Culture As Capital : Selected Essays, 2011-2014 [1 ed.] 9783832589431, 9783832538996

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Slavko Kacunko

Culture as Capital Selected Essays 2011–2014

λογος

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de .

© Copyright Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH and Slavko Kacunko 2015 © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2015 für die Werke von Dieter Kiessling, Les Levine und Matthias Neuenhofer. All rights reserved.

Translations and copy-editing: Sarita Fae Jarmack, Stephen Reader, Helen Shiner, Beth Thomas. Layout: Florian Hawemann. Cover image: Sabine Kacunko. This visualization shows the famous north-west façade of Coliseum in Rome at sunset.

ISBN 978-3-8325-3899-6

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Table of Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1. Introduction: Cultural turn and speculative capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.1 Correlation matrix and speculative reason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.2 Temporality and process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 PART ONE Art history and its threshold: process art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2. Roads to recursion. Some historiographical remarks on a core category of process art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.1 Closed circuit as an open system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.2 Closed-circuit recursions in the roaring nineties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.3 Closed circuit beyond digital dogma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Video as medium of speculative seeing and hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Video as a function of reality. Peter Campus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Bill Viola’s closed circuit video, 1972–76. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Patterns of transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4. Process art in education, research and archiving. Two case studies. . . . . . . . 75 4.1 Video art at the Düsseldorf Art Academy, 1976–96: the educational and technological context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 4.2 Finite technology and aesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 4.3 Caught while escaping: a personal retro-perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.4 Process art, archives and databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.5 Process art in networked research communities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 PART TWO Visual culture and its threefold delimitation: mirrors, frames, immediacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 5. Mirroring the invisible. Culture, technology and (self-)observation . . . . . . 117 5.1 Mirror and image: the extension of light and mirror spectra . . . . . . . . . . . 121 5.2 Liquid mirrors: art and commerce, nature and architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . 125

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6. Margins moved to the middle. Process art within visual studies . . . . . . . . . 133 6.1 Visual culture and visual communication: theoretical framing . . . . . . . . . 133 6.2 Process art and the syntax of dynamisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 6.3 Camera. Monitor. Frame. Takahiko Iimura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 7. On speculative difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 7.1 Framing fossils: on origins, images and acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 7.2 Will the image have the last word? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 PART THREE Tracking back and look ahead: heritage and environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 8. Culture as capital in media democracy. Envisioning the post-visual condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 8.1 The political economy of the game: aleatoric agony. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 8.2 Mirroring the mass-mediation: the democratization of photography. . . . . 192 8.3 Speculative difference revisited: Magic realism and rational symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 9. Great Dane meets Dalmatian. Ejnar Dyggve and the mapping of Christian archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 9.1 Frames and frontiers, crossroads and continuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 9.2 Mapping motifs and methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 9.3 The beginnings of architectural historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 9.4 Province, frontier, periphery: mapping the cultures between Jelling and Salona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 9.5 Rewind to the future: recent research on Dyggve in context . . . . . . . . . . . 260 10. Coreless. Bacteria, art, and other incommodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 10.1 Big bacteria: a future framework for the arts, sciences and humanities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 10.2 aesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 List of Illustrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 References by Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Bibliography by Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Author’s references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

Preface The chapters of this book were written over the past three years for art historians, media theorists, and for students of art history and visual and modern culture. Given their respective tacit knowledge of the transitional and process nature of art and culture, these groups of readers’ premises and approaches to often the same material can differ greatly. This collection of essays itself constitutes and and methods accompanying the transition process in which concepts of culture and capital cross, axes, as it were, of the historical and the geographical. Secondly, the thresholds encountered between the European and American way of life and thought as represented in the German speaking Central-European realm and the English-speaking North-West are a concomitant of the interplay of diverse circumstances. That process has its microcosm in the transitions of the present author’s working places where the various chapters of this book have been conceived and written (following the physical transition from Western to Eastern Germany and Denmark, the full circle having begun, ultimately, in Croatia). Thirdly and not least, most of the texts collected here were not originally conceived, as they so often are, as conference papers or for an edited collection, even if they have found their place in such contexts. They have been selected from a range of papers written in this period because of their coherence (as discerned in retrospect) in terms of the three major themes they address. In many ways they represent a further contextualizing of some of the issues developed in Closed Circuit Videoinstallations (2004) and Spiegel Medium Kunst (2010), seeking to explore the grounds of today’s challenges in art history and visual culture via three main concerns. art history copes with what I call process art. The process art arise ex negativo out of the process of its very emergence. Its performance, installation, video, (hyper-)text and audio manifestations reveal a kind of coreless core or in other words, closed circuit arrangements. The second concern is the process of becoming of what I regard as the triple bind of visual culture studies. Mirrors, frames and immediacy appear as both a cause and effect of that coreless core, which I argue provides the wider intellectual context for many of the themes associated with vision and visuality. The third concern tracks research revolving around that coreless core (or ‘nothing’) and the steadily increasing correlation to relations between culture and capital, heritage and environment, and, ultimately,

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PREFACE

the entirely consistent trespassing of the (in)visible cultural/-natural threshold by bacteria, the coreless beings par excellence. The present volume proposes a process in which, inevitably, recursions within recursions abound, of progress and regress alike; a process for which a systematic representation has yet to be found. It traces cultural cohesion such as emerges in the wake of a peak of corresponding diffusion – a process in time, between borders, provinces and peripheries as interfaces where culture and capital dissolve. The ideas expressed in this are directly bound up with my previous writings, and I have often made reference to these. I hope the reader will forgive such frequent self-referencing, which is intended as a mode of providing backing for claims that otherwise cannot be exhaustively defended within the set frame. In some cases, recent essays are collected here not least because several chapters have not been published in their entirety before. Those that have been fully puban overview of the work and especially of its underlying coherence. Finally, only a few of the included essays have appeared in English before while some of them represented here. Apart from restoring the unpublished full text of several essays, a number of cross-references and explanations have been added to highlight links between them. My own bibliography is therefore listed separately at the end of the volume, while each chapter is closed with references and a list of quoted literature relating exclusively to that chapter. This is designed to render the sources quotable, which is regarded as a sounder method for the readers’ orientation than to fake an My work in the three mentioned interrelated areas has been sustained through the support of many friends and colleagues and numerous discussions of these issues with them. To them I have a special debt and they will recognize many of the concerns addressed here. I would also like to acknowledge the contribution of professors Hans Körner (Düsseldorf), Martin Lang (Osnabrück) and Tilman Baumgärtel (Berlin/Mainz) who read the manuscript and made helpful editing suggestions. In addition I must acknowledge the support of my colleagues from pecially of my colleagues and students at the Department’s section of Art History and Visual Culture for both their encouragement and tolerance for some of my ventures. I would also like to thank colleagues and students at the Osnabrück and incorporated into this book. Finally, thanks are due to my family, especially to

Acknowledgements Chapter 1. ‘Introduction: Cultural Turn & Speculative Capital’ has been written for this occasion and has not been previously published. Chapter 2. ‘Roads to Recursion. Some Historiographical Remarks on a Core Category of Process Art’ was originally published in Icono14 – Online Journal of Communication and Emergent Technologies vol 12, no. 2 (2014), pp. 70–85 [http:// dx.doi.org/10.7195/ri14.v12i2.682]. Reprinted by permission of the editors.

version of the lecture held at the Academy of the Arts in Berlin within the program of the exhibition Schwindel der Wirklichkeit on October 15th 2014. Chapter 4. ‘Process Art in Education, Research & Archiving. Two Cases’ is a

reader Die Geschichte der Kunstakademie Düsseldorf seit 1945 (Deutscher Kunstverlag Berlin & Munich, 2014), but was not published. Because of the obvious importance of the topics, which widely surmounts the individual and local interests, German text here for the international audience. The second part takes up the last two sections and was originally published as ‘Archives, Data Bases and Processual Arts’ in van der Meijden P & J Fleischer & A Lumbye Sørensen (eds.), Arkiver i kunst og visuel kultur (IKK, Copenhagen 2013), pp. 218–46. Reprinted by permission of the editors. Chapter 5. ‘Mirroring the Invisible. Culture, Technology, (Self-)Observation’ is a longer version of a keynote lecture held at The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters in Copenhagen on June 21st 2012 as a contribution to the Second Conference of the Research Network Negotiating (In)Visibilities (IKK, Copenhagen). It was originally published as Slavko Kacunko, ‘Mirroring the Invisible’ in H Steiner & K Veel (eds.) 2015, Invisibility Studies: Surveillance, Transparency and the Hidden in Contemporary Culture (Peter Lang, 2015). Chapter 6. ‘Margins moved to the Middle. Process Art in Visual Studies’ is a longer version of a lecture held at the international conference Framings (IKK,

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Copenhagen) on November 30th 2013. It was subsequently published in Harlizius-Klück, E. & S. Kacunko & H. Körner (eds.), Framings (Düsseldorf 2015, forthcoming). Reprinted by permission of the editors. Chapter 7. ‘On Speculative Difference’ is an extended version of a lecture held at the closing seminar of the international lecture series Bildwissenschaft & Visual Culture (IKK & KADK Copenhagen) on September 10th 2014 and at the seminar Det digitale subjekt (research group Digi-Comm, Department of Nordic Studies

Chapter 8. ‘Culture as Capital in Media Democracy. Envisioning the post visual Condition’ has not been previously published. Chapter 9. ‘Great Dane meets Dalmatian. Ejnar Dyggve and the Mapping of Christian Archaeology’ was originally published in Quadratura – Writings in Danish art history, a series released by the Danish Art Historian Society. Available online mission of the editors. Chapter 10. ‘Coreless. Bacteria, Art, and other Incommodities’ is a merger of two Bacteria: A future Framework for Arts, Sciences and Humanities’ summarizes my recent and current collaboration research and has not tion is a revised and translated version of the essay ‘Das Leben, der Tod und die Staubige Wiedergeburt: Zur Vermittlung von Bo(o)tschaften zwischen Kunst und W Sützl (eds), ‘Potenziale digitaler Medienkunst’ in Medienimpulse. Beiträge zur Medienpädagogik 2 (2014), a series released by the Austrian ministry for education, art and culture, Vienna. Available online [http://www.medienimpulse.at/ articles/view/622]. Reprinted by permission of the editors.

1. Introduction. Cultural turn and speculative capital The following ten chapters present elements of what has been, for me, a continuous and coherent process of crossing the disciplines of art history and comparative media-, visual- and -cultural studies. In what follows, I interpret this project as a cesses, including what I will term, process art. Process art is a term, which I have recently found, by coincidence, is also being used by art historian, Martin Kemp. argumentation is similar to mine. For Kemp (and for me), “art based on process, particularly if the visual results are ephemeral, is clearly dependent for its longterm survival on the modern media of visual recording. Process art tunes in complex ways into our media and our ways of articulating our relationship with nature. It is clearly one of the most potent options for the future of an engaged visual art.” (Kemp 2011, p. 391) It is notable that Kemp uses the same context to criticise recent narratives employed within visual culture studies about the ubiquity of images. For him, this ubiquity was “not a new aspiration, or even an unprecedented achievement, but the spread of those who can aspire to generate images is something different.” (384). In the same manner, according to Kemp, ‘process’ was also given a “fresh prominence” in spite of its well-known, widespread usage before the age of computers. The omnipresence of software and its underlying digital code, however, has induced some representatives of software studies and digital ‘media art’ to claim that software is the ‘materia prima’ of our global information society. Gerfried Stocker pointed out in 2003 that, in the meantime, “the central discourse about the processuality of media art and the accompanying shift of valence from object to dynamic system have retreated into the background.”1 What for Stocker represented the then current dominant concept of data (a notion still in circulation under the heading of ‘big data’), can also in its turn, ten years later, be seen to have taken a back seat. This is not to suggest that the silent ‘culture wars’ between like will discontinue. Important in this context is that research has been able, in the meantime, to retrace the global genealogy of previous (new) media art more hype. Our perspective is supplemented by profound and increasing knowledge about both analogous predecessors and successors in the digital realm. (cf. Kroker

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1997, 2001 & 2014) By the same token, earlier questions about the ‘digitalibility’ of ‘image’ belong, in my opinion, to an obsolete, or perhaps better, rhetorical category as is the case with issues around the ‘programmability’ of ‘art’. (cf. Manovich 1997 & 2001; cf. Ch. 4.) Peter Weibel admitted in 2000 (as had Lev Manovich in 2001, albeit less directly) that differentiation between ‘analogue’ and ‘digital’ with respect to ‘old’ and ‘new’ media within the arts exhibit “philosophical inconsistencies”; he also claims that “ultimately every continuous, analogue process is divisible into the smallest discontinuous parts, much as a continuous line can be constructed out of discontinuous points […] and this is exactly what the digital art does; digitally presenting analogue, natural processes, or creating analogue images from digits.” (Weibel 2000, pp. 206–207)2 A third aspect in Kemp’s work, that coincides with my own research, and that deserves to be mentioned here, is that, in the same, rather brief article, he cites the case of an artist who was known for his artwork, in which bacteria ‘ate’ pieces by famous modern artists.3 This addresses another logical step in artistic, inherent within, process art. These three coincidental aspects – Kemp’s critique of the ‘sudden’ ubiquity of images, his reference to digital media, and his use of examples involving bacteria as he elucidates his conception of their parallels in my project and my analyses of what I have been terming ‘bacteria art’ for some ten years now – will be developed in some detail in the three parts of this volume. process art as a model for art history’s most imform and of its conceptualisation by means of mirrors, frames and immediacy, a threefold delimitation of visual culture. Finally, bacteria art will be envisioned as a model and future project, with a view to considering issues of heritage and environment both retrospectively and into the future. Aside from the above-mentioned features, the concept of process art, as Linda Nochlin puts it, departs from, “the naïve idea that art is the direct, personal expression of individual emotional experience, a translation of personal life into visual terms. Art is almost never that, great art never is.” (Nochlin 1971) At the contemporary art and capital has been examined by many artists in both critical and positive terms for quite some time now, which makes both historical and contemporary analysis more complicated. However, the connection between (contemporary) art and culture and capital remains rather opaque, as Julian Stallabrass notes, “According to this standard view, art works are only incidentally products that are made, purchased, and displayed, being

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centrally the airy vehicles of ideas and emotions, the sometimes stern, sometimes gentle taskmasters of self-realization.” (Stallabrass 2006, p. 6) The concept of process art, therefore, also departs from the collective and demotic self-referential ‘contemporary’ discourse, whereby the conservation of art and culture; the way it is curated and managed; the focuses placed on it; and the development of cultural preferences do not reveal to us who precisely is the collective subject of the above-mentioned cultural practices. Both culture and capital obfuscate the matter reciprocally. The concept of process art further diverges from both the liberal, optimistic view and from the less optimistic neoliberal one. According to P. Gielen and P. De Bruyne, what they term the ‘catering regime’ under neo-liberal conditions, “gives the customers the impression that they can choose anything they like, made to their own measure, while in fact it delivers mass-produced, standardized products.” (Gielen and De Bruyne 2012a, p. 5) To imagine and critically conceive culture as capital does not necessitate adopting either an explicitly optimistic or a pessimistic vision. The point is to construct a minimum level of reliable reproducibility whilst, at the same time, resisting neo-liberalist bureaucracy and its “fundamentalism of measurability.” (4) process art departs from ‘creativity’ and ‘subjectivity’, both in the anthropological and cultural sense. This is why the transposition of the supposed incompatibility of the intention and perception modes to the perceiver (cf. W. Kemp, W. Iser and the concept of ‘reception aesthetics’) cannot solve the problem. Although the ‘presentational arts’ (Morse 1998)4 are certainly ical tool for their interpretation, in the same way that oxymoronic constructions like ‘performative installation’ do not help us grasp the meaning of process art. (Plodeck 2010) The problems that emerge between the concepts of processuality and intentionality had been introduced by the art historian, Michael Baxandall as early as the mid-1980s as a methodological approach to resolve the impasse of the ‘aesthetics of work’, in order to measure what might potentially fall under the category of ‘process art’. His arguments against a static interpretation of interpretable, artistic intention led him to eschew what was assumed (hermeneutically) to be the inherent intention of the ‘work’, that is, the ‘image’ seen as parts of a whole, with the result that we “are not dealing here with one sole intention, but with apparent sequence of developing intention moments. […] And if we cannot retell the process either, we can postulate it. A certain process may not be reconstructible, but the basic assumption that a process has taken place can be very essential for the presentation of intention in a particular image.” (Baxandall 1990, p. 107)5 This is the last ‘disclaimer’ with which I wish to preface this introduction. I agree with

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Whitney Davis in his refusal of what he calls ‘intentionalist fallacies’ within art history and visual culture. I doubt, however, that the behaviourists’ approach – despite its advantages in many cases (cf. Chapter 7) – can either resolve the problems that result from the prophecies of adherents of image and media ubiquity, nor can it offer keys to the spaces between process art, corresponding concepts and other related phenomena covered in this book. On the other hand, neither the mutual non-reducibility of the visual, culture, economy and society to one another, nor an image of “apparently miraculous, nondetermined, and asocial nature of artistic achievement” (Nochlin 1971) seems to offer an appropriate approach. In order to state my standpoint in positive terms, the two introductory sections will outline the necessary frames of references. They are designed, not least, to assist the reader, prior to reading the essays in the following chapters, with their inevitably changing densities.

1.1 Correlation matrix and speculative reason Over the past few decades, many commentators on contemporary culture, media and art have offered diverse descriptions of the dominant, omni-regulating, neo-liberal production, reception and distribution regimes.6 These regimes have been recently, ing deemed “the actual everyday implementation of a political agenda.” (Gielen and De Bruyne 2012, p. 4) As an off-shoot of the marriage between globalisation and neo-liberalisation, this regime generates cultural homogeneity (8) masked as cultural diversity. Cultures reduced to their exchange value function, in fact, as capital, The logic of capital”, states art historian, Stallabrass accordingly, “churns up all material, bodies, cultures, .” (Stallabrass 2006, p. 124) Many other commentators on contemporary culture often concur in their demand for ‘realism’ in response to prevalent cynicism.7 tioned critics are among the proponents of Speculative Realism, a loose group of philosophers, who manage to navigate the distractions and diversionary tactics of the cultural regime, reconnecting them with the ‘deep distraction’ generated by the Kantian and postlassoux, Ray Brassier, Graham Harman, Ian Grant and Levi Bryant belong to this group of contemporary thinkers, which is representative of a much wider circle, essence, they deny recognising discourse, text, culture, consciousness, power, or

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ideas as crucial constituents of reality. They designate this tendency in philosophy, the arts and cultural studies, still dominant in academic circles, as anti-realistic, and they claim that the corresponding trends of phenomenology, deconstructionism, structuralism, post-structuralism, and the requirements of much-vaunted anti-humanism. Humanity, for them, remains at the centre of things, whilst reality, in accordance with the Kantian turn, appears only as the correlate of human thought. Meillassoux termed this anti-realist trend ‘ the idea according to which we only ever have access to the correlation between thinking and being, and never to either term considered apart from the other.” (Meillassoux 2008, p. 5) The ‘speculative’ nature of the realism espoused by the above-named, younger generation of thinkers lies in its abandoning of the critical, linguistic and, implicitly, I would argue, of iconic and – still foundational to Deleuze’s thinking – appear as role models for the anti-realist science, and its focus on language, culture, and subjectivity. (Bryant et al. 2011, p. 4) Aside from the consequences of current object-oriented philosophy for the cultural and visual turns of the recent present, the essays included in this book will address other implications of a consequent refusal of the Kantian subject-oriented turn and its blind alley of intersubjectivity. In Bryant’s object-oriented ontology, objects or substances are thus conceived as “difference generators consisting of endo-relational struc.” (13) Since making the difference is such a speculative assumption, it seems to me to be an appropriate way also to address issues raised in the present volume. “While it is true that everything visible is becoming, it is not true that all becoming is visible.” (Grant 2006, p. 44., quoted after Harman 2011, p. 26.) Ian which are discussed at various points within this book. The irreducibility of phenomena applies, for Graham Harman, not least to ‘pure’ difference as conceived by Deleuze. But all anti-object strategies of discrediting objects and reducing “reality to a single radix, with everything else reduced to dust” (Harman 2011, p. 24) carry with them insoluble problems. Apart from Harman’s slight underestimating of the ‘dust’ as such and as metaphor (cf. Chapter 10), I believe his critique of the philosophies of difference as conceptual idealism remains valid, “Contrary to what correlationists proclaim, the presupposition of this difference is not a dogmatic prejudice in need of critical legitimation. Quite the reverse: it is the assumption that the difference between concept and object is always internal to the concept – that every difference is ultimately conceptual

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– that needs to be defended. For to assume that the difference between concept and object can only be internal to the concept is to assume that concepts furnish self-evident indexes of their own reality and internal structure [...] an assumption that then seems to license the claim that every difference in reality is a conceptual difference. The latter of course provides the premise for conceptual idealism, understood as the claim that reality is composed of concepts – precisely the sort of metaphysical claim which correlationism is supposed to abjure.” (56) The concept of the ambivalence of objects, seen simultaneously as autonomous and as interconnected entities, is also defended by Ray Brassier. He additionally argues for an avoidance of the unambiguous collapse of being, meaning and thinking proposed by Deleuze. In the case of such cognitivism, which is, in principle, deeply cognophobic, “ index of reality […] by re-injecting thought directly into being so as to obtain the non-representational intuition of being as real difference.” (48) In Brassier’s analysis, the basis of Deleuze and Latour’s post-modern scenario lacks a distinction between the noumenal and phenomenal, and the real and virtual, which means that it is similarly anti‘irreductionism’ in particular presents the “urbane face of post-modern irrationalism.” (51) By reducing reason to taste, science to force and practical competence (and art to craft), Latour shrinks the argument by means of his recourse to master metaphors, such as ‘actor’, ‘ally’, ‘force’, ‘power’, ‘strength’, ‘resistance’, and ‘network’ (Latour 1993 and Chapter 10). The genuinely postmodern (if we may permit ourselves such a contradictio in adjecto) and cognophobic aspects of Latour’s project are his attempts “to liquidate epistemology by dissolving representation” and ultimately “to reassure those who do not really want to know.” (52)8 Nick Srnicek concurs with both Brassier and Laruelle in his analysis of the critique of both Derrida’s différance and Deleuze’s intensive difference by underlying their inevitable idealism. (Srnicek 2011, p. 166) The latter stems, I should add, from Deleuze’s habilitation thesis, in which he presents that iconic difference would emerge once the speculative difference between image is the contribution made by the early work of Deleuze and Guattari in providing us “with the most explicit model of how structure,” programmed to reproduce its vital functions, which “unify the disparate social practices into a coherent whole.” (174, cf. Deleuze and Guattari 1983) The homogenising forces of global capital today accordingly manifest themselves, as art historian, Hans Belting remarks, in the form of “difference labelled as

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a foreign culture,” which “has become marketable and thus an entrance ticket for newcomers to the art market.” (Belting 2009, p. 3) Because cultural difference is now so readily marketable, the issue seems no longer to be its supposed invisibility, but rather an “excess visibility” (Stallabrass 2006, p. 25) Homogeneity, reproduced Julian Stallabrass states, “in much prominent global art, [where] identities parade for the entertainment of cosmopolitan viewers. Features of cultural mixing, irony, and the overt performance of identity are comforting to the Western eye, which [as 9 controversially argues] is only secure with otherness as long as it is not really other.” (47) Culture as capital ultimately appears in this form as an agent of global concerns, where free trade and independent art act in conjunction with one another. (4) Stallabrass, accordingly describes the link between the economic expressions of neo-liberalism (greater inequality), its political expression (deregulation and privatisation), and its cultural expression (an unrestrained consumerism). The mentioned fundamentalism of measurability thereby meets the ineffability of art works, already theoretically prepared by the theories of irreducibility, univocity and so on, just outlined above.10 Pressurised by media democracy and its near relation, ‘mass culture’, the postmodern farewell to the link between art and aesthetics leads to a sublimation of commodities, which function “like evanescent cultural moves within a sophisticated, self-referential game.” (51) The “tamed postmodernism” remains a mere, “ reality” operating under circumstances dictated by corporate culture, and brought about, not least, by digital capitalism. (53, 54, cf. Schiller 1999) By following, and reproducing, the cultural turn, the rhetoric of cultural mix and hybridism is disseminated today primarily in its crossing of trade barriers on the surface of the global tectonic adjournment of process art resists this pressure, despite, nonetheless, not being protected from regulations and incorretroanalytical term, process art also seems to open up an historical perspective beyond an obvious contemporary connectedness of culture and capital, while continuing to have an effect on contemporary circumstances.

