Cyclones in Southern Africa: Volume 3: Implications for the Sustainable Development Goals (Sustainable Development Goals Series) 3030743020, 9783030743024

Table of contents :
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
About the Contributors
Part I: Introduction and Background
1: Linking the Impacts of Tropical Cyclones to the Sustainable Development Goals
1.1 Introduction and Background
1.1.1 Disaster Risk Reduction and SDG Achievement
1.2 Impact of Cyclones on Agriculture and Public Health
1.3 Impact on Education, Water and Sanitation
1.4 Impact on Infrastructure and Settlements
1.5 Impact on Natural Resources, Oceans and Tourism
1.6 Methodologies Utilised
1.7 Layout of the Book
References
Part II: A Focus on Agriculture and Public Health
2: Impacts of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Cash Crops Agriculture in Zimbabwe
2.1 Introduction and Background
2.2 Literature Review
2.3 Materials and Methods
2.4 Findings and Discussions
2.5 Conclusions
References
3: A Comparative Study of the Impacts of Flooding on Food Security of Urban and Rural Households in Blantyre City and Chikwawa, Malawi
3.1 Introduction and Background
3.2 Research Design
3.2.1 Focal Sites
3.2.2 Survey Tools and Approach
3.2.3 Hydro-Climatological Data and Analysis
3.3 Presentation and Discussion of Findings
3.3.1 Climate Trends, Climate Risks and River Discharge
3.3.1.1 Rainfall Climatology
3.3.1.2 Temporal Patterns of Rainfall Extremes
3.3.1.3 Frequency Analysis of Rainfall Extremes
3.3.1.4 Community Perceptions’ of Flooding Risks
3.3.2 Key Food Products Consumed in Chikwawa Rural and Blantyre Urban
3.3.3 Sources of Food Products in Bangwe Township and Magalasi Village
3.3.4 Accessibility of Food Products in Urban and Rural Households
3.3.5 Flooding Effects on Food and Agricultural Flows and Food Security
3.4 Conclusions
References
4: Assessment of Cyclone Idai Floods on Local Food Systems and Disaster Management Responses in Mozambique and Zimbabwe
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Literature Review
4.3 Research Design
4.4 Findings and Discussion
4.4.1 Cyclone Idai Disaster Landscapes and Official Responses
4.4.2 Impact of Cyclone Idai on Food Systems and Hunger
4.5 Conclusions
References
5: Impacts of Tropical Cyclones Idai and Kenneth on Public Health in Southern Africa
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Background
5.2.1 Communicable Diseases: Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe
5.2.2 Non-communicable Disorders: Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique
5.2.3 Mental Health: Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa
5.2.4 Food Security
5.3 Methods and Materials
5.4 Findings
5.4.1 Communicable Diseases and Responses in Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe
5.4.2 Results of the Rapid Assessment for Impact of Cyclone Idai on People Living with HIV (PLHIV) in Zimbabwe
5.4.3 HIV Rapid Assessment Results
5.4.4 Obstetric, Newborn Care and Trauma
5.4.5 Nutritional Status Post Cyclone
5.4.6 Obstetric and Neonatal Outcomes
5.5 Discussion
5.6 Conclusion
References
6: Perspectives on Safeguarding Children in Sustainable Disaster Mitigation in Zimbabwe
6.1 Introduction and Background
6.2 Policies, Frameworks and Institutions
6.3 Literature Review
6.4 Methodology
6.5 Presentation and Discussion of Findings
6.5.1 Guaranteeing Food Security for Children
6.5.2 Child Malnutrition
6.5.3 Psychological Well Being
6.5.4 Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH)
6.5.5 Harmonised Social Cash Transfers (HSCTP)
6.5.6 Child Protection
6.5.7 Cultural Dynamics
6.6 Conclusions
References
Part III: Education, Water and Sanitation and Livelihoods
7: Impacts of Cyclone Idai and the Road to Recovery in Education Systems in Zimbabwe
7.1 Introduction and Background
7.2 Literature Survey
7.3 Materials and Methods
7.4 Results and Discussion
7.4.1 Effects of Cyclone Idai on Education Delivery and Infrastructure
7.4.2 Coping Strategies of Learners, Educators and the District Education Offices in the Affected Areas
7.4.3 The Opinions of Learners, Educators and the Local District Education Officers in Terms of Disaster Preparedness in Future
7.4.4 Responsible Authority District Office
7.5 Conclusion
References
8: The Water Sanitation and Hygiene Perspective in Response to Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Materials and Methods
8.3 Results and Discussion
8.3.1 Impact of Cyclone Idai on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
8.3.1.1 Impacts on Water Supply
8.3.1.2 Impacts on Sanitation
8.3.1.3 Impacts on Hygiene
8.3.2 Water Sanitation and Hygiene Responses to Impacts of Cyclone Idai
8.3.2.1 Water Responses to Impacts of Cyclone Idai
8.3.2.2 Sanitation and Hygiene Responses to Impacts of Cyclone Idai
8.3.3 Institutional Collaborations and Coordination During Cyclone Idai Response
8.3.3.1 National-Level Coordination and Collaboration in the Cyclone Idai Response
8.3.3.2 Major Response Coordination Challenges and Strengths at National Level
8.3.3.3 Sub-national-level Coordination of Cyclone Idai Response Interventions
8.3.3.4 Coordination Weaknesses
8.4 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
9: Struggles of Cyclone Idai Floods Survivors Inhabiting Spaces of Vulnerability and Reconstructing Their Fractured Livelihoods
9.1 Introduction and Background
9.2 Research Design
9.3 Presentation and Discussion of Findings
9.3.1 Cyclone Idai and the National Emergency Responses
9.3.1.1 Mozambique
9.3.1.2 Eastern Zimbabwe
9.3.2 Impact of Cyclone Idai on Local Economies and Livelihoods
9.3.2.1 Central Mozambique
9.3.2.2 Eastern Zimbabwe
9.4 Conclusion
References
10: The Reconstruction of Livelihoods by Survivors of Cyclone Idai in the Chimanimani District of Zimbabwe
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Literature Review
10.3 Materials and Methods
10.4 Theoretical Framework
10.4.1 Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF)
10.4.2 Human Agency Approach
10.5 Presentation and Discussion of Finding
10.5.1 Livelihood Strategies Pursued by Survivors of Cyclone Idai
10.5.2 Diversification of Livelihood Strategies
10.5.3 Vulnerability Contexts in Livelihood Reconstruction
10.6 Conclusion and Policy Options
References
Part IV: A Focus on Infrastructure and Settlements
11: Planning for Climate and Cyclone Resilient Transport Infrastructures in Southern Africa: Lessons from Zimbabwe
11.1 Introduction
11.2 A Synopsis of Transport Infrastructure, Legislative and Policy Frameworks
11.2.1 Describing Transport Infrastructures
11.2.2 Understanding Extreme Weather Events and the Vulnerability of Transport Infrastructures
11.2.2.1 Flooding and Heavy Rain
11.2.2.2 Cold Wave, Fog, Snowstorms and Avalanches
11.2.2.3 Hailstorms, Thunderstorm and Dust Storms
11.2.2.4 Heat Waves and Droughts
11.2.3 Policy and Legislative Framework for Transport Infrastructure Provision and Maintenance in Zimbabwe
11.2.3.1 Zimbabwe National Transport Policy (2012)
11.2.3.2 The Roads Act, Chapter (13:18)
11.2.3.3 Rural District Councils Act, Chapter (29:13)
11.2.4 Institutional Framework for Rural Road Infrastructure Provision and Maintenance in Zimbabwe
11.3 Research Methodology
11.4 Findings on the Scope and Extent of Infrastructure Damage
11.4.1 Measuring the Impact of Cyclone Idai on Transport Systems
11.4.2 Government of Zimbabwe’s Response to Infrastructural Damage
11.5 Discussion of Findings
11.5.1 Discussions on Improved Measures in Planning and Implementing Transport Infrastructure in Southern Africa
11.6 Conclusions
11.7 Recommendations
References
12: Impacts of Cyclone Idai on Human Settlements in Zimbabwe
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Literature Review
12.2.1 The Concept of Human Settlements
12.2.2 Human Settlement Planning in Zimbabwe
12.2.3 Human Settlement Form
12.2.4 Cyclones and Floods as Natural Disasters – A Spatial Planning Perspective
12.2.5 The Place of SDG 11 in Human Settlement Planning
12.3 Operationalising the Study
12.4 Presentation of Data and Discussion of Findings
12.4.1 Impacts of Cyclones and History of Affected Areas
12.4.2 Factors Which Exacerbated the Destruction of Property and Loss of Lives
12.4.3 Strategies for Strengthening Human Settlement Form in Communities Affected by Cyclones
12.4.3.1 Relocation
12.5 Conclusions and Summary of Recommendations
References
13: Social and Physical Vulnerability of Settlements to Hydro-Climatic Induced Disasters: Lessons from Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Literature Survey
13.2.1 Climate-Induced Disasters and Human Settlements Nexus
13.2.2 Climate-Induced Disaster Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies
13.3 Materials and Methods
13.4 Findings and Discussions
13.5 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Part V: Natural Resources, Oceans, Tourism and Other Losses
14: The Impact of Cyclone Idai on Natural and Plantation Forests in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe
14.1 Introduction and Background
14.2 Literature Review
14.2.1 Impact of Cyclones on Natural and Planted Forests
14.2.2 Differential Responses Between Tree Species (Floristic Taxa) to the Impacts of Cyclones
14.2.3 Impacts of the Tropical Cyclone on Plantation and Forest Ecosystem Productivity
14.2.4 Remote Sensing as a Tool for Assessing Cyclone-Induced Damage in Forests
14.3 Materials and Methods
14.3.1 Study Area
14.3.2 Methods
14.4 Findings
14.4.1 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
14.4.2 Impact-Location Differentiation and Cross-Location Analysis
14.4.3 Silvicultural Aspects of the Forest Ecosystem (Composition, Health and Quality of Forests)
14.4.4 What Were the Impacts of the Tropical Cyclone on Plantation and Forest Ecosystem Productivity?
14.5 Discussion
14.5.1 What Lessons Can Be Learnt for Forest Management?
14.5.2 Effect of Cyclone Damage on Forest Productivity
14.6 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
15: Impact of Cyclone Idai on Biodiversity and Natural Resources in Chimanimani District, Zimbabwe
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials and Methods
15.2.1 Study Area
15.2.2 Data Collection
15.2.3 Data Analysis
15.3 Results and Discussion
15.3.1 Impact of Cyclone Idai on Ecosystem Resources
15.3.2 Impacts of Cyclone Idai on Wildlife
15.3.3 Impact on Forests and Plantations
15.3.4 Impact on Riparian Areas and Habitats
15.3.5 Land-Use and Land-Cover Changes in CNP and the Adjacent Community
15.3.6 Impact of Cyclone Idai on NDVI in Chimanimani National Park and the Adjacent Community
15.4 Conclusions
References
16: Impact of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Tourism Attractions and Related Infrastructure in Chimanimani, Zimbabwe
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Literature Survey
16.3 Materials and Research Design
16.4 Presentation of Data and Discussion of Findings
16.4.1 The Tourist Attractions in Chimanimani
16.4.2 Impact of Cyclone Idai on Tourism Attractions and Related Infrastructure
16.5 Discussion of Findings
16.6 Conclusions
References
17: Evidence of the Impact of Cyclones and Floods on Biodiversity and Wildlife Resources in Southern Africa
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Review of Literature: Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
17.3 Materials and Methods
17.4 Presentation and Discussion of Results
17.5 Conclusion
References
18: Impact of Cyclones and Floods on Seagrass Habitats
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Literature Review
18.2.1 Seagrass Definition and Distribution
18.2.2 Seagrass Importance: Ecosystem Services, Benefits and Goods Provided
18.2.2.1 Food Security
18.2.2.2 Maintaining a Healthy Climate
18.2.2.3 Improving Water Quality
18.2.2.4 Supporting Rich Biodiversity
18.2.2.5 Cultural and Resource Value of Seagrasses
18.3 Materials and Methods
18.4 Presentation and Discussion of Findings
18.4.1 Impact of Extreme Events on Seagrass – Case of Multiple Cyclones in Inhambane Bay and the 2000 Floods in Mozambique
18.4.2 Impact on Seagrasses Fauna
18.4.3 Impact of Rehabilitation Process on Intertidal Fauna
18.5 Conclusions
References
19: Economic Losses from Cyclones Idai and Kenneth and Floods in Southern Africa: Implications on Sustainable Development Goals
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Literature Review
19.3 Methods and Research Design
19.3.1 Disaster Impact Assessments: Classification and Contextualisation
19.3.2 Research Design
19.4 Presentation and Discussion of Findings
19.4.1 Economic Losses due to Cyclones in Mozambique
19.4.2 Economic Losses due to Cyclones in Zimbabwe
19.4.3 Economic Damages and Losses due to Floods in South Africa
19.4.4 Discussion of the Findings
19.4.5 Implications for Sustainable Development Goals
19.5 Conclusions
References
Part VI: The Policy Space
20: Emerging Key Findings, Conclusions and Policy Recommendations
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Emerging Key Findings
20.2.1 Impact on Agricultural Production and Public Health
20.2.2 Impact on Education, Water and Sanitation and Livelihoods
20.2.3 Impact on Infrastructure and Settlements
20.2.4 Impact on Natural Resources, Oceans, Tourism and Other Losses
20.3 Emerging Key Recommendations
20.4 Conclusion
References
Index

Citation preview

SDG: 18 Connecting the Goals

Godwell Nhamo David Chikodzi  Editors

Cyclones in Southern Africa

Volume 3: Implications for the Sustainable Development Goals

Sustainable Development Goals Series

The Sustainable Development Goals Series is Springer Nature’s inaugural cross-imprint book series that addresses and supports the United Nations’ seventeen Sustainable Development Goals. The series fosters comprehensive research focused on these global targets and endeavours to address some of society’s greatest grand challenges. The SDGs are inherently multidisciplinary, and they bring people working across different fields together and working towards a common goal. In this spirit, the Sustainable Development Goals series is the first at Springer Nature to publish books under both the Springer and Palgrave Macmillan imprints, bringing the strengths of our imprints together. The Sustainable Development Goals Series is organized into eighteen subseries: one subseries based around each of the seventeen respective Sustainable Development Goals, and an eighteenth subseries, “Connecting the Goals,” which serves as a home for volumes addressing multiple goals or studying the SDGs as a whole. Each subseries is guided by an expert Subseries Advisor with years or decades of experience studying and addressing core components of their respective Goal. The SDG Series has a remit as broad as the SDGs themselves, and contributions are welcome from scientists, academics, policymakers, and researchers working in fields related to any of the seventeen goals. If you are interested in contributing a monograph or curated volume to the series, please contact the Publishers: Zachary Romano [Springer; zachary.romano@ springer.com] and Rachael Ballard [Palgrave Macmillan; rachael.ballard@ palgrave.com].

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15486

Godwell Nhamo  •  David Chikodzi Editors

Cyclones in Southern Africa Volume 3: Implications for the Sustainable Development Goals

Editors Godwell Nhamo Institute for Corporate Citizenship University of South Africa Pretoria, South Africa

David Chikodzi Institute for Corporate Citizenship University of South Africa Pretoria, South Africa

ISSN 2523-3084     ISSN 2523-3092 (electronic) Sustainable Development Goals Series ISBN 978-3-030-74302-4    ISBN 978-3-030-74303-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (AfSD) remains one of the major drivers of global development. This development agenda is sustained by 17 ambitious and mutually inclusive Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that are embraced under the theme ‘Let no one be left behind’. However, several global challenges, among them global warming that leads to climate change and extreme weather events that include the harsh reality of tropical cyclones, storms and floods threaten to derail progress towards the attainment of the 2030 AfSD. These extreme weather events have resulted in some of the regions being left behind. In 2019, southern Africa witnessed the worst tropical cyclone in history in the form of Tropical Cyclone Idai. Cyclone Idai made landfall in March, badly hitting Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The cyclone left a trail of permanent destruction to infrastructure and other property. It also left a trail of deaths, injuries and many missing and displaced persons. By the time of completing this book in February 2021, many families, especially in Zimbabwe were still living in temporary shelter. As if this was not enough, Tropical Cyclone Kenneth followed immediately after Idai in April 2019, with other tropical cyclones including Chalane and Eloise also making landfalls in December 2020 and January 2021 respectively. With the cumulative negative impacts of tropical cyclones in southern Africa, the main research question arose: what are the likely impacts of the tropical cyclones on the attainment of the United Nations’ SDGs in southern Africa? This is the focus of this book, which brings case studies from the affected countries. Institute for Corporate Citizenship University of South Africa Pretoria, South Africa 

Godwell Nhamo David Chikodzi

v

Acknowledgements

We, the editors, Prof Godwell Nhamo and Dr David Chikodzi, wish to thank all the blind peer reviewers for their invaluable inputs during the writing and publishing process of this book. We thank Springer for taking on board this book project and for the quality control processes. We also wish to thank our families for their ongoing support of our work. The book project was coordinated through the Exxaro Chair in Business and Climate Change at the University of South Africa (UNISA). The Exxaro Chair is a research Chair funded by the Exxaro Resources (Pty) Ltd Chairman’s Fund and hosted by the Institute for Corporate Citizenship at UNISA.  The Exxaro Chair was established in 2008 and is now in its fourth term running (2018–2022). The authors wish to thank the Government of Zimbabwe and traditional leadership structures for the permissions to undertake the research. Among some of the government ministries and agencies that granted permissions include the Ministry of Local Government, Public Works and National Housing; Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education; and Ministry of Health and Child Care; Meteorological Services Department of Zimbabwe; Forestry Commission; The Postal & Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of Zimbabwe (POTRAZ); Manicaland Provincial Administrator’s Office; Chimanimani District Development Coordinator’s Office; Chimanimani Rural District Council; and the Chiefs and other traditional leadership structures in Chimanimani. The authors also wish to acknowledge the partnership between the UNISA and Chinhoyi University of Technology (CUT) research teams. We are particularly grateful for the gesture by the CUT to provide ten tablets used to administer the household survey questionnaire in Zimbabwe. The authors further extend their gratitude to the following people who took part during the fieldwork, Joshua Chibvuma, Crecentia Gandidzanwa, Cowen Dziva, Knowledge Mwonzora, Itai Kabonga, Ernest Mando, Smart Mhembwe, Donald Chikoto, Emmanuel Maziti, Prof Soul Shava, Prof Amos Saurombe, Dr Talkmore Umbambo Saurombe, Charity Denhere, Simukai Mukoyi and Matthew Mare. We also thank all the respondents, be it from the focus group discussions, household questionnaire survey, interviews and/or those that cooperated with us during field observations. Dr Mass Masona Tapfuma is also recognised for her work of transcribing the interviews. Godwell Nhamo and David Chikodzi Institute for Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa Pretoria, South Africa vii

Contents

Part I Introduction and Background 1 Linking the Impacts of Tropical Cyclones to the Sustainable Development Goals ������������������������������������������   3 David Chikodzi and Godwell Nhamo Part II A Focus on Agriculture and Public Health 2 Impacts of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Cash Crops Agriculture in Zimbabwe����������������������������������������������������������������  19 David Chikodzi, Godwell Nhamo, and Joshua Chibvuma 3 A Comparative Study of the Impacts of Flooding on Food Security of Urban and Rural Households in Blantyre City and Chikwawa, Malawi��������������������������������������  35 Miriam Dalitso Kalanda Joshua, Tanya Stathers, Ruth Kalinga Chirwa, Cosmo Ngongondo, Richard Lamboll, Maurice Monjerezi, Evance Mwathunga, Raymond Kasei, Felistus Patience Chipungu, and Emma Teresa Liwenga 4 Assessment of Cyclone Idai Floods on Local Food Systems and Disaster Management Responses in Mozambique and Zimbabwe������������������������������������������������������  59 Daniel Tevera, Melusi Sibanda, Sipho Felix Mamba, and Lucas Daniel Tivana 5 Impacts of Tropical Cyclones Idai and Kenneth on Public Health in Southern Africa����������������������������������������������  69 Gwendoline Q. Kandawasvika, Nomsa Thabethe, Janet Dzangare, and Portia Manangazira 6 Perspectives on Safeguarding Children in Sustainable Disaster Mitigation in Zimbabwe��������������������������  81 Tatenda Goodman Nhapi

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Part III Education, Water and Sanitation and Livelihoods 7 Impacts of Cyclone Idai and the Road to Recovery in Education Systems in Zimbabwe ����������������������������������������������  97 Crecentia Pamidzai Gandidzanwa and Muchaiteyi Togo 8 The Water Sanitation and Hygiene Perspective in Response to Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe������������������������������������ 115 Tendai Kativhu, Innocent Nhapi, Annatoria Chinyama, Margaret Macherera, and Lovemore Dhoba 9 Struggles of Cyclone Idai Floods Survivors Inhabiting Spaces of Vulnerability and Reconstructing Their Fractured Livelihoods ���������������������������������������������������������� 131 Daniel Tevera and Inês M. Raimundo 10 The Reconstruction of Livelihoods by Survivors of Cyclone Idai in the Chimanimani District of Zimbabwe�������� 143 Itai Kabonga, Smart Mhembwe, and Cowen Dziva Part IV A Focus on Infrastructure and Settlements 11 Planning for Climate and Cyclone Resilient Transport Infrastructures in Southern Africa: Lessons from Zimbabwe������������������������������������������������������������������ 159 Trynos Gumbo, Emaculate Ingwani, Andisa Andy Mufungizi, and Smart Dumba 12 Impacts of Cyclone Idai on Human Settlements in Zimbabwe ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 177 Emaculate Ingwani, Trynos Gumbo, Joseph Kamuzhanje, and Innocent Chirisa 13 Social and Physical Vulnerability of Settlements to Hydro-Climatic Induced Disasters: Lessons from Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe ���������������������������������������������������� 193 David Chikodzi and Prudence Khumalo Part V Natural Resources, Oceans, Tourism and Other Losses 14 The Impact of Cyclone Idai on Natural and Plantation Forests in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 211 David Chikodzi and Mduduzi Cardinal Tembani 15 Impact of Cyclone Idai on Biodiversity and Natural Resources in Chimanimani District, Zimbabwe����� 229 Francisca Kunedzimwe, Edson Gandiwa, Olga Laiza Kupika, Never N. Muboko, Phillip Taru, and Tatenda Manyuchi

Contents

Contents

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16 Impact of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Tourism Attractions and Related Infrastructure in Chimanimani, Zimbabwe������������ 245 Godwell Nhamo, Kaitano Dube, and Talkmore Saurombe 17 Evidence of the Impact of Cyclones and Floods on Biodiversity and Wildlife Resources in Southern Africa�������� 265 Olga Laiza Kupika, Edson Gandiwa, James Ayuk, Salomão Bandeira, and Francisca Kunedzimwe 18 Impact of Cyclones and Floods on Seagrass Habitats������������������ 279 Salomão Bandeira, Manuela Amone-Mabuto, Sádia Chitará-Nhandimo, Maria Perpétua Scarlet, and José Rafael 19 Economic Losses from Cyclones Idai and Kenneth and Floods in Southern Africa: Implications on Sustainable Development Goals������������������������������������������������ 289 Kenneth Nhundu, Melusi Sibanda, and Petronella Chaminuka Part VI The Policy Space 20 Emerging Key Findings, Conclusions and Policy Recommendations �������������������������������������������������������� 307 David Chikodzi and Godwell Nhamo Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 315

About the Editors and Contributors

About the Editors Godwell  Nhamo  is a Full Professor and Exxaro Chair in Business and Climate Change at the University of South Africa (UNISA). He is a National Research Foundation (NRF) C-Rated researcher in the fields of Climate Change and Governance, Green Economy and Sustainable Development. He holds a PhD from Rhodes University (South Africa), an MSc from the University of Botswana and a BSc Honours from the University of Zimbabwe. David Chikodzi  is a Post-doctoral fellow in the Exxaro Chair in Business and Climate Change at the University of South Africa. He holds a PhD in Geography and Environment Science from the University of the Western Cape (South Africa). He also holds a Masters’ degree in Environmental Policy and Planning, as well as a Bachelor of Arts (Honours) Degree in Geography from the University of Zimbabwe.

About the Contributors James Ayuk  is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Risk and Vulnerability Science Centre in the University of Fort Hare, South Africa. James holds a Bachelor’s degree in Geology from University of Buea-Cameroon, Bachelor Honours in Quaternary Science from the University of Cape Town, Master’s degree in Water and Environmental Science and a Doctoral degree in Biodiversity and Conservation Biology from the University of the Western Cape. James’ research interests are in understanding earth systems, plantwater relationships in terrestrial ecosystems, climate change, surface water distribution and quality, ecosystems and services, biodiversity conservation, palaeo-environmental processes and palaeo-environmental reconstruction. Salomão Bandeira  has a PhD in marine botany and is an ecologist familiar with issues of governance and restoration of seagrass and mangroves. He pioneered seagrass restoration in the region, having ongoing experiences around Maputo and Inhambane Bays. Engaged in a number of mangrove restoration initiatives in Mozambique and São Tome and Principe Island. Has around 70 peer-­reviewed publications covering also macroalgae and coastal xiii

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About the Editors and Contributors

vegetation; has participated and coordinated several projects summing-up over 1.2  M USD in 2 decades. He is an associate professor at Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM). His teaching experience includes the University of Cape Verde and the University of Lisbon. Petronella Chaminuka  is the Principal Economist and Senior Manager of the Economic Analysis Unit of the Agricultural Research Council in South Africa. The Unit specialises in economic impact assessment. She holds a PhD from the Environmental and Natural Resource Economics Group of Wageningen University, Netherlands, and an MSc in Agricultural Economics from the University of Zimbabwe. A research specialist in agricultural, environmental and rural development research, she has more than 20 years’ international experience working as a lecturer, researcher and facilitator in rural development processes. She has authored numerous articles in peer-reviewed journals, book chapters, and popular media. Joshua Chibvuma  is a teacher by profession. Currently, he works for the Government of Zimbabwe. He has been teaching Geography at Lydia Chimonyo Girls High School in Chimanimani District, Zimbabwe since the year 2009. Joshua is a holder of a MSc in Natural Resources Management and Environmental Sustainability, Bindura University of Science Education; BA 4th Year Honours Geography and Environmental Sustainability, Great Zimbabwe University and BA Geography, History and Portuguese, University of Zimbabwe. His research interests are in political geography, natural hazards, environmental education, climate change, child rights, extractive industries and rural livelihoods. [email protected] David Chikodzi, PhD  Co-Editor, is a postdoctoral fellow with the Exxaro Chair in Business and Climate Change at the University of South Africa. His research interests are in climate change, water resources management, tourism, sustainable development and application of Earth Observation technologies for societal benefit. He has worked for over 10 years in academia at Great Zimbabwe University (Zimbabwe) and has published over 30 journal articles, one co-authored book titled ‘Counting the Cost of COVID-19 on the Global Tourism Industry’ (2020) and several book chapters. Dr Chikodzi has also taken part in several local and international funded research projects across southern Africa and has previously worked as a Research Scientist at the Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre in Zimbabwe. Dr Chikodzi is an Alumnus of the ISIbalo Africa Young Statisticians and also the Zimbabwe Young Academy of Sciences. [email protected] Annatoria  Chinyama, PhD  is the Dean of Studies at Gwanda State University, Zimbabwe. She was formerly Chairperson of the Department of Civil and Water Engineering at National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe. She holds a BSc Hons Degree in Civil Engineering and an MSc in Integrated Water Resources Management both from University of Zimbabwe and Doctor of Technology in Civil Engineering from the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. She is registered with the

About the Editors and Contributors

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Engineering Council of Zimbabwe and Zimbabwe Institution of Engineers. She has 14 years’ experience in teaching and research in water engineering and water resources management. Felistus Patience Chipungu  is an experienced Root and Tuber Crops (RTC) breeder in the Department of Agricultural Research Services, the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development in Malawi. In 2008, Felistus obtained her PhD in plant breeding and crop improvement from the University of Malawi. Felistus has developed and released several varieties of sweet potato and cassava over the years, as well as contributing to the release of other crops such as potato, tomato and bananas which are widely grown by farmers and contributing to improved livelihoods of many Malawians. Felistus joined the International Potato Centre (CIP) in 2014 as a sweet potato crop specialist based in Chipata, Zambia before moving to the CIP office at Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station. Innocent  Chirisa  is a Professor in the Department of Demography Settlement and Development at the University of Zimbabwe, Currently, is the Dean of the Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences at the same University. He is also a Research Fellow with the University of Free State, South Africa in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning. His research interests include social and political theory, environmental stewardship and planning, urban governments and urban and regional resilience. Lovemore Dhoba  is a WASH specialist with 13-years of experience implementing WASH interventions as a Deputy Director, Department of National WASH Coordination. Previous work experience includes Natural Resources Officer-­EMA; Land Information Management Officer-­Ministry of Lands & East-Southern Africa Steering Committee Member-Sanitation & Water for All. A professional WASH expert, Dhoba holds a PGDip-­Water Supplies & Sanitation; PGCert-Application of GIS & Remote Sensing in IWRM; MScSocial Ecology; BSc-(Hons)-Geography & Environmental Studies & PhD in Peace, Leadership and Governance-pending. Dhoba has been a focal person in the development of the National Water Policy; Sanitation & Hygiene Policy & the Sanitation & Hygiene Strategy. Kaitano Dube  is an Ecotourism Management Lecturer at the Vaal University of Technology, South Africa. He is one of the African leading tourism geographers researching in the area of tourism, climate change, sustainability and green aviation. He has published in high impact international peer-­reviewed journals with his work receiving global attention. His work has received extensive media coverage including in National Geographic, Wunderground, Atlasobscura and AFP. He has granted a number of international television and radio interviews. Dr Dube holds a PhD and MSc from the University of South Africa. He graduated with a BSc Hons from Midlands State University in Gweru, Zimbabwe. He holds several other qualifications from UNISA, Vaal University of Technology and University of the Witwatersrand Business School in Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr Dube is an executive member of

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About the Editors and Contributors

the Tourism Educators Association of South Africa and Tourism Sector Human Resource Development Governance and Institutional Coordination Forum hosted by South Africa’s National Department of Tourism. Smart Dumba  holds a PhD and is an academic, consultant and researcher in urban transport planning with over 8 years of working experience of practice in a developing country, (Zimbabwe). He has in-depth experience in facilitating adult learning particularly in urban transport-related courses, supervision and mentoring of undergraduate and postgraduate students. On the consultancy front, he has led and sub consulted on a number of traffic and transportation impact studies, transport policy analyses and urban transport projects feasibility studies. He has participated in international conferences and published a number of research articles and a member of various national and international professional bodies. Janet Dzangare  is an HIV surveillance officer with the Ministry of Health and Child Care, AIDS & TB Unit. She completed an MSc in Biostatistics at the University of Zimbabwe, a BSc Honours Degree in Statistics at the University of Zimbabwe and a postgraduate Diploma in e-Health at University of KwaZulu Natal. Janet has research interests in HIV and modelling of non-­ communicable diseases and has published many journals. She has experience in data analysis of HIV surveys. Cowen Dziva  earned a Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies from the University of South Africa. He teaches in the Julius Nyerere School of Social Sciences at the Great Zimbabwe University. He considers himself a researcher and development practitioner with an in-depth background in the application of human rights-based approach in development work. His human rights experience span from working with the Zimbabwe Human Rights Commission and NGOs to research, promote and protect human rights of disadvantaged groups in Zimbabwe. He has co-authored and published several book chapters and articles on democratisation and development and human rights in Zimbabwe. Crecentia  Pamidzai  Gandidzanwa  holds a Master’s degree from the University of Zimbabwe. She is currently a PhD student at the University of South Africa (UNISA) in the Environmental Sciences Department. She is also a lecturer in the Department of Geography and Environmental science at the Catholic University of Zimbabwe. She is interested in researching on environmental issues in particular issues to do with water, energy, and food and green living. She has worked for various organisations as a consultant including UNDP, SAVE, UNICEF, World Bank, and SNV. She also has been exposed to diverse realities of coordinating or leading multidisciplinary teams on various assignments. Edson Gandiwa  is currently the Executive Dean and Professor in the School of Wildlife, Ecology and Conservation at the Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe. Previously, he served as an ecologist based in

About the Editors and Contributors

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Gonarezhou National Park under the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority. He has 16 years’ experience in applied socio-ecological research, community-based natural resource management, wildlife conservation and capacity building. He holds a PhD in Wildlife Conservation and Management from Wageningen University and Research, the Netherlands. Trynos  Gumbo  is a Registered Professional Planner; Associate Professor and Head of the Department of the Urban and Regional Planning within the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment at the University of Johannesburg (UJ). Prof Gumbo holds a PhD from Stellenbosch University, South Africa, masters and honours degrees from the University of Zimbabwe. He has published in a wide range of research areas that include smart and sustainable cities and regions, intelligent transport systems and infrastructure planning, integrated and sustainable human settlements, spatial analysis using geographical information systems to statistical analysis using statistical package for social sciences. Emaculate Ingwani  is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Urban and Regional Planning at the University of Venda. She is a registered planner with the South African Council for Planners. Dr Ingwani is a holder of a PhD from Stellenbosch University; and a Masters, and Bachelor’s degrees from the University of Zimbabwe. Her publications focus on complexities of rural, peri-urban, and urban planning for sustainable human settlements; peri-urban challenges including disasters; and changing patterns on household livelihoods. As a social planner, she largely applies social planning theory and qualitative methodologies and tools in her research. Itai  Kabonga  holds academic qualifications in Development Studies, Sociology, Project Management and Monitoring and Evaluation (M and E). He has also taught several courses in Development Studies that include Non-­ Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Civil Society in Africa, Gender Studies and International Development Corporations at Zimbabwe Ezekiel Guti University (ZEGU) and ARUPPE Jesuit University in Zimbabwe. Itai’s research interests include NGOs and development, Civil Society-­State relations, volunteerism in Africa, Zimbabwe’s development crisis since 1980. Focusing on these areas, Itai has published ten journal articles in reputable journals. Miriam Dalitso Kalanda-Joshua  is a Senior Lecturer in Geography at the University of Malawi. She holds a PhD in Geography with a focus on water governance from the School of Geography and Environment at the University of Southampton, United Kingdom. Miriam has over 16 years of research and work experience with communities, government, higher education and private sector institutions in areas of environmental management, climate change adaptation, indigenous knowledge systems and agriculture. Her published work mainly focuses on climate change adaptation and indigenous knowledge systems.

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About the Editors and Contributors

Ruth Kalinga Chirwa  is an Environmental Scientist and obtained her MSc in Environmental Sciences in 2013 from the University of Malawi, Chancellor College. She is a qualified secondary school teacher with over 20 years of experience in Government schools. Her research interests includes assessment of flood and drought impacts on rural communities; climate change adaptation and mitigation; sustainable urban and rural livelihoods. She is an activist championing education for girls with deprived backgrounds through her reusable sanitary pads project. Joseph  Kamuzhanje  is a Professor of Practice in Regional and Urban Planning at the University of Venda. He has a BSc in Rural and Urban Planning from the University of Zimbabwe and an MSc in Regional Development Planning and Management from the universities of Dortmund (Germany) and Kumasi (Ghana). He is a member of the Zimbabwe Institute of Regional and Urban Planners. Prof Kamuzhanje has worked in Government (Ministry of Local Government, NGOs (Practical Action and GOAL Zimbabwe) and is currently working for Coopers Animal Health in Zimbabwe. He is an independent consultant on rural, urban and organizational development issues. Gwendoline Q. Kandawasvika, MD, PhD  is the chair of the Department of Paediatrics at the University of Zimbabwe, where she has taught and conducted research for the past 16 years. She is a paediatrician with research interests in HIV, nutrition, sickle cell disease, neurology and non-­ communicable diseases. She has published in peer-reviewed journals and coauthored several book chapters. She has experience in the conduct of field studies having taken part in the SHINE (Sanitation Hygiene Infant Nutrition Efficacy) study in Zimbabwe investigating a neurodevelopmental aspect of infants. Dr Kandawasvika is an executive member of Zimbabwe Chapter of ILAE. Raymond Kasei  holds a PhD in hydrology and Natural Resources from the University of Bonn-­ Germany. He is currently a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Climate Change and Food Security of the University for Development Studies, Ghana. Kasei’s research experience ranges from understanding hydrological processes, water allocation practices, ecosystem services, water storage options for climate change adaptation, transboundary water management and dam/irrigation operations in Africa. Kasei acted as a guest editor for the journal of the Physics and Chemistry of the Earth. Kasei is currently a party lead negotiator for Africa on agriculture and capacity building at the United Nations Framework on Climate Change Conventions (UNFCCC). Tendai  Kativhu  is a lecturer at the National University of Science and Technology (NUST) in Zimbabwe. She holds an MSc in Integrated Water Resources Management from the University of Zimbabwe and a PhD in Environmental and Water Science from the University of Western Cape (South Africa). Her work experience includes three years of implementing

About the Editors and Contributors

xix

and supervising water and sanitation development and emergency response projects. She also has 10 years of lecturing and research experience at a tertiary institution. She has won several research grants in water and sanitation and has published and reviewed a number of journal articles in line with her expertise. Prudence  Khumalo  is a Professor in the Department of Public Administration and Management at the University of South Africa. He has published on Public Policy and Development, Leadership, Environmental Governance, Poverty, Human settlements and Local Economic Development. He has presented papers at both local and international conferences. He is part of the African Union-UNISA Agenda 2063 research group and his subproject focuses on Human settlements prospects in the continent. He holds a Doctorate Degree in Public Administration, University of Fort Hare 2011, Master of Public Administration, University of Fort Hare 2009, and a BSc Honours in Human Resource Management, Midlands State University 2005. Francisca  Kunedzimwe  is a junior lecturer at Chinhoyi University of Technology under the department of Environmental Conservation and Geoinformatics. She holds a MSc degree in Geography and Environmental science and a BSc Geography. She is currently undertaking a PhD research in Geotechnology and Biodiversity Management. She has expertise in Spacebased Earth Observation, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in environmental monitoring and management. Geodatabase Development and Applications in Land, Agriculture and Forestry as well as Climate Change and Vulnerability Analysis. She has published in accredited journals and has supervised research at the undergraduate level. Olga  Laiza  Kupika  holds a PhD and is a Senior Lecturer and currently Chairperson in the Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation at Chinhoyi University of Technology, Zimbabwe. She is a Climate Impact Research Capacity and Leadership Enhancement (CIRCLE) Programme alumnus and currently a Climate Research for Development (CR4D) Postdoctoral fellow both implemented by the Alliance for Accelerating Excellence in Science in Africa (AESA) through the African Academy of Sciences (AAS). Olga’s research interests include climate change adaptation, climate governance, biodiversity conservation, ecosystem services, sustainable livelihoods, rural community resilience and sustainable development goals. Richard Lamboll  is a Socio-Economist and presently working as a Principal Scientist in the Livelihoods and Institutions Department at the Natural Resources Institute, Faculty of Engineering & Science, University of Greenwich in the United Kingdom. His expertise includes livelihoods analysis; stakeholder and institutional analyses; enhancing stakeholder communication, learning and engagement; on-farm research; formal survey and participatory approaches. His current research is in capacity strengthening of agricultural innovation systems; climate change responses; agro/wild biodi-

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About the Editors and Contributors

versity management; governance and service delivery in agriculture. Richard has considerable research experiences in African countries such as Tanzania, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Swaziland and Uganda. Emma Teresa Liwenga, PhD  is a Senior Lecturer working with the Institute of Resource Assessment (IRA), University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. She holds BSc. Agriculture, MSc. Natural Resource Management, and PhD in Human Geography. Her fields of interest included Food Security, Rural Livelihoods Analysis, Gender, and Climate Change Adaptation. She has considerable experience in conducting applied research as well as stakeholders’ engagement through Participatory Action Research under IDRC through Climate Change Adaptation in Africa (CCAA) programme. She has further conducted reviews of climate change adaptation policies on agricultural systems at regional (Eastern Africa) and national level under ASARECA. Manuela Amone-Mabuto  is a PhD student at Nelson Mandela University in South Africa having fieldwork carried out in Mozambique. Her current research interest that contributes to SDG14, include understanding the impacts of climate change related events on seagrass, seagrass mapping using drone technology and seagrass restoration with focus to the IUCN endangered species (Zostera capensis). Manuela carried out the first compressive seagrass distribution research within the entire Inhambane Bay. Currently, she is a research assistant at UEM. Margaret  Macherera  is a Senior Lecturer at Lupane State University in Zimbabwe. She holds a PhD in Public Health and a Master of International Health. Dr Macherera is a Public Health specialist with field experience of more than ten years in Environmental Health at the level of middle management. Her areas of research include communicable diseases, climate change, One Health, food safety and indigenous knowledge systems and health. Dr Macherera has taught in several institutions that train Environmental Health Practitioners in Zimbabwe over the past sixteen years. Sipho  Felix  Mamba  has a PhD degree in Geography and Environmental science from the University of the Western Cape. He is a lecturer in the Department of Geography, Environmental Science and Planning in the University of Eswatini (formerly Swaziland). He is vice-chairperson of the Young African Statisticians (YAS) Interim Coordinating Committee and is a member of the Eswatini Vulnerability Assessment Committee (ESVAC) core team. He is also a member of the International Society for Urban Health (ISUH) and Food Security Network (FSN). His research on climate change and food security, poverty, and environmental management has produced several scholarly articles. Tatenda  Manyuchi,  is a doctoral student and has an MSc in Disaster Management that explored variances in climatic variability. Tatenda also holds a BSc. In Geography and Environmental Studies and is a lecturer in Geoinformatics, photogrammetry and remote sensing. He has 7 years of field

About the Editors and Contributors

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experience exploring spatial data science in GIS and Remote Sensing for Baseline Surveys and Environmental Social Impact Assessments (ESIA) as well as research carried out by academic institutions, private companies and non-governmental organisations. Tatenda’s research interests lie in the use of spatial data in disaster risk reduction. Smart  Mhembwe  is a lecturer in the Gender Institute at Midlands State University (MSU). Mr Mhembwe has an interest in rural development, gender, poverty and livelihoods as well as food security. Mr Mhembwe has been in the academic field for more than 6 years now and has done review work for more than five journal publishers. He has also carried out funded research projects to completion. Maurice  Monjerezi  is an Associate Professor in the Department of Chemistry at Chancellor College, a constituent college of the University of Malawi. His current research activities are in the application of chemical principles and water quality assessments to understand how changes in climate, hydro-biogeochemical and anthropogenic pressures influence groundand surface water resources. He applies a combination of field- and laboratory studies, statistics as well as geochemical models to study these processes. He was awarded the 2014 African Union-The World Academy of Sciences (AU-TWAS) Young Scientists National Award in the Earth and Life Sciences category. Never N. Muboko  is a professor of wildlife conservation and social ecology. He holds a Diploma in Wildlife & Protected Area Management; a BSc (Hons) in Environmental Science (majoring in Wildlife & Rangeland Management); an MSc in Strategic Management and a DPhil in Conflict Management & Transformation (focusing on Conservation-based conflicts & resource governance). He has expertise in the following areas, among others; social ecology, human-wildlife conflict, wildlife management including animal and vegetation and community-based natural resource conservation. He has published widely in internationally acclaimed journals and has supervised more than 37 undergraduate, MPhil and DPhil research projects since 2012. Andisa  Andy  Mufungizi  is a PhD candidate at the University of Johannesburg (South Africa), under the Department of Urban and Regional Planning. He holds a Master’s degree in Sustainable Urban Planning and Development (MSUPD) and a Bachelor of Technology in Town and Regional Planning from the same institution. He has a research background in housing, land suitability analysis and infrastructure planning and development. He is a member of the Sustainable and Smart Cities and Regions Research Unit and the Future Earth and Ecosystem Services Research Group, Department of Urban and Regional Planning. Evance  Mwathunga  is an urban and regional planner and development geographer in the Department of Geography and Earth Sciences at the

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About the Editors and Contributors

University of Malawi’s Chancellor College. He holds a PhD in Geography and Environmental Studies obtained in 2014 from Stellenbosch University, South Africa and a Master of Science in Urban and Regional Planning from Heriot-Watt University, United Kingdom. His research interests are in the areas of environmental geography including climate change adaptation, spatial analysis (urban and regional planning), water governance and urban informality and livelihoods in cities in the global South. He currently serves as Commissioner and Chair of the Policy, Programmes and Projects Subcommittee of the Board of the Malawi National Planning Commission. Between 2015 and 2017, Evance was the Head of the Department of Geography and Earth Sciences. Cosmo Ngongondo  is a Professor of Earth Sciences in the Department of Geography and Earth Sciences, University of Malawi, Chancellor College and is the current Dean of the Faculty of Science. He holds a PhD in Hydrology from the University of Oslo, Norway. He is the current Chief Editor of the Malawi Journal of Science and Technology (MJST) and also serves as a Guest Editor for the Journals: Physics and Chemistry of the Earth (JPCE); and Hydrology Research. His research work in hydrological and climatic sciences was awarded the 2013 African Union-The World Academy of Sciences (AU-TWAS) Young Scientists National Award in the Earth and Life Sciences category. Godwell  Nhamo, PhD  Editor-in-Chief and Accounting Officer, is a Full Professor and Exxaro Chair in Business and Climate Change at the University of South Africa (UNISA). He undertakes research in the fields of climate change and governance, sustainable tourism, green economy and sustainable development. Prof Nhamo has conceptualised and completed 11 book projects (eight edited and three co-authored). The most recent being: Counting the Cost of COVID-19 on the Global Tourism Industry (2020); Scaling up SDGs Implementation: Emerging cases from the state, development and private sectors published by Springer (2020); SDGs and Institutions of Higher Education published by Springer (2020); and SDG 7: Ensure Access to Affordable, Reliable, Sustainable and Morden Energy by Emerald (2020). Prof Nhamo has also published over 95 journal articles. Since 2013, Prof Nhamo has graduated 11 PhDs and hosted 10 postdoctoral fellows. Professor Nhamo sits in a number of both international and national boards and has received several awards and recognitions for his outstanding work both locally and internationally. Finally, Prof Nhamo was one of the four-member African Union High-Level Panel that drafted the Green Innovation Framework for the continent. [email protected] Sádia  Chitará-Nhandimo,  is a Masters Student and research assistant at UEM. Her main research is on marine and coastal issues, with emphasis to seagrass invertebrate fisheries, documentation of its value chains and saltmarsh plant biodiversity in southern Mozambique.

About the Editors and Contributors

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Innocent Nhapi  is a Professor and freelance consultant in sanitary and environmental engineering, institutional development, and integrated water resources management. He holds an MSc from University of Technology Sydney (Australia) and PhD from UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education (Netherlands). His work experience includes 10 years in municipal engineering and 20 years in the academic and capacity development sector. He was a SADC-WaterNet Professorial Chair in IWRM 2009-2013 before joining Chinhoyi University of Technology 2014–2020. He has done consultancy work for many international organisations and has written many journals and book articles, edited journal series, and has reviewed several papers and research reports. Tatenda  Goodman  Nhapi  is a University of Zimbabwe trained social worker and has previously practised frontline social work with Zimbabwe's Department of Social Services. In 2015 Tatenda was awarded the Erasmus Mundus MA Advanced Development in Social Work. This is a joint Masters study programme between the University of Lincoln (England); Aalborg University (Denmark); Technical University of Lisbon (Portugal); University of Paris Ouest Nantere La Defense (France); Warsaw University (Poland). Tatenda has high academic standing with a growing reputation in research, evidenced by an emerging portfolio of internationally recognised publications. He publishes research in domains of social work practice, child welfare, social policy and social security. Kenneth Nhundu  is an Agricultural Economist in the Economic Analysis Unit, Agricultural Research Council in South Africa. The Unit specialises in impact assessments for agricultural science and technology policy. He holds a PhD and an MSc from the University of Fort Hare (UFH), South Africa. He was previously a Researcher in the Risk & Vulnerability Science Centre at UFH, mandated at providing risk and vulnerability assessment services to local communities and other potential users of such information. He has more than 15 years’ experience which includes training, teaching and research, community engagement, postgraduate student supervision and evaluation of research programmes. José Rafael,  MSc holder (from the University of Pretoria) and senior lecturer of GIS, Remote Sensing and Geospatial Technology at Department of Geography, UEM. His carrier covers climate change, disasters management and ecological mapping. Acquainted with land use mapping initiatives to various multi-sector contexts. Also engaged in several advisory activities that yielded technical reports and publications such as the methods for estimating vulnerability and climate-related impact in least-developed countries; the creation of Decision Support System (DSS) for climate extreme events in the Limpopo Basin and, involvement with Global Risk Identification Programme (GRIP). Rafael is currently a PhD candidate at UEM. Inês M. Raimundo  is a Human Geographer with an interest in migration and inclusive growth, food security, climate change and forced migration in

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About the Editors and Contributors

Mozambique. She is Associate Professor and Head of Department of Academic Assurance, at the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Eduardo Mondlane University, Mozambique. She has served as an executive member of the International Council for Science-Regional Committee for Africa. In 2019 she received appreciation from Global Challenge Research Fund and UK Research and Innovation for her contribution to UKRI International Development Peer Review College. Professor Raimundo has published several papers on migration and food security as a sole or co-author. Talkmore  Saurombe  is an academic and researcher in the disciplines of Education Management and Indigenous Knowledge Systems. He attained his PhD in Education Management from the North-West University-PUKKE, South Africa followed by Postdoctoral Research Fellowship Training in Indigenous Knowledge Systems with the NWU-IKS Centre-Mafikeng. He has presented papers and written on Ubuntu, education and performance management in schools and IKS in the science curriculum, Impact of Cyclones on Tourism and Indigenous Knowledge of medicines. He has reviewed several articles in education and indigenous Knowledge Systems locally and internationally and examined PhD theses in Education and Indigenous Knowledge Systems. Maria Perpétua Scarlet  has a PhD in marine Zoology (from Gothenburg University) and Assistant Professor at Eduardo Mondlane University. Her research experience cover the biology of intertidal benthic fauna including studies of metals, pesticides and plastic pollution highlight to Maputo Bay where she has recent publications. Dr Scarlet is a member of board of Faculty of Sciences of UEM and coordinates ocean acidification research initiative in Mozambique. Melusi Sibanda  has a PhD and is a Senior Lecturer in Agribusiness at the University of Zululand, South Africa. He is affiliated with the Agricultural Economics Association of South Africa (AEASA), African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE) and South African Society of Agricultural Extension (SASAE). His research interests include climate change, climatesmart agriculture, food security, rural development, ICT integration in agriculture, and smallholder farming. He has developed a recent interest in the Economics of Higher Education (HE). He has been supervising PhD and Master’s students for several years. Tanya Stathers  is an Associate Professor of Sustainable Agri-food Systems and a Postharvest specialist in the Food and Markets Department, Faculty of Engineering and Science at the Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich in the United Kingdom. Tanya’s research covers a broad range of topics related to smallholder agri-food ­systems across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and has considerable experience working in Tanzania, Kenya, Malawi, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, Rwanda and South Africa. Her research includes postharvest systems and the reduction of and understanding of post-

About the Editors and Contributors

xxv

harvest losses and rural-urban interdependencies and gender and diversity aspects of agri-food systems. Phillip Taru  is a multidisciplinary environmental scientist and an associate professor of environmental management and ecology. He holds a PhD in Earth and Environmental Sciences and a Masters in Environmental Policy and Planning. He has published widely on the intricate relationship between society and the environment, wildlife conservation and sustainable development. Phillip is an expert in hair identification which is important in many environmental applications such as wildlife crime investigation, epidemiological and forensic studies. Mduduzi  Cardinal  Tembani  is a senior researcher and Research Coordinator in the Research and Training Division of the Forestry Commission. His research interests are in Forest Genetic Resources (FGR) conservation, Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM), tree seed collection and innovation platforms/ innovation systems. He is currently the National Focal Point for the Forest Genetic Resources Country Report for the global assessment of the State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources which is coordinated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Daniel Tevera  is a Human Geographer with research interest in food and the city, Zimbabwean migration and environmental security in southern Africa. He is Professor and former Head of the Department of Geography, Environmental Studies and Tourism at the University of the Western Cape, South Africa. He has published several edited books and over a hundred scholarly papers on migration, urban food security and environmental security. Professor Tevera is a fellow of the Zimbabwe Scientific Academy and is a National Research Foundation (NRF) Rated Researcher. He is the inaugural Regional Coordinator of the Leadership for Environment and Development in Southern Africa (LEAD-SA) Programme. Nomsa  Thabethe  is the Lecturer in the Department of Environmental Sciences at the University of South Africa. Her research interests are in ambient air quality monitoring, air quality modelling, Epidemiology, Risk Assessment and Environmental Health. She has worked for the South African Governments for more than 13 years, addressing Environmental Management matters in Local Governments. She has published articles in peer-­reviewed journals. She is a Board Member of the newly registered Non-Profit Organisation called Centre for Children’s Environmental Health of South Africa (CCEHSA). Lucas Daniel Tivana  has a PhD degree in Food Engineering and is a senior lecturer at Eduardo Mondlane University, Mozambique. His research activities cover Food Science and Technology related disciplines and are focused on developing post-harvest technologies that are suitable to smallholder farmers. Dr Lucas has served as Principal Investigator in a Food Science Regional Project on Mozambique and Zambia. He has been supervising PhD and Masters students for several years. He has served as a consultant to

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About the Editors and Contributors

national institutions such as the Ministry of Agriculture and international organizations, including the Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network (FANRPAN). Muchaiteyi Togo  holds a PhD from Rhodes University (South Africa). She currently works in the Environmental Sciences Department at the University of South Africa (UNISA). She is interested in researching on greening initiatives as a response to climate change challenges. Dr Togo’s current research focusses on university responses to SDGs and the greening of water, energy and food coping strategies among households. Dr Togo has many publications including a resource book, journal articles, peer-reviewed book chapters and conference proceedings on her topics of interest. She has supervised a number of Honours, Masters and PhD students in Environmental Sciences to completion. Dr Togo has done research for international organisations like UNESCO, UNEP, the AAU, SARUA among others. She was also part of the Southern African Journal for Environmental Education editorial collective from 2010 to 2020.

Part I Introduction and Background

1

Linking the Impacts of Tropical Cyclones to the Sustainable Development Goals David Chikodzi and Godwell Nhamo

Abstract

The socioeconomic and environmental costs of tropical cyclones (also known as hurricanes or typhoons) have drastically increased over the past 20 years. Countries in the global south are disproportionately bearing the burden of these increasing costs due to their vulnerability and limited ability to adapt and build resilience. This chapter provides a background to the book and introduces key issues that will be covered in the other chapters. The chapter also links the impacts of tropical cyclones to the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and details the material and methods used in the book. The debilitating impacts of cyclones are shown to challenge the successful implementation of the SDG targets. Methods used in the book include questionnaire surveys, in-depth interviews, document and critical discourse analysis, earth observation, geographic information systems, secondary data and field observations. Keywords

Tropical cyclones · SDGs · Southern Africa · ThinkHazard · Climate resilience D. Chikodzi () · G. Nhamo Institute for Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

1.1

Introduction and Background

Tropical cyclones are extreme weather systems associated with an intense low-pressure centre, strong winds, thunderstorms and heavy rainfall, which usually have a debilitating impact on the affected communities (Sommen et  al., 2018). Thomas et al. (2017) observe hazards associated with cyclones as coming not only from the strong winds but also from flooding (both coastal and freshwater) as a result of heavy rainfall associated with such. The same authors further argue that the attribution of hazards from cyclones must go beyond the meteorological event itself. To this end, the impacts of cyclones on communities are a function of their intensity, extent of vulnerability of socioeconomic and ecological systems and the capability of exposed societies to formulate efficient disaster risk reduction (DRR) strategies (Sommen et al., 2018). Although there is still uncertainty over time and space in terms of the frequency of cyclone occurrence, there has been an observed tendency towards their intensification (Lee et  al., 2020). Literature seems to suggest that tropical cyclone numbers will remain more or less the same in most ocean regions until the end of the twenty-­ first century (Koubi, 2019; Vink & Ahsan, 2018). However, it is anticipated that cyclones rated as categories 4 and 5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale were likely to increase in frequency worldwide

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_1

3

4

(Lee et al., 2020). The Munich Re (2021) has for long classified cyclones as one of the costliest natural hazards in the world, with a total cost of US$225 billion in 2017. This saw hurricanes Harvey, Irma and Maria inflicting massive losses of over US$90 billion within a time lag of just 4 weeks. Koubi (2019) highlights that economic losses as a result of climate-related hazards rose by over 100% from 2015 (US$63.6 billion) to 2018 (US$122 billion). The socioeconomic consequences of tropical cyclones are not equally distributed the world over, with the global south countries having disproportionately carried the biggest burden due to their limited ability to build resilient infrastructure. From the year 1980 to 2015, the number of persons who lost their lives as a result of cyclones was almost 450,000, with the number of victims totalling an overage of 24 million annually (CRED, 2015). From these figures, people from developing countries in Asian and small island developing states have suffered the most as a result of the occurrence of cyclones (Ibid.). Vulnerability to cyclones is amplified by rapid population growth, and rapid urbanisation that is accompanied by increasing population density, especially in coastal communities at risk of cyclones (Djalante, 2019). Vulnerability is also aggravated by degraded ecosystems, old and failing infrastructure, as well as increasing socioeconomic disparities (Shultz et al., 2019). The threat posed by tropical cyclones is adding more pressure points to communities, economies and ecological systems, which are already failing to deal with other threats that are not climatic in nature. Hence, cyclones can harm sustainable development efforts. For example, the 2017 Atlantic hurricane season left a trail of destruction over the Caribbean. On the island of Barbuda, over 90% of structures were completely destroyed. This led to the entire island being totally evacuated and uninhabited for the first time in over 300  years (NPR, 2017; Thomas et  al., 2017). The increased threats of cyclones call for an increased understanding of the nexus between sustainable development and the occurrence of tropical cyclones. This increased understanding is more crucial to developing countries that are experiencing the most severe impacts of

D. Chikodzi and G. Nhamo

tropical cyclones due to their limited ability to adapt and build back better from the hazard (Djalante, 2019), as well as ineffective institution in DRR (McCaughey et  al., 2018; Zscheischler et  al., 2018). An in-depth study of linkages between the occurrence of cyclones and the achievement of sustainable development is invaluable in devising plans for acting on the risk and harnessing the opportunities that will enable the achievement of societal development priorities. This introductory chapter aims to link the impacts of cyclones to the SDGs (United Nations, 2015). Furthermore, the chapter details the methods used in the book, as well as highlighting its structure.

1.1.1 D  isaster Risk Reduction and SDG Achievement Tropical cyclone occurrence is unfortunately unavoidable in certain regions of the world. Human communities should therefore device ways of reducing the consequences of tropical cyclones and increase resilience to their impacts (Hay & Mimura, 2010; Helgason, 2020). This calls for the building of capacity in individuals, communities, institutions and the different levels of governments in effective DRR and management in order to minimise the impacts of cyclones on the quality of life and livelihoods, health, property, cultural heritage and the environment (Petrović et al., 2017), all perspectives addressed in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 SDGs (United Nations, 2015). The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) observe that low-income nations utilise about 9.3% of their gross domestic product (GDP) (an equivalent of US$30 billion annually) on social welfare (Haile & Nino-­ Zarazúa, 2018). This percentage is envisaged to increase significantly should the impacts of tropical cyclones continue to increase, especially when they create internally displaced persons (IDPs). Helgason (2020) observe that an estimated US$2.4 billion was spent in 2017 by 17 low-income countries to care for IDPs alone.

1  Linking the Impacts of Tropical Cyclones to the Sustainable Development Goals

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development recognises the pressing need for DRR (United Nations, 2015). The 17 SDGs recognise the robust linkages between societal well-being, the environment and delivery of ecological goods and services. Extreme climatic events like tropical cyclones threaten many livelihoods and are dragging many communities into ultra-poverty (Raza et al., 2020). All 17 SDGs are interwoven and inseparable. However, in this book, the SDGs that are emphasised and their targets related to DRR and management are depicted in Table 1.1. When disasters like tropical cyclones occur, they

5

take the affected communities several years back in the development trajectory by reversing the gains that will have been made towards the achievement of the SDGs (Nerini et  al., 2019). Cyclones will continue to inflict socioeconomic as well as environmental dilemmas that can potentially hold back the effective implementation of SDGs. Helgason (2020) highlights that the SDG Summit held in New York in September 2019 noted with concern that most countries were off track in attaining the majority of the 169 targets, in particular the 21 targets earmarked for implementation by 2020.

Table 1.1  Selected SDGs and targets related to DRR and management emphasised in the book Goal SDG 1: End poverty SDG 2: End hunger, achieve food security and promote sustainable agriculture

SDG 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all SDG 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all

SDG 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all SDG 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation

SDG 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable

Target Target 1.5: By 2030, build resilience of the poor and those exposed to intense weather events as well as other disasters. Target 2.4: By 2030, build smart and sustainable food production structures that raise productivity as well as production in ways that support ecosystem integrity and strengthen adaptative capacity to climate change and extreme weather. Target 3.d: Enhance the capability of all nations, in especially developing countries, for disaster early warnings, DRR of national and global health risks. Target 4.7: By 2030, make sure that all learners obtain the knowledge and skills required for the promotion of SD, for example, education for SD and sustainable lifestyles, appreciation of cultural diversity and its contribution to SD. Target 4.a: Build and upgrade safe and all-inclusive educational infrastructure which is child, disability and gender sensitive. Target 6.6: By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecological systems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes. Target 9.1: Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure to support economic development and societal well-being. Target 9.a: Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing nations through enhanced financial, technological and technical support. Target 11.4: Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage. Target 11.5: By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, including waterrelated disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations. Target 11.b: By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and implement, in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. (continued)

D. Chikodzi and G. Nhamo

6 Table 1.1 (continued) Goal SDG 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

SDG 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for SD

SDG 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests

Target Target 13.1: Strengthen resilience and community adaptive capacity to climate-­related hazards and natural disasters in all countries. Target 13.2: Make climate change strategies an integral component of national policies. Target 13.3: Improve education, awareness raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning. Target 13.b: Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management in the least developed countries, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalised communities. Target 14.2: By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, by consolidating their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to realise healthy and productive oceans. Target 15.1: By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services. Target 15.2: By 2020, encourage the sustainable management of all forms of forests, stop deforestation and rehabilitate degraded forests. Target 15.9: By 2020, make ecological system and biological diversity an integral component of national and local development planning, as well as integrating them into poverty reduction strategies.

Source: Authors, data from UN (2015)

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (Sendai Framework) 2015–2030 is aimed at significantly reducing the effects of disasters in terms of death, financial losses and damages, as well as interruption of basic services (UNDRR, 2015; WMO, 2016). As tropical cyclones continue to occur and increase in intensity around the world, the Sendai Framework, if implemented effectively, will help to reduce and prevent their impacts through clear targets and priorities for action, as articulated in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Target (e) of the Sendai Framework set 2020 as the year countries would have enacted national and local DRR plans. By April 2020, of the 85 countries reporting under the Sendai Framework, only six countries had their DRR strategies fully aligned to the framework, while 34 countries had their strategies aligned from 75% to 99% (UNStats, 2020). A sizeable number of countries (18 of them) still had their DRR strategies less than 50% aligned

to the requirements of the SFDRR (Fig.  1.1). This limited alignment will constrain these countries in implementing efficient DRR plans in the case of tropical cyclones and other disasters. A tropical cyclone event produces a domino effect on the impacted area. This will be in the form of primary, secondary and territory hazards. Primary hazards are directly caused by the tropical cyclone and are difficult, if not impossible, to mitigate to any significant extent. Secondary hazards also occur as a result of the impact of the primary hazards, and it is partly possible to mitigate them (Rogers et al., 2020). Tertiary hazards of tropical cyclones result from the impact of both the primary and secondary hazards or may be a manifestation of human failure and usually have considerable societal impacts (Ibid.). Usually, these hazards are related and sometimes interconnected, with each hazard leading to further impacts and can be both short and long terms. Table 1.2 illustrates some of the primary,

1  Linking the Impacts of Tropical Cyclones to the Sustainable Development Goals

7

40

number of countries

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1

0.75–0.99

0.5–0.74

0.01–0.49

Fig. 1.1  Degree of alignment of national and local DRR strategies to the SFDRR Source: Authors, data from UNStats (2020)

secondary and tertiary hazards associated with tropical cyclones. The next section discusses the impacts of tropical cyclones on agriculture (SDG 2) and health infrastructure and systems (SDG 3).

1.2

Impact of Cyclones on Agriculture and Public Health

The impacts of tropical cyclones on agriculture direcftly link with the achievement or lack thereof of the second SDG, which aims to end hunger, achieve food security and promote agriculture that is sustainable (United Nations, 2015). As observed, many parts of the world that are vulnerable to tropical cyclones also depend heavily on agriculture for livelihoods, income and supporting downstream industries (Mohan, 2017). The impacts of cyclones on agriculture are noted to depend on several factors such as the status of the crops, level of crop development, type of crops and whether the crops are in the direct path of the cyclone. Research done globally shows that agricultural production is very sensitive to cyclones and in most vulnerable tropical countries, small-scale farmers in particular are extremely susceptible to their effects and experi-

ence massive losses in crop production, leading to food and livelihood insecurity (Mohan, 2017; Rakotobe et al., 2016). In Bangladesh, for example, seasons of multiple tropical cyclones have led to the cumulative loss of over 1.6 million acres of cropland and, in most cases, they strike when many of the crops are nearing harvest time (Hossain et  al., 2008). Furthermore, movement to agricultural commodity markets is usually disrupted in the hardest hit areas. In Dominica, agriculture and its value chains contribute about 13% of the GDP and employ about 21% of the labour force with the main export crop being bananas. In 1989 when tropical cyclone Hugo hit the country, agricultural GDP declined by 14.6%, while non-­ agricultural GDP rose by 4.4%, leading to the overall decline of the GDP reduction by 1.1% (Benson & Clay, 2001). Hurricane Dean’s devastation of the Caribbean led to the abrupt cessation of banana exports to Europe, negatively affecting the livelihoods of over 4000 farmers and other downstream value chains (Mohan, 2017). Banana and pawpaw plants have been identified as the most sensitive to tropical cyclone damage, while tannia, ginger and pineapples have been noted to be more resistant (Ahmed, 2001). Tropical cyclones can also have a negative impact on crop production for more than one season. This is due

D. Chikodzi and G. Nhamo

8 Table 1.2 Primary, secondary and tertiary hazards related to cyclones Cyclone primary hazards Lightning Strong winds Heavy rainfall Intensive tropical heat

High impacts Damage to property and destruction of livelihoods Excess deaths and injuries IDPs

Cyclone secondary hazards Flooding Landslides/mass movement Storm surges Rise in water levels in reservoirs Riverbank widening and erosion Soil erosion

Degradation of arable land Loss of freshwater resources Severe disruption to transportation and supply chain networks

Cyclone tertiary hazards Damage to embankments, irrigation and drainage infrastructure, pumping facilities Loss of agricultural land IDPs Loss of infrastructure, e.g. transportation, schools, hospitals, energy and communication Waterborne diseases Environmental degradation Siltation of water resources Extensive shortages of food and water Increase in insecurity Civil unrest

Source: Authors, adopted from Rogers et al. (2020)

to erosion of the top and productive soil, soil salination due to storm surges, outbreak of diseases in the aftermath, damage to production equipment, and destruction of irrigation and related infrastructure (Mohan, 2017). On the other end, Shultz et al. (2019) foresee the impacts of tropical cyclones on public health increasing in communities located in vulnerable areas. After the 2017 hurricane season in the West Indies, the death tolls in the affected areas continued to grow for several months as victims faced extended power cuts, shortage of basic provisions and a weakened healthcare system. In Puerto Rico, for example, the official death toll after hurricane Maria was 58. However, 10 weeks after the disaster, preliminary studies of excess

deaths showed that the death toll was about 20 times higher compared to previous years (Robles et  al., 2017). This suggests that more deaths occurred in the aftermath of the disaster. Tropical cyclones also propel the emergence of communicable diseases such as malaria and waterborne diseases like cholera. These are usually triggered by the failure of power grids, which in turn disable water and sewer treatment systems. Hence, cross-contamination of the water supply with wastewater usually takes place (McMichael, 2015). Psychological distress is also usually experienced by those who survive the tropical cyclone event. Direct and inevitable exposure to a possible deadly threat can trigger depression and/or post-traumatic stress disorder (Shultz et al., 2019). This is further heightened by pressures and hardships that occur in the aftermath of the hazard (Ibid.). Galea et  al. (2007) argue that as much as a third of the survivors can be affected by mental disorders after a life-­ threatening hurricane. These risks of mental health problems are very high for special populations like children, the elderly, the disabled and persons with special needs. For those already diagnosed with recurring mental health problems, interruption of routines and hinderances to getting medical attention as replenishing medicines can lead some patients to decompensate (Goldman & Galea, 2014). Other SDG-related impacts from tropical cyclones and covered in this book include education (SDG 4) and water and sanitation (SDG 6).

1.3

Impact on Education, Water and Sanitation

Dobkin et al. (2010) view classroom attendance as being one of the crucial factors defining the academic performance of learners. Spencer et al. (2016) argue that natural disasters like tropical cyclones have negative impacts on the educational ecosystem of the affected place. This is because they cause school children to be absent from the classroom. Absenteeism occurs after tropical cyclones due to the roads leading to schools being damaged, transport constrained

1  Linking the Impacts of Tropical Cyclones to the Sustainable Development Goals

and school infrastructure also being damaged (Baez et  al., 2010). In the aftermath of tropical cyclones, schools sometimes remain closed until renovations or reconstructions are done or until authorities deem them safe to re-accommodate learners. It has also been observed that closures of schools during such disaster events disrupt teachers’ productivity in the classroom, worsening the learning environment (Spencer et  al., 2016). In a study conducted by Spencer et  al. (2016) to determine the impact of hurricanes on student pass marks in the Caribbean, the authors concluded that hurricanes had a negative impact on the performance of students, especially in science subjects. Furthermore, the greatest negative impact occurred when hurricanes strike when schools are in session. Hurricanes occurring when learners are in session lead to the reduced number of school days and the number of classroom instruction hours. Hence, this results in poor performance from students. Jacoby and Skoufias (1997) observe that when disasters like cyclones occur, poor households often indulge in negative coping mechanisms. Such negative coping mechanisms include taking children out of school and using them as child labour to reduce the economic burden and increase income. In Fiji, for example, Monier (2016) observed that soon after cyclone Winston struck, as many as 120,000 students were temporarily left without schools to learn from. This was mainly because close to 240 schools were either damaged or ruined and most schools were used as temporary evacuation shelter for people who had lost their homes. Ensuring the availability, efficient management of safe and adequate water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) facilities is the aim of SDG 6. According to UN Water/WHO (2019), WASH facilities are key components of the public health and well-being of society. If a massive disturbance to WASH systems occur, this may result in huge public health challenges and possibly epidemics that may worsen a humanitarian crisis. Despite the absence of WASH facilities impacting on the quality of life and undermining basic human rights, in the year 2017, as many as 2.2 billion people globally did not have access to

9

safely managed water, 4.2 billion did not have access to safely managed sanitation and 3 billion lacked access to basic handwashing facilities (Rafa et  al., 2021). Large funding gaps in the global south hamper the achievement of SDG 6 targets despite notable improvements (UN-Water/ WHO, 2019). WASH concerns are usually heightened during tropical cyclones as facilities can be damaged. Cyclones impose damage to WASH facilities due to strong winds, heavy rainfall, inland flooding and coastal storm surges (EPA, 2015). Damage to WASH facilities as a result of cyclones includes pipe breaks, sewage spills, loss of power and pumping equipment, loss of water quality testing capacity and damage to utility equipment such as storage reservoirs (Ibid.). Due to their importance to society, WASH facilities should be designed to withstand shocks imposed by tropical cyclones so that they may remain functional or at least provide the minimum level of required service (Rafa et al., 2021). This scenario is key for the timeous recovery of the impacted communities. Building cyclone smart WASH facilities is almost solely dependent on the willingness of governments to finance such facilities (Rafa et al., 2021). The next section is dedicated to briefly look at the impacts of tropical cyclones to infrastructure (SDG 9) and human settlements (SDG 11).

1.4

Impact on Infrastructure and Settlements

Global agendas such as the Paris Agreement, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the New Urban Agenda and the Sendai Framework all endeavour to have investments that produce climate-smart (SDG 13) infrastructure, which supports sustainable development. In as much as it is SDG 9 that clearly spells out the need for constructing resilient infrastructure, the achievement of most of the SDGs is underpinned by the development of appropriate infrastructure (World Bank, 2015). Investments in infrastructural development create jobs and synergies in the economy and support the services that stimulate the capability of individuals to be economically

D. Chikodzi and G. Nhamo

10

productive. Having resilient infrastructure that can survive the shocks exposed to it throughout its lifetime provides resilience and protects sustainable development. Infrastructure that can withstand shocks from, for example, tropical cyclones shields the economy by minimising disruptions to industry and guarantees the continuity of critical servitudes like power, hospitals and water during a disaster (World Bank, 2015). Smart infrastructure reduces disruption to community livelihoods and therefore brings stability for them. For the world to stay true to the SDGs and achieve their targets, infrastructure investment between US$3.2 and US$3.7 trillion per year is required between 2015 and 2030 (World Bank, 2015). However, there have already been noted gaps in infrastructural investment in many countries of the global south that are over US$452 billion from 2014 to 2020. The average spending on infrastructure in these countries is estimated to be at around US$259 billion against a requirement of over US$711 billion (UNstats 2020; World Bank, 2015). Figure 1.2 depicts the gaps in funding infrastructural projects in different regions of the world. The most glaring gap in funding is in south Asian countries. These are also countries at the highest risk of tropical cyclone hazards, and with their anticipated intensification in future, Actual spending

this represents an increased threat to less resilient infrastructure (Pennisi & Malakoff, 2017). There is a need for urgent action to support the development of resilient infrastructure to cope with the increased risk in this region. Unless this is implemented, the region is unlikely to achieve the SDG targets by the year 2030 in the face of such threats (Lin et  al., 2016). For sub-Saharan Africa, the gap in funding could be small when compared to other regions from the global south, but the close to two billion difference is enough to increase vulnerability to disasters for the affected communities. To support decision-making on locating new projects and infrastructure, as well as improving their designs to cope with potential hazards, the World Bank produced a decision support system known as ThinkHazard. The web-based tool enables even non-specialists to robustly assess the impacts of hazards on new development projects. The hazards included in the ThinkHazard database are the risks of river floods, earthquakes, droughts, cyclones, coastal flooding, tsunamis, volcanoes and landslides. The ThinkHazard web tool user only needs to enter the location of their project, which can be the national, provincial or district name. The output shows the user whether they require high, medium or low awareness of specific hazards Gap to meet requirements

250

US$ Billion

200 150 100 50 0 Middle East Sub-Saharan Europe & East Asia & Africa Central Asia Pacific & North Africa

Fig. 1.2  Gaps in infrastructural funding across the globe NB: Data exclude China, which is over-investing in infrastructure Source: World Bank (2015)

Latin America & Caribbean

South Asia

1  Linking the Impacts of Tropical Cyclones to the Sustainable Development Goals

when planning for their project (ThinkHazard, 2021). The aim of the ThinkHazard project is to assist planners to identify, prioritise and manage multiple hazards with the greatest chance of causing damage to their interests. Taking cyclones as a case in point, when the risk is classified to be high, it implies that given the information currently available, there will be a more than 20% chance of potentially damaging wind speeds and heavy rainfall in the area in the next 10 years. It also means that to achieve sustainable projects, the impact of cyclones must be considered at all phases of project development, in particular during design and construction (ThinkHazard, 2021). Areas classified as being of medium risk to cyclones mean that there will be a 10% chance of potentially damaging wind speeds and heavy rainfall in the area in the next 10 years (Ibid). Figure  1.3 depicts the levels of tropical cyclone risk in Southern Africa as given by the ThinkHazard project. Its shows that the small island nations of Mauritius, Reunion, Seychelles, Comoros as well as Madagascar and Mozambique have the highest risk of tropical cyclone occurrence. The southern parts of Malawi, as well as

Fig. 1.3  Risk of tropical cyclones in Southern Africa Source: Authors, data from ThinkHazard (2021)

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eastern and south eastern Zimbabwe, have a high-to-medium risk of cyclone occurrence. In terms of the impacts of tropical cyclones on communities and settlements, it has been observed that since 2008, over 20 million persons have been driven from their shelter as a result of this risk (Koubi, 2019). In addition, climatic hazards are posing threats to national security by aggravating existing conflict drivers like poverty, livelihood insecurity, poor leadership and food insecurity (Ibid.). Rigaud et  al. (2018) observe that climate-related migration will continue to increase the IDPs, especially in countries of the global south. Climate-related hazards like tropical cyclones create hotspots of in- and out-­migration, as people move to less vulnerable areas. This trend, as highlighted by Rigaud et al. (2018), will have more effects on the most vulnerable communities in the poorest countries, which will further enhance inequalities within and between countries. The occurrence of hurricanes is also observed by Baez et al. (2017) to increase the rate of migration in the Caribbean and South America. Waters and Adger (2017) argue that climate hazard-related

D. Chikodzi and G. Nhamo

12

migration will make the realisation of SDGs difficult. This is because most migrants move from rural to urban environments that are already lacking in services and social support, which makes them even more vulnerable to other urban hazards like flooding. Those left behind in areas of out-migration are usually the vulnerable groups like women and children who are less able to manage the impacts of climatic hazards (Waters & Adger, 2017). This is usually the case in many countries of the global south. Tropical cyclones also have some impacts on the oceans (SDG 14), biodiversity (SDG 15) and tourism (covered across several SDGs).

1.5

Impact on Natural Resources, Oceans and Tourism

Tropical cyclones have accelerated the pace of degradation of natural ecosystems in the areas that are impacted. Storm surges from tropical cyclones dump huge volumes of saltwater that pollute coastal freshwater resources and disturb close-by terrestrial ecosystems (Smith et  al., 2008). This tends to disrupt benthic and coastal terrestrial habitats and inflict damage to fisheries, thereby affecting SDG 14 that focuses on the ocean (blue) economy (Sainsbury et  al., 2018). Storm surges during cyclones can induce massive changes in coastal geomorphology over a short period of time. This is due to erosion and deposition processes that, in turn, influence coastal hydrology, ecosystem productivity and other biogeochemical processes (Steneck et al., 2019). Tropical cyclones can also increase the mortality or displacement of coastal fauna and flora, directly linking into SDG 15 (Radabaugh et  al., 2019). The structural damage caused by strong winds that occur during cyclones has been shown to increase the rate of tropical forest fragmentation in tropical forests. Furthermore, areas that are frequently hit hard by tropical cyclones tend to have dichotomies in forest structure and canopy attributed to the phenomena (Simard et  al., 2019). Hogan et  al. (2020) view the

impacts of tropical cyclones on ecological systems as interacting with other stressors to create complex responses at landscape levels. Damage as a result of cyclones has been noted to have fast-tracked the long-term degradation of Caribbean coral reef cover from 2% to 6% (Gardner et al., 2005). The occurrence of tropical cyclones also affects the tourism industry both directly and indirectly, thereby impacting three SDGs that makes explicit reference to tourism including SDG 8, SDG 12 and SDG 14 (United Nations, 2015). The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) details three main reasons tourism activities decline in the aftermath of disasters such as tropical cyclones (WTTC, 2018). The main reason is that the damage to infrastructure and facilities induced by the cyclones prevent the impacted area from engaging in tourism; the decline can be due to the perceived risk, hence the avoidance of areas deemed to be vulnerable to disasters. In other instances, potential tourists may feel uncomfortable or have ethical concerns about visiting a region in crisis (Rossello et al., 2020). Literature also provides several real-life examples of dips in tourist arrivals following tropical cyclones (Bhati et  al., 2016; WTTC, 2018). The West Indies, for example, is the most tourism-dependent region in the world. The industry is the major contributor to livelihoods and often serves as the primary industry or at least as a major earner of foreign exchange (Rossello et al., 2020). In Antigua and Barbuda, as well as Anguilla, the tourism industry constitutes over 70% of the GDP (WTTC, 2018). Granvorka and Strobl (2013) observes that on average, hurricane occurrence leads to about a 2% loss in tourist arrivals for the average destruction in the West Indies, while the most destructive ones can lead to over 20% reduction. In 2004, Hurricane Ivan led to damages worth US$1.1 billion in Grenada and resulted in significant reductions in tourist arrivals (Rossello et al., 2020). The next section briefly touches on the methods used in generating and analysing data by over 60 authors that contributed to the book.

1  Linking the Impacts of Tropical Cyclones to the Sustainable Development Goals

1.6

Methodologies Utilised

13

it was the victims who directly responded to questions that directly answered the research The research for this book was mainly carried out questions. Surveys were administered in selected in three Southern African countries, namely impacted communities in Zimbabwe, Malawi Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. These and Mozambique. The questionnaire surveys countries were the hardest hit by tropical cyclone produced mainly quantitative data, which in most Idai, which occurred in March 2019. Given the cases were analysed using descriptive statistics aim of the book, which was to document the and cross tabulations. In Zimbabwe, for example, impacts of tropical cyclones and their implica- questionnaire data capturing was done using the tions for the attainment of SDGs in Southern QuestionPro software. This made data analysis Africa, the mixed methods approach was pre- much easier to perform as patterns and relationferred in the collection, analysis and presentation ships merged in near-real time. of data. The mixed methods approach was preIn-depth interviews were done in all the showferred because the nature of the subject the book cased countries. These were done with purposesought to address was transdisciplinary. Aramo-­ fully selected key stakeholders who were deemed Immonen (2013) opines that the mixed methods to have in-depth knowledge about the occurrence approach involves the collection and analysis of of cyclones in the areas of study. Participants of both quantitative and qualitative data and pro- in-depth interviews differed from country to vides researchers, across research disciplines, country, but included local government officials, with a robust approach to answering research traditional leaders, political leaders, scientists, questions especially if they are complex in nature. government officials, prominent survivors, interAll 20 chapters in the book used a different mix- vening institutions, NGOs involved and local ture of methods in an endeavour to answer the community leaders. These produced mainly research questions being asked. qualitative data which was analysed using theThe case study approach was used in most of matic content. the chapters in the book. A case study approach Since tropical cyclones hit specific geographic was preferred because it can generate an in-depth, areas and impacts are felt at specific locations, multi-dimensional understanding of a complex GIS and earth observation techniques were used issue in its real-life setting (Crowe et al., 2011). to help visualise the impacted areas and the relaThe case study approach is applicable to several tionships that exist among the affected places. disciplines though it has been widely used in the Maps of the impacted places and impacted infrasocial sciences. Yin (2009) observes case studies structure were produced to help explain why to have utility in explaining and exploring events these were hit hard and also to aid in the recovery in the ordinary contexts that they occur, hence process. Satellite imagery were also utilised to helping to understand causal links and pathways show the impact of tropical cyclones before and of cause-and-effect relationships. after the event and to show recovery in some The data-gathering techniques included areas. The extent of damage in some hard-to-­ household questionnaire surveys, in-depth reach places, such as forests, agricultural land ­interviews, document and critical discourse anal- and areas affected by landslides, was assessed ysis, earth observation, geographic information using different earth observation techniques. systems, secondary data analysis and field Different vegetation indices generated from difobservations. ferent sensors were also utilised to determine the Questionnaire surveys were used as one of the extent of damage to key vegetation biomes and main data-collection techniques. These involved rangelands in general. Field observations were going directly to the affected communities and also carried out during fieldwork operations. asking them to complete the survey detailing Some of the pictures taken during field visits and their personal as well as household experiences. observations were used to aid descriptions in Questionnaires used produced reliable data since terms of the extent of the damage. The pictures

D. Chikodzi and G. Nhamo

14

help the reader to vividly conceptualise and understand the extent of the damage due to the tropical cyclones. Secondary data used were compiled from reputable sources such as the United Nations agencies, the World Bank, African Development Bank, disaster management agencies in the studied countries, non-governmental organisations with interests in DRR, different government ministries with an interest in DRR, as well as hydrological and meteorological service departments in the profiled countries. The organisation either produced reports detailing the impacts of cyclones as they occurred at different phases of the disaster management cycle or regularly monitor or collect records on meteorological and hydrological parameters, which are key in understanding the intensity and impacts of tropical cyclones. Data from secondary sources were in most cases used to triangulate data collected from primary sources such as questionnaires and field observations. Given that some sources of data needed validation since there was too much data being generated from various sources over short periods of time, secondary data became handy in this process. The next and final section in this chapter presents the book and chapter outlines.

1.7

Layout of the Book

This book is divided into five parts. Part one gives the introduction and background to the book. It has one chapter that links the impacts of cyclones to the SDGs. Part two focuses on the impacts of cyclones on agriculture and public health. This part contains five chapters with case studies from Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Part three of the book concentrates on the impacts of tropical cyclones on education, water and sanitation and livelihoods. It has four case studies detailing victims from the tropical cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Part four of the book has got three chapters focused on the impacts on infrastructure and settlements. Part five of the book looks at the impacts of cyclones on natural resources, oceans, tourism and other losses. It has six chapters with case studies from mainly Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique.

The final chapter focuses on the policy implications of the findings from the book. The book comes as part of a series with three volumes. The other volumes include ‘Cyclones in Southern Africa Vol. 1: Interfacing the Catastrophic Impacts of Cyclone Idai with SDGs in Zimbabwe’ and ‘Cyclones in Southern Africa Vol 2: Foundational and Fundamental Topics’.

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Part II A Focus on Agriculture and Public Health

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Impacts of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Cash Crops Agriculture in Zimbabwe David Chikodzi, Godwell Nhamo , and Joshua Chibvuma

Abstract

There has been a notable increase in the frequency and impacts of tropical cyclones hitting Zimbabwe. In particular, the southeastern parts of the country are more vulnerable to tropical cyclones. The high winds and excessive rainfall that accompany tropical cyclones as well as the resulting floods have had significant impacts on commercial agricultural production. In Zimbabwe, agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. Production of cash crops employs thousands and earns the country foreign currency. This chapter assesses the impact of tropical cyclone Idai on the production of cash crops like bananas, tea, macadamia nuts, passion fruits, avocados, peaches, flowers and sugarcane. This chapter uses document analysis, in-depth interviews with key informants and direct field observations in the collection of data. Results show a setback in cash crop production due to the cyclone. Crops ready for the market were destroyed, irrigation and storage infrastructure were damaged as well as disruptions to market D. Chikodzi () · G. Nhamo Institute for Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] J. Chibvuma Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, Lydia Chimonyo Girls High School, Nhedziwa, Zimbabwe

access for produce. The most impacted were small-scale cash crop producers without access to insurance and credit. Lessons from this chapter help to inform the best ways in which the sector can become resilient to future shocks and building back better from the crisis. Keywords

Cyclone Idai · Cash crops · Damage recovery Chimanimani · Chipinge

2.1

Introduction and Background

Tropical cyclones are one of the most devastating extreme weather events in social, economic and biological terms (Wiener et  al., 2020). Susceptibility to tropical cyclones has been on the increase because of population increase and the negative impacts of climate change and variability (Perfecto et al., 2019). Agricultural enterprises in most parts of the globe are a key component of food production and support rural livelihoods. Damage to cash crop agriculture as a result of tropical cyclones has been highlighted by Mohan (2017) to include the destruction of the actual crops, plantations and orchards; damage to irrigation equipment and facilities and the long-­

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_2

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term loss of arable land and soil fertility on land areas flooded. Perfecto et  al. (2019) noted that even though extreme events were not the only external factor influencing the variability in crop produce and eventual earnings, they strongly influence revenue inconsistencies that in most cases affect the welfare of farmers. While tropical cyclones impact negatively on cash crop production and all farmers are affected, the most vulnerable will always be those that lack the means to cope such as the poor, marginalised and those with limited access to formal safety nets such as insurance (Mohan, 2017). With no formal safety nets, marginalised farmers rely on informal insurance systems that are not resilient to severe and systemic intense weather events (Rakotobe et al., 2016). When these risks occur, hard won accumulations and assets are lost and rural livelihoods are threatened. Agriculture, specifically small-scale farmers, forms the backbone of rural economies in most African countries. For example, in Zimbabwe, agriculture directly contributes about 11% of the gross domestic product and accounts for nearly 16% of export earnings. In addition, the sector provides livelihoods for close to 70% of the population and employs 52% of the economically active population (Rapid Impact and Needs Assessment – RINA, 2019). Achieving meaningful rural transformation has been long highlighted to be a serious challenge in sub-Sahara Africa. However, the key to unlocking this challenge has to a large extent been observed to be strongly inter-linked to rising the income levels of rural households that are mainly agrarian (Govereh & Jayne, 2003). This therefore requires a transformation of the mainly low input, semi-subsistence and low productivity agricultural systems which dominate much of Africa (Rakotobe et al., 2016). Cash crops production represents one of the best options to drive sustainable rural development. In Africa, rural income levels and productivity can be enhanced through undertaking cash crop production under established value chains that help farmers to source critical inputs on a contractual basis as well as linkages with markets for the produce (Dorward et al., 1998). In addition to the direct increase in rural household earn-

D. Chikodzi et al.

ings as a result of cash crop production, in most cases there will be significant indirect impacts on the productivity of other household activities such as food cropping (ibid). Regional transformation also occurs when cash crop projects attract investments to a place. This provides widespread positive spill-over effects to the farming communities of that area irrespective of whether they participate in cash crop production or not (Govereh & Jayne, 2003). For example, the widespread adoption of a particular cash crop in a region may stimulate the ready availability of key inputs such as fertiliser which can also be used in the production of food crops (ibid). Regional spill-over effects also accrue where cash crop production incentivises the private sector to invest in market place structures which then produce synergies with other agricultural activities such as food production. Strasberg (1997) highlights that private sector investment in transport and logistics initiatives meant to support the cash crop value chain has also increased the outputs from small-scale grain producers and grain commodity traders. It is generally argued that the production and marketing of cash crops generates essential linkages with more subsistence-­ oriented crops and in the end may raise rural household income and lead to sustainable rural transformation (Govereh & Jayne, 2003). The increasing risk of cyclones and extreme weather events imposes a serious risk to cash crop production and threaten benefits that they bring to the eastern parts of Zimbabwe. It has been argued that cash crop production is key in providing sustainable rural livelihoods, food security, rural transformation and poverty reduction in Zimbabwe (FAO, 2017). This therefore makes cash crop production a key component of the rural economy and any risks imposed on it will have severe socioeconomic impacts for farmers and will send shockwaves to the economy of the country as a whole. In Madagascar, the frequent occurrence of cyclones has been noted to be one of the main contributory factors to the Island nation’s heightened levels of food insecurity as well as poverty (Rakotobe et al., 2016). This chapter aims at assessing the impacts of the 2019 tropical cyclone Idai on the production

2  Impacts of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Cash Crops Agriculture in Zimbabwe

of cash crops in the Chipinge and Chimanimani districts of Zimbabwe. Further, this chapter critically examines the possibilities of recovery from the cyclone-induced damages in an endeavour to inform the best ways in which the sector can recover and become resilient to the risks associated with tropical cyclones. This brings the chapter into direct interaction with target 1.5 of SDG 1 which aims ‘by 2030, to build resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable circumstances by reducing their exposure and vulnerability to climate-­ related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters’ (UN, 2019: 5). This chapter also directly addresses SDG 2, which aims to fight hunger, assist communities realise food and nutritional as well as sustainable agricultural practices. Specifically addressed will be targets 2.3 which endeavour by ‘2030, to double the agricultural productivity and earnings of small-­ scale food producers, women, native peoples and farming families’. Target 2.4 that aims by 2030, to ‘ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that rises production and productivity, help maintain ecological systems, strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters’ (UN, 2019: 7), will also be addressed in this chapter. The next section reviews literature on cash crops and the impacts that extreme weather events have had on their production.

2.2

Literature Review

In agribusiness, sustained crop harvests over longer periods of time together with extreme weather resilience determine agriculture’s capability to support rural development (Perfecto et al., 2019). Due to climate change and variability, it is anticipated that the frequency and severity of tropical cyclones and extreme weather events will also increase (Altieri & Nicholls, 2017). Societies located in dry arid to semi-arid regions, those on flood vulnerable places, water stressed regions and small island nations have been noted to be predominantly more susceptible to the effects of

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climate change (Andersson-Tunivanua, 2019). Additional influences of vulnerability to extreme weather conditions include the socioeconomic situation, responsible leadership, institutional factors, availability of natural resources and equity in distribution, gender, adaptive capacity (Brown et  al., 2018). Globally, increased frequency in tropical cyclones, floods and other extreme events will constrain agricultural development more than any other factor (Altieri & Nicholls, 2017). For example, tropical cyclone Eline dumped abnormally high amounts of rainfall in parts of Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and South Africa that caused widespread flooding (Smithers et al., 2001). Typically, the rainfall received equated to a one in 200 years rainfall event. Agriculture was one of the most devastated sectors with damage to physical crops and supporting infrastructure being widespread. Despite technological innovations and the fourth industrial revolution, the state of climate has remained a critical driver in crop production (Engku & Ramsden, 2016). Any major deviation in hydro-climatic parameters at a place such as temperature, precipitation, wind speed and humidity affects crop growth, development and eventual yields (Dabi & Khanna, 2018). The suddenly altered weather patterns, for example excessive rainfall leading to flooding, can increase crop vulnerability to infection, pest infestations and choking weeds (Hatfield et  al., 2014). Ismail and Chan (2019) observed the El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon as being one of the major force influencing climatic patterns that directly govern crop production worldwide. In Zimbabwe, it has been observed that different crops react differently to changes in climatic parameters with maize more vulnerable compared to root and tuber-based crops such as sweet potatoes, peanuts and groundnuts. In addition to waterlogging, floods can hinder field operations and result in late planting because of the predominantly inundated soils. This then significantly reduces the length of the growing season. Intense rainfall activity as in the case with tropical cyclones can damage younger plants, promote grain lodging in mature crops, damage arable land and increase the rate of soil erosion.

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The main result will be a net reduction in both the quality of the crop in terms of its grading for the market and quantity in terms of output tonnage, as well as the cost of production in terms of salvage efforts to save the damaged crop (Perfecto et al., 2019). In Fiji, the post-cyclone surveys undertaken after the 1985 cyclones by the Fiji Government (1985) highlighted that the agricultural sector suffered up to 30% losses of its production capacity. When tropical cyclones Eric and Nigel had hit, the majority of the sugarcane had already been harvested from the fields. However, nearly 100,000 tonnes of ripened and ready to harvest crop were lost after the crop was flattened, twisted and broken. The cyclones also damaged agriculture-related infrastructure such as sugarcane mills, railway lines, power plants as well as disrupting most agro-related services. Chung (1987) observed that the young cane in the fields during the aftermath of the cyclone did not show any strained growth nor any serious agronomic defects. This situation was ascribed to consistently elevated levels precipitation as well as perfect plant development conditions in the aftermath of the extreme weather events. The manifestation of the problem only became clear towards harvest periods when significantly reduced yields were apparent. This suddenly led to a shortfall in sugar production of approximately 125,000 tonnes worth $85 million in value, yet a record harvest was anticipated. Significant physiological harm incurred by the crop during the cyclones went unnoticed by both the extension service workers and the farmers till it was harvest time (Fiji Government, 1985). Chung (1987) highlighted the main reason for this state of affairs to be the fact that farmers had incurred losses during the extreme weather events in addition to the projected lower cane market prices. Farmers, therefore, became hesitant to invest more funds on important factors of production such as fertiliser, herbicides, labour and general care. The affected crop was to a large extent deprived the necessary inputs in comparison to the normal years. Further, the cane variety widely planted on the island was principally sensitive to harsh weather conditions and poor agronomic

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practices. The identification of such less obvious effects of cyclones requires experience, skills and on-farm assessment of standing crops. Qualitative observations on the response of coffee farms to the 2017 hurricane Maria in the Caribbean showed some mixed results. Some damaged crops showed quick recovery to levels before the hurricane, yet some crops were seriously damaged and did not show any visible signs of recovery in the near future. It was observed that land husbandry practices and intensity of inputs were a key factor in the recovery process. Perfecto et al. (2019) observed minimal damage at a farm where coffee trees were thickly intercropped with citrus trees. The comparatively low canopies of both the citrus and coffee trees created formidable windbreaks which reduced direct damage by the wind. In terms of having climate-smart cash crop production, it has been noted that organic crop schemes in the United States generally produce between 90% and 95% of conventional farming system yields (Lotter, 2003). However, organic systems outperform the conventional under both water-stressed and flooded situations. Research also shows that organic agricultural systems have much lesser output fluctuations in the long-term, hence higher harvest stability compared to conventional farming (Altieri & Nicholls, 2017). The capacity to reduce rates of erosion, overflow and crop damage as a result of excessive rainwater has been acknowledged as a serious threat to cash crop production but has been proven to improve significantly under organically managed systems (Lotter, 2003). Organic agriculture leads to enhanced soil stability and resilience to erosion when equated soils managed under conventional systems. This is due to improved soil aggregation, permeability, lower bulk density and higher resistance to wind erosion (Brown et al., 2018). Comparisons of erosion rates in organic versus conventional systems show significantly lower erosion under organic agriculture, organic systems have been proven to out produce conventional agriculture under conditions of excessive precipitation and other weather extremes (Holt-­ Gimenez, 2002).

2  Impacts of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Cash Crops Agriculture in Zimbabwe

Damage of agricultural produce by extreme weather events was observed by Wolfe et al. (2018) to present opportunities for stimulating improved agricultural production. This can occur through the replantation of larger areas of damaged crops, substituting crops with little market value with those higher, planting high yielding and climatesmart plant varieties and improving the support systems afforded to farmers. An effective agricultural restoration programme needs to take into consideration all of these factors. AnderssonTunivanua (2019) advocated for the in-depth studies to understand how severe cyclones affect not just the environment but also conservation efforts and motivation at the local level. The next section profiles the study area of the chapter as well as the materials and methods used in the collection and analysis of data.

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of the Highveld and also areas of intensive and semi-intensive farming, respectively, that are subject to episodic seasonal droughts, mid-­season dry spells and unreliable onset of the rainfall season (Mambo & Archer, 2007). Rainfall amounts between 450 and 600 mm per annum are received in region 4 found in the Lowveld and mostly suitable for cattle ranching and very uncertain for rain-fed farming. Regions 4 and 5 are predominantly communal and too dry for successful crop production without irrigation (Chikodzi, 2018). Hence, the establishment of many smallholder irrigation schemes in these areas by the government to try and raise the livelihoods of the rural populations staying there. The Chipinge and Chimanimani districts are part of two river catchments which are Save and Budzi. The areas in region 1 contain significant amounts of the eastern Afromontane biodiversity and the ­ Chimanimani Mountains being a key hotspot 2.3 Materials and Methods (Chimanimani, 2017). The research used a cocktail of methods in the The study focuses on the impacts of cyclone Idai collection, analysis and presentation of data. on cash crop production in the Chimanimani and In-depth interviews were done with key inforChipinge districts of Zimbabwe. Figures 2.1a and mants to solicit their views on the impacts of the 2.1b show the areas profiled in this chapter. The cyclone on cash crop production in the affected figures show the main cash crop farms and places areas. Field observations were carried out at samaffected by tropical cyclone Idai and the agro-­ pled selected sites in the affected areas. This was ecological regions represented in the meant to validate and cross-triangulate the data Chimanimani and Chipinge districts. The chapter that had been gathered through both primary and will mainly concentrate on the impacts in these secondary sources. Purposive sampling was used districts because they were the hardest hit by the in the selection key informants for the in-depth cyclone. Agricultural activities in these two interviews. Key informants were chosen on the ­districts are generally diversified due to varied basis of critical having knowledge to answer the agro-­ ecological conditions which support the research questions. These included official from production of a wide range of food and cash the Ministry of Agriculture, farm managers, indicrops. In these two districts, all of Zimbabwe’s vidual farmers and personnel from community-­ agro-ecological regions are represented from based organisations. In-depth document analysis regions 1 to 5, but the region 1 in both Chipinge was also carried out in the research. This involved and Chimanimani was the most heavily impacted. the consultation of reports and grey literature Agro-ecological region 1 is categorised as the from government, NGOs, multi-national organmost productive, with uppermost rainfall amounts isations like the World Bank and press reports. over 1000 mm per year and contains deep fertile Similar research, for example, Nhamo and soils. On the other hand, agro-ecological zone 5 Mjimba (2020) have also used a combination of has the lowest agricultural potential, receiving a methodologies adopted in this chapter. An combination of the least reliable and lowest attempt to establish the impact of the cyclone by amounts of rainfall and also containing poor soils establishing the economic value of damaged cash (Chikodzi et al., 2020). Regions 2 and 3 are part crop was done using assumptions of estimated

D. Chikodzi et al.

24

Fig. 2.1a  Study area and affected cash crop areas in Chipinge and Chimanimani Source: Authors

yield of the cash crop per hectare based on assumptions at lower value; estimation of land that was under production and estimation of the economic value of the cash crop on the world market.

