, previously described as acrobatic or gymnastic dance,45 is renamed here according to the modern dance term for the pose represented. While this pose is undeniably acrobatic in nature, the labels acrobatic or gymnastic are too broad and allow for confusion with other steps, more acrobatic in nature, which were introduced in the Middle Kingdom. In this case naming the pose rather than the dance style rules out any confusion.

42

Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), pp. 8-9. These were ‘Post circumcision initiation rites’, (Saleh, Encyclopedia of Dance, p. 482) and ‘foreigner or hut games’ (Lindsay, Leisure and Pleasure, p. 121), and Decker-Herb in Bildatlas zum Sport I, pp. 623-625 describe the two main motifs as ‘Ausländerspiele’ and ‘Hüttenspiele’. 44 Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians, p. 100. 45 ‘Acrobatic performances’, Anderson, Civilizations, p. 2563, ‘Acrobatic dance’ (Saleh, Encyclopedia of Dance, p. 483), ‘Gymnastic dances’ (Lexova, Ancient Egyptian Dances, p. 22), This is included in the general classification according to unison grouping of dancers ‘Formationstänze’ in Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport I, pp. 774 ff, and called ‘Dance of the Stars’ in Arroyo, Music in the Age of the Pyramids, p.353. 43

18

CHAPTER 1:1 TYPOLOGY

Figure 1.25 Dancers in the tomb of anx-m-a-Hr VI.1, Saqqara46 Genre 10 – Mirror Dance In this genre the dancers hold mirrors and hand-shaped clappers. A hymn to Hathor appears in the scene from the tomb of Mrrw-kA.i, suggesting the genre is associated with her cult. The dancers in both examples of this genre are arranged in an interactive rondo formation. With only two exceptions,47 the term Mirror Dance has been employed by all previous writers.48 Classification of this genre according to the grouping of dancers and their props resulted in a categorization of it as a dance style rather than a pose.

Figure 1.26 Tomb of Mrrw-kA.i,VI.1, Saqqara (after Duell)

46

Kanawati-Hassan, Ankhmahor, pl. 58. ‘Hathor Sprungtanz’ (Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 22 but see above LÄ, p. 219) and ‘Children’s Games’ (Lindsay, Leisure and Pleasure, p. 118, in which it is considered together with examples of the Boys’ Game genre in a classification of children’s games). 48 ‘Mirror Dance’ (Saleh, Encyclopedia of Dance, p. 483), ‘mirror dance’ (Anderson, Civilizations, p. 2563; Saleh, Tombs at Thebes, p. 14), ‘La danse aux miroirs’ (Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5)), ‘Spiegeltanz’ (Brunner-Traut, LÄ, p. 219; Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport I, pp. 839-840), ‘Dance of the Mirrors’ (Arroyo, Music in the Age of the Pyramids, p.350). 47

19

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Chapter 1:2 Performers, their institutions and titles The material evidence regarding performers in their various roles does not always specify the function of the individuals concerned. Key institutions such as the xnr and SnDt, included cohorts of performers – amongst them dancers, rhythmists and musicians – but it is difficult to determine whether titles such as xnrt [female member of the xnr], sHDt xnr [supervisor of the xnr] and imyt-r xnr [overseer of the xnr], were held by dancers (as documented in the tomb of MHw), or other performers. Scenes of dance also feature rhythmists and musicians, some of whom also may have participated as dancers, while some performance roles, such as those of ritualists (notably the ihAbw) and impersonators, appear to have involved dance skills. Before exploring the specific duties of dancers, then, it is necessary to identify and examine the institutions in which performers functioned, and performers’ titles as defined by their duties.

Kingdom that xnr(w) were attached to the temples of gods.) 50 While instances of women are more commonly attested, there is evidence to suggest that the xnr consisted of both sexes. In the Old Kingdom tombs of £ni and KA.i-Hp at el-Hawawish, two male dancers are depicted amongst the performers in scenes whose captions include the term xnr.51 Another example occurs in the VIth Dynasty tomb of ©aw at Deir el-Gebrawi (Part III, Entry 86), where the same dances performed by both female and male dancers xbt in xnr(w)t Sma in are captioned Smaw... [dancing by the chorus, clapping (or music) by the musicians…].52 Since the caption occurs between the two registers of dancers, it could be interpreted as referring only to the upper register of female dancers, but none of them are clapping. As there is no other caption for the lower register of male dancers and rhythmists, the single caption between the two registers appears to include in the xnr the dancers of both sexes depicted in the upper and lower registers and the exclusively male rhythmists in the lower.

Performance Institutions xnr From the literature examined in the course of this study, no writer has been able to settle on an exact English equivalent that can convey all of the aspects inherent in the Egyptian term xnr, including gender, institution and vocation. Perhaps it is the broad scope of functions of the xnr that makes a suitable translation so difficult to find.

Indeed, some men held titles associated with the xnr in the Old Kingdom and are depicted as being attached to it.53 Whether men depicted overseeing dancers and rhythmists from the xnr, who appear to hold the title sbA [instructor],54 can be considered a part of the xnr itself or separate, and merely playing a supportive role, is not clear. Yet, as seen in the list of titles below, certain Old Kingdom male titles do include the word xnr. While the title imy-r xnr [male overseer of the xnr] is disputed for the Old Kingdom, the title imy-r xnrwt nfrwt [male overseer of the novices of the xnr] is attested to that

The term xnr first appeared in dance scenes in the tombs of Iy-mry (dated around V.6) and PtH-Htp (dated from V.M -VI.E) and occurred frequently in this context throughout the Old Kingdom. Despite the fact that many titles and phrases identify performers as part of the xnr, it is still difficult to reach a precise definition. Superficially, it was a body of ritual performers (consisting primarily of musicians, rhythmists and dancers, but also ritualists, mourners and perhaps impersonators of deities) and their administrative entourage.

50

Blackman, JEA, 7 (1921), p. 16. & Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 140. Kanawati, el-Hawawish II, p. 45, n. 172, ibid. I, fig. 12 {KA.Ï-Hp} and ibid. IX, fig. 37{£nÏ}. 52 Davies, Deir el-Gebrâwi II, pl. 7. 53 Gillam, JARCE 32 (1995), p. 214. As mentioned above, men are depicted performing as part of the xnr in the tombs of Daw, £nÏ and KA.Ï-Hp. See also Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 143-44 and n. 74. The position of the sbA (instructor) in the Nb-kAw-Hr dance scene, implies that he is affiliated with the xnr and should be considered a sbA of the xnr performers. Later examples include the title Imy-r kmt xnrw, Supervisor of the cattle of the xnrw which was held by men (First Intermediate Period, Dyn. IX), Naga ed-Dêr, (Dunham, Stelae, p. 24, pl. 7). Middle Kingdom examples: Dunham, Art news, p. 56 = Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 139 and p. 144(bbb) (unnamed), n. 74; LangeSchäfer, Grab und Denkstein I, no. 20024, p 27, b. 54 Nord, Duham Studies, p. 144, n. 74. A man presiding over xnr performers in the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr is titled sbA. Moussa-Altenmüller, Nianchnum, p. 169, point out that a similarly positioned male sbA presiding over musicians in the tomb of NÏ-anx-£nmw, must be considered a musical instructor or master of the surrounding group of musicians. This implies that the duties of the sbA would be those of an overseer of sorts. Similarly placed men without this title appear in the dance scenes in the tomb of DbH-n.Ï and PtH-Htp (Conspectus entry 21). 51

Gender of the xnr Old Kingdom Because of the Wörterbuch’s definition of xnrt as haremswoman or concubine,49 until recently the word xnr has been commonly translated as ‘harem’. The assumption is understandable because the majority of the members of the xnr appear to have been women and the word ‘harem’ conveys the concept of an institution made up of females, albeit with deeper connotations. In the Old Kingdom, the temples employing a xnr were those of exclusively female deities, making the interpretation of ‘harem’ most unlikely. (It was not until after the Old 49

WB 4: 297, 15.

20

CHAPTER 1:2 PERFORMERS, THEIR INSTITUTIONS AND TITLES period and argues for the inclusion of men in the xnr.55 At that time xnrw were only rarely attached to the private apartments of the king, being more often found attached to the temples of female deities. One title, stA xnrw [One who ushers in the xnr], was held by IHA, who also was in charge of the ipt nswt56 [private quarters of the palace (perhaps the harem of the king)].57 But even in instances where the xnr was associated with the private apartments of the palace, there is no substantial evidence that the xnr performed sexual services for the king,58 although one female titleholder of the xnr did organise leisure activities on the king’s behalf.59 Dancers and singers of the xnr attached to the court may have had religious affiliations due to the divine status of kingship.60

Post Old Kingdom By the Middle Kingdom, however, there is clear evidence in a letter from Lahun, that men belonged quite unambiguously to the xnr as performers: (Hsw(t)).69 The word xnr, with both male and female determinatives, appears three times in Middle Kingdom letters from Lahun70 and also on the stela of a XIIth Dynasty Nomarch of the Panopolite Nome.71 A Second Intermediate Period fragment of a funerary stela from Koptos,72 with remnants of the title [imy-r] xnr, also has a determinative with both male and female figures for the word xnr. It has been considered that the appearance of tomb owners’ children in the xnr makes the translation of xnr as ‘harem’ particularly inappropriate,73 however, this point cannot be used to strengthen Nord’s argument since it was the practice, at least in New Kingdom harems, for children to grow up in this enclave, as attested in the bible story of Moses in the Bulrushes.74 Moreover, it was not unknown for kings to marry their daughters.75

Looking beyond the royal compound to the ranks of the elite, it has not been established that private tomb owners from the Old Kingdom had harems or were even polygamous. There is evidence that a small number of individuals did have multiple wives in this period, but conceivably it could be explained by serial monogamy resulting from death61 and/or divorce.62 (However, while there is no evidence attesting the existence of polygamy amongst private individuals at this time, neither is there evidence confirming that this practice was not in place in the Old Kingdom and, since most of the king’s privileges passed on to the elite in the Old Kingdom, it is likely that this practice did also.) Private harems are not attested until the First Intermediate Period and even then are restricted to a handful of noblemen.63

Finally, it is unlikely that married women would belong to an institution perceived to be a harem. The title imyt-r xnrwt n BAt was held by Nfr-BAt and is recorded on the stela of her husband, ¡sw.76 The title xnrt nt inpw was held by a Middle Kingdom woman named It.s-anx and is recorded on the stela of a priest, who was presumably her husband.77 Function of the xnr

Both male and female determinatives are used with the word xnr on the coffin of ¡nt.i: ¡nt from Akhmim 64

Apart from the issue of gender, the word ‘harem’ fails to address the most public function of the xnr, which appears to have been performance. While primarily considered a gynaeceum, evidence from as far back as the Old Kingdom shows that the xnr had both male and female members, who held a number of positions at various levels within its vocational hierarchy.78 The list of titles below reinforces the opinion of other writers who have challenged Erman-Grapow’s interpretation of the

th

), which is now dated to the VI ( Dynasty.65 This is accepted as attesting both men and women were attached to the xnr by Nord66 and McFarlane.67 However, it has been considered a scribal error by Fischer, who considers a female determinative was intended and takes it as implying that the xnr consisted of only women.68

69 Ward, Feminine Titles, p. 77, (‘The male singer Iteti and the lad who are in this xnr (namely) the son of Sesostris’). 70 Nord, Dunham Studies, p.144, n. 72 and inscriptions p. 138 (e) (P. Berlin 10068, line 2) and (g) (P. Berlin 10037, pl. 6 lines 14-15) and also found in P. Berlin 10072, vs. 14 (Scharff, ZÄS 59 (1924), pp 2235). 71 Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 139 (zz) = Lange-Scäfer, Grab und Denkstein I, (20024). 72 Petrie, Koptos, pl. 12. 73 Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 145. 74 Shaw-Nicholson, Dictionary, p. 119. 75 Amenhotep III’s daughter, Sitamun, held the title of ‘King’s Great wife’, although this may not have been a consummated marriage (Dodson, Monarchs, p. 95), Ramses II is known to have married three of his daughters, at least one of whom (Nebettawy), bore offspring to him (ibid. p. 129). 76 Ward, Feminine Titles, p. 73. This stela is now dated to the Late Old Kingdom, Stewart, Egyptian Stelae II, no. 47, pl. 9(3). 77 ibid. 78 Nord, Dunham Studies, pp. 137-145; Robins, Women, p. 148.

55

Spiedel, Friseure, pp. 38(20), n. 5, 190 (NÏ-anx-£nmw -Ïmy-r xnr nfrwt, Dyn. V, second half). 56 Nord, Duham Studies, p. 144 and n. 78. 57 ibid. p. 143, n. 59. 58 ibid. p.144. 59 ibid. 60 ibid. 61 Death due to childbirth was very prevalent in ancient Egypt and resulted in many men outliving their wives. 62 Kanawati, SAK 4 (1976), p. 159, Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 137. 63 Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 137. 64 Kanawati, el-Hawawish IX, p. 59, fig. 32(f) (coffin of ¡nt.Ï:¡nt) mid VI, CG 28006 = Lacau, Sarcophages I, pp.17, 19, (Coffin of ¡nt.Ï). 65 Kanawati, el-Hawawish IX, p. 59. 66 Nord, takes this view, Dunham Studies, p. 143 and p. 139 (uu). 67 McFarlane, God Min, p. 303. 68 Nord, Dunham Studies, n. 68, pp. 143, 144. but Fischer acknowledges the possibility in Varia, 71, n. 18 citing a later example in Petrie, Koptos, pl. 12).

21

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM xnr as ‘harem’79 and offered alternative interpretations which emphasize the aspect of performance rather than gender (see below). It seems logical, therefore, to accept that the term be associated with both female and male performers.

skill of the xnrwt is understood to encompasss midwifery, then the association with confinement and the predominence of women in this institution becomes clear. The most compelling evidence presented by Roth for this vocation of the xnr is the depiction of dance on the north wall of chamber B3, Watt-Xt-Hr’s chapel in the mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i at Saqqara, which she interprets as a danced chronicle of the mysteries of childbirth and a treatise on the practices of the xnr in their capacity as midwives. If this is so, then this wall offers an insight into the birthing customs of the period and an understanding of the (W)nwn Dance performed by women at funerals throughout the pharaonic period.84 This metaphoric, choreographed record of birthing is suggestive of an association between the birth of a child and the rituals surrounding the rebirth of an individual into the hereafter at the funeral.

A second less articulated vocation for the xnr is suggested in the Westcar Papyrus.80 In the story relating the birth of the first three kings of the Vth Dynasty, a group of deities disguise themselves as performers in order to gain access to the birthing chamber so that they can preside over the birth. When the distraught expectant husband answers their knock at the door, he immediately asks them to assist his wife, who is in labour. Since his request is not prompted, this suggests that it was commonly acknowledged that performers could act in this capacity. When the deities reply that they are skilled in this practice, it is accepted without question. While they are not specified as belonging to a xnr, their acceptance, indeed the anticipation by the characters in the story that these performers are experienced in the practice of midwifery, implies that it was common practice for performers (who are often associated with the xnr) to double in that capacity. There is also the implication that the deities chose this disguise because it was the most likely to inspire the confidence of the other characters in the story in admitting them to the birthing chamber.

It is no coincidence then, that the xnr is often depicted performing dance as an integral part of the funerary ritual providing an analogy for rebirth. One of the dance genres most commonly performed at the funeral is the Diamond Dance, the form of which is reminiscent of the bucranium. The close resemblance of the bucranium to the uterus has been revealed by Cameron,85 suggesting that this is a fecundity dance performed by the women of the xnr as a metaphor for the (re)birth vehicle.

Compelling evidence, both archaeological and etymological, presented by Roth, argues for more emphasis to be credited to this aspect of the xnr.81 Her assertion is based around a new interpretation of the (U31) sign, which she proposes may have been derived from the knife used to cut the umbilical cord after birth.82 Problematically, the sign is also used to determine the word xnr (prison) from the First Intermediate Period. It is this word, emphasising confinement, which has chiefly led to the interpretation of the word xnr as a ‘harem’, yet, the mandatory confinement of a woman after birth for 14 days is documented83 and this may explain the use of the determinative for prison, another instance of imposed confinement. Even today the term confinement is frequently substituted for childbirth. If the

The midwifery aspect, though important, appears to have kept a low profile, probably because birth is messy with bodily efflux, requiring a period of confinement for purificaton and because it was private to women. (The only exposé of the arts of this practice appears on the walls of the funerary chapel of a woman.) This closet attitude suggests that dance was a vehicle for euphemistically advertising this skill and the U31 determinative ( ) may have been employed in the writing of the word xnr as a discrete icon of trade. Since this appears to have been a covert aspect of the xnr, this function of the xnr will not be considered in determining a working interpretation of the word xnr, since it is unlilkely to reflect the overt meaning of the word broadcast at the time.

79

WB 4: 297, 15 (xnrt haremsdame). More recently the term is translated as haremsdame in Hannig, Handwörtebuch, p. 605. Westcar Papyrus, 9.27-11.4. 81 Roth, JEA 78 (1992), pp. 113-147. 82 The origin of this obscure sign, used to determine the word xnr has been disputed. Gardiner notes the resemblance to the utensils used in baking bread and the use of the sign in the words for bread and baking (Gardiner, Grammar, p. 519). Bryan puts forward an argument for the sign representing the two curved clappers held by rhythmists, assuming that the word is etymologically associated with the stem xn to clap or make rhythm (Bryan, BES 4 (1982), pp. 49-50). Roth points out that the sign is not used in this capacity elsewhere (in the words mAHt or Hst commonly used for the meaning clap) (Roth, JEA 78 (1992), p. 140, n. 131). Bryan cites one Old Kingdom example which has this appearance (The title Ïmyt-r xnrwt n BAt, occurring late VIth Dynasty. Bryan, BES, p. 50), but the sign more closely resmbles the U 20 sign for two adzes, which serves to reinforce Roth’s argument. 83 Westcar Papyrus, 11.18-19. 80

84

In the Old Kingdom, the W nwn Dance appears only in the tomb of PtH-Htp, but is possibly alluded to in the Watt-Xt-Hr scene. The genre is examined in Chapter 2:7b, the Wnwn funerary Dance. Later examples of mourners in this ecstatic dance posture (identified as wnwn mourning dance by Junker, Mitteilungen 9:1 (1940), p. 9) include: Garstang, elArabah, pl. 11 (Abydos); Tyler, Renni, pl. 15; Gardiner-Davies, Amenemhet, pl. 24 (TT 82); Werbrouck, Pleureuses, fig. 181 (TT 87); Davies, BMMA (1928), fig. 12 (TT 100); and Sed-fest dancers in Epigraphic Survey, Kheruef, pl.34 (TT 192). 85 Cameron, Symbolism, p. 1.

22

CHAPTER 1:2 PERFORMERS, THEIR INSTITUTIONS AND TITLES performers, predominantly but not exclusively made up of women, with various affiliated men and women who held titles related to the organization and support of the performers.

The institutional aspect of the xnr Since the word ‘harem’, and all the implications it carries, can no longer be accurately applied to the xnr, a modern equivalent needs to be found that is a gendernon-specific noun, which can be applied to performers. Discounting the gender orientation, other writers have offered alternative interpretations, which emphasize the performance aspect, including terms such as ‘musical performers’,86 ‘musical troupes’87 and ‘entertainers’.88 However, none of these successfully conveys the aspect of institution that is implied by the contexts in which the xnr appears attached to the temple cults of deities, especially Hathor89 and to a lessor extent, cults including BAt90 and the temples of Horus (Iwn-mwt.f) both from the VIth Dynasty;91 attached to other institutions such as the SnDt;92 depicted in dance scenes in the tombs of individuals; and participating in presentation scenes, and in funerary ritual as part of the pr-Dt [funerary estate].93 (Captions for these scenes include; xnr n pr-Dt,94 ibA in xnr n pr-Dt); 95 associated with the court or the king. 96

Since any kind of organized institution inherently includes a hierarchical structure, in modern usage, the English word which perhaps comes closest to the word xnr is ‘company’. Today’s ballet, opera and theatre companies are highly organized institutions with a body of performers at the centre of a hierarchy of affiliated vocations. However, since ‘company’ is also applied to non-performance institutions and has numerous other meanings, it is necessary to qualify it with ‘performance’ before the word company. Since, by my definition, the xnr is overtly a performance company similar in structure to today’s opera and ballet companies, whose core performing groups are the chorus and the corps de ballet, the title xnrt could perhaps be best translated as ‘chorister’, in order to distinguish xnr performers from those who are not specified as belonging to the performing cohort of the institution. However, since a few scenes imply that the xnr consisted of soloists as well as choristers, the term ‘ensemble’ may better convey the most precise meaning available to us in English, although it does not necessarily imply the performance function so clearly implied by the word chorus. Since this chorus represents the company when the xnr is attached to other institutions, ‘performance company’ could conceivably be contracted to ‘chorus’, bearing in mind that some soloists may be included in this body of performers. The designation ‘chorus’ is also commensurate with the similar application of the term in Greek Tragedy. Therefore, xnr n SnDt will be translated as ‘chorus of the Acacia House’, xnr n pr Dt as ‘chorus of the funerary estate’, xnr n Iwn-mwt.f as ‘chorus of Horus pillar of his mother’, xnr n BAt as ‘chorus of BAt’, and xnr n nswt as ‘chorus of the king’.

Even Ward, who disagrees with the institutional aspect of the word xnr, cites an example that supports this notion.97 A Middle Kingdom letter from Lahun, mentioned above as proof of both males and females belonging to a xnr,98 for xnrt99 which is similar to the uses the spelling normally used for xnrt meaning prison. spelling Since the context makes it clear that this is not a prison, Ward concludes that it must allude to the institution in which the xnrwt lived, probably within the confines of a temple.100 Therefore, it appears that the xnr was a body of 86

Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 145. Robins, Women, p. 148. While ‘troupe’ suggests an institution of sorts, it is generally perceeived as referring to a travelling or itinerant group and this is not the case in most examples of the xnr. 88 Kanawati, el-Hawawish VIII, p. 25. 89 Nord, Dunham Studies, pp. 141-142. 90 ibid. p. 143-attested by the occurrence of the title Ïmyt-r xnr n BAt meaning ‘Overseer of the house of performers of BAt’ (Stewart, Egyptian Stelae II, no. 47, pl 9 (3)) (Nfr-BAt –Dyn. VI or later). 91 Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 143, the title Ïmyt-r xnrw Ïwn-mwt.f is published in Kanawati, el-Hawawish IX, p. 59, fig. 32(f) (coffin of ¡nt.Ï:¡nt) VI.M, CG 28006. 92 Taken as ÏmAt in some early interpretations, eg. see Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 141 and p. 140, n. 29. 93 Nord, Dunham Studies, pp. 137 and 141 {tombs of Nb-kAw-Hr and KA.Ï-m-anx}. 94 Kanawati, el-Hawawish I, fig. 12 {KA.Ï-Hp} and ibid. IX, fig. 37{£nÏ}. 95 Hassan, Saqqara I, fig.6. {Nb-kAw-¡r}. 96 Nfr.s-rs, and NÏ-mAat-Ra who shared a tomb at Saqqara, held a number of titles attesting the attachment of a xnr to the court. Nfr.s-rs was Ïmyt-r xnr n nswt [Overseer of the xnr of the king], Ïmyt-r ÏbAw n nswt [Overseer of the dancers of the king] and Ïmyt-r sxmx-Ïb nb nfr n nswt [overseer of all fine entertainment of the king] and NÏ-mAat-Ra was Ïmy(.t)-r Hst pr-aA [overseer of singing in the Great House] Ïmyt-r sxmxÏb nb m Xnw StAw pr-aA [overseer of all entertainment inside the places of the Great House]–Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 143. 97 Ward, Feminine Titles, p. 78. 98 ibid. 99 ibid. P. 77 (P. Berlin). 100 ibid. 87

Using the word ‘chorus’ sacrifices the possibility that soloists may have existed in the xnr and the word ‘ensemble’ muddies the aspect of performance, so while the meaning of the term xnr has been examined extensively, a perfectly equivalent English term still remains evasive. SnDt [Acacia House] The term SnDt first appears in the tomb of _bHn. i (IV.5), and the last known appearance in the Old Kingdom occurs in the tomb of QAr (VI.E). Edel suggests, and with good reason,101 that the SnDt is related to the goddess Sekhmet and, therefore, can be considered an institution rather like a temple. It follows then that the xnr n SnDt 101 Edel, Akazienhaus, p. 20-21, cites examples that link Sekhmet with the Acacia House, notably Sekhmet’s epithet nbt SnDty (Gauthier, ASAE 19 (1920), p. 189).

23

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM In titles, the SnDt [Acacia House] is clearly shown to be associated with butchers, who, performing the slaughter of cattle at funerals, appear to hold the title sSmty SnDt [butcher of the Acacia House].107 The title xrpt sSmtyw SnDt [directress of the butchers of the Acacia House] is attested for six queens108 from the IVth to the Vth Dynasties and one male, PHr-nfr (xrp sSmtyw SnDt [director of the butchers of the Acacia House]), from the Vth Dynasty. This association suggests that the Acacia House was responsible for the slaughter of cattle at funerals, as well as dancing and rhythmic accompaniment. This title not only confirms that royal women participated in this funerary ritual, but attests their association with the Acacia House.

depicted in the tomb of _bH-n.i can be taken as the earliest known attachment of a xnr to a temple.102 There are two apparent functions of the SnDt, one is the slaughter of animals and the other is music and dance, both performed during funerary ritual. ¤Smty n SnDt [Butchers of the Acacia House] Butchers of the Acacia House may seem an unlikely designation for a performance vocation, yet it may have extended to some titleholders, who at first glance appear to be associates of performers rather than performers themselves. A number of primary sources suggest an association between dance, butchery and the SnDt in the context of funerary ritual.

c) In text In ‘The Story of Sinuhe’, the mention of ‘the dance of the Mww is performed at the door of your tomb’ is closely

a) In pictures In a scene from the mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i (Conspectus entry Figure 25e) dancers perform directly behind a woman designated SnDt (female member of the Acacia House), who is kneeling and holding a libation jar to a lector priest. Fischer notes the register above has the lower half of a similar scene, in which the kneeling woman and a wt priest appear to be in the same positions as depicted in the lower register, but replacing the dancers and rhythmists, a female supervisor directs or oversees the slaughter of a bull.103 The placement of the two scenes one above the other and the placement of almost parallel figures in both, implies a sequence of events and continuity of characters between the two shows the three elements of performance, butchery and the SnDt, together in a funerary context.104

sftw r r abAw.k followed by [one butchers for you in front of your offering slab], suggesting an association between dance, butchery and the funeral.109 It follows that the butchers of the SnDt may be perceived as celebrants who performed the ritual slaughter of cattle in the course of the funerary enactments of the SnDt. It is interesting to note a parallel in the very similar modern day performance of the Diamond Dance by the Dinka women of sub-Saharan Africa, which also occurs immediately after the ritual slaughter of cattle.110 The performance aspect of both dance and butchery in this context could also explain why a female holds the title of xrpt sSmt(yw) SnDt [directress of the butchers of the Acacia House] in an otherwise necessarily maledominated field. Presumably, because the act of bringing down cattle of suitable size for slaughter in this ritual required considerable strength, the directress of butchers may have been required to ceremonially direct or choreograph the butchers in their role in the proceedings, rather than act as a butcher herself and the direction, in turn, implies there is a performance aspect to the butchery ritual.

These same three elements are again brought together in the mastaba of _bH-n.i, in which dancers and rhythmists, captioned HA(w)t n(t) SnDt [female funerary performers of the Acacia House], are placed in close proximity to butchers at the door of the tomb. In another two examples, the elements of performance and the SnDt are brought together in the context of the funeral. In the first, dancers captioned xnr(t) n(t) SnDt [chorus of the Acacia House] perform in the funerary procession of PtH-Htp105 and in the second example, from the mastaba of QAr, dancers and rhythmists captioned HAt in SnDty [mourning by the two Acacia Houses], perform in the funerary procession. Directly below the dancers in the tomb of QAr, are men titled xnmsw SnDt [friends of the Acacia House] and a woman with the caption bbit which appears to be an abbreviation of the title nbwt SnDt [mistress of the Acacia house].106 b) In titles

107

JT 3614, e.g. LD II, 4; von Bissing-Kees, Ne-woser-Re III, pl. 23(361) {anonymous}; Jequier, Monuments funéraire II, pl. 98 [¡pÏ]; Scott-Moncrieff, BM Stelae VI, p. 6, pl. 13 {in front of man sharpening knife}; Edel, Akazienhaus, p. 30(k) (¡tp-kA) -Edel does not specify whether the title is held by the tomb owner. 108 Dunham-Simpson, Mersyankh III, p. 14, fig. 7 [¡tp-Hr.s II in tomb of her daughter Mr.s-anx III] see also Fischer, Orientalia, 29, p. 184 [¡tp-Hr.s II on her sarcophagus given to Mr.s-anx III]; ibid. p. 184, (¡tp-Hr.s I, wife of Seneferu -inscription on carrying chair); ibid. [MrtÏt.s listed in both the chapel of her son KA.Ï-wab and in the tomb of Mr.sanx] (see also Reisner, BMFA 25, fig. 5)); Fischer, Orientalia p. 184 (4 &5) [#a-mrr-Nbty in tomb of her son #wÏ-n-Ra] (see also Reisner, BMFA 32 (1934), p. 12, fig. 10); Fischer, Orientalia,. p. 185 (Mr.s-anx IV -on false door of her tomb chapel) (see also MM D5, p. 183); Verner, Abusir III, p. 63, 36/A/78 (Queen #nt-[kAw.s] III). 109 Edel, Akazienhaus, pp.30-31, n. 22. 110 http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpsrv/inatl/galleries/sudan/gallery3 _1.htm (click on ‘sacrifice of the bull’).

102

Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 141. Fischer, Orientalia, 29, (1960), p. 186. 104 ibid. 105 Published in: ibid., LD II, 101, b; Wilson, JNES (1944), pp. 201-288, pl. 13; 106 Edel, Akazienhaus, p. 15. 103

24

CHAPTER 1:2 PERFORMERS, THEIR INSTITUTIONS AND TITLES dual nature of Sekhmet as the one who gave birth to the Horus (Pyramid Text 262b)118 who came forth from the Acacia (Pyramid Text 436a) 119 and who is also the goddess who presides over combat and slaughter.120 From these references in the Pyramid Texts, the king’s death can be seen as a second birth out of the Acacia and into a new life, thus Sekhmet has the two aspects of the ‘destroyer’ and the ‘giver of life’.121 The repetition of ‘who came forth from the Acacia’, reinforces the nature of duality. The king ‘comes forth from the Acacia (dies), comes forth from the Acacia (is reborn)’. Another tantalising quote, ‘there should have been a holy Acacia, which enclosed life and death’, appears in Urk 120.122 Perhaps the SnDt can be perceived as a ‘House of Death’ and similarly the xnr could have been viewed as a ‘House of Birth’, especially considering the possibility of midwifery as a function of the xnr. This would give new meaning to the caption xnr n SnDt in the tomb of PtH-Htp [midwives of the ‘House of Death’], truly a metaphor for rebirth. If Sekhmet assumes the role of the destructive, devourer goddess, who is also associated with healing and the birth of kings, she is most appropriately attached to the SnDt as a house of death and rebirth.

That such butchery had a performance aspect may be a factor influencing the placement of butchery scenes immediately under registers featuring performances of dance, music and pantomime in presentation scenes.111 While the intention is to depict a bountiful supply of food for the tomb owner’s banquet, and abundant provision for the afterlife, the association of butchery and performance may not have been lost on the viewer.112 The similarly placed bread-baking scenes113 may have alluded to the ritual baking of snw bread used as a sacrament in Hathoric ritual. Celebrants offering ‘the snw bread of Hathor’ and wearing the tongs used to remove it from the oven are depicted in Middle Kingdom scenes of Hathoric ritual at Meir.114 Sekhmet and Hathor are so closely associated that Sekhmet can be understood as the alter ego of Hathor. Considering the activities of the SnDt, it is logical that Sekhmet, the powerful, darker side of the goddess so associated with the West, should preside over the slaughter of animals in the funerary ritual; yet, perhaps the lighter side of SnDt activities such as dance, should be associated with Hathor, goddess of song and dance. The two goddesses are so closely affiliated that they are featured interchangeably in the myth of the destruction of mankind, in which either goddess is cast as the Eye of Re, depending on the version.

Court musicians The incidence of titles with components such as n pr-aA) [of the Great House], n nswt [of the king] or n nb.f [of/for his lord] indicate that many performers were attached to the court or the king. While some court performers held vocations within the xnr attached to the court, other specific performance designations outside the xnr are evident such as sb pr-aA [flautist of the Great House] Hs(w) n xft-Hr nswt123 [royal singer in the presence/ King’s personal singer] and imyt-r sxmx-ib nb nfr n nswt124 [overseer of all fine entertainment of the king]. At the upper echelon of this cohort were those performers who earned particular favour with the king. Most intriguing are the string of titles: sxmx-Ïb n nb.f m Hst nfrt ra nb125 [one who delights the heart of his lord by beautiful singing every day] and sxmx-ib n nb.f m Hst nfrt m-Xnw pr-aA126 [one who delights the heart of his lord by beautiful singing in the interior of the Great House], which suggest a high level of accomplishment amongst court singers as well as the existence of an appreciative audience.

There are other indications that the SnDt may also have been associated with Hathor. Although differently determined, the word for kilt is also SnDt and from the Middle Kingdom, the kilt was one of the most characteristic manifestations of Hathor; a connection which dates back to the Pyramid Texts115 and the Narmer Palette116 and it is possible that the connection with Hathor is conveyed through the popular ancient Egyptian practice of a play on words. Wilson117 is also inclined to associate this institution with the cult of Hathor. Such a duality is even hinted at in the funerary scene from the tomb of QAr, in which the word is spelt in the dual form SnDty [the two Acacias]. Apart from the duality implied by the association of Sekhmet as the alter ego of Hathor, Edel suggests this dual form may indicate the 111

Examples Include: Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, fig. 37 (Iy-mry), Junker, Giza X, fig. 44 (Nw-nTr), Kanawati, Giza I, pl. 35 (KA.Ï-m-anx). 112 In the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr, the tomb owner is captioned mAA sxmx-Ïb ‘viewing entertainments’, one register of which is the slaughter and butchery of cattle. 113 Examples Include: Dunham-Simpson, Mersyankh III, fig. 11 (Mr.sanx III), El-Khouli-Kanawati, el-Hammamiya, pl. 67 (KA.Ï-xnt A3), ibid., pl. 51 (KA.Ï-xnt A2). 114 Blackman, Meir II, pl. 32; ibid. I, pl. 2 (tomb of ¤nb.Ï, B4); ibid. II, pl. 15 (tomb of Wx-Htp B2). 115 Sethe, Pyramidentexte I, PT. 546b SnDwt.f Hr.f m ¡wt-Hr Swt.f m Swt bÏk [his kilt which is on him is Hathor, his feather is a falcon’s feather]. 116 The verso of which shows the BAt head, later absorbed into the iconography of Hathor, on the kilt of Narmer (Firth-Quibell, Step Pyramid I, pl. 59) 117 Wilson, JNES 3 (1944), p. 212 and n. 60.

118 Faulkener, Pyramid Texts, p. 60: ‘The king was conceived by Sekhmet and it was Sekhmet who bore the king’. 119 Faulkener, Pyramid Texts, p. 88:‘I am Horus who came forth from the acacia, who came forth from the acacia’. 120 Edel, Akazienhaus, p. 20. 121 ibid. 122 ibid. p. 19. 123 JT 2424, e.g. Kaplony, MIO 14 (1968), p. 202, no. 6 (pl. 9, fig. 16) (offering basin Louvre D48=E5609 (NÏ-maAt-Ra –who also held the title Hm-nTr ¡wt-¡r); Kaplony, Rollsiegel II, p. 320 (NÏ-kAw-Ra). 124 JT 1112, e.g. Hassan, Giza II, p. 204(4), fig. 228, pl. 79 (Nfr.s-rs). 125 JT 3589, e.g. MM C22, p. 154, (Mry-Ra-PtH); Pirenne, Institutions II, p. 455(18) (ITÏ ). 126 JT 3590, e.g. Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, p. 60, fig. 52 (ITÏ G6030).

25

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Roth notes a high incidence of scenes of music in the tombs of the xntyw-S at Giza127 and that some holders of the title xnty-S also held performance titles.128 Further, tomb G 2088 has a representation of family members playing music in the Presentation Scene, which is unusual before the VIth Dynasty.129 Roth suggests this may indicate that the children of xntyw-S were being groomed to succeed their parents in positions requiring musical skills.130 It is reasonable to imagine then, that personal attendants of the king may also have been responsible for his entertainment.131

performance and because the term ihAbw has been interpreted specifically as referring to dance and dancers.

Who was Who; A Prosopography of Old Kingdom Performers and their Titles

For the purposes of clarity and brevity, the following convention is followed in citing primary sources for titles. Where the tomb, stela or statue owner holds the title being examined the name is placed in ( ) brackets after the citation, where the title holder’s name is not the same as that of the tomb or stela owner, the title holder’s name is given in [ ] brackets along with the name of the tomb or stela owner’s name, and where the title holder is anonymous, the tomb or stela holder’s name is given in {} brackets after each citation.

The work of performers was quite diverse as may be perceived from the following list of titles, which were held by performers and their associates and administrators. Although the identity of the tomb owner is only occasionally that of the performance titleholder, this list does serve as a prosopography of a kind as it is a comprehensive record of the publications of scenes and texts featuring each performance title, where possible with the identity of the titleholder.

Having established definitions for both the SnDt and xnr, it is timely to collect and collate a comprehensive list of performance related roles that were part of the life in those institutions. While the following list of titles is principally drawn from the Old Kingdom, a small number of First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom titles are included. The later titles are listed only if they shed light on our understanding of the performance aspect of an existing Old Kingdom title or if there is pictorial evidence of a vocation existing in the Old Kingdom, which is not textually documented until later.

Titles are arranged alphabetically and a possible translation is offered. For the sake of brevity in the titles list, the following four publications are abbreviated to the initials: JT for the entry number in Jones, D, An Index of Ancient Egyptian Titles, Epithets and Phrases of the Old Kingdom; PM for Porter, B., and Moss, R., Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs and Paintings; MM for Mariette, A., Les mastabas de l'ancien empire; LD II for Lepsius, C. R., Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien, volume II and CG for Catalogue Générale des Antiquités Égyptiennes du Musée du Caire. The footnotes give the JT entry number, if listed, and the title entry in PM, if listed, followed by the examples identified by Jones and further examples identified by the present author, again usually with only one reference cited for each example. Numerous references are not generally given for each example, unless a title is not listed in JT and there is a need to attest it as a title. (For such occasional instances, in which more than one reference is cited for the same example, the references are connected with = signs to indicate they refer to the same example.)

The word ‘performer’ should be understood in the context of this work as a person who plays a role or a part in a ritual or performance, which is witnessed by an audience. In the Old Kingdom, such roles included a wide range of ritualistic or formal practices which were not necessarily intended merely to entertain. Though priests such as lectors were celebrants and therefore performers of a kind, a comprehensive study of this category is outside the scope of this thesis, since this type of performance is primarily religious in motivation and less movement oriented. However, some celebrants or ritualists will be covered, such as the ihAbw who appear to have been directly involved in musical

127

Roth, Palace Attendants, p. 42. Musical scenes appear in all but two of the tombs in this publication. 128 KA-pÏ (G 2091) has the title Hsw n pr-aA and the damaged remnants of a title held by RwD (G 2086) suggests the reconstruction Hst n xnt[yw-S] [of singers of the xntyw-S]. Roth also identifies the unusual phrasing of the title … m Xnw StA pr-aA in tomb G 2098, which is only paralleled by a performance title held by NÏ-maAt-Ra (Ïmy-r sxmx-Ïb nb m Xnw StAw praA [overseer of all entertainment inside the private places of the Great House], which, since it occurs in exactly the same pictorial context, appears to indicate that this also was a performance title held by a xntyS. Other xntyw-S with performance titles noted by Roth are ¤n-anx-Wr (G 2475), who held the title sb [flautist] inscribed on his statue (PM III, N122, p. 95) and #wfw-anx who was Ïmy-r sbw n pr-aA. [overseer of flautists of the Great House] and Ïmy-r Hsw n pr-aA [overseer of singers of the Great House] (PM III, pp. 129-30). 129 Roth, Palace Attendants, p. 42. 130 ibid. 131 ibid.

There are also a number of phrases listed which occur in scenes of performances, especially those featuring the xnr, which are not numbered since they repeat titles already listed or repeat the same word as the title in the form of an infinitive. An explanation of some of the terms employed for translation follows the list along with notes on some of the more unusual performance roles.

26

CHAPTER 1:2 PERFORMERS, THEIR INSTITUTIONS AND TITLES Titles 1. ÏwH rxÏt 132 mourner of mankind 2. ÏbA133 dancer 3. ÏbAt 134 dancer (with feminine ending) ÏbAw n SnDt135 dancers of?136 (or dancing by) the Acacia House ÏbA n xnr/ [ÏbA Ï]n xnr137 dancing by the chorus 4. Ïmy-r Ïs ÏbAw138 overseer of the bureau of dancers 5. Ïmy-r Hsww pr-aA139 overseer of singers of the Great House 6. Ïmy-r Hsww prwy140 overseer of the singers of the two houses

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

132

16.

JT 28, e.g. Moussa-Altenmüller, Nefer, p. 14 (KA-HA.Ï). JT 30, PM III, N 52, e.g. In title lists: MM F4, p. 435b (PtH-Htp:_Sr); MM B11 (£nmw-Htp). Before anonymous dancers in dance scenes: van de Walle, Neferirtenef, p. 36, pl. 6 {Nfr-Ïrt-n.f}; Montet, Scènes, pl. 24 {Nn-xft-kA}; Duell, Mereruka I, pl. 87 {Mrrw-kA.Ï}; Junker, Giza X, figs. 44, 71 {Nw-nTr}; Ziegler, Achethetep, pp. 58-61 {Axty-Htp}; Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, fig. 43 {Iy-mry}; ibid. fig. 43 {¥pss-kA.f-anx}; Davies, Deir el-Gebrâwi II, pl. 17 {ÏsÏ}; Simpson, Qar and Idu, pl. 87 {Idw} and fig. 24 {QAr}; Kanawati, Giza I, pls. 32 & 35 {KA.Ï-m-anx}; ibid. II, fig. 64 {¤Sm-nfr II}; Kanawati-Hassan, Ankhmahor, pl. 58 {anxm-a-¡r}; Hall, Egyptian Collections, fig. 6.2 {Wr-Ïr-n-PtH}; Hassan, Saqqara II, fig. 37 {PtH-Htp: IÏ-n-anx}; Myśliwiec, Rewelacyjne, fig. 42 {Mr.f-nb.f}; Moussa-Altenmüller, Nianchchnum, fig 25, pl. 68 {NÏ-anx£nmw}; Hassan, Giza V, fig. 105 {#ww-wr}; Brunner-Traut, Seschemnofers III, colourplate 2 {¤Sm-nfr III}; Epron-Wild, Ti I, pl. 57 {§y}; Hassan, Giza II, fig. 228 and p. 208 {Nfr.s-rs}; LD II, pl. 61a {Ra¥pss}; ibid. VI, Pt. III, fig. 83 {KA.Ï-dwA}. Also found in caption: ÏbA Ïn xnr n pr-Dt, in Hassan, Saqqara 1, fig. 2 {Nb-kAw-Hr -here occurring in phrases as an infinitive rather than a title}; Nord, Dunham Studies, pp. 138 (y), 141 - G. 7211- unpublished – the context is the procession to the tomb chapel {KA.Ï-m-anx}; Posener-Krieger, Archives, p. 606 (Abusir Papyrus). 134 Sole example: MM E10, p. 404, placed before each of the six dancers on the south wall {Qd-ns}. See also previous entry (ÏbA). 135 LD II, 61a {Ra-Spss}-generally interpreted as the caption: ‘dancing by the SnDt’, but could be taken as ‘dancers of the SnDt’. 136 Just as xnr n pr-Dt is taken to be xnr of the funerary estate (Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 141), this could be interpreted as the designation dancer(s) of the xnr, the plural implied by the numerous figures which could double as the determinative (For this use of n in the sense of ‘belonging to’ see Gardiner, Grammar, sect. 114.1 and for use of n rather than m in the partitive sense, see sect. 162.5). e.g. de Morgan, Dahchour II, pl. 25 {¤nfrw-n-ISt.f}; Hassan, Saqqara I, fig. 2 {Nb-kAwHr} ÏbA Ïn xnr n pr Dt; Junker, Giza VI, fig. 13 {Nfr} Hst n ÏbA Ïn xnr; Epron-Wild, Ti I, pl. 57 {§y}. 137 Epron-Wild, Ti I, pl. 57 {Ty}; de Morgan, Dahchour, pl. 25 {¤nfrwÏn-ISt.f}. 138 JT 292. e.g. PM III, p. 895 (ITÏ) but, in Fischer, Egyptian Women, p. 38, n. 81.(‘overseer of the chamber of dancers’ – this example is not without question due to a lacuna at each end of the text). 139 JT 686, e.g. PM III, N 563; MM E6, p. 395 (Nfr-¤nfrw I -Ïmy-r Hswt (in this example pr-aA does not appear as part of the title, although the son (Nfr-¤nfrw II ) has the title Hst pr-aA also listed in MM E6, p. 395)); MM E7 (Nfr-¤nfrw II); Reisner, Giza I, pl. 65b (#wfw-anx) – male determinatives for Hsw; LD, II, 59b, G6030 {ITÏ -Ïmy-r Hst pr-aA – here the final t of Hst is taken to mean singing rather than singers}; Hassan, Giza II, fig. 226 (Nfr.s-rs). 140 JT 687, e.g. Moussa-Altenmüller, Nefer, pp. 14, 45 (KA-HA.i). 133

Ïmy-r Hst141 overseer of singing Ïmy-r Hst pr-aA 142 overseer of singing/singers (Hs(w)t) of the Great House Ïmy-r xmt xnrw143 overseer of the sacred xmt cattle of the chorus Ïmy-r xnr144 overseer of the chorus Ïmy-r xnr nswt mÏ-qd.f145 overseer of the entire chorus of the king Ïmy-r xnr nfr(wt)146 overseer of the chorus (of) recruits (new chorus) Ïmy-r sbw147 overseer of flautists Ïmy-r sxmx-[Ïb]148 overseer of entertainment Ïmy-r sxmx-Ïb nb149 overseer of all entertainment Ïmy-r sxmx-Ïb nb n nswt150 overseer of all royal entertainment

141

JT 688, e.g. LD II, 59a, b (ITÏ); Junker, Giza, VII, pp. 34(2.1), 37 (Nfr-¤nfrw, Saqqara) = MM E6, p. 395 (Nfr-¤nfrw); Hassan, Giza II, p. 211 (1), fig. 232, (NÏ-mAat-Ra). 142 JT 689, e.g. PM III, N564; LD II, 59b (ITÏ); PM III, pp. 129-30, false door Boston MFA 21.3081 (#wfw-anx); Hassan, Giza II, p. 205, 211, figs. 226, 231, pl. 77 (3) (NÏ-mAat-Ra); Junker, Giza, VII, pp.36, 37 (Nfr¤nfrw). 143 This is a Middle Kingdom title, included because it attests male associates of the xnr, Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 139 (zz) (stela of Nomarch from Panopolite Nome- Dyn. XII) and p. 144, n. 74. The xmt cattle were sacred to the god Min (Goyon, Nouvelles Inscriptions, p. 77). 144 Not listed in JT, probably because male overseers of the house of performers do not occur until the Middle Kingdom. See JT 1106 for the female title. The male title appears to date from the First Intermediate Period but the evidence is damaged and incomplete. On a Middle Kingdom fragment from Koptos the word xnr has both male and female determinatives and it is assumed that the title Ïmy-r xnr is intended. Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 137 and p. 138 (k) (unnamed male overseers, Middle Kingdom and Dyn. XVIII). e.g. Griffith-Newberry, el-Bersheh II, pl. 7, pp. 23-24, (_Hwty-nxt, Dyn. XI), who was also high priest of Toth; Nord, Dunham Studies, n. 81, (#sw the Elder at Kom el-Hisn, Dyn. XII). 145 Not listed in JT, as this title does not appear before Middle Kingdom. e.g. Firth-Gunn, Teti Pyramid Cemetery, p. 281, pls. 83 ff (Ihy -Dyn. XII). 146 JT 706; Spiedel, Friseure, pp. 38(20), n. 5, 190 (NÏ-anx-£nmw – Ïmyr xnr nfrwt, Dyn. V, second half) see also Ïmyt-r xnrwt; Fraser, PSBA 15 (1893), p. 494ff, pl. 9 (PpÏ-n-anx, el-Kab– probably Dyn. VI) – Jones gives this as Ïmy-r xnrwt nfrwt but the reading of the figure nfrwt is uncertain in the hieroglyphs accompanying the Fraser article. The title could also be Ïmy-r xnrwt, in question although it is then difficult to interpret the hieroglyphs following the word xnr. Later examples: Griffith-Newberry, el-Bersheh II, pl. 7, pp. 23-24, (©Hwty-nxt -Dyn. XI); Nord, Dunham Studies, n. 81, (#sw the Elder at Kom el-Hisn, Dyn. XII) = Maspero, Musée Égyptien III, p. 60 (#sw). 147 JT 763, e.g. PM III, N 444, p. 129, G4520, (#wfw-anx). 148 JT 857, e.g. PM III, N 434; Junker, Giza, VII, p. 34 (1.3) (¤nfrw-nfr); Hassan, Giza II, p. 204, fig. 226 (Nfr.s-rs) 149 JT 858, e.g. Kanawati, el-Hawawish III, fig. 9 (§tÏ : KA.Ï-Hp). 150 JT 859, e.g. MM E6, p. 395 (Nfr-¤nfrw); MM E7, p. 398 (Nfr-¤nfrw II, G. 1461); Kanawati, Administration, p. 99, (155) (NÏ-mAat-Ra).

27

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

Ïmy-r sxmx-Ïb nb m Xnw swt pr-aA151 overseer of all entertainment inside the places of the Great House Ïmy-r sxmx-Ïb nb m Xnw StAw pr-aA152 overseer of all entertainment inside the private places of the Great House Ïmy(t)-r sSmtyw SnDt 153 overseer of butchers of the Acacia House Ïmy-r kmt xnrw154 overseer of the black cattle of the chorus Ïmyt-wrt155 Great One156 Ïmyt-wrt aAt nt nfr-qd157 Great One of the beautiful of character/form Ïmyt-wrt m Hry-Ïb Spst158 Great One who is among the noble ladies Ïmyt-wrt nt xnr159 Great One of the chorus Ïmyt-wrt xnwt160 Great One of percussionists Ïmyt-r ÏbAwt161 overseer of dancers Ïmy(t)-r ÏbAw(t) n(t) nswt162 overseer of dancers of the king Ïmy(t)-r mATr(w)t163 overseer of mourners Ïmy(t)-r Hs(w)t164 overseer of singers/singing

30. Ïmyt-r xnr(wt)165 overseer of chorus 31. Ïmyt-r xnr n Iwn-mwt.f166 overseer of the chorus of (Horus or HarMin?) Pillar of his mother (at Akhmim) 32. Ïmyt-r xnr(wt) n BAt167 overseer of the chorus of BAt 33. Ïmyt-r xnr n nswt168 overseer of the chorus of the king 34. Ïmyt-r sxmx-Ïb nb nfr n nswt169 overseer of all fine entertainment of the king 35. Ïmyt-r SnDt170 overseer of the Acacia House 36. Ïry mDAt SnDt171 archivist of the Acacia House 37. Ïry Ïxt nswt] Ïrr mrr(t) nb.f m Hs nfr172 [acquaintance of the king] who does what his lord desires in beautiful singing 38. ÏhAbw m Hwt-nTr [nt] Mnw Gbtyw173 ritual dancer/ritualist in the temple [of] Min of Coptos. 39. IHyw174 percussionists of IHy for Hathor

164 JT 1105, e.g. PM III, N439; MM, C15, p. 138-9 (¡m(t)-Ra -Dyn. V, Saqqara). 165 JT 1106, e.g. PM III, Q488, (¡mt-Ra =MM C15) CG 1380; Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 139(vv) (First Intermediate Period, Naga ed-Dêr); Hassan, Giza II, figs. 226, p. 205 (Nfr.s-rs) and fig. 228 (facing p. 206); Fischer, JAOS, 76 (1956), p. 106 no. 7 and n. 37, (coffin of ¤nx-Nt (?)) MFA 23-12-177, tomb SF 5015; MM C15, pp. 138-141, (¡mt-Ra -Dyn. V, Saqqara); Altenmüller, Mehu, p. 158, pls. 48, 51-52 {MHw}; Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 138 (j) {Watt-Xt-Hr}; ibid. p. 138 (k) {unnamed male overseers, Middle Kingdom and Dyn. XVIII}. 166 JT no. 1107, e.g. Kanawati, el-Hawawish IX, p. 59, fig. 32(f) (coffin of ¡nt.Ï:¡nt) mid Dyn. VI, CG 28006 = Lacau, Sarcophages I, pp.17, 19 (Coffin of ¡nt.Ï). 167 JT no. 1108, e.g. Fischer, JARCE I (1962), pp. 8, 10 and fig. 2. (NfrBAt wife of ¡sw); Stewart, Egyptian Stelae II, no. 47, pl 9(3) (Nfr-BAt, Dyn. VI or later). 168 JT 1109, e.g. Hassan, Giza II, p. 204 (7), fig. 226 (Nfr.s-rs). 169 JT 1112, e.g. Hassan, Giza II, p. 204 (4), fig. 228, pl. 79 (Nfr.s-rs). 170 JT 1113, e.g. Fischer, Orientalia 29 (1960), p. 187ff, fig. 7 (Nfr.srs); ibid. pp. 187-90, unnamed woman on ostracon from el-Kab. 171 JT 1176, e.g. Fischer, Orientalia 29 (1960), p. 186-187, (§ntÏ) = Berlin 7721. 172 JT 1253, e.g. MM C22, p. 154 (Mry-PtH-Ra) = Pirenne, Institutions I, p. 353(75). 173 JT 1274, e.g. McFarlane, God Min, pp. 101(157), n. 575 (son of ¥mAy, name lost). 174 This title is not attested in the Old Kingdom e.g. Middle Kingdom: Blackman, Meir I, pl. 2 {2 men in tomb of ¤nb.Ï}; ibid. II, pl. 32, p. 24 [ÏHyw is placed before 3 named men Wx-nxt, Ïy, and … nw, all playing castanets]; New Kingdom: Gardiner-Davies, Amenemhet, pl. 20, {appears before 2 men with castanets in tomb of Amenemhet}. Similar Old and Middle Kingdom scenes without the title: Hassan, Saqqara I, p. 25-26 and fig. 7 {rhythmist who is undesignated, but captioned with reference to Hathor in the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr}. The same role appears to have been played by two uncaptioned men in the Middle Kingdom tomb of {¤A-rnpt} at Aswan (Wegner, Musikinstrumente, pl. 14b). The IHyw appear to play an impersonator role. The female title (IHyt -Female percussionist of IHy for Hathor) appears much later than Old Kingdom (WB. I: 121. 18 – CG 42211).

151

JT 861, e.g. Hassan, Giza II, p. 211(6), fig. 235 (NÏ-mAat-Ra). JT 860, e.g. Hassan, Giza II, p. 211 (3), fig. 231 (NÏ-mAat-Ra). 153 JT 863, e.g. Ziegler, Statues, pp. 118, n(c), 301 (PH-r-nfr – early Dyn. IV). 154 Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 138, (a), p. 144, n. 74, (Dyn. IX, Naga edDêr) = Dunham, Stelae, p. 24, (MFA, 25.628 SF 532 debris). Middle Kingdom: Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 139, (bbb), (Middle Kingdom stela) and p. 141, n. 68, p. 144, n. 74. 155 JT 1097, e.g. Fischer, JAOS, 76, (1956), pp. 106-110. 156 An alternative translation offered by Fischer (Orientalia 29, 1960, p. 190, n.2) is ‘she who is in the great boat’ (referring to the greater Kite in the funerary service). 157 JT 1097, e.g. Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 269, nn. 1728-9 =Dunham, Stelae, p. 66, no. 53, pl. 16(1) (Ppy-anx-n.s: Nny) (Cairo 37737); Lutz, Steles, no. 37 (¡sÏ). 158 Dunham, Stelae, no. 31 = Lutz, Steles, no. 28 = Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 138(nnn) (¤t-nt-ÏnHrt). 159 The reason for inclusion of this First Intermediate Period title is to show the connection, which is clearly established soon after the Old Kingdom, between the xnr and the title Ïmyt-wrt, e.g. Dunham, Stelae, no. 41 =Lutz, Steles, no. 37 = Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 138(mmm) (¡sÏ). 160 Gillam, JARCE 32 (1995), p. 225, n. 144 (Lutz, Steles, pl. 19). 161 JT 1099, e.g. PM III, N438, p. 61 (KA-ms - wife of Mr-nswt, Dyn. V) G 1301; Hassan, Giza II, p. 204(6), fig. 228, p. 207 (Nfr.s-rs); Fischer, JAOS 76 (1956), p. 106f, and n. 37 (4 = Dunham, Stelae, no. 31) and (5 = coffin of Mryt-Ïqrt, tomb N 3915, MFA photo 2023). Fischer (JAOS 152

76 (1956), p. 107), interprets as Ïwnw (pillar), but the title Ïmyt-r in the context of the xnr and SnDt in the epithets immediately preceding, suggests this figure should more likely be read as ÏbAw (dancers). Fischer, ibid. mentions this possibility. 162 JT 1098, e.g. PM III, N422; Hassan, Giza II, p. 204, fig. 228 (Nfr.srs). 163 JT 1103, e.g. Fraser, ASAE 3 (1902) p. 67ff, pl. 3 [Nfrt-Ïry in tomb of £nÏ-wÏ-kA.Ï] = Fischer, Varia, p. 70(12).

28

CHAPTER 1:2 PERFORMERS, THEIR INSTITUTIONS AND TITLES 40. wa m wrw Hsww [pr-?]Dt 175 unique one among the great and (among) the singers of the funerary [estate] 41. bbÏt (SnDyt) (possible abbreviation for nbwt SnDyt) female mistress (lady) of the Two Female mistress Acacia Houses176 42. mAA xbt m Dsrw177 one who views the dancing in the sacred places 43. mAHt178 rhythmist 44. mAH ÏbAw Ïn xnr179 rhythmists and dancers of the chorus 45. mAT(r/ywt)180 mourners 46. mATrwt mwt or Mwt mATrwt181 mourners of Mut or mother (superior) of mourners 47. Mww182 male funerary dancer(s) 48. mnÏt183 landing post (funerary duty associated with the Dryt)

49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57.

184

mnÏt wrt184 greater landing post (funerary duty associated with the Dryt wrt) mrt185 musician-priestess (impersonator-singer) of the goddess Meret md(t) nfrt n nb.f186 the perfect of voice (eloquent of speech) for his lord nbt nhtt SnDt187 lady (head) of the Acacia house nfrt188 recruit/ novice (of the Acacia house or chorus) nfrt xnr(wt)189 recruit/novice/maiden of the chorus nfrt xnrwt ¡wt-Hr190 novice of the chorus of Hathor HA(w)191 male mourner HAt192 female mourner

Fischer, Orientalia 29, 1960, p. 187-90 and fig. 7 – woman from an ostracon excavated at Helwan (Iwt), another, (unnamed), from el-Kab. This may be an epithet of the Dryt impersonator of Isis in her role in landing the Nekhbet bark. This title may be associated with that of Ïmytr SnDt, since both titles are held by the woman from el-Kab. MnÏ(w)t are associated with the forecourt of the temple of Nekhbet at el-Kab (ibid.). 185 See JT 2618, while xrp mrt is listed, there is no separate entry for mrt, mention is made in JT entry no. 2618. The title is attested in: A Lex 77.1781, Fischer, Varia Nova, p. 183, (mrt singer) and figs. 3, 4; Junker, Giza VII, p. 37, as part of the title ‘Ïmyt-r mrt ¥ma MHw’, e.g. Fraser, ASAE 3 (1902), p. 67ff., pl. 4 [Nfrt-ÏrÏ – in tomb of £nÏ-wÏ-kA.Ï, – early Dyn. V]; Blackman, JEA 7 (1921), pp. 8ff., fig. 1; von Bissing-Kees, Re Heiligtum III, p. 150. 186 JT 1746: Moussa-Altenmüller, Nefer, p. 45(5) (KA-HA.Ï – ‘the beautiful voice for his master’). 187 Edel, Akazienhaus, p. 15; WB 2: 282, 14 also suggests this may be an epithet of Hathor. 188 See JT 1809 – wrongly interpreted as a title, but refer JT 1807, 1808 nfr/nfrw meaning recruit (especially for young males in the military). The interpretation of nfrt as a recruit, novice or trainee of the xnrt.or SnDt makes sense, since the meaning in the context of the xnr appears to relate to youth, beauty and even maidenhood. The designation nfr is attested as a vocation in the titles Ïmyt-r xnrwt nfrwt. See also title no. 12 above: Ïmy-r xnr(wt) nfr(wt)188 – overseer of the recruits of the chorus. 189 Not listed in JT, but discussed in Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 144, p. 139 (jjj) (Dyn. IX, Naga ed-Dêr) = Fischer, JAOS 76, 1956, pp. 106-7 no. 5 and n. 40 (Mryt-Ïqr.t) (Fischer cautions this could be interpreted as an epithet of Hathor). 190 Fischer, JAOS 76, 1956, p. 106(4) = Dunham, Stelae, no. 31) and (5 = coffin of Mry,t-Ïqr.t, tomb N 3915, MFA photo 2023). This interpretation is an alternative to the above title nfrt xnrwt if taken as an example of honorific transposition, but see previous footnote, Fischer, JAOS 76 (1956), p. 106f, this could be interpreted as an epithet of Hathor (¡wt-Hr: nfrt xnrwt) as the most beautiful of the xnr. 191 JT 1850, e.g.s: Blackman-Apted, Meir V, p. 19(51), pls. 42 and 43 {PpÏ-anx:¡nty-km}. 192 Not listed in JT, HAt appears before women in: Simpson, Qar and Idu, p. 6, fig. 24 {QAr}; Wilson, JNES 3, (1944), pl. 18, (LD II. 35) {_bH-n.Ï}; Mohr, Hetep-her-Akhti, fig.3, p. 39 {¡tp-Hr-Aty}. The term HAt is generally interpreted as an infinitive (mourning), however it appears in masculine form (HA) in the only captioned example of males performing this vocation in the Old Kingdom (Blackman-Apted, Meir V, pls. 42, 43 {PpÏ-anx: ¡ny-km).

175

JT 1355: Moussa-Altenmüller, Nefer, pp. 15, 17, 45, pl. 42a (KAHA.i); Kaplony, Rollsiegel II, pp. 506 (Ra-xa.f), pl. 135 (K.u. 151), (wa [wrw Hsw(w)] nswt(?) –‘the unique one among the singers of the king’); Baud, Famiile Royale, pp. 296, n. 496 (KA-HA.f). 176 Simpson, Qar and Idu, fig. 24, {QAr – woman below dancers next to two xnmsw SnDt. Since all of the other captions in this section of the scene relate to title or vocation, it is logical that bbÏt refers to a title rather than the woman’s name. The arrangement of this title appears to be in sequence with Hnmsw SnDyt, implying that she is also attached to the SnDt (see Edel, Akazienhaus, p. 15). However, this title is not attested elsewhere}. See also the title nbt nhtt SnDt below. 177 Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 144 and p. 139 (eee) (IHA – Dyn. X). 178 JT 1564, e.g. Fischer, Dendera, p. 24(3), n. 98, fig. 5, (name lost). Fischer takes mAHt to mean clapper player. Also found before performers in Duell, Mereruka II, pls. 113-4, 87 {Mrrw-kA.Ï}; Simpson, Qar and Idu, pl. 87 {Idw -here spelt mAHAt} and fig. 24 {QAr}. Written as mAH before female rhythmists; Wreszinski, Bericht, pl. 77 {Watt-Xt-Hr chapel, mastaba of Mrrw-kA.Ï}; de Morgan, Dahchour, pl. 25 {¤nfrw-ÏnISt.f}; Hassan, Saqqara I, fig.7, {Nb-kAw-Hr - here MAHt nfr - beautiful clapping rather than the title}. 179 de Morgan, Dahchour, pl. 25 {¤nfrw-Ïn-ISt.f}. 180 JT 1569, e.g. Curto, el-Ghiza, pl. 18, fig. 20 [anxt-s.Ï and §nt.ty – tomb of WHm-nfrt, Dyn. 4.L]; Edel, ZÄS 96, (1969), p. 9(25), (£nÏ-wÏkA.Ï); idem. Inschriften, p. 49 (Mry-ÏbÏ-nfrt) = Fraser, ASAE 3 (1902), p. 67ff, pl. 3; Munro, Unas-Friedhof I, p. 91ff, women in pls. 10, 11 (damaged), 13, 17, 19, {Nbt}; Gillam, JARCE 32, p. 214, n. 32, Pelizaeus Museum 418 = Kayser, Ägyptisches Altertümer, p. 47 (1973) col. pl. 2 (Nfr-Htp.s) – This title is not discernable from the picture nor is it mentioned in Kayser’s note accompanying the picture; PM III, p. 895 [Ws-n-PtH, in tomb of ITÏ]; Curto, el-Ghiza, fig. 20 [anxt-s Inwt.t? in tomb of WHm-Nfrt] – late Dyn. IV (see below under mATrywt mwt); Dunham, Stelae, p. 80 (68), pl. 23 (KA.Ï-sxm-Ra – male title holder). 181 JT 1570, e.g. Fraser, ASAE 3 (1902), p. 67ff, pl. 4. [Nfrt-ÏrÏ in tomb of £nÏ-wÏ-kA.Ï]; Munro, Unas-Friedhof I, p. 91 and n. 25; Curto, elGhiza, fig. 20 [anxt-s Inwt.t? in tomb of WHm-Nfrt] – late Dyn. IV – however, this example really has just mATr(y)t, there is no indication of any hieroglyph for mwt. 182 Hassan, Saqqara I, figs. 9, p. 26 {caption above 3 men in tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr}. 183 Fischer, Orientalia 29 (1960), p. 189 and n.1, ostraca naming 3 women from Helwan: Saad, ASAE Supplement 3, pl. 42A (Nfr-Htp.s); ibid. pl. 43A (Mrt-Ït); ibid. pl. 43B (IbÏ).

29

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 58. Hsw/Hst193 rhythmist and/or singer 59. HA(w)t Ïn SnDty(t) 194 female funerary performers of the (two) Acacia House(s) 60. Hs(w) pr-aA195 singer of the Great House 61. Hsw nb pr-aA (nb ÏmAx xr nb.f)196 singer (and possessor of reverence with his) lord of the Great House 62. Hs(w) n xft-Hr nswt197 royal singer in the presence/ King’s personal singer 63. Hs(w) n pr-Dt198 singers of the funerary estate 64. Hs(w) sxmx-[Ïb (n) nb.f?]199 singer who delights [the heart of his lord] Hst Ïn msw.f200 clapping rhythm by his children Hst Ïn Hsw n pr-Dt201 clapping by the rhythmists of the funerary estate

65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70.

193

JT 2420, e.g. Reisner, Giza I, pl. 66b (anx-#wfw) G4520; placed before rhythmists in: Paget-Pirie, Ptahhotep, pl. 35 {PtH-Htp}; Ziegler, Achethetep, pp. 58-61 {Axty-Htp}; Kanawati - McFarlane, Deshasha, pl. 29 {IntÏ}; Kanawati-Hassan, Ankhmahor, pl. 58 {anx-m-a-¡r}; Hall, Egyptian Collections, fig. 6.2 {Wr-Ïr-n-PtH}; LD II, 101b, {PtH-Htp}; Moussa-Altenmüller, Nianchchnum, fig. 25, pl. 68 {NÏ-anx-£nmw}; Quibell, Saqqara III, pl. 66.1, {NÏ-kAw-¡r}; Junker, Giza X, figs. 44, 71 {Nw-nTr}; van der Walle, Neferirtenef, pl. 6 {Nfr-Ïrt-n.f}; LD II, 61a, {Ra-¥pss}; Kanawati, Giza II, fig. 64 {¤Sm-nfr II)}; Weeks, Cemetery G. 6000, fig. 43 {¥pss-kA.f-anx}; Badawy, Iteti, fig. 27, {KA.Ï-m-nfrt}; Junker, Giza VII, fig. 71, {KA.Ï-swDA}; Epron-Wild, Ti I, pls. 56, 57, {§y}; Vandier, Manuel IV, fig. 205, pl. 18 {Chicago fragment}. In captions such as Hst n xnr: Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, figs. 37, 43 {Iymry}; Hassan, Saqqara I, fig 3, {Nb-kAw-¡r -Hst mAHt n xnr}; Junker, Giza, VI, fig. 13 {Nfr}; Montet, Scènes, pl. 24, {Nn-xft-kA}; Kanawati, el-Hawawish I, fig. 12 {KA.Ï-Hp: §tÏ-Ïqr}; ibid. II, fig. 22 {£nÏ:¥psÏ-pwMnw}; ibid. V, fig. 8, {¡m-Mnw}; idem. Giza I, pls. 32, 35 {KA.Ï-manx}; Brunner-Traut, Seschemnofers III, colourplate II, {¤Sm-nfr III}; Hassan, Giza VI, pt III, fig. 99 {KA-kA.Ï-anx} and fig. 83 {KA.Ï-dwA}; Edel, Akazienhaus, fig. 1 {_bH-n.Ï -Hst Ïn SnDt} = Wilson, JNES 3 (1944), pl. 18 = LD II, 35. For a discussion on the interprettion of this title as singer or rhythmist see Part I, Chapter 3, Terminology. 194 Wilson, JNES 3 (1944), pl. 18, (LD II. 35) {_bH-n.Ï}, see also Simpson, Qar and Idu, fig. 24 {QAr}. 195 JT 2421, PM III, N814, e.g. Hassan, Giza II, pp. 212(1), 214, fig. 232 (NÏ-mAat-Ra and his son apr.f-PtH – in tomb of NÏ-mAat-Ra); MM, E6, p. 395 =Junker, Giza VII, pp. 34(2, 1-3), 37 (Nfr-¤nfrw II, #w-n-nw, and ¤Sm-nfr –in tomb of Nfr-¤nfrw (I)]; ibid. IX, p. 237, fig. 107 (¡tp£nmt); CG 1755 (WHmw); Kaplony, Rollsiegel II, p. 319, pl. 87(12) (¥sp-Ïb-Ra) Berlin 16282; Ziegler, Catalogue, p. 261(47) [KA-n-Ït.f in the tomb of ¦p-m-anx]; Roth, Palace Attendants, fig. 161b [NTr-nfr in the tomb of KA-mrr-nbty]; MM C15, p. 138 (¡mt-Ra); Davies, Ptahhetep II, pl. 24 [¡sÏ-Axty]; Reisner, Giza I, pl. 66b (anx-#wfw) G4520; PM III, p. 761 (Mr-nTr-nswt). 196 JT 2422, e.g. MM, C22, p. 154 (Mry-Ra-PtH). 197 JT 2424, e.g. Kaplony, MIO 14 (1968), p. 202, no. 6 (pl. 9, fig. 16) (offering basin Louvre D48=E5609 (NÏ-maAt-Ra – who also held the title Hm-nTr ¡wt-¡r); Kaplony, Rollsiegel II, p. 320 (NÏ-kAw-Ra). 198 JT 2423, Epron-Wild, Ti I, pls. 56, 57{§y – Hst Ïn Hsw n pr-Dt}. 199 JT 2425, e.g. Verner, Abusir III, p. 129, n. 27 (13/A/85g and probably 13/A/85n –fragments from a sealing). 200 Kanawati, Giza I, pl. 32 {KA.Ï-m-anx -Hst n Ï[bAw] Ïn xnr}. 201 Epron-Wild, Ti I, pls. 56, 57{§y}.

71.

202

Hst Ïn xnr ÏbAw202 clapping by the chorus and dance(r)s/ clapping by the dancers of the chorus Hst Ïn xnr n Ï[bA]203 clapping by the chorus for dance Hst Ïn ([xnr] n) SnDt204 clapping by the chorus of the Acacia House Hst mAH (Ï)n xnr205 singing and clapping by/singers and clappers of the chorus Hst n ÏbAw Ïn xnr206 clapping for dancers by the chorus HkAy207 magician xnw208 musician-priest (of Hathor) xnwt/ xnywt209 musician-priestess/ impersonator (of Hathor) xnw n ¡wt-Hr210 musician-priest of Hathor (male) xnwt (nt) ¡wt-Hr211 musician-priestess of Hathor (female) xnwt nTr aA212 musician-priestess of the Great God xnwt nt ¡wt-Hr nbt QÏs213 musician-priestess of Hathor Mistress of Cusae

Hassan, Giza VI, part III, fig. 99 {KA-kA.Ï-anx}. LD II, 52; Hassan, Giza VI, Pt. III, fig. 83 {KA.Ï-dwA}. 204 LD II, 35, {_bH-n.Ï}. 205 Hassan, Saqqara I, fig. 3 {Nb-KAw-¡r}. 206 Junker, Giza VI, fig. 13 {Nfr}; Kanawati, Giza I, pl. 35 {KA.Ï-m-anx Hst n Ï[bAw] Ïn xnr}. 207 Westcar Papyrus, 1, 15. 208 JT 2513, Only one male holds this title - Reisner, G. 7248A (§nmw) = Fischer, Varia, p. 11, no. 19 (§nmw). 209 JT 2514, e.g. Blackman, Meir IV, p. 4 (31), pl. 4 (2) (¡wt-ÏaH:¡wtÏ wife of PpÏ-anx) and pls. 7, 9 (¡wt-ÏaH:¡wtÏ, wife of PpÏ-anx); ibid., pl. 15 [PXr.t-nfrt:BbÏ in tomb of PpÏ-anx, D4, here written Hnwt.s ¡wt-Hr]; Fisher, Minor Cemetery, pl. 44, 2 (#nwt G 3093); ibid., pl. 55, (ÏntÏ here xnwt appears to be a component of the name #nwt nÏst m ÏntÏ rather than a title, tomb chamber shared with ¤nfrw-Htp); G 3094, (Philadelphia Museum E13529) (£rt-kA); von Bissing-Kees, ReHeiligtum III, pl. 16 (274) {near men with batons}; ibid. II, anonymous in pls. 18(44d) and 19(45a); Fischer, Varia, p. 11 no. 19 (§nmw) G 5233; Galvin, Priestesses, p. 59 (InÏ 428 F)=Lacau, Sarcophages, vol I, 28017 (First Intermediate Period) = Kanawati, el-Hawawish IX, fig. 34, a, d (#nwtÏ/InÏ); Munro, Unas Friedhof, pl. 41 Kh/10 – fragment from the tomb of #nwt but does not appear to be a name. The stem xn also appears as a verb in PT 557c [M, N] and [T] with the menit necklace as the determinative. 210 JT 2514, Only one male holds this title – Reisner, G. 7248A (§nmw) = Fischer, Varia, p. 11, no. 19 (§nmw). 211 JT 2514: Blackman, JEA 7 (1921), p. 10, this title is attested from Dyn. VI, when it was adopted by #tÏ, the wife of PpÏ-anx, supervisor of the priests of Hathor, in her title of xnwt nt ¡wt-Hr musician of Hathor at the temple of Hathor at Cusae; Blackman, Meir IV, p. 4(31), pl. 4 (2) and pl. 7 (¡wt-ÏaH: ¡wtÏ, wife of PpÏ-anx: Hry-Ïb also titled xnwt ¡wtHr); Fisher, Minor Cemetery, pl. 55 (#nwt called Ïnty-disputed see the title xnwt nÏst below under uncertain); Dunham, Stelae, p. 80 (68), pl. 23 (KA.Ï-sxm-Ra); Fischer, Varia, p. 11, no. 19 (§nmw) – male title see entry above (xnw n ¡wt-Hr). 212 Kamal, ASAE 13 (1914), pp. 176-7 (¤Twt/¦tÏt). 213 JT 2514, e.g. Gillam, Egyptian Nome I, pp. 230ff, nn. 80 (¡wtÏ: ÏaHHwt, PXrt-nfrt, ¤Twt: ¦tÏt) (¡wt-ÏaH also served as Hm(t)-nTr ¡wt-Hr nbt 203

30

CHAPTER 1:2 PERFORMERS, THEIR INSTITUTIONS AND TITLES 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84.

xnms(w) SnDt214 functionary of the Acacia House xnrwt n(t) pr-Dt215 choristers of the funerary estate xnr(t)216 female chorister xnr(t) n(t) SnDt217 female chorister of the Acacia House xntyw Xkrw n ÏbAw218 foremost of the keepers of ornaments of dancers xrp mr(w)t219 director of musician-priestesses xrp mr(w)t ¥ma MHw220 director of the musician-priestesses of Upper and Lower Egypt xrp mdt nfrt221 director of the beautiful voice xrp Hsw(w)222 director of singers xrp Hsw(w) m prwy 223 director of singers in the two houses xrp sSmt(yw) SnDt 224 director of the butchers of the Acacia House xrp dxnw(?)225 director of musician-priestesses(?) xrpt sSmt(yw) SnDt226 directress of the butchers of the Acacia House

85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90.

91. 92. 93.