1.2 Temporality and process Thus, this addresses one of the important unresolved issues facing the new realisms and materialisms, which seek to depart from the impasses of the correlationists, as can be seen in the thought of Husserl, Heidegger, Bergson, Sartre, Derrida and Deleuze. The central moment of temporality in their philosophical work calls

18

for a realistic retroanalysis of the respective concepts, and of contemporary cultural, artistic and it seems that the more recent theorists of speculative realism and materialism have also failed to theorise the implications of succession for their object-oriented pervisual images and pictorial representation with their comparable impasses as soon as they are confronted with succession, process and temporality. Whitney Davis (2011) alluded to productivity of succession in the creation and resolution of the visual, both inside and outside of the cultural realm. What is still lacking, is, however, a reconsideration of image discourse in respect of the under-theorised media and allied processes within the context of the arts, sciences and cultural studies. In his early analysis, David Harvey established the “necessary relation” between “a new round of ‘time-space compression’ in the organization of capitalism” and the “rise of postmodernist cultural forms. fundamental aspect of capitalist accumulation. (Harvey 1990, p. VII) The ‘timespace compression’ as manifested in the form of image and image-based arts, such as painting and photography again remain underexposed in recent attempts at retroanalytical critique. The current situation for art history as a discipline is, in fact, recognised as representational of the “aftermath of the crisis of medium that has been played out in recent art and its associated discourse.” (Hawker 2009, p. 280) The response to that status quo has, however, not been distilled either from the realm of process art or with regard to everything that we know about the media involved. Conversely, Hawker claims that “at a time when there is no common understanding of the relationship between media and disciplines in art, perhaps all that remains is is the only relationship of which we can be certain.” (ibidem) The rhetoric of this and similar agnosticism is quite closely reminiscent of the above-mentioned postmodernist and correlationist approaches. Terry Smith conversely outlines his own research interest in a more optimistic and “multi-scalar perspective of worldswithin-the-World,” in which (in spite of) ‘time-space compression’, contemporary art offers the potential for an “increased awareness of co-temporality.” (Smith 2013, p. 5) According to Smith, “this multi-scalar picture […] recognizes the differential rates of their movement through actual time, and the mobility of those whose lives weave between and through them. When it comes to individual and collective experience, antinomial friction is the most striking feature of relationships between people and their worlds, however persistent everydayness might be.” (11) Although this diagnosis seems accurate – not least in its carrying of an implicit critique of the underlying problem, as overseen from the control room of

19

the global cultural turn, and although the calls to shut down biennial exhibitions appear logical within that context (12), an even more relevant question perhaps remains unasked: to what extent will the exhibitions and museums as conveyors of art and culture – still be able to retain their unquestioned place within our notion of ‘contemporaneity’ in the future? Whilst there is no room here to address institutional debates about (con) temporality as a process in respect of process art. In my view, the concept of process art exhibits a more complicated relationship to process philosophy, as it was conceived by Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947), and to his “epochal theory of time,” which the English philosopher and mathematician devised between 1925 and 1929.11 The concept of presentation, as a subjective experiencing of what is perceived, was counterposed by him with a concept of representation that conveyed repetition in the form of an archetypal image relationship. Whitehead argued for the latter. The supposed impossibility of the distinction between inlevel. The ratio of the immediate experience of time, the “presentational immediacy” as he puts it, is interrelated, I would argue, with the perception of process art. How then can this relationship be interpreted as a continuum of extensive relations, and how might they be made detectable by the senses and be reproducible for an outsider? Incidentally, this question addresses the decisive methodological claim that only reproducible subjects, objects and relations can be the subject of what follows, making reference to corresponding concepts and phenomena. Equally, I ought to declare another methodological assumption from the start, that is, that the present approach does not propose to counterpose ( subjectivity, but rather the opposite. The underlying relative objectivity, won by means of a comparison undertaken in an appraisal of qualities, relations and modalities. To put it rather less abstractly, Whitehead’s notion of ‘presentational immediacy’ as discussed in his Process and Reality (1929), should be understood, within the context of perception of process art, not as representation, but as presentation. We are not dealing here with the reproduction of an image. What is perceived as an ‘image’ is shifted relative to its context. Hence the term ‘presentation’ hints at what we call ‘experience’, while the latter always represents for Whitehead an emergent, ‘creative’ process, which reveals respective ‘subjectivity’. I need to emphasise here that I neither follow Whitehead nor his contemporary adherents (Stengers, Shaviro), since I reject the idea of art

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and culture, as expression of the inner self and similar concepts. I agree with process philosophy as comprising of static instances. Equally, I see no potential for process art and philosophy either in merging the thought of Whitehead and Deleuze, as Isabelle Stengers has proposed in her “cosmo-politic” plea for a “speculative constructivism” (cf. Stengers 2008), or in the ensuing calls for a joint ‘reading’ of Whitehead and Deleuze, as proposed by Stephen Shaviro. (cf. Shaviro 2011) “A legitimate project of constructing an unconditional and universal rational knowledge of the real,” as Gabriel Catren puts it, “will remain intrinsically limited by a transcendental anthropocentrism if the subject of dental’ conditions of research.” (Catren 2011, p. 334) In other words, under the cultural regime of capital and corresponding, correlationist thought, the tensions touched upon in this introduction will be more appropriately addressed in combination with suitable artistic, cultural and retroanalysis of process art starting from a historiographical perspective and then continuing to look at educational and technical aspects. In so doing, I tend to differ from most current discussions, in which these emphases are reversed. The tendency of those working in general media aesthetics to return to art theories, seen as foundational, prevents them, in most cases, from achieving a clear view of the interplay of various related sub-genres, which manifest themselves in a variety of artistic practices. The theory and history of process art, which aims to encompass both old and new media art, must, therefore, include retroanalytic steps to approximation in a critical balance to the futuro-synhistoriographical remarks on importance of such installations as a core category of process art. Closed-circuit video installations are, secondly, taken as a point of departure for the categorisation and revaluation of archiving and accessibility. The second essay will then take an individual retroanalytic look at the barely known, early closed-circuit video installations of the most prominent living video artist, Bill Viola. I have chosen his work as a case study, in order to demonstrate the deception that it would be merely an exemplar for any master concept taken outside its essay written from a retro-perspective, this time dealing with more general, albeit equally precisely envisioned frameworks for, and educational contexts of, video art in the video art in Europe. In the second part, the problems of process art, seen as a threshold of art history, are further examined in another retroanalytical step, in which concepts

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and objects related to ‘mirror’, ‘frame’ and ‘immediacy’ are analysed as the triple delimitation of visual culture approaches in respect of mirror research exists as a conscious-creating instance in its basic understanding of the mirror. Its appropriateness in respect of phenomena that manifest within the context of archiving media (image and text) results from is one result. Yet the nature as medium of the mirror ensues from its undeniable transmitting property, which is not shared by storage media. That ricochets through media theory, theories of art and culture and through cultural storage media, the mirror must be comprehended as a transmitting medium, one which bears far-reaching consequences for media theory, theories of art and culture, and for historiography. This is the subject of Chapter 5. In it, I explicitly introduce the ‘speculative difference’ between image and mirror, in order to characterise an immanentistic understanding of the image, that is to say, its ‘iconic difference.’ Seen from a media-technological perspective, analysis of video feedback. This is the focus of Chapter 6, in conjunction with a discussion of the ‘asemiotic’ nature of (electronic) mirrors. In Chapter 7, a significant example of ancient tool-making reveals its origins to be material and media on the surface of speculative difference. The concept of ‘speculative difference’ itself points to some constants within recent debates, parallelisms and divergences between visual culture studies and Bildwissenschaft. The focus of the essay is primarily a consideration of Horst Bredekamp’s theory of the ‘image act’. In the third part, previously outlined manifestations of what I term the ‘post-visual condition’ are summarised. In Chapter 8, several additional artistic examples are used as case studies in a deeper historical, economic and cultural frameworks of media, which have jointly informed the current (mis-)understanding of culture as capital. An important comparative, cultural perspective is examined in the following, longer essay dedicated to the needs ten Danish architect and archaeologist, who would ultimately become one of the most cited pioneers in the comparative cultural studies of mid-twentieth century Europe – Ejnar Dyggve. I go on to summarise obvious arguments for ‘digging Dyggve’ today and to propose steps towards an interdisciplinary research program that might revaluate early medieval art history and Christian archaeology across arts, sciences and humanities, which might employ bacteria as agents of invisible, yet sensible and immensely productive processes. This I regard as the logical

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chapters of this book. The quantity, qualities, relations and modalities of bacteria are outlined, demonstrating that they form an indispensable knowledge category (bacteria as epistemic objects, material and media). I discuss methods for acquiring this knowledge (bacteria as epistemic tools for analysis and synthesis), their function as agents and agencies (bacteria as epistemic subjects of historicising and experimentation). Part, chapter and section all conclude with a particular focus on a model case study.

PART ONE Art history and its threshold: process art

2. Roads to recursion. Some historiographical remarks on a core category of process art In trying to establish a new historiography of media, all agents and agencies involved would be well advised to repeatedly reconsider and adjust their ideas, in practice. In what follows, I use analogue and digital media art as historical models in order to make some recursive observations12 on the ‘newness’ of media within the historiographical context. The closed circuit, as a core category for the historiography of both media art and ‘new’ media will be examined.

2.1 Closed circuit as an open system is a useful point of departure when discussing the historiography of ‘video art’ and of ‘media art’ as a whole. In this closed-cir2

In applying the term ‘feedback’ to both closed-circuit media art (‘geschlossenen Kreislauf’) and closed-loop work, many authors have risked giving the misleading impression that the term applies only to those closed-circuit video installations that generate a feed-back image. (Schwarz 19973; Donga 19984) In fact, video feedback refers to the input-output relationship between the devices concerned – the technical prerequisites for a live video image and the constituent elements for any image is thus produced or not. Gene Youngblood dedicated a chapter of his book, Expanded Cinema (1970) to this theme, entitling it, ‘Closed-circuit television and teledynamic environments’. closed-circuit video installation as a “teledynamic environment”, terming it the “only pure television art.” (Youngblood 1970)5 Jud Yalkut closed-circuit video installation as a ‘teledynamic’ video space, and has highlighted ‘self-visibility’, instantaneousness and the televisual, deconstructive aesthetic as its most important characteristics, being indicative of its artistic potential. (Yalkut 1974)6 At the same time, in his critical evaluation of videotape art, Allan Kaprow has described tapeless closed-circuit video installations as the “only interesting video art.” (Kaprow 1974)7

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In a synopsis dating from the beginning of the 1990s, Wulf Herzogenrath additionally drew attention to the fact that since the 1970s, closed-circuit video installations had also become a dominant feature of everyday life, whether as a means of surveillance in banks and public places or in the electronics trade. The unity of time and space, and of reality and image, contributed to the viewer’s metamorphosis into a Doppelgänger, demonstrating “that this direct involvement of an individual viewer can lead, in the complex technology of mass communication, to an individualisation in these art works of a single person. The structure determined by the artist is only completed on the entry into the proceedings, and in the complicity, of the individual viewer. His own experience, existential questions about his own image, about the ‘true’ reality of the image and of the shadow become the theme here.” (Herzogenrath 1994, p. 11.) Aside from this varied range of (mis-)conceptions, there is consensus to date about the ‘primacy’ of closed-circuit video installation and performance, as far as the artistic application of the video medium is concerned. (Frieling 19998; Rush 19999) An emphasis on methods of video application ‘appropriate’ to the medium in the sense of real-time transmission has remained a recurring theme. (Kahlen 198010 ment and the early appearance of ‘video art’ as “the perfect manifestation of the myth of avant-garde artistic practice”, and “de-materialized artmaking” as an “explicit challenge to the hegemony of the modern museum”– with its cult of instantaneous experience, which, however, only makes sense when we talk about the video experience as taking place within a closed-circuit set-up. Ross went on to describe the polarisation, which also characterised the early ‘video community’ from the start, “Those seeking an electronic palette for the creation of a glowing, digitalized painting technique were sadly mistaking the name of the thing for the thing itself, and were clearly blinded to the critically distinctive properties of the medium: immediacy, the ability to reconstruct the notion of a time-based audience, and the ability to faithfully create fully credible representations of real time.” (Ross 1995, p. 437) taneously extended to cultural-translational and anthropological practices. In a text entitled, Video, Art of the Cultural Difference, Juan Downey has described the impact of an experience of closed-circuit video, witnessed among the Yanomami Indians in a remote area of the Amazon, completely cut off from the rest of the world, “Video, as process or as instrument, impresses the Yanomami no more than -

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ans, television is simply yet another thing that the ‘strangers’ make, as desirable as any other consumer goods […]. Closed-circuit or live television appeared to them no more surprising than a mirror, and the fact that the videotape requires no developing did not interest them, for the simple reason that they do not know about the cinema and its slow laboratory processing. The closed circuit and the freedom from processing, then, are advantages not inherent in video but rather in comparison with cinema; a catalyzing process in our culture, but not in the Yanomami’s.” (Downey 1980, p. 5.) At the same time, Eugeni Bonet has pointed out, with respect to Western cultures, that, in the case of closed-circuit, “we must not forget the full form of the term: closed circuit TV. This means that the signal recorded by the camera is not emitted by the air, but remains ‘closed’ in the cable which transports it to the terminal-screen.” (Bonet 1980, p. 29.) Bonet correctly portrayed the analogous time delay as one of the most important achievements of early closed-circuit video installations. As far as the present view on closed-circuit video installadifference is seen between video signals and data transmitted via cable or via microwave emission, or, indeed, via other means of broadcasting. What is key is whether the transmission is ‘point-to-point’, and not merely a one-way ‘broadcasting’ to many reception points or households from a central point, which would conform to the concept of the ‘mass media’. In contrast to what is described as ‘open circuit’, the same technology could be used for the purposes of a bilateral or multilateral exchange of information, as is the case in the closed-circuit between input and output signal. The two technical terms denote opposite strategies in their current use of the interactive potential of the medium. While the technological ‘open circuit’ refers to a closed, non-interactive system, the technologically closed, closed-circuit set-up refers (paradoxically) to the openenvironment. It is enabled by the positive rather than negative feedback between participants, the latter being described by Norbert Wiener for control purposes as seen from the perspective of Between the two extremes there are hybrids, such as ‘site casting’ – which is, in fact closed-circuit, usually scheduled to transmit over smaller distances within a local community – or ‘narrowcasting’ or ‘cablecasting’, which refers to other properties of ‘broadcasting’ in the sense of that employed by the ‘mass media’.

closed-circuit television’. In

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the glossary of a well-known book, which describes the history of the electronic CLOSED CIRCUIT. A television program not need be.” (Abramson 1955, p. 200.) closed-circuit video installation, at which theoretical discourse and artistic practice in, and about, the medium diverge, was also analysed by Stuart Marshall when he claimed that artists’ theories of video had “frequently developed into an examination of the notions of consciousness and selfhood”, thus letting their work suffer “from being at the same time the discourse of the medium and discourse about the medium […] The confusion of logical typing or meta-levels that this work displays gives rise to a neuroticism in the works as theory, in that the theory serves to disavow […] aspects of the art works.” (Marshall 1976, p. 243.)11

2.2 Closed circuit recursions in the roaring nineties At the beginning of the 1990s, the concrete achievements and developmental potential of closed-circuit video installation were interpreted afresh with the aim of new media art’. As Horst Bredekamp claimed at that time, “If so-called interactive art and closed-circuit installation can be said to have a common denominator, then it is that they constantly question the other bodily senses in an ecstasy of the virtual and in televisual pixel storms. With varying aims in mind, a profusion of ‘interactive’ artworks have dedicated themselves to the disjuncture between visual representation and the loss of the body.” (Bredekamp 1995, pp. 7–8.) In the initial search for an interactive media art, closed-circuit video installation thus proved a stumbling block on the way to a strict division between new computer-aided artworks and their respective precedents. The hidden presence and structural meaning of live video cameras in computer-led installations – in other words, the survival of closed-circuit video installation within ‘interactive interactive environments’ and ‘interactive installations.” (Dinkla 1997, p. 10.) Within this context, a demarcation between earlier closed-circuit video installation and its digital counterparts from the 1990s could The cybernetic circle, in which the user involuntarily

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mirroring of closed-circuit installations of the seventies.” (Dinkla 2001, p. 87.) Despite this, computer-aided closed-circuit video installations by Myron Krueger, David Rokeby and Lynn Herschmann are repeatedly invoked as key examples of ‘interactive closed-circuit video installation in/for ‘interactive media art’ is also occasionally highlighted, “A further factor is decisive […] in the development of interactive art: the principle of the visual closed-circuit installation, which was also introduced to the exhibition context […] at the end of the sixties. […] The technical constellation of closed-circuit structural organisation, in which the camera is trained on to the .”12 In discussions about the genealogy and historiography of today’s ‘new’ or ‘interactive’ media art, the majority clearly emphasise the crucial role of closed-circuit video installation. The founding director of ZKM in Karlsruhe, Heinrich Klotz stated, “Attached to the history of video art is the parallel history of technical invention, such as, for instance, closed circuit installation, with which it became possible to incorporate the approaching viewer into the video delay, but before long in real time as well – such that the world of the art work could .” (Klotz 1997, p. 22.) In the course of the 1980s, a merging of the electronic ‘eye’ and ‘brain’ took place, as video and the digital computer increasingly began to demonstrate comclosed-circuit video technology for the construction of later VR (virtual reality) immersion rooms meanwhile had not been forgotten, as Margaret Morse has also pointed out, “It is allel visible worlds and linking them with our own […] More completely interactive and immersive technologies are not different in kind – they are simply better informed about where you physically are in material space and, we might add, social space [...] Ongoing surveillance by machines is then a corollary of the feedback of data from interaction with machines […].” (Morse 1998, p. 6–7.) In this one can see an anticipation of later strategies aimed at examining those aspects of (re)-presentation, which relate to cognition theory, such as those that are a feature of new developments in media art and result from the disintegration of artistic and media ‘genre boundaries’. (Hanhardt 1997, p. 15.) Kathy Rae Huffman was even more explicit in her according to closed-circuit video technology the pioneering role in the history of today’s interactive multi-media art,

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“In the earliest actual practice, video was used in the same way as surveillance devices are today, it was employed to keep watch over and to observe reality […] This act – creating electronic territory and involving the viewer in it as a physical entity – is a direct predecessor to contemporary, interactive multimedia art, and immersive technology.” (Huffman 1996, pp. 203–204.) Even such a great champion of digital media art as Itsuo Sakane, writing in interactive media art’, organised by him, has deemed early interactive’ media art, “It has become possible to instantaneously feedback the response from the viewers to the works thanks to video cameras, sound and optical sensors (detecting devices), interfaces giving access to information, and mostly to computers which enable high-speed data processing. The use of information engineering terms, such as interactive art emphasises the inclination of the artists in those days towards new technology.” (Sakane 1989, p. 4.) In her plea for an art of intense bodily experience, M. L. Angerer, too, refers to early closed-circuit video installation, “A review of the recent history of media art demonstrates, that especially in video art […] – even at the end of the 70s – a focus was placed on the body in space, the body as space, the body and its ego lost in space […] I would suggest speaking about a new intensity in the experience of the body and beginning with the numerous examples in video and installation art, so that one can see the continuities and the new elements within this Media Art.” (Angerer 2001, p. 177; 182). In the example relating to screen development given in a genealogy of the ‘new media’ by Lev Manovich, it is particularly apparent that there had been no radical break with the past, “In my genealogy, the computer screen represents an interactive type, a subtype of the real-time type, which is [a] subtype of the dynamic type, which is a subtype of the classical type.” (Manovich 2001, p. 103.) The ‘real-time screen’ should be seen, within this context, as the output-side of the closed-circuit video system, whereby screen technology is explicitly introduced as a pre-requisite for VR, ‘telepresence’ and ‘interactivity’. (94) Above all, it is its manipulation of real time that makes this technology so remarkable for Manovich, “What is new about such a screen is that its image can change in real time, any alternation in visible reality (live video) or changing data in the computer’s memory (computer screen). The image can be continually updated in real time. This is the third type of screen after classic and dynamic – the screen of real time.” (99)

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If it is rounded out with its input component – the live video camera – this attempt at genealogy does, indeed, describe the achievement of visual interface technology as being an indispensable element of many of today’s computer-aided closed-circuit video installation should not be taken as an attempt to reduce historical video art’, but as the marking of the historiographical lineage of today’s digital media installations from earlier closed-circuit video installations. Given the current phenomenon for exhibiting ‘old media art’13 and the now institutionalised distinction between ‘old’ and ‘new’ media art, this interesting and undoubtedly gratifying curatorial trend needs to be supplemented by an historiographical and theoretical infrastructure.

2.3 Closed-circuit beyond digital dogma The content-related categorisation of analogue and digital media art. The thousands of historical examples demonstrate, not least, that as early as the 1960s, media artists were becoming particularly interested in behavioural and systems 1. SUBJECT – OBJECT RELATIONSHIP Medium: Mirror; Metaphor: Narcissus; Material: Machine Vision 2. CONSTRUCTIONS OF REALITY Reality and Virtuality: Fragment and Superposition Reality and Virtuality: Model and Construction Reality and Virtuality: Narration and Interaction 3. SYSTEM MODELS AND BEHAVIOURAL PATTERNS Silicon meets Carbon: Animal, Human, Robot and beyond 4. GAME CONCEPTS AND LEARNING PROCESSES Games – Rules – Learning: ludistic Aspects of Process Art 5. DATA COLLECTION AND MONITORING On Watching of Watching: Process Art between the private and common space 6. TELECOMMUNICATION From Slow Scan-TV, Closed Circuit-TV & Satellite to Telerobotics via Internet, WiFi-, Mobile Phone etc. Figure 1: Content-related categorization of closed circuit video installations, applicable for process arts (Kacunko 2004)

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theories, including the study of physical, biological and anthropological systems. system models and behavioural patterns in media art onto the disciplinary plane, we can observe two decisive processes within the recent history of science. Molecular biology analyses life at the molecular level, whilst manipulating results, in order to reinterpret the evolution of ‘life’ on the basis of random and recursive processes (‘nature’). At the life and robotics seeks to let machines appear to be ‘alive’ by transferring the principles of random or ‘natural’ life or its features 14

mechanisation of ‘living’ and the ‘revival’/‘re-animation’ of technology, ‘systems cybernetic explanation” (Bateson 1967), the biologist, anthropologist and philosopher, Gregory

Nature-/Culture-Comprehension Methode -

HOLISM

Pse u d o

animism ?