2.4

Findings and Discussions

The provinces that were hardest hit by tropical cyclone Idai were Manicaland, Masvingo and some parts of Mashonaland East. These provinces are among the main producers of key cash crops in Zimbabwe. For example, 32% of tobacco, 96% of avocado and 93% of bananas produced in Zimbabwe come from these areas (RINA, 2019). This implies that tropical cyclone Idai impacted most area of commercial crop production. Figure 2.2 highlights the damage to ara-

ble land in Chimanimani and Chipinge districts. These were the hardest hit districts with Chimanimani having 45% and Chipinge 20% of its arable land damaged by the cyclone. Damage to agricultural land has also been highlighted as one of the heaviest impacts of tropical cyclones to communities, hence the need for rapid impact assessments soon after the impact in order to inform recovery programmes on agricultural livelihoods (ADB, 2019; Wiener et al., 2020). Significant hectarage of land under cash crop production were lost during cyclone Idai. Table  2.1 shows the area under cash crop production damaged when cyclone Idai hit the Manicaland Province of Zimbabwe. Table  2.1 shows that sugarcane, bananas and beans were the hardest hit in terms of land surface area destroyed. Some of the damaged crops, for example macadamia and tea, are key income genera-

2  Impacts of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Cash Crops Agriculture in Zimbabwe

25

Fig. 2.1b  Agro-ecological regions in the study area Source: Authors

tors that are grown mainly for the export market and are only produced in Zimbabwe’s agro-ecological region 1, which covers the areas hardest hit by the tropical cyclone. Most of the damage can be attributed to high wind speed that caused wind throw and breakage, landslides as well as the flooding and water logging conditions that were widespread during this period. The damaged hectarage of land under cash crops as shown in Table 2.1 could actually have been higher than reported because some farmers were still recovering from the shock of the cyclone and were not able to send their damage figures or the cash crops that seemed to have survived the cyclone latter on failed or responded in a way the farmers

had not anticipated. This was the case for most of the visited farms including Rathmore and Dombera in Chimanimani. Close to 30 hectares of cotton shown in Table  2.1 has been affected by cyclone Idai. Cotton is of strategic importance in Zimbabwe because it promotes all-encompassing economic growth, poverty reduction, rural transformation and food security. This is because in most rural spaces, the production of cotton creates a foremost link to the markets and is an important element of livelihood strategies among remote and vulnerable rural households. Fruit trees form an important component of the specialised and diversified farming done in

D. Chikodzi et al.

26 50

% Arable land damaged

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Chipinge

Chimanimani

District Fig. 2.2  Arable land damaged in Chipinge and Chimanimani districts Source: Authors, RINA (2019)

Table 2.1  Hectarage of cash crop damage in Manicaland Province

Crop Beans Tomatoes seed maize Commercial maize Banana Onions Cotton sugar cane Guava pineapple Tea Citrus Coffee Colocasia esculenta Macadamia

Crop Loss/Damage (Ha) 1492.5 192.4 54 129 2500 2 30 3556 20 131 46 120 5 90 19

Source: Authors, RINA (2019), GoZ (2019), Chatiza (2019)

the affected area. Key informants observed that close to 88% of the losses in fruit trees occurred in banana plantations followed by pineapples at 7% (Fig.  2.3). Given that the cyclone had wind speeds between 80 and 120  km/h accompanied by intense rainfall, it is not surprising that banana fields were hardest hit given their weak phenol-

ogy and structure. Assessments done showed that 1626  ha of fruit trees were damaged by the cyclone. An estimated 88% of the affected fruit trees were bananas that had an approximate value of close to US$11 million. The other fruit trees like the pineapple with 131 ha affected was valued at US$840,000 and macadamia’s 19 hectares was valued at US$350,000 (RINA, 2019). Table 2.2 shows the losses in US dollar terms incurred due to cyclone Idai-induced damage on fruit trees specifically from selected wards in Chimanimani district. Bananas and pineapples had the biggest monetary value in terms of losses that occurred. This is hardly surprising given that they also had the largest hectarage destroyed when it comes to fruit trees. Farmers in this category may need support from different stakeholder if they are to fully recover from the losses given how big they are. The heaviest losses occurred in Ngorima A and B; Gwindingwi and Manyuseni wards. Tropical cyclone Idai also had serious impact on the commercial harvest of wild fruits. These fruits occur in the wild, but have commercial value which leads the local communities to organise themselves into cooperatives that harvest and market the natural produce. Some well-­ known commercial firms enhance the value chain

2  Impacts of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Cash Crops Agriculture in Zimbabwe

27

7% 3% 1% 1%

88%

Banana

Pineaple

Mango

Orange

Macademia

Fig. 2.3  Fruit trees affected Source: Authors, RINA (2019), Agritex (2019), Chatiza (2019) Table 2.2  Monetary value of damaged fruit trees in Chimanimani district (US$) Ward

Banana

Pineapple

Mango

Orange

Macadamia

Manyuseni

2,294,250

360,000

40,800

100,000

50,000

Ngorima A

2,992,500

164,000

36,000

90,000

75,000

Ngorima B

2,331,000

168,000

43,200

70,000

75,000

Gwindingwi

2,520,000

124,000

24,000

10,000

112,500

Nyahode

656,250

24,000

2,400

—

37,500

Tilbury

162,750

—

16,800

—

—

Chikukwa

31,500

—

—

—

—

Totals

10, 988,250

840,000

163,200

270,000

350,000

Source: Authors, RINA (2019)

of these fruit tree harvests by sending trucks to buy and collect the produce which they use as key ingredients in their food and beverage processing industry. The hardest hit wild fruit trees in the area were guavas. It is estimated that close to 600 tonnes on this fruit was lost because the cyclone occurred just when the fruit had reached maturity and was about to be harvested. Figure 2.4 shows the tonnage of fruits lost due to tropical cyclone Idai. Close to 10 tonnes of mango and 10 tonnes baobab fruits were lost to the cyclone, as

well as close to 4 tonnes of Uapaca kirkiana (mazhanje/mashuku) and 2 tonnes of avocado. Farmers in the affected areas also got into contract farming with different stakeholders, for example, tomato and pea production with CAIRNS foods and millet with National Breweries. Some NGOs have been promoting agro-processing and marketing of organic herbs and chillies, baobab fruit, honey, peanut butter, citrus jam and juice on a more localised scale. Organic certification has recently become an

D. Chikodzi et al.

28 12

Output lost (t)

10 8 6 4 2 0 Avocado

Mango

Baobab

uapaca kirkiana

Fig. 2.4  Output lost from commercialised wild trees Source: Authors, Agritex (2019)

option for farmers producing for Organic Africa or under the ZimOrganic label, though the growers have not yet been able to realise reasonable mark-up profits from the market (Chimanimani, 2017). The impact of cyclone Idai on commercial farming crops and produce was different in extent from farm to farm. Rathmore farm in Chimanimani, which is mainly into horticulture with 90% of their produce earmarked for export to the European markets, was one of the hardest

hit. The cyclone occurred just at the time when they were preparing to start harvesting macadamia in April and avocados in July. The farm lost close to 12 ha of macadamia and 2 ha of avocado. In all cases, damage occurred on the best crop at the farm. Figure 2.5 shows the impact of cyclone Idai on commercial crops at Rathmore farm. Determining their loss in monetary value was done for macadamia using the formulae:

45kg pertree(estimated yieldpertree) * 312treesperha * US$12 per kg ( price of macadamia ) *12ha. (2.1) For avocadoitwas 80kg / tree * 208 treeperha * US$14.42 / kg * 2ha The total loss at the farm including crops and equipment was US$ 1.86 million. Dombera farm, which employs around 200 employees, is one of the few farms around the world that is licensed to grow Eryngium (thistles). Cyclone Idai’s strong winds and rainfall either bent or broke growing flowers leading to the loss of over 20,000 plants with a value of over US$20,000. The farm also produces passion fruit, peaches, flowers, peas, chillies, plums for

mainly the export market. The operations at the farm were also seriously handicapped by the loss of water storage and irrigation capacity. This was due to the complete destruction of the three supply dams on the farm together with associated pumping technology. As a horticultural farm, without water they could not produce their crops which also implied no income for the farm. The lack of water has therefore imposed a financial blow to the farm operations as well as revenue.

2  Impacts of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Cash Crops Agriculture in Zimbabwe

Before

29

Damaged

90 80 70

Hectares

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Macademia

Avocado

Fig. 2.5  Impact of cyclone Idai at Rathmore farm Source: Authors

Among the biggest losses of potential revenue at the farm was the loss of a significant hectarage of passion fruit, which is one of key earners of foreign currency. In a normal season, the farm produces between 18 and 22 tonnes per ha of passion fruit. Initially the farm downplayed the impact of the cyclone on the passion fruit and thought that the disturbed crop would recover only to discover the crop reacted in a different way and was no longer exportable. In other instances, some crops neither showed any growth stress nor any severe agronomic defects after the cyclone, only to produce yields below expectation. An additional 15 ha of land was cut-off from the rest of the farm or became unusable due to the incision of a new stream and dumping of huge rock boulders on farming land. That affected part of the farm estimated to take between 4 and 5 years to reclaim. Accessibility to fields within the farm’s feeder roads became a challenge since the roads were now in a bad shape, no longer smooth as required and could potentially compromise the delicate produce from the farm which needed to get to foreign markets intact. Figure  2.6 shows two fields that had a thriving passion fruit crop in the aftermath of cyclone Idai at Dombera farm. The figure clearly shows the boulders deposited on productive land by the cyclone landslides and

also the extent of land degradation which it imposed. The massive disturbances to landscapes due to cyclones was noted at the farm to also lead to invasion by invasive alien species especially the Vernonanthura polyanthes locally known as Mupesepese. This invasive shrub was first observed on the landscape after tropical cyclone Eline in the year 2000 and it is widely predicted that this species will increase the colonised territory after cyclone Idai causing further stress to the production of cash crops on the farm and surrounding landscapes. The extensive and immense disturbance to vegetation as a result of cyclones offers ideal situations for the speedy recruitment, spread and proliferation of invasive alien species. Studies, for example, by Camarero (2019) have observed the proliferation of invasive species in Australia in the aftermath of tropical cyclones. On a positive note, the pressure from monkeys and baboons on the production of fruits was observed to have significantly reduced by as much as 70% after the cyclone. These animals posed a serious threat to the crops on the farm from flowering stage to maturity and were composed of up to six different troops with numbers ranging from 50 to 60 in each. Figure 2.7 shows the Vernonanthura polyanthes invasive alien

30

Fig. 2.6  Destruction of cash crop land at Dombera farm, Chimanimani Source: Authors

Fig. 2.7  The invasive Vernonanthura polyanthes at Dombera, Chimanimani Source: Authors

D. Chikodzi et al.

2  Impacts of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Cash Crops Agriculture in Zimbabwe

s­pecies starting to invade previously productive land damaged by cyclone Idai and Dombera farm. Some of Zimbabwe’s most productive cash crop farms owned, for example, by Ariston Holdings and Meikles which are listed on the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange also incurred huge losses as a result of tropical cyclone Idai. Estates owned by these companies include Roscommon, Southdowns, Clearwater, Jersey, Zona, Tanganda, Tingamira and New Year’s Gift and are located in Chipinge and Chimanimani districts. These estates have invested heavily in avocado, macadamia and tea plantations. Ariston estimated that cyclone Idai cost them over USD$1.5 million losses with the extent of damage varying substantially from estate to estate, but the greatest effects were witnessed at the Roscommon Estates in Chimanimani (Zwinoira, 2019). Other costs as highlighted by key informants were associated with damaged buildings, warehouses and other processing facilities at the farms which further weighed on their operations. There were also costs associated with re-routing of the produce to export markets. Most of the agro-exporting com-

31

panies relied on ports in Beira for exporting their produce to markets especially in China. Given the serious impacts of cyclone Idai on Mozambique and specifically the port of Beira, produce from these estates had to be re-routed to the Durban port in South Africa for some time, adding further costs of the crisis. Table 2.3 shows the impacts of cyclone Idai on smallholder irrigation schemes in Chimanimani and Chipinge districts. These schemes were established as a means to achieve rural transformation by encouraging the largely substance farmers to take up agriculture as a business enterprise. Most of the produce from these smallholder irrigation schemes are cash crops that are marketed locally and to nearby urban settlements and are very key to the sustainability of rural livelihoods in the area. According to SAFIRE/OXFAM (2016), in their study of climate change adaptation in the Lowveld sections of the Chimanimani district, irrigation was noted to be essential for productive agriculture and food security in the district. They proposed huge investments in irrigation which involve technically sound schemes, robust management systems and continuous maintenance and repairs.

Table 2.3  Estimated losses to small-scale irrigations schemes District Chimanimani

Chipinge

Name of irrigation scheme Nyanyadzi Tonhorai Gudyanga Mhandarume Chakohwa Nenohwe Nyabamba Cashel Valley and Mutambara Zimunda Bvumbura Musikawanhu Chibuwe Block B and E Mutema Maunganidze Bwerudza Gambadziya Musinzwi Mugondi Delivery pipeline washed away

Total Source: Authors and GoZ (2019)

Land area (Ha) 440 72 48 7 87 107 37

No. of farmers 721 89 60 – – – –

750 320 180 65.5 180 – – –

3125 614 113 84 235 – – –

2293.50

5041

Estimated cost US$ 1,800,000 40,000 80,000 100,000 30,000 25,000 340,000 1,216,000 50,000 50,000 214,000 120,000 250,000 180,000 100,000 150,000 50,000 80,000 15,000 4,890,000

D. Chikodzi et al.

32

Table 2.3 shows that over 2293  ha of land under commercial crop irrigation was damaged resulting in loss of potential harvest and impacting on the livelihoods of over 5041 smallholder farmers and imposing a monetary value loss of well over USD$4890000. Further, compared to the huge commercial farms that can make insurance claims, these smallholder farmers with their weak financial muscle will be unable to recover from the shock of the cyclone Idai unless they get external support. To make matters worse, marketing of produce in the hardest hit places came to a complete stop as a result of road closures. Even well after cyclone Idai in October 2019, movement of commercial crops from these areas remained both sluggish and costly. Construction and repair of damaged roads was still concentrated on the major roads with almost nothing having been done on the damaged feeder roads and causeway bridges. This has disturbed access to markets, affected employment as well as livelihood strategies for persons in the cash crop supply and value chains. Examples of cash crop damage include the Gudyanga irrigation scheme which supports over 60 farmers on 48 hectares, lost sugar bean seed crop and onion seedlings and a storage shade flooded and silted. A large portion of arable land which supported commercial crops in the low lying areas such as Rusitu, Kopa and Cashel were waterlogged and had large portions of arable land washed away. The majority of large and small irrigation schemes suffered from siltation of the weirs, small dams, water conveyance systems and crop (maize, sugar beans, sorghum and cotton) damaged due to flooding, topsoils were also washed away. The Inter-Agency Flooding Rapid Assessment Report (2019) observed that at Cashel Valley and Tandayi areas cash crops affected include Michigan beans, Irish potatoes, cabbages, sugar beans, tomatoes. Water logging affected crops in the fields such as tomatoes, cabbages and potatoes. The quality of the remaining crops was affected greatly by excessive water and yields were greatly reduced. Further the report noted that at Hangani, Chikukwa and Charleswood resettlement areas, cash crops affected included cabbages, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes. Access

roads and bridges to markets, crops and fields were seriously damaged. The cyclone also affected the whole value chain of cash crop marketing including areas outside the cyclones direct impact. For example, fruits and other agricultural produce such as taro (madumbe) became temporarily unavailable at commodity exchange markets in Zimbabwe like Mbare Musika in Harare. Loss of indigenous seed varieties and other genetic material during the cyclone is a potential handicap to sustainable cash crop food production in the affected areas (Chatiza, 2019).

2.5

Conclusions

Zimbabwe’s economy is strongly linked to agricultural performance. Due to the strong interconnection between agriculture and the entire economy, the effects of disaster on the sector to a large extent slow down overall economic development. Cash crop production at both large and small scale was heavily impacted negatively by tropical cyclone Idai. The destructive capacity of the cyclone came from strong winds, high rainfall totals and the resultant floods. The disturbance of cash crop production occurred in three main ways: physical damage to crops, destruction of irrigation infrastructure and processing equipment and damage to market access routes. All this resulted in the disturbance to the livelihoods of the affected communities given the strategic importance of cash crop agriculture as a tool for sustainable rural transformation. In most cases observed in the study area, places where cash crops survived the initial cyclone, the crop quality was seriously compromised and in most cases was no longer suitable for export markets. The cyclone Idai aftermath has to a large extent increased environmental risks and hazards and has reduced the resilience of local cash crop producers. Loss of vegetation cover leads to high levels of exposure because the natural defence against future flood waters and landslides is greatly reduced. Occurrence of events similar or even much lower than cyclone Idai in the future are likely to impose even higher magnitude of destruction unless there is serious investment into

2  Impacts of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Cash Crops Agriculture in Zimbabwe

resilient and climate-smart cash crop production. It is strongly recommended to assist this sector to adapt to the impacts of tropical cyclones given its importance socioeconomically. The recovery of cash crop production from damages imposed by tropical cyclone Idai must be guided by the both the short- and long-term needs of the affected farmers. This information only be accurately produced through a ‘leave no one behind’ form of participatory decision-­ making process. The recovery plan should aim to make the formers recuperate quickly in the short term, as well as building resilience to related disasters in the long term. The policy towards rehabilitation of cash crop production and related infrastructure is normally dependent on the severity of the damage, strategic importance of the destroyed crops to the economy of the area, the costs of rehabilitation and availability of funds, technical capacity of the intervening institutions as well as the political will to ‘build back better’ as advocated for in the Sendai Framework of Disaster Risk Reduction. In the case of Chimanimani and Chipinge districts, cash crop production is key to achieving rural transformation and sustaining the livelihoods of the affected farmers. Massive injection of funds in resuscitating the lost production is therefore justified given the overall importance of this sector to the economy and achievement of the sustainable development goals.

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Camarero, P. (2019). Exotic vine invasions following cyclone disturbance in Australian wet tropics r­ainforests: A review. Austral Ecology, 44, 1359–1372. Chatiza, K. (2019). Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe: An analysis of policy implications for post-disaster institutional development to strengthen disaster risk management. Oxfarm. www.oxfam.org Chikodzi, D. (2018). Unusual waterscapes and precarious rural livelihoods: Occurrence, utilization and conservation of springs in the Save Catchment, Zimbabwe. PhD thesis, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town. Chikodzi, D., Tevera, D., & Mazvimavi, D. (2020) SDG 15 and socioecological sustainability: Spring waterscapes and rural livelihoods in the save catchment of Zimbabwe. In G.  Nhamo, G.  O. A., Odularu, & V.  Mjimba (Eds.), Scaling up SDGs implementation (Sustainable development goals series). https://doi. org/10.1007/978-­3-­030-­33216-­7_4. Chimanimani, R. D. C. (2017). Chimanimani District climate change response and watershed policy. Chung, J. (1987). Fiji, land of tropical cyclones and hurricanes: A case study of agricultural rehabilitation. Disasters, 11(1), 40–48. Dabi, T., & Khanna, V.  K. (2018). Effect of climate change on rice. Agrotechnology, 7. https://doi. org/10.4172/2168-­9881.1000181 Dorward, A., Kydd, J., & Poulton, C. (Eds.). (1998). Smallholder cash crop production under market liberalization. CAB International. Engku, E. A., & Ramsden, S. (2016). The effect of climate change on rice production in Malaysia. Retrieved from http://ap.fftc.agnet.org/ap_db.php?id=573. FAO. (2017). National gender profile of agriculture and rural livelihoods  – Zimbabwe: Country Gender Assessment. Fiji Government. (1985). Ministry of primary industries cyclones Eric and Nigel report. Fiji Government Printer. Govereh, J., & Jayne, T.  S. (2003). Cash cropping and food crop productivity: Synergies or trade-offs? Agricultural Economics, 28, 39–50. Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ). (2019). Manicaland Province Cyclone Idai Disaster Report, 11 May 2019. Hatfield, J.  L., Takle, G., Grotjah, R., Holden, P., Izaurralde, R. C., Mader, T., Marshall, E., & Liverman, D. (2014). Agriculture. In J. Mellilo, T. C. Richmond, & G. Yohe (Eds.), Third National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program. Holt-Gimenez, E. (2002). Measuring farmers’ agroecological resistance after Hurricane Mitch in Nicaragua: A case study in participatory, sustainable land management impact monitoring. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, in press. Inter-Agency Flooding Rapid Assessment Report. (2019). Inter-Agency Flooding Rapid Assessment Report for tropical Cyclone Idai. Ismail, N.  W., & Chan, S.  M. (2019). Impacts of the El Niño- Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on Paddy

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3

A Comparative Study of the Impacts of Flooding on Food Security of Urban and Rural Households in Blantyre City and Chikwawa, Malawi Miriam Dalitso Kalanda Joshua, Tanya Stathers, Ruth Kalinga Chirwa, Cosmo Ngongondo, Richard Lamboll, Maurice Monjerezi, Evance Mwathunga, Raymond Kasei, Felistus Patience Chipungu, and Emma Teresa Liwenga

Abstract

The impacts of climate-related risks on rural– urban linkages and the food systems on which M. D. K. Joshua () · R. K. Chirwa · C. Ngongondo · E. Mwathunga Department of Geography and Earth Sciences, University of Malawi, Chancellor College, Zomba, Malawi e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] T. Stathers · R. Lamboll Natural Resources Institute (NRI), University of Greenwich, Greenwich, UK e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] M. Monjerezi Department of Chemistry, University of Malawi, Chancellor College, Zomba, Malawi e-mail: [email protected] R. Kasei Climate Change and Food Security Department, University for Development Studies, Tamale, Ghana F. P. Chipungu CGIAR, Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station, Limbe, Malawi E. T. Liwenga Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania e-mail: [email protected]

urban settlements depend are poorly understood. This study analysed (i) the climate trends for Blantyre City and rural Chikwawa district in Malawi, (ii) the sources of foods typically consumed in these locations, (iii) the implications of flooding following Tropical Cyclone Idai on urban and rural households’ interconnected agri-food systems and food security. Although floods were reported to cause both positive and negative effects on food production; food flows between rural and urban areas; and household food security, the negative effects (i.e. destruction of crops, homes and transport routes; higher food prices) outweighed the positives. In both rural and urban areas, poorer households were disproportionately affected resulting in reduced dietary diversity and food intake, shifts to consumption of cheaper foods, and requests for emergency food donations. Given the rapid rate of urbanisation, better understanding of food security amongst urban households is required. Following extreme events such as flooding, special attention needs to be directed to assessing and addressing food availability, access and consumption challenges in both

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_3

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urban and rural areas reliant on interconnected agricultural and food flows, and particularly in poor households. Keywords

Urban food systems · Climate change adaptation · Extreme events · Urban–rural linkages

3.1

Introduction and Background

The world is rapidly urbanising (Punjabi and Johnson 2019; UNDESA 2019). By 2030, projections show that there will be over 759 million African urban dwellers (UNDESA 2019). This rapid urbanisation, ~3.5% per year in Africa, poses many challenges, including for national and local governments regarding the provision of infra­ structure and services, which are already notably lacking in many areas. Alongside this rapid urbanisation, climate change is posing a serious global threat, to which Africa, faced with multiple stresses and low adaptive capacity, is particularly vulnerable. Many low-income countries experiencing rapid urbanisation are struggling to manage the combined effects of growing populations and climate risks especially amongst the poor ­ (Johannessen et al. 2014; Kasei et al. 2019). While increasing attention has been paid to the social, political and environmental effects of urbanisation (Johannessen et  al. 2014, Punjabi and Johnson 2019), the impacts of climate-related risks on rural–urban linkages and the food systems on which urban settlements depend on are poorly understood (Reardon and Zilberman 2018). Numerous different factors are simultaneously driving change in livelihoods and food systems and their associated socio-ecological systems. Alongside increased food demand due to population growth, shifts in diets (especially in low- and middle-income countries) are expected to affect production regions, land requirements, value chain activities and nutrition (e.g. increased production, consumption and trade of perishable

fruits, vegetables, animal-sourced and processed foods; processing and packaging structures) (Tschirley et  al. 2015; Roos et  al. 2017; Bren d’Amour et  al. 2020). On the supply side, amongst other stressors, increasing climate variability and extreme events are acknowledged as key drivers behind the recent rises in global hunger and one of the leading causes of severe food crises (FAO et al. 2019). A systematic review of food system resilience found that most studies modelled the robustness of food systems and not their adaptiveness and transformability (Meyer 2020). This highlights the need for that quantitatively model the impact between the food systems and associated environmental and social systems and along the food value chain to generate relevant insights for food system governance (Meyer 2020). Rural and urban issues have been typically seen as and dealt with separately. However, as urbanisation and inequality increase, more sophisticated analyses of the linkages and interdependencies between rural and urban areas  – provided by the flows of people, goods, services, information and money  – have emerged, and increasingly recognise their importance to both social and ecological concerns (Tacoli 1998; Meyer 2020). These urban–rural linkages and the impact of climate change on interdependent agri-­ food systems in Malawi were explored by Joshua et al. (2011). The changing nature of climate variability and extreme events is negatively affecting all dimensions of food security (food availability, access, utilisation and stability) (FAO et  al. 2018). In addition to warming temperatures, many studies report on the changing intensity and frequency of extreme rainfall events (such as floods) (Brown et al. 2012; Alexander et al. 2006; Donart et al. 2013; Zhang et al. 2017; Ngongondo et al. 2011; Ngongondo et al. 2014). Frequent occurrences of extreme rainfall events (floods and droughts) are now widespread in many Sub-Saharan African countries (FAO et al. 2018). Projections suggest further increases of extreme rainfall events with serious implications for people’s livelihoods (Nicholls et  al. 2007; IPCC 2007, 2010, 2014; Bates et al. 2008). Similar current observed and

3  A Comparative Study of the Impacts of Flooding on Food Security of Urban and Rural Households…

projected changes are suggested for Malawi (Ngongondo et  al. 2014, 2015). Links between climate variability and food insecurity are well documented. For example, severe droughts linked to the strong El Niño of 2015–2016 affected many countries including in southern Africa (GoM 2015; FAO et al. 2018) and contributed to the rise in undernourishment at the global level (FAO et al. 2018). Malawi is a country prone to floods, over half of its 28 districts  – both urban and rural  – are affected by flooding (GoM 2009, 2011, 2019; Nilsson et  al. 2010; DoDMA 2013; UNECA 2015; Winsemius et  al. 2018). The floods are largely associated with El Niño southern oscillation (UNECA 2015; McSweeney et  al. 2008; Environmental Affairs Department, 2002). Increased occurrence of El Niño and La Niña events has resulted in more frequent flooding. Several studies explore the anticipated effects of climate change on different dimensions of food security (Reincke et al. 2018; Gregory et al. 2005; Smith and Gregory, 2013; FAO et al. 2018). Flood shocks  – defined as annual rainfall higher than one standard deviation from the 50-year average – are associated with a 35% decrease in total and food per-capita consumption and 17 percentage point increase in extreme poverty (Azzari and Signorelli 2020). However, understanding the effects of current and projected extreme precipitation events on vulnerable rural and urban household food security and livelihoods through the lens of rural–urban agricultural and food flows is understudied but is needed to inform localised adaptation policies and interventions. This paper addresses this knowledge gap by exploring the implications of increasing climate-related risks, particularly flooding, on agriculture and food system linkages between rural localities and centralised mid-scale urban centres in Malawi, and on household food security. This study assessed the implications of flooding on poor urban households’ food security in Blantyre City and on food and agricultural flows in Magalasi Village, Chikwawa rural, Malawi. To achieve this, the study had three specific objectives: (i) to analyse climate trends, climate risks (including tropical cyclones and extreme rainfall)

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and river discharge from empirical records, for evidence of flooding events; (ii) to document the sources of foods typically consumed by households’ in the focal locations; (iii) to analyse the effects of flooding on household food security (availability, access and consumption) in Blantyre City and on food production, food flows and food access in Chikwawa rural.

3.2

Research Design

3.2.1 Focal Sites Within Malawi, the Southern Region is the most prone to flooding events (Winsemius et al. 2018). Over half of the most affected districts are in the south, amongst which Blantyre, Nsanje, Chikwawa, Zomba and Mulanje are the worst-­ affected areas (GoM 2015). This chapter explores the implications of climate risks for food security of urban poor households in Blantyre City and rural households in Magalasi Village in Chikwawa district. They provide comparative case studies of locations which experienced flooding incidences in 2019 following Tropical cyclones including Tropical Cyclone Idai (GoM 2019). Blantyre City is located in the Shire Highlands, while Magalasi Village is located in a rural part of the low-lying semi-arid Chikwawa District.

3.2.2 Survey Tools and Approach The study builds on earlier work done under the ‘exploring urban-rural interdependence and the impacts of climate change and climate variability’ project (Joshua et  al. 2011; Liwenga et  al. 2012). The focal sites, Blantyre City and Chikwawa rural, were selected as they represent an urban and an agro-ecologically low potential rural area with interconnected agricultural and food flows; they are situated in the Southern Region of Malawi which is particularly affected by current and projected climate-related risks including flooding. The study used mixed methods to gather and triangulate relevant information. Meteorological data, documents of official

M. D. K. Joshua et al.

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flooding records and key stakeholders’ perceptions were used to analyse climate trends and risks, as described in sect. 2.2.1. For specific objectives (ii) and (iii) (types and sources of foods and impacts of flooding), a wide range of stakeholders involved in the food and agricultural systems were consulted through individual interviews or specific workshop or focus group discussion events in both Blantyre City and Chikwawa rural. The majority of these were conducted during the earlier research (Joshua et al., 2011; Liwenga et al., 2012). However, to update the information as needed and to provide a particular focus on flooding impacts, a further four focus group discussions and 10 key informant interviews were conducted following the 2019 floods in southern Malawi. This chapter uses data from 25 key informant interviews with strategically important stakeholders (water officials and local government officers (meteorological, agricultural, nutrition, environmental, health and planning), traders and vendors of agricultural products, village headmen and NGO staff); six focus group discussions (disaggregated by gender) with residents of Bangwe area of Blantyre City in 2011 and 2019, and Magalasi Village in Chikwawa rural in 2019. The key information interviews were conducted using a checklist, and the focus group discussions involved a checklist and participatory tools. The aims of these consultations were to: learn about the focal communities’ agri-food systems and the rural–urban interdependencies of them; understand perceived drivers of change in them and their impacts, and any activities regarding climate change adaptation; explore perceived vulnerability/adaptive capacity and coping strategies to climate change and other drivers of change. These qualitative data were thematically analysed.

3.2.3 Hydro-Climatological Data and Analysis Daily rainfall data for six meteorological stations in the study areas were collected from the Malawi Department of Climate Change and Meteorological Services (DCCMS). Blantyre

Table 3.1  Climate stations used in rainfall analysis Climate Serial station 1 Bvumbwe

Lat (oS) −15.92

Long (°E) 35.07

2

Chichiri

−15.78

35.03

3

Chikwawa

−16.03

34.78

4

Chileka

−14.02

33.38

5

Ngabu

−16.50

34.95

6

Nchalo Illovo

−16.23

34.93

Alt Record (m.asl) period 1146 1960– 2016 1132 1960– 2016 107 1970– 2015 1158 1948– 2016 102 1960– 2016 64 1971– 2015

urban area was represented by three stations, namely, Bvumbwe, Chichiri and Chileka while Chikwawa rural area was represented by the stations at Chikwawa, Nchalo Illovo and Ngabu (Table  3.1). A simple average of the rainfall at the three stations in each setting was used to represent a regional rainfall for the full common period 1971–2014. From the daily data, longterm monthly averages and total annual rainfall were derived to understand the nature of the rainfall climatology and temporal variations. In addition, the study derived 11 extreme rainfall indices (Table 3.2) using the package RClimDex by Zhang & Yang (2004) in R statistical software (R Core Team 2020). The indices are amongst a whole set of temperature and rainfall extremes indices defined by the Expert Team (ET) on Climate Change Detection and Indices (ETCCDI) and are recommended by the World Meteorological Organization–Commission for Climatology (WMO–CCL) and the Research Programme on Climate Variability and Predictability (CLIVAR) for the analysis of rainfall extremes. Significance of trends in the rainfall variables was analysed using the ­Mann-Kendall (MK) Test (Mann 1945; Kendall 1975). The MK test is recommended by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO 1988). To derive the expected magnitudes of AMS 1 (Annual 1-day maximum rainfall Series) and AMS 5 rainfall extremes in the study area, the study adopted the rainfall quantiles described by

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Table 3.2  Extreme rainfall indices Code RX1day

Name Max 1-day precipitation amount Max 5-day precipitation amount Simple daily intensity index Number of heavy precipitation days Number of very heavy precipitation days Consecutive dry days Consecutive wet days

Rx5day SDII R10 R20 CDD CWD R95p R99p PRCPTOT

Very wet days Extremely wet days Annual total wet-day precipitation

Definition Monthly maximum 1-day precipitation

Unit mm

Monthly maximum consecutive 5-day precipitation

mm

Annual total precipitation divided by the number of wet days (defined as PRCP> = 1.0 mm) in the year Annual count of days when PRCP> = 10 mm

mm/ day days

Annual count of days when PRCP> = 20 mm

days

Maximum number of consecutive days with RR  =1 mm Annual total PRCP when RR > 95th percentile Annual total PRCP when RR > 99th percentile Annual total PRCP in wet days (RR > =1 mm)

days days mm mm mm

Source: Zhang and Yang (2004)

Ngongondo et  al. (2011) for homogenous Regions 1 and 3 of southern Malawi. In that study, the lower Shire River basin covering Chikwawa and Nsanje Districts was identified as Region 1 while Blantyre was part of Region 3. The respective regional rainfall quantiles were multiplied by the mean 1xDay and 1x5 Day rainfall for comparison with the rainfall magnitudes that were experienced during Cyclone Idai.

3.3

Presentation and Discussion of Findings

This section analyses climate trends, climate risks (including tropical cyclones and extreme rainfall) and river discharge from empirical records, for evidence of flooding events.

3.3.1 C  limate Trends, Climate Risks and River Discharge 3.3.1.1 Rainfall Climatology During the period 1961–2015, the urban areas of Blantyre received mean annual rainfall averages of 1140.2  mm, 1000.0  mm and 834.6  mm at Bvumbwe, Chichiri and Chileka, respectively. These rainfall amounts are higher than in the

rural areas of Chikwawa which during the same period received mean annual rainfall averages of 763.8 mm, 763.4 mm and 696.0 mm at Chikwawa, Ngabu and Nchalo meteorological stations, respectively. The mean monthly rainfall distribution at these different locations during the period 1961–2015 is shown in Fig.  3.1. The months from November to April account for over 80% of the total annual rainfall at all the stations. Rainfall peaks during the months of January, February and March at all the stations. These are also the months when most of the devastating cyclones occur in both locations, and in recent years have increased in frequency (Fichett 2018). During the focal time period, none of the six stations had significant trends in the annual rainfall regime (Fig.  3.2), according to the Mann-­ Kendall (MK) statistic at α  =  0.05 significance level. Similar trends in the annual rainfall have been reported by other studies, including Ngongondo et  al. (2011) for the period 1961– 2007 and Ngongondo et al. (2011) for the period 1978–2007. The highest wet season rainfall amounts experienced during the period of available data were a total rainfall of 1899  mm at Bvumbwe station in 1997, followed by Chichiri (1669  mm) in 2002 and Chileka (1331  mm) in 1985. During the same period, the rural stations in Chikwawa had maximal annual rainfalls of

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M. D. K. Joshua et al.

Fig. 3.1  Mean monthly rainfall distribution in the six meteorological stations representing the study areas of Blantyre (urban) [Bvumbwe, Chileka and Chichiri] and

Chikwawa (rural) [Chikwawa, Ngabu and Mchalo] areas between 1971 and 2014 (Source: Authors with data from Malawi DCCMS)

1237.9 mm at Chikwawa in 2007, 1280.4 mm at Nchalo in 2007 and 1254.9 mm at Ngabu in 2001. The driest years were in 1966 at Bvumbwe (722  mm), 1990 at Chichiri (683  mm), 1975 at Chileka (431 mm), 2005 at Chikwawa (402 mm), 1992 at Nchalo (302  mm) and 1987 at Ngabu (410  mm). The daily maxima rainfall were Bvumbwe (200.7  mm on 12 January 2015), Chichiri (398  mm, 12 January 2015), Chileka (226.9  mm, 14 March 1967), Chikwawa (147.7 mm, 11 January 2003), Nchalo (179.5 mm, 30 April 1987) and Ngabu (165  mm, 12 March 2000).

vidual stations for the study’s urban and rural areas show that most of the extreme indices are dominated by positive trends (Table  3.3). However, most of the trends are not statistically significant at α = 0.05 level (Table 3.4). The most significant positive trends were found in the CDD and SDII.  The CDD MK trend was statistically significant at Chileka and Chichiri for the urban areas and Chikwawa and Nchalo for the rural areas. In addition, the SDI MK trend was statistically significant at all the three Blantyre urban stations and at Nchalo. For the regionally averaged rainfall in Blantyre (Urban) and Chikwawa (Rural) during the common period between 1971 and 2014, the results show that CDD and SDII had increased significantly at α = 0.05 level, with Chikwawa having the larger increase in CDD whereas Blantyre had

3.3.1.2 Temporal Patterns of Rainfall Extremes Rainfall extremes in many parts of Malawi have been intensifying recently. The results at the indi-

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41

Fig. 3.2  Annual rainfall trends in Blantyre (left panels) and Chikwawa (right panels). Dashed red line is the linear regression trend line (Source: Authors with data from Malawi DCCMS) Table 3.3  General trends in rainfall extremes indices at all stations Station Bvumbwe Chichiri Chileka Chikwawa Nchalo Ngabu

PRCPT + + − − − +

CDD + + + + + +

CWD + − + + + +

R10mm − + + + − −

R20mm + + + + − +

R25mm + + + + − +

Rx1Day + + + − − +

Rx5Day + + + + + +

SDII + + + + + +

R95P + + + + − +

R99p + + + − − +

Note: Explanations of codes are given in Table 3.2

a larger increase in SDII (Figs. 3.3a & 3.3b). The rest of the rainfall extremes did not have significant changes. The pattern of the extremes changes

suggests that individual rainfall events during 1971–2014 have intensified as evidenced by increased SDII, while the number of dry days

M. D. K. Joshua et al.

42 Table 3.4  Significance of trends in rainfall extremes indices Station Bvumbwe Chichiri Chileka Chikwawa Nchalo Ngabu

PRCPT NT* NT NT NT NT NT

CDD NT +S* +S +S +S NT

CWD NT NT NT NT NT NT

R10mm NT NT NT NT NT NT

R20mm NT NT NT NT NT NT

R25mm NT NT NT NT NT NT

Rx1Day +S NT NT NT NT NT

Rx5Day NT NT NT NT NT +S

SDII +S +S +S NT +S NT

R95P +S NT +S NT NT NT

R99p +S NT NT NT NT NT

NT* = No trend; +S=Significant positive trend; -S=Significant negative trend.

Fig. 3.3a  Temporal pattern of SDII during 1971–2014. BT = Blantyre, CK = Chikwawa

between individual rainfall events have also increased. The SDII trend can partly explain the increased frequency of flood generating storms as individual storms magnitudes have increased, while the total annual rainfall has not changed significantly, agreeing with Ngongondo et  al. (2014).

3.3.1.3 Frequency Analysis of Rainfall Extremes The study by Ngongondo et al. (2011) identified the Generalised Extreme Value (GEV) distribution for the analysis of both 1-day annual maximum rainfall in both Blantyre Chikwawa areas. The study also identified the GEV and Pearson Type 3 for the analysis of 5-day annual rainfall in the Blantyre and Chikwawa area, respectively.

The mean 1-day maximum rainfall is 76.5  mm for Blantyre and 79.0 mm for Chikwawa, whereas the 5-day annual maximum had a mean of 144.3 mm for Blantyre and 139.3 mm. For both areas, the expected magnitudes for annual 1-day and 5-day maximum rainfall and their return periods are shown in Fig. 3.4. During Cyclone Idai, Blantyre and Chikwawa received a total of 160.1 mm of rainfall between 6 and 7 March 2019. This was a rare event and corresponds to a return period of chance of occurring about once every 100–175 years, according to Fig. 3.4. This 1-day rainfall amount is equivalent to 21% of the total mean rainfall for the Chikwawa area (mean = 741 mm) and 16% of the total mean annual rainfall for the Blantyre area (mean  =  991.6  mm). During the period from 1

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Fig. 3.3b  Temporal pattern of CDD during 1971–2014. BT = Blantyre, CK = Chikwawa (Source: Authors with data from Malawi DCCMS)

March to 10 March 2019, Blantyre area recorded an average of 372 mm while Chikwawa recorded 224.6  mm (Malawi Climate Change and Meteorological Services Bulletin, CCMS, 2019). These storm magnitudes correspond to return periods of 400  years for Blantyre and about 220 years for Chikwawa (Fig. 3.4), if compared to the 5-Day annual maximum. The amounts are equivalent to 37.5% of the annual total for the Blantyre area and 30% of the annual total for the Chikwawa Area. According to CCMS (2019), some individual stations like Thyolo close to the Blantyre area recorded amounts as high as 559.8  mm while Makhanga station close to the Chikwawa area recorded 376.7  mm. This is an indication that Cyclone Idai’s intensity varied considerably across southern Malawi.

3.3.1.4 Community Perceptions’ of Flooding Risks Blantyre City and the study area in rural Chikwawa were reported by respondents to be prone to flooding. Magalasi is one of the villages that was most affected by the recent floods

including Tropical Cyclone Idai. Magalasi Village lies in Traditional Authority Ngabu in Chikwawa District, where over 2217 households and 12,105 people were affected, with Magalasi Village accounting for 1020 of these affected people (Malawi Redcross 2019). Similarly, Blantyre City was one of the two Malawian cities hit by flooding conditions following Tropical Cyclone Idai (GoM 2019).

3.3.2 K  ey Food Products Consumed in Chikwawa Rural and Blantyre Urban A diverse range of foods were reported to be consumed in both Blantyre urban and Chikwawa rural (Tables 5 and 6) (Joshua et al. 2011). Local government officers’ and focus groups ranked the different food types by their importance. The top ranked food types in Magalasi Village (Chikwawa District) were maize, pigeon peas, dry fish, tomatoes, mangoes, groundnut and thobwa (millet, sorghum & maize) representing carbohydrates,

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M. D. K. Joshua et al.

Fig. 3.4  Expected magnitude of 1-day and 5-day annual maximum rainfall in Blantyre and Chikwawa. Red dashed lines indicate the outer bounds of 95% Confidence Interval

(shaded area) (Source: Authors with data from Malawi DCCMS)

plant protein, animal protein, vegetables, fruit, fats and beverages, respectively. Lowest on the rank were potato, white beans, Guinea fowl (Nkhanga), bananas, onions, tea and Moringa (Sangowa) (Table 3.5). In Blantyre urban, the top ranked food types were maize, beans, small dried fish (matemba), tomatoes, bananas, cotton seed and tea. These represented the carbohydrates, plant proteins, animal proteins, vegetables, fruit, fats and beverages, respectively. Lowest on the rank were yams, cowpeas, wild birds, carrot, lemon, avocado and coffee for the respective food groups (Table 3.6).

3.3.3 S  ources of Food Products in Bangwe Township and Magalasi Village The status of these food products is closely associated with their accessibility. The origin/source of the foods consumed in Magalasi Village (Chikwawa rural) and Blantyre urban, specifically Bangwe Township, was analysed alongside how different food consumer groups access food. The different food consumer groups are the poorest, poor, better-off and rich. Food products in Bangwe Township (representing the urban poor) and surrounding markets

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Table 3.5  Summary food types for Magalasi village (Chikwawa rural) from FGD and key informants’ perspective Main staples Maize Sorghum Sweet potato Cassava Finger millet (Mchewere) Cooked banana Polished rice Bulrush millet Potato

Plant proteins Pigeon pea Cowpeas (Nseula) Common beans Large cowpeas (Khobwe) Phaseolus beans White beans

Animal proteins Fruits Mango Dry fish Bananas Eggs Chicken Fresh fish Goat Doves Ducks Pork Beef (from cattle and sheep) Guinea fowl (Nkhanga)

Vegetables Tomatoes Cowpeas leaves (Chitambe) Okra Pumpkin leaves (Nkhwani) Amaranthus (Bonongwe) Mustard (Mpiru) Rape Chinese cabbage Cabbage Egg plants Sweet potato leaves (Mtoliro) cassava leaves (Chigwada) Onions

Beverages Thobwa (millet, sorghum & maize) Tea

Fats Sunflower Groundnuts Cotton seed Moringa (Sangowa)

Source: Focus group discussion, Magalasi Village, Chikwawa District, 2019 Table 3.6  Summary of food products in Blantyre Urban Centre from local government officers’ perspective Carbohydrates/ main staples Maize Rice Wheat Irish potatoes Sweetpotato Cassava Finger millet Sorghum Plantains Yams

Plant protein Beans Groundnuts Pigeon peas Soya beans Garden peas Cow peas

Animal proteins Small dried fish (Matemba) Eggs Beef Chicken Goat Milk Fresh fish (Chambo) Pork Rabbit Turkey Guinea fowls Ducks Pigeons Termites/ flying ants Field mice Wild birds

Vegetables Tomatoes Pumpkin leaves Chinese Rape Mustard (Mpiru) Cabbage Sweetpotato leaves Amaranthus/ bonongwe Luni Black jack (Chisoso) Denje Mwamuna aligone Kamaganje Cassava leaves (Chigwada) Okra Green beans Pumpkin Cucumber Carrots

Fruits Banana Mangoes Guava Baobab Tangerine Oranges Pineapple Pawpaw Avocado Lemons

Fats Cotton seed Groundnut Sunflower Avocado

Beverages Tea Soft drinks Beer (locally based on maize, sorghum, millet) Coffee

Source: Joshua et al. 2011

are mostly sourced from surrounding rural areas (within the district and rural localities within Southern Region) (Figs.  3.5 and 3.6). Blantyre City as a whole, almost all the stakeholders interviewed in Blantyre, indicated that a high percent-

age of the products in Blantyre City do not come from the immediate rural environment (within the same district) but from rural areas of other districts within Southern Region with some from other regions or neighbouring countries such as

M. D. K. Joshua et al.

46

Lilongwe Groundnuts

From outside of MALAWI

Ntcheu

Elsewhere in MALAWI

Zomba Maize, Rice, Dry fish

Elsewhere in SOUTHERN REGION

BLANTYRE DISTRICT (20 wards)

Balaka Groundnuts

Machinga Groundnuts,

Main foods (ones they supply): Maize, Sweet potato, Eggs, Chicken, Pumpkin leaves, Avocado pears and Mangoes Stakeholders: Physical aspects Consumers, Private traders, Mvula market, Bangwe market, ADMARC, Vendors Admarc market, Railway station mkt

Nsanje Maize, Rice, Cottonseed oil, Dry fish, Mangoes

Thyolo Maize, Sweet potato, Beans, Groundnuts, Eggs, Bananas, Avocado pears, Pigeon peas, Mustard

Salima Cottonseed

Mangochi Dry fish, Cotton seed, Cowpea

BLANTYRE CITY (26 wards)

Chikwawa, Cottonseed oil

Mozambique Maize, Pigeon peas

Cowpeas, Beans, Mangoes

Dedza Cowpeas, Beans

Chiradzulu Maize, Pumpkin leaves, Mustard, mangoes

Phalombe Maize, Rice, Beans, Groundnuts, Dry fish

Mulanje Avocado pears, Pigeon peas, Sweet potato, Bananas

Fig. 3.5  Map of Bangwe food and agricultural system from the perspective of Women’s Focus Groups (Source: Joshua et al. 2011)

Mozambique and Tanzania (Figs.  3.5 to 3.7). Thus, localised food systems exist within wider city scale food systems with the former sourcing food from within the immediate surroundings of Blantyre City, especially rural areas. Our earlier work (Joshua et  al. 2011), found that Blantyre City produces less than 1% of the maize, beans and groundnuts that it consumes. Government officials indicated that about 80% of the maize consumed is produced within the 20

rural wards of Blantyre District and 12% within other districts in the Southern Region. Rice and sweet potatoes are produced mainly within the Southern Region in Phalombe, Zomba, Mulanje, Thyolo, Chikwawa and Nsanje districts. Animal proteins such as dry fish and beef originate from other districts within the Southern Region. However, Blantyre City assembly officials alluded to the fact that most maize said to be coming from Mulanje actually comes from

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From outside of MALAWI Ntcheu

Elsewhere in MALAWI

Mozambique

Irish potatoes, Beans, Guava, Tomatoes

Elsewhere in SOUTHERN REGION

Maize Sweet potatoes Cassava Irish potatoes Beans Khobwe sunflower

Zomba

Cassava, Small dry fish (Matemba), Pigeon peas, Mango

BLANTYRE DISTRICT

Dedza

Supplies urban centre with some:

Maize, Goat meat, Tomatoes, Pigeon peas Beans, Mango, guava, Recycled and cheap cooking oils

Mangochi

Irish potatoes, Beans, Guava, Tomatoes

Dry small fish (Matemba)

Machinga

BLANTYRE CITY

Cassava

Main foods (ones they supply):

Maize, Sweet potatoes, Goat meat, Beans, Mango, guava, Tomatoes, Pumpkin leaves, Rape/Mustard/Chinese, Cheap and recycled cooking oils

Mwanza

Irish potatoes, Pigeon peas Khobwe

Stakeholders: Farmers ADMARC Private traders consumers

Neno

Physical aspects

Market places; Lirangwe, Limbe, Bvumbwe, mpemba

Irish potatoes

Chiradzulu

Maize, Rice, Sweet potatoes, Cassava, Goat meat, Beans, Pigeon peas, Cow peas, Mangoes, Tomatoes, Pumpkin leaves, Rape/Chinese, Sunflower oils

Phalombe

Chikwawa

Dry fish (Makanana), Mangoes, Goat meat, Pigeon peas Nsanje Rice, Sweet potatoes, Dry fish (Makakana), Goat meat, Mangoes,

Thyolo

Maize, Cassava, Irish potatoes, Beans, Pigeon peas, Bananas, tomatoes

Rice, Dry fish (Makakana), Pigeon peas, Mulanje: Cowpeas, Maize, Rice, Tomatoes Sweet potatoes, Sunflower oils Cassava, Goat meat, Beans, Pigeon peas, Bananas, Sunflower oil

Fig. 3.6  Map of Bangwe food and agricultural system from the perspective of Men’s Focus Groups (Source: Joshua et al. 2011)

Mozambique where some Malawians farm given the relative abundance of fertile arable land. The FGDs, vendors and large agricultural traders confirmed this (Box 3.1). Wheat was the only food that is mostly imported, with just 5% of it sourced from the Southern and Northern Regions of Malawi. While eggs are produced within the city, the other major sources of animal protein such as beef and small dried fish originate mainly from within

the Southern Region with ~10% coming from other parts of Malawi or Mozambique and Zambia. A large percentage (>80%) of vegetables, fruits, fats and oils come from districts within the Southern Region with the exception of groundnuts, which are produced predominantly in the Central Region. The millet and sorghum are sourced from Chikwawa and Nsanje districts. The women in Bangwe Township, said pumpkin leaves was the only produce originat-

M. D. K. Joshua et al.

48 USA Maize, wheat Elsewhere in MALAWI Lilongwe Maize, g/nuts Mchinji Maize, g/nuts

Karonga Rice

From outside of MALAWI Tanzania Ntcheu Maize, Irish potato Maize, rice, Irish potato, beans, tomatoes Dowa Maize, g/nuts

Zomba Nkhatabay Maize, rice, dry Dry fish fish, tomatoes Nkhotakhota Balaka Rice, dry fish BLANTYRE DISTRICT Tomatoes, (20 wards) cotton seed oil Salima Supplies urban centre with some: maize, Rice, g/nuts, Mangochi sweet potato, beans, groundnut, beef, tomatoes, dry fish, cotton Beans, dry pumpkin leaves, Chinese, rape, mustard, fish, cotton banana, mango, cotton seed oil, groundnut oil Dedza seed Maize, Irish BLANTYRE CITY Machinga potato, beans, (26 wards) Rice, g/nuts, tomatoes dry fish, Main foods (ones they supply): mango, Maize, rice, wheat flour, Irish potato, sweetpotato, Mwanza cottonseed beans, g/nuts, dried fish, eggs, beef, tomatoes, Ntchisi Maize, Irish pumpkin leaves, Chinese, rape, mustard, banana, Maize, g/nuts potato, mango, cotton seed oil, g/nut oil Chiradzulu beans, Maize, s/potato, Physical aspects Stakeholders: Consumers, private g/nuts, beef, beans, g/nuts, Rural farming traders, maize traders, processing mango eggs, beef, companies, Malawi Bureau of Standards, supply areas, tomatoes, ADMARC, Restaurants, Markets, Dept of market places pumpkin leaves, Animal Health, Cold Storage Abbatoir, (Limbe, Blantyre, Chinese Bangwe, Transporters, small scale vendors of Neno Ziwangwa, fresh produce, supermarkets, Irish potato, Phalombe Blantyre city assembly health & env, Ndirande, mango, Maize, rice, Chilimoni, cotton seed Irrigation & water devt, bakeries beans, g/nuts, Chilimba) Chikwawa dry fish Rice, s/potato, fish, beef, Mulanje mango, cotton Maize, rice, Nsanje seed oil Thyolo s/potato, beans, S/potato, dry Maize, Irish potato, bananas fish, beef, s/potato, beans, g/nuts, mango, cotton eggs, tomatoes, Zambia seed oil pumpkin leaves, Dry fish chinese, bananas Mozambique Maize, Irish potato, dry New Zealand Zimbabwe South Africa fish, tomatoes Wheat Maize, Irish potato Wheat Kasungu Maize, g/nuts

Elsewhere in SOUTHERN REGION

Fig. 3.7  Map of the Blantyre City food and agricultural system from the perspective of government officers (Source: Joshua et al. 2011)

ing from their urban centre (Bangwe). Food products such as rice, mustard, cabbage and bananas came from other parts of the Southern Region such as Thyolo, Chiradzulu, Mulanje, Phalombe and Nsanje districts. They also indicated that more than half of the maize consumed in the township is from Mozambique, noting

that sourcing of food from Mozambique, becomes even more significant when national local food sourcing areas are hit by extreme events such as droughts. Maps summarising selected food sources from the perspective of male and female focus groups in Bangwe are shown in Figs. 3.5 and 3.6.

3  A Comparative Study of the Impacts of Flooding on Food Security of Urban and Rural Households…

Box 3.1 Source of Carbohydrates in Blantyre Urban

According to the Local Government officials ‘in a good year all the city’s maize would be produced within the Southern Region of Malawi, and even during bad years, the Southern Region supplies Blantyre with maize as higher sales prices can be achieved in urban areas. However, even in good years, a proportion of the maize coming into Blantyre comes from Central Region, as traders expect prices to be higher in Blantyre than elsewhere. A lot of maize from Mozambique enters Malawi through Mulanje district with some of it being sold in Blantyre. However, weak tracing systems make it difficult to know whether the maize sold in Blantyre is coming from the Southern Region or from over the border in Mozambique’. Largescale traders, such as Mulli Brothers indicated that ...‘when the season has been bad, farmers in Malawi are less willing to sell maize, and so the company then crosses the border into Mozambique, and the frequency of doing this is increasing. Especially if they need to export maize. During bad seasons, the Malawian Government may impose bans on buying of maize grain from farmers in Malawi in order not to deplete the country’s food stocks, then it becomes even more necessary to buy maize from Mozambique’. According Bangwe men’s focus group, ...‘Nsanje district is the source of foods such as rice, fish, maize, sweet potato, pumpkins and okra for many residents. Many in Bangwe community come from Nsanje district. ... Some people are now taking food from Bangwe to Nsanje. There is a train from Nsanje to Limbe; and also food comes from Mulanje and Thyolo’. While Bangwe women’s focus group said most resources required in Bangwe come from rural areas. Source: Joshua et al. 2011

49

The significance of rural food production to urban populations is expected and recognised in many studies, for example, in southern Africa (Lynch 2005; Barrios et  al. 2003; Baker 2008; Eriksen 2008; Meyer-Olendorf 2009; Tacoli et al. 2013) and globally (Drechsel et al. 2006). In contrast, in the rural village of Magalasi, a high proportion (~80%) of foodstuffs originate from within the village and immediate rural areas through households’ own production, using rainfed and riverside winter production systems (Fig.  3.8). Other foodstuffs are accessed from Ngabu township within the district and other urban areas. For example, fish, beans and processed food products are sourced from other districts such as Mangochi and Nsanje (fish) and Ntcheu and Dedza (beans) in Central Region of Malawi. An interview with market vendors revealed that some products such as fish, beans and maize are also sourced from Mozambique. While the significance of maize and sweet potatoes originating from Mozambique was recognised by most stakeholders, Local Government officers either did not or only minimally recognised it. The dominant sourcing areas of food products for both Blantyre urban and Magalasi Village are prone to flooding. For example, Tropical Cyclone Idai affected Mozambique and much of the Southern Region of Malawi. The worst-affected districts in Malawi included Nsanje, Chikwawa, Blantyre, Mulanje, Zomba, Mangochi, Phalombe and Thyolo (GoM 2019). Such disruption would have implications for access to and availability of food products in areas which typically source foods from these districts.

3.3.4 A  ccessibility of Food Products in Urban and Rural Households Food and agricultural flows play an important role in accessibility of food. Trade, mobility and migration of people between rural and urban areas and presence of multi-spatial households influence the flows.

M. D. K. Joshua et al.

50 Mozambique Maize Fish (cat fish) Goat Pork

From outside of MALAWI

Lilongwe

Ntcheu

Maize

Maize, beans tomato, potato

Elsewhere in MALAWI Elsewhere in SOUTHERN REGION

Zomba

Dry fish (matemba), rice

CHIKHWAWA DISTRICT Supplies Magalasi with some:

Maize, sweet potato, rice, cassava, beans, bananas, mango, tomatoes, turnips, bean leaves, pumpkin leaves, mustard leaves, rape, pork, goat meat, sheep, groundnuts

Mangochi Rice Matemba

Dedza

Beans, tomato, potato

MAGALASI VILLAGE (CHIKWAWA) Main foods

Blantyre

Mango, sweet potato

Maize, sweet potatoes, cassava, goat meat, pork, beef, dry fish (matemba), cat fish, eggs, mango, pigeon peas, cow peas, beans, tomatoes cowpeas leaves (chitambe), okra, pumpkin leaves (nkhwani)

Stakeholders:

Farmers, traders, consumers, WFP, World

Vision, CADECOM,

GOAL Malawi, Illovo

Nsanje

Sweet potatoes, rice, Milamba (cat fish)

Physical aspects

Ngabu markets Most foods in Magalasi comes from surrounding gardens and Ngabu

Mulanje: Thyolo

Maize, cassava, tomato, banana, mango, cabbage, onions, pigeon peas

Maize, sweet potatoes, pigeon peas, cow peas banana

Fig. 3.8  Map of the Magalasi village (Chikwawa rural) food and agricultural system (Source: Focus group discussion, Magalasi Village, Chikwawa rural 2019)

In terms of accessibility, the women in Bangwe indicated that most foods are purchased with the exception of pumpkin leaves (which urban households produce themselves during the wet season and sometimes buy during the dry season), and fruits such as mangoes (which are self-produced if they have the trees, or bought otherwise). Traders and vendors supply the market by sourcing food products from various distant rural locations, capitalising on the higher

prices and demand expected in the urban market. Urban households in addition to purchasing food from the market, also obtain some food through self-production in their home villages and from rented land in peri-urban areas. High rates of rural to urban migration occur in immediate localities. The proportion of Blantyre’s population originating from Central and Northern Regions of Malawi is low (GoM 2013). Alongside proximity, the migration linkages may further

3  A Comparative Study of the Impacts of Flooding on Food Security of Urban and Rural Households...

explain the high percentage of food sourced from rural areas in Southern Region. Most of the FGD participants have multi-spatial households; and either migrate seasonally for farming activities in their home villages or send remittances to their relations in the rural village to support farming activities. Thus, their livelihoods are dependent on both their urban and rural bases. This situation enhances the flow of people and food products between rural and urban locations. Alternatively, food products in Blantyre City are obtained indirectly through remittances. Migrants in urban areas send some funds back to their rural homes to help cover their basic needs as well as farming activities. These remittances are reciprocated by food gifts after harvest. Food access in urban areas was found to vary by wealth group (Joshua et al. 2011). The poor, especially in good years largely rely on food they produce themselves in surrounding rural areas or home villages supplemented by what they buy. When there is low or no crop yield in their rural fields, markets become their only source of their food. According to the Blantyre government officers, the high-income groups can afford both to purchase and produce their own food. For example, in Blantyre, the high-income earners access their food by buying (from open markets and supermarkets) because they have the money and most of them also produce some food in either gardens outside the city using hired labour or in their huge backyards. In contrast, most of the food products accessed in rural Magalasi Village are from self-­production. With the balance being obtained from the surrounding markets or nearby trading centre (Ngabu) which connect with other districts and urban areas, or from gifts from relations residing in urban areas such as Blantyre and Chikwawa; and donations from organisations such as the World Food Programme which come in the form of relief food items and agricultural inputs to support self-supply (Table  3.7). The poor use cash earned from casual labour or sales of crops to buy the food they do not produce. Donations and food transfers become important especially amongst the poor in the face of extreme events.

51

Table 3.7  Examples of important institutions for the flow of food and agricultural donations during shocks in Magalasi village from FGD participant’s perspective Name of organisation World food program USAID Plan Malawi Wold vision Goal Malawi CADECOM CARE Malawi Red cross Illovo sugar company Campaign for female education

Type of assistance Cash and food distribution (maize, cooking oil, relish) Cooking oil & relish Utensils Food distribution (maize, cooking oil, relish) Distribution of food and seeds Distribution of seeds Distribution of seeds Blankets, tents, utensils, food Tents Fertilisers, maize, utensils and cash (only to its beneficiaries)

Source: Magalasi Village Focus Group Discussion, 2019

Most institutions providing donations to the village in times of need (i.e. shocks) are based in urban areas. This highlights the urban to rural aspects of the two-way flow of food products. Urbanites sometimes send foodstuffs to their home villages, as urban areas attract a wider range of food products, and some food products may be cheaper in towns than in rural areas. This scenario is particularly applicable in areas where land shortages are high (such as Mulanje) or those frequently affected by extreme weather events (such as Chikwawa). Additionally, the rural areas provide markets for processed foods such as bread and other manufactured goods including farm inputs, clothes and groceries. Rural traders obtain these items in town and sell them in the rural areas, or rural dwellers may visit urban areas and buy the items. For example, in Ngabu, the study established that vegetable vendors who commute daily from Magalasi Village to Ngabu, buy other foodstuffs (not locally produced in their home village) or home supplies after having sold their vegetables. These results highlight the interdependence of rural and urban areas in meeting food needs for each spatial system. Hence, it is important to understand how these linkages were affected by the floods following Tropical Cyclone Idai in order to inform pol-

M. D. K. Joshua et al.

52

icy and interventions aimed at building resilient food systems for these two spatial systems.

3.3.5 F  looding Effects on Food and Agricultural Flows and Food Security Key informant interviews and focus group discussions reported that the floods had both direct and indirect positive and negative effects on food crop production as well as food flows between rural to urban, rural to rural and urban to rural, and consequently household food security in both urban and rural study communities. However, the adverse effects of flooding outweighed the positive effects. In Magalasi Village, the negative effects included flood-related water logging and the destruction of crops (rotting and washing away) and houses, loss of livestock amongst households and disruption of the road network (Table  3.8). The FGDs reported that roads to Ngabu trading centre, which connects the community to other urban areas and other districts became impassable. This limited food flows from urban areas as well as from other districts. These challenges led to reduced diversity and quantity of available food products. The local vegetable production gardening area became inaccessible. Winter farming was delayed due to water logging conditions. These findings were echoed by the district stakeholders’ report that indicated that food flows (e.g. of vegetables and fruits) from upland cooler areas ceased during the flooding conditions due to poor road infrastructure and loss of crops. Additionally, crops and number of households affected by floods resulted in reduced crop yield across the study district following the flooding event (Tables 3.9 and 3.10). A summary of flooding effects on selected key crops in Chikwawa district, compared to area planted and number of households affected is shown in Table 3.9. According to the Shire Valley Agricultural Development Division (ADD) flooding report (2019), about 30% (64,187 out of 227,257) of the farming households in Chikwawa District were without food from their own production in 2018–

Table 3.8  Flood effects from Magalasi Village focus group member’s perspective Negative effects • Crops washed away • Destruction of farm produce (crops already harvested) • Destruction and collapsing of houses • Loss of livestock – Poultry, goats etc. washed away • Money for inputs and labour went in vain • Scarcity of food • Hunger • Delayed winter cropping • Scarcity of seeds for winter cropping • Loss of jobs (those working in farms) • Scarcity of casual labour/piecework (ganyu) • Poverty • Communicable diseases in camps • Road infrastructure became impassable

Positive effects • Received utensils from organisations • Received relief items • Provided with plastic sheeting for roofing temporary houses for boys (gowero) • Water available for cultivation • Winter cropping enhanced due to moisture availability • Deposits of alluvial soils hence no fertilisers needed • Fish found in abundance

Source: FGD, Magalasi Village 2019

2019 agriculture season. This was 5% higher than in the previous season when low crop yields also followed flooding events. In the study area, Mbewe extension planning area (EPA), the situation was worse with about 40% of the farming households being food insecure as a result of flood impacts on their own production. In some households, these conditions were further worsened by loss of agricultural-related jobs or piece work which were important sources of household income. Thus, these effects coupled with low crop yield and reduced transportation connectivity, had knock on effects on household food supplies due both to reduced harvest levels of own production of crops and reduced food supply in urban markets which led to higher food prices. Focus group participants reported short supplies of most food products in markets following the flooding event in contrast with the days just prior to the occurrence of the flood

Area planted 49,924 7234 26,914 42,519 17,927

Area affected 9212 2786.5 3296.4 2641 269

% area affected 18.45 38.5 12.24 6.21 1.5

Household affected 23,928 14,388 7768 7365 596

Total households 227,257 227,257 227,257 227,257 227,257

Source: Shire Valley Agricultural Development Division (ADD) flooding report 2013.5.1 Flooding impacts on food security of poor rural households

Crop Maize Rice Millet Sorghum Cotton

Table 3.9  Summary of the affected areas of different key crops due to Cyclone idai, in Chikwawa district % HH affected 10.53 6.33 3.41 3.24 0.26

3  A Comparative Study of the Impacts of Flooding on Food Security of Urban and Rural Households… 53

M. D. K. Joshua et al.

54

Table 3.10  Changes in food availability/ supply and affordability in local markets in Malagasi village before and after flooding in 2019, FGD perspective Food product Maize Sorghum Groundnuts Rice Beans and vegetables Goat Sheep Cattle Fish

Before flooding Availability/ supply High High High High High Low Low Low Low

Affordability Cheaper Cheaper Cheaper Cheaper Cheaper Expensive Expensive Expensive Expensive

After flooding Availability/ supply Low Low Low Low Low High High High High

Affordability Expensive Expensive Expensive Expensive Expensive Cheaper Cheaper Cheaper Cheaper

Source: Magalasi Village Focus Group Discussion 2019

(Table 10). Transportation to source areas outside the district became more expensive after flooding which resulted in higher transportation costs of food. Consequently, market vendors sold their food products at high prices (Fig.  3.9a and b). These findings were echoed by the ADD report (2019) which indicated that following the flooding conditions, those farming households without food were buying from the local council markets where food costs were higher than normal. For example, the price of maize was higher in council markets (MWK200/kg) than in ADMARC markets (MWK150/kg). Although vendor prices were higher in the council markets, product supply and accessibility were better than at ADMARC which ran out of maize by March 15, 2019 forcing people to rely on vendors. In contrast, the focus group participants reported that the maize price went up from MK 100/kg to MK160/kg. Despite the difference in the reported price rise, both the FGDs and ADD report (2019) agreed that this problem most seriously affected the supply of staple carbohydrates foods (i.e. maize, rice, millet, sorghum, sweet potatoes), FGDs also reported that prices of other vegetables and legumes were also more affected than animal proteins (Table  3.10). In addition to some of the crops being washed away during the floods, crop rotting and germination also occurred following the floods, and in some cases silting. These challenges lead to low yields and consequently low food availability in homes from own production and low supply to markets

(Fig. 3.9). Although the high supply and cheaper prices for animal protein meant increased access to animal protein for poor households, the lack of vegetables and staples led to reduced food diversity and inadequate food consumption in these households. Furthermore, due to reduced household income during this time, many poor households were unable to afford the cheaper animal proteins available in the market. The low purchasing power in poor households was partly associated with loss of agricultural jobs and shortage of casual labour (ganyu). Poorer households were more at risk of reduced dietary diversity and malnutrition during and following flooding events than better-off households. Exploration of intrahousehold dietary impacts was not done. To cope with the everyday reality of flooding and high food prices, many households sold their livestock at lower prices than during normal to provide cash to then purchase cereals, legumes and vegetables. The ability to cope varied with the household’s socioeconomic position. Within poor households, women and children were the most affected due to the household’s lower ­purchasing power and their inability to move to other areas. Additionally, livestock ownership is lower in poorer households than richer households, and hence the coping strategy of emergency livestock sales was more applicable to richer households. Despite spatial variations in location between Chikwawa rural and Blantyre City, flooding effects were similar. The 2019 flooding condi-

500 600

60 100 Sorghum Before floods

Rice

Groundnuts

After floods 190,000

250,000 200,000

0

25,000

30,000

18,000

150,000

25,000

Price (MWK / 2 year o ld animal)

b)

50,000

Beans

150,000

Maize

100,000

600

900 500

1,000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

100 160

Price (M WK per kg)

a)

55

900

3  A Comparative Study of the Impacts of Flooding on Food Security of Urban and Rural Households...

Goat

Sheep

Before floods

After floods

Cattle

Fig. 3.9  Changes in market prices of crops (a) and livestock (b) in Malagasi village, Chikwawa rural, before and after the floods in 2019. (Source: Magalasi Village Focus Group Discussion 2019)

tions in Mozambique, Mulanje and Chikwawa affected three dimensions of food security in Blantyre City: availability, accessibility and utilisation. Specifically, the floods destroyed crops and disrupted the road network, resulting in low availability of food products and rendering food sourcing areas inaccessible respectively. For example, vendors in Bangwe and Mvula markets reported that destruction of road infrastructure including bridges in Mozambique, Nsanje and Chikwawa disrupted food flows into Blantyre City. During and for 4  weeks after the floods,

vendors had to spend greatly increased time and transport costs travelling to access food products in the source areas, than in normal weather conditions. Where road infrastructure was destroyed, the alternative routes to the food source areas were often risky (e.g. requiring the use of traditional canoes to cross large dangerous rivers) and the supply in the source areas was low or non-­ existent for some food products such as vegetables. The reduced crop yields and transportation challenges had knock on effects on food supply in urban markets, leading to high food prices.

M. D. K. Joshua et al.

56

Some urban households who had gardens in their rural homes lost their crops to floods and also faced markets where some food products cost twice the price paid in normal weather conditions. For example, the price of three mustard leaves rose from MK20 to MK50 and maize grain rose from MK100/kg to M300/kg. Poor households were the most affected because of their low purchasing power and over dependency on rural production relative to the richer households’ higher capacity for self-supply and market purchase. As occurred in the rural study site, low crop yields in the rural homes and access challenges meant inadequate consumption of some food products occurred in the urban poor households following the flooding. Several coping strategies were typically used by poor urban households. These included: reducing the amounts they ate, shifting to cheaper types of food when their most popular foods were in low supply and/or expensive, begging for food, reducing the number of meals taken, and sleeping on an empty stomach or a cup of tea. In contrast, high-income households were able to buy food in bulk while prices were low, keep sufficient food stocks and travel long distances to source food if necessary. In the focal urban areas in Malawi, no assessment of household food security is done. Many key stakeholders surmise that as food is usually available in urban markets, urban households must therefore be food secure. However, this overlooks the differential purchasing power of different income groups in urban areas. Food insecurity of poor households following Tropical Cyclone Idai suggests that the poor need special attention in addressing flooding effects in vulnerable areas both in urban and rural areas. Their vulnerability to inadequate food consumption during and after flooding conditions (and other shocks) threatens the attainment of poverty eradication (SDG#1) and elimination of hunger (SDG#2). Prevalence of malnutrition is already higher amongst the poorer households in Malawi (Chirwa and Ngalawa 2008; GoM 2012) with 46% stunting of children under 5 years old in the lowest wealth quintile compared to 24% in the

highest quintile (National Statistical Office and ICF 2016, 2017).

3.4

Conclusions

The study analysed the effects of flooding following Tropical Cyclone Idai in 2019, on agricultural and food flows in Blantyre urban and Chikwawa rural and implications for food security of poor households. Although the study is mainly based on perceptions of affected people and other relevant stakeholders in the study districts and document analysis, these data sources highlight how the floods affected crop yield and access in the rural areas, and rural–rural, rural– urban and urban–rural food transfers which ­consequently affected the availability and accessibility dimensions of household food security. Although health metrics were not considered in the current study, the reduced food utilisation which occurred during and after the flooding conditions due to low availability and high prices of food affected food and nutrition security particularly in poorer households. Household food security in the study sites was adversely affected by the flooding; threatening the attainment of SDG#1 and SDG#2. This study argues that if building resilience amongst poor households both in urban and rural areas continues to receive inadequate attention, the flooding trends in Blantyre City and Chikwawa rural will have recurrent adverse impacts on household food consumption hence contributing to persistent food insecurity in poor rural and urban households. In addition, the study confirmed the vulnerability of rural–urban agricultural and food flow interactions to flooding, resulting in food insecurity in both the interconnected rural and urban spaces. This highlights the need for simultaneous and more coordinated assessment and management of rural and urban food security by the relevant stakeholders generally, and particularly in the face of increasing climate-related extreme events such as flooding.

3  A Comparative Study of the Impacts of Flooding on Food Security of Urban and Rural Households...

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4

Assessment of Cyclone Idai Floods on Local Food Systems and Disaster Management Responses in Mozambique and Zimbabwe Daniel Tevera, Melusi Sibanda, Sipho Felix Mamba, and Lucas Daniel Tivana

Abstract

In recent years, countries in southern Africa have experienced frequent hydro-­ meteorological disasters, such as widespread flooding caused by tropical cyclones. This chapter takes a close look at the destructive aspects of tropical cyclone Idai in Mozambique and Zimbabwe and the emergency disaster management responses. The chapter also seeks to understand the impact of the cyclone on food systems. The chapter is based on a desktop study that made use of scholarly publications and various media and organisation reports as the main sources of secondary data. A key finding of the study is that as the cyclone D. Tevera () Department of Geography, Environmental Studies and Tourism, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] M. Sibanda Department of Agriculture, University of Zululand, Richards Bay, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] S. F. Mamba Faculty of Science and Engineering, Department of Geography, Environmental Science and Planning, University of Eswatini, Kwaluseni, Eswatini L. D. Tivana Faculty of Agronomy and Forest Engineering, Eduardo Mondlane University, Maputo, Mozambique

swept across the two countries, it exposed the fragilities of the local food systems, thereby presenting food insecurity challenges that potentially undermined the drive towards the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2 on hunger eradication. The other finding is that the disaster management responses in both countries focussed on the emergency needs in the affected areas without giving much attention to making the food systems more resilient. Keywords

Cyclone Idai · Displacement · Livelihoods · Food systems · SDG-2

4.1

Introduction

Debate on the food crisis in southern Africa has tended to focus on two main triggers, and these are lack of access to land that is suitable for agriculture and recurring droughts during the past 40 years. However, the effects of cycloneinduced floods have not been given sufficient attention as a possible trigger by scholars researching on food insecurity in southern Africa. Given the destructive effects of cyclone-

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_4

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induced floods, what has been their impact on governments across the African continent. In local food systems? In southern Africa, recur- fact, the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture ring floods have created fractured disaster land- Development Programme (CAADP) has scapes that have potential to present food attempted to address the African food crisis by insecurity challenges and to undermine the drive paying particular attention to disasters that towards Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) require food and agricultural responses or safety 2 on hunger eradication. Food security is a mul- nets in three main ways: first, by expanding the tidimensional phenomenon that addresses the area under sustainable land management and complex phenomenon of food adequacy with controlled water systems; second, by improving reference to key variables such as food avail- rural infrastructure, especially road networks in ability, accessibility and utilisation. Food might order to facilitate market access; and third, by be available but not accessible and could also be promoting increased food production in order to available but not suitable for consumption for decrease household hunger and improve food various reasons. Food shortages across the sovereignty. African continent are the result of a combinaThis chapter seeks to understand the impact tion of recurring natural disasters (especially of cyclone Idai on food systems and the floods and drought) and socio-structural condi- resilience-­enhancing strategies of flood survitions, such as poverty and fragile food systems. vors who occupy spaces of vulnerability. The For example, Zimbabwe and Mozambique are chapter is divided into five sections. Section 4.1 some of the food-deficit African countries that (introduction and background) discusses how have been grappling with poverty and food inse- hydro-­meteorological disasters have disrupted curity in recent years. food systems and are presenting food security Food systems relate to the production, pro- challenges. Section 4.2 (literature review) cessing, distribution and consumption of food examines the impact of cyclone Idai on food and are dependent on the availability of adequate systems. Section 4.3 (research design) outlines and efficient infrastructure. However, food dis- the desktop methods approach that was used in tribution is often disrupted during hydro-­ this study to collect the information examined meteorological disasters when roads and bridges in this study. Section 4.4 (findings and discusare destroyed thereby resulting in agricultural sion) discusses the destructive impacts of the produce failing to get to food markets and creat- cyclone on food systems and the emergency ing superficial shortages. The issue is that food response measures that were implemented. system disruptions do not only affect food avail- Section 4.5 provides a conclusion and some ability but also affect access to food through dis- recommendations. connections from food sites and reduced capacity to buy food. Low food availability, limited access to food and poor food quality have price hike and 4.2 Literature Review low nutrition consequential effects that cannot be overlooked. Household food insecurity dur- In the Global South, extreme weather events are ing floods and post-floods periods presents chal- a threat to food availability through damages of lenges to national governments whose policy field crops before harvesting. The connection goal is to achieve food security, improve nutri- between extreme weather events and food protion and promote sustainable agriculture. In view duction has been captured in several studies of this, increasing food systems resilience to (Pacetti et al., 2017). Impacts of floods on crop floods is essential in order to achieve what so far yield include washing away of farmlands and dishas been an elusive goal to eliminate hunger by ruption of supply lines (Week & Wizor, 2020; 2030. For example, since the early 2000s, agri- Burton et  al., 2013). Through reduced efficiencultural transformation has been a permanent cies of farmlands (reduced crop production), feature of the policy agenda of most national floods contribute to income reduction and liveli-

4  Assessment of Cyclone Idai Floods on Local Food Systems and Disaster Management Responses…

hood challenges (FAO, 2015). Reduction in income may affect welfare outcomes in several communities and may induce livelihood shifts. Recurring flood events have exposed many countries in the Global South to hazards, and this has had an adverse effect on food systems. Alhassan (2020), who has written about household adaptation and resilience strategies in Ghana, has highlighted how the agricultural sector has remained vulnerable to the impacts of extreme weather events. Most rural households in the communal areas of sub-Saharan Africa are vulnerable to flood-­ induced food insecurity because of their limited adaptive capacity coupled with high exposure to environmental disasters such as flooding (Week & Wizor, 2020). Abrams and Abrams (2018) discuss some of the impacts of climate shocks, such as floods and droughts, on crop yield and food availability in sub-Saharan African countries. Similarly, Burton et al. (2013), who examined the effects of flooding on agricultural land and crop yields, found out that the washing away of farmlands and disruption of supply lines made it difficult for some households to access basic foods after flooding incidents. This study echoes previous research by the IPCC (2014) that show the negative impacts of flood events on food production, distribution, utilisation and food security in flood-prone areas. According to Pingali et  al. (2005) and Week and Wizor (2020), floods contribute to transitory food insecurity (a short-term declines in a household’s capacity to get the required amounts of food) by disrupting food supplies and thereby resulting in food price increases which make certain food items unaffordable to poor households in both rural and urban areas. Due to reduced crop productivity, increases in food prices may negatively affect access to basic food commodities and compromise the availability of food for low-income households. According to Week and Wizor, flood events lead to the consumption of unhealthy food, exposing most people to chronic hunger. In their recent study on floods’ effects on food security in South-Eastern Nigeria, Akukwe et al. (2020) note that virtually all households in a particular community became food insecure

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after flooding. As Akukwe et al. (2020) observe, some households become food insecure after a flood event due to their vulnerability already compromised food security status. One such way is the leaching and washing away of soil nutrients, thus affecting the performance of the plant, which result to poor harvest. The damage to crops prior to harvesting, widespread losses of food supplies and the disruptions to access to markets due to floods aggravated food insecurity in Malawi (IFPRI, 2019). Flood events induce food insecurity hotspots and are most likely to undermine national government initiatives to achieve Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2 which focuses on ending hunger by 2030. In the rural areas, household livelihood strategies are anchored on agriculture. Due to the large proportion of the people that rely on agriculture for subsistence, nature-­ induced disruptions of the agricultural sector have negatively affected food availability and access. Cyclone Idai struck Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe in March 2019 with so much ferocity and its impact on socioeconomic and ecological systems has been well documented in the media and scholarly publications.

4.3

Research Design

This desktop study made use of scholarly publications and various media and organisation reports as the source of data. This chapter is based on an analysis of various publications, including peer-reviewed articles, organisation reports and newspaper articles. Information was extracted from relevant literature sources in order to produce a more consolidated analysis. The review focused on scholarly articles and grey literature on floods with a focus on cyclone-induced floods in southern Africa, with special reference to Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The systematic review process consisted of three phases of literature search. The desktop study involved a systematic search of peer-reviewed articles, electronic and print media reports, and organisation reports on cyclone Idai-induced floods, impacts and responses. Articles were retrieved from search

D. Tevera et al.

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engines and other databases that include Google Scholar. Search terms included food security, food systems, cyclone Idai, floods, impacts and disaster management responses, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, and Global South. The inclusion criteria used for this systematic review was based on studies conducted in the Global South and focusing on floods and their effects on food production, availability and access. The date of publication ranged from 2000 to 2020, and searches were conducted using the keywords on floods, cyclones, food production, food security and country names (i.e. Mozambique and Zimbabwe). In addition to the peer-reviewed articles, media reports, grey literature (in the form of organisation reports) and various online documents were retrieved from the websites of organisations that were involved in the cyclone Idai disaster relief activities in both Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Documents were largely gathered based on their availability and accessibility.

4.4

Findings and Discussion

4.4.1 C  yclone Idai Disaster Landscapes and Official Responses Cyclone Idai originated from tropical depressions off the east coast of Mozambique in March 2019 and was a category 2 storm with winds exceeding 170  km/hour. Its path stretched from the Mozambique Channel, then northwards into south-eastern Malawi and then south-east towards the western coast of Madagascar before turning back inland and moving all the way to eastern Zimbabwe. The cyclone brought heavy rainfall and floods that destroyed settlements, roads and agricultural land. In Mozambique, 1300  km2 of land was affected across the provinces of Sofala, Manica, Zambézia, Inhambane and Tete in central and southern Mozambique. According to Eisenhammer (2019), over 700,000 hectares of agricultural land in central Mozambique was flooded, thereby resulting in food crop loses. Similarly, when cyclone Idai landed in eastern Zimbabwe on 15 March, it brought strong winds

and torrential rainfall that resulted in flash flooding and landslides in the predominantly ruraland agricultural-based districts of Chimanimani, Chipinge, Buhera, Mutare Rural (Manicaland province) Bikita, Gutu and Chiredzi district (Masvingo province) (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs [OCHA] 27/03/2019). At least 270,000 people in Zimbabwe were affected by the cyclone, including 51,000 people who were internally displaced and at least 500 people who were killed by the floods (News Day 28/03/2019) (OCHA 27/03/2019) in Manicaland, Mashonaland East and Masvingo provinces. These floods devastated the predominantly poor communities in rural and peri-urban areas. Following the damage done by the cyclone in Mozambique and Zimbabwe, national governments of these countries, international organisations and local NGOs all collaborated in emergency disaster responses to the crisis. Responses primarily focused on rescue operations as well as provision of logistical assistance and relief measures such as food and material deliveries, provision of shelter and emergency health care. For example, the World Food Programme (WFP) organised food aid response in remote and difficult to access rural and mountainous districts. World Vision organised immediate disaster response activities that focused on providing food and nutrition, water and sanitation, household goods and shelter assistance, health, child protection and education. By September (6 months after the landing of cyclone Idai), a million adults in the affected areas had received food support, while 29,000 children had been screened for malnutrition and 44,000 people were assisted with seeds and livestock (World Vision, 2020). Also, training was provided with the goal of resuscitating destroyed livelihoods and agricultural food systems in the subsistence agriculture-based communal areas. In both countries, the national emergency response was spearheaded by government institutions with support from several international NGOs, organisations and UN agencies. In Zimbabwe, the government-led response was coordinated by the Department of Civil Protection

4  Assessment of Cyclone Idai Floods on Local Food Systems and Disaster Management Responses…

(DCP) through the National, Provincial and District Civil Protection Committees, with support from several private, local and national emergency services that assisted the humanitarian relief activities (OCHA 17/03/2019). The army was deployed on the ground, and the air force was engaged to improve access to cut-off areas and to facilitate evacuations. Similarly, the humanitarian response in Mozambique was led by the government through the National Institute for Disaster Management (INGC) with support of the Humanitarian Country Team (HCT) that consisted of several United Nations agencies, international organisations and civil society organisations. The Government of Mozambique responded to the cyclone by declaring a state of emergency, and it approached many international organisations for support. About 1400 people were rescued and 29,000 internally displaced persons were provided with shelter, food and water (INGC, 2019). The National Civil Protection Unit and Defence Forces of Mozambique collected 1500 tonnes of products and produce within a week and within a month over one million people had received food assistance and potable water for household domestic use (DW, 2020). The combined humanitarian response assisted about two million affected by both cyclones Idai and Kenneth in Mozambique. The World Food Programme (WFP) was key to providing food relief to about 2.2 million people between March and August 2019. The FAO, in collaboration with the International Organization for Migration (IOM), distributed seeds and farming tools in the affected areas and by October 2019 had assisted 100,000 households with cereal, beans and vegetables seed (FAO, 2019).

4.4.2 I mpact of Cyclone Idai on Food Systems and Hunger Cyclone Idai is estimated to have destroyed crops covering hundreds of thousand hectares in Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe (Kiran & Madhumita, 2019). In both Mozambique and Zimbabwe, cyclone Idai not only exposed the extent of vulnerability of these two countries to

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floods but also helped to sharpen focus on two food insecurity hotspots: (i) internally displaced persons and (ii) the already food insecure and vulnerable households in both rural and urban areas. In Mozambique, cyclone Idai destroyed over 500,000 hectares of crops and washed away fisheries infrastructure, livestock assets and grain stores (FAO 2019). The cyclone resulted in ­ecological ruptures that flooded destroyed huge tracks of agricultural land in the Mozambican provinces of Manica and Sofala which normally produce about 25% of the national grain output, especially maize and rice, the main staples. As a result, many small-scale farmers were left with little or nothing to harvest and this pushed many rural households into a food security crisis. According to the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA, 2019a), food insecurity became a significant concern following the destruction of rice, beans, maize and cassava crops by floods. According to Eisenhammer (2019), Mozambique’s projected annual maize imports of 100,000 tonnes proved inadequate and had to be increased by at least 70% in order to meet the national consumption requirements. The agricultural sector in central and southern Mozambique is dominated by smallholder farmers that produce food on a significant portion of the 684,000 hectares of crops that were destroyed by the cyclone (DW, 2020). About 60% of cultivated crops were lost thereby exposing over 530,000 households to food insecurity since the region was having food shortages following droughts which negatively affected recent agricultural seasons (FAO, 2019). According to the World Bank (2019), cyclone Idai landed in the region at a time when farmers were about to harvest their crops, thereby resulting in loss of crops valued at least USD 140 million. In Mozambique household, food production dropped and many households had to rely on market purchases and food remittances from family members based in urban areas. In Mozambique, below-average food production that was caused by multiple shocks, including cyclone Idai, resulted in increased prices of staple foods and reduced household purchasing

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power. In 2020, humanitarian food assistance was covering up to 1.3 million people throughout the country and mitigating the food shortages caused by various tropical cyclones during 2019, the drought in the southern region, and the population displaced by the conflict in Cabo Delgado and heavy rains and localised floods experienced in 2020. The cyclone affected activities such as primary production, processing distribution and trade, retailing, food services and consumption. It particularly affected low-income food producers and consumers through disruptions of livelihoods. It also adversely affected food producers through food system disruptions and consumers through reduced food availability and access. Another significant consequence of cyclone Idai-­ induced flooding was a sharp price hike of basic food items. For example, the price of a 25-­kilogram bag of maize meal (corn flour) that previously sold for 850 meticais ($13) prior to the cyclone now sold for about 1200 meticais ($18.35) (Eisenhammer, 2019). Also, the price of rice (the other local staple food) in the affected regions of Mozambique increased by up to 100% during the first three months following the cyclone. In addition, the damage to electrical poles and wires resulted in power cuts that made it impossible to refrigerate fresh food for several days in some areas. According to UNICEF (2019), about a million people, including 160,000 children under 5 years, were food and nutrition insecure six months after cyclone Idai caused havoc in the affected parts of the country. In the case of Zimbabwe, after cyclone Idai-induced floods in the eastern districts of the country, the government was compelled to import 700,000– 900,000 metric tonnes of grain in order to meet the shortfall that was caused by the drought a few months earlier and by cyclone Idai. Farmers unions, who had earlier projected an output of 900,000 tonnes of maize at the beginning of the year, had reviewed downwards their projection to around 500,000 tonnes after 4 weeks of a meteorological drought. However, soon after the cyclone, they did another review which reduced estimated maize output to just 400,000 tonnes, which was only 45% of the original projection. Although maize meal was always available at

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maize supermarkets across the affected districts in Zimbabwe, prices had increased and this meant that low-income households, especially in urban settings, were confronted with considerable food access challenges. However, damage to road networks slowed down food distribution as general mobility was generally constrained. The impact of a disaster cyclone would be felt on agricultural activities, due to damaged infrastructure, loss of arable land, livestock and stored grain. This shock implies a loss of livelihoods, food and nutrition security. This not only had economic implications for smallholder farmers but also had a significant threat to sustainable food production. A year after cyclone Idai, many survivors were still living in temporary shelter provided by humanitarian support agencies as the government has not yet located suitable and safer relocation places for survivors. Food price spikes resulting from disruptions in the food supply chains as well as income loss food and nutrition security risks exposed households in the affected districts. Also, access to food was limited as a result of rising food prices as a result of local food shortages. Achieving SDG 2 requires policies that support better agricultural investments, providing agricultural subsidies and incentives and boosting agricultural production. Besides, understanding resilience in household food systems may help in better programming of interventions that affect food systems in shock-prone developing regions. Resilience has been defined from a social-­ ecological perspective as the capacity of socioeconomic systems (e.g. households) to withstand shocks through absorption, adaptation and transformation. Have the social and economic systems become more robust to shocks such as floods and droughts? Keeping supply chains functioning well is crucial to food security. The floods disrupted some activities in agriculture and supply chains. An unforgettable impact of cyclone Idai both Mozambique and Zimbabwe is the destruction of property and infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, railway lines and power lines. Worth noting is that the floods, by disrupting transport, communication and travel, left several places

4  Assessment of Cyclone Idai Floods on Local Food Systems and Disaster Management Responses…

isolated for days, thereby preventing access to food sources and markets. This was the case in central Mozambique where staple foods from the hinterland districts near the city port of Beira were temporarily made inaccessible following the washing away of low-level bridges. Similarly, in other parts of Mozambique and Eastern Zimbabwe, food flows to urban food markets were disrupted as commercial farmers temporarily failed to bring their produce to market in cities. For the medium- and long-term responses, the Mozambique government established the Post-­ cyclone Idai Cabinet for Re-construction. The first activity that cabinet carried out was the post disaster needs assessment. In relation to the agriculture sector, the assessment showed that the Idai caused losses equivalent to about US$ 500 million and the recovery needs for the sector it was evaluated to be equivalent of US$ 200 million. The agriculture ranked as the first priority for recovery needs among sectors. Rakotobe et al. (2016) had shown how previous tropical cyclones and associated floods have destroyed infrastructure and disrupted both crop and livestock production, thereby threatening food and nutrition security in Madagascar. In view of the ravages inflicted on infrastructure, settlements and livelihoods by cyclone Idai, it is essential to assess how both Mozambique and Zimbabwe responded to what has been the most devastating cyclone to make landfall on their territories. Also, worth assessing is the effectiveness of disaster mitigation and prevention strategies followed in the wake of the cyclone. There is very limited readily accessible academic literature on the effects of cyclone Idai and stakeholder responses in both Mozambique and Zimbabwe. However, there is an abundance of organisational reports and news items that reveal the horrifying experiences of poor rural and urban households who lost not only their livelihoods but also their makeshift shelter which was washed away by the floods. Also, in both countries, urban informal settlements not only suffered destruction but also were rendered inaccessible after few road arteries into these areas were left unusable by the floods.

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The response strategies of most stakeholders focused on relief and how to mitigate flood effects. However, despite various information bulletins on radio and television on improvement of preparedness and response procedures during flood events, several problems were encountered. First, the effectiveness of response support was weakened by infrastructural deficiencies that made delivery of relief food and other items ­difficult to achieve (Chatiza, 2019). Second, low-­ level household resilient capacity and lack of assimilation of preparedness programmes constrained community responses in the rural and mountainous district of Chimanimani in Eastern Zimbabwe. Third, response efforts were weakened by gaps in disaster planning, implementation and maintenance of preparedness systems. Fourth, reports by various international organisations reveal that resource-poor households were least able to cope with the torrential storms and floods brought by cyclone Idai to geographically flood prone and yet unprotected areas, thereby increasing community dependency on humanitarian support. Fifth, a review of the experiences of and response to the cyclone shows that many institutions play a role in the disaster risk management (DRM) systems of both countries. However, these agencies generally lack adequate technical, financial and logistical capacities, and as a result, their response approaches disaster risk management tend to be more reactive than proactive. The actions of the Mozambican and Zimbabwean governments in many ways mirror those of other countries in southern Africa in their responses to cyclone-induced floods (IFPRI, 2019; OCHA, 2019b; Reason & Keibel, 2004; UNEP and SARDC, 2009). Before cyclone Idai made landfall in Mozambique and Zimbabwe, various state structures in these countries and several international development organisations focused on keeping food supply chains open. The World Food Programme (WFP) (2019), citing the 2019 Regional Vulnerability Assessment and Analysis (RVAA), estimated that at least 50 million people in southern Africa were already food insecure and required immediate assistance. Also, there is a knowledge gap in terms of our understanding of how the affected households

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responded to flooding. Coping relates to how various groups, for example, households and local communities, respond in order to reduce stress within the limits of available resources when facing adverse situations (Alam, 2017). Coping essentially refers to defence mechanisms and culturally defined effective ways of addressing challenges and methods for handling stressful situations. Coping strategies reflect the resilience levels of communities and households during shocks or stresses to their everyday lives. Resilience is the ability to withstand shock and continue to function in the midst of unprecedented externalities. Extreme weather events such as floods have more direct impacts on food systems in both rural and urban areas where they disrupt transport and power infrastructure, consequently affecting supply lines and making food inaccessible for majority of populations in affected areas (TransConflict, 2019; Salazar-Espinoza et al., 2015). The floods compromised access to food through the disruption of food supply lines, making food inaccessible in certain areas. The disruption of the agriculture by flood events does not only compromise the quantity and quality available food but can potentially trigger food price increase and make food even more inaccessible for the poor. Cyclone Idai effectively disrupted food systems, and this undermined various policy initiatives aimed at the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2 on food security. The connection between extreme weather events (such as floods) and food prices has been highlighted in several studies, and these two are connected through the food production pathway (Ringler et al., 2010). Highlighting the effects of poor agriculture performance and the related challenges, the WFP (2018) explains how weak agricultural performance invariably leads to high reliance on expensive food purchases. High food prices resulted from flood-related food shortages may make maize inaccessible for a majority of the poor. Food studies by several scholars show how various natural shocks, such as floods and droughts, have negatively affected agricultural yields, household livelihoods and dietary diversity through food availability and affordability

challenges. Also, cyclone disasters and flooding potentially limit employment and income crucial to purchase food (Alam, 2017). This is likely to affect food systems which will in turn compromise food availability and utilisation resulting in food insecurity. Essentially, food systems in many African countries will continue to be fragile if mitigation and adaptation strategies to the effects of extreme weather events are not given sufficient policy attention. While by disrupting food systems the cyclone presented food insecurity challenges, the disruption of food systems is, however, a reflection of development challenges in both Mozambique and Zimbabwe where most rural areas have weak transport infrastructure and settlements occupy areas that are prone to flooding. Cyclone Idai was the trigger that caused the food systems disruptions. Food systems collapse during hydro-­ meteorological disasters such as cyclone Idai should not be viewed as exclusively the outcome of floods but should be viewed as the result of intersectionalities between natural disasters and social conditions, such as poverty and fragile food systems.

4.5

Conclusions

As cyclone Idai swept across Mozambique and Zimbabwe, it exposed the fragilities of local food systems in both countries by disrupting various agricultural and supply chain activities following the destruction of roads and bridges which connected food production and consumption regions. We have argued in this chapter that in both Mozambique and Zimbabwe, food insecurity is linked to natural, social and structural factors such floods, poverty and underdevelopment. We argued that food insecurity should not be viewed as exclusively the outcome of floods but should be viewed as the result of nexus between natural disasters and social conditions that are tied to poverty. From this approach, food insecurity would not be viewed as strictly the result of natural disasters but as the result of social conditions that make natural disasters a human-induced catastrophe tied to poverty. We conclude by argu-

4  Assessment of Cyclone Idai Floods on Local Food Systems and Disaster Management Responses…

ing that hunger and food insecurity in the context of what comprises social problems and consider their intersectionality with other development concerns. By disrupting food systems, the cyclone presented challenges that made the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2 on hunger eradication quite difficult. This emphasises the need to strengthen flood risk management and to roll out different activities in order to respond to shocks from natural disasters and to increase the resilience of communities. State institutions in both countries recognised and responded to the flooding challenge by focusing on providing relief and how to mitigate flood effects. Cyclone Idai created disaster landscapes through extensive destruction of rural and urban spaces, transport networks and fractured livelihoods. While the immediate humanitarian response to the crisis provided emergency and relief in the form of health care, shelter provision, food and material assistance to displaced families, it also revealed policy and planning shortcomings in responding to the effects of the cyclone and the related floods. In light of the ravages made by cyclone Idai in Mozambique and Zimbabwe, several recommendations can be made in terms of future responses to floods. Achieving SDG 2 requires strong determination and policies that support better agricultural investments, providing agricultural subsidies and incentives, prioritising nutrition programmes and boosting agricultural production. In particular, such policies and planning frameworks should have direct impacts on achieving food availability and access to food. Clearly, the disruptions on production and food supply chains, as well as income loss, have created and food and nutrition security risks that require urgent policy and planning responses at the national rather than the local level in order to nurture robust food systems that are resilient to disaster risks, such as floods. In light of the ravages made by cyclone Idai in the two countries, there is a need for an integrated disaster risk assessment and response that not only focusses on the period immediately before

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and after hazardous events, such as floods, but that also presents long-term coping strategies to communities residing in flood-prone areas. Such responses should aim to broaden resilient responses. Second, there is a need to invest in adaptive and resilience-building measures with a view to protecting the most vulnerable groups, women and children, including investments in disaster risk reduction in the form of early ­warning systems and early action; climate adaptation investments for key value chains; resilience investments for infrastructure; social protection and recovery measures for the most vulnerable groups to bounce back from climatic shocks. Conflicts of Interest  The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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68 depois-­do-­ciclone-­idai/a-­52781102. Accessed 25 June 2020. Eisenhammer, S (2019). Hunger stalks Mozambique after deadly cyclone destroys farmland, environment, 1 April. Available from https://www.reuters.com/ article/us-­africa-­cyclone-­farmers-­idUSKCN1RD24Q. Accessed 25 June 2020. FAO. (2015). The impact of natural hazards and disasters on agriculture and food security and nutrition: A call for action to build resilient livelihoods, May 2015. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-­i4434e.pdf. Accessed 3 Dec 2020. FAO. (2019). Mozambique-cyclones Idai and Kenneth-­ Situation report-October 2019. Available from: on http://www.fao.org/3/ca7638en/ca7638en.pdf. Accessed 5 July 2020. IFPRI. (2019). Cyclone Idai, flooding, and food security in Malawi. Available from: https://www.ifpri.org/blog/ cyclone-­i dai-­f looding-­a nd-­f ood-­s ecurity-­m alawi. Accessed 5 Sept 2020. INGC. (2019). Relatório de Avaliacao: Cyclone Idai. Available from: https://www.humanitarianresponse. info/sites/www.humanitarianresponse.info/files/ assessments/beira_rapid_assessment_report_pt.pdf. Accessed18 June 2020. IPCC. (2014). Regional aspects (Africa). In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1, pp.  1–115. Available on http://ipcc-­wg2. gov/AR5/report/final-­drafts/. Accessed 5 Oct 2020. Kiran, P., & Madhumita, P. (2019). Agriculture, food security and livestock in southern Africa most vulnerable to climate hazards: FAO. Available from: https://www. downtoearth.org.in/news/climate-­change/agriculture-­ food-­security-­and-­livestock-­in-­southern-­africa-­most-­ vulnerable-­to-­climate-­hazards-­fao-­65895. Accessed 24 June 2020. OCHA. (2019a). Southern Africa: Tropical Cyclone Kenneth. Flash update no 10. May 6th 2019. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb. int/files/resources/nationalsitrep_2_mozambique_17_ may_2019_port.pdf. Accessed 7 July 2020. OCHA. (2019b). Southern Africa: Tropical Cyclone Kenneth Flash Update No. 12 12 May 2019. Available from https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb. int/files/resources/Mozambique20190512_Flash%20 Update%20%2313.pdf. Accessed 24 June 2020. Pacetti, T., Caporali, E., & Rulli, M.  C. (2017). Floods and food security: A method to estimate the effect of inundation on crops availability. Advances in Water Resources, 110(1), 494–504. Pingali, P., Alinovi, L., & Sutton, J. (2005). Food security in complex emergencies: Enhancing food system resilience. Disasters, 29, S5–S24.