Xry-tp nfrt227 chief of performance recruits sbA228 instructor sbA Hsw(w) nswt229 dance instructor of singers of the king sbAt230 instructress sb / sbÏw231 flautist sb pr-aA232 flautist of the great house sAb m mAt233 playing the flute sr SnDt234 official of the Acacia House sHD ÏbAw235 supervisor of dancers sHD n mrt236 supervisor of musician-priestesses

226 JT 2728, e.g. MM D5, p. 183 (Mr.s-anx IV); Dunham-Simpson, Mersyankh III, p. 14, fig. 7 [¡tp-Hr.s II in tomb of her daughter Mr.sanx III] see also Fischer, Orientalia, 29, p. 184 [¡tp-Hr.s II on her sarcophagus given to Mr.s-anx III]; ibid. p. 184, (¡tp-Hr.s I, wife of Seneferu – inscription on carrying chair); ibid. [Mrt-Ït.s – listed in both the chapel of her son KA.Ï-wab and in the tomb of Mr.s-anx] (see also Reisner, BMFA 25, fig. 5); Fischer, Orientalia, 29, p. 184(4 &5) [#amrr-Nbty in the tomb of her son #wÏ-n-Ra] (see also Reisner, BMFA 32 (1934), p. 12, fig. 10); Fischer, Orientalia, 29, p. 185 (Mr.s-anx IV – on the false door of her tomb chapel) (see also MM D5, p. 183); Verner, Abusir III, p. 63, 36/A/78 (Queen #nt-[kAw.s] III). 227 Not listed in JT since this title occurs after the Old Kingdom, e.g. Maspero, Musée Égyptien III, p. 59 top (#sw – Middle Kingdom, Kom el-Hisn). 228 JT, 3235, e.g. Moussa-Altenmüller, Nianchchnum, p. 145, fig. 25, pls. 69, 70(b) {NÏ-anx-£nmw – figure stooping behind singers - sbA (Hsw(w) nswt - of singers of the king is only implied by the position relative to singers)}; Hassan, Saqqara I, fig. 7, p. 22, {Nb-kAw.Hr}; idem., Giza I, p. 67, pl. 44 (1) (Ra-wr); Maspero, Musée Égyptien III, p. 59, fig. 5 (#sw -Middle Kingdom, title shown in the context of #sw teaching rhythmists including sistrum players). 229 JT 3235, e.g. PM III, N857, p. 265 (= Hassan, Giza I, p. 67, Ra-wr); Junker, Giza VI, p. 234; (Mnw); Kanawati, Administration, p. 105(204) (Ra-wr/anx-Ït.f); Seidlmayer-Ziermann, MDIK 48 (1992), p. 168 (referring to LD II, 71b (NÏ-Htp-PtH). 230 JT 3235, e.g. Fischer, JEA, 67 (1981), p. 167f {#wfw-xa,f II} above female holding batons – caption could be reconstructed to sbA(t). Instructor of dancers is only implied by the position relative to dancers in the picture from the tomb of #wfw-xaf II. 231 JT 3028, e.g. PM III, N122, G2475, p. 95, (¤n-anx-wr, Dyn. VI); Hickmann, le Métier, p. 263 (IpÏ, ¤n-anx-wr - statues); Mohr, Hetepher-Akhti, fig. 41 {¡tp-Hr-Axty}; LÄ, VI, 394, n. 157 (sby) citing Posener-Krieger, Archives, p. 605 (Abusir Papyrus); Roth, Palace Attendants, fig. 140 {RwD}; Weeks, Cemetery G. 6000, fig. 37 {Iymry}. 232 JT 3029, e.g. PM III, N123, (IpÏ-Dyn. VI); Hickmann, le Métier, p. 263, fig. 4 (IpÏ, ¤n-anx-wr); Moussa-Altenmüller, SAK 9 (1981), p. 294(h) (£nw). 233 Moussa-Altenmüller, Nianchchnum, fig. 25 {NÏ-anx-£nm}=Montet, Scènes, p. 364; MM D55, p. 327 {Nfr-Ïrt-n.f}. 234 JT 3334, e.g. CG 1373, PM III, V373, p. 507 (KA.Ï – title on offering table)

KÏs – Galvin, Priestesses, p. 59); Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 278, n. 1812-3 (STwt: ¦tÏt) (¡wt-ÏaH). 214 JT 2518, e.g. LD II, 35 {_bHn.Ï -[x]nm[s]w}; Simpson, Qar and Idu, p. 6, fig. 24 {QAr}. 215 JT 1520, e.g. dancers and rhythmists in Kanawati, el-Hawawish I, fig. 12 {KA.Ï-Hp}; ibid II, fig. 22 {£nÏ} = Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport II, pl. 412 (ÏbA Ïn xnr n pr-Dt.f). 216 JT 2519: Altenmüller, Mehu, pl. 50 {MHw}; Myśliwiec, Rewelacyjne, fig. 42. {Mr.f-nb.f}; Edel, Akazienhaus, fig. 4 {PtH-Htp xnr n SnDt}; Epron-Wild, Ti I, pls. 56, 57{§y -ÏbA Ïn xnr}. 217 Edel, Akazienhause, fig. 4. 218 JT 2527: PM III, N 124, p. 243 = Hassan, Giza VI [3], pp. 31-4, fig. 26 (KA.Ï-swDA). 219 JT 2618, e.g. Emery, GT III, p. 31, pl. 23 (Mry-kA -end Dyn. I) = Firth-Quibell, Step Pyramid I, p. 122(7), pls. 90(7) (Mry-kA); ibid. 91(2?) (xrp + ?, Mrwt uncertain); Lauer-Lacau, La pyramide V, p. 33(49) (Nfr-¡tp-£nmw); de Morgan, Cat. des Mon I, pp. 198-9 (¤nnÏ title could be xrp aftyw). 220 JT 2619, e.g. Junker, Giza I, p. 150(19), pl. 23 (¡m-Iwnw –Dyn. IV); ibid. II, p. 189(12), fig. 334 (¡tp-¤SAt – early Dyn. V); ibid. VII, p. 37) (Nfr-¤nfrw); Strudwick, Administration, pp. 77(34) (anx-HAf, G7510 mid Khufu) and 117(96) (¡m-Ïwnw -mid-late Khufu); Baud, Famille Royale, pp. 314 (BA-bA.f); LÄ IV, 88, n.64 = Helck, Beamtentitel, 135). 221 JT 2625, e.g. Moussa-Altenmüller, Nefer, p. 14, (KA-HA.Ï – on false door and also on offering basin p. 45) and p. 17, pl. 42a (KA-HA.Ï). 222 JT 2667, PM III, N91, e.g. Firth-Quibell, Step Pyramid II, pl. 91(2) (Nfr-Htp-£nmw); Moussa-Altenmüller, Nefer, p. 14 (KA-HA.Ï ); ibid. p. 15, (Nfr) and [#nw -son of Nfr]; ibid. pl. 32 (Nfr, KA-HA.Ï ) and [#nw]. 223 JT 2668, e.g.PM III, N92; Moussa-Altenmüller, Nefer, pp. 15, 34-5 [#nw -son of Nfr]. 224 JT 2727, e.g. Koefoed,-Peterson, Recueil, p. 75, (offering basin of PH-r-nfr -early Dyn. 5), see also Fischer, Orientalia, 29, 1960, p. 168. 225 JT 2749, e.g. Emery, GT III, p. 31, pl. 23, 30 (Mry-kA -end Dyn. I); von Känel, Prêtres-oûab, p. 164(h), xrp dxn ‘chief of singers’; FirthQuibell, Step Pyramid II, pl. 91(2) {stone vase fragment}; Helck, Beamtentitel, p. 26, n.1 (Nfr-Htp-£nmw); Helck, Thinitenzeit, pp. 104, n. 29, (Nfr-Htp-£nmw), 199, n. 152, 233(n), 244.

235 JT 3338, e.g. PM III, N177, p. 571 (¥mÏ:¤nÏ ); Gunn, MSS xiv 39(3), R.2.5 (Ntbk) 10, no. 48, (GI); Fischer, Orientation, p. 54, n. 134, p. 55, fig. 57 (NÏwty G. 4611 - unpublished).

31

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107.

sHD n Hsww Wab-swt-Wsr-kA.f237 supervisor of singers of (the pyramid) ‘Pure are the places of Userkaf’ sHD (n) Hst mAt 238 supervisor of playing the flute sHD n Hsww nswt239 supervisor of singers of the king sHD Hsw(w)/sHD n Hsw(w)240 supervisor of singers sHD Hsww pr-aA/ sHD n Hsww pr-aA241 supervisor of singers of the Great House sHDt nt xnr(wt)242 supervisor of the chorus sxmx-Ïb n nb.f m ra nb243 one who delights the heart of his lord every day sxmx-Ïb n nb.f m Hst nfrt ra nb244 one who delights the heart of his lord by beautiful singing every day sxmx-Ïb n nb.f m Hst nfrt m-Xnw pr-aA245 one who delights the heart of his lord by beautiful singing in the interior of the Great House sxmx(t)-Ïb n(t) bÏty m swt.f nb(t)246 (s)he who delights the heart of the king of Lower Egypt sSm(ty) SnDt247 butchers of the Acacia House stA xnr.w248 one who ushers in the chorus Smaw249 musical performers SnDtt250 female member of the Acacia House

108. 109. 110.

dxnw251 musician-priestess, perhaps one specialising in keeping the beat Dryt252 Kite, female mourners (impersonators of Isis or Nephthys) Dryt wrt253 Greater Kite, female mourner (Impersonator of Isis)

Uncertain or incomplete titles 111. Hst n xnt(yw-S ?)254 singer of/attached to the xntyw-S (royal attendants, probably body guards) 112. xnwt nÏst musician priestess (of the invocation?)255 113. xrp mr[w]t T[mA] Mrty director of musician priestesses [mry]-nTrw [ra-nb] (?) whom the two Meret goddesses praise256 114. sSnb(b perhaps: ‘one who praises the god in dance’257 Uncertain as performance roles 115. Hry-Xkrw258

250

JT 3679, e.g. LD II, 35, {©bH-n.Ï} = Hassan, Giza IV, p. 176; Duell, Mereruka II, pl. 130 (caption over kneeling woman); Simpson, Qar and Idu, p. 6, fig. 24 {QAr}. 251 Not listed in Jones, however, the title xrp dxnwt suggests that the designation dxn existed as a vocation in the Old Kingdom. For notes and translation see Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 53. 252 JT 3746, e.g. PM III, S 369, p. 349 (NÏ-anx-¡wt-Hr); MFA 27.444 (in Fischer, Varia, p. 45, fig. 14) [Nfr-Ïrt-¡wt-Hr and another (name lost) in tomb of ¤n.Ï-wHm]; Fischer, Varia, p. 48, fig. 17, (NÏ-anx-¡tHr probably from her own tomb); Fischer, Varia, p. 45, fig. 12, CG 1566 [Mrt-Mnw and Mr-n.s-anx (?) in tomb of KA.Ï-Hr-st.f -Dyn. V] = McFarlane, God Min, p. 113 (179) CG 1566; LD Ergänzungsband, pl. 24 [Prt, name of tomb owner lost]; LD II, pl. 101b {PtH-Htp}; Mohr, Hetep-her-Akhti, fig. 2 {¡tp-Hr-Axty}; Hassan, Saqqara I, fig. 8 and p. 24 {Nb-kAw-Hr – only the t, which suggests this title, is left above a figure in the funerary barge}; idem. Giza IV, p. 71 {specific tombs are not given}; de Morgan, Dahchour, pl 22 {¤nfrw-Ïn-ISt.f}; Werbrouck, Pleureuses, p. 18, fig. 3 {PpÏ-anx: #wÏ}; Davies, Deir el-Gebrâwi I, pl. 10 {IbÏ}; ibid. II, pl. 7 {©aw}; Hassan, Saqqara II, p. 109, fig. 54 {§fw}; Simpson, Qar and Idu, fig. 24 {QAr}; ibid. fig. 35, {Idw}; Kanawati-Hassan, Teti Cemetery II, p. 17(18), n. 66, pl. 56 {anx-m-a-Hr}; Blackman-Apted, Meir V, p. 19(51), pls. 42 and 43 {PpÏ-anx: ¡nty-km}; Reisner, Giza I, fig. 257 (Fischer, Varia, p. 45, fig. 11){KA.Ï-nfr}; MM D11, p. 199 (¦pm-anx)-described as an aid to the butcher. 253 LD II, 101b, middle register {PtH-Htp}, (see Part II: Figure 5.17). 254 Roth, Palace Attendants, p. 42, Giza tomb 2086. Roth suggests this reconstruction, having noted the large proportion of Xntyw-S whose tomb decoration includes scenes of music in this cemetery. 255 Disputed as a title since xnwt appears to be a component of the name #nwt nÏst m IntÏ rather than a title, (tomb chamber shared with ¤nfrwHtp) – see: Galvin, Priestesses, p. 60, 264F, p. 324 = Fisher, Minor Cemetery, pp. 163-6, pl. 55; Gillam, JARCE 32 (1995), p. 214, n. 32. 256 JT uncertain no. 25, e.g. Guglielmi, MR. T, p. 5, n 1 {cylinder seal – Dyn. V}; Kaplony, Rollsiegel II, p. 506, K.u. 151 (Ra-xa.f); LÄ IV, 88, n. 64 (=Kaplony, Rollsiegel I, 257). 257 JT uncertain, 37, e.g. Daressy, ASAE 16 (1916), pp. 195 (Mrw); ibid. 199, 201, 203(?) (¤bky); ibid. 204, 206 (¤bky-by); ibid. 209, 210 (#w-nHr).

236

mentioned in JT 2667 but not given a separate entry. JT 3494, e.g. PM III, N244; MM D50, p. 313 (NÏ-kAw-Ra). 238 JT 3497, e.g. PM III, N243; MM C22, p. 154 (Mry-Ra-PtH). 239 JT 3496, e.g. Hornemann, Types I, pl. 135 (Nfr), JE 35564). 240 JT 3493, PM III, N241, e.g. MM D 50, p. 313 (NÏ-kAw-Ra); PagetPirie, Ptahhetep, pl. 38 [¤bk-Htp]; Hassan, Giza VII, pp. 43(5), 47-8, fig. 38 (MmÏ); Moussa-Altenmüller, Nefer, pls. 28, 36, 39, p. 14(2) (KAHA.Ï); ibid. p. 17 [IxÏ]; ibid. p. 15 [Ra-wr, Wr-kA, PtH… – sons of Nfr]; ibid. p. 16 [NÏ-kAw-PtH, ¤n-Ït.f, Wr-bAw]. 241 JT 3495, e.g. PM III, N242; Junker, Giza VII, p. 34(1.2), figs. 12, 13 (¤nfrw-nfr). 242 JT 3587, e.g. Altenmüller, Mehu, pp. 158-159, pl. 50 {MHw}. 243 JT 3588, e.g. Reisner, Giza I, pl. 65(b) (anx-#wfw, G4520, late Dyn. V); Hawass, MDAIK 47 (1991), p. 160, pl. 13a (Pr-n(y)-anx(w) –Dyn. IV); Pirenne, Institutions II, p. 455(18) (ÏTÏ). 244 JT 3589, e.g. MM C22, p. 154, (Mry-Ra-PtH); Pirenne, Institutions II, p. 455(18) (ITÏ ). 245 JT 3590, e.g. Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, p. 60, fig. 52 (ITÏ G6030). 246 JT 3591, e.g. Hassan, Giza II, p. 204(5), fig. 228 (Nfr.s-rs). 247 JT 3614, e.g. LD II, 4 {MT-n}; von-Bissing-Kees, Re-Heiligtum III, pl. 23(361) {anonymous}; Jequier, Monuments funéraire II, pl. 98 [¡pÏ]; Scott-Moncrieff, BM Stelae VI, p. 6, pl. 13 {in front of man sharpening knife}; Edel, Akazienhaus, p. 30(k) (¡tp-kA – Edel does not specify whether this title is held by the tomb owner). 248 Griffith-Newberry, el-Bersheh II, pl. 21(9), (IHA – same tomb as aHAnxt) = Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 144 and n. 78, p. 139 (ddd) (IHA – Dyn. XI, el-Bersche). 249 Davies, Deir el-Gebrâwi II, pl. 7 {caption accompanying two registers of dancers and rhythmists in the tomb of ©aw}, Kanawati, elHawawish VIII, fig. 10 {§tÏ}. 237

32

CHAPTER 1:2 PERFORMERS, THEIR INSTITUTIONS AND TITLES

116. 117.

supervisor of the ornaments xrp rwt(yw) ¥ma MHw259 director of the rwtyw (dancers?) of Upper and Lower Egypt Ïmy-r rwt(yw) ¥ma MHw260 overseer of the rwtyw (dancers?) of Upper and Lower Egypt

The spelling of ÏhAbw differs in the two decrees, occurring in one as: (ÏAhbw) and in the other (ÏAhby). Both examples differ in spelling as: to the example shown above from the Pyramid Texts, which has the A and h in reverse order, and it is this spelling – ÏhAbw–which persists into later periods.265 It is on the basis of this evidence that ÏhAbw and related words connected with ritual acts in honour of Min are assumed to date back to the Old Kingdom.

Many of the above titles are self explanatory as to the nature of the occupational activities performed. However, as some are not quite so obvious or may be disputed as titles, an explanation as to why they are listed follows. In this work the term ‘title’ is employed in the broad sense of indicating a person’s occupational designation, since even if there is little status implied by such a designation, it still deserves a place in establishing the duties, structures and hierarchies of the performance cohort.

with Further, because the word ÏhAb appears as a determinative implying a desert place,266 Wilde suggests that the location could be near Koptos, cult centre of the god Min, and that the word ÏhAbw could refer to the town’s inhabitants.267 Since they would have been the original worshippers and ritualists of Min,268 the term may later have been applied to personnel attached to the cult.

Roles of ritualists associated with dance

Although often translated narrowly as ‘dance’ or ‘dancers associated with Min’,269 there is evidence to suggest that ÏhAbw refers to other ritual acts as well.270 The dance interpretation is based largely on the presence of the

ÏhAbw The term ÏhAbw, used to designate ritual dancers or at least ritual performers, is particularly associated with the cult of Min. There are two Old Kingdom occurrences of this title:

determinative of an animated man or male dancer ( A 32)271 which usually appears in later instances of the word.272 While this determinative does not actually appear in either of the two Old Kingdom examples cited, it may originally have been included but has not survived the damage that is evident in the text. Yet, this determinative is also used for words such as HaÏ [to rejoice] and xnw [to jubilate]. Goedicke goes so far as to suggest that the title awarded ¥mA.Ï’s son may have implied that it conferred on him both administrative and ritual duties.273

261 1. Pyramid Texts 892c th 2. VIII Dynasty decrees by Neferkauhor from Koptos 262

The title of ÏhAbw m Hwt-nTr [nt Mnw Gbtyw]263 [ritual dancer/ritualist in the temple [of Min (of) Koptos]] was held by a son (name lost) of the vizier ¥mA.Ï, and its bestowing by Neferkauhor in the VIIIth Dynasty is recorded in two decrees from Koptos.264

Whether the Old Kingdom title implies dance-based duties or not, examination of this term in later examples suggests that the title should, at least by the New Kingdom, be interpreted more broadly as ‘celebrant’ or ‘ritualist’. Brunner-Traut presents three examples from a pylon of the Ramesseum,274 which cast doubt on the previously accepted version of the term ÏhAb. The first example appears under a depiction of the recital of hymns. Presumably, because of the male dancer determinative in the label ÏhAbw, Brunner-Traut concedes that the hymn may be accompanied by a dance,

258

JT 2230, e.g. Hassan, Giza II, p. 5(3), figs. 7, 9 (WAS-PtH). Most likely this title refers to a keeper of royal ornaments, but is similar to and could be related to the title xntyw Xkrw n ÏbAw, listed above. 259 JT 2640, e.g. MM A2, pp. 74, 77 (#a-bAw-¤kr); CG 1385; Smith, History, pl. 36 (#a-bAw-¤kr Dyn. III); There is some dispute as to whether this title is ‘director of rwty dancers’ or is ‘controller of borders’. Various points of view appear in: Kees, ZÄS 57 (1922), p. 98 (IV, 1); Sethe in Borchardt, ¤aAHu-Rea II, p. 77 (Leiter der Einwanderer (rwty) von Ober- und Unterägytpten); Junker, Giza I, p. 150 argues the similar parallel to the title xrp mrwt ¥maw MHw; ibid. VII, p. 37 (Leiter der Tänzer); ibid. XII, p. 120; Murray, Saqqara Mastabas I, pl. 1(#abAw-¤kr); ibid. II, p. 11(1) (‘Controller of the borderers of the south and north’) (#a-bAw-¤kr); Kaplony, BiOr 28 (1971), p. 48 (rwtyw = ‘Tänzer’ and not ‘Ausländer’); Helck, LÄ V, 885 and n. 22, 25 (considers both ‘Controller of the borders’ and a title related to workers involved with the production of pigments. However, he supports the view that the title should be interpreted as ‘leader of dancers’). See also JT 1242 Ïry (= rwtyw) ¥ma (¦A-) mHw. 260 JT 613, e.g. Reisner, Tomb Development, p. 397 (NÏ-Ïb). 261 Sethe, Pyramidentexte II, p. 498, 892c. 262 WB I: 118, 11, see also McFarlane, God Min, (157), pp. 101, 334, 342, 343345, 348. 263 JT 1274, e.g. McFarlane, God Min, pp. 101(157), n. 575 (son of ¥mAy, name lost). 264 A few much later instances (e.g. LD III, 212f) associate the term with other gods, suggesting that over time it may have come to be associated more broadly with performance in a ritual context.

265

WB. I: 118, 12-14, LD III, 162-64 and 212f. Gardiner, Onomastica I, p. 213-4 (Onomastica of Amenemope). 267 Wild, Danses sacrées, p. 52 (note. 67, p. 106). 268 ibid. 269 Faulkener, Dictionary, p. 28, see also Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 80; Gauthier, Fêtes du dieu II, p. 86ff. 270 Hayes, JEA 32, (1946), p. 14. 271 Hayes, JEA 32, (1946), p. 14; Wilde, Danses sacrées, p. 52; Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 80; Gauthier, Personnel du dieu Min, III, pp. 92ff n 9, Ä.Z. 62, p. 97. The word also appears in Pyramid Text, 892c. 272 LD III, 162-64 and 212f. 273 Goedicke, Königliche Dokumente, 1967, p. 194. 274 LD III, 162-64 and 212f. 266

33

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM performed in funerary ritual were sometimes captioned [dancers/chorus of the funerary estate].283

pantomime or mime and translates the label as ‘dance hymn’, while cautioning that, except for the determinative, there is no other evidence that the hymn was necessarily an accompaniment for dance.275

Vocations and hierarchy within the xnr

A more conclusive example of usage is the second example cited by Brunner-Traut, in which the phrase SdÏ

Members of the xnr without performance-specific designations had the title xnr(t) (plural xnrwt) [chorister]. The musical abilities of the xnrwt were called upon during rituals. They were skilled rhythmists and dancers whose duties also included singing and shaking the sistrum. The xnr [chorus] appears in presentation scenes and performing funerary ritual in Old Kingdom private tombs.284 Whilst they participated in divine ritual musically and choreographically, these performers did not serve in the capacity of Hmwt-nTr [priestesses] in the daily liturgy of clothing and feeding the deity.285

(Xry Hbt Ïhb, appears in the context of the line Hry-tp Hr Ïr.t Ïhbw). Since it appears under a picture of the head lector priest reading from a book, it can only mean ‘recite the Ïhb’. In this case, the meaning of Ïhbw is, at least primarily, ‘utterance’ and supports the argument that Ïhb means ‘hymn’ in spite of its having the male dancer determinative.276 Further support for this argument can be derived from the third example, in which the caption ÏhAbw n Mnw, is engraved beneath hymns and songs in praise of Min.277

The xnrwt appear to have been divided into specialist groups: Sma(wt) [musical performers],286 ÏbA(wt) [dancers]; Hs(wt) and mAH(wt) [rhythmists]; and xnr(wt) n pr-Dt was the title held by members of the xnr who performed ritual funerary service for the funerary estate of individuals. This last group was further divided into mATr(wt) [mourners], HA(wt) [funerary performers] and possibly Dryt [Kites (two women impersonating the goddesses Isis and Nephthys, representing the wife and sister of Osiris, lord of the dead)], although there is no indication that the Dryt were employed from the ranks of the xnr.

The meaning common to all of the examples cited appears to be ‘expression of praise, joy or exuberance’, whether by utterance, or by body movements such as dance. Thus the A32 determinative is also appropriate for terms with interpretations as diverse as ‘celebrate’ or ‘sing hymns’.278 My conclusion is, therefore, that the most inclusive interpretation of the word ÏhAb is ‘ritual performance’ because it covers performances as diverse as ‘hymn’, ‘utterance’, ‘song of praise’, and ‘ritual dance’, ‘mime’ and ‘pantomime’. Funerary Performance

According to Gillam, there is a direct correlation between title elaboration and rank.287 Therefore, it is to be expected that the title ÏbA(t) n(t) xnr was higher in rank than xnr(t). This is logical when comparing the rank of titles in closely associated vocations. However, when comparing titles across differing areas of responsibility, title elaboration cannot be assumed to be more prestigious. Hence it is difficult to discern the ranking of titles such as Ïmy-r xmt xnrw [overseer of the sacred xmt cattle of the xnr] in relation to the title Ïmy-r xnrw [overseer of the xnr or chorus].

The inclusion of mourners in the list of performers may seem inappropriate to contemporary readers, however, many titleholders were specially skilled in this field and it was considered quite appropriate to employ such professionals in the funerary ritual of ancient Egypt. It is not so far back in British and Egyptian funerary practice that professional mourners and pallbearers were de rigeur. Documented funerary performances in ancient Egypt include the Dance of the Mww,279 music,280 the Pair Dance and other dances performed in the funerary procession281 and at the door of the tomb.282 Mourners were hired professionals and thus, by definition, must be considered performers. Dancers and rhythmists who

Another specialist group among the chorus was the nfrwt nt xnr. Various interpretations have been suggested for the designation nfrwt held by members of the SnDt and xnr and the term has been linked with youth,288 beauty289 and maidenhood.290 Yet, the equivalent male designation nfr is understood as recruit.291 This appears to be a more

275

Tanz, p. 80, citing LD III 212 . Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 80, citing LD III 212. 277 ibid. 278 ibid. 279 From the story of Sinuhe, B 192-97, for translation see Lichtheim, Literature I, p. 229. Kanawati-Abder-Raziq, Unis Cemetery II, pl. 57{Idwt}; Junker, MDAIAK 9(1940) fig. 3 {PtH-Htp II}; Hassan, Saqqara I, figs, 6,7 {Nb-kAw-Hr}. 280 Davies, Deir el-Gebrâwi, II, pl. 7 and p. 21 {©aw}. 281 LD II, 101b {PtH-Htp}; Mohr, Hetep-her-Akhti, fig. 3, p. 39 {¡tp-HrAxty}; Simpson, Qar and Idu, fig. 24 {QAr}; Hassan, Saqqara II, fig. 55 {§fw}; 282 Blackman, Meir V, pls. 42, 43 {PpÏ-anx: ¡ny-km}; Duell, Mereruka II, pl. 130 {Mrrw-kA.Ï}; Kanawati, el-Hawawish III, fig. 12 {§tÏ: kA.ÏHp}; Wilson, JNES 3 (1944), pl. 18 {©bH-n.Ï}. 276

283

Kanawati, el-Hawawish I, fig. 12 {KA,Ï-Hp: §tÏ Ïqr}; ibid. II, fig. 22 {#nÏ: ¥psÏ-pw-Mnw}. 284 LD II, 101b {PtH-Htp}. 285 Gillam, JARCE 32 (1995), p. 212. 286 Davies, Gebrâwi II, pl. 7, Kanawati, el-Hawawish VIII, fig. Fig. 10. 287 Gillam, JARCE 32 (1995), p. 222 ‘In the Old Kingdom, congruence of title elaboration with high rank seems to be the general rule’. 288 Fischer, JAOS 76 (1956), p. 107, (4). 289 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 31. 290 Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 144. 291 JT 1807, 1808.

34

CHAPTER 1:2 PERFORMERS, THEIR INSTITUTIONS AND TITLES straightforward example. Fischer cautions this could be interpreted as an epithet of Hathor but it is just as likely to be read nfrt xnr ¡wt-Hr295 [novice of the chorus of Hathor], if honorific transposition is taken into account.

appropriate interpretation, while still suggesting the notions of youth and apprenticeship. It seems feasible that the term implies the women were recruits, as it does with the male version of the same title, when attached to other institutions. (Perhaps apprentice, novice or initiate are other possibilities). If nfrwt were recruits of the xnr, then one would expect that this occupational designation was at the bottom of the hierarchical ladder, and that they would in time be promoted to the rank of xnr(w)t. However, as a specific group they may have ranked higher than those designated xnrwt due to their attributes (i.e. youth, beauty and maidenhood) rather than their acquired skills and experience.

Members of the SnDt were titled SnDt(w)t and as holders of this title, they appear to have had specific attributes, which may have placed them higher than the xnrwt in the hierarchy of the xnr. Similarly, the acquisition of skills required to attain the titles of ÏbA, Hsw and mAHt suggests a higher status than the less specific title xnr(t). Next in rank in the hierarchy of the xnr is the title sHDt, [supervisor]. It is difficult to ascertain whether the role of the sHDt nt xnr [supervisor of the chorus] ranked above the sHDt in vocation-specific roles, such as sHDt ÏbAw [supervisor of dancers]. In the tomb of MHw, the titles sHDt nt xnr, and the higher ranking title of Ïmyt-r nt xnr [overseer of the chorus], are both clearly held by dancers, depicted performing the Layout pose. This suggests that in this case the duties of supervising and overseeing the xnr may have encompassed those expected of the sHDt ÏbAw [supervisor of dancers] and the Ïmyt-r ÏbAw [overseer of dancers] and that the roles of sHDt and Ïmyt-r, at least in this case, were performance oriented and not purely administrative. Both titles are held by surprisingly young women, their youth emphasized by the difficult and strenuous Layout posture they execute. However, the age of the individual as depicted in the prime of youth may not necessarily correspond to the age at which they held their loftiest title. Tomb owners are often depicted at an age of physical ideal, not commensurate with the complete list of titles they had accomplished in their lifetime.

This brings up the issue of rank versus seniority, which appears to be similarly differentiated in modern theatrical companies. Apart from any natural ability they may have, young performers have the attribute of youth, which is difficult for adult performers to imitate. Consequently, it is not unusual for children to have billing and payment which is superior to their seniors, who may have far greater talent and experience. Choristers of Opera Australia are often faced with the anonymous billing ‘Artists of Opera Australia’, whereas a child chorister will be named as an individual in both the programme and the playbill. This implies a specialist vocation of a relatively inexperienced junior compared with the less specialised or differentiated but none the less highly skilled vocation of an experienced senior. Theatre is one of the few arenas where age discriminating dismissal and advertising for the recruitment of performers is tolerated in our society. Therefore, despite their young age and inexperience, the nfrw of the xnr may have enjoyed a brief period in which they enjoyed a higher rank and associated privileges above unspecified members of the xnr.

As outlined above, the title next in rank, moving upwards, was that of the overseer or Ïmy(t)-r. Title elaboration further differentiates rank within the level of this title, hence Ïmyt-r xnr nswt mÏ-qd.f [overseer of the entire chorus of the king] would outrank Ïmyt-r xnr [overseer of the chorus]. Another high ranking title was xrp(t) [director], but it does not occur in the context of the xnr in the Old Kingdom, while it does occur for both genders in the institution of the SnDt. It is difficult to ascertain the rank of this title relative to that of Ïmy-r for two reasons. Firstly, the two titles do not often cover exactly the same area of jurisdiction and secondly, even in the few instances where such a comparison may be drawn, the two titles do not appear to have been held by the same individual, thus enabling a comparison through the examination of the individual’s career.

The title nfrt is only listed in JT for an instance now considered as a misinterpretation, but its occurrence in combination with other elements in a number of titles attests the title as a designation in its own right. For example, while the reading of nfrt in one example of the title Ïmy-r xnr(wt) nfr(wt) [overseer of the recruits of the house of performers] is uncertain,292 the other occurrence is unambiguous293 and attests the existence, not only of this performance group, but is an Old Kingdom example of a male overseer (Ïmy-r) attached to the xnr. The title nfrt xnr294 [recruit of the chorus] appears to be a 292

Fraser, PSBA 15 (1893), p. 494ff, pl. 9 (PpÏ-n-anx, el-Kab – probably Dyn. VI) – Jones reports this as Ïmy-r xnrwt nfrwt but the reading of the figure nfrwt is uncertain in the hieroglyphs accompanying the Fraser

There is one tantilizing exception, however – the two titles do occur in the career of the butcher PH-r-nfr,296 who has the title Ïmy-r sSmtyw SnDt [overseer of the

article. The title in question could also be Ïmy-r xnrwt, although it is then difficult to interpret the hieroglyphs following the word xnr. 293 Spiedel, Friseure, pp. 38(20), n. 5, 190 (NÏ-anx-£nmw -Ïmy-r xnr nfrwt, Dyn. V, second half). 294 Not listed in JT, but discussed in Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 144, p. 139(jjj) (Dyn. IX, Naga ed-Dêr) = Fischer, JAOS 76, 1956, pp. 106-7 no. 5.

295

ibid. p. 106f(4) = Dunham, Stelae) and (5) = coffin of Mryt-Ïqrt, tomb N 3915, MFA photo 2023). 296 Fischer, Orientalia 29, p. 169.

35

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM temple’,304 or ‘How happy are your noblewomen, the xnr of Wepwawet, who have seen your monuments in the temple’.305 From the second translation, it can be read that members of the xnr appear to have had the status of noblewomen. But even if the conjunctions in the first are considered, the xnr was, at the very least, associated with the noblewomen of the area.306 While two First Intermediate Period titles from Naga ed-Dêr also associate the two groups: Ïmyt-wrt nt xnr [Great One of the chorus] and Ïmyt-wrt m Hry-Ïb Spst [Great One in the midst of noblewomen],307 once again suggesting an association between noblewomen and the xnr, they cannot be taken as evidence that such connections existed in the Old Kingdom.

butchers of the Acacia House] engraved on his statue and the title xrp sSmtyw SnDt [director of the butchers of the Acacia House] on his offering basin, but unfortunately, because they do not appear together, their relative ranking cannot be ascertained. At the culmination of his career PH-r-nfr appears to have held the title xrp sSmtyw SnDt and appears to have been the only non-royal to hold this particular title. The female equivalent of his title xrp(t) sSmtyw SnDt was held by no fewer than six queens from the IVth to the Vth Dynasties,297 which may be further testament to the high rank of the title xrp. Yet, when comparing the two titles xrp and Ïmy-r in other contexts, it appears that Ïmy-r still has the higher rank. The titles xrp xrpw298 and Ïmy-r xrpw299 are listed by Jones, but there does not appear to be a single example of xrp Ïmyw-r in any vocation, suggesting that a person holding the rank of xrp could not be placed in charge of titleholders as high as Ïmy-r.

Gender and hierarchy In the Old Kingdom, except for the title Ïmy-r xnrwt nfrwt, only women held titles as overseers within the xnr, but there are instances in performance scenes of male figures who may be interpreted as being overseers or instructors. In the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr, one such figure is titled sbA [instructor], whereas in the tombs of PtH-Htp (Conspectus entry 21) and ©bH-n.Ï, these figures are untitled, but may be similarly interpreted as instructors or overseers.

Status of the xnrwt A study of the prosopographies of women holding the title Hmwt-nTr indicates that while in the Old Kingdom this profession was not open to the lower classes, by the New Kingdom priestesses were drawn from all levels of society.300 However, a similar study does not appear to have been undertaken to determine the status of xnrwt in society in the Old Kingdom,301 probably because there is a paucity of biographical evidence extant concerning them. There are some examples of xnrwt whose status has been noted in the course of this study, however, such as the dancers of the xnr in the tomb of £nÏ at elHawawish, who have their names inscribed in front of them. Two of the male dancers are named §tÏ and the female dancers are called Nfr-Tntt. Since both of these names frequently occur in £nÏ’s family, it is likely that these xnr performers are children of the tomb owner,302 which suggests xnr performers could be drawn from among members of the Nomarchic family. An inscription in the tomb of the Nomarch £ty at Asyut, dated to the Xth Dynasty, suggests that a common vocation or association existed between xnrwt and Spswt noble women.303 The inscription reads: Aw.wy Ïb n Spswt.k xnr n wpwAwt mAw mnw.k m Hwt-nTr, which may be translated ‘How happy are your noblewomen and the xnr of Wepwawet, who have seen your monuments in the

By the Middle Kingdom, however, the number of women holding titles of higher rank within the xnr had diminished and this appears to be in direct relation to the increase in the number of male overseers.308 Belonging to the xnr appears to have become a mark of status for these men, since they were drawn from the higher strata in society – holding positions such as nomarchs and overseers of priests – and held higher ranking positions within the xnr.309 Many performers were attached to institutions such as the xnr, SnDt or the pr-aA and their titles within the particular institution can be assembled in order of rank. However, it is difficult to ascertain the relative hierarchies of titleholders between the different institutions. The titles Hst, Hst n xnr, Hst n pr-aA and Hst n SnDt, for example, may all be ranked at the level of Hst, but it is difficult to ascertain the hierarchies of these institutions relative to one another. Were the xnr ranked higher than the SnDt, this would influence the ranking of the title Hst n xnr relative to that of Hst n SnDt.

297 Fischer, (ibid. pp. 183-85) lists five queens and Verner, Abusir III, p. 63, 36/A/78 adds Queen #nt-[kAw.s] III. 298 JT 2676 – 2677, Fischer, Varia Nova, p. 17, n. 21. 299 JT 713 –716, Fischer, Varia Nova, p. 17, n. 21. 300 Watterson, Women, p. 39. 301 Studies of musician-priestesses for the New Kingdom have shown that they were drawn from all levels of society (see Robins, Women, p. 145), however, this may be a reflection of the non-professional status of temple vocations for women after the Old Kingdom. 302 Kanawati, el-Hawawish IX, p. 63, fig 37a. 303 Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 144, Fischer, JAOS, 76, (1956), pp. 106 ff., no. 4 and p. 108.

304

Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 145, n. 89 citing Brunner, Texte, pp. 56-7, lines 29-30. 305 Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 145, n. 89-90, see also n. 89. 306 Fischer, JAOS 76, (1956), p. 106, n. 52. 307 Fischer, JAOS, 76, (1956), pp. 106ff. nos 3 and 4 and Nord, Dunham Studies, pp. 144-5, and nn. 91-95. 308 Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 143-144. 309 ibid.

36

CHAPTER 1:2 PERFORMERS, THEIR INSTITUTIONS AND TITLES the Old Kingdom and the First Intermediate period,317 and Ritner, who identified the dream-trance ritual of the sm priest enacting the tekenu’s ‘sleep’,318 there has been little further discussion on the subject of embodiment.

Embodiment roles Some of the titles listed in the preceding index, such as Dryt, mnÏt, and mrt, because they are names of deities or objects personified by deities, may have involved the principle of embodiment, in which the performer takes on the persona of the deity in order to perform ritual functions on the deity’s behalf and manifest the divine presence. There has been some speculation as to whether this practice may have been incorporated into the Mirror Dance, Boys’ Game and Mww genres, although, without the benefit of first hand observation, it is uncertain whether these performances are merely stylized costume enactments, innocent games, or whether they may have involved transcendence on the part of the performer in order to embody a manifestation of the deity.

Indwelling of cult objects The Egyptians believed that their gods and goddesses installed themselves on the terrestrial level, not only in sanctuaries, temples and in their images in the form of statuary and wall reliefs but also that deities pervaded the parts of the landscape and the universe with which they were associated. This indwelling principle was also extended to cult emblems. In the cult of Hathor, it was believed that Hathor extended her essence to her sacred emblems, the menit and sistrum so that they too took on her presence and were recognised as manifestations of her.319 This concept is attested by the later designations of Hathor as ‘the Great menit necklace, mistress of the sSS and sxm sistra’320 and ‘The menit necklace’,321 as well as a representation of Hathor in the form of a menit necklace in a crypt at Dendera.322

That shamanistic or embodiment practices may have existed as a part of Egyptian religion, is dismissed by many prominent writers,310 probably in part because a study of shamanism is usually undertaken with first hand observation of the process. Yet, there are a number of characteristics recorded which parallel or are fundamental to embodiment practices, suggesting that embodiment roles may have been a part of ancient Egyptian ritual practice and belief. Fundamental to the establishment of shamanism in a culture is the principle of a spirit which survives death and can be separated from form.311 In the funerary cult, there was a profound belief in the survival and separation of the spirit from the body:

Embodiment The perception that such indwelling could be experienced by a living person has a precedent in a number of areas of Egyptian belief and practice. In shamanistic practice, the shaman empties his own individuality in order to channel a divine presence or the spirit of a deceased person. Even Assman, who disputes the existence of shamanism in Egyptian religion,323 puts forward numerous instances which describe shamanistic practice such as a formula uttered by priests who are speaking the words of the gods:

‘Your ba ascends to the sky and in the company of the bas of the gods and descends again on your mummy in the cemetery.’312 In theology, the concept of separation of the ba also applies to the gods who send their bas to unite with their statues and dwell in their sanctuaries. This concept has been coined einwohnung or ‘indwelling’ by Junker.313 The Memphite Theology relates:

‘It is not I who says this to you, it is the deity NN who speaks (through me) to you,’ which attests the concept of a human identity becoming one with the divine.324

‘So the gods entered into their bodies of every (kind of) wood, of every (kind of) stone, of every (kind of) clay…’, 314

Assman also cites a spell recited in a ritual designed to facilitate an individual’s transcendence into an ecstatic experience, emphasizing that priests had to shed their own individuality in order to play such divine roles in the cult.325 Assuming a trance-like state or embodiment, requiring the negation of the individual’s identity in order

thus uniting with their forms. The topics of indwelling and embodiment in ancient Egypt were introduced by Blackman315 and Gardiner316 and while indwelling is easily attested and acknowledged as a fundamental belief in the Egyptian religion, apart from Galvin in her thesis, The Priestesses of Hathor in

317

Galvin, Priestesses, p. 205ff. Ritner, Egyptian Magical Practice. 319 Blackman, Meir I, pp. 4, 25. 320 Blackman, JEA 7 (1921), p. 23 (Chassinat, Denderah, vol. V, pl. 44, vol. VI, pls. 452, 459. 321 Chassinat, Denderah vol VI, p. 6 (pl. 452) (South, Crypte number 2, room A). 322 ibid. pl. 425 (South, Crypte number 2, room A). 323 Assman, Search for God, p. 153. 324 ibid. p. 155-56. 325 ibid. p. 156. 318

310

Assman, Search for God, p. 153. Ripinsky-Naxon, Nature of Shamanism, p. 37. Assman, Search for God, p. 43. 313 ibid. 314 Galvin, Priestesses, p. 214, n. 24 citing Pritchard, ANET (1969), p. 2. 315 Blackman, Meir I, pp. 4, 25, Blackman, JEA 7 (1921) 316 Gardiner-Davies, Amenemhet, pp. 94-96. 311 312

37

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM to instigate healing, shamanism.326

is

a

primary

practice

the goddess.340 That the objects personified by Hathor are being presented by these priestesses, indicates that the priestesses who hold them are also impersonating or embodying Hathor.341 Hathor is the ‘Possessor of the Menit’342 and by taking up the menit and presenting it ritually, the priestesses also become ‘Possessors of the Menit’ and adopt this and other designations of Hathor as titles.343

of

‘The one who knows this spell will be like the sun god in the East The one who executes this pattern is like the Great God himself.’327 Embodiment in the cult of Hathor

In the New Kingdom tomb of Imn-m-HAt,344 four priestesses who present the sacred emblems to Imn-m-HAt, in a scene which is a close parallel to the scenes from Meir, are titled xnywt of Hathor in her various places. The much damaged record of their recitation has been reconstructed to: ‘Take for yourself the mnÏt necklace, the sxm sistrum and the sSSt sistrum… belonging to Hathor in all her names, in order that they may give you a fair and (long-lasting) life’.345 This scene constitutes the first evidence of a title for embodiment priestesses of Hathor.

Despite Assman’s view that shamanistic or ecstatic aspects were not a part of Egyptian religious practice,328 he admits that ‘the cult of Hathor constituted an important exception’.329 Activities associated with inducing shamanistic ecstatic states such as dancing, pounding the drum and consuming inebriants330 can be identified in the ritual of the feast of Hathor, depicted in the Middle Kingdom tomb of Int.f-Ïqr,331 and in the New Kingdom tomb of Imn-m-HAt.332 Ritual embodiment was also a feature of the cult of Meret333 but while impersonators of Meret (Mrwt) are attested pictorially from as early as the IVth Dynasty,334 depictions of musician-priestesses performing this function in the Hathoric cult do not appear, at least in private tombs, until the Middle Kingdom in the tombs of ¤nb.Ï and Wx-Htp at Meir335 and PA-Hr.Ï at el-Kab.336

Another earlier account of this embodiment ritual is recorded in ‘The Story of Sinuhe’,346 in which the royal women (‘daughters of the king’) assume the persona of Hathor and perform the same ritual, offering the blessing of menits and sistra to the king: ‘Then the Royal daughters were brought in, and his majesty said to the queen: ‘Here is Sinuhe, come as an Asiatic, a product of nomads!’...Now having brought with them their necklaces, rattles and sistra, they held them out to his majesty: ‘Your hands upon the radiance, eternal king, Jewels of heaven's mistress! The Gold gives life to your nostrils, The Lady of Stars enfolds you!’.347

A significant ritual in the Hathoric cult was the presentation of the sacred emblems of the cult by a class of priestesses who impersonated the goddess. This presentation ritual involved the principle of embodiment, in which the divine essence of the goddess herself was understood to merge with her priestesses, allowing them, as manifestations of her, to bestow her blessings, favour and good fortune on adherents of the cult.337

While similar scenes are unknown in the Old Kingdom, a record made by Thuthmose III at Dendera shows the written instructions for such rituals, which are accredited to the time of Pepi I.348 Rites involving the embodiment of Hathor are also attested for the Old Kingdom in a fragmentary scene of an Hathoric presentation ritual, also at Dendera, which is depicted on the throne of a statue of Pepi I.349

In the scene from the tomb of ¤nb.Ï,338 three priestesses (usually described as dancers)339 are depicted offering menits and other cult objects to ¤nb.Ï, saying: ‘For your kas, the menit of Hathor, Mistress of Cusae’. They then proceed to administer Hathor’s blessings of favour and long life. Here the cult object being presented, especially the menit necklace, is understood as the embodiment of

326

Eliade, Techniques of Ecstasy, Ch. 7, p. 215 ff. Assman, Search for God, p. 136. ibid. p. 153. 329 ibid. p. 155. 330 Rouget, Music and Trance, p. 10. 331 Gardiner-Davies, Antefoker, pl. 15. 332 ibid. pl. 20. 333 Berlandini, LÄ, vol. IV, p. 86 (Meret). 334 Borchardt, SAHu-re II, p. 102; Goedicke, Re-used blocks, pp. 36-38, (MMA block 22.1.1 from the Funerary temple of Khufu), Mariette, Abydos I, pl. 30a. see p. 86, n. 30. 335 Blackman, Meir I, pl. 2 and Meir II, pl. 32. 336 Tylor-Griffith, Paheri, pl. 8. 337 Gardiner-Davies, Amenemhet, pp. 94-96. 338 Blackman, Meir I, pl. 2. 339 Gardiner-Davies, Amenemhet, pp. 94-96; Blackman, Meir I, pp. 23, 25. 327 328

340

Blackman, Meir I, p. 25. Galvin, Priestesses, pp. 214-215. Blackman, Meir I, p. 25. 342 Mariette, Denderah ii, 76. 343 Galvin, Priestesses, p. 214-215, Gardiner-Davies, Amenemhet, pp. 94-96. 344 Gardiner-Davies, Amenemhet, pl. 19, pp. 94-96. 345 Based on Gardiner’s translation, Gardiner-Davies, Amenemhet, p. 25. 346 Sinuhe B268-86. 347 translation, Lichtheim, Literature I, p. 232. 348 Dümichen, Baugeschichte, pl. 1. Daumas, BIFAO 52 (1953), p. 170 does not publish the text. Pepi I is also depicted in a Hathoric presentation scene in Dümichen, Baugeschichte, pl. 2. Daumas, BIFAO 52 (1953), p. 171, describes a similar ritual in a presentation scene, enacted befor Pepi I, on a wall at Denderah. 349 Daumas, BIFAO 52 (1953), p. 171. 341

38

CHAPTER 1:2 PERFORMERS, THEIR INSTITUTIONS AND TITLES The same ceremony is possibly alluded to in a scene from the VIth Dynasty tomb of Idw, in which dancers, wearing the menit and other objects sacred to Hathor, approach the tomb owner and say:

(xnywt) with the element , that is consistently the differentiating figure between the two titles xnwt and xnywt.357 The titles xnwt and xnywt appear to describe the same vocation, as suggested by BrunnerTraut,358 and in the Wörtebuch the two entries are crossreferenced,359 both spellings being treated as the same term by Faulkener360 and Hannig.361 Galvin gives two variations in the transliteration of these titles, despite very similar hieroglyphic spellings, but she gives the same interpretation in both cases.362

350

InD Hr.T m anx ¡wt-Hr swt kA.t Htp.tÏ nbw.T ÏA mrt nfrw [Hail to you in life, Hathor, the places of your ka are satisfied; Oh! that you should glow is what the nfrw (novices) wish]. This is a rare example of the ritual presentation of sacred emblems performed by dancers (ÏbAw) and rhythmists (mAHwt) and novices (nfrwt) rather than embodiment priestesses (xn(y)wt). Since embodiment roles often required musical ability, it is possible that the talents of dancers and musicians were called upon for this ritual practice.

, xn (to alight), is crucial The use of the stem to the understanding of embodiment, as demonstrated by 363 xn nbwt tp the sentence bs.s Ïmt ¡wt-sxm [she lighted upon her sacred image of god, in the form ‘mansion of the sistrum’] in which the word xn [lighted] is used in the sense of Hathor uniting with her image or embodying it.

Embodiment priestesses in the cult of Hathor are more prominent in the New Kingdom. In the scene mentioned above from the tomb of Imn-m-HAt,351 the priestesses who are clearly impersonating Hathor are titled xnywt. Priestesses of Hathor are also depicted in this capacity – in the guise of Hathor – at Denderah352 and in the hypostyle hall of the Mammisi, also at Denderah, in which each of 21 priestesses has a recitation identifying her as a Hathor in one of her different aspects.353 The titles of these priestesses later included

‘She unites with her forms that are carved in her sanctuary’364 365 and ‘She alights on her forms that are carved on the wall’ 366

Perhaps the origin of the title xnywt lies in the stem xnÏ [to alight], taking the understanding of the deity alighting on the form of the priestess who has assumed the form of the goddess. Priestesses could assume the form of the goddess by wearing the appropriate clothing and holding the cult objects directly associated with the divine presence or indwelling of the goddess.

‘The Great ‘Possessor of the Menit’ and Menit in the mansion of the Menit’,354 which were designations of Hathor herself. Eventually, priestesses even assumed the title ‘Hathor’, as attested by an inscription from the reigns of Ramses II and III: ‘Hathors of the temple of Atum’,355 which goes so far as to name these priestesses ¡wt-Hr, thus confirming their status as embodiment priestesses.

A curious reversal of the embodiment principle occurs in the Westcar Papyrus, which relates that a group of goddesses disguise themselves as xn(y)wt. The situation arises thereby, of goddesses impersonating impersonators of the goddess in order to preside over the delivery of Reweddjedet’s sons.

xnywt in the cult of Hathor While there does not appear to be evidence for the title ‘Hathor’ (¡wt-Hr) for impersonators of Hathor in the Old Kingdom, there are examples of the title (xnwt),356 which by the Middle Kingdom is also written

5233; Galvin, Priestesses, p. 59 (InÏ 428 F)=Lacau, Sarcophages I, 28017 (First Intermediate Period) = Kanawati, el-Hawawish IX, fig. 34, a, d (#nwtÏ/InÏ). 357 Westcar Papyrus, 10:1, 11:24, Blackman, Meir IV, p. 4 (32), pl. 4 (¡wt-ÏaH:¡wtÏ - wife of PpÏ-anx). 358 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, pp. 44-45. 359 WB 3: 286, 11 and 3: 288, 7. 360 Faulkener, Dictionary, p. 192. 361 Hannig, Handwörtebuch, p. 601.

350

Simpson, Qar and Idu, pl. 87. 351 Gardiner-Davies, Amenemhet, pl. 19. 352 Mariette, Denderah, Crypte no. 5 (No. 2 of Chassinat, Denderah VI, pls. 452, 459, p. 118 and also pls. 540, 541, 547, 548) and LD. IV, pl. 26 (Galvin, Priestesses, p. 215, citing Blackman, JEA 7 (1921), p. 23 353 Galvin, Priestesses, pp. 215- 216 citing Daumas, Mammisis, pl. 92. 354 Mariette, Denderah, ii, 76, 8, iii, 78f. 355 Dümichen, Historische Inschriften, pl. 8, lines 6-7. 356 JT 2514, e.g. Blackman, Meir IV, p. 4 (31), pl. 4 (2) (¡wt-ÏaH:¡wtÏ wife of PpÏ-anx) and pls. 7, 9 (¡wt-ÏaH:¡wtÏ, wife of PpÏ-anx); ibid., pl. 15 [PXr.t-nfrt:BbÏ in tomb of PpÏ-anx, D4, here written Hnwt.s ¡wt-Hr]; Fisher, Minor Cemetery, pl. 44, 2 (#nwt G 3093); ibid., pl. 55, (ÏntÏ here xnwt appears to be a component of the name #nwt nÏst m ÏntÏ rather than a title, tomb chamber shared with ¤nfrw-Htp); G 3094, (Philadelphia Museum E13529) (£rt-kA); von Bissing-Kees, ReHeiligtum III, pl. 16 (274) {near men with batons}; ibid. II, anonymous in pls. 18(44d) and 19(45a); Fischer, Varia, p. 11 no. 19 (§nmw) G

362

Galvin, Priestesses, p. 214

(xnwt) but see p. 228

xntÏ is included in WB 3: (xntÏ) - musician-priestess (The spelling 286, 11 n (Tur, 49, D11)). 363 Chassinat, Denderah VI, p. 7. 364 Assman, Search for God, p. 42 (Mariette, Denderah i, p. 87 a). 365 Memphite Theology II, 59-60. (Galvin, Priestesses, p. 214). 366 Assman, Search for God, p. 42 (Mariette, Denderah i, p. 29c).

39

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Thus, the title mnÏt wrt may be an epithet of the Dryt wrt, which was assumed for the Dryt wrt’s role in landing the Nekhbet bark. (Fischer suggests this title may be associated with that of the Ïmyt-r SnDt, since both titles are held by a woman from el-Kab.372 The SnDt has been shown to be an institution specific to funerary performers/ritualists.) But the epithet mnÏt wrt also belongs to Hathor.373 In the temple at Denderah (crypt no. 3w (room of archives)), a title usually attributed to Hathoric priestesses, ‘The Menit necklace, the royal wife, Isis’,374 indicates that by the Ptolemaic period the two goddesses are closely associated, while also suggesting an association with the Old Kingdom title mnÏt wrt, which further reinforces the possibility of the title’s reference to Isis and subsequently, with the title Dryt wrt.

Dryt Similarly, the greater and lesser Dryt depicted in funerary ritual may also have been considered as embodiments of the goddesses Isis and Nephthys.367 The Dryt mourners are two women who impersonate the two goddesses, Isis and Nephthys, sisters of the god Osiris, with whom the deceased king is identified. In many depictions, the Dryt wrt [Greater Kite – impersonator of Isis, wife and sister of Osiris] sits at the prow of the bark and the Dryt [Lessor Kite – impersonator of Nephthys] sits at the stern. The two goddesses, in the manifestation of kites (birds of prey, Dryt) flew in search of the remains of their brother Osiris. It is difficult to reconcile the identification of these two funerary performers in the context of non-royal burials as early as the Old Kingdom, because the association of the deceased with Osiris was reserved only for the king. However, there is at least one example of the title Dryt wrt in the tomb of PtH-Htp (21), which suggests the identification of the Greater Kite with Isis. Perhaps the employment of the terms Dryt and Dryt wrt were used euphemistically to mask the understood identities of Nephthys and Isis and the consequent association with the Osirian funeral. The origin of the designation HAt [funerary mourners/ performers], can also be attributed to a species of bird, probably a small bird of prey, which is also associated with Isis.368

The similarity of the titles mnit and mnÏt wrt with the name for the mnit necklace, which was itself thought to house the divine presence of the goddess, again suggests the principle of embodiment as well as an association with the goddess Isis. This is particularly evident in the coffin texts, where the MnÏt (clearly meaning the menit necklace of Hathor) is depicted as a mooring post, again suggesting the association of the two goddesses.375 This association of the mooring post with the Hathoric titles mnÏt and mnÏt wrt, suggests the association between the two goddesses may have had its origin in the Old Kingdom.

mnÏt, mnÏt wrt IHyw The two titles mnÏt and mnÏt wrt, which occur on a series of ostraca found at Helwan369 and el-Kab370 also suggest embodiment roles. The mnÏt is a landing post in the context of funerary ritual. The personification of the landing post is illustrated in the Pyramid texts 872b, 876c and 794c,371 in which the landing post is represented in the shape of a mourning woman. It may follow that the titleholders mnÏt and mnÏt wrt played a mythical role in the mooring of the funerary bark.

The female dancers in the Hathoric cult were often accompanied by men playing hand-shaped or Hathorheaded clappers, who are referred to as IHyw priests in the accompanying captions.376 This title is derived from the name of the deity IHy,377 the child god of music, who is depicted shaking a sistrum before his mother, Hathor. It is appropriate that the priests in the Hathoric cult bore a name with this association, especially as they were musician-priests accompanying the priestesses who impersonated Hathor.378 It may follow that the IHyw priests who accompanied these priestesses were perceived as impersonators of the god IHy.379 Just as the embodiment priestesses of the Hathoric cult later earned the right to be titled ¡wt-Hr ‘Hathors’, so the priests impersonating IHy in the same cult took the title IHyw.

The form of the landing post personified as a mourning woman depicted in the Pyramid Texts, suggests an association with the roles of the Dryt and Dryt wrt. As explained above, the Dryt mourners are two women who impersonate the two goddesses, Isis and Nephthys. These two designations appear to be parallel to the titles mnÏt wrt and mnÏt, the Greater Kite taking the role of the mnÏt wrt and the lessor Kite taking the role of the mnÏt.

372

Fischer, Orientalia 29, 1960, p. 189. Mariette, Denderah ii, pl. 76. Dümichen, Denderah, pl. 8. 375 Faulkener, Coffin Texts I, p. 259. 376 Galvin, Priestesses, p. 207, citing Gardiner- Davies, Amenemhet, p. 95. 377 Blackman, Meir I, p. 23, see also Faulkener, Dictionary, p. 29. 378 Blackman, Meir I, pl. 2 and Meir II, pl. 32. 379 It has been suggested (Galvin, Priestesses, pp. 217-219), that the IHyw priests were rhythmists only, on the grounds that males would not be impersonating Hathor beside priestesses who were impersonating the goddess, however, both the title and the activity of these priests implies that they were impersonating not Hathor, but her son IHy. 373 374

367

Blackman pointed this out as early as 1921 (JEA 7, p. 27), but there has been no apparent discussion since in relation to the Old Kingdom. Wassell, Ancient Egyptian Fauna, p. 127-8 and n. 65. 369 Fischer, Orientalia 29 (1960), p. 189 and n.1, ostraca naming three women from Helwan: Saad, ASAE Supplement 3, pl. 42A (Nfr-Htp.s); ibid., pl. 43A (Mrt-Ït); ibid., pl. 43B (IbÏ ). 370 Fischer, Orientalia 29, 1960, pp. 187-90 and fig. 7 – woman from an ostracon excavated at Helwan (Iwt), another, unnamed, from el-Kab. 371 Sethe, Pyramidentexte I, pp. 436, 487-489. 368

40

CHAPTER 1:2 PERFORMERS, THEIR INSTITUTIONS AND TITLES Conclusion The performance cohort in the Old Kingdom was vast and organized with a surprising diversity of vocations available to performers. At least 110 performance related titles are acknowledged and there are still more which are disputed. A number of performance titles indicate that some artists enjoyed a high status and particular favour with the king. The xnr and SnDt were dedicated performance institutions and performers were also attached to the court. While it is not possible to determine whether some titleholders within the xnr were dancers, musicians or administrators, it is clear that high ranking titles such as Ïmyt-r xnr were attainable to dancers. Some performance institutions appear to have been an umbrella for other vocations such as midwifery (the xnr) and ritual slaughter (the SnDt). Conversely, some other vocational groups such as the xntyw-S appear to have doubled as entertainers to the king. Moreover, it appears that some performers were freelance and travelled from place to place. This is implied in the Westcar Papyrus, which relates that a group of goddesses disguised as itinerant performers call to act as midwives to Reweddjedet. Since the other characters in the story are unaware of the disguise, their acceptance of the arrival of apparently itinerant performers as unremarkable, suggests that it was not unusual for performers to be freelance. That there existed an itinerant, multi-skilled cohort adds to the difficulty of ranking the titleholders with their colleagues who were attached to institutions such as the xnr. Itinerant performers may have been highly sought after soloists of particular renown or may have been social outcasts. That performers were attached to temples and the court suggests that there was some level of social standing associated with performance vocations, at least within these institutions. In particular, the vocation of embodying deities and safeguarding and bringing forth sacred cult objects is suggestive of a high social standing and this is reinforced by the evidence that embodiment roles were adopted by royal women from the Middle Kingdom.380

380

Gillam, JARCE 32 (1995), p. 217.

41

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Chapter 1:3 Terminology Captions and classification

The rest of the dancers have the word xnrt [female chorister] placed next to them, and since the word xnrt cannot be translated as a verbal infinitive, it is therefore more likely intended as the designation ‘female member of the xnr’, similar to the present day ‘member of the corps de ballet’ or ‘female chorister’. It follows that single words such as ÏbA and Hst, placed in a similar position in dance scenes would conform to the same pattern as that of the above titles, reflecting a widely understood convention of the period and should be interpreted as the occupational designations ‘dancer’ and ‘rhythmist’ rather than the infinitives ‘dancing’ and ‘clapping’. This should not be taken as a VIth Dynasty phenomenon only, since the word xnr(.t) (which can only be taken as a title) used in the same context (i.e. embedded in the scene in front of the dancers) also appears in the earlier dance scene in the tomb of PtH-Htp (V.9).382 The title ÏbAwt appears above the dancers in the tomb of Nw-nTr at Giza,383 although abbreviated, the inclusion of the plural ‘w’ indicates this is the title ‘dancers’, rather than an indication of the infinitive. Recent publications such as Jones, Title, Epithet and Phrases, (here cited as JT) have recorded the usage of such words embedded in the scene as titles.384 Fischer interprets the word sbA[t], placed in front of a figure and similarly embedded into the dance scene in the tomb of #wfw-xa.f II, as the title ‘instructress’ rather than the infinitive ‘teaching’.385

Since a number of different words were used by the ancient Egyptians to describe dance, the captions accompanying dance scenes give an insight as to how dance styles were perceived and categorized by the Ancient Egyptians themselves. There appears to be a correlation between particular styles of dance and the specific labels accompanying them, however, clarification still proves evasive as such captions are not always consistent and there are gaps in the record due to damage, or simply because too few examples have been excavated. Gaining an understanding as to why different dance terms were employed in various contexts and to differentiate between genres may offer some insight into the sociological attitude of Egyptians to ritual, leisure, socializing and self-expression. Scene captions can be difficult to decipher, not only because the vocabulary may be obscure or specialised, but also in determining the grammatical form intended. The final ‘t’ in words such as Hst could indicate the infinitive form of the verb, meaning ‘singing’ or ‘clapping’, or if placed in front of a figure such as a rhythmist, could indicate the feminine form of the occupational designation, ‘rhythmist’, just as it does in other titles such as Ïmy(t)-r [overseer]. To make matters more difficult, not all stems take this final ‘t’ and it is often omitted even from those that do. Further, it is often omitted from the title, due partly to the practice of abbreviating titles. Where the word occurs in captions above and below scenes it is often possible to discern whether the word is intended as an infinitive by its context within a phrase or sentence. However, determining the precise meaning of single words placed in front of dancing figures and embedded within the actual scene proves to be more problematic. Such is the case with the word ‘ÏbA’ placed in front of dancers. This could be interpreted as the infinitive ‘dancing’ or as the occupational designation ‘dancer’.

Further word recognition difficulties occur as a result of: (1) the state of the text in situ being damaged, faint or missing, (2) scribal error, where the original scribe has misspelt a word, (3) variations to the customary writing of words. (For example, the writings of the main dance term ÏbA in the Old Kingdom vary from

in the tomb

in the tomb of IsÏ at Deir el-Gebrawi) to of ¡r-xw.f at Aswan.) and (4) metathesis, the rearranging of various parts of a word to accommodate the restrictions of wall space or to provide a visually more balanced word composition.386

An example where attested titles occur in exactly the same context can be observed in the tomb of MHw. The title Ïmyt-r xnr [overseer of the xnr (chorus)], the feminine form of the title ‘overseer’, appears before the first dancer of the top row and sHDt nt xnr [supervisor of the xnr (chorus)], the feminine form of the title ‘supervisor’, is placed next to another dancing figure, indicating that here they indicate the titles of the dancers pictured and both of these are well attested as titles.381

One particularly perplexing aspect of this study has been the enigmatic nature of many dance captions further 382

Here it is xnr n SnDt placed in front of three of the four dancers. Even though there is no t to conform to the pattern of xnr used as an occupational designation, it is difficult to interpret this group any other way. That this usage can be interpreted as a title is now also reinforced by these terms being listed as titles in JT. 383 Junker, Giza X, fig. 44. 384 JT 2519: Altenmüller, Mehu, pl. 50 {MHw}; Myśliwiec, Rewelacyjne, fig. 42. {Mr.f-nb.f}; Edel, Akazienhaus, fig. 4 {PtH-Htp xnr n SnDt}; Epron-Wild, Ti I, pls. 56, 57 {§y -ÏbA Ïn xnr}. 385 Fischer, JEA 66 (1980), p. 168. 386 This creates difficulty in interpreting the caption accompanying the Mirror Dance in the tomb of Mrrw-kA.Ï (see below Chapter 2:10).

381

Jones, D. An Index of Titles, Epithets and Phrases of the Old Kingdom (henceforth referred to as JT): JT 1106, JT 3587, and JT 2519: Altenmüller, Mehu, pl. 50 {MHw}; Myśliwiec, Rewelacyjne, fig. 42. {Mr.f-nb.f}; Edel, Akazienhaus, fig. 4 {PtH-Htp - xnr n SnDt}; EpronWild, Ti I, pls. 56, 57 {§y -ÏbA Ïn xnr}.

42

CHAPTER 1:3 TERMINOLOGY dancers.392 In the sample of the three dance depictions mentioned above, two show the dancers executing the Diamond Pose and the other shows the dancers performing Salute. These two styles are more frequently captioned with the term ÏbA, which does not appear in dance scenes until the mid Vth Dynasty, although uncertainty of dating may place some instances as early as V.3.393 A term for dance is not employed in the other dance scene featuring Salute from the tomb of _bH-n.Ï,394 which is in the context of a presentation scene, despite the term sqr395 [playing/strumming] captioning the harpists in the music scene in the register above.

exacerbating our understanding of these scenes. The Pair Dance scenes, in particular, have a number of poses which appear to have names for whatever they may symbolise, some of which have been translated but others of which the meaning remains evasive. Dance terms used to caption dance scenes There are numerous Old Kingdom terms used to describe dance including: HAt, ÏbA, xbt, Trf, rwÏ, Hab and associated activities such as xn(wt), Hst, mAHt and dxn. What follows is an analysis of individual terms which are not covered elsewhere in the body of the study.387 Dance captioned

Finding an English equivalent for the meaning of the word HAt, when used to caption dance scenes is difficult. The terms ‘lament’ and ‘dirge’ perhaps come the closest but they are really specific to song or music rather than being inclusive of dance, as the Egyptian term appears to be. English, it appears, is at a loss for an equivalent.

HAt

The earliest instance of a word for dance appears to be HAt, which is found in the caption above funerary dancers in the IVth Dynasty tomb of _bH-n.Ï, at Giza (Part II; Figure 1.1). The term also appears above dancers in the funerary processions in the tombs of ¡tp-¡r-Axty (Part II: Figure 1.21)388 and QAr (Part II: Figure 2.9). In the example from the tomb of _bH-n.Ï, it is clearly describing the action of the dancers below, the figures of whom form the only possibility for a determinative.389 Usage of the the term HAt continued into the New Kingdom appearing above funerary dancers in the tomb of Imn-mHAt.390

Dance captioned

ÏbA

ÏbA is the most common term for dance in the Old Kingdom. Unlike HAt this term is specific to dance (in scenes of music and dance). It is found in numerous dance scenes dating from the Vth Dynasty at Saqqara, Giza, Sheikh Said, Dahshur, Deir el-Gebrawi and elHawawish. The Diamond and Salute Poses being performed in many of these instances are the same as those in the scenes associated with the term HAt. The term ÏbA is also found in scenes featuring Layout and Pair Dance in the Old Kingdom and Pirouette in the Middle Kingdom. Despite being a more general term for dance, ÏbA appears rather than HAt as the term for dance in the funerary scene in the tomb of ¡tp-Hr-Axty. Both terms appear in the funerary scene in the tomb of QAr.

The use of the term HAt appears to be reserved exclusively for dance performed in funerary contexts. As HAt appears to be related to the stem HA, [to mourn], the word is appropriate to the funerary context in which it appears. The term HAt appears to be a collective term for funerary performance, including both music and dance. Gardiner suggests that HAt does not refer solely to dancers, since the performances described collectively by the word HAt are further defined by placing the terms ÏbA [dancer] beside the three dancers and mAH [rhythmist] beside the three rhythmists in the example from the tomb of QAr.391

), which often appears The phonetic character Ïb ( in the writing of ÏbA, depicts a playing piece, rather like a pawn, from the Egyptian board game ‘senet’. Perhaps the origin of ÏbA comes from the concept of ‘to make a move’ or ‘a play’. This would explain the broad application of this term in comparison to other Egyptian terms for dance. The use of ÏbA as a more general term for dance brings it closer in meaning to the English word ‘dance’.

Apart from the above examples, in many dance scenes (mostly from the Vth Dynasty) the rhythmists are clearly captioned with Hst but there is no caption for the

The verb ÏbA is in the weak IIIae (tertiae infirmae) class, but the last weak consonant is often omitted. The verb does not usually have a determinative, at least in the Old

387

Of these Trf is examined in Chapter 2: 5, The Pair Dance, The term dxn appears in one variation of the Salute genre Chapter 2: 2.c, rwÏ does not appear in dance scenes in the Old Kingdom but is associated with dances with batons and examined below in Chapter 2:3. The terms xnw(t) and ÏHAb, relate to musical performance and are examined above in Chapter 1:2, Performers, their Institutions and Titles. 388 Vandier (Manuel IV, p. 422) specifies that this is the statue procession, which in the Old Kingdom was a part of the funerary procession (Dominicus, Gesten und Gebärden, p. 65). 389 Dance does not always have a determinative as such in the Old Kingdom, but is usually placed in front of a picture of a dancer, the picture thus acting as an enlarged determinative. 390 Gardiner-Davies, Amenemhet, pl. 24. 391 Gardiner, JEA, 41 (1955), pp. 10-11.

392

Iy-mry, G.6020, KA.Ï-swDA, KA.Ï-m-anx (example a), NÏ-kAw-Hr, Nfr, ¤xm-kA-Ra, KA-KA.Ï-anx, KA.Ï-dwA, The caption in the tomb of PtH-Htp (21) has xnrt n SnDt for the dancers, and neither rhythmists nor dancers are captioned in the Wr-Ïr-n.Ï scene. 393 As in the tomb of Iy y-mry, dated to V.6 in this study but as early as V.3 by Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 227. 394 Hassan, Giza IV, fig. 119. 395 Usually sqr n bnt [strumming or plucking (lit. striking/beating) the harp].

43

CHAPTER 1:3 TERMINOLOGY Kingdom, but the title ÏbAt 396 [dancer] and the noun ÏbA [dance] sometimes have the springing man determinative (Gardiner A32) and sometimes the stick-wielding figure

of Iy-mry (shown in full below) and #ww-wr ). In the tomb of Iy-mry, the Pair Dance ( scene, performed by men, is qualified by the genrespecific term ÏTt followed by the more general dance term ÏbA.

.

(Gardiner A59)

The complete spelling for the word ÏbA [dance] is 397

but the aleph is commonly dropped making

ÏTt ÏbA xt nb(t) nfrt n rx nswt ÏmÏ-r pr Hwt- aAt Iy-mry m Hb nb Dt, which has been translated as; ‘Presenting the dance and every good thing for the acquaintance of the king, Overseer of the house and the Administrative District, Iy-mry, at every festival eternally’.404

the most prevalent spelling and this is the form appearing in the bulk of captioned dance scenes.398 An ) appears in the tomb of IsÏ at Deir abbreviated form ( el-Gebrawi.399 Occasionally a more complex spelling occurs, such as that observed in the letter from Pepi II to ¡r-xw.f where the plural form appears as:

Determinatives are more common in text occurring without a qualifying dance scene as observed in Pyramid Text Utterance 1947:

400

by three

. Other plural forms appear, indicated signs, usually as part of a phrase, as in the

tombs of Idw, and Nfr (

ÏbA n.k wrSw405 [the wrSw (watchers) dance for you].

). The feminine plural

form of ÏbA, which appears to be a title ( ) ÏbAwt [dancers]401 occurs only in the scene from the tomb of

Dance captioned xbt (xbÏ)

ÏbAwy appears in the tombs Nw-nTr. The dual form of KA.Ï-m-anx and Wr-Ïr-n.Ï, in which two distinctly different dance genres are being performed, but this may be due to damage rather than an intentional employment of the dual.

The dance term xbÏ occasionally occurs in Old Kingdom dance scenes but it is not used as frequently as ÏbA. In the Old Kingdom it appears to be specific to scenes with male dancers performing genres including the Boys’ Game, Pair Dance and Layout.

When embedded before a dancer in dance scenes, the dancer following the word ÏbA acts as the determinative for the word. In cases where the term ÏbA is used in this manner it is qualified by the figure of a female dancer. That is, there are no cases where the title ÏbA is placed before a male dancer in the Old Kingdom, but the title occurs in the title lists of two Old Kingdom males (MM F4, MM B11). Interestingly, the only Old Kingdom

Boys’ Game

xbt Ïn SdXt [dance by the SdXt youths] 406 Pair Dance and Kick xbt Ïn xnr(w)t Sma Ïn Smaw n Dt [Dancing by the chorus and clapping by the rhythmists for eternity/ of the funerary estate].407

(ÏbAt [dancer]) written fully with example of the title the feminine ending occurs in the tomb of Qd-ns.402 The earliest instance of the use of ÏbA in a scene featuring male dancers, where it could be taken as a title, appears in the Middle Kingdom at Beni Hassan.403

The terms ÏbA and xb both appear in the caption above the scene in the tomb of ©aw at Deir el-Gebrawi, which depicts both male and female dancers performing the Pair Dance and what could be a variation of the Layout, which is more typically qualified by the term ÏbA.

Rare incidences of a determinative appearing with the word ÏbA, in dance scenes, appear in phrases in the tombs 396

Found only in the tomb of qd-ns at Saqqara, MM E10. As it appears in the dance scene in the tomb of: KA.Ï-m-anx (fig. 9),V.8L, Giza. 398 This spelling appears in the tombs of Nn-xft-kA, V.6, NÏ-anx-£nmw and £nmw-Htp, V.6-7, Nfr-Ïrt-nf V.6-8, Axty-Htp, V.8-9, §y, V.8-9, WrÏr-n-PtH, V.8, PtH-Htp: IÏ-n-anx, V.9-VI.1, Mrrw-kA.Ï, VI.1, Mr.f-nb.f, VI.2.(incomplete) at Saqqara, KA.Ï-dwA, V.8, ¤Sm-nfr II, V.6, QAr, VI.24 at Giza. 399 Davies, Deir el-Gebrâwi II, pl. 17, 400 Given the context, relating to the dancing dwarf, the phonetic use of the BA bird may have been used to embellish the word with a double intendre relating to the divine dance performed by dwarves on the king’s behalf. 401 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 76. 402 MM E10 403 In the tomb of BA-qt, (Newberry, Beni Hasan II, pl. 7). 397

404

It is translated as: Taking (or performing) the dance of every good thing (or occasion, act) for the Acquaintance of the King, Overseer of the Administrative District, Iymery, at every festival, forever and by Janssen as: Bringing the dances (dancers) and every good thing to the King’s Acquaintance, Overseer of the Palace, Iy-mery, in the festival of eternity– both cited in Weeks, Cemetery G.6000, p. 44. 405 Pyramid Text 1947 quoted also by Vandier, Manuel IV, p. 405. Hieroglyph is from Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 30. 406 BME 994,VI.E (James, Hieroglyphic Texts I, pl. 25). 407 The terms Sma and Smaw are translated by Davies (Deir el-Gebrâwi II, p. 21) as ‘singing by the singers’ and could also be translated ‘music by the musicians.’ However, since only clapping is depicted, the words ‘clapping by rhythmists’ have been employed in this instance. Transcript, Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 30.

44

CHAPTER 1:3 TERMINOLOGY in a manner similar to that observed in modern performances by Egyptian singers, who prefer not to create vibrato with the vocal chords. An unusual instance of Hst, referring to clapping or rhythmists, occurs in a scene in which rhythmists are clapping an accompaniment to a sledge being dragged, in the tomb of #ntÏ-kA.Ï.412 The gender of the rhythmists is not apparent as only the hands and the lower half of their bodies remain.

Diamond, Pair and Layout The terms ÏbA and xb both also appear in the caption above the dance scene in the tomb of £nÏ: SpsÏ-pw-Mnw at el-Hawawish (H24). Hst xb n ÏbA Ïn xnr n pr Dt .f (?)...[Dancing music for the dance by the chorus of his estate] In the Watt-Xt-Hr Chapel from the mastaba of Mrrw-kA,Ï, the caption describes female dancers. Brunner-Traut takes the determinative and the ‘t’ ending to indicate the word xbt.408 The Pair Dance scene has the term ÏTt, which often accompanies examples of Pair Dance, but the term Trf is omitted. The terms ÏTt and Trf are examined in Chapter II: 5, Pair Dance.

The word Hst also appears in orchestral scenes above instrumentalists in phrases such as Hst n bnt413 and Hst n mAt.414 The most likely interpretations of these phrases are ‘singing to the harp’, and ‘singing to the flute/oboe’, in which case there is usually a singer facing or close to the instrumentalist. However, Hst also occurs in phrases such as Hst m bnt,415 in which case the preposition m appears to indicate the meaning ‘playing an instrument’.

mk swt sStA n [Behold, the secret of dancing]

Two more common phrases used to caption instrumentalists are sqr m bnt416 and sb m mAt.417 The accompanying illustrations establish that these are clearly intended to mean respectively ‘playing’ (or perhaps more specifically ‘striking or strumming) the harp and playing the flute’. The preposition m is typically used when these alternative words for ‘playing’ are used. This suggests that the juxtaposition of the preposition m after the infinitive Hst may refer to ‘playing an instrument’. The preposition n after the word Hst, suggests that Hst n is more likely to mean ‘singing to’ the instrument as shown in the following example.

xbt

Terms relating to accompaniment in dance scenes The terms Hst and mAHt and the differentiation of musical vocations The titles Hs(wt) and mAHt refer to musicians and are particularly difficult to differentiate, firstly because of ambiguity in the interpretation of the term Hst, which appears to indicate more than one vocation and secondly, because both terms appear as the title for the rhythmists accompanying dancers in dance scenes. Added to this is the question as to whether the final t indicates the feminine form of a title or an infinitive. Montet’s interpretation of the two terms409 has been widely accepted and there has been little debate since. Yet, a closer examination reveals flaws in his argument that the two terms reflect chronological developments in usage.

In the tomb of #w-ns at Zawyet el-Amwat, the phrase sqr m bnt [strumming the harp] appears in front of a harpist, whereas the phrase Hst n bnt is placed in front of the singer. In this example, the preposition m, placed after the infinitive sqr, indicates the meaning ‘playing the harp’. The preposition n placed after the infinitive Hst, in the phrase Hst n bnt, appearing in front of a singer in the same scene, suggests the meaning ‘singing to the harp’. This example demonstrates that in this context, the juxtaposition of the preposition m after an infinitive indicates playing an instrument, whereas the preposition n, placed after the infinitive Hst, indicates singing to the instrument. It may follow that the use of the preposition m after the infinitive Hst could also indicate playing.

Hst In many dance scenes, the title Hst designates rhythmists who clap the beat for the dancers of the xnr (or SnDt). However, in orchestral scenes, the term often appears above performers, many of whom are cupping one hand over the ear, or beside the mouth, suggesting that they are singing.410 Some of these singers also appear to keep time by waving one hand in the air, in a manner similar to that of modern-day conductors, or by clicking the fingers or beating one hand against the knee.411 Others appear to hold the hand in front of the mouth, presumably to create vibrato by waving the hand across the passage of sound,

There are, however, deviations to this pattern. In the tomb of Axy-Htp at Saqqara, the phrase Hst m sb appears above a wind player and a singer. This phrase is split, with the word Hst oriented towards the singer and the phrase m sb oriented towards the flute player. This orientation of 412

James, Ikhekhi, pl. 28. Nfr-msDr-#wfw, #w-ns. 414 KA.Ï-swDA. Hst n sb: NÏ-anx-£nmw. 415 NÏ-kAw-Hr. 416 Iy-mry, ¤Sm-nfr II, Spss-kA.f-anx. 417 Nfr-Ïrt-n.f, KA.Ï-m-anx (example b), NÏ-anx-£nmw.

408

Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 86, n. 1. Montet, P., Scènes de la vie privée dans les tombeaux égyptiens de l'Ancien Empire (Paris, Strasbourg, 1925) (cited subsequently as Montet, Scènes), p. 360. 410 Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-55), pp. 76-77. 411 ibid. p. 77.