Industrialisation Mechanisation

-Clamp

GENE/GENOME/ MICROBIOME

REDUCTIONISM

Pse u d o

? atomism

Technosciences

HARAWAY, LATOUR

Experiment/Lab MOLECULAR BIOLOGY / LIFE SCIENCES Mechanisation of ‚Life‘

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE / ARTIFICIAL LIFE Animation of ‚Technology‘

CYBERNETICS

GENETICS

CENTRAL DOGMA (One-way street ‚DNA CRICK Constructivism Storage Principle

RNA

Protein‘)

CENTRAL DOGMA (Either / Or ‚ONE or ZERO‘) VON NAUMANN, SCHRÖDINGER Thermodynamics – Emergence Steam Engine – Cellular Automata

DISCUSSION Reference – Reproduction – Postmodern Epistemology – Repetition and Difference

April 2012), from the unpublished Inaugural lecture Choose_ Life: Cultural Techniques, Techno-

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Bateson had already introduced feedback and redundancy as factors of cybernetic explanation. In the same breath, he cited the functioning of organisms within difand computers. Taken together with Bateson’s ecological aesthetics and aesthetics of recursion, the questions of aetiology and historiography have approached those of ethology and behavioural research, and have demonstrable implications for culture and the concept of culture (considering that visual cultural studies are still formulating their programs in sharp distinction to the indisputable achievements 15 of , as bio-semiotics and cyber-semiotics research has proposed, the deeper meaning of the avant-garde, asymptotic convergence of ‘art’ and ‘life’ may also be seen within the context of art history and media technology. Closed-circuit technology as an ‘open system’ here addresses its right to evolve towards increasing complexity without the reciprocal playing-off of self-referential ‘life’ against a ‘hetero-referential’ technique. In order to arrive at an impartial view of media art that derives its pertinence from the spheres of both media theory and art history, it is, therefore, essential to ‘has become historical’. A historiography of ‘new’ media will have to counter ‘post-historical’ apocalyptic paranoia and fantasies of abolition (a ‘post-biological’ rhetoric within the realm of digital dogma16) with a hypothesis of continuity. This would not construct pre-established harmonies in reverse gear (as if anything in art and visual culture or the theory associated with it had begun only in the 1990s), but instead would develop tools for the registration and reproduction of ‘new’ and ‘old’ media, materials, models, motives and metaphors. Closed-circuit video inexplore corresponding theses, and to draw both historical and historiographical conclusions from them.

As the previous chapter indicates, closed-circuit video is open access and, therefore, closely related to historical and current process art – whether it employs performative, videographic, installation, auditive or (hyper-)textual practices. In her widely acknowledged, award-winning book on video, Yvonne Spielmann has rightly remarked that it is, “

[...]

[with its]

[…] .” (Spielmann 2008, pp. 10

and 13) Aside from the perspective that emphasises video’s line distribution demonstrates that more than 50% of current internet stems from the use of video, total digital video usage exceeding 91% of global consumer Internet video has alone accounted for 57 % of all ‘video art’ itself is neither a recent nor an outdated form of art. It has just celebrated the 50th anniversary of one of its important exhibitions to include usage of TV sets were those featuring work by Nam June to preserve the existing initiatives aimed at safeguarding corresponding historical dissemination of historical video art and current video cultures does not only offer an exciting perspective for art history, but also for visual culture in the broadest sense. This perspective is most congruent with critical contributions both historical and more recent. From a historical point of view, video has been considered as an emancipatory medium, or as an ecological medium. (Ryan 1971) It has also been viewed as a medium that occupied a ‘temporary autonomous zone’ between

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art and activism, one that still operates on the terrain between semiotics (‘video semiotics’, as it is termed by Takahiko Iimura [cf. Ch. 6]) and the politics of the practical (closed-circuit systems, surveillance scenarios, and ‘cloaking devices’). Aside from its current use as a tagging technology, video is still regarded as the surveillance medium par excellence, suitable for use in the critique of representation, with a prominent position in the discourse around performativity (video dance, video theatre. [cf. Rosiny 1999 et al.]) Its process-related nature is targeted, nevertheless, at the here and now, and the role it has played both historically, and continues to play currently, in the development of video games makes the cultural as Spielmann says, “a break in media history, to the extent that a technological step in the development of time based media has appeared with video and television, which diverges from photography and processuality and, therefore, evokes another concept of imagery.” (Spielmann 2008, p. 4). In its contemporary digital form, video is certainly one of the dominant cultural manifestations or means of expression. Video cameras have formed part of all manner of everyday technical devices for some time. Hence, the video medium can barely be conceived – at least with respect to its ‘casual’ or ‘vernacular’ usage in smart phones – as a separate medium nowadays, since it always features in a media composition, as an integral element in many forms of technical and cultural equipment. The well-known attempts at historical demarcation between video, or between video and computer, can be also explained by the fact that video art achieved a ‘breakthrough’ at much the same time as postmodern theories. Within this context, video succeeded not only in deconstructing the old visual clichés, but also creating new ones. At any event, the sub-domain of (closed-circuit) video installation, which has become indispensable in art today and the related domain of videotape and video performance, illustrate the relevance of the video medium within the domain of artistic concretion. Video has to do with the visual, as its name clearly indicates, but it goes a sound technology rather than as an image technology from a technical point of view, is interesting insofar as it shows the medium to be a part of a continuous historical development of representational modes, on the one hand. On the other hand, its unique feature is that it is able to create a synaesthetic, audio-visual experience in real-time (or not); that is, to create an impression of reality, which in analogue and digital concurrence and the reaction of reality, as it is represented by the medium, and its

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‘subject’ that grants a distinctly epistemological in question. Dejan Sretenovic has concisely described video’s ability to transcend representation, “In a technological sense, video will always keep a memory of ‘the video signal’ since that is what it de facto is (no matter whether the technology is analogue or digital), but its emancipation as a new technical medium, with its historical oscillations and transformations, has shown that video is a complex system of mediation which cannot be reduced to the domain of the visual only.” (Sretenovic 1999) From today’s perspective, we can assert that the video does not merely indicance diversity of its original Latin etymology; the elements of cognition, experience and action are certainly included here.1 According to Sretenovic, the relations between art, technology and identity cannot be analysed as consistently and as critically in any other analogous medium as in the case of the video, “Before the emergence of digital multimedia, video represented a kind of multimedia of analogue technology, a sublimation of all apparatus of machine of art into which it has never completely integrated. Video has developed its own mythology and epistemology, its own routes of media transformation and artistic or negate dominant representational codes, to position itself on distant poles of both critical and conformist produce them.” (Sretenovic, op. cit.) Irrespective of video’s art-historical, aesthetic and media-theoretical meantural role of the medium of video. Because video cannot be adequately described either as a “console of experimental media art” or as a “delivery service of virtual intercourse”, or even as an “archive of individual biographies” or again as a “cinematograph of the amateur” (Godard), it remains something more than the sum of its possible attributes. (Adelmann et. al. 2002) As a “mirror machine” (Marchessault 1995), video is not merely a medium that can create self-generating visual frames as a feedback. As a medium of speculative seeing and hearing, it remains a medium that continuously gives feed-forward and feedback in its discourse thus re-generating it. It is not least this comprehensive context that required appropriate and afresh theorising of video as a “ medium” (Hornbacher transformation imagery”, video “denotes the transition to the digital simulation image”, and as a “

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medium” it “produces transformative forms of pictoriality, but no images.” With its “ processuality and transformativity, [it] is effectively predestined to play a decisive role in the intermedial context of computers’ development – and of the more complex hypermedia.” (Spielmann 2008, pp. 4, 5, 6).

3.2 Video as a function of reality. Peter Campus Seen within such complex contemporary context, process art and video, in particmore in-depth interdisciplinary, historical and ‘philological’ investigation. Peter Campus’s relevant theses and conclusions. This applies not least to the fact that the installations questioned – in respect of process arts in general – the status of the traditional ‘image’. The latter had been ‘set in motion’ by Campus not only metaphorically and psychologically, but also physically and with respect to media. Another reason for emphasising Peter Campus’s role in this context is the fact that he was one of those artists who worked outside the group dynamics of early video collectives, when related to group contexts. Finally, Campus’s closed-circuit video installa-

precisely evaluated to date, despite numerous exhibitions and a myriad of published papers on Viola’s oeuvre. Campus put his in the form of individual exhibitions held in 1972, 1973 and 1975 at the now closed Bykert Gallery in Manhattan, only a few blocks away from the famous Castelli Gallery.2 The installation Interface the ‘most classic’ of all.3 life-size video and mirror clarity that it makes it nearly impossible for viewers to become aware of the artist’s intense preparatory work, which included the use of maquettes and experiments with different semi-permeable materials. The viewer is confronted by three ‘realities’ of his/her own being: the material presence of his/her own body, his/her own glass and his/her own closed-circuit video footage. In the design work for this project, the artist postulated the simultaneous coexistence of these three spaces.

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Figure 3: Peter Campus, Interface (1972), closed circuit video installation. Kölnischer Kunstverein, Cologne 1974. Courtesy Wulf Herzogenrath archive, Berlin

In 1974, Peter Campus held a retrospective show of his work at the Everson Museum in Syracuse, N.Y. The exhibition included seven closed-circuit video installations. In 1974 Campus described video as a “function of reality”, seeing the medium’s fundamental potential as an “extension of reality”. He explained it thus,

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Figure 4: Peter Campus, Shadow Projection (1974), closed circuit video installation. Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse NY 1974. Courtesy Wulf Herzogenrath archive, Berlin

“If we are to avoid the problem of creating a visual system that will reduce the capacity of the eye, it is necessary to disassociate the video camera from the eye and make it an extension of the room […] instead of limiting the amount of visual with an abstracted one, it is possible to include the video information in the view.” (Campus 1974) The implications of essential aspects of a potential theory of ‘augmented’ or ‘virtual reality’ avant la lettre mentioned in the quoted passage were to determine Campus’s artistic experiments between 1971 and 1976. During this period of almost six years, Campus produced eighteen closed-circuit video installations, whose simple, clear and precise arrangements made them early examples of their genre, now seen as ‘classic’ works of video art. Among the works conceived especially for the show in Syracuse was the installation, Shadow Projection of 1974. ously around the oeuvre of one of his earlier role models, Bruce Nauman, and also – indirectly – on Marcel Duchamp. Campus summed up the ‘form-content’ of this installation as “obscuring the image by lightening the object.” In this installation,

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Figure 5: Peter Campus, Shadow Projection (1974) drawing. Courtesy Wulf Herzogenrath archive, Berlin

the live er on the same trajectory. As a result, the person standing in front of them threw a shadow onto the projection surface in the middle of the room, thus becoming a motif within the simultaneous live image projection. The “ ” by the live video image is crucially dependent on the position of the body between input and output apparatus. The artist’s interest in the balance between extremely divergent standpoints is evident in the corporeal experience of the individual viewer here. The observer is able to take up different positions in space, but the visitor who wishes to be included in this controlled experiment ‘into the self’ is always led back to his own predestined place between input and In the exhibition catalogue published to accompany his solo exhibition in Syracuse, Campus expressed his opinion in relation to the general qualities of the video medium and of closed-circuit video installations in particular, “In a closed-circuit video situation one is no longer dealing with images of a temporary image becomes a property of the room.” (idem) This statement does not simply reveal the notion of the interdependence of a real body and a virtual ‘image’ which may persist for an unlimited period of time, but it also demonstrates that Campus had reduced the location designated as the site of viewer participation to an extremely limited space. After 1976, Campus drew the only logical consequence from this spatial ‘constriction’ of the viewer and ‘banned’ him/her from the image entirely.

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Campus realised several more video installations between 1976 and 1979, but these no longer included live footage. In 1979, he abandoned his work with live video. Wulf Herzogenrath, who organised a Campus retrospective at the Kunstverein in Cologne that same year, wrote in the exhibition catalogue that his video pieces “ .” (Herzogenrath 1979, p. 10) It should be added that what we see in Campus’s work is a strategic limitation of possibilities of interaction with the public, and that this strategy is not inherent to video alone, any more than is its potential for interaction. This insight may also be applied, without restriction, to other electronic media, including today’s so-called ‘meta-medium’, the computer. With respect to the closed-circuit video installations by Peter Campus, it can be concluded that their ultimate formal precision (or ‘formalism’) could only be achieved by means conditions of his own strict notions of form, the artist’s work with ‘confrontational imagery’ (Campus 1999, p. 68)4 interactive potential – to the logical abandonment of the artistic medium in question. Alongside Les Levine, Dan Graham and Bill Viola, Peter Campus is one of the most with closed-circuit video installations until 1976. All the above-mentioned artists 1966–76, Graham from 1972–76, Campus from 1971–76, and Viola from 1972–76). When one considers this, one comes to the conclusion that approaches to Peter Campus’s art, which describe it, in connection with the ‘video art’ of the 1970s, as ‘narcissistic’ are too restrictive. (cf. Krauss 1976, p. 63) Generalisations of this kind concerning closed-circuit video installations and performances have also been uncritically adopted by some current theoreticians in respect of (interactive) their digital pendants from the 1990s can only be assured by means of an imperis precisely the closed-circuit video installations themselves that offer evidence of the impermissible nature of such reductionism. Both their wealth of form and their wide spectrum of employment in present-day process art (or what is usually called ‘[new] media art’) are indicative of this (cf. Kacunko 2004). On the basis of Campus’s closed-circuit video installations, I have schematised basic descriptive parameters, which allow the works in question to be reproducible and, therefore, accessible for historical and qualitative comparison. This, in turn, demonstrated that these parameters are generally applicable to process pieces, usually known as

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1. APPARATUS Basic & special lightning; number, type and positioning of recording apparatus; sound; additional apparatus employed or not (e.g. projection screens, mixers, computers, etc.) 2. POSITIONING OF THE APPARATUS ‘Absolute’ relations (overall constellation of the apparatus within the space) and relative relations (distances, angles, etc.) between the apparatus, the visitor and the projected images 3. POSITIONING OF THE VISITOR Degree of freedom of movement in relation to the recording and/or broadcasting apparatus and projection surfaces; degree of ‘immersion’ of the viewer in the space and within the image; kinaesthetic experience; planned course of events and deviations 4. POSITIONING OF THE AUDIO VISUAL FOOTAGE IN RELATION TO THE OVERALL SPACE AND TO WHAT IS RECORDED Figure 6: Formal description parameters for closed circuit video installations, applicable for process arts (Kacunko 2004)

In 1997, the distinguished American artist, Jim Campbell gave a lecture at MoMA, in which he presented his visualisation of the structure of such complex environments as related to the digital realm. What is striking about the comparison between these attempts at systematisation is the fact that both deal with issues and phenomena, which lie beyond the visible and visual representation per se, and outside the schism between the analogue and digital. Conceived as such, closed-circuit installations offer a, representative potential for the (new) media art and the Even though ‘interaction’, in the sense it was used by theoreticians during the ‘roaring Nineties’, does not apply to Campus’s art theory any more than it does to the approaches espoused by Nauman, Bill Viola or Paik, it must be stated that Campus made an important artistic contribution to the history of closed-circuit video installations. This contribution may be compared with the part played by him in today’s computer-aided media art: it is impossible to grasp the one without the other. Campus’s closed-circuit video installations have left a lasting impresHarding, Eric Cameron, Bart Robbett, James Byrne, Leticia Parente and also theoreticians, historians and curators, including Gerald O’Grady, David Ross, John G. Hanhardt, Wulf Herzogenrath and others. With respect to Peter Campus’s comhistorical causalities remains one of the challenges for the future history of process art.

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Figure 7: Technical description parameters for media installations, applicable for process arts (Jim Campbell 1997)

3.3 Bill Viola’s closed circuit video, 1972–76 An appropriate strategy to approach such challenges would be to examine Camthis is precisely not to reproduce a typical art-historical narrative modality which would focus on ‘exemplary’ individuals. This often lacks the methodological rehistorical and geographical and concrete and demonstrable continuities. By selecting this method I expect to correct the continuous reproduction of speculative parameters of appraisal, typically constructed around so-called paradigm shifts and phenomena related to human and other ‘creativity’, which is incapable of being proven. Before I turn to the provable continuities between Campus’s and Viola’s video work of the early seventies, I will list and describe Bill Viola’s closed-circuit video installations, produced between 1972 and 1976, and make a few interpretative remarks. The latter should also serve the endeavour to arrive at a better sense of continuity between his early oeuvre and the work he realised from 1977 onwards. Viola’s most recent show, one

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of the most comprehensive held at the Grand Palais in Paris (until 21st July 2014), demonstrated the need for such revaluation by typically excluding the period, in which we are interested here and selecting the period from 1977 to 2013 on which to focus. Many other exhibitions, catalogues and academic works avoid Viola’s early work, one of the reasons why the audiovisual material from these early years undertaken any retroanalytical examination of Viola (and consequently process other artists and Syracuse right in its centre. This article is based on the globally applied, and historically and geographically focused history of closed-circuit video installations, since the beginnings of the this analysis reaches beyond the narrow circle of art history, because installation art, on the one hand, and media art, on the other, have made it possible to analyse a threefold parallel, that is, between the development of the media method, of contemporary art and of corresponding constructions of documentation and analysis of acquired, and exclusive, material (essentially supported directly by the artists themselves) provide evidence of a greater social and closed-circuit video installations by Bill Viola will be contextualised and seen as points of origin for his far less known artistic beginnings. Furthermore, they will be placed within the corresponding institutional contexts of production, reception and distribution of early In 1968, the new building of the Everson Museum of Art in Syracuse, N.Y. launched his worldwide career. Thanks to the direction of James Harithas and to the early engagement of curator, David Ross, the Everson Museum of Art became a key venue for process art within a short space of time, thus becoming a historic site for the development of early video art with exhibitions of the all the main players of the early video community, and what later was re-baptised the ‘(new) Cybernetic Serendipity: The Computer and the Arts.5 Of even more long-lasting historical distance were the early video exhibitions Circuit: A Video Invitational (1973–74, curated by David Ross) and the monographic shows with work by D.

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Figure 8: Frank Gillette, Video: Process and Meta-Process, front page, catalogue of his solo exhibition, Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse NY 1973

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process art for the decade to come.6 Viola (b. 1951) assisted Frank Gillette and Peter Campus in setting up two important solo exhibitions of work by these artists in 1973 and 1974, whilst he was studying art at Syracuse led technically perceptive and intensive works, as well as by his artistic ethos. “For a young artist, it was a privileged opportunity to be setting up those pieces, working side by side with the master –an apprenticeship and education all video art, and my foundation for years to come.” (Viola 2010). Viola also helped to set up Synapse, a one-inch colour-video studio and a twoway cable system at in New York State, where he gained invaluable experience with broadcast-quality live video installations. Before his graduation from the College of Visual and Performing Arts in 1973, Viola had also met, as a student of electronic music in 1972, the composer of new music, Alvin Lucier, and the theatre and multimedia artist, Robert Ashley. He also came into contact with avant-garde artists from the ‘new music’ scene, such as David Tudor, David Behrman and Gordon Mumma, during a three-week workshop for experimental music in Chocorua, New Hampshire held the following year. These encounters transcend his interest in electronic theory and circuit design (London 1987).7 Viola summarised the substance of his early video experiments in the following passage, “The crucial thing for me was the process of going through an electronic system, working with these standard kinds of circuits which became a perfect introduction to a general electronic theory. I never thought about [video] in terms of images so much as electronic process, a signal.” (Viola, op. cit.)

a dozen closed-circuit video installations. Viola produced 12 video tapes, 5 audio and 10 video installations in 1973 and 1974 alone. According to his own statelive video installation realised by an artist that he had seen was Iris experience with closed-circuit video installations was as early as the mid-1960s in New York, when he saw a commercial presentation on colour TV produced by the company, RCA. It included a rotary table, on which a video camera and a plugged-in colour TV were rotating.

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Figure 9: Les Levine, Iris (1968). First public show in the studio of the artist Studios, 119 Bowery, New York on 10.09.1968. Commission of Janet and Robert Kardon. Collection of the Philadelphia Museum of Fine Arts. Courtesy Les Levine. Three camera perspectives with artist. Courtesy Les Levine

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Bill Viola also remembered seeing an experimental show on Channel 14 in 1969 or 1971 with the popular hosts, ‘Bob 234 Ray’, in which they communicated with one another live from two different TV studios. He referred to this example as a sort of “video art piece.” (Viola, interview with the author, 2002) closed-circuit video installation by Viola was entitled 8 Instant Replay (1972), and it was exhibited in a small private room (approx. 2.5 x 2.5 m) in the School of Art at one stacked on top of the other were placed on a table. The upper monitor showed

Figure 10: Bill Viola, Instant Replay (1972). Experimental Studios, School of Art, Syracuse

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the live video image of a video camera with a person present in the room, while the lower one played back the same image after a 7-second delay. A microphone was also provided for visitors. The installation was set up for just one day and only one person could enter the room at a time, the room being locked up from the inside. This type of intimate experience of the self on offer was key for Viola in that most of the visitors had never seen their own live video image. It is reminiscent in this respect of two other similar works. One was Live Taped Video Corridor (1970) in which live and recorded video footage of the same space confronted each other; the other – less well-known – was the video installation, Everyman’s Moebius Strip (1969) by Paul Ryan (1943–2013), which set up a similar situation with individual audience participation in a ‘video-booth’. This installation was exhibited as part of a famous group exhibition entitled TV as a creative medium, held in May 1969 at the Howard Wise Gallery in New York (cf. Sturken 1984). For Ryan, who artistic realisation of his later theoretical proposals for ecological, interpersonal and societal applications of video (cf. Kacunko 2004, p. 176). His installation, to their own live image, whilst simultaneously watching TV footage featuring celebrities, such as Nixon and Teddy Kennedy He later said of it, that it was, “only a very crude kind of beginning. I’ve been talking about the Moebius strip model and the videotape machine lately as an extension of man as a cybernator; communication with himself about his behaviour, he enlarges his control over his behaviour. The machine is almost the reverse of what he is doing; what he puts out it takes in, processes, and then feeds back. Then a person can take that in, process it, and feed that back. It’s a matter of self-cybernating and self-processing, co-cybernating and co-processing studying one another’s videotape playbacks in slow motion and imitating, or trading, body language.” (Ryan in Yalkut 1969, p. 7) Ryan played an important theoretical role in the early video guerilla and cybernetic movement as a co-founder of the Raindance group and Radical Software magazine (Ryan 1971, Shamberg 1971, cf. McLuhan 1970). Shortly after his ‘confessional’ installation in 1969, Ryan, then a member of the Passionists, a monastic preaching order of the Catholic Church, entered a monastery, spending the period, form of a variety of video, performance, and body art, following post-minimal and other tendencies. Bill Viola was able to closely witness this process, before soon claiming a very recognizable style of its own. In Instant Replay, the impression of reality given in the live video footage was directly confronted with its time-delayed representation, whilst the closed-circuit

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Figure 11: Bill Viola, Localization (1973). Noble Room / Watson Theatre, NY, autumn 1973. Courtesy Bill Viola Studio

video installation, Walking Into The Wall, mounted in Synapse only for one day in autumn 1973, demonstrated a kind of ‘spatial delay’, resulting from the confrontation, that is, replacing the real person with live video footage at a life-size scale. The visitor standing in the darkened room was able to see visitors as they entered as live video projections life-size, shortly before they entered the darkened part of the room. The impression given was that the approaching person seemed to emerge from the video projection and then switch from black-and-white into colour. Viola demonstrated another potential aspect of closed-circuit video with his installation, Localization (1973), mounted in the Noble Room at the Watson Theatre at connected two places on the university campus, a corridor and a lounge. The arrangement of the equipment allowed the visitors standing in front of the monitor to observe both the person on the other side of the telecommunications connection and his/her reproduced projection, thanks to the visual feedback. Like the video cameras and monitors, the microphones and loudspeakers were also wired cross-