D. Tevera et al. Rakotobe, Z. L., Harvey, C. A., Rao, N. S., et al. (2016). Strategies of smallholder farmers for coping with the impacts of cyclones: A case study from Madagascar. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 17, 114–122. Reason, C.  J., & Keibel, A. (2004). Tropical cyclone Eline and its unusual penetration and impacts over the southern African mainland. Weather and Forecasting, 19, 789–805. Ringler, C., Zhu, T., Cai, X., Koo, J., & Wang, D. (2010). Climate Change impacts on food security in Sub-­ Saharan Africa insights from comprehensive Climate Change scenarios. Food Policy, 466(28). https://doi. org/10.1038/nature09146 Salazar-Espinoza, C., Jones, S., & Tarp, F. (2015). Weather shocks and cropland decisions in rural Mozambique. Food Policy, 53, 9–21. TransConflict. (2019). The impact of Cyclone Idai  – Lessons for Africa. Available from http://www. transconflict.com/2019/06/the-­i mpact-­o f-­cyclone-­ idai-­lessons-­for-­africa/. Accessed 24 June 2020. UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and SARDC (Southern African Research and Documentation Centre). (2009). Droughts and floods in southern Africa. Environmental change and human vulnerability. UNEP and SARDC. UNICEF. (2019). Mozambique: Children living in storm-affected areas face worsening food insecurity and nutrition crisis six months after cyclone Idai. September 14th 2019. Week, D.  A., & Wizor, C.  H. (2020). Effects of flood on food security, livelihood and socio-economic characteristics in the flood in the flood-prone areas of the Core Niger Delta, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Geographical Research, 3(1), 1–17. World Bank. (2019). Mozambique: Cyclone Idai & Kenneth Emergency Recovery and Resilience Project (P171040). Available on http://documents1. worldbank.org/curated/en/ 727131568020768626/ pdf/Project-Information-Document-MozambiqueCyclone-­I dai-Kenneth-Emergency-Recovery-andResilience-­ Project-P171040.pdf. Accessed 20 Jan 2020. World Food Programme. (2018). The State of Food Insecurity and Nutrition in the World. Available at http://www.fao.org/3/i9553en/i9553en.pdf. Accessed 20 Jan 2021. World Food Programme. (2019). Food Security in Southern Africa in 2019/20. Available on https:// docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-­0 000106747/ download/?iframe. Accessed 20 Jan 2020. World Vision. (2020). 2019 Cyclone Idai: Facts, FAQs, and how to help. Available from https://www.worldvision.org/disaster-­relief-­news-­stories/2019-­cyclone-­ idai-­facts#damage. Accessed 24 June 2020.

5

Impacts of Tropical Cyclones Idai and Kenneth on Public Health in Southern Africa Gwendoline Q. Kandawasvika , Nomsa Thabethe , Janet Dzangare, and Portia Manangazira

warning and an emergency evacuation plan for towns. People infected with HIV who were Globally, extreme weather has negatively displaced could not maintain access to antiretimpacted on human health, particularly the roviral medication which led to the discontinburden of communicable and non-­ uation of treatment altogether. The long-term communicable diseases. Southern Africa health impacts on other established health proexperienced torrential rainfall caused by tropigrammes, such as malaria, or nutritional procal cyclone Idai from 14 to 17 March 2019, grammes or the sequel caused by stress and followed by cyclone Kenneth on 25 April post-traumatic distress disorder were not 2019. This chapter aims to document the pubexplored. Further research is needed to idenlic health impact of cyclones Idai and Kenneth tify factors that improve community resilience in three African countries: Malawi, to extreme weather as this mitigates against Mozambique and Zimbabwe. A mixed quantithe negative impact of cyclones and flooding tative and qualitative methodology was ution health outcomes in the future. lized to gather information from the three countries. The impact of the cyclones on Keywords human health resulted in massive losses in human lives and health-related infrastructure Cyclones · Idai · Kenneth · Public health · and societal activities. All three countries had Southern Africa a lack of a back-up communication system for Abstract

5.1 G. Q. Kandawasvika () Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Zimbabwe College of Health Sciences, Harare, Zimbabwe N. Thabethe Department of Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] J. Dzangare · P. Manangazira Ministry of Health & Child Care, Harare, Zimbabwe e-mail: [email protected]

Introduction

Southern Africa experienced torrential rainfall caused by tropical cyclone Idai from 14 of March to 17 March 2019, a period followed by cyclone Kenneth on 25 March 2019. The two cyclones resulted in coastal flooding in the Comoros and Mozambique, as well as flooding and mudslides in Malawi and Zimbabwe, resulting in massive losses in human lives and health-related infrastructure and societal activities. While the imme-

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_5

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diate public health impacts of cyclones Idai and Kenneth were acute and devastating, the long-­ term outcomes are still evolving and projected to last for decades to come. Sustainable development goal (SDG) 3 and SDG 13 relate to healthy lives for all and fighting the impact of climate change, respectively. The advent of cyclone Idai personalized the intertwined relationship between these two sustainable developmental goals for southern Africa communities. Pre-cyclone Idai period, the world development indicators on mortality from non-­ communicable diseases for southern African countries were showing a declining trend. After the devastating trail of cyclone Idai in Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, the UN reported massive displacement of populations, loss of human life and infrastructure. Considering that some of the communities were yet to recover from the El Nino drought effects of 2018, the health trajectory for the communities affected by cyclone Idai are unlikely to meet the 2030 targets. Consequently, to prevent disease, prolong life and promote human health, understanding the link between extreme weather events to health is critical if alleviating efforts by society, organizations and individuals are to succeed in the southern African context. Climate change and extreme weather events such as intense storms and flooding promote changes in the incidence and distribution of vector and water-borne disease, reduction in food availability, poverty and population displacement (Ryan et al., 2016). Communities become vulnerable to communicable and non-communicable diseases (Watts et al., 2015). Assessing the public health impact of cyclones Idai and Kenneth particularly among vulnerable communities informs strategies that improve resilience to extreme weather events in the future. This chapter aims to document the effects of tropical cyclones and floods on public health in southern Africa. The specific objectives were to document the impact of cyclone Idai on the short- and long-term patterns of the most common communicable and non-communicable diseases in three southern African countries, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. A rapid assessment report of an HIV

programme in one of the affected districts Chipinge illustrated the impact of cyclone Idai on people living with HIV and the health system.

5.2

Background

5.2.1 Communicable Diseases: Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe As much as the meteorological and environmental impacts of climate change are well communicated and documented, their impacts on the health of the public are less documented. The impacts of extreme weather events may lead to communicable diseases, injuries and death (Hashim & Hashim, 2016). The public health impacts associated with extreme weather events (cyclones) are influenced by these five factors, namely severity, duration, surprise, differences in categories of the cyclones and differences between individual cyclones (WHO, 2008). This means that the more the cyclones with higher wind and speed (National Hurricane Centre, 2015), the greater the public health impacts will be and the longer the duration, the greater the period of exposure. If there were early warnings about the cyclones, the greater the emergency preparedness measures in place and hence there will be reduced public health impacts. The public health impacts of cyclones also depend on the categories and the differences between the individual cyclones (Hashim & Hashim, 2016). Of immediate concern to public health practitioners is the risk of the transmission of communicable diseases following cyclones is caused by contaminated drinking water, poor sanitation, displaced and overcrowded populations and increased exposure to disease vectors (Karanis et  al., 2007). This may result in an increased number of communicable diseases such as cholera (Cambaza et al., 2019), acute respiratory diseases (Firger, 2017; Walker, 2018, leptospirosis (Lau et  al., 2010; Haake and Levett, 2015), typhoid (Erickson et al., 2019), hepatitis (Davies et al., 2015) and malaria (Erickson et al., 2019). Table  5.1 gives details of the infectious patho-

5  Impacts of Tropical Cyclones Idai and Kenneth on Public Health in Southern Africa Table 5.1  Infectious pathogens leading to communicable diseases as a result of cyclones

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mon in the aftermath of flooding and massive displacement. In particular, post-traumatic stress Infection caused by the disorder was diagnosed in many people who lost Pathogen pathogen loved ones or suffered injuries (Martin et  al., Leptospira interrogans Leptospirosis 2016). The burden of trauma however remains ill Clostridium tetani Tetanus defined. Salmonella typhi Typhoid Various mechanisms are postulated on how Burkholderia Melioidosis extreme weather impact on non-communicable pseudomallei disease (Frumkin & Haines, 2019; McMichael, Schistosoma Bilharzia haematobium 2013). Extreme weather threatens access to Vibrio cholerae Cholera health care, essential treatment, water, food and Influenza virus Flu shelter in the vulnerable, which can result in an Plasmodium Malaria exacerbation of existing conditions and preventfalciparum able death. The holistic approach to public health Lyssavirus Rabies focus of extreme weather management to include Cryptococcus Cryptococcal meningitis neoformans NCDs, as the long-term health impacts from Shigella sonnei Shigellosis extreme weather such a cyclone Idai linger long Source: Davies et al. (2015), Bandino et al. (2015), Firger after the waters receded. (2017), Saulnier et al. (2017), Tabuchi and Kaplan (2017), Extreme precipitation tends to damage walls Boyer et  al. (2018), Walker (2018), Centres for Disease when moisture enters structures and encourage Control and Prevention (2019), Erickson et  al. (2019), mould growth. This negatively affected the qualKraemer et al. (2019) ity of indoor air. When inhaled, the increased aeroallergens trigger allergic rhinitis and asthma gens leading to communicable diseases as a (Johanning et al., 2014). A phenomenon known result of cyclones. as ‘thunderstorm asthma’ occurs when outside aeroallergens are increased as a result of osmotic ruptures that occur when heavy precipitation 5.2.2 Non-communicable Disorders: coincides with the pollen season leading to a Zimbabwe, Malawi surge in aeroallergen concentrations and increasand Mozambique ing the incidence and severity of allergic illness (Cecchi et al., 2010). The effects of such an event The impact of extreme weather and climate were demonstrated in Melbourne, Australia, in change on non-communicable disorders are November 2016, when a thunderstorm led to diverse and related to the local societal and envi- 8500 people hospitalized for respiratory illronmental factors that affect disease burden. nesses, overwhelming emergency health departOver the past four decades, the frequency of nat- ments and ambulatory systems (Woodhead ural disasters and the burden of non-­ 2016). No report was made in southern Africa. communicable diseases (NCD) across the globe have been increasing (Benjamin 2016). The top conditions are coronary heart disease, stroke, 5.2.3 Mental Health: Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique mental health, type 2 diabetes mellitus, cancer, and South Africa chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and chronic kidney disease. NCD is estimated to kill more than 38 million people each year, account- Exposure to extreme weather affects mental ing for 70% of global deaths (WHO 2016). health as individuals experience the stress, trauma Among the vulnerable, at least 14 million die and displacement related to an event. Adults and young and are aged between 30 and 70  years children are equally affected. High prevalence of (WHO 2016). Mental health disorders are com- symptoms of depression, anxiety and suicide

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were reported in the aftermath of hurricane Katrina (Galea et  al., 2007). Extreme weather events contribute to mental illness, global burden of disease by the various mechanisms. One hypothesis attributes depression and anxiety to reduced physical activity due to extreme heat exposure (Mammen & Faulkner, 2013). Identified risk factors for post-disaster depression in both wealthy and resource-poor settings include pre-extreme event mental and physical health, personality and beliefs, the extreme event experiences and availability of post-disaster support. The aftermath of hurricane Katrina was a case in point. A study conducted a few months after the disaster showed that at least 49% of those surveyed in New Orleans had a diagnosis of a mental disorder. Half of them suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder (Galea et al., 2007). The prevalence of depression was shown to have increased 2 years after the hurricane. It is important to note slow-moving climate-related disasters such as drought may also increase the incidence of anxiety, depression and suicide among resource-constrained populations (Mammen & Faulkner, 2013).

5.2.4 Food Security The effects of extreme weather on crop yields and its impact on human health are complex and not understood in many cases. When small tributaries are involved as was the case in Zimbabwe and Malawi, the damage is intense as it is characterized by highly localized, short-duration and high-intensity rainfall. Floods tend to submerge vast treks of arable farmland and destroyed food crops. Loss of domestic animals, an important source of animal protein, leaves families destitute and at risk of under nutrition. Climate change is resulting in the rising of sea levels, with the threat of saline intrusion of groundwater, particularly in coastal areas such as Beira. WHO/FAO suggest that the doubling of salt content above the recommended limits expose to high salt intake and this increases the risk of hypertension in adults, hypertension in pregnancy and preeclampsia as suggested by study findings in Bangladesh (Scheelbeek et al., 2017).

To determine the impact of cyclone and floods in three African countries (Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe) and suggest outline measures to improve the resilience of public health to extreme events in the future, identification of direct, indirect and delayed elements is critical.

5.3

Methods and Materials

The study was conducted in three southern African countries (Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe) after southern Africa experienced torrential rainfall caused by tropical cyclone Idai from 14 to 17 March 2019, followed by cyclone Kenneth on 25 April 2019. A mixed quantitative and qualitative methodology was utilized to gather health-related information from the three countries. A desk study and consultation of key state and non-state actors were done as the first step to gather all the information needed. Primary data in Zimbabwe were also provided by Higherlife foundation, a philanthropic organization, and the Presbyterian Church. In-depth interviews were conducted with key informants at the affected health facilities. The interview questions were structured in such a way that only the necessary information needed for this study was collected. Participation in the interviews was voluntary, the identity and confidentiality of the participants were protected by not including the names of participants against their responses. In Chipinge, Zimbabwe, a rapid assessment of the impact of cyclone Idai on people living with HIV (PLVH) was conducted. Senior nurses at health facilities (HF) were interviewed on the effect of the cyclone on clinic workload, availability of HIV commodities and priority actions to support people living with HIV.  Participants were encouraged to seek clarification from the researcher if the questions asked were not clear. Questions were also translated into the language that the participant understood better. A convenience sampling technique was used to enrol participants. In the Chimanimani district, hospital records of common communicable diseases were reviewed and the impact of cyclone Idai on health outcomes was documented.

5  Impacts of Tropical Cyclones Idai and Kenneth on Public Health in Southern Africa

Descriptive summary statistics were used to analyse participants’ sociodemographic characteristics and service delivery for people living with HIV. Permission to collect health-related information and interview health workers was sought from the Ministry of Health and Child Care in Zimbabwe. The names of research participants were kept strictly confidential and they were only known to the researchers, and this encouraged the participants to be free and honest when responding to the questions.

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5.4.1 Communicable Diseases and Responses in Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe

In week 10 of 2019, seven cases of cholera were reported in Malawi (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund, 2019). In response to the cholera cases, the WHO provided medical support to the communities in Malawi (WHO, 2019). Table 5.3 provides details on the estimated populations affected by the cyclone Idai in Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. As of 8 April 2019, 3577 cholera cases and 6 5.4 Findings deaths were reported in Mozambique with the main affected being Beira, Nhamatanda and Of the three southern African countries which Dondo [United Nations Office for the experienced torrential rainfall caused by tropical Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs cyclone Idai from 14 to 17 March 2019, followed (UNOCHA, 2018]. As part of the response to the by cyclone Kenneth on 25 April 2019, outbreak, Mozambique implemented the 2018– Mozambique suffered the greatest human and 2019 Mozambique Humanitarian Response Plan economic losses. The associated losses are pre- (UNOCHA, 2018). This plan has four major sented in Table 5.2. health-related response measures which are The exact figures of human fatalities remain social mobilization campaigns for prevention, the under-reported as some whole families were establishment of treatment centres and units, swept away by the torrential rains to the Indian coordination to ensure the improvement of water, Ocean. Estimates of country mortalities are sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and surveillance shown in Table 5.2. In the context of the southern for the displaced populations. African countries, the loss of human life might The Ministry of Health in Mozambique also have been influenced by the high population den- conducted a 6-day emergency cholera vaccination sity, styles of agrarian living and substandard pre-­ campaign (WHO, 2019). The WHO also deployed existing infrastructure which increase the risk of epidemiologists, logisticians and medical experts further loss. (WHO, 2019). The National Health Institute Table 5.2  Human and economic losses due to cyclone Idai (UN 2019)

Country Zimbabwe

Malawi

Mozambique

Predominant weather event Extreme precipitation, flooding and mudslides Extreme precipitation, flooding and mudslides Coastal flooding

Number displaced 16,000

Mean loss of life 344

Number of people Confirmed injured cholera case 200 0

Confirmed cholera deaths Mean loss in $ 0 613 million

19,328

69

672

0

0

43 million

239,682

602

1641

6766

8

656–778 million

G. Q. Kandawasvika et al.

74 Table 5.3 Estimated populations affected by the cyclones Country Malawi Mozambique Zimbabwe

Estimated population affected 868,900 1,850,000 270,000

Source: European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2019)

(2019), the WHO and Centres for Disease Control and Prevention organized a short course on outbreak investigation in Mozambique. Cholera treatment centres were established in Pemba and Mecúfi cities in Mozambique in May 2019, with 50 beds and 16 beds respectively (National Health Institute, 2019). In Zimbabwe, 10,730 cases were reported from the beginning of the cholera outbreak on 5 September 2018 to week 10 of 2019 (WHO, 2018; Cann et  al., 2013). As part of the response to the outbreak in Zimbabwe, medical supplies were delivered to the health facilities and 11 satellite clinics were established to provide emergency health services to affected communities (WHO, 2019). Established health programmes such as malaria, family health and HIV were disrupted.

5.4.2 Results of the Rapid Assessment for Impact of Cyclone Idai on People Living with HIV (PLHIV) in Zimbabwe Chimanimani is a mountainous district located in the southeastern border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The area has 2 mission hospitals, 2 rural hospitals and 23 rural health centres. The torrential rainfall caused by cyclone Idai caused riverine flash flooding and landslides. It is estimated that 16,000 households were displaced and 250,000 persons affected. In Chimanimani district, before the cyclone, there were 8377 PLHIV on ART of whom 400 were children younger than 15 years, while in Chipinge 18,766 PLHIV were on ART with 427 children younger than 15 years. Before the assessment, the magnitude of disruption of HIV services in these two districts was

unknown, neither was the number of PLHIV affected. It is against this background that a rapid assessment, supported by UNICEF, was conducted in the Manicaland province situated on the Zimbabwean eastern border with Mozambique. Two out of seven most affected districts of Chipinge and Chimanimani were assessed to determine the impact of the cyclone on HIV services. Senior nurses at health facilities (HF) were interviewed and information was gathered on the effect of the cyclone on their clinic workload, availability of HIV commodities and priority actions to support PLHIV affected by the cyclone and assess processes done to re-initiate clients without cards or whose medicines were washed away.

5.4.3 HIV Rapid Assessment Results The findings from the rapid assessment are presented in Tables 5.4, 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7. Table 5.4 shows that most of the facilities reported no change in demand for ART medicines, condoms and treatment of opportunistic infections possibly because ART refill was for 3 months and as a result, most had their medicines except a few who had their houses washed away. The other reason could be that access to health facilities was reduced due to the damaged bridges and roads. Demand for food was high among most facilities because the effects of the cyclone had exacerbated the effects of a preceding drought. Demand for psycho-social support was high across most of the facilities, we had expected this considering the number of lives and property lost in this cyclone. A higher number of facilities reported no change in terms of availability of medicines because medicines were immediately airlifted to the facilities soon after the cyclone (Table  5.5). Most of the medicines reported as reduced were not as a result of the cyclone, for example second-­ line ART medicines. A higher number of facilities reported diarrhoea and malaria; however, this could not be verified by records (Table  5.6). A higher number of facilities reported that patients

5  Impacts of Tropical Cyclones Idai and Kenneth on Public Health in Southern Africa Table 5.4  How cyclone Idai affected demand for the following commodities and services ARV treatment Condoms Food security Psychosocial support Opportunistic infection treatment

No change 12 13 7 8

Reduced 3 3 2 0

Increased 8 7 14 15

15

3

5

No change 13 15 14 9

Reduced 4 3 3 6

Increased 6 5 6 8

Table 5.6  Health problems impacting people affected by cyclone Idai Condition TB Malaria Diarrhoea HIV related Respiratory tract infections

Number of facilities 1 6 10 3 10

Table 5.7  Cyclones and their effects on the day to day running of the health facilities Variable Patients failing to access HFs as well as to referral hospitals due to damaged bridges Lack of safe water supply Increased workload Lack of food Lack of communication

eral hand due to the cyclone. The only primary counsellor at the clinic was transferred after losing his family to the cyclone. Lack of clean water and food was also among the major challenges being reported at the facilities.

5.4.4 O  bstetric, Newborn Care and Trauma

Table 5.5  Cyclone Idai and the effect on the drug availability and supply ARV PMTCT Condoms Medicines

75

Frequency 12 5 6 17 6

were failing to access facilities due to damaged roads (Table 5.7). Other facilities were failing to also refer to complicated cases due to bad roads except those that were being serviced by a helicopter. Some facilities like Ngorima, Nyahode and Chimanimani clinics reported a high workload of clients because these were the most affected. Ngorima clinic lost a nurse, and a gen-

We were informed that there was a pregnant mother who had just delivery and had post-partum haemorrhage at Colonel Kaneta Temporary clinic. We summoned air rescue, but the site had no coordinates. We ended up carrying the mother across a shaky footbridge and we were so frightened. Eventually the mother was rescued at Ngorima clinic after hours of struggle. Said one of the Nurses at Ngorima clinic.

Damaged roads, bridges and flooded rivers reduced access to HFs resulting in some mothers delivering at home and some along the way. Some facilities reported a lot of post-delivery mothers missing scheduled reviews, while some pregnant women in waiting mothers’ shelters failed to get food supplies. In Chimanimani and Chipinge, as a result of the flooding, there was widespread destruction of infrastructures such as homes, boarding school buildings, roads and health facilities. People sustained severe injuries such as multiple fractures and lacerations. The vulnerable, women, children and the elderly were the most affected. Medical rescue response was slow in coming and initially, casualties were treated in the open fields. Air medical evacuations organized by the air force of Zimbabwe and volunteers to ferry the injured to tertiary centres where surgical operations could be conducted were delayed due to poor visibility as a result of persistent precipitation. Ministry of Health officials reported a surge in off duty requests by healthcare workers attending to cyclone survivors, related to post-traumatic stress among the health workers. In Zimbabwe and Malawi unpublished reports from NGOs suggested an increase in the incidents of mental

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health-related disorders in the communities affected by cyclone Idai (MOHCC 2019).

G. Q. Kandawasvika et al.

lying areas. Nursing staff in Chimanimani district even suggested creating a community level disaster management team for rapid response in future disasters. 5.4.5 Nutritional Status Post Disaster management practices entail the folCyclone lowing guidelines on effective floodplain management practices, urban planning, updated The floods submerged vast expanses of arable building codes to withstand intense tropical farmland and destroyed food crops which were at cyclone winds and construction of multi-purpose the point of harvesting in some areas such as infrastructure to serve as shelters in cases of tropChimanimani. In Beira, arable land swamped by ical cyclones and accommodation during floods. salty sea water was rendered vast treks of land The consideration of structural measures for proinfertile. Domestic animals that provide animal tection and management where appropriate mitimilk and meat were also swept away to sea leav- gate against the devastation health impact of ing families destitute. A rise in cases of child and exposure to extreme weather such as hypotheradult undernutrition compared to national figures mia or heat stroke. Exposure to extreme events was reported as due to decreased maize yields affects mental health as individuals experience and poor food security (Zimbabwe rapid impact the stress, trauma and displacement related to an and needs assessment, 2019). event (Galea et al., 2007). The high number of health facilities that became inaccessible due to damaged roads might 5.4.6 Obstetric and Neonatal reflect lack of road network maintenance by local Outcomes authorities before the cyclones. The cyclones led to infrastructure breakdown which affected the Women and children are the most vulnerable in healthcare system and the supply of medication natural disasters. No official figures were avail- in Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. This able from Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe meant that people infected with HIV who were on the maternal and perinatal outcomes related to displayed could not have access to ART medicathe effects of cyclone Idai. In the United States, tion, interrupting treatment altogether. In general, they also demonstrated adverse birth outcomes the long-term discontinuation of the HIV treatincluding preterm birth, low birth weight and ment predisposes to the development of resismaternal complications (Auger et al., 2011). An tance to available anti-retrovirals and treatment isolated case is reported of a woman who gave failure (European Centre for Disease Prevention birth in a tree after her home was swept away in and Control, 2019). Chimanimani. The rapid assessment of the HIV programme in Chimanimani and Chipinge provided a baseline information necessary for planning for the 5.5 Discussion future of PLHIV.  Priority actions identified to support people living with HIV affected by the Cyclones Idai and Kenneth resulted in substantial cyclone included food assistance, provision of loss of life, infrastructure and societal activities safe water supply, psychosocial support, constant in Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe. supply at ART medicines, construction of toilets The health impact was exacerbated by identified at homesteads and support in adherence counselmajor weaknesses on preparedness, emergency ling. HIV screening for pregnant or lactating coordination and response. All three countries mothers as well as children was disrupted and had a lack of a back-up communication system needed to be strengthened. In contrast, long-term for warning and emergency operations and an impact on other established programmes such as evacuation plan for towns, particularly in low-­ malaria, TB or nutritional programmes remains

5  Impacts of Tropical Cyclones Idai and Kenneth on Public Health in Southern Africa

77

unknown. Notably, some challenges such as the oping models for mitigation health resilience durpsychosocial impact of cyclones Idai and Kenneth ing extreme weather events. Understanding these were not documented in detail because the imme- pathways is especially important for indirect or diate priority for disaster-affected communities delayed health effects, as demonstrated. was food, water and shelter. Future disaster manThe study had the following limitations: The agement programmes should engage the affected prevalence of long-term sequel of psychological communities first to determine their priorities disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorders which were lacking in most areas. was underestimated as this study was conducted Non-communicable diseases pose a signifi- over a short period of time. The burden of cant financial burden on already stretched health- ­ mortality is unknown as some bodies were care budgets and southern African nations’ washed off or buried in the mudslides. Information welfare. This is worsened by extreme weather from some hospital files was incomplete and it conditions. Although a good deal of research has was not possible to conduct rapid assessments of gone into understanding the health outcomes of other health programmes due to cost. Human extreme events, work is still needed on under- hardship indicators due to extreme weather were standing the ability of health departments and not evaluated, thus underestimating the extent of healthcare facilities to respond to non-­ economic losses. Notwithstanding the above, this communicable disorders that arise from more chapter contributes to the body of knowledge on frequent and intense extreme events. All three the impact of cyclones Idai and Kenneth to countries demonstrated gaps in the disaster public health in Malawi, Zimbabwe and response plans. Healthcare facilities need to Mozambique. maintain operations during and after extreme events as they treat the traditional patient population and those affected by the storm. By under- 5.6 Conclusion standing these risks, facilities are better prepared for these adverse effects. Cyclones Idai and Kenneth resulted in substantial Human hardship indicators that identify eco- loss of life, infrastructure and livelihood in nomic losses and deaths due to extreme weather Mozambique, Malawi and Zimbabwe. are easily available yet human hardship as a result Established health programmes such as HIV of loses due to extreme weather are difficult to were disrupted in Chipinge, Zimbabwe. The measure. As such, the impact of cyclone Idai on long-term sequel caused by stress and post-­ human hardship and health in Malawi, Zimbabwe, traumatic distress disorder was not explored. Mozambique and South Africa is yet to be Further research is needed to identify factors that understood. improve community resilience to extreme Research is still needed to identify the various weather as this mitigates against the negative ways human health is affected by extreme events impact of cyclone and flooding on health outin a changing climate. Although many pathways comes in the future. between extreme events and health outcomes have been established, there is still a need to construct specific pathways that account for regional References differences. Each location has its vulnerabilities and environmental concerns that might reduce or Auger, N., Kuehne, E., Goneau, M., & Daniel, M. (2011). Preterm birth during an extreme weather event in exacerbate health issues. Identifying these differQuebec, Canada: A “natural experiment”. Maternal ences can help local public health officials develop and Child Health Journal, 15(7), 1088–1096. the tools necessary for issuing effective early Bandino, J.  P., Hang, A., & Norton, S.  A. (2015). The infectious and noninfectious dermatological consewarnings or capitalizing on opportunities to mitiquences of flooding: A field manual for the responding gate impacts. A concept of UBUNTU is unique to provider. American Journal of Clinical Dermatology, southern Africa and should be explored in devel16(5), 399–424.

78 Boyer, S., Calvez, E., Chouin-Carneiro, T., Diallo, D., & Failloux, A. B. (2018). An overview of mosquito vectors of Zika virus. Microbes and Infection, 20(11–12), 646–660. Cambaza, E., Mongo, E., Anapakala, E., Nhambire, R., Singo, J., & Machava, E. (2019). Outbreak of cholera due to cyclone Kenneth in northern Mozambique, 2019. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(16), 2925. Cann, K. F., Thomas, D. R., Salmon, R. L., Wyn-Jones, A.  P., & Kay, D. (2013). Extreme water-related weather events and waterborne disease. Epidemiology & Infection, 141(4), 671–686. Cecchi, L., d’Amato, G., Ayres, J. G., Galan, C., Forastiere, F., Forsberg, B., … Dahl, R. (2010). Projections of the effects of climate change on allergic asthma: The contribution of aerobiology. Allergy, 65(9), 1073–1081. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). National Centre for emerging and zoonotic infectious diseases. United States of America. Davies, G.  I., McIver, L., Kim, Y., Hashizume, M., Iddings, S., & Chan, V. (2015). Water-borne diseases and extreme weather events in Cambodia: Review of impacts and implications of climate change. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(1), 191–213. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. (2019). Cyclone Idai: Risk of communicable diseases in southern Africa – 10 April 2019. ECDC. Erickson, T.  B., Brooks, J., Nilles, E.  J., Pham, P.  N., & Vinck, P. (2019). Environmental health effects attributed to toxic and infectious agents following hurricanes, cyclones, flash floods and major hydrometeorological events. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B, 22(5–6), 157–171. Galea, S., Brewin, C. R., Gruber, M., Jones, R. T., King, D. W., King, L. A., … Kessler, R. C. (2007). Exposure to hurricane-related stressors and mental illness after hurricane Katrina. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(12), 1427–1434. Firger, J. (2017). Infectious diseases could sweep across Texas as Harvey floods Houston. Newsweek US Edition. Frumkin, H., & Haines, A. (2019). Global environmental change and noncommunicable disease risks. Annual Review of Public Health, 40, 261–282. Haake, D., & Levett, P.  N. (2015). Leptospirosis in humans. Current Tropical Microbiology Immunology, 387, 65–97. Hashim, J.  H., & Hashim, Z. (2016). Climate change, extreme weather events, and human health implications in the Asia Pacific region. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, 28(2_suppl), 8S–14S. Johanning, E., Auger, P., Morey, P.  R., Yang, C.  S., & Olmsted, E. (2014). Review of health hazards and prevention measures for response and recovery workers and volunteers after natural disasters, flooding, and water damage: Mold and dampness. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine, 19(2), 93–99.

G. Q. Kandawasvika et al. Karanis, P., Kourenti, C., & Smith, H. (2007). Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: A worldwide review of outbreaks and lessons learnt. Journal of Water and Health, 5(1), 1–38. Kraemer, M.  U., Reiner, R.  C., Brady, O.  J., Messina, J. P., Gilbert, M., Pigott, D. M., & Shirude, S. (2019). Past and future spread of the arbovirus vectors Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Nature Microbiology, 4(5), 854–863. Lau, C. L., Smythe, L. D., Craig, S. B., & Weinstein, P. (2010). Climate change, flooding, urbanisation and leptospirosis: Fuelling the fire? Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 104(10), 631–638. Mammen, G., & Faulkner, G. (2013). Physical activity and the prevention of depression: A systematic review of prospective studies. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 45(5), 649–657. Martin, N.  C., Felton, J.  W., & Cole, D.  A. (2016). Predictors of youths’ posttraumatic stress symptoms following a natural disaster: The 2010 Nashville, Tennessee, flood. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 45(3), 335–347. McMichael, A. J. (2013). Globalization, climate change, and human health. New England Journal of Medicine, 368(14), 1335–1343. Ministry of Health and Child Health Care. (2019). Report of doctors’ activities during cyclone Idai. Ministry of Health, Harare, Zimbabwe. National Health Institute, & World Health Organization. (2019). Tropical cyclones Idai and Kenneth, Mozambique National Situation Report 1 (p.  12). National Health Institute, Ministry of Health. National Hurricane Center. (2015). Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale information. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved from http:// www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsshws.php. Accessed 17 June 2015 Ryan, B.  J., Franklin, R.  C., Burkle, F.  M., Jr., Aitken, P., Smith, E., Watt, K., & Leggat, P. (2016). Reducing disaster exacerbated non-communicable diseases through public health infrastructure resilience: perspectives of Australian disaster service providers. PLoS Currents, 8. Saulnier, D. D., Ribacke, K. B., & von Schreeb, J. (2017). No calm after the storm: A systematic review of human health following flood and storm disasters. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 32(5), 568–579. Scheelbeek, P. F., Chowdhury, M. A., Haines, A., Alam, D. S., Hoque, M. A., Butler, A. P., … Vineis, P. (2017). Drinking water salinity and raised blood pressure: Evidence from a cohort study in coastal Bangladesh. Environmental Health Perspectives, 125(5), 057007. Tabuchi, H., & Kaplan, S. (2017). A sea of health and environmental hazards in Houston’s floodwaters. New York Times, 31. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. (2018). 2018–2019 Mozambique humanitarian response plan: Revised

5  Impacts of Tropical Cyclones Idai and Kenneth on Public Health in Southern Africa following cyclone Idai. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund. (2019). Cholera and AWD outbreaks in Eastern and Southern Africa. United Nations Office for Coordinating Humanitarian Affairs. (2019). Cyclones Idai and Kenneth. https:// www.unocha.org/southern-and-eastern-africa-rosea/ cyclones-idai-and-kenneth Walker, J.  T. (2018). The influence of climate change on waterborne disease and Legionella: A review. Perspectives in Public Health, 138(5), 282–286. Watts, N., Adger, W.  N., Agnolucci, P., Blackstock, J., Byass, P., Cai, W., … Cox, P. M. (2015). Health and climate change: Policy responses to protect public health. The Lancet, 386(10006), 1861–1914. Woodhead, M. (2016). Hospitals overwhelmed with patients after “thunderstorm asthma” hits Melbourne.

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British Medical Journal, 355, i6391. https://doi. org/10.1136/bmj.i6391 World Health Organization. (2008). Protecting our health from climate change—World Health Day 2008. World Health Organization. World Health Organization. (2016). Non communicable diseases annual report. http://www.emro.who.int/ annual-report/2016/noncommunicable-diseases.html World Health Organization. (2018). First dose of diphtheria toxoid, tetanus toxoid and pertussis vaccine – Reported estimates of DTP3 coverage. 2018. Geneva, Retrieved from http://apps.who.int/immunization_monitoring/globalsummary/timeseries/tscoveragedtp3.html World Health Organisation. (2019). Idai 2019. Public health round-up. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 97, 312–313. Zimbabwe Rapid Impact and Needs Assessment (RINA), May 2019.

6

Perspectives on Safeguarding Children in Sustainable Disaster Mitigation in Zimbabwe Tatenda Goodman Nhapi

Abstract

Natural disasters’ pervasiveness in Zimbabwe has had devastating impacts and exacerbated children’s vulnerability. Apparently, climate change adversely impacts Zimbabweans’ lives and well-being, even reversing social and human development progress that has previously been accomplished. The chapter’s objective is exploration of approaches and strategies that enhance the mainstreaming of child protection, child-centred development and safeguarding in Zimbabwe within the milieu of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and disaster management. The methodology used is a rigorous, evidence-focused literature review grounded on principles of a systematic review allowing for innovation and reflexivity, particularly regarding policy implications. The methodology entailed a review of books, technical papers, tacit information and websites to find material on child protection and disaster T. G. Nhapi () Research Associate University of Johannesburg Department of Social Work and Community, Johannesburg, South Africa Aalborg University, Aalborg East, Denmark Technical University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal University of Paris Ouest Nantere La Defense, Nanterre, France Warsaw University, Warsaw, Poland

management in Zimbabwe to understand the current state of knowledge. Furthermore, economic and social dimensions of sustainable development are interrogated whilst applying children’s best interests’ lens. Additionally, in the face of natural disasters the chapter catalogues different child protection priority needs within Zimbabwe’s milieu of SDGs. These priority needs include food security and enhanced social psychosocial functioning in the context of disasters. The chapter concludes by offering SDGs’ grounded pathways underscoring robust disaster and child safeguarding policy frameworks that can be embedded for child protection enrichment in disaster situations. The chapter recommends centrality of mainstreaming SDGs’ approaches that emphasise children’s psychosocial needs. Keywords

Children · SDGs · Sustainability · Child protection · Social protection · Disasters

6.1

Introduction and Background

The aim of the chapter is to interrogate the extent to which harnessing SDGs can galvanise child protection in the context of disasters. Zimbabwe

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_6

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faces intractable challenges including pervasive disasters and more recently, the COVID-19 pandemic. Disasters are arguably taking a toll on Zimbabwe’s socio-economic transformation agenda. Robust SDG grounded response mechanisms need to be mainstreamed, as this is vital for realising desired outcomes to be set out in the forthcoming government economic blueprint, the National Development Strategy (2021–2025). The National Development Strategy will be in tangent with the SDGs’ time frame. As will be shown later from the outset, Africa is vulnerable to natural and human-induced hazards and disasters which severely impacts lives and livelihood (International Council for Science (ICSU), 2017). To put the severity of disasters into perspective, Reddy & Vincent, 2015 comment that over the last century Southern Africa has been warming significantly and in the period 1961– 2014, temperatures have increased at a rate of 0.4  °C per decade. Undeniably, floods, hurricanes, earthquakes, tsunamis, droughts, wildfires, pest plagues, air and water pollution cause extensive damage to livelihoods, property losses as well as claiming many lives. On the same note, what makes SDGs’ grounded child protection interventions during disasters urgent is how Africa’s one billion population estimate in 2014 and 2–4% growth per annum increase the number of people exposed to natural and human-induced hazards and disasters (International Council for Science-ICSU 2017). Pertinently, ICSU notes that the central concern for Africa’s sustainable development is preventative measures for disaster risk reduction (DRR). However, the Africa Science Plan observes that most African countries’ non-investment in disaster risk reduction makes the continent least equipped and prepared (ICSU 2017). In Eastern and Southern Africa countries, UNICEF and Save the Children (2017) observe that much rapid unplanned urbanisation, chronic poverty and El Niño shocks result in sustained food insecurity, especially for rural livelihood-­ dependent populations. Table  6.1 illustrates the scope of some of the disasters that confront Africa.

T. G. Nhapi

Moreover, as asserted by the Comparative Research Programme on Poverty (CROP) (2017), Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target 1.2 articulates for poverty eradication in all its forms for individuals of all ages. According to CROP, SDG target 1 embodies the global commitment to child poverty eradication. Importantly, on the same note Manjengwa et al. (2014) commented that extreme events like disease, under-nutrition, water scarcity, disasters, public services and infrastructure collapse risks result in children’s vulnerability. As Mitchell and Borchard (2014) further assert, despite children’s vulnerability to climate change impacts relatively little attention is paid to capacity building them. This would be for them to better navigate climate change impacts they experience now and in future. Of note is the emergence of child-centred approaches in the field of community-based adaptation; however, these approaches are almost exclusively used by child-focused organisations. On the same note through mainstreaming of the current SDGs’ discourses, an enabling environment for pro-poor development outcomes is created to potentially mitigate child vulnerability to disasters including their protection and care. Nonetheless, Nhapi and Mathende (2018) opine that in negotiating, responding and coping with social development intervention challenges, adults exclude the experiences and resilience of children. This chapter is mainly based on a historiographical approach through a review of secondary sources of data like commissioned action research findings and empirical research outputs by the state and non-state actors. The objective of the study was to: (a) explore ways for enhanced child protection, child-centred development and safeguarding mainstreaming in Zimbabwe within the milieu of SDGs and disasters; (b) explore psychosocial dimensions of disasters whilst applying children’s best interests’ lens in mitigating disaster impacts on children; (c) catalogue different thematic needs that should be prioritised within the SDGs’ milieu and disaster management; (d) unpack how SDGs can complement Zimbabwe’s readily comprehensive legal and child protection policy framework to enrich child

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Table 6.1  African disaster victims and losses by hazard type Hazard type Occurrences Deaths Affected Damage (‘000 $)

Biological 862 303 164,763 5200

Climatological 303 697,418 373,440,132 3,424,593

Geophysical 85 32,114 69,844,718 7,528,723

Hydrological 85 24,734 2,202,201 12,355. 949

Meteorological 244 5191 17,585,306 4,329,827

Total 2419 914,220 478,770,391 27,644,292

Source: International Council for Science (ICSU) (2017)

protection. As will be shown later, this chapter is based on a critical review of literature drawing attention to Zimbabwe child-centred development challenges in disaster and hazardous environment contexts. The chapter expands the child welfare policymaking debates on Zimbabwe by making forays into psychosocial realities of recurring natural disasters in Zimbabwe. In unpacking how child protection can be robustly embedded in Zimbabwean disaster management dynamics, the chapter is structured as follows: First, I describe the background information on disasters’ key patterns and trends in the country, thereby presenting the general vulnerability context of children within which the study was undertaken. A literature review was conducted to assess the dominant narratives that articulate contestations regarding how in different institutional spaces, child protection in disasters has been asserted (or constrained) aided by the SDGs’ milieu. Consideration was given to ways of enhancing the social functioning of children and meeting their needs in terms of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) underpinnings towards galvanising child protection capabilities in disasters. Finally, conclusions are provided.

6.2

Policies, Frameworks and Institutions

This section summarises the key trends in Zimbabwe’s disaster management trajectory and analyses underlying drivers of disaster management trends occurring in a volatile economic environment. Firstly, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) (2019) contended that Zimbabwe’s ongoing economic reform induced austerity mea-

sures significantly eroded rural and urban communities’ purchasing power. Henceforth, OCHA highlights that in multiple Zimbabwean locations people have already exhausted their asset base and limiting expenditure to food provision. OCHA rightly observes the ongoing macro-­ economic reforms and the need to put in place support mechanisms to alleviate the plight of these communities. To reinforce OCHA’s assertions, the Government of Zimbabwe’s (GoZ’s) 2016 Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy notes at independence in 1980, Zimbabwe inherited a special type of capitalist social and economic formation. This socio-economic formation according to GoZ 2016 has resulted in the fourfold challenges of structural poverty, inequality, unemployment and under-employment. This was characterised by a small formal sector, co-­ existing with a highly marginalised poor rural sector that employed about 80% of the labour force, thus creating pervasive economic and social dualism (Government of Zimbabwe, 2016). Perhaps, it is laudable that in terms of SDG 1: No Poverty, GoZ has prioritised poverty reduction initiatives as follows: • September 2016 Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (IPRSP) establishment as part of government’s international re-engagement efforts for poverty eradication and inclusive growth • Launch of the National Social Protection Policy Framework (NSPPF) in December 2016 for strengthened poverty and vulnerability reduction mechanisms To contextualise socio-economic vulnerabilities induced by disasters, it is important to highlight that the devastating March 2019 Cyclone

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Idai was not Zimbabwe’s first disaster that followed in the wake of other man-made and natural disasters including droughts, floods, road traffic accidents, disease outbreaks, mining and other industrial accidents, forest fires and stadia stampedes (Chatiza, 2019). Similarly, Manjengwa et al. (2012 p. 58) assert successive droughts (for example, 1997/98, 2001/2002, 2004/05 and 2006/07) and unprecedented cyclones (Eline in 2000 and Japhet in 2003); the HIV and AIDS pandemic, and 50% economic shrinkage between 2000 and 2008 combined to create a situation akin to a ‘a web of entangled crises’. On the same note, the World Health Organization (WHO) quoted in Isbell and Krönke (2018) highlighted that Zimbabwe has suffered repeated cholera outbreaks, including one in 2008 that claimed more than 4000 lives and infected more than 98,000 people. Significantly, Zimbabwe’s September–October 2018 deadly cholera outbreak which the country struggled to contain owing to under-investment in urban infrastructure maintenance. Henceforth, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2019) notes significant infrastructure deficits for basic services: water and sanitation (water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH)), waste management, transport, health services and electricity characterise urban residents’ poor living conditions. The UNDP (2019) states that inadequate healthcare infrastructure and medicine, intravenous fluid and protective clothing shortages led to a 2018 cholera outbreak, which by the end of October 2018 claimed 62 lives out of a total suspected case of 10,000 infections. More requirements for sustainable solutions for the WASH and related social services are noted by the UNDP (2019) as requirements to withstand the shocks and stresses of the increasing trend of disease outbreaks in urban settlements. The World Food Programme (WFP)’s 2017 Global Hunger Index ranked Zimbabwe 108th out of 119 countries. Widespread poverty, HIV/ AIDS, limited employment opportunities, liquidity challenges, recurrent climate-induced shocks and economic instability are some of the factors that WFP notes as exacerbating Zimbabwe’s food

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security situation to ‘serious’ (World Food Programme, 2019). As highlighted by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) (2019), one of the most common types of natural disasters in recent years is drought. OCHA notes that drought impacts more than half of the Zimbabwean population living in rural areas, depending on rain-fed agriculture. On this basis, the most severe crises occurred in 2004/5, which affected over 3 million people and coincided with the peak of the HIV/AIDS crisis, therefore heightening vulnerability in the country. Drought events with a significant impact on vulnerable populations occurred in 1991/2, 1997/8, 2004/05, 2007/8 and recently 2012/13, affecting 1.6 million people. A single season of poor rainfall leads to the need for a government emergency response intervention (Government of Zimbabwe, 2015). Furthermore, UNICEF and Save the Children (2017) noted in years 2015/2016, the El Niño phenomenon characterised by high temperatures and the lowest recorded rainfall in 35  years induced severe drought conditions across Eastern and Southern Africa. Accordingly, UNICEF and Save the Children (2017) raised concern about strained traditional systems of social support and tested response capacities due to unprecedented climatic conditions. Millions of families struggled to meet basic food and nutrition requirements and high numbers of children dropped out of school (UNICEF and Save the Children, 2017). Understanding the policy architecture governing disasters is vital. The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015 required governments to strengthen Disaster Risk Management (DRM) governance, risk and early warning information, disaster education, reduction of underlying risks and emergency preparedness and response. Zimbabwe committed itself to the five priorities and related actions of the Hyogo Framework and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) DRM Strategy 2012–2015, both of which prioritise contingency (Government of Zimbabwe, 2012). It is also vital to unpack the

6  Perspectives on Safeguarding Children in Sustainable Disaster Mitigation in Zimbabwe

legislative framework regarding the disaster management policy framework in Zimbabwe which is grounded in the Civil Protection Act of 1989. Furthermore, the Department of Social Services (DSS) in the Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare (MPSLSW), the Civil Protection Directorate in the Ministry of Local Government, Public Works and Urban Development (MLGPWUD) are the two parallel institutional arrangements in Zimbabwe mandated to deal with disasters. Drought mitigation interventions for slow-onset disaster are under the DSS and the Civil Protection Directorate deals with DRR issues such as accidents and flooding (Manyena et al., 2008). Disaster preparedness programmes are initiated by central government through the Minister responsible for Local Government Rural and Urban Development who is empowered by the Civil Protection Act No. Five of 1989 with the coordinative role. Civil Protection Act No. Five of 1989 provides for ‘… Special powers designed to establish, coordinate and direct the activities of both the public and private emergency services – Guidelines for action and maximum use of resources since disaster mitigation requires a multi-sectoral and interdisciplinary approach…’. In terms of child protection framework, as a state party to key child rights’ instruments Zimbabwe has enacted laws and policies ensuring respect, protection and fulfilment of the rights enshrined in the CRC, the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, (SOS Villages International, 2013). SOS further note that a robust legal framework exists for child protection. This is grounded in legislation as the Children’s Act, the Criminal Law (Codification and Reform) Act, Guardianship of Minors Act, Domestic Violence Act, Education Act and the Births and Deaths Registration Act. Again, policies such as the Zimbabwe National Orphan Care Policy have also been adopted. In 2011, a team at the Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Zimbabwe sampled 16 Zimbabwean districts in a study titled Moving Zimbabwe Forward Wellbeing and Poverty Survey. Table  6.2 illustrates their findings in

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Table 6.2  Probability of experiencing shocks in the community during past 12 months in 2011 by severity of shock (x) Severity Probability of shock (%) Low-­ Medium-­ High-­ Row minor moderate major total Type of shock Food 0.452 13.9 35.1 51.0 100 shortages Inflation 0.441 14.3 34.7 51.1 100 Drought 0.429 9.3 32.1 58.7 100 Family 0.350 18.0 37.0 45.0 100 sickness HIV and 0.332 15.5 34.8 49.7 100 AIDS 0.305 16.5 39.2 44.4 100 Decreasing government assistance Chronic 0.269 14.6 33.2 52.2 100 illness Crop pests 0.215 12.9 37.6 49.5 100 Labour 0.127 14.4 46.5 39.2 100 shortage Floods 0.086 19.2 29.1 51.7 100 Fire 0.085 23.3 41.1 35.3 100 Source: Manjengwa, Feresu and Chimhowu (Understanding poverty, promoting wellbeing and sustainable development: a sample survey of 16 districts of Zimbabwe 2012)

terms of shocks experienced in the districts they sampled. Furthermore, the February 2014 flooding of the immense Tokwe-Mukosi Dam basin following heavy rains was a significant episode in Zimbabwe’s disaster management trajectory. The 1.8 million cubic litre dam is intended to provide irrigation and electricity to communities in the semi-arid southern Masvingo Province. Flooding affected about 2514 households living upstream of the Tokwe-Mukosi Dam in Masvingo Province. UNICEF noted that enrolment at the Chingwizi Camp (Mulali) primary and secondary schools increased to 2930. A partnership between UNICEF, Plan International Zimbabwe programme, Ministry of Public Works and National Housing resulted in the setting up of temporary learning spaces and accommodation for 20 teachers at the Mulali School (UNICEF Zimbabwe Country Office 2014a, b).

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In declaring the floods a national disaster, the late former president Robert Mugabe appealed to the international community for US$20 million for relocation and provision of humanitarian assistance for the affected. Furthermore, shortly after the flooding the Zimbabwe National Army and the Civil Protection Unit (CPU) relocated over 20,000 people (around 3300 families) from the flooded Tokwe-Mukosi Dam basin to Chingwizi Camp on Nuanetsi Ranch in Masvingo’s Mwenezi district. In August 2014, the government shut down the camp attempting to permanently relocate the families on a different part of Nuanetsi Ranch where each family was allocated a one-hectare plot of land. The families would have had significantly less land than they previously owned when they were in Masvingo (Human Rights Watch, 2015). At least 15,000 women and girls were at risk of gender-based violence due to March 2019 Cyclone Idai linked disruptions and Masiyiwa (2019) reported that in Chimanimani a 14-year-­ old girl suffered a sexual assault. Concerns of women and girls being asked to provide sex in exchange for access to aid are elaborated by the Zimbabwe Flash Appeal 2019’s highlighting the lack of privacy and lighting in displaced person camps increasing violence and transactional sex risks for female storm victims. Chatiza (2019) observed that experiences of and responses to the cyclone showed that many Zimbabwean disaster risk management (DRM) institutions lack adequate technical, financial and logistical capacities. Understandably, the unprecedented scale of Cyclone Idai’s impact on Zimbabwe’s already fragile humanitarian situation resulted in the granting of a $72 million by the World Bank Board of Directors as part of the Zimbabwe Idai Recovery Project (ZIRP). It is important to note that hazards do not necessarily transform into disasters rather, they become disasters when affecting highly vulnerable communities with limited capacity to deal with the hazards. Differing vulnerability levels make hazards not to affect all societal groups in a homogeneous manner due to different political, social, economic and physical orientations. Sillah (2015) cautions about viewing the same kind of disaster

risk reduction initiatives, disaster response and disaster recovery ideals as applicable to every member of an affected community as not being practical. Finally, through Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare led coordination GoZ has underscored 10 SDGs’ implementation. Pertinently, Zimbabwe’s SDGs’ implementation challenges include the lack of financial resources, poor infrastructure and services, lack of skilled manpower and capacity, poor resource base, weak economy and climate change (Haritatos, 2018). It is noteworthy that the WFP Zimbabwe Country Programme is complementing GoZ towards achieving SDG 2 on ending hunger, and SDG 17 on global partnerships by strengthening and forging new partnerships with non-­ governmental organisational (NGOs), academia, donors, private sector, UN agencies and communities (World Food Programme, 2019).

6.3

Literature Review

Reflecting on the available literature, this section begins by noting how Haritatos (2018) reiterates the need for incorporation of a wider range of economic, social and environmental objectives that require a coordinated multi-sectoral approach in implementation. On another note, Melber (2017) asserts, The UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro (1992) and the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg (2002) were indeed among the more recent relevant markers in a series of top-level global meetings, which were continued in other forums all over the world with a focus on development. They created normative reference points such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Framework Convention on Climate Change in order to meet the challenges – with little to no effect in stopping the environmental deterioration and the approaching collapse of our basic minimum requirements for reproduction such as water and air.

However, the danger of the 17 goals according to Scoones (2019) is how the country-led process and bureaucratic box-ticking exercise have numerous targets and voluntary indicators. It is

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worthwhile to note that a full range of children’s ­environment and the economic sectors will be rights and welfare issues are addressed by SDGs affected by climate change. Vulnerability to cliamounting to a strong commitment to the CRC. In mate variability and climate change is place- and making and measuring progress towards the context specific and people are affected differSDGs, every child counts (UNICEF, 2018). It is ently within- and/or between countries (United commendable that in 2017 along with 43 other Nations Country Team (UNCT), 2014). countries, including seven African countries, Reddy and Vincent (2015) provide another Zimbabwe reflected its SDGs’ achievement com- twist by commenting that limited access to livelimitment by volunteering to undertake a national hood opportunities by the poor makes them parreview of SDGs. The voluntary national reviews ticularly vulnerable as disasters hit the poorest (VNRs) seek to facilitate the sharing of experi- the hardest. Poor people are not only more vulences, including successes, challenges, opportu- nerable to climate-related shocks, but they also nities and lessons learnt with a view to have fewer resources to prevent, cope with and accelerating the 2030 Agenda implementation adapt to disasters. On the same note, Vidili (2018) (Government of Zimbabwe, 2017). In debates observes the poor tend to receive less support around climate change and disasters’ research, from family, community and financial systems, advocacy on child protection has been relatively and even have less access to social safety nets. marginalised and there is a growing body of Melber (2017) asserts that the pseudo-­ research on disaster events and gradual climate omnipotence of the anthropocentric arrogance of change impacts on children, especially child power meets its limitations in the face of the health (Children in a Changing Climate, n.d.). unleashed forces of nature. As observed by In Scoones’ (2019) observation, SDGs need to Melber (2017), the grand ideas of rationality, be rescued from a graveyard of technocratic-­ seeking to create a world of its making, have  – bureaucratic approaches. This graveyard is con- despite the latest technological advances manipuceptualised by Scoones as being where lating the biological diversity and turning it into a goal-specific indicators, monitoring and impact global monoculture  – to ultimately capitulate assessment take over, locked into a sectoral view when nature rebels or collapses. Manyena et al. of the world, where the politics of interactions, (2008) also emphasise that public services and connections and negotiations are ignored. infrastructural collapse due to extreme events Therefore, this chapter contends that SDGs’ makes children an especially vulnerable group at achievement in Zimbabwe is hinged on a greater increased risk from disease, under-nutrition and allocation of the National Budget on social ser- water scarcity disasters. Children are familiar vices, for sustainable and inclusive socio-­ icons of disasters as they are the first people to be economic growth. Moreover, this will galvanise publicised when a disaster strikes (Manyena responses to disasters, which in turn ensure chil- et  al., 2008). To reinforce the foregoing asserdren’s best interests are upheld during disaster tions, Sillah (2015) notes, responses. Different groups in a society have different levels To buttress the foregoing notion, United of vulnerability to hazards and subsequent disasters owing to different political, social, economic Nations Economic Commission for Africa and physical orientations. It would therefore be (UNECA) (2019) notes that Africa’s quest to inadvisable to approach disasters with a view that achieve all the 17 SDGs by addressing global the same kind of disaster risk reduction initiatives, challenges, including poverty, inequality, clidisaster response ideals and disaster recovery ideals apply to every member of an affected mate, environmental degradation, prosperity, and community. peace and justice, can be seriously impeded by climate change. In their analysis of Zimbabwe, the United Nations Country Team (UNCT) As climate instability leads to more weather-­ (2014) notes that besides the agriculture related disasters, UNICEF and Save the Children sector, groundwater systems, surface waters, (2017) contend that traditional systems of social

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support will be strained and will test response capacities. Finally, as noted by UNICEF and Save the Children (2017), SDGs have recognised social protection as a leading strategic response to chronic poverty, vulnerability and supporting development. Certainly, for UNICEF and Save the Children (2017), social protection systems are efficient and cost effective in reaching the most vulnerable households and supporting those living in chronic poverty as well as at times of crisis.

6.4

Methodology

Secondary sources of data, including a review of policy and research documents, were used for this chapter. A review of documents related to disaster management and child protection, in particular, was carried out. This included published peer-reviewed articles, official government documents, World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations (UN)/non-governmental organisational (NGO) documents/evaluation reports and academic publications, as well as online newspaper articles retrieved from various journals and internet sources. Moreover, tacit information and websites were accessed to find material on child protection and disaster management in Zimbabwe to understand the current state of knowledge.

6.5

Presentation and Discussion of Findings

The issues highlighted so far provide an example of the interplay between child protection policy and current disaster management paradigms. In the remainder of the chapter, the discussion focuses on dominant themes on the narrative of a greater integration of child protection approaches and robust disaster management theory and practice. The following sub-section makes an analysis within the realm of the SDGs’ architecture on how child protection desired outcomes can be achievable when confronted with disasters which are becoming more prevalent in Zimbabwe. This

is done by following categorising specific domains of child protection and disaster management.

6.5.1 G  uaranteeing Food Security for Children According to a UNICEF Zimbabwe Humanitarian Situation Report (2019), the 2019 Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment report findings suggested that the January–March 2020 peak hunger period was to require urgent humanitarian assistance. This requirement would target nearly 5.5 million people, including 2.6 million rural Zimbabwean children. Furthermore, the Zimbabwe Flash Appeal, a United Nations compiled situation analysis report for sourcing Cyclone Idai disaster recovery international funding, highlighted that in year 2017, a marked improvement in Zimbabwean children’s nutrition status was noted. Global Acute Malnutrition (GAM) rates the Zimbabwe Flash Appeal noted, reduced to 2.5% and Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM) to 0.2%. However, the Zimbabwe Flash Appeal cautioned that the confluence of risks is likely to reverse some of these gains, especially in 25 drought-prone districts identified by the nutrition humanitarian programming sector.

6.5.2 Child Malnutrition In the context of disasters, child malnutrition risks become more pronounced. Save the Children (2019a) reports that since Cyclone Idai disaster affected Chipinge district, Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM) has been recorded. Save the Children notes SAM attributes as being lack of knowledge, poor feeding practices, poor hygiene and limited food sources since Cyclone Idai swept away community nutrition gardens (Save the Children 2019b). A valid observation is made by Mapepa and Ephraim (2019) when they insist that due to the 2018/19 drought and Cyclone Idai floods, overcoming Chipinge district food insecurity necessitates more sustainable projects’ rollout.

6  Perspectives on Safeguarding Children in Sustainable Disaster Mitigation in Zimbabwe

Twenty-one out of 30 rural wards of Chipinge were ranked in the red category implying high food insecurity, whilst three were in the orange category (food insecure). The other three were in the yellow (partially food secure) and only three were in the green category (Mapepa & Ephraim, 2019).

6.5.3 Psychological Well Being Undoubtedly, stressful times increase child protection risks of violence, exploitation, neglect and abuse and social protection can play an important child protection role by addressing the very vulnerabilities placing children at greater risk (UNICEF and Save the Children, 2017). Doherty and Clayton quoted in Mitchell and Borchard (2014) distinguish three levels of psychological impacts of climate change as: acute and direct impacts (for example, trauma from directly experiencing extreme weather events or the loss of family members during a disaster); indirect and vicarious impacts (for example, intense emotions associated with observation of climate change effects at broader scales) and psychosocial impacts (for example, of violence over increasingly scarce resources and trauma of climate-­induced migration). In the same vein, a qualitative study by Sillah (2015) aimed at illuminating children’s vulnerability to hazards and showed that children’s special physiological, psychological, emotional and economic stature categorises them as an inherently vulnerable group. An important dynamic regarding child protection and disaster management is noted by Sillah’s (2015) study who observes, A weakness is that the child protection system in Zimbabwe largely conceptualises the need to protect children against child abuse. The system focuses on preventing child abuse in its physical, spiritual and emotional form, with emphasis specifically on sexual abuse. This focus is seen in practice by the growth of the Victim Friendly System in Zimbabwe, of which the major aim is to protect women and children from physical abuse,

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and sexual abuse in particular. It is estimated that there are 267 Victim Friendly Units in Zimbabwe. However, children’s vulnerability with regard to hazards and disasters are not addressed by this system.

This chapter notes an innovation whereby Childline, a non-governmental organisation, partnered with the Department of Social Services in deploying field counsellors. As psychosocial response to affected Chingwizi children, Childline intervened by offering community counselling and setting up systems for gender-­ based violence and child abuse management systems. This field counsellors’ deployment targeted 300 children at the Chingwizi transit camp who were without a stable home environment and education after fleeing their homes due to flooding (UNICEF Zimbabwe Country Office 2014a, b). Following Cyclone Idai, the Zimbabwe Flash Appeal (2019) noted that due to being either deceased or missing, a number of children were separated from their caregivers. The Zimbabwe Flash Appeal (2019) noted that some caregivers have been injured and have been evacuated without the children being informed and many children are being cared for by spontaneous fostering. Cyclone Idai left at least 90,000 people in immediate need of psychosocial services. Furthermore, adults are noted by Sillah (2015) as forming an indivisible psychosocial support system for children which when disturbed leads to psychosocial distress in children. However, during hazards and possible disasters, there is real risk that parents and guardians may succumb, leaving children in distress. Additionally, as reported by Kokai and Brown (2019), some former pupils of St Charles Lwanga Secondary School in Chimanimani were still to fully recover from the harrowing March 2019 Cyclone Idai experience. The pupils were transferred to several schools after it was recommended that the school be relocated (Kokai & Brown, 2019). The parents were reported by Kokai and Brown (2019) as stating that their children were still experiencing nightmares and their academic performances had deteriorated.

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6.5.4 W  ater, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) As noted by the University of Zimbabwe’s Institute of Environmental Studies, access to clean safe water is crucial for good health and development of children. It is disconcerting that exposure to waterborne diseases’ contraction risks in many Zimbabwean schools is due to intermittent municipal water supplies and collapse of many toilets and pit latrines. Furthermore, as noted by Bande (2019) climate change makes access to clean water and sanitation facilities more difficult, thus making diarrhoea, one of the biggest killers of young children, harder to tackle. In disaster situations, another adverse effect of water shortage is that children may have to travel further to collect water, as streams and water sources dry up (Bande, 2019). SDG number 6 aims for the achievement of universal, sustainable and equitable access to drinking water, sanitation and hygiene by 2030. Thus, based on SDG targets that prioritise WASH outcomes, state and non-state actors’ programming needs to be imaginative on overcoming the perennial WASH access challenges in Zimbabwe to avert disasters like cholera epidemics.

6.5.5 H  armonised Social Cash Transfers (HSCTP) In 2011, the government launched the HSCTP collaboratively with UNICEF. In HSCTP implementation in Zimbabwe’s 10 provinces, a total population of approximately 231,657 labour constrained and ultra-poor households are targeted. Eligible households receive bimonthly unconditional cash payments ranging between USD10 and USD25 per month based on the household size (Government of Zimbabwe, 2015). Nonetheless, Save the Children (2019a) argues that in almost every Eastern and Southern Africa country’s humanitarian response efforts and social protection systems, external donors are relied on for financial support. This creates challenges and UNICEF and Save the Children (2017) contend that for many years the ad hoc

appeals’ system used to generate foreign assistance was activated only once a shock has turned into an emergency. This approach is neither timely nor equitable and human lives may be lost, family assets sold or depleted and harmful coping strategies impacting children may be deployed (UNICEF and Save the Children, 2017).

6.5.6 Child Protection Mitchell and Borchard (2014) provide a useful insight by noting that for reasons related to their physical, mental development and exclusion from decision-making processes, children broadly are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts. Following years of socio-­ economic turbulence, GoZ with support from development partners has been endeavouring to revamp the ailing social services sector. In children’s social services re-establishment, the country’s fiscal capacity is not what it once was, yet public demand for improvements is high and GoZ faces several challenges. Faced with such a tension, it may be tempting for GoZ to try doing everything at once, regardless of the consequence with temptations to try to re-create the fondly remembered earlier decades’ social service system (Munro, 2012). Cyclone Idai seriously affected children, as 139 schools had structural damages to classrooms and losses of learning materials and four schools had to be used as reception centres for displaced families. Interventions will be required in the aftermath of the cyclone to ensure that children in affected communities resume educational activities and return to normality in a child friendly environment (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), 2019).

6.5.7 Cultural Dynamics A study in Muzarabani district in Mashonaland Central Province by Manyena et al. (2008) demonstrated that children have a desire to contribute to building community resilience. The study observed that the local cultural context can either

6  Perspectives on Safeguarding Children in Sustainable Disaster Mitigation in Zimbabwe

be a major barrier or major opportunity, depending on how the community characterises the role of children. Results of the study showed that children represent invaluable assets and partners, although in most instances they play a subordinate role to adults. This subordinate role is based on the typically well-founded argument that adults have greater experience, greater capacity, greater responsibility, greater commitment of the whole family and the legal status or traditional authority of parenting. Most importantly, any participatory action research endeavours targeting children affected by disasters should be children led through peer research. An example is the 2014 Institute of Environmental Studies (IES)University of Zimbabwe/UNICEF collaborative study on children’s vulnerabilities to climate change and climate variability, and their interaction with children’s social and physical vulnerabilities. The study sampled 575 children from rural-based schools, whilst 423 were from urban-­ based schools and solicited children’s views, knowledge and experiences on the impacts of climate change, for incorporation of special needs of children into national policies, planning and practices. Additionally, development at all levels is needed of national disaster risk and resiliency preparedness plan in education sector strategy to not only focus on preparedness, but institutionalise the culture of safety and resilience of all school communities on disaster and climate change (Masiyiwa, 2019). To illustrate modalities for an effective resiliency preparedness plan, Mulala School with 1017 children enrolled from ECD (Early Childhood Development) to Grade 7 has been able to partner with Save the Children and European Union Humanitarian Aid funding to be able to robustly step up efforts to prepare and respond to any disaster that may strike (Save the Children 2019b). Accordingly, it is vital that cultural roles of children and adults are reframed when it comes to community resilience building in disasters. This enabled embedding a wider child participation in disaster management mechanisms. Under the SDGs’ mantra of ‘Leaving No One Behind’ (LNOB), state and non-state actors’ advocacy is required. This can target programmes of support

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ensuring children without parental care and at risk of losing parental care are looked after informally by relatives or others and protected in such informal arrangements.

6.6

Conclusions

The previous sections highlighted milestones, gaps and constraints in frontline efforts by state and nonstate actors in child-focused disaster risk reduction and recovery interventions. The chapter has shown that disasters are going to be increasingly pervasive in Zimbabwe. The chapter has illuminated how pro-children disaster risk reduction is achievable if grounded on the SDGs’ mantra of LNOB. In harnessing LNOB alongside targeting other vulnerable groups in society, child protection desired outcomes will be emphasised when designing proactive disaster management initiatives. The chapter has demonstrated that for the disaster management sector, a greater synthesis with the socio-economic, political and SDGs’ domains galvanises the quest for scaled-up child protection service provision in disasters. The chapter has demonstrated that for any effective disaster risk reduction intervention, it is vital to embed nutrition, WASH and children’s psychosocial needs. This is achievable by using SDGs’ targets as benchmarks to achieve these outcomes. Future research pathways need to focus on the current ongoing COVID-19 pandemic which arguably is also another disaster for child safeguarding and well-being. Conclusively, continuous knowledge management grounded on SDG targets enriches the robustness of future child protection interventions aiming for desired outcomes of enhanced social functioning of children affected by disasters.

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92 Children in a Changing Climate. (n.d.). Children, Climate Change and Disasters. Retrieved from: http://www. childreninachangingclimate.org/children-­c limate-­ change-­and-­disasters.html. Accessed 2 June 2019. Comparative Research Programme on Poverty (CROP). (2017). Putting children first: Identifying solutions and taking action to tackle child Poverty and inequality in Africa. CROP. Government of Zimbabwe. (2012). Zimbabwe National Contingency Plan - December 2012-November 2013. Retrieved from http://www.ifrc.org/docs/IDRL/ Zimbabwe%20National%20Contigency%20Plan%20 2012-­2013.pdf. Accessed 6 Feb 2017. Government of Zimbabwe. (2015). Disaster risk management operational plan. Africa Risk Capacity. Government of Zimbabwe. (2016). Interim Poverty reduction strategy. Government of Zimbabwe. Government of Zimbabwe. (2017). Zimbabwe Voluntary National Review (VNR) of SDGs for the high level political forum. Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=viewandtype=300 22andnr=503andmenu=3170. Accessed 12 June 2019. Haritatos, V. (2018). Keynote address by the deputy minister of lands, agriculture, water, climate and rural resettlement Hon. V. Haritatos at the SDGs and climate change: Challenges and opportunities for landlocked countries side event. 24th climate change conference (COP 24). Government of Zimbabwe. Human Rights Watch. (2015). Homeless, landless, and destitute. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/ report/2015/02/03/homeless-­landless-­and-­destitute/ plight-­z imbabwes-­t okwe-­m ukorsi-­f lood-­v ictims. Accessed 6 June 2019. International Council for Science (ICSU). (2017). Africa Science Plan. ICSU. Isbell, T., & Krönke, M. (2018). Ill-prepared? Health-­ care service delivery in Zimbabwe. Afrobarometer. Retrieved from https://afrobarometer.org/publications/ad240-­ill-­prepared-­health-­care-­service-­delivery-­ zimbabwe. Accessed 12 May 2019 Kokai, N., & Brown, N. (2019). Idai horror still haunts former St Charles Lwanga pupils. Retrieved from: https://www.herald.co.zw/idai-­h orror-­s till-­h aunts-­ former-­st-­charles-­lwanga-­pupils/. Accessed 2 Sept 2019. Manjengwa, J., Feresu, S., & Chmhou, A. (2012). Understanding poverty, promoting wellbeing and sustainable development a sample survey of 16 districts of Zimbabwe. Retrieved from: http://www.bwpi.manchester.ac.uk/medialibrary/aboutus/staffspotlights/ understanding-­poverty-­book.pdf. Accessed 18 Apr 2015. Manjengwa, J., Matema, C., Tirivanhu, D., Tamanikwa, M., & Feresu, S. (2014). Children and Climate Change. UNICEF and Institute of Environmental Studies University of Zimbabwe. Manyena, B., Fordham, M., & Collins, A. (2008). Disaster resilience and children: Managing food security in Zimbabwe’s Binga District. Children Youths and Environments, 302–331.

T. G. Nhapi Mapepa, L., & Ephraim, S. (2019). No more food-for-­ work programme. Retrieved from https://www.manicapost.co.zw/no-­more-­food-­for-­work-­programme/. Accessed 12 May 2019. Masiyiwa, E. (2019). The storm is over, but in Southern Africa, Cyclone Idai continues to rage for women and girls. Retrieved from: https://reliefweb.int/report/ zimbabwe/storm-­over-­southern-­africa-­cyclone-­idai-­ continues-­rage-­women-­and-­girls. Accessed 2 Aug 2019. Melber, H. (2017). Development studies and the SDGs studies agenda. Bonn. Mitchell, P., & Borchard, C. (2014). Mainstreaming children’s vulnerabilities and capacities into community-­ based adaptation to enhance impact. Climate and Development, 372–381. Munro, L. (2012). Children after the long socio-economic crisis in Zimbabwe situation analysis and policy issues. Institute of Environmental Studies University of Zimbabwe. Nhapi, T., & Mathende,  T. (2018). The Trajectory of Gender Based Violence (GBV) Impacts to Zimbabwean Children and Pathways for Child Safeguarding Social Work & Society. Reddy, C., & Vincent, K. (2015). Climate change risk analysis a handbook for Southern Africa (2nd ed.). CSIR. Save the Children. (2019a, July 3). School intensifies disaster preparedness. Retrieved from h t t p s : / / z i m b a b w e . s ave t h e c h i l d r e n . n e t / n ew s / school-­intensifies-­disaster-­preparedness Save the Children. (2019b). Supporting communities fight malnutrition. Retrieved from https://www.zimbabwe. savethechildren.net/news/supporting-­communities-­ fight-­malnutrition. Accessed 1 Oct 2019. Scoones, I. (2019). Sustainable rural livelihoods and the sustainable development Goals1. Policy in Focus, 22–25. Sillah, R. (2015). A call to establish a child-centred disaster management framework in Zimbabwe (pp.  1–7). Journal of Disaster Risk Studies. SOS Villages International. (2013). Zimbabwe child rights situational analysis (CRSA). SOS Villages International. UNICEF. (2018). Progress for every child in the SDG era. UNICEF Division of Data, Research and Policy. UNICEF and Save the Children. (2017). Adaptation and response for children affected by droughts and disasters. Save the Children. UNICEF Zimbabwe Country Office. (2014a). UNICEF Zimbabwe CO Situation Report # 2. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/appeals/files/UNICEF_ Zimbabwe_Sitrep_18Feb2014.pdf. Accessed 10 June 2018. UNICEF Zimbabwe Country Office. (2014b). Zimbabwe humanitarian situation report. UNICEF. United Nations Country Team (UNCT). (2014). Zimbabwe country analysis working document final draft – Information. Retrieved from https://ims.undg. org/.../7e40fe82fedfcf6fb92306b459a8c1bdd0d13cc9 ea8e9a18cadb. Accessed 12 May 2016.

6  Perspectives on Safeguarding Children in Sustainable Disaster Mitigation in Zimbabwe United Nations Development Programme. (2019). Comprehensive National Study on Urban Resilience and Developing Urban Resilience National Strategy in Zimbabwe. Retrieved from http://procurement-­­ notices.undp.org/view_notice.cfm?notice_id=52146. Accessed 12 May 2019. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). (2019). Climate change poses serious challenge towards achieving SDGs. Retrieved from https://www.uneca.org/stories/climate-­change-­poses-­ serious-­challenge-­towards-­achieving-­sdgs. Accessed 1 Apr 2019. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). (2019). Zimbabwe flash appeal 2019. UNOCHA.

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United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. (2020). Zimbabwe situation report 24 September 2020. OCHA. Vidili, M. (2018). Why we must engage women and children in disaster risk management. Retrieved from https://blogs.worldbank.org/sustainablecities/ why-­e ngaging-­women-­a nd-­c hildren-­d isaster-­r isk-­ management-­matters-­and-­how-­it-­makes-­difference. Accessed 2 June 2019. World Food Programme. (2019). Zimbabwe country brief. Retrieved from https://docs.wfp. o rg / a p i / d o c u m e n t s/ W F P -­0 0 0 0 1 0 2 6 5 7 / d ow n load/?_ga=2.85762393.1180610012.1568467229­1990306251.1565175356. Accessed 2 May 2019.

Part III Education, Water and Sanitation and Livelihoods

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Impacts of Cyclone Idai and the Road to Recovery in Education Systems in Zimbabwe Crecentia Pamidzai Gandidzanwa and Muchaiteyi Togo

Abstract

Severe tropical cyclones disrupt normal life activities. Every aspect of people’s existence is affected, including educational activities. Effects of cyclones on education range from physical damage to infrastructure, institutional and administrative challenges and psychosocial impact. These effects are worse in communities where cyclones are not common, as they are ill prepared to cope. Immediate basic needs for survival such as food and shelter are often prioritised by aid agencies, whilst other needs like education may end up being the responsibility of the affected communities. The impacts of cyclone Idai on education systems were too severe, with some entire education institutions destroyed. Educational activities stopped, leaving learners and educators stranded. The intention of this chapter is to establish the impact of cyclone Idai on learners and educators and present copying strategies and opinions towards recovering. C. P. Gandidzanwa () Geography and Environmental Science Department, University of South Africa, Lecturer-Catholic University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe e-mail: [email protected] M. Togo Department of Environmental Science, Florida, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

The research was framed as a qualitative study, which depended on interviews, reviews of online news articles, social media postings, United Nations reports and observations. The chapter relies on qualitative content analysis and documentary reviews to analyse collected data. The results of the research provide a better understanding of the impacts of cyclones on education systems and possibly give pointers in terms of preparedness of education systems to cope with disasters of the same magnitude in future. Keywords

Cyclone · Floods · Education · Extreme weather · Disaster preparedness

7.1

Introduction and Background

Education is a known long-term human investment strategy which empowers and instils valuable knowledge to a child and ensures the future development of a country. Once this is disturbed by natural hazards, the children drop out of school and are distressed which can be threat to a country’s economic development. Literature has shown that children spend 30–40% of their life-

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_7

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time at school and the World Health Organization (WHO, 2011) estimated that 30–50% of the total fatalities from natural hazard events are children (Shah et al., 2018: 182). Changes in climate have worsened the frequent occurrence of catastrophic weather disasters associated with cyclones, storms and floods (Chaudhary & Timsina, 2017). Tropical cyclones, due to their storms that are characterised by high winds and heavy rainfall, can cause widespread damage and disruption to infrastructure services delaying household and community recovery (Mitsova et al., 2019). This impacts heavily on most sectors of the developing countries, including agriculture and education. The effect is greatly felt in particular at schools in rural areas because they are highly vulnerable due to lack of knowledge and on-time communication of disaster onset (Afroz et  al., 2018). Students become distressed, their educational learning outcomes are affected, they suffer emotional stress, and this also provokes behaviour problems (Shah et al., 2018). The communities, teaching staff and administration and the institutional structure are disrupted. The built-up environment comprises of classrooms, ablution rooms, staff houses, students’ accommodation, administration blocks, water reservoirs, connecting networks and bridges, which are often poorly constructed with weak materials and those which are well constructed usually lack maintenance on a regular basis. The situation is aggravated by lack of early warning systems, inadequate knowledge on disasters and the high magnitude of unpredictable disastrous extreme weather events that the population is not aware of and used to. Literature has shown that the widespread devastation and disruption of services greatly affect school children (DeVaney et al., 2009; Ardales Jr et al., 2016; Brocque et al., 2016; Lai et al., 2018). Naturally, children’s ability to grow and achieve is dependent on a supportive balance of guardians, linkages and associations (Peek et  al., 2017). Children are vulnerable to natural disasters because of their age and dependence on adults (Lai et al., 2018). The dependence ­structure constitutes parents, teachers and the neighbouring community. Once a part of the dependence system or structure is disrupted, the students are dev-

C. P. Gandidzanwa and M. Togo

astated. They suffer high levels of distress due to loss and lack of support from this dependence structure. For example, once a part of this system either perishes during the devastating effects of the cyclones or is psychologically affected, the whole structure becomes incapacitated to offer support. The situation is worsened by lack of clear post disaster recovery policies like disaster risk reduction measures and weak institutional structures. School attendance is disrupted when a disaster strikes. School children are displaced and are traumatised. It is during this period that they need maximum support from the aforementioned support systems. Tropical cyclones impact on school children’s performance. Spencer et  al. (2016)’s research in the Caribbean examined whether the impact of hurricanes has an effect on student performance in examinations and indicated a positive relationship between school attendance and performance (Spencer et  al., 2016). When a disaster strikes during school sessions whilst learning is taking place, the performance in examinations, in particular, for science subjects than humanities is greatly compromised. The relationship is negative when schools are closed. Laboratories and other buildings for technical subjects are destroyed and for developing counties, these can take time to be set up. This shows that school attendance for learners is essential for academic performance and disruptions by the impacts of cyclones can influence results in a negative manner. The education sector suffers setbacks due to loss of teachers during a cyclone. Replacement of those who have lost their lives due to the cyclone is delayed, depending on the socio-political structure and processes of influence which are particularly weak for developing countries. Teachers act as the backbone to the school support system. Frontline Education Workers (FEWs) provide routine and essential services in early intervention in disasters, as recommended by Norris et al. (2002) (cited in DeVaney et al., 2009). DeVaney et al. (2009) view universities as important institutions for providing in-service training to teachers to manage difficult conditions during a crisis. Teachers are expected to offer counselling services to students during and

7  Impacts of Cyclone Idai and the Road to Recovery in Education Systems in Zimbabwe

after the cyclones. The destruction of buildings has cascading effects, as time is spent setting up accommodation for the teachers and the students. The institutional infrastructure of schools including its supporting system is threatened. Disruptions are felt in funding allocation processes, instruction time with other effects being displaced administrators and staff, lost education materials, declining student populations, and the significant mental health needs of all constituents are disrupted (Lai et al., 2019:47). This chapter takes stock of the impacts of cyclone Idai on educational infrastructure and delivery in Zimbabwe. The intention is to establish the impact on learners and educators who lost their educational infrastructure and their opinions on disaster preparedness in future. The abstract is followed by the general introduction and background of the chapter incorporating significant literature. The literature on the impact of cyclones in the education sector using case studies reviewed at a local, regional and international scale is presented. A section with the methods used to collect and analyse the data is also presented. Lastly, there are sections discussing the data and conclusions for policy implementation.

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economic status communities, less access to schools, low employment and poor healthcare. Lai et al. (2019) point to the need for collaboration amongst agencies on the road to recovery in education. Findings of a post disaster recovery study from the impact of cyclone Aila in Koyra Upazila, Bangladesh by Sadik et  al. (2018) revealed an example of a joint venture between government agencies and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) for recovery. The research also indicated more use of short-term measures like providing temporary shelter, cash transfers, food for work projects and community training than the vulnerability reduction measures such as hazard mapping, vulnerability assessments, improved early warning system and harmonisation of NGOs amongst others. According to a technical report by Shah et al. (2019), a number of actors including the government, professionals and learning communities, development partners, civil society organisations and the private sector are involved in managing disaster risk reduction measures including recovery and reconstruction in the education sector. Parents and guardians might fail to offer their children psychological support, as they fail to come to terms with their losses. It is in such instances that teachers and educational authorities play a role in counselling school children after the effects of a disaster 7.2 Literature Survey (Brocque et al., 2016). A study on assessing disaster preparedness in Disasters do not affect all communities equally schools done by Shah et  al. (2018) in Pakistan due to differences in the socio-economic status. revealed that most schools take disaster preparedThe pattern of school recovery is influenced by ness as a choice rather than a mandatory action. its context and location (Esnard & Lai, 2018). Schools lack disaster preparedness, for example, Schools located in most rural areas of developing gaps in plans for students with special needs, the countries are vulnerable and are in areas of low continuity of schooling operations after a disassocio-economic status. This is in conjunction ter, availability of maps showing evacuation with the weak institutional structures which ham- routes, lack of emergency equipment and pers their progress to recovering the effects of a resources, guidelines for disaster preparedness, cyclone after a disaster (Lai et  al., 2019). and psychological first aid and crisis counselling. Conclusions of a study by Lai et al. (2019) on the However, the majority of the schools are located potential risk factors associated with trajectories in hazard-free areas, for example, far away from of school recovery after a natural disaster which steep slope areas to avoid dangers like mudslides, affected schools in the path of hurricane Ike in away from rivers and electric power lines. 2008 indicate that the low functioning schools on Besides the disaster risk reduction measures the road to recovery are those in the economi- such as situating in danger-free zones, Shah et al. cally disadvantaged areas with low socio-­ (2018) indicated the need to consider social

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aspects such as involving the local community in rehabilitation and reconstruction in order to ensure monitoring and further safe construction as a way to conform to building and performance standards to avoid damage. He also suggested the crafting of school safety policies as a component of the government policy for emergency preparedness and mitigation. The author also recommended the building of private/public partnership to design and implement national/provincial school emergency preparedness programmes and allocate sufficient funds to implement structural and non-structural mitigation measures. A study in New Zealand on Canterbury earthquakes on schools by Mutch (2015) showed that the response to a disaster and its management is dependent on the school’s culture and the strength of the relationships between the educational leaders, their leadership teams and their organisations before the event (Mutch, 2015). An organisation with a shared vision, embedded values, inclusive culture, distributed leadership and engaged members, in which creative problem-solving, mutual support and personal autonomy can thrive, is not only a good idea for its own sake but will have further pay-off when faced with a crisis or disaster (Mutch, 2015: 52). The capability to manage a crisis when disaster strikes depends on the leader’s and his team’s ability to make decisions and mobilise resources. He also said that the team also needs a more detailed focus on the roles they will play in ordinary times and might also be called upon to play in extraordinary times. Dube et al. (2018) view the build-back-better idea as a feasible alternative to development following disastrous damage by floods, though challenges to flood management can continuously affect the built environment. He defines the ‘build-back-better’ concept as a principle of ‘positive reconstruction’, which is vital for development and has to do with building a better infrastructure, as compared to that destroyed by the catastrophe. It aims at conforming to meeting standard challenges, such as poor site plans, use of inappropriate building materials and failure to adhere to rules and regulations in the built environment. It should also be supported by the com-

munity. According to Mannakkara et al. (2014) in (Dube et al., 2018:4), the ‘build-back-better’ concept signals an opportunity to decrease the vulnerability of communities to future hazards. Hazards can cascade and have ripple effects, hence the need for researchers to go beyond focusing on extreme disasters, for example, floods, mudslides and drought in isolation, to assess their interaction (Chiang et al., 2018). Chiang suggests the need for ‘outreach and public education as they are important to raise awareness of the potential risks of cascading hazards’ (Chiang et  al., 2018:460). An increase in flood awareness within the communities can reduce flood vulnerability through enhancing timely flood warning and improve emergency preparedness.

7.3

Materials and Methods

Chimanimani is located in Chimanimani District, Manicaland Province, in south-eastern Zimbabwe, close to the border with Mozambique. Few Indian Ocean cyclones get as far as Zimbabwe, but Cyclone Idai hit the country on 15 March 2019, bringing high winds and torrential rains that caused extensive flooding. To construct a storyline of the impact of cyclone Idai on the education system in Zimbabwe, data were collected mainly through key informant narrative surveys (KINS), which were complemented by Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and direct observation. A narrative survey is a qualitative research strategy which offers a method for surveying large populations (Shkedi, 2004). Photographs were also taken to show the extent of damage and recovery. Twenty participants (2 school headmasters, 5 teachers, 1 Diocesan Catholic priest, 1 Nongovernmental organisation officer, 1 education officer and 10 community members) were selected for KINS.  One group interview and three FGDs were also held. The participants for both KINS and FGDs were purposively selected on the understanding that they had experienced the impact of cyclone Idai, hence, were information-rich and suitable for the study. The researchers sought to learn

7  Impacts of Cyclone Idai and the Road to Recovery in Education Systems in Zimbabwe

from the participants’ lived experiences of being affected by the flood in their areas. The narrative survey technique was employed in devastated areas and was facilitated by observation. In such cases, the story unfolds as the participant moves from one point to the other, a strategy that made participants be in control of the discussion, giving them the chance to reflect on their memories, providing information without restrictions and interjections and in the process capturing the attention of the researchers/research team. The opportunity for on-site first-hand information collection allowed the researchers to collect detailed and relevant information. The extent of damage of the infrastructure was noted and the after-scenario picture observed. Pre-designed interview guides with different themes tailored for different participants were used after the narration for probing. The focus was on the extent of damage on infrastructure, interruption of school activities, lives lost, costs of rebuilding the schools, current challenges of both learners, educators and district education offices and coping strategies in the affected areas. The respondents were also asked if there were any future plans to cope with such disasters should they occur again. After the narration, some follow-up questions were asked to fully capture the participants’ complete thoughts and experience. The main goal of storytelling was to try to understand the impacts of cyclone Idai on the education system in the affected areas and to solicit their thoughts on what they believe would contribute to reducing the impact of the disasters in future. FGDs were also employed to solicit data on the impacts of cyclone Idai on education, copying mechanisms and to establish respondents’ opinions on the way forward where planning for future occurrences is concerned. Single sessions of three FGDs of more than 10 participants each comprised both men and women adults who were affected by the cyclone were conducted. To develop in-depth understanding of experiences during cyclone Idai and particularly to understand its impact on education, the research team conducted extensive literature review on the subject. This included analysing existing news

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articles, social media and United Nations reports on the impacts of cyclone Idai. The purpose of the review was to learn the perception of other stakeholders on the occurrence of the cyclone. KINS and FGDs were recorded and transcribed and partly captured through extensive note taking during the interview process. Interviews were analysed using thematic analysis such as sorting, labelling and summarising data. Whilst analysing the research data, researchers sought to identify themes that emerged during the narrations. Analysis of the data was done by triangulating key informant data by different respondents as well as with data gathered from secondary sources through the literature review.

7.4

Results and Discussion

7.4.1 E  ffects of Cyclone Idai on Education Delivery and Infrastructure The District Education Office revealed that a total of 42 schools were affected in the Chimanimani district in Zimbabwe with variations in the magnitude of destruction with none completely destroyed. The research findings supported the works of (Ardales Jr et  al., 2016; Esnard & Lai, 2018; Lai et al., 2019; Chaudhary & Timsina, 2017; Mitsova et al., 2019) who argue that disasters cause physical damage to schools. Most schools in the rural areas of developing countries have buildings that are vulnerable, as they are old, poorly constructed, lack maintenance and are poorly sited. The first destruction is of the physical infrastructure which interferes with the built infrastructure, usually with rippling effect on other structures such as electric power, water, transportation and communications. This chain of events delays the rate of recovery of schools. This finding is in agreement with Dube et al. (2018) who argues that reconstruction following flood disasters is taxing. Respondents in one community with two council-owned primary and secondary schools and one government indicated that they were

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hard hit by cyclone Idai. Interviews with the district authorities, school administration and community reported having lost 33 learners from the council-owned primary school and seven from the secondary school. However, of these, few bodies were picked up and the rest were reported still missing. The students were mostly affected, as they rented house in the waterway. Rescue was delayed due to heavy rains and fog. At this growth point, the disaster struck at night and hence left people with little time and options for planning to escape. In line with other researches, the physical and socio-economic vulnerabilities such as poor locational sites, lack of proper planning by weak government institutions, delays in rescue activities and lack of resources to erect strong buildings due to poverty have been cited as the major causes of death during a catastrophe (Dube et al., 2018; Esnard & Lai, 2018; Lai et al., 2019). The research outcome is also supported by Chaudhary and Timsina (2017)’s argument that that the destruction of the students’ residents and school infrastructure without doubt disturbs the learning environment of the students. The weak school buildings expose the students to fears of being victimised, affecting their attention in class and some can end up dropping school. At one secondary boarding school, two students and a boarding master lost their lives due to the extreme weather. The students were trapped whilst sleeping in the dormitory. According to the school administrators, the night-time was a moment of great confusion, as the other students were trying to rescue their counterparts who had been trapped in the mud and the others were screaming in the midst of heavy rain, rushing to the boarding masters’ home and deputy head to report. After calling a register, it was discovered that two students were missing. Although it was not easy to retrieve the bodies, one of the deceased students was retrieved from the mudslide the same evening and the other the following day on the 16th of March 2019. A 26-year-old security guard met his fate when the dining hall collapsed. His remains were found the following day. No evidence of disaster management or risk reduction plans was found during the research. The schools were caught in this disaster unprepared.

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Conforming to results of other studies, the lack of government commitment in most developing countries to take Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) policy as a mandate in the education sector has not motivated schools to adopt and work on DRR plans seriously (Shah et  al., 2018). Shah et  al. (2018), in his assessment of disaster preparedness in 20 schools in Pakistan, concluded that lack of seriousness on the government part led to most schools taking disaster preparedness as a choice rather than a mandatory action. A commitment to DRR plans gives people ample time to prepare, avoid and reduce devastation, for example, mass destruction and deaths. Charles Lwanga Boarding Secondary School is located approximately 150 km from Mutare in Chimanimani District. The school was established on 3 June 1963 by the Carmelite friars as a seminary for boys preparing for priesthood. The school had an enrolment of 258 students: 87 day scholars (boys and girls) and 171 borders (boys only). The Pioneer Group of girls had started in January 2019. The name of the school originated from one of the martyrs of Uganda. Charles Lwanga was a catechist and young leader martyred in 1886; he was killed because of his strong faith in Christ with a group of Catholics and Anglican royal pages during the time of King Mwanga in Uganda. This school severely suffered from the effects of four landslides, which caused damages to school the buildings and property. Rented houses by students were also destroyed (Fig. 7.1). If the roles of the school’s team were clearly defined and the team trained in disaster preparedness under the guidance of a leader or school headmaster as propounded by Mutch (2015) in his study of earthquakes on schools in New Zealand and the Role of Leadership, there could have been a pre-planned risk assessment programme in place. The school is located on a hazard risk area prone to landslides, rock fall and mudslide. A team could have been set up to track any possible danger and take measures to avoid mass destruction and loss of life in the event of a catastrophe. The findings are consistent with Chiang et al. (2018)’s conclusion that hazards if not assessed, mapped and monitored can cascade

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Fig. 7.1  Damaged houses rented by students located on the waterway in Ngangu (Source: Fieldwork, 2019)

into disastrous events. He calls for the need not to give attention to extreme catastrophes in isolation, for example, floods, droughts, mudslides but to focus on how they interact. Heavy rainfall can cause rock falls, mudflows and floods. Therefore, ‘outreach and public education are important to raise awareness of the potential risks of cascading hazards’. (Chiang et  al., 2018:460). Dube et al. (2018) argued that that community awareness can enhance timely warning and improve emergency preparedness, thereby reducing vulnerability. Again, this was not the case in the study area, as there was no community awareness before the disaster. Although by the time of the research students had only been declared missing, Ndima high school lost 15 students 7 boys and 8 girls. The district officials indicated that despite having compiled statistics for the deceased teachers and students according to gender, teachers have not yet been replaced. One teacher who resided outside the school premises in Copa growth point was hard hit and greatly affected, as Nyahodi River was in flood and busted its banks. He lost his wife teaching at a neighbouring school and one child. Ndima high school, the only government institution in the district, was established in 1982 by the Government of Zimbabwe to ensure affordable and accessible education to the rural

community. It is one of the 40 schools affected in Chimanimani district. The school is in Chief Ngorima area and not in Ndima because the people in Ndima refused to avail land for building the school. Currently, the school has an enrolment of 765 school children and 34 teachers. Before the cyclone, Ndima high school was located almost 200 metres from Nyahodi River. Between the river and the school was the Divisional Development Fund (DDF) that was partially destroyed by the river. During the cyclone, a waterway was created between the DDF and the school. Consistency with other research disasters is non-selective, as they have adverse effects on teachers both at home and at school (Devaney et  al., 2009; Ardales Jr et  al., 2016). Teachers are frontline workers offering their services in any crisis including a catastrophe (Devaney et al., 2009). Teachers are also victims but at the same time they are expected to act as part of a supporting system for the vulnerable students. When teachers are affected, the continuity of schooling is affected, and this has adverse effects on student performance. According to FGDs, teachers and school authorities, the impacts of cyclone Idai were also felt in particular by the examination classes, the Ordinary and Advanced level students. The cyclone hit in March and schools had to be

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closed. Teaching usually goes up to the last day of the term which was not the case this time. According to one district officer, a lot of human capital, in terms of hours, was lost. According to the district officer, a school’s report to the district office is required to give an account for a 0% pass rate. By the time of the study, respondents at the schools and district offices could not predict the impact of the cyclone on the students, given the shortened school term and the trauma that they experienced. However, due to the experience of the extreme weather event, a drop in the pass rate was expected. The students were away for about a month and a half to 2  months. The teachers indicated that when the students came back to start school for the second term, they were still trying to come to terms with reality, under a lot of stress and they were still traumatised, hence no normal learning was going on. Schools lost more than 4  weeks of learning. The first 2  weeks, according to the district officers, were a psychosocial support period. After that, there was preparation for classes and school only started in the fourth week. The coming in and out of people that were reconstructing the school facilities disturbed the learners. Stationery and textbooks were also not available. Things were generally not in order. There was need to upgrade the furniture that had been destroyed, repaint and readjust from the setup created by the cyclone. It took some time and things only really normalised in the third term, yet this damage had occurred at the end of the first term. At Ndima government school, the school authority indicated that the performance of the students was affected by the natural disaster, as they lost their parents and loved ones. Unfortunately, there was no time to cover up for the lessons lost, especially for the students that had to sit for June exams. Some students had to transfer. Students were traumatised, and until to date a simple change of weather unsettles them and provokes behaviour change. They would make aimless movements in class or go out of class only to come back later.

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Findings discussed above are in line with conclusions drawn from other research that the effects of disasters can have ripple effects and are devastating (Ardales Jr et  al., 2016; Esnard & Lai, 2018; Lai et al., 2019; Chaudhary & Timsina, 2017; Mitsova et al., 2019). Schools were closed, lessons discontinued, examination classes were disturbed, and students lost learning time and were traumatised and needed psychosocial support. The road to recovery proved difficult and challenging (Dube et al., 2018). The information discussed above is in line with Peek et al. (2017) and Lai et al. (2018), who view the students’ support system as comprising the family (the parents or guardians), school authorities and the community. In the event that the immediate family fails to give their children psychological support due to failure to cope with loss, the teachers and educational authorities take over the counselling (Brocque et  al., 2016). However, teachers can also be victims of disasters and can be traumatised. The destruction of this support system greatly devastates the students, leading to a delay in recovery provoking behaviour problems (Afroz et al., 2018). Children from schools of low socio-economic status in the rural areas are greatly affected, as the schools cannot afford to buy items such as stationery, textbooks and repair the buildings due to poverty (Afroz et al., 2018). Scholars argue undoubtedly that disasters have an effect on students’ academic performance (DeVaney et  al., 2009; Brocque et  al., 2016; Spencer et al., 2016; Lai et al., 2018; Peek et al., 2017). Examination scores for students attending class have been recorded to be higher than those forced out of class due to the devastating effect of a hurricane. Findings from the district office revealed the destruction of infrastructure from one school to the other (Fig.  7.2 and 7.3). At one boarding school, the landslides destroyed the school buildings and property (the dining hall, the form 1 dormitory and the toilets). The form 2 dormitory and headmaster’s house were partially affected. Big boulders, uprooted trees and destroyed bridges

7  Impacts of Cyclone Idai and the Road to Recovery in Education Systems in Zimbabwe Fig. 7.2  A staff house at Ndima government school was destroyed (Source: Fieldwork, 2019)

Fig. 7.3  A boarding house built along the waterway in Ngangu (Source: Fieldwork, 2019)

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made roads impassable and student evacuation difficult and impossible. There was no electricity and water. Students were sleeping in classrooms. Students were now using Blair toilets, since the water reticulation system had been destroyed. To bath, students had to use rainwater which had accumulated in ditches; for drinking, they relied on rainwater harvesting from roofs. Well-wishers including the Ministry of Education donated books. The student boarders underwent a lot of counselling after the closure of the school. At Ndima government school, the infrastructure destroyed included two staff houses, the school fence, one classroom block (asbestos roofing removed), the junior laboratory block (roofing removed), teacher’s house and underground water piping. The solar system was partly destroyed with its solar inverters struck by lightning. The school relied more on solar for the computer lab, as prices for fuel to pump the generator had increased. A total of 56 students were hard hit by the cyclone with their books and stationery destroyed. Tap water from the springs uphill and the water systems in most schools were totally damaged and destroyed. In line with Mitsova et al., (2019)’s findings, the destruction of infrastructure has a cascading effect on the services offered such as power, water and communication networks. Due to psychological trauma, the district administrator reported a large influx of letters from teachers requesting transfers soon after the cyclone, which they had never witnessed before. According to the district and school authorities, second term was a recovery period. Some were going to schools where there were no textbooks and furniture. Even the teachers were not ready to teach when they came back because they were holding their letters of transfer and the district had taken a stance that they should stay put for the moment. This conforms to Lai et al. (2019)’s argument that disruptions in education are mostly felt when staff is displaced; student numbers decline due to transfers, funding allocation processes, lost stationery and material. In addition, the mental state of the learners, teachers and educational administrators is disturbed.