413

409

45

CHAPTER 1:3 TERMINOLOGY Therefore, rather than offering a consistent translation for the term Hst, the words ‘singing (singer)’, ‘clapping (rhythmist)’ or ‘playing an instrument (instrumentalist)’ are employed instead in cases where the specific meaning is clear. Consequently, the interpretation of the word Hsw/Hst appears to mean either ‘singer’ or ‘rhythmist’, in the preceding list of titles. depending on the context.

words suggests the meaning ‘singing to the flute’, however, the use of the preposition m is most unusual for this interpretation. While it could be translated as ‘singing with the flute’, as suggested by the orientation of the words, it could also mean ‘playing the flute’. The phrase Hst m bnt occurs in the tomb of £nÏ above two female harpists. Since a harpist can sing while playing the harp, Hst in this caption could also be taken to mean ‘singing’. However, the preposition m and the activity in the illustration indicate that it is more likely that the phrase means ‘playing the harp’. Perhaps the most ambiguous usage of Hst in orchestral scenes occurs at el-Hawawish in the tomb of KA.Ï-Hp, in which Hst appears as a caption above each of two female harpists. Here Hst could refer not only to playing the instrument or singing, but could also be interpreted as the female title or designation of ‘musician’.

While identification of the vocation implied by the term Hst is relatively straightforward in pictorial contexts, through the illustration itself, in titles alone the differentiation in meanings is sometimes unclear. This presents the problem of inconsistency in the translation of titles, and the likelihood that the term had a meaning commonly understood by Egyptians in relation to a number of music-based vocations. While the title Hst has an equivalent in the English designation ‘musician’, which covers the vocations of rhythmist, singer, instrumentalist and even conductor, finding a verb that conveys the exact English meaning is more difficult.

In some cases neither preposition is used. The phrase sqr bnt occurs in the tombs of §y and Axy-Htp, and the phrase sb mAt occurs in the tomb of Nfr. These phrases would appear to mean ‘playing harp’ and ‘playing flute’ respectively. Similarly, the phrase Hst sqr appears in the tombs of Idw (above a female harpist) and NÏ-mAat-Ra (above a male harpist), both of which are found at Giza. This phrase appears to refer primarily to playing, since there is no singer present, unless it is simply listing the two actions of singing and playing, both of which could be performed by the harpist.

While the specific vocation designated by the word Hst in scenes is clarified pictorially, it is still difficult to differentiate between singing and clapping where it is not clearly defined by an accompanying picture or elaborated in text. This is a particular problem in the interpretation of titles. However, an examination of orchestral and dance scenes reveals trends, suggesting a pattern of usage which may help identify specific vocations in titles where there is no picture or text to qualify them. In scenes of dance, Hst is employed as the designation for the rhythmists who accompany the dancers. Whilst it may be argued that the referents may also be singers, there are apparently no examples indicating vocalisation in this context. If the designation were meant to imply the vocation of singer, one would expect to find pictorial indications such as: (1) the mouth open (although this is not a convention followed in Egyptian art even in orchestral scenes, where a singer is clearly indicated), (2) captions containing the words of the song or chant being vocalised (the hymn above the performers in the tomb of KA-gm-n.Ï suggests that these rhythmists, who are clearly depicted clapping, may be vocalising. However, in this instance, neither of the terms Hst nor xnr are employed), (3) a display of hand gestures, such as cupping the ear or the mouth, or holding the hand in front of the mouth, identified as distinguishing singers419 (which would preclude indication of the gesture of clapping).

From an examination of the occurrence of the term Hst in music and dance scenes, it appears that it can carry the following meanings: ‘clapping hands rhythmically’, ‘singing’, ‘singing in conjunction with chironomy’ (conducting), ‘keeping the beat by clicking fingers’ (in some cases whilst slapping the knee) and ‘playing an instrument’. All of these activities are involved in the production of musical (pleasing) sound. Therefore, it can be established that there is a meaning in common for all of these applications of the term Hst. The infinitive Hst appears to be derived from the verb HsÏ [to please], in this case through the production of sound. While a close Arabic equivalent can be found in the term Tarab, which describes entertainment through the production of pleasing sound,418 the closest English equivalent is ‘sounding’ or perhaps, ‘making music’. In the alternative interpretations listed above, the meaning of the infinitive Hst can be consistently translated as: ‘sounding the hands – clapping’, ‘sounding the voice – singing’, or ‘sounding the flute/harp – playing the flute/harp’, depending on the context.

In the context of clapping rhythmic accompaniment in dance scenes, the following four patterns emerged. Firstly, all rhythmists who are titled or captioned with Hst in dance scenes are female. However, the only example which designates the activity of male clappers is in the tomb of ©aw, where the term SmAyt is employed in the

However, neither the English ‘sounding’ nor the Arabic Tarab alleviate the confusion as to whether Hst refers to singing, playing an instrument or clapping rhythms. 418

A House of Tarab is a venue rather like a café, but for listening to musical (aural) performance.

419

46

Hickmann, BIE 37, (1954-55), p. 77.

CHAPTER 1:3 TERMINOLOGY caption accompanying a scene featuring males who are clearly clapping rhythms.

captioned Hst, the following patterns are apparent: (1) All singers captioned with Hst in the orchestral scenes viewed are male.434 (Since all of the singers captioned Hst are male, the final t indicates that, in this context, Hst must be the infinitive). (2) None of these performers are further defined as belonging to the xnr, (3) In orchestral scenes Hst more often appears above singers than in front of them. (4) All of the performers captioned with Hst are seated. In orchestral scenes, the infinitive Hst may be employed to describe the playing of various instruments such as flute435 and harp.436 In all cases examined, this is further clarified by the accompanying picture of the musician and the name of the instrument being played, leaving no doubt as to the meaning.

Secondly, in most cases the rhythmists (and less frequently the dancers) are further defined as xnrwt, or belonging to another performance institution, such as the SnDt. This information usually occurs in a caption above the scene, perhaps clarifying that these are Hswt [rhythmists] from the xnr, and therefore not to be confused with Hswt [singers]. This is evident in the following captions above scenes in which Hst is visually defined by clapping: Hst Ïn xnr420 [clapping by the xnr performers], Hst n ÏbAw n xnr421 [clapping for dancers by the chorus], Hst Ïn xnr ÏbAw [clapping by the chorus of (ie. belonging to) the dancers],422 Hst Ïn xnr n Ï[bA]423 [clapping by the chorus for dance], and Hst mAH (Ï)n xnr424 [singing and clapping by/singers and clappers of the chorus] or as SnDwt [members of the Acacia House], as in Hst Ïn SnDt 425 [Clapping by/rhythmists of the Acacia House] and Hst Ïn ([xnr] nt) SnDt426 [clapping by the chorus of the Acacia House]. By contrast, there appear to be only two scenes in which captions specifically qualify dancers (ie. without also mentioning Hst) as part of the xnr,427 perhaps because the word ÏbA is not ambiguous and the accompanying scene makes the vocation obvious.

In the captions above, musicians playing instruments in orchestral scenes, the following patterns emerged: (1) Not all musicians captioned with Hst or with phrases including the word Hst are male. (Examples of female musicians with this caption include the harpists in the tombs of Idw and MHw.) (2) The performer is not further defined as belonging to the xnr. (3) Since many of the musicians captioned Hst are male, the final t indicates that Hst in this context appears to be the infinitive rather than a title.437 (4) The term Hst often appears in phrases which could be interpreted as ‘singing to the harp’ or ‘playing the harp’, according to whether it is possible to play particular instruments and sing simultaneously and whether the prepositions m or n are used.

Thirdly, rhythmists also appear in the context of the xnr by association with dancers who have titles such as xnr(t) n(t) SnDt 428 [female chorister of the Acacia House], xnrt429 [female chorister], Ïmyt-r xnr430 [overseer of the chorus], and sHDt nt xnr [supervisor of the chorus].431

The following conclusions can be drawn from these patterns: (1) Gender differentiation in vocations is apparent since all rhythmists titled or captioned with Hst in dance scenes are female and all singers not playing instruments in orchestral scenes are male. The harp is the only instrument played by women in the cases examined. (2) Gender differentiation in vocations is even more apparent when context is considered. Only female rhythmists in dance scenes are captioned with Hst and in most cases are attached to the xnr. Male rhythmists occur in dance scenes in the tombs of Iy-mry, NÏ-anx-£nmw and Mrrw-kA.Ï, in which case they are not captioned, and in the tomb of ©aw, in which the caption uses the term Sma rather than Hst.438 The male rhythmists in the tomb of ©aw appear to belong to the xnr.

Fourthly, the term Hst appears either as a title, in which case it is usually placed in front of rhythmists in dance scenes, or in captions above performers, where it is employed as the infinitive in phrases describing the activity in the scene. In table 3:1 the incidence of Hst in different contexts is listed with the gender of the performers in each instance in the following column. In the context of orchestral scenes,432 where singers433 or chironomist-singers are 420

Epron-Wild, Ti I, pl. 57. Junker, Giza VI, fig. 13 (Nfr), Kanawati, Giza I, pl. 35. (KA.Ï-m-anx). 422 KA.Ï-dwA, KA-kA.Ï-anx (the latter of which has ÏbAwy (two dances), (This instance of the dual form may be the result of damage but could be a reference to the two genres depicted.) 423 LD II, 52; Hassan, Giza VI, Pt. III, fig. 83 (KA.Ï-dwA). 424 Hassan, Saqqara I, fig. 3 {Nb-kAw-Hr}. 425 Edel, Akazienhaus, fig. 1 (_b-H-n..Ï -Hst Ïn SnDt). 426 LD II, 35 (_bH-n.Ï). 427 Epron-Wild, Ti I, pl. 57 (§y); de Morgan, Dahchour, pl. 25 (¤nfrwÏn-ISt.f). 428 Edel, Akazienhause, fig. 4. 429 Altenmüller, Mehu, pl. 50, {MHw} 430 ibid. 431 ibid. 432 Since this is a study of dance, the orchestral scenes examined are those that occur near dance scenes or have been collected during the compilation of the list of performers’ titles. 421

433

The vocation of singing is defined visually by the hand gestures of the performer. 434 Roth, Palace Attendants, fig. 140 (RwD); ibid. fig. 187 (NÏ-mAat-Ra); ibid. fig. 205 (Nfr-msDr-#wfw). 435 Hst n sb, sb n mAt both appear in the tomb of NÏ-anx-£nmw. 436 Hst sqr appears in the tombs of NÏ-maAt-Ra and Idw. 437 This could be taken as the female title in the tomb of KA.Ï-Hp: §tÏ-Ïqr because the musicians are female. 438 A caption also appears in front of the male rhythmists in the tomb of IbÏ, but the detail is lost.

47

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Table 3:1439

Tomb owner date rhythmist sex singer sex _bH-n.Ï IV.5 Hst? F ¤xm-Ht-Hr440 V.1 Hst M Nn-xft-kA V.6 Hst F Hst n M Iy-mry V.6 Hst F Hst M ¤Sm-nfr II V.6 Hst F Hst M Nfr-Ïrt-n.f V.6 Hst F Hs(?) M NÏ-anx-£nmw V.6-7 Hst F Hst n M ¥pss-kA.f-anx V.6-8 Hst F Hst M KA.Ï-_wA V.8 Hst F Hst n M NÏ-kAw-Hr V.6-9 Hst F Hst n M Wr-Ïr-n-PtH V.7-9 Hst F Hst M §y V.8-9 Hst F Hst M Axy-Htp V.8-9 Hst F Hst M Wr-Ïr-n.Ï V.8-9 Hst M ¤rf-kA V.L Hst M? ¤Sm-nfr III V.8 Hst F Chicago fragment V.8 Hst F Ra-Spss V.8 Hst F Hst M KA.Ï-m-anx V.8 Hst F Hst M scene b Hst F Hst n M KA-KA.Ï-anx V.8 Hst F V.8 IbÏ441 IntÏ V.8-9 Hst F Hst M #w-ns V.8-9 Hst n M Nfr-msDr-#wfw442 V.9? [Hs]t n M Nw-nTr V.L Hswt F PtH-Htp (21) LD 31 around V.9 Hst F Hst M Nb-kAw-¡r V.L-VII mAHt&Hst F NÏ-mAat-Ra V.9-VI.1 Hst F Hst M Nfr (37) G4761 V.9-VI.I Hst F Hst M ¤nfrw-Ïn-ISt.f V.L-VI.E mAH F Hst M KA.Ï-m-nfrt (71) V.L-VI.1 Hst F KA.Ï-swDA V.L-VI.E Hst F Hst n M ¡m-mnw VI.IE Hst F Watt-Xt-¡r VI.1 mAH(A)t F Mrrw-kA.Ï VI.I mAH(A)t F KA-gm-n.Ï VI.I Hst F Hst M anx-m-a-¡r VI.1 Hst F MHw VI.2 QAr VI.2-4 mAH F Idw VI.2-4E mAHt F mAHt M KA.Ï-Hp:§tÏ-Ïqr VI.4M Hst F (caption above all performers including 2 male dancers, female harpists) £nÏ:¥psÏ-pw-Mnw VI.4L Hst F (caption above all performers including 2 male dancers, female and male harpists)

439

musician

sqr bnt sb mmt M sqr m bnt sqr m bnt sqr m bnt Hst M sqr m bnt sqr m bnt Hst m sb sqr bnt sqr bnt sAb m mAt

441

48

M

sqr m bnt sqr m bnt bnt sqr m bnt Hst m

bnwt

M

sqr m bnt

Hst sqr sqr bnt

M

Hst (?)

F

Hst sqr

F

Hst

F

Only the references for tombs not already listed in the titles list (Chapter 2:1) or the Conspectus (Appendix B) are given here. A.M.I., BMMA (1953), fig. 3. Davies, Gebrâwi I, pl. 28. 442 Roth, Palace Attendants, pl. 125. 440

sex

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM [singer of the Great House], Ïmy-r Hsww pr-aA448 [overseer of the singers of the Great House] and Ïmy-r Hst449 [overseer of singers]. In these cases, the title appears in a list of titles belonging to a tomb owner without pictorial clarification, making it difficult to determine whether the titleholder is overseeing rhythmists or singers.

In orchestral scenes, singers captioned with Hst are male, the only possible exception being in the case of female harpists who may also be singing. Therefore the final t must indicate the infinitive form rather than a title. (3) Since a number of female musicians in orchestral scenes are captioned with Hst, there does not appear to be a gender differentiation in the use of the term to designate the vocation of instrumentalists. (4) In the context of illustrations of the xnr performing, Hst always refers to rhythmists, although it cannot be established conclusively that they are not also singers. Therefore, when Hst designates members of the xnr, the term is more likely to indicate clapping since this is the case in all illustrated examples. (5) Outside the xnr, Hst more often refers to singing (with or without chironomy) or the playing of named instruments. (6) Since the term Hst in orchestral scenes often relates to male performers, it appears that the final t indicates the infinitive rather than a title. (7) Whether a pattern emerges with the institution of the prDt is difficult to determine. The title Hs(w) n pr-Dt443 (male singer(s) of the funerary estate) appears above male singers in the orchestral scene in the tomb of §y, whereas in the dance scene from the same tomb, Hst Ïn xnr [clapping by the xnr performers] is the caption used for the rhythmist.

It is also apparent from pictures and text that many such titleholders, who can be identified as singers, were attached to the court. Examination of the titles of the Hsw(w), who can be identified as singers with some certainty, suggests that in the context of the court, Hs(w/t) typically refers specifically to singers and singing, whereas in the context of the xnr, Hst appears always to refer to rhythmists and clapping. There were instances, however, in which xnrw were attached to the court, making this pattern of vocational distinction difficult. The gender of the titleholder may be another factor influencing the interpretation of Hst in these titles. Since the title Ïmy(t)-r Hs(w)t 450 [overseer of rhythmists] is held by ¡m(t)-Ra, a woman, and since Hswt has the final t, this suggests that Hswt in this instance, refers to females. The plural w negates the possibility that in this case it can indicate an infinitive. Considering the majority of women were rhythmists, it may follow that this title should be translated as ‘overseer of rhythmists’. While it may appear more likely that males holding the title Hsw were singers, in the case of overseers, the gender of the Hswt they are overseeing may give greater insight into the vocation in question. In the Middle Kingdom tomb of #sw the elder at Kom el-Hisn, his title sbA Hsww [instructor of singers or rhythmists] appears in a scene depicting #sw instructing numerous female sistrum players. Since #sw also held the titles of Ïmy-r nfrwt [overseer of novices] (nfrwt are usually attached to either the xnr or the SnDt), and Ïmy-r xnrwt nfrwt (overseer of novices of the xnr), it is logical to assume the women pictured belonged to the xnr. The picture makes it clear that they are engaged in learning to clap and play rhythms with the sistrum. In this instance, therefore, sbA Hsww appears to mean ‘instructor of rhythmists’ rather than ‘instructor of singers’, since despite ¡sw being male, the Hswt he oversaw were female, members of the xnr, and depicted as rhythmists.

A similar pattern emerges when examining titles where textual elaboration helps to differentiate between the vocations of singing and clapping. In titles occurring outside the contexts of the xnr or dance scenes, the title Hsw appears to distinguish the vocation of singer, as in the titles: Hsw nb pr-aA (nb ÏmAx xr nb.f)444 [singer (and possessor of reverence with) his lord of the Great House], Hs(w) n xft-Hr nswt 445 [royal singer in the presence, king’s personal singer], Hs(w) sxmx-[Ïb (n) nb.f?]446 [singer who delights [the heart of his lord]. Although many of these titles are not clarified pictorially, title elaboration indicates they are much more likely to refer to a gifted singer than a rhythmist or chironomist, and the patterns identified above have indicated that males are more likely to be singers. Since all the titleholders with known identities in this group are male, the term Hs(w) in these titles has been interpreted as ‘singer’ and Hst as ‘singing’. Some areas where the context is textual rather than pictorial are rather grey, such as the titles; Hs(w) pr-aA447

Berlin 16282; Ziegler, CG, p. 261(47) (KA-n-Ït.f in tomb of ¦p-m-anx); Roth, Palace Attendants, fig. 161b (NTr-nfr in tomb of KA-mrr-nbty); MM C15, p. 138 (¡mt-Ra); Davies, Ptahhotep II, pl. 24 (¡sÏ-Axty); Reisner, Giza I, pl. 66b (anx-#wfw) G4520; PM III, p. 761 (Mr-nTrnswt). 448 JT 686, e.g.: PM III, N563; MM E6 (Nfr-¤nfrw I -Ïmy-r Hswt (n nswt) is implied); MM E7 (Nfr-¤nfrw II); Reisner, Giza I, pl. 65b (#wfw-anx) –male determinatives for Hsw; LD II, 59b, G6030 (ITÏ); Hassan, Giza II, fig. 226 (Nfr.s-rs). 449 JT 688, e.g.: LD II, 59a, b (ITÏ); Junker, Giza, VII, pp. 34(2.1), 37 (Nfr-¤nfrw, Saqqara)= MM E6, p. 395 (Nfr-¤nfrw); Hassan, Giza II, p. 211 (1), fig. 232, (NÏ-mAat-Ra). 450 JT 1105, e.g.: PM III, N439; MM, C15, p. 138-9 (¡m(t)-Ra) -Dyn. V, Saqqara.

443

JT 2423, Epron-Wild, Ti I, pls. 56, 57 (§y –Hst Ïn Hsw n pr-Dt}. JT 2422, e.g.: MM C22, p. 154 (Mry-Ra-PtH). 445 JT 2424, e.g.: Kaplony, MIO 14 (1968), p. 202, no. 6 (p. l9, fig. 16) (offering basin Louvre D48=E5609 (NÏ-mAat-Ra –who also held the title Hm-nTr ¡wt-¡r); Kaplony, Rollsiegel II, p. 320 (NÏ-kAw-Ra). 446 JT 2425, e.g. Verner, Abusir III, p. 129, n. 27 (13/A/85g and probably 13/A/85n – fragments from a sealing). 447 JT 2421, PM III, N814, e.g.: Hassan, Giza II, pp. 212(1), 214, fig. 232 (NÏ-mAat-Ra and his son apr.f-PtH –in tomb of NÏ-mAat-Ra); MM E6, p. 395=Junker, Giza VII, pp. 34(2, 1-3), 37 (Nfr-¤nfrw) and (#w-n-nw, ¤Sm-nfr –in tomb of Nfr-¤nfrw); ibid. IX, p. 237, fig. 107 (¡tp-£nmt); CG 1755 (WHmw); Kaplony, Rollsiegel II, p. 319, pl. 87(12) (¥sp-Ïb-Ra) 444

49

CHAPTER 1:3 TERMINOLOGY From the patterns that have emerged in the preceding examination of the term Hst, the possible interpretations of ‘rhythmist’, or ‘singer’ are used according to which is more likely, in the context presented. Where there is no accompanying suggestion, either pictorial or through elaboration such as ‘who delights the heart’, the following rule is adopted. It is assumed that the term Hst refers to rhythmists where the performers are female and in the context of the xnr, and that the term Hst refers to singers where the performers are male and the context is not defined as belonging to the xnr. In orchestral scenes, which may appear in close proximity to, but not as part of the xnr, Hsw is interpreted as the title ‘singer’, and Hst is interpreted as the infinitive ‘singing’, if referring to a singer, and ‘playing’ if it is directly associated with an instrumentalist.

Terms related to dance in wall scenes The term HAt only appears in funerary contexts and is associated with the unison dances Diamond and Salute. It appears in only five Old Kingdom dance scenes, two of which454 may represent mourning rather than dance. The most common term for dance is ÏbA, it first appears in dance scenes in the Vth Dynasty and is geographically the most widespread dance term. The term is mostly associated with unison dances such as Diamond, Salute and Layout, but there are two isolated instances of it used to caption Pair Dance and Swastika Pose. The term ÏbA appears in both funerary contexts and presentation scenes. The term xbt does not appear in many Old Kingdom dance scenes. It is associated with Boys’ Game, scenes with mixed genres, particularly Pair and Kick or Layout and appears with scenes in which male dancers are performing.

451

According to Montet, the term mAHt was introduced towards the end of the Vth Dynasty to distinguish the vocation of rhythmist in dance scenes, allowing the term Hs(wt) to become more exclusively the term specific to singers, thus alleviating the ambiguity of the term Hst. To illustrate this point, occurrences of the two terms are listed in chronological order in table 2:1, which details the occurrences of the words Hst, and mAHt in dance and orchestral scenes and the gender of the performers being captioned. The term mAHt does appear in front of rhythmists at the end of the Vth Dynasty (occurring in the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr, which appears to have been decorated late in the Vth Dynasty), but the employment of the term Hst referring to rhythmists and clapping, continues well into the VIth Dynasty. This suggests that in some instances mAHt is not sufficiently differentiated in meaning from Hst to support Montet’s argument. In numerous examples, some of which are dated late Vth Dynasty and one of which is clearly VIth Dynasty, Hst is used for both ‘rhythmist’ and ‘chironomist (?)-singer’ in presentation scenes.452

The phrase mk Trf ÏTt… [behold the movement of fetching/presenting…] is exclusive to the Pair Dance genre and is examined in more detail in Chapter 2:5. An abbreviated version of this formula appears in the WattXt-Hr Chapel, accompanying the Pair Dance scene performed by female dancers. The term Trf appears only in Pair Dance scenes performed by male dancers. While the dance term rwÏ occurs in the Pyramid Texts,455 it does not appear in any dance scenes in the Old Kingdom. The term HAt appears in captions accompanying dance scenes from the mid IVth Dynasty, whereas the more common dance term ÏbA does not appear in captions accompanying dance scenes until the mid Vth Dynasty. The term ÏbA appears either as an isolated word in front of dancers in which case it may be interpreted as a title or in more complex captions appearing above the scene in which it is interpreted as an infinitive. The term xbt appears from the early VIth Dynasty and occurs in only a sprinkling of Old Kingdom dance scenes. The phrase mk Trf ÏTt... [behold the movement of fetching/presenting…] appears in dance scenes from the mid Vth Dynasty.

The term mAHt appears in six tombs and does not follow the suggested trend in two of them. Both terms Hst and mAHt are used to describe rhythmists or musicians in the tomb of Nb-kAw-¡r. The term mAHt is used to designate both the rhythmists in the dance scene and a performer, who appears to be a singer but could also be a chironomist,453 in the tomb of Idw. Perhaps there are too few instances of the term mAHt to draw conclusions. While it cannot be denied that mAHt more commonly refers to rhythmists, the evidence for this is not conclusive and the interpretation of these two terms may be clarified more by context than choice of term.

Most dance scenes occur at Memphite sites and consequently most captions are also located there. The term HAt occurs at Giza, Saqqara and Meir although, as has been noted previously, the Meir scenes conform more to scenes of mourning than dance. Most examples of the term ÏbA, in scenes of dance, occur at the Memphite sites but there are isolated instances at Sheikh Said, Deir elGebrawi, el-Hawawish and an example with unknown provenance which is probably Memphite in origin. The formula mk Trf ÏTt... is endemic to Memphite sites.

451

Montet, Scènes, p. 360. ¥pss-kA.f-anx ; Iy-mry V.6; NÏ-anx-£nmw V.6-7; KA.Ï-_wA V.8; AxtyHtp V.8-9; Nfr, G4761 V.9-VI.I; KA.Ï-swDA V.L-VI.1; £nÏ: ¥psÏ-pwMnw, VI.4L. 453 This would suggest that mAHt may mean beat keeper and this would explain the usage for both rhythmists and conductors. 452

454

Both from the tomb of PpÏ-anx: ¡nÏ-km at Meir. As a dance term rwÏ appears in Pyramid Texts 863, 884 and for handclapping in Pyramid Text 2014.

455

50

CHAPTER 1:3 TERMINOLOGY does not appear until the late Vth Dynasty and appears in almost as many dance scenes as the term Hst in the VIth Dynasty. The term dxn appears only in Vth Dynasty scenes at Abusir.

Terms related to Accompaniment in dance scenes The term most commonly employed as a caption for the rhythmists who clap the accompaniment for dancers is Hst. Male rhythmists depicted accompanying male dancers do not appear to have been captioned with Hst, although the term is commonly employed as a caption for male musicians in orchestral scenes. While the word Hst [rhythmist/clapping] appears predominantly with examples of the Diamond Pose, examples also appear with Salute, Swastika, Layout and in scenes with mixed genres. The term does not appear with tableau dance scenes, probably because they are more like pantomime than dance and do not appear to have been accompanied (The Mirror Dance may have been an example of selfaccompaniment, in which the dancers create a beat by engaging with their partners’ batons).

The terms ÏbA and Hst often appear together and are concentrated at Memphite sites. The term Hst is particularly prevalent at Giza. Isolated examples also appear at Deshasha and one example of unknown provenance is probably also Memphite in origin. The term mAHt is found only at Giza, Saqqara, Dahshur and Meir (closely following the distribution of HAt). The term (d)xn appears only in dance scenes from the solar temples at Abusir. The tem Smay(t) only appears at the provincial sites of Deir el-Gebrawi and el-Hawawish Names of Performance Institutions

As observed above, the term mAHt was introduced in the late Vth or early VIth Dynasties and appears in only six dance scenes, including examples from the Diamond, Salute, and Layout genres and with a Pair Dance performed by women.

Genres associated with the xnr include Diamond, Salute, Layout and Pair Dance, suggesting that this was the repertoire performed by dancers from this Institution. Only the Diamond and Salute genres appear to have been performed by the dancers of the SnDt, an institution which appears to have been exclusive to funerary contexts.458 The Mww funerary dancers are not generally perceived as belonging to an institution, but their association with the funerary cult and their occupation of the Mww hall suggests an institution of some kind.

The term (d)xn appears from the early Vth Dynasty as a title for male rhythmists holding their arms in an attitude classified as Salute Sub-group 2.c. One example (Figure 2.23) has a dxn accompanist clapping the rhythm for a group of men with throwing sticks. The term appears only at Abusir in the Solar Temples of ¤AHw-Ra and NÏwsr-Ra.

The earliest instance of a word for an institution associated with dances is the term SnDt, which appears in the funerary dance scene from the IVth Dynasty tomb of _bH-n.Ï at Giza. It also appears in a small number of Vth and VIth Dynasty dance scenes. The term xnr does not appear in scenes of dance until the Vth Dynasty and is used increasingly in VIth Dynasty dance scenes. In the Old Kingdom, the term Mww appearing in dance/funerary scenes, only occurs in the late Vth Dynasty.459

The term Sma, commonly employed as a title for temple musicians in later periods makes two appearances in the dance scenes of the Old Kingdom. At Deir el-Gebrawi the term appears in the scene from the tomb of ©aw, which has both male and female Pair dancers, and another step which may be classified as Kick or a variation of Layout. The term Sma also appears in a mixed genre scene at el-Hawawish,456 where it appears in front of a male dancer but it is unclear whether it is a name or a title.

The most widely distributed term for a performance institution in dance scenes is the term xnr. Usage is concentrated at Memphite sites, but the term is also used in three dance scenes at el-Hawawish and in isolated examples at Sheikh Said, Deir el-Gebrawi and on the fragment with unknown provenance, considered to be Memphite in origin. The term SnDt only appears in Memphite tombs and so does the only example of the term Mww.

Rhythmic accompaniment is not associated with the Boys’ Game or Mww genres, suggesting these are ritualized or pantomimed performances not requiring a pulse. Male accompanists are pictured accompanying male Pair dancers but are not captioned Hst. The term Hst as a caption for the rhythmic accompaniment of dancers first appears in the IVth Dynasty, in the example from the tomb of _bH-n.Ï457 but is employed in over 20 dance scenes in the Vth Dynasty. Its usage declines after the Vth Dynasty, due in part to the rise in popularity of the dance term mAHt, with which it appears to be interchangeable (see above). The term mAHt 456 457

Summary In the Old Kingdom a number of terms can be seen to be context specific, genre specific or gender specific 458

Diamond and Salute are also the only genres captioned with the funerary dance term HAt. 459 Since this thesis is a study of tomb decoration, the tomb of Nb-kAwHr appears to have been decorated in the time of Unis and is dated to the late Vth Dynasty in this study, although the occupant of the tomb is clearly dated to the early VIth Dynasty.

Kanawati, el-Hawwaish VIII, fig. 10. Edel, Akazienhaus, fig. 1

51

CHAPTER 1:3 TERMINOLOGY context specific The term HAt ocurs only in funerary contexts, and only with the Diamond and Salute genres. genre-specific The formula mk Trf ÏTt appears only in Pair Dance scenes gender specific The term Trf occurs only in Pair Dance scenes performed exclusively by males. The term xb does not occur in scenes that do not have male dancers, although female dancers may also be in the scene. The title ÏbA(t) appears only in front of female dancers. While the term ÏbA(w) may refer to the dances performed by males, it is not employed as a male title in the Old Kingdom dance scenes. Period specific In the Old Kingdom, the Term xbt is specific to the VIth Dynasty. The Term Trf occurs only in Vth Dynasty Pair Dance scenes. The Term mAHt is used to accompany musicians in scenes from the Late Vth Dynasty to the early VIth Dynasty. The Term Sma(y(t) occurs only in VIth Dynasty, provincial dance scenes.

52

Part II: The Genres Part II comprises eleven chapters examining different dance genres, and a final chapter examining the genres relative to each other and conclusions drawn regarding associations between genres and influences between various geographic regions. The scenes relevant to each genre are pictured either at the beginning of each chapter in regional and then chronological order or they are pictured or listed1 at the beginning of Sub-group classifications. Some tombs have more than one example of the same genre. In such cases the Figure number for the scene being examined is included in brackets after the tomb owner’s name, for the purpose of clarification. Figure numbers may also be included when tombs are initially described in the text. Charts are employed in the genre chapters to highlight statistical information such as the distribution of examples at various geographic locations or chronological periods and the concentration and variety of particular costumes and props at various locations. Usually the columns are used to quantify2 the number of examples and what each pattern signifies is defined in the accompanying legend. In most cases, geographic locations appear at the bottom of the chart (x axis) but sometimes Sub-groups are listed at the bottom of the chart if they are being examined comparatively.

1

Scenes are listed rather than pictured if they have already been included earlier in the same chapter. Quantifying examples in charts can be complicated at times. The number of scenes accounted for in the columns (y axis) rarely corresponds to the number of tombs, since tombs may have more than one example of the same genre or the same example may be entered more than once if it satisfies more than one criterion being examined. For example, a scene may depict dancers holding more than one type of baton and may even include some dancers performing without batons, in which case the scene would be entered thrice in Chart 3.1. 2

53

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Chapter 1 Dance Style 1 – Diamond Dance Giza

Figure 1.1 Tomb of _bH-n.|, IV.5 (after Edel)

Figure 1.2 Tomb of Nb.|-m-Axty , end IV (after Lepsius)3

Figure 1.3 Tomb of ¤xm-k3-Ra, V.2 (after Hassan)

Figure 1.4 Tomb of Iy-mry, V.6, G. 6020 (after Weeks)

Figure 1.5 Tomb of ¤Sm-nfr II, V.64

3 4

Drawing, Mary Hartley Kanawati, Giza II, pl. 64.

54

PART II: CHAPTER 1, DIAMOND DANCE

Figure 1.6 Tomb of ¤xm-k3.|, V.L, G 1029 (after Simpson5)

Figure 1.7 Tomb of RwD, V.6 (after Roth)

Figure 1.8 Tomb of #ww-wr, V.8-9 (after Hassan)

Figure 1.9 Tomb of KA.|-swDA, V.L-VI.1 (after Junker)

Figure 1.10 Tomb of Nfr, V.9-VI.I, G 4761 (after Junker)

5

Drawing Mary Hartley

55

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Figure 1.11 Tomb of KA.|-m-nfrt, V.6-9 (after Badawy)

Figure 1.12 Tomb of K3.|-dw3, around V.8 (after Lepsius)

Figure 1.13 Tomb of K3-k3.|-anx, V.8 (after Hassan)

Figure 1.14 Tomb of KA.|-m-anx, V.8L, Giza, G 4561, example a6

Figure 1.15 Tomb of KA.|-m-anx, V.8, G 4561, example b7 6

Kanawati, Giza I, pl. 35.

56

PART II: CHAPTER 1, DIAMOND DANCE

Figure 1.16 Tomb of Idw, VI.2-4E , G 7102 (after Simpson)

Saqqara

Figure 1.17 Tomb of Nn-xft-kA, V.68

Figure 1.18 Tomb of £nmw-Htp, D49, V.69

Figure 1.19 Tomb of N|-anx-£nmw and £nmw-Htp, V.6-7 (after Moussa-Altenmüller)

7

ibid. pl. 32. Drawing, Mary Hartley 9 Drawing, Mary Hartley 8

57

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Figure 1.20 Tomb of Nfr-|rt-n.f, V.6-8 (after van der Walle)

Figure 1.21 Tomb of ¡tp-Hr-Axty, V.6-8 (after Mohr)

Figure 1.22 Tomb of Ra-m-kA.|, V.6-910

10

redrawn from unpublished photo, MMA archive 08. 201.1F.

58

PART II: CHAPTER 1, DIAMOND DANCE

Figure 1.23 Tomb of §y, V.8-9 (after Wild)

Figure 1.24 Tomb of Axty-Htp, V.8-9 (after Ziegler)

Figure 1.25 Tomb of KA.|-m-nfrt, D23, V.6-9 (after Hassan)

Figure 1.26 Tomb of Wr-|r-n-PtH, V.8 (after Hall)

59

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Figure 1.27 Tomb of N|-kAw-¡r, V.6-9 (after Quibell)

Figure 1.28 Tomb of Nb-kAw-¡r, decorated V.9 usurpedVI.1 (after Hassan)

Figure 1.29 Tomb of PtH-Htp: I|-n-anx, V.9-VI.1 (after Hassan)

Figure 1.30 Tomb of PtH-Htp, around V.9 (after Edel)

Figure 1.31 Tomb of Mrrw-kA.|, VI.I, example a (after Duell)

60

PART II: CHAPTER 1, DIAMOND DANCE

Figure 1.32 Tomb of Mrrw-kA.|, VI.I, funerary scene, example b (after Edel) 11

Figure 1.33 Tomb of Mr.f-nb.f VI.2 (after Myśliwiec)

Unknown Provenance

Figure 1.41 Berlin fragment (possibly from the tomb of Pr-sn, Saqqara) V.6-812

11 12

Picture Mary Hartley Fechheimer, Plastik der Ägypter, p. 26.

61

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Sheikh Said

Figure 134 Tomb of Wr-|r-n.|, V.8-9 (after Davies) Dahshur

Figure 1.35 Mastaba of ¤nfrw-|n-ISt.f, V.L-VI.E (after de Morgan)13 el-Hawawish

Figure 1.36 Tomb of KA.|-Hp: §t|-|qr, VI.4M14

Figure 1.37 Tomb of £n|: Šps|-pw-Mnw, VI.4L15

13

drawing, Mary Hartley Kanawati, El-Hawawish I. fig. 12. 15 ibid. IX, fig. 37 (a). 14

62

PART II: CHAPTER 1, DIAMOND DANCE

Meir

Figure 1.38 Tomb of Pp|-anx:¡n|-km, VI.4L, example a16

Figure 1.39 Tomb of Pp|-anx:¡n|-km, VI.4L, example b17 Zawyet el-Amwat

Figure 1.40 Tomb of #w-ns, V.8-9 (after Varille)

16 17

Blackman-Apted, Meir V, pl. 42. ibid. pl. 43.

63

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Dance style 1 – Diamond Dance

in the tomb of Ra-Spss. These phrases suggest that music and dance were included with food and other offerings as nourishment for the ka,25 adding, through the maternal principle of nourishment and nurturing, a suggestion of regeneration or rebirth.

Typology Despite the resemblance of this pose to the bucranium, remarked on by numerous authors,18 it is referred to as Diamond Pose or Diamond Dance in this study because the label describes the pose geometrically, without attaching any assumed connotation.

Taking the similarity of this pose to the hieroglyph (D32) used in the word qn| [protect, embrace, collect], Hornblower interprets the figurines in Naqada I graves as motherly figures intended to care for the ‘lonely dead’.26 The notion of embracing, gathering or joining together (as Isis and Nephthys gathered and joined together the pieces of Osiris), thereby ‘reconciling’ or protecting the deceased, persists into the New Kingdom in the , ‘qn|(.|) awy.| protective formula for canopic jars [(I) enfold my two arms]’,27 which contains the hieroglyph (D 32) and the depictions of Isis on coffins with wings protectively embracing the coffin.28 This embrace of the goddess around the coffin of the deceased also calls to mind the gathering together by Isis of the pieces of Osiris, thus affording a restorative effect, providing access to the powers of regeneration.29

In the Diamond Dance, dancers hold their arms above the head forming an arc or Diamond shape with the hands touching or apart. The feet are placed carefully one in front of the other; in some examples the weight appears to be distributed equally between both feet, in others, the front foot may be just touching the ground or raised above it. The working foot may be extended or held in a flat position, whether on the ground or raised above it. The torso is extended and lifted up off the hips, the upright body stance implying a slow, stately gait. It is certain that these representations depict dance, because many examples are clearly captioned with the word |bA [dance/dancer].

Other ideas that may be associated with this distinctive arm position include a dance of reconciliation,30 which is said to represent the confluence of the two Niles, performed by the present day Dinka and Shilluk tribes of Sub-Saharan Africa, after the sacrifice of a bull.31 The pose is also employed as a means of economizing on space in the depiction of offering bearers on the funerary stelae of later periods,32 in which the pose may have been utilized to convey the multiple aspects of regeneration, embrace or protection of the dead by employing the Diamond Pose (with the connotation of the Diamond Dance), while the figures are simultaneously bringing the offerings (represented by the nb hieroglyph, which here probably signifies ‘everything’) required for the sustenance of the kA in the afterlife, an ingenious economy of space.

The form of the pose itself has a number of possible associations which may indicate the significance of the dance. Firstly, it is undeniably similar to the bucranium iconography associated with the cow goddess Hathor. This is particularly apparent in artefacts from earlier periods, which can be identified as prototypes for this genre, such as the figurines found in graves of the Naqada I period,19 figures painted on ceramics of the Naqada II period,20 and early rock paintings.21 The bucranium has been shown by Cameron to be a symbol or euphemism for the uterus.22 Hathor’s name, ¡wt-Hr, generally translated as ‘House of Horus’, could equally be interpreted as ‘womb of Horus’.23 The resemblance of this pose to both the bucranium and the uterus suggests an association of the dance with the cult of Hathor. The appearance of this genre in funerary scenes and the inclusion of it in scenes depicting mourners perhaps suggests that this genre was perceived as conceptualizing a vehicle of rebirth or renewal, resonating with Hathor’s mythical role in transformation and rebirth.24

In almost all examples, this dance genre is depicted as a unison chorus. The repetition of the step creates a pleasing rhythm and an illusion of forward motion. The examples from the tomb of Pp|-anx:¡ny-km at Meir (Figures 1.38 and 1.39) are exceptions to this norm, because there is only one dancer in each of the two

kA hieroglyph, Secondly, the pose resembles the representing the concept of spirit or life force. The phrase |bAw nfrw n kA.k [beautiful dances / dances of the nfrw (novices) for your ka] appears in a scene featuring this dance in the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr. Similar phrases appear with this and other dances in the tombs of Wr-|r-n.| and KA.|-Hp: §t|-|qr and in a scene featuring the Salute genre

25 This is attested by the phrase ‘Song, dance, incense as his food’ Gardiner, JEA 45 (1959) from the Instructions of Anii. P. Boulaq, 3.73.8, a similar phrase appears in P. Chester Beatty 1, 16:10. 26 Hornblower, JEA 15 (1929), p 34 writes this as . . but omits the m in his transliteration and translation. 27 ibid. p. 34 28 ibid. 29 Troy, Queenship, p. 45. 30 The word qn| is also translated as ‘reconciliation’ by Hannig, Handwörtebuch, p. 859. 31 http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/galleries/sudan/gallery 3_1.htm (click on ‘sacrifice of the bull’.) 32 For example, the 11th Dynasty Funerary Stela of ¤bk-aA, (Hall, Egyptian Collections, fig. 87).

18

see above, Chapter I: 1, Typology. Hornblower, JEA 15, (1929), pl. 1, figs. 6-8. 20 Capart, Primitive Art, figs. 91, 92. 21 Winkler, Rock Drawings I, figs. 8, 19, 29- 32, 36, 37, 42, 47. 22 Cameron, Symbolism, p. 1. 23 Troy, Queenship, p. 29. 24 See Troy, Queenship, pp. 22-24, regarding Hathor’s role in cosmic birth and transformation. 19

64

PART II: CHAPTER 1, DIAMOND DANCE Giza, although there are numerous Predynastic and Early Dynastic examples of figurines in this pose.34

scenes. A variation also occurs in the scenes from the tombs of KA.|-dwA (Figure 1.12), KA-kA.|-anx (Figure 1.13) and KA.|-m-anx (Figure 1.14), all from Giza, which have a featured dancer who performs the Swastika Dance, while a corps de ballet is depicted performing the Diamond Pose in unison (see chapter 2:3a2 Swastika Dance). The Diamond Dance is performed almost exclusively by women in the Old Kingdom, the only exception being the examples from the tomb of Pp|-anx: ¡ny-km at Meir (Figures 1.38 and 1.39).

That this dance was, at this early stage, such a formal institution for it to be included in the iconography of both funerary and presentation scenes and to conform to the fully developed artistic canon of the Old Kingdom, implies that it was already a well established practice by the beginning of the Old Kingdom. Similarly, it is significant that the dancers were already performing in a uniform, rehearsed manner, suggesting that the professional status of dancers in this context was already well established by the IVth Dynasty.35

The depiction of a number of dance genres in the same scene could also be interpreted as a device employed by the artist to maximise available space, enabling the concept of abundance to be recorded simultaneously in terms of variety of dances and number of dancers. The apparent use of the dual in the writing of |bAwy [two dances], in the caption accompanying the scene from the tomb of KA-kA.|-anx, may specify the two distinct dances represented. However, since the other two examples featuring the two dances depicted together have |bAw written clearly as plural in the corresponding captions, the apparent dual form in this example may be due to damage obliterating the third sign.

Context and scene arrangement The Diamond Pose appears in the context of funerary ritual, either as part of the funerary procession (as in the tombs of ¡tp-Hr-Axty and PtH-Htp or at the door of the tomb (as in the tombs of _bH-n.| (Figure 1.1), Mrrw-kA.| (Figure 1.32), and Ppy-anx:¡ny-km (Figures 1.38 and 1.39), in presentation scenes (as in most cases) and occasionally in marshland settings (as in the tomb of PtHHtp: I|-anx (Figure 1.29) and the scenes from elHawawish (Figures 1.36 and 1.37). The context in the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr (Figure 1.28) is ambiguous, since the funerary scene appears to overlap with the presentation scene, especially in the bottom register.

This pattern of representing a variety of dances together with the Diamond Dance genre is repeated at elHawawish in the tombs of £n|: Šps|-pw-Mnw (Figure 1.37) and KA.|-Hp: §t|-|qr (Figure 1.36), which each have two dancers in this pose alongside Layout dancers and male couples performing Pair Dance all on the same register. This may represent a regional trend since both tombs are at el-Hawawish and are decorated by the same artist, ¤n.|.33 In the tomb of Mr.f-nb.f, the registers above and below the Diamond Dance scene feature the Layout genre, an arrangement which seems to be unique to this tomb.

Tombs with the Diamond Pose in Funerary Scenes Figure 1.1 Figure 1.21 Figure 1.30 Figure 1.32 Figure 1.38 Figure 1.39

Distribution

_bH-n.| ¡tp-Hr-Axty PtH-Htp Mrrw-kA.| Pp|-anx:¡ny-km Pp|-anx:¡ny-km

IV.5 V.6-8 around V.9 VI.I VI.4L, example a VI.4L, example b

The Diamond Pose occurs as part of the funerary procession in the examples from the tombs of ¡tp-Hr-Axty and PtH-Htp. In both, the dancers are followed by the rhythmist(s). Dignitaries preceed and follow the dancers in the Pth-htp scene, with the cattle pulling the catafalque at the rear in both scenes.

Of all the dance styles represented in the Old Kingdom, the Diamond Dance genre is the most common, occurring in depictions from the IVth Dynasty at Giza onwards. There are 41 Old Kingdom examples of the Diamond Dance genre in the sample. In Chart 1.1 the ‘y’ value axis shows the number of Old Kingdom examples of Diamond Dance at various locations. Tone and patters refer to particular sites, which are defined in the legend. Old Kingdom examples of this dance are concentrated at Giza and Saqqara but also occur at Sheikh Said, Dahshur, elHawawish, Meir and Zawyet el-Amwat.

In the scene from the tomb of _bH-n.|, the dance is performed by four dancers and accompanied by three rhythmists at the door of the tomb while offerings are being carried up the stairs and presented to the ka statue. There is a butchery scene nearby. The dancers are separated from the rhythmists by the offering table, which is part of the funerary setting. A similar table appears in the funerary scene from the tomb of Mrrw-kA. |, but in that example it does not separate the two groups. In the dance scenes from the tombs of _bH-n.| at Giza,

The earliest Old Kingdom examples are found in the funerary scene in the tomb of _bH-n.| (Figure 1.1) and in the tomb of Nb.|-m-Axty (Figure 1.2), both located at 33 Kanawati, Seni, video reference. The tomb of §t| from el-Hawawish also follows this pattern with a number of dance genres depicted on the same register, but does not include the Diamond Pose.

34 For examples see: Kantor, JNES 3: 2 (1904), fig. 7; Hornblower, JEA 15 (1929), pp. 29ff, pl. 6, figs. 1-5. 35 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 13.

65

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM and Nb-kAw-Hr and PtH-Htp (21) at Saqqara, male figures, holding staffs, are standing behind the rhythmists. There are two similar figures in the tomb of _bH-n.| and one in the tombs of PtH-Htp and Nb-kAw-Hr. In the PtH-Htp scene, there are also three officials between the Dryt [kites/mourners] and the dancers. The figure in the NbkAw-Hr scene is captioned sbA [instructor], which suggests that the similarly placed men in the other two scenes are also teachers or overseers of the performers.

Htp: I|-anx at Giza and KA.|-Hp: §t|-|qr, £n|: Šps|-pwMnw at el-Hawawish. While it could be argued that orchestral musicians depicted in the same register provide accompaniment for these dancers, since the majority of examples show the two diversions (music and dance) on different registers,37 as are banquet preparations and other entertainments, it appears that the orchestral recital is usually an item independent of the dance scenes. Further, it appears that some genres are more frequently accompanied by melodic instruments than others and four of the above eight examples have other genres depicted in the same register as the Diamond Dance. Since Diamond Dance scenes almost invariably have rhythmists accompanying the dancers,38 it is more likely that this dance was performed essentially to a rhythmic accompaniment.

The Mrrw-kA.| scene, example b (Figure 1.32) shows three dancers wearing short, pointed kilts and no bodice, who are accompanied by two rhythmists. They are outside the door of the tomb next to an offering table with an officiant from the SnDt [Acacia House] and a lector priest. There is a butchery scene in the register above the dancers.

Rhythmists are shown accompanying the dancers in almost all complete examples of this genre. Typically, there are two or three rhythmists, but occasionally six rhythmists are represented as in the tombs of Mrrw-kA.| (Figure 1.31) and N|-anx-£nmw and there are four rhythmists in the tomb of Iy-mry. Only one rhythmist accompanies dancers in each of the tombs of ¡tp-Hr-Axty, Ra-m-kA.| and £n|: Šps|-pw-Mnw, although the last two may be incomplete. The two consecutive registers featuring Diamond Dance in the tomb of §y each have three rhythmists. There are no male rhythmists depicted accompanying this genre in the Old Kingdom.

There are no rhythmists in either of the two scenes from the tomb of Pp|-anx:¡ny-km at Meir. These are the only Diamond Pose scenes featuring male dancers, who are also depicted performing the genre solo. As well, they are depicted in an unusually static manner, giving the impression that here the Diamond Pose should be interpreted as a gesture of mourning rather than dance, a device that is not without precedent, as the pose appears in other mourning scenes in which it is clearly not dance.36 Marshland Setting

Scenes at Giza in which rhythmists do not appear occur in the tombs of: Nb.|-m-Axty and ¤xm-kA-Ra, possibly due to damage rather than omission. Examples from Saqqara in which rhythmists do not appear occur in the tombs of: £nmw-Htp, KA.|-m-nfrt and PtH-Htp: I|-anx, in all cases due to damage. In the tomb of KA.|-Hp: §t|-|qr at elHawawish and on the Berlin fragment there are no rhythmists apparent in the partially preserved scenes, also probably due to damage. No accompanists appear in the provincial examples at Meir or Zawyet el-Amwat, all of which are complete. Since the Meir examples deviate from the norm, being the only examples in this genre to be performed by males, where there is only a single ‘dancer’ performing the Diamond Pose and there are no rhythmists, it appears more likely that they are representations of a gesture of mourning than dance.

In some cases, the Diamond Dance appears to be placed in a marshland setting as observed in the tombs of PtHHtp: I|-n-anx, at Saqqara and KA.|-Hp: §t|-|qr and £n|: Šps|-pw-Mnw at el-Hawawish. This setting may have been a visual metaphor representing the ‘field of reeds’, the imagery associated with the imaginary landscape of the afterlife. Other scenes are only fragmentary and damage makes the context uncertain, such as the examples from the tombs of Nb.|-m-Axty and ¤xm-kA-Ra at Giza. Presentation Scenes Almost all other examples of Diamond Dance are placed in the context of presentation scenes. In presentation scenes, depictions of other entertainments such as orchestral musicians, banquet preparations and games are featured in the registers above or below the dancers. All of these activities are overseen by the tomb owner, who is usually seated.

In most scenes at Giza, a group of dancers faces a group of rhythmists who clap a rhythm to accompany the dance. Scenes at Giza in which the rhythmists and dancers face 37 Nb-kAw-Hr, Wr-|r-n-PtH, Axty-Htp, §y, N|-anx-£nmw, N|-kAw-Hr, Nfr|rt-n.f, Nn-xft-kA, at Saqqara and Idw, #ww-wr, KA.|-m-anx, RwD, Nfr, KA.|-swDA at Giza and #w-nS at Zawyet el-Amwat and ¤nfrw-|n-ISt.f at Dahshur. No orchestra appears in the scenes from the tombs of: Ra-mkA.|, KA.|-m-nfrt, at Giza and ¤xm-kA-Ra at Saqqara. 38 The only complete scenes which do not have rhythmists accompanying Diamond dancers occur in the tomb of #w-ns oat Zawyet el-Amwat and the atypical examples from the tomb of Ppy-anx: ¡ny-km at Meir.

Occasionally, the orchestra appears in the same register as the Diamond Dance, as observed in the tombs of ¤xmkA.|, Iy-mry, ¤Sm-nfr II, KA-KA.|-anx, KA.|-dwA, and PtH36

Such as the male mourner from the tomb of anx-m-a-Hr at Saqqara (Kanawati-Hassan, Ankhmahor, pl. 56). See also Dominicus, Gesten und Gebärden, pp. 58-60.

66

PART II: CHAPTER 1, DIAMOND DANCE than the infinitive and this case has been argued at length above in Chapter 1:2, Performers, their Institutions and Titles and Chapter 1:3, Terminology.

the same direction are: Iy-mry, KA-kA.|-anx and Idw. This arrangement of dancers and rhythmists facing the same way is much more prevalent at Saqqara, occurring in nine out of thirteen complete examples: Nfr-|rt-n.f, Ra-m-kA.|, §y, N|-kAw-Hr, Nb-kAw-Hr, Mrrw-kA.| (both examples) and Mr.f-nb.f. Rhythmists face the same direction as the Diamond dancers in the scenes from Sheikh Said and Dahshur and in the tomb of £n|: Šps|-pw-Mnw at elHawawish. At Giza, most scenes have three, four or six dancers and three rhythmists. As noted above, three scenes (KA.|-dwA, KA-kA.|-anx and KA.|-m-anx) have a chorus of Diamond dancers with a featured Swastika dancer. The scene from the tomb of ¤xm-kA-Ra has fifteen dancers extant, with the impression that there might have been more, while no rhythmists have survived the considerable damage. The remnants of the scene in the register above suggest that it too may have accommodated a dance scene. The abundance of dancers is in stark contrast to their presentation, as they are quite naked and without any accessories. Other unusual numbers occur in the scenes from the tombs of #ww-wr, in which there are seven dancers and two rhythmists, and RwD in which there are five dancers and three rhythmists.

Similarly, the funerary dance term HAt appears above female performers in the Diamond Dance scenes from the tombs of ¡tp-Hr-Axty and _bH-n.| but appears in the masculine form HA above the male funerary performer in both scenes from the tomb of Pp|-anx: ¡ny-km, suggesting that the word HA(t) should be interpreted as a title. The title SnDt (woman of the Acacia House) is placed in front of the kneeling woman in front of the dancers in the Mrrw-kA.| funerary scene (Figure 1.32) . The word |bA [dancing/ dancer] is the most frequently occurring dance term in examples of this genre. It occurs as a title in the tombs of #ww-wr and PtH-Htp: I|-anx at Giza and remnants of it appear in the tomb of Mr.f-nb.f at Saqqara. The term Hst [rhythmist] as a female title appears in the tombs of KA.|-m-nfrt, KA.|-swDA at Giza and N|-kAw-Hr at Saqqara.39 Both titles |bA and Hst occur in the scenes from the tombs of ¤Sm-nfr II at Giza and Nn-xftkA, N|-anx-£nmw, Nfr-|rt-n.f, Axty-Htp, §y and Wr-|r-n-PtH at Saqqara. The titles |bA and mAHt [rhythmist] occur in the scene from the tomb of Idw and the terms |bA, mAHt and Hst appear in the scene from the tomb of Mrrw-kA.| (Figure 1.31). A phrase which can only be interpreted as a title, xnr n SnDt [chorister of the Acacia House], appears in front of each dancer in the tomb of PtH-Htp (Figure 1.30).

At Saqqara, odd numbers of dancers (three, five and seven), are much more prevalent than at Giza, and usually appear with two, three or six rhythmists. There are five dancers and three rhythmists in each of the two registers devoted to this genre in the tomb of §y. The scenes from the tombs of Nn-xft-kA, PtH-Htp, Wr-|r-n-PtH and Mr.f-nb.f, have four dancers accompanied by two rhythmists. The scene from the tomb of N|-anx-

Many examples are accompanied by phrases, which appear above the scene, such as: Hst |n xnr |bAw [clapping by the chorus of (ie. belonging to) the dancers],40 Hst n |bAw |n xnr [clapping for dancers by the chorus],41 Hst |n xnr [clapping by the chorus],42 Hst |n msw.f [clapping (rhythm) by his children],43 |bA(w) nfr(w) n kA.k ra nb [beautiful dances / dances of the nfrw (novices) for your ka every day],44 |bA |n xnr [dancing by the chorus].45 Above the rhythmists in the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr, an inscription reads Hst mAH (|)n xnr [clapping rhythm by the xnr] and a man titled sbA [instructor]46 stands behind the xnr performers.

£nmw has eight dancers. The six rhythmists in this example are seated, which is unusual in the Old Kingdom. There is only one rhythmist in the ¡tp-Hr-Axty scene and in Figure 1.31 from the tomb of Mrrw-kA.|, there are eight dancers and six rhythmists in one register. The scene from the tomb of #w-ns at Zawyet el-Amwat also has eight dancers, but no rhythmists. Caption While captions occur in many depictions of this genre, they do not appear as part of the Diamond Dance scenes in the examples from the tombs of Nb.|-m-Axty, ¤xm-kA, Ra-m-kA.|, Mrrw-kA.| (funerary scene, Figure 1.32) and #w-ns or the incomplete scenes from the tombs of £nmw-Htp, ¤xm-kA-Ra, KA.|-m-nfrt and on the Berlin fragment.

Captions in some presentation scenes, imply a funerary association, such as the phrase xnr n pr Dt (specifying that the entertainment is provided by ‘the chorus of the funerary estate’) in the tomb of £n|: Šps|-pw-Mnw. Another caption, |bAw nfrw n kA.k ra nb [beautiful dances /

Isolated words such as HAt, |bA, Hst and mAHt are often placed within the scene, in front of or behind figures. Because of the occurrence of the masculine and feminine forms of some of these terms such as HA(t) and Hsw(t), correlating with the gender of nearby performers, the final t appears to indicate these captions should be interpreted as titles or designations of performers rather

39 The male version Hsw appears in the orchestral scene in the tomb of §y (Epron-Wild, Ti, pl. 57). 40 KA.|-dwA, KA-kA.|-anx 41 Nfr, KA.|-m-anx example a (incomplete). 42 RwD 43 KA.|-m-anx example b. 44 Nb-kAw-Hr 45 ¤nfrw-|n-ISt.f 46 Nb-kAw-Hr

67

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM dances of the nfrw (novices) for your ka],47 which appears in the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr (Figure 1.28), also has funerary connotations since it may be interpreted as a blessing for the tomb owner in the afterlife or as nourishment for the ka.48

written along the ‘x’ axis. The ‘y’ value axis, indicated by the height of the columns, shows the number of examples at each location. Chart 1.2 shows the distribution of different foot positions. All four foot positions occur at Giza and Saqqara. The position with the foot flat but just off the ground is the only style occurring at Sheikh Said and Dahshur. At el-Hawawish the working feet are on the ground with the feet pointed in the tomb of KA.|-Hp:§t||qr and flat in the tomb of £n|: Šps|-pw-Mnw. In Old Kingdom Diamond Dance scenes, even where the front foot appears to be flat on the ground, there is a definite sense that the weight is mostly taken by the back foot. Only in the tomb of Mr.f-nb.f is the weight placed on the front foot giving the impression that the dancers are moving at a brisk pace. This impression of pace is emphasized by the raised heel and bent knee of the back leg which appears to push the weight forwards onto the front leg.

Variations in dance iconography Height of working foot In a number of examples, the lower half of the scene is too damaged to enable analysis of the foot position as observed in the tombs of #ww-wr, KA.|-m-nfrt, Nn-xft-kA, £nmw-Htp and PtH-Htp: I|-anx. For the remaining examples, there appear to be four main positions for the placement of the front foot of the dancers: 1.

2.

3.

4.

The foot is held well above the ground at either ankle or shin height. The scene from the tomb of _bH-n.| is the only example with the working foot of the dancers lifted to shin height, and the tomb of Nb.|-mAxty, also IVth Dynasty from Giza, has the foot raised to ankle height. Two tombs from Saqqara (N|-kAw-Hr and Nb-kAw-Hr) also have the dancers’ working feet at ankle height. All other examples have the foot much closer to the ground. The foot is positioned just above the ground either with the foot flat, as seen in the tombs of KA-kA.|-anx, KA-m-anx, N|-anx-£nmw, Nfr-|rt-n.f49, Wr-|r-n-PtH, KA.|-m-nfrt, Wr-|r-n.|, ¤nfrw-|n-ISt.f, or with the foot pointed, as in the tombs of Nfr and ¤Sm-nfr II. The toe is pointed and just touching the ground, as seen in the tombs of Iy-mry, Axty-Htp, PtH-Htp, MrrwkA.|, and at the same height with the foot flat on the ground in the tombs of Idw, ¡tp-Hr-Axty, KA.|-Hp, in both scenes from the tomb of Pp|-anx:¡ny-km at Meir and in the tomb of #w-ns at Zawyet el-Amwat. The foot positions of dancers are mixed, that is, some feet are pointed on the ground and others are flat on the ground, as observed in the tombs of ¤xm-kA, §y, £n|: Šps|-pw-Mnw, Mrrw-kA.| and RwD.

Arm height of dancers There are four basic positions of the hands with the subsequent shape formed by the arms varying further, depending on whether the hands are together closing the arc or apart. The variations in arm position are: (1) high above the head, either open or closed, (2) above the head, either open or closed, (3) on the head closed, (4) at head height, open, and (5) unclear in the available publication. The geographic distribution of arm positions is indicated in Chart 1.3. Most arm positions occur at Giza and Saqqara, where the majority of examples are found. At Giza the predominant position is a closed arc, high above the head, while at Saqqara the predominant positions are lower, but still above the head, either open or closed. In the two Old Kingdom funerary examples from the tombs of _bH-n.| at Giza (Figure 1.1) and ¡tp-Hr-Axty at Saqqara (Figure 1.21), the arms are in the high open position, while in the funerary scene from the tomb of Mrrw-kA.|, the hands are placed on the head. Overall, the hands in the examples from Saqqara tend to be lower than in those from Giza and the height of the hands decreases as time progresses. The open hands at head height position occurs only in the later el-Hawawish examples and this trend appears to continue in some dance scenes in the New Kingdom tombs of #rw.f and the Late Period tomb of Ib|50 at Thebes,51 although, the Middle Kingdom examples at Beni Hassan have the closed head-height position.52 The Dahshur example has the high, closed arc position and the example at Sheikh Said has the high open position.

Two unusual positions include: 5. The weight is on the front foot with the back foot on demi pointe as observed in the tomb of Mr.f-nb.f. 6. The foot position is unclear in the available publication, as seen in the examples from the tombs of ¤xm-kA-Ra, KA.|-dwA and KA.|-swDA. Charts 1.2–1.6 illustrate the geographic distribution of various criteria. In each case the geographic location is 47

For a discussion on the interpretation of nfrw as recruits or novices associated with a performance vocation see above, Chapter 1:2, Performers, their Institutions and Titles. 48 Music and dance appear to have been included amongst the provisions for the tomb owner in the afterlife. 49 In this scene one dancer has a pointed foot.

50

Kuhlmann-Schenkel, Ibi, pl. 28. Epigraphic Survey, Kheruef, pl. 59. Newberry, Beni Hasan II, pl. 7 (T. 15); ibid. pl. 17 (T. 17); ibid. pl. 13 (T. 17).

51 52

68

PART II: CHAPTER 1, DIAMOND DANCE Distribution of tomb sites

Giza

18

Saqqara

16 14

Dahshur

12

Zawyet el-Amwat

10

Sheikh Said

8

Meir

6

el-Hawawish

4

unknown

2 0

Chart 1:1 Distribution of tomb sites Foot position

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Giza

Saqqara

off ground-high

Dahshur

Zawyet elAmwat

just off ground

Sheikh Said

Meir

on ground-pointed

el-Hawawish

unknown provenance

on ground-flat

mixed

unclear

Chart 1:2 Foot position Arm position high open

9 8

high closed

7

above head closed or almost closed

6 5

above head open

4 3

on head closed or almost closed

2

head height open

1 0 Giza

Saqqara

Dahshur

Zawyet elAmwat

Sheikh said

Meir

Chart 1.3 Arm position of dancers 69

el-Hawawish

unknown

unclear

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Style of K ilt/Skirt 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

long short pointed short close unclear sarong Giza

Saqqara

Dahshur

Sheikh Said

Zawyet elAmwat

Meir

elHawawish

unknown

nude

Chart 1.4 Style of Kilt/Skirt

Dress top

Costume of dancers - Bodice 14 12

no bodice

10 8

cross strap

6 4

double cross strap

2 0

Giza

Saqqara

Dahshur

Sheikh Said

Zawyet elAmwat

Meir

elHawawish

unknown

unclear

Chart 1.5 Style of bodice

Acces s ories worn by dan cers 7

collar

6 5

menit

4 3

anklet

2 1 0

bracelet Giza

Saqqara

Dahshur

Sheikh Said Zawyet elAmwat

Chart 1.6 Accessories worn by dancers

70

Meir

elHawawish

unknown

PART II: CHAPTER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALUTE Costume of dancers

The bodice

There are four styles of kilt worn by dancers performing the Diamond Dance in the Old Kingdom. The most common style is the short, pointed kilt, which appears at Giza in the tombs of KA.|-swDA, ¤xm-kA.|, KA.|-m-anx (both examples) and Idw; at Saqqara in the tombs of N|-anx£nmw, Nfr-|rt-n.f, N|-kAw-Hr, Nb-kAw-Hr, PtH-Htp and Mrrw-kA.| (both examples); at Sheikh Said in the tomb of Wr-|r-n.|; at Dahshur in the tomb of ¤nfrw-n-ISt.f and is represented on the Berlin fragment (provenance unknown).

Chart 1.5 shows the geographic distribution of bodice styles. There are four styles of bodice worn by the dancers: (1) a bodice attached to a long skirt, (2) no bodice, (3) a single cross-strap, and (4) a double crossstrap. In the earliest example from the tomb of _bH-n.| at Giza (Figure 1.1) and two later examples from Saqqara (Figures 1.24, 1.25), the dancers wear long gowns with attached bodice. At Saqqara in the Vth Dynasty, the crossstrap is common, looking more like an accessory than a bodice. It becomes more elaborate in the tomb of PtH-Htp, where the double cross-strap first appears. In the late Vth to early VIth Dynasties at Saqqara, the cross-strap bodice gives way to no bodice, as seen in the VIth Dynasty tombs of Mr.f-nb.f and Mrrw-kA.| (in both the presentation and funerary scenes). In the Giza examples, dancers in Vth Dynasty scenes are bare breasted, with the cross-strap bodice appearing only in the VIth Dynasty tomb of Idw, and here the rare double cross-strap form is represented. In the provincial examples, the trend at el-Hawawish, Zawyet el-Amwat, and Sheikh Said is for the dancers to have no bodice, whereas the example from Dahshur appears to have the single cross-strap, although damage makes this difficult to judge.

Chart 1.4 shows the geographic distribution of kilt or skirt styles. The short, straight kilt appears at Giza in the tombs of Nb.|-m-Axty, Iy-mry, KA.|-dwA, Nfr, RwD, ¤Smnfr II and KA-kA.|-anx; at Saqqara in the tombs of Nn-xftkA, £nmw-Htp(w), ¡tp-Hr-Axty, KA.|-m-nfrt; at elHawawish in the tombs of £n|: Šps|-pw-Mnw, KA.|-Hp: §t|-|qr; at Me|r in the tombs of Pp|-anx:¡ny-km (both examples), and at Zawyet el-Amwat in the tomb of #wns. In two examples from Giza, KA.|-swDA (V.L-VI.1) and KA.|-m-anx (V.8L), and the example from the tomb of Wr|r-n.| at Sheikh Said (V.8-9), the kilts are pointed but downwards rather than forwards and this could indicate a transition between the short, straight and short, pointed styles. In the tomb of Nn-xft-kA the kilt is short and straight but protrudes at the back unlike the other examples of short, straight kilts.

Accessories Chart 1.6 shows the geographic distribution of various accessories worn by Diamond dancers. Due to damage or poor quality of reproductions, the material at hand in this sample does not allow for accurate tabulation of the incidence of all accessories. It is, however, possible to note that belts are worn in all cases, except where the dancers are nude or the skirt is long and part of a fulllength gown. Necklaces are the next most common accessory, which can be readily identified, and appear in only two examples at Giza (¤xm-kA.| and Idw), whereas they are apparent in all but two scenes at Saqqara, both of which are funerary. Wristbands occur in two out of 16 examples at Giza compared to six out of 16 examples at Saqqara, with one example too fragmentary to discern this detail. At provincial sites, wristbands are not apparent on dancers at Sheikh Said or Zawyet el-Amwat, but are worn by dancers in the examples at el-Hawawish. Accessories are not worn by the dancers in the examples at Meir, probably because the single performer in each case is male and the context is funerary (accessories are worn less frequently in the funerary context even by female performers).

Long sheer kilts occur only at Giza in the tomb of _bHn.|, at Saqqara in the tombs of Wr-|r-n-PtH, Axty-Htp, (Figure 1.25), and in the example from the tomb of §y, a long transparent skirt is worn over a short, opaque skirt. This double skirt with a sheer overlay recurs at a much later date in the XXVIth Dynasty tomb of #rw.f, where it is worn by dancers who also perform the Diamond genre.53 The tomb of Mr.f-nb.f has a dance scene that is vastly different from other examples in this genre. The female dancers pictured wear very scant sarong-style kilts, which could be more accurately described as thick belts. The dancers in this scene also wear the disc-weighted tress, more commonly associated with the Layout genre, perhaps because the Layout genre is depicted in the registers above and below this example. In the scene from the tomb of ¤xm-kA-Ra at Giza, the dancers are nude with not the least ornament embellishing them.

53

Just as the dress at Saqqara is generally more elaborate than at other sites, the variety and quantity of jewellery and other accessories represented is also greater. The scenes from the tombs of Idw and ¤xm.kA.| are exceptional, being unusually elaborate for Giza. In the tomb of Idw, the dancers are not all dressed alike. The first is wearing a menit, the second the disc-weighted tress, the third is wearing the basic double cross-strap

Epigraphic Survey, Kheruef, pl. 59.

71

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM bodice, which can be seen worn by the other dancers beneath their extra accessories, and the fourth has a long scarf looped loosely around her torso. All the rhythmists and dancers are wearing red scarves, and collars, and the dancers also wear bracelets. The Idw example has been identified as having Hathoric associations due to the caption dedicated to Hathor above the scene, the red painted clothing and the inclusion of accessories, such as red scarves, menits and perhaps even the disc-weighted tress, which appear to be cult objects associated with Hathor.54 Because the dancers on the Berlin fragment are wearing collars, and ankle and wristbands, it is improbable that the provenance of this example is Giza.

Later developments The Diamond Pose was a popular theme in wall painting throughout the Old Kingdom and instances of this genre are also found in the Middle Kingdom, particularly at Beni Hassan,55 and as late as the New Kingdom, where it is depicted in the Theban tombs of £rw.f (TT 192 ),56 QnImn (TT 412)57 and the Late Period, where it occurs in the tomb of Ib| (TT 36).58

In all but three examples in this sample, the dancers have short-cropped hair. The disc-weighted tress is worn by one Diamond dancer in the tomb of Idw and all Diamond dancers in Figure 1.31 from the tomb of Mrrw-kA.|, and in the Mr.f-nb.f and ¤nfrw-|n-ISt.f scenes. In Figure 1.14 from the tomb of KA.|-m-anx, the solo Swastika dancer appearing next to the Diamond dancers wears the discweighted tress as do the Layout dancers near the Diamond dancers in the tombs of £n|: Šps|-pw-Mnw and KA.|-Hp: §t|-|qr at el-Hawawish.

55

Newberry, Beni Hasan II, pl. 7 (T. 15); ibid. pl. 17 (T. 17); ibid. pl. 13 (T.17). 56 Epigraphic Survey, Kheruef, pl. 59. 57 Davies, Kenamun, pl.s 40, 41. 58 Kuhlmann-Schenkel, Ibi, pl. 28.

54 Galvin, Priestesses, pp. 205-235.The Hathoric association of these accessories is examined below in Chapter 2:9, The Layout.

72

Chapter 2 Dance Style 2 – Salute orientation of dancers, accessories and arm position observed in the Chicago fragment, conform more to those found in dance scenes from Saqqara.

Typology This dance pose is characterized by a high arm, extended forward as if in greeting, hence the label ‘Salute’. Typically, the elbow of the raised arm is lightly curved or bent, while the other arm rests lightly along the bodyline with the hand behind the hip, or with the elbow bent and the hand on the hip. The weight is usually on the back foot, with the front foot touching the ground lightly, although it is raised higher in some examples.

The most typical examples, conforming to the above description of form, are listed in Sub-group 2.a, in which examples are discussed in Clusters according to the degree of the angle at the elbow of the raised arm. Examples in Sub-group 2.b have the arm which is extended to the front held more rigidly straight than in examples from Sub-group 2.a, with the hand flexed up. The feet are in a similar position to the Sub-group 2.a examples. Examples in Sub-group 2.c, have a similar arm position to Sub-group 2.a, but the raised hands are extended forward parallel to the ground. Examples in Sub-group 2.d have the back arm raised and bent acutely at the elbow, with the hand placed behind the ear. Two other examples, are included because they have some similarities of form with examples in this genre, but do not conform fully to any of the Salute genre Sub-groups.

Examples have been arranged in Sub-groups according to genre variation and within Sub-groups, by location and then in chronological order. Two fragments with unknown provenance have been placed amongst the examples from Giza for the purposes of comparison. While these two examples are considered of Memphite origin, probably from Giza, it is my opinion that the iconographic treatment of details such as costume,

Sub-group 2.a – high arm bent or with a slight curve Giza

Figure 2.1 Tomb of _bH-n.|, IV.5, Giza (after Dasen)

Figure 2.2 Tomb of Queen Mrs-anx III, IV.5-6, Giza (after Simpson)

Figure 2.3 Tomb of #fw-xa.f II, V.6, Giza (after Simpson)

73

PART A II: CHAPTEER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALU UTE

Figu ure 2.4 Chiccago museum Fragment, around a V.8, Provenance P unknown, proobably Memp phite1

Figure 2.5 Tomb T of Iy-mry, V.6, Giza2

Figure 2.6 Tomb of Šp pss-kA.f-anx, V.6-8, Giza (affter Weeks)

F Figure 2.7 Tomb of ¤Sm-n nfr III, V.8, Giza G (after Brrunner-Trautt)

Figure 2.8 Tomb off KA-p|, V.8-9,, Giza (after Weeks) 1 2

(drawn from Vandier, V Manuel Vol. V IV, fig. 205, pl. 18) Lepsius, Denkm mäler II, 53a

74

PART II: CHAPTER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALUTE

Figure 2.10 BME 994, VI.E, provenance unknown, probably Giza (after Smith)

Figure 2.9 QAr, VI.2-4, Giza (after Simpsom)

Saqqara

Figure 2.11 Tomb of Ra-Spss, V.8, Saqqara (overdrawn on Lepsius)

Figure 2.12 Tomb of KA.|-m-Hst, V.6L-9, Saqqara3

Figure 2.13 Tomb of Iy-nfrt, V.9, Saqqara4

3 4

McFarlane, Mastabas at Saqqara, pl. 43. Kanawati-Abder-Raziq, Unis Cemetery II, pl. 37.

75

PART II: CHAPTER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALUTE Sub-group 2a Provincial examples Deshasha

Figure 2.14 Tomb of Int|, V.8-95 Sheikh Said

Figure 2.15 Tomb of ¤r.f-kA, V.L (after Davies) Deir el-Gebrawi

Figure 2.16 Tomb of Is|, VI.1-3, example a6

5 6

Kanawati - McFarlane, Deshasha, pl. 29. Kanawati, Deir el-Gebrawi, pl. 62.

76

PART A II: CHAPTEER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALU UTE

Figgure 2.17 Toomb of Is|, VII.1-3, examplee b7

Salutee Cluster 2.a11 Figure 2.1 Figure 2.15

_bH-n.| ¤r.f-kA

IV.55 V.L L

Giza Sheikh Said

a characterizzed by a high arm, Examples in Cluster 2.a1 are n bending at a the extended to the front wiith little or no o _bH-n.| (Fiigure elbow. In thhe IVth Dynassty example of 2.1) the danccers wear short kilts whichh are pointed just j a little in frontt of the line of o the leg andd have no boodice. The rhythmiists wear longg, close fittingg gowns and face the same dirrection as the dancers. A nude n dwarf beehind the dancers, appears to bee part of the performance p a is and h objectt, which coulld be holding a loong, animal headed considered a staff or baaton, but is rather r thick for f a dancing batoon. The perfoormers in the _bH-n.| exam mple, except for thhe dwarf, wearr an unusual star s headdress. The same headdrress occurs inn the Swastikka Dance scenne in the tomb off Nw-nTr (Figgure 3.11), which w also hass the figure of a dwarf dancinng in the cenntre of a grouup of

w hold ann Swaastika and Booomerang dancers, some of whom arm position whicch resembles tthe Salute gen nre. he ¤r.f-kA scenne (Figure 2.15), a lead dan ncer holding a In th sistrrum, faces a group g of Saluute dancers, whose w feet aree lifted d higher than observed in oother examplees. The raisedd kneees are bent. One O dancer apppears to be nu ude and threee otheers have shortt kilts which are open at th he front. Thee bodiice details aree damaged. Thhe rhythmists in the ¤r.f-kAA scen ne wear the ussual long gownns and face th he majority off the dancers. d The inclusion of a sistrum in th his scene alsoo places this exam mple in Sub-ggroup 3.c (n next chapter),, where it is grouuped with the Nw-nTr sceene which itt closely resembles. There are no captionss in the twoo mples in this Cluster. C exam

Salute Cluster 2.a2 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.11

Mrs-anx III #fw-xa.ff II Chicagoo fragment Ra-Spss

Gizza Gizza Pro ovenance unk known Saq qqara

IV.5-6 V.6 around V.8 V.8

In this Clusteer, the raised arm a has a genntle bend or cuurve.7 The dancers’’ raised handss are lower thhan depicted inn the previous exaamples, with a correspondiing increase inn the angle at the elbow and thhe foot is low w. The Mrs-an nx III a four Swaastika scene (Figurre 2.2) has thhree Salute and dancers whoo wear short, pointed kiltss with no boodice. 7

h the rhythm mists and Saluute dancers faace the samee Both direcction, but the Swastika danncers twist their torsos backk towaards the rhythm mists. he #fw-xa.f II scene (Figuree 2.3), two rh hythmists facee In th the same direction as the seeven Salute dancers theyy ompany. In frront of the daancers a wom man in a longg acco gow wn removes objects o resembbling boomerrangs from a

ibid. pl. 64.

77

PART II: CHAPTER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALUTE box, which suggests this example is affiliated with Dance Style 3. The word sbA [Instructor] is situated above this figure. In both examples from Giza, the dancers have short, pointed kilts without bodices and the feet are held low. Both the rhythmists and dancers face the same direction in these two examples and both are affiliated with variations of Dance Style 3.

accompanying the Diamond Dance scene in the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr, which is also from Saqqara and appears to have been decorated late in the Vth Dynasty. The lower half of the figures in the Chicago fragment (Figure 2.4) is lost, but the dancers wear a bodice similar to those attached to long gowns, a costume detail which is found on Diamond dancers in examples from Saqqara dated to V.6-9. This costume, the inclusion of accessories and the quality of the craftsmanship suggest that this scene is most likely from Saqqara, but the horizontal alignment of the word Hst as part of a phrase is more common in examples from Giza. The orientation of dancers to face the right is not otherwise found at Giza but is the predominant arrangement at Saqqara. Details such as the caption, arm position of the rhythmists and the long gown on the dancers, suggest that the Chicago fragment should be dated to V.8. Rhythmists appear to wear the usual long, close fitting gown. In all examples in this Cluster, with the exception of the KA.|-m-Hst scene, the rhythmists face the same direction as the dancers.