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wise, creating an audio communication with the other side of the connection. The artist did not advertise this one-day installation in advance. In both early experimental pieces Viola continued Campus’s inquiry into the psychological potentials of the medium (and art), whilst departing from then current cybernetic theories. Shortly afterwards, in December of the same year, Viola exhibited a Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse (1.–21.12.1973). Quadrants included two pairs of 19-inch monitors stacked on two pedestals in a room illuminated with two ceiling spotlights. One monitor was lying the right way up, whilst the other was turned 90° on its side. A further monitor was placed upside down and a fourth one turned in another direction, so that it appeared that the monitors were rotated virtually. A video camera connected to two of the monitors recorded this ensemble from the other side of the room. The same signal was delayed for seven seconds by means of a tape delay and displayed on the two other monitors. Thus, a ‘typical’ feedback image was created, consisting of several monitor-images inserted within one other and forming a kind of ‘tunnel’. In later versions of this work, exhibited at the New York Avantgarde Festival 1974 and in Italy in 1975,9 two video cameras were used. Either one of the cameras’ signals was delayed or alternately one of the cameras a loudspeaker, which were absent in the New York and Milan versions. When visitors entered the area between the camera and the monitors their fragmented images appeared, interlacing real-time and time-delayed images. The basic possibilities of time and space manipulation demonstrated within the ‘video space’ and particularly at the ‘interface’, and the transition between real and virtual produced a rather geometrical and stereometrical arrangement of this Bank Image Bank (1974)10, which almost turned inside-out the surveillance system belonging to Lincoln First Bank ed with eight black-and-white surveillance cameras, which were partly furnished with panorama heads so that they could capture, amongst other things, the space between both monitor groups by means of horizontal and vertical shots, creating a sort of open panopticon, within which the observer became both object and subject of the entire system. “The viewer’s self image became,” according to Viola, “inawareness and reevaluation of his/her point of view and spatial position.”11 Shortly after Steina and Woody Vasulka gave up their important early initiative at the Kitchen Center in New York, Bill Viola exhibited three closed-circuit video installations there in 1974, in which the limitations of the human perception

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Figure 12: Bill Viola, Bank Image Bank (1974). Lincoln First Bank, Rochester NY, 7. January – 1. February 1974. Courtesy Bill Viola Studio

Figure 13: Bill Viola, Bank Image Bank (1974). Courtesy Bill Viola Studio

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Figure 14: Bill Viola, Bank Image Bank (1974). Courtesy Bill Viola Studio

apparatus and of the electronic video transmission system were interrelated, thus becoming the theme of the work. At the content level, one can speak of a sort of quarrelsome ‘reckoning’ with closed-circuit video installations that had meanMock Turtles (1974) that,12 “The idea for this piece arose after becoming bored with both creating and witnessing the many video tape delay pieces presented throughout the early years of the medium.”13 Three box turtles were put in a small compound (4 x 6 feet) in a dimly lit room. The compound was irradiated by a heat lamp and illuminated by a 500-watt spotlight hung from the ceiling. They were recorded by a video camera, the footage of which appeared on a TV monitor after

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an eight seconds delay. The animals barely moved and when they did, they moved so slowly that the delay was barely noticeable. This comically absurd technical manipulation – the slowing down of already slow, barely moving animals – may certainly be interpreted as a departure by Viola from the aesthetics and philosophy of the ‘real time’ preoccupation of the early 1970s. (cf. Torcelli 1996) The second installation produced by Viola for The Kitchen was Decay Time (1974).14 In a darkened room (approx. 6 x 9 m), a live video projection was displayed as the only light source on a big canvas. At 40 seconds intervals, a stroeither exceeded or undercut, and no differentiated live projection of the captured surroundings by the off, only an afterimage on the Vidicon tube of the camera remained, and after an acclimatisation period, this was also the case with the human retina, which could see a life-sised version of the person in question. Whilst changes in the video image in Mock Turtles took place over too long a time interval for human attention to perceive them, the time interval in Decay Time was obviously too short either for the human viewer or the machine’s vision. Finally, Peep Hole consisted of a free-standing cubicle with a front wall measuring approx. 2.5 x 2.5 m, positioned across the entrance of the exhibition space and illuminated from the ceiling. The front wall served as a projection surface for a black-and-white video projection. Set just off-centre of the surface was an irregularly shaped hole at eye level with streaming light of approx. seven centimetres diameter. Behind it was a semi-transparent mirror measuring approx. 50 cm2, behind which a live video camera aligned with the hole was hidden. The camera was connected to the projector. If the visitor took a look at it, he or she saw the hole in the mirror and his own eye looking into it.15 Visitors entering the room could observe both the eye of the person looking into the hole and the live projected video image on the dividing wall (and on the back of the person looking into the hole). These three experimental installations, which were explicitly critical towards the dominant aesthetics of the video art of the time, were based on content-free games, a source, which would again be used twenty years later within a digital context. A technically formal approach to game concepts and learning processes, which used live video manipulations, was applied by a group of artists with differElectron Movers in the mid-1970s. Between 26 September and 22 October 1975, their exhibition entitled Video Maze was held at the Everson Museum of Art in This was the collective title encompassing twelve installations, which the group set up within a labyrinth-like architecture. Separated by high white walls, the visitor

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Figure 15: Electron Movers, Video Maze, poster of the exhibition curated by Richard Simmons, Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse NY, 26. September – 22. October 1975. Courtesy Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse

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entered each individual installation or room, in which various events or performances were held. Bruce Nauman’s critique of the free participation of the audience in an art work (Nauman 1995 [1988]) had already been voiced by Bill Viola (Viola, interview Kacunko, Berlin 11 Feb 2002), who referred in his closing comments to work by three artists who were active within the collective video-making scene.16 In spring 1974, Viola exhibited another closed-circuit piece at the Synapse Video Center at Separate Selves.17 A projection surface (approx. 3 x 4 m) was positioned in a large darkened room (approx. 7 x 10 m), on which video images from three sources were projected. These were current projection surface and aimed at an illuminated surface in the middle of the room between the projectors. The middle camera was immobile, while the lateral cameras were mounted on panorama heads and were thus rotatable. The three image sources were linked to a SEG video switcher, which reversed the order, in which they were projected at regular intervals. When the observer was in the middle of the illuminated area, she or he saw three changing life-size, live images of his or her own body. The more one moved away from the central, ‘ideal’ angle, the more the video footage of one’s own image became distorted.18 In Trapped Moments, exhibited in November 1974 at the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Lausanne (a version with 2 cameras and 2 monitors), a mousetrap baited with cheese was placed in a basement, where a recording with a black-andwhite video camera was set up. The live recording was displayed on a monitor monitor. A second camera simultaneously recorded visitors standing in front of the monitor and displayed this image on a second monitor, which was placed in a the piece, he wanted to create a work in which he, “relied on an event that only happened once, an irreversible temporal oneway street. Until the occurrence of this event, there would exist a constant state of great anticipation and tension, where time would become palpable and where this single event would dramatically change the nature and effect of the work. (No mouse ever wandered into the trap in Switzerland.) People place mousetraps out all the time, yet the moment of violence is never directly witnessed and the results are always quickly disposed of. It is never placed continuously before our eyes as in the closed circuit video situation. As with broadcast television, this work also plays on the morbid fascination that people have in being a voyeur to situations of violence and death.”19

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Bill Viola spent the following year of 1975 in Florence as the technical head 20 experience with video work. This period represented another decisive step in the development of Viola’s art towards the full expression of what would become his concept of the eschatological, which he could incorporated into his video installations of the 1980s, the early 1990s and onwards. He had texts at Syracuse, which now took on a new quality due to the effects achievable in the interior spaces of large, Early Renaissance churches and cathedrals, “Actually, in Florence I spent most of my time in pre-Renaissance spaces – the great cathedrals and churches. At the time I was very involved with sound and acoustics, and this remains an important basis of my work […] And sound seemed to carry so much a part of the feeling of the ineffable […] When I discovered standing wave patterns and the fact that there is a total spatial structure of sound is present […] I felt I had recognized a vital link between the unseen and the seen, between an abstract, inner phenomenon and the outer material world […] This gave me a guide with which to approach space, a guide for creating works that included the viewer, included the body in their manifestation, that existed in all points in space at once yet were only locally, individually perceivable. I began to use my camera as a kind of visual microphone. I began to think of recording .” (Viola 1992, p. 100) The following three live video installations – Il Vapore (1975), Rain (1975) and Olfaction (1976) – thematise particularly clearly the addressed “vital link between the unseen and the seen, between an abstract, inner phenomenon and the outer material world.” Formally and technically, they were located in dimly-lit immersive rooms, in which the introversion of the living and the past, which the artists endeavoured to achieve, was created by superimposing recorded footage over the live image. Il Vapore21 used a pre-produced video tape showing the artist

water from a bucket and then spitting it into the pan. The noises produced were recorded on the soundtrack. A small, long, narrow barricade divided the installation space. The pan was placed on it on top of a straw mat. Eucalyptus leaves were put in the pan and the water was brought to the boil with a camping stove. A video strong scent of eucalyptus, as the visitors entered. When they approached the pan,

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Figure 16: Bill Viola, Il Vapore (1975). Galerie Zona, Florenz, June 1975. Courtesy Bill Viola Studio

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they could see their own video image on the monitor behind it, which was crossfaded with images from previously recorded action, which they could also hear.

the mystic Islamic ascetic and thinker, Dschelaladdin Rumi (13th century.). Viola’s faith in the immense potential of an expansion of states of consciousness found collided with Viola’s scepticism of the visible and by his conviction that it was possible to comprehend existence beyond appearance by means of an expansion of the organs of human perception, such as by using technological media like video. ics and eschatology of the inextricable cycle of death and rebirth, which has, as is well known, remained a key theme in Bill Viola’s art to date.22 Rain – Three Interlocking Systems was installed in 1975 in a large darkened its large-screen image onto a canvas placed in front of it. A video camera was positioned on the opposite wall and was connected with the projector via a video mixer. The video mixer superimposed an image of a pre-produced video sequence

Figure 17: Bill Viola, Rain – Three Interlocking Systems (1975). Everson Museum of Art 1975. Courtesy Bill Viola Studio

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over the life image. The sequence had been recorded in the same room and showed the artist in motion. To the approximate centre of the room, a strong spotlight hung from the ceiling, being set up in such a way that it threw a sharply delineated

Figure 18: Bill Viola, Rain – Three Interlocking Systems (1975), concept and drawing of the artist. Courtesy Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse

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Figure 19: Bill Viola, Rain – Three Interlocking Systems (1975), concept and drawing of the artist. Courtesy Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse

between the projector and the camera, seen from the video camera’s position, a spotlight stood in front of a small box on a tripod illuminating the surface on the were lying. Observers were captured by the camera from behind, as they viewed the projection and were able to see their own image in the projection, superimposed by the pre-produced video sequence.

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Heraclitus’s (in)determinism, as expressed, for instance, as a metaphor for the impossibility of entering the same waters again, was paraphrased by Dschelaladdin Rumi in his description of the human life as a drop of water, withof destiny. In a letter to Wulf Herzogenrath, in which Viola described his last closed-circuit video installation, He Weeps for You (1976), the artist quoted the following sentence by the Islamic mystic, “With every moment a world is born and dies. And know that for you, with every moment comes death and renewal.” The recursively returning feedback of a closed circuit has been already declared as a conditio sine qua non of closed-circuit audio and video installations. (cf. Ch. 2.) Researchers, however, repeatedly frame the latter as explanatory models for the functioning of the world, regardless of whether such models are cybernetic (Ryan; Gillette) or religiously inspired theories or life practices. The virtual superimposition (technically construed in the way that it is in Il Vapore) twice in the same room again occurs in the closed-circuit video installation, Rain – Three Interlocking Systems (1975) featuring a video camera, a previously produced videotape and a video mixer. Viola, then 24 years old, presented this work in December 1975 as a solo exhibition at the Everson Museum of Art in Syracuse. Most recently, Bill Viola conveyed his ultimate inner renunciation of some of his artistic predecessors’ video work in an installation in Florence (which had already featured in the exhibition at The Kitchen), which focused on the humanisation of the new media, telecommunication and cybernetics. A letter to James Harithas, the director of the Everson Museum of Art in Syracuse, bear witness to Viola’s critique in a humorously ironic way and also conveys some of his alThe video installation, Olfaction (1976)23 used the same technical system as both of the previously mentioned works, Il Vapore and Rain24, and embedded the acoustic component and olfactory element powerfully into the visual kinaesthetics. Viola’s increased interest in mystical literature and in models of the world and existence beyond the sensorially perceptible has been evident in his work, interestingly enough, since 1976, in the continuous expansion of his visual sources. He has pursued these interests in a series of long-distance trips, starting with a jourof his last video installation at the Synapse Video Center at in May 1976.25 He Weeps for You26 was exhibited in a darkened room in a variety a small valve, out of which drops of water kept dripping slowly and uniformly. A colour video camera equipped with a macro lens (all the cameras so far had

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Figure 20: Bill Viola, letter to James Harithas, Everson Museum of Art Syracuse

been black-and-white) was focused on the drops and was linked with a video projector. The drops fell onto a drum, which stood on a small Oriental carpet. The sounds were captured by a microphone beneath. The slowly swelling drops appeared oversized in the projection. In it the immediate surroundings, the camera’s observer, was rotated by 180°. Each single drop as it fell caused a clearly audible deep, resonant percussive sound. The artist gave several statements about this installation, in which he aligned himself with the mystical

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Figure 21: Bill Viola, He Weeps for You (1976), The Kitchen Center, New York, 11.–22. January 1977. © Gail Nathan

connection between microcosm and macrocosm. Furthermore, Viola related a sort to use drops of water as optical lenses, comparable to the famous convex mirrors which have appeared in historical paintings, such as those by J. van Eyck and Parmigianino. He stated, “And then I had an experience one night, when I was walking down the street and it was raining. And I was wearing glasses. And the rain was coming down. And water was on the front of my glasses. And so I took my glasses off to clean them. And I got out my handkerchief to clean them, and I looked, and I saw each drop of water. I could see through the water drops, and – through the water drops, I could see the lights from the cars passing. So I was very surprised to see an image inside each water drop. And so when I got home that night, I had a friend who and I put water in it, and I – I got a magnifying glass, and I looked very closely inside, and I saw an image. And then I started experimenting with a video camera. [...] And – then I made this piece after that.”27

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Figure 22: Bill Viola, He Weeps for You (1976), a concept drawing. Courtesy Wulf Herzogenrath archive, Berlin

Christian connotations, although it has been designed and conceived by the artist to be inter-confessional.28 One might speak of Viola’s pantheism, comprehensible in that he sees in the drop of water a sort of speculum naturae with the capacity to record and (simultaneously) playback imagery and be permeable. Nature (the drop of water) and technology (the live video camera) are balanced out both symbolically and technologically in a relationship, which can be experienced only by a ‘positive indifference’ as performed by Nam June Paik’s famous TV Buddha (1974). In this respect, He Weeps for You can be seen as one of the most promi-

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Figure 23: Bill Viola, „He Weeps for You“, documenta 6, Kassel, 24.06.-02.10.1977. Courtesy Bill Viola Studio & Wulf Herzogenrath

Figure 24: Bill Viola, „He Weeps for You“, documenta 6, Kassel, 24.06.–02.10.1977. Courtesy Bill Viola Studio & Wulf Herzogenrath

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Figure 25: Bill Viola, „He Weeps for You“, detail. Courtesy Bill Viola Studio

nent examples of religiously inspired video based process art. Apart of some later designs for installations by the artist, He Weeps for You marked Viola’s departure from further artistic experiments with live video recording. The considerable number of posed oppositions of the aesthetics of ‘real time’ and ‘imaginary time’ (cf. Torcelli 1996). Bill Viola designated his video tapes, realised between 1973 and 1979, as “structural video” (Syring 1992, p. 13). His videotape, produced in 1979, ‘Chott el-Djerid’ may or may not be considered a paradigm shift. The artist’s interest shifted after this and he reoriented his subject matter at least by the time of his stay in Italy in 1975, if not previously at the end of 1974 in the three works he exhibited at The Kitchen in New York. Viola’s implicit striving for an artistic answer to the transcendental, Kantian problematic in relation to a priori synthetic judgments is “In my opinion, the emotions are precisely the missing key that has thrown things out of balance and the restoration to their rightful place as one of the higher orders of the mind of a human being cannot happen fast enough […] the source of the most human of qualities, compassion.” (Viola 1992, p. 94)

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ican artist had made on a series of young Japanese artists during his longer stays in Japan. His disdain for art historians, who excluded Japanese, Chinese and India art from the canonis based on his subjective preferences as an artist, and, above all, on the precarious situation of a knowledge discipline, which was losing touch with ‘new’ technologies and cultures (Viola 1992, p. 97). Viola spoke on several occasions against the concept of equating ‘live transmission’ with ‘immediacy’. He claimed that fundamental topics, such as birth or death all too often fall prey to concepts of progress, and electronic input and output devices come to the fore as the ‘raw material’ of art, instead of being an aspect of human experience.29 Nevertheless, Viola’s early controlled experiment[s] (Viola in: Nash 1990) with video cameras, monitors and projectors would later be seen as archetypal for explicitly visualised ‘landmarks’ of human existence. Comparable to Peter Campus, Bill Viola approached the visual without any image. If the image in Viola’s art is no formality and “is not to be understood as object, but as an animate, permanently changing result”30 then his early experiments with live video should be interpreted as indispensable components of his work, out of which the feedback topos of the early 1970s, was sublimated into the area of the transcendental. In a conversation with Raymond Bellour in 1985, Viola summarised his vision of visual images by stating that he “never thought about [video] in terms of images so much as electronic process, a signal.” (Bellour 1985) As Barbara London rightly stated in 1987, Viola was dealing conceptually with video’s properties, whilst emotionally addressing the representation of personal experience. I would tend not to see any contradiction here. In mirroring this continued transgressive threshold of experience, Viola marked the path of his artistic development without leaving the ground of its departure behind. I am aware that it might sound like a rather strong statement, nonetheless, I am convinced of its historical accuracy. Although Viola’s pieces from 1977 onwards, and then again from 1991 (cf. videotape, Passing)31 primarily focus on visual and spatial changes in forms and formats, and technology use and aesthetics – and, therefore, probperiod eye’ concept of visual culture, as developed by the art historian, Michael Baxandall in 1972,32 the shift between ‘real’ and ‘deferred’ time (Torcelli 1996) and between conceptual and emotional approaches has, in short, never happened as such (an sich). The shift can, however, be traced back to Viola’s study time in Syracuse and immediately thereafter. Evidence of its conceptualisation and audio-visualisation can best be found in his closed-circuit video installations. Whilst Peter Campus famously described video as “a function

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of reality,” (197433) Viola continued Campus’s psychological research into the relationship between video and cogito,34 thus expressing his own epistemological interest “in how thought is a function of time. There is a moment when the act of perception becomes conception, and that is thought.” (Bellour 1985, pp. 92–3 and London 1987) This is why the supposed contradiction between Viola’s later opulent imagery and his conceptual ‘iconoclasm’ probably meant that his research did not recognise the continuity between, and coexistence of, his earlier live video works and edited arrangements. “ ing process. In fact the editing is going on all the time. Images are always being created and transformed.” (Bellour 1985, p. 101 and London 1987) For Viola, the image is, as Barbara London accurately remarked, “merely a schematic representation of a much larger system and the process of seeing is a complex process that involves far more than surface recognition.” (London 1987) For Viola, video and investigation of life and identity. (Bellour 1985, p. 101 and London 1987) representation with the corresponding challenges that his installations and other works offer to the ‘naturalised’ or ‘acculturated’ patterns of perception remain from the very beginning “a combination of the highly rational and the deeply intuitive.” (London 1987) Barbara London noticed it precisely in her observation of how the direct usage of the live camera in his video tapes of the seventies extended to his editing, where nothing was extraneous and very little was left to chance. This dialectic of control and failure could be traced along a ‘direct’ trajectory from Duchamp to Paik and from Nauman to Campus, but the story is not that simple and certainly not reducible to the quotes and aphorisms taken by researches from countless interviews with the named artists. Without reproducibility and a comparison of the related pieces and processes achieved in this way, the meaningful criticism and historical contextualization remain lacking. Viola’s respect for Campus’s work has been documented. as “one of the most important artists.” (London 1987) This statement bears witness to the extent to which the older artist acted as a role model for the recently graduated Viola. He attended a workshop given by Campus, and then assisted with Campus’s seminal show at the Everson Museum in Syracuse in 1974. Viola’s closed-circuit video works and also some of his later pieces are comparable to Campus’s carefully lit and, in every respect, precise and controlled arrangements. The emotional gravitas evident in Campus’s “confrontational imagery” of the period (Campus 1999) was consistently present in Viola’s contemporaneous, and later, work as was, indeed, the case with its diagrammatic and non-representational character.