C. P. Gandidzanwa and M. Togo

7.4.2 C  oping Strategies of Learners, Educators and the District Education Offices in the Affected Areas Interviews with the district administrators confirmed that during and after the cyclone, the victims had to come up with copying mechanisms to ensure continued learning. In order to ensure that delays in teacher replacement to the schools that had lost staff would not disturb continued schooling for the students, school administrators had to make do with the staff they had. Classes were combined which resulted in an increase in teacher-pupil ratio. This had a negative impact on the pass rate of the students, as it reduced the effectiveness of service delivery. In order to reduce chaos and to ensure classes continue with minimum disturbances in the district, the officials or authorities did not take heed of the call for transfers. This, according to the officials, helped a lot because the whole district would have transferred. It would have been difficult to have completely new staff members to cope with the situation, so it was better for them to stay put whilst they adjusted to the new system and situation. New staff would mean more time to cope and adjust to the existing situation. However according to the district officers, most of the staff appeared to be copying and adjusting in the road to recovery. The school administrators at Ndima government school confirmed that in order to consider and accommodate schools that delayed in registering for the examinations, there was a delay in registering for the Zimbabwe Secondary Examinations Council (Zimsec) June O′ level examinations. During the first 3  days of the cyclone (Monday to Wednesday), no school children attended school because the bridges had been destroyed but with time the number of children started increasing. The Ministry extended the examination registration dates by 2 weeks as most roads were impassable. Respondents including district and school administrators, teachers and communities in the FGDs indicated that in the aftermath, some

7  Impacts of Cyclone Idai and the Road to Recovery in Education Systems in Zimbabwe

schools were closed up to the end of the term as they were inaccessible and some of the built infrastructure had been destroyed. The disaster struck about 2  weeks before the term ended. Ndima government school was closed a week before end of term and expected to open 2 weeks earlier following the Ministry of Education’s advice. However, the school was opened the same time with other schools for the second term period. Charles Lwanga Secondary School closed 2 weeks before the normal closing date. Although it was not easy to evacuate the students as the roads were impassable and bridges were destroyed, they eventually left the school on a Sunday evening on the 17 of March 2019. There were no school dropouts in the district. Students were offered places at various other schools for the second term. However, the idea of separating students did not go well with some parents who thought that a place with ideal infrastructure could be identified and normal classes resume for the students. When schools opened, the government assisted in building some temporary toilets. The district authorities also confirmed that a number of students in the district were transferred to other areas that were not affected, for example, in the west of Chimanimani around the Birchenough Bridge, which saw the school enrolments increasing in those areas. According to some district officials, the district witnessed quite a number of students transferring back to their original schools where some supplies such as food, stationery and school fees were being provided by donors and agencies. The road to recovery discussion above conforms to Sadik et  al. (2018), who indicated the need to resort to short-term measures after a disaster. To reduce chaos and ensure continuity of lessons, classes were combined, as teachers and students were transferring to other districts as a way of coping with trauma. Registration dates for examinations were extended, tents erected for teachers whose homes were destroyed and temporary toilets built. However, in line with Shah et al. (2018)’s argument, this evidence is a reflection of lack of guidelines for disaster preparedness, psychological first aid and crisis counselling due to little government commitment to DRR

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policies, in particular for most developing ­countries. The district did not act upon the massive teacher transfer letters, as it lacked the capacity and had not prepared to deal with issues of that magnitude. This had never happened before. However, Mutch (2015) suggested the need for preparations before a disaster. He suggested that actions taken depend on the culture of the school leadership and the strength of the relations existing between the leadership and the district or organisation that in turn determines the ability for decision-making and mobilisation of resources before the event. An organised team with a shared vision would be able to manage the crisis. Youth Alive provided psychosocial support and groceries to augment the school feeding programme for the students. UNICEF donated stationery. Higherlife provided four scholarships, three temporary and one permanent. Zimbabwe Red Cross provided sanitary napkins for the girls and detergents for the school. The Rotary Club through the church also provided stationery. Caritas (Camfed) had to build eight Blair toilets for students and one for the teachers. The toilets accommodated people living with disability and are child friendly. Plans were underway to relocate the boarding school. The new site will be called St Charles Lwanga College and the old St Charles Lwanga will remain a day school to cater to the girls and boys from the local community. The new site for the boarding school is located at Ruwaka area almost 4–5 km near Nhedziwa area. The groundbreaking ceremony was held on 25th October 2019. The new site is a flat area and is not mountainous like the existing one. Ndima government school was provided with water pipes by the Jacqueline Anderson of the Miracle Mission Trust after the cyclone to restore water reticulation for the school. With the help of students, it installed the pipes 6 km uphill from the school to tap spring water. The Welthungerhilfe restored some water by laying water pipes parallel to the school water pipes to increase water quantity. They also brought two water tanks. They installed four waterways for the students. They also inserted water points near the gate, in the garden, in front of and at the back of the classes. They

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resuscitated the water system of the ablution block. A two-roomed Blair toilet was built for the school by the Seventh-day Adventist Church. A staff house was also built by the Infrastructure Development Bank of Zimbabwe (IDBZ). The Department of Public Works started building an F14 house, but this project was not completed. During the cyclone, staff at the school, clinic and DDF received food transported by air. The school was fortunate to receive psychosocial support from various organisations and departments including the Ministry of Health, and the School of Social Services from the Ministry of Higher Education. During the cyclone, the school had to look for temporary water buckets for hygiene purposes in the toilets. The emergency response took time. Things started working 2 months later. The interventions that the school got according to the headmaster included the house built by public works, and the semi-detached one built by IBZ (Fig. 7.4), the water system that was worked on by Welthungerhilfe (WHH), donation of water pipes from Jacqueline Anderson, and roofing material, asbestos sheets, from Elder Smith, the church leader. WHH resuscitated the ablution block and they also donated two JoJo tanks. If the spring dries up, it is another problem, but for now the situation is under control. Plan International, Mercy Corps and Oxfam provided detergency kits. The interviews confirmed that in the aftermath of the cyclone, psychological services were pro-

C. P. Gandidzanwa and M. Togo

vided by the government itself and their partners to the affected schools. The ministry had to deploy officers to provide the psychological social services. The first 2  weeks, according to the district officers, were agreed to be a psychosocial support period for the students at the school. The services were provided for 1–3 weeks before the agencies left. The district administrators agreed that the exercise or action was an event instead of a healing process and hoped to change strategy in future if funds permit. So many homeless survivors, including teachers, were left without help and some living in tents (Fig. 7.5). However, in such a situation it was fortunate that some community members had also undergone psychosocial support, received basic training and were expected to be able to support the other survivors. The school staff whose houses were destroyed by the cyclone were provided with tents whilst houses were being constructed by the public works. Some teachers preferred staying with well-wishers in the community who also gave them clothing. However, despite flaws in providing psychosocial support services to the affected schools, several partners and donors assisted with supplies including stationery, food, pads and hygiene items. Higherlife, a local subsidiary company of Econet, was one of the donors. The district ensured that no child dropped out of school

Fig. 7.4  A staff house was also built by the Infrastructure Development Bank of Zimbabwe (IDBZ) at Ndima government school (Source: Fieldwork, 2019)

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Fig. 7.5  At Ndima government school tents were provided by the UN for the staff (Source: Fieldwork, 2019)

because of losing a parent who was a breadwinner in the family or both parents during the cyclone. For example, at Ndima government school the 56 students who were hard hit by the cyclone were given stationery by the Civil Protection Unit (CPU). They were also given food and clothes by the church and well-wishers. The school distributed some of the aid they received to school children who lost their parents. Those who lost homes were taken by their relatives and others had their fees paid for by Higherlife. Two categories of students were assisted by Higherlife, category one included those orphaned children who had their fees permanently paid for and the second category consisted of temporary beneficiaries whose fees for second and third terms of 2019 were paid for. Those who lost one parent or two became the permanent beneficiaries of Higherlife scholarships. These include seven girls and two boys and the temporary beneficiaries, those who lost belongings, are 27  in total: 20 boys and seven girls. Plan had a programme of providing educational assistance to 30 girls initially but after the cyclone they increased the number of girls to 82. Basic Education Assistance Module (BEAM)

does this exercise yearly and in 2019, it was done following the cyclone Idai disaster. There are 100 students on BEAM. Lever brothers offered some detergent kits immediately after the cyclone. Plan International offered sanitary kits to girls and also extended relevant assistance to boys. Oxfam offered buckets for water and aqua tablets to the school staff. The Welthungerhilfe also donated JoJo tanks (Fig. 7.6). The NGO short-term interventions above are in line with the findings of a post disaster recovery research on the impact of Cyclone Aila in Koyra Upazila, Bangladesh by Sadik et al. (2018), which showed an example of a joint venture between government agencies and NGOs. NGOs concentrate on short-term interventions rather than longterm interventions, such as vulnerability assessments, hazard mapping and harmonisation of NGOs and improved early warning systems. According to a technical report by Shah et  al. (2019), a number of actors including the government, professionals and learning communities, development partners, civil society organisations and the private sector are involved in managing disaster risk reduction measures including recovery and reconstruction in the education sector.

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Fig. 7.6  At Ndima government school, a water tank was donated by an NGO Welthungerhilfe (Source: Fieldwork, 2019)

7.4.3 T  he Opinions of Learners, Educators and the Local District Education Officers in Terms of Disaster Preparedness in Future In terms of filling vacant positions at schools created due to the loss of life, some district officials suggested placement of people to take up the empty positions. This ensures minimum disruption of classes and reduces the chances of students failing. In order to reduce staff transfers, the district officials suggested to the government the need for teachers to be provided with tangible things such as money, blankets, clothes and food to motivate them to stay and work in these areas in addition to the psychosocial support. The teachers believe their dignity has been compromised, as they receive the same clothing as their students and the community. However, some teachers who were directly affected preferred relocation, as they were failing to come to terms with what happened. Being in the same environment would trigger memories and impede the healing process. There is also need for the district officials to screen the disaster victims. The impact of the disaster varied from one person to the other. Some had their property

destroyed and others had their spouses or families killed. Yet, those who rushed for assistance were the ones not seriously affected. In light of this discussion, teachers were struggling to act as frontline workers in providing timely intervention to restore order and normalcy in the education sector. The in-service training of teachers which Devaney et al. (2009) alluded to (as discussed earlier) would also reduce or curb transfers of affected teachers and students to other areas and teachers will focus more on student counselling in their stations. The fact that the students and some teachers who managed to transfer to new districts later also wanted to go back to their original stations is clear indication of absence of an effective system for disaster recovery in Chimanimani district. For planning purposes by the district, there is need to record statistics of student transfers after a disaster strikes. This is important because failure to organise resources in the area of destination may create other problems. The increase in teacher-pupil ratio can compromise student academic performance, examination results and the quality of education in the area of destination. Some headmasters in government schools suggested that they should also be considered for receiving aid from agencies such as UNICEF. For

7  Impacts of Cyclone Idai and the Road to Recovery in Education Systems in Zimbabwe

example, the school authority at Ndima government school expressed concern over the failure of UNICEF to assist the school with stationery and textbooks like what they did to other non-­ government schools. The nature of psychosocial support in the district was met with mixed feelings. Those who received direct counselling from the psychosocial team felt this was a good strategy, whilst others suggested it is helpful if done in conjunction with food aid, blankets and clothes. As confirmed by some district officers and teachers/school authorities who had received counselling from other trained survivors believed the exercise would yield even better results if taken as a process rather than an event. Some interviewees from the district, school and community viewed the impact of this strategy as unexpected, of little significance and of less influence as one administrator reported. Teachers reported being harassed according to the district officials. This, according to one official, was maybe due to the fact that together with other civil servants, teachers receive salaries at the end of the month. The respondents at the district indicated that in general, civil servants, including teachers, were sometimes not given the opportunity to receive aid. However ironically, there were cases of teachers who were found in possession of donated food items, yet they were not victims of the cyclone. Response to disasters is dependent on the nature of relationship between the school leadership, school team and district office (Mutch, 2015). Proper planning by these actors before the disaster can reduce the effects of its aftermath. A system should be put in place to plan how affected teachers are dealt with, taking into account contextual factors. Due to the economic meltdown in Zimbabwe, teachers’ salaries were eroded, hence they needed assistance after the cyclone to restore their dignity and integrity and be in a better position to offer their services again. Some school authorities shared the same sentiment that the Civil Protection Unit (CPU) gave some early warnings of cyclone Idai but they did not take it seriously since they had experienced some previous cyclones like Eline with impacts

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and disasters of less magnitude. They thought it was the normal heavy rain and wind they were used to. The CPU through social media had emphasised on not crossing flooded rivers, avoiding parking cars near big trees, making sure if people are driving wipers and car lights are working. However, the respondents emphasised that if the CPU had emphasised the extent of the expected damage, no one would have remained in Chimanimani. Alternatively, if the unit had evacuated the people by force, lives would have been saved.

7.4.4 R  esponsible Authority District Office The district office suggested that staff should be trained first, so that they can train others. They also suggested that at tertiary education, the preparedness component must be embedded in curriculum and also made a prerequisite. Designated places where survivors will assemble (assembly points) when a disaster strikes were also suggested. They saw these assembly points as a government issue since it involves expensive basic equipment, for example, sanitation facilities regularly manned by the council. Findings from the study revealed that during the cyclone when all the hospitals ran out of medicine, for example, bandages and betadine, people had to compromise and use water to clean wounds. The district office, school authorities and teachers felt that such items should always be available and managed taking note of expiry dates. The district office felt that the supplies should be kept at the district centre. The respondents at the district office and schools felt that it would be good for the survivors, to get out of the environment just to refresh and come back after some time. This helps them take their minds off things and refresh. They also suggested that policies and bureaucracy should be flexible in such situations. For example, according to the protocol during and after a disaster, aid has to pass through the District administrator’s office, as he is the overall civil protection agent. In some instances, the office

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had to be bypassed and there were cases when the cyclone victims had to wait for the approval of the district administrator. The respondents revealed that in such cases some food would even rot or expire. The district office recommended instant distribution to the survivors as soon as the beneficiaries have been identified. The interviewer also suggested the search and rescue to run concurrently whilst the dead, missing and the survivors are documented. A register can be kept for the relief.

7.5

Conclusion

Cyclone Idai had devastating impacts on the education sector. The infrastructure including classroom blocks, ablution blocks, teachers and student’s accommodation and administration blocks were destroyed. These had rippling effects on important services such as water, communication networks and energy. Electric power lines were destroyed, water sources, pipes and tanks were broken down and the communication network was down. Solar systems that supported the computer labs in schools were also destroyed. The fact that the disaster struck at night and that there was lack of communication and commitment to disaster preparedness plans by the schools worsened the effects of the disaster. Schools and the communities were not used to disasters of such magnitude; hence, they did not take heed of the early warning signs such as the increase in river discharge and the amount of falling rain. Challenges were faced on the road to recovery, as the district had not prepared for this calamity before it struck. Teachers and students preferred to transfer as an initial step towards the healing process. The district denied the teachers transfer as this would disrupt continual teaching in the district. On the other hand, it did not have a system to deal with teachers after a disaster of such magnitude. However, the build-back-better concept was adopted. There is need for the government to be committed to DRR policies in order to reduce devastating effects and be in a position to effectively manage the road to recovery. NGOs, the civil society, the private society

and the government should collaborate and partner for effective disaster risk management.

References Afroz, S., Cramb, R., & Grunbuhel, C. (2018). Vulnerability and response to cyclones in coastal Bangladesh: A political ecology perspective. Asian Journal of Social Science, 46(6), 601–637. https://doi. org/10.1163/15685314-­04606002 Ardales, G.  Y., Jr., Espaldon, M.  V. O., Lasco, R.  D., Quimbo, M. A. T., & Zamora, O. B. (2016). Impacts of floods on public schools in the municipalities of Los Baños and Bay, Laguna, Philippines. Journal of Nature Studies, 15(1), 19–40. Brocque, R.  L., Young, A.  C. D., Montague, G., & Kenardy, J. (2016). Schools and natural disaster recovery: The unique and vital role that teachers and education professionals play in ensuring the mental health of students following natural disaster. Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools, 1(27), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2016.17 Chaudhary, G., & Timsina, T. P. (2017). Impact of flood on performance of students: The case of secondary school students in Jaleshwor municipality, Mahottari. Journal of Advanced Academic Research, 12(4). Chiang, F., Vahedifard, F., & AghaKouchak, A. (2018). How do natural hazards cascade to cause disasters? Nature, 561(7724), 458–460. https://doi.org/10.1038/ d41586-­018-­06783-­6 DeVaney, T. A., Carr, S. C., & Allen, D. D. (2009). Impact of hurricane Katrina on the educational system in Southeast Louisiana: One-year follow-up. Mid-South Educational Research Association, 16(1), 32–44. Dube, E., Mtapuri, O., & Matunhu, J. (2018). Managing flood disasters on the built environment in the rural communities of Zimbabwe: Lessons learnt. Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 10(1), 542. https://doi. org/10.4102/jamba Esnard, A.  M., & Lai, B. (2018). Interdisciplinary approaches to examining post disaster school recovery. Risk Analysis. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13137 Esnard, A.M., Lai, B.S., Wyczalkowski, C. (2017). School vulnerability to disaster: Examination of school closure, demographic, and exposure factors in Hurricane Ike’s wind swath. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11069-­017-­3057-­2. Lai, B. S., Osborne, M. C., Piscitello, J., Self-Brown, S., & Kelley, M. L. (2018). The relationship between social support and posttraumatic stress symptoms among youth exposed to a natural disaster. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(2), 1450042. https://doi. org/10.1080/20008198 Lai, B. S., Esnard, A. M., Wyczalkowski, C., Savage, R., & Shah, H. (2019). Trajectories of school recovery after a natural disaster: Risk and protective factors. Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy, 1(10).

7  Impacts of Cyclone Idai and the Road to Recovery in Education Systems in Zimbabwe Makwana, N. (2019). Disaster and its impact on mental health: A narrative review. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 8(10), 3090–3095. Mannakkara, S., Wilkinson, S., Potangaroa, R. (2014). Build back better: Implementation in Victorian bushfire reconstruction https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12041. Mitsova, D., Escaleras, M., Sapat, A., Esnard, A. M., & Lamadrid, A.  J. (2019). The effects of infrastructure service disruptions and socio-economic vulnerability on hurricane recovery. Sustainability, 516. https://doi. org/10.3390/su11020516 Mutch, C. (2015). The impact of the Canterbury earthquakes on schools and school leaders: Educational leaders become crisis managers. Journal of Educational Leadership, Policy and Practice, 30(2), 39–55. Norris, F.  H., Friedman, M.  J., & Watson, P.  J. (2002). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part II. Summary and implications of the disaster mental health research. Psychiatry, 65(3), 240–260. https://doi.org/10.1521/ psyc.65.3.240.20169 Peek, L., Abramson, D., Cox, R.S., Tobin, J. (2017). Children and disasters in book:

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Handbook of disaster research. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-­3-­319-­63254-­4_13. Sadik, M.  S., Nakagawa, H., Rahman, R., Shaw, R., Kawaike, K., & Fujita, K. (2018). A study on cyclone Aila recovery in Koyra, Bangladesh: Evaluating the inclusiveness of recovery with respect to Predisaster vulnerability reduction. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 9(1), 28–43. https://doi. org/10.1007/s13753-­018-­0166-­9 Shah, A. A., Ye, J., Pan, L., Ullah, R., Shah, S. I. A., Fahad, S., & Naz, S. (2018). Schools’ flood emergency preparedness in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 9, 181–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-­018-­01758 Shah, R., Henderson, C., Couch, D. (2019). Education sector recovery. Disaster Recovery Guidance Series Technical Report. GFDRR. The World Bank. https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/330354352. Shkedi, A. (2004). Narrative survey: A methodology of studying multiple populations. Narrative Enquiry, 14(1), 87–111. Spencer N, Polachek S, Strobl E (2016) How do hurricanes impact achievement in school? A Caribbean Perspective Discussion Paper No. 10169.

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The Water Sanitation and Hygiene Perspective in Response to Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe Tendai Kativhu, Innocent Nhapi, Annatoria Chinyama, Margaret Macherera, and Lovemore Dhoba

Abstract

The Zimbabwean government and a number of organisations responded in various ways to the devastation done by Cyclone Idai, which occurred in March 2019. The massive disaster destroyed water supply, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure resulting in crippled access to these services. This study was done to investigate the impacts of the cyclone on WASH facilities to assess the WASH responses to the impacts of the cyclone and to interrogate how institutions collaborated and were coordinated during the responses to the disasT. Kativhu () Department of Environmental Science and Health, National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe e-mail: [email protected] I. Nhapi Department of Environmental Engineering, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe A. Chinyama Faculty of Engineering and the Environment, Gwanda State University, Gwanda, Zimbabwe e-mail: [email protected]

ter. Data were collected using key informant interviews, focus group discussions, observations and document analysis. Results showed that WASH facilities at schools, hospitals, refugee camps and communities were flooded, washed away and/or collapsed. Water and sanitation responses that involved training locals were sustainable as the interventions imparted critical skills within communities. However, in some instances, the responses were not adequate. Distribution of menstrual hygiene kits enabled women and girls to live their lives with dignity. The study also noted weak coordination of stakeholders at provincial and district levels. The study recommends that institutions at provincial and district levels be resourced adequately for effective responses to natural disasters. Keywords

Cyclone Idai · Disasters · Impacts · Responses · Stakeholder coordination · Water sanitation and hygiene

M. Macherera Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Lupane State University, Lupane, Zimbabwe

8.1

L. Dhoba College of Business, Peace, Leadership and Governance, Africa University, Mutare, Zimbabwe e-mail: [email protected]

Climate change continues to be a major threat to humankind across the globe due to disasters associated with the phenomenon (Hoffmann,

Introduction

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_8

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2011). These disasters include cyclones, droughts, heatwaves, mudslides and flooding events. According to EM-DAT (2014), these natural disasters affect more than 200 million people annually worldwide. With climate change models predicting a substantial increase in the frequency and intensity of cyclones (Knutson et al., 2010), the number of people who will be affected by these disasters will also increase. The threats that climate change-induced disasters have on people and their environments necessitate the assessment of their impacts as a first step to reduce vulnerability. Natural disasters have a strong impact on engineering structures, communication systems, the supply of electricity and the availability of other utilities such as water. Disasters can cause destruction to local water supplies and sanitation facilities affecting millions of people. In March 2015, cyclone Pam destroyed water supply and sanitation facilities leaving 40% of the affected population in need of drinking water and sanitation in Vanuatu (Mercy Corps, 2015). Hossain et  al. (2008) also documented the impacts of Cyclone Sidr in Bangladesh, which destroyed water supply and sanitation facilities. The plethora of literature on impacts of cyclones and other natural disasters on infrastructure and water and sanitation facilities, in particular, shows the need to first investigate the nature and extent of the impacts of cyclones on WASH services so as to effectively respond to the disasters. During and after disaster situations, communicable diseases such as diarrhoea can cause high mortality and morbidity due to poor access to safe water, inadequate hygiene facilities and unsanitary conditions, among other factors. WHO (2006) noted that an increase in diarrhoeal diseases following natural disasters of various kinds has been recognised worldwide. However, the risk of the diarrheal outbreaks in the aftermath of a disaster is reported to be higher in the Global South (Ahern et al., 2005). According to Myint (2011), low water and sanitation services before and after Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar contributed to the increased diarrhoea and dysentery cases in the months immediately after the incident. In rural and coastal areas of Bangladesh,

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poor sanitation and lack of safe drinking water may be the most important cause of the spread of waterborne diseases after a cyclone (WHO, 2012). Despite the documented evidence of diarrheal outbreaks induced by cyclones, it is ­worrying to note that in some countries such as India where sanitation is non-existent in some rural areas even in normal times, the issue is not given much importance in disaster situations (Gupta, 2000). From a public health point of view, this is of great concern as ignoring sanitation and water supply during and after disasters, when people are crowded into temporary shelters, can increase their vulnerability to more disasters. Field studies have shown that when natural disasters strike, the local communities are the first to respond, irrespective of their profession, status, gender or culture. Depending on the accessibility of the affected areas, government departments, the private sector, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and other outside communities will then follow. In almost all emergency contexts, water, sanitation and hygiene are among the priority immediate responses that are key for human survival (Connolly et al., 2004). According to the Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response (Sphere Project, 2011), water and sanitation are critical determinants for survival in the initial stages of a disaster in subSaharan countries. Emergency WASH interventions should provide access to safe water and sanitation and promote good hygiene practices with dignity, comfort and security (Sphere Project, 2011). This helps to ensure that the Sustainable Development Goal number 6 (SDG6) that ensures the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all is met. Where WASH interventions would have been implemented in response to disasters, their suitability and adequacy have to be understood so that beneficiaries can realise the intended benefits. Another notion in SDG6 which underpins WASH responses is how sustainable interventions will be. Understanding the suitability, adequacy and sustainability of WASH responses to cyclones is the core in developing effective plans and policies in disaster preparedness and response.

8  The Water Sanitation and Hygiene Perspective in Response to Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe

The Zimbabwean government and a number of local and international organisations responded in various ways to the devastation done by Cyclone Idai which occurred from the 15th of March 2019 to the 17th of March 2019. The massive disaster left a trail of destruction on WASH infrastructure resulting in crippled access to safe water sources and sanitation facilities. This chapter will provide a detailed account of the impacts of the cyclone on the WASH facilities. Furthermore, the chapter will give a detailed assessment of the WASH responses to the disaster. The analysis will focus on the types, adequacy and sustainability of the interventions vis-a-vis the needs of the communities. This is critical so as to understand if the interventions did not create risk to the survival, dignity and well-being of the communities as this can leave them prone to WASH-related disease epidemics. Collaborations and coordination of the WASH responses will also be interrogated. From a WASH perspective, the discussion outlined here serves to underline the core elements which can contribute to SDG6 and the human right to water and sanitation during and after disasters such as cyclones.

8.2

Materials and Methods

The study was done in Manicaland Province, Zimbabwe, since it was the province which was mainly affected by the cyclone. Within the province, the selection of districts was purposive where the districts that were affected by the cyclone were selected. Resultantly, Chimanimani, Mutasa, Nyanga, Buhera, Makoni, Mutare and Chipinge Districts were selected. Data were collected using document analysis, key informant interviews (KIIs), focus group discussions (FGDs) and observations. Document analysis involved reviewing of both printed and electronic documents. The reviewed documents were from NGOs, Provincial Water and Sanitation Sub-Committee (PWSSC), District Water and Sanitation Sub-Committees (DWSSCs) and the National Coordination Unit (NCU). Government and organisational records were considered to be critical data sources as

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they provide empirical evidence about how and when different institutions responded to the cyclone. Information provided by these documents suggested some questions which were asked during KIIs. Regarding KIIs, key ­informants were purposively drawn from NGOs, government departments and community leaders. They were selected based on the roles that they played during the response period of the disaster. A key informant interview guide with open ended and probing questions was used during the interviews while responses were recorded. A total of six FGDs were conducted in the affected districts. These comprised women and girls of school-going age. FGDs sought to collect data on menstrual hygiene and water access during and after the cyclone. The participants were separated into two groups where one group was made up of women and the other of school-going age girls. Separating FGDs participants into two groups was done so that participants would feel comfortable discussing issues with those who shared similar experiences when sensitive issues were being explored. Proceedings of the sessions were recorded on a voice recorder while hand written notes were taken mainly as probe points. During this study, observations using an observation checklist were done. Observations were done immediately after the disaster to establish the impact of the cyclone on WASH facilities. Photos were taken during observations for visual evidence. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics, while the thematic approach was used in the analysis of qualitative data. Descriptive statistics such as mean, maximum, minimum and frequency were used to provide comparisons on the impact of the cyclone on water sanitation and hygiene in the affected districts. Descriptive statistics also provided a concise summary of data on these impacts. Themes in this paper were from both the field data (an inductive approach) and from the researchers’ prior theoretical understanding of the phenomenon under study (deductive approach). Reading through the field notes enabled the researchers to code the data. Coding is when data sets were labelled into categories based on the research objectives. After coding,

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data were then grouped into themes. For example, all information related to impacts of the cyclone on WASH facilities such as washed away water pipes, flooded deep wells and destroyed ablution facilities formed one theme. This was done for all the data that were collected during the study.

8.3

Results and Discussion

8.3.1 I mpact of Cyclone Idai on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Cyclone Idai affected several districts in Manicaland Province, namely Chimanimani, Chipinge, Buhera, Nyanga, Makoni, Mutare Rural, Mutasa and parts of Mutare Urban. According to reports by various agencies, the hardest hit districts were Chimanimani and Chipinge (UN OCHA, 2019; Government of Zimbabwe, 2019; GoZ/WFP/UNICEF/UNDP, 2019; Manicaland PWSCC, 2019). The strong winds and heavy rains resulted in the damaging of infrastructure such as roads, houses, water supply and sanitation systems (UN OCHA, 2019; Manicaland PWSCC, 2019). The floods compromised access to safe water, basic sanitation and hygiene practices in both rural and urban areas increasing the risk of water-borne diseases. According to a report by the Government of Zimbabwe (2019), flooding destroyed water supply systems by submerging and washing away pumping systems and pipe networks. Generally, the flooding also affected the water quality of sources, with some boreholes in Chipinge District pumping out dirty water (Government of Zimbabwe, 2019; GoZ/WFP/UNICEF/UNDP, 2019). WASH facilities at schools, clinics and public areas like shopping centres were not spared by the cyclone. According to a report by UN OCHA (2019), the Tongogara refugee camp in Chipinge District was affected by flooding which also affected water sources and sanitation facilities.

8.3.1.1 Impacts on Water Supply In Manicaland Province, which was hard hit by Cyclone Idai, the main sources of water were boreholes, springs, deep wells, shallow wells and piped water schemes supplied by the boreholes or springs. Of these water sources, springs were the most affected (57%), followed by piped water schemes (21%) and shallow wells (12%). Boreholes (7%) and deep wells (3%) were the least affected (Manicaland PWSCC, 2019). Figure 8.1 shows a disturbed borehole with parts of its base washed away in one of the affected rural areas in the province. The province has seven districts, and of these, two districts, namely Chimanimani and Chipinge, were hardest hit by the cyclone. Observations made in Chimanimani and Chipinge showed that the major water source was springs and most springs originated in the mountains and the heavy rains resulted in them overflowing. Therefore, springs and piped water schemes fed by the springs were adversely affected by the cyclone. In Chimanimani District, two areas were hardest hit; Ngangu Township (an urban area) and Kopa Growth point (a rural area evolving into an urban area). In terms of water supply, in Ngangu, the predominant source of water were springs and in the rural areas, springs, boreholes, deep wells and shallow wells. Assessment reports by government departments and relief agents report that an estimated 600 springs were flooded and 61 boreholes disturbed (UN OCHA, 2019; Manicaland PWSCC, 2019). According to UN OCHA (2019), about 5000 m of the water distribution network was washed away in Chimanimani town, depriving more than 9000 residents of safe water. In Chipinge town, the main pipeline from the water treatment plant was washed away depriving more than 33,000 residents of safe water. 8.3.1.2 Impacts on Sanitation According to an assessment by UN OCHA (2019), sanitation facilities were destroyed in the urban and rural areas of Chimanimani District, and an estimated 2559 community ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines as well as sanitation

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Fig. 8.1  A riverside borehole damaged by flood waters during the 2019 Cyclone Idai in Manicaland, Zimbabwe. (Source: Supplied by Manicaland PWSCC, 2019)

facilities at 57 schools and 16 health centres collapsed. Observations made during an assessment after the disaster showed that the sewerage system at Ngangu Township (Chimanimani District) was destroyed as houses were destroyed. Some sections were not destroyed and this means that the system became disjointed with some undestroyed sections connected to the treatment plant and other sections discharging into the environment. Figure  8.2 shows parts of the destroyed sewerage system on a destroyed house. On a provincial scale, 9849 community, 1576 schools and 55 health centre sanitation facilities including BVIPs, pit latrines and water closets were damaged by the cyclone (Manicaland PWSSC, 2019). Pit latrines in their various types were the worst affected (99%) in all the districts in the province. Figure  8.3 shows a collapsed sanitation facility at Ngangu Primary School (Chimanimani District).

8.3.1.3 Impacts on Hygiene Since people’s houses were destroyed during the flooding and mudslides, survivors had to be settled in temporary camps in relatively safe locations. This created a sanitation and hygiene crisis since people had to share the temporary WASH facilities, and gender sensitivity became an issue

(UN OCHA, 2019). Victims also lost their hygiene-enabling facilities such as pot racks and rubbish pits as they were destroyed. Some lost all their household belongings including material for menstrual hygiene management (MHM). This shows that the impact of the cyclone on the shelter of the people adversely affected the provision of WASH services to the survivors whose homes and facilities were destroyed by the cyclone.

8.3.2 W  ater Sanitation and Hygiene Responses to Impacts of Cyclone Idai During the time of the cyclone the country was already facing an outbreak of cholera and typhoid, increasing the risk of diarrheal disease outbreak in the flood affected areas like Chimanimani. The provision of safe water and appropriate sanitation, health and hygiene education targeting affected communities were therefore very critical in order to minimise the risk of water-borne diseases. The immediate aftermath WASH responses were from within the affected communities. Respondents showed that in terms of sanitation, most households resorted to open defecation since their sanitation

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Fig. 8.2  Broken sewer pipes at one of the houses destroyed by the 2019 Cyclone Idai at Ngangu in Chimanimani. (Source: Authors, Fieldwork 2019)

Fig. 8.3  Collapsed sanitation facility at Ngangu Primary School (Chimanimani) caused by the 2019 Cyclone Idai. (Source: Authors, Fieldwork 2019)

facilities were destroyed. During the cyclone, efforts to put up temporary sanitation structures were fruitless as these were pulled down by strong winds which were still being experienced. Regarding water supply, communities that had their safe water sources destroyed had no choice but to use available surface water sources. Results showed that none of the respondents treated the water at household level. Despite showing knowledge on the dangers of drinking dirty water, respondents did not have other choices of water sources nor did they have resources to treat the water. This shows that, dur-

ing disasters, affected communities may respond in ways that cause morbidity and mortality. To abate these challenges, timely responses from the outside communities, organisations and the government should be promoted. The WASH cluster working with the Department of Civil Protection (DCP) at district level carried out a needs assessment to determine the needs of the affected communities. A needs assessment guided the response activities and assisted in the planning for early recovery. It also assisted in minimising the duplication of interventions within the affected communities. The

8  The Water Sanitation and Hygiene Perspective in Response to Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe

responses intended to provide immediate relief as well as long-term WASH solutions among the disaster-affected communities. According to key informants, priority was given to the most affected communities and vulnerable households and individuals. However, further investigations showed that there were no standardised criteria for beneficiary selection at household and individual levels which resulted in ad hoc methods being used by different organisations. Standardised criteria promote appropriate targeting of beneficiaries to ensure equitable access to WASH services after cyclones. The stakeholders in the WASH sector responded to the impacts of Cyclone Idai in various ways. Under the water interventions, boreholes were drilled, deep wells were dug, piped water schemes were rehabilitated and water quality surveillance was done among other activities. As far as sanitation was concerned, construction of temporary sanitation facilities, rehabilitation and construction of latrines and repair of sewer systems were done. These types of interventions in each category are shown in Table 8.1.

8.3.2.1 Water Responses to Impacts of Cyclone Idai Reports on Cyclone Idai indicate that the first external WASH response in the affected areas was received on the fifth day after the disaster had struck (MSF, 2019). The first response was the distribution of bottled water by a local soft drink company to areas where clean drinking water was desperately needed. Key informants revealed that the situation was so dire at one of the temporary health centres at Skyline (a junction that connects Chipinge, Mutare and Chimanimani) where patients with infected wounds were arriving yet the centre did not have water for hand washing. According to MSF (2019) a tank of water arrived at Skyline only on the sixth day after the disaster had struck. At that time, the temporary institution was desperately in need of the precious commodity. The major reasons for delayed responses that were highlighted by most key informants were the absence of stocks for immediate response as well as inaccessibility of some of the disaster-stricken areas.

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Table 8.1  Types of WASH interventions to impacts of Cyclone Idai Category Water

Sanitation

Hygiene promotion

Type of intervention Borehole drilling, flushing and rehabilitation Deep well digging and rehabilitation Rehabilitation of piped water schemes Spring rehabilitation and protection Installation of inline chlorinators Distribution of disinfectants for household water treatment Water quality surveillance Water point committee and village pump minders training and refresher courses Construction of temporary sanitation facilities Latrine rehabilitation and construction Repairing sewer systems Water point sanitary inspections Distribution of menstrual hygiene kits Distribution of WASH kits Training community health clubs and community-based workers

The immediate water responses targeted the immediate provision of safe water to the affected communities. Such interventions included bottled water distribution, water tankers in affected communities, bucket chlorination using water treatment tablets and water purifiers at point of use. Although household water treatment is a recommended response during and after disasters, some community members indicated that they never used the disinfectants as they were giving water an unpleasant taste. This result shows that communities’ negative perceptions of water quality may affect the effectiveness of water responses to cyclones. Health and hygiene education can be a solution under such circumstances as it may promote behavioural change in communities affected by cyclones. Another intervention which was implemented after Cyclone Idai was borehole flushing (shocking the borehole with chemicals and cleaning it), which aimed at flushing all boreholes which were supplying dirty water. This intervention’s benefits, though it was meant to be an immediate response, were enjoyed during the early recovery

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stage. Borehole flushing was done by the District Development Fund (DDF), which is a government technical department. According to the study findings, DDF was flushing one or two boreholes per day, which prolonged the time of borehole flushing (GoZ/WFP/UNICEF/UNDP, 2019). The delays were mainly because the department is under-resourced and some of the personnel were also victims of the cyclone as they reside in their work areas. In the eastern parts of Chimanimani, piped water schemes were the main water source for most households before Cyclone Idai. The water schemes were per household with each individual household having a connection of water to its homestead and or to their garden. This made rehabilitation of the piped water schemes to be one of the WASH responses in the area. According to key informants, the rehabilitation of piped water schemes was done at a communal level. Priority was also given to water schemes that supply water to schools and hospitals. Limited resources hindered the rehabilitation of the schemes at household level. Such a response had an impact on the adequacy of water available to the affected households. Since Chimanimani is a mountainous area, collecting water from the shared piped water schemes increased the burden of water collection for women and girls. Resultantly, households had to reduce the amount of water used for domestic as well as for productive (gardening) purposes. However, productive uses suffered the most since priority was given to domestic uses such as drinking, cooking and bathing. Using drinking water sources for productive uses such as gardening reduces poverty and widens livelihood options (Boelee et al., 1999; Smits et al., 2010). In rural communities of Zimbabwe that are mainly characterised by poverty, water facilities that promote multiple water uses become key. This calls for water practitioners to implement cyclone responses that enable affected communities to maintain their livelihoods activities so as to reduce their vulnerability to hunger and poverty. Water quality surveillance was one of the water responses to Cyclone Idai. Water for domestic and consumptive uses was being tested

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for bacteriological and chemical (pH and residual chlorine) compliance in accordance with the SI 6 of 2015 and WHO standards. Water quality results for the 6 weeks that were reviewed by the study team showed that 9% of the water samples in Chimanimani District were not satisfactory bacteriologically, while 29% were not satisfactory in Chipinge District. Regarding chemical compliance, all water samples in Chipinge District met the WHO water quality guidelines in terms of chlorine residual and pH. However, the situation was different in Chimanimani District where 10% of the samples were not satisfactory for chlorine residual and 11% were not satisfactory for pH. During the early recovery phase, the District Health Cluster Reports for June and July 2019 indicated rising diarrhoeal cases which were above the normal threshold (from 30 to 293) in the eight wards affected by the Cyclone Idai in Chimanimani District. Water quality surveillance showed that over 47% of the tested water samples in the affected wards was bacteriologically contaminated (UNICEF, 2019). This was a cause of concern since water treatment interventions which were being implemented in the cyclone affected areas aimed to supply safe water so as to avoid water-related diseases. From a WASH perspective, this calls for the unpacking and understanding of how water, sanitation and hygiene interventions should be integrated when responding to disasters. Practitioners should also understand individual intervention efficacy and effectiveness such that efforts in responding to cyclones do not become futile. Appropriateness of interventions also becomes key, such that WASH intervention models are tailor-made to suit local contexts and cultural beliefs rather than having one size fits all response models. Apart from hardware components of WASH interventions, software components were also part of the responses. These were Water Point Committees (WPCs) and Village Pump Minders (VPMs) training and refresher courses. According to NGO respondents, WPC trainings were done at all new water points which were drilled or dug. On the other hand, refresher courses were mainly done where WPCs were already in existence, for example, where water points were flushed or

8  The Water Sanitation and Hygiene Perspective in Response to Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe

rehabilitated. Regarding training, most respondents indicated that the time allocated for the training was inadequate as it was usually done in 2–3 days instead of the stipulated 5 days. Reasons which were given for limited time allocated to the training were financial and time constraints. This resulted in some topics being omitted or rushed through. For first time participants, it was echoed that the stipulated 5 days should have been considered since some of the participants were non-­ technical and some needed more time to understand the training content. The inadequacy in WPC training can negatively impact a number of sustainability factors such as financial, institutional and technical.

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security especially where the facility is shared, in this case, in IDPs and schools. In some schools, temporary toilets were constructed in order to meet the deadline for schools opening which was in May 2019. The construction of temporary latrines in hard hit areas was a good initiative as a temporary measure to meet the deadlines for schools opening. However, there is the danger that schools may be left with these temporary structures when the response teams leave. It is important to ensure that when temporary structures are constructed, a time frame should be given for the construction of the standard structures. Results also showed that some of the temporary latrines did not have hand-­ washing facilities, which compromised hygiene 8.3.2.2 Sanitation and Hygiene practices among school children. This is critical Responses to Impacts for the girl child since hand washing is required of Cyclone Idai during their menstrual periods. There was collaboration between the Ministry of Temporary latrines were also constructed at Health and Child Care (MOHCC) and WASH the temporary camps where shelter was provided partners on the provision of sanitation facilities for the victims of the cyclone. Lack of lights in and health and hygiene promotion. As part of the the internally displaced persons (IDP) camps at response, latrine builders who were selected from night was a concern since it led to open defecathe affected communities were trained by the tion as the latrines were not accessible in the MOHCC. This is a sustainable initiative since the darkness. Respondents highlighted that disability-­ community was left with the skills to construct friendly latrines were also constructed in the latrines even after the cyclone. The Disaster affected communities. This enabled those who Emergence Committee reported that toilets and are physically challenged to be able to relieve hand-washing facilities were built to help prevent themselves hygienically without compromising an outbreak of water-borne diseases since cholera their health and dignity. had been reported in Mozambique (Mutsaka According to the interview results, it was very et al., 2019). difficult for the cyclone victims to maintain perThe construction of a Blair ventilated sonal hygiene and this increased the risk of disimproved pit (BVIP) latrine was promoted as the eases spreading. As many families had lost technology of choice. The Department of Public everything, even the most basic of personal Works was responsible for the construction of hygiene items, donors supplied affected families latrines in schools. In normal times, latrine con- with hygiene kits containing items such as soap, struction at schools is conducted by the parents. toothpaste and toothbrushes, laundry soap and The taking over of this role by the Department of buckets, as well as sanitary pads and underwear Public Works was a good initiative to speed up for women and girls. This was very important at the process and to ensure quality. It also helped in the beginning as an early response. However, accountability in terms of the inputs provided for more sustainable initiatives were supposed to be the interventions. However, respondents showed initiated soon enough to prevent dependency and that the BVIPs which were constructed were not donor syndrome. This meant that the community lockable. Although they give privacy, girl-­ members were to be assisted to slowly start to friendly toilets which are lockable are good for make a living as donations are not sustainable.

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In line with menstrual hygiene, the SDGs call for inclusivity of all in the development agenda. Particularly, goal number 4, which advocates for quality education for women and girls, specifically the target on effective learning environments. Goal number 5 on gender equality aims at ensuring universal access to sexual and reproductive rights. Goal number 6 on clean water and sanitation, specifically looking at the access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all, paying more attention to women. These are critical elements in menstrual hygiene management (MHM) and to ensure that the girl child is not left behind. In responding to Cyclone Idai, dignity kits with disposable sanitary pads were distributed to the victims. This intervention was key since ignoring women and girls’ menstrual management needs after disasters may not only impact their health but also their usual daily activities, including education and domestic duties. In discussions with women in the affected areas, this support was greatly appreciated. However, some key informants indicated that reusable sanitary pads would be more useful and sustainable since community members may not be able to replenish disposable pads on monthly basis. Further discussions with the key informants showed that no needs assessment was done prior to the distribution of the sanitary pads to check on the women’s preferences. This could affect the acceptance and utilisation of the pads, especially where cultural beliefs are involved. The study team could not ascertain the affected communities’ preferences between disposable and reusable sanitary pads. However, WASH stakeholders can include this question as a part of future post-­ distribution monitoring. It was also noted that distribution mainly targeted young girls than women. In emergencies, there is a need to cater for all women of child-bearing age because they all would have lost their belongings and need assistance just like the girls. Under hygiene promotion, Participatory Health and Hygiene Education (PHHE) was conducted to promote behavioural change and the aim was to reduce WASH-related diseases. At the time of data collection, 73,875 PHHE sessions

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had been conducted in Chimanimani District alone. Refresher training was conducted for environmental health practitioners (EHPs) and village health workers. Considering that conducting PHHE is supposed to be one of the day-to-day duties of EHPs, giving EHPs training was not an appropriate response to an emergency unless there were specific tools that were introduced. Otherwise this may be a sign that the hygiene education programme is not sustainable. Reasons for the need for a refresher course in an emergency could not be ascertained during data collection. The funds for this activity could have been channelled to directly benefit the victims. Other responses to promote hygiene included the establishment of community health clubs and school health clubs. These interventions empower communities in that they teach each other and do not have to wait for health workers. The trainings of the clubs were sponsored by cooperating partners and were conducted by Ministry of Health and Child Care through the Department of Environmental Health. Health clubs are sustainable since they consist of local community members and they do not require a lot of resources from outsiders.

8.3.3 Institutional Collaborations and Coordination During Cyclone Idai Response Effective coordination and communication in response to disasters by local and international organisations are significant factors affecting the success or failure of a relief operation. Since Cyclone Idai had caused devastating impacts on various WASH services at both community and institutional levels, the National Action Committee (NAC) urgently activated its emergency response structures at all levels to assist with emergency response coordination from the WASH front. The NAC is a fusion of various line ministries and departments with interest in water, sanitation and hygiene. Beyond government, this structure also incorporates development partners, the private sector, academia, faith and community-­ based organisations with interest in WASH (GoZ, 2010).

8  The Water Sanitation and Hygiene Perspective in Response to Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe

8.3.3.1 National-Level Coordination and Collaboration in the Cyclone Idai Response At national level, the Emergency Strategic Advisory Board (E-SAG), which is the designated taskforce coordinating all emergency WASH interventions, was activated to meet on a weekly basis and its membership extended to all partners who were directly involved in the response. The E-SAG through Mercy Corps and the Provincial Focal Agency for Manicaland Province facilitated the development of a response plan aiming to avert further loss of life. Since the emergency had already been declared a national disaster, its overall coordination also transitioned to the Civil Protection Committee through the Department of Civil Protection. As indicated in Fig.  8.4, the WASH Sector Coordination and Information Forum (WSCIF) through the E-SAG then became a taskforce of the Civil Protection Committee responsible for coordinating the WASH sector response. At national level, the Civil Protection Committee was chaired by the Director responsible for Civil Protection under the Ministry responsible for Local Government. The committee also comprised key technical departments of government to include Health, Water, Social Welfare, Education, Public Works, District Development Fund and the Security Sector.

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Development Partners were also represented by UN Agencies, among which were UNICEF, WHO, IOM, UNDP, UNOCHA and UN Women. Meetings of the Civil Protection Committee were held every week with various taskforces including logistics, health, protection, WASH, shelter and many others attending to exchange their response plans, resources mobilisation efforts and progress reports regarding assisting the affected and at-risk communities. Under the WASH pillar, E-SAG was co-chaired by the Department of Water Resources Planning and UNICEF and comprising selected representatives from both local and international NGOs, Environmental Health Department, Local Government and the Department of WASH Coordination (secretariat). This group was meeting fortnightly with agreed key actions presented to the bigger committee, the WASH Sector Coordination and Information Forum Committee first, before being taken to Civil Protection.

8.3.3.2 Major Response Coordination Challenges and Strengths at National Level Cyclone Idai was characterised as a fast-setting emergency which recorded massive destruction including deaths of both humans and animals in a space of 24  h. The nature and speed of the response needed were, therefore, different from

Fig. 8.4  Interface between civil protection and WASH structures. (Source: GoZ, 2010)

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the other emergencies that the Zimbabwean WASH Sector, through E-SAG, had handled in the past. Consequently, this slowed down response activities resulting in the situation degenerating to unprecedented levels. Some of the notable challenges from the WASH sector coordination front included: • Constraint in accessing affected communities as all roads had been cut off. Adherence to the set response protocol was, therefore, compromised as emergency alerts could not be fully investigated within 24 h. • The standardised initial rapid assessment tool that had been used by the sector in the previous emergencies exhibited serious gaps in the face of Cyclone Idai Previous emergencies had been of an epidemiological nature and focus has, therefore, been on tracking reported cases, affected areas, levels of hygiene education and the WASH status to meet basic needs. In the case of Cyclone Idai, many of the issues were around displacements, deaths, destruction of WASH services and other enabling infrastructure, accessibility of affected areas and many others. • Too many communities were displaced and a number of temporary camps set up to accommodate the affected people. These camps had no access to WASH services and that meant a huge WASH response budget at a time when much of the response efforts and funding were needed to address other very urgent and at times life-threatening issues like rescuing marooned people, searching for missing people, recovering the deceased and according them descent burials and investing in making sure that affected areas become passable for the safe passage of services. The strengths identified at the national level are as follows: • Pre-existence of a coordination structure for WASH in emergencies helped to ease the response. • Readily available funding streams which could be activated within 48  h, namely the

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Central Emergency Relief Fund (CERF) from UN and also the Civil Protection Fund from the government side. The funding ­mechanisms made the response possible with a very short turn-around time. • The sector had clearly defined structures for emergency response at all levels. At provincial level was the Provincial Water and Sanitation Sub-Committee aided by the Provincial Focal Agency and also the District Water and Sanitation Sub-Committee at district level with a Rapid Response Team (RRT) mandated with all WASH emergency response activities.

8.3.3.3 Sub-national-level Coordination of Cyclone Idai Response Interventions At sub-national level, just like the national-level arrangement, all response activities were centrally coordinated by Civil Protection Committees at provincial and district levels with the Provincial and District Development Coordinators, respectively, chairing these committees. Meetings of civil protection committees at the two levels were held twice a day with a briefing in the morning and a feedback meeting on progress in the evening. At the height of the emergency, some meetings were also held late into the night. The Provincial and District Water and Sanitation Sub-­ Committees at provincial and district levels were responsible for coordination of the WASH component of the response through their set WASH rapid response teams (RRTs). As depicted by Fig. 8.3, these two committees also automatically become taskforces of the provincial and district civil protection committees. At their respective levels, the two committees comprised all key line ministries and departments with interest in WASH including all WASH response partners. The District Water and Sanitation Sub-­ Committee RRT also worked with a pool of extension workers at community level, many of whom assisted with direct implementation of the agreed WASH interventions like carrying out assessments, registering beneficiaries, distributing NFIs food items and hygiene kits, and hygiene education, etc. Many of these extension service staff were pooled from the Department of

8  The Water Sanitation and Hygiene Perspective in Response to Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe

Environmental Health and also the Crop and Livestock Department. However, considering that the magnitude of the disaster was beyond the capacity of the district to handle alone, extension workers were also mobilised from other districts to come in and support the response plan. The district maintenance team (DMT) which is an extension of DWSSC also assisted with the rehabilitation of affected water supply systems, including extending water supply to holding camps that had been set up to accommodate those displaced by the cyclone.

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establishment of the DWSSC through which WWSSCs and Village Water and Sanitation SubCommittees (VWSSCs) are established, the absence of a legal provision on how they work with other structures at local level may hinder their functionality in some parts of the country. Hence, although the sector’s institutional framework recognises the existence of these structures, a legal backing is of importance. Respondents also noted that there was weak communication between several institutions during Cyclone Idai response. For example, it was noted that, initially, there was weak communica8.3.3.4 Coordination Weaknesses tion between WASH and shelter (camp coordinaA number of coordination weaknesses were tion and management) sectors on the set up of noted in this study. According to the Manicaland IDP camps. This resulted in one of the temporary PWSSC, there was inconsistency of members camps that were set having sub-standard WASH attending the meetings at district level. It was facilities since they were not recognised by the noted that having different people from the same responsible authorities. Again, it was reported organisation attending the meetings disrupted that, apart from sharing of E-SAG minutes, comcontinuity. Reasons which were given by respon- munication from national to sub-national levels dents for not having the same people from insti- was generally weak (Manicaland PWSSC, 2019). tutions attending the meetings included the need Reports also showed that there was lack of to attend to other work responsibilities and non-­ transport to ferry district teams to affected sites provision of allowances to the government staff which resulted in fragmented response. There involved in the response. was also weak priority setting at district level. Weak coordination among the WASH, educa- This resulted in some needy areas and communition and shelter clusters was also highlighted by ties not getting responses in time. Also, it was the Manicaland PWSSC (2019). This resulted in noted that in some cases needy communities the construction of sub-standard school sanita- received the wrong responses. This shows the tion facilities. Providing sub-standard sanitation need to strengthen and equip coordination strucfacilities to disaster-stricken communities tures with adequate resources at both provincial exposes them to potential spread of diseases. This and district levels. also is of high risk as the sanitation facilities may Another coordination weakness was that in collapse while in use, resulting in loss of life. most cases implementing partners overshadowed Furthermore, sub-standard facilities are not sus- government efforts to the extent that government tainable as they may not be able to be in use for contribution in various forms was invisible their design life span. (Manicaland PWSSC, 2019). This shows that According to the Manicaland PWSSC (2019), although the role of NGOs in the water sector has there was weak coordination at ward level with been identified as complementing government WWSSCs generally not functional. The mem- efforts in the delivery of water and sanitation to bership of WWSSC consists of the councillor, communities, they are the major players in the extension officers and village health workers sector. This has made no discussion on WASH to (VHWs) in a ward. In Zimbabwe, although the be complete without considering the role of National Water Policy (2013) emphasises the NGOs in Zimbabwe.

T. Kativhu et al.

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8.4

Conclusion and Recommendations

hand-washing facilities which compromised the hygiene practices of learners. The absence of lights in the temporary sanitation facilities at the The study concluded that the destruction caused refugee camp promoted open defecation as it was by Cyclone Idai severely affected WASH infra- difficult to use the toilets in the darkness. On structure resulting in poor access to the services. hygiene promotion, the establishment of commuThe WASH infrastructure at schools, hospitals, nity health clubs and school health clubs empowrefugee camps and within communities was ered communities as they could teach each other washed away, flooded and or collapsed due to the hygiene issues than waiting for health workers. cyclone. Flooding also affected water quality of In line with coordination of WASH stakeholdsome water sources, increasing the risk of water-­ ers in response to Cyclone Idai, it can be conborne diseases. The immediate aftermath cluded that the pre-existence of a coordination responses to water and sanitation impacts were structure for WASH in emergencies helped to from within the communities. However, these ease the response. However, the inadequate responses were inappropriate and inadequate as resources at provincial and district levels resulted the affected communities did not have resources in weak coordination at these levels. Absence of to properly respond. WASH responses from the community-level structures such as in the WSSC government and other outside communities and also contributed to weak coordination of WASH organisations were not timely, as it took more responses at grassroots levels. than 3  days. The reasons for untimely response The study recommends that: were inaccessibility of the affected communities and absence of ready stocks to respond. Regarding • Hygiene education should be intensified after water and sanitation responses, it was noted that disasters to promote behavioural change in interventions that trained local communities were affected communities since their perceptions sustainable as these imparted critical skills within on certain water treatment methods affect the the disaster-stricken area. effectiveness of water interventions. The distribution of menstrual hygiene within • Where temporary structures are constructed the affected communities was key as it enabled during disasters, a time frame should be given women and girls within the child-bearing age to for the construction of the standard structures. live in dignity. However, some responses to the • Needs assessment to establish women’s and impact of Cyclone Idai on water supply were not girls’ preferences on menstrual hygiene mateadequate resulting in increased burden on women rial should be done prior to the distribution of and young girls when it came to water collection. the materials as it may influence acceptance This also negatively affected the livelihoods of and utilisation of the distributed materials. the affected communities as they had to prioritise • Institutions at the provincial and district levels water for consumptive purposes over water for should be adequately resourced to promote productive uses. The study also concluded that effective coordination of activities during household water treatment using disinfectants disaster response. was affected by some community members’ neg- • When responding to disasters, WASH practiative water quality perceptions thereby affecting tioners should unpack and understand how the effectiveness of the intervention. water, sanitation and hygiene interventions Responses to impacts of Cyclone Idai with should be integrated. Practitioners should also regards to sanitation included the construction of understand individual intervention efficacy temporary latrines at some schools and one refusuch that efforts in responding to cyclones do gee camp. At schools, these facilities did not have not become futile. Appropriateness of inter-

8  The Water Sanitation and Hygiene Perspective in Response to Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe

ventions also becomes key, such that WASH intervention models are tailor-made to suit local contexts and cultural beliefs rather than having one size fits all response models.

References Ahern, M., Kovats, R. S., Wilkinson, P., Few, R., Matthies, F., et  al. (2005). Global health impacts of floods: Epidemiologic evidence. Epidemiologic Reviews, 27, 36–46. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxi004 Boelee, E., Laarmrani, H., Khallaayoune, K., Watts, S., et  al. (1999). Domestic water use in Morocco’s Tessaout Amont irrigation system. Waterlines, 18(1), 21–23. Connolly, M.  A., Gayer, M., Ryan, M.  J., Spiegel, P., Salama, P., Heymann, D.  L., et  al. (2004). Communicable diseases in complex emergencies: Impact and challenges. Lancet, 364(9449), 1974–1983. EM-DAT. (2014). EM-DAT the international disaster database. http://www.emdat.be/. Accessed 12 Dec 2019. Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ). (2019). Cyclone Idai disaster report as at 12 April 2019. Harare, Zimbabwe. GoZ. (2010). Water, sanitation and hygiene sector coordination. Harare, Zimbabwe. GoZ/WFP/UNICEF/UNDP. (2019). Needs beneficiary verification assessment report Chipinge and Chimanimani districts. Harare, Zimbabwe. Gupta, M., (2000, May 13–19). Cyclone and after: Managing public health. Economic and Political Weekly, 35(20), 1705–1709. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/4409285. Accessed 27 May 2020. Hoffmann, U. (2011). Assuring food security in developing countries under the challenges of climate change: Key trade and development issues of a fundamental transformation of agriculture. UNCTAD Discussion Papers 201, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. https://ideas.repec.org/p/unc/dispap/201.html. Accessed 12 Dec 2019. Hossain, M. Z., Islam, M. T., Sakai, T., Ishida, M., et al. (2008). Impact of tropical cyclones on rural infrastructures in Bangladesh. Agricultural Engineering International, 10(2), 1–13.

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Knutson, T.  R., McBride, J.  L., Chan, J., Emanuel, K., et  al. (2010). Tropical cyclones and climate change. Nature Geoscience, 3(3), 157–163. Manicaland Provincial Water and Sanitation Sub-­ Committee (PWSSC). (2019). Manicaland Province WASH sector detailed cyclone Idai assessment report. Harare, Zimbabwe. Mercy Corps. (2015). Vanuatu assessment update after cyclone Pam 25 March 2015. https://www.mercycorps.org/articles/vanuatu-­assessment-­update-­after-­ cyclone-­pam. Accessed 19 May 2020. MSF. (2019). MSF emergency response to cyclone Idai and flooding. https://www.msf.org/msf-­emergency-­ response-­cyclone-­i dai-­a nd-­f looding-­c risis-­u pdate. Accessed 10 May 2020. Mutsaka, B., Dlugosz, A., Kanike, G. B., Harris-Sapp, T., Juillard, H., et al. (2019). Real-time response review – DEC programme for cyclone Idai, Zimbabwe country report. DEC. Myint, N. W., Kaewkungwal, J., Singhasivanon, P., et al. (2011). Are there any changes in burden and management of communicable diseases in areas affected by cyclone Nargis? Conflict and Health, 5(9). Smits, S., Mejía, T., Rodriguez, S., Suazo, D., et  al. (2010). Effects of multiple-use of water on users’ livelihoods and sustainability of rural water supply services in Honduras. Waterlines, 29(1), 37–51. Sphere Project. (2011). Sphere handbook: Humanitarian charter and minimum standards in disaster response. https://www.refworld.org/docid/4ed8ae592.html. Accessed 13 Apr 2020. UNICEF. (2019). Zimbabwe humanitarian situation report. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefw e b. i n t / f i l e s / r e s o u r c e s / U N I C E F Z i m b a b w e HumanitarianSituationReportCycloneIdai. Accessed 10 May 2020. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. (2019). Zimbabwe humanitarian situation report. www.unocha.org. Accessed 10 May 2020. World Health Organization. (2006). Communicable diseases following natural disasters: Risk assessment and priority interventions. Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/diseasecontrol_emergencies/en/. Accessed 10 May 2020. World Health Organization. (2012). Technical guidelines for health action in crises. http://www.who.int/hac/ techguidance/en/. Accessed 10 May 2020.

9

Struggles of Cyclone Idai Floods Survivors Inhabiting Spaces of Vulnerability and Reconstructing Their Fractured Livelihoods Daniel Tevera and Inês M. Raimundo

Abstract

In March 2019, cyclone Idai swept across Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Malawi, creating disaster landscapes with destroyed lived spaces and fractured livelihoods. This chapter explores the impoverishing effects of the cyclone on the affected population and examines the resilience-enhancing strategies of survivors who are still rooted in spaces of vulnerability. Drawing on a mixed research methods approach, consisting of a desktop study, focus group discussions (FGDs) and in-­ depth key informant interviews, this chapter provides useful insights on experiences of the flood survivors. A key study finding is that while official disaster management responses were swift and had saved many lives, reconstruction has been slow and has not reversed the consequential effects of cyclone Idai in the affected areas. The voices of the cyclone survivors reveal that despite the resilience at the local level, it will take long for life to return to D. Tevera () Department of Geography, Environmental Studies and Tourism, University of the Western Cape, Robert Sobukwe Road, Bellville, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] I. M. Raimundo Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Department of Geography, Eduardo Mondlane University, Maputo, Mozambique

normal in the disaster landscapes of both countries. The findings will be of help to policymakers as they refine their disaster management programmes when responding to similar hydro-meteorological disasters. Keywords

Cyclone Idai · Internal displacement · Livelihoods · Resilience

9.1

Introduction and Background

The occurrence of hydro-meteorological hazards, especially cyclone-induced floods, has increased considerably during the past two decades. In southern Africa, several large-impact tropical cyclones (e.g. cyclone Dineo in 2017, cyclones Idai and Kenneth in 2019) have been experienced since 2015. These cyclones have produced distinct disaster landscapes that are characterised by destroyed physical infrastructure and human settlements, fractured local economies and raptured livelihoods. The disaster landscapes are experiencing sustainability challenges that threaten to deepen existing levels of poverty, unemployment and socio-spatial inequalities. Also, these natural disasters are a threat the growth of GDP through

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_9

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disruptions of local economic activities and household livelihoods. National governments in southern Africa have responded to the call by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) to reduce risk and to strengthen resilience as part of their disaster emergency strategies, by adopting disaster management programmes informed by the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and the Africa Regional Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction. Scholarly research on why some communities are more vulnerable to floods than others has focused on meteorological (e.g. frequency of cyclones), hydrological (e.g. catchment form and management) and socio-economic (e.g. incidence of poverty) factors. According to Rufat et al. (2015), demographic characteristics, socio-­ economic status and health remain the primary drivers of social vulnerability to floods in the global South. This reality helps to explain the renewed focus of several academic studies on the social determinants of flood preparedness and response at the household level (Mabuku et  al., 2018; Mavhura, 2018). Kikwasi and Mbuya (2019) single out poverty and construction of low-quality houses in flood-prone areas as the main reasons why rural settlements are invariably washed away during floods. Other studies have focused on the intertwined connections between natural disasters and migration (Bates, 2002; Weerasinghe & Taylor, 2015). While hydro-­ meteorological hazards at times result in rural– urban migration, the most common impact of floods is internal displacement (Islam & Hasan, 2016; Mallick & Vogt, 2014; Manyena et  al., 2011). In such cases, households are forced to move out of their settlements and have nowhere to go and often become homeless people residing in the same spaces of vulnerability without access to livelihoods and food. A recent study by Week and Wizor (2020) highlights the debilitating effects of floods on household food security in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. Also, a study by Pacetti et  al. (2017) done in Pakistan and Bangladesh confirms the intertwined connection among the occurrence of extreme floods, loss of

field crops and increased incidence of food insecurity. This chapter examines the destruction and disruption caused by cyclone Idai and the floods that it brought. The focus is on areas and features that constitute spaces of vulnerability, including general poverty-stricken communal areas in rural spaces and low-income urban informal settlements, mostly in the peri-urban zone, flood-prone low-altitude coastal settlements, floodplain settlements and regions that are predominantly occupied by migrants. A common characteristic of spaces of vulnerability is their above-average exposure to natural hazard risks as a result of their locational, physical or socio-economic attributes. Also, this chapter explores the impoverishing effects of the cyclone on local economies and it also examines the resilience-enhancing strategies pursued by flood survivors most of whom are compelled by various circumstances to remain rooted in the spaces of vulnerability that they inhabit. The chapter is divided into four sections. Section 9.1 (introduction and background) provides the context and it frames the arguments that are developed in this chapter. Section 9.2 (methods) outlines the mixed research methods approach that was used to collect both secondary and primary data. Section 9.3 (findings and discussion) explores the destructive impacts of the cyclone and the emergency response measures that were implemented. This section also discusses the impacts of the cyclone on the local economies and the various strategies used by households and communities to reconstruct their livelihoods. Section 9.4 (conclusion and policy suggestions) addresses the lessons from the disaster response experiences of Zimbabwe and Mozambique.

9.2

Research Design

Cyclone Idai struck Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Malawi in March 2019, however, the current phase of the study is limited to the effects of the cyclone in the first two countries. The study is

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based on a mixed research methods approach that involved the collection of both secondary and primary data. The desktop phase of the study entailed collection of available information on the occurrence and effects (both immediate and medium term) of cyclone Idai. The main phase of the desktop study involved a systematic search of peer-reviewed articles, electronic and print media reports and organisation reports on cyclone Idai floods, impacts and responses. Also, media reports and grey literature (in the form of organisation reports), and various online documents, were retrieved from the websites of organisations that were involved in disaster relief activities. The primary data collection phase of the study involved in-depth interviews with key informants in Mozambique and focus group discussions (FGDs) in Chimanimani District, Zimbabwe, that was ravaged by the cyclone. This phase of the study generated the qualitative data that was used in this chapter. Focus group discussions with market vendors and traditional leaders at Ngangu business centre in the Chimanimani District of Zimbabwe were carried out in January/February 2020. All of the focus group participants had first-hand experience of the rainfall, floods and the destruction that was caused by cyclone Idai, and they had remained in the area in order to continue with their livelihood strategies. Ngangu business centre was selected for the focus groups because of its ideal location in the middle of an area that was ravaged by the floods. Also, being a business centre, it was relatively easy to get enough people in this area, with lived cyclone Idai experience, to participate in the focus groups. In Mozambique, the prevailing COVID-19 lockdown restrictions compelled the researchers to drop the idea of having focus group discussions or face-to-face interviews, which would have facilitated a neat comparison with the Zimbabwe data that were collected at the beginning of the year. Instead, purposive sampling was used to identify four informants (two adult men and women) for multiple phone interviews about 16 months after the floods. The four were selected based on having experienced the floods in three districts (Nhamatanda, Catandica and Mossurize) that were badly affected by the floods but they

also have homes in Maputo and Beira. The four informants were willing to spend considerable time discussing their experiences of loss and recovery and how they were struggling to reconstruct their fractured livelihoods.

9.3

Presentation and Discussion of Findings

9.3.1 C  yclone Idai and the National Emergency Responses 9.3.1.1 Mozambique In March 2019, cyclone Idai struck an area covering 1300 km2 in the provinces of Sofala, Manica, Zambézia, Inhambane and Tete region. The cyclone was characterised by torrential rainfall and floods which destroyed homesteads in communal rural areas, peri-urban zones and urban informal settlements, secondary and main roads, bridges and agricultural land. Both print and electronic media reports, including reports produced by various funding organisations, have provided extensive quantitative data on the cyclone Idai rage and devastation as it moved across Mozambique into the eastern region of Zimbabwe (see: FAO, 2019; Globo, 2020; OCHA, 2019a; OCHA, 2019b; TransConflict, 2019; WFP, 2020). According to Marima (2019), writing in the African Business magazine, nearly 240,000 houses were damaged, including 111,000 that were totally destroyed. According to estimates made by various international organisations, the damage to human settlements in both rural and peri-urban areas resulted in the displacement of about 1.75–2  million people. Although the government of Mozambique responded immediately by declaring the cyclone Idai ravaged areas a disaster zone, thereby prompting the call for a state of national emergency, the damages and disruptions were extensive. Many people could not get immediate assistance from the disaster risk management (DRM) response teams due to accessibility challenges. The national emergency response was spearheaded by government institutions, through the National Institute for Disaster Management

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(INGC) with support of the Humanitarian Country Team (HCT) that consisted of several United Nations agencies, international organisations and civil society groups. About 1400 people were rescued and 29,000 internally displaced persons were provided with shelter, food and water (INGC, 2019). In fact, within 6  months after the landing of cyclone Idai about a million adults in the affected areas had received food support, especially those who had lost livelihoods and had become more impoverished since the arrival of the floods. The FAO, in collaboration with the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), distributed seeds and farming tools in the affected areas to promote household food security and to facilitate the recovery of a badly damaged smallholder farming sector. In addition, training was provided to 44,000 people with the goal of resuscitating destroyed livelihoods, especially in areas where subsistence agriculture dominated (World Vision, 2020).

9.3.1.2 Eastern Zimbabwe As cyclone Idai swept across Mozambique westwards into neighbouring Zimbabwe, it brought powerful high-speed winds and heavy torrential rainfall. The result was flash flooding and landslides in the predominantly rural districts of Chimanimani, Chipinge, Buhera, Mutare Rural, (Manicaland Province) Bikita, Gutu and Chiredzi (Masvingo province) (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs [OCHA] 27/03/2019a). The cyclone struck with such  ferocity that it  caused widespread ecosystem disruptions, economic losses and internal displacement in the affected districts in Manicaland and Masvingo provinces. In remote rural areas, the damages to road networks telecommunications and national supply chains were not fixed for periods up to several weeks, and this adversely affected the local economy that is mostly based on agriculture, forestry and tourism. For example, several districts in Manicaland are major producers of forestry products and a range of agricultural produce and they continue to attract a fairly large pool of seasonal workers from Mozambique.

D. Tevera and I. M. Raimundo

Also, worth noting is that in eastern Zimbabwe, the livelihoods of over 270,000 peasant farmers, farmworkers and cross-border traders were either disrupted or destroyed by the cyclone. According to the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 51,000 people were internally displaced at times to more marginal spaces and uncultivable hilly areas well above the flood lines. Over 500 people lost their lives to flooding in Manicaland, Mashonaland East and Masvingo provinces (OCHA 27/03/2019a). The scale of the local and sub-national damage has been well documented in the media and various official reports (DW, 2019, 2020; OCHA, 2019b). In Zimbabwe, the government-led response was coordinated by the Department of Civil Protection (DCP) through the National, Provincial and District Civil Protection Committees, with support from several private, local and national emergency services assisting the humanitarian relief activities (OCHA 27/03/2019a).

9.3.2 I mpact of Cyclone Idai on Local Economies and Livelihoods 9.3.2.1 Central Mozambique Cyclone Idai has been the most destructive cyclone to make landfall in Mozambique since the El Niño in 2000. Beira, a commercial city in the central region of Mozambique and regional gateway into southern and east Africa, was damaged. In addition, several small urban centres and villages in Sofala, Manica and Zambezia provinces were damaged. Also damaged were sugar mills, electricity supplies, public buildings and markets (Marima, 2019). Sections of the highways connecting Mozambique to neighbouring Zimbabwe to the East and Malawi to the North were extensively damaged and rendered partially inoperable for several days following the floods and this resulted in long delays in the movement of regional exports and imports. Another economic impact of cyclone Idai on neighbouring countries was illustrated by immediate power shortages and several days of load shedding in

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South Africa after its daily electricity imports of roughly 1000  MW from Mozambique’s Cahora Bassa hydroelectric power plant could not be met. Cyclone Idai made landfall in Mozambique at a time when the country’s fragile economy was under stress and still recovering from several decades of economic stagnation and armed resistance. Worth noting is that by disrupting transport, communication and travel, the floods left several places inaccessible for days thereby disrupting local and cross-border commodity supply chains. During in-depth interviews with four participants, an effort was made to establish whether households had been informed about the imminent cyclone. The other questions asked aimed to establish the extent of the damage to properties of participants. Another key question focused on the adaptation strategies. Below is an in-depth interview with Leonor Luciano (not her real name), who is a widow and has been a long resident of the cyclone-damaged Chaimite neighbourhood in Beira. She narrated her traumatic experience as follows: ‘We were informed on National Radio Mozambique and Mozambican Television Station, WhatsApp group messages and phone calls that a huge cyclone was arriving and would affect our city. Then I gathered my family consisting of my grandson, son and daughter-in-law. We remained in the house for 24 hours. Then the wind came… it blew away the roof of the building and broke most of my windows…. After the storm we were left in a big mess but were grateful to be alive….Fortunately, we received immediate assistance from relatives based in Tete and Maputo. They sent us some money that we used to buy groceries and materials to repair the broken roof and windows….After the situation stabilized a month later….my neighbour, who has a 4 wheel drive vehicle decided to visit his machamba (a rural family homestead) near Nhamatanda District (about 107 km from Beira), where I also have a machamba, gave me a lift…. Nhamatanda is one and half hours drive away from Beira but this time the drive was very slow because the roads still had obstacles, such as fallen tree trunks and various materials from the destroyed houses…. On our way we saw destroyed houses and schools...and people, who had lost most of what they owned, desperately trying to start all over again. I have seen destruction caused by the previous war but this one was worse than what I had seen before. When we arrived in

Nhamatanda, I found out that my small hut and fruit trees (mango and coconut) had fallen. My vegetable garden was completely flooded and buried in debris….several roads were not passable as they were twisted like a wet towel. Driving was very slow because the roads were badly damaged. Currently, the roads are now better because they have been rebuilt by the Chinese. However, in the city centre of Beira, the situation is much difficult. For example, in the Municipal Square the roads have not been fixed properly because the Government wanted to repair the rural and national first’ (Phone interview with Leonor Luciano, November 2020, city of Beira).

The second participant (Nélio Leonardo) to be interviewed had this to say when asked about communication issues in the area almost 2 years after cyclone Idai: ‘Soon after Cyclone Idai we had major telecommunication challenges for about six months…. Only one mobile company was reliable. Due to overload as all users were using the same network. Even now, I communicate with my relatives who live in Mossurize District (a border district with Zimbabwe and is about 400 km from Beira) which became unreachable and isolated. I tried to travel to find out how they are….before the destruction caused by the cyclone…there was a drift (small bridge) that we used to cross along Mossurize River, but this was washed away by cyclone Idai. I heard that the drift has been fixed. The problem now is which better way to use because not every road has been fixed. For example, there is no communication between Mossurize and Machaze district, which is another district of Manica…. That’s why some of my relatives do cross the Zimbabwean border to sell or to buy goods’ (Phone interview with Nelio Leonardo, November 2020).

The third participant, who is a father of several adult children, had this to say: ‘My family heard about the cyclone on radio, TV and via social media…. My wife and our two sons… including the one who recently graduated and one daughter… were living in Dondo, which is an hour of driving from Beira…. Once we heard about the cyclone we packed some clothes, food and blankets and we boarded one of the chapas (semi-public transport). With the worsening of the situation in Beira (e.g. lack of food, clean water, electricity, and shelter) we decided to move to our rural home in Nhamatanda rural area because that is where I was rearing goats and chickens….In Dondo our house was completely destroyed and my 14 chickens disappeared, because of the heavy winds and rain….also, some people took advan-

136 tage of the disaster and stole some of our belongings…. In Nhamatanda the situation was worse…. some of our goats disappeared and our house was destroyed. The situation was so bad that as we travelled from Beira to Dondo and further…the transport fares increased sharply. We used to pay 75 Meticais from Beira to Dondo and from Dondo to Nhamatanda we used to pay 120 Meticais. But soon after the cyclone, the prices arose up to 2000 Meticais. People who owned cars made a lot of money. The poor road conditions and the increased price of petrol led to high transport fares….The roads were not passable. We were lucky because after we crossed the bridge on Pungoe River it collapsed… The bridge has been rebuilt. However, due to the approaching rainy season, we fear that the bridge will collapse again…. Although the road that links Beira and Nhamatanda (National Road No 6) is now passable, the secondary roads, including bridges, are still not passable. The National Road (N 6) is the only road that is in good condition. No one cares to repair the untarred secondary roads which quickly become muddy after light rains…We received aid from relatives who live in Metuchira, in Nhamatanda District. Also, we got a donation of zinc sheets and tents, from the National Disaster Management Institute. A neighbour who is a bricklayer and carpenter helped me to rebuild the house using some of the donated materials’ (Phone interview with Eduardo Dias, November 2020).

The fourth interviewee who was residing in Maputo at the time of the interviews had this to say about his recent trip to his parental home in Catandica area a year after it was ravaged by cyclone Idai: ‘I needed to go and find out by myself how the situation was as I have some businesses there….Yes, it is a fact that the roads were improved, but continue to be in bad condition, mainly because the bridges are not passable…. Roads are the heart of the business. My parents are taking care of my machambas…. I lost everything. I had some cattle, goats pigs and poultry…. and fruit trees such as mangos, litchi, lemon and orange. That cyclone not only affected poor people but people who had properties. From Chimoio towards Catandica, people are complaining about the roads which are still not properly fixed. We are suffering because of that. But one thing that I noticed is the spirit of solidarity. People support each other and while we wait for actions from Government or Aid Agencies, the communities constructed their own paths otherwise they would have died of hunger’ (Phone interview with Evaristo Daimone, November 2020).

D. Tevera and I. M. Raimundo

The four in-depth interviews above are quite revealing. First, they provide useful insights into how the households in the cyclone Idai-devastated region of Mozambique have struggled to deal with extensive material losses (e.g. shelter, household items, clothing and livestock). Second, they show that in addition to the national emergency response that was spearheaded by government institutions, family and local community networks provided the badly required social capital that nurtured the adaptation strategies of affected households. Third, they help to explain the role that the spatially split households which occupy both urban and rural spaces as both a calculated livelihood and resilience strategy. The split household depicted in the in-depth interviews is characterised by household members who normally reside in urban areas but have to make a rural home that consists of a homestead, vegetable garden and a small piece of land (typical 1–5 ha) where staple crops are cultivated. During the past two decades, the rural home in many southern African countries has emerged as an important source of food for their own consumption or the market. Studies done by the African Urban Food Network (AFSUN) in several cities (Maputo, Harare, Manzini, Cape Town, Johannesburg, Maseru, Windhoek, Lusaka, Blantyre, Gaborone and Msunduzi) show that many urban households regularly receive food from rural areas and this has helped to improve household food security (Crush et  al., 2018; Tevera & Simelane, 2016). However, this perfectly rational coping strategy by urban households facing food shortages or rising food prices was disrupted by the cyclone when the rural homes and livestock were destroyed (as was the case of urban city residents with rural homes in Nhamatanda rural area), thereby exposing more urban people to food insecurity and poverty. The results of the desktop study show that staple foods from the ‘grain basket of Mozambique’ outside the city of Beira were temporarily made inaccessible along some routes following the washing away of low-level bridges. Also worth noting is how cyclone Idai disrupted the post-independence patterns of

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cross-border employment of Mozambican nationals, who often cross the border at official border posts (such as Forbes border near Mutare on the Zimbabwean side and Machipanda on the Mozambique side), as well as several informal border crossings, to work in towns (such as Nyanga, Mutare, Chimanimani and Chipinge) as well as on commercial farms and mines in eastern Zimbabwe. Duri (2012) has written about the cross-border employment of Mozambicans in Zimbabwe and of informal cross-border trade activities of Zimbabweans along the Beira corridor rail and road systems that not only provide passenger and goods transport between link Beira and Mutare but also connects the economies of the two countries. In southern Africa, informal cross-border trade has grown into a key sector whose contribution to national and regional economies is quite significant and has increased sharply since the late 1990s. Although informal cross-border trading has become a way of life for many people residing in the border zone, the volume of movement reduced during the floods because it was not safe to travel and mainly because some of the roads had been damaged.

9.3.2.2 Eastern Zimbabwe Heavy rains and strong winds caused flooding that affected 237,000 people in the predominantly rural Chipinge and Chimanimani Districts. In these districts, the two main groups badly affected by the cyclone were international refugees and the local rural population. For example, when the cyclone struck Tongogara Refugee Camp near the city of Mutare, the extensive structural damages to the complex left 6000 refugees and asylum seekers without accommodation (Marima, 2019). Also, near the small town of Chimanimani, the livelihoods of farmers, farmworkers and local communities connected to the timber, avocados and macadamia nuts plantations were either disrupted or destroyed, following the damage to the road networks that link Chimanimani District to other parts of the country. The damages affected both the local markets and the related international commodity value

chains. Similarly, small- and large-scale farmers producing food crops for the nearby urban markets were badly affected. The temporary loss of urban markets during the cyclone and immediate post-cyclone phases resulted in the loss of earnings that compelled some large-scale farmers to temporarily reduce their demand for seasonal semi-skilled farmworkers. A focus group discussion (FGD) with businesspeople in Chimanimani District revealed that the local economy in the district was badly affected by cyclone Idai as shop owners found it extremely difficult to stock their shops with goods which were normally supplied by delivery trucks. Extracts below from the FGD show that businesspeople at Ngangu, which is one of the badly affected areas in Chimanimani, were still struggling to recover from the immiseration effects of cyclone Idai 9 months after the floods. Interviewer: Respected local chiefs, how did cyclone Idai affect the local economy in both Biriri and Saurombe areas? Participant: (Because of) the loss of gardens and fields when irrigation pipes were swept away by the floods many households in the area experienced hunger and lost incomes. For example, at Biriri an irrigation scheme that was funded by Royco, with 72 families benefitting from the gardens, was swept away by the floods. As a result, the members can no longer afford to send their children to boarding schools. All they can afford now is to send them to Mhakwe, the local day school. The loss of the scheme is contributing to household food insecurity because the potatoes, tomatoes and onions they used to grow are no longer part of the diet because they cannot afford them. Interviewer: How has cyclone Idai affected your business here in Chimanimani? Participant: We were badly affected. When the cyclone came electricity was cut off in the area, roads were destroyed and as a result, we were unable to stock our shops with goods. Power cuts resulted in al refrigerated food

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getting bad. Flood water damaged goods in my shop. I am in a mess. I wish there was a donor to assist businesspeople like me. One of the challenges that is slowing down the post-cyclone reconstruction process in Chimanimani District is the general lack of support from the local administrative structures. Rural District Councils in Zimbabwe were established by an Act of parliament (the Rural District Act of 1988) and their main function is to administer communal areas. However, due to a weak revenue base and inability to attract high calibre administrators, most Rural District Councils in the country are considered to be weak and not developmental in orientation. During the focus group discussion, it was evident that the local council had not been able to show a presence and had failed to provide financial or logistical assistance to the communities that had been badly affected by the floods. As a result, this had upset the local population, especially the business community that pays an annual levy to the council for road maintenance and borehole drilling and other community-based small-scale projects. The segment below from one of the focus group participants captures the sense of frustration within one of the communities that was badly ravaged by cyclone Idai. Interviewer: Are you getting any assistance from the local Council? Participant: Council has never provided direct emergency assistance. However, indirectly they assisted us by making sure that the road that was damaged by floods is repaired and is now operational. However, I hear the donor fixed the road and not the Council. Interviewer: In the past wholesalers used to deliver goods. Are they still providing that service or do you now go to major towns to buy goods for resale? Participant: So far there is a lorry belonging to Dengende which delivers goods to shopkeepers. We no longer have bakeries delivering bread to shop owners.

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The extract below, from the focus group discussion (FGD) with businesspeople in Chimanimani District, reveals that in addition to the destruction caused by the cyclone some households returned to homesteads that had been vandalised during the time they had fled the area during the floods. Interviewer: Did you experience burglaries or people looting shops which had been damaged by the cyclone during the floods period? Participant: What happened was people fled from the area because they thought part of the local hill was going to break apart and crush people. So when people left the area thieves broke into shops and houses stealing blankets and clothing items. This is something that has negatively affected us. Since most of the people in the affected areas relied on agriculture for survival, the disruptions had a direct effect on household employment, incomes and food security. Interviewer: Respected local chiefs, how did cyclone Idai affect the local economy in both Biriri and Saurombe areas? Participant: It has been difficult for this area to recover from the damage caused by the cyclone. The temporary loss of electricity resulted in considerable loss of perishable food items. When the roads got damaged deliveries stopped and this caused many shortages. Because of the shortages and high costs, prices have increased sharply and many people here can no longer afford to buy basic items. Also, after the local Council raised licence fees for shops some of the shop owners decided to use vendors and sell food items in streets. Some of the affected people were permanently displacement from their homes, land and communities. Lack of food and a lack of access to roads and social services played a huge role in demotivating many households on taking the option of returning to their communities. As a result, they had to pick up the pieces and begin

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living all over again without crops, livestock, homesteads and familiar livelihoods. Many households not only lost livelihoods but also experienced recurring episodes of household food insecurity and lack of essentials. The connection between damage to roads and electric power lines and livelihoods was well articulated during the focus group discussion with businesspeople and local leaders in Chimanimani District. Interviewer: What has been the situation regarding your business here in Chimanimani since the cyclone up to now? Participant: Transport is my biggest challenge. I travel long distances each time I go out ordering goods to sell in my shop. Shortage of fuel is a major challenge in this area. I often buy expensive fuel on the black market. This reduces my profit margins. The focus group discussion highlights the considerable challenges with post-disaster reconstruction from the cyclone Idai impacts and the long-lasting economic crises experienced during the past two decades. Local economies were devastated by the disruptions of food systems including food production and distribution. The food aid that was distributed hardly benefitted the local economy because the food came from outside the district and the vehicles that were used to distribute all the food and other material supplies were from outside the district. As a result, virtually no local multiplier effects were generated and the local business community was quite concerned about this. Interviewer: Did local businesses benefit from some of the emergency funds that international donors brought to the area? For example, was some of the food that was distributed to displaced communities sourced locally? If that was the case, did this help to revive the local economy? Participant: Unfortunately, none of the food aid was sourced from here in Chimanimani. Maybe, the donors sourced the various food items from Chipinge or Mutare. What hap-

pened here in Chimanimani was simply the distribution of food items that were brought in from other places. What is emerging from both the focus group discussion and the desktop study is that government, with the support of various international organisations, implemented restorative practices following cyclone Idai by providing shelter to displaced people, repairing damaged roads and restoring electricity. This helped to reduce the number of deaths due to exposure to the elements and general lack of access to basic needs, such as food and shelter. However, the focus group discussion reveals that in some of the areas that were ravaged by cyclone Idai, such as Chimanimani, the restorative practices that were implemented had not reversed the destructive effects of the floods. Interviewer: Do you think that the situation will return to the pre-cyclone Idai time? If so, will that take a long time? Participant: The economy is bad at the moment. I don’t see a pathway to a better economy. It’s not sustainable for prices to rise on a weekly basis. If this continues I don’t see myself continuing to operate a shop. There are several reasons why this has been the case. First, once the immediate harm associated with the floods had been addressed by governments in both countries, with the support of various international organisations, relief support was withdrawn before most of the affected communities were back on their feet again. Efforts should have been made to empower communities to start all over again by providing grants and loans to facilitate reconstruction of houses and rehabilitation of livelihood projects, such as community gardens, farming activities and retail businesses. Second, in rural areas, the capacity of local communities to mobilise resources and to engage in restorative activities and projects remains limited by socio-economic development challenges and rural poverty in general. During the focus group discussions, the participants shared their cyclone Idai experiences and frustra-

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tions. For example, the local businesspeople felt food and material assistance to displaced famithat they were not only ‘flood victims’ but were lies. However, it also revealed disaster response also ‘excluded from the process of reconstruc- shortcomings that require attention. For example, tion’ because rebuilding contracts were given to the in-depth interviews (Mozambique survey) the urban-based large companies from outside presented in this chapter have revealed that when the area. households lost homes and livelihoods, they The disaster response experiences of both experienced a loss of income, food insecurity and Mozambique and Zimbabwe reveal a real need increased poverty. Also, the focus group discusfor having national level but with a local pres- sions (Zimbabwe survey) highlighted the micro-­ ence, disaster risk reduction (DRR) management level challenges that were still being experienced structures and processes that can provide aware- by households and businesspeople almost a year ness and equate help to affected communities after the flood disaster in Chimanimani District. before, during and after natural hazards. During There are two main disaster risk management the pre-hazard phase, the focus is on warning lessons to learn from this study. First, both the communities about the impending danger, by focus group discussions (FGDs) and the in-depth relying on media announcements (as was largely interviews with key informants have shown that the case in both Zimbabwe and Mozambique). cyclone Idai survivors in the affected areas of However, this approach might not be as effective Mozambique and Zimbabwe have been resilient as expected at the village level in the rural areas due to individual agency and friends/family supwhere communication via radio, television and port during the reconstruction phase (i.e. cell phones is made difficult by lack of electricity 12–18 months) after most of the official disaster and Wi-Fi connectivity. Nevertheless, in both emergency assistance had ended. Clearly, despite countries, disaster risk reduction responses dur- their fractured livelihoods resulting from loss of ing the emergency phase have been reasonably incomes, friends, relatives and the local commueffective as local leadership structures are often nity, in general, have made it possible for flood involved and the activities are given extensive survivors to engage in resilience-enhancing media attention. However, it is during the third activities. The study reveals how both households phase (the reconstruction phase, usually months (especially in the case of Mozambique) and comand years after the hazard), when communities munities (especially in the case of Zimbabwe) are left, and with limited financial and organisa- have exhibited adaptive and transformative tional support, to reconstruct their battered settle- capacities to respond to new challenges mobility, ments and livelihoods. The situation is much food and livelihoods that emerged during and more difficult when communities that inhabit after the floods. Second, official disaster risk spaces of vulnerability struggle to overcome the management programmes need to be capacitated double predicament of social and hydro-­ so that they provide relief to communities that meteorological crises that have been highlighted occupy spaces of vulnerability in order to make in this chapter. them less susceptible to hydro-meteorological disasters and to improve local adaptive capacities to similar natural disasters. This can be achieved 9.4 Conclusion through the development of national policies and programmes that aim to assist communities occuThe findings reveal that cyclone Idai transformed pying various spaces of vulnerability to re-settle many spaces of vulnerability into disaster land- to less flood-prone areas or through the construcscapes through extensive destruction of rural and tion of flood barriers in specific areas. It is further urban spaces, transport networks and fractured recommended that for effective disaster risk livelihoods. The immediate humanitarian reduction (DRR) management, government response to the crisis provided emergency and response programmes need to redefine the emerrelief in the form of healthcare, shelter provision, gency relief period (whose two phases are ‘just

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before impact’ and ‘during and several days after impact’) by co-ordinating relief operations for periods up to a year after natural disasters in specific areas that justify being mapped as spaces of vulnerability. This would be a pragmatic response to the real need for national disaster risk reduction management institutions to be actively engaged during the three phases of the cycle (before, during and after natural hazards). Acknowledgements  We would like to thank all the men and women who freely gave their time during the focus group discussions in Zimbabwe and the in-depth interviews in Mozambique.

Conflict of interest  The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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142 Niger Delta, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Geographical Research, 3(1), 1–17. Weerasinghe, S., & Taylor, A. (2015). On the margins: Non-citizens caught in countries experiencing violence, conflict and disaster. Journal on Migration and Human Society, 3(1), 26–57. WFP. (2020). One year since cyclone struck, many Mozambicans struggle to recover amid aid cuts. March

D. Tevera and I. M. Raimundo 12th 2020. Retrieved from: https://www.wfp.org/ news/one-­year-­cyclone-­struck-­many-­mozambicans-­ struggle-­recover-­amid-­aid-­cuts. World Vision. (2020). 2019 Cyclone Idai: Facts, FAQs, and how to help. Retrieved from: https://www.worldvision.org/disaster-­relief-­news-­stories/2019-­cyclone-­ idai-­facts#damage.

The Reconstruction of Livelihoods by Survivors of Cyclone Idai in the Chimanimani District of Zimbabwe

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Itai Kabonga, Smart Mhembwe, and Cowen Dziva

Abstract

Cyclone Idai remains the most severe cyclone to befall Zimbabwe to date. The tropical cyclone led to loss of human life and livestock, and massive destruction of property and livelihoods. The magnitude of the cyclone left many survivors displaced, heartbroken, shocked, traumatised and in a quandary regarding how to survive after the disaster. This chapter documents how survivors of the debilitating cyclone Idai are reconstructing their livelihoods in the aftermath of the disaster. The study uses the sustainable livelihoods framework (SLF) to understand the survivors’ utilisation of human agency as they search for livelihoods in the aftermath of cyclone. The utilisation of the SLF allowed the researchers to analyse the assets used by survivors of cyclone Idai in the reconstruction of livelihood strategies and the vulnerability context in which the livelihoods I. Kabonga () Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Zimbabwe Ezekiel Guti University (ZEGU), Bindura, Zimbabwe

being reconstructed are embedded. For this qualitative study, data were obtained through interviews with survivors of cyclone Idai, observation and review of documents. The study was confined to the Ngangu and Kopa areas of Chimanimani district in the Manicaland Province of Zimbabwe. The study established that survivors of cyclone Idai are pursuing agriculture, alluvial gold panning, informal trading, migration, gambling and prostitution as livelihood strategies. The survivors’ reconstruction of their livelihoods is based on diversifying their livelihood strategies albeit with a myriad of challenges. In light of the challenges, the study recommends resourcing and capitalisation of survivors in areas where they have comparative skills and capacities to ensure the sustainability of post-cyclone Idai livelihood reconstructions. Keywords

Reconstruction · Livelihoods · Cyclone Idai · Chimanimani · Survivors

S. Mhembwe Gender Institute, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe

10.1 Introduction

C. Dziva Nehanda Centre for Gender and Cultural Studies, Great Zimbabwe University (GZU), Masvingo, Zimbabwe

Incidences of natural disasters are on the increase with wider implications on the survival of people and the environment in every region of the world,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_10

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especially as a result of increased floods and tropical cyclones (Oxfam International, 2013). Zimbabwe has been previously affected by natural disasters in the form of cyclones and floods, notably cyclones Eline, Gloria and Dineo. Even with this experience, cyclone Idai of 2019 stands to be by far the most horrendous and perilous when one looks at the trail of destruction it left in Chimanimani, Chipinge and other parts of Zimbabwe (Government of Zimbabwe, 2019a; Chatiza, 2019). An estimated 340 people lost their lives as a result of cyclone Idai (Chatiza, 2019). Some were killed by collapsing houses while others were swept away by flooding roads, streams and rivers. Other impacts of cyclone Idai range from loss of property and destruction of amenities, road network, agricultural land and crops (Government of Zimbabwe, 2019a, b). In relation to agriculture, arable land and infrastructure at smallholder irrigation schemes were destroyed thereby affecting farmers and surrounding communities who relied on them for food security and income gained from performing casual labour (RINA, 2019). Farmers also lost their livestock including cattle, sheep, goats and poultry. Globally, disasters cause both direct and indirect effects on people’s livelihoods (Yang et al., 2018). Similarly, the economic and social well-­ being of the general populace, infrastructure and the environment are heavily affected, thereby straining government finances and services to the needy (Lal et  al., 2009; Yang et  al., 2018; Chapagain and Raizada, 2017). In the same vein, Idai significantly destroyed people’s livelihoods in the Chimanimani district (Government of Zimbabwe, 2019a; Chatiza, 2019). When cyclone Idai hit the Chimanimani district, formal and informal enterprises on which people relied for survival and employment were destroyed (RINA, 2019). For many entrepreneurs, their market stalls and workshops were destroyed, and tools of trade washed away by the floods. Similarly, social amenities, shops and industries which residents depended on for basic needs in the Ngangu and Kopa area were destroyed by cyclone Idai. Several houses were totally or partially waterlogged and destroyed by the sudden water surge

in the affected areas (Government of Zimbabwe, 2019b). As a result, people’s cereal/grain reserves and savings in the form of cash were either contaminated or washed away (Chatiza, 2019). This destruction of economic safety nets negatively affected survivors’ access to basic services and needs including food, shelter, water, education and health facilities. Despite this evidence of the devastation of cyclone Idai on livelihoods, studies that have sought to understand the efforts made by survivors to reconstruct their livelihoods in the aftermath of the cyclone remain limited. The uniqueness of this study is that it traces the livelihoods of the survivors of cyclone Idai who live in a constrained environment. Unearthing survivors’ means and ways in the reconstruction of livelihoods remains important in informing policymakers on the needs, existing strategies, capabilities and capitals that can be utilised to build resilience and sustainable livelihoods for survivors in post-disaster situations.

10.2 Literature Review In Sri Lanka, the 2004 Tsunami disaster destroyed the livelihoods of people especially those who were settled along coastal areas such as fisher folk, rice farmers and coconut producers (Oxfam International, 2008) Interestingly, most of the affected communities were able to recover and restore their livelihoods through the assistance and support rendered to them by, mainly, aid agencies (Oxfam International, 2008). On the other hand, when the Philippines was hit by a tropical cyclone Onday, in 2009, it witnessed its poverty levels doubling in the years that followed as communities struggled to recover from the noticeable devastating impacts of destroyed homes, schools, hospitals and livelihoods (Oxfam International, 2013). The Oxfam study further noted how communities lost their businesses, jobs and services while children missed school and girls became vulnerable to risks of early marriages and other vices. Under such circumstances, it is critical to note that aid agencies focus more on emergency relief whenever disasters struck.