In the Ra-Spss scene (Figure 2.11), the dancers wear the short, pointed kilt with the cross-strap bodice and numerous accessories. A feature which sets the Ra-Spss scene apart, is that it has thirteen dancers, a large and unusual number. The next highest number of dancers is found in the scenes from the tombs of #fw-xa.f II (Figure 2.3) and ¡m-Mnw (Figure 2.20), which each have seven Salute dancers; Mrs-anx III, which has three Salute and four Swastika dancers and Int|, which has four Salute and six Swastika dancers, while most examples have three or four dancers. The caption, |bAw nfr(w) n kA. [beautiful dances / dances of the nfrw (novices) for your ka], in the Ra-Spss scene is rather elaborate compared to other examples in this genre and resembles the caption

Salute Cluster 2.a3 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7 Figure 2.8

Iy-mry Špss-kA.f-anx ¤Sm-nfr III KA.p|

V.6 V.6-8 V.8 V. 8-9

Giza Giza Giza Giza adequate space with another represented in the main chamber.

The scenes from the tombs of Iy-mry, Špss-kA.f-anx, ¤Smnfr III and KA-p|, all from Giza, have many features in common. The arm position is at much the same height as examples in the previous Cluster, but the angle of the elbow is increased, making the forearm rise almost vertically, with the hand still well above the head.

two

dance

scenes

All four examples have three rhythmists in long gowns who face the dancers. The middle rhythmist in the ¤Smnfr III scene has a black gown. Collars are apparent on the rhythmists in the Iy-mry, Špss-kA.f-anx and ¤Sm-nfr III examples as well as on the dancers in the ¤Sm-nfr III scene, but damage is too great to discern this feature in the KA-p| scene. The angle at which the rhythmists arms are held forward to clap the rhythm is similar in the three examples. These four scenes share so many details in common that it is reasonable to suppose they were decorated by artists from the same workshop.

All four scenes have an orchestra on the same register as the dancers. The orchestra in the ¤Sm-nfr III scene comprises two harpists, whereas the Iy-mry and Špss-kA.fanx scenes each have a harpist and a singer; and the KA-p| scene has two sub-registers of orchestral musicians comprising two wind players, three singers and fragments of an object resembling a harp. Harps also appear in one of the scenes from the tomb of Is| at Deir el-Gebrawi (Figure 2.16). This and the absence of rhythmists in this example suggests there may have been a melodic component to the accompaniment of the Salute genre in some instances. It could be argued that lack of space dedicated to a music scene may have been the reason for placing two scenes side by side that would normally be positioned on separate registers but the scene from the tomb of Iy-mry (Figure 2.5), for example, has more than

Captions appear in Salute Dance scenes at around V.6, sometimes they are single words embedded in the scene which appear to be titles or designations for the performers behind the caption. Titles include: Hst [rhythmist] in the KA.|-m-Hst scene, |bA [dancer] in the Iymry scene, sbA(t) [teacher] in the #wfw-xa.f II scene, while in some scenes, particularly those from Giza, phrases appear above the rhythmists as a caption for the 78

PART II: CHAPTER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALUTE Dancers in this Cluster all wear the short, pointed kilt, and dancers in the ¤Sm-nfr III scene also wear the crossstrap bodice. Faint lines suggest that the dancers in the Iy-mry and Špss-kA.f-anx scenes also wore the cross-strap bodice. In the ¤Sm-nfr III scene, the lowered arm of the dancers is held higher than in other Sub-group 2.a and 2.b examples and correspondingly, the elbow is more acutely bent with the hand resting on the hip. The three dancers wear numerous accessories, a feature which sets this example apart from most other examples from Giza.

whole scene. The Špss-kA.f-anx and Iy-mry scenes have been dated by other scholars as early as V.3, which would make them the earliest occurrences of captions in this genre. However, the horizontal alignment of the word Hst and its position as part of a phrase above the rhythmists resembles the more complex captions which appear around V.8 observed in the tomb of ¤Sm-nfr III. Taking the iconographic details of the dance scene into consideration, such as the caption, height and angle of the arm, costume and placement of the orchestral musicians, all very similar to the ¤Sm-nfr III example, the later end of this dating range appears to be more probable for these two examples.

Salute Cluster 2.a4 Figure 2.9 Figure 2.10 Figure 2.12 Figure 2.14 Figure 2.16 Figure 2.17

QAr BME 994 KA.|-m-Hst Int| Is|, example a Is|, example b

VI.2-4 VI.E V.6L-8 V.8-9 VI.1-3 VI.1-3

Giza provenance unknown Saqqara Deshasha Deir el-Gebrawi Deir el-Gebrawi

In this Cluster, the front arm is held lower than shoulder height, with the hand held at just above eye level, and the corresponding angle at the elbow increased. Examples in this Cluster are distributed widely in both location and date and this is reflected in the variety of costumes represented. An overview of examples in Sub-group 2a, indicates that arm height lowers as time progresses and that the angle at the elbow increases.

wearing a short kilt and is leaning forward, both features which, as in the Int| example, suggest that the rhythmist may join the dance. The rhythmists and dancers in both examples wear the short kilt with cross-strap bodice. The arm position of the rhythmists is the same in both examples and the foot position of the dancers is rather high in the KA.|-m-Hst example, a feature in common with the foot height in the Int| and Is| examples.

The dancers in the funerary scene from the tomb of QAr (Figure 2.9) wear long, close fitting gowns similar to those worn by rhythmists in most examples of this genre, but with an interesting detail on the skirt. The title |bA [dancer] appears in front of each dancer and the title mAHt [rhythmist] appears in front of the rhythmists. The caption HAt |n Sndty [mourning (ritual) by the two Acacia Houses] is written above the scene.

There are Swastika dancers alongside Salute dancers in the example from the tomb of Int| at Deshasha (Figure 2.14), suggesting an association between the two genres. The feet of the dancers are high at the front, and the dancers flex their hands back sharply. This flexing of the hands is a feature of examples in Sub-group 2.b (Figures 2.18 - 2.20), but in the Sub-group 2.b scenes, the dancers hold their arms rigidly straight as well.

The short, pointed kilt without bodice is worn by dancers in Fragment BME 994 and the arm height is even lower again than in the QAr scene, with an acute angle at the elbow, as shown in Figure 2.10. The remnants of the caption n xnr [of the chorus] appear above the dancers and a Boys’ Game scene appears next to the Salute scene.

In the Deir el-Gebrawi examples, the angle at the elbow is more relaxed and the hand is held even lower again at shoulder height or just below. The dancers’ front legs are raised rather high in Figure 2.16 and are on the ground supporting the weight in Figure 2.17, with the knees bent in both examples. Despite the unusual marshland setting of the Deir el-Gebrawi examples, a harpist is pictured accompanying the Salute dancers in Figure 2.16.

It is difficult to be sure of the angle of bending of the arm in the KA.|-m-Hst example (Figure 2.12), but it appears to conform to this Cluster. There are a number of features which set this example apart from the other Sub-group 2.a examples, but it has a number of features in common with the example from the tomb of Int| at Deshasha (Figure 2.14). The rhythmist in the KA.|-m-Hst example is

The dancers in both scenes from the tomb of Is| wear a short sarong, tied at the front, although one Salute dancer in Figure 2.17 wears a short, pleated kilt instead. The 79

PART II: CHAPTER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALUTE dancers in Figure 2.16 wear a lotus headdress (rather similar to the star headdress already seen in the _bHn.| scene) and a pendant (also worn by Salute dancers in the

Ra-Spss scene). In Figure 2.17, the dancers wear the discweighted tress, which is also worn by the Salute dancers in Fragment BME 994.

Sub-group 2.b - straight arm with flexed hand

Figure 2.18 Tomb of £nmw-nfr, V.M-L, Giza (afetr Smith)

Figure 2.19 Tomb of Axty-mrw-nswt, V.9-VI.1, Giza (after Decker-Herb)

Figure 2.20 Tomb of ¡m-Mnw, VI.1E, el-Hawawish8

8

Kanawati, el-Hawawish V, fig. 6.

80

PART II: CHAPTER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALUTE The dancers in Sub-group 2.b hold their arms rigidly straight in front at varying heights with the hand flexed back firmly. The arms are held above head height in the Axty-mrw-nswt scene and in the other two scenes they are lower. The front feet are raised well above the ground in the £nmw-nfr (Figure 2.18) and Axty-mrw-nswt (Figure 2.19) scenes and lower in the ¡m-Mnw scene (Figure 2.20). No rhythmists are shown in the £nmw-nfr scene which appears to be incomplete. The Salute dancers face

the same way as the rhythmists in the Axty-mrw-nswt scene. Costume is also varied. The short, straight kilt and crossstrap bodice feature in the £nmw-nfr scene, and short, pointed kilt with cross-strap bodice in the ¡m-Mnw scene. The dancers in the Axty-mrw-nswt scene wear a sheer, pointed kilt with no bodice and there are also three Swastika dancers in this example.

Sub-group 2.c - xn gesture

Figure 2.21 Tomb of N|-mAat-Ra, V.9-VI.1, Giza (after Roth)

Figure 2.229 and Figure 2.2310 ¤AHw-Ra, solar temple, Abusir

Figure 2.24 N|-wsr-Ra, solar temple, V.2, Abusir11 9

Borchhardt, ¤aAHu-Rea II, pl. 19: 45a ibid. pl. 18: 44d. 11 Borchhardt, Ne-user-Re III, pl. 16: 274. 10

81

PART II: CHAPTER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALUTE The distinctive feature in sub-group 2.c is the hand position, which is held at just above head height with the forearm reaching forward and the hand held parallel to the ground. In the N|-mAat-Ra scene, the lowered hand of the dancers conforms to the position observed in examples from Sub-group 2.a, and the caption Hst (which, in this case, could indicate either the title ‘rhythmist’ or the infinitive ‘clapping’) appears above the seated

rhythmists, who face the dancers. The horizontally aligned form of the word Hst when placed above rhythmists often indicates the infinitive, particularly when occurring in phrases, whereas the vertically aligned form of the word Hst, when embedded in the scene in front of rhythmists, usually as a single word, appears to indicate the title. In this instance the single word Hst, aligned horizontally, is placed above the rhythmists.

Sub-group 2.d – arm bent with hand placed against the head

Figure 2.25 Tomb of KA-gm-n.|, VI.1, Saqqara (after Decker-Herb)

Figure 2.26 Tomb of anx-ty-fy, VI.4-VIII.E, el-Moalla (after Vandier)

The arm position in examples from Sub-group 2.d, while still resembling a salute differs sufficiently to suggest it may constitute a different genre. The front arm is lowered in Figure 2.25 and held straight to the front above eye level in Figure 2.26. The back arm is raised to the side or behind and bent sharply at the elbow, with the hand placed behind the ear, in a manner resembling a salute. The dancers in the KA-gm-n.| scene (Figure 2.25) wear a short, pointed kilt with no bodice and a scarf which may be associated with Hathor.12 The rhythmists in the KA-gmn.| scene face the same direction as the dancers.

The dancers in the el-Moalla scene wear calf-length, close fitting gowns. Only one rhythmist has survived the considerable damage in this scene. She is depicted kneeling nearby and facing the same direction as the dancers and may be taken to be accompanying the dancers in all of the scenes from this area of the tomb of anx-ty-fy. In this scene, the dancers wear long, free flowing hair. In the three Abusir examples, both hands appear to be held in this position in order to clap the beat, and the performers are captioned with the word xn [chironomist/ clapping the rhythm] in Figures 2.22 and 2.23, whereas

12 There is no paint left which might have indicated whether the scarf was the red scarf of Hathor, but this is a likely association, given the hymn to Hathor above the scene. Similar short scarves appear on the

Layout dancers in the Mr.f-nb.f and MHw scenes, which have blue and white stripes.

82

PART II: CHAPTER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALUTE different orientations but appears to indicate that the performer on the left is conducting the chironomist on the right. In all three examples from Abusir the dancers are male.

the caption above the scene in Figure 2.24 has d above one performer, aligned in his direction and xn above the other performer aligned in his direction. The spelling dxn13 [chironomist/ conducting] is split by the two

Other

Figure 2.27 Tomb of Nfr, V.M-L, Giza (after Hassan)

Figure 2.28 Tomb of KA.|-Hp: §t|, VI.3-4, el-Hawawish14 Two13 other examples only loosely conform to the style of this genre. While the arm positions in Figure 2.27 conform to the style of this genre, the weight is well forward on the front foot, suggesting a much speedier motion than in any of the other examples. This may indicate a running motion rather than dance. The costume details are not clear, but it appears the dancers are nude.14

Hawawish (This arrangement is also found in the tombs of £n|: Šps|-pw-Mnw, KA.|-Hp: §t|-|qr and §t|.). While the variety of poses represented in the surviving scene suggests that they may be representative of various dances, a group of rhythmists in the register above suggests that the main dance scene would have been placed in that now damaged register. In the surviving scene, two figures, the first (male) and the third (female) standing from the right, have both arms raised in a gesture which may indicate clapping but which has a different hand position to the examples in group 2.c. The last figure (to the left) has one arm raised high in a position similar to that observed in Cluster 2.a1 and the other lowered straight down behind the body. The two male figures at each end of the group wear a short, straight kilt and the female figure, third from the right, wears a long, close-fitting gown.

The scene from the tomb of KA.|-Hp: §t| (Figure 2.28) shows a number of figures in various poses situated at the door of the tomb. The motif of representing a number of dance genres in the same register is not unusual at el13 Hannig, Handwörtebuch, p. 601, has ‘xn|: 2. klatschen (rhythmisch in der Hand) 3. dxn : Takt geben, b. [subst] Chorgesang’. 14 Kanawati, el-Hawawish III, fig. 12.

83

PART II: CHAPTER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALUTE Distribution

Foot height

There are 28 examples included in the sample, most of which are dated to the Vth Dynasty with some examples dating from as early as the IVth Dynasty, from the tombs of _bH-n.| and Mr.s-anx III until the VIth Dynasty, or perhaps even as late as the VIIIth Dynasty, if the variant form found at el-Moalla (Figure 2.26) is included. Most examples occur at Giza, with only three examples found both at Saqqara and Abusir, and a small number of provincial examples at Sheikh Said, Deshasha, Deir elGebrawi and el-Hawawish with one example occurring at el-Moalla.

In Chart 2.3, there are three foot positions: 1) touching or close to the ground, 2) above the ground (at least ankle height), and 3) the weight on the front foot, as distinguished from those examples in which the front foot is placed on the ground, but the weight is clearly supported by the back foot. The bent knee position occurs in only three examples and is an additional entry independent of the foot position. Some examples are too damaged to discern this detail The front feet of the dancers in the Giza examples are on the ground or raised just above it. The dancers in the KA.|m-Hst and Ra-Spss examples have the foot off the ground and in the ¤rf-kA and Is| examples the front feet are raised high with the knees bent.

Distribution of sub-groups Charts 2.1–2.5 illustrate the geographic distribution of various criteria. In each case the geographic location is written along the ‘x’ axis. The ‘y’ value axis, indicated by the height of the columns, shows the number of examples of each genre at various locations. Chart 2.1 illustrates the distribution of variations of this genre. Sub-groups are defined in the legend. Sub-group 2.a occurs at all locations from which examples of the Salute genre are drawn, except for Abusir, el-Hawawish and el-Moalla. Sub-group 2.b occurs at Giza and el-Hawawish. Subgroup 2.c occurs only at Giza and Abusir. Sub-group 2.d is found only at Saqqara and el-Moalla. Two examples with unknown provenance, included in Sub-group 2.a, are listed in the distribution graph under ‘unknown’, but are almost certainly from Memphis.

Costume There are five costume styles worn by dancers performing the Salute genre. Chart 2.3 illustrates the incidence of different costume styles worn by dancers at various locations. The most commonly occurring costume for this genre is the short kilt, either pointed or straight, with no bodice. In Figures 2.22, 2.23, 2.24 and 2.28 the kilt is straight and in all four cases the dancers are male, the dancer with the straight kilt in Figure 2.17 is female. Short, pointed styles on female dancers occur in examples of Salute at all sites except el-Moalla and Deshasha. The short kilt with cross-strap bodice, is represented at Giza, Saqqara, Deshasha and elHawawish. Long gowns are uncommon on dancers in this genre, with only one example, at each of three sites; Giza, el-Hawawish and el-Moalla. The sarong-style kilt occurs only at Deir el-Gebrawi and nudity, is recorded at Giza (although whether this scene should be considered dance is uncertain) and for one dancer in the example from Sheikh Said (Figure 2.15). The costume details are damaged on the Chicago fragment but the style of bodice suggests that these dancers are wearing long gowns. Because this detail is not certain it is entered on the chart as unclear.

Context Figures 2.3, 2.4, 2.17, 2.18 and 2.25 are too fragmentary to be sure of context. The examples from the tomb of QAr (Figure 2.9) and KA.|-Hp: §t| (Figure 2.28) are part of large funerary scenes. Hassan’s description15 of the scene shown in the tomb of Nfr (Figure 2.27) mentions the dragging of large objects on sledges in the registers below the dance scene. Since the architectural details of these objects resemble the motif associated with Buto,16 it is possible that the context for this scene may also be funerary. The Salute Dance scene in the BM fragment (Figure 2.10) occurs on the same register as a Boys’ Game scene, and both scenes are sandwiched between registers featuring fishing and marshland pursuits. The Deir el-Gebrawi examples (Figures 2.16 and 2.17) are also set amongst marshland scenes. The Abusir examples (Figures 2.22, 2.23 and 2.24) appear to be part of Sedfestival scenes. All other examples of the Salute genre appear in presentation scenes.

Accessories Chart 2.4 graphs the incidence of accessories worn by dancers at the various sites from which examples of the Salute genre are drawn. Accessories worn by dancers appear in less than half of the examples of the Salute genre. They appear at Giza only in the Idw, ¤Sm-nfr III, and _bH-n.| scenes, but are present in two of the four Salute scenes from Saqqara, with one scene too damaged to discern. The specific accessories worn by dancers in these pictures are detailed in Chart 2.5. Where dancers are depicted wearing accessories, they are usually wearing more than one type, therefore, a number of examples are

15

Hassan, Giza III, p. 210. 16 The motifs for Buto, Sais and Heliopolis are examined in Chapter 2:7, The Dance of the Mww.

84

PART II: CHAPTER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALUTE entered more than once in Chart 2.5. The most common accessory is the collar, present in eight examples, followed by anklets, present in five examples, and then bracelets, present in four examples. The pendant, star or lotus crown, and disc-weighted tress are each represented in two examples. There are a number of examples, particularly at Giza and Abusir, in which dancers do not wear accessories, while other examples are too damaged to show this detail.

Associations with other genres It has been suggested that this genre is a variation of Dance Style 1,17 and despite the differences in form there are many features the two genres share in common. The leg position is similar, as are the number and arrangement of dancers and rhythmists and the incidence of placement of the orchestra in relation to the dancers. (Orchestral scenes appear next to Diamond. 17

Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 19.

Distribution of sub-groups 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

2a

2b

2c

2d

other

Chart 2.1 Distribution of variations in typology

Foot position of dancers

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

touching or close to ground

above ground

weight on front foot

Chart 2.2 Foot height and knee position of dancers

85

knee bent

damaged

PART II: CHAPTER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALUTE

Distribution of costume styles 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Giza

Saqqara

Abusir

short kilt, no bodice

Deshasha

Sheikh Said Deir el-Gebrawi el-Hawawish

cross-strap bodice

long

sarong

el-Moalla

nude

unknown

unclear

Chart 2.3 Distribution of costume styles Incidence of accessories

accessories

10 8 6

no accessories

4 2 0

damaged Giza

Saqqara

Abusir

Deshasha

Sheikh Said

Deir elGebrawi

el-Hawawish el-Moalla

unknown

Chart 2.4 Geographic distribution of accessories

Regional distribution of accessories

Collar bracelet

10 9

anklet

8 7

pendant

6 5

crown

4 3

disc tress

2 1

no accessories

0

damaged

Chart 2.5 Specific accessories

86

PART II: CHAPTER 2 DANCE STYLE 2: SALUTE Swastika dancers and figures holding batons appear in a number of Salute scenes, suggesting that the Salute genre may be more closely associated with variations of Dance Style 3 than the Diamond genre, which only appears with Dance Style 3 in three scenes (See Chapter 3:a2). Swastika Dance is performed alongside Salute in the tombs of Mrs-anx III, Axty-mrw-nswt, and Int|, and near figures holding batons in the #wfw-xa.f II and ¤rf-kA scenes and one example from the solar temple of N|-wsrRa (Figure 2.24). In the KA.|-m-Hst scene, the rhythmist has the same short, pleated kilt with cross-strap bodice as the dancers, a feature which is only shared by rhythmists in the dance scene from the tomb of Int.| at Deshasha,18 another example which includes the Swastika genre. The short, pleated kilt and cross-strap bodice costume in the KA.|-m-Hst example is another association with Swastika and baton dances, which, like this costume, appear to have originated in Libya.19 Another feature in the KA.|-mHst scene suggesting an association with the Swastika genre is that the front foot of the dancers is raised off the ground. This characteristic is shared with Figures 2.14, 2.15 and 2.19, all of which are directly associated with Dance Style 3 by the appearance of batons or the Swastika Dance form of nearby dancers.

Associations with other genres It has been suggested that this genre is a variation of Dance Style 1,17 and despite the differences in form there are many features the two genres share in common. The leg position is similar, as is the number and arrangement of dancers and rhythmists and the incidence of placement of the orchestra in relation to the dancers. (Orchestral scenes appear next to Diamond Dance scenes in the tombs of ¤xm-kA.|, ¤Sm-nfr II, KA.|-dwA, KA-kA.|-anx and Pth-Htp: I|-anx). There is a similar rhythmic gait to both dance styles and they share the same air of solemn dignity. Captions accompanying examples in both genres are also very similar. Both genres are in the repertoire of xnr performers and they share the dance term |bA, as does Dance Style 9, the Layout. In both genres, most examples have a unison chorus of dancers accompanied by a group of rhythmists. Similar styles of costume are worn in both genres, including the same variations of short kilt with no bodice, nude, short kilt with cross-strap bodice and long gowns. Even the sarong-style kilt, which is found in the Salute Dance scene in the tomb of Is|, makes an appearance in the Diamond Dance scene in the tomb of Mr.f-nb.f.

Example b from the tomb of Is| at Deir el-Gebrawi (Figure 2.16) has both Salute and Pair Dances in the same scene. The Salute genre is placed alongside a Boys’ Game performance in the BM fragment. Figure 2.25, from the tomb of KA-gm-n.|, has a variation of Salute alongside Layout dancers. A number of figures who may be dancers, holding miscellaneous poses, are interspersed with poses which are similar to Salute in the KA.|-Hp: §t| scene (Figure 2.28).

Dancers in this genre often have the usual short-cropped hair, but the lotus wreath, star headdress and discweighted tress appear in isolated examples. Similar variations in hairstyle also occur in Dance Style 1, which also has the disc-weighted tress represented (Idw, MrrwkA.| Figure 1.31, Mr.f-nb.f). The star headdress does not appear in the Diamond Dance genre but another unusual hairstyle, in which a fillet is tied on the head with the ends floating down behind the dancers, occurs in the Diamond Dance scene in the tomb of ¤nfrw-|n-|St.f at Dahshur.

Later Developments This dance style does not appear in the First Intermediate Period, Middle Kingdom or Second Intermediate Period, but it reemerges in the New Kingdom, in a scene depicting the Sed-festival of Amenhotep III in the tomb of £rw.f (TT 192).20 Two scenes from the tombs of QnImn21 (New Kingdom) and Ib|22 (XXVIth Dynasty) resemble the examples from Sub-group 2.c with straight arms and the hands flexed back.

The Diamond and Salute genres never appear together in the same scene. This may indicate that they are two distinct genres or, equally, may indicate that the two poses are so typical of the same dance that either pose may act as a substitute for the other. Another explanation for the similarity between the two genres is that both dances were in the repertoire of the same dance troupes and were performed at the same type of event. The two genres share the same contexts, with most examples occurring in presentation scenes, but there are some examples from both genres, which also occur in funerary contexts. The context of the Salute scene from the tomb of QAr, resembles similarly placed Diamond Dance scenes in the tombs of _bH-n.| and ¡tp-Hr-Axty. All three examples are placed in a funerary context and have captions which include the term HAt. The two examples from Deir el-Gebrawi are placed in marshland settings, a marshland scene appears next to the example from the tomb of ¡m-Mnw, and a clapnet scene is apparent below the KA.|-m-Hst example.

18 This detail is clearer in the lower register shown in Figure 3.4, Chapter 2:3, Dance Style 3. The tombs of Int| at Deshasha and KA.|-mHSt at Saqqara appear to have been contemporaneous since the number of unusual iconographic features they have in common suggests direct influence. Apart from the unusual costume of the rhythmists these tombs are the only two Old Kingdom tombs with depictions of a siege, possibly both record the same event (McFarlane, Mastabas at Saqqara, p. 33). 19 See Chapter 2:3, Dance Style 3. 20 Epigraphic Survey, Kheruef, pl. 63. 21 Davies, Kenamun, pls. 40, 41. 22 Kuhlmann-Schenkel, Ibi, pl. 28.

87

Chapter 2:3 Dance Style 3 - Swastika Pose and dances with batons Typology The second criterion relates to the various batons held by dancers, some of whom perform the Swastika Pose. As not all dances with batons conform to this pose, it is possible that a number of different dance genres are included in this chapter, yet similarities in costume, form and recurrent motifs in examples from different Subgroups, suggest at least some of them may be associated.

The dances examined in this chapter conform to either or both of two criteria. The first is the form of the pose represented, in which the arrangement of limbs resembles a swastika. This is typified by one arm being bent and raised above the head, and the other arm, also bent, held lower, one leg is bent up at the back with the torso twisted around towards it. The very shape of the Swastika form implies a rapid pace and the dances which conform to this shape appear to be sprightly, requiring considerable stamina and flexibility.

Consequently, the dances included here are classified into four main variants, which can be organized into the following categories: Sub-group 3.a -dances without batons, which conform to the Swastika form; Subgroup3.b – Boomerang Dance in which some or all of the dancers hold throwing sticks, executing poses with some resemblance to the Swastika form; Sub-group 3.c – Sistrum Dance, in which dancers hold batons resembling sistra, even though the pose more closely resembles the Salute genre; Sub-group 3.d -static poses with various batons.

There are two variations on this pose. The first has the weight on the front leg and is referred to as Swastika Pose i.

The second has the weight on the back leg and is referred to as Swastika Pose ii.

Sub-group 3.a – The Swastika Pose without batons Cluster 3.a1

Figure 3.1 Tomb of Queen Mr.s-anx III, IV.5-6, Giza (after Dunham-Simpson)

) Figure 3.2 Tomb of Axty-mrw-nswt, V.9-VI.1, Giza (after Decker-Herb)

88

PART II: CHAPTER 3, SWASTIKA POSE AND DANCES WITH BATONS

Figure 3.3 Tomb of Nfr and KA-HA.|, V.6, Saqqara1

Figure 3.4 Tomb of Int|, V.8-9, Deshasha2 Cluster 3.a2 – Solo Swastika dancer with chorus of Diamond dancers

Figure 3.5 Tomb of KA.|-dwA, around V.8, Giza (after Lepsius)

Figure 3.6 Tomb of KA-kA.|-anx, V.8, Giza (after Hassan)

Figure 3.7 Tomb of KA.|-m-anx (G 4561), V.8L, Giza3 1

Drawing, Mary Hartley Kanawati - McFarlane, Deshasha, Pl. 29. 3 Kanawati, Giza I, pl. 35. 2

89

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM fertility and regeneration,5 is prominent in all but the damaged KA-kA.|-anx example. The breasts are also unusually prominent in Figure 3.2 (as they are also in Figures 3.5 and 3.7 from Cluster 3.a2).

Sub-group 3.a – The Swastika Pose without batons Sub-group 3.a consists of dances in which the Swastika Pose is performed without batons. It can be divided into two clusters. In Cluster 3.a1 there are four examples of dances in which Swastika Pose i is performed by a chorus of dancers. In Cluster 3.a2 there are three examples in which this dance is performed by one solo dancer alongside a chorus line of dancers performing the Diamond Pose. In Cluster 3.a2 the solo dancers in two of the examples execute Swastika Pose ii, whereas the other executes Swastika Pose i.

The only example of this genre found at Saqqara is from the tomb of Nfr and KA-HA.| (Figure 3.3). Rather than the unison chorus of dancers facing in the same direction, the two dancers on the right face the two dancers on the left, but the two groups move apart. There are three rhythmists, dressed in long, close-fitting gowns, clapping out the beat. No other dance styles are performed. The female dancers wear short, pleated kilts and a bodice with cross straps, similar to that encountered in the Int| example (Figure 3.4).

Cluster 3.a1 Two examples in Cluster 3.a1 occur at Giza, and one at Saqqara. The upper register of the Deshasha example is also included because it is so similar to the Saqqara example, despite the fact that the lower register features dancers with throwing sticks. Accordingly, this example is also considered in Sub-group 3.b.

The top register of the Int| scene is very similar to the Nfr and KA-HA.|, scene. As in the two Giza examples (Figures 3.1 and 3.2), four dancers to the left are performing a dance similar to the Salute. To the right of this group, six dancers are arranged in two groups of three facing each other but moving apart. Again there are three rhythmists, but here they are dressed in a manner similar to the dancers. This costume and the dynamic stance of the rhythmists, which is characterized by the incline of their torsos and an intense focus, both features which are rarely encountered in depictions of rhythmists, suggest that they are anticipating joining the dance.

The earliest known example of this genre is from the tomb of Queen Mr.s-anx III at Giza (Figure 3.1), dating to the end of the IVth Dynasty. In this scene, three dancers execute the Salute genre, while another four dancers perform Swastika Pose i in unison, while moving in the same direction as the Salute dancers, but with their torsos twisted around to face the other way. The dancers wear short, pointed kilts and no bodice is shown. Behind the seven dancers, three rhythmists clap out the beat. The rhythmists wear long, close-fitting gowns, although the hemline is omitted on the middle performer, making her appear nude. In front of the dancers, bread is being offered, a motif which occurs alongside other examples from the Sub-groups of this genre. The example from the tomb of Axty-mrw-nswt at Giza (Figure 3.2), has three dancers performing Swastika Pose i, and as in the Mr.sanx III example, the dancers are in unison and face the same direction, with their torsos twisted around to face another three dancers performing the Salute genre. The two groups are separated by two rhythmists wearing long, close-fitting gowns. Not shown in the above figure, is the incomplete outline of a seated man to the right of the dancers, who could be an orchestral musician.4 The dancers are nude, although one has the outline of a sheer, short kilt. The frontal depiction of the hips of the dancers is uncommon in the Old Kingdom. However, some close parallels are found in the tombs of KA.|-dwA (Figure 3.5), KA-kA.|-anx (Figure 3.6) and KA.|-m-anx (Figure 3.7), all of which belong to Cluster 3.a2. Perhaps this unusual deviation from the norm indicates an attempt by the artists to emphasize the extreme contortion of the body in executing this pose. In Figure 3.2 and all three examples from Cluster 3.a2 the frontal view emphasizes the nudity of the dancers. The pubic triangle, identified with female

The only caption in this scene is the word Hst [rhythmist/ clapping] which appears above the rhythmists. The lower register of this scene features dancers holding throwing sticks and will be studied with other examples in Subgroup 3.b. Cluster 3.a2 – Solo Swastika dancer with chorus of Diamond dancers Features such as the movement of the dancers in opposing directions as they perform different variations of this genre and the costumes in the scenes from the tombs of Int| and Nfr and KA-HA.|, resemble corresponding features in the scenes represented in Subgroup 3.b. Movement of dancers in opposing directions, a characteristic feature of the scenes in this Sub-group, is an effective device in creating a sense of heightened animation. The three examples in this Cluster are all from Giza and feature a solo Swastika dancer amongst a chorus of dancers performing the Diamond Dance. In these three scenes, differentiation of costume, pose or hairstyle sets the Swastika dancers apart, suggesting that they are featured soloists, performing with a corps de ballet. In all three cases, the solo dancer is nude, whereas the chorus dancers are wearing short kilts, which are straight in the tombs of KA-KA.|-anx and KA.|-dwA, and pointed in the tomb of KA.|-m-anx.

4

For this detail see Smith, History, fig. 198, p. 323, not shown here as it omits the Salute dancers.

5

90

Gimbutas, Language of the Goddess, p. 248 and p. 324, fig. 385.

PART II: CHAPTER 3, SWASTIKA POSE AND DANCES WITH BATONS chorus of/for the two dances]6 in the KA-kA.|-anx scene; Hst |n xnr |bAw [clapping by the chorus of the dancers] in the KA.|-m-anx scene (although this may be incomplete due to damage); Hst n |bAw |n xnr [clapping for the dancers by the chorus] in the KA.|-m-anx scene. It is specifically in these three scenes that the substitution of the word ‘ensemble’ for ‘chorus’7 is particularly relevant to reaching an understanding of the nature of the xnr, since the three scenes include both choristers and soloists, all of whom are captioned as belonging to the xnr.

The soloists in the scenes from the tombs of KA-KA.|-anx and KA.|-dwA execute Swastika Pose ii, whereas in the tomb of KA.|-m-anx, the solo dancer performs Swastika Pose i and wears a pigtail (which ends in a manner similar to the lock of youth rather than the disc-weighted tress) unlike the solo dancers in the other two examples, who have short-cropped hair. All three examples in this cluster have similar captions: Hst |n xnr |bAwy [clapping by the chorus of (i.e. belonging to) the dancers] or if the dual is correct [clapping by the

Sub-group 3.b – Boomerang Dance67

Figure 3.8 Tomb of Int|, V.8-9, Deshasha8

Figure 3.9 Tomb of KA.|-xnt (A3), V.E-M, Hammamiya9

Figure 3.10 Tomb of KA.|-xnt (A2), V.6-8, el-Hammamiya10 6

The appearance of the dual in this example may be due to damage rather than an attempt to specify the two dances being performed. See Chapter I:2, Performers, their Institutions and Titles. 8 Kanawati - McFarlane, Deshasha, Pl. 29. 9 El-Khouli-Kanawati, el-Hammamiya, pl. 67. 10 ibid. pl. 40. 7

91

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM and 3.c is also indicated by the appearance of Swastika Pose ii, in both the Int| (Sub-group 3.a) and Nw-nTr (Subgroup 3.b) examples. The short kilt with cross-strap bodice, which is worn by dancers in both registers of the Int| scene, also appears in examples from 3.a and 3.c. In the Old Kingdom, this distinctive bodice is only worn by dancers performing Dance Styles 1, 2 and 3.

In this variant, dancers in the Swastika Pose hold throwing sticks, some of which are boomerang-shaped while others are zoomorphic in design. Another example which should also be included in Sub-group 3.b, since three of the dancers hold throwing sticks as well as sistra, is found in the tomb of Nw-nTr, which appears below in Sub-group 3.c. It is examined in more depth in Sub-group 3.c because that is the Sub-group with which it has the most in common, and unlike examples in Sub-group 3.b, the pose of the dancers is more like Salute than Swastika.

The scene from the tomb of K3.|-xnt (A3) at Hammamiya (Figure 3.9) is also organized in two registers. In the upper register, two dancers in Swastika Pose ii, holding boomerang-shaped throwing sticks in both hands, pace earnestly in one direction, while another three dancers in Swastika Pose i, a boomerang-shaped throwing stick in each of their raised hands, are in positions placed alternately between the first two, one facing the same way and the other two in opposition. This arrangement resembles that in Figures 3.3 and 3.4 from Sub-group 3.a1, and 3.11 from Sub-group 3.c.

In the scene from the tomb of Int| at Deshasha (Figure 3.8), only the dancers in the lower register are wielding throwing sticks. These throwing sticks have a distinctive gazelle-headed shape and match some ivory implements excavated at Hierakonpolis,11 which are decorated with pictures of animals, perhaps indicating the type of game such a hunting implement was originally intended to catch. The dance as it is depicted in this group of scenes appears to be particularly animated.

The very damaged dance scene depicted in the tomb of KA.|-xnt (A.2) at el-Hammamiya (Figure 3.10) has some features which suggest it should be examined with this genre. The four figures standing to the right of the orchestra are very damaged but do appear to be dancing. The first two figures, standing to the left in long gowns, appear to be accompanying the two figures dancing to their right, who are wearing short kilts. The figure to the left is clapping the rhythm and the figure next to her appears to hold an object. The running motion of the figure to the right is reminiscent of dancers depicted in the tombs of Int| and KA.|-xnt (A3) (Figures 3.8 and 3.9) and the similarity of the KA.|-xnt (A2) scene with these examples suggests that the object in the accompanist’s hands could be a throwing stick. The two more animated figures to the right are wearing short kilts, but the scene is too damaged to be sure whether the remnants of a crossstrap bodice are apparent.

In the tomb of Int|, there are a number of variations in the pose of dancers and in the manner in which sticks are held. In the lower register, the first four dancers have their front legs lifted, with knees bent almost at a right angle. This pose is similar to that in the Salute genre or could be a less energetic version of Swastika Pose ii. The next five dancers, facing the other way and holding throwing sticks in both hands, are in Swastika Pose ii, their torsos leaning energetically backwards, again indicating dynamic agility. The upper register has already been discussed in Sub-group 3.a1, the dancers being quite similar in pose to the examples in that sub-group. The dancers to the right in the upper register execute the Swastika Pose as seen in the examples from Sub-group 3.a, while the others (to the left) hold a pose which bears a greater resemblance to the Salute posture. Each register has three rhythmists wearing the same costume as the dancers. They are clapping out a beat as they lean forward with the intensity of their focus, again suggesting the concentration required for a rapid and complex rhythm and the anticipation of joining the dance. The visual indication of polyrhythmic clapping is also suggested by the variation in hand positions of the rhythmists.12

Three dancers in the lower register of the KA.|-xnt (A3) scene, each holding a throwing stick, execute Swastika Pose i, two face one direction, and the third the other way. A fourth figure, who holds both hands above her head, a throwing stick in each, may have a central pivotal position, similar to that described by Vandier,13 for the dwarf in the Nw-nTr scene (Figure 3.11). This may indicate an association with Sub-group 3.c, which is reinforced by the presence of throwing sticks held by three of the dancers, in the Nw-nTr scene. The Swastika dancers in the KA.|-xnt (A3) scene are not all facing the same direction, again recalling the arrangement of figures in the Nfr and KA-HA.| and Int| examples. This arrangement of dancers running in different directions gives the dance a frenetic character. One other figure, in the bottom, left hand corner, dressed in a short kilt, is a rhythmist. All the dancers in this example appear to be nude.

A number of features in the Int| example suggest an association between the various Sub-groups of Dance Style 3, particularly 3.a and 3.b. Perhaps the most significant feature in this regard is the occurrence of so many poses (Salute and Swastika poses i and ii) in this example. The depiction of dancers in Swastika Pose i, both with and without batons, suggests that variants 3.a and 3.b are associated. The combination of Swastika and Salute, observed in this example, is also a feature common to all examples in Sub-group 3.a1 except the Nfr and KA-HA.| scene. An association between Sub-groups 3.a 11

Capart, Primitive Art, p. 275, fig. 109. For another example of this possibility, see the article ‘Dancing on a Time Line’, Kinney, L. BACE 18, 2007.

12

13

92

Vandier, Manuel IV, p. 404.

PART II: CHAPTER 3, SWASTIKA POSE AND DANCES WITH BATONS Sub-group 3.c Swastika and Salute Dances with sistra

Figure 3.11 Tomb of.Nw-nTr, V.L, Giza (after Junker)

Figure 3.12 Tomb of ¤rf-kA, V.L, Sheikh Said (after Davies) heads twist back to face the same direction. The captions Hswt [rhythmists], above the rhythmists, and |bAw [dancers/dances], above the dancers, are so embedded into the representation of the items on the offering tables, that dance and rhythm appear to be equated with nourishment for the deceased. This idea is further reinforced by the adage |bA nfrw n kA.k [beautiful dances for your ka/ the nfrw (novices) dance for your kA), a phrase which accompanies dance scenes in tombs such as Nb-kAw-Hr.16

In this variant, the dancers hold sistra or sticks shaped like sistra,14 and appear to stride in a stiff manner, arm held forward in a position more similar to the Salute than the Swastika genre.15 This may be an altogether different dance to that represented in Sub-groups 3.a and 3.b, or it may be interpreted as a parody of them, since both examples also contain an element of mimicry or jest. In the scene from the tomb of Nw-nTr at Giza (Figure 3.11), four dancers hold sistra in their raised hands, as well as batons resembling boomerangs held by three of these dancers in their lowered hands. They are parodied by a dwarf who also holds a sistrum. The first four figures in both the Nw-nTr and the Int| scenes are arranged in almost exactly the same manner. A second group of three figures, in the same pose as the first four figures in the lower register of the Int| example, have their bodies facing away from the first group, but their

Such a strong resemblance to the Int| example, suggests that the Nw-nTr scene could be placed in Sub-group 3.b, despite the more pronounced static quality overall. It is examined in this Sub-group because the scene arrangement and the presence of sistra more closely fits into this category. Five dancers, including the dwarf, hold sistra in their raised right hands and three of these dancers hold boomerang-shaped throwing sticks in their lowered hands, suggesting an association with Sub-group 3.b. The other three dancers perform without batons. Unusually, the rhythmists in this scene are kneeling. The headdress worn by the rhythmists and the dwarf resembles that worn by the Salute dancers depicted in the scene from the tomb of _bH-n.| (Figure 2.1), which also features a dwarf,

14

As suggested by Brunner-Traut, Tanz, pp. 27-28, on the grounds that these examples pre-date the Middle Kingdom association of the rattle with Hathor. However, sistra appear to be fully functional in the Old Kingdom (see figure 3.16, dated to the VIth Dynasty) and their association with the Hathoric cult is not necessarily relevant to this genre. 15 Vandier, Manuel IV, p. 404, interprets this implement as the baton of the dance instructor and points out the similar grouping of dancers and leader (or instructress) in the Middle Kingdom example from tomb No. 5, el-Bersha (Griffith-Newberry, El Berscheh II, pl. 14), in which this relationship is more apparent.

16

93

Hassan, Saqqara I, figs 2, 3.

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM and two of the dancers in the marsh scene from the tomb of Is| at Deir el-Gebrawi (example a, Figure 2.16). The scene from the tomb of ¤rf-kA at Sheikh Said (Figure 3.12) can also be identified with Sub-group 3.c, despite the more reserved stance of the dancers, because it is so similar to the example from the tomb of Nw-nTr at Giza. The posture in both examples is markedly upright and staid by comparison to the examples in variants 3.a and 3.b of this genre, while the arm position in the ¤rf-kA example is much closer to that of Salute. As in the Nw-nTr scene, the dancers are parodied, this time by a monkey,17 lending a light hearted joviality to the scene.

featured in both scenes, even though only one dancer, holds a sistrum in the ¤rf-kA example. A more certain association is suggested by the jesting antics of the dwarf and monkey, which add a sense of fun and parody . The association of Sub-group 3.c with Sub-groups 3.a and 3.b is less certain. However, possible links are suggested by similar poses, direction and arrangement of dancers. The scene arrangement of both examples in Subgroup 3.c is similar to that in the Int| and KA.|-#nt (A3) examples both from Sub-group 3.b and the appearance of boomerang-shaped throwing sticks in the Nw-nTr example, suggest a close association between Sub-groups 3.b and 3.c. As well, the pose in the Nw-nTr scene (Subgroup 3.c) is similar to the dancers to the left in both registers of the Int| scene (Sub-groups 3.a and 3.b).

Conclusions There is a clear connection between the two examples in Sub-group 3.c. The dancers in both scenes, except for three dancers in Figure 3.11 who are in the Swastika Pose, have a similar stance, resembling Salute. Sistra are

Sub-group 3.d -static poses with various batons17

Figure 3.13 Tomb of #wfw-xa.f II, V.6, Giza (after Simpson)

Figure 3.14 Solar Temple of N|-wsr-Ra, V.6, Abusir18

17 18

Probably a vervet, commonly known as a green monkey. Borchardt, Ne-user-Re III, pl. 16: 274.

94

PART II: CHAPTER 3, SWASTIKA POSE AND DANCES WITH BATONS

Figure 3.15 Tomb of K3.|-xnt (A2), V.6-8, el-Hammamiya19 Figure 3.16 Tomb of IHy, VI.3-4, el-Khokha (after Saleh)

While the performer in this scene appears in a pose too static for dance classification, she does appear to be an early parallel for the priestesses who impersonate Hathor and are clearly described as dancers by Blackman in the two scenes from Meir.24

Sub-group 3.d is a miscellaneous category for scenes with figures who hold various batons and are represented in poses which, while rather static, could be interpreted as dance or occur in close proximity to dancers.19 The Salute dancers in the #wfw-xa.f II scene (Figure 3.13) are preceded by a figure taking boomerang-shaped throwing sticks from a box, who is probably a dance teacher since she is captioned with the title sbAt [instructress]20. The presence of Salute dancers links this example with Cluster 3.a1 and Sub-group 3.c, and the presence of boomerang-shaped throwing sticks suggests an association with Sub-group 3.b.

Distribution Dances covered in this chapter occur from the late IVth to the end of the VIth Dynasties and are widely distributed, with examples at Saqqara, Giza, Abusir, Deshasha, Sheikh Said and Hammamiya. In all of the above examples, the context is a presentation scene, except for the N|-wsr-Ra example which appears to be part of a Sedfestival scene.25

A fragment from the solar temple of N|-wsr-Ra (Figure 3.14), shows three men with boomerang-shaped throwing sticks, and a fourth performing a gesture associated with the caption xn,21 a word which implies beating the sticks together to create a pulse.22 Similarly captioned figures in the same position, also from the solar temple of N|-wsrRa, have been encountered in Salute Sub-group 2.c.

Costume Chart 3.1 shows costume variations across Sub-groups. The Sub-groups and Clusters are arranged along the ‘x’ axis. The ‘y’ value axis indicates the number examples with each style of costume. Costume style is defined in the legend. There are five costume variations in this genre, and there appears to be a correlation between costume variations and Sub-groupings. Even within Subgroups, substantial costume differences are apparent. In Chart 3.1, the ¤rf-kA scene is entered twice because there are two costume styles worn by the dancers, the tomb of Int| is entered twice because it conforms to both Subgroup 3.a1 and 3.b and the tomb of Nw-nTr is entered three times because it conforms to Cluster 3.a1, and Subgroups 3.b and 3.c. In Cluster 3.a1, costume variations include the short, pleated kilt, with cross-strap bodice; a short, pointed kilt; and nude.

In the example from the tomb of KA.|-xnt (A2) at Hammamiya (Figure 3.15), a man holding clappers above his head precedes four men with bread offerings. This scene is similar to those found in the Middle Kingdom tombs at Meir,23 where bread offering is closely associated with Hathoric ritual. This figure resembles the IHyw priests, identified by caption, who hold Hathorheaded clappers in the same manner in the scenes at Meir, mentioned above. Resemblance to the scenes of Hathoric ritual in the Middle Kingdom tombs at Meir, is also suggested in the scene from the tomb of IHy at el-Khokha (Figure 3.16).

In Cluster 3.a2 all the solo Swastika dancers are nude and the accompanying chorus dancers wear short, straight or short, pointed kilts (not indicated on the graph, since they are not Swastika dancers). In Sub-group 3.b the variations include nude and the short kilt with cross-strap bodice,

19

El-Khouli-Kanawati, el-Hammamiya, pl. 16:274 See Fischer, JEA 67 (1981), p. 167-8. 21 Fischer, Varia Nova, p. 183. and note 76. 22 Hannig, Handwörtebuch, p. 601 xn|: 2. klatschen (rhythmisch in der Hand) 3. dxn : Takt geben, b. [subst] Chorgesang, Faulkener, Dictionary, p. 192: ‘clap of hands, beating time’. 23 Tombs of ¤nb| and his son Wx-Htp, Blackman, Meir I, p. 23, pl. 18 and II, p. 24, pl. 35: 2. 20

24 25

95

ibid. I, p. 23, II, p. 24. Described as such by Fischer in Varia Nova, p. 185.

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM although, since the bodice is not clear in Figure 3.9, this example is entered for the short, pointed kilt style only.

each example with particular costume styles. Costume styles are defined in the legend. Most costume styles occur at Giza. Only the short, straight kilt is absent, although the style is worn by the chorus of Diamond dancers in the two examples from Giza in Cluster 3.a. At Saqqara, dancers performing this genre are either nude or wear the cross-strap bodice and short kilt. The accompanying chorus dancers in the example from Subgroup 3.b from Saqqara wear the short, pointed kilt. At Abusir, the only example has male performers wearing the short, straight kilt and at Deshasha dancers appear only in the kilt with cross-strap bodice. At Hammamiya, nudity and the short, straight kilt are represented and at Sheikh Said, nudity and the short, pointed kilt occur. At el-Khokha, the performer, who may be considered a dancer, wears a long gown. The KA. |-#nt (A2) example is entered for both the cross-strap bodice and the long gown, since the rhythmist-musicians, who are wearing long gowns, appear to be moving as they accompany the dancers.

In Sub-group 3.c, both examples have short, pointed kilts which open at the front. The cross-strap bodice is worn by most dancers in the Nw-nTr scene, but the dwarf wears no bodice. Due to damage, the bodice detail is unclear in the ¤rf-kA scene, however, enough detail remains to indicate that one dancer is nude and that three others have short, pointed kilts, which are open at the front. The female figures with batons in Sub-group 3.d both wear long gowns. Regional distribution of costume style Short kilts are worn by the Dance Style 3 dancers in both tombs at Hammamiya and in the solar temple of Ni-wzrRa at Abusir. Chart 3.2 shows the regional distribution of costume styles. Geographic locations are written long the ‘x’ axis. The height of columns indicates the number of

Costum e variations

4 3 3 2 2 1 1 0 3.a1 nude

3.a2 cross-strap bodice

3.b

3.c

short, pointed kilt

3.d short, straight kilt

Chart 3.1 Variations of costume between Clusters and Sub-groups

96

long gown

PART II: CHAPTER 3, SWASTIKA POSE AND DANCES WITH BATONS

Costume distribution 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 0

Giza

Saqqara

nude

Abusir

cross-strap bodice

Deshasha

Sheikh Said Hammamiya el-Hawawish

short, pointed kilt

short, straight kilt

el-Khokha

long gown

Chart 3.2 Regional distribution of costume styles

Region al in ciden ce of baton s 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Giza

Saqqara

no batons

Abusir

Deshasha

throwing sticks

Sheikh Said Hammamiya

sistra

clappers

el-Khokha

uncertain

Chart 3.3 Regional incidence of various batons 3.b, because it is unclear whether the damaged lines represent a baton.

Batons Chart 3.3 illustrates the regional distribution of the various batons held by dancers performing the variations of this genre. Geographic locations appear along the ‘x’ axis. The height of columns indicates the number of examples with each type of baton. Type of baton and this is defined in the legend. The Int| and ¤rf-kA scenes are entered twice, since they show dancers both with and without batons. The Nw-nTr scene appears a third time, since it has some dancers with both sistra and throwing sticks and others without batons. The Hammamiya example (Figure 3.10) is entered as uncertain, even though it resembles the other two examples in Sub-group

Regional trends are apparent concerning the use of various sticks. Most examples of dancing without batons (Swastika Poses i and ii) are found at Giza, with one example occurring at Saqqara. Swastika dancers without batons also occur in the top register of the Deshasha example and in the Sheikh Said scene. Dances featuring throwing sticks are found at Giza, Abusir, Hammamiya, and Deshasha. Examples with sistra occur only at Giza and Sheikh Said. Only one Old Kingdom example has a figure holding clappers and this is from Hammamiya.

97

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM this genre. That this dance is already recorded in tombs by the IVth Dynasty, suggests it was already well established in the repertoire of dancers and as a part of social custom before the Old Kingdom.33

Context The bread motif The presentation of bread, a motif which is expanded in the Middle Kingdom tombs of ¤nb.| and Wx-Htp at Meir,26 is present in Sub-groups 3.a1 (Figure 3.1) and 3.d (Figure 3.15). The figures presenting bread in these scenes bear a striking resemblance to those in the Meir scenes in which snw bread takes on significance as part of Hathoric ritual, being brought forth in the same manner as the sacred objects of menit and sistra presented by the women in the same scenes. The clappers in Figure 3.15 are held by a male figure who has them raised above his head in a ceremonial manner, which does not resemble the style of the Swastika Pose.

The use of the weapons in some variants of this dance may imply that it has its origin as a hunting or war dance,34 and a New Kingdom example of this genre at Deir el-Bahari35 appears to be performed by soldiers. Perhaps it is due to such origins, that this dance is sometimes pictured performed by men.36 However, there are numerous instances of women performing it, suggesting that by the Old Kingdom or before,37 its significance had already been reduced to that of a diversion or spectacle. Later developments

Evidence of the genre in early writing

Boomerang Dance (Sub-group 3.b) continues into the Middle and New Kingdoms, when development of this style appears to have taken two directions. Dances with batons performed by females, usually very young girls, are stylized and elegant renditions,38 in which the presence of boomerang-shaped throwing sticks, rather than the Swastika bodyline, is the strongest indication of a connection with the Old Kingdom genre.

Despite the paucity of captioned examples in this genre, the form of this dance with boomerang-shaped throwing sticks appears as a determinative for the common dance term |bA 27 in Pyramid text 1947, which reads:

|bA n.k wrS.w28

[the wrSw 29 dance for you].

Yet, depictions of men performing the later versions of this dance retain the dynamic pose and military quality of the dance. A New Kingdom depiction of this dance at Deir el-Bahari39 is accompanied by a caption identifying the dancers as Libyans, suggesting that the origin of the dance may be attributed to Libya.40

This determinative ( ) used for the word |bA is a truncated representation of a person holding boomerangshaped throwing sticks in both hands. Vandier interprets wrSw as warriors and suggests the throwing sticks were used by the king’s bodyguards and that the dance performed by these guards could be linked with their military or para-military function.30 However, the word wrSw is more usually interpreted as watchers and does not necessarily have the connotation of guards in the military sense.

|bAw |n §mHw [Dance by the Libyans] In this scene, men brandishing throwing sticks perform Swastika Poses i and ii, while the accompanying rhythmists use throwing sticks to clap the beat. As well as the caption there are other clues which link this dance with Libya. The boomerang-shaped throwing stick was

Another example of the word |bA written with this determinative is found in the tomb of Iy-mry, where it appears above pair dancers.31 In this instance, a full figure is represented, wielding a boomerang-shaped throwing stick in each hand.

33

Dances with batons were recorded in Predynastic cave sites (e.g. Winkler, Rock Drawings I, pls. 24: 1 and 3,. 27. M266b); at Hierakonpolis, (Quibell-Green, Hierakonpolis, pl. 1:12) and on Naqada II ceramics (Kantor, JNES 3:2 (1944), fig. 8: A-K), which may represent the early stages in the development of this dance. 34 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 74. 35 Naville, Deir el-Bahari IV, p. 2, pl. 90). 36 Naville, Deir el-Bahari IV, p. 2, pl. 90; Newberry, Beni Hasan II, pl. 13. 37 Examples of dances with batons performed by women are found at Hierakonpolis , (Quibell-Green, Hierakonpolis, pl. 1:12). 38 New Kingdom examples include: Gardiner-Davies, Amenemhet, pl. 24, (TT 82), Manniche, Ancient Egyptian Instruments, pl. I, fig. 1 (TT 19); Manniche, Lost Tombs, fig. 1:3 (TT A5); Lexova, Ancient Egyptian Dances, fig. 57 (KA.|, Saqqara); Tylor, Paheri at el-Kab II, pl. 7 (PAHr.|). 39 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, fig. 41. (see also Naville, Deir el-Bahari IV, p. 2, pl. 90). 40 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 29 n. 3 citing Kees, Kulturegeschichte S. 92.

Origin The early appearance of this genre in the IVth Dynasty tomb of Mr.s-anx III and the appearance of the stickwielding figure as a determinative for the words |bA, rw| and wrSw in the Pyramid texts,32 attest the antiquity of 26

Blackman, Meir II, p. 24, pl. 35: 2 & vol. I, p. 23, pl. 18. Only figures 3.5-7 and 3.11 are captioned |bA. 28 Hieroglyphs are from Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 30. 29 The term WrSw is usually translated as ‘watchers’, usually of deities such as Min (McFarlane, God Min, p.301), in which case the wrSw(t) are usually women. 30 Manuel IV, p. 405. 31 The hieoglyphic figure is a detail from Smith, History, fig. 75. 32 Pyramid text 1947, see above. 27

98

PART II: CHAPTER 3, SWASTIKA POSE AND DANCES WITH BATONS the chief weapon used by the Libyans,41 and its use as a determinative in the hieroglyph for the word §mHw [Libyans] suggests this was the country of origin for both the boomerang42 and this style of dance. The costume, which is also identified with Libya has already been encountered in the Old Kingdom examples from the tombs of Int|, Nfr and KA-HA.| and Nw-nTr.

Figure 3.17 Scene from Mastaba of Nfr-bAw-PtH, (after Weeks)

A Middle Kingdom scene of a similar dance at Beni Hassan43 shows a group of soldiers performing a war dance. Their movements bear some resemblance to those of the dancers performing the Boomerang Dance. They are also holding weapons, although here they are not throwing sticks but bows and arrows. A number of these soldiers are wearing the cross-strap bodice which appears to be associated with Libya.

The beating of sticks to create a rhythm is clearly depicted in the later Deir el-Bahari scene.50 This may also have been a feature of the performances depicted in Subgroups 3.b and 3.c, which often show two groups of dancers facing towards or away from each other, one group with batons and the other without (as seen in Figures 3.8 and 3.11). Vandier suggests this configuration may be interpreted as two groups of dancers running in circles, which are concentric but in the opposite direction to the other group and at the moment when the two groups pass, the dancers with batons pass them to the dancers without.51 In cases where the performers of both groups hold batons, it is conceivable that they could be struck rhythmically rather than exchanged as part of the dance. The central circle indicates a dancer who is either stationary or pivots on the spot, such as the dwarf in Figure 3.11,52 or the dancer with two batons raised above her head in Figure 3.9.

Purpose of throwing sticks Except for the KA.|-xnt (A3) example, the batons featured in this genre do not appear to be directly related to the clappers held by accompanists in the dance depictions on the Naqada II ceramics44 or the IHyw priests in Middle Kingdom representations of dance at Meir45 in which the artist clearly depicts/observes two clappers held in each hand. If the throwing sticks in the examples examined in this chapter were used in the same way, it is to be expected they would also be clearly defined in pairs.46 However, it is hard not to imagine that the two sticks (one in each hand) would, at various moments in the dance, be struck together in a percussive manner, as this is a trend in folkloric combat dances all over the world, adding an element of excitement, as observed in Russian Sabre dances, for example.

Wild’s interpretation differs slightly in that he suggests each dancer runs in her own concentric circle, alternating with the opposing circle of a dancer from the other group.53 In this scenario, each dancer exchanges her baton at the moment when the dancer in the opposing circle passes. If this is the case, there would be nine concentric circles in the Int| scene. Vandier argues that this configuration would take up too much space to be practical.54 Also, the outer dancers would have to travel at a much faster pace than the more central dancers in order to pass batons simultaneously. However, it would explain the frenetic character of the dance as depicted in the K3.|xnt and Int| scenes. This would have intensified the suspense generated by the anticipation of the exchange of batons.

In fact there are instances of an Ancient Egyptian dance where this occurs, best illustrated by a depiction from the tomb of Nfr-bAw-PtH (Figure 3.17), which appears to be performed at the harvest and is examined below as a distinct genre.47 Various explanations have been presented to explain this activity: creating noise to scare pests away from the crops, thus ensuring abundance and fecundity,48 or drovers creating a running rhythm to encourage the unloaded donkeys to return for the next load.49

Conclusions While associations can be made between the Sub-groups covered in this classification, it is difficult to tell whether the Swastika Dance without batons records the same dance as those performed with batons. The strongest evidence for such a connection is the occurrence of dancers with and without throwing sticks in the dance scene from the tomb of Int|. Some dancers without throwing sticks in this scene have the same body position

41

ibid. p. 29. For the migration of the boomerang from its Prehistoric origins in the south of France and/or North Africa (in the Tassili Mountains and the Debel Auenat in the Libyan Desert) to Australia, see Garcia-GallowayLommel, Prehistoric and Primitive Art, pp. 251, 253-4. 43 Wreszinsky, Atlas II, figs. 50a: 8 and 9; Newberry, Beni Hasan II, pl. 13. 44 Kantor, JNES 3:2 (1904), fig. 8: A-K. 45 Blackman, Meir I, pl. 2 {2 men in tomb of Snb.|}; ibid. II, pl. 32, p. 24 [|Hwyw is placed before 3 named men Wx-nxt, |y, and … nw, all playing castanets] 46 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 30. 47 Chapter 2: 4 Harvest Dance. 48 Crossley-Holland, Non-Western Music, p. 18. 49 Simpson, Western Cemetery, p. 2. idem., Kayemnofret, p. 18. 42

50

Naville, Deir el-Bahari IV, p. 2, pl. 90). Vandier, Manuel IV, p. 399-400. 52 ibid. p. 404. 53 From an unpublished paper outlined in ibid. p. 401. 54 ibid. p. 404. 51

99

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM as the dancers with sistra in the tombs of Nw-nTr and Srfk3. Yet, variations in form, costume and type of baton, suggest it is possible that more than one genre is included in this classification.

100

Chapter 2:4 Dance Style 4 – Harvest Dance and Siebels, Agriculture in Old Kingdom Tomb Decoration, which is entirely devoted to this topic. Consequently, it is not the objective of this thesis to reexamine such a well researched theme.3 Rather, it is the concern at hand to determine whether this motif represents a dance genre, an agricultural procedure, or a combination of both, in which rhythm and dance are used to lighten the drudgery of labour, in much the same way that work songs have accompanied manual industry across many cultures. Work songs appear to have been a popular accompaniment to many agricultural tasks in old Kingdom scenes.4 Many agricultural scenes have inscriptions above which appear to indicate the work songs chanted or sung by the field workers.5

A motif which frequently occurs in depictions of the agricultural cycle, particularly at Giza and Saqqara, has been considered a type of dance by various writers.1 In this motif, the donkeys used to transport the harvest are driven by a group of men who appear to be running in unison and holding the sticks used to drive the donkeys.2 In some scenes the donkeys are depicted transporting the harvest to the granary and in other scenes they are shown returning for the next load. The sticks held by the men in most of these scenes are long, as seen in Sub-group 4.a, with little evidence of rhythmic accompaniment to the running movement. These scenes appear to depict no more than a routine agricultural procedure. However, in some scenes men are shown clapping shorter sticks together as seen in Subgroup 4.b, or even clapping hands as seen in the tomb of ¡tp-Hr-Axty (Figure 4.14), giving the impression that a lively rhythm is being produced to accompany an exuberant movement, which is executed in celebration of the harvest. In some examples, such as those shown in Sub-group 4.c, there is a combat element, in which two men confront each other with a clashing of sticks.

A number of scenes from Abusir (Figures 4.11-4.13) resemble this genre but as there are no donkeys apparent there is no evidence they are part of the harvest. This genre is also reminiscent of the running male figures in the Boys’ Game genre, which also resemble pictures of the Sed-festival found in the Sun Temples at Abusir, in particular, Figure 8.11 (See Part II: Chapter 8).

There have been a number of works devoted to the study of agricultural scenes, notably Harpur, Decoration in Old Kingdom Tombs, which focuses on agricultural motifs,

3

For a comprehensive list of examples, interpretation of captions and the detailed analysis of visual variations of detail in these scenes. see Siebels, Agriculture I, pp.191-280. 4 Siebels, Agriculture I, p. 173., Harpur lists the following tombs with the motif of flute being played as an accompaniment to work in the fields: KA-Hy.f at Giza, and Mrrw-kA.|, MHw, N|-anx-nswt, Nfr-|rt-n.f, ¡tp-Hr-Axty and §y from Saqqara (Harpur, Decoration, T.8, 42). 5 Siebels, Agriculture I, p. 173.

1

Vandier, Manuel IV, p. 415; Meeks, Oxford encyclopedia, p. 356; Lexova, Ancient Egyptian Dances, p. 23; Saleh, Encyclopedia of Dance, p. 483; Simpson, Western Cemetery 4, Part 1, p. 44. 2 The donkeys in some scenes are still laden.

Sub-group 4.a - Rhyhmic movement with long sticks

Figure 4.1 Tomb of Iy-mry, V.6, Giza (after Weeks)

101

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Figure 4.2 ¤nDm-|b:MH|, V.9, Giza6

Figure 4.3 Tomb of KA|-m-nfrt, V.6-9, Giza (after Badaway)

Figure 4.4 Ra-wr II, V.6-8, Giza 7

Figure 4.5 PH-n-w|-kA. |, Vth Dynasty, V.6-8E, Saqqara8

6

LD II, 73 Lepsius, Ergänzungsband, pl. 25. 8 LD II, 47. 7

102

PART II: CHAPTER 4, HARVEST DANCE

Figure 4. 6 ¡tp-Hr-Axty, V.6-8, Saqqara (after Mohr)

Figure 4.7 Ir|-n-kA-PtH, V.6-9E, Saqqara (after Moussa-Junge)

Figure 4. 8 Idwt, V.9-VI.1, Saqqara9

Figure 4.9 #w-ns, V.8-9, Zawyet el-Amwat10

Figure 4.10 Wr-|r-n. |, V.8-9, Sheikh Said (after Davies)

9

Kannawati, Unis Cemetery II, pl. 59. Varille, Ni-Ankh-Pepi, fig. 7

10

103

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM rhythmic movement, these scenes appear to be representations of an actual agricultural task, rather than a performance. For this reason, not all examples have been reproduced here, such as MHw, VI.2, Saqqara (Altenmüller, Mehu, pl. 24).

Sub-group 4.a - Rhyhmic movement with long sticks Examples in Sub-group 4.a each depict a group of men running with long sticks. In Figures 4.1-10, the men are driving donkeys, In scenes 4.11-13 the donkeys are absent. Most of these scenes feature the returning pack of donkeys, unloaded and without saddles. Exceptions include the ¡tp-Hr-Axty, and #w-ns scenes, in which the donkeys are saddled, and the Ir|-n-kA-PtH example in which the donkeys are laden with the harvest.

Some scenes from Abusir show men running in unison and holding long sticks but there is no indication of donkeys or that they are part of the harvest. They may indicate a dance or ritualised version of the movement and one scene is a part of the Sed-festival relief in the Solar Temple of ¤AHw-Re. The scenes also resemble the Boys Game genre and for this reason they are reproduced in Part II: Chapter 8).

There is no indication that a rhythm is being created by beating the sticks and the movement appears to be slower than in the Sub-group 4.b examples. Despite the apparent

Sub-group 4.b -Rhythmic movement and percussion of short sticks/hands

Figure 4.11 Nfr-bAw-PtH, V.6-8, Giza (after Weeks)

Figure 4.12 ¤A-|b, around V.8, Giza (after Roth)

Figure 4.13 ¤xm-kA.I, V.L, Giza (after Simpson)

104

PART II: CHAPTER 4, HARVEST DANCE

Figure 4.14 ¡tp-Hr-Axty, V.6-8, Giza (after Mohr) and dynamic pace of the men, the rhythmic clapping of sticks and the widespread incidence of dances celebrating the harvest.11 Moreover, donkeys are not apparent in Figure 4.14 and apparently they were never depicted as part of the scene.12 Since there does not appear to be any work related reason for the rhythmic action of the men clapping sticks in this example, it is likely to be a representation of dance.

Sub-group 4.b - Rhythmic movement and percussion of short sticks/hands Examples in Sub-group 4.b show men running in unison and beating short sticks together in a manner which looks rhythmic. Figure 4.14 has a group of men clapping hands rather than short sticks and they are not running. The legs of the men in Figures 4.11 and 4.12 are further apart in these scenes than those in Sub-group 4.a, which suggests the men are running at a faster gait. This Sub-group features the returning pack of donkeys with the exception of Figure 4.11 in which the donkeys are absent and 4.14 in which the donkeys are being loaded.

Even if the movement represented in these scenes were a spontaneous celebratory movement executed at the end of the harvest, they are still depictions of a rhythmic movement expressing an inner exuberance and therefore conform to the definition of dance established in the Introduction. The similarity of scenes in Sub-groups 4.a and 4.b may indicate that the movement represented in Sub-group 4.b is a performed version of the activity represented as part of the harvest in Sub-group 4.a.

One of the most obvious reasons for excluding this as a dance genre, is that choreographically it is almost impossible to count on the co-operation of donkeys. The stubbornness of donkeys is legendary, as recorded by the motif of the recalcitrant donkey with its head down grazing in two of the scenes from Sub-group 4.b (Figures 4.12 and 4.13) and Sub-group 4.c (Figures 4.15 and 4.18).

11 Dances performed in celebration of events in the agricultural cycle, particularly planting and harvest, are performed in many cultures. The Sheaf Dances of Scotland, May Pole and Morris Dances in England (Morris dances are an example of both Harvest and Combat Dance) and the ‘Festival of the New Fruits’ in which the Matabele soldiers dance around the king (Crawley in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics 10, p. 360). 12 Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, p. 21.

Yet, while it is possible most of these scenes are merely recording an agricultural procedure, it is likely that they represent a dance of sorts, given the unison movement

Sub-group 4.c - Combat with sticks

Figure 4.15 Nfr-|rt-n.f, V.6-8, Saqqara (after van de Walle)

105

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Figure 4.16 §y, V.8-9, Saqqara (after Epron-Wilde)

Figure 4.17 KA. |-m-nfrt, V.6-9, Saqqara (after Simpson)

Figure 4.18 Ni-kAw-Hr,V.6-9, Saqqara11

Figure 4.19 Ni-Htp-PtH, VI.E, Saqqara13 Examples in Sub-group 4.c usually show a group of men with long sticks running in unison alongside donkeys while a pair of men confront each other, clashing their sticks in mock combat. In the tomb of KA.i-m-nfrt, the combatants have short sticks, whereas the running men 13

have long sticks. In the other examples from this Subgroup, the combatants have long sticks. Donkeys are laden and transporting the harvest to the granary in the Nfr-irt-n.f and KA.i-m-nfrt scenes, unladen in the §y scene

Lepsius, Denkmäler II, pl. 71a.

106

PART II: CHAPTER 4, HARVEST DANCE donkeys in the returning pack associated with transporting the harvest.23 The phrase has also been translated as ‘assembling the donkeys’.24

and saddled but not laden in the Ni-kAw-Hr scene, which suggests they are returning for another load. The combat element in Sub-group 4.c may indicate a type of dance, since choreographed clashes of this nature are an exciting exhibition of prowess enjoyed by audiences in many cultures throughout the world.14 In particular, these scenes resemble a form of combat dance called karraj, which is widespread in the Middle East today, and involves mock combat with sticks or swords and features pack animals such as camels and horses15 and another combat dance, the Hosseb, performed in Aswan, is also executed with sticks or swords.16

Conclusions There are a number of points in favour of classifying some of these scenes as dance. Dances performed at various times during the agricultural cycle, particularly in celebration of planting and the harvest, occur in many cultures, both ancient and modern, and it is this observation that provides the most substantial support for the possibility that dance forms a component of the activity represented at least in some of these scenes, particularly those in Sub-groups 4b and 4c. Further, there is widespread incidence of martial arts displays resembling the Sub-group 4.c scenes, which, as noted above, are classified as dance, some of which share elements in common with these scenes, such as the association with the harvest, engaging in combat with sticks, and the presence of pack animals.

Combat Dances are linked with agriculture in a number of cultures;17 the combat motif is associated with promoting growth18 and Combat Dances are performed to vanquish evil influences on the crops such as bad weather, pestilence and blight.19 Since there is no other agricultural explanation as to why the donkey drovers would clash in this manner, other than as an exhibition of machismo, the interpretation of these scenes as a form of dance is plausible. Caption The captions accompanying scenes depicting the transport of the harvest have been documented and examined in depth by Siebels with notes regarding alternative interpretations20 and there is little point repeating her work here. Captions do not accompany this genre in the scenes from the tombs of Nfr-bAw-PtH, KA.im-nfrt, PHn-wi-kA.i or in the damaged scenes from the tombs of Idwt, Ra-wr II and Ni-Htp-PtH. The majority of the other scenes in this genre have the term sHAt in the caption, usually as an isolated word or as sHAt aAw. The term sHAt has been interpreted as the word for herd (of donkeys)21 and this is reinforced by the donkey determinative in the PtH-htp II scene. It has also been interpreted as threshing,22 but Siebels observes that the activity represented in these scenes is not associated with threshing but represents the running gait of the 14 Combat Dances occurring in other cultures include the Sword Dance from North-East England, Sabre Dance from Russia, Staff Dances from England, such as Morris Dancing, and Copeira, a martial arts dance from Africa. 15 Al-Faruqi, Dance Scope 11:1 (1976-77), Dances of the Muslim Peoples, pp. 43-44 16 Saleh, Ethnic Dance Traditions, pp. 323-24. 17 Such as Morris dancing and the Dance of new fruits. See above n. 12. 18 Saleh, Ethnic Dance Traditions, pp. 324. 19 Crawley in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics 10, p. 360 20 Captions accompanying the departing pack: Siebels, Agriculture I, p. 233ff, and the returning pack: p. 276ff. 21 WB IV: 209, 9; eselherde, Hannig, Handwøortebuch, p. 734. Simpson, Kayemnofret, p.18, suggests the interpretation ‘herding (donkeys) the sight is beautiful’ for the phrase sHAt nfr mA. The final bird may indicate the word wr, making the phrase sHAt nfr mA wr, ‘A herd of donkeys, very beautiful to see’ (Figure 4.17). 22 Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, p. 48 (in the Iy-mry example); Roth, Palace Attendants, p. 111.

23 24

107

Siebels, Agiculture I, p. 195, n. 5. Montet, Scènes, p. 208.

Chapter 2:5 Dance Style 5 – Pair Dance Saqqara and Giza

Figure 5.1 Tomb of Iy-mry, V.6, Giza (after Weeks)

Figure 5.2 Tomb of Ni-anx-£nmw,V.6-7, Saqqara (after Moussa-Altenmüller)

Figure 5.3 Tomb of Axty-Htp, V.8-9, Saqqara (after Ziegler)

Figure 5.4 Tomb of §fw, V.L-VI.E Dynasty, Saqqara (after Hassan)

108

PART II: CHAPTER 5 PAIR DANCE

Figure 5.5 Tomb of Mrrw-kA.i, VI.1, Saqqara (after Duell)

Figure 5.6 Tomb chapel of Watt-Xt-Hr, VI.1, Saqqara (after van Lepp)1 Deir el-Gebrawi

Figure 5.7 Tomb of Hnqw: £tti, VI.E, Deir el-Gebrawi2

1 2

Drawing, Mary Hartley. Kanawati, Deir el-Gebrâwi I, pl. 40a.

109

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Figure 5.8 Tomb of Isi:¡m-Ra, VI.1-3, Deir el-Gebrawi 3

Figure 5.9 Tomb of Ibi, VI.3-4E, Deir el-Gebrawi 4

Figure 5.10 Tomb of ©aw, VI.4, Deir el-Gebrawi (after Davies)

3 4

ibid. II, pl. 64. ibid., pl. 69.,

110

PART II: CHAPTER 5 PAIR DANCE El-Hawawish

Figure 5.11 Tomb of KA.i-Hp: §ti-iqr, VI.4M, el-Hawawish, H265

Figure 5.12 Tomb of £ni: Špsi-pw-Mnw, Dynasty VI.4L, el-Hawawish, H24 6

Figure 5.13 Tomb of §ti, end VI.L –VIII.E, el-Hawawish, H1497 el-Khokha

Figure 5.14 Tomb of IHy, VI.3-4, el-Khokha (after Saleh)

5

Kanawati, el-Hawawish I, Fig. 12. ibid. IX, Fig. 37a. 7 ibid. VIII, Fig.10. 6

111

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM el- Moalla

Figure 5.15 anx-ty-fy,VI.4-VIII.E, el-Moalla (after Vandier) Dance Style 5 -Pair Dance

Variations in pose

Typology

There is a wide variation in the poses represented in this genre. Usually, a number of poses occur in each tomb and some of these poses occur in more than one tomb, although, on the examples from Deir el-Gebrawi, numerous pairs of dancers execute the same Pair Dance pose in unison. Following is a breakdown of the poses in the Pair Dance repertoire.

Form varies in the poses typical of this genre, making form of pose alone an unsuitable selection criterion for determining this classification. However, taking the grouping of dancers into consideration as an aspect of the form of the dance, the deciding factor in deciding which examples conform to this classification are, firstly, that the dance is performed in pairs and secondly, that the partners have linked hands, often creating a symmetrical form by mirroring each other's movements. However, the dancers in the §ti example and two miscellaneous pairs from the tomb of Watt-Xt-Hr do not have their arms linked, nor are they necessarily performing the same step. The examples are included here because the two poses shown bear a similarity to other Pair Dance poses and they occur alongside other genres, such as the Layout, which also appear close to Pair Dance in other examples.8 The §ti example is also included with the Partnered Pirouette and Partnered High Step poses, because it shows a resemblance to those genres as well.

Pair Pose 1 This is the most common pose in the genre. The far arms (arms farthest from the viewer) are raised with the hands linked, while the near arms (arms closest to the viewer) point downwards and inwards, with open hands. One leg is raised and bent, with the foot held against the back of the knee. It is usually represented with the dancers mirroring each other, as in the tombs of Iy-mry, Axt-Htp, KA.i-Hp: §ti-iqr, #ni:Špsi-pw-Mnw and IHy, but the dancers are facing the same way in the tombs of Mrrw-kA.i and Watt-Xt-Hr. It is performed by only one of the Pair dancers in the tomb of §ti.

The example from the tomb of anx-ty-fy at el-Moalla is included because the dancers are clearly grouped as a pair mirroring each other as they dance. However, it is likely that they are clapping rather than have their hands linked and this suggests a genre which should be distinguished from Pair Dance as defined in this context. In most examples, the dancers are mirroring each other, yet, some Pair dancers in the Mrrw-kA.i and Watt-Xt-Hr scenes and the male Pair dancers in the lower register of the ©aw example, perform the same step, facing the same direction.

Pair Pose 2 In this pose, the arms are placed similarly to those in Pair Pose 1 but with the free hands clenched. The working leg, still bent, is held in front with the foot raised to shin height and held away from the supporting leg. This pose is found in the tombs of Iy-mry, Hnqw-£tti, Isi, Ibi and ©aw.

Both women and men are depicted performing the Pair Dance but not together. While both genders appear performing this genre in the tomb of ©aw, in this instance they are depicted in separate registers. Male Pair dancers appear in the scenes at el-Hawawish alongside female dancers who perform other genres.

8

Figures 5.6, 5.10, 5.11, 5.12.

112

PART II: CHAPTER 5 PAIR DANCE Pair Pose 3

Distribution

In this pose, both Pair dancers step out in the same direction, rather than mirroring each other. The inner arms are held up and bent with the hands linked. The free arms point inwards with the hands clenched. Pair Pose 3 appears only in the Mrrw-kA.i and Watt-Xt-Hr scenes.