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3.4 Patterns of transition In 2010, Bill Viola published an article in Art in America in homage to Peter Campus and his contribution to the medium of video and art in the wider sense. It “consecration strategies”.35 Campus’s patterns of (self-) an image of the Jungian ‘self’.36 Viola opened his text with a citation from the exhibition catalogue which accompanied the Peter Campus retrospective in Bremen in 2003, “When I was young I made myself a prisoner of my room. It became part of me, an extension of my being. I thought of the walls as my shell. The room as a container had some relationship to the imaginary space inside a monitor.”37 This is important because it recalls Nauman’s famous, recorded, indoor performances in the studio of Roy Lichtenstein and Paul Waldman in Southampton, Long Island, his own by attending his exhibition at Castelli’s in 1969. Even more important than this art historical reference is one Viola made to the history of science, which related to Campus’s investigation into experimental psychology at a time when the integral research of communication systems, living organisms and technology was at the cutting edge. From our retro-analytical and comparative perspecCampus’s two early “evocative, disorienting, revelatory and at times inscrutable” (Viola 2010) pieces from 1971, Dynamic Field Series and Double Vision. What Viola emphasised in Campus’s understanding of video, image and process can be “The so-called video image is actually a shimmering energy pattern of electrons vibrating in time […] The electronic and, like our DNA, it has become a code that can circulate freely to any container that will hold it, defying death as it travels at the speed of light. But perhaps the most extraordinary aspect of the medium is that the image is live.” (Viola 2010) This coincidence of ‘image’ and ‘liveness’, continues Viola, has “so radically altered our experience of time and space in the second half of the 20th century that a new term for time was coined to describe it. “Real time” refers to an image existing in the present tense, parallel with unfolding experience.” (idem) As Viola stated, “co-existing with one’s own self-image” is an “inherently paradoxical, tautological situation.” (idem) Viola’s sincere homage to Campus must be read as a paying homage to Campus’s closed circuit video installations 1971–76, Bill Viola

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points to the gap still existing in the historical understanding of art, media and culture and the appreciation of this precise context, from which Viola’s own art between 1972 and 1976 took its direction. “In his live video projection installations of the 1970s, Peter Campus blazed a trail into the depths of the living moment few have followed. Using contemporary technology, he opened the door onto one of the most ancient and profound revelations: that the central core of my living being, my aliveness, is the same essence present within all people, and furthermore that this essence extends beyond the human family and lies embedded in the foundations of nature.” (idem) By praising Campus’s “link between the rounds us and the essential loneliness of the inner self,” Viola even saw in “Campus’s dark spaces” the conjunction of “the three great arcs of humanity: the Unborn, the Living and the Dead (Potentiality, Finality and Eternity)” (idem) – the categories of cognition and existence as in Peire’s schematisation of Kant’s twelve categories of thought. Viola sees in Campus’s work “one of the most accurate and extraordinary representations of sentience ever made by an artist” and praises and elevates Campus’s “transparency to time” to a “vera ikon” […] “faithful to invisible, intangible prototypes that reside closer to the human heart, nearer the core of our beings, and not on the body’s external visible surface.” (idem) This canonisation of the “constant presence in [Campus’s] work, sensed but not seen” goes hand in hand with Viola’s own equalisation of ‘image’ and ‘time’ as substanceless substance. (idem) Most of the video installations by Bill Viola described here show, as previously mentioned, that they cannot be added either to the “aesthetics of the imaginary time” or to the “aesthetics of the realtime” (Torcelli 1996). The advantage of our retro-analytic perspective obviously lies, on the one hand, in the prevention of aposterioristic reductionisms. Thanks to the complexity of simultaneous working

mid-1970s along with a not entirely voluntary return to individual art production. The changes that were initiated after Ronald Reagan’s election to the governorship A new grant award, for instance, supported video innovators only individually, which led to a termination of collectively-created, socially critical, documentary and other projects (Boyle 1992). Guerrilla Television as an institution and in terms of its subject matter around 1977. “Once the possibility of reaching a mass audience opened up, the very nature of guerrilla television changed. No longer out to create an alternative to

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television, guerrilla TV was competing on the same airwaves for viewers and sponsors.” (Boyle 1985) here. However, technological development encouraged artistic experimentation with newer, more easily controllable and practically predictable works. The recently available, computer-supported, video-editing technology meant the videotapes were abandoned as were ‘open ended’ installations, and thus, also the seemingly “coverless aleatorics” of earlier close-circuit video installations. Bill Viola, who realised his last video installation in 1976, as mentioned above, later remembered experience with the computer video-cut, “ experience with computer videotape editing in 1976, in existence before it was executed on the VTRs. Digital computers and software technologies are holistic; they think in terms of whole structures [...] When I edited tape with the life I saw that my video piece had a ‘score’, a structure, a pattern that could be written out on paper.” (Viola 1982 [2001], p. 291) Even though Viola’s later visual language, popular worldwide, was drafted in 1992 (cf. Syring 1992), the content-related turn had already taken place in his last video installations at least by 1976. Bill Viola’s approach to closed circuit video was anything but a sudden vison, despite well-known anecdotes, such as when his uncle supposedly saved him from drowning in water – an event which Viola remembers as a highly aesthetical and potentially lethal one. His ‘vision’ emerged in stages as a result of an intensive (working) process, in which process art itself appears in Viola’s interpretation as an important audio-visual threshold, which art history and visual culture continuously need to cross en route to an operative joint methodology.38 critical term. Recent research has attempted to address it with still, I would say, inconclusive results. Thus it remains unclear how Benjamin’s thresholds and Aby Warburg’s Distanzraum and Zwischenraum “oscillations between distance and closeness” and secondly as openings of the latter to ‘collective memory.’ (cf. Thielebein 2014.) An objection has previously been raised with regards to content in Viola’s focus on the threshold between birth and death. Götz Grossklaus claimed that the artist had “overcoded” the interval, ‘interface’ and threshold theme. (Grossklaus 2000)39 Whilst Campus’s closed circuits still can be used as a model for rational description and a reproducible approach,

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models and metaphors of ‘post-modern’, subliminal art, aesthetic and cognitive praxis. They share basic properties like deconstruction, uncertainty, ambivalence, heterogeneity, difference, fragmentation, discontinuity and hybridisation. All of them revolve around the threshold or interface between perceivable dimensions, as Viola concludes himself, “This constant falling, the incessant quest for some unknown thing beneath, beyond, or just out of reach has possessed Peter Campus his whole life and, like many artists, at certain times has pushed him to the edge. This, more than anystudents close to him. I know that I am a better artist because of his gifts.” (Viola 2010) for Viola time remained an integral, sculptural aspect of the media and material he employed, which included either a balancing or expansion of the two possible extremes in question: boredom or drama. In the case of balance, the cognition and perception involved appear as beauty; where it is a question of lack of balance, the sublime appears. This is why Viola’s art, whilst in toto representing the historical in spite of numerous convincing indications that it might do so.40

4. Process art in education, research and archiving. Two case studies

To comprehend video art in its historical dimension one needs to assume a continuity, which could be at best described as fragmentary. The history of video art at the continuity in a special, exemplary and unique manner. The period that is dealt with in this text arises from the history of the institution. Nearly two decades ago, Nam June Paik and Nan Hoover, both of them professors responsible for video, left the Arts Academy. It bach, could take up the vacant position as a professor for

4.1 Video art at the Düsseldorf Art Academy, 1976–96: the educational and technological context From the perspective of the history of art and culture, as well as media history of the video art, al survey exhibitions in the 1970s and 1980s (Herzogenrath 1974, 1976, 1982, 1989 in Cologne), the early private video art collections and production funding (Studio and collection Oppenheim in Bonn/Cologne). An impressive series of events took place here, the high concentration of which was certainly related to the particular 1

head of the video department of the Arts Academy Düsseldorf (1976–1986).2 One of the demands – related to contemporary art tendencies, shaped by concept art of content over form. Wevers realised in 1982: “Technical gimmicks such as gigantic monitor constructions or electronic colour distortions do not retain any new level of knowledge. One must counteract the fashionable trend to make the play with technology an end in itself. The content is the essence of every artistic work, and that applies to videos too. We can only gain new insights and forms, if the word ‘spirit’ does not remain a foreign concept at our art academies.” (Wevers 1982, p. 93.)

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The ‘video class’ has maintained its special status ever since. Axel Klepsch (born 1952 in Düsseldorf-Kaiserswerth) reminisces in an interview in 2011: was back then a lecturer for video and we were no video leadership of the academy was afraid of having again a pugnacious [Beuys] class that was rather interested in a political agitation than making art behind closed doors. Therefore, there was no documentary spirit could spread. We were involved in sculpting. But it took a long time, the leadership of the academy kept stressing: that’s a workshop and everyone can go to it. It was completely different for Paik.”3 On the other side of the artistic spectrum was Nam June Paik (1932–2006) terminism and variability, that became manifest outwardly, amongst others, as eagerness to experiment within his live video performances. Paik already marked his arrival at the Arts Academy Düsseldorf in 1978 with two such audiovisual and performative events: the video performance Video Venus and the piano duo with Joseph Beuys Homage to George Maciunas [Hommage an George Maciunas]. In Video Venus, a sort of academic ‘audition’ by Paik, he let some of his future students join in with the nude model Janice Guy. They were in charge of the video re-

the usual early orientation phase, and stayed until 1978, before he returned permanently to Düsseldorf four years later. He recollects in an interview in 2011: “At the time Joseph Beuys was basically already gone. Ole John led the class. And it was rather traditional. They made documentary movies. I didn’t want Stone and sea [Stein und Meer]4, that was also awarded, announced basically the coming of a new era. Then the new guidelines came. In 1978, Paik was invited as a professor at the academy by the then chancellor of the Arts Academy, Norbert Kricke (1972–1982)5, from a ‘expressive’, ‘scenic’ and ‘playful’ one.6 Axel Klepsch gives an account of his view at the situation in 1980: “At the time I had already had an apprenticeship. I started making serial photos closely related to painting and music. I was also a performer. The Arts Academy was for me a challenge to start something new. The video department was in the vicinity and I kept noticing that something interesting was happening there. There

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Figure 26: Nam June Paik (1932–2006) and the students of the Art Academy Düsseldorf, Video Venus, Videoperformance (1978), poster

were cameras and, I believe, there was even a piano in the room [...] So I went to the video department and it was already announced that a new professor would come who would work only with video. It was something new and I was not at all into the academic, classic manner. And indeed Paik was a very unconventional person, different than the other professors. He was even scruffy, like a bum with plastic bags, suited me. It was my choice and actually I must say that everyone, who went there, was accepted, there was not a great selection procedure back then [laughs]. But it must be made clear that this professor was able to perceive the real and nominal students.” (Klepsch in Tatiyankina & Trifonova 2010) The raw charm of the media, institution and consumption of the 70s was ebbing, certainly due to the institutional support of new educational structures at the Arts Academy, which was gradually generating a new generation of art students. The main focus of interest shifted to the audiovisual experiment as opposed to the “ ”, as Alex Klepsch recalls:

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Figure 27: Nam June Paik and the students of the Art Academy Düsseldorf, Video Venus,

“In our Paik class things were different. Even when working together with television, where you always need a storyline, we always delivered it after the project. To me video art is closely related to painting and sculpting, it is a haptic way of experience. A video is pictorial, compositional, musical – in other words, aimless, headless […] Paik let many projects run and then he took a look at the result. We often used his way of editing – the collages, fast dynamic series of im[…] That was at the beginning of the 80s and maybe even earlier. One followed Paik or ran with him together or because video art was very boring at the time, it was basically performances, short cuts (and also expensive). We compressed it; the pieces were only 3 minutes long back then – gaudy and rhythmic. It might be that they were critical but not in the direction of television. I didn’t have a TV during the 80s. Axel Klepsch summarises the positive side of the lack of the ‘video class’ before 1986 in the same interview: “During the studies it was of advantage to have a bigger group of video producers around yourself. It promoted the work motivation. When the others

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ring the setting up of Video Venus

created new projects, I had to create quickly something new again; it was good competition. Towards the end of the studies the area of diligence expanded by nature. However, the external contacts were rather a matter of presentation than cooperation. The latter can happen for me only after having spent some time together experiencing and comprising something.” In 1986 a symposium took place in Bonn on ‘video artists, video presenters, consumers and the problem of intermediation’, which quantitatively summarised the earlier educational context of video. One can gather from the published documentation (on the cover of which is Axel Klepsch with one of the frequently used TV sets of the Arts Academy Düsseldorf) that ca. 1,700 students studied ‘Film published, together with Georg Schwarzbauer, a richly illustrated publication with video works of 40 students from the ‘video class’. The stated pretension of the nationwide statistics hardly matched the reality of video education in an artistic context, as it presented itself a decade after its beginning. Since the second half of the 1980s, the process of a slow but irresistible disintegration of the ‘video class’ at the Arts Academy Düsseldorf had started. It related especially to the absence of the professor Nam June Paik, which was gradual but clearly felt. As long as the Korean ‘father of the video art’ still lived in Neuss, not far away on the other side of Rhine, he visited the Arts Academy once or twice a week.

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However, in 1986/87 he moved to Wiesbaden for personal and health-related rea-

The years 1986 and 1987 were marked not only by Paik’s relocation but also

Wuppertal. However, she took care of the class to a lesser extent for one more at the running the video course there.7 Wevers’s lecturing position and the management of the already in charge of the PR work and other tasks. Similar to the quoted artists of -

underwent some transformations due to the staff changes. It was the beginning of a productive period, in which the competition of Paik and Wevers’s artistic and teaching concepts, referred to as “Power of Contradiction”8 by Friedemann Malsch, was no longer as perceptible as at the beginning of the 1980s. Paik’s unusual teaching concept and his “strategy of absence”9 were Hoover, to such an extent that the latter instructed the next generation of artists in photography once or twice a week for the following ten years. In the Paik class there was no sign anymore of an ‘atmosphere of change’,10 even though Paik’s absence was felt clearly by most of his former students. Despite the direct contact and the reciprocative practical help, in the former Paik class there was relatively little mutual questioning and barely any collective work on mutual projects, as was the case at the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s

1995, when Paik and Hoover left and “that only marginal impulses came from the video department at the Arts Academy Düsseldorf.” (Rennert 1996, p. 7.) All this was related, as well, to the newly formed regional educational politics, which are discussed below. From 1987/88 Nan Hoover (1931–2008) was in charge of the department, and coached the former Wevers and Paik students mutually from the June Paik spent a relatively short time in his function as a professor at the Acad-

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Figure 29: Nan Hoover (1931–2008) at the Art Academy in Düsseldorf. Courtesy Dawn Leach

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photography and video in 1987, demanded a development in the video area that would neither promote the usage of the latest technological possibilities nor would paradoxes of the video department that, in the period when Nan Hoover was appointed as a professor, she decided not to work any longer in the medium video. The end of the 1970s was described as ‘chaotic’ by many contemporary witnesses, as a time when the main credo for the students was ‘learning by doing’, with all its advantages and disadvantages. Kyung Ja Na, who enrolled in 1987, referred to herself and her fellow students from that time as ‘self-taught’. Axel Klepsch, just like Peter Kolb or Dieter Sellin, had been holding video classes once a week that were put together with audio and dents working with video enjoyed their freedom. In the second half of the 1980s, only few technically elaborate video works were created in the video department of the interests of the teaching body and the technical equipment that was either lacking or in the process of installment. In addition, the students did not show real interest in dealing closely with the available technology. ‘Department for Film and Video’, there were 19 enrolled students in the Paik class. In 1984, Wevers reported ca. 40 students that worked with the medium of video under her tutelage. (Wevers & Schwarzbauer 1984, p. 7.) That means, that the above quoted “Power of Contradiction” between the artistic and teaching con‘camps’, was based primarily on the common denominator of the device-related equipment of the video studio and the video department. In a published document about the period between 1976 and 1984, the former lecturer reported the current technological development level based on the devices that were purchased.11 In the catalogue of the exhibition Students of Paik – Mixed Pixels from 1996 this information was updated12, so the purchasing strategy of the Arts Academy Düsseldorf remains unclear from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s. This strategy, with its realised and also failed intentions, offers a good insight into the working conditions of the generation of artists studying before the break from 1995/96. The department with the recording studio – in room 215 of the main building since 1980 – which was equipped with special components from time to time, was 13 There was already a plan by the State Building Authority for the restoration and academically

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by the government building director on 16.12.198614 – which was designated as expansion of the Arts Academy for the new facility of the Department for Film and Video. The plans for the transfer to the new rooms in the Rhine wing in 1989 also included a new purchase for the ‘video class’ and hence an update of the technical equipment. A new acquisition was planned and partly realised in two steps.15 Band-video recorder and player was purchased. About the same time the purchase of the digital device for video effects ‘Fairlight’16 followed by asmall and ‘inconspicuous’ CVI (Computer Video Instrument).17 CEL18devices were bought. One could (re)produce feedback with them according to the TBC principle.19 High-Band recorder were bought. A matching professional editing system such as BVE-900 (or -600) was supposed to be acquired as well. This, however, did not in former East Germany. This planned and approved, but rejected construction phase left ex negativo especially visible marks in the method of operation of the artists, who grappled intensively with the possibilities and limitations of the technical image. The three video works, elaborated on further below, show how the for instance, the general lack of luminance in colours in the respective videos.20 Arts Academy Düsseldorf from 1990, with regards to the intended modernisation of the Department for Film and Video, could not be completely realised due to objective reasons. A second reason for the department’s modernisation in the 1990s was a subjective one. Although, since 1992, everything had been torn down and rebuilt21, certain purchases were made that can be regarded as less seminal and trend-setting from today’s perspective.22 These included, above all, several Amiga computers purchased between 1983 and 1994/95 (Amiga 2000, 3000, 4000). Although technically not at the cutting edge, the video department alienated itself from the Academy due to its somewhat unclear status and its self-concept23 gained from the inventiveness and joy for experimentation by the students, and recruited a larger number of artists that could hold their position internationally. In retrospect, the video department of the Düsseldorf Academy was justly named Germany’s most important “video hotbed”. (Cf. Von Wiese & Rennert 1996, p. 5.) To what extent and in what manner the academic surroundings could contribute positively to it remains, at least until 1995 at the time of this evaluation, still unclear.

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A less known translocal episode between Düsseldorf and Cologne can illustrate somewhat the gap between the intentions and the possibilities; the claim and the reality of the video and the headline ‘A New Academy in Düsseldorf’, Helga Meister reported in Düsseldorf’s Westdeutschen Zeitung in 1987 about the initiative of the Arts Academy lecturer and tutor of the ‘video class’, Hubertus Neuerburg, to open a private academy for -

Figure 30: „Neue Akademie in Düsseldorf“ (1987), a newspaper article by Helga Meister, Westdeutsche Zeitung

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In the discussions with the Heads of property and school departments of the school building in the Comeniusstraße, in the Düsseldorf city district Oberkassel, Neuerburg was offered the rooms of this soon to be closed school for his project. The concept included a training course in the new media that was interesting mostly for the free broadcasting organisations: cameramen, production supervisors, cutters, script writers and directors would get a nuts-and-bolts education for six to eight semesters. Although the teaching would not focus on artistic education but on the professional future of the candidates, it would be also an opportunity to provide an education of the latest media technology for interested and solvent candidates. of the city (there were high lease costs of 10 DM/m2) and secondly, and most importantly, a rival concept was decisive: Neuerburg got an offer by the federal state to realise his idea and to implement it in a future art academy funded by public means. He withdrew and the rival concept was ultimately realised in the 1990 foundation and opening of the Academy of Media Arts Cologne (KHM). Düsseldorf as an educational site for future media artists became less important. Some of the symptoms were the ‘emigration’ of art students with interest in the media of video and computer from Düsseldorf to Cologne. In 1991, there were hardly any technically demanding video tapes produced at the Arts Academy Düsseldorf. from the Paik class, who made the consistent choice of continuing their studies in Cologne. Gudrun Teich, Kyung Ja Na and Patrick Jambon, Frank Essers, Elke Esser (as a guest student), Jan Verbeek, Aurelia Mihai and Angela Melitopoulos followed.24 An exhaustive debate seen from art historical perspective about this so far rather ‘lost generation’ of the Düsseldorf video and media artists – despite their quality and their national and international exhibition activities and successes – has regrettably not taken place. The organised group exhibitions could not hide the fact that the decision of many Paik students to transfer their centre of life to Cologne, Karlsruhe, Berlin or abroad, was not least an institutional and ‘infrastructural’ incongruity. This young artist generation presented itself with the title Caught in the escape [Im Entwischten Erwischte] in 1995 in a cinema programme of the programme author rather than a review of the prevailing situation.25 “The freedom to try out everything” that students had at the Arts Academy Düsseldorf 26 was replaced in the winter semester 1990/91 by many graduates with the possibility to continue their studies at the newly opened Academy for Arts Academy Düsseldorf, a stricter and in every instance manifold controlled system of teaching and research awaited the

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istration efforts: the description of the projects and the planned production, concept or device usage were, from the very beginning, part of the typical practice at the KHM, which could not and cannot be compared to an art academy given the relatively low percentage of the ‘absolutely artistically’ oriented students. The positive aspect was without doubt the amplitude of the syllabus in the technical and theoretical courses. In the course of the time the supporters of this concept managed to establish an “ivory tower with many openings” (cf. Haase 1998, pp. 462 f.), a decentralised production and training facility in the heart of Cologne that owes its character not least to the dismissal of the academic master class system. The founding chancellor of the KHM, Siegfried Zielinski, put the focus of his work: “On the studies and the development of artistic projects, on the lab connection […] We went here very clearly for the academy, for the lab and for the organisation of the personnel that is decisive for the education. We will approach everything else then on long-term basis. My task is to educate young artists in this ment.”27 One of the last big mutual presentations of the students commuting between Düsseldorf and Cologne was the exhibition Spectacle 92 [Spektakel 92] at the Aalto Theater in Essen. It was the second festival of the art and music academies in North Rhine-Westphalia that took place from 11–13 June 1992. The contribution of the Arts Academy Düsseldorf was supposed to be a so-called media tower, 12 metres high and with a base area of 5 x 8 metres. The tower, made out of scaffolding material, would have been accessible and the projects of ca. 30 students an integral sculpture – “a complete artwork of the artists from the areas of Film/ Video/Audio/Performance and Photography”, said Hubertus Neuerburg.28 However, the scaffolding of the media tower soon turned out unsuitable for approval: the low acceptable base load of 500 kg/m2 allowed for only 3 levels of the tower.29 As a consequence, the tower height would have had to be reduced to 9 metres, and all the artistic projects would have had to be placed outward.30 Furthermore, the tower was demonstratively closed to the public and thus the original plan of walking into it could not be realised, instead the public could only perceive it from below and from the outside. This so far barely documented anecdote certainly symbolises the distance between the importance of the artistic demand in the video area and the sustainability of an increasingly media-critical direction of the decision-makers.

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4.2 Finite technology and

aesthetics

tutional, technical and aesthetically artistic factors that emerged in this especially interesting transitional phase of the Arts Academy Düsseldorf will be illustrated. Matthias Neuenhofer (born 1965 in Borken, Westphalia) graduated in 1991 as a master student of the Paik class. In the same year he took up his postgraduate studies at the Academy of Media Arts Cologne. After that Neuenhofer started lecturing at the KHM. 15 years later, after the mentioned ‘break’ caused by the departure of Paik and Hoover, a position at the Arts Academy Düsseldorf followed. The conhis own video tapes are insightful because early on in his artistic practice, around 1988, the objective references disappeared gradually from his form language. According to his own evaluation, he started his work with video at the Arts Academy Düsseldorf at the time when the local atmosphere was not particularly nurturing for it. In the year when Neuenhofer moved from Münster to Düsseldorf (1986/87), the

the medium of video. It was not until 1986 that it was decided to acquire the video the documentation about the kidney-shaped tables of the 1950s in the 20th century). PUT (1988; 2:00 min) is part of the series of his relatively speaking ‘minimalistic’ to ‘iconoclastic’ pieces created in Düsseldorf that owe their character not least to the existing technical conditions, their ‘ aesthetics and their creation story. Neuenhofer’s that the video mixer he used had no chrominance key function, but only a luminance key.31 So, the recorded ‘images’ could not be additionally manipulated in their chromaticity at the second step. The video equipment that was privately acquired by Neuenhofer32 had a colour corrector that would have enabled him to carry out the further colour manipulations, but the artist-to-be limited himself portunity, which he put to use, was the removal of black and the use of previously recorded images, i.e. the current feedback image, by means of luminance-keying. The other technical parameters consisted of the camera and monitor settings (aperture, contrast, brightness etc.) The result was consequently a light-technical, contrast-rich feedback-video tape that the artist himself compared with a ‘light theatre’ experiment with reference to the camera recording(s).33

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Figure 31: Matthias Neuenhofer, RAS (1990), Videotape, 7:48. Courtesy Matthias Neuenhofer

video feedback experiment was essentially based on the analogous reference world. Evidence that, under the given conditions, the aesthetics and production technology of many videos of the Arts Academy Düsseldorf remained barely changed and comparable at the conceptually technical level, is provided by a series of short videos from Mario Ramiro and Sabine Kacunko (born Schmidt), which were created in 1993 under the title Light exercises [Lichtübungen] (11:10 min) as part of Nan Hoover’s ‘video a Bottle’ [‘Flaschengeist’] (1:04) – show incredible aesthetic and procedural similarity with PUT a blurred recording of a red table lamp. The second part – just like in Neuenhofer’s PUT – involves a green white bottle that is illuminated peripherally with Neuenfront of it. The result was a white spot that changed and rotated around the image image that is similar to PUT in its rotating movements.