10  The Reconstruction of Livelihoods by Survivors of Cyclone Idai in the Chimanimani District…

Thus, immediate necessities in the form of food, water, shelter kits and hygiene kits are often provided by aid agencies (Chapagain & Razada, 2017; Kamal, 2013; Joakim & Wismer, 2015). Even with this support, little attention has been paid to the long-term recovery of affected communities (Kamal, 2013; Chapagain & Raizada, 2017). The limited attention often emanates from resource constraints, lack of disaster preparedness strategies, the remoteness of areas affected and policy and implementation shortfalls among other reasons (Chapagain & Raizada, 2017). The aftermath of cyclone Idai, just like post-­ disaster situations in other countries, created a humanitarian crisis in which survivors heavily relied and continue to rely on humanitarian aid (Government of Zimbabwe, 2019a; Chatiza, 2019). In the majority of cases, the humanitarian aid came in the form of tents, drinking water, food hampers, clothes, blankets and utensils among other goods urgently and mostly needed by affected communities (RINA, 2019; Chatiza, 2019). Survivors also received financial aid in the form of cash from NGOs to boost their livelihoods and cater for their monetary needs (Joakim & Wismer, 2015). These interventions sought to boost the survival strategies of survivors, consequently reducing vulnerabilities (Kamal, 2013; Chandrasekhar et al., 2019). In some cases, survivors’ children get scholarships and other forms of educational support to continue with their education (Kamal, 2013; Joakim & Wismer, 2015). Able-bodied men and women survivors also went for casual employment in public works to reconstruct and restore infrastructure in affected areas (Kamal, 2013). With these opportunities and capacity building for disaster risk reduction, many survivors’ potentials are strengthened for quick recovery and the building of resilience. However, many post-disaster interventions have been subjected to criticism due to their narrow focus on the reconstruction of physically damaged public amenities. In a way, the ­post-­disaster interventions tended to focus on the short-term needs of survivors as opposed to their long-term needs. In many post-disaster situations, there is relatively little attention to the reconstruction and rehabilitation of survivors’

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livelihoods, particularly of the poor and marginalised, whose livelihoods depend on fewer assets due to their subsistence level of consumption (RINA, 2019; Hallegatte et al., 2017). The situation is worsened by the fact that the measurement of the severity of disasters is arrived at through focusing more on the socio-economic impacts, where assessment is done by looking at the value of disaster inflicted damages on buildings, infrastructure, equipment and agriculture production, but without necessarily providing detail on how people’s well-being has been affected (Hallegatte et al., 2017). An attempt to focus on the poor has largely concentrated on the inclusion and exclusion criterion for beneficiaries. As Kamal (2013: 40) observed, during the post-cyclone Alia period in Bangladesh, access to services and opportunities was not fairly made available as those who were well connected to decision-makers benefitted most ahead of the most deserving poor. Kamal further lamented how “most vulnerable people failed to enjoy work opportunities as the selection process was captured by the local power brokers” (Kamal, 2013: 40). Most services and investments by emergency actors (NGOs, CSOs and others) were short lived and not enough for survivors to rediscover sustainable livelihoods. This, therefore, limited the effectiveness of the support to sustainably improve survivors’ capacity for resilience and long-term enhancement of their self-recovery. This study reveals complaints regarding how aid from non-state actors was sometimes hijacked by politicians and community leadership ahead of their intended beneficiaries after cyclone Idai. The above observation however has proven to be a common trait in disaster-stricken communities considering also that in Nepal much of the food aid and money that was provided by both foreign agencies and other governments in the aftermath of an earthquake that occurred in 2015 were not properly utilised in a way that benefitted those who were severely affected (Chapagain & Raizada, 2017). Post-disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction interventions spearheaded by externals are criticised for failing to consider the “social feasibility” of survivors (Kamal, 2013).

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In Bangladesh, NGOs failed to come up with projects and programmes compatible with “local needs and aspirations, existing livelihood strategies, economic and social structure, gender differences and the culture of affected communities and households” (Kamal, 2013: 40). Furthermore, when Nepal experienced floods and landslides in 2011, only 6% of the very poor people managed to access government support as compared to 90% of the well off, an indication that coverage of the poor by social protection is often low as they tend to receive less post-disaster support (Hallegatte et al., 2017). Besides the above challenges, poor people often have difficulties accessing aid which is usually limited in supply against a multitude of desperate survivors who largely rely on such aid for survival. Against these problems, survivors are often propelled to pursue alternative strategies to reconstruct their livelihoods after disasters. In addition to reliance on aid after cyclone Aila in Bangladesh, survivors also invoked their individual resources and social networks in rehabilitating and reconstructing their livelihoods (Kamal, 2013). Despite this evidence of increased efforts to reconstruct livelihoods by survivors of disasters through external aid, there remain limited studies that seek to understand this phenomenon in post-cyclone Idai disaster. Emerging academic and grey literature after the 2019 cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe (Chari & Ngcamu, 2019; Mashizha, 2019; Mhlanga, et al. 2019; Chatiza, 2019) failed to provide a nuanced analysis of how survivors utilise their capitals and capabilities to reconstruct livelihoods. Thus, literature has focused more on the post-disaster impacts on peoples’ livelihoods without focusing on the strategies adopted by affected communities in restoring their livelihoods.

10.3 Materials and Methods This explorative study was based on qualitative evidence gathered in the Chimanimani district, mainly from the Ngangu and Kopa areas. The qualitative approach chosen was appropriate for this little known phenomenon, where the topic

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needed to be explored in small “case” areas like Ngangu and Kopa. These two areas were heavily affected when cyclone Idai hit Zimbabwe in 2019. Data for this qualitative study were mainly gathered from the interviews conducted through administering household questionnaires for 2  weeks to survivors of cyclone Idai in the Ngangu and Kopa areas. During the 2-week period, slightly above 50 questionnaires were administered to heads of households, who were purposively and conveniently selected. While the questionnaire administration was envisaged to take the semi-structured interview form, many of the interactions that followed turned unstructured as survivors ended up narrating their ordeals and reconstruction efforts without following the structured format. With consent from survivors, some conversations were recorded for later transcription. The study also benefited immensely from field observations through transect walks in camps to observe the activities that survivors were engaged in trying to reconstruct their livelihoods in the post-disaster period. The study also benefited from interviews with key informants, including humanitarian workers from government, NGO officials and community leaders, to fully understand survivors’ recovery processes. A total of 10 key informant interviews were conducted by the authors. The authors also reviewed reports, communications, journal articles and books on cyclone Idai and similar disasters of this nature around the globe and this helped in shaping the orientation of the study. Data from the study were thematically analysed and presented. The study observed varied ethical issues including ensuring that participants voluntarily agreed to participate in the study. There were no repercussions for refusing to participate in the study. To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, collected data were never disclosed to anyone. Anonymous names were used for the participants in the study. For the sake of credibility and dependability, the study employed several strategies like multiple data collection methods (triangulation) to allow corroboration of findings. This allowed the study to move away from relying on a single data

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collection strategy. To ensure dependability, findings were taken to the participants for confirmation before presentation. Throughout the interview process, the authors employed probing to get clarity on certain areas.

10.4 Theoretical Framework The study uses the sustainable livelihood framework (SLF) to understand the reconstruction of livelihoods by survivors in the Chimanimani district who were affected by cyclone Idai. Furthermore, the study appreciates the importance of the human agency in the reconstruction of livelihoods. The human agency perspective argues that human beings have the capacity to make independent and free choices.

10.4.1 Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) Besides the use of the human agency approach, the study was guided by the SLF. In explaining the SLF, Scoones (1998: 3) asserts that: Given a particular context (of policy setting, politics, history, agroecology and socio-economic conditions), what combination of livelihood resources (different kinds of capital) result in the ability to follow what combination of livelihood strategies (agricultural intensification/extensification, livelihood diversification and migration) with what outcomes? Of particular interest in this framework are the institutional processes (embedded in a matrix of formal and informal institutions and organisations) which mediate the ability to carry out such strategies and achieve (or not) such outcomes

For Solesbury (2003) the framework highlights five interacting elements, which are livelihood assets, vulnerability context, institutions, livelihood strategies and livelihood outcomes as shown in Fig. 10.1. There are five key livelihood assets within the SLF as shown in Fig.  10.1. These are financial capital, natural capital, human capital, social capital and physical capital. Livelihood strategies are a consequence of a combination of capital that households have access to (Scoones, 1998; Chitongo, 2013). The

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livelihood strategies being pursued by survivors of cyclone Idai are a function of access to livelihood assets. The study seeks to unpack the livelihood assets that survivors of cyclone Idai are relying on in the reconstruction of livelihood strategies. The vulnerability context is a key element of the SLF. The vulnerability context refers to events that determine the ability of households to pursue livelihood strategies, including shocks and stresses. For Moser (2009), the vulnerability context has implication on access to livelihood assets and livelihood strategies. That is why Solesbury (2003) argues that the vulnerability context can inhibit the livelihoods of households. Chevo (2018) identifies two types of shocks, which are covariate shocks that affect the whole country or entire community, usually in the form of economic depression or natural disasters. Idiosyncratic shocks are more confined to the household and amount to the sickness or death of a family member. Institutions are an important component of the SLF. Giddens (1979) defines institutions as regularised practice (or patterns of behaviour) structured by the rules and norms of society which have persistent and widespread use. Literature also refers to this as the PIP box—processes, institutions and practices (Scoones, 1998; Chevo, 2018; Dube, 2017). The PIP box also plays an important role in limiting the impact of shocks and stresses on households’ livelihoods. Households’ access to capital is mediated by institutions like business, civil society and government. Again, policies and culture play an important role in access to capital. Also, an important element of the SLF are livelihood strategies. Livelihood strategies are a combination of the households’ activities fashioned to achieve livelihood outcomes (de Haan, 2012). Dube (2017) on the other hand submits that livelihood strategies are implementable and are designed to achieve certain livelihood outcomes. These livelihood strategies are a function of having access to livelihood assets. Gardening, gambling, buying and selling, chicken rearing and food processing as livelihood strategies by survivors of cyclone Idai are determined by access to a wide range of livelihood assets.

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Vulnerability Context Environment/social/economic shocks/trends over time and space, seasonality, climate change

Human Capital

Social Capital

Physical Capital

Financial Capital

Institutional and Policy Context

Natural Capital

Private, Public and NGOs Sectors, culture, Law, policies, institutional functions/structure

Livelihood Assets

Interventions (internal or external) to help enhance livelihood strategies

Livelihood Outcomes

Fig. 10.1  Showing the sustainable livelihoods framework. (Source: Ellis, 2000)

Livelihood outcomes emanate from livelihood strategies employed by households. Household livelihood strategies must result in the following livelihood outcomes: increased income, improved well-being, reduction in vulnerability, improved situation of food security, sustainable use of the available natural resources, improved social relations and status, as well as improved dignity and respect (Ellis, 1998).

10.4.2 Human Agency Approach The study also used the concept of human agency to understand the reconstruction of livelihoods in the aftermath of cyclone Idai. For Barker (2005), agency denotes the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices. The basic argument of the human agency approach is that human beings are imbued with potential to fight off the challenges affecting them. Thus, though constrained by structure (in the context of cyclone Idai and its effects), survivors have agency to reconstruct their livelihoods. Put in other words, as agentic individuals, survivors of cyclone Idai have the potential to bounce back after the disruption of their livelihoods. Agency, in this context, denotes the capacity of the survivors of cyclone Idai to choose several livelihood strategies after the disruption of their

livelihoods. Hitlin and Elder (2007) speak of human potentiality. Survivors of cyclone Idai are knowledgeable and have potential to navigate difficult situations. They also have natural rights, entitlements and privileged mental states (Fuchs, 2001) which allow them to make rational decisions in the reconstruction of their livelihoods (Kapodogo et al., 2013).

10.5 Presentation and Discussion of Finding 10.5.1 Livelihood Strategies Pursued by Survivors of Cyclone Idai The study discovered that the survivors of cyclone Idai are pursuing multiple livelihood strategies to survive in a difficult environment. Despite having limited land in camps, survivors are displaying agency in post-disaster recovery. Many of those living in camps are involved in a number of livelihood strategies including gardening, chicken rearing and food processing. Households in Ngangu Camp 1 are growing vegetables, beans and maize around their tents. An interviewed head of household said: …..before the cyclone, I used to have a good place for growing food for my family but all that is gone now … I could not just sit and wait for NGOs to

10  The Reconstruction of Livelihoods by Survivors of Cyclone Idai in the Chimanimani District… come and assist us. In any case, the food that we are receiving is not enough; therefore, I had to grow something outside my tent. See how my vegetables are growing although the space now is not enough. I intend to sell them and earn extra income (Household head 3).

As agentic individuals, survivors of cyclone Idai are not just waiting for NGOs and the state for food assistance but are showing their ingenuity as they grow crops within their constrained camp environment. In Ngangu Camp 1, survivors managed to terrace the slope and grow their vegetables. Some survivors were engaged in agricultural intensification and intercropping. During transect walks in Ngangu camps, it was common to see vegetables such as rape intercropped with maize and even legumes such as sugar beans. This shows that human capital is important in post-­disaster survival. The availability of water (natural capital) in abundance has assisted in the fostering of gardening as a livelihood strategy. As a result of participating in horticulture, the availability of food in the household is guaranteed. This was supported by a respondent who said: …the most important thing that the people in this camp require is food. Without food there is no life. The few beds of vegetables that I have allow my family to have something to eat. The good thing is that there is water; therefore, I can grow something although the space is limited (Household head 5).

Households producing enough for consumption are selling surplus to fellow camp dwellers as narrated by one respondent: “…you can see this is a small place, but I am producing enough for my family and I am also selling to my neighbours” (Household head 3). The selling of gardening produce enables households to earn extra income. Income ranks as one of the basic needs required by households emerging from a disaster. Before cyclone Idai, Household head 3 was involved in horticulture, producing vegetables for sale. The researchers observed the attempts by Household head 3 to resuscitate his agriculture livelihood strategy under a changed environment.

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This respondent is now living in a camp awaiting resettlement. Besides growing food crops, some households are going further to process and preserve the produce from gardening. Vegetables from gardening are being sun dried and stored for future use as explained by one of the respondents in the study: …you do not know what the future holds, so it is always good to stay prepared because when the cyclone struck, we were left with completely nothing. I am drying my vegetables so that I can have somewhere to fall on when hardships strike. The donors assisting us will not stay forever and in this recovery period their support has declined (Household head 1).

The drying and processing of vegetables is not only a livelihood strategy but also a way to insure against future shocks and stress. As the survivors of cyclone Idai are not sure about their future, food preservation is an attempt to hedge against future uncertainties. Value addition to vegetables demonstrates the capacity of survivors of cyclone Idai to innovate in a bid to survive in the difficult situations they find themselves in. Even during difficult periods, human beings have the potential to be innovative. One other noted strategy by survivors of cyclone Idai was engagement in informal vending as they try to reconstruct livelihoods after Idai disaster. While some respondents reported that they were engaged in these income earning activities prior to the disaster, many survivors, including men who never thought of vending, are now actively involved in entrepreneurship. For women, many of these newcomers in vending are widows who lost breadwinners as a result of the disaster. Similarly, women with husbands who migrated to seek employment in towns and even in neighbouring countries, including Mozambique and South Africa, are also pursuing vending. While walking in the streets of Ngangu, the authors could see men and women behind vegetable market stalls. In some instances, the businesses were family managed by both the husband and wife. As one male respondent explained:

150 …I used to work at a company that was making fruit crates, but it was destroyed by cyclone Idai and all the machines were flooded and this left us with no other source of income. So, I decided to come and assist my wife at her market stall which she established after the disaster (Household head 2).

Indeed, this vignette exemplifies the reasons why most male respondents decided to join vegetable and fruit vending after cyclone Idai. In their explanations, the shift was necessitated by the need to make ends meet and raise money to purchase tools for their trades, which were eroded by the devastating cyclone. Evidence in the above narrative is that disasters like cyclone Idai contributed to the alteration and reordering of gender roles at household level as the family pulls together in the bid to survive. The uniqueness of the entrepreneurship ventured into by survivors from the Ngangu area is their resourcefulness and tenacity to prop up livelihoods without waiting for external benefactors to reconstruct their livelihoods as is usually the case with most disaster-stricken communities. For instance, Joakim and Wismer (2015: 10) observed, after the Yogyakarta earthquake, the Government of Indonesia and NGOs buttressed livelihoods through “provision of assets to support entrepreneurial activities, including kitchen tools, sewing machines and construction tools; provision and establishment of micro financing institutions to provide support to re-establish damaged business activities; agricultural support through seeds and fertilisers, as well as provision of livestock to support animal breeding programmes; capacity building and training activities to develop new skills, particularly in relation to construction and food production”. In Sri Lanka, following the 2004 Tsunami, development agencies such as Oxfam provided short-­ term interventions to help particularly coir producers, who were largely women, to restore their incomes through supporting their local mills with raw materials that the agency shipped from less affected areas. At the same time, wages were offered to the women for them to restore their coir pits (Oxfam International, 2008; Mulligan, 2013).

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In some instances, survivors of cyclone Idai, especially male household heads, were found engaged in gambling as a livelihood strategy. In venturing into this practice, adults sometimes used proceeds from vending, remittances and cash transfers from NGOs, hoping to win and earn more money: …the people in the tents are getting some money from NGOs. This has resulted in some male households participating in gambling because most of their workplaces have been affected, so the majority of them are not currently going to work. There are however some who are making a living from this gambling (Key informant 2).

As a result of the disruption of livelihoods by cyclone Idai, socially unacceptable behaviours like gambling and prostitution have increased in the Chimanimani district. It emerged from the study that young girls and middle-aged women are increasingly engaged in prostitution as a survival strategy. The study revealed that prior to the disaster, it was mainly men as husbands who were taking care of their families, but after the cyclone, the majority of them lost their sources of livelihoods, something that prompted women and girls to engage in prostitution. A respondent explained that: …in general terms, cyclone Idai disrupted the way of life of many people in Chimanimani. It is a difficult situation. In order to survive people are trying different things. Even prostitution has emerged as way to raise income for the impoverished. If you visit the beer halls, the number of women loitering for the purposes of prostitution has drastically increased (Key informant 1).

The sight of young women milling around beer halls was detested by many community members. In many cases, community leaders bemoaned how this prostitution has increased teenage pregnancies and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases in the community. This finding confirms the views of the Rapid Impact and Needs Assessment (RINA, 2019: 71) that survivors’ idleness and limited livelihood options “may lead to risky sexual unions that could further spread sexually transmitted infections (STIs)”. The finding further confirms the study

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by Hallegatte et  al. (2017) that disasters force people, especially from poor households, to adopt choices with irreversible effects on their well-being (education and healthcare), and that this normally has a tendency of reinforcing the intergenerational transmission of poverty. It also emerged from this study that some of the survivors are engaged in criminal, illegal or even risky ventures to survive in the precarious post-cyclone Idai era. These activities range from selling drugs such as marijuana, and illicit alcoholic drinks such as spirits or high alcohol content beer often smuggled from Mozambique. They also engage in gold panning as well as robbery and theft. Tent residents at the Ngangu camps complained of increased cases of theft of their food, utensils, clothing and linen when they go out for casual work and vending. Due to limited security in camps and tents, many survivors have fallen victim to theft, thus, undermining their efforts to reconstruct their livelihoods in the aftermath of cyclone Idai. The goods being stolen clearly show how these thieves desire to meet their basic needs in the absence of other survival options. While in many instances the thieves and robbers remain unknown, many survivors point fingers to fellow survivors who stay in the camps, who strike after closely monitoring the survivor’s routine movements. This shows that while the tent residents are trying to survive by combining several strategies, their efforts make them vulnerable to fellow residents whose livelihood strategies encompass anti-social behaviours like theft and robbery. The community confirmed how able-bodied men whose livelihoods were disrupted in areas affected by cyclone Idai are joining alluvial gold panning along the Nyahode, Nyabamba and Risitu rivers. Besides the fact that these options are illegal ventures, they are also perilous endeavours as many participants risk losing their lives. Some of the areas where survivors consider going for gold panning are code named: musanditeera (when I am out working do not bother following me), denoting how the area is deemed to be a death trap. Fully aware of the associated risks, able-bodied survivors have limited options as they are desperate to make ends meet. The find-

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ings on the increased participation of cyclone Idai survivors in precarious ventures largely confirm the observation by Joakim and Wismer (2015) that limited livelihood options, idleness and unemployment force disaster survivors into illegal ventures. When disasters such as cyclone Idai strike, many survivors’ livelihoods are destroyed. While a few survivors, especially those in formal employment and with insured assets, can gradually recover from the losses, the majority become destitute and remain in dire need of any form of employment or activities that enable them to earn some income. This may mean the continuation of involvement in risky alternative activities to earn incomes.

10.5.2 Diversification of Livelihood Strategies In an effort to recover from the effects of cyclone Idai, survivors are largely attempting to diversify their income portfolios into many activities to satisfy their subsistence needs. Livelihood diversification is a process by which families construct a diverse portfolio of activities and social support capabilities in their struggle for survival and in order to improve their standard of living (Ellis, 1998). In some instances, able-bodied men and women who survived the disaster migrate to towns or neighbouring South Africa and Mozambique in search of employment. In such cases, the remittances from migrants have become a pillar in the reconstruction of livelihoods. As Hussein and Nelson (1999) argue, migration forms a central component of rural people’s risk mitigation strategies. The remittances from migrants are being used by those left behind to start small business ventures like vegetable vending and chicken rearing. Concomitantly, the remaining working-age adults are engaged in piece jobs to boost livelihoods. As shown by previous studies (Dercon & Krishnan, 2005), diversification is dependent on many factors including the availability of capital and skills possessed by survivors. While the availability of capital has seen some survivors engaging in income-generating activities, having

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social capital and structural skills was also found to be key in survivors’ ability to get casual work with companies and government departments involved in the reconstruction of roads and schools, and gulley reclamation. While most people are benefiting from casual work, those with social capital and structural skills comprise the majority of those employed for short-term contracts in reconstruction exercises. The structural skills possessed include carpentry, welding and building, which are needed most by construction companies involved in the rehabilitation of roads and structures in the aftermath of cyclone Idai. These people are employed by construction companies such as Bitumen World, Masimba Construction and JRG Construction Company. While temporary employment with construction companies remains important to occupy and provide survivors with livelihood alternatives, many workers complained of delays in receiving their wages. For those who worked for the ministry responsible for public works in Chimanimani, it took more than 3 months for them to get their wages. Considering the inflationary environment in Zimbabwe, by the time the survivors received their wages, they had been eroded by inflation. The risks associated with casual labour in post-­ disaster situations were aptly captured by Buchanan-Smith and Jaspars (2006) and Pantuliano and O’Callaghan (2006), who associate temporary work in post-disaster scenarios with exploitative labour relations as prospective employers know how desperate the displaced persons are for work. Thus, casual labour as a coping livelihood strategy for displaced persons is inextricably linked to unfair labour practices. The findings are however in contrast with what rich nations often experience in the aftermath of disasters. For example, when China experienced a catastrophic earthquake that struck south-­ western China in 2008, the government promptly initiated hundreds of post-disaster reconstruction projects in which thousands of people were employed to rebuild facilities, infrastructure and residential houses in a more organised manner, having set aside a massive investment to the tune of over USD $253 billion (Yang et al., 2018).

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This study also noted how the structural skills or human capital of survivors in fields such as carpentry, building and welding were used by survivors to get casual jobs in affected areas and surrounding communities. For instance, builders, welders and carpenters were occasionally contracted by relatives and other survivors to repair houses, construct makeshift toilets and houses, fowl runs, wooden cabins, cooking sheds, markets stalls and other structures important to survivors. Relatedly, survivors searched for broken wood, steel and other materials in rubbles, and used their welding and carpentry skills to come up with chairs, benches, flea market stalls and other structures to sell to community members. From a gender lens, more men benefited from post-cyclone Idai opportunities ahead of women. For many women survivors, their employment is largely in those trades in which structural skills are not needed such as being house maids and shopkeepers or marketers at flea markets in areas not affected by cyclone Idai. During transect walks in Ngangu area, the authors saw some women picking and gathering small-sized stones from huge stones washed away by water from the mountains. Upon inquiry, woman explained that they sell such stones to construction companies who use them for house foundations and pavements. In some instances, women survivors performed casual work such as doing laundry for unaffected households. As one respondent explained: …to survive after a cyclone is a tall order; however, I am doing a lot of things to make ends meet. You can see I have a small garden where I grow crops, I also do piece jobs like laundry to earn a few dollars. My husband also does piece jobs (Household Head 4).

As de Haan (2012) has shown, a livelihood is not a single activity but at times a consequence of several strategies. The diversification of livelihood strategies increases chances of positive outcomes, particularly more income and increased resilience for survivors. The findings of the study coincide with Shitangsu’s findings in 2013 where the scholar highlighted that income diversification by survivors in post-cyclone periods in

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Bangladesh included agriculture, fishing and wage labouring to maximise income. In the Chimanimani district, it is important to note that though many households may want to diversify livelihoods, lack of opportunities is a significant impediment, particularly for women. From a SLF, this shows how structures affect construction of people’s livelihoods.

10.5.3 Vulnerability Contexts in Livelihood Reconstruction Despite being involved in a myriad of livelihood strategies, there are several challenges militating against the success of livelihood strategies. In addition to those discussed in previous sections, this study noted how limited gender mainstreaming affects livelihood reconstruction efforts for women. Interviewed widows and female headed households complained of being left out when construction companies and the ministry responsible for public works employed casual workers in the reconstruction of roads and other structures destroyed by cyclone Idai. …I think as women, we were largely affected by the cyclone and this is further worsened by the discrimination we are suffering, especially on the employment front where it is mostly men who are being employed by construction companies rehabilitating our roads… (Household Head 3).

Survivors involved in entrepreneurial activities also find it difficult to secure loans to boost their income generation endeavours. Many survivors with structural skills (human capital) in building, mechanics, carpentry and other trades had their tools of trade washed away by the floods, and do not have money to replace such. Thus, these artisans utilise their social capital to borrow tools or even money from the wider community to purchase tools of trade from colleagues in areas not affected by Idai. This shows the importance of social capital in fashioning livelihood strategies. Sometimes, they are lucky to get them for free while in many instances they are charged some fee to use such tools, something that reduces the financial capital (income) accrued. Indeed, Zimbabwean societies are based on strong kin-

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ship systems and networks, which tend to support relatives and congregants in times of crisis. This result corroborates studies by Mozumder et  al. (2008), Quisumbing and Maluccio (2003) and Oxfam International (2008) in Bangladesh, where loans and contributions from relatives proved important in supporting survivors to boost businesses and to purchase tools of trade required by survivors to restore trades and livelihoods. In Sri Lanka, women were organised into self-help groups to receive training on how to create value-­ added products and to run small businesses, all in an attempt to restore and recover their livelihoods destroyed by the 2004 Tsunami, and with the necessary help, the majority of these women managed to double their pre-Tsunami incomes. For many unaccompanied women, especially widows staying in camps, their entrepreneurial spirit was found to be heavily affected by triple roles of reproductive, productive and sometimes household organisational roles. The short- and long-term effects of cyclone Idai are devastating as many survivors are now sick, maimed and stressed (Government of Zimbabwe, 2019b). It is a widow’s burden, therefore, to look after all the sick, elderly, children, injured and persons with disabilities. Some female heads of households have to spend considerable time taking care of the sick, limiting time spend in entrepreneurship and income-generating activities, thus, reducing the potential of many survivors to successfully reconstruct their livelihoods in the aftermath of cyclone Idai. Survivors pursuing gardening outside their tents bemoaned the unavailability of land for their activities. Viewed through the lens of the SLF, the shortage of natural capital in the form of land affects the ability of survivors of cyclone Idai to conduct gardening effectively. This was echoed by one survivor: “…you can see how healthy my vegetables are; the problem is that I have a small piece of land to grow these vegetables. My area is around the tent, and I cannot encroach onto other people’s areas” (Household head 6). Past studies show that the reconstruction of livelihoods in post-cyclone situations is prone to several challenges. For instance, Shitangsu (2013) similarly discovered in Bangladesh that

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agriculture after cyclone-induced destruction depends on the availability of cultivable land. It is important to note that the poor often suffer disproportionately from natural hazards because they are in most cases over-exposed to an extent that it will be difficult for them to easily recover as was the case in Ethiopia following the 1984– 1985 famine, which took more than a decade for asset-poor households to fully restore their livestock holdings to pre-famine levels (Hallegatte et al., 2017).

10.6 Conclusion and Policy Options The response of the Government of Zimbabwe and non-state actors in the aftermath of cyclone Idai concentrated on rebuilding the community, and the provision of immediate services and needs of survivors. Despite the enormous time and resources devoted to reducing vulnerabilities in the post-cyclone Idai phase, many of the initiatives failed to put survivors on a livelihood recovery path. The efforts have been top down, and lacked holistic linkages to the social, physical and natural capital of survivors. Without adequate and sustainable livelihood alternatives, survivors are boosting humanitarian aid through re-­imagining their pre-disaster survival strategies. Evidently, cyclone Idai survivors invoke a combination of alternatives, courtesy of the varied forms of capital they possess. This shows the utility of the SLF in understanding the reconstruction of livelihoods in post-disaster periods. The study shows that human agency is important in the reconstruction of livelihoods. Though devastated and traumatised by cyclone Idai, the survivors are calculative, show tenacity, ingenuity and resourcefulness. External assistance has to build on what the survivors are doing in the reconstruction of their livelihoods buoyed by their human agency. A range of activities to reconstruct livelihoods by survivors of cyclone Idai include intensive gardening, informal trading, casual labour, migration as well as engaging in risky and illegal ventures, including drugs and alcohol business,

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gold panning and prostitution. Regarding farming, survivors have devised ways that include intensification and intercropping in order to ­maximise the limited spaces around their tents. In order to succeed in their endeavours, survivors take advantage of remittances, cash transfers form NGOs and community networks to diversify and spread sources of income over varied trades and business ventures. Thus, social and human capitals proved vital for successful diversification by survivors. This has assisted survivors to withstand some socio-economic shocks and problems after the disruption of their livelihoods by cyclone Idai. The various capitals are important in the reconstruction of livelihoods after Idai, but they are not enough to make survivors resilient and address basic needs in a sustainable manner, as they used to do before cyclone Idai wreaked havoc on their livelihoods. The potential of these endeavours is largely limited by the absence of formal credit facilities, lack of tools to fully utilise their structural skills for production, insecurity in tents and limited living and working space for entrepreneurship. Risk reduction strategies and interventions to boost the efforts of survivors should, therefore, target the capitalisation of survivors over and above the inherent forms of capital at the survivors’ disposal. The chapter further point out the need for the involvement, consideration and recognition of survivors’ capacities, capitals and skills to ensure the sustainability of interventions undertaken as part of post-cyclone Idai livelihood reconstruction. It is based on this holistic and integrated approach that survivors can be able to recover to livelihood conditions that they were enjoying before cyclone Idai and sustainably command basic needs. Cognizant of local contexts, those who devise intervention strategies must seek to be well-informed of pre-disaster conditions, and largely focus on the strengthening of survivors’ capitals and capacities, replacing assets and tools of trade and impartation of lawful income-­ generating skills, as well as developing and strengthening their networks and markets for increased accumulation of income and lost assets.

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References Barker, C. (2005). Cultural studies: Theory and practice. Sage. Buchanan Smith, M., & Jaspars, S. (2006). Conflict, camps and coercion: The ongoing livelihoods crisis in Darfur. Disasters, 31(1), 57–76. Chari, F., & Ngcamu, B. S. (2019). The impact of disaster risks on economic sustainability of cotton supply chains: Evidence from Chiredzi district, Zimbabwe. Cogent Social Sciences, 5, 1–15. Chandrasekhar, D., Rothfeder, R., Xiao, Y., & Donovan, F. (2019). What drives household recovery after disasters? A case study of New York City after 2012 Hurricane Sandy. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 62(7), 1249–1268. https://doi.org/1 0.1080/09640568.2018.1492907 Chapagain, T., & Raizada, M. N. (2017). Impact of natural disasters on smallholder farmers: Gaps and recommendations. Agriculture and Food Security, 6(39), 1–16. Chatiza, K. (2019). Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe: An analysis of policy implications for post disaster institutional development to strengthen disaster risk management. OXFAM Zimbabwe. Chevo, T. (2018). The construction of household livelihood strategies in urban areas: The case of Budiriro, Harare, Zimbabwe (Unpublished PhD Thesis). Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa. Chitongo, L. (2013). The contribution of NGOs to rural development: The case of Catholic Relief Services protecting vulnerable livelihoods programme in Zimbabwe. Asian Journal of Management Sciences and Education, 2(3), 124–143. de Haan, L. (2012). The livelihood approach: A critical exploration. Erdkunde, 66(4), 345–357. Dercon, S., & Krishnan. (2005). Insurance against poverty. Oxford University. Dube, E. (2017). Towards enhanced disaster risk management interventions for floods hazards and disasters in Tsholotsho District, Zimbabwe (Unpublished PhD Thesis). Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe. Ellis, F. (1998). Livelihood strategies and rural livelihood diversification. Journal of Development Studies, 35(1), 1–35. Fuchs, S. (2001). Beyond agency. Sociological Theory, 19(1), 24–40. Giddens, A. (1979). Central problems in social theory action, structure and contradiction in social analysis. Macmillan. Government of Zimbabwe. (2019a). Workshop on validation of the damage assessments, support of early recovery plans and lessons learned from cyclone Idai disaster, 19–22 June 2019, Mutare. Ministry of Local Government, Public Works and National Housing. Government of Zimbabwe. (2019b). Manicaland Province cyclone Idai disaster report, 11 May 2019.

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Hallegatte, S., Vogt-Schilb, A., Bangalore, M., & Rozenberg, J. (2017). Unbreakable: Building the resilience of the poor in the face of natural disasters (Climate change series, overview booklet). World Bank. Hitlin, S., & Elder, G. H. (2007). Time, self, and the concept of agency. Sociological Theory, 25(2), 170–191. Hussein, K., & Nelson, J. (1999). Sustainable livelihoods and livelihood diversification (IDS Working Paper 69). Institute of Development Studies. Joakim, E. P., & Wismer, S. K. (2015). Livelihood recovery after disaster. Development in Practice, 25(3), 401–418. Kamal, M.  M. (2013). Livelihood coping and recovery from disaster: The case of coastal Bangladesh. Current Research Journal of Social Sciences, 5(1), 35–44. Kapodogo, M., Chiweshe, M.  K., & Muparamoto, N. (2013). Sex based livelihoods in post 2000  in Zimbabwe. Africa Review, 11(2), 35–44. Lal, P.N., Singh, R., & Holland, P. (2009). Relationship between natural disasters and poverty: A Fiji case study. SOPAC Miscellaneous report 678, International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. Mashizha, T.  M. (2019). Adapting to climate change: Reflections of peasant farmers in Mashonaland West Province of Zimbabwe. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 11(1), 1–8. Mhlanga, C., Muzingli, T., & Mpambela, M. (2019). Natural disasters in Zimbabwe: The primer for social work intervention. African Journal of Social Work, 9(1), 46–54. Moser, C. O. N. (2009). Ordinary families, extraordinary lives: Assets and poverty reduction in Guayquil, 1978– 2004. Brookings Press. Mozumder, P., Bohara, A., Berrens, R., & Halim, N. (2008). Private transfers to cope with a natural disaster: Evidence from Bangladesh. Environment and Development Economics, 14(2), 187–210. Mulligan, M. (2013). Rebuilding communities after disasters: Lessons from the tsunami disaster in Sri Lanka. Global Policy, 4(3), 278–287. Oxfam International. (2008). Humanitarian field studies: Tsunami response-improving livelihoods after disasters. Oxfam GB. Oxfam International. (2013). How disasters disrupt development: Recommendations for post-2015 development framework. Oxfam GB. Pantuliano, S., & O’Callaghan, S. (2006). The protection crisis: A review of field-based strategies for humanitarian protection in Darfur (HPG Discussion Paper). ODI. Quisumbing, A. R., & Maluccio, J. A. (2003). Resources at marriage and intra-household allocation: Evidence from Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Indonesia, and South Africa. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 65(3), 283–327. Zimbabwe Rapid Impact and Needs Assessment (RINA). (2019). World Bank/Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery.

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I. Kabonga et al. Solesbury, W. (2003). Sustainable livelihoods: A case study of the evolution of DFID policy (Working Paper 217). Overseas Development Institute. Yang, H., Dietz, T., Yang, W., Zhang, J., & Liu, J. (2018). Changes in human well-being and rural livelihoods under natural disasters. Ecological Economics, 151, 184–194.

Part IV A Focus on Infrastructure and Settlements

Planning for Climate and Cyclone Resilient Transport Infrastructures in Southern Africa: Lessons from Zimbabwe

11

Trynos Gumbo, Emaculate Ingwani, Andisa Andy Mufungizi, and Smart Dumba

Abstract

Transport infrastructure is imperative for many purposes. What is most important is ensuring that planning and implementation of transport infrastructure is conducted appropriately. However, little is known and discussed in southern Africa about the planning and implementation of transport infrastructures, which are resilient to adverse weather conditions. The responses to the destruction of transport infrastructure in most cases do not meet the needs of affected communities. Consequently, this chapter focuses on the imperatives that should be adopted during transport infrastructure development processes, based on the Zimbabwean experience. A case study research design and mixed method approach was adopted, where Manicaland province in Zimbabwe was invesT. Gumbo () · A. A. Mufungizi Sustainable and Smart Cities and Regions Research Unit, Urban and Regional Planning Department, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] E. Ingwani Urban and Regional Planning Department, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa S. Dumba Marketing and Logistics Department, Namibia University of Science and Technology, Windhoek, Namibia

tigated using spatial and qualitative research approaches. Both content and spatial analysis were used to analyse textual data gathered from the field. Findings indicate that the study area suffered severe damages in transport infrastructures, particularly roads, bridges and railways during cyclones Idai and Kenneth that affected countries in southern Africa. The work draws conclusions about the extent of destruction and the nature of responses by relevant authorities to transport infrastructure needs during and after the cyclones. It makes recommendations for ameliorating damage in the event of further such incidents. Keywords

Transport · Infrastructure · Cyclone Idai and Kenneth

11.1 Introduction The past few decades have witnessed extreme destructive weather events in various regions of the globe. These have resulted in economic losses and disruptions in underlying systems that support the functioning of societies and the ultimate sustenance of human life (Walsh et  al., 2014; Boruff et  al., 2003). Studies have shown that

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_11

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transportation systems are vulnerable to extreme weather events (Mitsakis et  al., 2014; Stamos et al., 2015; Michalis et al., 2016). This vulnerability could be due to many factors. Developed countries have come to identify such a gap in strengthening the resilience of transport infrastructure in the face of extreme weather events (Markolf et  al., 2019). Because of this, these nations have embarked on continuous research to design transport infrastructures which can stand the test of extreme weather events. Contrary to this, most developing countries suffer serious economic losses after adverse weather conditions. For example, in March 2019, Cyclone Idai hit the southern African region, with its impacts being felt in Madagascar, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Malawi. These countries suffered serious damage, including the loss of human lives and transport infrastructure. Zimbabwe is a developing country aspiring to be a middle-income country by 2030. However, such a dream could be unattainable if the country’s transport infrastructure is not fully developed and resilient enough to stand the test of extreme weather events such as Cyclone Idai. Oxfam (2019) reported that Cyclone Idai caused damage to roads and bridges in the province of Manicaland, Zimbabwe, with a considerable number of soaked roadbeds, cracked roads, landslides making roads impassable, washed-away culverts, and damaged bridges and bridge approaches. This damage was exacerbated by the condition of these transport infrastructures in Manicaland prior to cyclones Idai and Kenneth. For this reason, ensuring sustainable processes of transport infrastructure development underlined by efficient infrastructure planning and design is crucial if transport infrastructures are to withstand the extreme weather events. Consequently, this work investigates possibilities for the planning for transport infrastructures that are resilient to adverse climate conditions and cyclone weather patterns. It uses Manicaland Province in Zimbabwe as a case study. The work presents the conceptual and theoretical frameworks on ­transport infrastructure, institutional frameworks for rural road infrastructure provision and maintenance in Zimbabwe. It describes methodolo-

gies that were adopted in operationalising the study and presents and discusses the findings of the study in detail. The chapter concludes by recommending ways in which transport infrastructure planning, implementation and maintenance actions can be adopted by relevant authorities before, during and after cyclones such as Idai and Kenneth.

11.2 A  Synopsis of Transport Infrastructure, Legislative and Policy Frameworks Extreme weather events damage transport infrastructure in many ways. This is often a function of the intensity of the extreme weather event but also a function of the quality of the transport infrastructure prior to the occurrence of the extreme weather event. Kundzewicz (2016) highlighted several extreme weather events including storms (cyclones and tornadoes), floods, droughts, landslides, heat waves and cold waves. These all cause a wide range of damage to transport infrastructure, but there is no consensus on what the definition of infrastructure is. It is, however, generally defined as an interconnection of structural elements that provide a framework to support an entire structure of development (Amaia et al., 2014: 7). There are different types of infrastructure, which include transport and social, energy – to name a few. In terms of transport infrastructure, OECD (2017) identified four types of transport infrastructure organised in line with the main categories of transport modes. These are road, port, rail and airport. These infrastructures are different in design and function.

11.2.1 Describing Transport Infrastructures Attempting to describe transport infrastructures cannot be considered successful without looking at the subject within its systemic context. For example, transport infrastructures are elements of a larger system, which Ferrari et  al. (2019: 6)  and Gumbo &  Moyo  (2020) refer to as the

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transport system or transport networks. Typical to any network is the relationship between its nodes and links, so it is for transport networks, with nodes being terminal facilities and links being transport infrastructures. Critical to a transport system is also the mode of transport (air, sea, rail, road and pipeline), and one can distinguish between different types of transport networks based on the mode of transport. Transport infrastructures are polyvalent, that is they serve a multiplicity of purposes for different users; they also determine the degree to which a location is accessible, thus constituting the value of a location. This relationship is widely known as transport-­ land-­use relationship. These infrastructures are the backbone of the economy of any society. For this reason, ensuring a continuous functioning of such infrastructures in every circumstance is very crucial for the economy and societies (Ferrari et al., 2019).

11.2.2 Understanding Extreme Weather Events and the Vulnerability of Transport Infrastructures There is no consensus on the definition of extreme weather events, as the concept is studied through multiple disciplines of inquiry. It has been referred to as ecological discontinuities, surprises, catastrophes or disasters (Kiel et  al., 2016). While there appears to be no consensus on the definition of an extreme weather event, but most definitions reflect a uniformity of conviction that extreme weather events are a rare phenomenon and do not form part of the common or regular climatic occurrences of a region (Mendez-­ Lazaro et  al., 2015; Sousa et  al., 2019). Balasubramanian (2018) defines extreme weather events as unexpected, unusual, unpredictable, severe or unseasonal weather conditions based on the recorded weather history of a location. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) stresses that the categorisation of a weather event as an extreme one may vary from place to place.

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11.2.2.1 Flooding and Heavy Rain According to Pytkova et  al. (2019), the most commonly discussed impact of any interruption to the transport system is the travelled distance. Flooding impacts on travel distance by causing the closure of many alternative routes and also leads to increased fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions through congestion. A number of scholars highlight that extreme weather events such as flooding cause physical damage to transport systems by destroying transport infrastructure (Agarwal et  al., 2005; Chung, 2012; Hooper et al., 2014; Yin et al., 2016). Ismail and Ghani (2017) provide details about how flooding destroys transport infrastructure. Flooding causes ‘edge cracking’, which usually starts as curved shapes at the edge of the pavement, which expand from the edge. This cracking results from a lack of support at the road shoulder, which is due to erosion and excess moisture. Alam and Zakaria (2002) categorised the damages caused by flooding into two parts. The first damages are those involving the failure of the embankment on which the roads are constructed. The second category of damage involves failure of the pavement structure. In this case, one or more layers of pavement structure may collapse resulting in the damage to the road and to the surface layer (US Department of Agriculture, 1969). 11.2.2.2 C  old Wave, Fog, Snowstorms and Avalanches Barnett et  al. (2012) define a cold wave as a weather event characterised by temperature below a cold threshold for two or more consecutive days. The first occurrence of low temperatures at 0 °C can contract rails, causing gaps and misalignment of the track. Increased frequencies of such freeze-thaw cycles result in premature deterioration of road and runway pavements, especially where subgrades are composed of fine-grained and saturated materials, which are conducive to frost heaving and thaw weakening (Mills & Andrey, 2002). The impact of an avalanche on the road network is generally minor especially when it comes to road infrastructure (Stethem et al., 2003). Its impact, however, is felt

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more on circulation, whereby the mass of snow, ice or rocks fall on the road or railway, thus interrupting circulation of vehicles and trains (Leone et al., 2014).

11.2.2.3 Hailstorms, Thunderstorm and Dust Storms Tornadoes are the most violent of all atmospheric storms, and therefore, it is worth considering their impact on the transportation system and on transport infrastructure, in particular. Wind throws debris onto roads and runways, leading to road and airport closures; wind also overturns railway carriages (Rauhala & Mantyniemi, 2010). Further, in the case of hurricane Katrina and Rita, it was found that transportation infrastructures such as bridges were severely impacted (Grenzeback & Lukmann, 2008). 11.2.2.4 Heat Waves and Droughts It is often difficult to draw a distinction between heat waves and droughts, but heat waves accentuate the severity of drought. Heat waves have a wide impact on transportation systems and on the transport infrastructure in particular. When it comes to the road infrastructure, heat waves lead to the buckling of road surfaces. The road infrastructure is further damaged by pavement softening, flushing or bleeding of asphalt from older or poorly constructed pavements, and thermal expansion on bridge expansion joints and paved surfaces. Heat also affects the rail transport infrastructure by causing rail equipment failure and rail track buckling (Enei et al., 2011).

11.2.3 Policy and Legislative Framework for Transport Infrastructure Provision and Maintenance in Zimbabwe The transport sector in Zimbabwe comprises five modes, namely road, rail, aviation, inland water and pipeline transport. The African Development Fund (ADF)’s Transport Sector Master Plan Study Report for Zimbabwe (ADF, 2013) asserts that the road network excluding urban roads totals

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76,241 km of which 9256 km or 12.1% are bitumen surfaced. The rail network comprises a total 3100 km of Cape Gauge standard of which 340 km between Beitbridge and Bulawayo, built under the Build Operate and Transfer (BOT) arrangement is privately owned and operated by the BeitbridgeBulawayo Railway (BBR) Company, providing transport services to passengers, business and the mining industry. The 2760 km is managed by the Government-owned National Railways of Zimbabwe (NRZ) providing passenger and freight transport services. The aviation sub-sector comprises ten airports, three of which are international airports, namely at Harare, Bulawayo and Victoria Falls, while seven are located at Kariba, Masvingo, Buffalo Range, Mutare, Gweru, Beitbridge and Charles Prince. All ten airports are managed by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). With respect to pipeline transport, Zimbabwe through the National Oil Infrastructure Company (NOIC) controls 21 km of the 287 km oil pipeline running from the Beira port in Mozambique to the Feruka Oil Refinery in Zimbabwe. Water transport is dominated by waterborne tourism, leisure activities, commercial and small-scale fishing and sports on the Kariba Dam and the Zambezi River. There is, however, potential for water transport between Zimbabwe and Zambia, although Zimbabwe is landlocked.

11.2.3.1 Zimbabwe National Transport Policy (2012) The desires of a well-developed, functioning and sound rural transport infrastructure are enshrined in the 2012 National Transport Policy. This policy document, although not yet reviewed since its promulgation, remains the main referral guiding framework for transport infrastructure provision and management in Zimbabwe. Since the study area for this book is largely rural, it is imperative to focus on selected rural transport infrastructural planning dictates of the policy. The policy emphasises access to Intermediate Means of Transport (IMTs) such as wheelbarrows, scotch carts and bicycles. Due to the nature of such trips, which are short, the transport needs of the rural population cannot be addressed solely by conventional approaches to planning, which particularly

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emphasise motorised transport at the expense of Non-Motorised Transport, (NMTs). Cognisant of this, the policy encapsulates the following statements and strategies to deal with rural travel and transport (Table 11.1). A closer look at the strategies shows that the policy mainly focuses on transport modes suitable for rural travel such as IMTs and capacitating the institutions involved in rural road infrastructure. The policy pays little attention to infrastructural resilience issues in the wake of natural environmental calamities, such as cyclone Idai. Rather, the issue of rural transport infrastructure is dealt with in a more nuanced way. For example, one of the policy strategies is to encourage Rural District Councils (RDCs) to provide funding and support for the provision and maintenance of local rural transport infrastructure. Analytically, this strategy appears to be inadequate in addressing severe environmental calamities such as cyclone Idai, because disasters of such magnitude require going beyond funding from local authorities to innovative ways of accompanying such efforts with disaster preparedness plans.

11.2.3.2 T  he Roads Act, Chapter (13:18) This is the primary piece of legislation that provides for the planning, development, construction, rehabilitation and management of the roads network of Zimbabwe, as well as the regulation of the standards applicable to safety and environmental considerations. The Act clearly defines a road authority in Table 11.2. The Act further provides for the functions of the road authorities and more importantly establishes the Zimbabwe National Road Administration and the Road Fund. 11.2.3.3 R  ural District Councils Act, Chapter (29:13) Section 58 of the Rural District Councils Act, Chapter (29:13) empowers Rural District Councils of Zimbabwe to appoint a roads committee for the

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Table 11.1  Zimbabwe transport policy statements and strategies on rural travel Policy statement 1. Remove the physical barriers, which impede accessibility of the rural people

2. Promote and create an enabling environment for the use of appropriate and affordable means of transport

3. Minimise the adverse impact of local rural transport on the environment

Strategy Develop appropriate infrastructures such as footpaths, tracks and footbridges Use labour-based technologies to develop requisite infrastructure Mobilise the participation of local people to develop and maintain sustainable road infrastructure through incentives Develop conventional road infrastructure in remote rural areas to improve accessibility to motorised traffic Provide for scotch carts and wheelbarrows in order to enhance accessibility and minimise conflict with vehicular traffic Embark on education campaigns to promote the use of intermediate means of transport Provide incentives for the manufacture of appropriate intermediate means of transport at local level by small-scale producers/ manufacturers Facilitate credits to rural households for the procurement of intermediate means of transport (IMT) Encourage the establishment of IMT repair workshops at rural service centres and in villages Train local rural transport infrastructure development and maintenance teams in environmental conservation methods Promote the use of motorcycles and intermediate means of transport such as bicycles, wheel burrows and scotch carts Ban the use of sledges as a means of transport (continued)

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Table 11.2  Road authorities in Zimbabwe

Table 11.1 (continued) Policy statement 4. Promote utilisation and efficiency of rural local transport services

5. Improve the funding of local rural travel and transport infrastructure projects

6. Strengthen the capacity of local authorities and local communities to plan, implement and manage local transport projects

Strategy Encourage incentives to transport operators to provide bus services in remote rural areas Encourage operators to increase frequency of bus services Earmark part of the Rural Development Fund (RDF) towards the provision of local rural travel and transport infrastructure Accessibility issues should be made a condition for approving projects that qualify for District Development Grants (DDGs) and District Development Loans (DDLs) Encourage Rural District Councils (RDCs) to provide funding and support for the provision and maintenance of local rural transport infrastructure Train local authorities’ staff and communities in labour-based technology to enable them to provide and maintain transport infrastructure at the local level Encourage and empower local communities to address basic accessibility problems within their communities Conduct seminars, workshops and/or demonstrations aimed at transferring appropriate technology to local communities to enable them to implement local transport projects Train rural local artisans at vocational training centres in basic engineering and welding skills to enhance their capacity to manufacture intermediate means of transport at local level

Source: Zimbabwe National Transport Policy (2012)

Road type (i) Regional, primary and secondary roads (ii) Urban

(iii) Urban or tertiary roads which are not regional, primary or secondary roads

Road authority Department of Roads Municipality, Town Council, Local Board or Rural District Council The District Development Fund (DDF)

Source: The Roads Act, Chapter (13:18)

consideration of all matters relating to the construction and maintenance of roads in a council area. This ensures that rural roads infrastructure is given a more localised approach with the assistance of the central Government through the District Development Fund. However, the issue of infrastructural construction and maintenance in the wake of natural disasters is not explicit in the act, and roads committee are not given powers to impose levies, rates, special rates, rents charges, to borrow money, to expropriate property or to make by-laws unless authorised to do so by the Minister. Thus, making impractical the maintenance of rural and urban roads and reducing road resilience in the wake of adverse climate conditions.

11.2.4 Institutional Framework for Rural Road Infrastructure Provision and Maintenance in Zimbabwe The institutional framework for rural road infrastructure provision and maintenance in Zimbabwe is underscored by policies which lead to the creation of institutions characterised by rules and regulations setting clearly the role of every agent involved in the provision and maintenance of rural road infrastructure. These regulations constitute reference points for individuals and organisations to implement, monitor and review transport policy and strategies within a specific

11  Planning for Climate and Cyclone Resilient Transport Infrastructures in Southern Africa: Lessons… Table 11.3  Key state and non-state actors in transport infrastructural provision and management Actor The Ministry of Transport and Infrastructural Development

Key roles in transport infrastructure planning and maintenance The overarching role is the development and administration of policies and statutes that guide transport infrastructural development in Zimbabwe The Departments of Roads (DoR) and the Zimbabwe National Roads Administration (ZINARA) are key departments directly involved in the planning and development of transport infrastructure The DoR’s mission is to effectively and efficiently plan, design, supervise and maintain a world class road infrastructure To achieve this mission, the DoR is mandated:–  To construct public roads and bridges in order to enhance connectivity  To maintain public roads and bridges to ensure safety, trafficability and reliability  To mobilise additional funding for the construction and maintenance of public roads and bridges through the user-pays principle  To provide surfaced roads from growth points to provincial centres and upgrade all earth roads to all weather roads To mobilise both public and private sector participation in promoting sustainable economic growth through the provision of a flawless road network ZINARA is responsible for managing the road fund and disbursing to the following road authorities: Department of Roads in the Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure Development. It is responsible for trunk roads; Rural District and Urban Councils and District Development Fund. It is also responsible for urban and rural roads respectively (continued)

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Table 11.3 (continued) Actor The Ministry of Local Government, Public Works and National Housing

The Infrastructural Development Bank of Zimbabwe

Key roles in transport infrastructure planning and maintenance The ministry is involved in transport infrastructure in that it houses the urban and rural local authorities who preside over urban and rural councils. These constituencies encapsulate roads and other transport infrastructures The ministry also houses the Department of Civil Protection, a national organ established to carry out the overall co-ordination of all relevant disaster management stakeholders In terms of funding, the Department of Civil Protection administers the National Civil Protection Fund which receives money from the Central Government. The fund is applied to the development and promotion of Civil Protection activities throughout the country The ministry is also directly involved in the provision of public transport in respective local authority areas through the state-owned parastatal known as the Zimbabwe United Passenger Company (ZUPCO) The bank facilitates construction and/or rehabilitation of roads, airports, rail, inland waterways and pipeline transport systems It is the lead financial advisor to the Government of Zimbabwe vis infrastructural development issues, transport included The Bank monitors and implements aviation sector projects funded through the Government Public Sector Investment Programme (PISP)

spatial context. Table 11.3 illustrates a combination of state and non-state actors in Zimbabwe and the key roles of each of these institutions in guiding transport infrastructure planning, management and maintenance in Zimbabwe.

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Clearly, the actors in transport infrastructure and maintenance in Zimbabwe are many. Under these circumstances, there is often duplication of effort and conflicting roles that may lead to lack of accountability when urgent responses are required such as with disruptions caused by extreme weather events including cyclones. In addition, there seems to be no policy or an Act of parliament that regulates the commitment of these actors.

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A detailed methodology for this research is outlined in the introductory chapter of this book. The study was conducted in two districts (Chipinge and Chimanimani) in Manicaland Province of Zimbabwe. These two districts were purposefully selected because they were severely affected by cyclone Idai. Figure 11.1 shows the connectivity of the various human settlements in the Chimanimani precinct consisting of villages and

business centres. These human settlements are connected by a road and telecommunication network largely destroyed by cyclone Idai, thereby making it difficult for disaster relief efforts to reach the affected people. Figure 11.1 shows that the road network in Chimanimani is characterised by undulating and steep slopes along a mountain range. A number of human settlements are serviced by the road network designed to ensure connectivity within the Chimanimani Valley and externally. Fieldwork was done in cyclone Idai hotspots (Chipinge and Chimanimani) in Zimbabwe for a period of 3 weeks in October 2019. It was comprised of data collection techniques such as interviews, field observations and photography. Interviews were conducted with 218 people directly affected by cyclone Idai in the Chipinge and Chimanimani districts of Zimbabwe. These individuals were able to provide first-hand accounts of the impact of the cyclone on human settlements particularly the damages incurred

Fig. 11.1 Connectivity in the Chimanimani precinct before cyclone Idai

Source: Manicaland Province Cyclone Consolidate Report as of 20 May 2019: 19

11.3 Research Methodology

Idai

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and loss of lives. Data on infrastructure damages was mostly obtained through secondary data and observation of realities. However, in most instances, damaged road networks hampered accessibility to the cyclone Idai hotspots. In addition to field-based research, a thorough review of secondary data helped to triangulate evidence. Since some of the affected places were unreachable, reviewing secondary data enabled the research team to obtain data from government publications, mostly progress reports from the government disaster response team. These reports provided a broader overview of damages, enabled quantification of the damaged roads and estimated budgets for restoration of road infrastructure. In order to produce visual images of the state of road infrastructure before and after the cyclone as well as the exact location of these elements, Google maps were adopted and modified to illustrate the magnitude of the destruction of road transport infrastructures. Use of appropriate technologies was a critical planning methodological element that enabled visual experiences of spaces otherwise unreachable due to extensive damage to road infrastructure.

11.4 Findings on the Scope and Extent of Infrastructure Damage Before cyclone Idai hits the human settlements in Chimanimani and Chipinge, residents enjoyed some level of internal and external connectivity provided by the use of different forms of transport including minibus taxis, buses, private vehicles and the unregistered taxis popularly known as mushikashika in vernacular Ndau. The road network and road infrastructure in these areas were disrupted, thereby disconnecting these human settlements from the rest of the country. It is also evident that connectivity was disabled because of emergent gullies, which destroyed roads and bridges (Fig. 11.2). Figure 11.3 traces the path of destruction by cyclone Idai in the

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Ngangu precinct. The road infrastructures which experienced the greatest destruction were bridges, submerged by high volumes of water from flash floods. This demonstrates the importance of constant monitoring and maintenance of road infrastructures to allow for resilience during irregular high volumes of water flows. Similarly, cyclone Idai left a trail of destruction on the road infrastructure in the Nyahode precinct, also identified as a hotspot in Chimanimani District. Cyclone Idai destroyed road infrastructure including paved and unpaved surfaces that acted as the major access points to the human settlements in the precinct. These damages were most severely felt through bridges and culverts wash aways, followed by pavement wash aways (Fig. 11.4).

11.4.1 Measuring the Impact of Cyclone Idai on Transport Systems The greatest impact that resulted from cyclone Idai in Manicaland was the ‘cut off’ effect on the road network, inevitably leading to serious accessibility barriers to the affected districts. The inaccessibility problem was mostly experienced in the northern part of the study area. An estimated 16 road sections, with an estimated total length of 337 km, were damaged and became inaccessible. Furthermore, a total of eight bridges in the Chimanimani and Chipinge districts were washed away. This led to the major inaccessibility of social services such as schools, clinics and churches.

11.4.2 Government of Zimbabwe’s Response to Infrastructural Damage Reconstruction of the roads in the Chimanimani and Chipinge districts was aided by the Zimbabwe National Army in collaboration with the South African Army (Table  11.4). For example, the South African Army collaborated with the ZNA

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Fig. 11.2  Ngangu precinct before the cyclone in 2013 and after the cyclone in 2019

Source: Manicaland Province Cyclone Idai Disaster Consolidated Report as of 20 May 2019: 24–25

Fig. 11.3  The path of destruction by cyclone Idai in the Ngangu precinct

Source: Manicaland Province Cyclone Idai Disaster Consolidated Report as of 20 May 2019: 24–25

to construct 2 bailey bridges over the Kopa and Nyahode rivers. The SA Army supplied most of the materials and some of the equipment. The GoZ supplied a D8 Caterpillar, a heavy-duty excavator and fuel to facilitate speedy implementation of the works. The private sector also mobilised their equipment for the work (see Table 11.5 for a list of companies involved in the work). In response to the government initiative to re-­ construct damaged roads, private companies offered their support by contributing road equipment. Table 11.5 demonstrates the role of the private sector in provisioning of road infrastructure

urgently needed after the cyclone. This is also a pointer to what the private sector can achieve when they are involved in the planning and maintenance of road infrastructure, not necessarily during emergency periods, but as routine activities that enhance resilience of transport infrastructure in the long term. Table 11.5 above makes it evident that most companies were more inclined to contribute tippers than the other road equipment as listed in the table. Tippers constituted 59% of road equipment contributed, while no company contributed iron rollers. This also shows a lack of equipment for

11  Planning for Climate and Cyclone Resilient Transport Infrastructures in Southern Africa: Lessons…

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Fig. 11.4  Aggregated nature of infrastructure damages

Source: Government of Zimbabwe, Cyclone Idai Consolidated Report Manicaland Province as of 20 September 2019: 10

maintenance and construction of road infrastructure by the mandated government departments. For example, the CMED only contributed a single grader, yet road construction is one of their major key tasks. The initial response of the Zimbabwean government to the infrastructure damages caused by cyclone Idai was of a temporary nature to facilitate accessibility to areas that would have otherwise remained unreachable. However, as of May 2019, Manicaland province published a ­consolidated report outlining permanent works to be put on tenders (Table 11.6). The possibility of putting permanent works on tenders was delayed prioritising temporary works in order to speed up access to inaccessible areas, because tendering processes are often bureaucratic. However, this also showed government efforts to rehabilitate damaged roads to some extent. Provisioning of temporary access was a reprieve that was much needed during the disaster, but this could not provide a resilient road infrastructure to last for longer periods. The cost of the work done on the roads so far was largely of a temporary nature. While only 22 different roads were targeted for temporary repairs, a lot of inter-

nal roads were also destroyed beyond repair. Permanent works to restore most roads and bridges requires huge capital and may take some time to complete. From the analysis of the damage to roads infrastructure described in Table 11.4, landslides were the major causes of destruction in Chimanimani and Chipinge districts.

11.5 Discussion of Findings Cyclones Idai left a deep footprint of destruction in the Chimanimani and Chipinge districts of Zimbabwe, as shown in the findings presented in the previous sections. While Zimbabwe has a brilliant policy and institutional framework for disaster and risk preparedness, the capabilities of these were tested by the magnitude of the disaster experienced. This shows that excellent plans and frameworks do not automatically translate into positive action, but rather are there to guide the requisite action needed in the face of pending disasters. The study findings suggest that the level of preparedness as measured by the response time to affected areas was low. The reason could be that

T. Gumbo et al.

170 Table 11.4  Reconstruction works of damaged roads by the Government of Zimbabwe

District Chipinge

Length of road section (km) 54

Chipinge/Chimanimani

35

Hearthfield – Peacock

Chimanimani

15

Wengezi – Skyline

Chimanimani

64

Landslide and washed away bridge approaches

Skyline – Charter

Chimanimani

9

 Landslides and washed away culverts  Bridge approaches washed away

Charter – Chimanimani Charter – Peacock

Chimanimani

10

Chimanimani

5

Nyahodi (Machongwe) – Rusitu – Kurwaisimba

Chimanimani

23

Christine – Kopa

Chipinge/Chimanimani

26

 Culverts washed away  Cracked road as a result of landslide threats  Bridge approaches washed away  Landslides and culverts washed away  Nyahodi Bridge No.4 washed away Landslides and wash aways

Kopa – Vimba Pry Sch

Chimanimani

23

Landslides and culvert washed away

Kopa-Vimba Pry Sch. – Vimba hops

Chimanimani

23

Road washed away by Rusitu River

Road name Birchenough Bridge – Chipinge (Jopa) Jopa – Skyline

Nature of damages Comments Soaked roadbed Detour constructed material Landslides and culvert washed away

Landslides removed and culverts repaired Detour constructed for signage Charter section Landslides removed and detours constructed  Bridge approaches still to be done  Landslides removed  Culverts are still to be repaired  Bridge approaches have been backfilled temporarily  Detours constructed  Repair works still to be done  Detour constructed

 Machongwe – Nyahodi No. 4 Bridge  Nyahodi Bridge No.4 – Rusitu  Landslide removed and temporal crossings provided  Landslides removed and accesses provided  New road being opened (continued)

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Table 11.4 (continued)

Road name Kopa – Hlabiso – Kurwaisimba – Muchadziya – Rusitu

District Chipinge/Chimanimani

Length of road section (km) 22

Kopa – Mutsvangwa

Chimanimani

17

Lisnacloon – Cashel

Chimanimani

16

Cashel – Chikukwa

Chimanimani

33

Chikukwa – Chimanimani CBD

Chimanimani

22

Nyahodi bridge No. 4 – Kopa

Chimanimani

16

– Nyabamba Bridge Muuyuweburi – Muroti

Chimanimani

45

Samhutsa – Ngaone

Chipinge

26

Chitora – Mabwere

Mutare

15

Nature of damages Comments Landslides and Kopa – Hlabiso wash aways Hlabiso – Kurwaisimba Road clearing, opening and backfilling 6/10 km Kurwaisimba – Muchadziya  Landslides Landslides and cleared culvert wash  Wash aways aways backfilled  Road accessible to Mutsvangwa School  Culvert crossings Landslides and wash aways repaired temporarily  Works still in Landslides and wash aways progress 7 km to be done Landslides and  Landslides wash aways removed  Gravelling to be done  Landslides and  Landslides wash aways cleared  Wash aways attended –  Construction of  Mhakwe approaches Bridge complete approaches  25 km motorised damaged graded  45 km pavement damaged 7 km bush cleared  26 km pavement washed away  Masonga piped drift damaged  Gombati piped drift damaged  Murare Bridge  Murare Bridge repair complete approaches  10 km pavement damaged reshaped  15 km pavement damaged (continued)

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172 Table 11.4 (continued)

Road name Gutaurare – Hlimalaya

District Mutare

Length of road section (km) 36

Chimhenga – Mutambara

Mutare/Chimanimani

22

Nature of damages  Chiruwiro drift washed away  Pavement washed away  22 km pavement damaged  Wengezi piped drift approaches damaged

Comments  Construction of Chiruwiro drift at 60% complete  21 km reshaped  22 km reshaped Wengezi piped drift approaches construction complete

Table 11.5  Companies that contributed road equipment Equipment supplied Tippers Excavators

Company Bitumen World JR Goddard (Econet) Green fuel Fossil ZINWA ZCDC ASPHALT product Masimba construction Release power BSCC ZBCA Zefis Mc Sino Africa CMED Exodus

Dozers

Front end loader Hired by department of roads at non-profit rate Had a full complement of road equipment

TLBS

3 5 4 2 2

1

1 1 1

1

Graders Iron roller

1

1

1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1

Source: Manicaland Province Cyclone Idai Disaster Consolidated Report (20 May 2019: 36–37)

the Department of Civil Protection underestimated the magnitude of the disaster, because such an event has never happened in the country’s history. In addition, the affected communities were aware of the pending cyclone but were also complacent in their approaches to evacuate the disaster risk areas. Under these circumstances, a framework of action to restore connectivity in the affected communities requires urgent attention

and less of a blame game, because many access roads were destroyed, and rehabilitation works are yet to commence due to financial challenges. According to the Disaster Risk Reduction Report for Zimbabwe (2018), the Government of Zimbabwe made attempts to integrate lessons learnt from past major emergencies and disasters such as droughts, cyclones and major public transportation disasters, to examine the extent of

11  Planning for Climate and Cyclone Resilient Transport Infrastructures in Southern Africa: Lessons… Table 11.6  Permanent works to be put on tenders 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Project Wengezi – Skyline Skyline – Chimanimani Cashel – Chimanimani Rusape –Nyanga Road Honde – Valley Road Skyline – Waterfalls Birchenough – Jopa – (Eastern Border Road) Chimanimani – Tilbury 2 Chimanimani – Tilbury 1 Tanganda – Halt (Inc. approaches) Nyahodi 4 Nyahodi 5 Nyahodi 4 approaches Nyahodi 5 approaches Machongwe – Kopa – Jopa Bvumba Road

Source: Manicaland Province Cyclone Idai Disaster Consolidated Report as of 20 May 2019: 37

damage caused and to formulate appropriate strategies. The disaster review/lessons learnt seminars resulted in the improved early warning system of the country’s hydro-meteorological disasters such as flooding, cyclones and droughts. The Meteorological Services Department closely monitors the weather and is mandated to regularly give updates and warning information through the laid down channels of communication. The general public is informed of any threatening events through pre-set channels of communication.

11.5.1 Discussions on Improved Measures in Planning and Implementing Transport Infrastructure in Southern Africa Cyclone Idai has demonstrated how climate change could have a devastating effect on transport infrastructure and the resulting accessibility problems; hence, the need exists for improved measures in planning and implementing resilient infrastructure. One step towards this is to set up a

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framework to prevent and protect transport infrastructure from damage. The foregoing evidence has shown that Zimbabwe like many other developing countries lacks practical tools to assess the vulnerability of transport infrastructural assets, thus allowing them to easily link their assets to potential impacts. García & Papí (2015) proposed a road assets vulnerability framework for identifying cost-effective solutions of adaptation. The criteria used in selecting the preferred approaches include availability, accessibility, transparency, reasonableness, scalability, robustness, costeffectiveness and modularity. Both budgetary and climate conditions are variable and hence have to be considered when assessing the vulnerability of transportation infrastructure assets. The next step in the adaptation process should entail a probabilistic model of risk triggered by the type of climate impact identified. Clear identification of risk per type of infrastructure and geographic area will be relevant for discussion with road managers and subsequent definition of priorities. Robustness of the cost assumptions and estimations will be reviewed as part of the Risk Mitigation activities. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) emphasises the need to map present and future climate variability and change risks (UNDP, 2011). Therefore, central and local governments will need to identify the possible risks that different kinds of transport infrastructures will face over the next 20 years or so as a consequence of climate variability and change. These are the primary physical structures, technical facilities and systems that are socially, economically or operationally essential for the functioning of a community, both in routine and extreme emergency circumstances. They include transport systems, airports and seaports, electricity, water and communications systems, hospitals and health clinics, and centres for fire, police and public administration services. Moreover, the role of Public-Private-­ Partnerships in financing road infrastructure efforts cannot be underestimated. The findings from Chipinge and Chimanimani districts demonstrate that financial constraints can be a barrier to provisioning infrastructure services.

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11.6 Conclusions In conclusion, this chapter has outlined planning and implementation considerations for the development of a transport infrastructure, which is resilient to adverse climate conditions and cyclone weather patterns in southern Africa. This is important in light of the aftermath of cyclones Idai and Kenneth, which swept through the Manicaland province in March 2019. The chapter has highlighted the existence of a strong institutional framework for the development of a resilient transport infrastructure and its associated policies on disaster and risk preparedness in Zimbabwe, and in Manicaland in particular. However, the provisions of the said policies are less effective due to weak implementation measures. The chapter has demonstrated how the aftermath of cyclone Idai exposed the state of transport infrastructure in the study area prior to the occurrence of the event. This was especially relevant when considering the complete disconnection of certain settlements due to the nature and intensity of infrastructure damages incurred in the study area. Landslides were the major causes of destruction of road infrastructure accompanied by the washing away of roads, bridges and culverts. The chapter also pointed to the unpreparedness of the Zimbabwean government in terms of infrastructure development funding, as reconstruction works of a permanent nature have been delayed due to financial constraints. Thus, the chapter recommended the need to make provision for infrastructure reconstruction in national disaster relief funds. It emphasised the importance of designing and developing road infrastructures in a manner that prepares them for a wide range of future scenarios, as there are many uncertainties about the future of climate change. It has brought to the readers’ attention, the need to implement management measures and structural measures, especially in the maintenance of bridges. The chapter has highlighted the necessity to encourage private sector involvement, not only during emergency responses to extreme weather events but also during the implementation of management and structural measures to enhance the resilience of infrastructure in the long run. The paper has also

recommended the development of methodologies and tools for road infrastructure vulnerability assessment. Assessment of climate change risks will need to become part of the wider risk management processes carried out by transportation authorities. Moreover, the design of Smart Transportation Infrastructures would systematically mitigate climate change risks at every stage of the infrastructure management process: planning, design, construction, operation and ­ maintenance.

11.7 Recommendations There are great lessons to learn from the Manicaland experience in Zimbabwe in the aftermath of cyclone Idai so far as the planning and implementation of climate-resilient road infrastructure is concerned. In light of the remarks highlighted in the findings of the study, the following recommendations are provided as lessons learnt from the Manicaland, Zimbabwe experience. These can be relevant in planning and implementing road infrastructures resilient to extreme weather events, especially in the context of developing countries. It is recommended that: • The road infrastructure providers including the government and the private sector must collaboratively draft a long-term road infrastructure maintenance plan and deliver the targets not so long in future. This is because most of the road rehabilitation works done by the Government in conjunction with the private sector were meant to serve for a limited duration during the disaster and thus did not provide the much-needed resilience. • National disaster relief funds should make provision for infrastructure reconstruction, considering that extreme weather events with high intensity would always result in infrastructure destruction regardless of prior structural adaptation measures that were incorporated in infrastructure design and construction. • Infrastructure needs to be designed and developed in a manner that prepares it for a wide range of future scenarios, as there are many uncertainties about the future of climate change.

11  Planning for Climate and Cyclone Resilient Transport Infrastructures in Southern Africa: Lessons…

• Structural and management measures need to be incorporated simultaneously in planning, designing, building and operating climate-­ resilient infrastructure. • Management measures and structural measures should be implemented, especially in the maintenance of bridges. These measures may consist of changing maintenance schedules and adaptive management to account for uncertainty in the future, and raising the height of bridges to account for sea-level rise. • Private sector involvement should be encouraged, not only during emergency responses to extreme weather events but also during the development and implementation of management and structural measures aimed at enhancing the resilience of infrastructure in the long run.

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Impacts of Cyclone Idai on Human Settlements in Zimbabwe

12

Emaculate Ingwani, Trynos Gumbo, Joseph Kamuzhanje, and Innocent Chirisa

Abstract

Adverse weather and natural disasters frequently ravage the world with severe loss of human lives, livestock and infrastructure. This book chapter analyses the impact of cyclone Idai on human settlements in Zimbabwe in March 2019. The impact of the cyclone was widely documented; however, its consequences on human settlements received little academic attention. The book chapter is based on empirical evidence collected in October 2019 from the Chimanimani and Chipinge districts using interviews, surveys and observations. Literature from government publications assisted in the triangulation of narratives from affected individuals. The data were analysed using variables on human settlements. Relevant themes flowing from the perceptions of the affected people were analysed to explain the impact of the cyclone. Findings revealed that the trail of destruction varied depending on location and types of human settlement  structures. Human Settlements in E. Ingwani () University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa T. Gumbo · J. Kamuzhanje University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] I. Chirisa University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe

low-lying sites such as valleys and water ways were the most affected. This book chapter recommends the need to improve site planning of human settlements and to make scientifically informed decisions using relevant technologies. Tried and tested planning and development techniques (including relocation) must be adopted to guarantee the safety of human settlements. Keywords

Cyclone Idai · Human settlements · Participatory land-use planning · Participatory geographical information systems

12.1 Introduction Adverse weather conditions and natural disasters of late have frequently ravaged many parts of the world with severe losses of human lives, livestock and destruction of infrastructure. One such recent extreme weather phenomenon that had devastating consequences not only on people’s lives but also their habitation was the cyclone Idai (CI), which affected at least four countries in Southern Africa. In early 2019, CI ravaged human communities leaving a trail of extensive destruction including loss of life, property and infra-

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_12

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structure (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2019; Zimbabwe Human Rights Commission, 2019). This chapter specifically unravels the negative impacts of CI on human settlements in the Chimanimani and Chipinge districts in Zimbabwe during the period of February–March 2019. With regard to the human settlement destruction in the two districts, this chapter appropriately presents CI not only as a wicked problem which emanates from natural disasters, but also a challenge associated with poor planning, which thus requires human interventions from stakeholders before, during and after natural disasters. While the impacts of CI on human settlements were variously perceived and experienced, this chapter focuses on the negative impact of the cyclone on human settlements form, rather than glorifying them. The chapter presents the human settlements form of the affected communities in Chimanimani and Chipinge districts; identifies the implications of human settlement form of the affected communities; and suggests strategies for strengthening spatial planning imperatives as efforts to relocate affected communities are implemented. The assumption is that the affected communities of Chimanimani and Chipinge districts need relocation to safer and secure zones in case of a repeated cyclone. The districts of Chimanimani and Chipinge are located in the Manicaland Province in the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe, home to Shona indigenes of the Manyika and Ndau origin. According to the Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT, 2012), Manicaland Province contains close to two million people. Chipinge and Chimanimani are two of the seven districts in the province administered by Rural District Councils (RDCs). These districts are located at the border separating Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Chimanimani District is mostly mountainous and constitutes rural and urban human settlements located approximately 150  km from Mutare, the provincial capital of Manicaland Province. The Chipinge District is located approximately 170 km from Mutare and hosts flat plains of land used for human settlements and commercial farming activities. These include tea estates, forestry, cattle breeding

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and fruit farming. In the Chipinge District, the destructive impact of CI was mainly on agricultural production and infrastructure, whereas in Chimanimani the destruction was an interplay of complex factors embedded in human settlement form. Chimanimani and Chipinge RDCs comprise both urban and rural areas that are referred to as communal lands,  and are administered through both the RDCs and traditional authority. There are several Chiefs under the Chimanimani RDC, and these include Chikukwa, Muusha, Ngorima, Mutambara, Saurombe and Ndima. The Chikukwa communal area is an extensive rural settlement located closer to the Chipinge District. The most dominant land-use activity is farming – both subsistence and commercial. Charleswood is one of the commercial farms under Chief Chikukwa, which experienced destruction of farmland, houses, supporting infrastructure and institutions as a result of CI. From the historical narratives, the destruction caused by floods as a result of CI was more acute on human settlements located on water ways, flood plain, valleys or adjacent to mountains. Chimanimani is also largely regarded as rural in spatial  planning terms, and there are nodal points typically urban centres or commercial centres that act as centres of influence in the district. Since the district is located in a predominantly rural area, land is administered under the system of communal and customary land tenure. Most of the human settlements in Chimanimani District were established during the colonial era and experience spatial growth to date. Historical narratives illustrate which of the affected communities in Chimanimani District existed during the colonial era as rural villages, and which spontaneously erupted into modern human settlements regulated by planning laws such as the Regional Town and Country Planning (RTCP) Act Chapter 29:12 of 2001; the RDC Act Chapter 29:13 of 2002; the Traditional Leaders (TL) Act Chapter 29:17 of 2001; and Communal Lands (CL) Act Chapter 20:04 of 2002. This chapter highlights the impact of CI; the resulting impact on human settlements; and the strategies which can be applied for successful relocation of

12  Impacts of Cyclone Idai on Human Settlements in Zimbabwe

affected communities in Chipinge and Chimanimani districts and other communities experiencing similar circumstances. The underlying assumption for this chapter is that well planned and located human settlement form and structure can withstand the likelihood of destruction by cyclones and floods.

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activities, population densities and location; and are also understood differently globally. Human settlements are thus either formal or informal (John, 2012). Whatever categorisation is used, human settlements are spaces habited by communities, and are seen as the totality of human community (be it a city, town or village). They embrace all the social organisation and materials from economic, environmental and 12.2 Literature Review cultural elements which sustain human living (UN-Habitat, 1976). Human settlements therefore This section focuses on literature related to entail shelter with regards to where and how it is human settlement form and structure, and the provided, and its resultant form. Shelter is a basic characteristics and occurrences of cyclones. In human need like the other essentials such as the discussions, case studies from Zimbabwe water, food and clothing (Gumbo, 2010). In this were reviewed in order to understand the impact respect, observations and considerations of the of cyclones on human settlement form. However, standards and regulations which guide the lessons were learnt on developing human development of human settlements is therefore settlements that are resilient to natural hazards critical. This clearly shows that development of and disasters such as cyclones and floods. human settlements cannot be isolated from spatial planning, development regulations, and standards (Gumbo, 2014a, b; Gumbo & Onatu, 12.2.1 The Concept of Human 2015). Settlements According to Keeble (1969), spatial planning is an activity, process, an art and a science, which There are many ways of categorising human set- influences the ordering of land-uses and siting of tlements. For example, classifications can be human settlements for aesthetic and convenience informed by the rural-urban dichotomy where purposes. As such, spatial planning sets standards human settlements can be rural, urban or peri-­ and guidelines on human settlement planning urban (Zimbabwe National Human Settlement through functions such as building codes, Policy, 2019). Rural areas are spaces that are by-laws, siting and appropriate building characterised by low population densities; lower materials. In some cases, these spatial planning order goods and services; scattered villages; and imperatives are overlooked and never applied due farmland. In many cases, livelihood activities in to several factors, leading to disastrous rural areas are predominantly based on agriculture consequences for human settlements (Hungwe, (Hungwe, 2014; John, 2012; Zimbabwe National 2014; Mwathunga, 2014). Human Settlement Policy, 2019). On the other hand, urban areas are towns or cities with a commercial bias, and orderly settlements that are 12.2.2 Human Settlement Planning in Zimbabwe slowly emerging as primary human living spaces (John, 2012; World Economic Survey, 2013; Zimbabwe National Human Settlement Policy, Human settlement planning is a critical spatial 2019). Peri-urban areas lie in between the rural planning imperative synonymous with settlement and urban zones, and are regarded as zones in making and production of spaces (Center for transition due to the interface of goods and Scientific and Industrial Research, 2005). As services in those spaces (Allen, 2010). These such, human settlement planning seeks to create three categories of spaces for human settlements order and sustainable spaces for habitation. are also distinguishable through land-use Additional factors that are often used to define

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human settlement planning include provisioning of adequate infrastructure and services (water, electricity, sewer, clinics, schools, housing) to the local communities (Sharif, 2018). The quality of these goods and services must be based on standards set. Adequate service provision in urban and rural human settlements is a key mandate of the local authorities in consultation with higher tiers of administration such as provincial and national government. In Zimbabwe, human settlement planning has gone through immense transformation from pre-­ colonial, colonial and post-colonial eras (Munzwa & Jonga, 2010; Tavuyanago & Mbenene, 2008). For example, pre-colonial human settlement planning was shaped by what people could obtain from environmental ecosystems such as rivers, mountains and valleys. This is largely referred to as vernacular planning. Colonial human settlements were simply a creation of colonial rule as people were often forced to settle on spaces identified by the colonial powers to strengthen and perpetuate colonial rule (Mamdani, 1996). Currently, the implementation of spatial planning imperatives in rural areas is no longer as structured and controlled as it was during the colonial era because people have more freedom to locate their settlements. This is largely because of the increase in demand for residential spaces as families grow bigger. The colonial concept of human settlement planning in Zimbabwe was closely linked to the location of many communal areas along corridors of influence. Colonial human settlement planning was therefore influenced by linear settlement patterns, which supported colonial dominance and control. The post-colonial state in Zimbabwe simply adopted the tenets of colonial human settlement planning visible in the perpetuation of the rural-urban dichotomy, and the creation of peri-urban settlements on the outskirts of the urban zone. As such, human settlement planning in contemporary Zimbabwe presents little or no change from the colonial percept, but simply displays an extension of the post-colonial planning legacy (Musandu-Nyamayaro, 2008). For example, in post-independence Zimbabwe, the Growth Point Policy of the 1980s was the

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government’s deliberate effort to separate rural and urban areas by bringing services closer to people living in the rural areas (Wekwete, 1991). It thus concentrated services in defined zones of influence reachable to many rural poor (Helmsing et  al., 1991; Wekwete, 1988). Through such interventions, local communities received services closer to them. The introduction of RDCs ushered in new ways of administering rural and urban spaces separately (Wekwete, 1989). The disruption of human settlement planning in Zimbabwe arose when the Fast Track Land Resettlement Programme was implemented in the early 2000s. This resulted in human settlements reorganising along corridors of influence such as main roads – the main road bias (Chambers, 2010). In addition, agricultural farmlands were turned into residential spaces contrary to the planning regulations and standards. A perpetuation of the colonial tenets on human settlement planning is therefore evident in most human settlements in the country. Ultimately, human settlement planning in Zimbabwe is solely a government function guided by promulgated Acts of Parliament and policies applied differently in rural, urban and peri-urban areas. Laws which regulate human settlement planning are also closely linked to spatial planning and land-use regulatory frameworks. For example, the RTCP Act of 2001; the RDC Act of 2002; the TL Act of 2001 and CL Act of 2002 are used to guide human settlements planning and development across urban, peri-­urban and rural areas. These Acts are however applied uniformly regardless of the differences in the nature and form of human settlements  in these areas. The Urban Councils Act Chapter 29:15 of 1984 remains paramount in the regulation of spatial planning and the creation of new settlements in the urban zones. In the rural areas, application of the planning regulatory frameworks is more organic, informal and mostly guided by local structures of land administration including RDCs and traditional leaders. However, due to corrupt tendencies, some traditional leaders illegally parcel out

12  Impacts of Cyclone Idai on Human Settlements in Zimbabwe

residential land on wetlands, forests, grazing areas and precarious spaces such as hills, mountains and riverbeds (Hungwe, 2014). In urban areas, planning for human settlements is more mechanistic and organised and thus is expected to follow the provisions laid out in council by-laws. For example, most recently, the National Housing Policy of 2014 and the Zimbabwe National Human Settlement Policy of 2019 provide guidelines on housing developments, which promote and encourage incremental and parallel development of human settlements. The regulatory framework on residential development in Zimbabwe emphasises the need to adopt the Plan-Service-Build-Occupy model as opposed to the Occupy-Build-Service-Plan model in human settlement planning (Gumbo, 2015; Sliuzas et  al., 2010). A violation of the Plan-Service-Build-Occupy model in Zimbabwe promotes sub-standard planning functions and the emergence of informal settlements in urban and peri-urban zones of cities. For example, Caledonia, Epworth and Hopley in Harare (Chirisa et  al., 2016). As a result of weak enforcement (or absence) of building regulations in most cities of Zimbabwe, the settlement form exhibits well-planned old cores with new human settlements lining the periphery like onion shells. Meanwhile, the old cores of these cities follow the city by-laws in spatial planning and development. On the other hand, peri-urban settlements lack or have little access to services such as water, electricity, sewerage or road infrastructure. Typically, houses in the peri-urban zones of Zimbabwe surround urban settlements. Most of these houses are built from substandard materials. Clearly, the concepts of human settlement, human settlement planning and human settlement form are differentially experienced in space and time. However, even well-planned human settlements are most unlikely to be spared from the wrath of the brutal impacts of natural disasters such as cyclones and floods. The impacts of these natural hazards are mitigated through observation and application of spatial planning regulatory

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laws, by-laws, policy frameworks and development standards.

12.2.3 Human Settlement Form Human settlement form entails the physical configuration of human habitats. According to the Royal Town Planning Institute (2015), settlement form is viewed as the physical parameters which constitute the built environment including the shape, size, density and spatial configuration of settlements. The World Economic Survey (2013) characterises settlement form as definable through variables, which include aesthetics, pattern, siting/location, shape, size, density, landuse activities, building types, building materials, open spaces and layout. Clearly, the human settlement form is embedded in both tangible and observable representations. In this chapter, the following are variables adopted: pattern, location, density, land-use, building types and building materials. These attributes are key to planning and the development of inclusive, resilient, safe and sustainable human settlements (see Sharif, 2018).

12.2.4 Cyclones and Floods as Natural Disasters – A Spatial Planning Perspective Cyclones and floods prominently feature in discourses on natural disasters. In most cases, the relationship between cyclones and floods is usually not understood. Cyclones originate from oceans and are a meteorological phenomenon characterised by high levels of rain and wind (Mulugeta et  al., 2007). Too much rain and the saturation capacity of land is disabled resulting in flooding. Therefore, floods are simply a result of waterlogging on the land surface. While cyclones and floods differ in terms of magnitude, the impact of these extreme weather events on human settlements is often indistinguishable in terms of destruction of property and loss of human lives (Salami et  al., 2017). From a spatial planning

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perspective, understanding human settlement form is critical to disaggregate the impact of cyclones and floods on human settlements. For example, the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (2016) states that 700,000 people were killed due to natural disasters, and 66% of these were killed by cyclone-induced storms and floods. This clearly shows how devastating these phenomena can be.

12.2.5 The Place of SDG 11 in Human Settlement Planning Sustainable human settlements are defined as spaces for habitation that are capable of withstanding impacts of severe weather conditions from both natural and man-made disasters and underlying fundamentals from the environmental, social, economic and political processes (see Van Niekerk & Le Roux, 2017). Sustainable Development Goals (SGDs) are increasingly gaining prominence in these debates as they provide critical guidelines on matters of global relevance including development of human settlements (United Nations, 2016). This book chapter is inclined to SDG 11, which focuses on inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable cities and communities. Sustainable Development Goal 11 is linked to the social pillar of sustainable development discourses strongly aligned to human settlement form (Sharif, 2018; The World Economic Survey, 2013). For example, in South Africa, the National Development Plan (NDP) corroborates SDG 11 to speak to the provisioning of housing in both quality and quantity aspects. In Zimbabwe, practical implementation and realisation of Vision 2030, SGD 11 and the New Urban Agenda is key to the provisions of the Zimbabwe National Human Settlement Policy of 2019. However, the implementation of the provisions of SDG 11 remains a challenge because it has not been well debated, and fragmented efforts are being made from different structures and ministries. The policy document is not clear on how the Zimbabwean Government will harness and complement efforts from other sectors and government departments to achieve the set goals.

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On the other hand, Zimbabwe is working with a policy document called the Medium-Term Transitional Stabilization Plan (2018–2023), which is more inclined towards economic development; however, little is said about human settlement form. Previously, there was a Human Habitat Office in the country whose focus was on human settlement planning. This office was disbanded around 2012, and the Ministry of Local Government and Public Works is now in charge of human settlements planning. Yet, this ministry remains divided and has assumed different mandates and names during the first decade of the new millennium. For example, it was named the Ministry of Local Government; Ministry of National Housing and Social Amenities; and the Ministry of Rural Development and Culture over the years. Whilst there is the Department of Physical Planning in the Ministry of Local Government and Public Works, its work, efforts and guidance are overshadowed by the other more political units and departments. The ever-changing nature and nomenclature of the Ministry of Local Government and Public Works has a big bearing on the achievement of SDG 11  in the country. Currently, local government functions are separated from planning imperatives for rural spaces. Yet, all these efforts are supposed to propel SDG 11 and government support and commitment towards sustainable human settlement form in rural, urban and peri-urban zones (Sharif, 2018; Zimbabwe National Human Settlement Policy of, 2019). The removal of the traditional leaders from the governance structures in the new Constitution of Zimbabwe Act 20 of 2013 complicated an already difficult situation as checks and balances in planning and settlement development for rural and peri-urban areas were disregarded. These transformations produce disjointed plans, which never create leverage to prioritise human settlements, particularly in rural areas. While the Zimbabwean government subscribes to inclusive human settlements, the rural, urban and peri-urban dichotomy exists. This is due to complexities which prevent the government from devising solidly defined policies and actions on human settlement planning and imple-

12  Impacts of Cyclone Idai on Human Settlements in Zimbabwe

mentation for sustainable, inclusive, resilient and safe communities. The lack of such focus creates a dualized Vision 2030. As a result, RDCs compete for land administration and relevance in rural communities largely considered the electorate. In the interface of the urban and rural areas (the peri-urban), there exists a complex interaction of processes, goods and activities. The sustainability and resilience of human settlements in these zones is often compromised. This presents more factors which militate against the realisation of SDG11. Most of these problems emanate from ministerial decisions and policies that are politicised rather than focusing on the positive output of the key indicators of SDGs on inclusive; safe; resilient and sustainable human settlements.

12.3 Operationalising the Study The methodology for this paper is detailed in Chap. 1 of this book volume. It is important to point out that while CI ravaged many communities in Zimbabwe particularly in Masvingo and Manicaland provinces, this book chapter focuses on experiences from the Chipinge and Chimanimani districts of Manicaland Province where CI caused extensive destruction on human settlements. The form and structure of human settlements are the unit of study in these two districts which were the hot spots of the cyclone. The two case studies were also purposively selected because the relocation and rebuilding of human settlements within the affected communities in the two districts is imperative. It is critical to underline that after the trail of destruction as a result of CI in these two districts, survivors required sustainable human settlements to be able to continue with their lives securely. However, within these two districts, isolated and multiple cases were recorded and purposively selected for their richness in data, which meets the focus of the chapter. All wards in Chimanimani and Chipinge districts constituted the study population. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey and face-to-face interviews. First-hand data were collected from experiences of 218 affected individu-

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als in the Chimanimani and Chipinge districts, who willingly gave their accounts of the impact of the cyclone. In addition, in-depth interviews were carried out with 70 key informants affected to some extent by the cyclone although not directly. These were considered on the basis of their knowledge of CI in the two districts. The primary data collection methods generated firsthand information from the people directly affected by CI rather than relying on other sources. This research plan enabled triangulation of data from different sources and categories of people. Secondary data from relevant databases and government reports on CI were also reviewed. An extensive review of literature helped to extract meaning from the primary data and to inform the development of strategies on sustainable human settlements. While variables on human settlements are non-exhaustive and often contextualised, seven key variables on human settlements were identified and isolated from literature. These were disaggregated for purposes of understanding the impact of CI on human settlements in Chimanimani and are illustrated in Fig.  12.1. These variables are significant to the development of any form of sustainable human settlement – rural, urban or peri-urban. Settlement form is closely related to the provisions of SDG 11. All human settlement planning effort therefore requires communities to be at the core of any initiative. Communities have the expertise both in conventional and indigenous forms (Van Arkadie, 1989). To realise successful initiatives, which enhance sustainable human settlements, institutions are critical in the development of enabling and responsive plans and designs, which promote functional human settlement (Ingwani et  al., 2010). Institutions furthermore constitute organisations and the structures, which guide human behaviour (Van Arkadie, 1989). As such, the application of any regulatory frameworks in the development of sustainable human settlements requires a functional institutional framework, for example, application of building codes and standards in housing development while reflecting on land laws. To make sense of these debates, Lefebvre

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Aeasthetics

Type of settlement

Land uses, and activities

Human settlement form

Pattern, layout and spatial representation

Land administration and instituition

Building types and materials

Size and density

Fig. 12.1  Key variables on human settlements. (Source: Authors Compilation 2020)

(1991)‘s theory on the spatial triad and production of space was applied. According to Lefebvre (1991), spatial practices are imperative functions in the production of any form of space. As such, spaces are a social product from human interactions with the everyday (Mwathunga, 2014). This theory therefore explains why people of Chimanimani District erected housing structures in precarious valleys despite their knowledge of the associated and perceived risks from these human settlements.

12.4 Presentation of Data and Discussion of Findings The presentation, discussion and analysis of data were guided by the themes generated from the findings. A reflection on key variables, which define human settlement and human settlement

planning, enabled extraction of meaning and helped to understand why ‘things happened that way’ in the Chimanimani and Chipinge districts.

12.4.1 Impacts of Cyclones and History of Affected Areas This section discusses the impacts of CI on human settlements and the history of the affected areas. Cyclone Idai ravaged human settlements in the Rusitu Valley, thereby destroying houses and infrastructure. A total of 8805 private family dwelling units (houses and huts) were totally destroyed, and 11,217 were partially destroyed and are inhabitable (Manicaland Province CI Disaster Consolidated Report, 20 May 2019:99). Secondary data show that a total of 20,022 households were left without habitable dwellings. This figure constitutes close to 40% of the total

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number of houses which were rendered inhabitable or destroyed by CI. The most were in Ngangu Township (210) and at Kopa (147) (Manicaland Province CI Disaster Consolidated Report 20 May 2019:99). Figure 12.2 shows the statistics on government houses which were affected. Figure 12.2 reveals the quality of houses and type of building materials used. For example, F14 houses in the Ngangu Messengers’ Camp were three-bedroomed houses built with cement bricks and roofed with asbestos. Such houses were built according to specifications and building plans approved by the government. Even under these circumstances, the houses could not withstand the impact of CI.  This points to the importance of observing proper settlement planning, rather than building durable structures. Several households in Rusitu Valley also lost some of their members as a result of CI.  Figure  12.3 shows that a number of people were affected, and a significant number of households were left homeless. Figure 12.4 illustrates the cyclone and flood hot spots as reflected by the variables used to describe human settlement form. The maps profile the trail of destruction by the CI in Chimanimani. The areas which were largely

Totally Destroyed

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affected by CI in Chipinge and Chimanimani districts are Chikukwa, Ngangu, Machongwe and Kopa. The worst destruction took place in Kopa, a growth point in Chimanimani District. In the 1940s, Kopa was traditionally deemed unfit for human settlement because it marks the confluence of three rivers, Rusitu, Nyahode and Chipita, and their tributaries. These three rivers drain into the Rusitu River that flows through to Mozambique. The confluence of the three rivers is endowed with alluvial flood plains rich in nutrients which can support agricultural production of indigenous crops, such as tapioca (madhumbe) and maize. In both Chimanimani and Chipinge districts, such low-lying areas are the most fertile. As a result, the epicentre of CI calamity was in the valley located on the confluence of these three rivers in Rusitu. During the colonial period, traditional leaders viewed Kopa as unfit for human settlement, and therefore did not allow people to build their homesteads in the valley. Communities were thus only allowed to practice subsistence farming in the valley, while the human settlements were confined elsewhere on surrounding safe and elevated ground. The history of the human settlements in Rusitu Valley indicates that an incursion during the war

Partially Destroyed

25 20 15 10 5 0

Ngangu Ngangu NHF Ngangu High Messengers Camp

Nyahode RSC

Nyahode RSC

Fig. 12.2  Number of houses destroyed by CI. (Source: Manicaland Province CI Disaster Consolidated Report, 20 May 2019, 99)

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8%

64%

7%

Deaths

14%

Buried

7%

Missing Injured Displaced Persons

Fig. 12.3  Statistics of affected people. (Source: Government of Zimbabwe Manicaland Provincial Report (GoZ; 21 June 2019b: 3)

Fig. 12.4  Hot spots of Cyclone Idai in Chipinge and Chimanimani districts. (Source: Authors’ compilation, adapted and modified from Google Earth 2020)

of liberation in Zimbabwe in the 1970s led to the establishment of an army base there as a national protection unit. With the army base in place, a police station was erected; and eventually a human settlement sprouted with supporting land-­ uses such as agricultural, residential and commercial. The institutional land-uses catered for government offices for the Agricultural Extension Services, the District Development Fund and the Ministry of Education. Institutions such as schools, a clinic and churches emerged. Infrastructure to provide services such as water, electricity, sewerage and roads were developed.

Regularisation of service provision was enabled through the district spatial plans. The human settlement at Kopa in Rusitu Valley emerged as a critical centre of influence with residential and commercial zones. The commercial activities included horticulture and crop production. This set up enabled the Chimanimani RDC to benefit from the community residents and business operators through payments of rates and levies. The community of Kopa was aware that the place was a flood prone area, yet permanent structures were built and approved by the RDC. This shows that there was

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more concern with security of tenure attached to titled land parcels from the Chimanimani RDC than the long-term impacts of a poorly sited human settlement. The other township which experienced destruction is Ngangu. This township was established by the Chipinge RDC as a result of demand for residential land. These residential stands were parcelled by the RDC and were thus titled, and the houses were formally surveyed. This township is located on a waterway adjacent to a steep mountain, which remains a geo-hazard to human settlement to date. As with the case of Kopa in the Rusitu Valley, the community residents of Ngangu Township in Chimanimani Town were also aware that the settlement was located on a waterway – a spatial planning error which the RDC did not want to acknowledge. The most affected space was the high-density suburb in Ngangu, whereas the colonial settlements in Chimanimani Town such as the old Ngangu Township were not affected much by CI.  It is therefore the post-independence settlement  – the new Ngangu  – which was adversely affected. Machongwe is one of the post-independence human settlements affected by CI in Chimanimani District. This human settlement is comprised of a series of tuckshops, formal shops and residential housing located approximately 50  m from the waterway of the Nyahode River. Informal trading was dominant at Machongwe because of the tuckshops (spazas) operating along the riverbanks. Yet, the RTCP Act of 2001 and the RDC Act of 2002 stipulate that no developments or human settlements are allowed within 100 m from any waterway. As a result, all the structures were completely swept away by the floods as a result of CI. This demonstrates that the provisions of spatial planning regulations on human settlements never observed the minimum distances from the banks of Nyahode River; and that colonial settlement planning was strict in enforcing building standards and regulations.