The sample includes fifteen examples from Old Kingdom tombs at Saqqara, Giza, Deir el-Gebrawi, el-Hawawish, el-Khokha and el-Moalla. Chart 5.1 shows the distribution of examples; five are found at Saqqara, four at Deir el-Gebrawi, three at el-Hawawish and one each at Giza, el-Khokha and el-Moalla. Most examples occur at Saqqara, with the number of instances diminishing as the geographical distance from that site increases. The earliest examples date from the mid Vth Dynasty but the genre gains popularity as a motif in tomb decoration in the VIth Dynasty and occurs as late as the VIIIth Dynasty in the tombs of §ti and anx-ty-fy.

Pair Pose 4 In this pose, the partners lunge outwards with their faces turned inwards. Their inner arms are raised with linked hands, and their outer arms are lowered and held close to the body, with clenched fists. It is found in the tombs of Iy-mry, §fw, and with bent upper arms, in the tombs of Mrrw-kA.i and Watt-Xt-Hr.

Context The Pair Dance occurs in numerous contexts, including the presentation scene, funerary ritual and the statue procession. In some presentation scenes, the dance is described as being performed by the xnr n pr-Dt [chorus of the funerary estate], as it is in the tombs of KA.i-Hp: §ti-iqr and £ni:Špsi-pw Mnw, while the scene from the tomb of Iy-mry has, m Hb nb Dt [at every festival eternally], all of which suggest funerary themes. This implies that the presentation scene could also be interpreted, at least in some cases, as the funerary banquet and such scenes may also be considered as part of the funerary ritual.

Pair Pose 5 This pose is similar to Pair Pose 4, with the dancers back to back but, in this case, the arms are lower. It occurs only in the tomb of §fw.

Pair Pose 6

Tombs with Pair Dance scenes in the context of the presentation scene

Pair Pose 6 is another back to back pose with the backs of the dancers’ heads touching. The raised arms are bent, with the hands linked above the head and the other arms are held straight down, with the hands linked. This pose occurs in the Mrrw-kA.i and Watt-Xt-Hr scenes. The action suggests that the partners are turning a full circle, back to back, with the hands linked. It is included in the Partnered Pirouette genre, 6.a2.

Iy-mry Ni-anx-£nmw Mrrw-kA.i Watt-Xt-Hr KA.i-Hp:§ti iqr £ni:Špsi-pw Mnw §ti

Giza, G6020 Saqqara, UPC Saqqara Saqqara el-Hawawish, H26 el-Hawawish, H24 el-Hawawish,H149

V.6 V.6-7 VI.1 VI.1 VI.4M VI.4L VI.L-VIII.E

The only example of this genre known at Giza appears in the Vth Dynasty tomb of Iy-mry, in which the dance occurs as part of the presentation scene. Here, the dancers are depicted in three distinct, rather static poses (Pair Poses 1, 2 and 4). The static rendering of the dance suggests greater emphasis has been placed on the precise recording and labelling of the pose, rather than capturing the dynamic quality of the dance. Another early example is that of Ni-anx-£nmw at Saqqara, in which the Pair Dance is performed as part of the presentation scene, with other items such as orchestral music and the Diamond Dance.

Pair Pose 7 Pair Pose 7 is a kneeling pose with the same arm position as Pair Pose 2. It occurs in the tombs of Ni-anx#nmw and £ni:Špsi-pw-Mnw. One of the dancers in the tomb of §ti is in a similar position. A dancer to the left of this figure, in the tomb of Ni-anx-£nmw, suggests a similar pose is executed by another pair of dancers, but with the raised arm in a lower position.

The most striking example is that from the VIth Dynasty chapel of Mrrw-kA.i’s wife, Watt-Xt-Hr, at Saqqara, which has far more space and detail dedicated to dance than any other Old Kingdom scene. This scene has five registers

113

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM The example in the Mrrw-kA.i chapel of the same mastaba has this dance and the Diamond Dance performed before a statue of Mrrw-kA.i. Six rhythmists accompany the eight male dancers, who execute a series of four movements. The first three poses are the same as the first three in the Watt-Xt-¡r example (Pair Poses 3, 1, and 6), and the fourth (Pair Pose 4), is nearly the same but differs in the direction of the head of one of the dancers.

depicting dances which are performed before Watt-Xt-Hr, who is seated to the right above the doorway on the North wall of chamber B3. Pair Poses 1, 3, 4 and 6 are represented, as well as a series of movements on registers 3 and 5 which are not necessarily Pair Dance, that appear to have no parallel in other tombs (see below, Figures 5.16). The dancers are female and wear the disc-weighted tress, as do most other females shown performing this genre. The steps are represented as being lively in character, emphasizing the dynamic quality of the dance, a characteristic of the Pair Dance when performed by women.

Two pairs of dancers from the lowest register of the WattXt-¡r example perform poses which are unique to this scene (Figure 5.16). The dancers on the left perform poses which are almost symmetrical while the pair on the right are moving away from each other and executing different poses.

The series of steps shows quite a complex range of movements, which is in strong contrast to so many other Old Kingdom dance scenes in which numerous dancers perform the one step in absolute unison. Even the Layout step, depicted in register 4, is not represented as a unison chorus, but is shown in sequence with the Stride genre. The artist appears to be depicting more than one concept simultaneously, not only number and variation of poses but perhaps also sequence. Other scenes which feature Pair Dance alongside Layout are found at Deir elGebrawi (Figure 5.10) and el-Hawawish (Figures 5.11 and 5.12).

The examples at el-Hawawish have some regional distinguishing features. They are all performed as part of the presentation scene and they are accompanied by harpists as well as rhythmists. The el-Hawawish scenes all have a number of dance forms depicted on the same register. The dance styles featured with the Pair Dance are Layout, in all three cases, and Diamond Dance in the tombs of KA.i-Hp:§ti-iqr and £ni:Špsi-pw-Mnw. The VIth Dynasty tombs of KA.i-Hp: §ti-iqr and £ni:Špsipw-Mnw at el-Hawawish, each have a pair of dancers posed in perfect symmetry with linked hands. The less typical Pair Dance in the tomb of §ti also occurs as part of the presentation scene. In this example, the Pair dancers are not symmetrical and their hands are not linked. Singly, they perform Pair Pose 1 and a variation of Pair Pose 7.

The comprehensive and varied record of dance steps or sequences of steps in the chapel of Watt-Xt-Hr, suggests this is the world's earliest instance of choreographic notation. The importance of depicting numerous different poses is emphasized by the accompanying captions which appear to be particular to each pose, thus implying that there is symbolic or ritual significance attached to the individual poses. In Figure 5.16, the dancers are performing in almost mirrored symmetry, but without their hands linked. The dancer on the left in Figure 5.16 holds a leg position resembling the High Step.

Figure 5.16 Two partnered dance figures from the Tomb of Watt-Xt-Hr, VI.1, Saqqara9

9

van Lepp, Abstracts ICE 4 (1985), fig. 1.

114

PART II: CHAPTER 5 PAIR DANCE

Di stributi on of Ol d Ki ngdom Pair Dance examples 6

Giza

5

Saqqara Deir el-Gebrawi

4

el-Hawawish

3

el-Khokha el-Moalla

2 1 0 Giza

Saqqara

Deir elGebrawi

elel-Khokha Hawawish

el-Moalla

Chart 5.1 Distribution

Tombs with Pair Dance scenes in the context of funerary ritual

this genre. They face inwards, their pose, though damaged, suggests that they are Pair dancers.

Hnqw:£tti Isi;¡m-Ra Ibi ? ©aw

The dance scene in the tomb of Isi appears loosely connected with the funerary procession which is depicted in the register above. This example has an outdoor setting and it occurs between scenes depicting fetching herds from the marshes, possibly for the funerary feast, and the banquet preparations shown in the registers below. The two pairs of dancers both execute Pair Pose 2, while another two dancers execute a step, which could be interpreted as a variation of the Salute genre. As in the scenes from el-Hawawish, these dancers are accompanied by harp.

Deir el-Gebrawi, 139 Deir el-Gebrawi, 72 Deir el-Gebrawi, 8 Deir el-Gebrawi, 12

VI.E VI.1-3 VI.3-4 VI.4

The Pair Dance scenes at Deir el-Gebrawi all appear close to funerary or other ritual scenes. The nature of the dance has a more dynamic quality at this location than in representations found in other regions. The very fragmentary scene from the tomb of Hnqw:£tti at Deir elGebrawi is in three registers. As Hnqw:£tti is present at the performance, it may not necessarily be funerary in context,10 although, the leopard skin dress he wears suggests a ritual context. At the top, a pair of female dancers executes an animated rendition of Pair Pose 2. The dynamic nature of the movement is indicated by the angle of the supporting leg, and the demi pointe position of the supporting foot. The middle register has two female rhythmists in long gowns and the bottom register has another pair of female dancers. The dancers in the bottom register have short-cropped hair rather than the disc-weighted tress worn by all other female dancers in

The dance scene from the tomb of Ibi, also at Deir elGebrawi, comprises four pairs of female dancers and one single dancer, all performing Pair Pose 2. There is a register of male rhythmists below the female Pair dancers, although none of the men are dancing. This scene appears to be a record of Ibi being carried on a palanquin during an official tour of inspection in his lifetime, which suggests it could be viewed as distinct from the funerary scene below.11 The example from the tomb of ©aw at Deir el-Gebrawi (VIth Dynasty) captures this dance at its most dynamic. In the top register, two pairs of female dancers perform Pair

10 It is likely that the funerary scenes in tombs in general are funerary ritual, rather than depictions of the actual funeral. The main argument for this view is the presence of the tomb owner, still alive, in the scene interpreted as being that person’s funeral, as observed in the tomb of #ni at el-Hawawish, (Kanawati, Tomb and Beyond, pp. 121-22).

11 Davies, Deir el-Gebrâwi I, p. 15, gives the dance scene’s close proximity to the funeral as reason to associate the two scenes, but they could just as easily be viewed as distinct themes.

115

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Pose 2, and three other dancers execute High Kicks, similar in height to the Layout pose, but without the backward tilt of the torso. (One of these three dancers is too damaged to distinguish whether the high kick is being performed but, as there is only one leg shown on the ground, it is probably the same pose.) Below, eight rhythmists accompany two pairs of male dancers in the lower register and the other three dancers executing High Kicks in the upper register. The athleticism of the dancers and the nudity of the women are the most striking features of this example. The dynamic quality of the dance is emphasized by the height of the dancers’ working legs and the supporting feet raised to demi pointe, as well as the incline of the dancers’ bodies. This dance scene occurs above three registers depicting the funerary procession of ©aw, to which it appears to belong.

Tombs with Pair Dance scenes in the context of the Statue Procession Axty-Htp §fw IHy

Saqqara, UPC Saqqara, WSP el-Khokha, no. 186

V.6-9 V.L-VI.E VI.3-4

In the above three examples, the Pair Dance is performed at the head of the statue procession. Only one pose, Pair Pose 1, is shown in the Axty-Htp scene. The mastaba of §fw at Saqqara has a fragmentary example of this dance, in which the dancers appear in front of two registers representing the statue procession. In both poses recorded here (Pair Poses 4 and 5), the dancers face away from each other. Three poses appear in the IHy scene; two dancers execute Pair Pose 1, two other dancers face them executing the Stride Step and another performs a solo step, which resembles the Pirouette genre.

Tombs with pair dancing performed alongside other dance genres Ni-anx-£nmw Watt-Xt-Hr Isi:¡m-Ra ©aw KA.i-Hp:§ti iqr £ni:Špsi-pw Mnw §ti IHy

Saqqara, UPC Saqqara Deir el-Gebrawi, 72 Deir el-Gebrawi, 12 el-Hawawish, H26 el-Hawawish, H24 el-Hawawish, H149 el-Khokha, no. 186

V.6-7 VI.1 VI.1-3 VI.4 VI.4M VI.4L VI.L-VIII.E VI.3-4

A transition from Pair Pose 1 into the Pirouette sequence appears to be captured in the Old Kingdom tomb of IHy, in which both steps (Pirouette and the Fouetté preparation) appear. It is notable that the IHy example, which is placed in the context of the statue procession, resembles the Pirouette and Stride sequence of later similar examples at Beni Hassan, which are also placed in the context of the statue procession.

Diamond Layout, Pirouette, Stride Salute Layout Diamond, Layout Diamond, Layout Layout Pirouette, Stride

Layout scene, sandwiched between registers of Pair Dance and other dance steps, all of which appear to represent a sequence, suggests it is part of the same dance (see also Chapter 2:9, the Layout). The same can be said for the Pirouette sequence in register 3 and the other dances occurring in registers 3 and 5 which have no counterpart anywhere else. The Pirouette, Kick and Stride genres are also associated with this genre in the tomb of IHy.

There is a high incidence of Pair Dance represented with other dance genres, in particular the Layout, suggesting that the two dance forms may be related. In the Ni-anx£nmw scene, two dance performances occur on the same register, of which the Pair Dance is performed by males accompanied by male rhythmists, whereas the Diamond Dance is performed by women accompanied by female rhythmists. Because the two dances are performed by different genders, they appear to be separate items performed at the same event. The two dance scenes are further separated by placing the rhythmists accompanying the Pair Dance scene between the two scenes, facing away from the Diamond dance scene, thus creating a barrier between the two.

The Pair Dance scenes in the tombs of ©aw and Isi at Deir el-Gebrawi also have mixed genres. The scene in the tomb of ©aw incorporates a Layout variation (also classified as Kick, see Chapter 2:6.c), and the scene from the tomb of Isi has a step that appears to belong to the Salute genre. At el-Hawawish the Pair Dance appears alongside performances of the Layout and Diamond genres in all three examples, and alongside Diamond Dance in the tombs of £ni:Špsi-pw Mnw, and KA.i-Hp:§ti-iqr. The occurrence of the Layout with the Pair Dance in five examples12 indicates that there may have been an association between these two genres. The Stride genre

Since the Watt-Xt-Hr scene has the Layout and Pair Dance depicted on separate registers, they may be intended to be read as separate performances. Yet the position of the

12

116

Watt-Xt-Hr, ©aw, KA.i-Hp:§ti-iqr, ¡ni: ¥psi-pw-Mnw, §ti.

PART II: CHAPTER 5 PAIR DANCE focusing more on the accomplishments of the tomb owner.

also appears near the Pair Dance in the tomb of Watt-Xt-Hr and next to the Pirouette and Stride genres in the tomb of IHy.

The fragmentary inscription above the dance scene in the mastaba of §fw can be reconstructed as :

The placement of dancers and the pose depicted (Pair Pose 1) in the IHy and Axty-Htp scenes and the solo step in the IHy scene appear to fuse into a Pirouette sequence, an arrangement which endures beyond the Old Kingdom, appearing in later statue procession scenes.13

...Htp di n[swt] n Xri-tp nswt §fw imAxw xr [An offering which [the king]…gives to the chamberlain of the king, §fw, the Honoured one by…]15

Caption and pose In the tomb of ©aw, the caption between the two registers of Pair dancers reads:16

There are numerous poses represented in this genre, which have been categorized in the typology at the beginning of this chapter. Poses in this genre are usually accompanied by captions. The captions in each tomb vary for each pose represented and this suggests that each pose was named and had some significance in the accompanying ritual.

xbt in xnr(w)t Sma in Smaw n Dt [Dancing by the chorus and clapping by the rhythmists for eternity/ of the funerary estate].17 The word Sma was employed extensively in the New Kingdom as a title for temple personnel (Smayt) who specialized in musical performances, but the word is unusual in the Old Kingdom. The same word appears above one of the ‘Pair’ dancers in the tomb of §ti. This could be taken as the name of the dancer,18 but is in a position which could also indicate it is the title of the dancer.

As may be expected in scenes from the same mastaba, the Mrrw-kA.i and Watt-Xt-Hr examples have some poses in common, yet the captions are different. The four Pair Dance poses seen in the Watt-Xt-Hr, Mrrw-kA.i and Iy-mry scenes establish that there was a certain order of movements in this dance, each with a specific caption which sheds some light on the purpose of this dance. Curiously though, even when the caption is almost identical in a number of tombs, the pose represented is not necessarily consistent. This may imply that the significance of the caption is more widely understood than the corresponding choreography or visa versa.

A number of inscriptions accompanying Pair Dance scenes follow a similar formula. Typically, they commence with the particle mk (behold) followed by Trf (the dance step/pose), then iTt (bringing or presenting) and then the noun appropriate to whatever item is being described by, or associated with, the particular pose represented, sometimes preceded by the genitival nt.

Hickmann suggests the discrepancy of caption and pose, between scenes of Pair dancers from tomb to tomb, is perhaps due to the stone carvers being unaware of the specifics of choreographic terminology,14 yet trends indicate that the differences are also influenced by the gender of the dancers and regional and chronological distribution. Lack of consistency of captions may also reflect a lack of knowledge of this particular ritual by the artist, or the form of the pose may not have been as significant as the verbal expression of the ritual being observed.

Captions referring to gold The first caption identifying one of the three core movements of this dance is called mk Trf iTt nbw, perhaps meaning ‘Behold the gold movement’19 or, ‘Behold the dance of seizing gold’.20 This caption appears in the following two tombs and there is little difference between them. The phrase mk Trf iTt nbw accompanies Pair Pose 2 in the tomb of Iy-mry and the similar

Captions

phrase

Some captions accompanying Pair Dance scenes focus on the titles identifying the tomb owner and the activity and vocation of the performers, rather than describing the dance itself. The captions accompanying the scenes in the tombs of £ni: Špsi-pw-Mnw and KA.i-Hp:§ti-iqr at elHawawish are given in full in Chapter 2:9, The Layout, but they shed little light on the nature of the dance,

mk iTt nbw, accompanies Pair Pose 6

15 Hassan, Saqqara II, p. 108 has Htp di n Xry-tp nswt §fw imAxw xr [a boon given to the liegeman of the king, Thefw, the honoured one by...]. 16 Davies, Deir el Gebrâwi II, pl. 7. 17 The terms Sma and Smaw are translated by Davies (Deir el-Gebrâwi II, p. 21) as ‘singing by the singers’ and could also be translated ‘music by the musicians’, however since only clapping is depicted, the words ‘clapping by rhythmists’ have been employed in this instance. 18 Kanawati, el-Hawawish VIII, p. 26. 19 van Lepp, ICE 4 (1985), p. 390. 20 Adapted from Badawy, 'Ankhm'ahor, p. 40.( Behold the gold movement of the trf dance ) and van Lepp, ICE 4 (1985), p. 390. (Behold the dance of seizing the golden one). 20 Weeks, Cemetery G.6000, p. 44.

13 MK: Newberry, Beni Hasan I, pl. 29; ibid. II, pl. 13; ibid. pl. 15; ibid. pl. 17; ibid. pl. 7; NK: Davies, Kenamun, pls. 39, 40. Both the Stride and the Pair Dance genres appear as part of the statue procession in the New Kingdom Theban tomb of Ibi (Kuhlmann-Schenkel, Ibi, pl. 28). 14 Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-55), p. 185.

117

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel. The term iTt in the Old Kingdom has the possible extended meaning of ‘presenting’ when used in the context of bringing offerings. Its use is not confined to animal offerings, and therefore, could also encompass the concept of music and dance as offerings, so that in this context itt may have an added connotation beyond meaning merely ‘to bring’ (or ‘to seize’).21 Given this, perhaps the captions could be translated as: ‘Behold, the dance or movement of presenting gold’. The word order for the terms iTt and nbw in these two examples suggests honorific transposition and since the golden one or gold goddess is Hathor, this could also be taken as a formula to invoke Hathor.

the Iy-mry scene: iTt ibA xt nb(t) nfrt n rx nswt imy-r pr Hwt- aAt Iy-mry m Hb nb Dt, which has been translated by Weeks as; ‘Presenting the dance and every good thing for the acquaintance of the king, Overseer of the house and the Administrative District, Iy-mry, at every festival eternally’.29 Apart from beautiful things and the nfrt-bark, there are also a number of references to nfrt, [the beautiful]. A caption in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel, accompanying Pair Pose 4, resembles the example from the tomb of Ibi. It reads:

Van Lepp puts forward the suggestion that the Pair dancers in this pose form a shape which closely resembles the hieroglyph for gold.22 By drawing lines over the image of the dancers and reducing their poses to straight lines, the resultant linear compression of the

mk iTt nfrt [Behold! Presenting/fetching the beautiful…] then damage obscures the text. The similarity to the Ibi example suggests it may have continued with the boat determinative, also referring to the nfrt-bark, however, the Watt-Xt-Hr caption may instead refer to the nfrwt, a group of novitiate performers associated with the xnr and the SnDt,30 particularly as another caption in this scene refers to the secret of the xnr.31

image resembles the symbol.23 This configuration is visible in the Iy-mry and Watt-Xt-Hr examples,24 despite the fact that they each have quite different poses. As the dancers in the Mrrw-kA.i and Iy-mry examples have the accompanying phrase, ‘Behold, the gold movement’, and ‘Behold, the dance of presenting gold’, both of these captions provide support for his argument. However, this shape can also be identified in the Ibi, IHy and ©aw examples, which do not have this caption. By forming a shape that symbolizes gold, perhaps the dancers invoke Hathor’s presence or impersonate her.

A caption which also mentions nfrwt (xt) [good or beautiful (things)], appears in the tomb of IHy: Int nfrwt … Hr n smr waty Xry-Hbt rn.f Ihy. [Bringing beautiful (novices?/things) before the sole companion and Lector, his name is (IHy)].32

Captions referring to the bark and beautiful things

Captions referring to pillars and planting

A second caption appears, accompanying Pair Pose 1, in mk the Axty-Htp example. It reads: Trf iTt nt wiA [Behold, the movement of presenting (or fetching) the bark].25 Another

version

of

this

The caption mk Trf wxA [Behold, the movement of the pillar],33 accompanying Pair Pose 1, 29 It is also translated as: Taking (or performing) the dance of every good thing (or occasion, act) for the Acquaintance of the King, Overseer of the Administrative District, Iymery, at every festival, forever and by Janssen as: Bringing the dances (dancers) and every good thing to the King’s Acquaintance, Overseer of the Palace, Iy-mery, in the festival of eternity– both cited in Weeks, Cemetery G.6000, p. 44. 30 The role of the nfrt is examined in Chapter 1: 2, Performers, their Institutions and Titles. 31 Other translations include: Tanz des Suchens - Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 78, meaning dance of those who seek and Badawy, 'Ankhm'ahor, p. 40, the rapt of the beautiful. 32 Saleh translates this as, ‘Bringing of beautiful [things] before the sole companion and Lector, his beautiful name is [IHy]’ (Saleh, Tombs at Thebes, p. 26). 33 Other translations include: ‘Behold, the movement of casting off (earth)’ or perhaps ‘Behold, the movement of emptying out’ (in the sense of purifying). WxA may be connected to words meaning shaking, beating, jittering (this would be consistent with Badawy's translation of Behold the dances of "jittering", if the same word is being translated). Other possible meanings are throwing (earth) off oneself or the concept of emptying out or purging – Throwing (earth) off oneself is the meaning for wxA found in the Pyramid Texts, No. 654, 1878-see Faulkener, Dictionary, p. 67). Alternative translations include Behold the trf movement (or dance), Reisner-Behold, dancing the movement called WxA. Both from Weeks, Western Cemetery G.6000, p. 44. Hannig, Handwörtebuch, p. 213 has ‘dance position’ (Tanzstellung).

caption

mk Trf iTt (nt) nfrt27 [Behold, the movement of presenting (or fetching) the nfrt-bark] appears in the Late Period tomb of Ibi (T. 36).28 ,26

Another caption which mentions nfrt, but in this case referring to ‘all good things’ (xt nb nfrt), appears above 21

Nord, Dunham Studies, p. 141, Note 41. van Lepp, ICE 4 (1985), p. 390. 23 ibid. 24 ibid. Fig. 4., p. 391. 25 Or alternatively, seizing the boat - Badawy, 'Ankhm'ahor, p. 40. Other translations include: Behold the trf movement of/for the sacred bark (journey?)- Weeks, Cemetery G.6000, p.44. 26 Transcript from Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 85. 27 The word nfrt is determined by a bark, and consequently translated as nfrt-bark but the word nfrt is not attested elsewhere as a name for a bark. 28 The text is damaged in Kuhlmann-Schenkel, Ibi, fig 28, but Wilkinson’s original (complete) transcript and sketch of the scene is shown in pl. 98 of the same publication. 22

118

PART II: CHAPTER 5 PAIR DANCE appears

in

the

tomb

of

Iy-mry.

The

phrase

mk wdt m (?) [Behold, the planting of/with….],34 appears with Pair Pose 6, in the tomb of Mrrw-kA.i. The last figure ( Aa 7) is uncertain and enigmatic, but does bear a resemblance to a plough. The notion of planting may relate to erecting the column in the Iy-mry example.

Thebes, T. 84 (after Settgast)

The above two captions may be an allusion to the theme appearing in later pictures of men in pairs, holding a pose very similar to Pair Pose 2, but with both feet placed on the ground, who seem to be erecting pillars at the door of the tomb in funerary scenes. A number of mww scenes, which appear to have some thread of connection with the Pair Dance (see below, this chapter), also have two obelisks prominently placed outside the hall of the mww.35

Nb-Imn, Thebes, T. 179 (after Settgast)

The notion of ‘planting the pillar’ is further elaborated in a scene from the tomb of Rx-mi-Ra, in which the action of hoeing the ground is depicted, followed by the abovementioned picture of ‘planting’ pillars. This sequence of hoeing and ‘planting’ occurs in T. 100, T. 125 and T. 179 and perhaps T. 96B (in this last scene, the hoeing implement is different).

¤n-nfr, Thebes,T. 96 b(after Settgast)

Table 5.1: New Kingdom tombs with the ‘pair planting the column’ motif

Imn-m-Apt, Thebes, T. 276 (after Settgast)

PAHr.i, el-Kab36

_wA-nHH, Thebes, T. 125 (after Settgast) In the tomb of PA-Hr.i at el-Kab (shown on the left), the erection of the pillar appears next to the mww dancers, who are performing a Pair Dance at the door of the tomb.

Rx-mi-Ra, Thebes, T. 100 (after Settgast)37

34 The interpretation of planting was suggested by V. Walden, personal correspondence, 9/10/02. This would then make the translation ‘Behold, the movement of planting with the plough’ and this action is illustrated in the New Kingdom tombs of PA-Hr.i at el-Kab, and Rx-mi-Ra and Imnm-Apt at Thebes. 35 Tyler, Renni, pl. 13 and the tombs of Paheri (el-Kab) and T. 81, T. 21 (Thebes) in Settgast, Bestattungsdarstellungen, pl. 5; Davies, JEA 11 (1925), pl. 5 (Thebes). 36 Tylor-Griffith, Paheri, pl. V. 37 Unless otherwise stated/credited, figures in T5.1 are drawn from Settgast, Bestattungsdarstellungen, pl. 10.

Figure 5.17 Tomb of PtH-Htp (after Lepsius) 38 38

119

LD II, 101b.

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM down and most appropriately for this context, being born every day.47 A phrase in the Book of two Ways; ‘(as) the fly flies, Osiris lives’, alludes to the resurrection of Osiris and the perceived similarity with flies ‘being born every day.’48

In the Old Kingdom, a similar pose is held by figures on the funerary barge in the funeral of PtH-Htp (21), although this appears to be beside the statue shrine, rather than a column. This establishes an Old Kingdom example which correlates to the later examples of the mww type 3 poses shown in T5.1.

Captions referring to separation

Captions referring to the mystery of birth, rebirth and regeneration

The caption mk snwD wat appears in the tomb of Iy-mry, and can perhaps be translated ‘Behold the thrusting aside, (being) made sole (single, lone)’.49 It is appropriate to Pair Pose 4, which shows the two dancers lunging away from each other. This may be a clue to one of the fragmentary captions in the tomb of §fw which reads:

The scene in the Watt-Xt-Hr Chapel is more extensive and varied than the other scenes and has a number of other captions, most of which are rather faint. Two captions which are legible occur in the two registers below the two Pair Dance registers. Roth interprets them:

mk… wat …n(?) [behold… alone]. This accompanies Pair Pose 5, which also shows Pair Dance partners lunging away from each other.

‘mk kkw39 Hbt mswt [Behold! darkness is the abomination of birth]’.40 (This caption particularly connects the concepts of dance and birth).

The dancers in Figure 5.17 from the Watt-Xt-Hr Chapel also appear to be moving apart, their bodies are facing away from each other but they have their heads turned back towards each other. The caption accompanying this pose begins with rdii fdk [make separate]. This is particularly appropriate when considered in the context of the birthing interpretation accorded the complete scene by Roth.

mk sStA n xnrt [Behold the secret (mystery) of the xnrt ]41. Another similar caption, which appears in the same chamber of the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel, reads: mk swt sStA n xb.t42 [Behold, however, the secret of dance].

Dancers

These last two captions may be related, since it is the xnrwt who perform the dances in many Old Kingdom scenes and are implicated in the arts of midwifery.43

The majority of examples of Pair Dance feature male dancers, however, women perform this dance in the scenes at Deir el-Gebrawi and in the Watt-Xt- Hr chapel at Saqqara. Gender of dancers appears to influence the nature of this dance. At Giza and Saqqara a more solemn mood is predominant with most examples performed by men. Of the Memphite examples, this dance is only performed by women in the chapel of Watt-Xt-Hr, in which its execution is more lively and also more varied than the examples performed by men.

The concept of rebirth or regeneration, a recurrent theme in ancient Egyptian funerary beliefs, is alluded to in the following phrases. In the tomb of §fw, an incomplete sH aff, presumably meaning ‘the inscription reads: step of invoking or fetching the fly’. While this may seem a strange invocation in the funerary context, the following phrase from the tomb of Rn-n-kA.i at Saqqara

At Deir el-Gebrawi, the genre has a lively, energetic appearance and is performed predominantly by women. At el-Hawawish, it is stylised and elegant and performed by men amidst other dances which are performed by women. The el-Khokha example is very static and features male dancers. The most animated rendition of this genre performed by men, is in the lower register of Pair dancers in the tomb of ©aw. This suggests that the style of depicting this dance may be attributed to regional variation, as well as the gender of the dancers. There is also some indication that earlier examples tend to be

reads:44 : aff pw sDry msy ra nb [the fly is lying down (dying?) and being born every day]. This caption probably alludes to the observation that flies are particularly known for showing tenacity (presumably the reason for the gold fly of valour awarded for bravery in battle),45 flying,46 lying 39 The word Hkky is painted over the carved ikikH (Roth, JEA 78 (1992), p 141). Roth offers the possible interpretation of kkw darkness. This is most likely since the prospect of remaining dark, ie unborn, is the most abhorrent outcome regarding the precarious act of childbirth. 40 Interpreted by Roth, JEA 78 (1992), p. 141. 41 ibid. 42 ibid. p. 86 and note 1. 43 ibid, pp. 141-43 44 Quibell, Saqqara II, p. 27, transcript, Wassell, Ancient Egyptian Fauna, n. 50. 45 Wassell, Ancient Egyptian Fauna, p. 159 and notes 49-51. 46 ibid, p. 159 and note 49.

47

ibid, n. 50, citing Quibell, Saqqara II, p. 27. ibid. n. 49, citing, Lesko, Book of Two Ways, p. 23. 49 This interpretation is largely based on one offered by Weeks, Cemetery G.6000, p. 43 (Behold, the thrusting aside, singly). A translations by Reisner, Behold the’ turning away’ dance, first movement, is cited by Weeks on the same page. Both translations take the spelling snwD as an early form of snwd. 48

120

PART II: CHAPTER 5 PAIR DANCE more static than later examples, but the earliest examples are also from Memphis. The most dynamic examples date from the VIth Dynasty, with the exception of the MrrwkA.i and IHy examples, both of which are performed by men and have a more static quality. Many of the lively representations of Pair Dance featuring female dancers are included in the Partnered Pirouette and Partnered High Step classifications examined in Chapter 6.

from the tombs of Isi and of ©aw more than once, because there are different costumes represented in each scene and this accounts for more entries than examples. In the Iy-mry, Axty-Htp and Ni-anx-£nmw scenes, a scant lap-lap style garment is hung from the waist. This style is worn only by male dancers and is found only at Giza and Saqqara. A brief, sarong-style kilt, open at the front, is worn by both male and female dancers and is found at Saqqara in the mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i in both the MrrwkA.i and Watt-Xt-Hr scenes, at Deir el-Gebrawi in the tombs of Ibi and Isi, and at el-Khokha in the tomb of IHy. In the tomb of ©aw the female dancers are naked, while the male dancers in the register below wear only a belt. The belt-only style is also found at Saqqara in the §fw scene, in which it is also worn by men. The short straight kilt is worn by Pair dancers at el-Hawawish. The calf length gown is found only at el-Moalla.

The costume There are five distinct variations in the costume worn by dancers in this genre and the regional trends for costume are illustrated in chart 4.b. Geographic locations are entered along the ‘x’ axis. The height of the columns indicates the number of examples of each costume style. Costume styles are indicated by colour and this is defined in the legend. It has been necessary to enter the examples

Geogr a phic Distr ibution of c ostum e sty les

4 3 3 2 2 1 1 0 Giza

Saqqara

fringed lap-lap

Deir el-Gebrawi

sarong-style

nude

el-Hawawish

calf length gown

Chart 5.2 Geographic Distribution of costume styles

121

el-Khokha

straight kilt

el-Moalla

belt

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Costume styles

Associations with the Dance of the Mww

The results of this graph reveal regional variations. In this sample, the most predominant skirt style worn by Old Kingdom dancers is the sarong-style kilt, occurring at Saqqara, Deir el-Gebrawi and el-Khokha. The short, straight kilt is found only at el-Hawawish and on one dancer at Deir el-Gebrawi. The only instance of nudity in this sample, occurs at Deir el-Gebrawi, however, scenes at this location also include the sarong-style kilt, short, straight kilt and belt styles.

The Old Kingdom Pair Dance has many features in common with Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom depictions of mww dancers, who also perform in pairs. Firstly, the typology of the Pair Dance, a grouping of two dancers with arms linked and typically mirroring each others movements, also fits the description of later pictures of mww dancers performing in pairs at the tomb entrance. Secondly, the pose of the Pair dancers in the Old Kingdom tombs of Axty-Htp and IHy (Pair Pose 1), is almost identical to the pose of the mww in the New Kingdom tombs of Imn-m-HAt (TT 82), PA-Hr.i at elKab,50 Nb-Imn (TT 179), Nb-Imn (TT 24), Imn-ms (TT 42), at the head of the sarcophagus or tekenu procession,51 and ©Hwty-ms (TT 342), _wA-nHH (TT 125), Imn-m-HAt (TT.53), Mn-xpr-ra-snb (TT 112), Imn-m-HAt (TT 82), Nb-Imn (TT 17), ¤w-m-niwt (TT 92) and Rx-mi-Ra (TT 100) near the symbol for Buto 52 or as part of the journey to Sais.53 Thirdly, these New Kingdom Pair dancers have been identified as mww dancers, even though they are not wearing the customary crown of reeds.54 The scenes in the tombs of Rx-mi-Ra and Imn-m-HAt (Figure 5.18) are captioned xbt mww [dance of the mww]. Fourthly, both dance styles occur as part of funerary ritual. The Old Kingdom Pair Dance appears in the context of the funerary or statue processions in the tombs of Ni-anx£nmw, Axty-Htp and IHy.

Variations in dress trends suggest gender differentiation as well as regional variations. Costumes worn by men only are the lap-lap, belt and short, straight kilt and only women wear the calf length gown, or are depicted nude in this genre. The only costume which is worn by both men and women is the brief sarong-style kilt. The hairstyle Two hairstyles feature in the sample. The most predominant style is short-cropped hair and this is found on all the male Pair dancers and the female dancers in the lowest register of the Hnqw: £tti example. In all other examples, female Pair dancers wear the disc-weighted tress. In the el-Hawawish examples, male Pair dancers appear alongside female dancers who perform the Layout movement and wear the disc-weighted tress. Conclusions

Further, the xbt mww, caption in the Old Kingdom tomb of PtH-Htp (Figure 5.17) appears near two men who appear to hold a pose resembling that of the type 3 mww, strengthening the argument for the amalgamation of Pair and Mww and suggesting that it may have occurred as early as the Old Kingdom.

There are many differences between examples of Pair dancing as it is performed by men and women, suggesting that it could be divided into two different genres. Firstly, the nature of the dance is more lively when performed by female dancers. Secondly, in all cases where women perform this dance, they wear the distinctive disc-weighted tress, except those in the bottom register in the tomb of Hnqw: £tti, whereas all men performing this genre wear short cropped hair. Thirdly, the full version of the formula mk Trf iTt... never occurs in its complete form in dance scenes other than that of male Pair dancers, neither in scenes showing female dancers, nor in instances where male Pair dancers are part of a scene which includes female dancers. This suggests that the formula mk Trf iTt…, is both genre and gender specific. Fourthly, some costumes are exclusive to men, such as the lap-lap and the belt, whereas only women are depicted performing this dance nude or in long skirts. Most examples featuring female dancers are examined below in Chapter 2:6, as a separate genre, the Partnered Pirouette and appear to be performed in sequence with other steps such as the Stride, High Step and High Kick.

50

Settgast, Bestattungsdarstellungen, fig. 11. ibid. fig. 4, 52 ibid. fig. 11. 53 ibid. fig. 12. 54 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 43. 51

122

PART II: CHAPTER 5 PAIR DANCE These similarities establish the existence of the two dance genres performed as part of the funerary ritual, which are not entirely exclusive to two specific periods.57 It is unlikely that two such similar Pair Dances would have been performed at the same event. Settgast illustrates a similar transition between the mww dancers (Type 3)58, who mirror each others’ movements and the mww dancers (Type 1), who wear mww crowns and meet the funerary procession.59 The ¡qA-ib-aA example (Figure 5.19) illustrates a pair of dancers wearing crowns and at the head of the funerary procession, like the mww type 1,60 and performing a dance in mirrored symmetry like mww type 3. This example appears to capture the point of transition from the Pair Dance to the later examples of mww dancers performing in pairs, but without the headdress. This evidence suggests that the Pair Dance was a forerunner of the Middle and New Kingdom mww Dance (Type 3) and that the later dance absorbed the format and function of the earlier dance. Figure 5.18 mww dancers in the tomb of Imn-m-HAt (After Gardiner-Davies) A pair of dancers in the Middle Kingdom tomb of ¡qA-ibaA, from Barnugi55 (Figure 5.19), not only execute the same step, mirroring each other in front of the sarcophagus procession, but the pair are dressed in a mww headdress, which bears some resemblance to the style found in the Old Kingdom tomb of PtH-Htp II. This places Middle Kingdom mww dancers in exactly the same context as the Old Kingdom Pair dancers in the tombs of Axty-Htp and §fw, and suggests a possible initial fusion of Pair dancers with mww dancers as part of the procession.

Figure 5.19 mww dancers in the tomb of ¡qA-ib-aA 56

55 56

57 The Late Period tomb of Ibi at Thebes, decorated at a time when Mww Dance in pairs was a more usual theme, has a Pair Dance scene very similar to the one from the Old Kingdom mastaba of Iy-mry. 58 For an explanation of Mww typology, see Chapter 2:7, The Dance of the Mww. 59 Settgast, Bestatungsdarstellungen, fig. 4 60 See Chapter 2:7, The Dance of the Mww for explanation of the three categories of mww dancers.

Settgast, Bestatungsdarstellungen, fig. 2. ibid.

123

Chapter 2:6 Dance Style 6 – Enchaînements: steps in Sequence including Pirouette, High Step, Stride, Kick, Linked Hand Dances and other Miscellaneous steps The examples encountered in this chapter represent dance steps performed in sequence rather than unison. The various dance steps are considered together because they appear to be part of the same dance in more than one example and can be categorized into various Sub-groups: Sub-group 6.a1 is the Solo Pirouette, Sub-group 6.a2, the Partnered Pirouette, is represented in two phases; in some examples the figures are facing each other and in others they are depicted back to back, Sub-group 6.b1, the Solo High Step, and Sub-group 6.b2, a partnered version of the High Step, are very similar to Sub-groups 6.a1 and 6.a2 and both partnered steps have been examined above in the Pair Dance chapter. Sub-group 6.c includes both the Kick and Stride Steps, which occur in sequence and Subgroup 6.d is a Linked Hand Dance. A section devoted to Dwarf Dances (DS6.E) is included in this Chapter. A number of miscellaneous scenes are included at the end of the chapter.

6.a – the Pirouette Sub-group 6.a1 – the Solo Pirouette Typology Numerous examples of a pose resembling the pirouette, a dance step known to audiences of classical, modern and folk dance today, occur in Old Kingdom dance scenes, as well as variations which may indicate more complex turning steps such as the Fouetté Pirouette and Partnered Pirouette with linked hands. There is only one Old Kingdom scene (Figure 6.8) which may be considered an example of the Fouetté Pirouette and this is classified below as part of the Kick genre.

Sub-group 6.a1 -the Solo Pirouette

a b Figure 6.1 Two examples from the tomb of Mrrw-kA.i, VI.1, Saqqara (after Duell)

a

b

c

Figure 6.2 Various examples from the north wall, chamber B3, Watt-Xt-Hr chapel, VI.1, Saqqara1

1

after van Lepp, Roth, drawing, Mary Hartley

124

PART II: CHAPTER 2:6 DANCE STYLE 6 –ENCHAÎNEMENTS

Figure 6.3 Tomb of §ti, VI.L-VIII.E, el-Hawawish2 The Pirouette, Sub-group 6.a1, is typified by a pose, which appears to represent the most characteristic moment in the execution of a Pirouette. In the Pirouette pose one leg is bent and raised, with the foot held against the knee or lower on the supporting leg.2 The pose in these depictions appears to represent a Pirouette3 since it accurately represents the preparation and execution of this step as performed by present day dancers. Considering the restrictions of the canon imposed on most depictions of the human figure, which favoured profile views, there isn’t really any way the Egyptians could better represent the actual pivoting motion of this step. However, it must be acknowledged that the Pirouette interpretation is modern since none of the examples are accompanied by written descriptions confirming whether the representation of a spinning motion is the intention of the artist. In most examples, the supporting foot is depicted flat on the ground, a position which would inhibit the free motion of the pirouette. This may be taken as evidence against the interpretation of the pose as a representation of a pirouette, but is consistent with other restrictions adhered to by Egyptian artists. In the Old Kingdom, dancers are generally depicted on flat feet, the pattern only abandoned at Deir el-Gebrawi, where the liveliness of the dancers is emphasized by the demi-pointe position of the dancers’ supporting feet in the tombs of ©aw and Hnqw-£tti. Harvest dancers feet are also raised onto demi-pointe presumably to indicate the running gait of the dancers and this is also the case in the pictures of Diamond Dance in the tomb of Mr.f-nb.f at Saqqara (Figure 1.33), Salute in the tombs of Nfr at Giza (Figure 2.27) and Isi example b (Figure 2.17) at Deir el-Gebrawi. The Pirouette dancers in Figures 6.1 a and b have one arm bent with the hand held close to the chest while the other is lowered and held against the body contour. The accompanist in Figure 6.1a has a dynamic quality as a result of the finger snapping and the extended leg, in contrast to the Pirouette dancer who is depicted in an 2

uncharacteristically static manner for a female dancer. Figure 6.1b does not necessarily represent a Pirouette since the pose executed by the male dancer is depicted as rather static, and the working leg is held rather low and not against the leg. It is included here because it so closely resembles the figure of the Pirouette dancer in figure 6.1, which appears above it on the same wall in the tomb of Mrrw-kA.i. As has been noted in the Pair Dance Chapter, dances performed by men have a more static or posed appearance overall than scenes featuring female dancers. The most lively depictions of the Solo Pirouette are represented in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel (Figures 6.2a, b and c) and feature female dancers. The arms of the Pirouette dancers are held higher and are more animated than those in Figures 6.1a and b, a motion possibly intended to assist the momentum of the turn. In Figure 6.2a, the swinging of the disc-weighted tress away from the body suggests a turning motion, since a simple retiré4 on its own does not create enough momentum to achieve this action. Figure 6.2b indicates less momentum in the turn but the inclination of the torso lends a dynamic quality to the movement and the arm position adds to the suggestion of a turning motion. In Figure 6.2c, the torso of the dancer leans back even further and appears to represent the final moment of the Pirouette as the dancer steps out of the turn into the next movement. The position of the working foot in Figure 6.3 indicates the execution of a Pirouette, despite the rather static appearance of the pose, which is again consistent with the male gender of the dancer executing the step. The arms are extended and, therefore, most likely represent the preparation for, or exit from, a turn, since during the Pirouette the arms need to be placed close to the body to minimize wind resistance and assist the turn. The partner kneeling and facing the figure of the Pirouette dancer, is neither turning, supporting nor accompanying the dancer but his pose frames and highlights the other dancer.

4

Kanawati, el-Hawawish VIII, fig. 10. Wild, Danses sacrées, p. 38; Brunner-Traut, Tanz, pp. 38-39 identifies this step as gymnastic dance.

A retiré is a ballet position in which the foot of the working leg is drawn up the supporting leg and placed against the knee. In ballet this is the classic position held during the execution of a Pirouette.

3

125

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Later developments The figure of a Pirouette dancer is employed as an enlarged determinative for the word ibA in New Kingdom inscriptions as observed on a block from the red chapel at Karnak5 and examples of this genre, along with those in Sub-group 6.c1, are a feature of Middle Kingdom dance scenes in tombs at Beni Hassan (see below Sub-group 6.c1). Sub-group 6.a2 -Partnered Pirouette Variation 1 -facing, symmetrical Figure 6.7 Tomb of KA.i-Hp: §ti-iqr, VI.4M, el-Hawawish 7

Figure 6.8, Tomb of IHy, VI.3-4, el-Khokha (after Saleh)

Figure 6.4 Tomb of Axty-Htp, V.8-9, Saqqara (after Ziegler)

Partnered Pirouette, facing same direction

Figure 6.5 Tomb of Iy-mry, V.6, Giza (after Weeks)

Figure 6.9 Watt-Xt-Hr chapel, VI.1, Saqqara8

Figure 6.6 Tomb of £ni: ¥psi-pw-Mnw VI.4L, el-Hawawish 6

Figure 6.10 Tomb of Mrrw-kA.i, VI.1, Saqqara (after Duell)

5 Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport, entry S 10.7, (Lacau, no. 61, now in Luxor museum). 6 Kanawati, el-Hawawish IX, fig. 37a.

7 8

126

ibid. I, fig. 12. After van Lepp, ACE tea towel, (drawing, Mary Hartley)

PART II: CHAPTER 2:6 DANCE STYLE 6 –ENCHAÎNEMENTS

Typology In most examples of Partnered Pirouette, the dancers are depicted facing each other, performing the Pirouette posture with linked hands. In Figures 6.4 and 6.5, only the far hands are linked but there is the suggestion that the lower hands are also about to be linked, whereas in Figures 6.6-8, both hands are linked. In Figures 6.9 and 6.10, the partners are facing the same direction rather than mirroring each other and they both have the same leg raised for the Pirouette. While the Stride dancers in Figure 6.8 from el-Khokha appear to be female, it is difficult to distinguish the gender of the Partnered Pirouette or Kick dancers in this scene. A number of details suggest these dancers are male. Firstly, the motif representing male dancers executing the Kick and Pirouette sequence continues into the Middle Kingdom, being particularly popular in the tombs at Beni Hassan.9 Secondly, the short-cropped hairstyle, while common on female dancers in other genres, is most unusual for females performing either the Pair or Pirouette genres, the disc-weighted tress being more common.10 Thirdly, the pose is rendered in a rather static manner and this is more likely to indicate the dancers are male as noted above. The sarong-style costume does not indicate the gender of the dancers, since it is worn by both male and female dancers in many dance scenes, yet, differences in costume detail may be accounted for by the geographic isolation of this provincial example. Since the Stride dancers appear to be female and this step may be considered as a preparation for the Pirouette, the possibility that the Pair dancers are female cannot be entirely ruled out. Registers with mixed gender dancers are unusual but they are the norm at elHawawish and since el-Khokha is also provincial it may have been the practice there too, both locations being well away from the influence of the capital. With the exception of the dancers represented performing this variation in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel and possibly the dancers in the IHy scene, all other examples in this Subgroup are executed by male dancers.

Partnered Pirouette, back to back: Pair dancers executing a turning movement with both their hands linked

Figure 6.11 Watt-Xt-Hr chapel, VI.1, Saqqara (after van Lepp11)

Figure 6.12 Tomb of Mrrw-kA.i, VI.1, Saqqara (after Duell) While difficult, it is not impossible to execute a turn with both hands linked, so long as the dancers are in mirrored symmetry as in Figures 6.4-8. This would result in a turn, one phase of which would show the dancers back to back, with both hands joined. This interim step is indicated in two scenes from the mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i, one of which is in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel (Figure 6.11), and the other in the Mrrw-kA.i chapel (Figure 6.12), which occur in sequence with Figures 6.9 and 6.10 respectively. If the dancers each have the same leg raised in preparation for the back to back phase, as seen in Figures 6.9 and 6.10, a Pirouette with linked hands is virtually impossible. However, the raised far legs may indicate an attempt to comply with the stringent artistic canon of the time, which appears to have avoided crossing the legs closest to the viewer in front of those farthest away from the viewer. Other back to back poses in which one hand is released are depicted in Figures 5.1, 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6, have been examined in the Pair Dance Chapter. This style of turning with the hands linked is similar to a game called ‘wash the dishes’ performed by western children today.12 This sequence of movements also occurs in a Sudanese dance called the Rongo, which is still performed by the Sudanese community living on the outskirts of Qena.13 A diagram of the turning sequence

9 MK: Newberry, Beni Hasan I, pl. 29; ibid. II, pl. 13; ibid. pl. 15; ibid. pl. 17; ibid. pl. 7. 10 In the Pair Dance genre, the only other instance of the short cropped hairstyle appearing on female dancers, occurs in the lowest register of the Hnkw: £tti example.

11

Drwing, Mary Hartley The chant accompanying the sequence is; ‘wash the dishes, dry the dishes, turn the dishes over’. 13 ibid. 12

127

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM in the Rongo is furnished by Saleh,14 in her documentation of ethnic dance traditions throughout Egypt, and shows a striking resemblance to the Partnered Pirouette depicted in figures 6.4-6.12, which has also been included in the previous chapter on Pair Dance.

c Figure 6.14 Various figures from the north wall, chamber B3, Watt-Xt-Hr chapel, VI.1, Saqqara 16 Typology

Figure 6.13 Diagram of the Partnered Pirouette sequence in the Sudanese Rongo15

Some female dancers in the Watt-xt-Hr Chapel are depicted executing the High Step, a position similar to the Pirouette but with the working foot held in front of the supporting leg, suggesting the dancer is marching or stepping forward with the knees high. Rather than being a variation of the Pirouette, this step appears in sequence with it, usually as a means of stepping out of the Pirouette and into the next step as shown in Figures 6.4 b and c. In Figure 6.4 a, the High Step is depicted in sequence with a transitional movement, which carries the dancer forward into the next step. The example from the tomb of Isi at Deir el-Gebrawi could also be included in this Sub-group, but the leg position is more consistent with examples in Salute Sub-group 2.a with which it is categorized.

6.b – High Step Sub-group 6.b1 – Solo High Step

Sub-group 6.b2 – Partnered High Step

a

Figure 6.15 Tomb of Iy-mry, V.6, Giza (after Weeks)

b

14 15

16 Redrawn by M. Hartley from Figures a and c: Roth, JEA 78 (1992), fig. 10; Figure b: van Lepp, Abstracts ICE 4 (1985), fig. 1.

Redrawn from Saleh, Ethnic Dance Traditions, pp. 322-323. ibid.

128

PART II: CHAPTER 2:6 DANCE STYLE 6 –ENCHAÎNEMENTS

Figure 6.16 Tomb of Ibi, VI.3-4E, Deir el-Gebrawi 17

Figure 6.17 Tomb of Isi, VI.1-3, Deir el-Gebrawi 18

Figure 6.18 Tomb of ©aw, VI.4, Deir el-Gebrawi (after Davies)

Figure 6.19 Tomb of ©aw, VI.4, Deir el-Gebrawi (after Davies)

17 18

Kanawati, Deir el-Gebrâwi II, pl. 69. ibid., pl. 64.

129

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Male Dancers perform the High Step in the lower of the two registers featuring dance in the tomb of ©aw at Deir el-Gebrawi (Figure 6.19). In this example, only one of the partners executes the High Step, the other appears to take a supportive role, making this the only asymmetrical dance figure in Sub-group 6.b2. Sub-group 6.c –Kick Figure 6.18 Tomb of ©aw VI.4 Deir el-Gebrawi Figure 6.8 Tomb of Ihy VI.3-4 el-Khokha Figure 6.20 Tomb of Hnqw:£tti, VI.E, Deir elGebrawi19 In Sub-group 6.b2, the High Step is executed by partnered dancers and closely resembles the Partnered Pirouette. This variation is performed by women in most examples (Exceptions include the Iy-mry example (Figure 6.15) and the lower register of the ©aw scene (Figure 6.19). The dance depicted in Figures 6.16-6.20, all from Deir elGebrawi, has a particularly animated character. The lively representation of this step appears to be a reflection of the gender of the performers in the majority of examples, but may also reflect the lively style of rendering found at Deir el-Gebrawi where most of the examples of Sub-group 6.b2 occur. In some examples, the Partnered High Step, like the Solo High Step, appears to be an energetic, interactive dance, represented in sequence with the Pirouette, Stride and Kick Steps. Figure 6.15 from the tomb of Iy-mry is the only example in this Sub-group found in the capital. This example features male dancers and consequently, it is less animated than the other examples, including Figure 6.19 which also has male dancers. Figure 6.15 is also the only example in this Sub-group with a caption conforming to the mk Trf iTt… formula exclusive to male performers and specific to the Pair Dance genre. A Pirouette with hands linked going through a back to back phase, is a possible outcome of the Partnered High step, however, the repetition of pairs of dancers in the same position in Figures 6.16 and 6.17 and the appearance of this pose in sequence with the Kick in Figures 6.18 and 6.19 suggests that a more likely outcome is that the dancers drop their linked hands, execute a half turn to face the dancer on their other side and repeat the linked hand step with the new partner, thereby forming a partnered enchaînement.20 This would be a very engaging sequence of movements for a dance or a game. The sequence of High Step, Kick (or Layout), Pirouette and Stride appears in the tomb of ©aw (Figure 6.18) and the tomb of IHy (Figure 6.20). The repetition of paired dancers in the same position in the tombs of Isi and Ibi at Deir el-Gebrawi also suggests a similar sequence.

Some examples of high kicks, with the torso leaning back precariously have been included in Chapter 2:9 the Layout, but there are two examples which do not conform entirely to that genre. The first is the Kick depicted in sequence with the Partnered High Step in the tomb of ©aw at Deir el-Gebrawi (Figure 6.18). This example has been included in the Layout genre but the torsos of the dancers executing the Kick do not lean back as far as they do in all the other examples representing that genre. It also differs from the other Layout examples because it appears in sequence with the Partnered High Step. The Kick executed by the central dancer in Figure 6.8, which is much lower than that in the ©aw scene, also appears in sequence with the Partnered Pirouette and the Stride. This Kick example could also be taken to represent a moment in the Layout step, since there are three dancers in the Stride Step to the right of the scene, an arrangement closely resembling that of the Stride and Layout dancers in the Watt-Xt-Hr dance scene, which can be shown to be an accurate depiction of a sequence (Web Animation 321). The Kick step in Figure 6.8 could also be identified as the preparation for a Fouetté Pirouette, in which the working leg is extended before the pivot. While the Fouetté preparation in Figure 6.8 is performed by a single dancer, the actual pivot, if it is performed at all, is executed by a pair of dancers with linked hands to the left. The Fouetté Pirouette is the type of Pirouette most commonly represented in the context of the statue procession in the Middle Kingdom tombs at Beni Hassan, in which the Fouetté preparation is followed by a sequence of steps describing a Solo Pirouette,22 a distinction which has been noted previously by Wild.23 The Fouetté Pirouette sequence is not plausible in this example because the Fouetté preparation is executed by a solo dancer, whereas the Pirouette is performed by a pair of dancers thus resulting in a lack of continuity.

21

Kinney, http://galliform.bhs.mq.edu.au/EDG/dance.html MK: Newberry, Beni Hasan I, pl. 29; ibid. II, pl. 13; ibid. pl. 15; ibid. pl. 17; ibid. pl. 7. 23 Wild, Danses sacrées, p. 38 22

19 20

ibid. II, pl. 15. A sequence of steps.

130

PART II: CHAPTER 2:6 DANCE STYLE 6 –ENCHAÎNEMENTS

Sub-group 6.d –Stride

Figure 6.21 Watt-Xt-Hr Chapel, Mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i, VI.1 (after Roth, Drawing, Mary Hartley)

Figure 6.22 Tomb of Wnis-anx, VI.1, el-Khokha (after Saleh) Figure 6.21 Figure 6.22 Figure 6.8

Watt-Xt-Hr Chapel Tomb of Wnis-anx Tomb of IHy

Saqqara el-Khokha el-Khokha

VI.1 VI.1 VI.3-4

occur in sequence. Two of the three examples of this genre occur in sequence with or alongside Pirouette, High Step and Kick genres.

Typology This genre is typified by female dancers holding an upright stance with both feet flat on the ground, one placed in front of the other. The weight is firmly on the back foot in Figures 6.8 and 6.21 and more evenly placed in Figure 6.22. The arm farthest from the viewer is bent and the hand is placed on the chest, or a little lower, as depicted in the tomb of IHy (Figure 6.8). This step is depicted in two different registers on the same wall in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel at Saqqara (Figure 6.21) and in two tombs at el-Khokha, all dated to the VIth Dynasty (Figures 6.22 and 6.8). With the exception of Figure 6.22, all examples of this genre have been previously examined with the Pirouette genre because the two steps often

While this genre has been described as dance by Saleh in the tomb report for Wnis-anx,24 this genre has not been identified previously as a dance genre in its own right, possibly because it most often appears to indicate the preparatory phase for more dynamic steps such as the Layout (Figure 6.21, lower register) or as a transitional movement connecting steps such as the Pirouette, High Step and Kick (Figures 6.8, and 6.21 upper register). In 24 ibid. p. 14: ‘The dancers Stride slowly, their right arms are held to their chests and their left arms hang down towards their hips’.

131

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Sub-group 6.e -Linked Hand dances

the tomb of IHy, the Kick step may represent the initial phase of a Pirouette sequence, whereas in the tomb of Wnis-anx at el-Khokha (Figure 6.22), it is clearly depicted as an individual dance form, performed in unison by a chorus of dancers, rather than in sequence with another genre. In the scene from the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel (Figure 6.21), figures executing the Stride genre occur in sequence with different steps. The progression of this step into the Layout Pose is clearly depicted in the lower register and shows that as the step progresses into the Layout, the torso leans back as the front foot is raised from the floor. The legible captions for Figure 6.21 are examined in Chapter 2: 9, the Layout. In the Pirouette sequence from the same tomb chapel (upper register of Figure 6.21), again, the dancer’s torso leans back slightly, which indicates the shift of the body weight onto the back foot thus allowing the front foot to be raised for the Pirouette and High Step sequence.

Figure 6.23 Tomb of anx-ty-fy, VI.4-VIIIE, el-Moalla (after Vandier)

A sequential progression incorporating the steps depicted next to the Stride genre is possible but not as obvious in the more sedate Pirouette sequence in the scene from the tomb of IHy. The Stride dancers are female in all other Old Kingdom examples of the genre, but it is difficult to be sure of the gender of the dancers performing the other steps in this register (see above, Partnered Pirouette). Only men perform the similar Fouetté Pirouette sequence in the context of the statue procession as observed in the Middle Kingdom examples from the tombs at Beni Hassan,25 which appear to be modelled on the IHy scene. The Fouetté preparation might also be taken to be a Kick, in which case it resembles the sequence in the upper register of the ©aw scene and to a lesser extent part of the Layout sequence in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel.

Figure 6.24 Tomb of anx-ty-fy (after Vandier)

Figure 6.25 Tomb of anx-ty-fy (after Vandier)

The style of costume worn by all dancers of this genre may indicate that the Stride step is a preparation for more athletic exhibitions, since the open-fronted sarong and disc-weighted tress worn by most dancers performing the Stride genre is the usual attire of female dancers performing lively steps such as the Layout or Kick, and this is consistent with the two steps appearing in sequence in Figures 6.8 and 6.21. The dancers in Figure 6.8 all wear anklets, bracelets and collar necklaces. Discs are not apparent at the end of the dancers’ tresses.

Typology This genre is typified by a chorus of female dancers holding hands and stepping out in what appears to be a row but the formation indicated could perhaps, also be interpreted as a circle. While the examples of Linked Hand Dance from the tomb of anx-ty-fy at el-Moalla have no other parallel in the Old Kingdom, there are examples of its forerunners from the Predynastic period.26 This is unlikely to be a lively dance, since all of the performers are wearing calf length gowns which would restrict movement of the legs. The Pair dancers in Figure 6.25 are most likely clapping rather than holding hands and they wear a more elaborate costume than that of the other dancers, which suggests that the pair are featured dancers with a unison chorus performing alongside them. It is for this reason that the clapping variation is unlikely to be performed in

25 MK: Newberry, Beni Hasan I, pl. 29; ibid. II, pl. 13; ibid. pl. 15; ibid. pl. 17; ibid. pl. 7.

26 Winkler, Rock Drawings I, pl. 24: 2; ibid. II, pls. 55: 1, idem, Völker und Völkerbewegungen, pl. 26.

132

PART II: CHAPTER 2:6 DANCE STYLE 6 –ENCHAÎNEMENTS

Distrib ution 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Giza

Saqqara

Deir el-Gebraw i el-Haw aw ish

el-Kokha

el-Moalla

Solo Pirouette

Partnered, facing

Partnered, back to back

Solo High Step

Partnered High Step

Stride

Kick

Linked hand

Chart 6.1 Distribution of genres sequence with the other Linked Hand dance. The Salute dancers in Figure 6.25, however, move in the same direction and wear the same calf-length skirt as the Linked Hand dancers and the two steps appear to be performed in sequence.

the other four examples are from Deir el-Gebrawi. One example of the Kick is from Deir el-Gebrawi and one from el-Khokha, Stride is depicted twice in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel at Saqqara and in two tombs at el-Khokha. All examples of the Linked Hand genre appear in the the same scene in the tomb of anx-ty-fy at el-Moalla. Apart from the scenes from the tomb of Axty-Htp at Saqqara and the tomb of Iy-mry at Giza, dated mid to late Vth Dynasty, most variations in this chapter are dated to VI.1 with some provincial examples dated later.

The calf length gowns of the dancers are unusual, as is the loose hair with a fillet, tied in a distinctive bow behind the ear, which is worn by dancers in Figure 6.24. This is probably either a regional variation or reflects a fashion occurring late in the Old Kingdom. Other Old Kingdom dancers wear either the disc-weighted tress or have short-cropped hair. (Long hair also appears on rhythmists in the Ra-Spss scene at Saqqara (Figure 2.11) dated to the Late Vth Dynasty.)

Context Examples from the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel at Saqqara appear as part of the presentation scene and the two from the mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i are included in scenes of boys and girls dancing and playing games (which could also be taken as part of a larger presentation scene). One of the examples of Partnered Pirouette from Saqqara (figure 6.4) appears as part of the statue procession, A presentation scene is depicted in the register below the Partnered Pirouette scene in the tomb of IHy and this suggests that this example may be part of an expanded presentation context, but a clapnet scene depicted on the same register suggests a marshland setting.27 Other examples from Sub-group 6.a2 are all part of presentation scenes. Apart from its appearance alongside a clapnet scene in the tomb of IHy, the Stride genre appears as part of the presentation scene in all other examples. Even in the IHy example it appears in the register above and perhaps as an extension of the presentation scene.

Distribution of Sub-groups Chart 6.1 Distribution Chart 6.1 shows the geographic distribution of Subgroups in the Enchaînement genre. Geographic locations are shown along the ‘x’ axis. Column height indicates the number of examples at each location. Genre is defined in the legend. There are five examples which could be taken as representations of the Solo Pirouette in the Mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i at Saqqara, three from the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel and two from the Mrrw-kA.i section, and one example is found at el-Hawawish. One example of mirrored Partnered Pirouette is from Saqqara, three are from Giza and one is from el-Khokha, the examples of Partnered Pirouette facing the same direction and back to back all occur in the Mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i at Saqqara. The Solo High step appears only in the ‹att-Xt-Hr chapel. One of the examples of Partnered High Step occurs at Giza and

27 Presentation scenes which occur in marshland settings also occur in the tombs of PtH-Htp: Ii-anx at Saqqara, Ibi and Isi at Deir el-Gebrawi and KA.i-Hp: §ti-iqr and £ni: ¥psi-pw-Mnw at el-Hawawish.

133

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM another difference which may indicate the dancers are male since all the dancers in this genre who are clearly female wear the disc weighted tress and the same is true for the female dancers in the closely affiliated Pair Dance, High Step, Pirouette and Kick genres, with the exception of the two dancers in the bottom register of the Hnkw: £tti example. A disc is not apparent at the end of the lock of youth worn by the male Pirouette dancer in the tomb of Mrrw-kA.i. The male dancers in the tombs of Axty-Htp at Saqqara, §ti at el-Hawawish and IHy at elKhokha wear the short-cropped style. The male Pirouette dancers in Figures 6.6 and 6.7 at el-Hawawish wear shoulder length hair. All female High Step dancers wear the disc-weighted tress.

Captions Most captions relating to this genre have been examined in other genre chapters: Figure 6.1a in the Mirror Dance Chapter, Figures 6.2a, b, and c, 6.18, 6.19 and 6.21 in the Layout Chapter (see below Chapter 2:9). Figure 6.3 has the word Sma, which may be the dancer’s name or may be the title Sma used to designate musical performers (see the list of performers’ titles in Part I: 2). The captions accompanying partnered dances in Figure 6.9-6.15 and Figures 6.14-20 have all been covered in the Pair Dance Chapter. Figures 6.8, 6.16, 6.17 and 6.22 do not have captions. Costume

6.E Divine Dance and scenes featuring dng or dwarf dancers

Costumes are varied, the children performing the Solo Pirouette in the two scenes featuring the step from the tomb of Mrrw-kA.i are nude and the performers in the other Solo Pirouette scenes from the mastaba of MrrwkA.i, including the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel at Saqqara and from the tombs of Ibi and Isi at Deir el Gebrawi and IHy at elKhokha, wear a brief open-fronted sarong with no bodice. The male dancers in the tomb of Axty-Htp at Saqqara wear a lap-lap, and at el-Hawawish the male dancers wear a short, straight kilt. All the High Step dancers, whether Solo or Partnered, wear the brief sarong-style kilt, except for those in the tomb of ©aw, who are either nude (female) or wear belts (male). All dancers performing the Stride genre wear the sarong-style kilt with no bodice. Hairstyle Most dancers performing this genre wear the discweighted tress, although the disc is not apparent at the end of the tress worn by dancers in the tomb of Wnis-anx. The dancers in the IHy scene have short-cropped hair,

Figure 6.26 Tomb of KA(.i)-apr(w) V.1-2, Saqqara (after Fischer)

Figure 6.27 Tomb of _bH-n.i, IV.5, Giza (after Dasen)

134

PART II: CHAPTER 2:6 DANCE STYLE 6 –ENCHAÎNEMENTS

Figure 6.28 Tomb of Nw-nTr, V.L, Giza (after Junker) Come northwards to the residence immediately; you should bring this dwarf with you, which you have brought living, prosperous and healthy from the land of the horizon-dwellers, for the dances of the god, to gladden the heart of the Dual King Neferkare. When he goes down with you into the ship, appoint worthy people to be around him on deck: take care lest he fall in the water! When he lies down at night, appoint worthy people to lie around him in his tent: inspect ten times a night! My person desires to see this deneg more than all the products of the Sinai and Punt!28

Dwarfs or ‘dng’ dancers [Pygmy dancers from the south of Africa] feature in three Old Kingdom dance scenes. In the scene from the tomb of KA.(i)-apr(w) (Figure 6.26), a dwarf dances and is imitated by a monkey in the register below. The dwarf and the monkey have their arms raised to chin height and bent slightly in a movement resembling a hula, or boxing parry. Since the monkey is accompanied by a harpist, it is apparent that the two registers are depictions of dance. Yet, it is possible that the dwarf is engaged in a wrestling or boxing lesson and that this is being copied by the monkey dancing in imitation of the combat movements. Just as dwarfs have traditionally been employed in courts as jesters engaged in the pursuit of parodying royals, statesmen and elite courtiers, the monkey in this scene appears to be parodying the antics of the jester. There is no Old Kingdom parallel for the dance performed in this scene.

In this much published document, recorded in ¡r-xw.f’s tomb at Aswan, The young Pepy II’s enthusiasm and curiosity is apparent in his anticipation of receiving the dng dancer at court. The land of Punt was the ‘Land of the Horizon’ or the ‘Land of the Gods’ in the eyes of the Egyptians. The importance of the Divine Dance performed by dwarfs on the king’s behalf is recorded in Pyramid Text 1189:

The IVth Dynasty Salute Dance scene from the tomb of _bH-n.i (Figure 6.27) and the VIth Dynasty Boomerang Dance scene from the tomb of Nw-nTr (Figure 6.28), have been examined above. The dwarf dancer and the rhythmists in the Nw-nTr scene and the Salute dancers in the _bH-n.i, scene wear a star or lotus headdress which is unique to these two scenes within the boomerang or Salute genres. This suggests an association between the headdress and dances featuring dwarfs even though the dwarf dancer in the _bH-n.i scene does not wear the headdress. In both scenes, the dwarfs hold batons of some kind and execute similar poses.

dng ibAw nTr sxmx ib m.... st.f wrt I am that pygmy of the ‘the dances of god’ who gladdens the hearts of the gods before their great thrones29 The surrounding texts indicate that the Divine Dancer is requesting to cross the firmament with the mww ferrymen. This may explain the association with the lotus style headdress, observed in two of the above scenes, which in the Old Kingdom is the usual icon of trade worn by mww dancers. The Divine Dancers were recruited from the ‘land of the horizon’ and here is a reference to them requesting transport to the land of the rising sun or ‘Lightland’.

While there are few Old Kingdom depictions of dwarfs dancing, their status as prized dancers who could execute the ibAw nTr or Divine Dance is clearly documented in the letter from Pepy II to ¡r-xw.f. ‘You have said in your letter that you have brought a dancing deneg of the god from the land of the horizon-dwellers, like the deneg that the seal-bearer of the god, Baurded, brought from Punt in the time of King Isesi. You say to my person that never before has one like him been brought by any other who has visited Yam ....

28 29

135

Dodson, Monarchs, p. 41. Faulkner, Pyramid Texts, p. 191

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Scenes with no parallel

1 2 3 4 5 6 Figure 6.29 Tomb of §ti: KA.i-Hp, VI.3-4, el-Hawawish31 Both arms are bent with the hands held to the chest, in a manner reminiscent of Old Kingdom mww dancers. Yet, unlike the mww, this figure appears to be a female, her gender indicated by the pubic triangle, identified by Gimbutas as representative of the feminine principle.31 This motif is emphasized by the frontal depiction of the figure, a device which was also encountered on the nude soloists in the dance scenes from the tombs of kA.i-dWA, kA-kA.i-anx and kA.i-m-anx. Since the figure appears to be female and she does not wear the mww crown, it is most unlikely that she is a mww dancer, all other mww dancers from all periods being male, clothed and usually crowned. Yet, there is the possibility that this figure could be a regional interpretation of the Dance of the Mww, because of the funerary context.

The example from the tomb of §ti-KA.i-Hp at elHawawish (Figure 6.29) comprises a group of six figures, all depicted in individual poses, who may be dancing. The figures are situated at the door of the tomb and a group of three rhythmists is depicted in the damaged register above. The scene as a whole is reminiscent of the _bH-n.i funerary scene, which has dancers executing a Diamond Dance in the same position relative to the tomb as the six figures in the lower register of Figure 6.29. The position of the rhythmists in the upper register in Figure 6.29, suggests that a dance scene appeared in the damaged area of that register, next to the rhythmists as it does in almost all other examples of dance bar those at Deir el-Gebrawi.30 In the lower register of Figure 6.29 the figure (1) to the far left in this group executes the Salute Pose and could perhaps be grouped with sub-group 2.c in that genre, even though the hand position is not apparent. The next figure (2) appears to have both arms held low, a pose which does not have a parallel in the Old Kingdom. The arms of the next figure (3) are not apparent due to damage but appear to be held above the head and this may indicate the Diamond Pose (which also appears as a gesture of mourning in the Old Kingdom). The next figure (4), who is female, as indicated by her long gown, and the last figure to the far right (6) both have their arms raised in front of them in a gesture of praise, greeting or farewell or perhaps to indicate clapping. The figure between them (5) is naked and in a most unusual posture. 30

There is also the possibility that the figures are representative of a range of dance forms depicted in abbreviated form to maximize restricted wall space. This is typical of dance scenes at el-Hawawish which usually include a variety of genres, each performed by two dancers.

31

Kanawati, el-Hawawish III, fig. 12.

136

Gimbutas, Language of the Goddess, p. 248 and fig. 385, p. 324.

PART II: CHAPTER 2:6 DANCE STYLE 6 –ENCHAÎNEMENTS

Figure 6.30 Tomb of anx-m-a-Hr, VI.1, Saqqara (upper register)32 Only the legs of figures remain in the register above the Layout dancers in the tomb of anx-m-a-Hr at Saqqara (Figure 6.30). The positions of the feet are commensurate with the Diamond and Salute genres which suggests they may belong to dancers. The anklet on the first dancer (to

32

the left) indicates that the dancers or figures are female. The third dancer to the right also has only one arm still evident, the position of which indicates that she is bending low in homage to the tomb owner.

Kanawati-Hassan Ankhmahor, pl. 58.

137

Chapter 2:7 Dance Style 7a – the Dance of the Mww1

Figure 7.1 Tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr, decorated V.9, usurped VI.1, Saqqara (after Junker)

Figure 7.2 Tomb of PtH-Htp II, around V.9, Saqqara (after Junker)

Figure 7.3 Tomb of Idwt, decorated V.9, usurped VI.1, Saqqara2

1 2

Much of the information in this chapter has been published in different form: Kinney, L., ‘The Dance of the Mww’: BACE 15, 2004, pp. 63-75. Kanawati-Abder-Raziq, Unis Cemetery II, pl. 57.

138

PART II: CHAPTER 7, THE DANCE OF THE MWW

schematically as a long wavy shape ( ).7 Two officials, one holding a staff and the other a scroll, are standing behind the boat.

Distribution Most depictions of mww dancers, occur in Middle and New Kingdom tombs, however, three Old Kingdom examples, identified by Junker,3 attest an earlier origin. All three examples are situated in or around the Unis Cemetery at Saqqara. While tomb owners such as Idwt can be dated with some confidence to the beginning of the VIth Dynasty, it is apparent that she usurped a tomb decorated previously during the reign of Unis. Nb-kAw-Hr also usurped a tomb early in the VIth Dynasty, the tomb most likely having been decorated for the previous occupant under the reign of Unis, in whose cemetery it lies. Considering the relatively frequent incidence of this and associated themes4 in tombs decorated during the reign of Unis and the tomb’s proximity to the Unis Cemetery, the tomb of PtH-Htp II was possibly also decorated under Unis.

The mww are not so easily identifiable in the other two Old Kingdom relief fragments because there is no apparent caption. Yet, there are figures in both examples holding an identical posture to the mww in the Nb-kAw-Hr scene, and wearing a headdress, which, although quite different from the one encountered in Figure 7.1, is identified by Junker as an alternative configuration of the mww headdress.8 As well, both examples share a number of similarities with the Nb-kAw-Hr example, which suggest that these scenes should also be included in this genre. In the middle register of the block from the tomb of PtH-Htp II (Figure 7.2), a rope at the right hand side suggests a boat is being hauled by several men as depicted in the lower register of the scene from the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr. Facing the now lost haulers are a lector priest and a functionary holding a staff, an arrangement of figures resembling that in the Nb-kAw-Hr scene, although more abbreviated. Following these officials, are two men wearing plant headdresses which resemble the plant emblem ( )9 representative of Lower Egypt.

Sample Unlike later representations of the mww, which are clearly captioned and easily identifiable, Old Kingdom depictions tend to be fragmentary or uncaptioned. However, the one Old Kingdom example that can be identified with certainty is the scene from the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr (Figure 7.1). In this scene, the mww are wearing conical crowns with three protrusions at the top, not unlike those worn by the mww in Middle and New Kingdom depictions. The mww figures have their hands held against their chests, with clenched fists, thumbs and knuckles touching, and one leg placed in front of the other. The first dancer has the front foot raised slightly off the ground. A lector priest reading from a scroll faces the group of mww dancers. The caption above the lector priest reads: Sdi sS in Xry-Hbt [reciting the scripture by the lector priest] and above the mww figures is the caption: rdi iwt mww [allowing the coming of the mww/ invoking the mww]. It is this caption, along with the conical headdress, that allows a positive identification of these figures as mww dancers.

Apart from the headdress, these characters can be identified as mww dancers because they are grouped similarly, are placed in the same context and hold the same attitude as the mww in the captioned example from the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr. Behind the mww is another functionary and behind him is the rectangular gateway with one flag and the label ¤Aw still evident, despite the damage, again representing the pilgrimage site of Sais. A small frieze along the top of this register to the right has pr-nw chapels alternating with schematic representations of palm trees. The register above shows a group of men steering cattle who are dragging an object, probably a catafalque on a sled, and a woman, most likely a rhythmist, walks in front. Considering the similarity with scenes from the tombs of ¡tp-Hr-Axty10 and PtH-Htp (21),11 the scene could be reconstructed to include Diamond dancers in front of the rhythmist.

Three rectangular structures with a scalloped top ))5 identified as pr-nw chapels are situated ( behind the lector priest. In the register below, a group of four functionaries, two holding staffs and two holding scrolls, stand in front of a rectangular structure resembling a gateway. At the top of the gateway are two

A group of three characters appear on the left in the lowest register on the block from the tomb of PtH-Htp II, which Junker has suggested may also represent the mww.12 The central figure has lowered arms and the two on either side have their arms raised in the Diamond

(¤Aw or Sais, a holy banners clearly labelled pilgrimage site located in the Delta6. This group of functionaries face a group of four haulers who are towing a funerary boat along a body of water, depicted

7 This has been identified as a wrt canal and is examined below (this chapter). 8 Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), pp. 32-35. 9 M 16. 10 Conspectus entry 49, scene a. 11 Conspectus entry 21. 12 Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), p. 5.

3

Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), p. 1. Such as the Butoesque rituals examined below. Gardiner sign list: O 20. 6 Málek, LÄ V, p. 355. 4 5

139

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Pose, a posture associated with mourning dances13 and identified as a gesture of mourning.14 The two figures with raised arms wear conical shaped ‘crowns’ on their heads, which Junker identifies as the same style of mww crowns as those encountered in the scene from the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr,15 though they do not have the three protrusions at the top (perhaps since the division at the top edge of the register cuts them off). If indeed, these figures are mww dancers, they are depicted performing another style of dance and perhaps at a different point in the funerary ritual from those depicted in the register above and the other Old Kingdom examples of this genre.

corresponding figure was present in the Nb-kAw-Hr example. Contextual iconography A gateway which is clearly labelled ¤Aw [Sais] has been noted above in both the Nb-kAw-Hr and PtH-Htp II examples. Sais was the site of an important pilgrimage in the Delta before unification.16 Junker suggests that the row of pr-nw shrines alternating with palm motifs seen in the examples from the tombs of PtH-Htp II and Idwt ) can be interpreted as a schematic representation of ( the royal cemetery of the ancient kings of Buto,17 which was another holy pilgrimage site in the Delta. The pr-nw and palm frieze identified with Buto is present in the PtHHtp II and Idwt examples and is suggested by the pr-nw shapes in the Nb-kAw-Hr scene.