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The DVE (Digital Video Effect) device by Sony that Neuenhofer used for the RAS (1990, 7:48 min) and that was acquired in Düsseldorf enabled him to depart temporarily from the analogous feedback production and hence to depart from the camera work; work which Paik, incidentally, had a little appreciation for – Neuenhofer began his bachelor thesis at the Academy for Media Arts with this famous quote from his professor: “Feeling man shoots, thinking man edits”. The consistent departure from the external references or representations in the video RAS was put into effect while the self-reference to the video sequence camera tilting, no further analogous reference points were required for the next steps. The traces of the movement, which had been programmed in the DVE device, represented the work’s second step: once their speed and colour was determined, the feedback-related forms (or ‘feedback traces’) ‘wiped’ each other away and ‘rewrote’ themselves without an intermediate grip. So, this perpetuum mobile of the lines, colours and forms was created in an almost natural process of the digital feedback, and was determined more precisely by cutting the sequence to increase dramatization. One can speak of a sort of technological ‘autopoiesis’ initiated and staged by humans. The ambivalences that Neuenhofer analyzed and displayed – the simultaneity of the forms as well as the ambivalence of their apparent and actual transformation, of the ‘evident’ (although not present) morphing – these are the most apparent paradoxes of his strategy and his creative will that reached their temporary zenith in the video tape RAS.34 climax of Neuenhofer’s artistic education at the Arts Academy Düsseldorf. There was a limit to what this institution could offer in the sense of its technological equipment in the early 1990s. The audio part of pob (1991, 5:05 min) was, in fact, moments of the tape immediately indicate the three main elements that play a decisive role in its impact: the three-dimensional moving body forms in the simulated space, their glowing colours and, not least, their speed. Neuenhofer refers to the entire tendency of this video appropriately as “polar inertia”, paraphrasing Paul Virilio’s book title that was translated into German in 1992. (Virilio 1992) His experience with the ambivalent character of the virtual three-dimensionality tried out in pob “The experience that the three-dimensional editing in video in the end remains two-dimensional brought me to relocate the questions of the space perception of the tapes into objective dimensions.”35

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Figure 32: Matthias Neuenhofer, pob (1991), Videotape, 5:05. Courtesy Matthias Neuenhofer

Neuenhofer’s working methods in the context of the technological framework at the Arts Academy Düsseldorf can be summarised as follows. In the video tape Ras from 1990, Neuenhofer was already using Fairlight digital video device set up as a video synthesiser, which enabled the programming of processes, an advantage that Neuenhofer promptly wanted to take advantage of.36 But he also used the older available devices37 to produce fascinating feedback effects without the creative and technological moments of an artistic development, which I intend to underline here, was the contemplation of their mutual dependency; the second intention, the emphasis of the independence and distinctiveness of an artistic – and hence the possibility for creating feedback without a camera – had been available since the early 1980s, nobody at the Arts Academy Düsseldorf showed any interest or even the technical skills to produce such ‘self-referential’ videos and experiment with them. The somewhat simpler mode of interaction with the Luminance-Keyer (there was no Chrominance-Keyer at the Academy in the 1980s, and thus no possibility either of the so-called Blue38

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Figure 33: Matthias Neuenhofer, pob (1991), Videotape, 5:05. Courtesy Matthias Neuenhofer

Box procedure) and the matching aesthetics of the ‘positive-negative’ effect of the stamped in and out images, on the other hand, enjoyed great popularity in the work of Wevers’s and Paik’s students in the 1980s; this ‘pictorial’ aesthetic was the special outer identifying feature of the Düsseldorf video generation of the 1980s. technological-apparatus-based and personally-related institutional circumstances during the period. So around 1992, after the completed video tape pob in 1991, the speed with which the image levels dissolved into each other was conspicuous and a so far never seen myriad of geometrical elements was generated. In a plurality of pob alternated just like their structures, colours and trajectories. This ‘new easiness’ better, working conditions at the KHM. The versatility of geometric forms was in this regard a clear demonstration of the possibilities of the DVE device available in Düsseldorf, which remained for Matthias Neuenhofer an integral part of his work until 1995. More astonishing is the versatility of form created given that the foundation of this post-production video machine for real time editing consisted

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two-dimensional forms or the entire image level – a kind of a ‘video Cézanne rewith the possibility of a three-dimensional penetration and represented an important technological basis for Neuenhofer for his forthcoming research into the ‘spatial’ potentials of the screen medium. Moreover, Matthias Neuenhofer was involved intensively in the assembly of the video studio and could practice thoroughly with the equipment, which represented an important basis for his later video experiments. It can be summed up that DVE was one of the important ‘dialogue partners’ at the time, about which and against which the ensuing decisions would be made. The possibility of an even faster and uncomplicated real-time editing of the digital feedback processes, would certainly affect the aesthetic of the ensuing video tapes and installations. If the ‘new easiness’ and abundance of forms is interpretable partly in its technical aspects, one can also explain the determined bright and ‘transparent’ colours at least partly with the new applied technology. The video system Beta SP that was available at the KHM and was promoted intensively at the time, offered Neuenluminance of the colours and for the multiple re-recordings required for his method of work that had a negative impact on this aspect in older video systems such Arts Academy Düsseldorf. In the possible meaning that a constant transition from low to high band would have been not only very labour intensive but ultimately it would not have led to sig39 An example of the new power of colour, brightness and ‘transparency’ is Neuenhofer’s installation tape E-Tower [E-Turm] (1992), which demonstrates further proof of the ‘transitional character’ of this period. The break with linearity, which was reached by using high speed in the video tape pob, found its consistent expression not only in the ‘loop’ structure of the installation tape for the E-Tower, but also in the ensuing works as well. In order to better evaluate the institutional, educational-technical, technological and aesthetically-artistic connections one needs to regard a couple of lesser known or considered facts, such as, for instance, the additional personal changes, the transfer to new facilities or the broached modernisation of the technical equipment for the ‘video class’, that had an impact on the second generation artists working with video. Between 1987 and 1991, as described above, video was undergoing a general technical change. In 1995, the non-linear editing systems for use in the video post-production sector appeared on the market. It is aestheti-

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cally evident and also media-historically proven that the matching digital systems 40 rather signalled a return to the traditional The occasionally taken development direction that should have run from (video) editing to cancellation of editing towards digital morphing, turned out, especially in retrospect, unable to do justice to the parallelism of the ‘linear’ and ‘non-linear’ artistic application of digital technology.

4.3 Caught while escaping: a personal retro-perspective video art happened rather by accident in the summer of 1993 at the place where, thirty years before, Nam June Paik, the ‘father of video art’, art histo-

been a professor since 1987. Going through dozens of videos from the 1970s and 1980s, mostly produced at the tively unsorted, but very valuable insight into an artistic sphere of audio vision, of performance and the so-called ‘moving pictures’ that was, up until that moment, barely known either to me or to the ‘mainstream’ art history. eo and media art began around 1994, when I started my PhD thesis on ‘Video art:

video material. The original idea was to use the work of a handful of merited video artists from Düsseldorf and the surroundings (e.g. Dieter Kiessling, Ingo Günther, Jean-Francois Guiton, Daniel Poensgen, Klemens Golf) as a basis for a compredevelopment of video and media art in Germany and beyond. This concept turned out to be too ambitious due to the video materials that were scattered around in in justifying the selection of artists, since the ‘laws’ of high productivity during studies and their sudden ebbing away afterwards – sometimes giving up artistic activity – have shaped generations at the Arts Academy Düsseldorf since 1976. A qualitative as well as a quantitative continuity of artistic work over a period of sev-

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eral years could only be traced in a few artists at that time – and when that was the case, these artists were no longer in Düsseldorf, such as Ingo Günther, who moved to New York in the 1980s as Nam June Paik’s assistant, or Jean-Francois Guiton, assistant) in Wuppertal took up a professor position in Bremen. A series of talented artists of the next generation moved to the KHM in Cologne from the early 1990s on and their way and success could hardly be noted down, let alone be used for making conclusions and modellings from the perspective of (media) art history. Marcel Odenbach. Concept, Performance, Video. Installation 1975–1998 “art historical pioneer achievement in the area of video art PA, the biggest fair for the printing industry worldwide, was at that time ‘Meet the Future’. Back then I saw this invitation as a challenge to evaluate realistically the causes and reasons of the so-called digital revolution. My honoured need for philological precision emerged not least due to the notorious lack of available, sys-

his video tapes, video installations and video performances from between 1995 and 1998, to his library with video and media art and not least to his private correspondence – in other words, to all that which the public institutions both in the past and the present can not offer. However, a serious academic work on media art still requires either such a (rather improbable) constellation and concentration of available video material and other material at one place, or a networked and decentrally accessible, thus Internet-based, information system that is provided as unconstrained as possible for research and teaching purposes. The mediation only partly counteract the discontinuity in the artistic work with the ‘new’ technologies at the Arts Academy Düsseldorf.41 In correspondence there was the lack of available documentation and especially professional literature: With the exception of a Wevers-Schwarzbauer anthology about the video class in Düsseldorf and two thin exhibition catalogues from 1990 (Discover European Video with a short but very insightful essay by Vilem Flusser) and from 1996 (Mixed Pixels. Students of Paik) there were basically no attempts to process the connections in art-historical department for video art was supposed to be published but to my disappointment I was given a task by the exhibition curator that cannot be

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solved even today: a chronology that would show how the development of video art and Nam June Paik’s art with the achievements of his class in Düsseldorf ran in a parallel and concordant manner. If I believed in a comparable, rather simple and monocausal development, I could have certainly stuck to my initial rather ‘naive’ dissertation intention, writing a history of video art in Düsseldorf in 1995. -

Cologne or other places. I derived the title of the presentation, that took place in the former cinema at the art museum, ‘Black Box’ in Düsseldorf from Marcel Odenbach’s video tape from 1983 – Caught in the escape [Das im Entwischen Erwischte and possibilities, but also the gap between requirement and reality in the process historical handling of this ‘lost generation’ an academic handling of this chapter of media art history has regrettably not taken

Figure 34: Invitation for the video program Das im Entwischen Erwischte (Caught while escaping. Video in Düsseldorf, the young generation 1990–1995) „Black Box“-Kino im Filmmuseum Düsseldorf 1995.

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place up to today and a dissertation such as the one I originally planned, even a master thesis or bachelor thesis on this topic, remains to be written, as far as I am aware. In the crowded art cinema ca. 120 guests were sitting, among them was Nan Hoover, the Head of the video and sculpture class at the Arts Academy, who retired like Nam June Paik in the same or the following year. Afterwards, video art in Düsseldorf experienced a break, at least regarding the professorial and educational technical aspect, even though the department’s personnel such as Axel Klepsch, Heinz Getrost or Hubertus Neuerburg continued to work with commitment. Some weeks before my curatorial premiere at the ‘Black Box’ I attended an artist presentation by Marcel Odenbach, as part of one of the always well-attended impression of Marcel Odenbach’s art and write a monographic description of this artist as an art-historical dissertation. In a nutshell, during my research it turned out that the lifework of this artist offers what I was looking for, very naively, at the very beginning: a model case that has represented and shaped the development of the video and media art in Germany since the mid-1970s, as Marcel Odenbach stallations as his own primary expression form. He was also the only one who had a continuous artistic production over a period of more than twenty years.42 This regarding the medium of video. Since the early 1980s Marcel Odenbach, together contribution to the emerging video and media art, which is comparable at the international artistic scene with the contribution of the painters from the Düsseldorf Academy such as Jörg Immendorf or Markus Lüpertz. Meanwhile, on 15 April 1992, the Karlsruhe College of Arts and Design (HFG) was opened as a reform university. It was founded together with Heinrich Klotz’s Centre for Art and Media (ZKM) and pursued the pedagogic and artistic task of promoting art in the context of media technology. Marcel Odenbach and media art. Shortly before his death, the founding chancellor Heinrich Klotz wrote the following words: “Only the art-historical approach to a work of the media art can be considered as more suitable than the general media theory, since the latter targets at the perception of the work and not at the reaction possibilities and sensitivities of the media audience. It stands to no reason to place the perception of media art outside the art history, although and precisely because it not only questions a long series of classical categories of the arts, but has also repealed them.” (Klotz 1995, p. 44.)

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A serious video and media art history and the return of the art history to itself, as H. Klotz observed, remains wishful thinking. In the meantime, I have not tried to project my own process art-historical view onto the future projects. Instead of focusing on breaks or practicing an apriorism of traceability through the search continuities, I have rather tried to explore the ‘fragmentary continuities’. medium, as a medium of immediacy and of speculative seeing therefore leads back both to the history of art and culture and the present and future. (Cf. Kacunko 2012 and 2012a, 2004, 2001 & 1999) Handling the immediacy of aesthetic and medial experience and bearing in mind the historicity of art, demands a re-adoption of history that accrues from an ongoing dispute with the new technologies. Analysis of the further development of instruments is an frame to art. Peter Bürger described the dilemma arising out of an institutionally-theoretical approach to art: “There is no doubt that the exploration of the historical transition of the art historian is brought into a precarious situation when he approaches his own epoch. He is, namely, forced then to assume two different perspectives of art that are incompatible with each other. As a historian of the institution art he observes the art from the outside, as a recipient, critic and interpreter, on the other hand, he must act within the institution, as outside the same objects that make works out of it, fall silent.” (Bürger 1995, p. 67.) The apparent dilemma mentioned in the quote is based on the modernist assumption of an irreducible difference between aesthetic and non-aesthetic experience, i.e., on a construction, which could not yet deconstruct the postmodernist postulation of difference ‘in itself’ (cf. Deleuze 1994 [1968]). The ‘dilemma’ of the necessity of simultaneous immersion and its ticular extent, the apparent paradox medium of video and art history and media studies in the meantime.

4.4 Process art, archives and databases In the meantime, the Internet has fundamentally changed the realities of the distribution of heritage. In the age of analogue perceiving and the digital processing, part of our networked ‘information society’. The videographic, audio, installation

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and performative arts, as well as virtual and hypertextual cultural practices (all kinds of Internet-generated ‘material’ including live and interactive events), have become omnipresent while increasingly interpenetrating each other. At the same time, notions such as the ‘performativity of archives’43 or the ‘archive as an event’ derive not least from the often forgotten truism, that things can never be entirely perceived and that the expiration of data can only be avoided by a proactive, vital archival practice. The reasons for developing new approaches to archives lie, in my view, in the sometimes hidden but deep dispositions and alliances between art history and visual culture: dreamed or gestural ‘images’ are conceived among today’s rampant picture models. The concept of our bodies as interfaces between inner and outer ‘images’ has been presented and become accepted since the Picture Theory and the Pictorial Turn of W.J. Thomas Mitchell at least. These ideas have led to a micro-structuring of image-related areas of competence, creating additional – now art history and visual culture, which in turn have become a challenge when discussed in relation to practical applications.44 This mainly affects transdisciplinary methods and media, culture techniques and gestures which neither are nor can be applied to their storage (dance, theatre, performance, growth etc.) Instead of causing scholars and practitioners to dig deeper into between and the apparent ‘alternatives’ offered by the expressions ‘Performing Archives’ and ‘Archiving Performances’ has become acceptable and presentable due to curricular constraints. In this section, the general parameters for a proactive archival practice related to the processual arts will be summarized. Process Arts are referring not just to the ‘processual’ character of their production, distribution and reception, but also to (their) ‘processing’ as well. In the age of the digital processing, the fundamentally changed realities of distributing and cultural heritage require profound adjustments of the concepts of both analogue and digital appraisal and archiving. OAIS Modell (Reference Model for an Open Archival Information) delivers together with the description standards for the processual and medial events (Dublin Core; MPEG-7) valid points of departure, which however require further visual and perceptual core competences including an appropriate art historical approach. Such competences are to be closely accompanied by understanding and developing of accompanying business- and technical infrastructures as well as by the building of the community and governance support. The concrete work on such an infrastructure might help not least to reconsider the deep dispositions and alliances between art history, visual culture, and media studies inside the archival praxis and outside of the recent, rather random alliances between the ‘cultural turn’ and the ‘new

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Figure 35: CCSDS Reccomendation for an OAIS Reference Model (business)

Out of the growing ‘need’ to ‘archive’ everything and replicate the analogue world within the digital realm arises a need for continued discussion about the superstructures which might open up, for the possibility of clustering the existing competences by (re-)structuring and (re-)activating both internal and external archive and database projects. My approach to the archives and databases of thenso-called media art goes back to the early 2000s, when many colleagues around the world, working along parallel tracks, invested a substantial amount of hope, work and resources in giving a practical answer to the need mentioned.45 No matter which way the supporting policy on local, national and international levels may go in the future, the present status quo shows unmistakably that process art in its widest sense – belong to the key performance indicators of current research in culture and the arts. Moreover, the future archival, database and research environment strategies belong to the important prospective occupational areas with the central role of the human, technology and, above all, content-transfer for a socially relevant development of employment. The ‘social hardware’ concept of possible future superstructures is expected to include the transfer of both analogue and digital methods of knowledge, of acquisition and information management, the transfer, installation and maintenance of different networks, the transfer of facts from the history of art and culture, of terminology, and the transfer of practical examples of performative methods, methods of acting, instruments of operative doing, the transfer of theoretical discourse (especially the picture/image-performance-relationship), as well as the transfer of the theory and practice of analogue and digital archiving itself.

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The essential aim of appropriate, structured ‘hosting’ of existing projects, and as such may be relevant in future, is to eventually include the transformation of the ‘archived’ and ‘archiving’ into the potential of ‘performed’ the potential of their practical, ‘performing’ availability. We obviously experience the world as a narrative, and that also applies to most digitised artefacts. But, from the perspective of digital ontology, the so-called new media objects (DVD, Blu-ray disc etc.) can no longer be regarded as narratives like a novel or cinema – they are just databases organised by algorithms, as Lev Manovich has been claiming since the mid-1990s. (Cf. Manovich 1997 and Vesna 2007) In regards to this apparent contradiction we are very well aware of the need to organise our digitised data properly according to the non-recursive rules. From the digital perspective, this is how to get the added value produced by the cross-reference possibilities of, for instance, relational databases. On the other hand, we need to organise all kinds of computerised collections according to our analogue – sensual, aesthetic – experience (cf. Kacunko 2005), and not least we experience is being newly structured in the tionist, side of the coin includes the view that there are only two kinds of digital objects: databases and algorithms. According to this view, our task would be to project this ontology of the computer onto culture itself. The other side of the coin derives from our common, rather holistic, experience and has to do with our need within our basically unstable, processual experience. Stacked between the inevitable reductionist, digital and analogue and personal on the other, the repeated failures of the either-or-solutions agenda of the asymptotic reaching a sustainable balance. described his personal, rather clueless view on the asymptotic process described above: “The ways in which culture is distributed and archived have become profoundly more intriguing than the cultural artifact itself. What we’ve experienced is an inversion of consumption, one in which we’ve come to engage in a more profound way with the acts of acquisition over that which we are acquiring; we’ve come to prefer the bottles to the wine.” (Goldsmith 2011)46 Goldsmith’s quote has been spread all around the world by countless bloggers, one of their conclusions being that archiving has become a new folk art.47 Other responses tend to reconsider – at least implicitly – the impact of the cur-

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rent fetish for methodology for its own sake.48 Artists and media designers have performativity and theatricality of the archives both in theory and praxis, and demonstrated not least how questionable the theory-praxis dichotomy has become since the appearance of processual new media objects. By the roaring 1990s, artists’ statements to that effect seemed to have become mainstream: “The world is now indeed a stage, an amphitheatre, a world of worlds, a theatre in the round, a pluralistic armature lending itself simultaneously to both the portrayal and enactment of theatrical events […] As artists, we are now inventors, archaeologists, and detectives.”49 Eclectic absorption of historical styles and traditions in order to create a ‘fund of epochs’ was already a conspicuous feature in Botho Strauß’s play Kalldewey, Farce. History has been enrolled in a modern theatrum mundi: “This time collects a lot of times; there’s a huge conglomeration, the archive has become available. Many useful substances still in the stands, in the fund of epochs.”50 It seems obvious: when the map is larger than the mapped, the process of mapping in itself and by nature becomes the major cultural issue. Short messages are twittered from bough to bough in haste and the pressure to spot quantity (or the pressure to decide about the differences that make the differences) tends to displace issues of quality, with no questions asked about the pros and cons of either discriminative faculty. There is a tendency for the host to be captured by the hosted. In such situations, all involved may take the opportunity to reconsider the adjustability of their own concepts of appraisal and archival. My own approach to the archive in this demanding context converges with the recognised need for digital archiving of the threatened analogue or already digitalised, as well as digital archives related to the process art, followed by the building up of databases and networked research environments. This again requires a certain sensitivity to the epistemological meta-questioning: Douglas C. Engelbart51 and Vannevar Bush52 optimistic approach to the supposedly

information (Cf. Brier 2008 & Hoffmeyer 2010) with all their epistemological consequences for the proposed ‘ecology of mind’ (Gregory Bateson), the old, aggressive assumptions perpetuated

as an alternative. The complexity of research beyond the traditional disciplines does not imply its restriction to basic research, as for example the name of the project Performative Wissenschaft – Grundlagenforschung zwischen Kunst und Wissenschaft (Performative Science – Basic Research between Art and Science) may suggest. However, it implies profound basic research as both a point of departure

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structuring of knowledge, to the utopia of the archive and to the appraisal of cultural heritage, the best assessments have been made when the networked research communities have been able to focus on manageable model situations. The cultural, entiated research environments for this kind of the model-building basic research. I will allow myself to present a rather practical reconsideration on archiving and performing particularly with a longer quote from an article I wrote back in 2007, published in 2009: “The considerations of the digital appraisal provide a good opportunity for comparing the actual challenges of the academic disciplines that are traditionally devoted to the appraisal in general. The question of estimation, judgment and selection are within the archival sciences unmistakable related to the continued preservation of archival material. Some other disciplines claim their genuine competences in evaluating important artifacts of the cultural heritage like the artworks and other aesthetic objects (art history), whereas the philosophical aeshistorical concepts of appraisal ‘as such’, understood as “taste” or “discriminative faculty” […] Being aware of that, [the purpose of the essay was] seeking the efforts in formulating needs and strategies of the appraisal of records and data, Project for the Long-term Preservation of Authentic Electronic Records, Terry Eastwood, have rightly summarised that ‘efforts to provide universal guidelines or criteria for appraisal have failed’. In this context, the ‘anomalies of the digital world’ should presumably not be blamed, just as well as the ‘analogue’ concepts of appraisal regarding separately. Because the questions of appraisal in the digital world cannot be posed adequately as an either-or-question, the answers situation-diagnoses in the terms of the ‘old wine in a new bottle’.” (Kacunko 2009)

4.5 Process art in networked research communities In the context of analogue and digital databases and their content-oriented work (‘Web 1.0’), their social-oriented tools (‘Web 2.0’) and semantic-oriented services (‘Web 3.0’), it is obviously the extension and the convergence of the notions of ‘archive’, ‘performance’ and ‘ -

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tive linked to process art will consequently have to take into account existing archival, research and communicative initiatives and platforms53 including the ‘dual’ analogue and digital archives, various indices, lists and dossiers of the artists, projects, sites and events, texts and context diagrams. It will have to be understood as a networking interface between material and knowledge, while being as inde-

while serving the ‘general community’ as well? The quality of future archival initiatives will have to be assured and sustained by minimising editorial stipulations so as to maximise the input from distributed competent potential contributors. In acquiring information we would have to reduce the time and effort necessary to procure permission from copyright holders and for other editorial matters, as experience has shown. Following is a brief summary of the most important parameters of an advised initiative related to process art:

4.5.1 Standards

selves felt at the level of fundamental presuppositions. For communities of schol-

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terminologies is an integral part of a continuous process of knowledge generation and transfer. In a

on their way to overcoming the emphatic oppositions between the ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’ philosophies. In contrast to process art, thesauri, the quite rigid formalism of ontologies, and experiences with folksonomies have shown the latter to be compatible with the procedures in the humanities and creative communities in which the generation of new ideas in directly related to the cognitive processes. But again, the question would be not: ‘either-or’, but ‘how-to-manage-both’. 4.5.1.2 Repository technologies and metadata standards For the collaborative work within virtual research environments, the repository technologies are important means to ensure interoperability of heterogeneous data sources and to support the structured summaries of various databases. Particular attention should be paid to repository management in the context of databases and collections and metadata management, since this involves research communities at almost any stage of producing the multimedia and hypermedia content. Search coordination among the research communities with a media-appropriate and interoperable descriptions and metadata conventions within the networked user communities interchangeable. process art in its widest sense, familiar multimedia description standards as Dublin Core, SMIL, CCO, MARC etc., offer good, but not yet comprehensive, support in particular when it comes to the detailed description of transdisciplinary networked expertise on process art in all its forms is therefore an urgent need. 4.5.1.3 Standards for the description of audiovisual and interactive content

as the CDWA published by the Getty Institute, represent on closer inspection only quasi-standards, not recognised by any international standardisation committee. However, multimedia description standards such as RDF, PICS, owl or MPEG-7

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offer extensions to multimedia description standards and metadata frameworks. MPEG-7 (Moving Pictures Expert Group), as an XML-based, domain-independent metadata standard, particularly answers the conceptual requirements for the description of multimedia content. 4.5.1.4 Standards for long-term preservation of audiovisual and interactive objects The long-term preservation of digital objects can look at a long development process. The international Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) with its OAIS Model includes well-known, yet very general, compressed descriptions of recommendations for long-term preservation and archiving of digital obdata migration, and data transformation, the

Figure 37: CCSDS Reccomendation for an OAIS Reference Model (administration)

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4.5.2 Business structure 4.5.2.1 Organisation and Management Another reason for the adjustment of existing recommendations to the new OAIS business structures, virtual research environments and for their implementation into

of process art. They are characterised by increasing convergence of the formerly separate roles of the artist, researcher, curator and mediator which now tend to be united in one person. This is not only a chance for, but also a reality of, the related business model within the private and public sector. This forms the background for the approach implicit in the proposed structure to include the ‘tools’ and ‘services’

cooperation between researchers, research groups and computer scientists is therethe OAIS between the producer and the consumer/recipient. In current business concepts, the administration takes up most space by far, resulting in high administrative costs. Against the background of recent and successful Web-based business models and the structure of numerous globally dispersed media art archives, the general OAIS scheme must be evaluated not least from the perspective of small businesses and private collections or ‘hosted projects’. The proven capabilities for more effective conservation, preservation and transmission of digital information can be found

4.5.2.2 Tools and Services natural sciences, the research communities involved in the humanities, especially those dealing with the process art, show comparatively little will to collaborate. The resulting lack of coordination has already led to unnecessary and costly approaches. It is therefore essenindividualisation of the related communities to support responsive platforms and to integrate parallel approaches. At the same time, a number of virtual information systems should be integrated within the web services, including a number of -

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Figure 38: Process Arts – a preliminary categorization & quotability (projects)

eration, presentation and evaluation of content and for their retrieval, such as tools and services that support the exchange of scientists, artists and collectors. On the other hand, the content related tools and services must be included to the research service (e-learning and exchange-tools).