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12.4.2 Factors Which Exacerbated the Destruction of Property and Loss of Lives Several factors are attributable to the destruction of property and loss of lives in both the Chimanimani and Chipinge districts as a result of the negative impacts of CI.  Narratives from the affected communities demonstrate that the impacted human settlements were built on precarious spaces not meant for habitation. According to one of the local chiefs, a similar occurrence of the magnitude of CI happened in Chipinge District in the 1970s. However, there was no loss of property or lives (back then) because the current hot spots were still vacant. By regularising settlements on waterways, flood plains and hill slopes, which were known to be inhabitable, the Chipinge RDC simply disregarded building regulations and provisions from planning law. Yet, the same precepts which guided colonial settlements are relevant and are applicable to date. This shows that the RDCs settled people on unproclaimed spaces for financial gain through charging rates and levies. The settlement densities of the affected communities displayed a mix of densely populated spots and sparsely populated human statement patterns, which typify rural settlements in Zimbabwe. For example, a total of 55,677 households comprising 94,647 males and 109,973 females resided in the area in 2019. Among this population were 117,784 children under the age of 18  years (Manicaland Province CI Disaster Consolidated Report 2019: 100). During the CI event, most of the rivers and their tributaries widened from less than 3  m to 300 m. Some unknown rivers also emerged due to flooding. It is important to note that all houses which were built along the waterway(s) were destroyed. However, houses which were built from cement and brick with a well laid and strong foundation were able to withstand the impact of CI (Fig. 12.5).

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Fig. 12.5  Structures which survived CI in Chimanimani District. (Source: Fieldwork 2019)

The other factor involves the overlapping land administration structures and incessant land transactions. There exists a dual system of land administration in the Chimanimani and Chipinge districts, with the RDCs on one hand and the traditional authorities on the other. This hybrid model of land administration allows for overlaps in land allocation particularly at Machongwe as people could obtain land from the traditional authorities followed by approval by the RDC.  This approach to land allocation engendered the emergence of human settlements on spaces not zoned for them. In terms of land administration and institutional arrangements, the establishment of RDCs in Zimbabwe in 1986 ushered in a new era in the practice of physical planning. During that time, colonial precepts were abandoned, new powers adopted and the planning Act revised. A relaxation of planning for human settlements was implemented and the powers for rural areas were directed to traditional leaders. Traditional leaders were given authority to settle people leading to the eruption of new settlements. As a result, a mixity of land-uses and land-use activities developed in the Rusitu Valley including residential, agricultural, institutional and commercial timber farming.

Social connectedness and belonging to indigene spaces of origin also provides the basis for the development of human settlements from generation to generation by households in rural areas of Zimbabwe. In Rusitu, for example, the affected people chose to settle on these spaces because the valley defines their origin and belonging. The issue of belonging also enables people to enjoy land resources for the development of human settlements and livelihoods generation in the valley with little interference from the state. Social ties with the ‘valley’ enable the indigenes to claim the right to space and belonging. The pattern, layout and spatial representation also reveal the changes in settlement form and planning in the affected areas in Chimanimani District over time. In summary, variables which define settlement form such as density, aesthetics and the spatial configuration of the human settlements have little effect on causing destruction through cyclones and floods, since houses built from strong building materials were also destroyed by CI. These findings have a direct implication for spatial planning functions. This is the reason why the RDCs blamed everyone for what happened in the CI hot spots and do not want to be held accountable for the aftermath of the disaster. Yet,

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the RDCs did not focus on variables of relevance to the development of safe and resilient human settlements such as siting and location of habitats.

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settlements. For example, the community residents of Chimanimani District in collaboration with the RDC can identify alternative sites for human settlement, which are informed by indigenous knowledge, and past experiences with 12.4.3 Strategies for Strengthening disasters such as floods. Human Settlement Form The application of PLUP functions by spatial in Communities Affected by planners of Chimanimani District can be enabled Cyclones through the use of spatial planning tools such as the Participatory Geographic Information System Historical narratives on human settlements and (PGIS) to guide the development of sustainable settlement forms in Chimanimani District point human settlements in collaboration with local to compliance and noncompliance to building communities. The application of PGIS in land-­use standards at the same time. Communities of surveys is necessary before human settlements are Chimanimani District were aware of the perilous established (CI Consolidated Report Manicaland conditions they lived in. Yet, they stayed in those Province, 20 September 2019: 2). Using the human settlements and produced various mobile PGIS, households earmarked for relocasettlement forms to their advantage through tion can collaboratively collect spatial data with interactions with space. In their minds, security experts (the X-Y coordinates) to be exported to of tenure was rather more important than safety shapefiles to identify the location of new landand security derived from the physical uses on safe spaces. In addition, ground-truthing configuration of human settlements in their is enabled as communities, stakeholders and planned or unplanned form. This is because experts map new human settlements for relocasecure land rights are key to enhanced household tion purposes. The reality is that local communilivelihoods and poverty reduction. While these ties from Chimanimani District have their findings were drawn from an in-depth analysis of preferences. These must be prioritised in human experiences from Chimanimani in Zimbabwe, settlement planning. Community interests also the lessons can be applied to other districts of provide possible options for the development of Zimbabwe, such as Chipinge, which experienced sustainable and resilient human settlements in the the negative impact of CI on human settlements. event of a repeat of natural disasters such as Strategies discussed in this book chapter cyclones and floods. reflect the utility of  Participatory Land Use With regard to the victims of CI in Planning (PLUP) as a composite of bottom-up Chimanimani District, two critical strategies and top-down processes critical to guiding the were put in place by the government in parcelling of land for different activities (in the collaboration with the private sector to ensure present and future) through collaboration of local that new residential structures are availed. The communities and spatial planning experts first proposal concerns the relocation of the (Ujamaa Community Resource Team, 2010). The affected communities to safe places in Nedziwa aim of PLUP is to guide the human settlement of the Chipinge District such as Green Mount and development processes and to balance the land-­ West End. The second proposal concerns the use interests of local communities in line with the development of the Econet Village by one of regulatory frameworks of the responsible Zimbabwe’s philanthropists, Strive Masiyiwa. authorities. Involvement of local communities in These two strategies can successfully apply determining the different land-use activities principles and techniques of PLUP and PGIS in enables capitalisation of local knowledge systems the Chimanimani District and in other in the development of sustainable human communities experiencing similar circumstances.

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12.4.3.1 Relocation marginalised communities (World Bank Report, The Manicaland Province CI Disaster 2004). For example, the development of the Consolidated Report (GoZa); 20 May 2019a: Econet Village through the Econet Reboot Fund 137) emphasises that ‘… both urban and rural was projected to construct 500 housing units for settlements in disaster prone areas be relocated to the affected communities in Chimanimani safer areas provided with water, electricity, sewer District (Government of Zimbabwe Manicaland and road service … all-weather resistant buildings Provincial Report; GoZb) 21 June 2019: 71–75 & that are 2030 compliant and beyond, be planned 20 September 2019: 4). Functional PPPs require and enforced’. This clearly shows the accountability, transparency and the involvement commitment, political will and a deliberate effort of the affected communities (World Bank Report, by the Government of Zimbabwe to develop safe 2004). There is however a need for the project and resilient human settlements. However, implementers to guard against fraudulent relocation processes after disasters of the activities, which often impede projects emanating magnitude of CI are often costly, and therefore from PPPs. To guarantee safety, security of tenure require consideration of other disaster recovery and resilience of the new human settlements commitments and initiatives. The relocation of under the proposed Econet Village; it is therefore households to other places is however not a new critical to embark on PLUP and PGIS. phenomenon in Zimbabwe. For example, households were relocated during the Land Reform Programme in 2000, and after Operation 12.5 Conclusions and Summary Murambatsvina/Restore Order in 2005. of Recommendations Experiences from both scenarios show that relocation requires thorough planning and A holistic approach to developing sustainable resources (finance, expertise, information, time, human settlement planning through application equipment). This book chapter therefore of spatial planning tools such as PLUP and PGIS recommends further interrogation of a plan of is urgently required to avoid extensive damage action as set out in the Manicaland Province CI and destruction of human settlements by natural Disaster Consolidated Report (20 May 2019) to disasters including floods and cyclones. relocate affected households to safer zones, such Development of inclusive, safe, resilient and as Nedziwa and other farms in Chimanimani sustainable cities is not informed only by spatial District. The possible relocation sites need planning imperatives, but also through reflecting surveying and application of the PLUP and PGIS on factors which influence human settlement to minimise resistance from the affected form. Strengthening the capacity of local communities because of individual attachment communities through PPPs and investing in local and the sense of belonging to indigenous spaces. energies to rebuild losses anchored by PLUP and The Chimanimani District carries historical PGIS as spatial planning tools remain key. This memories (good and bad), which define requires less political interference in planning individuals’ households. This is the reason why functions by the government. In this regard, some households are already reconstructing their institutions emerge as critical to channelling houses in the same disaster struck precinct efforts key to the development of sustainable (Fig. 12.6). human settlements. Absence of such priorities is Public-Private-Partnerships (PPPs) are clearly a common challenge, which retrogresses and visible through pledged assistance from external impedes sustainable human settlement planning. and internal stakeholders to assist with rebuilding The chapter recommends the speeding up the the destroyed communities. Public-Private-­ reconstruction of damaged houses and the Partnerships entail collaborative effort between relocation of affected villagers. The work also the government, non-governmental organisations recommends the strengthening of PPPs in disaster and the private sector to make services reach the recovery processes to ensure speedy responses

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Fig. 12.6  Reviving the idea of the Econet Village. (Source: Fieldwork 2019)

and effective interventions. The application of PLUP and PGIS to guide spatial planning imperatives particularly land administration in rural, urban and peri-urban zones cannot be overemphasised enough since these tools assist in ensuring co-ordinated and efficient disaster recovery responses.

References Allen, A. (2010). Neither rural nor urban: Service delivery options that work for the peri-urban poor. In M. Khurian & P. McCarney (Eds.), Peri-urban water and sanitation services: Policy, planning and method (pp. 27–62). Springer Science. Center for Scientific and Industrial Research. (2005). Human settlement planning and design Volume 1. Capture Press. Chambers, R. (2010). Paradigms, poverty, and adaptive pluralism. Working paper 344. University of Sussex, UK: Institute of Development Studies. Chirisa, I., Mazhindu, E., & Bandauko, E. (2016). Peri-­ urban developments and processes in Africa with special reference to Zimbabwe. Springer. GoZ. (2019a). Government of Zimbabwe. Cyclone Idai disaster weekly progress report for Manicaland Province as at 21 June 2019. Harare. GoZ. (2019b). Government of Zimbabwe. Manicaland Province Cyclone Idai Disaster Consolidated Report, 20 May 2019. Harare. Gumbo, T. (2010). Eccentric housing finance sources by the urban poor in Zimbabwe: Case of Cowdray Park low-income self-help housing in Bulawayo. Economia: Seria Management, 13(1), 89–105.

Gumbo, T. (2014a). Housing the urban poor in Africa: Experiences of unserviced housing plots. HSRC Review, 12(1), 27–30. Gumbo, T. (2014b). The architecture that works in housing the urban poor in developing countries: Formal land access and dweller control, policy brief 105. Africa Institute of South Africa. Gumbo, T. (2015). Re-thinking Housing Infrastructure Development Approaches: Lessons from Zimbabwe. In Proceedings of the international conference on infrastructure development and investment strategies for Africa DII – 2015, (pp. 10–26) 16–18 September 2015 Livingstone, Zambia. Gumbo, T., & Onatu, G. (2015). Interrogating South Africa’s People’s housing process: Towards comprehensive collaborative and empowering aided self-help housing approaches. Journal of the Korean Housing Association, 26(6), 27–34. Helmsing, A.  H. J., Mutizwa-Mangiza, N.  D., Gasper, D. R., Brand, C. M., & Wekwete, K. H. (1991). Limits to decentralization in Zimbabwe. Institute of Social Studies. Hungwe, E. (2014). Land transactions and rural development policy in Domboshava peri-urban communal area, Zimbabwe. PhD thesis. Available online, Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Ingwani, E., Gumbo, T., & Gondo, T. (2010). Design considerations and sustainable low-cost housing Provision for the urban poor in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Paper presented, at the REAL CORP Conference, Cities for Everyone, 18–20 May 2010, Vienna, Austria. John, L. (2012). Secondary cities in South Africa: The start of a conversation. The background report. South African Cities Network. Keeble, L. (1969). Principles and practice of town and country planning. The Estates Gazette Limited. Lefebvre, H. (1991). The production of space. Blackwell.

192 Mamdani, M. (1996). Citizen and subject, contemporary Africa, and the legacy of late colonialism. Fountain Publishers. Mulugeta, G., Ayonghe, S., Daby, D., Dube, O.  P., Gudyanga, F., & Durrheim, R. (2007). Natural and human-induced hazards and disasters in Sub-Saharan Africa. ICSU Reginal Office for Africa. Munzwa, K. M., & Jonga, W. (2010). Urban development in Zimbabwe: A human perspective. Theoretical and Empirical Researches in Urban Management, 5(14), 120–146. Musandu-Nyamayaro, O. (2008). The case for modernization of local planning authority framework in Southern and Eastern Africa: A radical initiative for Zimbabwe. Habitat International, 32, 15–27. Mwathunga, E.  E. (2014). Contesting space in urban Malawi: A Lefebvrian analysis. PhD thesis. Available online, Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun. ac.za Royal Town Planning Institute. (2015). Urban form and sustainability. RTPI research briefing number 9. Royal Town Planning Institute. Salami, R. O., Von Meding, J. K., & Giggins, H. (2017). Vulnerability of human settlements to flood risk in the core are of Ibadan metropolis, Nigeria. Jamba: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 9(1), a371:1–14. Sharif, M.  M. (2018). Tracking progress towards inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable cities and human settlements: SDG11 synthesis report. United Nations. Sliuzas, R. V., Kuffer, M., & Masser, I. (2010). The spatial and temporal nature of urban objects. In T. Rashed & C. Jurgens (Eds.), Remote sensing of urban and suburban areas (pp. 67–84). Springer. Tavuyanago, B., & Mbenene, K. (2008). Zimbabwe hill settlements in proceeding colonization: A study in location factors. The Journal of Pan African Studies, 2(3), 255–270. Ujamaa Community Resource Team. (2010). Participatory land-use as a tool for community empowerment in Northern Tanzania (Gatekeeper 147). International Institute for Environment and Development. UN-Habitat. (1976). The Vancouver declaration on human settlements. United Nations.

E. Ingwani et al. United Nations. (2016). The sustainable development goals report (2016). United Nations. United Nations Children’s Fund. (2019). Zimbabwe cyclone Idai situation report #2 (15–24 march). United Nations. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. (2016). Reducing disaster risk in a changing climate – Human settlements. United Nations. Van Arkadie, B. (1989). The role of institutions in development. The World Bank. Van Niekerk, W., & Le Roux, A. (2017). Chapter 10: Human settlements. In C.  L. Davis-Reddy & K. Vincent (Eds.), Climate risks and vulnerability: A handbook for southern Africa (pp. 100–110). Wekwete, K.  H. (1988). Rural growth points in Zimbabwe  – Prospects for the future. Journal of Social Development in Africa, 3(2), 5–16. Wekwete, K. (1989). Planning laws for urban and regional planning in Zimbabwe  – A review. RUP Occasional Paper 20. University of Zimbabwe: Harare Occasional Paper. 1–22. Wekwete, K.  H. (1991). Decentralized planning in Zimbabwe. A review of provincial, urban and district development planning in post-independence Zimbabwe. In A.  H. J.  Helmsing, N.  D. Mutizwa-­ Mangiza, D. R. Gasper, C. M. Brand, & K. H. Wekwete (Eds.), Limits to decentralization in Zimbabwe. Essays on decentralization of government and planning in the 1980s (pp. 155–177). Institute of Social Studies. World Development Report. (2004). Making services work for the poor people. World Bank. World Economic Survey. (2013). Sustainable cities. Chapter III towards sustainable cities (pp.  53–84). United Nations. Zimbabwe Human Rights Commission. (2019). Report on the first monitoring visit to Chimanimani and Chipinge in the aftermath of Cyclone Idai, 25–29 March 2019. ZHRC. Zimbabwe National Human Settlement Policy. (2019). Towards well-planned and well-governed sustainable human settlements. Ministry of Local Government, Public Works, and National Housing. Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency. (2012). National census report. ZimStats.

Social and Physical Vulnerability of Settlements to Hydro-Climatic Induced Disasters: Lessons from Cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe

13

David Chikodzi and Prudence Khumalo

Abstract

There has been an observed increase in the occurrence and intensity of multiple hazards related to extreme hydro-climatic events. This chapter assesses the social and physical vulnerability of settlements to hydro-climatic induced disasters taking lessons from tropical cyclone Idai in Zimbabwe. The chapter used questionnaire surveys, in-depth interviews, descriptive statistics as well as Earth observation in the collection of and analysis of data. The results showed that more than 50% of the participants were permanently displaced due to cyclone Idai with their houses and land permanently destroyed or too dangerous to live in. High density urban and informal settlements were more vulnerable to the impacts of cyclone Idai than rural settlements. Settlements located on low-lying areas, waterways and steep slopes were also at high risk of multiple hazards such as landslides and floods. There D. Chikodzi () Exxaro Chair in Business and Climate Change, Institute for Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] P. Khumalo Department of Public Administration & Management: School of Public and Operations Management, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

was an observed poor appreciation of disaster management and response by the affected communities regardless of the fact that they were living on high flood-risk areas. A multi-­ hazard management plan that is derived through community participation was recommended for the area. The management plan needed to be hinged on modernization of observation networks and assisting communities to respond to early warnings. Keywords

Cyclone Idai · Settlement vulnerability · Multiple hazards · Flooding · Chimanimani

13.1 Introduction Globally there has been a notable increase in the intensity and scale of both natural and manmade disasters (Salami et al., 2017). Of particular note has been the increase in hydro-meteorological events associated hazards like cyclones, floods and storms (UNISDR and CRED, 2018; Vos et  al., 2010). Floods and their secondary effects have been flagged to be the most frequent and widespread disasters in the world responsible for thousands of fatalities, compromising livelihoods, damaging critical infrastructure and ecosystems (Vojinović, 2015). Globally, floods account for

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_13

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more than 55 percent of all disaster-­related fatalities and disrupt the lives of about 2.5 billion people (EM-DAT, 2015). They also account for more than 30 percent of financial losses due to natural disasters globally (Hallegatte et  al., 2013). In Africa, floods are one of the most prevelent hazards (Jacobsen et al., 2012). Over 654 incidences affecting close to 38 million people were recorded between 1984 and 2014. These floods have directly led to almost 13,000 deaths over the past 30 years (Tiepolo, 2014). Historically, the effects of flooding, especially those induced by cyclones, differ from region to region depending on the levels of economic advance and magnitude of the incident (Doocy et al., 2013). However, the hardest hit are usually those poorly sited settlements and those developed with limited measures to reduce disaster risk. Those settlements include those constructed on flood plain area and low income, poorly built houses (Salami et al., 2017). The destructive capacity of cyclones and by default the flooding which follows occur due to torrential rainfall, gusty winds as well as storm surges (Shultz et al., 2005). With climate change, flood hazards and their destructive tendencies are projected increase. The level of destruction will be worsened by factors like poverty, rapid population growth, over urbanization, increased coastal settlement and poor leadership (Parry, 2007). These factors exacerbate the devastating effects of climate-­ induced hazards on societies. Communities therefore need to sustainably modify their livelihoods and assets to make them climate smart so as to minimize losses related with its impacts. This may prove to be a daunting task given that the change in climate is not manifesting itself as a gradual change in average conditions, but rather a change in the frequency and intensity of extreme events (Solomon et al., 2007). Various definitions of vulnerability have been put forward by different authors; the IPCC for example defines it as the ‘degree to which a system is vulnerable to or is unable to cope with adverse effects of climate change’ (IPCC, 2001). Blaikie et al. (1994) define vulnerability as ‘characteristics of a person or group in terms of their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist, and recover from the impact of natural hazards’.

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Vulnerability is also seen as ‘a series of conditions and processes occurring from physical, social, economic and environmental circumstances, which increase the susceptibility of a society, property or environment to the impact of hazards’ (Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005). While the wide spectrum of issues under vulnerability are reflected on in this chapter, the focus is on the physical and social aspects of the concept. A community is therefore vulnerable when its characteristics and conditions make it vulnerable to the destructive impacts of a threat. Vulnerability therefore depicts conditions triggered by numerous phenomena in the form of social, economic, physical, cultural and environmental factors which make a community’s structure or asset susceptible to both natural and human-made disasters (Salami et  al., 2017). Kikwasi and Mbuya (2019) and Füssel (2007) suggest four dimensions to be crucial in describing a vulnerable circumstance. These dimensions include the unit of analysis such as a geographical area of interest; an attribute of concern such as housing quality and human livelihood; the hazard of concern such as floods; and the temporal reference such as short or long period of time of assessment. Gastinger et al. (2017) also point to institutional vulnerability which relates to disruption of social networks and community structures, leading to the marginalization of communities, built environment and utility facilities. Sustainable development goal (SDG) 11 endeavours to make ‘cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’. Target 11.5 of SDG 11 aims at significantly reducing by 2030 the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations (UN, 2015). This target can therefore be achieved when there are detailed assessments of the different settlements’ vulnerability to disasters and plan of actions generated to reduce the observed vulnerability. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015) observes that disasters, many of which are exacerbated by climate change, are increasing at rates that significantly impede

13  Social and Physical Vulnerability of Settlements to Hydro-Climatic Induced Disasters: Lessons…

progress towards sustainable development with evidence indicating that exposure of communities and assets to disasters in all countries has increased faster than vulnerability has decreased. This therefore makes it imperative and critical to anticipate, plan for and reduce disaster vulnerability in order to effectively protect persons, communities and countries, their livelihoods, health, cultural heritage, socioeconomic assets and ecosystems, and thus strengthen their resilience. In terms of priority one of the Sendai Framework aimed at understanding disaster risk, policies and practices for disaster risk management need to be based on an understanding of disaster risk in all its dimensions of vulnerability, capacity, exposure of persons and assets, hazard characteristics and the environment (UNISDR, 2015). This chapter aims at assessing the social and physical vulnerabilities of settlements to hydro-climatic induced hazards taking lessons from tropical cyclone Idai which occurred in Zimbabwe. The hazards that will be assessed include flooding and landslides. The ability to accurately identify, measure and evaluate community vulnerability to cyclone-induced hazards can be leveraged for the purpose of predisaster risk assessment, for prevention and mitigation and for the development and implementation of appropriate preparedness and effective response to disasters in the study area. The next section reviews literature which addresses the study objective.

13.2 Literature Survey 13.2.1 Climate-Induced Disasters and Human Settlements Nexus The theoretical lenses of climate adaptation, participatory and sustainable development are quite critical in unravelling the intricacies of climate-­ induced disasters and settlements types. Human settlements have a big impact on lessening the impact of climate-induced disasters like floods. Given the continuity of

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climate-related disasters on the African continent at large and in the southern African region in particular, it is expedient to unravel the place of human settlements and their types on the severity of floods. The point of departure in this analysis of the nexus between floods and human settlements is that while the later does not eradicate the former, it has a potential of minimizing its impact. The vulnerability of settlements to the adverse effects of hydro-­ climatic disasters like floods and landslides links to a couple of issues such as locational factors, land use management, poverty levels, topography and many more. The types of settlements in terms of the building technologies used have a bearing on the ability of communities to survive floods and related disasters. The succeeding paragraphs unpack in detail how these factors have an influence on the communities’ ability to survive cycloneinduced and -related disasters. Turner (1976)’s theory on low-income housing, while having its flaws with regards to the neo-liberal inclinations, presents a framework within which housing and settlement types can be compared. The distinction between three aspects of every housing situation: shelter and amenities, location and tenure can be useful in appreciation of the severity of climate-induced disasters. An optimal settlement is whereby the quality of shelter matches the modern norms of layout, materials and amenities, where location provides cheap and easy access to the place of work and where security of tenure is guaranteed by freehold ownership (De Kadt & Williams, 1974). However, due to socio-economic circumstances, households have to juggle between the three and make decisions based on their capabilities. The economically stable make choices on housing based on their tastes and serve as an expression of social status, yet for the poor this can be a decisive determinant of short-term economic opportunity and in the long term as a stabilizing factor in consolidation and protection of achieved living standards (Brett, 1974). The theoretical framework pointed here gives some background to the existential differences between

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settlement types and also gives the rationale to the locational factors which impact on the severity of climate-induced disasters. Poverty is a very important contributor to the settlement types and vulnerability. Underdevelopment increases vulnerability to disasters as a result of socio-economic susceptibility brought by poverty (Arroyo, 2015). The challenge with poverty is that it affects the ability of people to cope with, let alone to recover from disasters. In most cities, the poor occupy areas in the outskirts devoid of adequate infrastructure that makes for adequate human settlements. The poor settle in these areas and build makeshift structures which are susceptible to disasters. In many cases, these areas tend to be unsuitable for settlements. Land zones cut out for residential purposes are normally out of reach for the poor resulting in some people settling in areas that are not suitable for habitation. As observed by Garland (2015), urbanization will continue to be a defining factor for many cities for the foreseeable future; the impact of this is that there will be a huge competition for land use and the poor will find themselves having to settle in areas prone to disasters. The poor, with not so much choice, find themselves settling in the low-lying areas in the outskirts which are not zoned for this purpose. Increasing urbanization in the continent has led to the surge in the number of people leaving in informal settlements. The other impact of urbanization in southern Africa has been that the non-­ urban areas from where people migrate from remain underdeveloped, with poor services and traditional building structures that easily crumble in case of climate-related disasters. Furthermore, in the rural areas the infrastructure remains less developed compared to urban areas, and this affects rescue efforts in the case of disasters. The pursuit of the SDG on building safe, resilient and inclusive cities should factor in the aspects of informal settlements which are the most vulnerable to climate-induced disasters. This is partly related to the nature of building materials used in these settlements. The makeshift structures characteristic of slums expose these communities to devastating loss of life and property in times of climate-induced disasters.

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Vulnerability also has a socio-cultural and political explanation to it. Amoako (2015) opines that flood vulnerability and response constructs are shaped by the legitimacy and recognition of the communities by city authorities. In addition, the voices of local and international political actors influence the responses to vulnerability. In view of this, Amoako (2015) argues for a rethink on the urban planning process that underlines security of tenure at the expense of participatory urban governance and rights to urban citizenship. The growth of informal settlements on hazardous locations and the hostility or neglect of the urban governance system are seen as influencing their exposure and susceptibility to floods (ibid).

13.2.2 Climate-Induced Disaster Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies The case of southern African vulnerable communities is in line with Chu (2015), who opines that although mitigation is high on the climate change agenda, adaptation is gradually gaining policy importance. As observed by Chu, this is attributable to a couple of factors such as the observation that many developing countries have contributed minimal greenhouse gas emission but are experiencing and will experience the severest climate impacts and adaptation is now closely knit to the development agenda (Chu, 2015). In addition to this, the cost of climate proofing runs in to billions of dollars. This makes the practicalities of development policies that factor in the processes of adjusting to actual and expected climate-­ induced disasters. This will take a collective effort of different players and the active participation of communities concerned. Collective effort is underlined by Desportes et  al. (2016) who observe that bringing a wider range of stakeholders together is increasing an importance in the disaster risk reduction discourse, particularly in informal settlements found in marginal, flood-­ prone land in many cities in the developing world. The development and adaptation required in the regions which have become more and more vulnerable will take different facets. The multi-

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faceted responses to the vulnerable settlements will have to factor in how the socio-economic capacities of vulnerable settlements can be harnessed to developing climate-resilient houses, build infrastructure that makes disaster response easier. The case of Haiyan typhoon in 2013 and the post-disaster reconstruction can be of useful reference in chatting the way forward for the cases under study. Arroyo (2015) observed that the poor who had makeshift structures were the worst affected by the typhoon although a few rich people also experienced loss because of the disaster, raising the need for both groups to become more resilient. Not all flood hazards automatically result in disaster, the determinant drivers that turn hazards into catastrophic events are the levels of vulnerability of a population to disaster risk (Birkmann et al., 2013); hence, a comprehensive knowledge of the human system is very significant in understanding the concept of flood risks. In the Philippines, for instance, the competence of local governance systems in disaster risk reduction (DRR) were noted to alter the impacts of a disaster events. For example, in 2011, tropical cyclone Washi made landfall in the Philippines and first hit the eastern coastal province’s Caraga Region. Only one death was recorded in the entire region (National Disaster Risk Reduction and Coordinating Council (NDRRMC) dataset 2014). Reportedly, relocation of vulnerable residents started days before the cyclone made landfall. The same cyclone with similar magnitude, in terms of rainfall volume and wind speed, hit northern Mindanao Region, which has always been historically regarded to be tropical cyclone-­ free area. This was so because in the past tropical cyclones passed through the region once in every 12 years and generally were not strong enough to create destruction. While there were advisories on its coming and anticipated strength, there was no adequate evacuation initiated by the local government units in areas predicted to be in the path. The resultant death toll in the region was very high as 1259 people (NDDRMC dataset, 2014). Addressing vulnerability and adaptation concerns would need an appreciation of tried alternatives and the contextual factors. In light of Turner

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(1976)’s ‘dweller control’, self-help approaches would need to be considered within the framework of security, development, opportunity and accessibility. Arroyo (2015) identified about five approaches of handling climate-induced disaster unpacking the advantages and disadvantages thereof. The five approaches to reconstruct post disaster include cash assistance, owner-driven reconstruction, community-driven reconstruction, agency-driven reconstruction in situ and agency-driven reconstruction in relocated site. The different options have their pros and cons, and the cash assistance is least preferred as financial assistance without technical help may lead to pre-disaster vulnerabilities although the approach is the most cost-effective, quick and fast to deliver. The owner-driven approaches are the most preferred for their ability to empower the households especially when technical assistance is factored in to avoid poor quality houses. The challenge with agency driven may be good for possibilities of bringing in new building technologies, but if unmonitored it may lead to poor construction quality as agencies may push profit over utility. While community-level adaptation strategies are commendable, these are not always easy to carry out. Douglas (2017) points out that community action is difficult especially in multi-­ ethnic, tenant-dominated urban poor communities of peripheral informal settlements. This is due to the lack of cohesion and a sense of ownership. The theoretical framework of sustainable development, climate adaptation and informality give the study a base from which the empirical data are analysed. The next section details the materials and methods that were used in the chapter to collect and analyse data. The study area map, sampling methods as well as sample sizes are also detailed.

13.3 Materials and Methods The study sites were mainly concentrated in the Chimanimani and Chipinge districts of Zimbabwe that were at the epicentre of destruction during tropical Idai. Figure  13.1 shows the location of the study area.

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Fig. 13.1  Study Area: Chimanimani and Chipinge (Source: Authors)

The research collected and analysed data using the mixed methods approach to assess vulnerability of different settlements to flooding. The different scales of measurement of data required to fulfil the research objectives necessitated such an approach to be used. Quantitative data from questionnaires were the main source of data and supported by other quantitative techniques, such as Earth observation, as well as qualitative ones, such as in-depth interviews. The vulnerability of settlements to flooding were assessed using the physical, social, temporal and institutional dimensions of vulnerability. A questionnaire survey was administered to quantitatively obtain data on the different aspects of vulnerability of different settlements. The questionnaire was administered at household level

and the head was the most ideal respondent whenever they were available. Only households affected by the flood disasters took part in the survey. These were the most competent to take part in this questionnaire survey since their experiences before, during and after the disaster were important in assessing the levels of vulnerability. First purposive sampling was used to select the affected areas, then snowball sampling technique was adopted to select the participating households. Purposive sampling was used because the research was targeting specific households, that is, those that had been victims of cyclone Idai. Areas where data were collected include Cooper, Ngangu, Rathmore Farm and Dombera Farm. Data from respondents were captured using QuestionPro software which also did part of the

13  Social and Physical Vulnerability of Settlements to Hydro-Climatic Induced Disasters: Lessons…

analysis such as cross tabulations. Some of the results were exported to Microsoft excel for further analysis as well as for creating graphical displays. A total of 220 households took part in the questionnaire survey and the data were analysed using descriptive statistics, mainly percentage frequencies and cross tabulations. Qualitative data were also collected from key informants in the study. Key informants interviewed included local government officials, government agencies involved in DRR, Civil society members involved in the DRR efforts, flood disaster victims, farm managers, farm workers and local community leaders. They were selected because of the key positions they occupy in DRR institutions and also due to the knowledge which resides with them due to their unique experiences. The key informants were also selected using purposive sampling. They gave their unguided narratives on the disaster before, during and the post-disaster period in a typical storytelling fashion. Unguided narratives in story telling fashion were intended to get deeper understanding of the disaster from the point of view of the informants. During in-­depth interviews, where consent was given, interviews were recorded and then later on translated and transcribed word to word. The qualitative data were analysed using fine-grain analysis which involves the extraction of thematic content from the narratives of the participants and presented in the form of text and sometimes through direct quotes from the respondents. Earth observation (EO) datasets were used in the assessment of the impact of the flood disaster by giving the situation of a settlement before and after the disaster. This assisted in giving a detailed picture of the vulnerability of different settlements to flooding. Historical satellite imagery of the selected hotspot areas was retrieved from the Google database. The dates of the images were determined by the availability of cloud-free days both before the disaster and in the post-disaster phase. Detailed document analysis from both published and unpublished

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reports and other documents were also used to assess the extent of vulnerability of different settlements to flooding.

13.4 Findings and Discussions Tropical cyclone Idai was very devastating to the settlements in Chimanimani and Chipinge with close to 50% of the questionnaire participants being permanently displaced. This implies that their houses were severely damaged by the impact of the cyclone to the extent that it was not possible to repair, reconstruct or build back better on the same piece of land (Fig. 13.2). This group of participants therefore required permanent relocation to safer areas. Close to 24% of the participants acknowledged being displaced temporarily during the hot phase of the cyclone and had to seek temporary shelter in safer areas. As depicted in Fig. 13.2, an additional 24% of the participants were not displaced during and after the cyclone disaster. Generally urban and urban-like settlements were heavily impacted by the cyclone when compared to rural settlements with a combined overall of 79% of the displaced households (Table  13.1). High-density residential areas in Chimanimani and Chipinge had the highest frequency of all categories of displacements from permanent to those still to be relocated and still staying in tented camps 8 months after the disasters as portrayed in Table  13.1. These high-­ density areas and urban-like rural spaces heavily displaced include Ngangu, Cooper, Machongwe and Rathmore farm workers compound. This therefore means that high-density urban and urban-like settlements were more vulnerable to the impacts of tropical cyclones in the study area. It was mostly the high-density urban settlements (82%), urban-like rural settlement (97%) and informal settlements that had complete and total damage to houses (Table  13.2). This scenario to a large extent shows that these settlements were on flood-vulnerable areas and not

D. Chikodzi and P. Khumalo

200 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% Displaced permanently

Displaced temporarily

Not displaced

To be relocated

Fig. 13.2  Displaced households due to cyclone Idai (Source: Authors) Table 13.1  Cross tabulation of settlement types and percentage displacements High density Medium density Low density Rural settlement Rural (urban like) Informal

Overall 58% 3% 4% 9% 21% 5%

Displaced permanently 62% 1% 4% 5% 24% 4%

Displaced temporarily 60% 9% 3% 9% 9% 10%

Not displaced 49% 0% 0% 20% 31% 0%

To be relocated 60% 20% 0% 0% 0% 20%

Source: Authors

built to standards that could make them resilient to the impacts of tropical cyclones and related flooding. Most of the low- and medium-density urban settlements together with rural settlements sustained partial damages. In most instances, urban and peri-urban settlements had not yet started reconstruction by October 2019 because the destroyed houses and assets were no longer usable due to extensive damage or the sites were no longer safe for human habitation. Very few households from all settlement types managed to rebuild their houses within the first month after the cyclone. As represented in Table  13.3, only after 2  months and more did some households manage to rebuild their houses with most of the reconstruction occurring in rural settlements (35%) followed by urban settlements (26%) and 7% for peri-urban settlements.

One key informant from Rathmore farm remarked ‘that every day was a recovery day for the people affected by tropical cyclone Idai’; this was in terms of rebuilding their destroyed houses and livelihoods. However, most informants observe that complete recovery will take a very long time and will need outside help since some of the damage was beyond the capacity of the victims to help themselves. A good example would be at Rathmore farm where one of the largest sawmills in the country was completely washed away with nothing recovered, yet it was a source of livelihood for hundreds of people. The local authority known as Chimanimani Rural District Council (RDC) lost most of its infrastructure, for example, roads, bridges, water distribution system and also its main revenue base, because they could not collect levies and taxes from citizens and busi-

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Table 13.2  Cross tabulation of extent of damage to houses and settlement type

Complete damage (no longer usable) Partial damage No damage

High density 82%

Medium density

Low density

Rural settlement 41%

Rural (urban like) 97%

Informal 100%

11% 7%

100% 0%

100% 0%

59% 0%

3% 0%

0% 0%

Source: Authors Table 13.3  Time required for recovery from cyclone damage

No longer usable 1–2 weeks 2–4 weeks 5–6 weeks 7–8 weeks 2+ months

Overall (cumulative frequency) Rural 72% 50%

Urban 71%

Peri-­ urban 93%

2% 1% 1% 1% 24%

2% 0% 0% 0% 26%

0% 0% 0% 0% 7%

4% 4% 4% 4% 35%

Source: Authors Table 13.4  Access to cyclone Idai early warning Overall a. Rural b. Urban c. Peri-urban

Yes 21% 23% 16% 39%

No 70% 69% 73% 61%

Never saw the warning 9% 8% 12% 0%

Source: Authors

nesses during the disaster period. The RDC, however, still managed to swiftly reconnect the water supplies to avoid another disaster in a disaster; hence, there was not much of an outbreak of waterborne diseases. In terms of early warning systems, most households acknowledged receiving some form of information about the tropical cyclone Idai before it occurred. However, most households argued that the information was not packaged in a manner that reflected the gravity of the situation with most playing down potentially devastating effects. It was mostly in the urban settlements (70%) where most participants observed the early warning to be poorly packaged and did not give much information in terms of what to do when an emergency arises (Table 13.4).

Table 13.5  Those affected settled in vulnerable areas? Strongly agree Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly disagree

Overall 55% 25% 4% 7% 9%

Rural 42% 23% 4% 19% 12%

Urban 60% 30% 4% 3% 3%

Peri-urban 48% 11% 4% 11% 26%

Source: Authors

Most participants either agreed or strongly agreed to the fact that most of the flood-affected settlements were mainly sited in areas vulnerable to floods and related hazards such as landslides (Table 13.5). These communities were not given disaster awareness training regardless of the fact that they were living in high flood-risk areas. The reasons highlighted by participants to have heightened the vulnerability of the affected population to floods are illustrated in Fig.  13.3. Close to 40% of the participants viewed the affected households to have built their houses or facilities on waterways which exposed them to flooding in the event of heavy rainfall. The impacts of building settlements on waterways in Ngangu township in Chimanimani are shown in Fig. 13.4. There was extensive damage to all the houses on the waterways and most that were off the waterways to a large extent withstood the shock of the cyclone. About 23% of the participants argue that vulnerability to floods and their secondary effects like landslides is enhanced when settlements are located on sleep mountain slopes and on the foot of mountains. This brings into limelight the theory that poor local governance and social and environmental injustices are underlying root causes of flood vulnerability in the area. The risk

D. Chikodzi and P. Khumalo

202 45.00% 40.00% 35.00% 30.00% 25.00% 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% Poor settlement Location Location of Location of Poor drainage planning settlement on settlement on settlement on waterways slopes wetlands

Not sure

Other

Fig. 13.3  Reasons for vulnerability to flooding (Source: Authors)

Fig. 13.4  Ngangu Township before (21/11/19) and after (25/03/19) cyclone Idai (Source: Authors, image from Google Earth)

Fig. 13.5  St Charles Lwanga High School before 08/04/18 and after 13/06/19 cyclone Idai (Source: Authors, images from Google Earth)

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Fig. 13.6  Cooper Township, before (25/29/16) and after tropical cyclone Idai (25/03/19) (Source: Authors, image from Google Earth)

of settlements is further heightened if the slopes of the mountains are above 40% and the landscape is degraded and deforested. In Chimanimani, most of the areas fitting  this description such as Ngangu, whose mountain records wildfire incidences every year and is heavily deforested, and St Charles Lwanga high school suffered the double blow of flooding and landslides. Figure  13.5 portrays the St Charles Lwanga high school before and after tropical cycle Idai. As a consistent pattern in Chimanimani, all the areas with steep slopes above 40% had high vulnerability to landslides and the risk significantly increased with deforestation and land degradation. Areas similar to Ngangu mountain slopes but were well forested and not graded such as areas around the Frog and Fen lodge were not as damaged and Ngangu after cyclone Idai. Almost all the areas affected by landslides in Chimanimani are still not yet safe from a repeat of the same phenomena even after less amounts of rainfall. These areas include Ngangu, Dombera Farm, St Charles Lwanga high school and Rathmore Estate. This is because some of the mountains that contain loose rock boulders intermixed with soil have developed huge cracks and are bound to collapse down the slope any time even after the slightest amount of rainfall. This therefore calls for an urgent need for controlled

detonations and landscaping of such areas to reduce the risk of future disaster. Close to 19% of the participants highlighted poor human settlement planning as one of the prime reasons why settlements were vulnerable to flooding. This include local authorities allocating land for human settlement where there is high danger of flooding without putting in place the necessary measures to reduce vulnerability of those allocated. Figure 13.6 depicts the situation at Cooper Township before and after the impact of tropical cyclone Idai. The township was built on a flat plane at the confluences of Nyahode, Rusitu and Chipita rivers and hence was always at high risk of flooding. Almost all of the close to 100 housing units in the area were swept away leaving over 300 persons missing as a result. About 7% of the participants noted that the affected houses were mainly located on wetland areas especially those close to flood plains and confluences of major rivers. These areas were observed to be desirable for settlement because the provided flat land was easy to construct given the rough terrain, had a ready source of water, contained alluvial pans which provided rich soils that are agriculturally high yielding and also other ecosystem services provided by wetlands. The reasons different settlement types were vulnerable to flooding as given by the partici-

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204 Table 13.6  Vulnerability according to settlement type in Chimanimani Poor settlement planning Location on waterways Location on slopes Location on wetlands Poor drainage Not sure Other

High density Medium density Low density Rural settlement Rural (urban like) Informal 20% 33% 33% 34% 5% 8% 39% 24% 8% 6% 3% 0%

50% 17% 0% 0% 0% 0%

67% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%

21% 28% 7% 3% 3% 3%

51% 8% 8% 5% 18% 5%

58% 25% 0% 0% 8% 0%

Source: Authors

45.00% 40.00% 35.00% 30.00% 25.00% 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% Strongly Disagree

Disagree

Not sure

Agree

Strongly Agree

Fig. 13.7  Extent of informal settlement vulnerability to flooding (Source: Authors)

pants of the research are summarized in Table  13.6. The problems of poor settlement planning and location of settlements on waterways are notable problems in most settlement types in Chimanimani and Chipinge; however, most urban low-density areas have minimal risks associated with being located on steep slopes. Informal and semi-formal settlements were the most vulnerable to flooding when compared to other forms of settlements. This was mainly due to the fact that they occupy mostly the high-­ risk areas such as close to rivers and waterways and generally low-lying areas. However, the problem of informal settlements in Chimanimani was not very widespread and limited to mostly the backyards, semi-urban places like Machongwe Business Centre and few farming compounds.

These structures were mainly made from wooden cabins with weak foundations. A combined 73% of the participants strongly agreed and agreed that most informal settlements were highly vulnerable to floods and storms (Fig. 13.7). The extent to which building designs and types contributed to vulnerability of settlements during tropical cyclone Idai in Chimanimani was also the subject of assessment during the study. Although there is a large portion of participants who agree and strongly agree (40%) that poorly designed and constructed contributed to the destruction of houses in all settlement types during the disaster, to a large extent (51%) participants viewed most of the destroyed houses have been built to standard but instead fell victim to a very high impact event (Table  13.7). Most saw

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Table 13.7  Extent to which building designs contributed to vulnerability to floods

Agree Strongly agree Not sure Disagree Strongly disagree

Overall (cumulative frequency) 22% 18% 8% 29% 22%

Rural 22% 17% 4% 22% 30%

Urban 25% 20% 10% 27% 18%

Peri-urban 15% 11% 0% 41% 33%

Source: Authors

80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% Complete damage (no longer usable)

Partial damage

No damage

I don't Know

Fig. 13.8  Condition of domestic and productive water sources. (Source: Authors)

the houses as being strong enough, built with cement and reinforced concrete, but were sited on extremely vulnerable locations such as river floodplains and on waterways. So high was the impact of the cyclone that entire townships, for example in Cooper and Peacock, were completely destroyed, leaving no sign of previous settlements. Over 72% of the participants highlighted that their sources of water were permanently damaged due to the tropical cyclone (Fig. 13.8). This leaves the communities very vulnerable to poor sanitation and water-borne diseases such as cholera and typhoid. Very limited sources of water remained intact after the cyclone showing how

vulnerable the water resources are in the area to disasters. The destruction which occurred in Chimanimani due to tropical cyclone Idai has left the area even more vulnerable to flooding in the upcoming seasons. A survey to determine if the communities had learnt from the Idai experience to be better prepared for future disasters reviewed that only 18% of the participants indicated that they would be prepared, with 78% saying they would not and 4% not very sure of their situation if the event repeats itself. This implies that more needed to be done to assist the Chimanimani community recover and build back better from the disaster.

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One of the key informants, who runs a sawmill business in the area, observed that the location of the Chimanimani community made it very vulnerable should disasters like tropical cyclone Idai occur  in the future. The key informant observed: ‘…no one passes through Chimanimani going anywhere, the area is on the dead end of the country…’

This implies that the area is already isolated since it is right on the border with Mozambique and also mountainous which makes it complicated to travel through it and for logistics during disasters. This is unlike other places in south-eastern Zimbabwe like Masvingo, Mutare and Chiredzi where travellers pass through to reach their destinations. These areas compared to Chimanimani are given the first priority in rehabilitation when disasters occur; hence, in future, some key informants suggest that the communities must be better organized in the face of isolation which will increasingly occur each time a disaster occurs in the area. This was against a background where Chimanimani was cut off from the rest of the world for the first 4 days after the disaster with no electricity, no medical supplies, no communication as all roads and bridges were destroyed. We observed in the field that the vulnerability to flooding and other geo-hazards due to tropical cyclone Idai was multi-dimensional. Factors which influenced vulnerability included poverty, poor building standards and construction on highly vulnerable locations. Salami et al. (2017) also observed vulnerability to be a condition triggered by numerous phenomena in the form of social, economic, physical, cultural and environmental factors that make community assets susceptible to disasters. The poverty within the affected communities is partly responsible for the long period of time that the victims took to recover from the impacts of the cyclone. Arroyo (2015) also highlighted poverty to be a significant factor to settlement types and vulnerability to disasters. This brings about the need for countries of the global south to

D. Chikodzi and P. Khumalo

devise new and alternative ways of financing disaster risk reduction rather than rely on central governments that have their own financial limitations. World Bank (2019) also highlights that most countries from the global south have limited access to finance for early response in DRR and have restricted monetary headroom and hence find it difficult to reallocate budgetary funds quickly without facing difficult spending ­trade-­offs. In addition, private insurance penetration rates are very low; hence, private insurance pay-­outs for disaster recovery are of limited utility and often take too long to be disbursed (Clarke & Dercon, 2016). We also noted in the chapter a general poor state of preparedness on DRR by both local communities and the government which also increase the community vulnerability to disasters. Van Niekerk et al. (2018) also noted that the lack of strong national and local institutions for dealing with disasters risks was a major contributing factor to increased vulnerability to disasters in developing countries. This therefore brings the need for effective budgeting and a well-­engineered institutional framework for DRR as advocated for within the Sendai Framework. Ishiwatari and Surjan (2019) highlighted the urgent need for increased investment in DRR at all levels of society from global actors, local, regional and national governments as well as local actors including corporates, NGOs and individuals. The findings of the chapter point to the importance of location in assessing vulnerability. It is worth noting that the socio-economic and political factors have a huge bearing on the vulnerability and adaptation response of a settlement as noted by Amoako (2015). The case of Chimanimani whose remote location does not attract political urgency makes it very unlikely to receive adaptation response exposing it to the severity of future occurrences. Linked to locational factors is affordability, where the poor by their economic status may find themselves in informal settings in the outskirts of the cities, most often in low-lying areas not suitable for residential purposes.

13  Social and Physical Vulnerability of Settlements to Hydro-Climatic Induced Disasters: Lessons…

13.5 Conclusions and Recommendations It was observed in the chapter that more than half of the participants of the questionnaire survey were permanently displaced due to cyclone Idai. Their houses were damaged beyond repair, and the land was no longer suitable for human settlements. High-density urban and informal settlements were more vulnerable to the impacts of tropical cyclones in the study area. Settlements located on low-lying areas, waterways and steep slopes were also hit hard by landslides and floods during cyclone Idai. The process of recovery and resettlement from the disaster was observed to be very slow even 6 months after the disaster. Most participants agree to have been warned about the coming cyclone, but it was noted that the early warning was poorly packaged, and the communities were not assisted to respond to the warning. Participants observed that the hardest hit settlements were those poorly sited in areas vulnerable to multiple hazards such as floods and landslides. There was also an observed poor appreciation disaster management and response by the affected communities regardless of the fact that they were living on high flood-risk areas. Given the impact of tropical cyclone Idai in the study area, we recommend an urgent need to produce a multi-hazard management plan for the area. The plan needs to be effective and responsive to the different levels of risks to multi-­ hazards in the area. There must be improved capacity for the forecasting of floods and related hazards. This entails having modern weather and runoff observation networks and methods as well as effective Information Systems. There must also be a template to undertake post-disaster assessments which will help to continuously review the disaster preparedness and response plans. There is need to undertake community vulnerability to multiple hazards and to determine changes in vulnerability and risk under various climate change scenarios. Communities need timely access to early warning and flood hazard risk information as well as promoting a culture of disaster preparedness. There is need to promote reliable platforms

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for data and information sharing amongst different levels of communities and government. The people at risk should have regular updates on the different hazards as they approach or unravel. Strengthening the ability of local communities to manage and respond to flood hazard warnings also needs to be performed. Communities need implementation of flood-resistant construction or strengthening and retrofitting buildings or utilities at risk. Building back better after disasters needs to be encouraged to minimize future vulnerability. Disaster emergency responders and the communities that are potentially at risk need to plan and execute emergency drills to improve the state of preparedness. Furthermore, there is need for empowering vulnerable groups such as women and marginalized persons. This can be done by incorporating gender-sensitive and equitable approaches in planning and responding to disaster situations.

References Amoako, C. (2015). The politics of flood vulnerability in informal settlements around the Korle Lagoon in Accra. OPPORTUNITIES, p. 50. Arroyo, I. (2015). Building resilience through housing reconstruction in areas affected by typhoon Haiyan1  in the Philippines: Users involvement and incremental growth for medium-rise buildings. OPPORTUNITIES, p. 67. Birkmann, J., Cardona, O.  D., Carreño, M.  L., Barbat, A.  H., Pelling, M., & Schneiderbauer, S. (2013). Framing vulnerability, risk and societal responses: The MOVE framework. Natural Hazards, 67, 193–211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-­013-­0558-­5 Blaikie, P., Cannon, T., Davis, I., & Wisner, B. (1994). At risk: Natural hazards, people’s vulnerability, and disasters. Routledge. Brett, S. (1974). Low-income urban settlements in Latin America: The turner model. In Sociology and development (pp. 171–196). Tavistock. Clarke, D., & Dercon, S. (2016). Dull disasters? How planning ahead will make a difference. Oxford University Press. Chu, E. (2015). Urban development and climate adaptation: Implications for policymaking and governance in Indian cities. Opportunities, 6. De Kadt, E., & Williams, G. (1974). Sociology and development. Routledge. Desportes, I., Waddell, J., & Hordijk, M. (2016). Improving flood risk governance through multi-­ stakeholder collaboration: A case study of sweet

208 home informal settlement, Cape Town. South African Geographical Journal, 98(1), 61–83. Doocy, S., Dick, A., Daniels, A., & Kirsch, T. D. (2013). The human impact of tropical cyclones: A historical review of events 1980–2009 and systematic literature review. PLOS Currents Disasters, 5. https://doi. org/10.1371/currents.dis.2664354a5571512063ed29d 25ffbce74 Douglas, I. (2017). Flooding in African cities, scales of causes, teleconnections, risks, vulnerability and impacts. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 26, 34–42. EM-DAT. (2015). The human cost of weather-related disasters, 1995–2015, Centre for Research on the epidemiology of disasters (pp.  1–25). UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNODRR). Füssel, H.-M. (2007). Vulnerability: A generally applicable conceptual framework for climate change research. Global Environmental Change, 17, 155–167. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.05.002 Garland, A.  M. (Ed.). (2015). Urban Opportunities: Perspectives on climate change, resilience, inclusion, and the informal economy: A new generation of ideas. Wilson Center. Gastinger, A., Neoh, A., Cardwell, A., Degraeff, C., Cano, E.  B., Cano-Saenz, L.  H., Muthoni, M., Smith, N., Gang, W., Liu, X., & Yizhou, Y. (2017). Building just responses to flooding Centre for Community Initiatives (CCI) in the context of Dar es Salaam. Available at: www.ucl.ac.uk/bartlett/development/sites/bartlett/ files/2017_flooding.pdf. Accessed 15 Nov 2019. Hallegatte, S., Green, C., Nicholls, R.  J., & Corfee-­ Morlot, J. (2013). Future flood losses in major coastal cities. Nature Climate Change, 3, 802–806. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). (2001). Climate change 2001: The scientific basis, contribution of the working group I to the third assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. In J.  T. Houghton, Y.  Ding, D.  J. Griggs, M. Nouger, P. J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell, & C. A. Johnson (Eds.), (p. 881). Cambridge University Press. Ishiwatari, M., & Surjan, A. (2019). Good enough today is not enough tomorrow: Challenges of increasing investments in disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. Progress in Disaster Science. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2019.100007 Jacobsen, M., Webster, M., & Vairavamoorthy, K. (2012). The future of water in African cities: Why waste water? World Bank. Kikwasi, G., & Mbuya, E. (2019). Vulnerability analysis of building structures to floods the case of flooding informal settlements in Dar es salaam, Tanzania. International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation, 37(5), 629–656. National Disaster Risk Reduction and Coordinating Council (NDRRMC). (2014). Tropical cyclones and their effects, 2005–2013. NDRRMC. Parry, M. L. (2007). Climate change 2007-impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: Working group II contri-

D. Chikodzi and P. Khumalo bution to the fourth assessment report of the IPCC. Cambridge University Press. Salami, R. O., Von Meding, J. K., & Giggins, H. (2017). Urban settlements’ vulnerability to flood risks in African cities: A conceptual framework. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 9(1), a370. https:// doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v9i1.370 Shultz, J.  M., Russel, J., & Espinel, Z. (2005). Epidemiology of tropical cyclones: The dynamics of disaster, disease, and development. Epidemiologic Reviews, 27, 21–35. Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K., Tignor, M.  M. B., & Miller, H.  L. (Eds.). (2007). Climate change 2007: The physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (p.  996). Cambridge University Press. Tiepolo, M. (2014). Flood risk reduction and climate change in large cities south of the Sahara. In S. Macchi & M. Tiepolo (Eds.), Climate change vulnerability in southern African cities (pp. 19–36). Springer. UNISDR. (2005). Hyogo framework for action 2005– 2015. Building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters. In Extract from the final report of the world conference on disaster reduction (A/CONF. 206/6) (Vol. 380). The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. UNISDR. (2015). Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction. Making development sustainable: The future of disaster risk management. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR). UNISDR and CRED 2017 UNISDR and CRED (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction; Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters). (2018). Economic losses, poverty and disasters: 1998–2017. Available from: http://www.preventionweb.net/ files/61119_credeconomiclosses.pdf. Accessed 10 May 2020. United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. United Nations. Vojinović, Z. (2015). Flood risk: The holistic perspective: From integrated to interactive planning for flood resilience. IWA Publishing. Van Niekerk, D., Wentink, G.  J., & Shoroma, L.  B. (2018). Natural hazards governance in South Africa. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Natural Hazard Science. https://doi.org/10.1093/ acrefore/9780199389407.013.246 Vos, F., Rodriguez, J., Below, R., & Guha-Sapir, D. (2010). Annual disaster statistical review 2009. Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED). http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/ems/ annual_disaster_statistical_review_2009.pdf?ua=1. Accessed 10 Nov 2019. World Bank. (2019). Zimbabwe Idai recovery project: Project information document. World Bank Group. http://www.worldbank.org/projects. Accessed 2 Nov 2019

Part V Natural Resources, Oceans, Tourism and Other Losses

The Impact of Cyclone Idai on Natural and Plantation Forests in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe

14

David Chikodzi and Mduduzi Cardinal Tembani

Abstract

The Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe is home to a unique floristic diversity, which include exotic plantations of pines and eucalyptus, natural moist forests and dry forests. We assessed the impact of tropical cyclone Idai on natural and plantation forests. Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) was used to determine the changes in forest conditions. We also conducted a questionnaire survey in the study area to elicit perceptions of key informants. Results show a decrease in the NDVI values during the month of the cyclone. Results from surveys indicated that the impact of the cyclone varied across locations, with the relatively low altitude (≤1400  m.a.s.l.) areas being the most affected compared to higher altitude (>1400) sites. The impact of the cyclone was more on pines compared to eucalyptus species. Pinus tecunumanii had the largest proportion (expressed as % of total volume damaged) of 37% followed by P. kesiya (16%) and lastly P. maximinoi (12.3%). D. Chikodzi () Institute for Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] M. C. Tembani Forest Research Centre – Forestry Commission, Harare, Zimbabwe

Our results indicate that plantation species responded differently to the impact of the cyclone and that low elevation sites suffered more impact than high elevation areas. We conclude that silvicultural management could provide cues for mitigating the impact of cyclones in plantation species. Keywords

Plantation forests · Natural forests · Cyclone Idai · NDVI · Eastern highlands

14.1 Introduction and Background Tropical cyclones are extreme weather occurrences capable of causing human and animal fatalities and produce huge economic, environmental and social losses when they make landfall (Lugo, 2008). Most of the damages from tropical cyclones occur due to strong winds with high speeds and excessive rainfall totals which are also used to rank cyclone intensity (Bhowmik & Cabral, 2013). Depending on magnitude, tropical cyclones can have a long-term impact on forest structure, particularly on stem density, canopy structure and basal area of different forest types (Ibanez et  al., 2018). Studies on the impact of cyclones on a global scale also indicate that

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_14

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t­ ropical cyclones can also cause long-term disturbances to composition, structure and functioning of ecosystems (Le Page, 2016; Ibanez et  al., 2018). However, the intensity of impact caused by cyclones on vegetation and forests has been shown to be strongly correlated with abiotic environmental factors such as soil type and topography (Suvanto et al., 2016). Research has shown that forests situated in high elevation areas and on windward slopes are more susceptible to damage by cyclones due to wind exposure, which causes tree mortality (Boose et al., 2004; Cortes-Ramos et al., 2020). Remote sensing has been reliably used as a methodology for assessing the impact of cyclones at large spatial scales (Lee et al., 2008; Wang and Zhou, 2013; Negron-Juarez et al., 2014; Cortes-­ Ramos et  al., 2020). Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Landsat data and vegetation indices such as normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) derived from satellite imagery have been used in the assessment of disturbance patterns of forest disturbance post cyclone occurrence (Cortes-Ramos et  al., 2020). Abbas et  al. (2020) used NDVI satellite imagery data to assess the impact of a super-­ typhoon on secondary vegetation in Hong Kong and established that monoculture plantations in high and low elevation areas were severely affected by cyclones compared to open shrubland, open forests and grasslands. In Zimbabwe, the forestry industry and its value chain, together with other related industries such as tourism, are key sectors that can potentially boost its economy and help in achieving sustainable development. The commercial forest plantation industry has historically been the mainstay of economic activity and the biggest employer directly and indirectly in Zimbabwe’s Manicaland province. At its peak in the late 1990s, the industry directly employed 14,445 people and over 40,000 indirectly in downstream industries contributing 3% to the GDP (Forestry in South Africa, 2017). It has also been argued that the contribution of the forest sector to the national economy has been to a large extent under-valued because of the unobtainability of statistics from the informal sector which

D. Chikodzi and M. C. Tembani

is significantly big in Zimbabwe (Mabugu & Chitiga, 2002). On 14 March 2019, tropical cyclone Idai, with wind speeds of over 170 km/h and rainfall of up to 1000 mm in 24 h (category 4 cyclone), made landfall in Beira. The cyclone-affected parts of Malawi, Mozambique and eastern Zimbabwe with the Chimanimani district were the hotspot of impact. Tropical cyclone Idai left over 1000 people dead across the three countries, hundreds missing and along its path were economically, socially and ecologically important forests plantations and estates (RINA, 2019). Most studies done on the impacts of extreme external perturbations such as tropical cyclones on forests have focused mostly on coastal forests that are always the first to be hit by such events. The frequency and intensity of these tropical cyclones has been observed to be on the increase and are starting to hit further inland forests and plantations (Hoquea et  al., 2017). The increasing frequency of these cyclones in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe, which hosts high value forest plantations and a number of important forest biodiversity hotspots such as Vumba, Haroni and Chirinda rainforests, poses serious problems for forest management from the perspective of commercial plantations and forest biodiversity conservation programmes in general. However, there is no adequate risk and disaster management strategies in place in the local environment sector to mitigate against the increasing frequency and impact of such adverse weather phenomenon, despite cyclone Idai not being the first disaster to affect Zimbabwe (Chatiza, 2019; Chatiza & Manatsa, 2019). In-depth understanding of the pattern and intensity of disturbances on forest ecosystems caused by tropical cyclones is a critical step towards designing better management strategies. This is more so, especially in the wake of an observed increasing global trend towards enhanced demand for timber from tropical plantations (Varmola et  al., 2005). Improved management practices will help in decreasing the vulnerability of livelihoods that depend on forest goods and services, especially the poor. It will

14  The Impact of Cyclone Idai on Natural and Plantation Forests in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe

also preserve the current potential of tropical forests as carbon sinks hence helping in the mitigation of the impacts of climate change (Hall et al., 2020). For forest and plantation experiencing episodes of tropical cyclones, studies of their role on ecosystem processes and patterns are a requisite for an in-depth understanding of ecosystem structure and dynamics (Chu, 2014). With a special focus on tropical cyclone Idai on the Zimbabwean side, the chapter aims at unravelling the impacts of the tropical cyclone on natural and plantation forests. Specifically, the chapter aims at answering the following questions: How were forests and plantations impacted by the cyclone? What were the short-term impacts of the cyclone on canopy structure and tree mortality? What were the differential responses between tree species (floristic taxa) to the impacts of the cyclone? What were the impacts of the tropical cyclone on plantation and forest ecosystem productivity? By assessing the impact of cyclone Idai on forest ecosystems using a remote sensing methodology, the study contributes to a better understanding of how existing geographical conditions in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe can inform adaptation and mitigation strategies for developing more resilient ecosystems to safeguard against losses in huge forest investments especially in the plantation forest sector.

14.2 Literature Review The destruction and disturbance of forests and plantations by tropical cyclones has got a direct bearing on the achievement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in the affected areas. Forest and plantation ecosystems specifically relate to sustainable development goal (SDG) 15 which seeks to protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combating desertification and halting and reversing land degradation and biodiversity loss (UN, 2015). Target 15.1 of SDG 15 specifically encourages that by 2020 there should be conservation, restoration and sustainable utilization of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems that include forests, wetlands and mountains

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(Inter-agency and Expert Group on SDG Indicators-IAEG-SDG, 2019). Target 15.2 further promotes by 2020, the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation (ibid). SDG 6 also links directly and indirectly with the other 16 SDGs since they are integrated and inseparable balancing the three pillars of sustainable development. For example, conservation of forests links well with SDG 13 which deals with climate action since they constitute a significant carbon sink. Forests and plantations also provide ecosystem services that can be regarded as being key in supporting livelihoods of local communities, for example SDG 1 and 2 which deal with eliminating extreme poverty and hunger.

14.2.1 Impact of Cyclones on Natural and Planted Forests The frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones is projected to be on the rise as a result of the increasing warming of sea surface temperatures due to climate change (Teng-Chiu et al., 2020). Tropical cyclones are therefore considered among the most important disturbance agents that cause economic losses and substantial damage and disturbance in forests (Suvanto et  al., 2016; Latifah et  al., 2017; Hall et  al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2020). Tropical cyclones can affect tree species composition, succession, structure and subsequently impact on terrestrial carbon sequestration (Boutet & Weishampel, 2003). Noticeable effects of cyclones on both natural and planted forests include direct damage to the stem, branches and foliage of trees and at times complete uprooting of trees (Turton, 2008; Ibanez et  al. 2019). According to Taylor et  al. (2020), forest tree species composition is a major determinant of different types of disturbances that affect forest ecosystems. The associated disturbances to forest ecosystems can also intensify vulnerability to other disturbances such as wildfire, landslides, soil erosion and insect pests (Vozmischeva et  al., 2019; Krauss & Osland, 2020). For example, increases in tree mortality

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due to tropical cyclones may lead to massive conversion of living biomass to dead fuel load that may increase the risk of wildfires in forest ecosystems as well as reduced capacity of the forest to act as a carbon sink after salvage logging (Vozmischeva et  al., 2019). Severe storms in Germany in the 2004/05 season affected forests in national parks leading to a severe bark beetle outbreak (Muller & Job, 2009). Such interactions between extreme climatic events and forest response need to be understood further given the importance of forests.

14.2.2 Differential Responses Between Tree Species (Floristic Taxa) to the Impacts of Cyclones The selective damage caused by the disproportionate effect of cyclones on big trees results in lower canopies and higher stem densities (Ibanez et  al., 2019). Natural forests are generally regarded as more tolerant to disturbance from a number of natural agents (including cyclones) compared to planted exotic forests (Gadgil & Bain, 1999; Abbas et al., 2020). Contributory factors to native species’ tolerance to disturbances are largely attributed to adaptability to local climate and abiotic conditions which enhances chances of native species to better survive disturbance compared to exotic monocultures (Abbas et al., 2020). To support the hypothesis of differential responses between species, studies in the Caribbean have shown that there is a negative relationship between wood density and cyclone-­ driven tree damage (Zimmerman et al., 1994; Van Bloem et al., 2006; Teng-Chiu et al., 2020). High wood density hardwood species which comprise of a wide range of native tree species and a few commonly planted exotic species such as the eucalyptus are expected to withstand cyclone damage better than softwood species such as conifers (pines) which are generally characterized by low wood density. The local commercial plantation forest statistics in Zimbabwe indicate that pines constitute about 70% of the plantation species in the commercial plantation forestry sector (TPF, 2019). Such species composition leaves

D. Chikodzi and M. C. Tembani

the local plantation forest sector more vulnerable to severe damage in the event of a cyclone. Chu (2014) has however observed forest ecosystems to be complex, adaptive and undergo change due to continued physical and biological disturbances. This then brings about the importance of understanding how these ecosystems maintain equilibrium within the system boundaries after disturbances. According to Hall et al. (2020), forests established in high elevation areas are more prone to damage from the effects of cyclones due to the association of high elevation landscapes with high rainfall and strong winds.

14.2.3 Impacts of the Tropical Cyclone on Plantation and Forest Ecosystem Productivity The primary purpose of most plantations is for harvesting timber for use in various purposes, which include construction where it is used as round poles, or rough sawn timber. Cyclones can impose huge losses in terms of timber quality through stem breakages, which render the timber not fit for purposes. For example, in 2005, hurricane Katrina caused a total loss of 2.23 million ha of timber in the four coastal states in the United States estimated at between $1.4 billion and $2.4 billion (Stanturf et al., 2007). Tropical cyclone disturbances have a direct impact on forest ecosystem productivity. Tropical cyclones impact on ecosystem goods and services such as fruits, medicines, recreation, and aesthetic value derived from both native and planted forests. According to Hutley et al. (2013), disturbance as a result of cyclones occur over large areas leading to forest ecosystem carbon dynamics arising from spatial and temporal mosaic of carbon sources and sinks. To illustrate the magnitude of forest disturbances by cyclone, a case study of the impact of hurricane Katrina on the Gulf Coast forests in the United States showed that a total of 105 tera grams of carbon, equivalent to the net annual United States carbon sinks, were lost as a result of a single disturbance (Chambers et  al., 2007). Ecological models for assessing forest disturbances indicate that high levels of

14  The Impact of Cyclone Idai on Natural and Plantation Forests in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe

forest disturbance by cyclones affect regenerative capacity of a forest, which leads to suppressed recruitment and growth of woody components (Werner & Prior, 2013; Hutley et al., 2013). Net primary productivity (NPP) is one of the commonly used indicators for assessment of tropical cyclones on forest ecosystem productivity. Research conducted in Florida on the impact of hurricane Wilma showed that NPP losses as a result of defoliation ranging from 5.53 to 7.84  Mg  C  ha−1  year−1 were recorded (Tess et al., 2017).

14.2.4 Remote Sensing as a Tool for Assessing Cyclone-­ Induced Damage in Forests Field-based methods for assessing the damage imposed on forest and plantation ecosystems by tropical cyclones are both expensive, time consuming and rarely have the required before impact data (Hoquea et al., 2017). Remote sensing has evolved as an effective tool for monitoring and analysing changes in forested areas due to tropical cyclones disturbance (Hall  et  al., 2020). The main advantages of using satellite remote sensing are that it enables the observation of forests in places where human access is limited; it gives the state of the forests before and after the tropical cyclone impact and availability of sensors with both high spatial and temporal resolutions (Wang et  al., 2010). This enables efficient damage assessment and identification of disturbance hotspots within forests and plantations. MODIS and Landsat are some of the remote sensing tools that have gained wide recognition in the study of the impact of cyclones (Negron-Juarez et al., 2014). This literature review provided an overview of how biotic factors such as tree species attributes and abiotic factors such as topography and silvicultural conditions determine the impact of cyclones on forests and forest ecosystems. This theoretical basis from literature provides an important basis for understanding how forests ecosystems adapt to disturbances over time.

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14.3 Materials and Methods This section provides an overview of the study area and details on the tools used in the collection and analysis of data.

14.3.1 Study Area Figure 14.1 shows the study area, mainly the eastern districts that have forests and plantations affected by tropical cyclone Idai. The eastern parts of Zimbabwe close to the border with Mozambique were the most affected by tropical cyclone Idai. These include the Mutare, Chimanimani, Mutasa, Nyanga and Chipinge districts. The study area has got a combination of both exotic and natural forests and plantations. Forestry and tourism are the mainstay of the local economy, and the forest estates in the area include: Martin, Lionhills, Chisengu, Tarka and Glencoe Forest Lands administered by the Zimbabwe Forestry Commission. Others include Vumba North and South, Banti, Bonga, Rusitu, Selbourne, Mtarazi, Mukurupini, Chirinda, Ngungunyana, Silver streams and Charter forests. The individual forest establishments range in size from less than one hectare to thousands of square kilometres in size. The plantations are made up of exotic species of pines, eucalyptus and the black wattle and used mainly to produce timber, poles, pulp, paper, tannin and furniture. Natural rainforests occur at the Vumba, Rusitu and Chimanimani mountains with the Chirinda forest in Mount Selinda, Chipinge being the southernmost rainforest in Africa. The main summer rainfall season is from October to March but on the high mountains can occur throughout the year. Annual rainfall totals range from 1500 to 2000 mm/year. The dry season is not as marked here as it is on the other parts of Zimbabwe.

14.3.2 Methods The study used a mixed methods approach using remote sensed data and surveys (key informants and questionnaire) supported by post cyclone

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Fig. 14.1  Study area Source: Authors

assessment data collected by the Forest Research Centre in the field. MODIS satellite was used in the study to determine the level of disturbance of forests and plantations before and after the tropical cyclone. Decadal normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) composites for the affected forests were derived from time-series MODIS imagery of the area for the 2018/2019 season. Decadal NDVI composites average the condition of vegetation in an area over periods of 10 days throughout the season. Sudden disruptions in vegetation productivity can be observed by sudden reductions of NDVI values over a decad. The chosen downloaded wavebands were those in the red and near-infrared (NIR) category of the electro-­magnetic spectrum. The wavebands have a spatial resolution of 250 m*250 m. The MODIS sensor was chosen because of its high temporal resolution, which makes it easy to detect changes in vegetation over short periods of time.

NDVI was used to determine the changes in forest conditions before and after cyclone Idai (Eq. 14.1). NDVI is the most widely used vegetation index for ecosystem monitoring and multi-­ temporal changes in vegetation structure. NDVI calculations are useful for classifying land cover and detecting the dynamics of vegetation (Running, 2007). NDVI was chosen for the study because it is less affected by topographical factors and illumination than other vegetation indices (Riera et al., 1998). The NDVI was computed as:

NDVI =

NIRσ − Redσ NIRσ − Redσ

(14.1)

where NRIσ and Redσ represent the reflectance in NIR and Red wavebands, respectively (Abbas et al., 2020). The NDVI values range from −1.0 to 1.0, with high values related to high levels of live photosynthetic and healthy vegetation and lower values associated with sparse vegetation or

14  The Impact of Cyclone Idai on Natural and Plantation Forests in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe

unvegetated areas. Negative values mainly represent snow or water; thresholds close to zero mainly represent bare areas, sand and rocks. NDVI values between 0.2 and 0.3 represent shrub and grasslands while values from 0.6 to 0.8 indicate thick forests. 3D satellite images for Forest Research Centre’s research sites were downloaded using Terrain2STL online software application. The latitude (19°48′ 0.00″S) and longitude (32°52′0.01″E) for Chimanimani was used in the Terrain2STL application to locate Chimanimani on Google Map and then zoomed to the individual Forest Research Centre’s (FRC) research sites namely Cashel, Chisengu, Martin and Tarka forests. Site elevation details (altitude) used in the analysis were also obtained from Terrain2STL. A questionnaire survey was also carried out in the Chimanimani and Chipinge districts to access the opinions of respondents on the impact of the cyclone on forests and plantations. Purposive sampling was used to recruit participants of the questionnaire and targeted households that had been impacted by the cyclone. A total of 219 questionnaires were administered. In-depth interviews with key informants as well as direct field observations were also used to gather additional information on the impact of the cyclone on the forests in the area. Key informants included officials from the Forestry Commission of Zimbabwe, Local Traditional Leadership, Environmental Management Agency and Agricultural Extension Workers. They provided a chance to validate the information obtained from remote sensing and also to gather additional information difficult to obtain from Earth observation data. Data triangulation was further achieved through data sourced from the Forest Research Centre on their assessment of extent of damage caused by cyclone on their research trials.

14.4 Findings This section presents results from the study. It shows how the forest landscape in the study area was affected by cyclone Idai from a remote sensing perspective using NDVI and also from an

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observation data in the field which shows how plantations and natural forests were impacted by the cyclone. The section is organized as follows. Firstly, a presentation of a general overview of the impact of cyclone Idai on forest cover using NDVI to show changes in vegetation cover before, during and after the cyclone period is provided. It also presents findings from empirical data collected by the FRC showing how plantations (represented by various research trials across FRC research sites) were affected by cyclone Idai. Secondly, the section presents qualitative data from interviews and questionnaires administered to respondents in the study area to provide perceptions of respondents on the impact of the cyclone on vegetation and forest resources. These findings are then discussed with reference to literature and experiences from similar extreme weather occurrences in other parts of the world.

14.4.1 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index Figure 14.2 shows average decadal NDVI values for forests in Chimanimani, Nyanga, Chipinge and Mutare districts in the 2018/2019 season. For all the districts, the second decad of March 2019 showed a sudden decline in NDVI values. This shows that there was a sudden disturbance to the forests in these areas given the fact that all had been showing progressive increases in biomass from December 2018. The sudden drop in biomass in the second and sometimes third decads of March 2019 also coincided with the occurrence of cyclone Idai and its aftereffects. The biggest drop in biomatter was recorded in the Chimanimani district where NDVI values fell from 0.73 to 0.62 for the second and third decads of March 2019. A drop of 0.11  in the value of NDVI may seem small, but on the ground it signifies a significant decline in biomatter and productivity. This is because the relationship between NDVI and vegetation productivity is not linear but exponential. The vegetation showed some signs of recovery in the last decad of March and in the first decad of April but never recovered to cyclone pre-impact levels. All other districts as

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Fig. 14.2  Decadal NDVI values for Chimanimani, Nyanga, Chipinge and Mutare forests in the 2018/19 season Source: Authors, data from MODIS images

shown in Fig. 14.2 show a similar pattern except that the reduction in biomatter was not as great as the one observed in Chimanimani. The least drop in forest damage was observed in Chipinge where there was a slight drop in the second decad of March 2019.

14.4.2 Impact-Location Differentiation and Cross-­ Location Analysis Results across the Forest Research Centre’s five research sites indicate that the impact of the cyclone was not uniform across research sites (Table 14.1). More field trials were damaged in Tarka (with 6 out of 11 trials) and Cashel research sites (with 4 out of 9 trials) having been damaged, while Ngungunyana and Chisengu had

fewer trials damaged. Martin research site had no trials damaged. Figure 14.3 shows that the variation in altitude across the sites might have mitigated the impact of the damage on research trials. Martin research site, which has the highest altitude of 1800  m.a.s.l., had no trials damaged while the other sites with slightly lower altitude had more trials damaged. The altitude range for trials at Tarka with the highest number of trials affected ranges from 1200 m.a.s.l. to 1600 m.a.s.l. while that of Cashel with the second ranking damage impact has an altitude range of 1400  m.a.s.l. However, for Cashel the trials are located mostly in the lower altitude range of 1400 m.a.s.l. Martin forest is situated towards the Mozambican side of Chimanimani but on leeward side which protects the site from the strong Mozambican winds unlike with Tarka which is on the windward side of the Mozambican air current. This probably

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Table 14.1  Extent of cyclone damage in the five research sites under the Forest Research Centre

Site Cashel Ngungunyana Chisengu Tarka Martin Total

Status Damaged Area (Ha) No. of trials damaged 4 11.42 1 1 2 4.9 6 14.73 0 – 13 32.05

Mean age (years)

Volume (m3)

28.5 36 36 32.3 –

1852.2 200 200 1007.4 – 3259.6

Undamaged Area (Ha) No. of trials

16.11 32.61 21.79 9.35 9.39 89.25

5 8 10 5 4 32

Mean age (years) 30.2 25 11.3 26 23.2

Source: Authors, data from Forestry Commission of Zimbabwe

explains why there were no damages on trials at Martin. Although the lower altitude range for Martin research site is also 1400 m.a.s.l., the trials are mostly concentrated in the high-altitude range of 1800 m.a.s.l. It was also observed by key informants that regardless of the tree species in the plantations, those that had just been thinned and pruned suffered more damage from the cyclone compared to those that were not. Figure  14.4 shows the extent of damage to natural forests and plantations by cyclone Idai as observed by the participants of the questionnaire survey. Close to 70% of the participants viewed the damage as being severe, while 18% indicated the damage as being moderate. Key informants attributed most of the damage to high wind speeds, heavy rainfall and landslides that were induced by the tropical cyclone. Most of the damage that occurred on commercial plantations was due to windthrow, which resulted in trees being uprooted or broken by wind action with the breakage occurring on the tree bole (trunk). Most of the participants observed a similar extent of damage between exotic and indigenous tree species (Fig. 14.5). This was highlighted by about 62% of the participants, who highlighted that as long as the forest was in the path of the impact, the damage was not significantly different between native and indigenous forests. Damage was mostly done on trees and forests on or below areas that had slope angles ranging from

65° to 85°. These slopes mostly collapsed and triggered landslides which destroyed everything on their path. It was however noted that very few places afforded the participants a chance to compare the differences in damages between exotic and indigenous tree species because most places have only one type of forest not both. Close to 15% (Fig. 14.5) of the participants viewed indigenous forests as being the most damaged. These singled out riverine forests as being the most damaged as they were located close to rivers which flooded, widened and in the process carried huge boulders that decimated riparian forests. About 10% observed the exotic forests to be impacted the most by the tropical cyclone. These were mostly participants from the commercial farming areas and forest estates. They observed that in total 1009 hectares of exotic wattle, gum and pine plantations were completely destroyed during tropical cyclone Idai.

14.4.3 Silvicultural Aspects of the Forest Ecosystem (Composition, Health and Quality of Forests) Figure 14.6 shows the size of trees observed by the participants to have been damaged more within forests during cyclone Idai. About 59% of the participants highlighted that trees of all sizes and age where equally damaged during the tropical cyclone Idai. Close to 26% of the participants

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Fig. 14.3  Raised Relief Maps showing spatial distribution of forest plantations and research trials in four sites namely Tarka Forest (top left); Cashel (top right);

Chisengu Forest (bottom left) and Martin Forest (bottom right) Source: Authors

highlighted that it was mainly the older trees that suffered as a result of the cyclone. Key ­informants highlighted that older trees usually are not flexible enough to bend and twist without breaking when compared to the younger tree; hence, they were more vulnerable to windthrow during cyclones. At Rathmore estate, for example, close to 30 ha of mature pine which was ready for harvesting was completely destroyed by landslides and also washed away by flowing flood waters. The small- and medium-sized trees were not much affected by the cyclone except for those close to flooded river systems. The wind did not do much damage to them because of their flexibility and ability to get back to their position after bending and twisting. The Forest Research Centre trials in Muguzo (in Chimanimani) also experienced damage to various levels on pine and eucalyptus species.

Pinus tecunumanii accounted for the highest volume of damaged trees with 37.4% of the total volume of trees damaged, followed by P. kesiya (16%) and P. maximinoi (12%). Eucalyptus grandis and E. maculata suffered more damage in the eucalyptus category. The mean age of damaged trials ranged from 11 to 38  years, with most of the trials affected being above 20  years of age. However, results also indicated that the majority of trials that remained undamaged by the cyclone were also above the 20-year age range. Table 14.2 shows the impacts of cyclone Idai damage on research compartments in Muguzo Research Station in Chimanimani. The most severely damaged indigenous forest in the study area was the Marirwa forest. The damage was mostly for trees within the waterways and those on slopes affected by landslides. The forest suffered more damage compared to

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80.0% 70.0%

Respondents

60.0% 50.0% 40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0%

Severe Damage

Moderate Damage

Not sure

No damage

Don’t Know

Fig. 14.4  Perceptions of respondents on the extent of damage on trees Source: Authors 70.0% 60.0%

Respondents

50.0% 40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0%

Exotic

Indigenous

Both indigenous and exotic

I don’t Know

Fig. 14.5  Perceptions of respondents on the damage caused by cyclone on native trees as compared to exotic trees Source: Authors

other indigenous forests like Chirinda rainforest and Bonga and Rusitu because it is mainly located on steep slopes which suffered mass movement. Most key informants observed the greatest damage on indigenous forests as having occurred along the river courses. Most rivers especially in Chimanimani widened up to contain the huge volumes of water which were intermixed with boulders. Of note is the fact that most riverine forests suffered close to 90% damage, and there is a high probability of having lost most

of the endemic tree species in the process. Some of the most wiped-out trees include the Syzygium guineense or waterberry, and the most resilient tree within riverine forests include the Ficus sycomorus (sycamore fig) and the F. chirindensis (Chirinda fig) all of which have long root systems that can grow up to 50 m. Canopy structure damage was observed to be minor for indigenous tree forest when compared to exotics and even more critical was the damage on the thinned plots compared to those not

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222 70.0% 60.0%

Respondents

50.0% 40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0%

Young

Old

Shrubs

All sizes

Don’t Know

Fig. 14.6  Sizes of tree mostly damaged Source: Authors

thinned. Indigenous trees generally have lower canopies which extend horizontally as an adaptation to wind damage; hence, this probably explains the low impact experienced on indigenous trees compared to exotic species with high, vertically extending canopies. Indigenous trees in the area include the Brachystegia spiciformis (Musasa) and the Julbernardia globiflora (Munhondo) and muuzhe (Brachystegia tamarindoides) survived though damaged. Figure  14.7 shows some of the observed damage on forests in the Chimanimani district due to windthrow, river widening and landslides.

14.4.4 What Were the Impacts of the Tropical Cyclone on Plantation and Forest Ecosystem Productivity? Tropical cyclone Idai did not only damage the physical forests, but washed away access roads leading to the plantations , and in the process reducing the chances of salvage operations to recover wood from the damaged forests. The culverts and drainage systems within the forest estates were also destroyed and, in some cases,

huge gulleys were formed bringing the need for expensive environmental restoration to prevent further degradation to the environment. One of the largest sawmills in the country at Rathmore estate was completely washed away during the cyclone and nothing from it was recovered; hence, timber producers who were using it found themselves travelling longer distances to process their harvest. Access to markets for processed timber was also not possible because the area had been cut off from the rest of the world through a series of damaged bridges and roads. The damage done by the cyclone to the forest and related infrastructure left the industry and ecosystems vulnerable to further damage if similar or even less magnitude events occur in future. Equally affected by the cyclone and the damage it induced on forests were the livelihood of hundreds of local community members who relied on beekeeping and honey production. Most of the respondents noted a significant decline in the population of bees and the amount of honey produced after the impact of the cyclone. Some of the key informants argued that most of the trees providing the flowers and nectar for bees to produce honey were significantly damaged by the cyclone.

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Table 14.2  Effect of cyclone Idai damage on research compartments in Muguzo Research Station

Species E. citriodora E. cloeziana E. grandis E. maculata E. pyrocarpa E. saligna E. pilularis Liquidambar stryaciflua P. kesiya P. elliottii P. greggii P. maximinoi P. patula P. oocarpa P. taeda P. tecunumanii TOTAL

Status Cyclone-damaged trials Mean Area (Ha) Age (Years) – 0 1.18 2.5 1.97 10.0 2.53 5.4 – 0 – 0 0.55 3.6 4.71 9.4

Volume (m3) – 82.6 324.7 177.1 – – 116.2 306

4 – – 1

520 – – 400

1.32 – 2.03

16.0 0 0 12.3 0 3.4 0 37.4

112.2 – 1220

Undamaged trials Mean % Volume Area (Ha) Age (Years) 0 6.3 34 2.5 – – 10.0 2.96 33 5.4 2.53 33 0 2.54 25.5 0 3.17 24 3.6 3.19 22.67 9.4 – –

No. trials 1 0 2 1 4 1 3 0

16.0 0 0 12.3 0 3.4 0 37.4 100

1 1 1 5 5 0 1 7 32

1.89 1.02 2.61 3.25 1.79 – 1.86 4.67

38 33 24 5.5 32 – 33 19.67

Source: Authors, data from Forest Research Centre Cyclone Damage Assessment Report

14.5 Discussion In this section, we discuss the findings on the impact of cyclone Idai on natural and plantation forest ecosystems. We begin our discussion by a focus on what lessons can be learnt for forest management with regards to mitigating impacts of cyclone damage and associated natural disasters such as strong winds which can cause serious negative impacts, particularly on planted forests by virtue of them being subject to intentional or deliberate design. A number of silvicultural operations such as thinning on spacing management and site species matching are designed to achieve maximum productivity in plantation forestry. These same practices can also be employed to mitigate risk from natural disasters such as cyclones. We then centre our discussion on the impacts caused by Cyclone Idai on productivity of forest ecosystems, however without dwelling much on detailed economic aspects as this is beyond the scope of this study. We consider the

role of both planted and natural forests as carbon sinks an important ecosystem function that is under the spotlight in view of the disturbances by cyclone Idai. Large tracts of undisturbed woodland or forest have potential for climate change mitigation under the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) initiatives which are being promoted locally by various donor organizations in partnership with the government of Zimbabwe. Exotic plantations have also been indicated to be potential carbon sinks as they sequester significant amounts of carbon as standing trees before they are felled into timber where they also continue to lock carbon for long periods of time (Montagnini & Porras, 1998; Liao et  al., 2010; Moroz et  al., 2020). We conclude our discussion by focusing on how the cyclone impacted on a pertinent aspect of forest productivity which is germplasm for forest regeneration which was affected by the cyclone. We discuss this in the context of forest management, particularly in the plantation forest sector.

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Fig. 14.7  Forest damage due to windthrow, river widening and landslides Source: Authors

14.5.1 What Lessons Can Be Learnt for Forest Management? The high tree mortality observed in research trials could be attributed to a number of factors. One of the factors relates to the attributes of plantation species derived from silvicultural management practices that are meant to promote fast growth rates to achieve high gains in height and volume in shorter rotations (Jacobs et al., 2004; Rossi et al., 2017). However, some of these gains from silviculture such as high (vertical) forest canopy structure can make trees more prone to wind damage. Wind damage occurs ‘when the overturning moment caused by the wind exceeds the maximum resistive moment that the tree can provide’ (Moore & Somerville, 1998: 27). An explanation to our results which show that pines, for example P. tecunumanii, were more prone to damage than eucalyptus, can be derived from the genetic attributes of some of these species in relation to wood density properties. Eucalyptus is in the category of hardwoods and generally has denser wood than pines which are in the softwood category. Therefore, their ability to with-

stand wind pressure would be different. Besides the type of tree under consideration, the impact caused by winds on trees is also related to topography, which has a strong bearing on airflow especially in mountainous terrain (Moore & Somerville, 1998). P. maximinoi and P. tecunumanii are relatively fast growing species that have recorded impressive gains in volume and height attributes in research trials at the Forest Research Centre (Nyoka, 1994; Nyoka et  al., 2010) Research findings on P. maximinoi in Zimbabwe indicate that it is well adapted to Chisengu conditions where it has performed well compared to other research sites in the country (Nyoka, 1994). This could further explain the trend observed from the results in the study (Table 14.2) which indicates more susceptibility to damage of these fast-­ growing species because of their height which exposes their canopies to the effect of high-speed winds. The intensive damage to these pine tree attributed to the fact that it becomes very brittle/inelastic when it matures, therefore vulnerable to windthrow during the tropical cyclone.

14  The Impact of Cyclone Idai on Natural and Plantation Forests in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe

Although our study did not manage to obtain actual tree height and diameter measurements of the affected trees, literature indicates a strong correlation between tree size (diameter at breast height) and wind damage. A study by Rossi et al. (2017) indicated that trees with large diameters of between 70 cm and 90 cm are more prone to uprooting by strong winds compared to trees of a smaller size. Our findings from trees in research trials agree with these observations which show that most trials that were damaged by cyclone Idai were in the age range of 29–36 years compared to the age range of 11–30  years for the undamaged trials (Table  14.1). Thinning and pruning silvicultural operations which are conducted to maximize yield and quality of timber may also expose trees to wind damage during cyclones. Thinning regimes, especially at 50%, reduces the final standing volume (stems per hectare) and widens the inter-row spacing between stems resulting in free passage of heavy wind in the event of a cyclone; hence, more damage is likely to be encountered.

14.5.2 Effect of Cyclone Damage on Forest Productivity The impact of cyclone Idai’s trail of damage on forest productivity can be viewed from an ecosystem and an economic productivity perspective. From an ecosystem perspective, literature indicates that catastrophic events such as cyclone damages on plantations can have a beneficial contribution on forest biodiversity, for example by diversifying reptile and bat communities in exotic plantations (Kirkpatric et  al., 2017; Jimenez et al., 2020). This is a beneficial ecosystem function that can be attributed on cyclones, especially in the plantation estates where there is a dominant monoculture of a few pines or Eucalyptus species. However, cyclones can also degrade another important ecosystem function of forests, that is, their ability to store carbon. A review of literature indicates that the role of plan-

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tations as carbon sinks is gaining more ­recognition despite their short rotations compared to their native species counterparts (Chang et  al., 2017; Nguyen, 2017). From an economic perspective, the productivity of a natural or planted forest is mainly considered in terms of providing merchantable products such as wood and non-­wood products. In terms of wood products such as timber harvesting, the effects of cyclones are not desirable as they cause economic losses.

14.6 Conclusions and Recommendations Forests in the eastern districts of Zimbabwe showed disturbance due to tropical cyclone Idai. The hotspot of damage was in the Chimanimani district. The extent to damage was observed to be severe for most forests. Both indigenous and exotic forest were damaged, but some species showed more damage compared to others. The pine plantations and the riverine forests were the most damaged and landslides caused the most damage to indigenous forests than windthrow. All sizes of tree suffered damage, but the mature ones suffered more compared to the younger trees. From the study, it is evident that the impact of cyclone Idai on the forests and the forest sector is multi-dimensional. The productive capacities of the forests both in terms of meeting ecosystem and socio-economic demands were negatively impacted. Enabling services of the Forest Research Centre to the plantation forest sector were also negatively impacted by cyclone Idai, to the extent that long-term shortages of germplasm for certain plantation species is likely to persist in the short to medium term. Although the impact was huge, important lessons were also learnt in terms of how silvicultural management aspects can provide insights on managing future natural disasters. Canopy structure, tree size and topography are important factors to consider in building resilience and spreading risk from cyclone

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damage particularly in the plantation sector. Another important lesson is that the cyclone damage in the natural and plantation forest has deposited a huge fuel load, which if not properly managed may increase the risk of fires, further worsening the woes on the already ailing sector. Fire management plans need to take into consideration the surge in the fuel load and develop suitable mitigatory measures. In the light of the results, several recommendations can be made. There is need for a proper quantification of biomass and carbon stocks of the natural forest ecosystems in the Eastern Highlands, particularly Chimanimani, to inform national climate mitigation and adaptation strategies which rely on such data. For example, the Low Emission Development Strategy (LEDS) and the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) spearheaded by the Climate Change Department under the Ministry of Environment Climate Tourism and Hospitality Industries. Given the importance of forestry and plantations as an industry in Zimbabwe and their ecological significance, the sector will need external assistance if it is to fully recover from the impacts of the tropical cyclone. The industry will struggle to fund itself out of this damage given the fact that it was already in distress before the cyclone and that operations stopped for a while during the post disaster phase. Given the fact that the forests are along a known cyclone path and once in a while they hit the area, the forestry industry must take necessary steps to adapt to extreme events. Cyclone Idai left the forests and plantations vulnerable to future extreme events and other external perturbations; hence, the industry has no choice but to be climate smart. It is recommended in terms of cultivation and drainage that there must be use of appropriate cultivation techniques for the soil and site conditions to ensure that there is adequate provision rooting depth of trees. We recommend the selection and planting of resilient tree species especially on areas facing the direction of the wind and careful thinning on exposed sites and sometimes practicing a non-thinning regime on sites vulnerable to windthrow. There is also need

for avoiding excessive openings for roads, turning points and entrances within the forests.

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Impact of Cyclone Idai on Biodiversity and Natural Resources in Chimanimani District, Zimbabwe

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Francisca Kunedzimwe, Edson Gandiwa, Olga Laiza Kupika, Never N. Muboko, Phillip Taru, and Tatenda Manyuchi Abstract

Biodiversity and natural resources provide various ecosystem goods and services, which play a key role as natural havens for disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. In conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) number 15, the management of terrestrial ecosystem is seen as a life-preserving activity; thus, several different conservation strategies are employed to protect and restore the use of wildlife and forest resources. This chapter examines the impact of natural disasters on biodiversity and natural resources in Zimbabwe, with particular focus on the catastrophic tropical cyclone Idai, which occurred in Chimanimani District in March 2019. The objectives of the study conducted were to: (i) assess the extent of wildlife and forestry damage within the district’s communal area and Chimanimani National Park and (ii) compare land-use and land-cover changes within and outside Chimanimani National Park. This study adopted a mixed methods approach, and data were obtained from ground-based and remote sensing techniques. In addition, in-depth F. Kunedzimwe () · E. Gandiwa · O. L. Kupika N. N. Muboko · P. Taru · T. Manyuchi School of Wildlife, Ecology and Conservation, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe

interviews, focus group discussions and literature review were also used to gather data. The results indicate that the extent of forestry damage is clearly explained by the normalised difference vegetation index of the area, which has decreased over the 10-year period. The results also show that there was a high decrease in forest land and an increase in bare land within the period 2010 to 2019. The findings of the study demonstrate the important role that protected areas play in safeguarding biodiversity and buffering the surrounding areas from the devastating effects of climate change. Keywords

Catastrophe · Disaster · Havens · Hazard · Protected area · Biodiversity

15.1 Introduction Ecosystem resources such as wildlife are threatened by both natural and anthropogenic factors (Mohan et al., 2020; Brinkman, 2020). Wildlife is a term which defines all living organisms (plants, animals and microorganisms) in their natural habitat, and these are neither cultivated nor domesticated (Manfredo et  al., 2020). Wildlife includes uncultivated mammals, reptiles, plants, birds and fishes, among others. The importance

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_15

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of wildlife cuts across ecological, scientific, socio-economic and political spheres. For instance, the diverse wildlife resources play a critical role in maintaining the ecological balance through regulatory functions within the biota (Tsunoda & Enari, 2020). They also act as gene banks for breeding improved varieties in agriculture – plant and animal breeders have been able to produce high yielding, disease and stress-­ resistant varieties from them. Such breeding forms the backbone of modern agriculture (Apfelbeck et  al., 2020). In terms of scientific advancement, wildlife is used for research purposes, and its role in studies of anatomy, physiology, ecology and evolutionary science cannot be overemphasised (Manfredo et  al., 2020). In addition, while the significance of the part wildlife resources play in mediating climate change and associated hazards has been acknowledged (Chen et  al., 2020a; Oozeer et  al., 2020; Ward et  al., 2016; Yanda, 2010), the impact of climate change on wildlife is yet to be fully understood. It has been predicted that in the southern African region, climate change is likely to result in hazards such as higher sea levels, more frequent, intense storms and heavy rainfall events. These natural disasters will alter the diversity and distribution of wildlife, especially in protected areas (PAs) that are not well maintained (Climate, 2014; Archer et al., 2017; Gizaw & Gan, 2017). Some of these climate-­related hazards are already occurring and impacting on human settlements, causing loss of life, social disruption and economic hardships (Hulme et  al., 2001; Desanker, 2002). In most southern African countries, such hardships are especially being felt by the poor (Magadza, 1996; Ngigi, 2009). Several scholars have reported that climate change is impacting on the availability and use of many resources in these countries, such as water, farmlands and ecosystems (e.g. Matondo et  al., 2005; Ngigi, 2009; Schulze, 2000; Yamba et al., 2011). Climate change in the southern African region has resulted in catastrophic events, such as tropical cyclones and floods, which have affected multiple aspects of the ecosystem goods and services that are provided by both terrestrial and

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aquatic ecosystems. For example, cyclone Idai affected about 270,000 people in Zimbabwe; 51,000 were displaced, more than 340 died and many others went missing (Chapungu, 2020; Devi, 2019). Scores of children were orphaned, while female survivors suffered gender-based violence (Brinkmann, 2020). Roads and bridges in Chimanimani and Chipinge districts were severely damaged. Some 1500  km of the road network was rendered unusable for months, thus affecting market access to goods and services (Devi, 2019). Livelihoods were disrupted and 140 schools were destroyed. Housing, health, irrigation and other agriculture facilities were damaged, as were forests. Arable land was rendered unusable and at least 348 cattle, 17,000 chickens and 222 goats and sheep were lost. Stored cereals were also ruined (Cambaza et al., 2019; Chen & Azman, 2019; MacClune et  al., 2020). In Mozambique, extensive flooding also caused some wildlife loss in Gorongosa National Park floodplain and other low-lying rift valley areas near the national park (Perc, 2020; Phiri et al., 2021). Gorongosa National Park had been restocked following the civil war in that country when wildlife populations were severely reduced, but cyclone Idai killed more than half of the wildlife that had been topped up (Bearak, 2019; Cambaza et  al., 2019; Chapungu, 2020; Phiri et al., 2021). In terms of land-use and land-cover changes, illegal mining of gold in the region has resulted in extensive damage to the local environment over the past years and affected commercial forest operations as well (Devi, 2019;Mafa, 2019 ; Perc, 2020 ; Phiri et al., 2021). The miners have been involved in thousands of hydraulic mining operations that are washing away hillsides, as well as damaging riparian environments. For instance, Allied Timbers Zimbabwe in the Chimanimani District of the eastern part of Zimbabwe has cleared extensive land through forest logging (Perc, 2020). Such forest loss makes landscapes more vulnerable to floods and increases the severity of cost to human life and property when these floods occur. It is against this backdrop that in Chimanimani District, where previously thick forests used to stand,

15  Impact of Cyclone Idai on Biodiversity and Natural Resources in Chimanimani District, Zimbabwe

water bodies are now running off onto the open ground as the soil is now thin and permeable (Mafa, 2019; Perc, 2020; Phiri et al., 2021). In this district, wattle tree forests that used to line riverbanks have been hacked down to pave way for settlers who are eager to ship away timber, or switch to cash crops like maize. The assault on forests has even rattled the wildlife in the area  – all of the wild elands (antelopes) (Taurotragus oryx) have run off to the neighbouring republic of Mozambique, where forests are still thriving (Devi, 2019; Gumindoga & Murove, 2020; Phiri et al., 2021). For wildlife areas to function efficiently and fulfil their expected newly unfolding additional roles, they need to be managed and monitored effectively (Schmidt-Soltau & Brockington, 2007). It has been demonstrated that under future worst climate scenarios, wildlife may not be able to fulfil its role of protecting the environment and the species targeted for conservation. It is against this background that the Convention on Biological Diversity’s (CBD) Programme of Work on wildlife and Protected Areas called for the great expansion of the Protected Areas (PA) network across the globe to secure long-term representation of ecosystems, as well as to help species adapt to climate change. In subsequent years, the world’s PA have expanded exponentially, but further expansion is still needed. To date, very few studies have examined the potential impact of cyclone Idai on wildlife resources in Zimbabwe. Yet such studies are critical to the management of the impact of such natural disasters, mainly within the context of the supply and demand pressures leading to land degradation, future risks and species extinction (Chen et al., 2020b; Fitchett, 2018; Ward et al., 2016; Goulding et  al., 2016). Given this background, it is important to consider the impact of cyclone Idai on wildlife resources. The objectives of this chapter, therefore, are to: (i) assess the extent of wildlife and forestry damage within the district’s communal area and Chimanimani National Park and (ii) compare land-use and land-cover changes within and outside Chimanimani National Park.