The fragment from the tomb of Idwt (Figure 7.3) has an almost identical arrangement of characters to those found in the PtH-Htp II example (Figure 7.2). A lector priest faces several haulers and behind the lector another functionary with a staff is followed by three mww dancers wearing crowns closely resembling those encountered in the middle register of the PtH-Htp II fragment. The mww figures are followed by another functionary, but damage beyond this figure makes it impossible to know if a ¤Aw structure followed. A frieze above the scene has the alternating pr-nw chapels and palm motifs. The whole scene closely resembles the Nb-kAw-Hr scene, not only on account of the funerary context, but also in the motifs, the groupings of the characters, and the pose held by the mww, all of whose front feet are poised above the ground at various heights.

Junker suggests these scenes were portrayals reminiscent of pre-historic royal funerals that took place at Buto and that the mww were personifications of the ancient kings of Buto, thus affording a royal aspect to the funerals of high ranking non-royals at a time when the funeral had not yet been democratized.18 This act could not be seen as violating kingly privilege since it was only associated with the ancient kings of Buto, the kings after unification having established new rites for themselves.19 In the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr, the schematic depictions of Buto and Sais are connected by a body of water which is ). Similar represented by a wavy linear shape ( scenes with this motif occur in the tombs of PtH-Htp (21),20 Iy-nfrt21 and ¦p-m-anx I22 at Saqqara and ¤nfrw-inISt.f at Dashur. An inscription accompanying the scene in the tomb of ¤nfrw-n-ISt.f23 identifies this motif as

Typology This genre is identified more by the funerary context in which it occurs, the characters who perform the dance and their distinctive headdress, than by the form of the dance they perform. It is especially true of later depictions, which show at least three variations in the form of pose but which are clearly identified either by caption or by the distinctive plant crowns.

( ), a wrt canal.24 The funerary barge, which appears to be depicted being hauled along this canal between the two pilgrimage sites in the above examples, ), a wrt barge.25 It appears this is identified as ( voyage can be interpreted as an abbreviated substitute, enacted within the precinct of the necropolis, performed in lieu of a pilgrimage to the actual sites.

Excluding the mww posture which appears in the lowest register of the PtH-Htp II example, the pose of the mww dancers is similar in all three Old Kingdom examples. In this pose, the mww figures have their hands held to their chests, clenched fists, thumbs and knuckles touching, one leg placed in front of the other and, in some instances, the front foot raised off the ground. In each case, the group of mww dancers is preceded by a lector priest. In the scene from the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr, the mww face the lector priest, whereas in the other two scenes the lector priest, the officials and the mww face the same direction. In Figures 7.2 and 7.3, a functionary holding a staff is situated between the mww dancers and the lector, with another figure standing behind the mww, however, due to damage, it is not possible to discern whether a 13 14 15

In all three examples, the mww are depicted at the same point in the funerary proceedings. The Sais gateway is situated below the mww in the funeral of Nb-kAw-Hr. The same motif appears behind a lector priest who is 16

Málek, LÄ V, p. 355. Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), pp. 17-18. ibid. p. 24. 19 ibid. p. 30. 20 Lepsius, Denkmäler II, 101b. 21 Kanawati-Abder-Raziq, Unis Cemetery II, pl. 38. 22 MM D 10. 23 de Morgan, Dahchour, pl. 22 24 Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), p. 11. (The wrt body of water is later identified at Edfu (WB 1:332,10) as a stretch of holy water associated with Esna, which Sethe observes is related to Sais. (Sethe, Urgeschichte, p. 142)). 25 MM D 10, p. 195. Hannig, Handwörtebuch, p. 204, (Heiliges) Boot. 17 18

Chapter 2:1, Figures: 1.1, 1.21, 1.30, 1.38 and 1.39. Dominicus, Gesten und Gebärden, p. 59, fig. 13, a, b. Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), p. 5.

140

PART II: CHAPTER 7, THE DANCE OF THE MWW If it was customary for the deceased and his wife to make certain pilgrimages to shrines at various holy places, including Sais, Buto and Heliopolis situated in the Delta area, then, because the Delta is predominately marshland, the services of ferrymen would have been required for these journeys, since even short pilgrimages to shrines in the Delta would have been impossible on foot. The association of the mww with the Delta region has already been established due to the proximity of the mww to schematic representations of Sais and Buto in the three Old Kingdom examples.

addressing the mww in the PtH-Htp II scene. The Idwt scene is too damaged to identify the structure behind the mww dancers. The frieze of pr-nw chapels and/or palms, symbolic of Buto, appears in all three examples. Costume and Headdress The costume of the mww dancers comprises a short kilt, which is pointed in Figure 7.1 and straight in Figure 7.2. Figure 7.3 is damaged, but the kilt appears to be straight. In all cases the chest is bare.

Such journeys appear to have been incorporated into the funerary service and performed symbolically within the confines of the necropolis.30 As the services of ferrymen would originally have been necessary for transporting the deceased across the Nile to the necropolis, their involvement with the funeral seems to have developed into the ritual enactments of giving permission for the cortege to enter the necropolis, and navigating the deceased on symbolic pilgrimages to Sais and Buto on the wrt canal, which was conveniently situated within the confines of the necropolis. This association of the mww with the vocation of ferrying is suggested in Pyramid Text 1223, utterance 520.31

There are two styles of headdress worn by the mww in Old Kingdom examples. The conical headdress, worn by the mww in the Nb-kAw-Hr example and the figures in the lowest register of the PtH-Htp II fragment, is very similar to the headdress worn in most Middle and New Kingdom examples. This consists of reeds woven together to form a conical crown with a narrow top, from which three fronds protrude. In the tombs of Idwt and PtH-Htp II, the mww headdress resembles the plant emblem of Lower Egypt. Since the term mww (literally meaning those who belong to the water), was possibly a term denoting ferrymen and this may have been their original occupation, Altenmüller suggests that the aquatic plants in the hair of the mww were similar to the floral wreaths worn as an icon of trade by ferrymen in the Delta region of Egypt, a tradition observed even by the crews of larger boats.26 This origin as ferrymen is suggested by the placement of the mww close to the wrt canal in Old Kingdom depictions. Junker recognized that one mww crown recalls the plant emblem of Lower Egypt ( ) and the hieroglyphic symbol (M 16) used as part of the word (mHw.s) [crown of Lower Egypt], while the crown of woven reeds bears an uncanny resemblance to the shape of the white crown of Upper Egypt and the Atfw crown. (Earlier representations of the

‘If you delay to ferry me over in this ferry boat, I will tell your names to the men whom I know, to everyone, and I will pluck out those dancing tresses which are on top of your heads like lotus buds in the swamp gardens. [my emphasis] This is a clear description of dancers, wearing a plant headdress, who are also seen to have the responsibility of ferrying. The plant headdress depicted in the fragment from the tomb of Pth-Htp II is also found on fragments from the New Kingdom tombs of Imn-m-Apt32 and Mntwxr-#pS.f33 at Thebes (although in these examples, there are more than three shoots protruding) and the mww figures are in the same pose as the mww in the Old Kingdom examples. Plant headdresses are associated with other singers and dancers, being part of the costume of mrt singers, and the Smayt and rwtyw performers.

) indicate that it middle section of the Atfw crown ( was bundled in a manner similar to the mww headdress, with three protrusions at the top.27 If Junker is right and the mww represent the souls of the ancient kings of Buto, then it is not surprising that their headdress, as it appears in the PtH-Htp II and Idwt scenes, resembles the crown of Lower Egypt as it appeared before unification. Yet, it is difficult to reconcile the shape of the conical crown with the Butoesque rituals originating in Lower Egypt. Reeder notes, however, a resemblance between this form and the prow of the reed boats used by Delta ferrymen, making the conical reed crown an even more obvious icon of trade28 and Reeder’s accompanying diagram29 reinforces his argument.

As well as performing ritual pilgrimages in the Delta, the mww appear to have been seen as mediators, ferrying the deceased king from this world to the next34 as part of the solar tradition. Rather appropriately, the crossing from this world to the next is referred to in the Pyramid Texts as crossing the Field of Rushes, a term which certainly evokes the surroundings of Delta ferrymen, as observed in Pyramid Texts 340-41, utterance 263:35 30

Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), p. 39. Faulkner, Pyramid Texts, p. 194 (utterance 1223, § 520). 32 Davies, Five Theban Tombs, pl. 42. 33 ibid. pl. 14. 34 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 59. 35 Lichtheim, Literature 1, p. 34. 31

26

Altenmüller, Altägytischen Kulture 2 (1975), pp. 22, 36. Junker, MDAIK 9:1, (1940), p. 35. Reeder, KMT 6:3 (1995), p. 83. 29 ibid. p. 77. 27 28

141

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM captions in tombs. A passage from the Middle Kingdom tale, The Story of Sinuhe relates: “The dance (xbb) of the mww-dancers is done at the door of your tomb”,43 thus establishing that the mww were dancers and that they were participants in the context of funerary ritual. Judging by the context of this quote in the story, the role played by the mww appears to have been highly regarded as one of the aspects of the funeral considered important enough to entice Sinuhe back to Egypt. As the Dance of the mww is mentioned with other rather extravagant funerary items such as: a mummy case of gold, its head of lapis lazuli, the mww were, perhaps, an aspect of the funeral only the very elite could afford or aspire to. In the Old Kingdom, the three examples featuring the mww are from the tombs of Nb-kAw-Hr and PtH-Htp II who were Viziers and Idwt, who was sAt nswt [daughter of the king].

‘Flooded are the Fields of Rushes That Unas may cross on the Winding Water. Ferried is Unas to the eastern side of lightland’. Brunner-Traut suggested that the crowns worn by the mww indicate their status as demigods or deities.36 Since they appear to be embodiments of the ancient, deified kings of Buto, the plant crown of Lower Egypt was a most appropriate headdress. Hence the mww can be seen as netherworld agents or demigods, divine ferrymen transporting Unis to the stars. The idea of a ferry to the stars is suggested in Pyramid Text utterance 310:37 ‘O thou, His-face-in-front-His-face-behind,38 bring this to Unas. What ferry shall I bring thee? Bring to Unas the one which flies up, the one which alights’. Etymological Iconography of the mww Headdress The words HAw [mourners],39 and 40 HAyt [mourning dance] can be written by placing the crown (which also carries the phonetic value HA) on the mww figure, since both words have a male figure (A28) as a determinative. This results in a particularly appropriate word association for the costume of mww funerary dancers (

) as seen in the PtH-Htp II scene. Figure 7.4 Mww from the Middle Kingdom tomb of Int.f-iqr (after Reeder)

Later Developments Since the Old Kingdom has the earliest known representations of the mww, these are the examples that could be expected to offer the greatest insight into the origin of the rituals associated with them. However, by the Old Kingdom, 1,000 years already separated the ancient kings of Buto from these depictions41 and references to the mww and the Butoesque funerary rituals are enigmatic, perhaps clouded so as to conceal the association with kingly burial practices42 or they are damaged or omitted.

In Middle and New Kingdom depictions, the mww appear at three different stations within the funeral, indicating that they played three distinct roles.44 In the Old Kingdom, the mww appear in a fourth funerary setting, which appears to be specific to the Old Kingdom, associating them with the holy sites in the Delta. In Middle and New Kingdom scenes, the mww first appear as the cortege approaches the entrance to the necropolis. The priest at the head of the procession would stop and with arms outstretched, utter the ritual words, ‘Come O mww’,45 whereupon a group of three or four mww, each wearing a short kilt and the distinctive conical headdress, would then intercept the funerary procession. They performed a particular gesture of stepping with one foot lifted and pointed to the ground whilst the fingers of one hand would also point to the ground, with thumb and forefinger stretched out from a closed fist, as seen in the Theban tomb of Int.f-iqr, TT 60 (Figure 7.4).

In some ways, a more complete understanding of the mww comes from various Middle and New Kingdom sources, including texts, pictures with accompanying 36

Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 59, uses the term ‘Halbgötter’. Reeder, KMT 6:3 (1995), p. 74, citing Piankoff, Pyramid of Unas. 38 refer to Altenmüller, Altägytischen Kulture 2 (1975), pp. 12ff. 39 Faulkener, Dictionary, p. 160 (CT. IV, 373). 40 WB 3: 6 (Mariette, Denderah , 33d) 41 Junker, MDAIK 9:1, (1940), pp. 36-38. 42 It is interesting to note that the depictions of the Butoesque funerary rituals are concentratred around the Cemetery of Unis at Saqqara, marking a time in the history of the Old Kingdom when practices associated with kingly privilege were beginning to be enjoyed by the elite and the so-called democratisation of funerary practice was beginning. 37

The mww in the tomb of Int.f-iqr appear to be depicted in a line, one behind the other. This arrangement could also 43

Lichtheim, Literature I, p. 229. As identified by Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 55. 45 Davies, Antefoker, pl. 22. 44

142

PART II: CHAPTER 7, THE DANCE OF THE MWW be interpreted as a row of dancers stepping simultaneously, side by side,46 a concept more convincingly represented by the overlapping of the mww figures in the New Kingdom tomb of ¦ti-ky.47 Simultaneously stepping over this line by the mww may perhaps be interpreted as a metaphor for stepping over the threshold between this world and the next.48 It appears to have been part of a ritual that involved the mww granting permission or ensuring safe passage for the procession to enter the necropolis,49 which in turn has been identified as symbolic of entering the Kingdom of Osiris.50 In the tomb of ¦ti-ky, the first group of mww wear the wrap-around kilts typical of xbi (acrobatic) dancers of the New Kingdom (as well as Layout and other dynamic dancers in the Old Kingdom).

Figure 7.5 The hall of the mww, NewKingdom tomb of ¦ti-ky (after Davies)

Mww Type 2

Mww Type 3

A scene depicted in no less than fourteen New Kingdom tombs as well as some from the Middle Kingdom attests to a second class of mww: those who stood in the Hall of the mww and guarded the necropolis. The mww are depicted standing inside a structure which has the shape of a pr-nw shrine, the interior rooms, which are depicted in the manner of a floor plan, are placed above the vault at the top of the structure, as seen in the New Kingdom tomb of ¦ti-ky (Figure 7.6). Outside this structure are two obelisks (identified with Heliopolis and the cult of Re), and two sycamore trees and three palms (associated with the Holy Island of Osiris)51 surrounding a rectangular pool, which may allude to the Old Kingdom wrt canal, all of which have significance in the funerary drama enacted by the mww. These mww also wore the reed headdress but the kilts can differ from those worn by the mww at the entrance to the necropolis, as observed in the tomb of ¦tiky.52

A third class of mww is shown in New Kingdom tombs. They are seen near four pr-nw temples with two palms and two gateways, dancing in pairs, facing each other in mirrored symmetry (Figure 7.6). These mww dancers wear a short, straight kilt and have short-cropped hair rather than the customary mww headdress and are associated with the dance term xbi as seen below in Figure 7.6 from the tomb of Imn-m-HAt. The caption seen between the two dancers reads: 53

xbt mww -dance of the mww

Figure 7.6 New Kingdom tomb of Imn-m-HAt. Thebes (after Gardiner-Davies) There are strong visual similarities between the Pair dancers of the Old Kingdom and this third category of mww dancers.54 In the Old Kingdom tomb of Axty-Htp,55 the Pair Dance scene appears at the head of the statue procession, and is accompanied by the caption

46 see Schäfer, Principles, p. 173 (also noted by Reeder, KMT 6:3 (1995), p. 76). 47 Davies, JEA 11 (1925), fig. 5. 48 Reeder, KMT 6:3 (1995), p. 76. 49 Ibid. p. 77. 50 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 43. 51 Junker, MDAIK, 9:1 (1940), p. 39. 52 Ibid.

53

Hieroglyph from Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 88. This similarity is discussed in Part II: Chapter 5, Pair Dance. 55 Ziegler, Achethetep, p. 106. 54

143

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

mk Trf iTt nt wiA [Behold, the movement of presenting (or fetching) the bark]’,56 reinforcing the association of the mww with boats and ferrying. Reeder suggests that the New Kingdom pair of mww dancers may be interpreted, not as mww dancers per se, but rather as performing a dance meant to invoke the mww,57 an act which, if the mww were ferrymen, would simultaneously summon the funerary bark, thereby resonating with the above caption in the Old Kingdom tomb of Axty-Htp. The Old Kingdom Pair Dance appears to have been performed in order to invoke deities such as Hathor. In the tomb of Iy-mry, the Pair Dance scene is mk Trf iTt accompanied by the caption nbw 58 [Behold, the movement of fetching gold / the Golden One)]. In all other examples of this formula, the term iTt is placed before nouns such as wiA. Here, however, the word order for the terms iTt and nbw is reversed, suggesting honorific transposition, which in turn suggests that nbw, in this case, refers to a deity. Since the gold goddess is Hathor, this could be taken as a formula to invoke her as the Golden One. Taking the interpretation of the mww as demigods59 or divine ferrymen, the concept of performing a Pair Dance to invoke the mww in a similar manner is a possibility.

Figure 7.7 Tomb of PtH-Htp , V.L-VI.E, Saqqara (after Junker) The dance represented in determinative A90c and in the PtH-Htp (21) scene persists into later periods, when it appears in funerary scenes as a mourning dance performed by women with dishevelled hair flung forwards over their heads.64 It is often interpreted as an ecstatic or acrobatic dance.65 While an ecstatic66 dance may be considered appropriate for the funerary context, the length of the dresses worn by women performing this mourning dance would make an acrobatic action impracticable.

Dance Style 7b: (W)nwn Funerary Dance Figure 7.7 appears to be the only Old Kingdom depiction of this dance, identified by Junker,60 which resembles the

nwn

(A90c) used in the writing of words determinative such as wnwn and nwn in some Old Kingdom texts.61 The heads of the dancers in Figure 7.9 are lost but in the determinative, the head is thrown forward with the hair loose. The arms in both A90c and Figure 7.9 are held low in front of the body and the wrists are held one over the other, which appears to indicate a rhythmic beating.62 The same determinative, sometimes without the loose hair, is used for the word sps [be tousled].63

In Pyramid Text 1005 the term nwn describes a dance executed by the souls of Buto in approaching the king: nw n.sn n.k m smAw.sn [They perform nwn for you with their hair] Faulkener translates the term nwn as: ‘dishevel, be dishevelled’ and rather unsatisfactorily ‘pull, (?) m at ones’ hair’.67 Junker points out that Pyramid Text 1005 suggests that the term nwn also includes swinging one’s hair. A rhythmic movement or clapping of the hands, is also suggested by the A90c determinative,68 which is illustrated by the later appearance of nwn in the Litany of

56 Or alternatively, seizing the boat – Badawy, 'Ankhm'ahor, p. 40. Other translations include: Behold the trf movement of/for the sacred bark (journey?)- Weeks, Cemetery G.6000, p.44. 57 Reeder, KMT 6:3 (1995), p. 77. 58 Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, fig. 35. 59 Brunner-Traut put forward the interpretation of the mww as demi gods because they wore crowns, a feature shared by deities and royalty (Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 59). 60 Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), p. 8., examining Lepsius, Erganz. Pl. 43 61 Pyramid Text 1005 and 1974. 62 Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), p. 9. 63 Faulkener, Dictionary, p. 223.

64

Middle Kingdom examples: Garstang-Newberry, el-Arabah, pl. 11 (Abydos); Tyler, Renni, pl. 15; New Kingdom examples: Davies/Gardiner, Amenemhet, pl. 24 (TT. 82); Werbrouck, Pleureuses, fig. 181 (TT 87); Davies, BMMA (1928), fig. 12 (TT. 100). 65 This gesture is described as tumbling in PM IV, Index p. 470 (index). 66 The word ‘ecstatic’ is employed here in the shamanistic sense. 67 Hannig, Grosse Wörtebuch I, p. 605, ‘zerzausen; hin und her bewegen (die zerzausten Haare als Ausdruck der Trauer); Faulkener, Dictionary, p. 128. ‘Sway with ones hair’ would be more consistent with Junker’s interpretation. 68 Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), p. 9.

144

PART II: CHAPTER 7, THE DANCE OF THE MWW the Sun: nwn.sn Hr.k Hwy.sn m awy.sn69 [They perform nwn before you and clap their hands]. The clapping of hands is also indicated by the crossing over of hands in Figure 7.7 and the A90c determinative.

necropolis. Thirdly, both groups appear to represent the dead souls of Buto, since it is they who are described performing (w)nwn in Pyramid Text 1005, and the mww in the three Old Kingdom depictions are associated with the dead kings of Buto75 through their juxtaposition with the contextual iconography of the palm tree and pr-nw frieze representing Buto, which has been shown to represent the cemetery of the dead kings of Buto.76 Finally, there is another association between the mww and the (w)nwn dancers. The eastern horizon, the part of the sky to which the mww appear to have ferried the deceased across the ‘field of rushes’, is called wnwnyt.77

Wnwn A sentence, almost identical to the one in Pyramid Text 1005, occurs in Pyramid Text 1974, but with the term (wn)wn instead of nwn. Pyramid Text 1974 wn (wn). sn n.k m smAw.sn [They perform wnwn for you with their hair].70 The term wnwn appears in full in Pyramid Text 780. It is interpreted as ‘to let one’s dishevelled hair fall over one’s face, especially as a sign of sorrow’,71 ‘a movement from one side to the other’,72 ‘sway to and fro’, or ‘move about, of child in womb’.73 Junker adds the idea of the rhythmic movement of the head as it is thrown forward and down and also swaying to and fro. Thus the terms wn, nwn and wnwn appear to be synonyms. The word wnwn, when it appears with the determinative has a range of meanings from ‘swaying/going to and fro’ to being a term for the motion of the foetus inside the womb’ and ‘traverse (a place)’. The contexts of both birth and mourning suggest that this dance, performed by women at the funeral, may be interpreted as a ritual enactment of (re)birth, through imitation of the dishevelled state of women swaying to and fro in childbirth. The men who perform (w)nwn in the PtH-Htp (21) scene stand at the same place as the mww in the Old Kingdom examples of mww dance (that is, near the pr-nw buildings and palm trees indicating Buto)74 and since it appears to be a mourning dance performed by the souls of Buto for the deceased king, the (w)nwn movement appears to be an alternative form of mww dance in the Old Kingdom. The relationship between the (w)nwn dancers and the mww can be illustrated by a number of factors the two have in common. Firstly, both groups perform a dance in funerary scenes, and at the same point in the proceedings as the cortege enters the necropolis. Secondly, both groups appear to have the same function of greeting the deceased. In Pyramid Text 1005, the (w)nwn movement is performed on approaching the dead king and the mww are shown to greet the cortege at the threshold of the 69

WB Belegstellen, 2, 323. Transcript from Sethe, Pyramidentexte, no. 1974. WB 2:222. 72 WB 7: 318. 73 Faulkener, Dictionary, p. 61; WB 2:222: motion of the foetus inside the womb. 74 Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), p. 8-9. 70 71

75

ibid. pp. 8-9. ibid. pp. 17-20. 77 WB I: 318, 13. 76

145

Chapter 2:8 Dance Style 8 – Boys’ Game

Figure 8.1 BME 994, provenance unknown, VI.E, probably Giza (after James)

Figure 8.2 Mastaba of PtH-Htp II, around V.9, Saqqara1

Figure 8.3 Mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i, VI.1, Saqqara (after Duell)

Figure 8.4 Mastaba of #nti-kA.i: Ixxy VI.1-2, Saqqara (after James)

1

Paget-Pirie, Ptah-hetep, pl. 33.

146

PART II: CHAPTER 8, BOYS’ GAME

Figure 8.5 Mastaba of Idw, VI.2-4E, Giza (after Simpson)

The tableaus represented in the Boys’ Game scenes resemble a pantomime-style of entertainment, or possibly a stylized ritual. In the example from the tomb of Idw, the vertical caption in front of the tomb owner reads: ‘viewing the entertainment.’ Perhaps the caption xbt in the BM fragment indicates that dance and pantomime were synonymous in the Old Kingdom. This is not so far removed from our own understanding of the close association between dance and pantomime, as observed in the many classical ballets which include long segments of pantomime, employed as a device for the unfolding of the narrative but still encompassed by the term ‘ballet’.

Typology There are two definitive motifs or episodes which occur in examples of the Boys’ Game genre, the most typical of which shows a group of naked youths running in unison, usually escorting a bound captive. The running youths wear the lock of youth and may hold objects such as hand-shaped clappers or feathers in their raised hands. This motif is here referred to as ‘escorting the bound hostage’. The other motif shows a group of four boys subduing a fifth youth and pushing him to the ground which is referred to as the ‘vanquished youth’ in this study. The action in this last scene takes place inside a demarcation of some kind, which has been referred to as a ‘hut’ by previous authors.2 The only example which includes both episodes is BME 994, referred to henceforth as the BM fragment.

Distribution Of the five examples of the Boys’ Game genre, three are from Saqqara and one is from Giza, while another one of uncertain provenance is most likely from Giza. Examples are dated from the late Vth Dynasty to the early VIth Dynasty.

While this genre may not satisfy the criteria necessary for a modern classification as dance, the scene on the BM fragment (Figure 8.1) is captioned with the dance term xbt (clearly separated from the caption accompanying the scene of girls dancing by a vertical stroke) and therefore, appears to have been considered as dance by the ancient Egyptians themselves. It is for this reason that the genre is included in this study. However, even from a modern perspective, these scenes can be identified as performance. In the tombs of Idw, Mrrw-kA.i and in the BM fragment, this type of performance appears to be an item in a series of diversions or enactments, since it occurs close to other dance genres such as Diamond Dance in the Idw scene, Mirror Dance in the Mrrw-kA.i scene, and Salute in the BM fragment.

The Sample Despite the uncertainty of provenance, the BM fragment (Figure 8.1) offers the most complete example of the Boys’ Game genre because it contains both the identifying motifs described above. In the first episode, five naked youths step out in unison, each holding a hand-shaped clapper in one hand and a feather in the other. However, instead of escorting a bound hostage, the youths in this scenario appear to be encircling a lionmasked figure wearing a belt with straps and tail (or perhaps this is a rope held in his lowered hand), who stands in the centre holding a hand-shaped clapper in his raised hand.

2 In Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport, p. 628, the name given for this motif is Hüttespiele, Capart, BIFAO 30 (1931) p. 74, describes the scene of this motif as ‘une hutte ou un enclos’. The line may also be interpreted as a shape drawn on the ground to indicate an area for martial arts contests similar to a ‘boxing ring’. Both episodes have been described as a game of prisoners by Simpson, Qar and Idu, p. 24.

147

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM The caption accompanying this episode reads:

The caption reads:

xbt in SdXt [Dance by the SdXt3 youths].

ii SmA iA sDm n ib.f [A stranger comes, Oh! Listen to his wish].8

To the right is the vanquished youth motif, in which four youths, three inside an enclosure or demarcation and one outside facing in, subdue a fifth youth inside the enclosure. This example appears to represent two related episodes from the same performance, the naked youths escorting the bound hostage (although in this example the hostage is substituted for the lion-masked figure) and the scene of the vanquished youth.

In another nearby scene, (Figure 8.6) four youths overcome a fifth youth who is on the ground and tries to trip up the others. The scene bears some resemblance to the ‘vanquished youth’ motif9 but without the ‘enclosure’.

The caption reads: Sd wa.k im nty Hna(.i) [Rescue your one therein, comrade].4 At the left of the fragment are the remains of a Salute Dance scene, performed by women who are captioned ...n xnr [...of the xnr]. The context is complex, the registers above and below depict marshland pursuits, while the Salute Dance scene to the left, suggests it is part of a series of performances. Such a series of performances, usually indicates that the context is a presentation scene. The two contexts are not mutually exclusive as there are other examples of presentation scenes placed in marshland settings.5 To the right of the vanquished youth episode, traces of a boy with the lock of youth are visible. This resembles the scene of two boys with linked arms, which overlaps the vanquished youth motif in the tomb of Idw. Since the vanquished youth motif in the Idw scene appears to be a close copy of the corresponding scene on this fragment, it is likely that this is also a depiction of two boys with linked arms in the same position.

Figure 8.6 Tomb of PtH-Htp II10 The caption reads: m Hwi n.k is tnyw n.i gswy Who is it that has hit me on both sides? 11

The piece was described as coming from Giza when purchased.6 This is likely, since the vanquished youth motif and the captions above it are almost identical to those found in the corresponding scene from the tomb of Idw, the only example of the Boys’ Game genre known to be from Giza:

Figure 8.7 Tomb of PtH-Htp II12 The surrounding scenes feature marshland pursuits and the harvest of the vintage. A nearby scene of two boys with inked arms (Figure 8.7) corresponds to the pair to the right of the vanquished youth motif in the tomb of

In the scene from the tomb of PtH-Htp II (Figure 8.2), six youths escorting a bound hostage7 are running from a wrestling match involving six pairs of boys. All are naked and wear the lock of youth and nothing is held in their clenched fists.

8

The alternative interpretation ii SmA i sDm n ib.f [A foreigner comes, hear his wish (?)] is offered by Smith, History, p. 209. Capart, BIFAO 30 (1931), p. 74, has ‘ici vient l’étranger (SmA). Oh! Pretez l’oreille à son désire. 9 see below following page. 10 Paget-Pirie, Ptah-hotep, pl. 33 11 Alternative translations include: Behold you have kicked me!’ ‘Let me strike at you!’ ‘ I am weary on both sides and I have tasted (?) you’ (Griffiths in Davies, Ptahhetep, p. 10); ‘Voyez, vous m’avez frappé; mes côtes me font mal. Je vous ai pris’.(Capart, BIFAO 30 (1931) p. 74); m Hwi n.k [Wer ist es, den du gesclagen hast] (Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport, p. 627). 12 Paget-Pirie, Ptah-hotep, pl. 33.

3

The word SdXt only has an entry under the word Xrdt in WB III: 398, 11. Smith, History, p. 210 has xbt in SdXt [Dance of the SdXt youths]. 4 Sdw wa.k im.i nty Hna.i Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport, p. 630); Capart, BIFAO 30 (1931), p. 74, in consultation with Sethe, has ‘Prends le tien parmi eux, camarade’ 5 PtH-Htp: Ii-anx, at Saqqara, Isi at Deir el-Gebrawi, and #ni: ¥psi-pwMnw, KA.i-Hp: §ti-iqr and §ti at el-Hawawish. 6 James, Hieroglyphic Texts I, p. 994. 7 Rope is apparent around the wrists of the ‘prisoner’ in the drawing by Davies, Ptahhetep I. pl. 21 and in Smith, History, p. 210, fig. 81a.

148

PART II: CHAPTER 8, BOYS’ GAME Idw. The caption sSt snti pn at13 is difficult to decipher.14 Griffiths suggests it is the name of the game depicted.15 In the Mrrw-kA.i scene (Figure 8.3), six youths carrying feathers or hand-shaped clappers are escorting a bound hostage. As in most examples of this genre, the naked youths wear the lock of youth. A Mirror Dance scene is depicted in the register below and there are other children’s games depicted in close proximity.

This is the only example in which the boys in the vanquished youth scene do not wear the lock of youth, instead they have short-cropped hair. To the right are the episodes of two boys with linked arms and two boys fighting with sticks or daggers.21 This scene is one of a series of diversions in the broader context of a presentation scene, which also includes the Diamond Dance. The caption reads:

The caption reads: Sd wa.k im.sn nt(y) Hna(.i) [Rescue your one among them, Oh (my) comrade].22

ii SmA sDm n ib.f mAA ky snD.f [A foreigner comes, listen to his wish, another sees and is afraid].16

To which the youth standing outside the hut replies:

A scene to the right shows two youths with the lock of youth wrestling and beside them four more youths are wrestling with another one subdued on the ground, rather like the vanquished youth motif found in other examples of this genre, but without the ‘enclosure’, and almost identical to the corresponding scene in the tomb of PtHHtp II (Figure 8.6). The caption reads: Hwi n.i sT ti gnn.i im gsw.i [I have hit it, while I am weary in my sides],17 again very similar to the Pth-Htp caption.

iw(.i) r Sdt.k

[I shall rescue you].23

Context This genre occurs in a variety of contexts, appearing in close proximity to dance scenes and other games in the tombs of Idw, Mrrw-kA.i, PtH-Htp II and on the BM fragment, in presentation scenes in the tombs of Idw, Mrrw-kA.i and the BM fragment, and amongst marshland activities on the BM fragment and in the PtH-Htp II scene, and a surgical procedure or manicure and pedicure in the tomb of #nti-kA.i: Ixxy. Boys are shown wrestling in pairs nearby the Mrrw-kA.i and PtH-Htp II scenes, and wielding daggers in a martial arts scene in the tomb of Idw. A more ritual significance has been accorded this genre by a number of authors based on the appearance of various objects in some of the examples. The first is the handshaped clapper, identified as a type I brachiomorph in Sourdive’s typology of Egyptian hand-shaped objects.24 Hand-shaped clappers appear in the hands of the running youths in the Mrrw-kA.i scene and the BM fragment as well as in the hands of the lion-masked figure in the BM fragment.

The #nti-kA.i: Ixxy example (Figure 8.4) is only fragmentary. Three naked youths (the calf of a fourth indicates there were more) escort a bound hostage. The youths step out in unison as they do in all of the Saqqara examples. In this example, the rope is looped around the neck of the hostage and the youths hold the rope which is binding the captive, rather than the feathers and clappers observed in other Saqqara examples. The scene occurs below scenes of scribes (top register) and a scene which has been interpreted as a surgical procedure18 or a pedicure and manicure19 in the register directly above. The caption reads:

Similar clappers appear in the Mirror Dance scene below the Boys’ Game scene in the tomb of Mrrw-kA.i, which consequently have been associated with the cult of Hathor by Hickmann,25 largely because of the reference to Hathor in the caption above the scene, but also because of the association with Hathor in her role as the Hand of Atum in the Heliopolitan Theology (examined in more detail below in Chapter 2:10, The Mirror Dance). The same implement appears in scenes depicting the administering of punishment such as the one from the tomb of Ibi (Figure 8.8) and, as a consequence, the

[SdXt/] Hmw-kA Hna [[SdXt] youths together with/amongst the Hmw-kA].20 The scene from the tomb of Idw (Figure 8.5) is very similar to the vanquished youth motif in the BM fragment. Three boys inside a hut or enclosure, with a fourth facing in, subdue a fifth youth, who is on the floor. 13

Transliteration from Decker-Herb in Bildatlas.zum Sport,.p. 624. ‘Two nurslings overturned (?)’ is offered by Griffiths in Davies, Ptahhetep, p. 10. Translations are not attempted by Capart, BIFAO 30 (1931) or Decker-Herb in Bildatlas.zum Sport. 15 Griffiths in Davies, Ptahhetep, p. 10. 16 The similar interpretation ii SmA sDm n ib.f mAA ky snD.f [A foreigner comes, hear his wish (?) another sees and is afraid] is offered by Smith, History, pp. 209-210. 17 Griffiths in Davies, Ptahhetep, p. 10. 18 Smith, History, p. 210 19 James, Ikhekhi, p. 21; Capart, BIFAO 30 (1931) p. 74. 20 Alternative interpretations include: Hmw-kA Hna [the ka servants together] (James, Ikhekhi, p. 46); Hmw-kA Hna.i [ ] Totenpriester mit mir (Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport, pp. 628-629. 14

21 The captions have vertical division lines separating the commentary for each event from the next. 22 Transliteration and translation, Simpson, Qar and Idu, p. 24. Sdw mry.k im.sn nty Hna.i ‘Befrei deinen Liebling von ihnen, Kamerad.’ (Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport, p.269. 23 Transliteration and translation, Simpson, Qar and Idu, p. 24. The alternative, iw.i.ir Sdt.k ‘ich will dich befeien’ appears in (Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport, p. 269. 24 Sourdive, BSFE 97 (1983), p. 31. 25 Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-55).

149

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Contexts surrounding Boys’ Game scenes BME 994 PtH-Htp II Mrrw-kA.i #nti-kA.i Idw

unknown Saqqara Saqqara Saqqara Giza

VI.E ? around V9 VI.1 VI.1-2 VI.2-VI.4E

fishing, harvesting, boat building, Salute wrestling match, harvest of vintage children’s games, Mirror Dance manicure, pedicure, seated scribes presentation scene, Diamond Dance, musicians

Figure 8.8 Tomb of Ibi, Deir el-Gebrawi (Kanawati, Deir el-Gebrawi II, pl. 70) Sed Fest scenes from Abusir

Figure 8.9 Ni-wsr-Ra Abusir26

Figure 8.10 Ni-wsr-Ra, Abusir27

26 27

Borchardt, Ne-user-Re III, pl. 18: 256 –261 (see also fig.262/3) Borchardt, Ne-user-Re III, fig. 252.

150

PART II: CHAPTER 8, BOYS’ GAME Similar scenes from Abusir

Figure 8.11 Sun Temple of SAHw-Re, Abusir (after Borchardt)

Figure 8.12 Mastaba 1:6, Sun Temple complex of ¤AHw-Ra, Abusir28

Figure 8.13 11 Mastaba 1:6, Sun Temple complex of ¤AHw-Ra, Abusir29

28 29

Borchardt, ¤aAhu-Rea II, pl. 10. Borchardt, ¤aAhu-Rea II, pl. 10.

151

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM clappers can be perceived as signifying power and the maintenance of justice and order.

The resemblance of the lion-masked figure in the BM fragment to a fragment of relief from the solar temple of ¤AHw-Ra at Abusir (Figure 8.14), which has been identified as belonging to a Sed-festival scene, has led to speculation that the BM fragment depicts a democratized version of the Sed-festival.36

The lion-masked figure in the BM fragment has a similar stance to the figures administering punishment in Figure 8.8. The similarity of the tableaus in the Boys’ Game with the punishment scenes and the occurrence of the hand-shaped clapper in two of the Boys’ Game scenes suggest there may be a reference to the subjugation of the victim in the punishment scenes in the vanquished youth motif. In the Mrrw-kA.i scene, some of the boys are wielding feathers, also symbolic of the power of justice through association with the insignia of the goddess Maat and the ordeal of the weighing of the heart. Another motif, which has been the subject of much speculation, is the lion-masked figure in the BM fragment. The central placement of the figure and the brandishing of hand-shaped clappers, which we have established signified power and held a magical or protective significance, indicate the central role played by this personage. The figure is clad, indicating that he is an adult, in contrast to the naked youths who surround him. The belt with strips he is wearing and the lion mask have been associated with Bes.30 As such, the figure in this scene can be identified as an impersonator of Bes or another deity with similar iconographic form.

Figure 8.14 Lion-masked figure, Solar Temple of ¤AHw-Ra, V.2, Abusir37 Other scenes which have been identified as resembling the BM fragment are: 1) a number of fragments from the Vth Dynasty Temple of ¤AHw-Ra at Abusir (Figures 8.9-10 and another from the tomb of PtH-Spss,38 show numerous men running which also resemble the running figures in the bound hostage motif, particularly the scene from the mastaba of PtH-Htp.39 2) the Sed-festival scenes in the New Kingdom tomb of £rw.f, in which a lion-masked figure is similarly placed behind a line of female dancers, 3) a statue from the temple of Neferirkare40 mentioned by Smith41 and Baines42 providing another possible parallel for the lion-masked personnage, and 4) a resemblance with the Hathoric rites in the Middle Kingdom tomb of ¤nb.i at Meir43 is remarked on by Wente,44 who cites the text spoken by a dancer, on behalf of Hathor, whom she appears to be impersonating, ‘May you repeat a million Sed-festivals while Hathor guides you therein’.45 Wente notes that this text is very similar to a text appearing in the Sed-festival scene in the tomb of £rw.f.46

The resemblance to Bes is remarked upon by Erman and Schäfer (who suggest the figure is an early prorotype),31 Wild,32 and Capart.33 Smith points out a caption in a scene near the Boys’ Game scene in the tomb of PtH-Htp II, which has the word Ssmw. Smith identifies Ssmw as the harvest god of the oil and wine press. Because Ssmw is also the slaughterer in Pyramid Text 403a and is elsewhere identified as a leonine figure, Smith draws the association with the lion-masked figure in the BM fragment.34 If the lion-masked figure is meant to represent Ssmw, then the performer depicted is taking on an impersonator role.

Yet another celebratory context has been suggested for this scene by Capart, and that is the coming of age ceremony. Capart bases this notion on an observation that the Boys’ Game scenes resemble a ceremony surrounding the first cutting of a boy’s hair as observed in Egypt in the early Twentieth Century.47 This argument is

The association of the Boys’ Game scenes with the harvest has led to the notion that the ritual portrayed is part of a seasonal festival.35 The resemblance between the bound hostage motif and scenes of men running in unison in harvest scenes bears mention. A number of similar scenes found at Abusir, featuring men running in unison with long sticks but without donkeys and no indication that they are part of the harvest (Figures 8.11-13). Since a number of similar scenes found at Abusir are depictions of the Sed-festival, these scenes may indicate the link between the two genres and the Sed-festival.

36

Wente, Wilson Studies, p. 89. Borchhardt, ¤aAHu-Rea, II, pl. 22. 38 Verner, Ptahshepses, pls. 6-7. 39 Borchardt, ¤aAhu-Rea II, pl. 10. (see below; Figures 8.13, 8.14). 40 Borchardt, Neferirkare, p. 70. 41 Smith, History, p. 210. 42 Baines, Fecundity Figures, p. 129 43 Blackman, Meir I, pls. 2, 3. 44 Wente, Wilson Studies, p. 89. 45 ibid (text appears in Blackman, Meir I, pls. 2 and 3). 46 Wente, Wilson Studies, p. 89. 47 Capart, BIFAO 30 (1931), p. 75. 37

30 Baines, Fecundity Figures, p. 129, although Baines is not of the opinion that the figure here represents a deity. 31 Smith, History, p. 210. 32 Wild, Danses sacrées, p. 76. 33 Capart, BIFAO 30 (1931), p. 74. 34 Smith, History, p. 210 and n. 1. 35 ibid. p. 210.

152

PART II: CHAPTER 8, BOYS’ GAME reinforced by the lock of youth worn by the boys in all but one of the Boys’ Game scenes. Like the Mirror Dance, the Boys’ Game genre may have been a more significant ritual such as a coming of age ceremony or a harvest or Sed-festival celebration, rather than merely a game.

153

Chapter 2:9 Dance style 9 –The Hathoric Layout Pose Saqqara

Figure 9.1 Mastaba of KA-gm-n.i, VI.1 (after Decker-Herb)

Figure 9.2 Watt-Xt-Hr Chapel, Mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i, VI.1 (after Roth)1

Figure 9.3 Mastaba of anx-m-a-Hr, VI.1 2

1 2

Drawing by Mary Hartley Kanawati-Hassan, Ankhmahor, pl. 58.

154

PART II: CHAPTER 9, THE LAYOUT

Figure 9.4 Two registers from Mastaba of Mr.f-nb.f, VI.2 (after Myśliwiec)

Figure 9.5 Mastaba of MHw, VI.2 (drawing by Mary Hartley)

155

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Deir el-Gebrawi & el-Hawawish

Figure 9.6 Tomb of ©aw, VI.4, Deir el-Gebrawi (after Davies)

Figure 9.7 Tomb of KA.i-Hp:§ti-iqr, VI.4M, el-Hawawish3

Figure 9.8 Tomb of £ni: ¥psi-pw-Mnw, VI.4L, el-Hawawish4

Figure 9.9 Tomb of §ti, VI.L-VIII.E, el-Hawawish 5

3

Kanawati, El-Hawawish I, Fig. 12. ibid. IX, fig. 37. 5 ibid. VIII, fig. 10. 4

156

PART II: CHAPTER 9, THE LAYOUT Dance Style 9 – The Layout Pose

the examples in the sample, the KA-gm-n.i scene has the least believable pose. Each dancer’s centre of gravity is far behind the supporting leg and this is emphasized by the bent supporting knee. There is no arch to the back which could allow the dancers at least to continue the movement backwards into a bend-back position.

Typology In this genre, dancers are represented kicking one leg high up in front and reaching forward with parallel arms, whilst throwing their torsos precariously backwards. As it resembles a step in the repertoire of modern dance called the Layout, this term is employed to describe it in this study. A variant example from the tomb of ©aw at Deir el-Gebrawi (Figure 9.6) is included in this group because the dancers execute a similar high kick to the front, although their bodies are erect. However, differences in dance form, and costume of dancers in the ©aw example, suggest it does not necessarily belong to the Layout genre and for this reason it is also considered as an example of the Kick genre, in Chapter 2:6, Sub-group 6.c.

This example differs from all the others in that the discweighted tress is not worn by the dancers. This is fortunate as it would further exacerbate the impression that the dancers are on the verge of toppling over with the force of gravity, already overwhelming to the viewer. Despite all of this, a sophistication is apparent in the mastery of the carving, giving the impression that the exaggerated overbalancing is intentional, perhaps to highlight the difficulty of the movement and the skill of the dancers. The usual counter balance of the discweighted tress seems to be replaced by the pendant or counterpoise, which hangs down in a similar manner.

The energetic nature of this dance, requiring flexibility and strength, appears to have been performed exclusively by young girls, whose bodies are most likely to possess both attributes. The variant performed in the ©aw example requires less spinal flexibility, since the body is held upright. Boys performing a similar kick, in the register below, have the working leg bent which requires much less flexibility. Because the leg is bent in this pose it is also considered in the High Step genre, Chapter 2: 6.b.

A caption accompanies this example, which appears to be a hymn to Hathor and the accompanying musicians appear to be reciting or singing the song.8 It is damaged but roughly translates:9

Like the Diamond Dance and Salute, this genre is often performed in unison, although in the tomb of §ti at elHawawish (figure 9.9), two dancers execute this pose facing each other and in the Watt-Xt-¡r chapel (Figure 9.2) it is represented in sequence rather than unison. In a number of tombs, including that of §ti, it is performed alongside other dance genres.

¡wt-Hr m r iAby i-nD-Hr.s i-n nTrw iw nD-Hr.T i-n Ra twt smA … n Hr …w iw i-nD-Hr.T i-n ¡r n mrrw n.T [n]tf. [Hathor (appears) at the portal of the East. ‘Greetings to her’ say the gods. ‘greetings to you’ says Re. ‘My image is united’. ‘greetings to you,’ says Horus…, ‘ the love which you inspire.10

Distribution

This resonates with the New Year ceremony enacted at the Temple of Hathor at Denderah called Uniting with the Sun’s Disc. Part of this temple was designed to have no roof, allowing the sun to shine in. Once a year, the statue of the goddess Hathor was moved to the space below the open roof in order that the sun could shine on her at the dawn of the New Year.11

This dance appears in nine tombs, five from Saqqara in the tombs of KA-gm-n.i, MHw, Mrrw-kA.i, Mr.f-nb.f and anx-m-a-Hr, three from el-Hawawish in the tombs of KA.iHp: §ti-iqr, £ni: ¥psi-pw-Mnw and §ti and the variant form at Deir el-Gebrawi in the tomb of ©aw. Examples from the capital date to the early VIth Dynasty with provincial examples following later. The §ti scene is possibly as late as the VIIIth Dynasty.6

A similar text appears in the dance scene from the Middle Kingdom tomb of Int.f-iqr at Thebes:

Saqqara The earliest record of this genre appears to be the depiction in the mastaba of KA-gm-n.i at Saqqara (Figure 9.1).7 While some versions of the dance resonate with energetic modern ballet styles, appearing perfectly plausible to the viewer, other examples take this already gravity-defying posture to impossible extremes, and of all 6 7

8

Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 40. Transcript from Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 85. Text appears (damaged) at the top of Firth-Gunn, Teti Cemetery II, pl. 53. Fischer, Denderah, p. 34 gives the following interpretation: “Hathor in the gate of the East. ‘Let her be greeted’ say the gods: ‘Thou art greeted,’ says Ra”. 10 Faulkener, Dictionary, p. 142 offers the translation ‘besprinkle’ for ntf. Firth-Gunn, Teti Pyramid Cemetery translates the text as: “Hathor appears at the gate of the East, ‘Be greeted says Ra, my image is united’. ‘Be greeted,’ says Horus, ‘the love which you inspire’”. No transliteration is recorded. 11 Watterson, Gods, pp. 124-5. 9

Kanawati, Iconographic Peculiarities, p. 291. ibid.

157

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM on top of that, the notion of sequence. In another scene from the same mastaba there are numerous dancers performing the Diamond Dance in unison, emphasizing the concept of plurality.15 The record of highlighted moments depicted in sequence and accompanied by explanatory captions indicates that this was an early instance of choreographic notation. The concept of simultaneously conveying number, highlighted steps, and time (sequence) does not seem to be at odds with the ability of Egyptians to communicate sophisticated concepts simultaneously via their considerable graphic skills.16

wn aAwy pt pri nTr [The doors of heaven open and the god comes forth.] mk nbw iyi.t(i) [Behold, the gold goddess has come.] 12 (or iyi.t is coming). The format of the second part of this inscription is similar to those found in some Old Kingdom Pair Dance scenes13 (mk Trf nbw iTt [Behold the movement of fetching gold /invoking the golden one (ie. Hathor)]. The example from the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel in the mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i (Figure 9.2), is unique for a number of reasons. Firstly, it is part of the largest area devoted to dance representation in a single scene in an Old Kingdom tomb (five registers are remaining). Secondly, this scene has the largest variety of poses represented in the Old Kingdom, some of which have no other parallel. Thirdly, the Layout Pose appears to be represented sequentially as a series of movements through time, whereas in other examples a chorus line of dancers are depicted performing in unison. In this example, a series of six moments from the one movement are shown in sequence (although the first three are almost identical). This poses an interesting question. Is this meant to represent one dancer executing a series of moves or six dancers, each demonstrating a separate moment in the sequence? That is, can we perceive whether the artist is conveying the concept of number, sequence or both?

The six dancers in Figure 9.2 have been particularly useful in attempting to reconstruct the actual movement being portrayed in this genre. In the rough animated reconstruction of these dancers (Web Animation 3),17 the nature of the movement becomes clear. As nothing has been added and the sequence used is that indicated by the artist, the resulting animation provides a useful tool for reconstructing the movement. The result suggests that this step is a grand battement 18 rather than a flick kick19 or dévelopée.20 Earlier suggestions that this step is interspersed with an upright stance appear to be correct.21 The suggestion that it is the forerunner to the bend back represented in the Middle and New Kingdoms is also plausible in some examples but is not validated by this reconstruction. Yet, the energetic manner of the dance does appear to herald the very athletic styles that appear from the Middle Kingdom,22 and become more prevalent in New Kingdom renditions of dance.23 This sequence is also useful in showing how accurately the artist has

The registers above this sequence show a complex choreography involving individual and partnered dancers. This suggests the artist’s intention of conveying the concepts of both numerical representation and a variety of poses. Such poses may have indicated key points in the choreography, which may have had specific significance and this is considered in the chapters regarding Pair Dance, Layout and Enchaînements. If plurality was the artist’s sole intention, then why are the poses of the Pair dancers so varied? By conveying a variety of movements demonstrated by numerous figures, the two goals are met simultaneously. That is, the possibility of the artist indicating the full compliment of dancers depicted performing a multitude of steps and economizing on space by simultaneously recording a more complete picture of the various stages or key positions in the dance. Not that the space devoted to dance depiction in this tomb chapel is limited,14 rather there may be a maximizing of it to convey as rich an impression as possible; an abundance not only of performers, but variety of pose and

15

Duell, Mereruka, pl. 87. This concept is perhaps more obvious in representations of mourners at funerals. Taking as an example the scene from the New Kingdom tomb of Nfr-Htp (Davies, Neferhotep, pl. 22), there are numerous mourners represented overlapping, each one executing a different moment in the gesture of reaching forward and scooping dust over their heads. Thus the artist simultaneously represents a crowd of mourners and a sequence of movements through time. This makes sense since an artist reconstructing such a moment could do so using just one model, overlapping sketches of her in each separate pose as she completes the sequence (Web Animations 1 and 2) http://galliform.bhs.mq.edu.au/EDG/dance.html. 17 Kinney, BACE 18, 2007 and above website. 18 A fast, high kick, executed with a straight working leg. 19 A fast flicking of a bent leg into a straight, extended position. 20 The same sequence of movements as a flick kick, but the leg unfolds in a slow, smooth manner. 21 Possible interpretations of the move are cited in Vandier, Manuel IV, p. 397: (1). Capart, Rue de tombeaux, p. 55: The ball circling the dancer rapidly during the course of the movement. (2) Brunner-Traut,Tanz, p. 24: The dancers throw themselves forwards and backwards alternately. (3) Wild (unpublished thesis cited by Vandier, Manuel IV, p. 397): The dancers execute an acrobatic movement on the spot. Brunner-Traut appears to be correct, as Web Animation 3 from the mastaba of MrrwkA.i (Watt-Xt-Hr chapel) illustrates. 22 Berlin Ägypt Museum, no. 14202 (shown above Figure 5.11); Newberry, Beni Hasan I, pl. 29 (£nm-Htp III); ibid. II, pl. 4 (BA-qt III)); Gardiner-Davies, Antefoker, pl. 23 (Int.f-iqr). 23 Davies, BMMA 1928, fig. 4 (TT. 53); ibid. fig. 11 (Luxor Temple); ibid. fig. 13 (Chapelle Rouge, Karnak); ibid. fig. 14 (TT. 65); 3 Ostraca from Deir el-Medina: Vandier d'Abbadie, BIFAO 56 (1957), fig. 9; ibid., pl. 1 (2); Turin Museum, no. 7052. 16

12

Davies, Antefoker, p. 22. Such as those in the tomb of Iy-mry Weeks. Cemetery G 6000, fig. 35. A similar caption omitting the word Trf appears in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel (van Lepp, Abstracts ICE 4 (1985), fig. 1). 14 The scene occupies the whole of the remaining north wall, in chamber B3, west of the entrance to the offering room, although, the missing upper registers may not have been dedicated to dance representation. Watt-Xt-Hr is shown above the entrance, viewing the dance.(The legs of Watt-Xt-Hr remain in situ, the upper blocks of her figure have recently been excavated by the Australian Centre for Egyptology). 13

158

PART II: CHAPTER 9, THE LAYOUT captured the momentum described by the disc-weighted tress.

disc-weighted tress, which offsets the line of the raised leg. Behind each dancer is the title ibA [dancer] and in front of each of the two rhythmists is the title Hst [rhythmist].

The captions accompanying this example are faint and at times the paint does not correlate with the shallow relief. Roth24 offers a transcript and translation for the caption accompanying this register, but associates it with the one above, which she suggests relates to childbirth.25 The following translation relies heavily on Roth’s interpretation of this caption.

The example from the tomb of MHw (Figure 9.5) has two registers of dancers demonstrating this movement, accompanied by two rhythmists in each register. Although the rendering is coarser, the bodyline of the dancers in this example is similar to that in the anx-m-a-Hr scene. The step is represented in a similarly plausible manner and the costuming and hairstyle are similar, the main difference between the two examples is that the dancers from the tomb of MHw have a scarf (or perhaps it is a counterpoise for a menit necklace), whereas the dancers in the anx-m-a-Hr example wear collars.

Captions in the register above the Layout register mk qH.t Sd Xnwt.s Behold! your vessel, remove that which is inside. mk sStA n xnrt Behold! the secret of the xnrwt 26 iA fd(k) Oh, separate!27 iw minA It is today! ii sTs Come prostrated!28 wnwn29 hurry, hurry! mk kkw30 Hbt mswt Behold! darkness is the abomination of birth.

In the tomb of MHw, each dancer is captioned with the title corresponding to her position in the hierarchy of the xnr.31 The first dancer in both registers has imyt-r xnr [overseer of the xnr (chorus)], the third dancer in the second register has sHDt nt xnr [supervisor of the xnr (chorus)], the first and third dancers in the second register have sHDt nt xnr [supervisor of the xnr (chorus)], the rest of the dancers have xnrt [female chorister] and above each register is written ibA nfr [n] kA.k MHw nb imAx [Beautiful dances for your kA/ the nfrw (novices) dance for your kA’), MHw, possessor of veneration]. The rhythmists are without caption.

The captions accompanying the Layout register mk sStA n xnr(w)t Behold the mystery of the women of the xnr! iA sTsA Come prostrated! mk mrx Behold unguent! (myrrh(?)) The anx-m-a-Hr example (Figure 9.3) is perhaps the most elegantly executed of all these depictions. A group of five dancers are depicted poised at the most extreme point of the body's backward thrust, and yet the movement is totally plausible. This is achieved by placing each dancer’s centre of gravity almost over the straight supporting leg and anticipating the forward momentum by reaching forward with the arms and arching the back slightly (both of which allow a forwards and upwards recovery from the position depicted). By keeping the dancer’s head and torso at a similar but opposing angle to that of the raised leg, an impression of counter balance is achieved. Compositional balance is also achieved by the

Strikingly similar to the MHw scene, is an example from the tomb of Mr.f-nb.f at Saqqara (Figure 9.4). The three dancers pictured in the upper register, could almost be a tracing of the three figures pictured to the left in the lower register, of the dance scene from the tomb of MHw. In both scenes, the costume, hairstyle and accessories of the dancers are the same, except for the more prominent ankle and wrist bands in the Mr.f nb.f scene. The costume of the rhythmists varies, being slightly flared in the MHw scene, rather than the usual close-fitting style observed the tomb of Mr.f nb.f. The hieroglyphs, which appear between the dancers, though damaged, appear to reflect the titles of the dancers (traces of the word xnrt can be discerned). The most significant difference between the two examples is that a register featuring the Diamond Dance is sandwiched between two registers featuring the Layout genre in the tomb of Mr.f-nb.f, whereas in the MHw scene, there are two registers of Layout dancers. The placement of the Diamond Dance register between the two registers of Layout suggests that the two genres may be associated.

24

Roth, JEA 78 (1992), pp. 141-143. The possible association of the xnr with midwifery is examined in Chapter 1:2, Performers, their Titles and Institutions. 26 The secret referred to is perhaps the skill of midwifery. 27 Roth takes this to refer to the four birthing bricks. This could be invoking the goddess Meskhenet, said to embody the 4 birthing bricks. The word fd is similar to the fdq term for sever (fdk is the transcript offered by Brunner-Traut). The term fdk to sever or separate is used in the lowest register to caption a pair of dancers separating. 28 Perhaps referring to an optimum position for a baby to present itself at birth. 29 This is the name of a regeneration dance performed at the funeral, the word used to describe the motion of a child in the womb, and the word for ‘hasten’ all of which bear relevance to the act of childbirth. It is possible the Wnwn (hurry, hurry!) Dance is a metaphoric imitation of childbirth. 30 The word Hkky is painted over the carved ikikH (ibid. p. 141), Roth offers the possible interpretation of kkw darkness. This is most likely since the prospect of remaining dark, ie unborn, is the most abhorrent outcome regarding the precarious act of childbirth. 25

Deir el-Gebrawi Because five of the nine examples depict the Layout dancers performing in close proximity to or alongside Pair dancers, the example from the tomb of ©aw at Deir el-Gebrawi (figure 9.6) with a very similar pose, which is 31

159

The titles are apparent in Altenmuuller, Mehu, pl. 50.

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM also featured alongside Pair dancers, may have a place in this genre. In this example, the leg is thrust high up in front of the body but the torso remains almost upright and this example is also examined in Chapter 2:6.c as part of the Kick genre. Since the high kick with bent leg, performed by a boy in the lower register of this example more closely resembles the High Step genre (Chapter 2:6.b), only the top register is considered as possibly belonging to this genre. The hairstyle is the same as in most of the other examples but the female dancers in the upper register of the ©aw example are nude.

Hst xb n ibA in xnr n pr-Dt.f n kA n HAty-a sDAwty-bity smr waty … [imi]-r … £ni [Dancing music for the dance by the ‘entertainers’ of his estate for the ka of the count, the treasurer of the king of Lower Egypt, the sole companion,…., the overseer of …. Kheni]. 35 Similarly, the caption above the KA.i-Hp: §ti-iqr example has:

The caption below them reads32

... (i)n xnrw n pr-Dt.f n kA n HAty-a sDAwty-bity smr waty imy-r Hm-nTr smA Mnw imi-r Sma it Mnw §ti […by the musicians of the funerary estate for the ka of the count, the treasurer of the king of Lower Egypt, the sole companion, the overseer of priests, the stolist of Min, the overseer of Upper Egyptian grain, the father of Min, Tjeti].36

xbt in xnr(w)t Sma : in Smaw n Dt’ [Dancing by the chorus and clapping by the rhythmists for eternity/ of the funerary estate].33 This caption places the scene in a funerary context and like the Saqqara examples, describes the role of the performers. The caption then outlines some of the titles of ©aw. The term xbt for dance, seems to anticipate the New Kingdom trend of employing this term for acrobatic and funerary dance, as well as the employment of the

symbol 32F ( ). As a term for dance, xbt does not appear often in the Old Kingdom. Apart from the two examples mentioned above, the only other scene with the caption xbt is a Boys’ Game scene.34.

These two captions, while describing the role of the performers, do not miss the opportunity to glorify the accomplishments of the tomb owner, in contrast to the Saqqara captions which focus on the dance and the dancers, in some cases including the titles of the dancers, and their role in bestowing favour on the tomb owner and honouring Hathor. The §ti scene (figure 9.9) is very damaged but the name or title Sma appears above one of the Pair dancers. This term is also used to describe the performers in the ©aw scene (Deir el-Gebrawi).

el-Hawawish

Context

As in the Watt-Xt-Hr scene, the three examples from elHawawish (Figures 9.7-9.9) show dancers performing this movement alongside dancers performing the Pair Dance and in the KA.i-Hp:§ti-iqr and £ni: ¥psi-pw-Mnw examples (Figures 9.7 and 9.8), other dancers perform the Diamond Dance as well. The other distinguishing feature of this group of scenes is the extreme angle at which the body is thrown backwards. Despite this, the straight supporting legs of the dancers, bringing the centre of gravity closer to a point above the supporting leg, together with a feeling of upward momentum, make this pose more plausible than the one in the KA-gm-n.i example.

Presentation scenes

determinative ( ) after the word xbt. This determinative is similar to, but more dynamic than,

KA-gm-n.i Watt-Xt-Hr anx-m-a-Hr Mr.f-nb.f MHw §ti

VI.1 VI.1 VI.1-2E VI.1 or later VI.1-2 VI .L-VIII.E

Saqqara Saqqara Saqqara Saqqara Saqqara el-Hawawish

Funerary ritual KA.i-Hp :§ti-iqr £ni: ¥psi-pw-Mnw ©aw

The caption accompanying the dancers in the scene from the tomb of £ni: ¥psi-pw-Mnw reads:

VI .4M el-Hawawish VI .4L el-Hawawish VI.4 Deir el-Gebrawi

Combination of funerary, marshland activity and entertainment KA.i-Hp:§ti-iqr VI .4M £ni: ¥psi-pw-Mnw VI .4L

32

Davies, Deir el Gebrâwi II, pl. 7. 33 The terms Sma and Smaw are translated by Davies (Deir el-Gebrâwi II, p. 21) as ‘singing by the singers’ and could also be translated ‘music by the musicians’, however since only clapping is depicted, the words ‘clapping by rhythmists’ have been employed in this instance. 34 BM. no. 994 (Smith, History, p. 26).

35 36

160

Kanawati, El-Hawawish II, p. 27. ibid. I, p. 25.

el-Hawawish el-Hawawish

PART II: CHAPTER 9, THE LAYOUT There are three contexts in which the Layout genre is represented as seen above.

as the dancers throw their torsos backwards, in the case of KA.i-Hp:§ti-iqr, looking almost as if the upper body is supported by the disc-weighted tress. The angle of the torso here is even more extreme than that seen in the KAgm-n.i scene (161º), although the examples from elHawawish look slightly more plausible, albeit as a possible preparation for a backwards Tinsky.38 The supporting legs in the two VIth Dynasty examples at elHawawish are bent, but in the tomb of §ti, the legs are straight and the already precarious position is made more gravity-defying by the extension of one arm slightly behind the head. The added weight of the arms in a movement such as this requires enormous strength in the back, especially if a forwards and upwards recovery is intended. The arm position in this example does suggest the possibility of continuing the movement backwards into a Tinsky or bend back.

At Saqqara, the Layout Pose is represented as part of the presentation scene, which is viewed by the tomb owner. However, in most provincial examples the inscriptions make it clear that the dance is performed by the xnrwt [chorus of dancers and rhythmists] of the funerary estate, thus placing the scenes in a funerary context. In the £ni: ¥psi-pw-Mnw and KA.i-Hp:§ti-iqr examples, the scenes are part of larger ones detailing marshland pursuits and entertainment, however, the inscriptions again mention that the performers are xnr n pr-Dt, [choristers of the funerary estate]. The §ti example is part of a presentation scene. Hathoric Association

Costume

The Layout genre can be seen to have Hathoric associations through the hymn to Hathor that appears above Layout dancers in the tomb of KA-gm-n.i. The Layout genre also appears in close proximity to other dances with Hathoric associations, such as the Diamond Dance (related to the cult of Hathor through the form of pose resembling the bucranium iconography of Hathor and accessories such as the menits and red scarves also associated with Hathor worn by Diamond dancers in the tomb of Idw), and Pair Dance in which the caption mk Trf nbw iTt [Behold, the movement of presenting/fetching the Golden One]37 accompanying the Pair Dance scenes in the tombs of Iy-mry and Watt-Xt-Hr (in abbreviated form), appears to refer to Hathor as the Golden One). As well, the disc-weighted tress may have some connection with the cult of Hathor (see below Chapter 2:10, Mirror Dance).

In the Saqqara group all the dancers wear a short, sarongstyle kilt, which is open at the front to allow the required range of movement. In the group from el-Hawawish, this is stylized into a garment which appears to be wrapped closely around the thighs in a manner resembling shorts, although the garment is unclear in the tomb of §ti. The female dancers in the tomb of ©aw are nude, again setting this example apart from the others in this genre. A scarf is also worn by the dancers in the tombs of KA-gm-n.i, Mr.fnb.f and MHw. In the Mr.f-nb.f example, the scarf has blue and white stripes. Hairstyle As in the Mirror dance, these dancers characteristically wear the disc at the end of a long tress of hair. Since the disc-weighted tress appears always to associate the wearer with youth,39 Brunner-Traut’s assertion that it apparently has its origin in the lock of youth is reasonable.40 In this context, the rolled end is emphasized by attaching a disc, the weight of which appears to swing through space, counter to the motion of the dancers’ bodies. This association with youth, further emphasizes the athletic fitness required to perform such dances. Dancers of energetic and acrobatic styles appear to have adopted this hairstyle in the VIth Dynasty, and this trend seems to have been carried over into some Middle Kingdom examples.41

Gender of dancers All dancers performing this genre are female. Some scenes with mixed genres have male dancers performing the Pair Dance close to the Layout and this is apparent in Figures 9.7, 9.8, 9.9. Variations in Pose The most striking difference in the depiction of figures, between examples, is the angle at which the body is thrown backwards. This can be reckoned by placing a protractor with 180 º along the ground line and measuring the angle of an imaginary line along the spine. The resulting measurements show angles of between 161º (KA-gm-n.i) and 152º (anx-m-a-Hr). The provincial examples vary from 180 º (a line parallel to the ground line) in the examples from el-Hawawish, to almost vertical in the ©aw example. The three examples at elHawawish are notable for the extreme angle of the back

Whether this was a flat disc or a sphere is rather contentious, since two statuettes have been excavated, 38 An acrobatic movement resembling a forwards or backwards handspring, but with more emphasis on bending the back and which can be executed in a slow and controlled manner, sometimes referred to by gymnasts as a walkover. 39 Kanawati, Iconographic Peculiarities, p.291. 40 Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 24 (eingerollt Kinderzopf). 41 Examples include dancers in the tomb of Int.f-iqr, statues of dancer in the bend back position Berlin Ägypt Museum, no. 14202 pictured above and paintings of acrobatic dancers at Beni Hassan (listed below).

37 This caption is also examined in Chapter 2:7, The Dance of the Mww and Chapter 2:5, Pair Dance.

161

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM both dated to the Middle Kingdom, one with a flat disc (CG 37756, Middle Kingdom)42 and the other, worn by a dancer in an acrobatic posture, with a ball (Berlin Ägypt Museum, no. 14202, Middle Kingdom).43 That it represents a solar disc would be a reasonable association, given the Uniting with the sun's disc ritual described above, and the Hathoric hymn quoted in the KA-gm-n.i scene. However, this caption is from the tomb of KA-gmn.i where the dancers do not have this hairstyle, instead wearing a weighted pendant around the neck. In the tombs of MHw and Mr.f-nb.f, the dancers wear both the disc-weighted tress and the pendant (This and the scarf worn in other scenes of this genre may represent the counterpoise of the menit necklace, itself closely connected with Hathor). The solar disc can also be associated with Hathor in her role as the Mansion of Horus and is often included in the iconography of Hathor appearing as a disc between her cow horns. Since the KAgm-n.i example is the earliest in this genre, the adoption of the disc-weighted tress suggests a development in style for this dance form.

Influences on later dance styles The Layout genre does not appear after the Old Kingdom.45 Since the Layout and Pair Dance genres often 45 It has been suggested that this genre may have laid the foundation for the New Kingdom xbi acrobatic dance depicted from the First Intermediate Period through to the New Kingdom (Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 23). The grounds given for this association are: (1). The same hairstyle and costume are worn (ibid. pp. 23-24). When worn by women, the short, sarong-style kilt, which is open at the front, appears to be the reserve of dancers performing acrobatic or dynamic dances in the Old Kingdom, and this trend continues into the Middle and New Kingdoms. However, the disc-weighted tress does not often appear on dancers after the Old Kingdom. There are a few examples of this hairstyle on acrobatic, or at least dynamic dancers from the Middle Kingdom e.g. Berlin Ägypt Museum, no. 14202; Gardiner-Davies, Antefoker, pl. 23 (Int.f-iqr); Newberry, Beni Hasan I, pl. 29 (£nmw-Htp III); ibid. I, pl. 4 (BA-qt III) and a similar but probably unrelated hairstyle in ibid. pl. 13 (£ty). Free flowing hair at shoulder length or longer appears to have been favoured by later acrobatic dancers, e.g.: Davies, BMMA (1928), fig. 4 (TT. 53); ibid. fig. 11 (Luxor Temple); ibid. fig. 13 (Chapelle Rouge, Karnak); ibid. fig. 14 (TT. 65); Petrie, Antaeopolis, pl. 24 (WA-kA); Statues: Lexova, Ancient Egyptian Dances, fig. 25 (Berlin museum no. 14570); Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport, R 3.6 (Brooklyn. 13.1204 -XIIth Dynasty); ibid. R 3.14 (fragment from Amun Temple, Deir el-Bahari -XVIIIth Dynasty); ibid. R 3.15 (fragment from Hatshepsut Temple, Deir el-Bahari - XVIIIth Dynasty); Wreszinski, Atlas I, pl. 179 (TT. 53); 3 Ostraca from Deir el-Medina: Vandier d'Abbadie, BIFAO 56 (1957), fig. 9; ibid., pl. 1 (2); Turin Museum, no. 7052 and mourners in ecstatic dance posture (identified as wnwn mourning dance by Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), p. 9), see Chapter 2:7b (w)nwn Dance: Garstang-Newberry, el-Arabah, pl. 11 (Abydos); Tyler, Renni, pl. 15 (Rn-n.i); Gardiner- Davies, Amenemhet, pl. 24 (TT. 82); Werbrouck, Pleureuses, fig. 181 (TT. 87); Davies, BMMA, (1928), fig. 12 (TT. 100); and Sed-festival dancers in Epigraphic Survey, Kheruef, pl. 34 (TT. 192), in which three dancers in the lower register have the tress, but the discs are not apparent and they are not performing acrobatic or ecstatic dance). There are few examples of acrobatic dancers with short hair (Middle Kingdom examples: Davies, Antefoker (TT. 60); Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport, entry R 2.3 (pipe handle, Middle Kingdom-First Intermediate Period or later, possibly a Phoenician import). In the New Kingdom, short hair on acrobatic dancers appears only in the lost tomb of Bekenamun at Thebes (Davies, BMMA (1928), fig.7, original drawing from Hay, MSS ). (2). Brunner-Traut suggests that both the Layout and later acrobatic dances have a rhythmic accompaniment only, even singers appear to be missing from the Old Kingdom ibA dance examples (Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 24). This is not necessarily so. The dancers in the tomb of KA-gm-n.i clearly have a sung, or at least chanted, accompaniment, which would probably have had some melodic structure. (Interestingly, the contentious term Hst is not employed for the rhythmists, who may be singing the hymn in this scene –see Chapter 2:1, Terminology). The examples at elHawawish are accompanied by harp and this is almost purely a melodic instrument. The Deir el-Gebrawi example has the caption Sma in Smaw, interpreted by Davies (Deir el-Gebrâwi II, p. 8) as ‘singing by the singers’, which suggests both sung and melodic accompaniment, although the activity of the numerous clappers pictured suggests that the meaning would be more accurately interpreted as ‘clapping by the rhythmists’. (3). Both styles of dance appear to have a strong association with Hathor and other cults, such as Amun (Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 24). There is much evidence linking the two styles to the cult of Hathor; In the Old Kingdom, the inscription accompanying this dance in the tomb of KA-gm-n.i associates the Layout genre with Hathor. Various accessories such as the disc-weighted tress and the scarf can also be shown to have Hathoric connections (see above) as well as the proximity of this dance, in a number of examples, to the Pair and Diamond Dance genres, which have also been shown to have associations with the cult of Hathor. New Kingdom associations with Hathor include the depictions of acrobatic dance on the walls of the Chapelle rouge at Karnak and associations with the cult of Amun are

Accompaniment Rhythmists accompany the dancers in most of the Saqqara scenes. The exception is the scene in the Watt-XtHr chapel, however, the two rhythmists in both of the uppermost registers, which feature pair dancers, may be intended to suffice for the registers below, since there is an impression of sequence throughout the scene as a whole. While most scenes show two rhythmists, only one appears in the upper register of the Mr.f-nb.f scene, with two in the lower. The KA.i-Hp:§ti-iqr scene at elHawawish has only one rhythmist and they are absent from the other two el-Hawawish scenes. Numerous male rhythmists appear in the register below the one that features the Layout dancers in the tomb of ©aw at Deir elGebrawi. The costume of the rhythmists is the usual long, close-fitting gown except in the tomb of MHw, in which they wear long gowns which are flared towards the ankles and the tomb of ©aw, in which some of the male rhythmists wear short, straight kilts and the rhythmists who may be about to join the dance wear just belts. At el-Hawawish, these dynamic dance steps are accompanied primarily by Harp, a melodic rather than rhythmic instrument. A rhythmist appears only in the £ni: ¥psi-pw-Mnw example. The Theban examples of the Stride genre, which may be related to this dance form also have harp accompaniment. 44

42

Macramallah, Idout, Figs. 6 & 7. P. 13 =CG 37756, Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 24, n. 9, states that this is incorrectly cited by Macramallah as originating from Meir, most likely the figure is from Tomb N. 241 Naga-ed-Dêr (Reisner). 43 Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport, pl. 391 entry no. R 3.7. 44 Stride appears as the preparatory stage of the Layout Pose in the scene from the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel.

162

PART II: CHAPTER 9, THE LAYOUT appear together in the same scene, it may follow that the two styles of dance are connected.

attested in the relief depicting the Opet Fest on the wall of the temple at Luxor (Wreszinsky, Atlas II, pl. 196). (4). There is a connection between the words for dance used in some of the captions for the Layout genre and later acrobatic styles. The term ibA is the most common word for dance in the Old Kingdom, and it is found in two examples of this genre at Saqqara. In the New Kingdom, the term xbt is more frequently applied as a dance term for a number of dance styles but is more often employed as a specific term for qualifying the Dance of the Mww (e.g. PA-Hr.i, (el-Kab), Rx-mi-Ra (Thebes)), as well as some acrobatic dances (Brunner-Traut, Tanz, fi.g. 22 (Chapelle rouge at Karnak)) However, the word xb.t does appear in a few scattered instances in the Old Kingdom, two of which occur in the context of the Layout genre. The most notable is the employment of this term in the caption accompanying the ©aw scene, already discussed. The word xb also appears in the tomb of £ni, where it is used to qualify the type of music accompanying the dance scene, which includes a performance of the Layout Pose: ‘Dancing (xbi) music for the dance (ibA)…(ibid. p. 24). There are disparities in context between the two periods. In the Old Kingdom the context is either funerary or as part of presentation scenes. In later periods, while ecstatic dance is most often found in a funerary context, acrobatic dances are more likely to be part of temple processions.

163

Chapter 2:10 Dance style 10 – Mirror Dance

Figure 10.1 Mrrw-kA.i, VI.1, Saqqara (after Duell)

Figure 10.2 Wnis-anx, VI.1, el-Khokha (after Saleh)

each hold a mirror at eye level or higher, while three of the four performers appear to hold up their clappers in order to reflect them in the mirrors. The fourth dancer holds up her own hand in the same manner.

Typology In this genre, female dancers holding mirrors and handshaped clappers are depicted in an interactive grouping. The intent of the performers, at various points in the dance, appears to be to make the clapper, held in one hand, appear reflected in the mirror held in the other hand or the hand of another dancer.1

Another two girls without mirrors or clappers are on the right, one of whom is clicking her fingers to create the rhythm for the other who appears to be executing a Pirouette.2 These two girls may be unrelated to the Mirror Dance or may represent another scenario in the tableau, perhaps with the other four dancers weaving around them as they reflect their clappers in the mirror.

Sample There are two Old Kingdom examples of this genre, both dated to the reign of Teti. The most complete version is that in the tomb of Mrrw-kA.i at Saqqara (Figure 10.1), in which there are four dancers, each with a mirror in one hand, of whom three are holding a hand-shaped clapper in the other. They are grouped in pairs, the two dancers on the left face the two on the right. Two of the dancers 1

There are several possibilities for the accompaniment to this dance: the girl clicking the rhythm may be contributing an accompaniment for all the dancers, or the group of Mirror dancers may at times beat their clappers against those held by the others in the group creating a rhythmic tattoo, and a further possibility for 2

Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5), pp. 160-161.

164

The Pirouette genre is examined above in Chapter 2: 6.a.

PART II: CHAPTER 10, THE MIRROR DANCE scholars.4 The caption accompanying the Mrrw-kA.i scene reads:

accompaniment is the hymn to Hathor written above the dancers, which may have been chanted or sung by the participants in the scene. The surrounding scenes include a Boys’ Game tableau in the register above, with a game of tug of war in the register above that again, a girls’ game to the left, and what may be a boy executing a Pirouette in the register below.

irry n iwf n iwf Hnwt Dd.s rn nfr n Hm(t) ¡wt-Hr Taking the scene at face value, a possible translation would be [On being beaten, clapper to (against) clapper, the Mistress she says her beautiful name to/of the Lady Hathor], referring primarily to the rhythmic function of the clappers. However, there are a number of features in both Mirror Dance scenes indicating that this genre has an association with the cult of Hathor. Firstly, the above caption from the tomb of Mrrw-kA.i, undeniably associates the scene with the cult of Hathor and, given the similarity of the tableau represented in the Wnis-anx scene, the two scenes appear to be depictions of the same Hathoric dance or ritual.

The dancers in this scene wear a variety of costumes. Two dancers wear long, sheer dresses with shoulder straps, another dancer is similarly dressed but the gown is not sheer, all three appear to wear collars. The dancer holding up the mirror appears to be nude, but traces of paint suggest a wrap-around kilt, open at the front, may have been superimposed over the relief. The three dancers in long dresses have breasts appearing through the straps of the bodice, although this is possibly an artistic device indicating what the straps conceal. The dancers all wear the disc-weighted tress, a hairstyle often associated with rigorous dances that required the stamina and flexibility of young performers, and in all instances where this hairstyle occurs, it appears to associate the wearer with youth.3

Secondly, the disc-weighted tress, when worn by dancers, is a distinctive hairstyle which often appears to have a Hathoric connection. The hairstyle appears on the dancers in the Mrrw-kA.i scene, which is accompanied by a hymn to Hathor, and also on dancers in the Middle Kingdom tomb of Int.f-iqr, in which an energetic dance is also accompanied by a hymn in honour of the gold goddess (the ‘Golden One’ is a designation of Hathor5). As well, there is a hymn dedicated to Hathor above the Layout Dance scene in the tomb of KA-gm-n.i.6 Although the dancers in the KA-gm-n.i scene do not wear the discweighted tress, the fact that this hairstyle is a feature of every other example of the Layout genre suggests a less direct association between the disc-weighted tress and the cult of Hathor.

The example from the tomb of Wnis-anx at el-Khokha appears to be the only other example of the Mirror Dance. Despite the damage, a mirror can be seen, held by each of the two outer dancers. The four female dancers are again arranged so that the two on the left face the two on the right. The two in the middle have raised arms, and the two on the outside hold their mirrors in front at face height. Whether the inside pair are holding hand-shaped clappers to be reflected in the mirrors held by the other two is unclear. An object held by the dancer on the inner right could be a clapper, but the detail is lost.

Thirdly, the emblems of the hand-shaped clapper and the mirror were emblems particularly associated with Hathor, even to the extent that they were perceived as embodying the goddess.7 The mirror was associated with the world of women, who were presided over by Hathor and the polished disc of the mirror was reminiscent of the disc

The dancers appear to wear only jewellery: the two with mirrors wear collars, arm bands and anklets; the dancer who may be holding a clapper wears a wristband. A long tress is apparent on two of the dancers, but without the disc at the end. The dancer on the right holding a mirror may have short-cropped hair, or perhaps the long tress is obscured by her torso. The bodies of all performers are painted yellow and the eyes are large. There are no rhythmists but the dancers are accompanied by four female harpists, who are kneeling and wear long gowns with shoulder straps. The register above has four female dancers performing the Stride genre.

4

Various translations listed by Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5), pp. 165-69, include: 1) Hickmann: “qui est fait” ou “celui qui agira”:~”à chair de chair de la maîtresse, elle dit un beau nom à dame (?) Hathor”; 2) Christophe (ibid. p. 165) “Ce que l’on doit faire à être joué (frappée ou exécuté)”; 3) Hickmann, (ibid. p. 168) “A être frappé à la planchette contre (ou: planchette à planchette) la planchette de la maîtresse, elle dit le beau nom de Hathor, Oh, … viens (?),”4) Schott, (ibid.)“A être joue (ou exécuté) aux planchettes de la maîtresse, j’accomplis le n-iw.f-n-iw.f de la Maîtresse”; 5) Drioton (ibid. p. 169) suggests a scribal error for the

Caption

sign and suggests it should be Hm [servant/ priest] of Hathor, transliterating as Hnwt Dd.s rn.f nfr n Hm ¡wt-Hr. He translates accordingly: “La maîtresse dira son beau nom de prètre de Hathor,” (ibid. p. 169) citing a precedent for women referred to in the masculine reciting or chanting the Song of the Four Winds in the Coffin Texts II, p. 389-405 (no author given). 5 Watterson, Gods, p. 118. 6 For transcript and translation of this hymn, see above Chapter 2: 9, Figure 9.1. 7 Clapper, Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5), p. 102, Mirror, ibid. pp. 158160.

While there is no caption accompanying the scene from the tomb of Wnis-anx, the rather enigmatic caption accompanying the scene from the tomb of Mrrw-kA.i has been the subject of much scrutiny and has been examined at length by Hickmann in consultation with other 3

Kanawati, Iconographic Peculiarities, p. 292.

165

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM placed between the horns on the headdress worn by Hathor.8 The mirror reflected the sun’s radiance resonating with Hathor’s position as the consort of the sun god.9

an acknowledgement of the fusion of the two goddesses before the building of the Middle Kingdom temple.15 Yet, Fischer notes that there is some inscriptional evidence dated to the Old Kingdom indicating the early acknowledgement of Hathor, herself, as Consort of Atum, not the least of which are some cartouches of Pepy I, on two red granite fragments found at Bubastis16 and a fragment of relief in the Berlin Museum,17 probably from Saqqara, which describes Pepy I as Son of Atum -Lord of Heliopolis and Son of Hathor - Mistress of Denderah,18 attesting that Hathor’s position as the Consort of Atum, in her own right, was acknowledged at least as early as the VIth Dynasty.

Because of the association of this genre with the cult of Hathor, a deeper significance has been suggested for this genre. The hand-shaped clappers take on a special significance in Hathoric ritual because they appear to be an allusion to Hathor’s role as the Hand of Atum in the Heliopolitan creation myth.10 The Heliopolitan Theology relates the act of creation by Atum as an act of selfprocreation, where Atum uses his hand and this act is outlined in Pyramid Text 527: ‘Atum was creative in that he proceeded to masturbate himself in Heliopolis. He took his penis in his hand so that he might obtain the pleasure of orgasm thereby. And brother and sister were born – that is, Shu and Tefnut.’11

Since Re and Atum were both solar deities representing different manifestations of the sun, and they were both worshipped early on at the same centre, Iunu (Heliopolis), the two gods became fused to form the deity Re-Atum at this centre. 19 Therefore, Hathor’s role as the Hand of Atum in the Heliopolitan creation myth can also be illustrated by establishing the early acknowledgement of Hathor as the consort of Re (or Atum) and Fischer20 cites considerable evidence for the early acceptance of Hathor as the consort of Re in the Heliopolitan tradition. The title of Hm-nTr of Re and Hathor appears for numerous priests in the sun temples of the first three kings of the Vth Dynasty and also of Neuserre,21 which attests the existence of Hathor at the side of Re in the funerary cult of the kings of the Vth Dynasty. The hymn above the dancers in the VIth Dynasty tomb of KA-gmn.i in the Teti Cemetery at Saqqara also attests the intimate association of Hathor with Re in the Old Kingdom.22

This, however, denies the female aspect of creation, and by the First Intermediate Period, on numerous sarcophagi from Assiut, the determinative given to the term Drit.f [his hand], in this act of creation, is written with the goddess determinative ( ),12 thus implying that, by then, the role of the Hand of Atum appears to have been attributed to a goddess.13 The role of the Hand of Atum is frequently assigned to Hathor after the Old Kingdom, thereby associating her with the creation myth through the symbol of the hand. However, while it is generally agreed that the role of the Hand of Atum was associated with Hathor by the Middle Kingdom, evidence attesting this connection directly, as early as the Old Kingdom, is scant. The goddess generally assigned to the position of consort of Atum in the Old Kingdom, and therefore the most likely candidate for the role of the Hand of Atum, is Nebet-Hetepet. On the other hand, the association of Nebet-Hetepet as the consort of Atum does not rule out Hathor in this role because Hathor and Nebet-Hetepet were both eventually fused and Vandier offers numerous records from later periods connecting Nebet-Hetepet with Hathor.14 Vandier also points out evidence for the much earlier connection between the two goddesses, such as the existence at Hetepet of a temple of Hathor, by the reign of Sesostris I, which indicates that by then she is also nbt-Htpt [Lady of Hetepet], attesting the fusion of the two by the early Middle Kingdom, which in turn suggests that there was

Through these associations, Hathor becomes acknowledged as the consort of both Re and Atum (who later become fused), thereby establishing that the goddess indicated by the determinative used in the writings citied above for the Hand of Atum in the act of creation can be attributed to Hathor. Thus the action of reflecting the hand-shaped clappers (signifying the Hand of Atum) into the mirror (which reflects the radiance of the sun god (Re or Atum) in the Mirror Dance scene depicted in the Old Kingdom mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i could be interpreted as an early allusion to the role of Hathor as the Hand of Atum in the Heliopolitan theology. Once the association of Hathor as the Hand of Atum is established, the hand-shaped clapper, as seen in the 15

Vandier, RdE 18 (1966), p. 120. Naville, Bubastis, pl. 32c. Berlin Museum entry no. 20795. 18 Fischer, Denderah, p. 37. 19 Watterson, Gods, p. 24. 20 Fischer, Denderah, p. 34. 21 The title Hm-nTr Ra ¡wt-Hr is attested for ¡a-bAw-PtH, Ni-kAw-Ra and PtH-Spss (JT 1998), but many others held similar, more elaborate titles such as Hm-nTr Ra m Nxn-Ra, Hm nTr ¡wt-Hr (JT 1999); Hm-nTr Ra ¡wtHr m Nxn-Ra(JT 2000); Hm-nTr Ra ¡wt-Hr m ¤t-ib-Ra(JT 2001); Hm-[nTr] Ra ¡wt-Hr m ¥spw-ib-Ra (JT 2002). 22 Fischer, Denderah, p. 34, see also Chapter 2:9, The Layout. 16 17

8

Watterson, Gods, p. 118. Wilkinson, Symbol and Magic, p. 32. 10 Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5), p. 160. 11 Watterson, Gods, p. 25. 12 Chassinet-Palanque, Assiout, p. 187 13 Vandier, RdE 16 (1964), p. 60. Various examples are recorded in Chassinet-Palanque, Assiout, pp. 25,187, 192. Other examples appear in Kamal, ASAE 16 (). 14 Vandier, RdE 16 (1964), pp. 58-60; Vandier, RdE 18 (1966), pp. 120132. 9

166

PART II: CHAPTER 10, THE MIRROR DANCE Conclusions

Mrrw-kA.i scene, can be acknowledged as a symbol of the goddess,23 an embodiment of her own limb. As with other cult objects, the presence of the goddess would have been perceived as immanent within the object.24 Hickmann takes this interpretation much further, suggesting that by substituting her own hand for the cult object identified with the presence of Hathor herself, the girl using her own hand instead of the hand-shaped clapper can be seen to be impersonating Hathor by using a part of her own person to accommodate the divine presence of the Goddess.25 If the enigmatic phrase irry in iwf n iwf in the Mrrw-kA.i scene is interpreted ‘That which is created through flesh (or limb) against flesh (or limb)’ and understood as a euphemism, relating to the act of creation as portrayed in the Heliopolitan theology, it may be interpreted as an early allusion to the impersonation of Hathor in her role as the Hand of Atum.26 Moreover, if the caption is taken as a recitation by the participants in the scene and is interpreted as ‘she says her beautiful name of Hathor,’ this would constitute otherwise elusive evidence of an impersonator of Hathor as early as the Old Kingdom.27 Speaking words on behalf of a deity or taking the deity’s name is evidence of the participant assuming an impersonator role.28

The tableau-style format of the scenes in this genre is a device generally employed as a narrative tool either depicting the unfolding of a story or to articulate the proceedings of a ritual or a game. The direct association of the Mirror dance scene in the tomb of Mrrw-kA.i with the cult of Hathor suggests it is a depiction of a Hathoric ritual, rather than merely a game. The association of this scene with Hathor and the presence of objects related to her cult, especially the hand-shaped clappers, have led to some speculation that this scene may be early evidence of Hathor’s role as the Hand of Atum in the Heliopolitan Theology and that the dancers in this scene are impersonator-priestesses of Hathor, enacting a ritual in which at least one of the performers is impersonating Hathor. This should not be taken as a negation of the possibility that this genre is a representation of a children’s game, performed as an innocent diversion, even if the caption has deeper connotations. The same is true of many present day chants and nursery rhymes, in which the underlying significance has been lost.

Taking into account the notions of the significance of the hand-shaped clappers and the possibility that the performers are impersonators of Hathor, reveals further possibilities for the interpretation of the caption in the Mrrw-kA.i scene, such as: [That which was made by the body through the body of the mistress, she says (or, using the subjunctive sDm-n.f, ‘that she may say’) her beautiful name of the Lady Hathor (womb/house of Horus29).]

23

Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5), p. 160. Galvin, Priestesses, pp. 214-215. 25 Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5), p. 167. 26 While concrete evidence for impersonator roles in the cult of Hathor is scant in the Old Kingdom, impersontors are well documented for the New Kingdom (At Denderah, a relief depicting 21 priestesses, each of whom has a recitation identifying her as a ‘Hathor’ in one of her different aspects (Daumas, Mammisis, pl. 92). In other reliefs at Denderah, priestesses are designated ‘Possessor of the Menit’ and 24

‘The Great Menit in the mansion of the Menit’ (Mariette, Denderah, ii, 76, 8, iii, 78f.), both of which are designations of Hathor herself .By the reigns of Ramses II and III, priestesses even assumed the title ‘Hathor’, as attested by an inscription designating them as ‘Hathors of the temple of Atum’ (Dümichen, Historische Inschriften, pl. 8, lines 6-7.). 27 Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5), p. 167. 28 Assman, Search for God, p. 155-56; Galvin, Priestesses, pp. 215216. Embodiment of deities is also examined in Chapter 1:2, Performers, their Institutions and Titles. 29 Hathor’s name ¡wt-Hr, usually translated as house (or mansion) of Horus, can also be interpreted as the womb of Horus, since Hathor is also the mother of Horus (Troy, Queenship, p. 21).

167

Chapter 2:11 Observations and Conclusions are no pictures of these two dances in sequence, which could be interpreted with two entirely opposite meanings; either that the two genres can be substituted for each other, being readily recognized as the same dance by the ancient Egyptian audience, or equally, that they do not belong to the same dance. Salute Dance appears with numerous other dance genres such as Swastika, Pair, Layout, and Linked Hand, which appears to indicate that the Salute genre is part of a sequence of different steps. With the exception of the three scenes at Giza featuring a solo Swastika dancer,1 Diamond Dance does not appear in sequence with other genres. Rather than suggesting a sequence of steps, the mixed genre scenes, such as those at el-Hawawish, appear to maximize limited space by representing numerous styles of dance together in the one scene. Clearly, they are not depictions of sequence because the performers of each genre are distinguished by different costumes and/or gender.

As a theme, dance appears in over one hundred scenes in the tomb decoration of the Old Kingdom. The above study has set about documenting the distribution, both geographic and chronological, of Old Kingdom dance scenes and examining the iconographic content and its development throughout the period. This chapter provides an overview of the development of dance iconography in the Old Kingdom, with the intention of revealing patterns of development across genres, such as the introduction and development of particular motifs and themes. Diamond Dance is the most represented genre with 41 examples. It is also the most widespread, with examples occurring from the IVth to the late VIth Dynasties and persisting well beyond the Old Kingdom. The geographic distribution is also broad, with examples concentrated in the capital but also represented in many provincial sites. The Diamond Pose develops as time progresses. In the IVth and early Vth Dynasties, the arms are held in a high arc, but by the end of the Vth Dynasty the height of the arms has dropped significantly. By the early VIth Dynasty the arms are positioned so that the hands are touching or almost touching the top of the head in the majority of examples. In the mid VIth Dynasty the arm height has dropped again and the hands are held at either side of the head.

Dance Style 3 is also divided into Sub-groups, some of which are similar in form of pose but which are not necessarily the same dance genre. Swastika Dance (Subgroup 3.a) has a very similar form to Boomerang Dance (Sub-group 3.b) and the two genres occur together in the tomb of Inti at Deshasha, suggesting they may be variations of the same dance. The Boomerang Dance appears to have originated as a hunting or martial arts dance. Because throwing sticks also occur in one example of Sistrum Dance (Sub-group 3.c), there appears to be a connection between Sub-groups 3.b and 3.c. However, the pose of the dance represented in both examples of Sistrum Dance (Sub-group 3.c) is closer to the Salute form, as it is in some of the scenes included in Boomerang Dance (Sub-group 3.b). Because of the aping of the dwarf in one scene from Sub-group 3.c and a monkey in the other, this variation appears to be a lighthearted comedy, perhaps a send-up of the Boomerang Dance. The presence of the sistrum (an emblem sacred to Hathor) adds a sense of irreverence.

The Salute is the next most represented genre with a wide chronological and geographic distribution, with examples occurring from the IVth to the VIth Dynasties and from Memphis to el-Moalla. The Salute genre is divided into Sub-groups according to variations in pose. Sub-groups 2.a and 2.b are probably related, as they appear in similar contexts and have a similar arm position. Sub-group 2.c appears to be a distinct genre and is concentrated at Abusir, where it is performed by men and appears with the caption xn or dxn [chironomist/clapping the rhythm], suggesting it is a movement of rhythmists as much as dancers. While the pose is similar in the scene from the tomb of Ni-mAat-Ra, this example may represent an isolated and particularly unorthodox variation of Subgroup 2.a because it is performed by women and does not appear with the distinctive (d)xn caption. The dance or rhythmic term (d)xn appearing in the captions accompanying three scenes featuring male performers appears to be exclusive to Salute Sub-group 2.c in Old Kingdom dance scenes. As in the Diamond genre, the hand height of the dancers appears to diminish as time progresses. The later examples have the hands almost at face height and the angle at the elbow is greater than in earlier examples, in which the arms are almost straight or have a gentle curve.

The presence of throwing sticks and the incidence of the cross-strap bodice in this genre suggests the Boomerang Dance may have its origin in Libya.2 This is reinforced by the New Kingdom depiction of the dance at Deir elBahari with the caption ibA n §mHw [dance of the Libyans], in which the performers wear the same costume. The boomerang-shaped throwing stick is also associated with Libya, as attested by its use as the determinative for the term §mHw [Libya]. The Prehistoric origins of the boomerang are attested to Libya.3 Whether the majority of examples of Harvest scenes are representations of dance, or represent the animated

Salute is taken to be a variation of Diamond Dance by some writers due to similarities of context, caption, costume, performers and geographic distribution. There

1

KA.i-m-anx, KA-kA.i-anx and KA.i-dwA Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 29 n. 3 citing Kees, Kulturegeschichte S. 92. Garcia-Galloway-Lommel, Prehistoric and Primitive Art, pp. 251, 253-4.

2 3

168

PART II: CHAPTER 11, CONCLUSIONS driving of donkeys in the process of transporting the harvest is not conclusive. However, some scenes do have a dance-like quality about them, especially those in Subgroup 4.b, which feature the rhythmic clapping of sticks or hands, and Sub-group 4.c, which has much in common with the present day kurraj combat dance, performed throughout the Middle East, and which is performed with other pack animals such as horses and camels. Harvest Dance was popular in the Vth Dynasty and examples are concentrated at Saqqara.

While popular in the Predynastic Period, the Linked Hand genre (Sub-group 6.e) does not reappear until late in the Old Kingdom and then, only at el-Moalla. This unison dance appears in only one tomb and is placed near examples of Salute (Sub-group 2.d) and a variation of Pair Dance, which probably represents clapping rather than partners with linked hands. Although it appears in sequence with other steps, The Linked Hand Dance does not appear in sequence with the other steps examined as part of Dance Style 6.

Pair Dance appears to have two forms; the ritualised poses, which are captioned and named and performed by men,4 that appear to have funerary associations, and a livelier form of the dance which is performed by women in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel and in four tombs at Deir elGebrawi. The latter examples are re-examined as a separate dance form in Chapter 2:6, Enchaînements.

The mww appear in three Old Kingdom tombs at Saqqara and are associated with the Butoesque funerary rituals which recall the funerals of the ancient kings of Buto in Lower Egypt and the pilgrimages to the holy sites of Buto, Sais and Heliopolis. The mww appear to have originated as ferrymen, initially ferrying pilgrims to the Delta sites of Sais and Buto and later metaphorically ferrying the deceased across the field of rushes to the eastern horizon and between schematic versions of the holy sites of Sais and Buto in a stylized re-enactment of the earlier pilgrimages, performed within the precincts of the necropolis. This ferrying origin is reflected in the iconography of the crown of aquatic plants used to identify mww dancers, either the reed crown resembling the Atf crown of Upper Egypt, or the papyrus bud crown resembling the emblem of Lower Egypt. The (w)nwn dance represented in the tomb of PtH-Htp (21) occurs close to the symbols for Buto and Heliopolis and appears to be another form of mww dance in the Old Kingdom .

The Pair Dance performed by females appears to be a type of enchaînement, occurring in sequence with other dance steps such as Pirouette, High Step, and Stride. Scenes which appear to represent sequences of steps are particularly interesting, not only because they constitute the earliest instance of dance notation but also because they indicate a clear, conscious attempt at the representation of the passage of time.5 The Pair Dance performed by males appears to be associated with the later mww dances performed by a pair of dancers, usually at the door of the tomb, which appear from the Middle Kingdom, in tombs at Barnugi, el-Kab and Thebes. There is also a similarity with a ritual of planting the pillar, which occurs in sequence with the mww pair in the New Kingdom tomb of PA-Hr.i at elKab.6

A group of motifs, which appear to be a pantomimed ritual associated with a coming of age ceremony, or enacted at the harvest or Sed-festival are captioned with the dance term xbt on BME 994, suggesting they constituted a dance performance in the eyes of the Egyptians. The themes include the escort (usually) of a bound hostage, a vanquished youth inside a hut or enclosure of some sort, and two boys with linked arms. The captions suggest a ritual context, perhaps as part of a coming of age ceremony.

A number of steps, which appear in sequence in a number of examples, are classified together as Dance Style 6: Enchaînements. With the exception of some examples of partnered dances, which have also been classified as Pair Dance, these dance steps appear from the beginning of the VIth Dynasty (with the Linked Hand Dances appearing somewhat later). The genre is divided into Sub-groups according to the different dance steps included in sequences. Sub group 6.a is the Pirouette, which resembles the turning step familiar to modern audiences, Sub-group 6.b, the High Step, resembles a strutting with the leg lifted high, Sub-group 6.c is the Kick, which resembles a grand battement and Sub-group 6.d is the Stride which looks like a preparatory step of some kind.

Examples of the Layout genre are concentrated in and around the Teti cemetery at Saqqara and also at elHawawish. This dynamic and demanding dance required advanced technical skill and the stamina and flexibility of youth. The genre is associated with the cult of Hathor because of the hymn to Hathor placed above the scene in the tomb of KA-gm-n.i. The Layout appears in sequence with numerous steps in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel, with Diamond Pose in the tomb of Mr.f-nb.f, Salute in the tomb of KA-gm-n.i, a variation of the Layout (which may be categorized separately as a high Kick) appears alongside, and apparently in sequence with, the Pair Dance in the tomb of ©aw at Deir el-Gebrawi, and in scenes of mixed genres at el-Hawawish. The Layout genre is particularly associated with the performers of the xnr and this is mentioned in the captions accompanying six out of the nine examples.

4 The names of the dances accompanying the poses in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel do not fully conform to the same format as the examples featuring male dancers. 5 This extraordinary innovation is examined further in the article Dancing on a Time Line, Kinney, L., BACE 18, 2007, pp. 145-59. 6 Tylor-Griffith, Paheri, pl. V.

169

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

been identified as demigods or their impersonators by Brunner-Traut.8

Mirror Dance also has Hathoric associations as suggested by the hymn accompanying the Mirror Dance scene in the tomb of Mrrw-kA.i and by the mirrors and handshaped clappers held by the dancers, which can be seen to be emblems sacred to the Hathoric cult. There is some evidence to suggest that this constitutes the earliest instance of a scene representing the ritual embodiment of Hathor by a priestess.

Chronological Distribution and developments Scenes of dance occur throughout the Old Kingdom, from the IVth Dynasty to the VIIIth Dynasty. Some genres enjoyed particular popularity at certain times.

Relative size of dancers

Determining the chronological distribution of genres is complicated by the dating of some examples to the transitional period V.L-VI.E because it is uncertain whether these examples belong to the Vth or VIth Dynasties.

Dance appears to have been held in high esteem in ancient Egypt. Scenes of dance are provided as part of the presentation scene along with food offerings ‘for the ka’ in numerous tombs of high ranking officials. In Funerary Scenes, dance is performed by both mourners and functionaries at different points of this highly regarded ritual.

Some genres (in particular the Diamond and Salute Poses, are represented throughout the Old Kingdom, but numerous genres with relatively small samples occur predominantly in the VIth Dynasty.

It would seem, therefore, that dancers may have been accorded at least a moderately high standing in Egyptian society. However, in a small number of scenes, dancers are depicted with significantly shorter stature than the rhythmists who accompany them. This is particularly apparent in the tomb of Axty-Htp at Saqqara. While this may be a convention of convenience, employed so that the dancers, whose arms are held above their heads, fit into the same register as the rhythmists who accompany them, it cannot be entirely overlooked as a suggestion that, at the time, rhythmists may have enjoyed a higher status than dancers.

In the IVth Dynasty, there are few dance scenes but this is commensurate with the paucity of scenes in general surviving from that period. The first dances to be depicted in the Old Kingdom are group unison dances. Of the five IVth Dynasty examples extant, two represent the Diamond genre, two the Salute genre and one shows the Swastika form (3.a1) performed alongside the Salute. This repertoire expands significantly in the Vth Dynasty, when there is an increase in the number of scenes surviving. Genres that are introduced in the first half of the Vth Dynasty are 2.c (Salute Style captioned with (d)xn), Harvest Dance and the Pair Dance performed by males, usually captioned with the mk Trf iTt … formula, and including Partnered Pirouette and Partnered High Step positions. In the mid to late Vth Dynasty, the Diamond genre is heavily represented (at least 21 examples) and most examples of the Salute genre 2.a occur in this period. Interactive group dances, especially those with throwing sticks and sistra, (Sub-groups 3.b and 3.c) appear for the first time in the Vth Dynasty, eclipsing the Swastika form (Sub-group 3.a) in popularity.

Figure 11.1 Tomb of Axty-Htp, V.8-97 Less pronounced height discrepancies can also be observed in the tombs of Mr.s-anx III (IV.5-6), ¤Sm-nfr II (V.6), Ni-wsr-Ra (V.6), #ww-wr (V.8-9), KA.i-m-anx (V.8L), Iy-nfrt (V.9), Mrrw-KA.i (Figure 1.31, but not Figure 1.32), Mr.f-nb.f (even accounting for the bent knees of the dancers), KA-gm-n.i (VI.1), and probably MHw (VI.1) (although, the relative height is difficult to judge in this last example because of the position of the dancers). The converse height discrepancy (dancers larger than rhythmists) may be observed in the tombs of KA.i-dwA (V.8), Wr-ir-n.i (V.8-9), and Inti (V.8-9).

The motif of the solo Swastika dancer with a chorus of Diamond dancers (Sub-group 3.a2) can be dated with some confidence to the reign of Djedkare. The Dance of the Mww as part of the Butoesque funerary ritual makes a brief appearance in tombs located in and around the Unis Cemetery, suggesting the Butoesque Funeral was a popular aspiration in the reign of Unis. The transitional period also sees two examples of male Pair Dance, and two examples of the Boys’ Game. The transitional period between late Dynasty V and early Dynasty VI also has numerous examples of the Diamond genre but only a sprinkling of the Salute 2.a and Swastika 3.a genres.

The dancer to the right of the lower register in the scene from the tomb of ©aw is much taller than the other males depicted on the same register, suggesting he is of higher standing, perhaps an instructor. The mww dancers in the tomb of Idwt are considerably shorter than the other figures depicted in the same register, and yet they have 7

8

Ziegler, Achethetep, pp. 58-61

170

Brunner-Traut, Tanz, p. 59.

PART II: CHAPTER 11, CONCLUSIONS In the VIth Dynasty, the repertoire of dances increases still further. Genres which are introduced at the beginning of the VIth Dynasty are: Layout, Pair Dance performed by female dancers, Solo and Back to back Pirouette poses, Kick, Stride and Mirror Dance. Numerous features distinguish Pair Dances performed by men from those performed by women, suggesting that two distinct genres may be represented. The depiction of various steps in sequence was a popular VIth Dynasty motif.

in the tomb of anx.ty.fy at el-Moalla and appear alongside the Pair and Salute genres. Context Dance appears in two main contexts in the Old Kingdom: the presentation scene and as part of the funerary ritual. The presentation scene in the Old Kingdom usually comprises any or all of the following: an offering table, various entertainments, the preparation of food, and the presentation of offerings, all of which are presided over by the large figure of the tomb owner. The majority of dance scenes are placed in the context of the presentation scene. Dance also occurs in funerary ritual either as part of the funerary procession or at various stations within the procession including the door of the tomb.

Dance Styles which continue to be represented in the VIth Dynasty are: Diamond and Salute (Sub-groups 2.a, 2.b, 2.c and 2.d), with Boomerang Dance (Sub-group 3.b), Sistrum Dance (Sub-group 3.c) and static poses with batons (Sub-group 3.d), Pirouette (Sub-group 6.a), High Step (Sub-group 6.b), and Boys’ Game genres. The Linked Hand Dance is introduced late in the Old Kingdom and is found only at el-Moalla.

A few dance scenes are placed in the context of festivals such as the Sed-festival scenes at Abusir. Harvest Dance and some Boys’ Game scenes occur in the context of the agrarian cycle. Marshland settings are also a popular context for dance scenes, sometimes combined with motifs, such as orchestral recitals which are usually encountered as part of the presentation scene, suggesting this is an outdoor version of the presentation scene, with marshland pursuits featuring as part of the divertissements or offering inventory. The placement of a presentation scene, which includes dance, in a marshland setting is particularly popular at the provincial locations of Deir el-Gebrawi, where it appears in the tomb of Isi, and el-Hawawish, where it appears in the tombs of #ni: ¥psi-pw-Mnw, KA.i-Hp: §ti-iqr and §ti. However, this arrangement is not unknown at the capital, where it appears in the tombs of PtH-Htp: Ii-anx and KA.i-m-Hst, at Saqqara, and on the BM fragment, which is probably from Giza,

Geographic distribution of genres Particular genres were more popular than others at certain locations. Most genres are represented at Giza and Saqqara, the only exception being the Linked Hand Dance which is found only at el-Moalla in the Old Kingdom. Examples of the Boys’ Game genre are found only at the capital.9 Abusir has only the Salute (Subgroup 2.c) and static pose with baton (Sub-group 3.d) genres represented and in all cases the dances are performed by men. At Deshasha, only Boomerang Dance (Sub-group 3.b) is represented in consecutive registers in the same tomb. At Dashur and Zawyet el-Amwat, only Diamond Dance is represented. There is one example each of the Diamond, Salute and Sistrum genres at Sheikh Said. Two examples, which may be representations of Diamond Pose, occur at Meir but due to numerous discrepancies from the norm (gender of dancers, number of dancers, and lack of rhythmic accompaniment), the pose may indicate a gesture of mourning rather than dance. At Deir el-Gebrawi, there are four examples of Pair Dance, two examples of Salute and one example which includes a step that could be classified as either Kick or Layout. At el-Hammamiya, interactive group dances from Dance Style 3, including Swastika and Boomerang Dance (Sub-groups 3.a and 3.b) are recorded in two tombs and a static pose with batons (Sub-group 3.d) appears in one tomb.

Some dance genres are specific to particular contexts. For example, Harvest Dance is specific to scenes depicting the transport of the harvest in representations of the agrarian cycle; the mww only appear in the context of funerary ritual. The (W)nwn Dance also appears to be specific to funerary contexts. Apart from this, only the Diamond and Salute genres appear in Old Kingdom funerary processions, although the Pair Dance, Kick and Stride genres appear in the context of statue processions, which are closely related to the funerary procession in the Old Kingdom. Pair Dance is the most predominant genre in the context of the statue procession but is also a popular motif in presentation scenes. Diamond and Salute poses also feature in many presentation scenes.

Scenes of mixed genres are popular at el-Hawawish, including Diamond, Salute, Pair, Layout and some miscellaneous poses. El-Khokha also has scenes with mixed genres. One scene has Pair, Stride and Kick genres represented and the other scene has examples of the Stride and Mirror Dances in consecutive registers. ElMoalla has the only Old Kingdom examples of Linked Hand Dance, all three examples are from the same scene

Swastika Dances occur predominantly in presentation scenes. An example of Boomerang Dance, (depicted as a static pose) performed by males, appears as part of a Sedfestival scene at Abusir. Some static poses with clappers and sistra appear in the context of cult ritual, as observed in the scenes in the tombs of KA.i-xnt (A2) at elHammamiya and IHy at el-Khokha, both of which occur

9 The provenance of BME 994 is uncertain, but it has been identified as Memphite in origin, probably from Giza (James, Hieroglyphic Texts, p. 994).

171

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

in the context of Hathoric ritual. A Middle Kingdom example from Barnugi, depicting Pair dancers closely imitating the role of the mww in intercepting the cortege, suggests that the Pair Dance genre is absorbed into the repertoire of the mww in Middle and New Kingdom funerary enactments. Pair Dance performed by women, often in sequence with other steps, appears predominantly in presentation scenes but is placed close to, or as part of, funerary scenes in some examples at Deir el-Gebrawi. The Layout genre appears in presentation scenes, occasionally associated with the cult of Hathor, the institution of the xnr, and sometimes with funerary ritual by use of terms such as pr-Dt [funerary estate]. The Pirouette, Stride and Kick steps also appear predominantly in presentation scenes but a scene at elKhokha, including Kick, Partnered Pirouette and Stride, is in the context of a statue procession. Boys’ Game scenes mostly appear in the context of a presentation scene but sometimes occur in marshland and agricultural contexts as in the tombs of #nti-kA.i: Ixxy and PtH-Htp II respectively.

Dance scenes with mixed Gender It is unusual for dancers of different gender to be placed in the same scene but there are exceptions. At Saqqara, male Pair dancers appear on the same register as female Diamond dancers in the tomb of Ni-anx-£nmw, however, the two groups are separated by the group of male accompanists clapping a rhythm for the male pair dancers and the Diamond dancers face away from the Pair dancers. Female Salute dancers appear immediately next to males performing the escort of the bound hostage motif as part of the Boys’ Game genre on the BM fragment. The only division separating the two scenes is a vertical line separating the captions accompanying the two scenes. In other scenes at Memphis, dancers of different gender are separated by being placed in separate registers as observed in the Memphite tombs of MrrwkA.i, Iy-mry, Nb-kAw-Hr and Idw. Scenes with mixed gender of dancers are more prevalent at provincial locations. Male and female dancers appear on the same register at el-Hawawish with no divisions between them to indicate separation, whereas male and female dancers are placed in separate registers of the same scene in the tomb of ©aw at Deir el-Gebrawi. Not surprisingly, the evidence for male membership of the xnr is documented at these two sites.

Mixed genres The practice of placing more than one genre in the same scene is more popular at some locations than others. A number of scenes at Memphis have more than one genre represented on the same register, as in the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel, the Tombs of Axty-mrw-nswt, Iy-mry, KA-gm-n.i, Mrs-anx, KA.i-dwA, KA-kA.i-anx, and KA.i-m-anx, and on the BM fragment. In other examples, different genres are separated by representing them on different registers, as in the tombs of Idw, Mr.f-nb.f, and Mrrw-kA.i, or by placing people or objects between scenes on the same register, as in the tomb of Ni-anx-£nmw. At the capital, mixed genres appear in particularly extravagant tombs such as those of KA-gm-n.i, Mr.f-nb.f, anx-m-a-Hr and the Watt-Xt-Hr chapel. The Watt-Xt-Hr scene suggests a sequential choreography has been recorded as the steps appear to flow from one to the other and from register to register. The steps on one register even have the capacity to be animated (See Web Animation Animation 310). The Salute genre appears alongside the Swastika and Layout genres in a number of Memphite tombs, again suggesting the step was performed sequentially.

Costume There are numerous costumes and accessories worn by dancers in the Old Kingdom, some of which are indicators of genre, some are specific to the gender of the dancers and, because some costumes are more prevalent in certain periods, particular styles are indicators of the date of an example and this criterion can be used as a tool for the dating of tombs. Chronological indicators In the IVth Dynasty there are three styles of costume worn by dancers. Long gowns are worn on dancers performing the Diamond Dance in the funerary scene from the tomb of _bH-n.i at Giza, a short straight kilt is worn by the dancers performing the Salute and Swastika genres in the tomb of Mrs-anx and Salute in the tomb of _bH-n.i at Giza. Nude dancers perform the Diamond Dance in the tomb of ¤xm-kA-Ra at Giza. Usually, rhythmists wear a long close fitting gown but the rhythmists in the funerary scene from the tomb of _bH-n.i at Giza are nude.

Mixed genre scenes are particularly popular at provincial locations. Most el-Hawawish dance scenes have numerous dance genres represented together on the same register, with only the scene from the tomb of ¡m-mnw dedicated to a single unison genre. At Deir el-Gebrawi, the Pair Dance has the greatest popularity, but it appears alongside a High Kick or Layout step in the tomb of ©aw. The tombs of IHy and Wnis-anx at el-Khokha and anx.ty.fy at el-Moalla also have mixed genres in the same scene. At el-Hammamiya, the Swastika Pose is represented with Boomerang Dance in the tomb of KA.i-xnt (A3). 10

Dancers wear a short, straight kilt without a bodice in the majority of scenes in the first half of the Vth Dynasty. Short, pointed skirts appear from V.6 or later and are mostly worn by female dancers performing the Diamond and Salute genres. Short, pointed kilts are also worn in

Kinney, 2000, http://galliform.bhs.mq.edu.au/EDG/dance.html

172

PART II: CHAPTER 11, CONCLUSIONS isolated cases by Swastika dancers,11 and by men performing the Dance of the Mww.12 The cross-strap bodice also appears from V.6 and is predominantly worn by dancers performing Diamond, Salute and Swastika genres. The cross-strap bodice is far more prevalent at Saqqara than Giza and a double cross-strap appears around V.9 in the tomb of PtH-Htp (21) at Saqqara and reappears in the tomb of Idw at Giza (VI.1-2). Late in the Vth Dynasty, around the time of Djedkare, the long gown reappears in a number of Diamond Dance scenes at Saqqara. This style is particularly elaborate in the tomb of §y, in which it has a second skirt worn over a long sheer skirt. Genre and Gender Some costume styles are worn by both men and women. Costumes worn by both male and female dancers include the brief sarong-style or wrap-around kilt, the belt (although the only version of this worn by female Diamond dancers is in the tomb of Mr.f-nb.f at Saqqara and is somewhat thicker than the male equivalent), and nude (although nude male dancers appear only in the Boys’ Game genre). Other costumes are gender-specific. Only men wear the lap-lap and thin belt styles and these costumes are particular to Pair Dance and Harvest Dance (and the lion-masked figure in the BM fragment). Some costumes, when worn by dancers, are unique to certain locations such as the calf-length gown worn by dancers at el-Moalla, in the tomb of anx-ty-fy. Certain accessories are worn only in certain genres. In Old Kingdom scenes of dance, the mww headdress is specific to the mww and is one of the distinguishing features of the genre. It is worn only by male dancers in the Old Kingdom, although a similar papyrus bud crown is worn by later female Mr(w)t [singer/impersonators of Meret].13 Batons are a feature of the Dance Style 3 Subgroups and include throwing sticks, clappers and sistra. Batons are also a feature of the Harvest Dance genre and the Mirror Dance is distinguished as much by the mirrors and clappers held by the dancers as the tableau formation of the dancers. Hand-shaped clappers also appear in some examples of the Boys’ Game genre.

11

In the tombs of Queen Mr.s-anx III, IV.5-6, Giza, and Axty-mrwt-nswt, V.9-VI.1, Giza 12 In the tomb of Nb-kAw-Hr 13 Berlandini, LÄ, vol. IV, p. 86 (Meret).

173

Appendix A Abbreviated dating Code The dating code used throughout the study is as follows:

DATE

REIGN

IV.1 IV.2 IV.3 IV.4 1V.5 IV.6

Sneferu Khufu Djedefre Khafre Menkaure Shepseskaf

V.1 V.2 V.3 V.4 V.5 V.6 V.7 V.8 V.9

Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Shepseskare Neferefre Neuserre Menkauhor Djedkare Izezi Unis

VI.1 VI.2 VI.3 VI.4 VII VIII FIP

Teti Pepi I Merenre Pepi II Dynasty VII Dynasty VIII First Intermediate Period

E M L OK FIP

early middle late Old Kingdom First Intermediate Period

174

Appendix B Conspectus of representations relevant to dance This Appendix consists of a conspectus of representations of dance from the Old Kingdom. This includes wall paintings in tombs and solar temples as well as relief fragments. Tombs and solar temples are listed alphabetically according to the tomb owner’s name or king’s name. Fragments and finds without definite provenance are listed at the end with their museum collection number. In the text, scenes are referred to by citing the tomb owner’s name or the museum collection number. Where more than one tomb has the same tomb owner’s name, a number will follow which corresponds to the entry number for this catalogue (see summary pp. 175-177). Scene entries are lettered where more than one relevant scene occurs in the same tomb. Each entry contains information such as the tomb owner’s most significant titles, the location of the tomb and a bibliography. To further clarify the origin of specific scenes, and to avoid confusion in identifying tombs with commonly occurring names, the relevant picture is included where possible. In order to accurately identify trends and developments within specific genres of dance representation, it is first necessary to date each catalogue entry as precisely as possible. The precise dating of Old Kingdom tombs has long been problematic as very few examples contain clear indicators such as an inscription directly referring to a reigning king. A summary of proposed dating is included with each entry, taking into consideration the work of Porter and Moss, Harpur, Baer, Strudwick, Kanawati, Cherpion, Baud and the tomb excavator if possible. Where there is general agreement on dating, the suggested date reflects the consensus, unless there is reasonable evidence to the contrary. However, where there is a disparity in the dating of a tomb, a range is given, followed by the reasons given for the suggested date. Summary of Conspectus no. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

tomb owner Axty-mrw-nswt Axty-Htp IA-sn Iy-mry Iy-nfrt Ibi Inti Iri-n-kA-PtH IHy Isi:¡m-Ra Idw Idwt anx-m-a-Hr anx-ty-fy Watt-Xt-Hr:¤SsSt Wnis-anx Wr-ir-n.i Wr-ir-n-PtH Ppy-anx: ¡ny-km PHn.w(i)-kA.i PtH-Htp PtH-Htp II PtH-Htp: Ii-n-anx Mr.f-nb.f Mrrw-kA.i Mrs-anx III MHw Ni-anx-£nmw/ £nmw-Htp Ni-wsr-Ra Ni-mAat-Ra

location

date

Giza, G 2184 Saqqara, UPC Giza, G 2196 Giza, G 6020 Saqqara, UPC Deir el-Gebrawi , 8 Deshasha Saqqara, Unis Causeway el-Khokha, no. 186 Deir el-Gebrawi, 72 Giza, G 7102 Saqqara, UPC Saqqara, TPC el-Moalla Saqqara, TPC el-Khokha, no. 413 Sheikh Said, no. 25 Saqqara, BME 718 Meir, A2 Saqqara, WSP, D 70, LS 15 Saqqara, LS 31 Saqqara, WSP, D 64 Saqqara, WSP Saqqara, WSP Saqqara, TPC Giza, G 7530-7540 Saqqara, UPC Saqqara, UPC Abusir Giza, G 2097

V.9-VI.I V.8-9 V.L-VI.E V.6 V.9 VI.3-4E V.8-9 V.6-9E VI.3-4 VI.1-3 VI.2-4E V.9, reused VI.1 VI.1 VI.4-VIII.E VI.1 VI.1 V.8-9 V.8 VI.4L V.3-8E around V.9 around V.9 V.9-VI.1 VI.2 VI.1 IV.5-6 VI.2 V.6-7 V.6 V.9-VI.1

175

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86.

Ni-Htp-PtH Ni-kAw-Hr Nw-nTr Nb.i-m-Axty Nb-kAw-Hr Nfr Nfr Nfr & KA-HA.i Nfr-irt-n.f Nfr-bAw-PtH Nfr-mAat Nn-xft-kA Ra-wr II Ra-m-kA.i Ra-Spss RwD Hnqw: £tti ¡m-mnw ¡tp-Hr-Axty #ww-wr #wfw-xa.f II #w-ns #nti-kA.i: Ixxy £ni:¥psi-pw-Mnw £nmw-nfr £nmw-Htp ¤A-ib ¤AHw-Ra (Solar temple) ¤nfrw-in-ISt.f ¤nDm-ib: MHi ¤rf-kA ¤xm-kA.i ¤xm-kA-Ra ¤Sm-nfr II ¤Sm-nfr III ¥pss-kA.f-anx QAr KA(.i)-apr(w) KA-pi KA.i-m.anx KA.i-m-nfrt KA.i-m-nfrt KA.i-m-Hst KA.i-Hp: §ti KA.i-Hp:§ti-iqr KA.i-xnt KA.i-xnt KA.i-swDA KA.i-dwA KA-kA.i-anx KA-gm-n.i §y §fw §ti _bH-n.i ©aw

Giza, G 2430, LG 25 Saqqara, NSP, QS 915 Giza, GIS Giza, LG 86 Saqqara, UPC Giza, LG 99 Giza G 4761 Saqqara, UPC Saqqara, ESP, D 55 Giza, G 6010 Giza, G 7060 Saqqara, ESP, D 47 Giza, G 5470, LG 32 Saqqara, NSP, D 3 Saqqara, Near SP, LS 16 Giza, G 2086 Deir el-Gebrawi, 139 el-Hawawish, M43 Saqqara, WSP, D 60 Giza, LG 95 Giza, G7150 Zawyet el-Amwat Saqqara, TPC el-Hawawish, H24 Giza, G 2175 Saqqara, D 49 Giza, G 2092-2093 Abusir Dashur, ENPS Giza, G 2378, LG 26 Sheikh Said, 24 Giza, G 1029 Giza, LG 89 Giza, G 5080 Giza, G 5170 Giza, G 6040 Giza, G 7101 Saqqara, NSP Giza, G 2091 Giza, G 4561 Giza, LG 63 Saqqara, NSP, D 63 Saqqara el-Hawawish, M8 el-Hawawish, H26 el-Hammamiya, A2 el-Hammamiya, A3 Giza, G 5340 Giza, CF Giza, CF Saqqara, TPC, LS 10 Saqqara, NSP, D 22 Saqqara, WSP el-Hawawish, H149 Giza, LG 90 Deir el-Gebrawi, 12

176

VI.E V.6-9 V.L end IV V.9, usurped VI.1 V.M-L V.9-VI.1 V.6 V.6 V.6-8 IV.2-5 V.6 V.6-8 V.6-9 V.8 V.6 VI.E VI.1E V.6-8 V.8-9 V.6 V.8-9 VI.1-2 VI.4L V.M-L V.6 V.8 V.2 V.L-VI.E V.9 V.L V.L V.2 V.6 V.8 V.6-8 VI.2-4 V.1-2 V.8-9 V.8L V.6-9 V.6-9 V.6L-9 VI.3-4 VI.4M V.6-8 V.E-M V.L-VI.1 V.8 V.8 VI.1 V.8-9 V.L-VI.E VI.L-VIII.E IV.5 VI.4

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS Fragments in museums with no provenance 87 Berlin Museum Fragment 88 BME 994 89 Chicago fragment

probably Saqqara probably Giza probably Memphis

V.6-8 VI.E V.8

Location abbreviations CF EF ENPS ESP G GIS H LG LS MC NSP QS S SF SP TPC UPC WF WSP

Central Field, Giza East Field, Giza East of the Northern Pyramid of Snefru, Dahshur East of the Step Pyramid, Saqqara Giza Cemetery GIS, Giza el-Hawawish Lepsius Giza tomb numbers Lepsius Saqqara tomb numbers Menkaure Cemetery, Giza North of the Step Pyramid, Saqqara Quibell, Saqqara tomb numbers Saqqara South Field, Giza Step Pyramid, Saqqara Teti Pyramid Cemetery, Saqqara Unis Pyramid Cemetery, Saqqara West Field, Giza West of the Step Pyramid, Saqqara

177

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

1. Axty-mrw-nswt imy-r st xntyw-S pr-aA, wab nswt, rx nswt KA-nfr (father): rx nswt Nwt (mother): Hmt-nTr Nt, Hmt-nTr ¡wt-Hr Location: Giza, G 2184 Bibliography: PM III, pp. 80-1; Smith, History, fig. 198; Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport II, entry S 3.40. Relevant scenes: south wall

Source of picture: After Decker-Herb Egyptian dance term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Salute, Swastika, rhythmists Proposed dating: PM, p. 80: end V or dynasty VI Baer, Rank and Title, p. 52 (5): end V or later Reisner, Giza I, p. 314: V-VI Harpur, Decoration, p. 350: V.9-VI.1 Smith, History, p. 198: end V

Suggested date: V.9-VI.1

178

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS

2. Axty-Htp wr-mD Smaw, Hm nTr ¡r-imy-Snwt, Hm-nTr ¡kA, Hm-nTr £nmw-xnty-pr-anx-m-swt.f-nbwt, Hry-sStA n pr-dwAt, Xry-Hbt, xrp nsty, smr waty Location: Saqqara, Unis Cemetery Current location: Louvre E.10958, ‘Mastaba du Louvre’. Bibliography: PM III, pp. 634-637; Ziegler, Akhethetep; Smith, History, fig. 76. Relevant scenes: scene a, entrance, south wall Source of picture: After Ziegler Egyptian term(s) used in context: mk Trf iTt nt wiA Categorization: Pair Context: statue procession

scene b: north wall

Source of picture: After Ziegler Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA, Hst Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: seated tomb owner viewing presentations

Proposed dating: PM: V or early VI Ziegler, Akhethetep, p. 16: Unis Smith, History, p. 194: end V Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: V.6-8E

Suggested date: V.8-9 This tomb is similar in iconographic theme and style to the tomb of §y (V.8-9), in particular, the long sheer skirts feature on dancers in only a handful of tombs: (Wr-ir-nPtH (V.8) and §y (V.8-9). While a long skirt appears on the Salute dancers in the tomb of QAr (VI.2-4), it is not sheer and has a different style. This feature is found earlier only in the scene from the tomb of _bH-n.i (IV.5), but other iconographic details in that example are exceptional for that time, such as the height of the feet and hands in the Diamond Pose and the complex caption. Pair Dance scenes such as scene a above, and the related terminology (mk Trf iTt…), were popular in the Vth and VIth Dynasties, however, both the pose and the caption more closely resemble the Vth Dynasty example found in the tomb of Iy-mry (V.6), than the later examples.

179

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 3.

IA-sn

imy-r 6 xntyw-S pr-aA, wab nswt, rx nswt, Hm-nTr #wfw, Hry-sStA, sHD wabw, sHD xntyw-S Location: Giza, West Field, G 2196 Bibliography: PM III, p. 82; Simpson, Western Cemetery, fig. 32. Relevant scenes: Chapel, west wall, south panel Listed as dance scene in PM Music scene, No dance apparent Source of picture: Simpson, Western Cemetery, fig. 32. Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: rhythmists? Context: seated tomb owner viewing presentations Proposed dating: PM: V or VI Baer, Rank and Title, p. 287 (16): VI (Pepi II, years 3555) Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: VI.1M-2M Reisner, Giza I, p. 314: V-VI Simpson, Western Cemetery: no date offered Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 225: Khufu

4.

Suggested date: V.L-VI.E The lotus presentation motif occurs in a number of tombs at Giza dated to the transitional period V.L-VI.1 (Siebels, Agriculture II, p. 56). This motif can be seen in tombs such as: Nfr (37, V.9-VI.1), KA-pi (V. 8-9), and ¤Sm-nfr III (V.8), but is not unknown in earlier tombs, such as ¤Sm-nfr II (V.6).

Iy y-mry

imy-r pr Hwt-aAt, wab-nswt, rx nswt, Hm-nTr Ni-wsr-Ra, Hm-nTr #wfw, sS pr-mDAt Location: Giza, G 6020 (LG 16) – West Field Bibliography: PM: III, p.170-4; Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, figs. 9, 37, 75; Brunner-Traut, Tanz; fig. 6 (scenes a and b); Lepsius, Denkmäler II, 52,53. Relevant scenes: a: second chamber, south wall, mid section

Source of picture: After Weeks Egyptian term(s) used in context: mk Trf wxA, mk Trf iTt nbw, mk snwD wat, ibA Categorization: Pair, rhythmists scene b: second chamber, south wall, west section

Source of picture: After Weeks 180

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS Related Egyptian term: Hst in xnr n i(bA?) Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists

Context: seated tomb owner viewing presentations scene c: third chamber, south wall Source of picture: Lepsius, Denkmäler II, 53a (reprinted in Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, fig. 43). related Egyptian term: ibA, Hst Categorization: Salute, rhythmists Context: banquet scene d: North wall

Source of picture: After Weeks Categorization: Harvest Context: agricultural Suggested date: V.6 Iy-mry’s title of Hm-nTr Ni-wsr-Ra, listed in the tomb of his son, Nfr-bAw-PtH (Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, pp. 16, 27) dates him to the reign of Neuserre. However, the omission of this title in Iy-mry’s own tomb suggests the tomb may have been built and decorated before he attained the title. The caption and scene arrangement of dance scene c resembles those in tombs dated V.6-V.9 at Giza (¥pss-kA.f-anx (V.6-8), ¤Sm-nfr III (V.8), KA-pi (V.89)).

Proposed dating: PM: Neuserre or later Baer, Rank and Title, (no. 21), p. 287: probably Neferirkare. Harpur, Decoration, p. 350,: V.3L Reisner, Giza I, p. 314: Neuserre Kanawati: Administration, p. 82: Neuserre Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, p. 7: Neuserre Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 227: Neferirkare

181

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 5. Iy-nfrt Imy-ib n nswt m wd(t)-mdw nb(t) nt nswt, imy is, imy is Nxn, imy-r prwy-HD, imy-r xAswt, imy-r sS(w) a(w) nswt, mniw Nxn, HAty-a, Hry-sStA, Hry-sStA n pr-dwAt, Hry-sStA n nswt, [Hry-]sStA n nswt m st.f nb(t), Xry-Hbt, Xry-tp nswt, sAb aD-mr, smr waty, smr waty n mrwt, tAyty sAb TAty Location: Saqqara, Unis Pyramid Cemetery Bibliography: PM III, 616; Kanawati, Unis Cemetery II, pl. 37. Relevant scenes: Source of picture: Kanawati, Unis Cemetery II, pl. 37. Egyptian term(s) used in context: i[bA] Categorization: Salute? Context: presentation scene but set amongst marshes.

Proposed dating: PM: VI Harpur, Decoration, p. 272 (345): Unis Kanawati, Saqqara, p.13: Unis E-M Strudwick, Administration, p. 58-59 (6): Unis M-L Suggested Date : V.9

182

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 6. Ibi

imy-r wp(w)t Htpt nTr m prwy, imy-r prwy-HD, imy-r Sma imy-r Snwty, imy-r SnDt-nbt, aD-mr, Hry-tp aA U.E. 8, Hry-tp aA U.E. 12, Xry-Hbt , Xry-tp nswt, sDAwty bity Location: Deir el-Gebrawi, no. 8, southern spur Bibliography: PM IV, p. 243-44; Vandier, Manuel IV, fig. 212; Davies, Deir el-Gebrâwi I, pls. 9 & 10. Relevant scenes: West wall (southwest).

Source of picture: Kanawati, Deir el-Gebrawi II, pl. 69 Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Pair, rhythmists Context: A tour of inspection by Ibi is placed above, and perhaps as a parallel to, the funerary scenes. Proposed dating: PM IV: VI Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 299: Merenre-early Pepi II Baer, Rank and Title, (32), p.288: Pepi II (years 15-35) Strudwick, Administration, pp. 173: Merenre- Pepi II Harpur, Decoration, p. 353: VI.4E Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 231: Pepi II

Suggested Date : VI.3-4E According to an inscription in his tomb (Davies, Deir elGebrâwi I, pl. 23), Ibi was appointed nomarch under Merenre.

183

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

7.

Inti

imy-r wpt Nart, imy-r mnww nswt, rx nswt, HqA Hwt-aAt, xrp HDt (nfrt), sHD wiA, sSm-tA Location: Deshasha, Rock tomb Bibliography: PM IV, pp. 121-2; Kanawati-McFarlane, Deshasha, pl. 29; Capart, Primitive Art, pp. 274-6, fig. 205; Brunner-Traut, Tanz, fig. 11. Relevant scenes: Hall, south wall

Source of picture: Kanawati-McFarlane, Deshasha, pl. 29. Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst Categorization: Swastika (with and without throwing sticks, 3.a and 3.b), rhythmists Context: tomb owner viewing presentations Suggested date: V.8-9 According to his son, Inti served under both Djedkare and Unis (Kanawati, Administration, p. 12). Other dances with throwing sticks occur in the Vth Dynasty (KA.i-xnt (A3), dated V.E-M, and KA.i-xnt (A2), dated V.6-8, both from el-Hammamiya) and there are some boomerangs in the example from the VIth Dynasty tomb of Nw-nTr (V.L). Dancers on the left in the upper register hold rather static poses similar to those found in the tombs of Nw-nTr (V.L), and ¤rf-kA (V.L). The very unusual short skirts on the rhythmists are only parallelled in the tomb of KA.i-mHst at Saqqara (V.6L-9). Siege scenes are also unique to these two tombs suggesting direct influence and a number of names mentioned in the two tombs are similar, suggesting either a family connection or at least that the tombs are contemporaneous.

Proposed dating: PM: Old Kingdom Harpur, Decoration, p. 361: VI.3-4E Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 12: Djedkare-Unis Kanawati-McFarlane, Deshasha, p. 19: Djedkare Baer, Rank and Title, (44), p. 288: Pepi I or later

184

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS

8. Iri-n-kA-PtH imy-r aD-(iH), rx-nswt, qbH-nm.t Location: Unis causeway, Saqqara Bibliography: PM III, p. 644; Moussa-Junge, Two Tombs, pl. 9. Relevant scenes: east wall

Source of picture: After Moussa-Junge Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Harvest Context: agricultural Suggested date: V.6-9E According to Moussa-Junge, the tomb appears to have been constructed some time before it was decorated but the style of the false door and tomb decoration suggests the tomb was decorated sometime between the reigns of Neuserre and Unis (Siebels, Agriculture II, p. 9). The tomb cannot be later than Unis due to the completion of the Unis Causeway which buried the tomb (Swinton, Dating, p. 55).

Proposed dating: PM: mid-late V Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: V.6-9 Moussa-Junge, Two Tombs, p. 35: V.8-9

185

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

9.

IHy

imy-ib n nswt xnty idbwy.f, imy-r sAw spAt, imy-r Snwty, mdw-rxyt iwn-Knmwt, ny nswt xntyt, Hry-sStA n mdwt nbt StAt innt r spAt, Hry-tp aA n spAt, HkA Hwt, Xry-Hbt, Xry-tp nswt pr-aA, ¤Ab aD-mr, smr waty, Imy (wife): rxt nswt, Hmt-nTr ¡wt-Hr nbt iwnt Location: el-Khokha, no. 186 Bibliography: Saleh, Tombs at Thebes, pls. 17-18. Relevant scenes: scene a: Chapel, West Wall

Source of picture: After Saleh Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Pair or Partnered Pirouette, Layout, Stride Context: tomb owner standing on right viewing presentations Scene b : back of right hand pillar Source of picture: After Saleh Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Swastika 3.e, Static poses with batons (This scene compares with those in the tombs of ¤nb.i and Wx-Htp at Meir, considered by Blackman to depict dance).1 Costume includes; collar, menit, sistrum, scarf.

Proposed dating:1 PM: middle to end V Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 297: early – mid Pepi II Baer, Rank and Title, (59), p. 59: Dyn VI Harpur, Decoration, p. 352,: VI.3-4 Saleh, Tombs at Thebes, p. 26: VI

Suggested date: VI.3-4 The titles ¤Ab aD-mr and ni nswt xntit are reminiscent of an earlier date, but two other examples known from the reign of Pepi II are Idw I of Denderah and Ppi-nfr: QAr of Edfu (Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 115). The dance scene (scene b) resembles later Middle Kingdom scenes from Meir,2 making a date well into the VIth Dynasty reasonable.

2 1

Tombs of Snb.i and his son ‹x-Htp, Blackman, Meir II, p. 24, pl. 35: 2 & vol. I, p. 23, pl. 18.

Blackman, Meir I, pp. 23-25 (pl. 2) and Meir II, p. 24 (pl. 32).

186

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 10. Isi : ¡m-Ra Hry-sStA n sDAwt-nTr m IAkmt, Hry-tp aA ©w.f, Xry-Hbt Hry-tp, smr waty, sDAwty bity, ¡n-m-Ra (wife): rxt nswt, Hmt-nTr ¡wt-Hr Location: Deir el-Gebrawi, no. 72 Bibliography: PM IV, p. 243; Davies, Deir el-Gebrâwi II, pl. 17. Relevant scenes: Chapel, north wall, west of doorway

Source of picture: Kanawati, Deir el-Gebrawi, pl. 62 Egyptian term(s) used in context: ib(A) Categorization: Salute Context: seated tomb owner and wife viewing presentations scene b: east wall

Source of picture: Kanawati, Deir el-Gebrawi, pl. 64 Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Pair, Salute Context: seated tomb owner and wife viewing presentations Proposed dating: Harpur, Decoration, p. 362: VI.7-FIP Kanawati, Administration, p. 152: L.6-FIP Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 299: Teti Baer, Rank and Title (333), p. 104: end VI or later

Suggested date: VI.1-3 The combination of relief and painted decoration in the chapel is found in other tombs dated to late V and early VI. The iconographic arrangement of tomb owner and wife, seated side by side, is unattested in el-Hawawish after the beginning of Pepi II’s reign (Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 64-5). The style of their clothing (especially the bead net dress of the wife), suggests the fashion of Dynasty V and early VI and the two chair styles with either lion’s or bull’s legs also suggests this transitional period (ibid.).

187

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 11.

Idw

mdw-rxyt iwn-Knmwt, Hm-nTr mAat, Hry-tp Nxb, xnty-S Mn-nfr-Mry-Ra, sS nswt (xft-Hr) Location: Giza, Eastern Field, G 7102 Bibliography: PM III, pp. 49, 185-6; Simpson, Qar and Idu, pl. 87. Relevant scenes: south wall

Source of picture: After Simpson scene a, top register: Egyptian term(s) used in context: Sd wa.k im.sn nt(y) Hna(.i); iw(.i) r Sdt.k Categorization: Boys’ Game scene b, middle register: Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA, mAHt caption: InD Hr.T m anx ¡wt-Hr swt kAt Htp.ti nbi.T i mrt nfrw. Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: (both scenes) seated tomb owner viewing presentations Caption next to tomb owner: mAA Hst sqm m bnt m Hab Suggested date: VI.2-4E The caption sA.f QAr [his son QAr] which appears in the Boys’ Game scene in the tomb of Idw (Simpson, QAr and Idu, p. 25) suggests QAr was the son of Idw. Qar’s title of xnty-S Mn-nfr-Mry-Ra places him no earlier than Pepi I, 3 placing Idw earlier in the VIth Dynasty. Similar Boys’ Game scenes are found in Mrrw-kA.i and #nti-kA.i, both dated to early VIth Dynasty.

Proposed dating: PM: VI Baer, Rank and Title, (77), p. 288: Pepi I or later Harpur, Decoration, p. 265: VI.3-4E Kanawati, Administration, p. 155: Unis Early Strudwick, Administration, p. 70(23): Early-mid Pepi I Simpson, Qar and Idu, p. 1: Pepi I or later Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 230: Pepi I Meryre

3

188

Simpson, Qar and Idu, p.1.

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 12.

Idwt

sAt nswt nt Xt.f Location: Saqqara, Unis Pyramid Cemetery Bibliography: PM III, pp. 617-619; Macramallah, Idout, pl. 5, fig. 10; Junker, MDAIK 9:1,(1940), fig. 4; Kanawati, Unis cemetery II, pls. 57, 59. Relevant scenes: scene a, Room B, east wall Source of picture: Kanawati, Unis cemetery II, pl. 57. Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: mww Context: funeral

scene b: Relief fragment, Room A, west wall Source of picture: Kanawati, Unis cemetery II, pl. 59. Categorization in this study: Harvest

Proposed dating: PM: Dyn VI Harpur Decoration, p. 351: V.9 r/u VI.7 Smith, History, p. 205: Teti Macramallah, Idout, p. 2: Begining VI Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 564 (202): Teti Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 230: Teti

Suggested date: V.9-VI.I (Built and decorated V.9, reused by Idwt, VI.1) As it lies in the Unis cemetery, this mastaba appears originally to have been built and decorated for IHy, a vizier under Unis, and reused by Idwt.

189

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 13.

anx-m-a-Hr

imy-r prwy-HD, imy-r sS(w) nswt, imy-r kAt nbt nt nswt, mniw Nxn, Hry-sStA n wDt-mdw nbt StAt nt nswt, Hry-sStA n nswt m swt.f nbt, Hry-tp Nxb, xnty-S mr ¦ti, Xry-Hbt Hry-tp, Xry-tp nswt, sHD Hm(w)-nTr mr ¦ti, tAyty sAb TAty Location: Saqqara, Teti Pyramid Cemetery Bibliography: PM III, p. 512; Kanawati-Hassan, Teti Cemetery II, pl. 58; Badaway, Ni-hetep-ptah, fig. 51, pl. 67; Brunner-Traut, Tanz, fig. 8. Relevant scenes: South wall, room VI

Source of picture: Kanawati-Hassan, Teti Cemetery II, pl. 58. Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA, Hst Categorization: (lower register) Layout, rhythmists, (upper register) uncertain, possibly including Diamond and a bowing gesture. Context: seated tomb owner viewing presentations Suggested date: VI.I Since the titles include service at the Teti Pyramid, this tomb cannot be dated earlier than Teti and its position in the Teti Cemetery also suggests Teti.

Proposed dating: PM: VI E Baer, Rank and Title, (94), p. 64: Pepi I Kanawati-Hassan, Teti Cemetery II, p. 18: mid to late Teti Strudwick, Administration, p.75: mid-late Teti Harpur Decoration, p. 352: VI.1L-2E Smith, History, p. 205: Teti Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 230: Teti

190

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS

14.

anx-ty-fy

imy-r mSa, imy-r Hm(w) nTr, iry-pat, HAty-a, Hry-tp aA n Nxn, smr waty, sDAwty-bity Location: el-Moalla Bibliography: PM V, p. 170; Vandier, Mo’alla, pls. 18, 33; Vandier, Manuel IV, figs. 222-224. Relevant scenes: Pillar 20, scene a:

Source of picture: After Vandier Categorization: Linked Hand, Pair, rhythmists? Source of picture: After Vandier Scene b:

Source of picture: After Vandier Categorization: Linked Hand

Scene c:

Source of picture: After Vandier Categorization: Salute, Linked Hand

cene d: Proposed dating: Fischer, Dendera: p. 97: IX Harpur, Decoration: p. 353: FIP Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 297: late Pepi II-early VIII Vandier, Mo’alla, p. 35ff: Heracleopolitan Period. Suggested date: VI.4-VIII.E The tomb inscriptions refer to the early coalition of Thebes and Coptos and anx-ty-fy’s successes during a period of turmoil, outlined in his biography, appear to predate the coalition of Thebes and Coptos in early Dynasty VIII (Siebels, Agriculture II, p. 13).

Source of picture: After Vandier Categorization: seated rhythmist Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent

191

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 15.

Watt-Xt-Hr : ¤SsSt

sAt nswt Daughter of Teti Location: Saqqara, Teti Pyramid Cemetery, chapel located within the mastaba of Mrrw-kA.i Bibliography: PM III, pp. 534-5; van Lepp, ICE 4 (1985), fig.1; Wreszinski, Atlas III, p. 28. Relevant scenes: room B 3, north wall Source of picture: After Roth, van Lepp (Drawing Mary Hartley) Egyptian term(s) used in context: mk iTt nbw, mk sfg iTt, mk iTt nfrt, mk qH.t Sd Xnwt.s, mk sStA n xnrt, iA fdq, ii sTs, iw minA, wnwn, mk ikik (kkw?) Hbt mswt, mk swt sStA n mswt, iA sTsA, mAHt Categorization: Pair, Layout, Stride, Pirouette, High Step, rhythmists Context: Watt-Xt-Hr, seated, viewing dances, upper registers missing.

Proposed dating: PM: Teti Baer, Rank and Title, (197), p. 82: Teti Strudwick, Administration, pp. 100-1(68): end Teti Harpur, Decoration, p. 352: VI.1 M-L Smith, History, p. 205: Teti Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 230: Teti Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 434-435 (44): Teti

Suggested date: VI.I

192

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 16. Wnis-anx

imy-r Sma, imy-r Snwty, Hry-sStA n-mdt nb StAt innt r spAt, Hry-tp aA n spAt, Xry-tp nswt wife (unnamed): rx.t nswt Location: el-Khokha, no. 413 Bibliography: Saleh, Tombs at Thebes, pl. 3. Relevant scenes: Chapel, North wall

Source of picture: After Saleh Egyptian term(s) used in context: None apparent Categorization: top register: Stride, lower register: Mirror Context: Presentation scene, tomb owner missing or never completed Proposed dating: Baer, Rank and Title, (112), p. 289: Djedkare-Unis Saleh, Tombs at Thebes, p. 17: late V - early VI Harpur, Decoration, p. 353: VI.7 Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 297: late Teti, early Pepi I

Suggested date: VI.1 The tomb owner’s name incorporating that of Unis, suggests he may have been born in the lifetime of that king, and later, served under Teti. The simple tomb plan, style of decoration, such as dark background and brightly painted figures, favour an early Dynasty VI date (Siebels, Agriculture II, p. 14). The Mirror Dance theme is otherwise found only in Mrrw-kA.i’s tomb (also VI.1). The other performance themes are very similar to those of Wnis-anx’s successor IHy.

193

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

17.

Wr-ir-n.i

imy-r wpt, imy-r niwwt mAwt, imy-r Sma, wab nswt, rx nswt, Hm-nTr Ni-wsr-Ra, HqA-Hwt, sSm-tA, Son of ¤rf-kA Location: Sheikh Said, no. 25 Bibliography: PM IV, p. 188; Davies, Sheikh Said, pl. 10. Relevant scenes: south wall

Source of picture: After Davies Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibAw nfr(w) n kA.{q} Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: seated tomb owner in garden kiosk viewing presentations scene b: chapel, west wall

Source of picture: After Davies Egyptian term(s) used in context: sHAt Categorization: Harvest Proposed dating: Baer, Rank and Title, (114), p. 289: Djedkare-Unis Harpur, Decoration, p. 352: V.8-9 Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 300: early Unis Smith, History, p. 215: late V Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 229: Neuserre

Suggested date: V.8-9

194

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS

18.

Wr-ir-n-PtH

Hm-nTr Ra, Hm-nTr Ra m Nfr-ir-kA-Ra, Hm-nTr ¡wt-Hr Location: Saqqara, position unknown. Current location: British Museum, 718. Bibliography: PM. III, p. 699; Hall, Egyptian Collections, fig. 6. 2; James, Hieroglyphic Texts I, pl. 28 Relevant scenes: West wall

Source of picture: After Hall Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA, Hst Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: presentation scene Proposed dating: PM: V-VI Harpur, Decoration, p.351:V.3-5? Hall, Egyptian Collection: Pepi II Smith, History, p. 188: first half V Baer, Rank and Title, (115), p. 289: end NeferirkareDjedkare Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 228: Neferirkare

Suggested date: V.8 Since the titles associated with the sun temple of Neferirkare would still have been in use beyond that king’s reign, this tomb is not necessarily as early as suggested by Harpur and Smith (Siebels, Agriculture II, p. 15). Iconographic details in the agricultural scenes suggest a date at least as late as V.7-9 (ibid. p. 15), as do the sheer, long dresses of the dancers, which also appear in the §y and Axty-Htp dance scenes both dated to V.8-9.

195

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

19.

Ppy-anx: ¡ny-km

imy-r Hm(w) nTr, imy-r sS(w), imy-r Sma, imy-r Sma mAa, imy-r Snwty, HAty-a, Hry-tp Nxb, Xry-Hbt Hry-tp, Xry-tp nswt, sDAwty-bity Location: Meir, Tomb chapel A2 Bibliography: PM IV, pp. 247-8; Blackman, Meir V, pls. 42, 43. Relevant scenes: scene a, east wall

Source of picture: Blackman, Meir V, pl. 42. scene b:

Source of picture: Blackman, Meir V, pl. 43. both scenes: Egyptian term(s) used in context: HAw, Dryt Context: funerary Categorization in this study: Diamond (?) Context: funerary

Proposed dating: PM: Pepy II Baer, Rank and Title, p. 70(134): early Pepi II or later Harpur, Decoration, p. 353: VI.4-5 Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 300: late-end Pepi II Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 232: Pepi (I/II?) Suggested date: VI.4L

196

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS

20.

PHn-w(i)-kA.i

sHD wab(w) Wab Iswt-Wsr-kA.f, tAyty sAb TAty Location: Saqqara, D 70 (LS 15), West of Step Pyramid Bibliography: PM III, p. 491; Harpur, Decoration, pl. 207; LD, II.47. Relevant scenes: Room I, west wall

Source of picture: LD, II.47 Egyptian term(s) used in context: None apparent Categorization in this study: Harvest Context: agricultural Proposed dating: PM: middle V or later Baer, Rank and Title, (146), p. 72: end NeferirkareDjedkare Harpur, Decoration, p. 272: V.6-8E Strudwick, Administration, pp. 84-5(45): late Neuserre Kanawati, Administration, p. 153: Early Djedkare Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 228: Neferirkare

21.

Suggested date: V.6-8E As Neferirkare is mentioned in the tomb and the tomb layout favours an early Vth Dynasty date, the early V.3 dating cannot be ruled out (Baer, Rank and Title, p. 72). However, PHn-wi-kA.i appears to have reached the vizierate first under Djedkare and the tomb size and location reinforce this date (Kanawati, Administration, p.12). Therefore, the tomb construction was probably carried out some time before it was decorated for PHn-wikA,i.

PtH-Htp

imy-r prwy HD, imy-r Hwt wrt 6, imy-r Xkr nswt, imy-r sS(w) a nswt, imy-r Snwty, xrp wsxt, tAyty sAb TAty Location: Saqqara, LS 31 Bibliography: PM III, pp. 653-654 (4-5, reg. II); Lepsius, Denkmäler II, 101, b; Lepsius, Erganz. pl. 43; Wilson, JNES, 1944, pp. 201-288, pl. 13; Edel, Akazienhaus, fig.4. Junker, MDAIK, 9:1(1940). Relevant scenes: Scene a

Source of picture: After Edel

197

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM Scene b: Full funerary scene

Source of picture: Lepsius, Denkmäler II, 101b Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst, xnr(t) n(t) SnDt Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: funerary procession, food offerings in the register above scene c: Source of Picture: after Junker’s copy of Lepsius, Erganz. pl. 43. Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: (w)nwn funerary dance Context: funerary

Proposed dating: PM: mid V or later Baer, Rank and Title, (162), p. 290: mid V or later Harpur, Decoration, p. 273: VI.2 or V.L-VI.E? Kanawati, Administration, pp. 93-4: Late V-VI Strudwick, Administration, p. 89(51): Pepi I early Suggested date: around V.9 The unusual arm position of the rhythmists most resembles that found in the tomb of Ra-Spss (V.8) at Saqqara. The double cross-strap bodice on dancers is otherwise found only in the dance scene in the tomb of Idw (VI.2-4E) at Giza. The arm height of the dancers resembles that in the tombs of Idw at Giza and Mrrw-kA.i (VI.I) at Saqqara and the torso position of the rhythmists resembles scenes from the tombs of Idw at Giza, KA.i-m-Hst (V.6L-9) at Saqqara and Inti (V.8-9) at Deshasha. Similar motifs related to the Butoesque funeral are found predominantly in tombs in and around the Unis Cemetery at Saqqara (Iy-nfrt, Idwt, Nb-kAw-Hr, ¦p-m-anx).

198

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS

22. PtH-Htp II imy-r Sma, mdw-rxyt iwn-Knmwt, n(i)-nst-xntt, Hm-nTr mAat, Xry-tp nswt, sAb aD-mr, tAyty sAb TAty, Son of Axty-Htp Location: Saqqara, D 64, West of the Step Pyramid Bibliography: PM III, pp. 600-4; Junker, MDAIK 9:1 (1940), fig. 3; Smith, History, fig. 81a; Paget-Pirie, Ptah-hetep, pl. 33; Davies, Ptahhetep, pt. II, pls. 8, 21; Hassan, Saqqara II, p. 79, fig. 28. Relevant scenes: scene a; fragment Source of picture: After Junker Egyptian term(s) used in context: None apparent Categorization: mww Context: funerary

scene b: East Wall

Source of picture: Paget-Pirie, Ptah-hetep, pl. 33 Egyptian term(s) used in context: ii SmA iA sDm n ib.f Categorization: Boys’ Game context: next to wrestling match, presentation, marshland pursuits and other boys’ games below. Scene d: East Wall Scene c: East Wall

Source of picture: Paget-Pirie, Ptah-hetep, pl. 33 Egyptian term(s) used in context: sSt snti pn at Categorization: Boys’ Game

Source of picture: Paget-Pirie, Ptah-hetep, pl. 33 Egyptian term(s) used in context: m Hwi n.k is tnyw n.i gswy Categorization: Boys’ Game

Proposed dating:

199

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM PM: Isesi Harpur, Decoration, p. 358: V.9 M-L Baer, Rank and Title, (161) p. 290: Djedkare – Unis Strudwick, Administration, p. 88(50): Late reign of Unis Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 229: Menkauhor

23.

Suggested date: around V.9 Appearances of the mww are rare in the Old Kingdom but they also appear in the tombs of Nb-kAw-Hr and Idwt (both decorated V.9, reused VI.1). Similar funerary themes occur in the tomb of Iy-nfrt (V.9) also from the Unis Cemetery. All Old Kingdom examples of the mww are found in or near the Unis cemetery, which suggests this was a popular theme during the reign of Unis and just after. Boys’ Game scenes also occur in the tombs of Mrrw-kA.i (VI.I), Idw (VI.2-4), and KA-gmn.i (VI.1), making V.9 the most likely period.

PtH-Htp: Ii-n-anx

imy-r sS(w), Hm nTr MAat, Hm-nTr ¤AHw-Ra, Hry-sStA, Hry-sStA n wDa-mdw, xrp wsxt, xrp sS(w) iry-spr, xrp sS(w) Ht-wrt, sAb imy-r sS(w), sAb sHD ir(yw) mDAt, sAb sHD sS(w) Location: Saqqara, West of Step Pyramid Bibliography: PM III, p. 606-7; Hassan, Saqqara II, fig. 37. Relevant scenes: south wall

Source of picture: After Hassan Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA Categorization: Diamond Context: seated tomb owner viewing presentations including marshland pursuits Proposed dating: PM: end V- early VI Harpur, Decoration, p. 358: V.9-VI.1 Baer, Rank and Title, (161A), p. 75: end V- early VI

Suggested date: V.9-VI.1

200

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 24.

Mr.f-nb.f

imA-a, imy-xt Hmw-nTr mrt ¦ti, iry-pat, HAty-a, Hry-sStA n mdt nbt, xnty-S Dd-iswt-¦ti, Xry-Hbt Hry-tp, smr waty, tAyty sAb TAty Location: Saqqara, West of Step Pyramid Bibliography: Myśliwiec, Rewelacyjne, fig. 42. Relevant scenes: chapel, south wall (three registers of dance)

Source of picture: After Myśliwiec Egyptian term(s) used in context: i[bA], xnrt Categorization: top register: Layout, rhythmists; middle register: Diamond, rhythmists; lowest register: Layout, rhythmists Context: three registers of dancers, presumably in a presentation scene but the broader context is not shown in the publication. Suggested date: VI.2 This tomb cannot be dated before Teti, because one of the titles recorded for Mr.f-nb.f is in the Priesthood of Teti. However, the tomb is outside the Teti cemetery to the west of the Step Pyramid. The pictorial similarity with the MHw dance scene suggests that the two tombs may have been contemporaneous.

201

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 25. Mrrw-kA.i

imy-r prwy HD, imy-r Hwt-wrt 6, imy-r sS(w) nswt, imy-r Snwty, imy-r kAt nbt nt nswt, Hry-tp Nxb, HqA bAt, sDAwty-bity, tAyty sAb TAty Location: Saqqara, Teti Pyramid Cemetery Bibliography: PM.III, pp. 525-34; Duell, Mereruka, vol. I: pl. 87; vol II: pls. 130, 162, 164; Smith, History, fig. 77; Hickmann, BIE 37 (1954-5), pp. 151-90, fig. 2, pl. 1; Vandier, Manuel IV, pt II, pl. 19, figs. 215, 216., scene a: A13, north wall

Source of picture: After Duell Egyptian term(s) used in context: irry n iwf n iwf Hnwt Dd.s rn nfr n Hm(t) ¡wt-Hr Categorization: Mirror, Pirouette, rhythmist Context: fowling and children’s games

scene b : north wall

Source of picture: After Duell Egyptian term(s) used in context: ii SmA sDm n ib.f mAA ky snD.f; Hwi n.s ist nny.i im gswy

202

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS Categorization: Boys’ Game Context: fowling and children’s games scene c : east wall

Source of picture: After Duell Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA, mAHt Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists context: presentations performed before the funerary statue scenes d: east wall

Source of picture: After Duell Egyptian term(s) used in context: mk wdt, mk Dhn Categorization: Pair, rhythmists context: presentations performed before the funerary statue scene e: A13 south wall Source of picture: After Edel Egyptian term(s) used in context: SnDt Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: funerary, door of the tomb.