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15.2 Materials and Methods 15.2.1 Study Area Chimanimani District is located in the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe (Fig.  15.1). Within the district is a protected area, Chimanimani National Park (CNP), which is part of the Chimanimani Transfrontier Conservation Area, an initiative between Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The landscape is a rugged terrain which comprises several mountain peaks which rise to 2436  m above sea level. The area is in Zimbabwe’s agro-­ ecological region 1, which receives very high rainfall varying between 1000 mm and 1270 mm a year, which gathers from the south-east monsoon winds that sweep inland from the Indian Ocean (Alex & Preedip Balaji, 2010). CNP is approximately 171  km2 in extent (Gandiwa & Gandiwa, 2012). The climate in the mountains varies from being generally humid and tropical to temperate, with temperatures varying from very cold winters (2 °C) to temperate summers (up to 28 °C). Development in CNP has been intentionally limited to preserve the pristine natural beauty of the area. CNP is endowed with spectacular mountains, forests and world-renowned caves and has minimal infrastructure. Little is known about the species diversity of animals and the level of endemism found in this park but among the large mammals there, charismatic species, such as the leopard (Panthera pardus), the mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula), the klipspringer (O.  Oreotragus), the blue duiker (Philantomba monticola), the monkey (Macaca fascicularis) (endemic to the Afromontane Forest), and various small mammals occupy the area (Monsarrat & Kerley, 2018).

15.2.2 Data Collection The study was based on empirical data, which were gathered using interviews and remotely sensed data for Chimanimani District. The study also used interview data collected from the Chimanimani National Park and the surrounding communities. The purposive sampling method

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Fig. 15.1  Location of Chimanimani District in eastern Zimbabwe

was used to select the affected target community and to collect data from at least 20 key informants through interviews held between November and December 2019. The targeted sample population consisted of government officials from the Forestry Commission and from Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (ZPWMA), chiefs and community elders. From each government department at least five people were interviewed. Interviews began with the officials at the lowest grade and ended with the leader of the department. This was deliberately done so as to be able to gather all pertinent information informants from the different levels of the department had pertaining to the impact of the cyclone, since their different levels of responsibility determined the amount of information they were likely to divulge. The interview guide for the key informants was designed to suit the area of expertise of the respondents and their proximity to the affected

area. For instance, questions for the Forestry Commission staff focused on forestry management and the extent of damage of the forests. This approach was adopted for each specific interviewee category. In order to compare land-use and land-cover changes within and outside CNP, Landsat images were downloaded from USGS Glovis and the data covered a 10-year period (i.e. from 2010 to 2019). The main purpose of these remotely sensed images was to give a land-use and land-­ cover analysis for the years 2010, 2015 and 2019, respectively. The images were also used for a comparative analysis on the extent of wildlife resource damage within and outside of CNP.

15.2.3 Data Analysis As a way of assessing the extent of wildlife and forestry damage within the district’s communal

15  Impact of Cyclone Idai on Biodiversity and Natural Resources in Chimanimani District, Zimbabwe

area and CNP, data from the key informant interviews were descriptively summarised where possible and then analysed using content analysis. Further, in order to compare land-use and land-­ cover changes within and outside of CNP, the following steps were taken. Firstly, land-use classification was conducted using Quantum GIS, which is a Geographic Information Systems Software (GIS) with three major classifications, namely, bare land, grassland and forestland and using arc map 3.2 (Pierce et al., 2015). Secondly, the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) was calculated using remotely sensed images to come up with a clear understanding of the changes in the health of the plants as part of the wildlife in Chimanimani. NDVI ranges from −1 to 1, with those figures close to 1 indicating healthy vegetation and those close to −1 indicating vegetation with poor health (Gandhi et  al., 2015).

15.3 Results and Discussion 15.3.1 Impact of Cyclone Idai on Ecosystem Resources Results from the interviews with key informants indicate that cyclone Idai caused both positive and negative impacts on the environment. The informants reported that the most affected area was the Bridal Veil Falls and the road to the location, as well as the Eland sanctuary. The bridges that were washed away by the floods made it difficult to move around the Chimanimani area, even though there was an ongoing reconstruction work. Infrastructure damage  – especially to roads leading to Bridal Veil Falls and to Pork Pie – limited access to the area and made it impossible to reach Chikukwa, a communal land area adjacent to the park. One key informant (KI) from the Forestry Commission had this to say: The Mountain Hut, one of the tourist areas which provides accommodation, was also affected, all the property inside was damaged, as well as the staff quarters in Ngangu and I was one of the direct victims of the cyclone. Then the other area that was

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Table 15.1  Responses on the effect of cyclone Idai on resources in Chimanimani List of resources Animals Accommodation Mountain hut resort area Rivers and bridges Forests Farmland

Extent of damage (%) 5 15 20 18 25 12

Source: Authors stricken was our camping site. The whole area of Bridal Veil Falls was affected, except for the falls itself because it’s looking much better than it was before.

Table 15.1 clearly shows the responses from the interviews about the extent of damage to resources in Chimanimani area. Using the estimates from the respondents, the area saw a 25% damage to forests, a 20% damage to the Mountain Hut resort area, a 15% damage to accommodation and a remarkable 18% damage to rivers and bridges.

15.3.2 Impacts of Cyclone Idai on Wildlife Cyclone Idai disturbed both the flora and fauna of CNP. In terms of the wildlife, no mortalities were recorded inside the park, particularly in the flat areas where the vegetation was still intact. However, the slopes of the mountain suffered mortalities in terms of wildlife. A disturbance in the environment often leads to migration to safer areas, even though no mortalities are recorded. In this instance, the biodiversity surrounding the CNP may likely have been disturbed. According to a key informant (K1) from a village close to the park, there were some snake species, such as pythons, which could have either swum or been washed away to other sites. However, this depends on the level of disturbance, especially the strength of the waves and the pressure of the flow generated by the floods. During this cyclone, there were no reports of dead snakes or reptiles. Many bird species were spotted in the area shortly after the

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cyclone. They had probably returned to their habitat after temporarily migrating to a safer one. Another key informant (K2) from a farm near CNP reported that monkeys and baboons were quite a menace in the area, since they forage for food from the cultivated crops and fruits found in the surrounding farms. Most farmers usually guard their crops and fruits against the primates from planting season until harvest time. After cyclone Idai struck, however, they noticed a remarkable decrease in the number of baboons scavenging in the area. On average, the farm workers used to see around 30–50 individual baboons per troop. The groups used to migrate from across the river and moved around in between the farm blocks, including block 7 and the residential compounds. All these group dynamics disappeared after cyclone Idai hit, and out of the four groups of baboons which were normally resident on the farm, only a smaller group of about 30–40 baboons had remained and could be seen loitering around in the area. Monkeys were also equally affected by the cyclone. There were reports of dead monkeys and baboons seen floating in the water bodies around Charleswood. Generally, in 2020 the farmers experienced less of the havoc and pressure that is usually caused by the monkeys and baboons. However, cyclone Idai also destroyed the food resources for most of the primates, and subsequently they were now competing with human beings for whatever food resources remained. Fruit harvests, such as peaches, avocadoes, plums and mazhanje, were drastically reduced by between 60% and 75%. This situation was further exacerbated by the fact that guards were not on duty in the orchards on a full-time basis. The results of this study tally well with a similar one done on the effects of cyclone Eline which occurred in 2000, whose impact was felt in the Gorongoza area in Mozambique. The aftereffects of both cyclones were the same on the flora and fauna of the areas that experienced them (Krauss & Osland, 2020). Wild pigs were also affected by the cyclone; they migrated from the mountain tops to the low-­ lying areas surrounding the mountain. After cyclone Idai, these wild pigs started foraging for

sustenance from the maize crops that remained, especially at night. The results of this study also show that several domesticated animal species, such as dogs and chickens, succumbed to effects of the cyclone. These results also are in tandem with those of a study which showed the way the domestic animals were affected by cyclone Hudah which hit Mozambique and some parts of South Africa, Eswatini and Madagascar in the year 2000 (Long & Fahey, 2000).

15.3.3 Impact on Forests and Plantations Forest plantations were harder hit by cyclone Idai as compared to areas with indigenous vegetation, where the natural vegetation was still intact. The exotic owls that live in the forest were especially adversely affected. Harvest areas were also negatively impacted by the cyclone because the raindrops hit the ground hard, thus exposing the area to excessive erosion. An indigenous forest and an exotic one, which are both located along the same mountain slope, were affected differently by the cyclone, possibly because of the differences in the root penetration of the trees in these forests. For instance, the exotic trees exhibited a lot of breakage and damage as compared to the indigenous trees. Table  15.2 shows the extent of the damage to the plantations and forests in the Chimanimani area, with 40% damage of exotic forests, and exotic owls were also negatively impacted at a magnitude of 15%. Plantations were also affected. Indigenous forests experienced the least effect with 15% damage. This may be because indigenous trees have roots which are a little bit longer than those of exotic ones, such that they penetrate deeper into the soil. Table 15.2  The extent of aspects of plantation and forest damage in Chimanimani Resource Exotic forests Exotic owls Indigenous forests Plantations Source: Authors

Extent of damage (%) 40 15 15 30

15  Impact of Cyclone Idai on Biodiversity and Natural Resources in Chimanimani District, Zimbabwe

These findings are in line with those of a study which was done in South Africa on the extent of damage on exotic and indigenous resources by cyclone Eline in the year 2000 (Krauss & Osland, 2020).

15.3.4 Impact on Riparian Areas and Habitats In the riparian areas of Chimanimani, cyclone Idai-induced floods led to old river channels being rejuvenated, such that all infrastructure residential areas which were in the route of these old channels were eventually damaged by the floods. One KI had this to say: We were just looking at the basic environmental issues that we could pick out. River channels were also widening due to the huge amounts of water which flowed from upstream.

The KI also noted that in areas where vegetation was damaged, it was more of secondary vegetation which remained, as well as bushes and shrubs with a shallow root system. But in some areas, we have also seen big trees being moved along with the mud slides and then being re-planted in a new place. In areas where there were neither bushes nor grasses, the water would easily and quickly seep into the soils and then saturate them. And once the soils were saturated, they made everything float; given the gradient, the mudslides would just carry everything away. The results from the KI interviews from Chimanimani tally well with the findings of a similar study carried out in Mozambique (Macamo et al., 2016). From the study, the documented impacts in the marine and coastal conservation areas are as follows, from north to south: (i) reports of extensive infrastructure damage due to cyclone Kenneth in Ibo Island village (part of Quirimbas National Park), also in known locations around Quissanga District, which is part of this park; (ii) reports exists of heavy rains and floods impacting zones within the Ilhas Primeiras and Segundas Environmental Protection Areas; (iii) Zambezi Delta, home to the Marromeu Reserve, once the

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largest buffalo concentration area in the world, is regularly impacted by floods, almost every second year; (iv) Bazaruto Archipelago National Park is one of the parks most prone to cyclone impact. It has a cyclone-prone airport which was adversely affected by cyclone Leon-Eline which occurred in 2000; (v) Maputo Bay have suffered from the floods that occurred in 2000 and from other recurrent floods, namely in 2013. The floods that hit in 2000 created major ravines in Maputo City (e.g. along Julius Nyerere Avenue) and caused massive sedimentation to sea grass meadows in NW Maputo Bay (Bandeira & Balidy, 2016). In addition, the Incomati Estuary got flooded and the mangrove areas had overgrown reeds (Macamo & Neubert, 2014).

15.3.5 Land-Use and Land-Cover Changes in CNP and the Adjacent Community For the land-use/land-cover analysis, LANDSAT images of changes to the land use and land cover in Chimanimani have shown significant differences in the use of land and cover during the 2010–2019 decade, with indications of a reduction in forest land and an increase in the area covered by bare land (Fig.  15.2). The changes have resulted in the loss of wildlife and ecosystem provisional services within the Chimanimani District. This area has many resort areas which help to bring in foreign currency to Zimbabwe. This reduction in the land cover, which lends to the scenery in the area, means Zimbabwe is likely to suffer the consequences of these changes. Our findings tally well with other reports of significant losses in wildlife due to the many factors mentioned earlier, such as cultivation, mining and commercial logging (Chapungu, 2020). Before 2019, land-use changes in Chimanimani were mainly caused by recurrent droughts in the whole country when cyclone Idai hit the area in March 2019; it had a catastrophic impact that resulted in extensive changes to the zone, which saw a remarkable increase in bare land and a corresponding decrease in forest area (Devi, 2019). Notably, the findings of this study collaborate

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Fig. 15.2  Land-use/land-cover map for the year 2010

with those of other studies which have projected losses in wildlife as a result of the devastating impact of cyclone Idai (Gumindoga et al., 2020). Three classifications of land areas were used

in this study, namely grassland, bare land and forestland. Figure 15.2 is a classified Chimanimani map for the year 2010. The map shows the extent of

15  Impact of Cyclone Idai on Biodiversity and Natural Resources in Chimanimani District, Zimbabwe

ground cover in the area before it was hit by a cyclone. The map reveals that the greater part of the eastern side is well endowed with forest and grassland. There is only a small area which is covered by bare land. After 2010, however, the area covered by bare land began to increase. The main reason for this could be anthropogenic. Human activities, for example, such as logging, gold panning and cultivation, are some of the main activities in the area that has resulted in the formation of bare surfaces, as Fig.  15.3 indicates. Despite these human activities that have negatively impacted on the land, there are still some areas which remained forested, such as CNP and the area surrounding it, some parts of Mutambara and the Biriwiri area. Figure 15.4 shows the land classification after the Chimanimani area was hit by cyclone Idai. The map shows that bare land covers the greater part of the area. This was as a result of the severe washing away of soils and grassland by the floods. The only area which was left intact is the forested area depicted on the map. Figure 15.5 is a summary of the land-cover changes that have occurred over a decade in Chimanimani. The graph shows the periods that span the pre- and post-cyclone Idai disaster, namely, 2010, 2015 and the month of August in 2019. The year 2019 is characterised by a decrease in forest land area, a decrease in grassland cover and a marked increase in bare land as compared to 2010. When 2019 is compared to 2015, however, there is an increase in the area covered by forestland, as well as an increase in bare land. On the other hand, there is a decrease in grassland. This may be because of the existence of agroforestry plantations. The 2015 image was captured way after the harvest period in these plantations, hence the apparent decrease in forest cover as compared to 2019. This graph clearly shows the impact of cyclone Idai on land cover in the Chimanimani area. In comparison, the year 2010 is characterised by a large forested area, a decrease in grassland and a small area of bare land. Most probably this is because in the 2009/2010 rainy season, the area did not experience drought as compared to the

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2014/2015 season where the area did not receive adequate rainfall.

15.3.6 Impact of Cyclone Idai on NDVI in Chimanimani National Park and the Adjacent Community Figure 15.6 illustrates the condition of vegetation within the Chimanimani community area and the park for the year 2010. The NDVI values for the year 2010 are relatively low as compared to the NDVI values for the year 2015. This may be because of the drought that was experienced by the entire country in the 2009/2010 rainy season. The western part, eastern part as well as the central part in areas like Biriwiri have low NDVI values possibly because of the existence of illegal gold mines, and the gold panning which occurs in these mines have a similar impact on the surrounding vegetation as the occurrence of droughts. When compared to the park, whose NDVI values range from 0.6 to 0.1, the 2010 community map has relatively low NDVI figures which range from 0.5 to 0.2. These findings emphasise the fact that although drought and land degradation have had some impact on the Chimanimani forests, the greatest effects have been because of catastrophic events, such as cyclones. These results tally well with the results of the study which was done in Mozambique on land-use land-cover change where the health of vegetation for the area of study was low due to frequent occurrence of cyclones in the area (Phiri et al. (2021). Another study also revealed that the condition of vegetation is affected most by the changes in weather conditions such as drought and excessive rainfall in the area of study (Fitchett, 2018). Figure 15.7 is an NDVI map of Chimanimani community area for the year 2015. The figure indicates high NDVI values ranging from 0.14 to 0. There are no negative NDVI values as compared to the 2019 NDVI value ranges. The reasons behind the relatively high NDVI values for the Chimanimani community area in 2015 could be because from 2013 to 2015, there is no

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Fig. 15.3  2015 Land classification of the Chimanimani area

record of either drought or any other natural disaster hitting the area. This means that the vegetation, as well as the forests, have not been affected despite the community farming that is practised within the communities. These results concur with a study which was done in Mozambique on trend analysis of the vegetation condition the results indicated that where there is

no record of natural disasters such as drought and cyclones, the health of vegetation as well as the ecosystem will be well (Patt & Schröter, 2008). In comparison to the 2019 NDVI maps for the park and the community area, the NDVI values for the year 2015 are generally high for the entire community area, including the park. The values range from 0.14 to 0.04, with no negative values.

15  Impact of Cyclone Idai on Biodiversity and Natural Resources in Chimanimani District, Zimbabwe

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Fig. 15.4  Land-use/land-cover map for the year 2019

This underscores the impact that the cyclones have had on wildlife and commercial forests. The high NDVI values clearly explain the stability of the ecosystem in the Chimanimani area. In

comparison to Fig.  15.7, the Chimanimani National Park NDVI values are relatively higher than those of the community area, with a range of 0.2 to 0. This delineates the role that protected

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240 Fig. 15.5 Chimanimani land-use/land-cover area for the years 2010, 2015 and 2019

Fig. 15.6  NDVI for Chimanimani community area and park for the year 2010

areas have in the sustainable management of wildlife and commercial forests. A study which was done on protected areas as havens for ecological disasters concurs well with the results above. A trend analysis which was done indicated

that when there are no disasters, the intact ecosystems are always there to act as protection to the habitats (Patt & Schröter, 2008). Results from the NDVI indicate that the greater part of the Chimanimani community area has

15  Impact of Cyclone Idai on Biodiversity and Natural Resources in Chimanimani District, Zimbabwe

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Fig. 15.7  NDVI for Chimanimani community area and the park for the year 2015

been affected by the cyclone Idai in 2019, with areas like Nyaonde, Biriwiri, Chimanimani Centre and Mutambara being the most affected (Fig.  15.8). These areas had low NDVI value ranges of −0.3 and −  0.01. Some areas like Nyanyadzi and its surroundings have relatively high NDVI values, probably because they were not greatly affected by the heavy effects of the cyclone. In comparison with map of the Chimanimani National Park in Fig.  15.2, the NDVI highest value was higher than that of the Chimanimani community map. The low NDVI values for the park range from −0.01 to 0.02, whereas the other areas have a range of −0.3– 0.01. The figures are all low but the community areas have much lower NDVI values. This may be explained by the existence of farmlands that had been severely eroded by the flooding waters of cyclone Idai. Although the impact of cyclone Idai was felt in both areas, the park was more resilient to this catastrophe because of its protected status

and an intact vegetation cover. The study concurs with the study which was done on climate anomalies and extreme events in Africa, which compared the health of vegetation in a protected area and outside. The results indicated that the vegetation in protected areas where there is minimum disturbance is less prone to the effects of disasters as compared to communal areas where the land (Kadomura, 2005).

15.4 Conclusions Catastrophic events associated with cyclones and floods have negatively impacted on ecosystem resources across the Chimanimani District in Zimbabwe. The findings from interviews conducted in this study have helped provide information on the extent of wildlife damage within the Chimanimani area. Land-use/land-­cover analyses have shown that there has been a decrease in

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Fig. 15.8  NDVI for Chimanimani community area and the park for the year 2019

landcover from 2010 to 2019, with major changes occurring in 2019. The major findings from the NDVI suggest that the vegetation in this area is in a condition of poor health, especially in 2019 and 2010. We recommend that further studies be conducted to determine the impact of land-use/landcover changes on the diversity and distribution of wildlife throughout the study area. We also propose that there should be a proper wildlife management system developed, which should then be followed by a strategic land-use plan designed to minimise the loss of wildlife due to catastrophic events, such as cyclones. Acknowledgements  The study team give great thanks to the Chimanimani local communities and authorities for their unwavering support and cooperation during the collection of data. We are also indebted to the reviewers of this chapter for their valuable comments and suggestions.

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Impact of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Tourism Attractions and Related Infrastructure in Chimanimani, Zimbabwe

16

Godwell Nhamo , Kaitano Dube, and Talkmore Saurombe

Abstract

Lately, significant attention has been given to the impact of extreme weather events. However, there is limited documentation on how extreme weather events such as tropical cyclones are impacting tourism and heritage resources in the Global South. This study responds to this knowledge gap by focusing on documenting the impact of tropical cyclone Idai (which hit Zimbabwe on 15 March 2019) on tourism in Chimanimani, Zimbabwe. The mixed method approach was used for data collection and included purposively sampled in-­ depth interviews with local operators and other stakeholders, an online survey and Geographic Information Systems. The findings indicated that the Chimanimani district has diverse tourist attractions, including natural, archaeological, cultural and scenic sites, which were disrupted by the cyclone. Among G. Nhamo () Institute for Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] K. Dube Vaal University of Technology, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] T. Saurombe IKS Centre, North West University Mafikeng, Mmabatho, South Africa

the top attractions are the Chimanimani Mountains bordering Mozambique and Zimbabwe, many curves, Tessa’s Pool, as well as Bridal Veil and Digby’s Falls. Although there were mixed responses concerning the damage to some attractions, there was consensus on the damage to roads, some lodges, bridges, ICTs and power and water supply systems. Among the recommendations for a quick tourism recovery are matters relating to the restoration of infrastructure and selected damaged attractions, as well as improved promotion of the area. Keywords

Cyclone Idai · Damaged infrastructure · Tourism · Chimanimani · Marketing

16.1 Introduction The number of hydrometeorological extreme weather events have been increasing in recent years. These extreme weather events cause sudden cataclysmic disasters such as tsunamis, hurricanes (known as cyclones in the southern hemisphere) and floods, which cause devastation on impact (Deraniyagala, 2016). With the average ocean and land temperatures projected to keep increasing gradually over the coming

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_16

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decades, tropical cyclones are expected to increase in intensity (World Bank, 2016). With the increase of such extremes, there is concern regarding the costs of such events in various sectors of the economy globally and at local levels (Walsh et  al., 2016). Transportation, infrastructure, water, and tourism are sectors known to be exceptionally sensitive to climate extremes (Handmer et  al., 2012) and are most disrupted when extreme weather conditions like cyclones hit. While the other sectors may not be impacted by damage to tourism attractions, infrastructure damage directly impacts on the tourism economy. For example, cutting off ICT, energy, roads, water supply and sanitation leads to a dysfunctional tourism sector. It has been observed that natural disasters cause many tourist destinations to lose their beauty, culture and economy temporarily for short or extended period of time, with the scale of the damage depending to a large extent on the fury of the natural disaster (Tourismembassy, 2014). Tropical cyclones are known to be particularly damaging to tourism infrastructure and superstructure (Lewsey et  al., 2004; Murià-Vila et al., 2018). Panasiuk (2007) highlights that the tourism industry and tourists demand infrastructure such as accommodation facilities (hospitality), gastronomical facilities (food and beverages), accompanying facilities (transport and security), communication (fixed, mobile and satellite microwaves) and energy (electricity and fuel). For tourism to do well, various sectors of the economy ought to be functional. As such market and consumer needs, accommodation and visitor facilities should be in place. To meet these needs, roads and airports, trained staff to carefully manage the natural environment, the marketing of the destination and the maintenance of security should all be in functional modes and help promote a regular flow in tourist arrivals to a destination. The above-listed infrastructure is key in the support, sustenance and development of tourist destinations all over the world. When a tropical cyclone hits an area, capital assets and infrastructure such as housing, schools, factories and equipment, roads, electricity sup-

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ply, dams and bridges are lost (Deraniyagala, 2016; Evans et  al., 2011). Human capital is depleted due to the loss of life, the loss of skilled workers and the destruction of education infrastructure, which disrupts schooling. A country’s natural resources could also be affected as hurricanes destroy forests and droughts decrease soil fertility (Deraniyagala, 2016). All these types of capital assets and infrastructure, together with the natural resources, combine to contribute to tourism attractions and products. According to Tuler et al. (2016: 163) stormwater – the runoff from rainfall – does not percolate into the ground but instead flows freely over land, and impervious surfaces can affect human and natural systems including social and health services, emergency services, business, recreation, utilities, transportation systems, local environmental resources, government services and municipal budgets. A study by Mohan and Strobl (2017) using VIIRS nightlight satellite imagery found that on landfall, particularly in coastal areas, the damage inflicted by tropical cyclones was compounded by storm surges, which break off the power supply to the affected regions and this comes at a great economic cost. In the tourism industry, road transport is undeniably very important in connecting all businesses, industries and products to markets (TruckGuru, 2018), making it possible to get agricultural products to markets on time, thereby minimising wastage and spoilage of products that form part of the consumables in the tourism industry. Having a sound and functional transport network system helps generate employment, thereby guaranteeing a better dispersal of wealth and improved livelihoods among people and communities. Under climate change, coastal tourism is particularly expected to be severely impacted by tropical cyclones compounded by rising sea level (Moreno & Becken, 2009). The occurrence of tropical cyclones in the Caribbean was found to coincide with a reduction in tourist arrivals in the regions, which adversely affected tourism receipts and gross domestic product (GDP) (Benson & Clay, 2001). In other settings, the warning issuance by meteorological offices on

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the coming tropical cyclones has been found to harm tourism receipts for the hospitality industry, such as accommodation (Campos et al., 1999). However, research on the impact of disasters on the performance of the tourism industry is relatively new (Rindrasih et al., 2019). As much as there is a wide board of knowledge of the impact on various tourism economies in global cyclone hotspots, there are spatial gaps with regard to knowledge of their impact on the Global South, particularly in the southern and eastern African basins where the severe hydrometeorological phenomenon of tropical cyclones has been occurring at an alarming frequency. From the 2000s, over 15 tropical cyclones have been experienced in countries in the southeastern coast of Africa due to climate change. Given that each tropical cyclone has unique hydrometeorological conditions, there is a need to always conduct a post-impact assessment for each tropical cyclone to fully understand how it could have affected various aspects of the economy, particularly tourism. This work seeks to respond to the knowledge gap by documenting the impact of tropical cyclone Idai on tourism in Zimbabwe’s eastern highlands region, which was battered by the category 3 tropical cyclone. The cyclone affected several southern African states in March 2019, including Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Given the foregoing, the following research question was raised: Which tourist attractions existed in Chimanimani and how were these and supporting infrastructure affected by tropical cyclone Idai? To answer the question, the objective to determine the tourist attractions and the extent to which these and supporting infrastructure were impacted by tropical cyclone Idai was conceptualised.

16.2 Literature Survey The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) declared the past decade as a decade of extremes given the number of disruptions from severe weather events that were observed during the period starting 2010. The decade was marked by

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record carbon emissions and temperature (WMO, 2020). This was the second decade of extremes after the period 2001–2010 was also dubbed a decade of extremes bearing testament to increased climates of record breakings across the world (WMO, 2013). A number of high-impact hydrometeorological events took place across the world. The general observation was that the extreme events had increased in frequency and intensity. The increased impact and frequency came along with the increased economic costs of such events. The period between 2010 and 2020 also saw a number of landmark global protocols and events, which had far-reaching implications for how the world should conduct itself moving forward. Of note was the adoption of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction in 2015 (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2015). The year also saw another landmark development with the signing on of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’s (UNFCCC) Paris Agreement, which proposed a reduction in carbon emission to battle climate change and avoid plunging the world into a dangerous epoch of climate extremes (UNFCCC, 2015). The year 2015 also witnessed the world adopting an ambitious global agenda – the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which has 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets embedded in it (United Nations, 2015). Of these 17 SDGs and 169 targets, several address issues of poverty eradication (SDG 1) and tourism, including increasing employment opportunities (SDG 8) for individuals and communities, and issues of sustainable development through the sustainable exploitation of natural resources (SDGs 13–15). It was feared that the extreme weather events primarily driven by extreme weather occurrences would derail these global goals going forward. Among the events that were feared to threaten the global developmental agenda, especially in countries on the east coast of southern Africa, was the occurrence of tropical cyclones Idai and Kenneth. These two tropical cyclones took place within 1 month in March and April 2019 originating from the Mozambique channel. Phiri et  al.

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(2020) note that the tropical cyclone Idai reached a maximum wind speed of about 195–200 km/h and led to rainfall of about 600  mm, which resulted in massive destruction of the built-up environment and the natural environment due to flooding and wind force. Near similar levels of destruction were observed in other sites and countries that were devastated by the two cyclones. By nature, the tourism industry is a risk-averse industry that is sensitive to natural disasters. Droughts and the impact of floods in Southern Africa are known to have had a devastating impact on the tourist arrivals and tourism economy in general as we have seen from recent studies by Dube and Nhamo (2020a, b). The presence of a disaster or the perceived threat of such a disaster can result in tourists shunning a particular destination, which would lead to revenue losses for tourism businesses (Tsai et al., 2016; Fitchett & Hoogendoorn, 2019; Dube & Nhamo, 2020c). Regardless of the sensitivity of tourists and destinations, disasters can trigger another form of tourism if the recovery process is managed well, as evidence shows that dark/disaster tourism can ensue from disaster-­ affected areas (Wright & Sharpley, 2018). There are well-documented incidences where countries benefitted from a post-disaster form of tourism (dark/disaster tourism), such as the post-earthquake and tsunami tourism in Japan in 2011 (Lin et  al., 2018). Thus, Hall (2010) underscores the importance of crisis management in tourism as it has implications on the destination, hence the need for carrying out this study. When hurricane Katrina made landfall on 29 August 2005 in the USA, It provided some of the most plentiful and illustrative empirical evidence of the impact of hurricanes and storm surges on the performance of bridges and the transportation network. Highways and bridges are vital components of the transportation system, and their damage can pose a threat to emergency response and recovery efforts and result in severe economic losses for a region. (Padgett et al., 2008: 6)

It has been argued that “road structures such as bridges isolate communities from accessing essential services and commodities” (Pathiranage

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& Lokuge, 2020: 401). Continuous supply of fresh fruit and vegetables is key in the hotel and tourist industry. The disaster cut roads and bridges, thereby sending a spiral of losses between producers, markets and consumers. Fitchett and Grab (2014) record the history of tropical cyclone activity in southeastern Africa, stretching back to the 1950s. These authors also record an increased frequency of cyclones hitting in this region from the 2000s. The European Commission (2020) notes that as a result of climate change, extreme and severe weather events were becoming a regular and frequent occurrence in the Southern Africa and Indian Ocean region. The impact of these tropical cyclones on roads and bridge infrastructure in the Manicaland province of Zimbabwe was first experienced in 2000 when cyclone Eline hit the province, particularly so in the Chimanimani district where the impact was exacerbated by the U-valleys and V valley-­ geo-­topological formations characterised by the mountains and numerous rivers found in this area. Since 2000, various sources have reported over 15 tropical cyclones of varying strength that hit Southeastern Africa (Fitchett & Grab, 2014; Mpumalanga News, 2017; Belles, 2019). Some of these cyclones had a huge impact and damaged roads and bridge infrastructure throughout Manicaland. Regarding tropical cyclone Eline, Reason and Keibel (2004: 789) report that, “February 2000 will long be remembered for devastating floods in Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and South Africa brought about by tropical cyclone Eline”. Roads in the Manicaland province were in a deplorable state after tropical cyclone Eline in 2000, whose major impact made some road networks in the province impassable. Just a year before the tragedy of tropical cyclone Idai, the sad state of roads in the province and the impassability had been raised at higher levels of governance through a Newsday report of 27 February 2018 (Nyangani, 2018) highlighting the level of impassability of some sections of the roads in the district. Communication using ICTs such as the internet, fixed and mobile networks improves dissemination of information and marketing of touristic products that are available in a destination, and

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also affords tourists access to products they can consume long before they visit the area or to what is termed e-tourism. El Meriague (2014) discusses how the internet allows the processing and comparison of information related to industries that are part of the tourism industry such as: the hospitality industry, the transportation industry and the mobile systems industry, which principally concerns distinctive mobile applications found in hotels, restaurants, airlines; those that communicate weather and traffic conditions and transportation notices; city guides/monuments guides; and currency conversions. ICTs can produce a number of benefits for destination management activities in terms of reducing costs. This includes lowering the need to print and distribute promotional material, with savings that can reach up to 90% just for brochures; reducing the time needed for undertaking activities such as collecting and analysing tourism data while at the same time increasing their effectiveness; increasing quality, as well as ensuring precision and truthfulness of the information provided; and increasing effectiveness through the delivery of targeted promotional campaigns for specific high-value segments or even individuals (Claudio & Passiante, 2009). Research also shows that the tourism industry is an information-intensive industry (Cox et al., 2009). Furthermore, it has quite a long value chain (Stiakakis & Georgiadis, 2011) in which information plays an irrefutably important role. Activities such as creating, seeking, storing, retrieving and transfer of information are core activities of all tourism enterprises (Jeremen, 2016: 6), which make ICTs a key factor in this industry, and any disruption of such technologies results in reduced economic activities in this sector. ICTs have been transforming tourism globally. “ICTs empower consumers to identify, customize and purchase tourism products and support the globalization of the industry by providing tools for developing, managing and distributing offerings worldwide” (Bethapudi, 2013: 67). This clearly shows the contribution of ICTs to the tourism sector, more by enabling consumers of tourism products make informed choices ahead of their touristic excursions. The next section focuses on applied research methods.

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16.3 Materials and Research Design The mixed methods research design, which was exploratory in nature, was preferred for this study. The mixed method approach included purposively sampled in-depth interviews with local operators and other stakeholders, an online survey and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Researchers’ interests in this study were to find the emotionally laden personal experiences of people (Knapik, 2006) of Chimanimani, whose livelihoods depended on the tourism sector and indicate how these affected individuals make meaning of the impact of a tropical cyclone on tourism. Through qualitative research, “it was easy to describe and interpret issues or phenomena systematically from the point of view of the population studied, and to generate new concepts and theories” (Mohajan, 2018: 26). A complementary mix of data collection methods (Harrell & Bradley, 2009: 18) were employed for generating detailed and thick descriptions of data that were to be subjected to interpretation without making generalisations or grand claims (Ren, 2014), as the phenomenon under investigation was peculiar to Chimanimani in Zimbabwe. According to Timberlake (2015), tourism pull factors in Chimanimani comprise the Chimanimani Trans-Frontier Conservation Area (TFCA), a transboundary entity straddling the border of Eastern Zimbabwe and central Mozambique at around 19° 50′S, 33° 04′E. This is known by biologists for its exceptional biodiversity, and for being home to endemic species (Timberlake, 2017). The moist forests of Chimanimani on the Zimbabwean side (Müller, 1999, 2006) are another source of tourist attraction, including both the higher altitude Afromontane forests and the low altitude forests of the Rusitu Valley (Timberlake, 2017) and the Haroni, Tandai, Ndizwe and Mukurupini Indigenous Forest, to mention only four. The flowering plants and ferns found in these areas are well recorded, with a collected group from the Chimanimani Mountains, especially in the montane areas above 1200 m altitude. Timberlake et al. (2016) give a comprehensive list of plants found there. The Chimanimani area has a catch-

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ment that includes the Bundi, Haroni, Rusitu and Mukurupini rivers running south, and rivers like the Biriiri and Nyanyadzi running west and draining into the Odzi-Save catchment basins. There are also two botanic reserves, namely Rusitu and Haroni that protect the lowland forest, and the lowland Mukurupini forest at the southern end of the National Park (Timberlake, 2017). Through the application of GIS, a tourism attractions map for the study area was developed (Fig. 16.1).

Fig. 16.1  Tourism attractions in Chimanimani Source: Authors, 2019

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An expert purposive sampling strategy was preferred in the identification of respondents. Based on these criteria, participants were identified from local chiefs (5); Chimanimani Hotel (2); Outward Bound (1); Chimanimani Tourism (2 tour guides); Chimanimani Tourism Authority (CTA) (3); Agritex (1); national parks (1); B&B operators (2); Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) (1); forestry (1); agro-­ industries (2) and representatives of companies

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involved in ICTs (2), bringing the realised sample for the study to 23 participants. Semi-­ structured, in-depth interviews were preferred for data collection due to their advantage of being able to generate more detailed information around complex and sensitive issues being researched than what is available through other data collection methods, more so when the interviews are done in a relaxed atmosphere (Cupitt & Ellis, 2013; Boyce & Neale, 2006). As stated by Cupitt and Ellis (2013), such data collection provides instant opportunities for interviewers to explore in-depth visual feedback on the questions and allows interviewers to obtain further information through the use of probes. Data collection proceeded by making appointments with key participants in the tourism and hospitality sectors in Chimanimani town (also known as “The Village”). Some participants were available during the day, while others were only available during the evenings. As such, the data collection process began around 08:00 and concluded very late in the evenings. Using an interview schedule as a guide, the researchers captured (with permission) the audio data using digital voice recorders, and these data were transferred to laptops at the end of the day on which the data were collected. Furthermore, data were collected through field observations, and some of the impact of tropical cyclone Idai floods, rockslides and mudslides was captured as photographs. GIS applications were also applied in mapping, while a household survey administered by the researchers and their research assistants realised 219 respondents. The fieldwork took place in 3  weeks between the months of September and October 2019. Secondary data in the form of minutes of meetings and internal reports of government departments involved in the disaster were also used to augment data from interviews, field walkabouts and observations. This triangulation of data ­collection was adopted to enhance the accuracy, reliability and credibility of the study’s research findings (Harrell & Bradley, 2009). Each data collection method addressed a different aspect of the research (Harrell & Bradley,

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2009). During interviews, data were collected based on vivid narrative stories of participants. Field observations gave the data collection team the opportunity to gain insights into the extent to which tourist sites such as waterfalls, pools, scenic views, accommodation and related infrastructures such as ICTs, roads, bridges, electricity supply were impacted by tropical cyclone Idai in the geographical location where the study took place. Many tourism-related ventures, infrastructures and establishments in surrounding communities were cut off as bridges were destroyed by excessive flooding, mudslides, rockfalls and rock deposits.

16.4 Presentation of Data and Discussion of Findings In this section, the findings of the study are presented and discussed. This is done in response to the research question and objective raised at the outset of the research.

16.4.1 The Tourist Attractions in Chimanimani The study found that there are many and varied tourist attractions in the Chimanimani district. Hence, the diversity of attractions are key pull factors that offer tourists world-class experiences in one close geographical location. One participant with a long history in the tourism sector of the Chimanimani Village suburb compared the touristic potential of Chimanimani to some famous destinations in France and indicated that Chimanimani tourism had the potential to compete with the tour of Mont Blanc in Europe. The Chamonix-Mont Blanc is a high-flying international natural site for tourists attracting up to six million visitors a year (Marclay, 2015), whose tourism activities are mainly based on the geomorphological features of the area (Nistor, 2013). The same participant went on to indicate that the Chimanimani Mountains are special; they are the

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best in terms of hiking in Southern Africa. There is also a full range of biodiversity in Chimanimani with 88 endemic plants. Table  16.1 presents a summary of the key attractions in Chimanimani. Overall, Chimanimani is blessed with a variety of tourist attractions, and tourists will never need to travel to other far-off places since these attractions are just found in one district. However, several tourist sites and attractions were impacted by tropical cyclone Idai. The impacts (positive or negative) will now be considered in the next section.

Table 16.1 (continued) Tourism type Adventure tourism

16.4.2 Impact of Cyclone Idai on Tourism Attractions and Related Infrastructure The tourist attraction sites in Chimanimani were affected by tropical cyclone Idai at varying degrees. One participant, who is a traditional authority, indicated that most of the sacred shrines in the forests were destroyed. Among such forests are Dzikope Indigenous Forests, Nditore Indigenous Forest and Nyamazha Indigenous Forests, which were now just cliffs. Table 16.1 Summary Chimanimani Tourism type Archaeological tourism

Cultural heritage and indigenous forestry tourism

Spiritual, indigenous medical and healing tourism

of

tourist

attractions

in

Tourist attractions in Chimanimani Ngaoni ruins/enclosures Old iron smelting facility in Chimanimani Mountains Historical Chimanimani gap and rock paintings Cultures of the people of Chimanimani Indigenous sacred and indigenous protected forests Shrines and burial spaces like one in Ngangu Mountains Indigenous medical treatments for illnesses such as cancer, mental illnesses and women’s health issues Natural medicine harvesting Permaculture, herbal gardens Museruseru spiritual healing pools (continued)

Disaster/dark tourism

Tourist attractions in Chimanimani Tourists visit to experience the unexpected Scenic views (skyline to Chimanimani, Ngaoni) Hiking trails (e.g. Ngaoni to Chimanimani since the 1970s) Waterfalls (on the Zimbabwean side of the Chimanimani there are up to 11 sites of waterfalls with some of the waterfalls as deep as 120 m) Quartzite Rock Mountain – Chimanimani Mountains are part of the continuum of a mountainous feature that stretches from the Drakensberg Mountains to the East African Rift Valley and the Alumar Mountains in the Ethiopian highlands in Ethiopia Dooms – the major one is the Sphinx and Temple Doom and one at Mt. Bhinga which has 12 apostles (rivers) flowing from the mountain into Mozambique Mountain peaks – the area has over ten (10) mountain peaks with scenic viewing sites. One of the sites is said to give the beautiful views over Mozambique up to the Indian Ocean, a distance of between 300 and 400 km away Caves (some of these caves are big enough to house up to 70 participants overnight) Springs – there are over eight springs in Chimanimani Mts Chisekera Hot Springs botanical reserves Pools (the area has an amazing presence of pools, some of which are known for their healing properties) Gorges and wilderness campsites Team building for schools and corporates New features that were formed by tropical cyclone Idai, for example, rockslides, mudslides and deaths sites Researching tropical cyclone Idai phenomenon (continued)

16  Impact of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Tourism Attractions and Related Infrastructure in Chimanimani… Table 16.1 (continued) Tourism type Agro-forestry tourism

Wildlife tourism

Birding tourism

Arts and crafts

Cultural festivals

Tourist attractions in Chimanimani Forestry (pine, wattle, calcian, gum tree plantations) Coffee, tea, macadamia nuts plantations Fruit farming (e.g. citrus, peaches, pineapples, bananas, avocadoes, guavas, papayas, apples) Bee and honey farming Chimanimani National Park Eland sanctuary Haroni and Rusitu forests and botanical reserves Gwindingwe state forests Also, wildlife is found in many indigenous forests under the jurisdiction of various traditional leaderships Massongoni BirdLife, Birdlife, bird watching Indigenous forests Basketry, wood carvings, indigenous carpets, hats, mats (Biriiri, Nyanyadzi, Gudyanga, Nhedziwa, Chimanimani Village craft centres) Chimanimani Music and Cultural Festival (held every August) Culinary/gastronomical activities Rain-making ceremonies Shinja cultural village

Source: Authors, based on 2019 Fieldwork

The same participant revealed that other sacred sites such as the Mhakwe, Biriiri, Rusitu and Tanganda and Nyahode and Rusitu rivers were also affected. Participants at the Mguzu Forest Commission Research Station identified forests with several exotic species that were destroyed. From the participant’s observations, the damage came mainly from extremely strong winds, heavy rains and flooding. The evidence of heavy rains came up time and again in all interviews, with one estate (Rathmore) having recorded, from three rainfall stations, an average of 1963 mm of rainfall in just 2 days – 14 and 15 March 2019. This amount of rainfall is far above the average annual of about 800 mm to 1000 mm in the area. From the authors’ field observations during data collection, it became clear that there were severe negative impacts of tropical cyclone Idai on the Chimanimani Country Club golf course.

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The authors indicated that the nine-hole golf course was almost completely destroyed, all that remained were hordes and mounts of big boulders and rocks deposited (Figs. 16.2). From the look of things, significant sums of money will be required to resuscitate the golf course. One responded valued the work done to clear rocks off the golf course at US$10,000, notwithstanding the other associated costs of restoring the golf course to what it originally was before the disaster. As indicated earlier, the Bridal Veil, Tessa’s Pool and the Chimanimani Mountains remain among the key tourist attractions, apart from the scenic views all over Chimanimani. What emerged from field observations was a tale of two stories in terms of impact. Some locals, including the chairperson of Chimanimani Tourism, indicated that the view of the Bridal Veil was enhanced because trees that used to cover the falls were removed (Fig.  16.3). Another ­participant responded by indicating that changes at the Bridal Veil Falls were “spectacular” and “outstanding”, meaning tropical cyclone Idai enhanced the aesthetics of the place. Another participant who is a hotelier in the area also felt the changes at Bridal Veil Falls were more of nature’s “rearrangement” than “destruction”. On the other hand, a representative of a prominent non-­ governmental organisation working in the area for a number of years was of the view that the Bridal Veil Falls’ aesthetics were no longer the same. However, upon the researchers’ visitation to the Bridal Veil Falls, there was consensus that there was significant damage to the resort, with piles of stones rolled over and supporting infrastructure, including benches, bathrooms and braai areas, having been extensively damaged and some washed away (Fig.  16.4). The Bridal Veil Falls are the most accessible from Chimanimani town as they are fewer than five kilometres away. There were similar sentiments regarding the damage to the Tessa’s Pool (Fig. 16.5) at the foot of the Chimanimani Mountains which is used by the Outward Bound resort. The Outward Bound is used for team building and hosts schools and companies from across Zimbabwe and other

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Fig. 16.2  Chimanimani Golf club damage and the mudslide marks on mountains in the background Source: Authors Fieldwork 2019

Fig. 16.3  Bridal Veil Falls with tree branches cleared away by cyclone Idai Source: Authors, Fieldwork 2019

countries in the region. While one of the guides and team-building coaches at the Outward Bound revealed excitement regarding the deepened Tessa’s Pool, he was concerned that it had become a death trap for swimmers. Individual and teams swim and cross the pool using ropes during activ-

ities. Apart from the Tessa’s Pools, there was visibly increased gold panning within the boundaries of Outward Bound and the Chimanimani Mountains as excessive rains washed ground away and opened potential panning sites. The presence of illegal gold panning remains a threat

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Fig. 16.4  Extensive damage to the Bridal Veil Falls Source: Authors, Fieldwork 2019

Fig. 16.5  Tessa’s Pool resort at Outward Bound Source: Authors, Fieldwork 2019

to tourists that may feel uncomfortable using foot trials, and camping in curves and other places. However, there remains hope in terms of other attractions, including viewing many rock paintings (Fig. 16.6). One of the respondents, the Chairperson of Chimanimani Tourism Authority, summed up the positive news regarding the impact of the cyclone

on several tourist attractions in Chimanimani. In her view, and in the aftermath of the cyclone Idai: We actively sought out physical features, which were altered radically by cyclone Idai. These included many of the already well-known tourist attractions such as the Bridal Veil Falls, Tessa’s Pool and Digby’s Waterfall. All of them have been enhanced by the calamity in that the pools below

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Fig. 16.6 Rock paintings in the Chimanimani Mountains Source: Authors, Fieldwork 2019

the falls are much bigger and more conducive to swimming. In addition, the downstream river beds have all been opened and widened and are now wonderful for paddling and walking inside, downstream amount spectacular rock features. So, of course, we are putting these new features to the fore of our marketing. We are very busy this festive season. All accommodation providers are reporting great interest from within Zimbabwe and from the diaspora coming home for Christmas. We are also running a (very successful) project, whereby young, disadvantaged children collect cyclone Idai pebbles from within the rock slides, and we are selling them to garden centres and individuals making features their gardens.

Slope failure affects settlements in tropical mountainous areas, particularly in deforested areas (Vanacker et  al. 2003  in Handmer et  al., 2012) and hilly areas, especially following heavy and prolonged rain as did tropical cyclone Idai. Before tropical cyclone Idai, tourists were attracted to Chimanimani to view the calm, natural beauty of the mountain peaks clothed in tranquil vegetation. Although likely to recover, visitors to Chimanimani after Idai would be greeted by scarred mountain slopes bearing testimony to the disaster that happened in the area. Not only the natural scenes were destroyed, but also tourism accommodation. Figure  16.7 presents the Mawenje Guest Lodge that was washed away completely. In Chimanimani town, more of

the impact included damaged water sources (weirs) and piping system. Water supply to Chimanimani town is sourced from natural springs and rivers on mountain tops. These were destroyed by the cyclone such that during and after the disaster, water supply to hotels, lodges and guesthouses in Chimanimani town was disrupted. Tropical cyclone Idai had a serious negative impact on agroforestry/agribusiness tourism in many ways. Several plantations and orchards were destroyed, which affected tourism. Many tourists visit the district to enjoy views of the area dressed by the plantations. Some of these views are enhanced by the magnificent pine plantations in the area. According to a key participant from Agritex, a government department that works to support both forestry and agriculture in the area, some 200 ha of banana plantations, 120 ha of citrus, 46 ha of tea, 5 ha of coffee, 2 ha of pineapples and 2  ha of export quality peaches were destroyed. While it is argued that transportation is one of the basic elements of tourism infrastructure (Tamrat, 2016), in Chimanimani several roads became impassable because of the damages to bridges caused by tropical cyclone Idai. This necessitated the installation of temporary roads and bridges and the creation of detours to enable

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Fig. 16.7  Mawenje Guest Lodge destroyed Source: Authors, Fieldwork 2019

emergency response teams and activities to reach victims of the disaster. It cannot be overemphasised that good transport infrastructure is essential for the movement of tourists, goods consumed in the tourism industry, raw materials for servicing and maintenance of tourism facilities like hotels, B&Bs and fuel. The destruction of several bridges and the washing away of several kilometres of road networks, rockslides and trees being uprooted and deposited in places where bridges used to be resulted in such places being impassable for a number of weeks if not months. Figure  16.8 shows a temporary bridge constructed by Outward Bound to facilitate the movement of tourists into their resort. Had it not been for this bridge, the authors would not have managed to access the Chimanimani Mountains and Outward Bound. From the information gathered from the Manicaland Provincial Development Coordinator’s office and field observations, a total of 24 bridges were damaged, some completely washed away, and about 350 km of the road needed to be repaired, completely abandoned and/or replaced. The destruction of bridges along with major access and tourist routes, the washing away of stretches of tarred roads, some places where the slopes failed, and mounds of earth, mudslides

and rockfalls completely closed off the roads and rendered them impassable. Consequently, for some months, tourists were not able to access the products and services they used to enjoy in the area. Some of the bridges resulted in tourists, goods and other services being cut off from major routes that feed into Chimanimani, including the following: • Birchenough Bridge-Tanganda-Ngaoni-­ Skyline Junction-Charter-Chimanimani Town • Tanganda-Chipinge-Silverstream-Mguzu Research Station-Tilbury-Chimanimani Town • Wengezi Junction-Nhedziwa-Biriiri-Skyline Junction-Charter-Chimanimani Town • Wengezi Junction-Mutambara Mission-­ Cashel Valley-Chikukwa–Chimanimani Town • Wengezi Junction-Nhedziwa-Biriiri Mission-­ Nyamusundu-­Charter-Chimanimani Town • Nyanyadzi-St Patricks-Shinja-Quarry-BiriiriSkyline Junction-Charter-Chimanimani Town • Nyanyadzi-Chikwiizi-Chikwakwa-MhakweBiriiri-­Skyline Junction-Charter-­ Chimanimani Town The greater part of Chimanimani and neighbouring Chipinge district were also covered in total darkness when electric poles were damaged and transformers washed away by the cyclone. This continued for 3 weeks before power could

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Fig. 16.8  Temporary bridge to Outward Bound and Chimanimani Mountains Source: Authors, Fieldwork 2019

be adequately restored first in Chimanimani town. Thereafter, power was gradually restored to more areas as new infrastructure was established by the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) teams. While power had been restored in most of the areas at the time of data collection, a 3 km stretch of 33 kV line in Tilbury, Chimanimani town, was yet to be fixed 8 months later. This shows the extent to which tourism activities could have been disrupted. Other business ventures that draw visitors to Chimanimani suffered major losses to tropical cyclone Idai. One participant, a honey farmer, indicated that wild animals and birds were also killed. The same participant and his close friend have up to 315 beehives between them and they harvest between 80 and 90 of 20-l buckets of raw honey per season. However, this business and other non-timber products were affected badly, as honey farming was severely affected. The loss of

wild animals was supported by a report from a respondent at a horticulture and fruit farm where fewer troops of baboons came on their property to eat their produce. In Chimanimani, ICT is provided by the government through the TelOne, a company that has fixed the mobile network called NetOne, and other private mobile network operators, namely Econet and Telecel. All ICT services were lost when tropical cyclone Idai cut the power supply, and this did not only impact tourism negatively, but also the communication with the outside world during search and rescue operations. Losses were suffered due to network disruptions brought about by power failure. Wireless systems suffered a loss of service and customer revenue for almost 2  weeks, and by the time of fieldwork 8 months later, one of the mobile service providers had not resumed business (Sibanda, 2019).

16  Impact of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Tourism Attractions and Related Infrastructure in Chimanimani…

16.5 Discussion of Findings The tourism industry relies heavily on the availability of power in order for operations to run smoothly. Hotels and other forms of accommodation need energy availability for a number of activities like cooking, heating, cooling, entertainment and other related activities. When these activities are disturbed and affected, the quality of services the hotels can provide to guests is also disturbed. Francis and Bidgood (2017) assert that power grid failure in the aftermath of major storm events is a reality and power can take days, weeks or months to be restored. For example, 3 months after Hurricane Maria devastated the Caribbean Island of Puerto Rico, power was restored to half of the population (Francis & Bidgood, 2017) promoting the idea of having decentralised power systems such as solar, wind, micro-hydro and biomass energy generation for the provision of uninterrupted or briefly interrupted power supply. However, the decentralised power supply model that existed in Chimanimani at Rusitu mini-hydro and others was also decimated by the storm, and the only evidence that remained of it in October 2019 was a broken transformer where the mini-­ hydro power plant used to be. The tourism industry depends on accessing and experiencing the physical and biological environmental features offered by a tourist destination (Siddiqui & Imran, 2018). However, as presented earlier, cyclone Idai had multiple impacts, with the infrastructure used by consumers of touristic products such as roads and bridges, electricity, communication and accommodation infrastructure affected. This is supported by Chatiza (2019) who states that cyclone Idai affected wildlife habitats, water quality, tourism activities and usability of land in the Chimanimani district. At one stage, the whole Chimanimani district could not be accessed by road and was completely cut off from the outside world. To this end, resorts such as Outward Bound remained closed. Some of the infrastructures from Outward Bound are presented in Fig. 16.9. ICTs are a key component of technologies that have a multiplier effect in the tourism industry, and tourism is acknowledged to be very informa-

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tion intensive. The impact of ICTs in hotel administration in the daily operations and the provision of services to hotel guests cannot be overemphasised (Abdulhamid et al., 2016). ICTs help facilitate visitors’ access to tourism products and information at any time from wherever they are, making it less costly for tourists to select the destination they want to visit and the products they want to consume, and making it possible for them to make informed budget decisions on their expenditure long before they set sail. According to Kalbaska (2015), ICTs give tourism enterprises the opportunity to reach targeted customers across the globe, reduce time and costs and change the way tourism players run business and provide individual travel experience to tourists. In the era of the Internet of Things (IoTs), tourists make decisions on which places to visit based on information available on the World Wide Web. In this regard, Kansakar et al. (2019: 1) argue that: A digital service platform affords guests the ability to browse, plan and pick activities at their own convenience, thus facilitating the seamless integration of technology into their travel experience. Booking and reservation services, location-based services and personalized communication, and social media integration are a few examples of digital services that entice technophile guests.

Tourism is acknowledged to be very information intensive. Hence, ICT has become a universal feature of the tourism industry. Its tools allow information to be managed more efficiently and communicated worldwide almost instantly, like radio and television waves because it has become digitised and enables packets of data to move over long distances (Abdulhamid et al., 2016). While tourism is credited with contributing 10.2% to the GDP worldwide (UNTWTO, 2016),  extreme weather events, including cyclones, affect tourists’ destination choices and time of travel (Scott & Lemieux, 2010; Kozak et  al., 2008; Hamilton & Tol, 2007; Hamilton et al., 2005). In the Chimanimani district, tropical cyclone Idai impacted the physical environment greatly, and in most of the cases, negatively so. The cyclone did not impact only the physical environment, but also the infrastructure that complements activities in tourism such as roads and

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Fig. 16.9  Accommodation facilities Source: Authors, Fieldwork 2019

bridges. Sibanda (2019) approximates that over 90% of roads infrastructure in Chimanimani was damaged by tropical cyclone Idai-induced strong winds, torrential rains, flooding and landslides causing mudflows and rockfalls, thereby making the destination inaccessible to tourists. When asked for perceptions on the extent of the damage to tourism attractions in Chimanimani, 34.25% of the respondents from the online survey (n  =  146) concurred that there was either complete or partial damage, while only 4.11% said there was none. The remaining percentage highlighted that they either did not know or the question was not applicable to their localities. Investments in lodge accommodation were impacted negatively, with one guest lodge completely washed off, while others were not accessible for a while. Although some participants in

the tourism sector noted a decline in tourist arrivals in the Chimanimani district during the peak of the cyclone damage, after the disaster there was evidence of increasing tourist arrivals through the activities of NGOs and other organisations that were implementing recovery programmes in the area. This was further confirmed by all accommodation being fully booked when the researchers were trying to find place for a 3-week stay in Chimanimani for fieldwork. In addition, there are good prospects of promoting dark/disaster tourism (Ntunda, 2014). The government and the local authority are already mulling over the building of monuments of remembrance at the burial site of cyclone victims in Ngangu and at Kopa Growth Point. The Kopa Growth Point site had the entire township destroyed by floods of the Nyahode and Rusitu river confluences.

16  Impact of Tropical Cyclone Idai on Tourism Attractions and Related Infrastructure in Chimanimani…

16.6 Conclusions So much has been written about the devastation of the Chimanimani district by the severe tropical cyclone Idai that took place from 14 to 19 March 2019. However, there remained a gap in terms of how tourism, in general, and tourist attractions, in particular, were impacted. The study found that tourism attractions, including the Bridal Veil Falls, Tessa’s Pool and general scenic views, were impacted. Although there was no consensus regarding whether the impact was positive or negative, there was evidence that points to both and this depended on who gave the responses. However, the observations by the authors revealed that infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, ICTs, power generation, distribution and supply, was heavily damaged by the cyclone. Furthermore, tourist housing infrastructure, including some lodges and leisure places such as the nine-hole golf course, was also severely damaged. Water supply and sanitation infrastructure were also damaged. For about 1  week, Chimanimani was completely inaccessible by road. What was also evident was that different tourist attraction sites were impacted in varying degrees, resulting in the aesthetics of such places being either improved or deteriorated. Scenic views of mountain slopes were negatively affected, and large swathes of forestry, which contribute to the attraction of tourists, were also destroyed. Tropical cyclone Idai also brought the additional burden of tourist security as illegal gold miners colonised in extensive areas in Chimanimani, including the Chimanimani Mountain that also hosts a national park. Based on the findings from this work, tourism companies in Chimanimani should adapt to changes that occurred as a result of tropical cyclone Idai. New tourism products and packages such as the vigorous exploitation of disaster/ dark tourism based on new features and monuments constructed by mudslides, rockslides, rockfalls and new mountain aesthetics could be exploited in order to boost the economic productivity of tourism in the area. The positive aspects raised regarding the Bridal Veil Falls and Tessa’s Pool could be marketed widely, resulting in early

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recovery. Coupled with the foregoing, there is a need to revive the Chimanimani Conservancy Trans-Frontier Park, comprising Chimanimani National Park, Eland Conservancy, Chimanimani mountains, Birdlife, several indigenous forests, perennial rivers and other tourism offerings on the Mozambican side in order to exploit the sum of the benefits of having tourists consume attractions from both the Zimbabwean and Mozambican sides, which will spur economic development in the two countries.

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Evidence of the Impact of Cyclones and Floods on Biodiversity and Wildlife Resources in Southern Africa

17

Olga Laiza Kupika, Edson Gandiwa, James Ayuk, Salomão Bandeira, and Francisca Kunedzimwe

Abstract

Climate-related extreme events pose a major threat to biodiversity and wildlife habitats. Cyclones and floods cause major disruptions to ecosystems, and the southern African region has not been spared from the impact of these natural disasters. Yet to date, limited studies have profiled the effects of cyclone and flood events on biodiversity and wildlife resources in southern Africa. This chapter, therefore, assesses the impact of cyclones and floods on biodiversity and wildlife resources in southern Africa for the period 1974–2019. A systematic review of literature on cyclone and flood events was done using Google Scholar, electronic databases and technical reports. Documents with relevant titles and abstracts on cyclones and floods were selected based on key search words and phrases relevant to biodiversity and wildlife resources. The findings from this review indicate that between 1975 O. L. Kupika () · E. Gandiwa · F. Kunedzimwe School of Wildlife, Ecology and Conservation, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe J. Ayuk Risk and Vulnerability Science Centre, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa S. Bandeira Department of Biological Sciences, Eduardo Mondlane University, Maputo, Mozambique

and 2019, cyclones and floods hit parts of southern Africa. This has resulted in changes in the structure and composition of marine, terrestrial and freshwater habitats. These changes have had significant implications on the availability of ecosystem goods and services. Additionally, the results of this review reveal that a firm understanding of the influence of climate change–induced extreme events on biodiversity and wildlife resources by relevant stakeholders is vital for the promotion of adaptive biodiversity management strategies. They also point to the need for future studies which focus on real-time monitoring of the affected habitats and which compare the diversity of species before and after cyclone and flood events. Keywords

Biodiversity · Cyclones · Fauna · Flora · Floods · Invertebrates · Southern Africa

17.1 Introduction Biodiversity in tropical, sub-tropical and warm temperate regions of the world face threats from climate change–induced natural disasters, such as droughts, heat waves, cyclones and floods (IPCC, 2018). Climate change–induced disasters can affect biodiversity at the individual, popula-

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_17

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tion, species, community and ecosystem levels. For example, floods caused by cyclones have devastating effects on forests and wildlife habitats, with subsequent consequences on the distribution and abundance of wildlife resources. Cyclones have both short- and long-term effects across the levels of biological organisation (Lin et al., 2020). For instance, tropical cyclones have resulted in massive tree mortality and forest structural shifts, which have had indirect effects on the biogeochemical processes, recovery of individual trees, forest regeneration and succession in mangrove ecosystems (Ward et al., 2016). To date, studies on the impact of tropical cyclones have mainly focused on the loss of human life and property, yet extreme events also affect wild animal vertebrates (Venkataraman et al., 2020) and invertebrate species (Chen et al., 2020). Predictions indicate that several species of insects, plants and vertebrates will lose half their range due to the impact of cyclones (Brinkmann, 2020). Few studies have focused on the local-­ level effects of cyclones and floods on wildlife resources within the African context. This chapter, therefore, aims to: (i) describe the historical profile and impacts of cyclones and floods on the ecology and habitats of wildlife resources in southern Africa; (ii) summarise the effects of cyclone Idai on wildlife resources and biodiversity in Mozambique.

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over tropical or subtropical waters with organised convection and definite cyclonic surface wind circulation” (Lin et al., 2020; Oozeer et al., 2020). Different regions identify cyclones by different names. In the areas around the North Atlantic Ocean and the Eastern Pacific Ocean, for example, they are referred to as a “hurricanes”, whereas they are known as “typhoons” in the northwestern Pacific Ocean region and as “tropical cyclones” in the southwestern Indian Ocean zone (ibid). Africa has very high coefficients for hydro-meteorological disasters, especially tropical cyclones, droughts and floods, that account for approximately 80% of loss of life and 70% of economic losses in sub-Saharan Africa (UNISDR, 2008). `The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that the sub-Saharan Africa region has suffered disproportionately from rising temperatures, as well as from more frequent and intense droughts and floods (IPCC, 2012). By 2014, sub-Saharan Africa had recorded 1603 reported disasters, which amounted to approximately 18% of the global total. Floods account for 37% of all natural disasters in sub-­ Saharan Africa, as this region is vulnerable to floods, with nine countries in the area averaging more than one event per year. Floods are primarily caused by abnormally high rainfall, which could be due to the interactive effects of tropical cyclones. The impact of floods may be exacerbated by anthropogenic actions like poor infra17.2 Review of Literature: structural planning, land degradation and deforestation of catchment areas; increased popTheoretical and Conceptual ulation density along riverbanks; and inadequate Framework drainage and management of discharges from Climate change is inextricably linked to hydro-­ river reservoirs (UNISDR, 2008). Three types of meteorological hazards such as floods, droughts, floods have been recognised across Africa, tropical cyclones and strong winds, storm surges, namely gully, coastal and flash floods (ibid). extreme temperatures, forest fires, sand or dust Tropical cyclones and associated devastating storms and landslides (IPCC, 2012). Long-term floods have been reported in major cities and changes in atmospheric variables such as tem- rural communities across the continent, causing perature, precipitation and evapotranspiration loss of lives, infrastructure and biodiversity. have thus been used extensively as proxies for Tropical cyclones are frequent in the Western detecting climate change in the southern Africa Indian Ocean and have devastating effects on the region (Kusangaya et  al., 2014). Tropical Island States and the coastal areas of eastern and cyclones can be described as the generic term for southern Africa. They have been known to penea “nonfrontal synoptic scale low-pressure system trate inland to as far as Botswana.

17  Evidence of the Impact of Cyclones and Floods on Biodiversity and Wildlife Resources in Southern…

Disasters, many of which are exacerbated by climate change and are increasing in frequency and intensity, significantly impede progress towards sustainable development. Three major international agreements related to sustainable development recognise the threats posed by climate change. These are the Paris Agreement (UNFCCC, 2015); the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (UN, 2015) and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR; UNISDR, 2015) and all are intrinsically linked in terms of upholding the ethos of sustaining humanity without harming the planet, including its biodiversity (Kelman, 2017). The Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) defines biodiversity as “the variability among living organisms from all sources, including diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems” (UN, 1992). Thus, biodiversity entails both variety in the number of species and in the different ecosystems (marine and terrestrial) from human societies derive their livelihood such as coastal areas, forests, wetlands, grasslands, mountains and deserts (CBD, 2018). Meanwhile, processes similar to, and parallel with, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) exist for biodiversity through the CBD and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). One of the major threats to sustainable biodiversity conservation is the loss of biodiversity due to climate change, which is partially driven by anthropogenic factors. The United Nations (UN) SDGs Agenda 2030 also includes the need for the maintenance of biodiversity and healthy ecosystems, where both SDG 14 (life below water) and SDG 15 (life on land) include targets that reflect the important role of biodiversity and healthy ecosystems (UN, 2015). Southern Africa is endowed with diverse ecosystems which provide ecosystem goods and services that are critical for sustaining livelihoods. However, tropical cyclones and floods affect aspects of the ecosystem goods and services that terrestrial and marine ecosystems provide. The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) report that more than three-quarters of the world’s food crops depend, at least in part, on

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pollination by insects and other animals, while between US$235  billion and US$577  billion worth of the annual global food production rely on the direct contributions of pollinators. Such provisioning services could be under threat from cyclones and floods due to the magnitude and severity of the events (Talbot et al., 2018). The UN Sendai Framework (2015) calls for enhanced work on accountability for disaster risk at all levels and specifies that action needs to be focused on the unsustainable uses of natural resources and the declining ecosystems. Literature indicates that tropical cyclones affect different types of ecosystems which include marines (Mohan et al., 2020), mangroves (Krauss & Osland, 2020) and coral reefs (Cheal et  al., 2017), tropical forests (Oozeer et al., 2020) and riparian zones (Mcdowell, 2001) and island ecosystems (Goulding et  al., 2016; Hedding et  al., 2020). Cheal et  al. (2017) notes that cyclone intensity is predicted to increase globally, causing more frequent occurrences of the most destructive cyclones ever experienced, with potentially severe consequences for coral reef ecosystems. Tropical cyclones result in different impacts on terrestrial and marine ecosystems due to exposure to high-velocity winds and floods. They have negative consequences on wildlife habitats and the ecology of associated vulnerable species. Goulding et  al. (2016) point out that cyclones have cascading effects on biodiversity, such as altering the dynamics of invasive plant and animal species on islands. Cyclones also affect island forests, resulting in threats to endemic and forest-dependent bird species (Goulding et al., 2016). Studies from the small island states of the Pacific, the United States’ Midwest, Madagascar and Mozambique all indicate that the countries are already feeling the impact of tropical cyclones. Relative to the other tropical cyclone hotspots, coastal countries of south-east Africa are not as regularly affected (Fitchett & Grab, 2014). However, recent studies indicate that Category 5 tropical cyclones – the strongest category of storms characterised with the strongest winds, heavy rainfall and storm surges − have only recently emerged in the South Indian Ocean

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and their frequency of occurrence has increased since 1989 (Fitchett, 2018). This increase poses a heightened risk of storm damage for the countries of the southern African subcontinent, including the Island States. In southern Africa, Madagascar and Mozambique are more vulnerable to the impact of south-west Indian Ocean tropical cyclone events, with devastating effects on human livelihoods, agriculture and infrastructure (ibid). Predictions already indicate that Southern Africa should brace itself for more tropical cyclones due to the increasing warming over the oceans (Fitchett, 2018). Recent trends point towards an increasing frequency of tropical cyclones shifting towards the south of Madagascar. This is possibly associated with the southward shift of the 26 °C isotherm, combined with a decrease in the steering flow during La Niña years (Fitchett & Grab, 2014). For instance, in March of 2019, tropical cyclone Idai hit Madagascar and Mozambique and caused widespread flooding and devastation resulting in the loss of a variety of life forms.

17.3 Materials and Methods This chapter focuses on studies on the impact of cyclones and floods on biodiversity and wildlife resources in selected countries of southern Africa, namely, Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Eswatini, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe (Fig. 17.1). The review concentrated on literature from across all habitats. However, special attention was given to the impact of these natural disasters on the biodiversity in protected areas across the different countries. For the marine and coastal areas, the main focus of the review was on known and documented information on cyclone and floods in Mozambique and South Africa. Relevant literature and anecdotal information were used to document the impact of extreme events on some of these conservation areas, or locations near them. The research centred on the essential or critical marine habitats on the coastline (as defined by regional seas entity of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/

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Nairobi Convention), such as mangrove forests, seagrass meadows and coral reefs. A literature survey was performed using Scopus, Google Scholar, PubMed, Medline, and Science Direct, and English reference books dealing with tropical cyclones and floods in Southern Africa from 1974 to 2020. The researchers used Google Scholar to search for the following terms: “tropical cyclones”, “floods”, “impacts/effects”, “wildlife”, “biodiversity”, “invertebrates”, “insects”, “vertebrates”, “amphibians”, “reptiles”, “terrestrial”, “mammals”, “birds and fish”, “marine”, “coastal area” and “delta”. A total of 750 articles were found, but eventually the review focused on 50 articles which covered aspects on biodiversity. The survey was limited to literature in English-­ speaking countries to ensure the correct characterisation and categorisation of the species. Technical reports and government reports were also used to gather information on the damage done to wildlife resources. The review focused on the drivers and disturbance mechanisms as well as the effects of tropical cyclones and floods of various intensities on freshwater, terrestrial and marine ecosystems in southern Africa. In the analysis, the following thematic areas were used to categorise the findings: the historical occurrence of cyclones and floods in Southern Africa; the impact of cyclones and floods on the flora and fauna, including wildlife habitats in both natural and agro-dominated systems. Studies on the impact covering the period 1974–2019 are presented temporally, whereas the impact on flora and fauna is presented spatially. Southern Africa is inherently characterised by a high spatial-temporal variability of climate and is considered a highly vulnerable region of Africa (Tadross et  al., 2011). Climatic zones in the region include semi-tropical (Angola, Malawi, Mozambique and Madagascar), semi-arid (South Africa, Zimbabwe and Botswana), arid (Namibia). Apart from the highly variable climate reasons for the high vulnerability across the region include the extremely agrarian economies (rained and irrigated) (Ngongondo et al., 2011), severe water challenges (quantity, quality and distribution) (Dube, 2007), high exposure to natural disasters (Archer et  al., 2017) and low adaptive

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Fig. 17.1  Location of southern African countries

capacity, particularly among rural communities (Jarawura, 2014).

17.4 Presentation and Discussion of Results This section presents evidence on the impacts of cyclones and floods on selected habitats in southern Africa. Cyclone and flood events have affected a number of habitats across terrestrial, marine and freshwater ecosystems (Table 17.1). Cyclones and associated floods cause structural damage to vegetation (Lin et al., 2020) and animal species. Structural effects on vegetation during tropical cyclones can occur in three ways: (i) stems are broken; (ii) trees are ripped out of the ground due to soil oversaturation or as roots break underground or (iii) trees remain standing but sustain internal structural injuries and/or are defoliated (Krauss & Osland, 2020). The cate-

gory of damage depends on the intensity of the cyclone as manifested by the wind velocity or depends on the severity of flood as shown by the volume, turbidity and speed of flows. There have been cases where the sheer wind impact of the cyclone has resulted in total destruction to forest structure, such as the uprooting of trees as experienced along coastlines with mangrove forests (Macamo et al., 2016). Evidence from southern Africa indicate that strong winds associated with cyclones have prompted changes in forest structure, tree mortalities, density and biomass (Table 17.2). Cyclone Eline was accompanied by very high-­ speed winds (over 180 km/h) and intense rainfall. In a study to assess the impact of cyclone Eline on the Save River Delta in Mozambique 14 years later, Macamo et  al. (2016) showed that the cyclone devastated over 47.8% of the mangrove forest in the area. Results from field sampling showed there had been significant recovery in creek

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270 Table 17.1  Severe tropical cyclone and flood events over southern Africa Season 1975

Cyclone name –

1976/1977

Favio

Estuary of Inhambane Bay

1976 / 1977

Emilie

Limpopo River Estuary

Intense rainfall affected the ecosystem

1979

Leon Eline

Sundays R. Estuary Swartkops Estuary

1981

Cyclone Benedicte

Gamtoos Estuary

1983 / 1984

Imboa

St. Lucia Estuary

1993/1994

Domoina

St. Lucia Estuary Pungwe River Estuary

Fish populations were impacted differently between the Swartkops and the Sundays Estuaries Mugilidae species blossomed in the Swartkops Estuary but declined significantly in the Sundays Estuary several months after the floods High turbidity caused reduced fish species e.g. fam. Mugilidae Extensive flooding caused desalinisation of St Lucia estuarine system Aquatic ecosystems severely impacted as fertile alluvial soils were washed away

1993 / 1994

Nadia

Zambezi River Estuary

Submergence of aquatic ecosystems

1995 / 1996

Bonita

Zambezi River Estuary

Extensive overbank flooding and intense erosion of alluvial soils

1999 / 2000

Eline

Save River Delta, Mozambique Limpopo River Estuary

Aquatic ecosystems submerged due to heavy flooding

Flood event Swartkop River Estuary

Description of damage to habitats Prolonged floods reduced the macrobenthic populations of Solen corneus and Upogebia africana by 85% and 25%, respectively 10 fatalities; millions of people were left homeless; extensive croplands were affected; relatively few people lost their lives

Country affected South Africa

Source Hannekom (pers. comm) in Marais (1982)

Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Botswana

Mavume et al. (2014) https:// en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Cyclone_Favio Zhakata and Ngara (2002)

Botswana, Mozambique southern Zimbabwe South Africa Mozambique

Marais (1982)

South Africa

Marais (1983)

St Lucia, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa KwaZulu-Nata in South Africa; Mozambique

Martin et al. (1992)

Northern Mozambique and northern Madagascar Madagascar, Mozambique, Angola, Zimbabwe, Zambia Mozambique, South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe

FAO (2004) Steinke and Ward (1989) https:// en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Tropical_Storm_ Domoina Larson et al. (2002)

FAO (2004) Hellmuth et al. (2007) Fitchett and Grab (2014) Krauss and Osland (2020) Hellmuth et al. (2007) FAO (2004) (continued)

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Table 17.1 (continued) Season 2000

Cyclone name Gloria

2000/2001

Hudah

Mahajamba Bay Estuary

2000 / 2001

Dera

Kosi Bay Estuary

2001 / 2002

Dina

2002/2003

Kesiny

Pungwe River Estuary Buzi River Estuary Betsiboka River Estuary Mfolozi Estuary

2002 / 2003

Delfina

2018/2019

Fani

2003

Japhet

2003 / 2004

Cela

2004/2005

Elita

2004/2005

Gafilo

Flood event Betsiboka Estuary

Shire River Estuary Ruo River Pungwe River Estuary Bay of Bengal Incomati River Estuary Pungwe River Estuary Save River Estuary Limpopo River Estuary Inhambane River Estuary Sofala Bank Estuary Bombetoka Bay Estuary Inhambane River Estuary River dos Bons Sinais Estuary Mozambique Channel Estuary

Description of damage to habitats Widespread flash floods and mudslides impacted ecosystems Floods caused human casualties, degraded land and damaged ecosystems The Zambezi River flooded disturbing both ecosystems and human populations Substantial damage to agricultural lands

Country affected Madagascar

Madagascar

Mozambique Zimbabwe Mauritius, Madagascar, Mozambique

Source Long (2000) Fitchett and Grab (2014) Long (2000)

NOAA (2003) Hellmuth et al. (2007) OCHA (2002)

Destruction of croplands; thousands of people were left homeless; bridges and homes were destroyed; it also claimed lives

Madagascar

Destruction of croplands Disturbance of ecosystems

Mozambique and Malawi

Localised flooding caused disturbed ecosystems

Mozambique

SADC (2004)

Damaged croplands, floods; thousands of people affected across several villages; roads and bridges were destroyed

South and central Mozambique; south and eastern Zimbabwe, Zambia and Madagascar

Heavy rains caused soil erosion in croplands

Northern Mozambique and western Zimbabwe Madagascar, Mozambique, Malawi

Mavume et al. (2014) https:// en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Cyclone_Japhet Fitchett and Grab (2014) Hancke et al. (2014).

Damaged agricultural land; roads and power supply severely damaged across the region Damaged croplands; killed hundreds and left thousands homeless

Mozambique, Madagascar

NOAA (2003) Fitchett and Grab (2014) https:// en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Cyclone_Kesiny Bell et al. (2003)

Fitchett and Grab (2014) SADC (2004) Fitchett and Grab (2014) USAID/OFDA (2004)

(continued)

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272 Table 17.1 (continued) Season 2004 / 2005

Cyclone name Ernest

2011/2012

Irina

Pungwe River Estuary

Torrential rains, above normal high waves, 77 fatalities

2012

Dando

Sofala Bank Estuary

2012

Funso

2013/2014

Hellen

Mozambique Channel Estuary Nsanje Estuary Shire Inhambane River Estuary Great Fish River Estuary

Closure of roads and bridges; human displacement; goats perished in the Gaza province; agricultural damages were also reported there; both the Olifants and the Bylde broke their banks Killed at least 25 people; tens of thousands affected through flooding and damaged infrastructure

2016/2017

Dineo

Kosi Bay Estuary

2007/ 2008

Favio

Save River Estuary

Flood event Betsiboka Estuary

Description of damage to habitats Croplands were heavily eroded

High flow and reduced salinity; decline in estuarine fish species and temporal disappearance of marine migrant species 20,000 livestock perished in floods waters; damages included 230 dams, 538 schools, 54 clinics and 14,999 toilets in Zimbabwe; destroyed close to 30,000 ha of agricultural land thereby imposing a threat to food security in the region In Mozambique, more than 60,000 homes, 70 health clinics and close to 2000 classrooms were damaged; in South Africa: affected Kruger National Park Killed people; damaged infrastructure due to flooding

Country affected Malawi, Zambia, and northeastern Zimbabwe, Madagascar Mozambique, Madagascar, South Africa

Mozambique and Malawi

Mozambique Channel in between Mozambique in southeastern Africa and Madagascar. Malawi South Africa

Source https:// en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Cyclone_Ernest https:// en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Tropical_Storm_ Irina NASA (2012)

NASA (2012) https:// en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Cyclone_Funso

Nodo et al. (2017)

Mozambique, Madagascar, South Africa, southern parts of Zimbabwe

Hut (2018)

Madagascar, Tanzania, Zimbabwe. Mozambique, Malawi

Fitchett and Grab (2014)

(continued)

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Table 17.1 (continued) Season 03/2019

Cyclone name Idai

2018/2019

Kenneth

Flood event Pungwe River Estuary Save River Estuary

Buzi River Estuary

Description of damage to habitats Riverine flash floods killed thousands of people; damaged infrastructure; homes and caused losses in biodiversity; destroyed livelihoods and properties Destruction of livelihoods; loss of lives; destruction of social service infrastructure; healthy facilities impacted and crops affected

forests. There was 100% mortality in sea-­ward mangroves areas that were dominated by Rhizophora mucronata (ibid) mainly because the species is hard to recover from defoliation and sedimentation and therefore was unable to sprout, but also due to the sheer impact of the wind speed. Mildly impacted areas showed some level of recovery with high densities of juveniles of species such as Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops tagal and Avicennia marina exhibiting high regeneration (ibid). Recovery was better amongst the sheltered creek mangroves while changing sedimentation hampered recovery at the exposed seaward sites (ibid). Another study by Massuanganhe et al. (2015) shows that the strong winds that accompany cyclones have devastated the coastal area, particularly the Save River Delta, Mozambique. Findings from the study report record mortality among mangroves over extensive areas owing to the destructive effects of the recurrent cyclones and storms. The loss of tree leaves was more pronounced near the open sea. Trees regeneration is poor in the open sea areas where they are more exposed to high salinity and frequent wave activity. Cyclones also affect submerged herbaceous cover along the coastal areas. Areal assessments of seagrass cover in Inhambane Bay (southern Mozambique) were carried out from 1992 to 2013 using satellite and remote sensing analysis techniques (Amone-Mabuto et  al., 2017). Seagrass cover declined by 51% during this period. The least seagrass coverage was observed

Country affected Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Madagascar and Malawi

Source United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (2019)

Madagascar, Malawi, Comoros, and Mozambique

OCHA (2019) United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (2019)

in 2001. This reduction was associated with the widespread damage to natural infrastructures caused by Tropical Cyclone Eline, which lasted for 29  days with winds at top speed of about 200 km/h. The findings of Amone-Mabuto et al. (2017) corresponded with observations of seagrass species (Thalassia hemprichii) at Barra Peninsula and Ilha dos Porcos. Both studies, respectively, showed similar trend changes with significant loss in seagrass biomass over the same period (ibid). Studies by Lewis et al. (2009) indicate that on 21 January 2009, cyclone Fanele, with sustained winds of 185  km/h, caused a landfall on the ­western coast of Madagascar. It induced negative impacts on the tropical dry forest structure in the Kirindy Mitea National Park. In July and August 2009, they measured the height, diameter at breast height (dbh) and the damage caused to 1361 trees in nine 25 × 25 m plots (ibid). Lewis et  al. (2012) found that over 95% of the trees experienced some sort of damage, including 8.8% mortality. Understory and emergent trees experienced a significantly higher mortality than canopy trees, and stem density was reduced to 9.2  ±  4.5% whereas biomass was lowered to 13.4 ± 8.1% after the cyclone. On 2 April 2000, the strong winds that accompanied cyclone Hudah destroyed about 3% of the humid forests in the north of the Masoala Peninsula. The damage was more severe in the north eastern section of this forest which experienced loss of up to 22%. In 2001, a study using experimental plots revealed that the cyclone had

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274 Table 17.2  Summary of the impact of cyclones and floods on marine and terrestrial flora Affected countries Madagascar

Mozambique

Madagascar

Description of impacts Tree damage and mortality; understory and emergent trees experienced significantly higher mortality than canopy trees; reduction in stem density; reduction in biomass after the cyclone Cyclone Eline destroyed 47.8% of the mangrove forest; mangrove species affected in Mozambique are the Avicennia marina and the Rhizophora mucronata Brought massive sedimentation to seagrass meadows in NW Maputo Bay The Incomati Estuary got flooded and reeds overgrew in mangrove areas Damage to humid forests; tree mortality; uprooting, snapping and reduction of crown volume; herbs, liana and woody pioneer species increased; saplings of primary forest species decreased; vegetation in the “shrub” layer increased; vegetation in the “canopy” layer decreased in the northern part of Masoala Peninsula

References Lewis et al. (2012)

Macamo et al. (2016), Charrua et al. (2020), Bandeira et al. (2014), Macamo et al. (2015)

(continued)

Table 17.2 (continued) Affected countries Zimbabwe

Description of impacts Severe tree damage; loss of forest cover and creation of gaps in the canopy area by Cyclone Eline in February 2000, in the Bunga Forest in eastern Zimbabwe

References Plowes (2002)

caused about 53% tree death; 64% reduction in tree trunk basal area; 46% of trees were uprooted; 51% of tree trunks snapped; 83% reduction of crown volume; an increase in herbs, liana and woody pioneer species; a decrease in saplings of primary forest species; an increase in vegetation in the “shrub” layer and a decrease in vegetation in the “canopy” layer (Birkinshaw & Randrianjanahary, 2007). After severe wind damage by cyclone Eline in February 2000, a survey of nearly 200 fallen tree specimens was conducted in the Bunga Forest in eastern Zimbabwe. The fallen trees created 46 patches ranging in size from 20 to 1570 m2 across the survey area. The gaps in the canopy area revealed that 13% of forest cover was lost. Cyclones and floods affect the ecology of several terrestrial, freshwater, marine and coastal invertebrates. Evidence from South Africa indicates that a few studies have documented the impact of cyclones and floods on benthic macroinvertebrate populations (Table 17.3). In Mozambique, the documented impact on marine and coastal conservation areas from north to south is as follows: (i) reports of extensive infrastructure damage due to cyclone Kenneth in Ibo Island village (part of Quirimbas National Park) and also in known locations around Quissanga District, which is part of this park; (ii) reports of heavy rains and floods impacting areas of the Ilhas Primeiras and Segundas Environmental Protection Area; (iii) Zambezi Delta, home to the Marromeu Reserve, once the largest buffalo concentration area in the world, is

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Table 17.3  Impact of cyclones and floods on marine and coastal invertebrates Period 1970– 1990

1990– 2010

2010– 2019

Description of damage and reference Prolonged floods reduced the population of macrobenthic populations of Solen corneus and Upogebia africana by 85% and 25%, respectively Family Mugilidae declined significantly as food sources were washed away by high flows High turbidity caused reduced fish species e.g. fam. Mugilidae Caused decrease in water salinity and excess deposition of sediments by the Limpopo River. Resulted in reduction of the soft coral community cover by about 90.4%. Coralline algae decreased by 85.1% Other categories of algae like turf and fleshy algae, increased in cover. High percentage increase of sea urchins, rubble, dead corals. Other invertebrates (e.g. sponges) Massives like Porites, Favia, Favites and Goniopora and genera with hard coral encrusting like Echinopora were less affected Mangrove dieback, mangrove uproot, seagrass mortality, seagrass sedimentation, natural vegetation submerge

regularly impacted by floods, almost every second year; (iv) Bazaruto Archipelago National Park is one of the most prone to cyclone impact, and it has a cyclone-prone airport which was affected by cyclone Leon-Eline which hit in 2000; (v) Ponta de Ouro Marine Partila Reserve (POMPR) and the adjacent Maputo Bay has suffered from the floods that occurred in 2000 and other recurrent floods, such as the one in 2013; the floods that hit in 2000 created major ravines in Maputo City (e.g. within Julius Nyerere Avenue) and Inhaca Island, which is part of the POMPR, was invaded by crocodiles, especially in the southern bay because of the heavy rains that resulted in the main rivers in the Bay bursting their banks. In 2019, cyclone Idai negatively impacted on the inland conservation areas in Gorongosa National Park and Chimanimane National Reserve in Mozambique, the latter which adjoins Chimanimani National Park in Zimbabwe. Sections of the Gorongosa were actually flooded (field observations).

Affected country South Africa

South Africa

Mozambique

References Hannekom (pers. comm) in Marais (1982) Marais (1982)

Pereira and Gonçalves (2004)

Macamo et al. (2016) Amone-Mabuto et al. (2017) Bandeira et al. (2014)

17.5 Conclusion Over the past four decades, tropical cyclones and flood events have affected a variety of terrestrial, marine and freshwater habitats across Southern Africa, with pronounced impacts on marine and coastal ecosystems. This has resulted in  local damage to both flora and fauna across these natural and artificial habitats, thus causing changes to the distribution and abundance of the affected species. Invertebrate species have not been spared as they have also been adversely affected owing to their vulnerability to high tides during cyclone-­ induced tides and floods. However, most studies have been on marine and coastal vegetation; therefore, research still needs to be extended to both natural and agro-ecosystems in and around protected areas. Future studies should focus on the long-term monitoring of terrestrial and freshwater habitats, taking advantage of the available online databases (satellite images). This could be

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complemented with ground-level measurements, such as establishing monitoring sampling points before the cyclone and floods and then measuring their impact in the time immediately after the events. More studies also need to be carried out in order to establish the effects of cyclones and floods on vertebrates and invertebrate species. Acknowledgements  The authors would like to thank the Exaaro Chair in Business and Climate Change, UNISA for the funding provided towards the workshops and fieldwork for this book project. Special mention also goes to Chinhoyi University of Technology for providing technical and logistical support during the project.

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Impact of Cyclones and Floods on Seagrass Habitats

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Salomão Bandeira, Manuela Amone-Mabuto, Sádia Chitará-Nhandimo, Maria Perpétua Scarlet, and José Rafael

Abstract

Seagrasses are true plants that live in shallow marine water of both tropical and temperate waters. Seagrass meadows are crucial for primary production and biodiversity, carbon sequestration, water purification, coastal protection and food for megafauna like dugongs. This chapter combines desk work (systematic review of existing publications) and field assessment, highlighting multiple impacts of cyclones and floods on seagrass. SPOT 5 and Landsat imagery were used for mapping over 21-year period (1992–2013), and changes in Inhambane Bay are linked to multiple cyclones that prompted a total seagrass area reducing from 12,076 ha to 6199 ha (51% of the original area). In Maputo Bay, seagrasses were impacted by both the 2000 floods and anthropogenically due to poor practices of uprooting seagrasses for clam collection. Seagrasses reduced 7% a year in western Maputo Bay and 1.2% in Inhambane Bay. The study also documents impact of extreme events on the catches of a sardine, Amblygaster sirm, in Inhambane S. Bandeira () · M. Amone-Mabuto S. Chitará-Nhandimo · M. P. Scarlet Department of Biological Sciences, Eduardo Mondlane University, Maputo, Mozambique J. Rafael Department of Geography, Eduardo Mondlane University, Maputo, Mozambique

Bay and on clams abundance and species diversity in Maputo Bay. The construction of new wave breakers in Maputo city prompted land reclamation and may have led to the disappearance of bivalves Salmacoma litoralis and Anadara antiquata. This account on seagrass status formed the basis for seagrass restoration initiative. Keywords

Multiple cyclones · Floods · Land reclamation · Impact on seagrasses habitat · Change detection

18.1 Introduction Seagrasses are true plants, with flowers and fruits, belonging to angiosperms that live in shallow marine water of both tropical and temperate waters across the globe. Seagrass is crucial for primary production, water purification, and protection against erosion, recycling and nutrient transport to neighbouring habitats and high seas, being a nursery for fish and invertebrates, food for dugongs and also attract seabirds. Clams derived from seagrass meadows are valued delicacies within coastal regions and urban centres of Mozambique and elsewhere. Seagrasses are important carbon sink too. They dominate marine

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_18

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seascape especially in shallow waters of the Western Indian Ocean and particularly in Madagascar, Mozambique and South Africa. Changes in seagrass coverage and related invertebrates were documented and attributed to both floods, climate-related and anthropogenic causes. In this chapter, we highlight changes that have occurred in Inhambane Bay over quite a long period subjected to several cyclones and also document impacts of 2000 floods in Maputo Bay seagrasses and related edible invertebrates. Inhambane and Maputo Bays are all located in southern Mozambique.

18.2 Literature Review 18.2.1 Seagrass Definition and Distribution Seagrasses are flowering plants, comprising a group of marine plants which have adapted to live in the marine environment forming meadows in shallow coastal waters around the world. This was achieved through the acquisition of adaptations such as specific morphology with anchorage systems made up of rhizomes and roots, stems, air lacunae, flowers with hydrophilous pollination and vivipary in some species (den Hartog, 1970; Elmqvist & Cox, 1996). Seagrasses have also adapted to take up nutrients into the plant tissue by both roots and leaves (Hemminga, 1998). Seagrasses are mostly clonal plants with shoots (vertical rhizomes) arising from horizontal rhizomes below the ground, and most species have flat linear leaves with parallel veins (Fig.  18.1), except Halophila spp., with stalked leaves, and Syringodium isoetifolium, with cylindrical leaves. There are around 70 described species of seagrasses worldwide, within 12 genera, four families and two orders. The most common seagrasses in Mozambique and the Western Indian Ocean region including southern Africa are Zostera capensis, Cymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata, Halodule uninervis, Halophila ovalis, Halophila stipulacea, Enhalus acoroides, Thalassia hemprichii, Thalassodendron ciliatum

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and Thalassodendron leptocaule. Thalassodendron leptocaule is the only species occurring in rocky pools, being also endemic to those sandstone areas of southern Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal, in South Africa (Duarte et al., 2012; Browne et al., 2013). Being marine plants dispersed by seawater, they occur almost everywhere in the world as well as in all coastal countries in southern Africa (exception to Namibia, with no record). Seagrass species can also differ in terms of the breadth of their distributional ranges (broad vs. restricted), their reproductive strategies (e.g. rapid seeding, seed banks and vegetative reproduction), the degree of their persistence (ephemeral vs persistent), physiology (e.g. growth dynamics, nutrient cycling and response to disturbance) and their ecological interactions (e.g. the influence of grazing, leaf canopy structure, detritus and epiphyte production). Assemblages of seagrass species give rise to a series of dynamic as well as temporally and spatially variable seagrass meadows. Changes in the species composition of seagrass meadows may indicate slow but important changes in the environment (United Nations Environment Programme, 2020). Seagrass meadows typically occur in most shallow, sheltered soft-bottomed marine coastlines and estuaries. These meadows may be monospecific or may consist of multispecies communities, sometimes with up to 12 species present within one location (Green & Short, 2003; Bandeira, 2002). Seagrasses are closely ecologically linked with other coastal habitats such as mangroves and coral reefs in the tropics, tidal marshes and kelp forests in temperate areas (Huxham et al., 2018).

18.2.2 Seagrass Importance: Ecosystem Services, Benefits and Goods Provided Seagrass together with mangrove forest and coral reefs, in addition to rocky shores, shallow waters including estuarine areas and coastal forests, are key habitats helping sustaining livelihoods and life in the nearshore and beyond. Global extent of

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Fig. 18.1 Seagrass Thalassodendron ciliatum from Inhaca Island, Mozambique. (Source: Drawing supplied by Viriato Chiconela)

seagrass is conservatively estimated at 300,000  km2 although challenges in assessment of seagrass cover, and the resulting absence of a global, regularly updated database of seagrass meadows, mean that this figure is acknowledged to be approximate and their actual extent may be 600,000 km2 or even more (Green & Short, 2003; Mcleod et al., 2011). Seagrass ecosystems provide a wide variety of services that support human well-being around the world. It is estimated that at least 1 billion people live within 100 km of a seagrass meadow (Small & Nicholls, 2003), as per the assessment of the population leaving within the coastal areas, covering around some 60%, 19 million people in Mozambique. These include provisioning services such as regulating services (including carbon sequestration, coastal protection and water

purification, also making the system less acidic), cultural (including education and tourism) and supporting services (including habitat for commercial species) (Nordlund et  al., 2016). We highlight the following main global functions of seagrasses.

18.2.2.1 Food Security Seagrasses support essential commercial and artisanal fisheries, the communities and economies that rely on them. Seagrass meadows are of fundamental importance to world fisheries production of both vertebrates and invertebrates in a variety of ways (Unsworth et  al., 2019). Seagrass meadows provide valuable nursery habitat to over 1/5th of the world’s largest fisheries (United Nations Environment Programme, 2020).

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In cases where seagrass is close to coastal communities, such as in coastline Mozambique, the seagrass meadow is often a fishing habitat important for the supply of local food. Invertebrate gleaning fisheries occurring within seagrass meadows are considered to be an accessible fishing activity mainly due to their shallow nearshore environment and the ease of collecting such fauna (Nordlund & Gullström, 2013; Fernando et al., 2014). As an example, data from Maputo Bay indicate that seagrasses function as important nursery grounds for fish and crustaceans, many of which are of commercial importance (Gullström & Dahlberg, 2004; Inguane Vicente & Bandeira, 2014).

18.2.2.2 Maintaining a Healthy Climate Seagrasses account for less than 2% of the world’s oceans area but are responsible for 18% of the organic carbon (Corg) annually stored in the oceans (United Nations Environment Program, 2020). Up to 19.9 Pg (pentagrams) of Corg is stored in seagrass ecosystems; twice as much as the carbon stored in temperate and terrestrial forests (Fourqurean et  al., 2012), making them a vital component in combating global climate change. Carbon sequestration of seagrasses at Inhaca Island reached around 2500  gm−2 of organic carbon; sink capacity may vary concerning factors such as seagrass species, plant morphology, sediment type (e.g. proportion of calcium carbonate), sediment depth and latitude (Gullström et al., 2017). Seagrass captures carbon in above-ground biomass (plant leaf and stem tissues), below-­ ground biomass (root and rhizome tissues) and, most significantly, in the underlying sediment. This sediment carbon may be autochthonous (generated by the plant itself) or allochthonous (generated elsewhere and captured by seagrass ecosystems). Seagrass is one of three ‘blue carbon’ ecosystems (seagrass, mangroves and saltmarsh) ­so-­called for their capacity to sequester atmospheric CO2. This carbon accumulation is due to a combination of high autochthonous productivity (the ability to convert CO2 into plant biomass), the capturing of allochthonous carbon (Geraldi

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et  al., 2019) and low rates of decomposition of buried carbon (in part due to the anoxic conditions of underlying soils.

18.2.2.3 Improving Water Quality Seagrass meadows contribute to human and ocean health. Seagrass produces oxygen as a by-­ product of photosynthesis, which helps rid the waters they grow in of pathogens and bacteria that could be harmful to human health. Seagrass meadows also regulate the chemistry of seawater by the uptake of dissolved carbon dioxide. This helps regulate the pH of seawater, making it less acidic and less harmful to marine organisms with calcium carbonate skeletons such as corals and crustaceans (United Nations Environment Programme, 2020). 18.2.2.4 Supporting Rich Biodiversity Crustacean and fish abundances are higher in seagrass meadows compared to adjacent bare sand areas (United Nations Environment Programme, 2020). Many species of commercial importance of mangrove and reef fish rely on seagrass meadows as nurseries and foraging grounds (Berkström et  al., 2020). Seagrass is also an essential food source for endangered species such as dugongs (Fernando et  al., 2014). Dugong feeding tracks are observed in multiple locations around Inhaca Island (Fernando et  al., 2014) and Bazaruto archipelago. 18.2.2.5 Cultural and Resource Value of Seagrasses Few publications are detailing the cultural value of seagrasses in this region, however, known that seagrasses, in general, have a role as a cultural resource and wider component as a sense of place unmatchable if the seagrasses were to be replaced by unvegetated area. To these communities, such areas represent an important location that resonates with their traditional livelihoods, resources and well-being. There is a wide variety of seagrass ecosystem services supporting human well-­ being around the world (Nordlund et al., 2016). Resource wise seagrasses are linked to the artisanal fisheries as documented in several studies assessing biodiversity, abundancy of meiofauna and endofauna (Inguane  Vicente  &

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Bandeira 2014; Fernando et al., 2014). Seagrass meadows are an important cultural resource for coastal communities and are intrinsic to the socio-economic-cultural landscape of these communities. For Maputo Bay, seagrass is associated with cultural traditions that are intricately linked to livelihoods derived from seagrasses such as: –– Place where mostly woman gather and talk on their daily life while collecting invertebrates (clams and crayfish). The dishes produced from the clams (Eumarcia paupercula and Meretrix meretrix) from Maputo Bay are usually rated unique in the entire Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region. This is added to shrimps from the bay; while these are caught in a muddy area, some shrimp species have part of their life cycle in nearshore and within seagrass meadows. –– A souvenir industry is also based on items collected in seagrass beds (sea stars, dried fish, shells, etc.). While some of this may threaten the natural populations of these species, they need to be well regulated and reinforced. –– Seagrasses has considerable value for descriptive, experimental (e.g. restoration) and on  socio-­ anthropological studies. Examples are the ongoing research on seagrass meadows in southern Africa (e.g. South Africa, Mozambique, Tanzania). –– As part of a sense of belonging and sense of place, seagrass meadows also provide many educational, recreational and tourism benefits and opportunities. Inhaca is home to one of the oldest training stations in the Indian Ocean, and over the 70  years of Estação de Biologia Maritima da Ilha da Inhaca (EBMI) existence, it has catered for marine research (local, from the region and overseas).