Proposed dating: PM: Teti Baer, Rank and Title, (197), p. 82: Teti Strudwick, Administration, pp. 100-1(68): end Teti Harpur, Decoration, p. 352: VI.1 M-L Smith, History, p. 205: Teti Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 467 (83): Teti Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 230: Teti

Suggested date: VI.1

203

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 26.

Mr.s-anh III

Hmt nswt (#a.f-Ra), sAt nswt nt Xt.f Location: Giza, EF, G 7530 - 7540 Bibliography: PM III, pp. 198-9; Dunham-Simpson, Mersyankh III, fig. 11. Relevant scenes: north wall, offering room

Source of picture: After Dunham-Simpson Egyptian term(s) used in context: None apparent Categorization: Swastika, rhythmists Context: tomb owner viewing presentations Suggested date: IV.5-6

Proposed dating: PM: Khufu to Shepseskaf Harpur, Decoration, p. 350: IV.6 Smith, History, p. 163: Shepseskaf Junker, Giza III, p. 6: end IV-early VI Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 461 (76): Khafre – Menkaure ? Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 226: Djedefre

According to Junker (Giza II, p. 38), Mrs-anx III and Menkaure were the parents of Nb.i-m-Axty (end IV), which would place Mrs-anx III around IV.5 (see Hassan, Giza IV, p. 140 for inscription relating to Nb.i-m-Axty’s parents).

204

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS

27.

MHw

imy-r prwy-HD, imy-r Hwt wrt, imy-r Hwt wrt 6, imy-r sS(w) a(w) (nw) nswt, imy-r Snwty, sHD Hm(w)-nTr Mn-nfr-Mry-Ra (Ppy), sDAwty-bity, tAyty sAb TAty Location: Saqqara, Unis Cemetery Bibliography: PM III, pp. 619-22; Altenmüller, Mehu; Sameh, Daily Life, p. 132; Verner, Lost Pyramids, p. 57. Relevant scenes: a : Middle room, east wall

Source of picture: After Altenmüller Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA, imyt-r xnr, xnrt, sHDt nt xnr Categorization: Layout, rhythmists Context: seated tomb owner viewing presentation scene scene b: corridor, south wall Source of picture: Altenmüller, Mehu, pl. 24. Egyptian term(s) used in context: Categorization: harvest Context: agricultural

Harpur, Decoration, p. 352: VI.2 M-3 Kanawati, Administration, p. 98: Pepi II Altenmüller, Mehu, p. 82-3: Pepi I Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 471 (89): Pepi I Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 230: Pepi I, Meryre

Scene c: Female Harpists Source of picture: Altenmüller, Mehu, pl. 51. Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst (above female harpists) Categorization: orchestral Context: presentation scene

Suggested date: VI.2 The position of MHw’s tomb in the Unis cemetery suggests he began his working life during the reign of Unis. The decoration resembles the work undertaken during the reign of Teti, particularly the dance scene featuring the Layout Pose, suggesting he continued working under Teti, but MHw’s title of ‘overseer of the priests of the pyramid of Pepi I Meryra’ indicates that his career must have continued late into the reign of Pepi I. (Altenmüller, Mehu, p. 83).

Proposed dating: PM: Pepi I or later Baer, Rank and Title, (202), p. 290: Pepi II (between years 35-55) Strudwick, Administration, pp. 101-2: early - mid Pepi I 205

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

28. Ni-anx-£nmw

and £nmw-Htp

Shared titles imy-r iryw anwt pr aA, wab Mn-iswt-Ni-wsr-Ra, mHnk nswt m kAt iryt anwt, rx nswt, Hm nTr Ra m ¥spw-ib-Ra, Hry-sStA Location: Saqqara, Unis Cemetery Bibliography: PM III, pp. 641-644; Moussa-Altenmüller, Nianchchnum, fig. 25, pls. 68, 69. Relevant scenes: south wall

Source of picture: Moussa-Altenmüller, Nianchchnum, fig. 25, pl. 68. Egyptian term(s) used in context: mk Trf iTt smAnt, ibA, Hst Categorization: Pair, Diamond, seated rhythmists. Context: seated tomb owners viewing presentations Proposed dating: PM: Neuserre or Menkauhor Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: V.6-7 Moussa-Altenmüller, Nianchchnum, p. 45: end NeuserreMenkauhor Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 229: Neuserre

Suggested date: V.6-7

* This tomb is referred to as Ni-anx-£nmw in the text.

206

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 29. Ni-wsr-Ra King

Solar Temple

Location: Abusir Bibliography: PM III, pp. 335-339; Borchhardt, Ne-user-Re III, pl. 16 no. 274; Vandier, Manuel IV, fig. 206. Relevant scenes: fragments from Solar temple scene a:

Source of picture: Borchhardt, Ne-Woser-Rea II, pl. 19: 45a Egyptian term(s) used in context: xnw Categorization: Salute scene b: Source of picture: Borchhardt, Ne-user-Re III, pl. 16: 274. Egyptian term(s) used in context: xnw Categorization: Swastika (with batons), Salute scene c:

Source of picture: Borchhardt, Ne-user-Re III, pl. 18: 252 Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Sed-fest 207

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM scene d: fragments near the throne

Source of picture: Borchhardt, Ne-user-Re III, pl. 18: 256 –261 (see also fig.262/3) Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Sed-fest Source of picture: Borchhardt, Ne-user-Re III, pl. 18: 256, 261 Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Sed-fest Proposed date: PM: V Baer, Rank and Title, (223), p. 291: Neuserre Suggested date: V. 6 30. Ni-mAat-Ra

rx nswt, Hry-sStA pr-aA, xnty-S pr-aA, sS pr-aA Location: Giza, West Field, G 2097, usurped by Mr-nTr-Issi Bibliography: PM III, p. 70; Roth, Palace Attendants, fig. 188, pls. 93b, 94. Relevant scenes: South wall of corridor

Source of picture: After Roth Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst Categorization: Salute, seated rhythmists Context: seated tomb owner viewing offerings Proposed date: PM: late V or early VI Harpur, Decoration, p. 265: V.9-VI.1 Roth, Palace Attendants, p. 129: Unis Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 227: Userkaf

Suggested date: V.9-VI.1

208

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 31.

Ni-Htp-PtH

imy-r aHAw, imy-r xntyw-S praA, imy-r swt Spswt nt pr-aA, imy-r 2 mr pr-aA, Hry-sStA n nb.f, Hry-sStA n nswt,xrp aH, sAb aDmr pr-aA Location: Giza, West Field, G 2430, LG 25 Bibliography: PM III, pp. 94-95; Lepsius, Denkmäler II, pl. 71a; Badaway, 'Ankhm'ahor, pl. 8

Relevant scenes: chapel, south wall Source of picture: Lepsius, Denkmäler II, pl. 71a4 (the partial upper register is the one most relevant to this study). Egyptian term(s) used in context: None apparent Categorization: Harvest Context: seated tomb owner viewing agricultural activities, wife kneeling at tomb owner’s feet Proposed date: PM: early VI Badawy, 'Ankhm'ahor, p. ix: early VI Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: VI.1 Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 229: Menkauhor

4

Suggested date: VI.E

reproduced in Badawy, 'Ankhm'ahor, pl. 8.

209

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 32. Ni-kAw-Hr Hm nTr Wsr-kA.f, Hm nTr Ra m Nxn-Ra ¤xm-¡wt-Hr (wife) Location: Saqqara, North of Step Pyramid, QS 915. Bibliography: PM III, p. 498; Quibell, Saqqara III, pl. 66 (1); Vandier, Manuel IV, fig. 219 (2). Relevant scenes: south wall

Source of picture: After Quibell Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: not apparent scene b: east wall

Source of picture: Quibell, Saqqara III, pl . 62 (1). Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Harvest Context: not apparent Suggested date: V.6-9 The low arm height, bodice and short, pointed kilt all point to a date no earlier than V.6. Similar scenes include Nfr-irt-n.f (V.6-8), Ra-m-kA.i (V.6-9), Nb-kAw-Hr (decorated V.9), PtH-Htp (21, around V.9), Mrrw-kA.i (VI.1). The motif of the first two donkey drivers clapping sticks is indicative of mid-late Dynasty V tombs such as Nfr-irt-n.f (V.6-8), KA.i-m-nfrt (V.6-9) (Siebels, Agriculture, p. 57).

Proposed dating: PM: Late V Baer, Rank and Title (245), p. 89: Djedkare or later Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: V.9 Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 227: Userkaf

210

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 33. sS

Nw-nTr

Location: Giza, GIS Bibliography: PM III, pp. 43, 217; Junker, Giza X, figs. 44, 71. Relevant scenes: West wall

Source of picture: After Junker Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hswt, ibAwt Categorization: Swastika and Salute with sistra and throwing sticks, seated rhythmists Context: seated tomb owners viewing presentations and banquet. Proposed dating: PM: Late Old Kingdom Harpur, Decoration, p. 267: VI

Suggested date: V.L Iconographic details in this scene such as the appearance of a dwarf in a dance scene (otherwise found only in the tombs of _bH-n.i (IV.5) and KA.i-aprw (V.1-2)) are distinctive but do not help to narrow the dating range. Seated rhythmists also appear in the tomb of Ni-anxXnmw and £nmw-Htp (V.6-7) and crowns worn by the dwarf and rhythmists resemble those worn by Salute dancers in the tomb of _bH-n.i (IV.5) and Salute or High Step dancers in the tomb of Isi (VI.1-3) at Deir elGebrawi. However, the cross-strap bodice is found at Giza and Saqqara only after V.6 in tombs such as £nmwnfr (V.M-L), ¥pss-kA.f-anx (V.6-8) and ¤Sm-nfrIII, (V.8) and pointed skirts on dancers also do not seem to appear in dance scenes before V.6, which narrows the dating range considerably. The poses of the dancers most resemble those found in the tombs of KA.i-dwA (around V.8, Giza), Inti (V.8-9, Deshasha (lower register, left)), and ¤rf-kA (V.L, Sheikh Said), all of which point to a date of V.L

211

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 34.

Nb.i-m-Axty

iry pat, wr xt, Hry sStA n it.f, Xry-Hbt Hry-tp, sA nswt n Xt.f (smsw), smr waty, smsw snwt n it.f, sS mDAt nTr, sS mDAt-nTr n it.f, tAyty sAb TAty Location: Giza, Central Field (LG 86) Bibliography: PM III, pp. 230-233; Hassan, Giza IV, pp. 140-143, figs. 81, 82; Lepsius, Denkmäler II, 14a. scene b: east wall, north of doorway

Source of picture After Lepsius (drawing Mary Hartley) Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Diamond Context: probably funerary, scene includes offering tables, butchery, dancers Suggested date: end IV Nb.i-m-Axty was a Son of Mrs-anx III and, according to Junker (Giza II, p. 38), Menkaure, (see Hassan, Giza IV, p. 140 for inscription relating to parents).

Proposed dating: PM: Khafre to Menkaure, or a little later Baer, Rank and Title, (248), p. 291: early OK, probably end IV Strudwick, Administration, pp. 101-2: early - mid Pepi I Harpur, Decoration, p. 350: IV.6-V.1 Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 226: Khafre Baud, Famille Royale, p. 487 (113): End IV (‘ou moins’ Khafre)

212

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS

35.

Nb-kAw-Hr

imy-r wabt, imy-r prwy nbw, imy-r prwy HD, imy-r sS(w) nswt, imy-r Snwty, imy-r gs-pr, aD mr _p ¤bA ¡r xnty pt, Hry-tp Nxb, Hry-sStA n pr dwAt, sA nswt n Xt.f smsw, smr waty, sHD Hm(w)-nTr Nfr-iswt-Wnis, sS mDAt nTr, sDAwty-bity, tAyty sAb TAty Location: Saqqara, Unis Cemetery Bibliography: PM III, pp. 627-9; Hassan, Saqqara I, figs. 6 & 7. Relevant scenes: pillared hall, north wall Source of picture: After Junker Egyptian term(s) used in context: mww Categorization: mww Context: funerary

Scene b: pillared hall, north wall

Source of picture: After Hassan Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA nfr n kA.k ra nb, Hst mAH n xnr, mAHt nfr, sbA, ibA in xnr n pr-Dt; and in front of tomb owner: mAA sxmx-ib Categorization in this study: Diamond, rhythmists Context: seated tomb owner viewing presentations Proposed dating: PM: VI Hassan, Saqqara I, p. 5: Dyn VI usurped soon after burial of 3xty-Htp Baer, Rank and Title, (249), p. 291: Djedkare-Unis Strudwick, Administration, pp. 109 (82): Pepi II or later Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: V.9-VI.7 Smith, History, p. 195: Late V Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 489 (114): End VIth Dynasty

Suggested date: V.9 (for decoration) usurped VI.1 There is general consensus that the tomb was built and decorated late Dynasty V, probably under Unis in whose cemetery it lies, but usurped later in Dynasty VI.

213

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 36.

Nfr

wab nswt, Hm-nTr #a.f-Ra, Hry-sStA, xrp iry Snty nswt, xrp aH, smr Location: Giza, LG 99. Bibliography: PM III, pp. 258-259; Hassan, Giza III, pl. 175. Relevant scenes: inner offering-room with niche Source of picture: After Hassan Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Salute Context: men dragging chests and presenting geese Proposed dating: PM: Middle V or later Kanawati, Administration, pp. 101-102: M.V L Baer, Rank and Title, (252), p. 90: mid V or later Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 226: Khafre Suggested date: V.M-L

37.

Nfr

imy-r pr, imy-r Hm(w) kA, wab nswt, rx nswt, Hm-nTr #wfw Location: Giza, G 4761 Bibliography: PM III, pp. 137-138; Junker, Giza VI, fig. 13 Relevant scenes: south wall

Source of picture: After Junker Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibAw, Hst n ibAw(t) in xnr, Hst Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: seated tomb owner and wife viewing presentations

214

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS Suggested date: V.9-VI.1

Proposed dating: PM: end V or Dyn VI Baer, Rank and Title, (251), p. 90: VI -Pepi II (years 1535) Harpur, Decoration, p. 350: V.9-VI.1 Smith, History, p. 198: end V Kanawati, Administration, pp. 101-2: VI.E Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 225: Khufu

38. Nfr

The lotus presentation motif occurs in a number of tombs at Giza dated to the transitional period V.L-VI.1 (Siebels, Agriculture II, p. 56). This motif can be seen in tombs such as: IA-sn (V.L-VI.E), KA-pi (V. 6-9), and ¤Sm-nfr III (V.8), but is not unknown in earlier tombs, such as ¤Smnfr II (V.6).

and KA-HA.i

KA-HA.i rx nswt, Hm-nTr Mrt ¥mayt, xrp Hsww, sHD Hsww Mrt-it.s (wife) rxt nswt, Hmt nTr Nt mHtit inbw, Hmt nTr ¡wt-Hr nbt nht m swt.s nbwt nfrwt, plus titles concerned with performing found on an offering basin: imy-r Hsww prwy, xrp mdt nfrt, iwH rxyt Nfr (son of KA-HAi) rx nswt, Hry-sStA nswt, xrp Hsww, sHD wabt, sHD pr aA, sHD pr-aA wabt #nsw (wife) rxt nswt Location: Saqqara, Unis Pyramid Cemetery. Bibliography: PM III, pp. 639-41; Moussa-Altenmüller, Nefer, pls. 10, 11, 13. Relevant scenes: north wall, west room

Source of picture: Drawn from a photograph in Moussa-Altenmüller, Nefer, pls. 10 and 11 (Drawing, Mary Hartley). Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Swastika, rhythmists Context: seated tomb owner viewing presentation with agricultural scenes below Proposed dating: PM: mid to late V Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: V.6 Moussa-Altenmüller, Nefer, p. 18: Neuserre

Suggested date: V.6

215

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 39.

Nfr-irt-n.f

Hm-nTr Ra m Nxn-Ra, Hm-nTr Ra m ¤t-ib-Ra, Hry-sStA, xrp wsx, sHD Hm(w) nTr ¡wt-Hr sA wr (m) Mrt ¤AHw-Ra, sHD sS(w) Location: Saqqara, D 55, East of the Step Pyramid Bibliography: PM. III, pp. 583-4; van de Walle, Neferirtenef, pl. 6. Relevant scenes: east wall

Source of picture: After van de Walle Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA, Hst Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: presentation scene scene b: east wall

Source of picture: After van de Walle Egyptian term(s) used in context: sHAt Categorization: Harvest Context: agricultural Suggested date: V.6-8 The style of art and iconographic details of the dance scene are similar to those found in the tombs of §y (rhythmists) (V.8-9), Ni-anx-£nmw and £nmw-Htp (arm position) (V.6-7) and Ra-Spss (costume)(V.8). Short, pointed skirts do not otherwise appear before V.6 and the cross-strap bodice is most prevalent from this time also. The motif of the first two donkey drivers clapping sticks is indicative of mid-late Dynasty V tombs such as Nfr-irtn.f (V.6), KA.i-m-nfrt (72, V.6-9) (Siebels, Agriculture II, p. 57).

Proposed dating: PM: Neferirkare or later Baer, Rank and Title (no. 256), p. 90: Neferirkare or later Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: V.8-9 Smith, History, p. 187-8: Neferirkare or a little later van de Walle, Neferirtenef, pp. 19-20: V-Neferirkare or a little later Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 489 (116): Neferirkare Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 228: Neferirkare

216

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 40.

Nfr-bAw-PtH

imy-r pr Hwt-aAt, wab nswt, rx nswt, Hm-nTr Ni-wsr-Ra, Hm-nTr Nfr-ir-kA-Ra, Hm-nTr #wfw, Hm-nTr ¤A-Hw-Ra, sS pr-mDAt #nw.t (wife): rx(t) nswt Location: Giza, West Field, G 6010. Bibliography: PM III, pp. 169-70; Harpur, Decoration, fig. 206; Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, fig. 9. relevant scenes: First chamber, east wall

Source of Picture: After Weeks. Egyptian terms used in context: none apparent Categorization: Harvest Context: agricultural Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, p. 5-6: Neuserre-Isesi

Proposed dating: PM: Middle to end V Baer, Rank and Title, (258), p. 291: end NeferirkareDjedkare Harpur, Decoration, p. 350: V.6 Reisner, Giza I, p. 314: after Neuserre Smith, History, p. 189: latter half V

Suggested date: V.6-8 Nfr-bAw-PtH was probably the son of Iy-mry (V.6) (Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, pp. 5-7).

217

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 41.

Nfr-mAat

iry-pat, Hry-tp Nxb, sA nswt Location: Giza, East Field, G 7060, LG 57. Bibliography: PM III, p. 183 (2); LD II, 17 [c]; Harpur, Decoration, p. 380-plan of tomb Relevant scenes: South wall, bottom register

Source of Picture: LD II, 17 [c] Egyptian terms used in context: none apparent Categorization: rhythmists Context: seated tomb owner viewing presentations Proposed dating: Suggested Date: IV.2-5 PM: Khufu to Khafre Harpur, Decoration, p. 267: IV.2-4 Kanawati, Administration, p. 153: L. Menkaure Strudwick, Administration, p. 110(85): early-mid Khafre or a little later Baer, Rank and Title, (262), p. 291: Khafre to Menkaure Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 490 (118): IV.M (before Khafre ?) Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 224: Sneferu

218

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 42.

Nn-xft-kA

Hm-kA, Hry-sStA n pr dwAt, xrp aH, smr waty, sHD Hm-kA, sS Location: Saqqara, D 47, East of Step Pyramid, position unknown, this block is now in Cairo museum, CG 1533 (1534 according to Montet, Scènes, p. 361). Bibliography: PM III, pp. 580-1; MM D47; Sameh, Daily Life, pp. 128-9; Montet, Scènes, pl 24. Relevant scenes: south wall

Source of picture: Drawing from a photograph in Montet, Scènes (Drawing, Mary Hartley). Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA, Hst Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: seated tomb owner viewing presentations Proposed dating: PM : Sahure or later Harpur, Decoration, p. 432: V.6? Baer, Rank and Title, (no. 282) , p. 95: Neuserre or a bit earlier Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 227: Sahure

Suggested date: V.6 The cross-strap bodice is otherwise found at Giza and Saqqara only after V.6 in tombs such as £nmw-nfr (V.ML), ¥pss-kA.f-anx (V.6-8) and ¤Sm-nfr III (V.8).

219

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 43.

Ra-wr II

sAb imy-r sS(w), sAb aD-mr, wr mD Sma Location: Giza, West Field, G 5470 (LG 32) Bibliography: PM III, p 162-3, LD, Ergänzungsband, pl. 25, Junker, Giza III, fig. 47. Relevant scenes: Chapel, east wall

Source of picture: LD, Ergänzungsband, pl. 25 Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Harvest. Context: agricultural Proposed dating: PM: end V Baer, Rank and Title, (298), p. 98: end V Harpur, Decoration, p. 268: V.8-9M Smith, History, p. 194: late V Kanawati, Administration, pp. 105-106: Neferirkare

Suggested date: V.6-8 The seal of Isesi found in the main burial shaft suggests a date no later than V.8. (Siebels, Agriculture II, p. 34).

220

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 44.

Ra-m-kA.i

HAty-a, Hry-tp Nxb, Xry-Hbt Hry tp, sA nswt n Xt.f smsw, smr waty, sS mDAt nTr Location: Saqqara-North of Step Pyramid No. 80 (probably D3, S 903) Chapel now in Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 08.201.1, MMA archive 08. 201.1F Usurped from Nfr-irt-n.s Bibliography: PM III, pp. 487-8; MM D3, p. 180 (description only, the dance scene is otherwise unpublished). Relevant scenes: East wall

Source of picture: drawn from unpublished photo Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Diamond, rhythmist(s) Context: standing tomb owner viewing presentations Suggested date: V.6-9 The dance iconography (shape of kilt, angle of dancers’ arms and position of feet) is similar to: Nfr-irt-n.f (V.6), Ni-kAw-Hr (V.6-9) and Ni-anx-£nmw (V.6-7). The very unusual acute angle of the rhythmists’ arms with the body in profile and only one arm apparent, is otherwise seen only in the tomb of #ww-wr from Giza, which is dated V.8-9.

Proposed dating: PM: end V Baer, Rank and Title, (303), p. 292: end V, NeferirkareDjedkare Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: V.6-7 Smith, History, p. 194: late V Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 510 (140): NeuserreMenkaure

221

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 45.

Ra-Spss

Location: Saqqara, Near Step Pyramid, LS 16 Bibliography: PM III, pp. 494-496; LD II, pl. 61 Relevant scenes:

Source of picture: overdrawn on LD II, 61a Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibAw nfr(w) n kA.{q}, Hst Categorization: Salute, rhythmists Context: seated tomb owner viewing presentations, vintage scenes above Suggested date: V.8 Ra-Spss was a vizier of Isesi.

Proposed dating: PM: Isesi Baer, Rank and Title, p. 101 (315): Djedkare Harpur, Decoration, p. 275: V.8M Strudwick, Administration, p. 116(95): mid Djedkare Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 229: Menkauhor 46.

RwD

rx nswt, Hmt-nTr #wfw Location: Giza, 2086 Bibliography: Roth, Palace Attendants, fig. 140 Relevant scenes: south wall

Source of picture: After Roth Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst in xnr Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: tomb owner seated viewing offerings, entertainment, orchestra in register above Suggested date: V.6 The tear shaped cushion on the false door of KA-pi’s tomb, is an iconographic detail attributrd by Cherpion, (Mastabas et Hypogées, pp. 147-9) to a period no later than Neuserre. The tomb of RwD is related architecturally to KA-pi, which is also dated to Neuserre (Roth, Palace Attendants, p. 36).

Proposed dating: Roth, Palace Attendants, p. 35: Neuserre Cherpion, Mastabas, pp. 147-9: no later than Neuserre

222

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 47.

Hnqw: £tti

imy-r Sma, HAty-a, Hry-tp aA (nome), Xry-Hbt, Xry-Hbt Hry-tp, xrp SnDwt nbt, sm, smr waty, sS mDAt nTr Wife (no name found): rx.t nswt, Hm.t-nTr ¡wt-Hr Location: Deir el-Gebrawi, 39 Bibliography: PM IV, p. 242; Davies, Deir el-Gebrâwi II, pl. 15 Relevant scenes: East wall Source of picture: Kanawati, Deir el-Gebrâwi I, pl. 40a. Egyptian term(s) used in context: (no transcript or inscription given)5 Categorization: Pair, rhythmists Context: The tomb owner is dressed as a priest, suggesting a sacred or ritual context.

Proposed dating: PM, p. 242: OK Harpur, Decoration, p. 280: FIP Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 299: Pepi I Baer, Rank and Title, (no. 323) p. 103: end VI or later Davies, Deir el-Gebrâwi II, p. 38: end V-VI.E or later than Isi (possibly son or grandson of Isi, p. 40) Suggested date: VI.E The dance scene is similar to those in the tombs of Ibi (VI.3-4E), Isi: ¡m-Ra (VI.13), and particularly ©aw (VI.4), pointing to a date within Dynasty VI. The position of this tomb on the southern spur of the necropolis at Deir el-Gebrawi, which has superior rock, suggests it predates the tombs on the northern spur, which has poor rock, because sites on the northern spur would have been chosen only after all available sites on the southern spur were occupied. A date early in the VIth Dynasty appears likely.

5

Davies, Deir el-Gebrawi II, p. 33.

223

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 48.

¡m-mnw

imy-r Hwt-wr(t) 6, imy-r Sma, wr mD Sma, wD mdw [n] Hry wDb, ni nst xntyt, Hm-nTr MAat, sAb aD-mr, smA Mnw Location: el-Hawawish, M43 Bibliography: Kanawati, el-Hawawish V, pp. 7-25, fig. 8. Relevant scenes: west wall

Source of picture: Kanawati, el-Hawawish V, fig. 8. Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst, rwt? (with determinative of gazelle-headed baton). Categorization: Salute, rhythmists Context: tomb owner and wife seated viewing presentations Proposed dating: Harpur, Decoration, p. 281; VI.1 Kanawati, el-Hawawish V, p. 10: Early Teti

49.

Suggested date: VI.1E

¡tp-Hr-Axty

rx nswt, Hm nTr MAat, Hry-sStA n Hwt wrt, sAb iry Nxn, smsw hAyt Location: Saqqara, West of Step Pyramid, D60 Current location: Leiden, National Museum of Antiquities. Bibliography: PM III, pp. 593-5; Brunner-Traut, Tanz, fig. 5; Mohr, Hetep-her-Akhti, fig. 3, p. 39. Relevant scenes, scene a: north wall

Source of picture: After Mohr Egyptian term(s) used in context: HAt Categorization: Diamond, rhythmist Context: funerary

224

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS scene b: south wall

Source of picture: After Mohr scene c:

Source of picture: After Mohr Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Harvest, scene b clapping without sticks, scene c men running with sticks. Context: agricultural Proposed dating: PM: Neuserre or later Baer, Rank and Title, (357), p. 108: Neuserre or later Smith, History, p. 193: Neuserre or a bit later Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: V.6-8 Kanawati, Administration, pp. 109-10: Neuserre, late Mohr, Hetep-her-Akhti, p. 21: V second half Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 228: Neuserre

Suggested date: V.6-8

225

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 50.

#ww-wr

Hm-nTr MAat, Hm-nTr Mn-kAw-Ra, Hm-nTr Ra m ¤t-ib-Ra, sAb imy-r sS(w), sAb sHD sS(w) Location: Giza, Central Field, LG 95, Rock cut tomb Bibliography: PM. III, pp. 58-9, 254-5; LD, Ergänzungsband, pl 38; Hassan, Giza 5, fig. 105. Relevant scenes: south wall

Source of picture: After Hassan Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: tomb owner seated viewing presentations Proposed dating: PM: end V Harpur, Decoration, p. 350: V.8-9M Kanawati, Administartion, p. 153: L Unis Baer, Rank and Title, (no. 118), p. 289: Djedkare – Unis Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 227: Neferirkare 51.

Suggested date: V.8-9

#wfw-xa.f II

imy-r mSa, imy-r st xAswt imntywt, imy-r kAt (nt) nswt, wab nswt, wr mD Sma, n(i) nst xntit, Hm nTr MAat, Hm-nTr Ra m ¤tib- Ra, Hm nTr #wfw, Hry-sStA, Hry-sStA n nb.f, sA nswt Location: Giza, East Field, G 7150 Bibliography: PM III, pp. 190-2; Simpson, Kawab, Khafkhufu, fig. 48; Fischer, JEA 67 (1981), p. 167f. Relevant scenes: chapel, east wall, according to Harpur, p. 429 (but south wall according to Simpson, Kawab, Khafkhufu, fig. 48)

Source of picture: After Simpson Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA, sbA(t?) (instructress) Categorization: Salute, rhythmists and figure with throwing sticks Context: tomb owner standing with long staff viewing presentations and butchery. Simpson, Kawab, Khafkhufu, p. 21: Late V, Neuserre at the earliest Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 541 (180): Neuserre Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 228: Neuserre

Proposed dating: PM: Neuserre Baer, Rank and Title, (376), p. 292: Neuserre Strudwick, Administration, pp. 123-4(105): Neferirkare to early reign of Neuserre Harpur, Decoration, p. 350: V.6

Suggested date: V.6 226

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 52.

#w-ns

imy-r wpt, imy-r Hm(w)-nTr, rx nswt, HqA Hwt-aAt, Location: Zawyet el-Amwat Bibliography: PM IV, p. 135; Varille, Ni-Ankh-Pepi, figs. 7, 8; LD II, 109, 106b. Relevant scenes: north wall

Source of picture: After Varille Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Diamond Context: tomb owner and wife seated viewing presentations scene b: pillared hall, south wall

Source of picture: Varille, Ni-Ankh-Pepi, fig. 7 Egyptian term(s) used in context: sHAt Categorization: Harvest Context: agricultural Suggested date: V.8-9 This tomb is so close in style to that of Wr-ir-n.i (V.8-9, Sheikh Said), it appears to have been modelled on it (Harpur, Decoration, p. 20).

Proposed dating: Baer, Rank and Title, (383), p. 114: V M -first half of V.6, p. 293: Djedkare to Unis, or Teti-Merenre to Merenre-Pepi II (up to year 15). Smith, History, p. 216: VI Harpur, Decoration, p. 352: V.8-9 Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 301: Unis

227

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 53.

#nti-kA.i: Ixxy

imy-r prwy-HD, imy-r xntyw-S pr-aA, imy-r sS(w) a nswt, imy-r Snwty, imy-r kAt nt nswt, iry-pat, HAty-a, xrp SnDt, Xry-Hbt, Xry-Hbt Hry-tp, smr waty, sHD Hm(w)-nTr Mn-nfr-Mry-Ra Ppy, sHD Hm(w)-nTr ©d-iswt-¦ti, sDAwty-bity, tAyty sAb TAty, tAyty sAb TAty mAa Location: Saqqara, Teti Pyramid Cemetery Bibliography: PM III, pp. 508-511; James, Ikhekhi, pl. 11. Relevant scenes: west wall Source of picture: After James Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Boys' Game Context: domestic tasks, manicure, pedicure

Proposed dating: PM: Pepi I Baer, Rank and Title, (393), p. 293: Pepi I Harpur, Decoration, p. 275: VI.2M Strudwick, Administration, p. 125-6: late Teti to Pepi I (E-M) James, Ikhekhi, p. 12: late Teti- early Pepi I Kanawati, Administration, pp. 113-114: Teti-Pepi I Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 230: Pepi I Late

228

Suggested date: VI.1-2

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 54.

£ni: ¥psi-pw Mnw

imy-is, imy-r Hm(w)-nTr, imy-r Sma (m spAwt), imy-r Sma (m spAwt mHtyt), iry nfr HAt (m sStA nb) aD-mr _p ¤bA ¡r xnty pt, it Mnw, mniw Nxn, mdw-rxyt iwn-Knmwt, HAty-a, Hry-tp aA n #nt-Mnw, Hry-tp [Nxb], xrp m nTrw, xrp SnDt nbt, Xry-Hbt, Xkr Mnw, xt Mnw, sm, smA Mnw, smr waty, sDAwty-bity Location: el-Hawawish, H 24 Bibliography: Kanawati, el-Hawawish IX, fig. 37a.. Relevant scenes: north wall

Source of picture: Kanawati, el-Hawawish IX, fig. 37a. Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst xb n ibA in xnr n pr-Dt.f, ibA Categorization: Diamond, Layout, Pair, rhythmist Context: tomb owner seated in processional palanquin viewing fishing, fowling, dancing and cattle crossing marsh Suggested date: VI.4L The fashion of names, titles, order of titles, tomb design and the determinatives used for imy-wt and qrs all point to Dynasty VI. (Kanawati, el-Hawawish II, pp. 11-14). This scene is very close to the corresponding one in the tomb of KA.i-Hp: §ti-iqr whose titles connect him with the reign of Pepi II. Both tombs are decorated by the same artist ¤n.i (Kanawati, Seni, video reference).

Proposed dating: Kanawati, el-Hawawish, vol II, p. 14: End of Pepi II’s reign Harpur, Decoration, p. 281: VI.7 Brovarski, Melanges I (1985), p. 137: IX

229

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 55. £nmw-nfr Location: Giza, G 2175, West Field Current location: Boston Museum of Fine Arts: 12.1512. Bibliography: PM III, p. 80; Reisner, Giza I, pp. 268-269; Smith, History, fig. 217. Relevant scenes: relief fragment from chapel Source of picture: After Smith Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Salute Context: This fragment also has men bringing cattle, suggesting it is part of a presentation scene.

Proposed dating: PM: First half Dyn. V Harpur, Decoration, p. 269: V.1-5

Suggested date: V.M-L The cross-strap bodice is found at Giza and Saqqara only after V.6 in tombs such as ¥pss-kA.f-anx (V.6-8) and ¤Smnfr III, (V.8). The unusual pose most resembles those found in the tombs of Axty-mrw-nswt (V.9-VI.1) at Giza and of ¡m-Mnw (VI.1E) at el-Hawawish, both of which are much later. Straight skirts on dancers are more common at Giza up until V.6, but occur until V.L and jewellery is unusual on dancers at Giza before V.6.

230

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 56.

£nmw-Htp

aD-mr (_p) ¤bA ¡r xnty pt, Hm-nTr Inpw, Hry-sStA n pr dwAt, smr waty, smr n ib nb.f Location: Until recently, this fragment was considered to have uncertain provenance. However, as it matches a missing part of a damaged wall in the tomb of £nmw-Htp, Saqqara, the provenance has been revised. The possibility of the fragment being a 19th Century copy has not been ruled out. For identification details see: Harpur, Decoration, Appendix I, p. 233 (MM D 49). Current location (of fragment): Baltimore, Walters Art Gallery, no. 22.83. Bibliography: PM III, p. 749 (fragment), pp. 578-57 (for tomb); Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport II, pl. 421; Steindorff, Egyptian Sculpture, pl. 43, no. 264; Harpur, Decoration, pp. 233, 277. Relevant scenes: east wall Source of picture: Drawn from a photo by Mary Hartley Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Diamond

Proposed dating: PM : V-VI Decker-Herb, Bildatlas zum Sport I, S 3.47: V-VI Harpur, Decoration, p. 277: V-VI (for this fragment), p. 351: V.6-8E for the tomb of £nmw-Htp Baer, Rank and Title, 406), p. 293: V (or later?) Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 227: Userkaf

Suggested date: V.6 The style is very similar to the Iy-mry Diamond Dance scene (V.6), especially iconographic details such as dress and body stance (such as the torso extended at rib cage, angle of chin, high arms, straight pleated skirt).

231

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 57.

¤A-ib

imy-r xnty-S pr-aA, Hry-sStA, Hry-sStA n pr-dwAt xrp aH, sAb aD-mr pr-aA, smr Location: Giza, West Field, G 2092-2093 Bibliography: PM III, p. 70; Roth, Palace Attendants, fig. 183. Relevant scenes: east wall of chapel, north end.

Source of picture: After Roth Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst Categorization: Harvest Context: agricultural Proposed dating: PM: VI Roth, Palace Attendants, p. 109: Isesi

Suggested date: around V.8 Roth suggests that the standing image of the tomb owner on the false door, combined with a seated image on the jambs, is not found in tombs dated before V.8. (Palace Attendants, p. 109).

232

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 58. Solar Temple of ¤AHw-Ra king Location: Abusir Bibliography: PM III, pp. 326-339; Borchhardt, ¤aAhu-Rea II, pl. 54. Relevant scenes: fragments from Solar temple Scene a:

Source of picture: Borchhardt, ¤aAhu-Rea II, pl. 18:44d Egyptian term(s) used in context: dxn Categorization: Salute

Scene c: north passage –dancers

Source of picture: Borchhardt, ¤aAhuRea II, pl. 54. Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Salute ?

Source of picture: after Borchhardt, (SaAhu-Rea II, pl. 9)

233

Scene d: fragment

Source of picture: Borchhardt, ¤aAhu-Rea II, pl. 22 (top right) lion-masked figure Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

Source of picture: Borchhardt, ¤Ahu-Rea II, pl. 10, Mastaba 1:6

Source of picture: Borchhardt, ¤aAhu-Rea II, pl. 10, Mastaba 1:6 Categorization and context: scene d: Possibly a Sed festival scene as remnants in this area are very similar to the Sedfestival scene in the New Kingdom tomb of #rw.f. According to Wente, (Hathor at the Jubilee, pp. 86-7) if the above remnants (scene c) are rotated clockwise, the figures resemble the girls next to the kneeling figures in the Sed-festival scene in the New Kingdom tomb of #rw.f. However, the pendant does not fall in line with gravity when the scene is rotated. A lion-masked figure similar to one depicted on BME 994, appears to be part of a Boys’ Game scene. Date: V.2

234

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 59.

¤nfrw-in-ISt.f

ir(w) xt nswt, sHD xnty-S pr-aA Location: Dahshur. Bibliography: PM III, pp. 891-2; de Morgan, Dahchour, pl. 25; Wreszinsky, Atlas I, fig. 414. Relevant scenes: Passage b, room a

Source of picture: Drawing, Mary Hartley, form a photograph by de Morgan Egyptian term(s) used in context: mAH, ibA in xnr Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: Tomb owner and wife seated opposite each other at an offering table, with dancers and musicians performing behind the wife. Proposed dating: Baer, Rank and Title, (445) p. 124: VI Harpur, Decoration, p. 279, 360: VI.1? Kanawati, Administration, p. 154: L. Unis-Pepi I Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 224: Sneferu

Suggested date: V.L-VI.E

235

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 60. ¤nDm-ib:MHi iwn-Knmwt, imy-r prwy aHAw, imy-r prwy nwb, imy-r Xkr nswt nb, imy-r sS(w) a nswt, imy-r Snwty, imy-r kAt nbt nt nswt, HAty-a, HAty-a mAa, Xry-tp nswt, smr waty, tAyty sAb TAty Location: Giza, G 2378, West Field, LG 26. Bibliography: PM III, p. 87-89; Plan, Harpur, Decoration, p. 441; LD II, 73, 74c; LD, Ergänzungsband 14; Brovarski, Senedjemib Complex, pls. 112, 118B. Relevant scenes: south wall (room 1?).

Source of picture: LD II, 74 (c)6 Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization in this study: orchestral (PM III, lists on p. 88 ‘clappers and dancers', however, dancers are not recorded by Lepsius in this scene). Context: tomb owner seated viewing presentations

Relevant scenes: Room I hall, west wall Source of picture: LD II, 737 Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Harvest Context: agricultural Proposed dating: PM: Unis Baer, Rank and Title, (456), p. 293: Unis Harpur, Decoration, p. 350: V.9 Strudwick, Administration, p. 133-4 (121): Mid Unis Reisner, Giza I, p. 313: Unis Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 573 (216): Djedkare-Unis Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 229: Unis 6 7

Brovarski, Senedjemib Complex I, pp. 29-30: Unis Suggested date: V.9

(The Lepsius plates are reproduced in Brovarski, Senedjemib Complex, pls. 112, 118B). ibid.

236

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 61.

¤rf-k3

imy-r wpt, imy-r mnww, imy-r niwwt mAwt, imy-r Sma, Hm nTr Wsr-kA.f, Hm-nTr #wfw, rx nswt, sSm-tA Wn Father of Wr-ir-n.i Location: Sheikh Said, no. 24 Bibliography: PM IV, p. 187; Smith, History, fig. 87, Davies, Sheikh Said, pl. 4. Relevant scenes: west wall

Source of picture: After Davies Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Salute, Sistrum dance (3.c), rhythmists Context: tomb owner and wife seated viewing presentations Suggested date: V.L

Proposed dating: PM: Old Kingdom Harpur, Decoration, p. 352: V.8-9E Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 300: L. Djedkare Smith, History, p. 215: First half V Davies, Sheikh Said, p. 3: Neuserre or before Baer, Rank and Title, (457), p. 127: early V (or later?)

The scene arrangement and the subject in this dance scene are closely parallelled in the tomb of Nw-nTr, which is dated loosely to V.L. The high position of the dancers’ feet and rigid posture resembles the dance scene from the Middle Kingdom tomb of aHA-nxt at el-Bersche. The open kilts also occur in the tomb of Inti at Deshasha (V.8-9). The angle of the raised arms of the dancers is similar to that in the tombs of Axty-mrw-nswt (V.9-VI.1) and KA.im-Hst (V.6L-9). The arm position of the front rhythmists is very like that in the tombs of Wr-ir-n-PtH (V.8), Iymry (V.6), ¤Sm-nfr II (V.6), RwD (V.6), KA.i-dwA (V.8), KA.i-m-nfrt (71, V.6-9), Nfr (37, V.9-VI.1), KA.i-swDA (V.L-VI.1), KA;kA.i-anx (V.8), KA.i-m-anx (V.8L) scene a.

237

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 62.

¤xm-k3.i

imy-r xntyw-S pr aA, imy-r st pr-aA, imy-r st xntyw-S pr-aA, wab nswt, Hm-nTr #wfw, Hm-nTr ¥spw-ib-ra Location: Giza, G 1029, West Field Bibliography: PM III, p. 53; Simpson, Western Cemetery 4, Part I, fig. 6. Relevant scenes: south wall, chapel. Source of picture: After Simpson.8 Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: tomb owner seated viewing presentations

scene b: east wall Source of picture: After Simpson. Egyptian term(s) used in context: sHAt Categorization: Harvest Context: agricultural

Proposed dating:8 PM: end V or VI Harpur, Decoration, p. 267: V.9- VI.1 Kanawati, Administration, p. 155: Sahure-Neuserre Reisner, Giza I, p. 362: V, after Neuserre Simpson, Western Cemetery 4, Part I: Neuserre or later Smith, History: p. 197: late V Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 228: Neuserre

Suggested date: V.L Some motifs in the wall decoration suggest a late Dynasty V- early Dynasty VI date, such as the quail chicks amongst harvesters (Siebels, Agriculture II, p. 51). The motif of the last donkey with the head down feeding, and the clapping of sticks in the returning pack scene only appears in the late Vth Dynasty in the tombs of PtHHtp II (around V.9) Saqqara and ¤A-ib (V.8) Giza. Pointed skirts on dancers do not seem to appear in dance scenes before V.6 and the cross-strap bodice is found at Giza and Saqqara only after V.6 in tombs such as £nmw-nfr (V.ML), ¥pss-kA.f-anx (V.6-8) and ¤Sm-nfr III (V.8). The placement of the orchestra next to the dance scene also occurs in the tombs of ¥pss-kA.f-anx (V.6-8) and SSm-nfr III (V.8). The arm position of the rhythmists conforms to that found in other examples occurring around V.L in the tombs of ¥pss-kA.f-anx (V.6-8) and SSm-nfr III (V.8), AxtyHtp (V.8-9) and KA.i-m-anx scene a (V.8). The arm position of the dancers is similar to that found in the tombs of K3-k3.i-anx (V.8), KA.i-m-anx example b (V.8L), Nfr-irt-n.f (V.6-8), and Wr-ir-n-PtH (V.8), which suggests a range of V.L.

8 Drawing, Mary Hartley

238

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 63.

¤xm-k3-Ra

sA nswt n Xt.f, tAyty sAb TAty Location: Giza, LG 89, Central Field Bibliography: PM III, pp. 233-4; Hassan, Giza IV, fig. 62; LD II, 41b. Relevant scenes: eastern wall

Source of picture: Aafter Hassan Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Diamond Context: tomb owner and mother seated viewing presentations Suggested date: V.2 In his biography (Hassan, Giza IV, fig. 64, p. 119) ¤xmkA-Ra records that he was imAxw before Khafre, Menkaure, Shepseskaf, Userkaf and Sahure.

Proposed dating: PM: Khafre to early V Harpur, Decoration, p. 269: V.2 Kanawati, Administration, p. 154: E V Baer, Rank and Title, (471), p. 293: Sahure (early) Strudwick, Administration, p.136(125): early V Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 575 (218): Sahure Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 227: Sahure

239

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 64.

¤Sm-nfr II

imy-r sS(w) a(w) (nw) nswt, imy-r kAt nbt nt nswt Location: Giza, G 5080 Bibliography: PM III, p. 146-147; Hickmann, 45 siècles, pls. 8, 10, p. 227; Kanawati, Giza II, pl. 64. Relevant scenes:

Source of picture: Kanawati, Giza II, pl. 64. Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA, Hst (rhythmist), Hst (singer). Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: tomb owner seated viewing presentations Suggested date: V.6 ¤Sm-nfr II is almost certainly the father of SSm-nfr III, who is dated with some confidence to V.8 (Strudwick, Administration, p. 140 (131) -see next entry), suggesting that this tomb would date to Neuserre’s reign, probably the second half.

Proposed dating: PM: Neuserre Kanawati, Administration, pp. 119-120: M.V L Baer, Rank and Title, (477), pp. 131-132: Neuserre Kanawati, Giza II, p. 53: Neuserre, probably second half of the reign Strudwick, Administration, p.139(130): Neuserre early

240

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 65.

¤Sm-nfr

III

imy-r sS(w) a(w) (nw) nswt, imy-r kAt nb nt nswt, HAty-a, Hry sStA n pr-dwAt, sA nswt n Xt.f, sAb aD-mr, smr waty, tAyty sAb TAty Location: Giza, WF, (LG 5170) Current location: Tübinger University no. 3, 1911. Bibliography: PM III, pp. 153-4; Brunner-Traut, Seschemnofers III, colour plate 2, fig. 4; Junker, Giza III, pp. 192215, fig. 2 (pl?). Relevant scenes: south wall

Source of picture: After Brunner-Traut Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA, Hst Categorization: Salute, rhythmists Context: tomb owner seated viewing presentations Suggested date: V.8 ¤Sm-nfr III’s tomb was built against the rear wall of Rawr II’s tomb. A sealing of Djedkare was found in the tomb of Ra-Wr II, who is also probably a son of ¤Sm-nfr II and would be more or less a contemporary of ¤Sm-nfr III.9 This would date ¤Sm-nfr III’s tomb no earlier than Djedkare,10 however, ¤Sm-nfr III appears to have worked during the reigns of both Menkauhor and Djedkare.

Proposed dating: PM: Isesi, early Baer, Rank and Title, (478), p. 293: Early Djedkare Harpur, Decoration, p. 404: V.8E Brunner-Traut, Seschemnofers III, p. 9: V. L, c. 2350 Kanawati, Administration, p. 154: L. Djedkare Strudwick, Administration, p. 139-40(131): Menkaure – Djedkare Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 577 (220): Neferirkare (-Neuserre ?) Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 227: Neferirkare

9

Strudwick, Administration, p. 140 (131). ibid.

10

241

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 66.

¥pss-kA.f-anx

imy-r pr Hwt-aAt, imy-r prw msw-nswt, rx nswt wab nswt, Hm-nTr #wfw father of Iy-mry Location: Giza, West Field, G. 6040, (LG 18) Bibliography: PM III, p. 175; Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, fig. 43. Relevant scenes: 3rd chamber, south wall

Source of picture: After Weeks Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA, Hst (rhythmist), Hst (singer). Categorization: Salute, rhythmists Context: tomb owner seated viewing presentations Proposed dating: PM: Nefreirkare Harpur, Decoration, p. 400: V.3 Baer, Rank and Title, (491), p. 135: Neferirkare Weeks, Cemetery G 6000, p. 5: Neuserre Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 432 (40): beginning V Neferirkare

Suggested date: V.6-8 Iconographic similarities with ¤Sm-nfr III suggest a later range than the dating proposed above, especially the almost identical dance scene. Iconographic details in the dance scene include the placement of the orchestra and costume details such as the short, pointed kilt and the cross-strap bodice, all of which first appear around V.6. The lotus presentation motif occurs in a number of tombs at Giza dated to the transitional period V.L-VI.1 This motif can be seen in tombs such as: Nfr (37, V.9-VI.1), KA-pi (V. 8-9), and IA-sn (V.L-VI.E), but is not unknown in earlier tombs, such as ¤Sm-nfr II (V.6).

242

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS

67.

QAr

imy-r niwt Axt-#wfw, imy-r niwt NTry-Mn-kAw-Ra , imy-r sS(w) Hm(w)-nTr MAat, Hry sStA n kAt nbt, xnty-S Mry-Ra-mn-nfr, sAb imy-r sS(w), ¤HD wabw Wr-#a.f-Ra, sS a nswt xft Hr Location: Giza, G 7101 Bibliography: PM. III, p. 184-5; Simpson, Qar and Idu; Grdseloff, Das Ägyptische Reinigungszelt, p. 37; Smith, History, fig. 84a. Relevant scenes: North wall, court c Source of picture: After Simpson Egyptian term(s) used in context: HAt in SnDtyw, ibA, mAH, Hnmsw SnDt, bbit. Context: funerary Categorization: Salute, rhythmist Context: funerary

Suggested date: VI.2-4 QAr’s title of #nty-S Mn-nfr-Mry-Ra places him no earlier than Pepi I (Simpson, Qar and Idu, p.1.).

Proposed dating: Harpur, Decoration, p. 265: VI.3-4 Kanawati, Administration, p. 155: Unis L Simpson, Qar and Idu, p. 1: Pepi I Baer, Rank and Title, (495), p. 137: Pepi I or later Strudwick, Administration, p.142(135): Merenre – Pepi II early Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 230: Pepi I

243

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 68.

KA(.i)-apr (w)

iwn knmt, imy-r…, imy-[r] mSa, imy-r kAt [nbt?] nswt, wr mD Sma, wD-mdw [n Hryw-wDbw], mniw sAb(wt), nfr, Hry sStA, xrp pr-HD, xrp st DfA, xrp tmAt(yw) nb(w), sAb aD-mr, sAb sHD sS(w), …sAb sS…, sAb sS mDAt, sS mr(w) sAb(w)t, (sS mSa nswt m) IdA, sS mSa nswt m Wnt, (sS mSa nswt) m xASwt imntt iAbt, (sS mSa nswt m) #tyw fkAt, (sS mSa nswt m) ¤rr, (sS mSa nswt m) TpA, Da(r) mAat n nb.f, wife: §n-tti: rxt-nswt Location: Saqqara, North of Step Pyramid Current location: (of relief) unknown Bibliography: PM III, p. 501; Dasen, Dwarfs, fig. 9.18; Fischer, JNES 18 (1959), fig. 8; Verner, Forgotten Pharaohs, p. 75. Relevant scenes: North wall Source of picture: After Fischer Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: miscellaneous Context: tomb owner and wife standing with these two registers beside them

Proposed dating: Suggested date: V.1-2 PM: Isesi or later Harpur, Decoration, p. 390: V.1-2 Strudwick, Administration, p.143 (139): early V

244

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 69.

KA-pi

imy-r wpt pr-aA, imy-r mdw pr-aA, imy-r st xnty-S pr-aA, imy-xt pr-aA, wab nswt, rx nswt, rx nswt pr-aA, Hry-pr pr-aA, xnty-S pr-aA, sHD pr-aA, sHD xnty-S pr-aA Location: Giza, West field, G. 2091 Bibliography: PM III, p. 69-70; Roth, Palace Attendants, fig. 163, pls. 50-52. Relevant scenes: south wall of chapel

Source of picture: After Roth Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Salute Context: seated tomb owner in pavilion viewing presentations Proposed dating: PM: late V or VI Roth, Palace Attendants, p. 100: Neuserre-Isesi Smith, History, p. 197: late V Reisner, Giza I, p. 313: late V-VI

Suggested date: V. 8-9 The iconographic detail of a lattice screen behind the seated tomb owner occurs only in tombs dated to late Dynasty V (Siebels, Agriculture II, p. 55), examples include §y (V.8-9) and Wr-ir-n.i (V.8-9). Pointed skirts on dancers do not seem to appear in dance scenes before V.6. The placement of the orchestra next to the dance scene also occurs in the tombs of ¥pss-kA.f-anx (V.6-8) and SSm-nfr III (V.8). The position of the rhythmists arms is similar to that in the tombs of Wr-ir-n-PtH (V.8), Iymry (V.6), ¤Sm-nfr II (V.6), RwD (V.6), KA.i-dwA (V.8), KA.i-m-nfrt (71, V.6-9), Nfr (37, V.9-VI.1), KA.i-swDA (V.L-VI.1), KA;kA.i-anx (V.8), KA.i-m-anx (V.8L) scene a. The position of the raised arm of the dancers resembles that in the scenes from the tombs of Iy-mry (V.6), ¤Smnfr II (V.6), and ¥pss-kA.f-anx (V.6-8).

245

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 70.

KA.i-m-anx

wab nswt, rx nswt, Hry-sStA n sDAwt nswt, sHD rxt pr-HD, sHD Hm(w)-nTr, sS pr-HD Intt-Hr (wife,): rx(t) nswt , (Hm(t)-nTr) Nt Wpt-wAwt, Hm(t)-nTr ¡wt-Hr Location: Giza, West Field, G 4561 Bibliography: PM III, pp. 131-3 ; Kanawati, Giza I, pls. 32, 35; Junker, Giza IV, figs. 9, 15, Vandier, Manuel IV, part II, pl. 16, fig. 203. Relevant scenes: scene a: south wall Source of picture: Kanawati, Giza I, pl. 35. Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst n ibA i(n) xnr – (rhythmic) clapping for the dance by the chorus, Hst (singer). Categorization: Diamond, Swastika, Rhythmists

scene b: corridor, west wall

Source of picture: Kanawati, Giza I, pl. 32. Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA, Hst in msw(t).f (clapping by his children). Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: tomb owner and wife seated viewing presentations Suggested date: V.8L Because the dance scene is particularly unusual and appears only in two other tombs KA-KA.i-anx and KA.i-dwA (both dated V.8), they are probably contemporaneous. The arm height of rhythmists in scene b is similar to scenes of a later date (V.L-VI.E). The butterfly in the marsh scene (Kanawati, Giza I, pl. 31) conforms to the single wing without embellishment, typical of tombs dated before Unis. From V.9 the wing is divided into two lobes and is further embellished with a border or decoration (Personal correspondence, Linda Evans, 18/10/04).

Proposed dating: PM: VI Baer, Rank and Title, (520), p. 141: VI Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: VI Kanawati, Giza I, p. 18: Late V, probably Djedkare/Isesi Smith, History, p. 206: VI Junker, Giza IV, p. 4: VI

.

246

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 71.

KA.i-m-nfrt

iri nfr-HAt, rx nswt, xrp iryw ¤n nswt, xrp aH, smr Location: Giza, East Field, LG 63 Bibliography: PM III, p. 208-209; LD, Ergänzungsband, 22 [a]; Badawy, Itety, fig. 30. Relevant scenes: chapel, (5) Source of picture: After Badawy Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: tomb owner seated viewing presentations scene b: chapel, east wall

Source of picture: (after Badawy). Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Harvest Context: agricultural Proposed dating: PM: V-VI Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: V-VI Reisner, Giza I, p. 314: V-VI

Suggested date: V.6-9 This date is based partly on the lotus presentation motif which occurs in a number of tombs at Giza dated to the transitional period V.L-VI.1 (Siebels, Agriculture II, p. 56). This motif can be seen in tombs such as IA-sn (V.LVI.E) -see p. 9. The very similar arm position of the dancers to those in the tombs of Nb-i-m-Axty (end IV), #ww-wr (V.8-9), RwD (V.6), ¤xm-kA.i (V.L), suggests the second half of the Vth Dynasty. The position and vertical orientation of the caption Hzt occur in the tombs of SSmnfr II (V.6) at Saqqara, Ni-anx-£nmw (V.6-7), Nfr-irt-n.f (V.6-8), §y (V.8-9), Axty-Htp (V.8-9), Pth-Htp (around V.9) at Saqqara, also suggesting a date of V.6-9. The word MAHt [rhythmist/clapping] in this position is more common in VIth Dynasty tombs, such as Mrrw-kA.i, Idw, and Watt-Xt-Hr.

247

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 72.

KA.i-m-nfrt

wab Mn-iswt-Ni-Wsr-Ra, wab #a-bA-¤AHw-Ra, Hm-nTr Ra Nfr-ir-kA-Ra, Hm-nTr Ra Nxn-Ra, Hm-nTr Ra ¥spw-ib-Ra, Hm-nTr #a.f-Ra, Hm-nTr ¤AHw-Ra, Location: Saqqara, D23, Saqqara North of Step Pyramid. Current location: Chapel now in Boston Museum of Art. Bibliography: PM III, p. 467-8?; Hassan, Saqqara II, fig. 125, p. 117; Simpson, Kayemnofret, fig. f. Relevant scenes: north wall Source of picture: After Hassan Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Diamond

scene b: Chapel, east wall

Source of picture: After Simpson Egyptian term(s) used in context: sHAt nfr mAA Categorization: Harvest Context: agricultural Suggested Date: V.6-9 Neuserre is the last king named in the list of titles. The motif of the first two donkey drivers clapping sticks, is indicative of mid-late Dynasty V tombs such as Nfr-irtn.f (V.6-8), Ni-kAw-Hr (V.6-9) (Siebels, Agriculture, p. 57).

Proposed dating: PM: Neuserre or later Baer, Rank and Title, p. 142 (523): Neuserre or later Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: V.8-9? Smith, History, p. 194: Neuserre Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 228: Neuserre

248

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 73.

K3.i-m-Hst

imy-r qd(w), imy-r qdw Xnw, wr irt m ¦A-wr, mDH qd nswt, rx nswt, Hwt HDt, Hm-nTr ¤SAt, Hry-sStA n pr-aA Location: Saqqara, Teti Pyramid Cemetery Bibliography: PM III, pp. 542-3; McFarlane, Mastabas at Saqqara II, pl. 43 (b) Relevant scenes: Source of picture: McFarlane, Mastabas at Saqqara II, pl. 43 (b) Egyptian term(s) used in context: Categorization: Salute Context:

Proposed dating: PM: probably early VI McFarlane, Mastabas at Saqqara II, p. 23 : late NeuserreDjedkare Harpur, Decoration, p. 276: V.9-VI.1 Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 112: IV

Suggested date: V.6L-9 The position and vertical orientation of the caption Hst in dance scenes occur in the tombs of ¤Sm-nfr II (V.6) at Giza, Ni-anx-£nmw (V.6-7), Nfr-irt-n.f (V.6-8), §y (V.89), Axty-Htp (V.8-9), Pth-Htp (around V.9) at Saqqara, suggesting a date within the range of V.6-9. VIth Dynasty dance scenes are more likely to have the word mAHt substituted in this position (as in the tombs of Mrrw-kA.i, Idw, and Watt-Xt-Hr) although the term Hst continues to appear in phrases in the horizontal captions above dance scenes. The distinctive costume and arm/body position of the rhythmist are almost the same as that in the tomb of Inti at Deshasha (V.8-9) a feature unique to these two tombs. Siege scenes are also unique to these two tombs in the Old Kingdom. A number of names mentioned in the two tombs are similar, suggesting either a family connection or at least that the tombs are contemporaneous.

249

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 74. KA.i-Hp: §ti

imy-r ipt nswt, imy-r prwy-HD, imy-r Hm(w)-nTr, imy-r sxmx-ib nb, imy-r ¥ma, imy-r Sma, imy-r ¤nwty nt Htpt-nTr, iry-pat, iry-nfr HAt, rx tp wAt nfrt, HAty-a, HAty-a mAa, Hry-sStA n sDAwt-nTr, Hry-tp aA n #nt-Mnw, HqA BAt, xrp imy nTrw, xrp HATs km, xrp Hwwt, xrp SnDt nbt, xt Mnw, Xry-Hbt, Xry-Hbt Hry-tp, smr waty, sDAwty-bity, sDAwty-bity mAa. Location: el-Hawawish, M8. Bibliography: Kanawati, el-Hawawish III, fig. 12. Relevant scenes: main recess, north wall.

Source of picture: Kanawati, el-Hawawish III, fig. 12. Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Salute and various miscellanious, rhythmists Context: funerary Proposed dating: Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 296: early Pepi II Brovarski, Mélanges I, p. 137: before Heracleopolitan period Kanawati, el-Hawawish III, p. 14: E. Merenre-early Pepy II.

Suggested date: VI.3- 4. §ti’s career is firmly dated as beginning under Pepi I, and progressing under Merenre, as recorded in his autobiographical inscriptions, held at Chicago (FM 31700) and the Louvre (AF9460 -Ziegler, Catalogue, pp. 270-273). He became nomarch under Merenre (Kanawati, Akhmim, pp. 97-100).

250

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 75. K3.i-Hp : §ti iqr imy-r Hm(w)-nTr, imy-r Sma, imy-r ¥ma, imy-r ¤nwty nt Htpt-nTr. iry nfr HAt m sXkr Mnw, it Mnw, mH ib n nswt m prMnw, HAty-a, Hry-tp aA n xnt-Mnw, xt Mnw, Xry-Hbt, smA Mnw, smr waty, sDAwty-bity Location: el-Hawawish, H26 Bibliography: PM V, p. 19; Kanawati, el-Hawawish I, fig. 12. Relevant scenes: chapel, north wall

Source of picture: Kanawati, el-Hawawish I, fig. 12. Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst, xnr n pr-Dt Categorization: Pair, Diamond, Layout Context: tomb owner viewing cattle crossing, music and dance, fishing Suggested date: VI.4M Kanawati’s date is based on consideration of the tomb area in relation to other tombs in this cemetery, in consideration of a well attested pattern of peak and decline established for dating provincial tombs. The titles held by KA.i-Hp place this tomb in the reign of Pepi II. (See Kanawati, el-Hawawish I, pp. 13-14 for a full discussion on dating of this tomb).

Proposed dating: Baer, Rank and Title, p. 147: VI or later Harpur, Decoration, p. 353: VI.5-6 Brovarski, Mélanges I, p. 134-5: Heracleopolitan Period Helck, Beamtentiteln, p. 127: end VI Fischer, Dendera, n. 576: end VI Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 296: Middle Pepi II Kanawati, el-Hawawish I, pp. 13-14: Middle Pepi II or slightly later

251

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 76.

K3.i-xnt

imy-r aH, imy-r wpt, imy-r nswtyw, imy-r ¥ma, imy-r kAt (nswt), imy-r kAt (nbt) m spAwt Hrywt-ib ¥ma, wr mD ¥ma, rx nswt, HqA Hwt-aAt, xrp aH, sA nswt (n Xt.f), smr waty Iwfi (Wife): rxt nswt, Hm(t) nTr Nt mHtyt inb, Hm(t) nTr ¡wt-Hr m swt nb(t), Hm(t) nTr ¡wt-Hr nb(t) Iwnt, Hm(t) nTr ¡wt-Hr nb(t) nht, Xkrt nswt, sAt nswt (n(t) Xt.f) Location: el-Hammamiya, A2. Bibliography: El-Khouli-Kanawati, el-Hammamiya, pl. 51, p. 46. Relevant scenes: chapel, east wall, recess B

Source of picture: El-Khouli-Kanawati, el-Hammamiya, pl. 51 relevant Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Swastika (3.d) Context: tomb owner and wife seated at table viewing presentations scene b: south entrance corridor

Source of picture: El-Khouli-Kanawati, el-Hammamiya, pl. 40. Categorization: Swastika (3.b) ? rhythmists Context: tomb owner and wife seated at offering table, presentations below Suggested date: V.6-8 See the revised chronology of el-Hammamiya tombs and discussion on dating, el-Khouli-Kanawati, el Hammamiya, pp. 11-19.

Proposed dating: Smith, History, p. 216-217: V Harpur, Decoration, p. 326: V.8-9 Baer, Rank and Title, (543), p. 294: Neuserre El-Khouli-Kanawati, el-Hammamiya, p. 56: early Dyn V Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 299 Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 597 (242): end IV – beginning V

252

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 77.

K3.i-xnt

imy-r aH, imy-r wpt, imy-r nswtyw, imy-r sAw ¥ma, imy-r kAt m spAwt Hrywt-ib Sma, wab nswt, wr mD ¥ma, rx nswt, HkA Hwt-aAt, sSm-tA m WADt Location: el-Hammamiya, A3. Bibliography: El-Khouli-Kanawati, el-Hammamiya, pl. 67. Relevant scenes: chapel, east wall

Source of picture: El-Khouli-Kanawati, el-Hammamiya, pl. 67 relevant Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Swastika (3.b) Context: tomb owner and wife seated viewing presentations Suggested date: V.E-M Iconography such as the representation of the tomb holder with a staff held vertically in front of his body is commonly found in tombs from Dynasty III - early Dynasty V (Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 38). See also the revised chronology of el-Hammamiya tombs and discussion on dating, el-Khouli-Kanawati, el Hammamiya, pp. 11-19. The interactive arrangement of the dancers resembles that of the Swastika dancers in the tomb of Nfr and KA-HA.i (V.6) at Saqqara. A chorus of nude dancers also appears in the tomb of ¤xm-kA-Ra (V.2).

Proposed dating: Smith, History, p. 216-217: V Harpur, Decoration, p. 326: V.8 Baer, Rank and Title, p. 294 (543A): Menkaure or Djedkare El-Khouli-Kanawati, el-Hammamiya, p. 16: beginning Dynasty V, probably Userkaf Kanawati, Administration, p. 155: M-L Djedkare Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 299: beginning V

253

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

78.

KA.i-swDA

imy-r wpt, xrp aH, smr Location: Giza, G5340, Centre Field, (LG. 37) Bibliography: PM III, p.159; Junker, Giza VII, 158-84, fig. 71 Relevant scenes: North wall

Source of picture: After Junker Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst (rhythmist), Hst n mAt (playing the flote). Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: tomb owner seated viewing presentations Proposed dating: PM:V.M Harpur, Decoration, p. 320: V-VI Kanawati, Administration, p. 155: Sahure L Baer, Rank and Title, (546) pp. 148-9: mid V Swinton, Dating, p. 156 (101): V.2-3

Suggested date: V.L-VI.1 Some distinctive iconographic details of the dancers, such as the high arm position and extended torsos, are very similar to those in the tombs of Nfr, §y, and KA.i-m-anx, all of which are dated around V.L or V.L-VI.E. The lotus presentation motif occurs in a number of tombs at Giza also dated to the transitional period V.L-VI.1 and can be seen in tombs such as: Nfr (37, V.9-VI.1), KA-pi (V. 8-9), IA-sn (V.L-VI.E) and ¤Sm-nfr III (V.8), but is not unknown in earlier tombs, such as ¤Sm-nfr II (V.6).

254

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 79.

K3.i-dw3

imy-r pr, imy-r Hm-kA, wab nswt, rx nswt, smr pr Hry-sStA Location: Giza, Central Field Bibliography: PM III, p. 244-5; Hassan, Giza VI, pt. 3, fig. 83. Relevant scenes: east wall

Source of picture: After Hassan Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst in xnr ibAw Categorization: Diamond, Swastika, rhythmists Context: tomb owner seated viewing presentations Suggested date: around V.8 This scene, with the distinctive figure of one dancer holding a pose dramatically different from the surrounding dancers, is similar to those in the tombs of KA.i-m-anx and KA-kA.i-anx. The three tombs appear to be contemporaneous and are dated to V.8 on the basis of the form of the butterfly in the KA.i-m-anx marsh scene (Kanawati, Giza I, pl. 31) which can be dated with some confidence to V.8L and not later (see under KA.i-m-anx).

Proposed dating: PM: Neuserre or later Harpur, Decoration, p. 270: V.6-9 Baer, Rank and Title, (550) p. 150: Neuserre or later Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 152: Neuserre

255

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

80.

K3-k3.i-anx

Location: Giza Bibliography: PM III, pp. 107-8, 117, 248; Hassan, Giza VI, pt. 3, fig. 99; Vandier, Manuel IV, fig. 204. Relevant scenes: North wall

Source of picture: After Hassan Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst in xnr ibA(wy?) Categorization: Diamond, Swastika, rhythmists Context: tomb owner and wife seated opposite each other viewing presentations

Proposed dating: PM: V Harpur, Decoration, p. 320: V Baer, Rank and Title, (547) p. 149: VI

Suggested date: V.8 This unusual dance scene is remarkably similar to that in the tombs of KA.i-dwA and KAi-m-anx (scene a, south wall). The three tombs appear to be contemporaneous and are dated to V.8 on the basis of the form of the butterfly in the KA.i-m-anx marsh scene (Kanawati, Giza I, pl. 31), which can be dated with some confidence to V.8L and not later (see under KA.i-m-anx). The position of the rhythmists arms, at shoulder height, in this scene is similar to other examples dated V.L-VI.E.

256

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS

81.

K3-gm-n.i

imy-r wabt, imy-r wpt, imy-r prwy-HD, imy-r Hwt wrt 6, imy-r sS(w) a nswt, imy-r ¤nwty, imy-r kAt nbt nt nswt, imy-r gswy-pr, imy-r tA-mHw Sma, Hry-sStA, Hry-sStA n wpt ¤tAt, Hry-sStA n mdw-nTr, Xry-Hbt, Xry-Hbt Hry-tp, smr waty, sS mDAt nTr, sDAwty-bity, tAyty sAb TAty, tAyty sAb TAty mAa Location: Saqqara, Teti Cemetery, LS 10 Bibliography: PM. III, pp. 521-5;; Firth-Gunn, Teti Cemetry Vol II, pl. 53; DeckerHerb, Bildatlas zum Sport, entry S 3.51, pl. 421; Vandier, Manuel IV, pt. II, pl. 18, fig. 205. Relevant scenes: pillared hall III, east wall

Source of picture: After Decker-Herb Egyptian term(s) used in context: hymn to Hathor (see Chapter 2: 9 Layout) Categorization: Layout, Salute, rhythmists context: single register on this wall Suggested date: VI.1 KA-gm-n.i’s autobiography (Sethe, Urk. I., pp. 194-6) records that he began his career under Djedkare, most likely becoming vizier under Teti.

Proposed dating: PM: Teti Harpur, Decoration, VI.1M Kanawati, Administration, p. 155: E Teti Baer, Rank and Title, , p. 296(548): Teti Smith, History: p. 205: Teti Strudwick, Administration, p. 154(151): Teti E Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 230: Teti Baud, Famille Royale II, p. 604: Teti

257

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

82.

§y

imy-r sS(w) a nswt, imy-r BA-Nfr-ir-kA-Ra, imy-r pHw, imy-r Hm(w)-nTr, imy-r ¤n-tA nb, imy-r kAt nbt nt nswt, iry nfr-HAt, Hry-sStA, Hry-sStA n mdw nTr, Hry-tp Nxb, xrp aH, Xry-Hbt, smr waty, sHD Hm(w)-nTr Ra m ¤t-ib-Ra, sS mDAt nTr Location: Saqqara, D 22- North of the Step Pyramid Bibliography: PM III, pp. 468-78; Epron-Wild, Ti I, pl. 57, ibid. III, pls. 151-3; Steindorff, Ti, pls. 60, 124. Relevant scenes: a: Corridor II, south wall

Source of picture: After Epron-Wild Egyptian term(s) used in context: ibA in xnr, Hst in xnr, ibA, Hst. Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: tomb owner seated viewing presentations scene b: chapel , east wall

Source of picture: After Epron-Wild Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Harvest Context: agricultural

258

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS

Proposed dating: PM: Neuserre to end V Baer, Rank and Title, (564), p. 295: Djedkare-Unis Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: V.8-9 Kanawati, Administration, p.155: early Djedkare Strudwick, Administration, p. 158-9: late Neuserre Smith, History, p. 191: second half V Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 228: Neuserre Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 131-132: not after Neuserre

83.

Suggested date: V.8-9 §y’s titles as imy-r of the sun temples of the kings from Sahure to Neuserre, suggest that he may have died before Menkauhor’s Temple was established (Strudwick, p. 1589). However, the long sheer skirt worn by the dancers is an iconographic detail found only in a handful of tombs, dated around V.L such as Axt-Htp (V.8-9) and Wr-ir-n-PtH (V.8), with only the example from the tomb of _bH-n.i dated much earlier (IV.5). The arm height of the dancers also suggests a date in the second half of the Vth Dynasty.

§fw

Xry-tp nswt Location: Saqqara, West of Step Pyramid Bibliography: PM III, p. 598; Hassan, Saqqara II, fig. 55, pl. 107. Relevant scenes: Pillared hall, eastern wall

Source of picture: After Hassan Egyptian term(s) used in context: Remnants of the words mk wat n…. and sH aff suggest the names of dance steps. While there is no parallel for these specific terms in this context, there are numerous instances of similar pair dance steps which are named (see entries for Iy-mry, Mrrw-kA). Categorization: Pair Context: funerary Proposed dating: PM: end V – VI E Harpur, Decoration, p. 329: VI.1-2?

Suggested date: V.L-VI.E §fw appears to be the brother of PtH-Htp II, who is dated V.L-VI.E (Hassan, Saqqara II, p. 113).

259

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 84.

§ti

imy-r rwt, smr waty, sDAwty-bity ¡ni -wife Hm(t)-nTr ¡wt-Hr, Xkrt nswt watt Location: el-Hawawish, 149 Bibliography: Kanawati, el-Hawawish VIII, fig. 10. Relevant scenes: chapel, north wall

Source of picture: Kanawati, el-Hawawish VIII, fig. 10. Egyptian term(s) used in context: Sma above standing pair (or pirouette) dancer. Categorization: Layout, Pair/ Pirouette Context: tomb owner standing with long staff viewing presentations Proposed dating: Kanawati, el-Hawawish VIII, p. 26: IX Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 296: end VI – early VIII

Suggested date: end VI.L –VIII.E

260

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 85. _bH-n.i iry nfr HAt, HAty-a, Hry-sStA n pr-dwAt, Xry-Hbt Hry-tp, Xry-tp nswt, smr waty. Location: Giza, LG 90, Central Field, rock-cut tomb. Bibliography: PM III, pp. 235-6; Hassan, Giza IV, pp. 159-84, fig. 119; Schäfer, Principles, fig. 164; Wilson, JNES 3 (1944), pl. 18; fig. 9; LD II, 35, 36; Dasen, Dwarfs, fig. 9.16; Edel, Akazienhaus, fig. 1. Relevant scenes: Room I, North wall

Source of picture: After Dasen Egyptian term(s) used in context: none apparent Categorization: Salute, rhythmists Context: tomb owner seated viewing presentations scene b: Room 2,

Source of picture: After Edel Egyptian term(s) used in context: SnDt(w?)t Categorization: Diamond, rhythmists Context: funerary Proposed dating: PM: Menkaure Harpur, Decoration, p. 271: IV.5 Kanawati, Administration, p. 155: E. Menkaure Baer, Rank and Title, (583), p. 295: Menkaure; p. 155: Neuserre or later Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 226: Mycerinus

Suggested date: IV.5

261

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM

86. ©aw

imy-r wpt Htpt-nTr m prwy, imy-r prwy-HD, imy-r Sma, imy-r ¤nwty, iry pat, HAty-a, Hry-sStA, Hry-tp aA ©wf, Hry-tp Nxb, HqA Hwt, xrp SnD(w)t nbt, Xry-Hbt Hry-tp, smr waty, sDAwty-bity. Location: Deir el-Gebrawi Bibliography: PM IV, p. 245; Davies, Deir el-Gebrâwi II, pl. 7. Relevant scenes: west wall

Source of picture: After Davies Egyptian term(s) used in context: xbt in xnr.t Sma in ¤maw n Dt’ Categorization: Pair, Layout or Kick, rhythmists Context: funerary Suggested date: VI.4 ©aw was the grandson of Ibi who began his career as nomarch under Merenre, making the second half of Pepi II’s reign the most likely date for ©aw’s period of office.

Proposed dating: PM: VI Baer, Rank and Title, (592), p. 157: Pepi II middle or somewhat later Harpur, Decoration, p. 353: VI.4L Kanawati, Akhmim, p. 299: Middle-Late Pepi II Cherpion, Mastabas, p. 231: Pepi II

262

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 87. Berlin Fragment Location: Details of provenance not given by Fechheimer. Current location: Berlin Ägyptisches Museum, (May be from the tomb of Pr-sn, Saqqara, Berlin Museum no. 1500411) Bibliography: PM III, p. 577; Fechheimer, Plastik der Ägypter, p. 126 Relevant scenes: fragment

Source of picture: Fechheimer, Plastik der Ägypter, p. 126. Egyptian term(s) used in context: not discernable from the available photograph Categorization: Diamond Proposed dating:

11

Suggested date: V.6-8 The style of this dance scene is very similar to that found in the tombs of Nfr-irt-n.f (V.6-8), Ra-m-kA.i (V.6-9) and ¤xm-kA.i (V.L).

PM III, p. 577.

263

DANCE, DANCERS AND THE PERFORMANCE COHORT IN THE OLD KINGDOM 88.

British Museum no. 994

Current location: British Museum Location: Provenance uncertain, probably Giza Bibliography: PM III, p. 309; Capart, BIFAO, 30, pp. 73-75; James, Hieroglyphic Texts I, pl. 25; Smith, History, fig. 83. Relevant scenes:

Source of picture: After James Egyptian term(s) used in context: xbt inscription: [ibA] n xnr, xbt in ¤dXt Xrdwt, Sd wa.k im nty Hna(.i) Categorization: Boys’ Game Suggested date: VI.E Other Boys’ Game scenes date from V.L-VIth Dynasty, mostly around VI.E. This fragment is similar in style and themes to the example in the tomb of Idw (VI.2-4E), especially the motif of the vanquished youth. The caption for this motif is almost the same in both tombs. Otherwise, the iconography has more in common with Saqqara scenes (animated running figures, feathers in boys’ hands), and the inscription accompanying the motif of escorting the bound captive is almost the same as those in the tombs of Mrrw-kA.i (VI.1) and PtH-Htp II (around V.9). The low arm height of the salute dancers suggests a date in the VIth Dynasty.

Proposed dating: PM: V James, Hieroglyphic Texts I, p. 994: IV or V Harpur, Decoration, p. 351: V

264

PART III: APPENDIX B, CONSPECTUS 89.

Chicago fragment

Location: Provenance unknown Current location: Chicago Bibliography: Vandier, Manuel IV, fig. 205, pl. 18.

Source of picture: Drawn from Vandier, Manuel Vol. IV, fig. 205, pl. 18. Egyptian term(s) used in context: Hst n (xnr) Categorization: Salute, rhythmist Proposed dating: The style of representation on the fragment from the Chicago museum is very reminiscent of the scene from the tomb of ¤Sm-nfr III (V.8), the caption is similarly aligned and the angle at the elbow and position of the rear arm of the dancers is almost the same. The arm position of the rhythmists is similar to that found in the tombs of Axty-Htp (V.8-9), Ni-kAw-Hr (V.6-9), ¡tp-Hr-Axty (V.6-8), ¤xm-kA.i (V.L), ¤Sm-nfr III (V.8), ¥pss-kA.f-anx (V.6-8), KA-pi (V.8-9), KA-kA.i-anx (V.8), §y (V.8-9).

Suggested date: around V.8

265