18.3 Materials and Methods This document was compiled based on existing publications on seagrasses focusing on Mozambican sites namely Inhambane Bay (Amone-Mabuto et  al., 2017) and Maputo Bay (Bandeira, 2002; Bandeira et al., 2014). Mapping

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of seagrass coverage in Inhambane Bay and Maputo Bay (southern Mozambique) was performed by combining remote sensing (SPOT 5 and/or Landsat imagery methods) with support of extensive groundtruthing (direct observation on the ground). Information on the status of invertebrates was also derived from literature (mostly Murrube, 2018). To assess and monitor the impact of the rehabilitation of the coastal zone of Maputo city, a study was carried out on richness, abundance and similarity between bivalves community before and after rehabilitation in selected areas of Maputo city coastal areas, namely Marítimo and Bairro dos Pescadores (Murrube, 2018). Data before rehabilitation were derived from available literature (e.g. Bandeira & Paula, 2014).

18.4 Presentation and Discussion of Findings 18.4.1 Impact of Extreme Events on Seagrass – Case of Multiple Cyclones in Inhambane Bay and the 2000 Floods in Mozambique Maputo and Inhambane Bays (Mozambique) have experienced both anthropogenic and climate-­ related impact on seagrass integrity. According to Amone-Mabuto et  al., (2017), in Inhambane Bay in 1992, seagrass covered 12,076  ha, and between 1992 and 1998, large areas of seagrass (5714 ha, 47.3%) were lost as it appears that this dramatic decline in seagrass area could have been an impact caused by cyclone Bonita (winds of around 180  mm/h), which struck the region in 1996. Further, 721 ha of seagrass were lost between 1998 and 2001 coinciding with cyclone Eline that transited the region with winds of around 200 km/h in February 2000. In 2001, Inhambane Bay had the lowest seagrass cover (23% of its original area) in the period analysed. Cyclone Eline brought very strong winds associated with intense rainfall and created one of the worst natural disasters according to Mavume et  al. (2014). Rainfall and flooding might have brought sediments into the bay,

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impacting the seagrass meadows. During the period between 2001 and 2004, some 960  ha (4%) of seagrass area was gained, the largest gain in Inhambane Bay. Between 2004 and 2013, 400 ha was lost, possibly from an anthropogenic impact, but it should be noted that the cyclone Favio (approx. 200 km/h winds) struck the region in 2007 as well. Figure 18.2 depicts the variation of seagrass area coverage over the period impacted by four cyclones. Inhambane Bay has an estimated area of 24,152 ha of which half was covered by seagrass area (50%). This can be seen as baseline area, subsequently reduced to 26.3% and 23.3% as referred to be related with cyclone Bonita and Eline, respectively. In subsequent years, the sea-

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grass area increased but never reached the 1992 baseline (Table  18.1). We believe that the cyclones were the main contributing factors in changing seagrass areas over the years. Inhambane Bay does not have a major activity impacting directly to seagrass reduction, apart from sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla grazing reported as intense in some areas near Guiduane Island. The heavy 2000 floods that strut Maputo city and Maputo Bay as a whole did impact the seagrass coverage especially in the western Maputo Bay, thought anthropogenic impact, through an intense collection of clams by using sand revolving tolls have also contributed to seagrass reduction. Communities intensively dig for clam

Fig. 18.2  Distribution of seagrass cover in Inhambane Bay in 1992, 1998, 2001 and 2004. (Source: Amone-Mabuto et al., 2017)

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collection, a recurring activity mostly during spring tides. Inhambane seagrass meadows have reduced at a rate of 1.2% a year, whereas the highest known rate was 7.2% observed in the western Maputo Bay (Table  18.2), causing a reduction 86% of seagrass area between the years 1991 and 2003.

2017). This is a pelagic species, partly occurring in shallow waters and lagoons, and those reductions coincide with the passage of cyclone Eline (in 2000) that landed the Inhambane province wider region, causing the death of people and widespread loss of properties. Data of this fish species just before and after Japhet cyclone (in 2003) indicated a reduction in annual catches from 115 to just 2 metric tons (98.3% reduction) 18.4.2 Impact on Seagrasses Fauna (Halare, 2012). Catches of this species attained almost pre-cyclone levels 2 years after a cyclone Little is known about the impact of cyclones on (Halare, 2012), a pattern that may be linked to region marine fauna; however, for Inhambane seagrass recovery than impact on fisheries effort. Bay, a lower annual catch reduction was observed At Inhambane/Guiduane Island  – Inhambane from 166 to 60 metric tons (from year 2000 to Bay, local communities associate cyclone Dineo 2001) corresponding to 64% reduction of a Indo-­ (2017) with the reduction of mangroves and seaWest pacific spotted sardinella Amblygaster sirm, grass areas, with a direct impact on coastal proa pattern probably also representing an indicator tection role causing erosion; some indirect impact of seagrass losses in Inhambane Bay during this on the fauna may have occurred, however, not period (Halare, 2012; Amone-Mabuto et  al., estimated. Two species of bivalve namely Eumarcia paupercula and Meretrix were abundant on seagrass Table 18.1  Summary of contributing factor in seagrass beds of Bairro dos Pescadores and scattered area change within Inhambane Bay intertidal sandbanks area along Costa do Sol, Climatic both contiguous in the north of Maputo town. contributing Seagrass Seagrass area factor maps (in ha) Trend However, the continue large-scale collection of 1992 12,076 Baseline – invertebrates within, climatic events and the data building of barriers along Costa do Sol prompted 1998 6362 Decrease Cyclone extensive reduction of these species in Bairro dos Bonita in 1996 Pescadores and mentioned sandbanks along 2001 5641 Decrease Cyclone Eline in 2000 Costa do Sol. Currently, for marketing purposes 2013 6599 Increase Cyclone of these species already a delicacy in Maputo, Japhet in 2003 large quantities are captured in other sheltered Cyclone Fávio and estuarine areas of the Bay, in peri-urban and in 2007 rural locations such as Gazene, Muntanhana and Present Unknown Unknown Cyclone Dineo (2020) in 2017 further inland from the Incomati Estuary. Table 18.2  Seagrass cover changes Site Inhambane Bay Eastern Maputo Bay/Inhaca Island Western Maputo Bay

Area cover Period of change per year measurement 1.2% 1992–2013

Causes of seagrass degradation Several cyclones

0.26%

1992–2003

Mainly sand accretion, trampling

7.2%

1992–2003

Sedimentation from flooding and seagrass uproot for clams collection

References Amone-Mabuto et al. (2017) Bandeira et al. (2014) Bandeira et al. (2014)

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18.4.3 Impact of Rehabilitation Process on Intertidal Fauna The coastline dynamics in southern Mozambique is dominated by the prevailing wind patterns and hydrology typical of southern Mozambique coastline that enables continue deposition of sand and dune build-up (Tinley, 1985). The underlining erosion prompted by weather events and anthropogenic activity in Maputo city northern coastal areas was rehabilitated in 2012 with the purpose to limit the natural dynamics of the coast and the mobility of the coastline. An integrated plan to protect public and private properties and reduce the deterioration of the environment is believed set with this coastline reclamation and rehabilitation. The rehabilitation of Maputo seashore area consisted in designing the Avenida da Marginal including the pedestrian tours and the coastal protection wall. This coastal touristic area of Maputo city undergone a land reclamation through the upgrading of new road infrastructure and construction of several new sea-breaks (finalized in 2013). These enable some degree of protection on coastline infrastructure as it allowed sand accretion and coastline built-up along the seashore of around 10 km. The groyne implant or sea-breaks (Fig. 18.3) priory to the upgrade of the marginal road enables an increase of up to a 130.8 m of the coastline since 2012. It appears that such accreting coastline prompted the modification of sand texture, enabling therefore the disappearance of some clam species. Salmacoma litoralis and Anadara antiquata are two species of bivalve that occurred before the intertidal zone land reclamation along in Avenida Marginal. However, after the rehabilitation, these two species were not found (Murrube, 2018) only north ward (at Bairro dos Pescadores where such groyne construction did not take place). While a climate adaptation programme that put in place wave breakers and upgraded the road was to respond to the vulnerability of the beachfront regions within Maputo city, it appears that these interventions have galvanized the change and disappearance of clam species (Salmacoma litoralis and Anadara antiquata) apparently

related with change in pattern of the sedimentation. We highlight that coastal restoration in Maputo was primarily to protect infrastructure and people from tide surges. Mavume et  al. (2014) raised awareness regarding the need to understand and document high-risk areas from intense cyclones coupled with storm surge: also floods. Maputo city northern coastline was reported having high change of being flooded if no infrastructure adaptation occurred. A global analysis of seagrass decline by Waycott et  al. (2009) indicates various root causes, mostly anthropogenic, for seagrass decline mainly in North America, Europe and Australia. It includes some localized cases of seagrass increase as well, but with fewer examples of widespread seagrass decline in South America, Africa and NE and SE Asia. Inhambane Bay is surrounded by a relatively small rural and peri-­ urban population of up to 200,000 inhabitants with limited activities that impact on seagrasses, such as motor boating, point sewage discharges and earthmoving operations that are likely to have major impacts on seagrasses. Seagrass restoration initiative in Mozambique comes as a corollary of quite a detailed research for management carried out over decades mainly in Maputo Bay, targeting mostly seagrass mapping, structure dynamics including invertebrate socio-ecological assessments (Nordlund & Gullström, 2013; Bandeira et al., 2014) that has, in recent years, culminated with testing several restoration techniques for the most impacted species.

18.5 Conclusions In conclusion, this study documents total seagrass area reduction from 12,076 ha to 6199 ha (51% of the original area) in Inhambane Bay. 2001 was the year when seagrass occupied the smallest area in Inhambane Bay with 5641  ha, apparently related to the impacts of Tropical Cyclone Eline with winds of around 200  km/h, and lasting for 29 days with widespread damage on human and natural infrastructure. A steady seagrass recovery was observed afterwards

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Fig. 18.3  Section of Maputo city Avenida Marginal (coastal line). (a) Without groyne (sea-break) and (b) with groyne allowing sand accretion up to 130 m into the sea

between 2001 and 2004, where 958  ha of seagrass restored naturally. Catches of a known Indo-West pacific spotted sardinella Amblygaster sirm reduced 64% and 98.3% in the years 2000– 2001 and 2003–2004, respectively, coinciding with the passage of cyclones Eline (in 2000) and Japhet (in 2003). The seagrass beds in Maputo Bay are reported under pressure especially in the northwest Maputo Bay but also to a minor scale around Inhaca Island (eastern Maputo Bay). Northwest of Maputo Bay is subjected to two pressures: sedimentation due to 2000 floods that hit Maputo city and anthropogenic impacts due to digging for clam collection that prompted an 86% decrease of seagrass cover as documented for the period 1991–2003. A moderate impact on seagrasses around Inhaca Island (3.2% reduction, 129 ha during the period 1991–2003), due to both natural disturbances, such as sand accretion and sedimentation, and anthropogenic causes (trampling, motorboats and a jetty construction), was observed (eastern Maputo Bay). The rehabilitation process of seashore in Maputo city bathing areas may have led to the extinction of Macoma coastalis and Anadara antiquata in the area. These monitoring methods and information gathered create a basis for better management and prediction of impacts on marine habitats. Thought regular updates of status of seagrasses and

impacts or recurrent climate events such as floods in Mozambique are needed. Furthermore, such studies are being used as a basis for a pioneering experimentation of seagrass restoration in Maputo Bay. Acknowledgements  We thank the WIOMSA and UNEP-­ WIOSAP Seagrasss Restoration Project. In addition, we thank the AKDN  – Fundação Aga Khan and FCT  – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia IP for funding the COBIO-NET project.

References Amone-Mabuto, M., Bandeira, S., & da Silva, A. (2017). Long-term changes in seagrass coverage and potential links to climate-related factors: The case of Inhambane Bay, southern Mozambique. WIO Journal of Marine Science, 16(2), 13–25. Bandeira, S. O. (2002). Diversity and distribution of seagrasses around Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique, South African Journal of Botany, 68(2):191–198 Bandeira, S., & Paula, J. (Eds.). (2014). The Maputo Bay ecosystem (427 pp). WIOMSA. isbn:978-9987-9559-3-0. Bandeira, S., Gullström, M., Balidy, H., Samussone, D., & Cossa, D. (2014). Seagrass meadows in Maputo Bay. In S. Bandeira & J. Paula (Eds.), The Maputo Bay ecosystem (pp. 147–169). WIOMSA. Berkström, C. L., Eggertsen, W., Goodell, C. A. M. M., Cordeiro, M. B., Lucena, R., Gustafsson, S., Bandeira, N., & Jiddawi and Ferreira, C. E. L. (2020). Thresholds

288 in seascape connectivity: The spatial arrangement of nursery habitats structure fish communities on nearby reefs. Ecography, 43, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/ ecog.04868 Browne, C.  M., Maneveldt, G.  W., Bolton, J.  J., & Anderson, R.  J. (2013). Abundance and species composition of non-­ geniculate coralline red algae epiphytic on the South African populations of the rocky shore seagrass Thalassodendron leptocaule M.C.  Duarte, Bandeira & Romeiras, South African Journal of Botany, 86, 101–110 den Hartog, C. (1970). The seagrasses of the world (275 pp). North-Holland Publ. Comp. Duarte, M. C., Bandeira, S., & Romeiras, M. M. (2012). Systematics and ecology of a new species of seagrass (Thalassodendron, Cymodoceaceae) from Southeast African coasts. Novon: A Journal for Botanical Nomenclature, 22(1), 16–24. https://doi. org/10.3417/2010079 Elmqvist, T., & Cox, P.  A. (1996). The evolution of vivipary in flowering plants. Oikos, 77, 3–9. Fernando, S., Bandeira, S., & Guissamulo, A. (2014). Seagrass grazing by dugongs: Can habitat conservation help protect the dugong? In S. Bandeira & J. Paula (Eds.), The Maputo Bay ecosystem. WIOMSA, Zanzibar Town, pp. 223–227 Fourqurean, J.  W., Duarte, C.  M., Kennedy, H., Marbà, N., Holmer, M., & Mateo, M. A. (2012). Seagrass ecosystems as a globally significant carbon stock. Nature Geoscience, 5, 505–509. Geraldi, N. R., Ortega, A., Serrano, O., Macreadie, P. I., Lovelock, C.  E., Krause-Jensen, D., Kennedy, H., Lavery, P., Pace, M., Kaal, J., & Duarte, C. M. (2019). Fingerprinting blue carbon: Rationale and tools to determine the source of organic carbon in marine depositional environments. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6, 263. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00263 Green, E., & Short, F. (2003). The World Atlas of seagrasses. UNEP-WCMC. Gullström, M., & Dahlberg, M. (2004). Fish community structure of seagrass meadows around Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique (Minor Field Study 106) (25 pp). Uppsala University. Gullström, M., Lyimo, L. D., Dahl, M., Samuelsson, G. S., Eggertsen, M., Anderberg, E., Rasmusson, L.  M., Linderholm, H. W., Knudby, A., Bandeira, S., Mtwana Nordlund, L., & Bjork, M. (2017). Blue carbon storage in tropical seagrass meadows relates to carbonate stock dynamics, plant–sediment processes, and landscape context: Insights from the Western Indian Ocean. Ecosystems, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10021-­017-­0170-­8 Halare, A.  I. (2012). Relação entre parâmetros ambientais e distribuição temporal de dois pequenos peixes pelágicos Decapterus russelli (Rüpelli, 1930) e Amblygaster sirm (Walbaum, 1792) na Baia de Inhambane, Província de Inhambane. Instituto Nacional de Investigação Pesqueira. RIP (31), 2–22. Hemminga, M.  A. (1998). The root/rhizome system of seagrasses: An asset and a burden. Journal of Sea Research, 39, 183–196.

S. Bandeira et al. Huxham, M., Whitlock, D., Githaiga, M., & Dencer-­ Brown, A. (2018). Carbon in the coastal seascape: How interactions between mangrove forests, seagrass meadows and tidal marshes influence carbon storage. Current Forestry Reports, 4(2), 101–110. https://doi. org/10.1007/s40725-­018-­0077-­4 Inguane, V.  E., & Bandeira, S. (2014). Socio-economic aspects of gastropod and bivalve harvest from seagrass beds  – Comparison between urban (disturbed) and rural (undisturbed) areas. In S.  Bandeira & J.  Paula (Eds.), The Maputo Bay ecosystem (pp.  329–334). WIOMSA Mavume, A., Pinto, I., & Massuanganhe, E. (2014). Potential Climate Change Impacts on Maputo Bay. In: Bandeira, S. and Paula, J. (eds.). The Maputo Bay Ecosystem. WIOMSA, Zanzibar Town, pp. 383–397 Mcleod, M., Chmura, G. L., Bouillon, S., Salm, R., Björk, M., Duarte, C.  M., Lovelock, C.  E., Schlesinger, W. H., & Silliman, B. R. (2011). A blueprint for blue carbon: Toward an improved understanding of the role of vegetated coastal habitats in sequestering CO2. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 9(10), 552–560. https://doi.org/10.1890/110004 Murrube, A. (2018). Riqueza especifica e abundância de bivalves após a reabilitação da zona entre-marés do Bairro Maritímo e Bairro dos Pescadores  – Baía de Maputo. Licenciatura Thesis. Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, 33pp. Nordlund, L. M., Koch, E. W., Barbier, E. B., & Creed, J.  C. (2016). Seagrass ecosystem services and their variability across genera and geographical regions. PLoS One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0163091 Nordlund, L.  M., & Gullström, M. (2013). Biodiversity loss in seagrass meadows due to local invertebrate fisheries and harbour activities. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 135, 231–240. Small, C., & Nicholls, R. J. (2003). A global analysis of human settlement in coastal zones. Journal of Coastal Research, 19(3), 584–599. Tinley, K. L. (1985). Coastal dunes of South Africa (South African national scientific programmes report n° 109). CSIR. United Nations Environment Programme. (2020). Out of the blue: The value of seagrasses to the environment and to people. UNEP. Unsworth, R. K. F., Nordlund, L. M., & Cullen-Unsworth, L. C. (2019). Seagrass meadows support global fisheries production. Conservation Letters, 12(1), e12566. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12566 Waycott, M., Duarte, C.  M., Carruthers, T.  J. B., Orth, R.  J., Dennison, W.  C., Olyarnik, S., Calladine, A., Fourqurean, J. W., Heck, K. L., Jr., Randall Hughes, A., Kendrick, G.  A., Judson Kenworthy, W., Short, F.  T., & Williams, S.  L. (2009). Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America, 106(30), 12377–12381.

Economic Losses from Cyclones Idai and Kenneth and Floods in Southern Africa: Implications on Sustainable Development Goals

19

Kenneth Nhundu, Melusi Sibanda, and Petronella Chaminuka

Abstract

The frequency and scope of natural disasters has increased globally in the past two decades and is predicted to continue rising. For vulnerable countries, the damages caused include physical, economic, social and environmental, and loss of human life. These adverse market and non-market damages are often underestimated in developing countries due to insufficient information. This chapter analyses economic losses associated with cyclones Idai and Kenneth in Mozambique and Zimbabwe, and the floods in South Africa, and discusses implications for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This chapter utilises a literature review synthesis, using a keyword descriptor search, within a pre-specified inclusion criterion. Search results were compiled from diverse sources and standardised to

K. Nhundu () · P. Chaminuka Economic Analysis Unit, Agricultural Research Council, Hatfield, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] M. Sibanda Department of Agriculture, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

abstract appropriate information, as well as ensuring quality and reliability. The analyses show heavy damage to largely the productive and social sectors, thus disrupting the social and economic activities in these countries. Idai caused economic costs of up to $274 million for Zimbabwe and $3 billion in Mozambique. Economic costs for Kenneth were up to $300 million. For South Africa, the costs exceeded $45 million. To minimise the impact on attainment of SDGs, holistic re-­ thinking of disaster preparation and development linked to risk-informed and resilient development interventions is required. Keywords

Disasters · Cyclones Idai and Kenneth · Floods · Economic loss and damage · Recovery costs · SDGs

19.1 Introduction The last two decades have witnessed a global surge in natural disasters, increasing in frequency and scope (Botzen et  al., 2019). Data from the Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA) international database as given by Guhan Sapir

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_19

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and Santos (2013) show that since1998, the number of natural disasters experienced annually worldwide has been over 300, reaching 500  in some years. In contrast, between 1950 and 1980, the annual disasters recorded were well below 200. In the future, natural disasters such as flooding, cyclones and hurricanes are predicted to increase, exacerbated by high vulnerability to climate change (increase in greenhouse gas emissions as a result of human activities) (Botzen et al., 2019; Boustan et al., 2019). According to Guhan Sapir and Santos (2013), Asia and Africa show the most growth in the number of such disasters with droughts and floods being most common in these two continents. Damages resulting from natural disasters can be direct or indirect losses in terms of physical, economic, social and environmental assets, and more importantly including loss of human life (Tang et  al., 2019). The dynamics and economics of natural disasters are multifaceted, complex and impossible to explain by a single mechanical reductionist approach (Ratti, 2017). As such, there is no single definition that captures all-natural disasters, with numerous scholars, disciplines and contexts having varying definitions. From an economic perspective, Ratti (2017:7) citing Hallegatte and Przyluski defined natural disasters as ‘a natural event that causes a perturbation to the functioning of the economic system, with a significant negative impact on assets, production factors, output, employment, or consumption’. Disruption to the functioning of an economy, not only has an impact on economic growth and employment but will also impact other sustainable developmental goals for addressing poverty and inequality. Guha-Sapir et al. (2013) noted that there is a lack of information on the economic damage caused by natural disasters, and this is even more so for Africa and other continents with less developed countries. Consequently, the lack of data often leads to an underestimation of the economic damage caused. Natural disasters have contributed to awareness raising of global environmental issues among governments and the wider international community (Peduzzi, 2019). For example, the

K. Nhundu et al.

11th Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) emphasise creating ‘inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’ cities and human settlements. The emergence of extreme natural disasters poses a threat to attaining the SDGs by 2030, which is a successor of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that expired in 2015. The recent disasters, for example, cyclones Idai and Kenneth, highlight the critical need for efforts to develop a transformative plan of action by all countries and stakeholders (including academics) at the core of integrating the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development. Disaster reduction and building resilience are, therefore, a unified thrust of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Because of the complexity of natural disasters, this requires solid understanding of the breath of potential impacts of such disasters at household, community, national and regional economies. This chapter therefore seeks to answer the question, ‘what are the economic losses from natural disasters – cyclones Idai and Kenneth and recent floods in Southern Africa?’ The current work synthesises informative, theoretical issues and evidence with a broader view on the economic losses from the said natural disasters and discusses ways to mitigate the impacts. This understanding is critical for policymakers and researchers to outline the agenda for future research direction in this emerging field. This chapter pays special attention to the economic losses experienced by cyclones Idai and Kenneth in Mozambique, as well as the floods that occurred in South Africa in 2019 and the implications on SDGs. The remainder of this chapter is organised this way: Section 19.2 presents a literature review of the economic and financial impacts of natural disasters; Section 19.3 presents the methods and research design for disaster economic impact assessments; Section 19.4 presents the presentation and discussion of the results (economic losses due to cyclones Idai and Kenneth) and damages due to floods in South Africa. The section also presents the implications of cyclones and floods on SDGs. Lastly, Section 19.5 presents the conclusions emanating from the study.

19  Economic Losses from Cyclones Idai and Kenneth and Floods in Southern Africa: Implications…

19.2 Literature Review The nature and extent of economic damage caused by a natural disaster varies and is a function of several factors. These include the type of disaster, the area affected, the structure of the economy (primary vs secondary or tertiary driven economy), the stage of development of the country and its level of technical and scientific advancement (Benson and Clay 2000). ‘Large’ disasters are defined by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) (2003) as those which correspond to at least 0.5% of a country’s annual growth domestic product (GDP). On the other hand, it can be argued that when a country experiences many smaller disasters, their cumulative effects can often result in more damage than that of one large disaster (Chhiber and Laajaj 2013). In addition, the impacts of natural disasters can be felt both in the short run and long run, and at various levels of society. In the short run, natural disasters have significant inevitable severe negative social and economic impacts. Short-run effects include the destruction of crops and livestock, productive assets, infrastructure, lost opportunities and increased debt (Chhibber and Laajaj 2013). In some instances, adverse long-term consequences are observed on economic growth, development and poverty. In both the short and long terms, direct and indirect costs are observed. According to Chhiber and Laajaj (2013), some studies have, however, shown that natural disasters, in particular climatic disasters, can have a positive impact on economic growth in the long run, by spurring human capital accumulation and increasing total factor productivity. In addition, some economies will be propelled to adopt new technologies faster than they would without the occurrence of the disaster. Despite the existing (empirical and modelled) work and literature, there is still ambiguity concerning the impact to economies at large, and actions to mitigate natural disaster impacts. Between 2000 and 2019, the Southern African region has experienced storms, droughts and cyclones that heightened the already existing developmental stresses (poverty, environmental dilapidation, water scarcity and inequality among

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others) by communities and settlements. The recent flooding and cyclones in the southern African region (arguably a once-off event in a long time that was unlikely – not predicted) highlight the complexity and significance to understand the impacts from natural disasters better to design strategies and policies to mitigate the impacts to the society.

19.3 Methods and Research Design The section that follows discusses the methods and analysis used in determining the economic attributed to the cyclones Idai and Kenneth in Mozambique and Zimbabwe, as well as floods in South Africa. The theoretical framework is explained in this section.

19.3.1 Disaster Impact Assessments: Classification and Contextualisation The Handbook for Estimating the Socio-­ Economic and Environmental Effects of Disasters (ECLAC 2003), released by the Economic Commission for Latin American, proposes the following classification of disaster impacts: a disaster affects assets (direct damages); the flow for the production of goods and services (indirect losses); and the performance of the main macroeconomic aggregates of the affected country (macroeconomic effects) (ECLAC 2003:9).

Disaster impacts can be classified into market-­ based and non-market-based losses (Fig.  19.1). The non-market-based losses include loss of human life injury, illness and disaggregation of society and culture. The impacts on the environment and ecosystems are also not estimated via market-based approaches, but rather non-market-­ based approaches. The market-based losses can be disaggregated to direct as well as indirect losses, and as such, their estimation approaches also differ. The direct losses include physical destruction of crops, housing, buildings and infrastructure, among others.

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Disaster impacts

Non-market based

Market-based

Indirect (monetary) losses

Direct (monetary) losses

Direct (monetary) losses

Clean-up, response and adjustment

Human life loss, injuries, illnesses

Business disruption, unemployment

Society, culture

Environment, ecosystems

Fig. 19.1  Framework for the assessment of natural disasters (Source: Adapted from Van der Kamp and Neo, 2018)

On the other hand, indirect losses are associated with estimated costs related to response strategies, as well as disruptions on businesses, loss of employment or livelihoods options, among other losses. Often, indirect impacts of a disaster largely depend on direct losses, and data on direct losses are often broadly aggregated and rarely disaggregated by sector. Van der Kamp & Neo (2018) proposed a framework for assessing natural disaster impacts. This framework is applied in this study to guide analysis of the damages and losses associated with cyclones Idai and Kenneth in Mozambique and Zimbabwe, as well as floods in South Africa (Fig.  19.1). ‘Damage refers to the total or partial destruction of physical assets in the disaster-affected areas’, while ‘loss refers to changes in economic flows arising from disaster’ (Government of Mozambique 2019: 39). This chapter focuses on the economic impacts of the natural disasters with emphasis on market-­ based losses depicted in Fig.  19.1. The non-­ market-­based impacts, although important, are outside the scope of this chapter.

19.3.2 Research Design The current study follows a case study research design. It is based on qualitative (descriptive) research approach based on the already documented information on the impacts of cyclones Idai and Kenneth in Mozambique and Zimbabwe and 2019 floods in South Africa. The study utilised a synthesis literature review to identify all empirical evidence within the pre-specified inclusion criteria to analyse the economic losses associated with the cyclones and floods. This approach minimises bias, thus providing reliable findings from which conclusions can be drawn (Moher et al., 2009). The risk of bias here was minimised due to evidence synthesis  – we identified available literature on the topic. Besides, we interpreted and reported the findings from the review and supported them with empirical evidence. Also, a priori inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined to refine the literature search and ensure a clear focus, transparency and reliability in the selection of studies and reports on eco-

19  Economic Losses from Cyclones Idai and Kenneth and Floods in Southern Africa: Implications…

nomic losses attributed to the cyclones and floods. The search only focused on information on cyclones Idai and Kenneth, as well as floods within the period these events occurred. The search was limited to Mozambique and Zimbabwe for cyclones and floods in the case of South Africa. The theoretical framework given in Fig. 19.1 was used to guide the focus of the study. A keyword descriptor search was limited to ‘economic losses/impacts/effects associated with cyclones Idai and Kenneth and floods, cyclones Idai and Kenneth impact assessment’ in titles, abstracts and full texts. Furthermore, the ‘hand searching’1 technique, which involved trawls through specific journals, checking the references of included studies and seeing where included studies have themselves been cited in case, was also used in this study. The search was done through selected databases which included Google Scholar, Web of Science, CAB Direct abstracts, Springer, Scopus and WorldCat. The search results were compiled from diverse sources such as government, non-­ governmental organisations (NGOs), United Nations (UN) agencies, insurance companies, research institutions and press agencies, upon which they were standardised as a means of abstracting appropriate information from each of these articles, as well as ensuring quality and reliability. These were thus used to identify and analyse market-based and non-market-based losses, as well as the nature of losses associated with cyclones and floods. Since the study did not focus on the non-market-based losses associated with cyclones Idai and Kenneth, they were excluded from further analysis. The market-based losses, which is the focus of this chapter, were further decomposed into direct and indirect losses for further review, classification and assessment. Using the framework in Fig. 19.1, more than thirty (50) search results were returned from various studies, documents, reports and other sources. Table 19.1 gives a classification of the economic

Manual searches of articles not indexed in the major electronic databases. 1 

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losses incurred as a result of the natural disasters in the selected countries. The analysis of the search results was mainly focused on direct and indirect losses from the cyclones and floods in the selected countries. Regarding the direct losses, the results were classified at household and community/national and regional levels. On the other hand, the indirect losses were classified at all levels, based on the returned search results. Based on this classification and documented damages, the subsequent sections present a discussion of the economic losses in the selected countries where the natural disasters occurred.

19.4 Presentation and Discussion of Findings Cyclones Idai and Kenneth were characterised by strong/intense winds, destroyed and damaged housing and public infrastructure, notably hospitals, clinics, schools and electrical, road and bridge infrastructure, as well as crops. Generally, the destruction from cyclones disrupted economic activities in the affected areas, causing severe damage to housing and public buildings, including markets and water and sanitation. There was also complete destruction or temporary closure of critical connectivity infrastructure included ports, roads, bridges, railways, electricity and telecommunications, as well as warehouses. Such disruptions affect business and communication and impair the ability to trade (Satterthwaite 2007; Koetse and Rietveld, 2009; Keener et  al., 2013; Hambly et  al., 2013). The destruction of trade-related infrastructure reduces exports (Felbermayr et  al., 2017). The recovery costs reflect the necessary interventions to repair or rebuild infrastructure and physical assets with improved measures in line with the principles of building back better and disaster risk reduction to ensure future resilience. These needs also include the additional costs that need to be incurred to recover the production of goods and services (Government of Mozambique 2019). The World Bank study, based on estimates of socio-­economic

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294 Table 19.1  Classification of economic losses incurred in Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa Direct losses/damages Country Zimbabwe

Mozambique

South Africa

Household Houses, kraals, crops in fields, cattle, goats, chickens, pigs household property, vehicles and implements Houses, kraals, crops, livestock household property, vehicles and implements Houses, personal property, vehicles

Indirect losses, including recovery Community/ regional/national Roads, shopping centres, clinics, schools

Roads, shopping centres, clinics, schools

Walls and hostel blocks

All levels Business disruption and unemployment, boreholes, latrines, 4-month food assistance, water buckets and tablets, tents Clean-up and response adjustments Loss of potential exports for timber Destruction of productive capacity, mainly in the agriculture, trade, transport, manufacturing and services sectors; supply and demand shocks; inflation; loss of revenue for the banking sector; high insurance claims Restoration of electricity and road infrastructure, setting-up transit camp units, restoring clinics

Sources: Authors

resilience in 117 countries, estimates that natural disasters cost the global economy around US$520 billion annually, which is 60% more than the widely reported asset losses (Hallegatte et  al., 2017). Generally, cyclones Idai and Kenneth caused significant impacts on the local population, businesses and core infrastructure (World Bank 2019), with estimated recovery costs from Cyclone Idai in Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Malawi totalling over US$2 billion. A Post-­ Disaster Needs Assessment, supported by the AfDB, EU, World Bank and the UN, assessed reconstruction needs at $3 billion in Mozambique, $368 million in Malawi and $600 million in Zimbabwe for cyclone Idai only, while cyclone Kenneth added $100 million in Mozambique (African Development Bank group (AFDB) 2019). Table  19.1 shows the direct and indirect damages associated with cyclones Idai and Kenneth, as well as floods in South Africa. The damages are mainly on the social and physical infrastructure, as well as losses associated with recovery costs.

19.4.1 Economic Losses due to Cyclones in Mozambique The Post-Disaster Needs Assessment conducted by the Government of Mozambique in 2019

highlights that damages and losses associated with cyclones Idai and Kenneth in Mozambique were estimated at US$3 billion, while the cost recovery and reconstruction losses were also estimated to be US$3.4 billion. The largest damages and losses were in the productive sector, amounting to US$1191 million, while the infrastructure and social sector losses were estimated at US$797 million and US$693 million, respectively. Approximately 240,000 house structures were destroyed by cyclone Idai and were estimated at US$410 million. In addition, 50,000 houses were destroyed or damaged by cyclone Kenneth. Most of the damages to the houses are attributed to the intense winds. For the low-lying flood zones, the houses were damaged as a result of flooding of rivers and coastal storm surge, leading to recovery and reconstruction costs estimated at US$688 million, where 97% of these losses were needed in the short term. In central Mozambique, cyclone Idai caused havoc that resulted in ‘significant damage and destruction to homes and settlements, health and water and sanitation facilities’, as well as large swathes of crops (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) 2019). Table 19.2 depicts damages and losses incurred, classified by sector in Mozambique. Table 19.2 shows that the damages caused by cyclone Idai alone were over US$1.4 billion in Mozambique, thus also reflecting changes in the economic flows to full recovery, and this included

19  Economic Losses from Cyclones Idai and Kenneth and Floods in Southern Africa: Implications…

income lost for the production of goods and services (IMF 2019). As such, aggregate supply was affected through destruction of productive capacity in the agriculture, trade, transport, manufacturing and services sectors. It was also estimated that cyclone Idai caused a fall of more than 60% of the productive capacity in some Mozambican regions affected by the cyclone. The agricultural sector suffered the most losses with US$513 million, followed by the industry and commerce (US$470 million), while the transport and health sectors suffered losses equivalent to US$153 million and US$109 million, respectively. It is also reported that the port of Beira was paralysed for a few days, hence interruption of the transportation and communications services. In Mozambique, Sofala, the hardest hit by cyclone Idai, recorded damages and losses representing over 150% of the provincial GDP.  For example, damages and losses to public buildings were estimated at US$16.6 million. Other buildings damaged include public markets, regarded as critical for the local economy. The province of Cabo Delgado was the hardest hit by cyclone Kenneth, and it recorded damages and losses

constituting 34% of provincial GDP. The destruction or damages caused by the cyclones Idai and Kenneth include 4700 classrooms, as well as 92 health facilities. Local enterprises also suffered from the indirect effects of infrastructure disruptions, as well as demand and supply shocks (Government of Mozambique 2019). These impacts were believed to have affected poverty rates, inflation and a decline in economic growth as well as the worsened food security situation in this province. The food security was threatened by the fact that cyclone Idai hit at the start of the main harvest period and damaged or destroyed 1.7 million acres of crops in Mozambique, a perilous outcome in a region where local communities rely on subsistence farming, with livestock losses reported to be extensive as well. The Mozambican private sector was also hit by the disasters, with cyclone Idai alone believed to have caused an estimated US$115 million damage, where at least 356 companies faced significant disaster impacts (Government of Mozambique 2019). These companies suffered damages to manufacturing facilities, equipment, warehouses and offices. The most affected s­ ectors

Table 19.2  Damages and losses by cyclone Idai in Mozambique Sector Productive Agriculture Fishery Industry and commerce Total Social Housing Education Health Total Infrastructure Transport Energy Other Total Cross-cutting Othera Total for all sectors

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Costs (USD) Damages

Losses/recovery needs

$47,800,000 $16,700,000 $140,100,000 $204,600,000

$512,600,000 $4,000,000 $470,100,000 $986,700,000

$410,500,000 $15,000,000 $81,500,000 $507,000,000

$69,300,000 $5,500,000 $108,900,000 $183,700,000

$441,800,000 $133,500,000 $14,900,000 $590,200,000

$152,800,000 $47,900,000 $5,600,000 $206,300,000

$105,300,000 $1,409,800,000

$9,300,000 $1,385,800,000

Source: Government of Mozambique (2019) a Gender, environment, governance, disaster risk reduction, livelihoods

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overall were commerce, agro-business and transport and logistics, despite that the private sector has to either ‘sustain or increase employment in a post-disaster context to ensure livelihoods are restored’. In the agriculture sector, firms reported the need to replace stock (cattle) that was decimated by the disaster. Inputs for production in other sectors are likely to have faced similar constraints. Firms with government contracts also had concerns of potential delays in outstanding payments as a result of the fiscal constraints associated with damages and disaster recovery needs. The losses associated with the cyclones did not spare the financial institutions in Mozambique. Some of these institutions, active in the areas affected with cyclone Idai, acted in response to the disaster. While commercial banks responded by extending loan maturities as well as providing grace periods, some banks provided cash credit equivalent to US$15.7 million to facilitate reconstruction and recovery (World Bank 2019). These funds constitute an economic loss as they were not budgeted for this cause.

19.4.2 Economic Losses due to Cyclones in Zimbabwe Cyclone Idai hit eastern Zimbabwe with heavy rains and strong winds amidst the damages associated with El Niño-related drought, as well as on the already fragile economy (Ministry of Lands, Agriculture, Water, Climate and Rural Resettlement 2019). The storm caused high winds and heavy precipitation, impacting nine districts in three provinces of Manicaland, Masvingo and Mashonaland East, and severely impacting Chimanimani and Chipinge districts causing riverine and flash flooding and subsequent deaths, destruction of livelihoods, infrastructure, crops, livestock and properties. The homes of at least 4000 households were destroyed or were rendered uninhabitable during this period (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) 2019). The seven districts affected by Cyclone Idai included Chipinge, Chimanimani, Buhera, Bikita, Mutare,

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Gutu and Chiredzi, where multisectoral support was required to speed recovery processes. The flash flooding in these districts caused damage on the livelihoods of over 270,000 people across these districts, more particularly in Chipinge and Chimanimani districts. For example, in the town of Chipinge, 600 houses were destroyed, while 20,000 were damaged (BBC 2019). In addition, the destruction of numerous bridges and roads in eastern Chimanimani isolated many residents (Wikipedia 2019). The impacts of these crises in Zimbabwe were further compounded by broader national challenges associated with limited fiscal space, liquidity challenges and high public debt, which would make the cyclone recovery more difficult to mobilise support for. A Rapid Impact and Needs Assessment (RINA) conducted in May 2019  in Zimbabwe sought to assess and quantify cyclone recovery and resilience-building needs across the ten sectors. The results of this assessment found out that there had been between US$542 and 616 million in damages or losses due to the cyclone across nine districts (Table  20.3). Of the estimated losses depicted, an approximate of 90% of the overall damages was evaluated on the following sectors: transport (US$163.8 million), agriculture (US$155.3 million) and housing (US$131.5 million) (Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) 2019). The most hit districts were Chimanimani and Chipinge, accounting for approximately 50% of the damages (Table 19.3). The main drivers for losses encountered in the transport sector were roads, bridges and mobile networks, which are said to have disrupted market access. The main concern was that 95% of the road network to the country’s two worst affected districts of Chimanimani and Chipinge were destroyed. It was estimated that at least ten critical bridges were damaged or destroyed in Chimanimani alone after the cyclone hit (GFDRR 2019), hampering the rescue and recovery effort, and severely limiting the supply of goods and transportation to and from the region. The situation also affected electricity supply due to downed electricity pylons. It could not be imme-

19  Economic Losses from Cyclones Idai and Kenneth and Floods in Southern Africa: Implications… Table 19.3  Damages by sector and recovery costs in Zimbabwe Sector Productive sectors Agriculture Physical sectors Energy Environment Transport Water supply and sanitation Total Social sectors Education Health Social protection Housing Total for social sectors Cross-cutting sectors Total

Cost (USD) Damages

Needs recovery

$155,362,963

$59,068,000

$3,078,500 $37,360,000 $163,794,000 $23,228,563

$3,228,800 $37,360,000 $196,552,800 $27,867,076

$227,461,063

$265,009,676

$6,385,210 $14,767,800 No data $131,456,777 $152,609,787

$7,662,151 $17,727,360 $60,000,000 $36,454,809 $121,844,320

$13,100,000

$111,300,430

$548,533,813

$557,222,425

Source: Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) (2019)

diately repaired due to impassable roads, thus leaving large portions of the region in the dark. Access to safe water, basic sanitation and hygiene practices were also compromised in both rural and urban areas. Within agriculture, the estimated losses emanated from nearly 50,000 farming households that were affected, as well as 1.4 million hectares of arable land that were destroyed. The districts of Mutare and Gutu were the most severely impacted. Damages to livestock and small ruminants, crops (including high-value cash crops), food stocks, agricultural inputs, water points and water infrastructure were widespread, affecting productive assets, food production and livelihood systems. The damage to food production has been extensive, as the affected areas accounted for one-third of national agricultural production and the third-largest maize growing province in the country (Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Livestock 2019). It was estimated that at 2016

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prices,2 the total value of the losses for maize would be US$27 million, assuming 100% losses. Cyclone Idai happened at a time when household income and food security in the region had also been severely impacted by agricultural losses already impacted by the El Niño-related drought. What exacerbated the situation is the fact that loss of food production at the time the cyclone coincided with the annual harvest period. It was also argued that beyond the potential direct impact on yield losses, the supply chain shocks were expected to raise prices drastically and affect supply of essential food products to main urban markets, including the capital, Harare. Approximately 70% of the population in the most hit province of Manicaland were also said to be under threat of being food insecure because of the cyclone and the El Niño induced drought (UN Inter-Agency Rapid Assessment Update 2019). The cyclone also devastated 16% of a herd of livestock in Chipinge, Chimanimani and Buhera. Agricultural markets within the area were rendered dysfunctional due to roads inaccessibility, as well as the timber industry that was significantly hampered by damaged roads, including for exports through the Beira corridor.

19.4.3 Economic Damages and Losses due to Floods in South Africa The South African weather service revealed that 165  mm of rain fell over Durban on 22 April 2019, breaking the previous record of 108  mm that fell on 10 October 2017, thus causing floods in South Africa’s KwaZulu Natal (KZN) province (Independent Online 2019). The amount of rainfall received during this period was said to be the heaviest rainfall the city has experienced in 24 hours since 30 October 1985. Flooding, landslides, collapsed buildings, perimeter walls, blocked stormwater drains and sewer lines, and rivers bursting their banks, as well as household US$340 for maize.

2 

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and power outages, were reported all along the south of Durban. The hardest-hit areas being uMlazi, Amanzimtoti, Chatsworth, Malvern and Queensburgh. Other areas affected include Mount Edgecombe and Virginia Airport. King Shaka International Airport, which is further north, reported lighter rainfall during the period. However, this came days after another storm caused significant infrastructural damage in Ballito, which is roughly 20  km south of KwaDukuza (Stanger) (Tanya 2019). The Eastern Cape was also hard hit, with Port St Johns recording 190 mm of rainfall. In KZN province, the estimated costs of repair were expected to tip over ZAR650 million (USD45 million3) (Kaveel 2019). This followed repairs to damages such as stormwater pipes, washed away walls and culvert, which stood at ZAR248 million (USD17.2 million). Estimated repair costs related to electricity infrastructure were at ZAR19,530,000 (USD1.2 million) with repairs to eleven substations that were to be undertaken. The health sector recovery estimate costs stood at ZAR3,000,000 (USD0.21 million), meant to repair roofs of clinics in many areas damaged as well as consultation rooms, which were also flooded. The repairs related to human settlements needs was pegged R327,919,000 (USD22.8 million), and this included repairs to the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) houses, transit camp units, informal settlements, retaining walls and hostel blocks.

19.4.4 Discussion of the Findings Generally, disaster and climate shocks are frequent in Mozambique, and the country experienced storms, cyclones and floods that caused 97% of all reported economic losses for catastrophe events between 1990 and 2014 (PreventionWeb 2019). This is attributed to the climatic risks faced by Mozambique, Malawi and Zimbabwe. These countries are primarily characterised by inadequate economic and social infraExchange rate as of 26 April 2019 was USD1: ZAR14.3843. 3 

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structure, relatively high but non-inclusive economic growth and increasing debt, which worsen economic vulnerability. This is in addition to limited social or institutional capacity to cope with such catastrophes. As an example of the impact of these disasters, a catastrophe risk modelling study estimates that Mozambique faces average annual losses of US$440 million due to floods alone (World Bank, 2018). Emerging international evidence shows that disasters have disproportional impacts on poor and vulnerable populations, such as women, with limited capacity to cope with shocks, further driving inequality and poverty in exposed regions (Hallegatte et al., 2017). A poverty analysis study by Baez et al. (2018) conducted in Mozambique shows that cyclones, floods or drought can lead to a drop of up to 25–30% in per capita food consumption. This decline in per capita food consumption has many socio-economic consequences, some that can lead to affected households cutting back on expenditures in essential non-food items. Cyclones Idai and Kenneth are believed to have impacted on the multi-dimensional poverty in Mozambique and Zimbabwe as a result of issues that include simultaneous loss of all the household goods and productive assets, which were said to be higher in monetary value terms (Baez et al., 2018). The cyclone disasters also had the capacity not only to maintain people in the poverty trap but also to push more people into poverty. For instance, it was also estimated that the poverty rate would rise from 64% to 79% due to cyclone Idai as those families that lost everything at once found it difficult to rebuild housing, replace domestic items and rebuild livelihoods due to constrained financial and material resources. Hallegatte et  al. (2017) estimated that due to natural disasters globally, around 26 million people are pushed back into extreme poverty each year, especially for least developing countries (LDCs) struggling to overcome the poverty trap. Cyclone Idai is also believed to have had impacts on the inflation attributed to supply shock that generated pressure on the prices in the short term. The impact was expected to dissipate over the medium term (Government of

19  Economic Losses from Cyclones Idai and Kenneth and Floods in Southern Africa: Implications…

Mozambique 2019). This spike in the inflation figures was associated with the destruction of crops at the peak of the agricultural season leading to a decline in the supply of agricultural products, thus giving rise to prices of food prices in Mozambique, as well as in landlocked countries like Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi (African Development Bank group 2019). Also, crop losses were believed to potentially cause an acute food crisis and impact on the regional economic growth and food security if producers were not to be supported in time for the subsequent rainy season. On the other hand, the destruction of part of the industrial parks and service companies was also observed to have interrupted business and the commercial network, thus stimulating an increase in the prices of non-food products. With progression into the medium-term space, additional stimulus in aggregate demand was also expected due to the demand for rebuilding and social assistance resources, thus generating pressure on domestic prices. Also, importation of goods and services in the affected areas provoked a need for more foreign currency and hence induced increased pressure on the foreign exchange markets. This pressure also had a negative effect on the balance of trade as well; for example, the destruction of roads, rail and port infrastructures in Mozambique had an effect on the balance of payments, as well as price levels in Malawi and Zimbabwe (African Development Bank group 2019). These factors were thus expected to affect the inflation rate and economic growth in the affected countries (Government of Mozambique 2019). Lee et al. (2018) pointed out that disasters, in general, affect a country’s economic growth, with implications on the fiscal budget. For example, tax collections may be lower in disaster-hit areas, disruptions to food supplies may trigger inflation, and there will be higher spending related to emergency relief and reconstruction. Post-disaster reconstruction activities can provide an economic stimulus. However, for highly indebted LDCs and small island developing states (SIDs), there may be implications for debt sustainability if external aid or domestic reserves for such contin-

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gencies are insufficient. At the same time, cyclones Idai and Kenneth have impacted on the short-term growth of affected countries, as well as their trading capacities. This happened at a time when the UN SDGs are calling for a more concerted action to use trade to help trigger more significant growth, development and poverty reduction in the world’s poorest countries. While these asset and production losses are hugely significant, the harshest impact is on the socio-economic well-being of the poor and marginalised, where assets and savings are few and consumption is close to subsistence levels. Indeed, when natural disasters strike, such losses in well-being can surpass the aggregate economic impact of disasters, which tend to measure the value of damages inflicted on buildings, infrastructure, equipment and agricultural production. The impacts of natural disasters like cyclones and floods highlight a need for greater investment in Early Warning Systems.

19.4.5 Implications for Sustainable Development Goals The effects of natural disasters are multifaceted and include physical, economic, social and environmental damage and loss of human life. Furthermore, given the interlinkages between the economy and other aspects of sustainable development, it is expected that the multifaceted nature of damages from natural disasters will have implications for sustainable development in other areas. This section discusses some of the implications of natural disasters (cyclones and floods) on SDGs. In general, natural disasters pose significant vulnerability to affected national and regional communities. Socio-economic impacts include long-term adverse effects on economic growth, poverty and sustainable development. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is cognisant of the urgency to mitigate the risks posed by disasters. Precisely SDG #1.5 ‘By 2030 build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations, and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental

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shocks and disasters’ (Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) n.d.) and #11.5 ‘By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations’ (SDSN n.d.) are directly related to natural disasters (floods and cyclones). The widespread damage caused by the floods and the cyclones in the three countries demonstrate limited capability at national level to achieve these SDGs. Furthermore, it is important to highlight that in the southern African region, natural disasters have a potential hampering effect on the attainment of the SDGs by 2030. For example, concerns for attaining SDG #1 and 1.5 are explicitly evidenced by a drop of an estimated quarter or more in per capita food consumption due to drought and flooding of the affected populations as already discussed (Sect. 19.5) and an increase in poverty by more than half due to cyclones. It is a significant challenge to sustainable development, particularly for LDCs, who may take longer to recover. Although natural disasters such as floods and cyclones are directly related to SDGs #1.5 and 11.5, numerous other SDGs indirectly imply natural disaster risks. For example, SDG #4 ‘promoting education for sustainable development under, such as building and upgrading education facilities and ensuring healthy lives’ and SDG #9 ‘building resilient infrastructure’ (UN n.d.) among others show the nexus between disaster risk reduction and sustainable development. Although positive developments in other SDGs may contribute to disaster reduction, the dilemma is that when disaster strikes, populations become more vulnerable, for example, to climate change and related hazards, that entrench poverty, erode livelihoods and thus reverse sustainable development. For example, psychological trauma (post-­ traumatic stress disorders), health risks, human displacements, loss of property, among others indirectly impinge on the attainment of all the other SGDs.

19.5 Conclusions This chapter outlined the economic damages and losses associated with cyclones Idai and Kenneth in Mozambique and Zimbabwe, as well as floods in South Africa, mainly focusing on the market-­ based damages. The study followed a literature synthesis approach, using various documents from diverse sources such as governments, non-­ governmental organisations (NGOs), UN agencies, research institutions and press agencies. Thereafter, the searches returned were standardised as a means of abstracting appropriate information from each of these articles, as well as ensuring quality and reliability. The damages and losses were estimated in terms of direct and indirect economic losses. The direct losses mainly included the physical damages, while the indirect losses mainly focused on the recovery or repair costs. From the literature synthesis conducted, this chapter has confirmed that indeed, the cyclones and floods caused significant damage to various sectors of the economy, leading to substantial losses in Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa. The main physical damages and losses were heavily felt in the productive and social sectors of the economy. Generally, the destruction from cyclones and floods disrupted economic activities, causing severe damage to housing and public buildings, including markets, water and sanitation. There was also complete destruction or temporary closure of critical connectivity infrastructure that include ports, roads, bridges, railways, electricity and telecommunications, as well as warehouses that facilitated trade between countries. The disruptions, in these countries already characterised by poor inadequate economic and social infrastructure, non-inclusive economic growth and increasing debt worsen socio-­ economic vulnerability on the marginalised populations. This is in addition to limited social or institutional capacity to cope with such catastrophes. The impact is likely greater on poor and vulnerable populations, such as women, with limited capacity to cope with shocks, further driving inequality and maintaining people in the

19  Economic Losses from Cyclones Idai and Kenneth and Floods in Southern Africa: Implications…

poverty trap poverty, as households lose household goods and productive assets. In addition, disasters also cause inflationary pressures associated with supply shocks, giving rise to increased food and non-food prices. Food inflation is associated with disruptions to food supplies, as well as constrained food supplies due to crop losses. This can also lead to food crises situations, as well as impacts on food security. On the other hand, interruptions to business and the commercial operations due to disasters can eventually stimulate aggregate demand associated with recovery plans, causing an increase in the prices of non-food products. The fiscal space is also not spared, as tax revenues are reduced, especially in areas hit by disasters, thus hampering economic growth efforts. This can lead to challenges regarding debt sustainability, particularly if external aid or domestic reserves for such contingencies are insufficient. Overall, the impact of cyclones and floods hampers the concerted action to the attainment of the SDGs by 2030, particularly for LDCs who may take longer to recover. It is because of the challenges posed by floods and cyclones, and their impacts on SDGs in general, that opportunities exist to re-think disaster preparation and development from a new direction to minimise direct or indirect effects. This, linked to natural disasters, can be risk-informed and resilient development. As such, the following recommendations are proposed: • Developing and strengthening existing Disaster Management Frameworks to increase resilience • Institutional strengthening and capacity development • Increased investments in disaster management processes • Increasing community awareness to disasters to enhance resilience • Developing Early Warning Systems for cyclones and floods This chapter recommends further disaggregation of the economic losses due to natural

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d­ isasters that will be aligned to specific strategies for effective, evidence-based responses.

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K. Nhundu et al. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG (2009) The PRISMA Group. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA Statement Open Med 3(2):123–130. OCHA. (2019). Cyclone Idai and Kenneth. Retrieved from: https://www.unocha.org/southern-­and-­eastern-­ africa-­rosea/mozambique. Accessed 7 May 2020. Peduzzi, P. (2019). The disaster risk, global change, and sustainability Nexus. Sustainability, 11, 957. PreventionWeb. 2019. Mozambique disaster & Risk profile. Retrieved from: https://www.preventionweb.net/ countries/moz/data/. Accessed 29 Mar 2020. Ratti, M.L. (2017). The economics of natural disasters: An overview of the current research issues and methods. : The Centre for Environmental and Resource Economics (CERE), Department of Economics, Umeå University. Satterthwaite, D. (2007). In pursuit of a healthy urban environment in low- and middle-income nations. In P.  J. Marcotullio & G.  McGranahan (Eds.), Scaling urban environmental challenges: From local to global and Back (pp. 69–105). Earthscan. Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) (n.d.). Indicators and a monitoring framework. Launching a data revolution for the Sustainable Development Goals. Retrieved from: https://indicators.report/targets/11-­5/. Accessed 06 Nov 2020. Tang, R., Wu, J., Ye, M., et  al. (2019). Impact of economic development levels and disaster types on the short-term macroeconomic consequences of natural Hazard-induced disasters in China. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 10, 371. https://doi. org/10.1007/s13753-­019-­00234-­0 Tanya W. (2019). Fierce KZN storm ravages Ballito beachfront, restaurants. Retrieved from: www.iol.co.za/ios/ news/fierce-­k zn-­s torm-­r avages-­b allito-­b eachfront-­ restaurants-­21633121). Accessed 11 Apr 2020. UN Inter-Agency Rapid Assessment Update (2019). Lao PDR  – IASC contingency plan. Retrieved from: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/ lao_pdr_inter-­agency_contingency_plan_3sep19.pdf. Accessed 06 Nov 2020. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). (2019). Cyclones Idai and Kenneth. Retrieved from: https://www.unocha. org/southern-­and-­eastern-­africa-­rosea/cyclones-­idai-­ and-­kenneth. Accessed 26 Mar 2020. Van der Kamp, J., & Neo, J. (2018). Economic losses from natural disasters: Quantification approaches and developments. In S.  K. Sharma & E.  Quah (Eds.), Economics of natural disasters (pp.  49–83). World Scientific. Wikipedia. (2019). Cyclone Idai. Retrieved from: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclone_Idai#Zimbabwe. Accessed 11 May 2020. World Bank. (2018). Financial protection against disaster in Mozambique. Retrieved from: https://www. gfdrr.org/sites/default/files/publication/bm-­brochura-­ pfc-­en.pdf. Accessed 06 Nov 2020.

19  Economic Losses from Cyclones Idai and Kenneth and Floods in Southern Africa: Implications… World Bank. (2019). International Development Association project appraisal document on a proposed grant in the amount of SDR 95.1 million (US$130 million equivalent) from the crisis response window to the Republic of Mozambique for the cyclone Idai and Kenneth emergency recovery and

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resilience project. Report No: PAD3379. Retrieved from: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ en/763461570154496796/pdf/Mozambique-­Cyclone-­ Idai-­a nd-­K enneth-­E mergency-­R ecovery-­a nd-­ Resilience-­Project.pdf. Accessed 14 June 2020.

Part VI The Policy Space

Emerging Key Findings, Conclusions and Policy Recommendations

20

David Chikodzi and Godwell Nhamo

Abstract

The economic, social and environmental damage from tropical cyclones has been increasing in recent decades. Southern Africa is one of the regions vulnerable to tropical cyclones, and there are concerns that their destructive impacts are infringing the developmental aspirations of this region, in particular, the achievement of the sustainable development goals (SDGs). This concluding chapter presents the key findings and recommendations from the book, which mainly profiles case studies from three southern African countries, namely Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, which are commonly hit by tropical cyclone-­ related hazards. Emerging findings show that tropical cyclones are significantly impacting on the economic, social and environmental integrity of the affected communities. Key infrastructure, human settlements and livelihoods have been destroyed due to the debilitating impacts of tropical cyclones. This puts the affected countries and the region back many years in terms of development and attaining the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the 17 SDGs. Improving investment in disaster risk reduction in line D. Chikodzi () · G. Nhamo Institute for Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

with international principles, building community resilience and building back better after a hazard are some of the emerging recommendations from this book. Keywords

Tropical cyclones · SDGs · Southern Africa · Disaster risk reduction · Disaster resilience

20.1 Introduction Chen et al. (2020) view tropical cyclones as one of the most destructive natural hazards in the world. Between 1971 and 2018, an estimated 1712 landfalling tropical cyclones were responsible for over 1.35 million deaths and significant economic losses in excess of US$1.15 trillion the world over (Centre for Research on Epidemiology of Disasters – CRED, 2020). Although there are still gaps in understanding the frequency and/or intensity of tropical cyclones, the destruction they cause has increased in many regions of the globe (Munich Re, 2021). This damage is in both the economic and socio-ecological spheres (Sajjad & Chan, 2020). Although tropical cyclones affect everyone in the impacted regions, they impose the greatest economic and societal burden on the poor and those living on the margins of economic development (Koubi, 2019). Damage during tropical cyclones comes mainly

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1_20

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from strong winds and torrential rainfall, as well as very high storm surges and inundation (Pugatch, 2019; Von Schuckmann et  al., 2020). The impact of cyclones varies from one event to the next. However, their intensity has been noted to be the most important defining factor for most of the losses which occur (Sajjad & Chan, 2020). The United Nations (2015) argues that the rise in exposure and hazard events are not the only factors behind the rationale of effective disaster risk reduction (DRR) and management strategies. They point to the need for building resilience, which is a multi-dimensional concept interwoven with the many ambitions of the SDGs. The repeated occurrence of tropical cyclones and the destruction that they bring is now cause for concern for many countries in the context of reducing the ability of affected communities to achieve the SDGs by 2030 (Von Schuckmann et  al., 2020). This is because extreme weather-­ related hazards have significant effects on important developmental issues. For southern Africa, the situation is compounded by limited studies that have examined the implications of extreme events on the attainment of SDGs (Codjoe & Atiglo, 2020). In the absence of meaningful investment in building resilience to hazards, Von Schuckmann et al. (2020) maintain that tropical cyclones can either slow down or even in some situations derail progress towards achieving SDGs and realising the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. From the Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015, an annual investment of US$6 billion worldwide is required for appropriate DRR ­interventions (United Nations, 2015). This investment will result in total benefits of US$360 billion in terms of DRR. Southern Africa is one of the regions vulnerable to the negative effects of tropical cyclones. In most southern African countries and communities, the damage due to tropical cyclones is way beyond their ability to cope and achieve sustainable development (Hochrainer-Stigler et  al., 2017). The destructive impact of tropical cyclones comes when most of these countries are already struggling economically and underinvesting in SDG-related sectors, such as health, poverty

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reduction, education, water and sanitation, and infrastructural development (Schmidt-Traub, 2015). Tropical cyclones are also occurring in the context where the mitigation of other natural hazards such as droughts, floods, wildfires and epidemics is already taking up a substantial proportion of social expenditure and capital investment (Larson, 2018). In some countries, national savings can become negative and hard-­ earned accumulations and development gains that had already been achieved can be reduced due to the occurrence of these disasters (United Nations, 2015). In-depth understanding of the impact of tropical cyclones and the relationship between this impact and the ability to achieve SDGs is therefore key in the context of DRR and devising appropriate intervention measures. Understanding the driving forces behind the damage caused by tropical cyclones helps disaster managers and policymakers to produce relevant countermeasures (Sajjad & Chan, 2020). Therefore, reducing socio-economic and environmental damage is an important indicator of progress towards appropriate DRR and building resilience to the hazards (Peduzzi, 2019). In the context of this book, examining the damage caused by cyclones can show the progress towards attaining sustainable development. This is the rationale of this book volume which unpacks in detail the impact of tropical cyclones in southern Africa and their implications on the achievement of SDGs of Agenda 2030. To this end, the objective of this chapter is to summarise the emerging key findings of the book, highlight conclusions and detail emerging recommendations.

20.2 Emerging Key Findings 20.2.1 Impact on Agricultural Production and Public Health This part of the book focused on the impact of tropical cyclones on agriculture and public health. The results show that due to the strong interconnections between agriculture and the entire economy in Zimbabwe, Tropical Cyclone

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Idai caused agricultural losses and slowed the overall economy. Cash crop production in both small- and large-scale operations was negatively impacted. The disruption to cash crop production occurred due to the physical damage to crops, arable land, irrigation infrastructure and processing equipment, and constrained access to markets. In Malawi, floods caused by Cyclone Idai impacted on crop yields and access to the rural areas. The floods also affected the food transfers from rural to urban areas and vice versa, which impacted on the availability and accessibility dimensions of household food security in both areas. In both rural and urban areas, poorer households were disproportionately affected, resulting in reduced dietary diversity and food intake, shifts to consumption of cheaper foods and requests for emergency food donations. An analysis of the impact of Cyclone Idai on food systems shows that the cyclone uncovered the fragilities of local food systems in both Mozambique and Zimbabwe by disrupting various agricultural supply chain activities. These fragilities led to food insecurity challenges that undermined the drive towards the achievement of SDG 2, which aims to eradicate hunger and enhance nutrition. It was also noted that the disaster management responses in both countries concentrated more on the emergency needs of the affected areas, with little attention given to making the food systems more resilient in the long term. In the context of public health, Tropical Cyclone Idai resulted in immense losses of human life and health-related infrastructure. Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe all lacked back-up communication systems for early warning and emergency evacuation of the at-risk populations. People infected with HIV who were displaced could not maintain access to antiretroviral medication, which led to the discontinuation of treatment altogether. Of serious concern, though not adequately explored, were the long-­ term health impacts of Cyclone Idai on other established health programmes such as malaria and nutritional programmes or stress and post-­ traumatic distress disorder. Part 2 of the book also showed that most DRR initiatives during

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Cyclone Idai lacked provisions for child protection services, hence the special need to embed nutrition, WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) and child psychosocial needs in such initiatives.

20.2.2 Impact on Education, Water and Sanitation and Livelihoods Part 3 of the book focused on the impact of tropical cyclones on education, WASH, as well as livelihoods. The results show that Tropical Cyclone Idai had debilitating effects on the education ecosystem of the Chimanimani District of Zimbabwe. Education infrastructure, such as classroom blocks, school furniture ablution blocks, teacher and student accommodation and administration blocks, was damaged extensively. Most teachers and students sought to transfer from schools in the disaster area in order to cope with the psychological effects. This was mainly due to the absence of support systems to deal with the physical and psychological effects of the cyclone for both students and teachers. Cyclone Idai also wiped-out WASH infrastructure. WASH facilities at schools, hospitals, refugee camps and communities were flooded, washed away and/or collapsed. There was also an observed weak coordination of stakeholders in the WASH sector at all levels from grassroots to district as well as provincial levels. The immediate aftermath responses to the impact on WASH facilities were community based but were handicapped by limited resources and know-how to adequately respond. WASH responses from responsible authorities and outside partners were not timely in the aftermath of Cyclone Idai because of inaccessibility of the affected communities and absence of ready stocks to respond. However, the pre-existence of a coordination structure for WASH in emergencies helped to ease the interventions. When considering the impoverishing effects of Cyclone Idai in Mozambique and Zimbabwe, it was shown that the cyclone transformed many spaces of vulnerability into disaster landscapes through widespread damage to rural and urban

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spaces, transport networks and fractured livelihoods. The immediate humanitarian response to the crisis provided emergency and relief in the form of health care, shelter provision, and food and material assistance to victims, which saved lives. However, reconstruction was noted to be slow and did not reverse the far-reaching effects of Cyclone Idai in the affected areas. Survivors of the cyclone pursued livelihood strategies such as intensive gardening, informal trading, casual labour and migration, and also engaged in risky and illegal ventures such as drug and alcohol trade, gold panning and prostitution. The response of the government of Zimbabwe and its partner non-state actors in the aftermath of the disaster was concentrated on rebuilding the community and providing immediate services and meeting needs of survivors, not reconstructing livelihoods. Limited initiatives had been put in place to assist survivors with livelihood recovery.

20.2.3 Impact on Infrastructure and Settlements Part 4 of the book examined the impact of Tropical Cyclones Idai and Kenneth on infrastructure and settlements. Results show that there was extensive damage to settlements and infrastructure in 2019. The level of destruction varied depending on location and type of structure. In some areas such as Ngangu and Kopa in Chimanimani District, over half of the affected households were permanently displaced due to Cyclone Idai with their houses and land permanently destroyed. High-density urban and informal settlements were more vulnerable to the impact of Cyclone Idai compared to other forms of settlements. Settlements and infrastructure located in low-lying areas, waterways and degraded steep slopes were also at high risk of multiple hazards that came with the cyclone, such as landslides and floods. Landslides, flooding and strong winds were the major causes of destruction of road and electricity infrastructure. These washed away roads, bridges and culverts, leaving some of the affected areas inaccessible. The process of recovery from the disaster and resettlement of victims was

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observed to be very slow as over a year after the cyclone some victims were still in temporary shelter. The replacement of destroyed infrastructure was equally slow due to limited funds and the need to build back better, which is more costly. There was generally an observed limited appreciation of disaster management and response by the affected communities even though they were living in cyclone risk areas.

20.2.4 Impact on Natural Resources, Oceans, Tourism and Other Losses Part 5 of the book addressed the impact of tropical cyclones on natural resources and tourism. The findings show that the tropical cyclones that occurred in parts of southern Africa between 1975 and 2019 resulted in changes to the structure and composition of marine, terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. These changes have had significant implications for the availability of ecosystem goods and services supported by the disturbed ecosystems. In Chimanimani, there was severe disturbance of forestry resources, with those in low-altitude areas as well as the riverine forests being the most affected during Cyclone Idai. The impact of the cyclone was more on pines compared to eucalyptus species. Findings further show that there was a decrease in landcover vegetation from 2010 to 2019, with major changes occurring in 2019 soon after Cyclone Idai. In Mozambique, mangrove forests, which are known to be some of the most productive forest ecosystems in the world, have been seriously damaged in coastal areas repeatedly hit by tropical cyclones. In the Philippines, where tropical cyclones are the most frequent destructive hazard, Super Typhoon Haiyan in 2013 caused substantial distraction to mangrove forests. The strong winds and storm surge as a result of the typhoon uprooted and broke many mangrove trees, with many of the affected forests still to recover (Buitre et  al., 2019). The damage to mangrove forests along the coast due to cyclones deprives the affected areas of physical and biological protection from storms. It also deprives these areas of other ecosystem services that they

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provide, such as acting as carbon sinks and preventing coastal erosion (Ramírez et  al., 2017; Izumi et al., 2020). Tourism has also been affected negatively by the tropical cyclones which have occurred in southern Africa. The affected areas in Zimbabwe have diverse tourist attractions that are natural, archaeological, cultural and scenic sites. All these were disrupted by the effects of Cyclone Idai. Among the top attractions in the area are the Chimanimani Mountains bordering Mozambique and Zimbabwe, Tessa’s Pool, Digby’s Falls and Bridal Veil Falls. There were mixed opinions on the damage to some attractions, but there was consensus on the damage to tourism overhead infrastructure such as roads, lodges, bridges, power lines and water supply systems.

20.3 Emerging Key Recommendations Tropical cyclones and other natural hazards are likely to continue occurring in southern Africa. In the light of the findings from the book, some recommendations on improving DRR and management in southern Africa are given in this section. Countries in southern Africa need to invest more in DRR at all levels of society from grassroots to national level in accordance with the provisions of the Sendai Framework of Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030). This will help reduce vulnerability, build community resilience and protect livelihoods from future hazards such as tropical cyclones. When infrastructure and livelihoods need less repair or reconstruction after hazards, disruptions to community activities are limited and governments save money for other developmental activities. Governments and private organisations in southern Africa must commit to the BBB concept for infrastructure and livelihoods after disasters such as tropical cyclones. Currently, DRR in southern Africa is the burden of the governments. It is therefore important that other stakeholders, including private role players, work with governments to help communities build resilience to hazards. DRR policies need to be formulated so that they are responsive to changes in risks and

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must be evaluated after every disaster event in order to remain effective. This can be done by putting in place robust monitoring and evaluation frameworks. These frameworks will help to measure, report and validate the efficacy of existing DRR activities, policies, plans and institutions. These policies need to be formulated through all-­ inclusive processes that ‘leave no one behind’. This helps create ownership of the policies by the at-risk communities. Currently in southern Africa, it is the central governments that have the capacity and competencies for effective DRR interventions, so there is a need to devolve such capacity to the local governments. There is also a need to build awareness, capability and capacity within local, district, provincial and regional governments to support implementation and understanding of key concepts of DRR as given in the Sendai Framework as well as the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. More weight and consideration must be given to local communities in the capacity-building process. The devolution of some of the DRR strategies must go down to ward or village level. Communities whose infrastructure, environment and livelihoods are damaged during disasters such as tropical cyclones need to be assisted in reclaiming and rehabilitating them. Survivors need to be resourced and capitalised in areas where they have comparative skills and capacities to ensure the sustainability of livelihood restoration. This can be financed through the creation of disaster management funds by the central government and administered independently to improve on accountability. The disaster funds can be financed from both the fiscus and the private sector. Private sector involvement in DRR should be encouraged across the disaster management cycle rather than only during emergency responses to hazard events. The private sector needs to be involved in processes such as the development and application of management and structural measures aimed at enhancing the resilience of human settlements and infrastructure to hazards. Given that most countries in southern Africa are undergoing rapid urbanisation, there is a need to improve the understanding of food security

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among urban and rural households and how hazards such as tropical cyclones can influence the level of this security. In the event of extreme weather events such as tropical cyclones and their related impact such as flooding, attention must be focused on assessing and addressing food availability, access and consumption challenges in both urban and rural areas reliant on interconnected agricultural and food flows, particularly for poor households. This is very important given the increased occurrences of hydroclimatic extreme events disturbing the value chain of agricultural food production and distribution. Furthermore, southern Africa needs to have an integrated disaster risk assessment and response that does not focus only on the period immediately before and after disaster events. Long-term coping strategies should be formulated for communities living in vulnerable areas and for investing in the resilience of key value chains. The aim should be to invest in adaptive and resilience-­building measures with the desired outcome being to protect the most vulnerable groups, such as women, children and the poor. Recovery measures must be formulated to help the most vulnerable groups bounce back from hazard-related shocks. A holistic approach to developing sustainable human settlement planning through the ­application of spatial planning tools is urgently required in many settlements of southern Africa to avoid extensive damage and destruction of human settlements by natural disasters. Development of inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable cities should be informed not only by spatial planning imperatives but also thorough reflection on factors which influence human settlement form. Building codes and standards that help settlements withstand the impact of hazards need to be developed and the community has to be educated and trained in them. The forestry industry should take the necessary steps towards building resilience to extreme climatic events. In terms of cultivation, reforestation and drainage, appropriate methods must be

used for the specific soil and site conditions. This will ensure that there is adequate provision for root development of trees. Selection of resilient tree species, particularly in areas facing the direction of the wind, and careful thinning of exposed forests and sometimes practising a non-thinning regime on sites vulnerable to windthrow in the event of tropical cyclones are essential. Excessive openings for roads, turning points and entrances within the forests must be avoided as they can create wind gaps which can damage trees in the event of cyclones. Resilience to hazards must be integrated into development strategies, together with other aspirations of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development such as reducing poverty and vulnerability. Strong and accountable institutions are key if society is to build resilience to hazards and achieve sustainable development. This includes developing stringent policies on accountability especially for the human-made factors in disasters such as those occurring through neglecting legal requirements or externalities of development projects.

20.4 Conclusion Given the negative impact of tropical cyclones in southern Africa as shown in this book, the possibility of derailing impacted countries from achieving the ambitious goals set by the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the targets enshrined in the 17 SDGs remains very high. The impacts of tropical cyclones are further enhanced by vulnerability factors such as high poverty levels, high HIV prevalence, economic crises, civil strife in some places and other hazards such as drought and environmental degradation. These factors slowly erode the capacity of local communities to deal with intense hazards such as tropical cyclones. The capacity for early warning and building of resilience therefore needs to be urgently developed, especially for the at-risk communities.

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Larson, D. (2018). The consequences of cyclone and seasonal crop risks for wealth and technology adoption in rural Mozambique (No. 2058-2018-5245). Retrieved from: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/275916/. Accessed 17 Feb 2020. Munich Re. (2021). Hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones. Retrieved from: https://www.munichre.com/en/ risks/natural-­disasters-­losses-­are-­trending-­upwards/ hurricanes-­t yphoons-­cyclones.html#-­1 979426458 Accessed 4 Feb 2020. Peduzzi, P. (2019). The disaster risk, global change, and sustainability nexus. Sustainability, 11(4), 957. Pugatch, T. (2019). Tropical storms and mortality under climate change. World Development, 117, 172–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.01.009 Ramírez, F., Afan, I., Davis, L. S., & Chiaradia, A. (2017). Climate impacts on global hot spots of marine biodiversity. Science Advances. https://doi.org/10.1126/ sciadv.1601198 Sajjad, M., & Chan, J.  C. (2020). Tropical cyclone impacts on cities: A case of Hong Kong. Frontiers in Built Environment, 6, 172. Schmidt-Traub, G. (2015). Investment Needs to achieve the sustainable development goals. SDSN Working paper version 2, 2015. Retrieved from: http://unsdsn.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/09/151112-­SDG-­ Financing-­Needs.pdf. Accessed 15 Feb 2021. United Nations. (2015). Global Assessment Report, Publication GAR, 2015. Retrieved from: http://www. preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2015/en/garpdf/ GAR2015_EN.pdf. Accessed 16 Feb 2021. Von Schuckmann, K., Holland, E., Haugan, P., & Thomson, P. (2020). Ocean science, data, and services for the UN 2030 sustainable development goals. Marine Policy, 121, 104154.

Index

A Accessibility of food, 49, 50, 54 Agricultural production, 308, 309 Agriculture and food system linkages, 37 Amblygaster sirm, 285, 287 Anadara antiquata, 286, 287 Avicennia marina, 273, 274 B Basic Education Assistance Module (BEAM), 109 Biodiversity atmospheric variables, 266 climate change, 265, 266 definition, 267 disasters, 265, 266 ecosystems, 267 floods, 266 hydro-meteorological hazards, 266 materials and methods, 268 SDGs Agenda 2030, 267 tropical cyclones, 266–268 UN Sendai Framework, 267 Biogeochemical processes, 266 Blair ventilated improved pit (BVIP), 123 Borehole flushing, 121 Build-back-better’ concept, 100 C Capital investment, 308 Carbohydrates in Blantyre Urban, 49 Carbohydrates foods, 54 Casual labour, 152 Cataclysmic disasters, 245 Catastrophe, 241 Central Emergency Relief Fund (CERF), 126 Ceriops tagal, 273 Child malnutrition, 88 Chimanimani, 144, 146, 150, 153, 178 impact of cyclone Idai, 100

location, 100 narrative survey, 100 Chimanimani National Park (CNP), 231 Civil Protection Unit (CPU), 109, 111 Climate adaptation, 195–197 Climate change, 36, 173, 194, 266 Climate change adaptation, 36, 38 Climate change-induced disasters, 116 Climate-induced disasters, 195–197 Climate-induced hazards, 194 Climate risks, 36, 37, 39 Climate stations in rainfall analysis, 38 Climate trends, 39–42 Coastal tourism, 246 Cold wave, 161 Colonial human settlements, 180 Commercial farming, 178 Commercial forest plantation industry, 212 Communal Lands (CL), 178 Community-level adaptation strategies, 197 Comparative Research Programme on Poverty (CROP), 82 Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), 60 Convenience sampling technique, 72 Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), 231, 267 Coordination weaknesses, 127 Coping strategies, 101, 106 Crisis management, 248 Cyclone disasters, 298 Cyclone Idai, 117–128, 132–134, 136, 137, 140, 144–148, 150–152, 154, 294–298 borehole flushing, 121 Central Mozambique, 134–137 challenges, 125, 126 data collection phase, 133 eastern Zimbabwe, 134, 137–139 on education delivery and infrastructure, 101–102 effects, 153 hot spots, 166, 186 impacts, 124, 144 Mozambique, 133

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 G. Nhamo, D. Chikodzi (eds.), Cyclones in Southern Africa, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74303-1

315

316 Cyclone Idai  (cont.) national level, 126 Ngangu/Kopa, 146 non-state actors, 154 road infrastructures, 167 sub-national level, 126 survivors, 149, 150, 153 WASH interventions, 121 water quality, 122 water response, 121 water schemes, 122 weak communication, 127 Cyclone idai floods disaster management responses, Mozambique and Zimbabwe (see Disaster management responses) local food system, Mozambique and Zimbabwe (see Local food system) Cyclone Idai in Chimanimani and Chipinge building designs, 204, 205 building settlementsin Ngangu, 201, 202 Cooper Township, 203 displaced households, 200 early warning systems, 201 earth observation (EO), 198, 199 extent of damage, 201 flood-affected settlements, 201 high-density residential areas, 199 high-density urban settlements, 199 informal and semi-formal settlements, 204 landslides, 203 local authority, 200 location, 197, 198 multi-dimensional, 206 poverty, 206 qualitative data, 199 questionnaire survey, 198 QuestionPro software, 198 recovery from cyclone damage, 200, 201 rehabilitation, 206 risk of settlements, 201–203 settlement types and percentage displacements, 200 sources of water, 205 St Charles Lwanga High School, 202, 203 Cyclone Idai on natural and plantation forests culverts and drainage systems, 222 fire management plans, 225 impact of cyclones, 213–214 impact on ecosystem productivity, 214–215 impact on tree species, 214 impact-location differentiation and cross-location analysis, 218–220 mitigating impacts, 223 mixed methods approach, 215 MODIS, 216 NDVI, 216–218 questionnaire survey, 217 remote sensing, 215 silvicultural aspects of forest ecosystem, 219–223 silvicultural management, 223, 225

Index study area, 215, 216 Cyclone-induced floods, 59–60 Cyclones, 181 adaptive and resilience-building measures, 312 agricultural production, 308, 309 at-risk communities, 312 capacity, 311 catastrophic events, 241 communities, 311 competencies, 311 defoliation and sedimentation, 273 development, 311, 312 disaster funds, 311 drought and environmental degradation, 312 ecology, 274 education, 309, 310 extreme weather events, 312 fauna, 275 field sampling, 269 flora, 275 food security, 311 forestry industry, 312 frameworks, 311 governments and private organisations, 311 human-made factors, 312 hurricanes, 266 infrastructure, 310, 311 livelihoods, 309–311 long-term coping strategies, 312 marine and coastal invertebrates, 274, 275 marine and terrestrial flora, 274 natural hazards, 311 natural resources, 310, 311 oceans, 310, 311 policies, 311 primary, secondary and tertiary hazards, 8 public health, 308, 309 sanitation, 309, 310 seagrass cover, 273 settlements, 310 southern Africa, 270–273 spatial planning tools, 312 structural damage, 269 submerged herbaceous cover, 273 terrestrial and freshwater habitats, 275 tourism, 310, 311 tropical cyclones, 266 (see also Tropical cyclones) typhoons, 266 vegetation, 269 water, 309, 310 winds, 269, 273, 274 Cyclones Idai, 293 and Kenneth, 298 Cyclones Kenneth, 160, 174 D Data sets, 117 Department of Civil Protection (DCP), 62–63, 120, 134 Descriptive statistics, 117

Index Destination management, 249 Destruction of property, 187 Disaster and climate, 298 Disaster impact assessments business and communication, 293 cyclones and floods, 292 databases, 293 disaster impacts, 291 economic impacts, 292 economic losses, 294 food security, 295 natural disasters, 292 non-market-based approaches, 291, 292 research design, 292 theoretical framework, 293 Disaster management, 76 Disaster management agencies, 13 Disaster management responses cyclone, 62 emergency responses, 63 livelihoods, 62, 64 rescue operations, 62 risk assessment/response, 67 Disaster management strategies, 212 Disaster preparedness, 99, 102, 107, 110–112 Disaster risk management (DRM), 65, 86, 133 Disaster risk reduction (DRR), 3–7, 13, 82, 140, 197, 199, 206, 308 in danger-free zones, 99 disaster recovery policies, 98 plans, 102 policies, 102, 107, 112 Disasters, 115–117, 121, 122, 124, 267, 308 resilience, 308, 311 Disruptions, 98, 99, 106 District Health Cluster Reports, 122 District maintenance team (DMT), 127 District Water and Sanitation Sub-Committees (DWSSCs), 117 Divisional Development Fund (DDF), 103, 108, 122 Document analysis, 117 Drinking water sources, 122 DRR interventions, 308 Dweller control, 197 E Early warning systems, 98, 99, 109, 299 Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe, 212, 213, 226 See also Cyclone Idai on natural and plantation forests Econet Village, 191 Economic and socio-ecological spheres, 307 Economic development, 307 Economic losses flash flooding, 296 Education, 97 BEAM, 109 FEWs, 98 impacts of cyclone Aila, 99 impacts of cyclone Idai, 99–101

317 learning outcomes, 98 loss of teachers during cyclone, 98 timely intervention, 110 Electric power, 101, 112 Emergency preparedness, 100, 103 Emergency Strategic Advisory Board (E-SAG), 125 Environmental health practitioners (EHPs), 124 e-Tourism, 249 Eucalyptus, 214, 215, 224, 225 Eumarcia paupercula, 285 Extreme disasters, 100 Extreme events climate risks, 37 CLIVAR, 38 droughts, 48 extreme rainfall indices, 38, 39 general trends in rainfall extremes, 41 GEV distribution, 42 rainfall extremes, 40 rural areas, 51 temporal patterns, rainfall extremes, 41 trends in rainfall extremes, 42 Extreme weather, 98, 102, 104, 160 F Field-based methods, 215 Flood hazards, 194, 197, 207 Flooding climate-related risks, 37 by cyclones, 194 and geo-hazards, 206 and landslides, 195, 203 effects on food and agricultural flows, 52–54, 56 effects on food security, 52–54, 56 human settlement planning, 203 stakeholders, 38 tropical cyclone Idai (see Cyclone Idai in Chimanimani and Chipinge) tropical cyclones, 37 vulnerability of settlements, 198 Flooding events, 37 Flooding risks, 43 Floods, 181 anthropogenic actions, 266 catastrophic events, 241 CPU, 111 during cyclone Idai (see Cyclone Idai in Chimanimani and Chipinge) ecology, 274 extreme catastrophes, 103 human settlements, 195 management, 100 marine and coastal invertebrates, 275 marine and terrestrial flora, 274 and secondary effects, 193 southern Africa, 270–273 structural damage, 269 types, 266 vulnerability of settlements, 195

Index

318 Focus group discussion (FGD), 100, 101, 103, 106, 117, 133, 138, 140 Food access, 37, 51, 52, 55, 56 Food flows, 37 Food security, 36 Food system resilience, 36 Forest biodiversity hotspots, 212 Frontline Education Workers (FEWs), 98 G Generalised Extreme Value (GEV), 42 Geographic Information Systems Software (GIS), 233 Global Acute Malnutrition (GAM), 88 Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015, 308 Growth domestic product (GDP), 291 Gudyanga irrigation scheme, 32 H Haiyan typhoon, 197 Harmonised Social Cash Transfers (HSCTP), 90 Hazards, 100 Health facilities (HF), 74 High-impact hydrometeorological events, 247 Honey farming, 258 Hospitality industry, 249 Household livelihood strategies, 148 Household water treatment, 121 Human agency, 148 Human capital, 246 Human settlements, 178, 181, 182, 188–190, 195, 196, 203, 207 classification, 179 concepts, 181 development, 179 form/structure, 183 formal/informal, 179 impacts, 184, 185 Machongwe, 187 Ngangu, 187 Rusitu Valley, 185, 186 safety/security, 189 variables, 183–185 Zimbabwe, 179, 180 Humanitarian Country Team (HCT), 63, 134 Humanitarian workers, 146 Hurricanes, 245 Hydroelectric power plant, 135 Hydrometeorological conditions, 247 Hydro-meteorological events, 193 Hygiene kits, 123 I Impact of Cyclone Idai on transport systems, 167 (see also Transport infrastructures) Impacts of tropical cyclones

on agriculture and public health, 7, 8 case study approach, 13 data-gathering techniques, 13 on education, water and sanitation, 8, 9 GIS and earth observation techniques, 13 in-depth interviews, 13 on infrastructure and settlements, 9–12 on natural resources, oceans and tourism, 12 questionnaire surveys, 13 secondary data, 13 vegetation indices, 13 Indigenous tree species, 219 Indigenous trees, 222 Information and communication technologies (ICTs) in Chimanimani, 258 internet, fixed and mobile networks, 248 tourism, 249, 259 Infrastructure Development Bank of Zimbabwe (IDBZ), 108 Inhaca Island, 282, 285, 287 Institutions, 147 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 266 Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), 267 Intermediate Means of Transport (IMTs), 162 Internal displacement, 132, 134 Internally displaced persons (IDP), 123 International Organisation for Migration (IOM), 134 Internet of Things (IoTs), 259 K Key informant (KI), 233–235 Key informant interviews (KIIs), 117 Key informant narrative surveys (KINS), 100, 101 KwaZulu Natal (KZN) province, 297, 298 L Land-use activity, 178 Least developing countries (LDCs), 298 Livelihood diversification, 151 Livelihood reconstruction, 153, 154 Livelihoods, 131–134, 137, 139, 140, 144–148, 150, 151, 153, 154 Local food system cyclone food prices, 66 food production/consumption regions, 66 cyclone Idai agricultural sector, 63, 65 cyclone affected activities, 64 definition, 63 disaster cyclone, 64 floods, 66 food insecurity, 63 response strategies, 65 SDG 2, 64 food production, 60

Index insecurity, 61 systematic review process, 61 Low-income housing, 195 M Macoma coastalis, 286, 287 Mann-Kendall (MK) test, 38 Marketing, 246, 248 Medium-Term Transitional Stabilization Plan, 182 Menstrual hygiene management (MHM), 119, 124 Mental health problems, 8 Meretrix, 285 Micro financing institutions, 150 Migration linkages, 50 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 290 Ministry of Health and Child Care (MOHCC), 123 Ministry of Local Government, Public Works and Urban Development (MLGPWUD), 85 Mitigation, 196 Mobile systems industry, 249 Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), 212, 215, 216, 218 Modern human settlements, 178 Mozambican private sector, 295 Multiple hazards, 207 Mupesepese, 29 N National Action Committee (NAC), 124 National Coordination Unit (NCU), 117 National Social Protection Policy Framework (NSPPF), 83 Natural disasters, 98, 116, 132, 143, 246, 289–291, 300 adjacent community, 237, 238, 241 catastrophic events, 230 Chimanimani District, 230–232 climate change, 230 CNP, 237, 238, 241 cyclone Idai ecosystem resources, 233 impact, 231 NDVI, 237, 240–242 wildlife, 233, 234 data analysis, 232, 233 data collection, 231 dynamics and economics, 290 economic damage, 291 economic impact assessments, 290 ecosystem resources, 229 forest and plantations, 234, 235 Gorongosa National Park, 230 hazards, 230 hydraulic mining operations, 230 KZN province, 298 land-use and land-cover analysis, 230 land-use/land-cover analysis, 235, 237–241 literature, 291 methods and analysis, 291 policymakers and researchers, 290

319 riparian areas and habitats, 235 sector and recovery costs, 297 stormwater drains, 297 wildlife, 229, 231 Natural forests in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe (see Cyclone Idai on natural and plantation forests) natural agents, 214 Natural hazards, 307 Non-communicable diseases (NCD), 71 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), 99, 109, 112, 116 Normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI), 233 decadal NDVI composites, 216 description, 216 impact of cyclone Idai, 217 satellite imagery data, 212 use, 216 values for forests, 217, 218 vegetation index, 216 O Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), 84 Organic agriculture, 22 Owner-driven approaches, 197 P Paris Agreement, 9, 247 Participatory Geographic Information System (PGIS), 189 Participatory Health and Hygiene Education (PHHE), 124 Peri-urban dichotomy, 182 Planning regulatory frameworks, 180 Plantation forests commercial industry, 212 in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe (see Cyclone Idai on natural and plantation forests) Ponta de Ouro Marine Partila Reserve (POMPR), 275 Post-cyclone Alia period, 145 Post-cyclone Idai, 151, 152 Post-disaster interventions, 145 Post-Disaster Needs Assessment, 294 Post-disaster reconstruction, 152, 197, 299 Post-disaster recovery, 148 Post-disaster rehabilitation, 145 Poverty, 194, 196, 206 Poverty analysis study, 298 Primary data, 183 Primary hazards, 6 Protected areas (PAs), 230, 231, 241 Provincial Water and Sanitation Sub-Committee (PWSSC), 117 Psychological distress, 8 Psychosocial support, 104, 107, 108, 110, 111 Public health, 308, 309 Public health, Southern Africa climate change and extreme weather events, 70 communicable diseases, 73

320 Public health, Southern Africa  (cont.) cyclones, 69 cyclones Idai and Kenneth, 77 food security, 72 HIV (PLHIV), rapid assessment, 74 HIV rapid assessment, 74, 76 human and economic losses, 73 infectious pathogens, 71 Kenneth, 70, 72, 73 mental health, 71 methods/materials, 72, 73 NCD, 71, 77 nutritional status post cyclone, 76 obstetric/neonatal, 76 obstetric/newborn care/trauma, 75 pre-cyclone, 70 psychological disorders, 77 Public Sector Investment Programme (PISP), 165 Public-Private-Partnerships (PPPs), 190 Q Quantitative data, 117 R Rainfall climatology, 39, 40 Rainfall extremes frequency analysis, 42–44 general trends, 41 Malawi, 40 patterns, 41 Rapid Impact and Needs Assessment (RINA), 296 Rapid response teams (RRTs), 126 Reconstruction, 144–148, 151–154 Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), 298 Regional Town and Country Planning (RTCP), 178 Regional Vulnerability Assessment and Analysis (RVAA), 65 Relocation, 190 Remote sensing, 212, 213, 215, 217 Resilience, 132, 136 Responsible authority district office, 111–112 Rhizophora mucronata, 273, 274 Risk Mitigation activities, 173 Riverside winter production systems, 49 Rural District Councils (RDCs), 178 Rural road infrastructure provision, 164 S Sanitation and hygiene, 119 Sanitation facilities, 118–120 School authorities, 103, 104, 106, 111 School emergency preparedness programmes, 100 Seagrasses biodiversity, 282 clams, 279 cover changes, 285

Index cultural and resource value, 282, 283 definition, 279, 280 ecosystems, 281 extreme events Cyclone Eline, 283 Inhambane Bay, 283–285 Maputo Bay, 283, 284 fauna, 285 floods, 280, 287 food security, 281, 282 global extent, 281 habitats, 280–282, 287 Halophila spp, 280 health climate, 282 land reclamation, 286 Maputo Bay, 287 marine seascape, 279–280 materials and methods, 283 meadows, 280 multiple cyclones, 283–285 natural disturbances, 287 reduction, 286 rehabilitation process, 286 species, 280 Syringodium isoetifolium, 280 Thalassodendron ciliatum, 281 Tripneustis gratilla, 284 water quality, 282 Secondary data, 183 Secondary hazards, 6 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR), 194, 267, 311 Settlement densities, 187 Settlement vulnerability, 204 Sewerage system, 119 Shelter, 179 Silvicultural management, 223, 225 Small island developing states (SIDs), 299 Socio-economic susceptibility, 196 Socio-economic vulnerabilities, 102 Social expenditure, 308 Southern African countries, 12 Southern African Development Community (SADC), 84 Spatial planning, 179, 181 Survivors, 144–149, 151–154 Sustainable development, 4, 9, 195 Sustainable development goal (SDG), 60, 61, 67, 116, 194, 267 African disaster victims/losses, 83 anthropocentric arrogance, 87 on building safe, resilient and inclusive cities, 196 child malnutrition, 88 child protection, 89–91 cultural dynamics, 91 developments, 300 DRR, 5–6, 82 floods and cyclones, 300 food security, children, 88 HSCTP, 90 impact of cyclones

Index on agriculture and public health, 7, 8 on education, water and sanitation, 8, 9 on infrastructure and settlements, 9–12 on natural resources, oceans and tourism, 12 methodology, 88 multi-sectoral approach, 86 National Development Strategy, 82 policies/frameworks/institutions, 83–86 social protection, 88, 89 and tourism, 247 tropical cyclones, 5 VNRs, 87 WASH, 90 Sustainable livelihood framework (SLF), 147 livelihood strategies, 147, 148 Sustainable management, 213 T Temporary employment, 152 Temporary latrines, 123 Temporary toilets, 123 Tent residents, 151 Terrestrial ecosystems, 213 Tertiary hazards, 6 Thalassia hemprichii, 273 ThinkHazard (web-based tool), 10, 11 Tornadoes, 162 Tourism, 311 Tourism attractions, impact of tropical Cyclone Idai accommodation facilities, 259, 260 crisis management, 248 damaged infrastructure, 246, 248, 253, 255, 260, 261 data collection, 251 destruction of bridges, 257 downstream river beds, 256 economies, 247 field observations, 251 flowering plants and ferns, 249 forests, 249, 252 GIS applications, 251 golf course, 253, 254 ICTs, 258, 259 industry and tourists demand infrastructure, 246 investments in lodge accommodation, 260 marketing of touristic products, 248 mixed methods research design, 249 plantations, 256 power, 258 qualitative research, 249 routes, bridges, 257 sampling strategy, 250 slope failure affects settlements, 256 temporary bridge, 257, 258 Tessa’s Pool resorts, 253–255 tourist attractions in Chimanimani, 251–253 water supply, 256 Tourism industry availability of power, 259 good transport infrastructure, 257

321 ICT, 259 impact of disasters, 247 information-intensive industry, 249 physical and biological environmental features, 259 risk-averse industry, 248 road transport, 246 and tourism, 259 and tourists demand infrastructure, 246 Tourist attractions in Chimanimani, 251–253 Tourist housing infrastructure, 261 Traditional leaders (TL), 178, 188 Transport infrastructures data on infrastructure damages, 167 description, 160 extreme weather events, 160 cold wave, fog, snowstorms and avalanches, 161 flooding and heavy rain, 161 hailstorms, thunderstorm and dust storms, 162 heat waves and droughts, 162 in planning and implementing transport, 173 policy and legislative framework aviation, 162 modes, 162 rail network, 162 the Roads Act, 163 Rural District Councils Act, Chapter (29:13), 163, 164 2012 National Transport Policy, 162–164 polyvalent, 161 research methodology, 166 road network in Chimanimani, 166 rural road infrastructure provision and maintenance, 164, 165 as transport-land-use relationship, 161 transport system, 161 types, 160 Transportation industry, 249 Transportation systems, 160, 162 Travelled distance, 161 Tropical Cyclone Eline, 273, 286 Tropical cyclones, 308 commercial plantations, 219 DRR and SDG achievement, 4–7 Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe, 212 extreme weather, 3, 211 forest and plantation ecosystems, 213, 215 frequency and intensity, 212 hazards, 3 impact of cyclones, 211 impacts (see Impacts of tropical cyclones) management practices, 212 occurrence, 4 on plantation and forest ecosystem productivity, 214–215 physical forests, 222 primary hazards, 6 rainfall, 212 remote sensing, 215 risk in Southern Africa, 11

Index

322 Tropical cyclones  (cont.) secondary hazards, 6 on school children’s performance, 98 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, 5 socioeconomic consequences, 4 tertiary hazards, 6 vulnerability, 4 winds and heavy rainfall, 98 Tropical cyclones idai agribusiness, 21 agriculture, 20 Arable land damaged, 26 cash crop, 19–21, 30, 32, 33 Chimanimani, 21, 23 Chipinge, 23 climate, 21, 22 commercial crop irrigation, 32 cotton, 25 damage crops, 23 damage recovery, 32, 33 definition, 19 farming crops, 29 fruit trees, 26, 27 hectarage, 24, 25 losses, small-scale irrigations schemes, 31 materials/methods, 23 post-cyclone surveys, 22 Vernonanthura polyanthes, 30 water logging, 32 wild trees, 28 Tropical cyclones idai, Zimbabwe, see Tropical cyclones idai Tsunami disaster, 144 Tsunamis, 245 U United Nations (UN), 267 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), 83 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), 267 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 84, 173 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 268 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 267 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR), 132 Urban food systems accessibility, 44 Bangwe food and agricultural system, 46 Blantyre and Chikwawa rural, 43 carbohydrates foods, 49 eggs, 47 food types in Magalasi village, 43, 45 government officials, 46 in Bangwe Township, 44 origin/source, 44 Southern Region, 48 Urbanisation, 36, 196

Urban–rural linkages, 36 V Ventilated improved pit (VIP), 118 Vernonanthura polyanthes, 29 VIIRS nightlight satellite imagery, 246 Village health workers (VHWs), 127 Village Pump Minders (VPMs), 122 Voluntary national reviews (VNRs), 87 Vulnerabilities, 145 and adaptation, 197 community, 194 definition, 194 disaster, 195 hydro-climatic induced hazards, 195 impacts of cyclones, 3, 4 poverty, 196 reduction measures, 99 settlement type in Chimanimani, 204 (see also Cyclone Idai in Chimanimani and Chipinge) settlements, 195 socio-cultural and political explanation, 196 W WASH interventions, 121 WASH Sector Coordination and Information Forum (WSCIF), 125 WASH structures, 125 Water-borne diseases, 118 Water closets, 119 Water Point Committees (WPCs), 122, 123 Water quality surveillance, 122 Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), 9, 73, 84, 90, 117 Welthungerhilfe (WHH), 108 Winds and torrential rainfall, 308 World Bank study, 293 World Food Programme (WFP), 62, 63, 65, 84 World Health Organization (WHO), 84 Y Yogyakarta earthquake, 150 Z Zimbabwe, 160 companies, contributed road equipment, 168, 172 government response to infrastructural damage, 167, 168, 170–172 Manicaland Province, 160 policy and institutional framework for disaster, 169 road authorities, 164 transport infrastructure, 160 (see also Transport infrastructures) transport sector, modes, 162 Zimbabwe National Roads Administration (ZINARA), 165 Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (ZPWMA), 232