4.5.3 Technical infrastructure In the development of information systems for research communities for process art, it is necessary to provide the integration, optimisation and expansion of a networked technical infrastructure in the service of teaching expertise and simultaneously to test the software approaches that serve to generate knowledge. The experience of using software for collaborative work with media shows that a promising information system – technically – should offer a combination of digital archive and database, groupware and community goods. The enhanced communication and collaboration of research groups (groupware) and the support of the more take place in the closest cooperation between the system developers and users.

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Today, the available open (source) content management systems (Plone, WikiWiki, Moodle etc.), with their more general approaches, offer a good basis for the development of appropriate information systems for and virtual research communities require a community supported and collaborative digital media archive, i.e. a special database application, based on repository technology and an interface for accessing information from other systems. The extensibility in terms of the open media archive should offer a permanent contextualisation of available and quotable media artefacts (metadata) while providing an important basis for interdisciplinary knowledge organisation. Built on multimedia metadata standards such as MPEG-7 and by the usage of web services a high degree of interoperability can be guaranteed.

4.5.4 Governance and international networks 4.5.4.1 Curricula and ‘actors’ / ‘users’ / ‘stakeholders’ Future initiatives for the merging of globally distributed competences in process art (including media arts) have to pursue the goal of making informed and timely decisions. The relevance of this issue makes itself felt in the poorly coordinated and expensive archiving work of different institutions – working on the same or similar projects and allowing the threatened analogue cultural heritage to reach its natural destiny, dissolving by demagnetisation. One of the priority tasks for such initiatives is therefore the cooperation and linking of distributed resources and the existing databases, archives and research projects and interest groups. Only by doing this, the fundamental transdisciplinarily oriented processual cultural practices could be covered adequately by the academic curricula. The priorities of art history, media, culture, theatre and dance studies and other neighbouring disciplines, usually remain focused only on their grams; but the historical development of process art in its most disparate contexts shows the clear need to simplify the curricula by involving more interdisciplinary

4.5.4.2 Tagging Various rating and tagging sites offer examples of the huge success of technologies, where a huge expenditure of human time and effort helps in working with more

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Please choose Please choose Monography Exhibition catalogue Theses / Dissertation Preface, foreword, introduction, editorial Essay Critics Review Interview Journal article

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Figure 39: Process Arts – a preliminary categorization & quotability (sources)

limited administrative resources. Accordingly, terms like ‘tagging’, ‘appraisal’ and ‘curating’ have become highly relevant for process art. In addition, the dissolution of boundaries between theory, artistic and mediating practice have reached a higher degree than ever before in the history of the institutional reference systems. Such initiatives are very important against the background of a rethinking of archiving and performing. A similar assessment of the situation can be made in relation to the ‘semantic’ web. It is characterised by the fact that virtually all of the content of the internet can be converted in an XML-compliant database structure. Thus, the network ‘happens’ without laborious ‘browsing’, but through a goal-oriented and time-saving research. If the ‘semantic’ web may be described ‘as a database of databases’ (with the data itself as a searchable entities), then the future process art Centre(s) of Excellence may be outlined at the forefront of this development. 4.5.4.3 International Networks: Principle inclusiveness The Internet has changed the production, distribution and reception of media forinteractive gener-

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ation and distribution of content became the sine qua non of emerging economic strategies and marketing opportunities. This applies not least to the research and education sector. Likewise, artists, designers and software developers have long recognised that an Internet (that can hardly be said to be topologically neutral) provides a powerful tool for transferring local achievements on to the international level and for providing context for its global presence. 4.5.4.4 Rights and Risk Management While the developments in digital media both on national and international level have led to the amendments of copyright, they have already had a negative impact tive’ sciences. The decentralised updates to the existing copyrights make it not a risk, but rather a guarantee for the maintenance of standards in terms of legal use. Not only the ‘traditional’ copyright, but also the Creative Commons, Science Commons and other multi-level options and alternatives are able to resolve the legal issues and are therefore in accordance with the described ‘inclusivity-princiPerson‘s details Type Artist and Author Please choose Artist Artist‘s collective Artist and Author Author Origin of a source Editor Technician Translator Other

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Figure 40: Process Arts – a preliminary categorization & quotability (persons)

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restrictions – from the level of individual project and the associated source (text, or document) on the individual artist and author to the measures covered in whole or in part by the related collections. For the continuous meeting of the requirements, existing relevant research and communities have to be contacted and involved

4.5.4.5 Community infrastructure (database, data models, data sources) The goal of the processing of existing data and description standards related to process art is the development of description standards that go beyond the known (Dublin Core, MPEG-7 etc.) standards and requirements, and are designed especially for visual, art, media and cultural studies. In particular, the general and speprocess art have to be developed. Based on previous research studies on this complex, the related tasks are to be realised in close cooperation with the participating project partners, by developing processual objects’. The development of appropriate description standards, based on experience or on previously known standards, is to be one of the core tasks of future initiatives and stands in direct connection to the formation and maintenance of reference systems for the process art and related theories. An important part of the work would be the development of exemplary databases, archives and presentation structures, including small archives / repositories (for example of the diverse media art festivals etc.) and other institutions (museums, with their mostly locally functioning ‘video lounges’) – the hosted projects. A tightly networked and application-oriented research environment should thereprocess art and their implementation into the diverse needs of real (local, regional etc.) archives. The goal of developing community interfaces should be the creation of a front-end research environment in the form of a platform, based on the combination of several, interoperable community-based interfaces. Through the combination of different interfaces with different actors, the perspective would be open to support this organisation and the implementation of additional Web 2.0 (or Web 3.0) functions. The aim of more customisable interfaces for users and delimiting methodologies in the use of the database(s) would be within reach.

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The second step in the development of a community interface lies in the growing interest in its presentation to the outside world. The goal would be to link evaluation and development processes to a project management tool, using the presentation methods of the obtained system. The transfer of surface and system interface of a tentative Centre of Excellence related to process art would mark the completion of this ‘work package’. It would support the management of the community platform and its regulatory mechanisms assigned to the community and its possible sustainable use. 4.5.4.6 Community Services (Login, community management, secure upload / download, rights management) historical approach to process art has been developed and none of the relevant research communities have met the requirements of the multimedia capability, interoperability and scalability simultaneously. The event- and service-oriented information system architectures, with their respective advantages and disadvantages, as well as hypermedia technologies still have unresolved problems of interoperability with multimedia content and their media-friendly presentation. These issues will remain along with the implementation of Web 2.0 protocols with their available extents: the multimedia and real-time services (web streaming, casting); the Web 2.0 services including the most extensive interoperability within the existing Web 2.0 protocols and services with an outcome of the broadest possible interoperability and the XMPP (Extensive Messaging and Presence Protocol) connections to the Simple Syndication); and blog interfaces (MediaWiki, TikiWiki, etc.) Many services also offer more programming interfaces (Application Programmer Interfaces). The inclusion of such APIs for the realisation of value added services (socalled mashups) is today not a major technical problem anymore because of the REST (Representational State Transfer) architecture. 4.5.5 Community-building and support The crucial question of updating, i.e. the quantitative and qualitative expansion and maintenance of the complex structure of any future Centre of Excellence re-

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lated to the process arts, depends, as with any ambitious research environment, on all deal levels. Which brings me back to where I started – the need to rediscover the dispositions and alliances between art history and visual culture.

PART TWO Visual culture and its threefold delimitation: mirrors, frames, immediacy

5. Mirroring the Invisible. Culture, technology & (self-)observation In what follows, I will summarize some of my observations relating to the cultural history of the mirror as a medium and as material in art and science. As a surface always inspired study within the humanities. There it has been traditionally comprehended either as a medium of self-knowledge or as a void in the apprehension of the world. Instead, I have been looking at some differences, which might result in other differences, such as the complementary relationship between mirror and image. difference between a painted or photographed image, for example, and a mirror possible, that is, it has to be kept rather dull in the sense of not has to think of the problems that can arise when viewing pictures protected by untreated invisible, or The consequence is plain: the closer a surface is to the conditions of a perfect mirror, the more it will lose its appearance as a surface. In fact this ‘ideal’ invisibility

Figure 41: Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn, Hendrickje (c. 1648), National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh, GB

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Figure 42: Dieter Kiessling, Mirror Photo (2006/2008), photograph 92 x 75 cm. Courtesy Dieter Kiessling

Figure 43: Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn, Moses destroyed the tablets of the Law, 1659. Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

of the medium affects all media, but for the relationship between the mirror and image, this property is crucial. The second constant of the mirror-image relationship revolves around the kinaesthetic component of perception and of our mirrorFrom this we learn about the problematic visibility, as well as the visuality of mirrors: they are both heterotopic and heterochronic entities, something that apparently shifts between ‘image’ and ‘reality’. In recent years much has been written about what has become known as iconic difference; (Boehm 1994) the difference between ‘image’ and ‘reality’ as conveyed by the mirror, which I term ‘speculative’ difference. (Kacunko 2010) The third difference between a mirroring and an image is directly

any kind, light can be directed, guided and controlled in a real sense, but cannot be stored at all. So, in contrast to ‘storing’ media, such as images or texts, the mirror must be understood as a medium of transmission. As a medium and as material (and not just as a motif, metaphor or template within the arts and sciences), the mirror was gradually embedded within optical, catoptrical, mechanical and other ‘devices’

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Figure 44: Susan Milano, Video Swing (1974), Closed Circuit Videoinstallation. Courtesy Susan Milano

mirrors (Periskop-Mirror). According to Hero of Alexandria, reconstruction of Nix and Schmidt

or ‘philosophical toys’ of the nineteen century, such as the phenakistoscope and praxinoscope medium, the video, and of electronic real-time transmission, from their natural analogue counterpart, that is, from the phenomenology of the mirror. Moreover, if we go on to look at the little-ex-

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Figure 46: Stitch with the representation of St. Thomas Aquinas (1488), from Opusculum Praeclarum, Venice-Edition

Figure 47: Praxinoskop, Functioning

Figure 48: Pepper‘s Ghost, named after John Henry Pepper, director of the Royal Polytechnic Institute in London

plored no man’s land between the respective media of transmission and storage, we are in turn negotiated within cybernetic and biological or techno-science contexts. The traditional leading metaphors – vision, light and mirror – must, therefore, also be regarded as media. In the same way as light serves as the necessary ‘prerequisite’ or medium of sight, the mirror serves as a medium of light by directing or intensifying it. We may say, if the sentence is the logical form of reality, then the mirror is the aesthetic form of the visual, of virtuality. Thereby, too, metaphorical, catoptric sense should be comprehended as a fourth cultural technique alongside the word, image and number. I will return to the matter later.

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I began my inquiry into mirrors as media of art and culture by paraphrasing Mark Pendergrast and stating that the discovery of the mirror not only brought universe than any other medium. (Pendergast 2003) The human – and not only human – love-affair with my focus was, and is, on the fact that it has always been platonic – untouchable, serving not least as a medium for reaching out the invisible both on the micro and macro levels.

5.1 Mirror and image: the extension of light and mirror spectra The practical use of the so-called virtual, augmented, mixed and other realities in the arts and sciences of the twentieth century is, in the eyes of many, a sign of a mechanisation of perception. (Böhme 1996) Given their various media properties, mirrors play the major role here. They transfer light, bend it and disperse it, they Christoph Lichtenberg (1742–1799) pointed out that wherever light appears, it is always associated with 1975, p. 468) This is why a mirror has to be understood on its phenomenal level as the meta-medium of both vision and visuality. However, its features, as mentioned above, are not necessarily special properties of our watching or seeing – they are not primarily intersubjective; as a matter of fact, they represent an interobjective aspect of mirroring or cultural technique with its ubiquitous presence in all areas of our lives in a large variety of mirror applications. Take, for instance, the plain wardrobe or bathroom mirror, the convex shaving mirror, rear and side mirrors of vehicles, concave the hyperbolic, concave mirrors, which serve as basic components of mirror telescopes, the parabolic mirrors used in solar thermal systems and the mirrors used in medical diagnosis, and so on. All of them transform not only our vision of the world, but also the world itself, including ourselves. To understand such concepts and phenomena in their state of permanent change also implies the acquisition of precise knowledge about the capabilities and functions of so-called semi-transparent mirrors as prerequisites of artistic and architectural work with transparency and opacity. Already our intuitive from the vantage point of the darker side towards a lighter aspect is a part of that knowledge. Amongst its main parameters belong the strength and the angle of

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of the material (glass, metal or plastic). Many of these issues can be determined, calculated and applied experimentally and practically without any special knowledge, but still they belong to the preconditions of trans-disciplinary negotiation of the invisible. Moreover, there is an increasing knowledge and awareness of the phenomena, which can only indirectly be made visible with optical media – those which operate beyond this we mean the phenomena of the invisible. The point about visible light is that it is on a spectrum between violet and red, which obviously covers only very tiny ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum as of ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays have a much higher frequency than those of the long wavelengths of infrared, microwaves and radio waves. Radio waves were discovered by Heinrich Hertz (1857–94) as part of his research on the dissemination of Maxwell’s electromagnetic waves. He was able to put forward evidence that they behave similarly to visible light waves. It became clear that radio waves – because of their great length – do not need highly polished mirrors in order to tromagnetic wave spectrum, William Conrad Röntgen (1845–1923) discovered the rays subsequently named after him, also known as X-rays. These are even shorter than those of ultraviolet light, which make them even stronger or more assertive

electromagnetic spectrum. The reason why we as humans have only this narrow

Figure 49: Electromagnetic radiation spectrum

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window of both vision and visuality at our disposal lies in turn in the fact that the Earth’s atmosphere blocks most neighbouring wavelengths. The only alternative possibility that allows our human eye to see further, would be to widen our eyes to the size of a satellite dish, and to focus their corneas (their mirrors, if you will) on the long wavelengths of radio waves, which are well able to penetrate the atmosphere. Thus size matters here in quite an objective manner. Scientists found that heat in the form of infrared radiation is also another form of light, only with a longer wavelength. It appeared that all light represents

in demonstrating the line spectra of hydrogen (H) by using the example of this, the simplest atom. Combining classical physics with quantum physics, he ultimately delivered the model, which explains how vision and gations of the nineteenth century, in particular the physiological ones by Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) were thus brought to a new level, and subjective vision could be drawn on the foil of visuality and inter-objectivity. (cf. Kacunko 2010) -

light on polished surfaces, was explained more precisely by the interaction of photons with loose electrons within metal, because photons are actually absorbed and then re-radiated. (Pendergast 2003, p. 203) Although inal physical laws still generally ‘work’, it should be added that the individual photon absorption effects a slight angles, since some of them (‘particles of light’) remain absorbed (at about 9% silver). Since the quality of the mirroring or the conductivity of the material employed, we still use silver for mirroring because of its high precision or ‘hit rate’ in respect of incoming and outgoing light rays. What is, therefore, considered to be the ‘essence’ of the mirrors we use is often the silver, because it is deemed to be the lightest (whitest) substance in the natural world.1 Since this paper primarily addresses the material and media aspects of the use and (cultural) production of invisibility and opacity, in what follows I intend to include a few hard and transparent facts linked to the production and manufacturing of glass, as well as to consider the cultural impact it has had and continues to have nowadays.2 Like its manufacturing process, the consistency of glass is far

124 Mirror glass: Composition 70% sand (silicia)

12% soda (sodium carbonate)

13% lime (calcium carbonate)

The molecular structure of glass

O Si Figure 50: The molecular structure of glass

from simple. Although glass is rigid and stable, the distribution of molecules within its inner structure follows the disordered, apparently random, principle of liquids. It was not until the 1930s that the refraction of X-rays through a simple piece of glass revealed this general disorder. Molten glass contains silicon and oxygen atoms, all of which are so loosely distributed that the glass appears transparent. This disorder appears during the melting process, and, before the atoms reunite with the parent molecular patterns during the cooling process, all movement ceases in a ‘frozen’ state of apparent ‘molecular chaos’. (Ellis 1998, pp. 6–7) It is this structural looseness of its molecules that gives glass its enormous malleability and glass is still a huge glass over the past 600 years has come from the glass industry. Its paradoxical nastructure, whilst simultaneously keeping its unique fragility, something which no other solid material has. The ‘molecular chaos’ of glass has its limits at the subatomic level, nonetheless in a form as yet not ‘decoded’. Experiments with X-rays

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have revealed certain neutron scattering patterns on glass, but its structure is still a matter for future fundamental research. As Dr Peter Krause of the research department of the Schott glassworks in Mainz concludes, “with all the molecules and all the possibilities of their movement and interconnection and so on, even the largest computers are too small for the study of the structure of the glass […] we .” (Ellis, 1998, p. 78) Certainly, this expertise should be shared between researchers working within the diversity of the natural sciences and humanities.

5.2 Liquid mirrors: art and commerce, nature and architecture and youth culture, with its focus on visual appearance and on sex as the best ‘selling point’, has been promoted mainly in the improvement of cultural techniques of (self-)observation, based on mirror and such as New York’s 5th Avenue, and its counterparts in Paris and Berlin, previously termed ‘cities of light’, (Pendergast 2003, p. 251) have provided the best lit background for the theatre of the city. As early as 1895, King Gillette implicitly enhanced the boom in the production of shaving mirrors by the invention of the appearance of men throughout the following century. There was an increased tendency for art and commerce, design and consumer culture to merge, particularly inated into their distant colonies. The phenomenon of mirror-glazed arcades in the Paris of the nineteenth century, as described by W. Benjamin and others, became the standard all around the world. An observer writing in the early 1930s noted, “Not until the last few decades […] had there been any appreciable advance in the […]. The art of manufacturing mirrors, once as closely guarded as an alchemist’s secret, is today a science of quantity as well as quality production.” (Pendergast 2003, p. 247, cited from W L Bottomley, Mirrors in Interior Architecture [1932]) The British glassmaker, Pilkington revolutionized glass production in 1959 to the fact that glass has a higher melting point than tin. The glass would be gradually cooled and hardened off, so that it could then be cut and stacked in large glass building, however, was built

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by Kinney Glass, a small glass company. The Bell Labs in Holmdel, New Jersey glass in a vacuum chamber. (Heyne 1996, p. 37) faces have always been a challenge to perception and a notorious one for painters wishing to depict them. That challenge was further compounded when glazing was extended over entire façades in the form of ‘curtain walls’. Seen genealogicaltextile factories (in England since 1790), and banks and insurance companies – buildings whose main purpose was to generate trust by means of a good ‘image’, which it was only possible to create from scratch. It is no exaggeration to speak of a strategic myth of transparency within this context, where the transparent, tive shield for the hidden processes behind them. Where everything is transparent, there is no transparency, no place for choice or chance. The accompanying ideology of equality of consumption opportunities was thus reduced to relative post-modern perspective what Ernst Bloch (1885–1977) called ‘the principle of hope’. In his eponymous major work (Prinzip Hoffnung of 1954–59), he dedicated one chapter to buildings that were intended to represent a better world, that is, architectural utopias (“Bauten, die eine bessere Welt abbilden, architektonische Utopien.”). In this work, architecture in general was described as nothing but the production of a human home. However, this was not a environment.3 Bloch saw in the very nature of architecture “the expectation of the future, a utopia, the hope for change and improvement

Figure 51: Bell Labs in Holmdel, New Yersey (1962), Architect: Eero Saarinen

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of living conditions.” (Edward & Vogt 1985, p. 101) Within this context, it is no surprise that ambassadors of the Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM), such as Bauhaus founder, Walter Gropius (1883–1969), promulgated an architectural theory without historical references after World War II. Gropius’s own much earlier project, the Bauhaus building (1927/8) in Dessau was regarded ised modern architecture. (Hitchcock 1994). In this studio block, the possibilities associated with the transparency of glass were exploited on a large scale for the 4

According to the CIAM program, the American skyscrapers of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe reduced architectural form to ‘light, air and sun’. A key aspect of this design aesthetic, glass involuntarily became the ‘basic material’. Between 1945 and 1975, functionalism in architecture became an important credo for building portance of mirrored surfaces. Some authors concluded in the 1970s and 1980s that transparency of glass architecture from the 1950s and 1960s became its opposite – total mirroring. However, no matter how it is seen today, one could agree that this shift from transparency to mirroring was not just a product of the aesthetic or institutional mimicry of the urban ‘big city mirror’. We can see similar or identical functions of mirrors at work from the late seventeenth century as part of a major cultural turn in Europe. With respect to architectural development before, and especially after, the building of Versailles and its famous Galerie des Glaces, one might dialectically term it the ‘mirroring of architecture’ by means of the “the Nowadays, appearing as they do on an even larger urban scale, the mirrored glass buildings of the 1980s with their multifaceted functions are being erected in providing visual interaction with the environment, even with ‘unspoilt’ nature. The harmonious coexistence of nature and architecture has, after all, been considered to be one of its goals. No matter how they appear to us today, one can hardly deny the projected awareness of environmental responsibility of such buildings as a contribution to humanity as a whole. One might equally link this to the Prinzip Hoffnung as coined by Ernst Bloch in the late 1950s. It is important within this context to note our ambivalent perception of the phenomenon of medium. The possibilities for ‘switching’ between the two modes by manipulating a building’s interior lighting quality of smooth mir-

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Figure 52: Hall of Mirrors at Versailles (1678–1684), Architect: Jules Hardouin-Mansart

ror glass surfaces, suggestive of both visual continuity and autonomy. For examformed it “in the dark almost into its own inner light x-ray-image”. (Messler 1982, Tower of Winds (1986) in Yokohama, Toyo Ito (b. 1941) added yet another, kinaesthetic element. The 21-metres high ventilation tower of an underground shopping centre owed its

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that coats the oval cylinder above ground. Whilst the aluminium plates act as a mirror during the day, the supporting structure behind can be seen between them

Figure 53:

(1975–9), Foster Associates, Ipswich, GB

Figure 54: Tower of Winds in Yokohama (1986), Architect: Toyo Ito

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The mirror is thus also often called the ‘chameleon of architecture’ (Heyne, façades. A separate volume or research project could be dedicated to this subject. However, the quadruple mutual impact of vision, visuality, invisibility and opacity can be traced as a continuous phenomenon affecting other important issues related to media-supported, transparent and mirrored architectural surfaces. With advances in media technology and the increasing move of all activities to the Internet, so-called virtual architecture has been developed, with the aim of taking over essential functions of traditional architecture. Here, the forms are meant to occur at the interface of architecture and media, playing on a metaphor of the ‘architecture of cyberspace buildings of the real computer-generated buildings, or blobs. The development of virtual and ‘liquid architecture’,5 howevexample, in the extensive work of the group Asymptote.6 The architect and artist, Marcos Novak, who styles himself a ‘trans architect’, is one of the proponents and supporters of this ‘virtual architecture’ consisting of ‘ to what happens when computer-generated ideas are merged with the real environment – transitioning smoothly between the concepts of time and space, with a minimum of rational limitations. The deconstructionist architecture of Frank Owen Gehry and others are cases in point.7 In a more recent essay, Joachim Sauter described the façade as “a media skin of architecture” and attempted to summarize the status quo systematically as well as genealogically. Based on the four qualities of a digital media computer (the capacity for interaction, multimediality, connectivity, and ‘generativity’ or as a tool of innovation and creativity, autonomous of the machine’s makers), Sauter described three developmental factors that led from the screen applications and interactive installations and spaces to ‘interactive architecture’. (Sauter 2004) In his view, it is ‘only’ for economic reasons that the latter is limited today to the media-based design of the façade. Sauter sees its urban potential in furthering the controlled light projections on walls, projections or LED screens as an “adequate narrative”, citing the pioneering example of the ‘media facade’ of Ito’s Tower of Winds in Yokohama. Here one might mention the possibility of a third edition of The Principle of Hope by Ernst Bloch, which might follow those of the late 1950s and the 1980s, if recent suggestions are to be taken seriously. The critical issues of (self-)

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(and monitoring) and an acute awareness of transparency persist, as the CIAM conference has only too clearly shown. Thus, the potential of the media-mirrored, in its commercial and political applications (advertising, propaganda) or in its artistic forms. That potential also applies also to the initiative of the Media Architecture Group8 with its current projects, such as the Media Facades Festival Berlin or Media Architecture in London, with its dialogue and cooperation with industry. The fact that media technology is aging much faster than material architecture draws our attention, on the one hand, to new material developments, such as the architecture itself is aging faster than the laws of physics, at the very least bringing the laws of research into the use of mirrors within urban and rural contexts. This brings me to the following preliminary conclusions. Especially within the humanities, research dedicated to the cultural techniques of (self-)observation offers a necessary supplement to research happening in the sciences. Interdiscifuture research.9 War in 1991, we have witnessed growing interest in the phenomenon of ‘invisibility’. We can sense the same tendency towards invisibility within the military context especially today, when engineers of all types around the world compete for the patent rights to real cloaking devices them closed-circuit invisibility suits, because they are sometimes fashioned from hundreds of tiny video screens (to the front), directly connected with a similar huge number of chip video cameras (to the back). They still seem to be counted amongst the creative and technological highlights of our time. One recent example from popular culture may illustrate the comedy and tragedy of this trend. A scene from the Hollywood blockbuster, Mission Impossible part 4 – Ghost Protocol (launched trend with its origins in the Cold War. Ethan Hunt (played by Tom Cruise) is able to stalk a guard in the security wing of the Kremlin archives by hiding behind an obscuring ‘invisibility panel’ – a portable device with eye-tracking, controlled, video camera projection modules with the projection shown only to a person in an empty room behind the beholder of the panel. Within such contexts the supposed boundary between the technologies of attack and defence is taken in a subtle way to absurdity. Only the invisible seems incomprehensible, and only the incomprehensible seems to be able to remain be-

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yond the control of the beholder, thus apparently demonstrating its sole subversive potential. Step-by-step, not unlike the hide-and-seek game of Ethan Hunt and his highly symbolic invisible approach to an archive of the ‘Other’, media art studies is closing the ‘vicious’ or dialectic circle between the immediacy of image and the image of immediacy. Some of the most important forays of the media artists and activists of the past two decades have consisted of explorations in this direction. At least, that was the big trend in the ‘Roaring 1990s’ with their focus on ‘invisible’, ‘natural’, ‘transparent’ or ‘intuitive’ interfaces. The recent interface-focused research in Denmark, Germany and Austria shows that the interest in the ‘ubiquity’ of digital technology, born out of such military rationale, still attracts research programs.10 What I am referring to here is the dialectics of historical actuality and the historical dimension of the ‘here and now’. Historicizing as such is, as far as I am able to recognise, nothing more than a denial of the idea of inevitability. Our understanding of the historical dimension of ‘surveillance cultures’ should, however, not only contribute to a critical understanding of their ethical and political implications, but also to the awareness of their causes and genealogies, in order to develop appropriate responses in the future. When applied to the principal issues and the current state of visual studies, these questions must be extended to include a critical questioning of visuality tigation of their theoretical and phenomenological frameworks. In other words, we need in particular to investigate mirrors in their complementary relation to images (as was addressed at the beginning of this chapter) and frames (as their conditio sine qua non).11 Only then will we be able to grasp the shifts between our metaphors of time and space, and only thus will we be able to open a truly transdisciplinary perspective onto the unsolved questions between the humanities and natural sciences, a perspective related not least to the apparently invisible phenomena of art and culture.

6. Margins moved to the Middle. Process art in visual studies1 6.1 Visual culture and visual communication: theoretical framing In this essay I propose to use the term ‘visual studies’ as distinct from its usual synonym, the study of ‘visual culture’, as it is perhaps better known from dozens of eponymous readers published over the past two decades.2 In the following, the general expression ‘studies’ should be understood generically, as representative of diverse interests in both visual culture and visual communication. The iconological investigations common to the former and statistical evaluation to the latter demonstrate clearly the disadvantages of limiting oneself to one disciplinary perspective. That ‘culture’/‘communication’ polarity can be seen to extend with similar mutual intolerance to ‘cultural media studies’ pundits and those of ‘communication media studies’ and, indeed, with greater or lesser animosity to the Grand Dame of our scholarship, art history, as practised in the Modernist period. And yet: all these communities, each cherishing their own rhetoric of emancipation or integration, share a common, as it were rectangular, pursuit in precisely that – the frames historiography that tend to be produced frames and framings would seem to constitute the major tools, points of departure and not least the goals of the disciplines’ proponents. Moreover, visual culture and visual communication studies also share a focus on frames as intellectual entities. The angle is on the aesthetics of perception. In all its considerations and ‘inter-subjective’ models of an ‘implicit’ or ‘ideal’ observer and consumer, it lacks what I would call an ‘inter-objective’ perspective on the artefacts in question – a perspective that would shift the focus from images in a state out above), to their nature as innately (audio-)visual processes, and deeper still. Viframing proposed by Robert Entman, “To frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way to and/or treatment recommendation for the item described.” (Entman 1993, p. 52) The discontent with the theoretical foundation of text-centred, ‘general’ framing in visual communication studies found previous resonance in Entman’s writing, in which he referred to framing as a ‘fractured paradigm’. Recently, attempts have been made to overcome the methodological challenges inherent in

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researching textual and visual ‘messages’ on a quantitative and statistical basis. These alternate strategies both acknowledge the multimodal nature of this communication and recognize its processual character. Thus the more normal usage of the term ‘frame’ as ‘framing’, its present continuous or present progressive quality. Hence frames are described (for example by Gerald Geilert) as ‘permanently updated thought-silos (Gedankencontainer), which constantly express whatever it is that individuals happen to be focusing their more or less volatile, repeatedly shifting attentions on.’ (Geilert 2013, p. 316)3 However, the ‘mentalist’ paradigm manifestly falters as soon as the same (ultimately Hegelian) presuppositions have to be projected onto the objective material; so much so that the image-clustering, which shows traces of the framing process, transforms even Aby Warburg’s Bilderatlas into an archetype of ‘visual framing’ in the sense understood by visual communication studies. It would be folly to hope to represent within the scope of this publication the major aspects of such an attempt to bring together such nigh-incompatible approaches to major strands of research into framing insofar as they are relevant to a higher order of process and to the multi-modality of the subject-objects in question. seems to be to untie the Gordian Knot of the text-image ambivalence by proceeding multi-modally, that is, by taking account of both the concept of ‘image’ and its non-process constitution and architecture. Then again, the concept of ‘visual framing’ (or constructing meaning intellectually by visual means of expression) is understood as an apt way to restrict ambiguity in visual communication (Meier multimedia, and material expression are implicitly and explicitly excluded from the frame of reference – just as they are in mainstream Modernist art historiography. The second major (and in this case, traditional) strand in research into the frame is closely linked to linguistics, which borrow the notion of the frame from the cognitive and neuronal net research, proposed as early as 1975 a theory of frames as ‘data structures for representing a stereotyped situation’ in a system of sub-frames and super-frames that, he supposed, would take over the crucial functions of the representation of knowledge. (Minsky 1975, p. 212; cf. Geilert 2013, p. 314). Linguistics working in the cognitive sciences, analytical philosophy and mathematical logic. This has resulted in an understanding of frames as complex structures of ‘slots’,

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frames, how sensitive linguistic conceptions are to diachronic dynamics. (Fillmore 1982, Fraas 1996, especially Ziem 2008; cf. Meier 2013, pp. 118, 124) The third traditional perspective on the concept of frames comes from sociology and Goffman’s action-based frame analysis, which proposes that every act, including ‘everyday’ responses to experience, is organised and takes place within a proper frame or container. (Goffman 1974, 1989) Goffman’s theoretical focus is on more practical and concrete situations, as well as on the framing ‘rituals’ at stake. This makes it reasonable to see a link both to visual culture and to research into process art. However, here again, subject-oriented inquiry has remained framed by the scope and reach of its own subject matter. Finally, attempts to remedy the shortcomings of all these methods have led, at least within the context of visual communications to trials in multi-modality and the social semiotic approach, “Frames and means of framing are essential to meaning making in all modes. The frame marks spatial and/or temporal extension and limits of a text or other semiotic entity. My slogan ‘Without frame no meaning’ entails that we need to focus on frame, on forms of framing and on that which is framed, at all times, equally.’ (Kress 2010, p. 149, cf. Meier 2013, p. 119)4 It is vital in this analysis of the discrimination active in the interpretation of form, texture and structure that we do not lose interest in, and sensitivity to, the respective medium: it matters. Nor should we lose our interest in, and sensitivity to, the matter that mediates – in other words, we should ensure that we do not fall into the trap of not being able to ‘see the wood for the trees’. So framing as a process reveals more than a useful insight into the content producer’s intentions and strategies, and into the framing that takes place as part of the perceiver’s encounter with that content and their interpretation of what they perceive – that is, their ‘applied framing’ process (cf. Geise 2013, pp. 44–46). Framing also necessarily entails a negotiation of the fragile continuities and discontinuities between a) the intention and the strategy and b) perceptual cognition and ‘ balancing itself becomes the explicit goal of each and any framing task, including its theoretical and technical selfitative analysis must remain the major challenge. It would seem that (visual) framthat balancing task, if it includes both machined measuring instances (and a costly coding process; cf. Grittmann 2013, p. 95) and the human agency of perception (with its associative framing processes), than it does by persisting one-sidedly in measuring the degree of Entmanian ‘salience’.

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6.2 Process art and the syntax of dynamisation in mind, that greater and wider attention to, and assessment of, the spatio-temporal and audiovisual dimensions of framings are crucial, if we hope to do justice to recurring and emerging case studies. Time frames will be the means by which further stages are reached either in terms of concretisation or abstraction. This is because there is a need for further methodological inquiry into frames and framings from the perspectives of contemporary art history and visual studies. To shift the focus, especially to the boundaries (or frames and framings) of visual studies, immediately implies a continual need to develop appropriate approaches to ‘image(s)’, and to research into their strategies and negotiations.6 Within these processes, theories and related practices produce blind spots of both ‘visuality’ and ‘visibility’. Interrelated phenomena and concepts of frames, mirrors, and visual ‘immediacy’ are amongst these blind spots: 5

FRAMINGS

MIRRORS

IMMEDIACY

Describing diachrony

Comprehending the conceptual

of image / Image of immediacy

(Visibility, visuality and narration)

(Materiality and conceptualisation)

(Here and now)

Syntax of dynamisation

Semantics of dissolution

Pragmatics of performativity

Since the material and the implicit media qualities of frames and framings lead beyond both ‘visibility’ and ‘visuality’, both emergence and perpetuation of the ‘frame 7 must pose questions, not least as to increment and process. At the core are a variety of videographic, auditory, installation and performative arts, as well as virtual and hypertextual cultural practices (that is all kinds of internet-generated ‘material’, including live and interactive events), here generically subsumed under the term, ‘ It is not only in the visual arts that pictures are habitually displayed in frames. Even in frames, or takes show how persistent in

to in German as Einzelbild, in French as mise-en-cadre, in Italian as inquadratura.8 However, these spatial metaphors cloak the actual, invisible ‘frame’ of viewer

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expectation, which is permanently charged and recharged by their off-screen experience. This transgression of the visual within the diachronic context is often falsely described in another spatial metaphor, whereby the image goes beyond, and exceeds, the frame. Raymond Bellour referred to this as “the subtle offscreen space created by squeezing the frame […].” The same applies to the split-screen device, used as it is on the highest artistic level by Marcel Odenbach. Bellour called it “a double offscreen space within the composition of the image” [which] “is thus combined with culturally determined offscreen spaces; together they determine the intellectual and sensory effects born out of a friction of images.” (Bellour 2013, p. 187) Within the context of the distinction one may make between image and , becoming vision inherent to all natural languages. In language, morphemes are the smallest phonemes are the smallest units to distinguish between meanings. The image, envisioned as the smallest unit of the cinematic syntagm, however, never betokens the morpheme level; it is always, from the beginning, at the level of a sentence. image as the smallest unit of the cinematic code lacks a ‘one-to-one’ analogy and obtains its meaning via perceptive analogy with (extra-cinematic) reality. While it is possible to break down a components, it cannot be reduced. (Metz 1972, p. 161) CHRISTIAN METZ ‘Image’ / ‘Take’ (the smallest semantic unit in cinematic code)

Sentence

only perceptive analogy with (extra-cinematic) reality non-encodability of the ‘cinematic image’ Word Morpheme the smallest meaning-bearing unit Phoneme the smallest unit to distinguish between meanings

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ity of the ‘cinematic image’. Following Eco, it is quite feasible to break down a which have a discrete, distinct value. Accordingly, such ‘ ’, as Eco calls them, correspond to the phonemes of verbal language.9 The question as to how the two levels relate to each other, or how the ‘leap’ can be made from elements devoid of meaning to those having meaning, is not, for Eco, the concern of semiotics, “Semiotics is not about reducing the qualitative to the quantitative; it does not need to stretch to that degree of analysis. It does, however, reduce the continuous to a system of differences and thus discovers, beyond vitality, the (...) process of culture, which has systematized the ways of thinking and of apperceiving the world into [a system of ] ways of expression.”10 This latter, logically appealing, option of breaking down images by digitising and then reassembling them ‘intuitively’ into visually meaningful entities will fall short of explaining the transition from synchronicity to diachronicity. Such an explanation can be radicalised if one considers that Eco’s statement above is based on an understanding of the ‘cinematic code’ as something visual – which, in fact, it is not. vis-à-vis the mirror, and it eventually led him similarly to ban the mirror from the realm of semiotics and to proclaim it as an ‘a-semiotic sign’.11 Eco observed correctly that “a quick play with the angles of the mirror could make you lose the sense of the effective spatial relationships between objects. In this case, the handling of the mirror would produce a real [...].”12 In its role of a ‘rigid designator’,13 as Eco calls it, the mirror is not a sign. It does not ‘stand’ for anything (as a metaphor does), not even for the body. So the mirror will not disclose what it is that makes the ‘mirror experience’, according to Eco, an “absolutely singular experience on the threshold between perception and meaning.” This triple capitulation: before time-based visual continuation, before the mirror and before frames, when understood outside of their casual spatial meta14

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UMBERTO ECO ‘Image’ / ‘Take’ (can be broken down)

Sentence

encodability of the ‘cinematic image’ Word Morpheme the smallest meaning-bearing unit

‘kinesic figurae’ (the smallest semantic units of distinct value, in cinematic code)

Phoneme the smallest unit to distinguish between meanings

We can use the media and the vantage point of media history (in the sense of the relationship between the related technology and medium), to deduce from it the genealogy of medium, along with its electronic real-time transmission. This, too, fell within Eco’s frames of reference, as described by him in his essay quoted above on the relationship between semiotics and catoptrics – or mirror studies. However, once again Eco offers a description, and not an explanation. His description of the two main features of the mirror makes reference to its comprehensive links with the lens and an intrusive element of mirrors, which leads them to be associated with inward-turned ‘ mirroring or a mise-enabyme. Another way of referring to it is ‘mirror-feedback’; and it is an inherent aspect of video that it feeds back visual signals thus manufacturing self-generating, visual medium not only demonstrably meets the requirements for an automatic, programmable ‘frame generator’, but also possesses a rather overlooked feature of frames, that is, that they can move from the margin to the middle. These elusive mirror characteristics of framings, mirroring and the shift from the spatial to time-based arts can be further witnessed in the thousands of live-media (or in technical terms, closed-circuit video) installations that still constitute the backbone of the media and performing arts as a whole, a phenomenon which I expand on elsewhere. (Kacunko 2004) Within takes place between process art and their most prominent diachronic counterpart, that is, language. For process art, the conceptual framework of the German-coined term, Bildwissenschaft (

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offering the possibility of generalisation and equally accommodating the secularising, religious or magical functions of role they play in creating an ‘artwork’. Taken as a whole this is a debate that goes hopelessly beyond the scope of this paper and is, therefore, presented in another related context (Kacunko 2014). The present work looks at an aspect of process art, as it is observed in semiotics, linguistics and Anglo-American visual culture studies. This framework has its roots in the distinction between metaphor and metonymy – a strategic and disciplinary distinction (as it is within the German-speaking community), assumed to be constitutive of thought.15 Again, our scope here forbids consideration of the deeper roots of either of these counterparts. Regardless of the respective motifs, the conceptual transfer between process art and language speaks, not least, of a difference between performance and video, on the one hand, and traditional image formats, such as painting or photography, on the other. K. operates through metaphor, or the illusion of representation,” whilst for all their use of metaphor, the “most distinctive and socially relevant quality [of the genres of performance, installation and video] is that they also communicate through metonymy.” (Stiles 2004, p. 185) The quality is that the that is, its videographic, performative and installative aspects – in other words, the core of process art. An earlier nominalistic approach offered by Nelson Goodman (1968) distinguished between the autographic and allographic arts with respect to their authen-

system, it can be forged and is regarded as authentic and autographic, making its operation ‘metonymic’. Allographic arts, on the other hand, such as music, literature, dance, theatre and architecture seem to allow for Goodmanian models of artwork, which are independent or de-framed from their histories of production and the signature of the author, instead operating by means of metaphor. An apparent incongruence between the status of the metonymic versus that of the metaphoric, and the autographic versus the allographic arts becomes immediately evident once metonymic and allographic arts are juxtaposed. The link between process art and videographic ‘liveness’ in respect of their performative and installative aspects make them both metonymic and allographic, whilst not excluding their metaphorical and autographical use (in the here-and-now). A reassessment of the applicability of the linguistic, semiotic or other nominalistic

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compound status of process art, as it relates to the audiovisual, becomes obvious in much earlier attempts at framing and categorisation, famously discussed throughout the mid-eighteenth century. In his major work, The main principles of the arts and sciences (1757), Moses Mendelssohn (1729 – 86) proposes a division of the arts, according to which, following Leibniz, Wolff and Du Bos16, he differentiates between natural and arbitrary signs. While the natural ones, like smoke, hieroglyphs or pictorial representations do not have anything in common with the subject matter in hand, “but have nevertheless been arbitrarily assumed as signs for it.”17 ut pictura poesis claim, with which Horace (65–8 BC) had concluded his Ars Poetica and it asserted the resemblance between painting and poetry in the tradition of the Greek lyric poet Simonides of Ceos (c. 556 – 468 BC, De Gloria Atheniensium). That distinction between natural and arbitrary signs would subsequently drive the querelle on taste as well as inform the distinction between the and sciences (or beaux-arts and belles-lettres), thus nurturing the never-ending transdisciplinary dispute about response to Mendelssohn’s division came, famously, from his best friend, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–81) in the radical reformulation in his Laocoön: An Essay on the Limits of Painting and Poetry (1766). Lessing distinguished between the synchronic and diachronic arts, whereby the relationship between the former, representational arts (the bildende Kunst the ‘arbitrary sign’ system, and are autographical and metaphoric), and the latter (which correspond to the ‘natural signs’, part of an allographic and metonymic system) shows how intractable the fusion of later concepts and categorisations, and their historical precursors, had become in the interim. Conceptual transfer between process art and language ‘natural’ signs ‘synchronic’ arts ‘autographic’ arts ‘metaphoric’ arts ‘icon’

(Mendelssohn) (Lessing) (Goodman) (Stiles et al.) (Krauss) ‘index’

‘arbitrary’ signs ‘diachronic’ arts ‘allographic’ arts ‘metonymic’ arts ‘symbol’

It is striking that attempts at adopting for process art the technique of conceptual transfer, habitual in the linguistic and diachronic realm, seem to retain the earlier synaesthetic ambivalence without resolving questions past or present that arise

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medium at hand. Given the core media quality of videographic immediacy, that omission seems all the more surprising. In her statement about the postmodernists’ reliance on an ‘index’, predominantly visually conceived, Rosalind Krauss leaves open the question as to video’s place in the classical Peircean triad of symbol – icon – index. Her early report on video as an ‘aesthetic of narcissism’ has become another ‘classic’ reference, and with it, the reduction and medium, along with its use within psychoanalytic frames of reference (Krauss 1976). Developments, such as the iPhone 4, with its two inbuilt video cameras and so on, show how the dynamics (or stases) described above can operate in contemporary life and culture. Faced with this, the questionable treatment of framings and video in (visual) cultural studies, claimed as the discipline’s natural subject matter, seems nothing short of hair-raising. The ‘freeze frame’, so-called due to the optical illusion of a ‘static’ or ‘frozen’ ‘ image’, constitutes, it is claimed, a zone of transition between photography, between stasis and kinesis, tableau and narration, and so on. Of course, the latter remains the centre of interest in visual culture studies. But digital photography (Instagram, Flickr etc.), which, together with video (YouTube etc.), sits centre-stage within our contemporary culture, is considered technically to be ‘video freeze frame’. My aim in reconsidering framings within media and diachronic contexts outlined is not to reiterate known conclusions reached by media studies (Spielmann 2005, etc.) nor those drawn from High Modernism (Greenberg 1980, etc.) in respect of between media and materials employed. This role of the frame in turn occurs outside this, beyond the image, as a spatial metaphor and also beyond the mirror as a conveyor of a kind of ‘visibility’ and a ‘frame generator’ in its own right. However, I am not necessarily interested in the frame’s action as a ‘generator of metaphor’ (a minor element of its performance potential overall), either from behind the image (meta-pherein in its literary-etymological sense) or in front of it (in an imminent sense of devant l’image, as various explorations in visual culture studies and Bildwissenschaften would have it.18 Other, rather immanentist approaches to the image and the visual fall equally outside of current interest, being neither mediation nor meditation in front of an ‘image’. Our task could be regarded as describing the roads to recursion that self-generated (automatic or natural) frames produce. It is well known that recursion in linguistics, as described by Noam Chomsky (1965),19 enables a ‘ same type in a hierarchical structure. Without recursion, language does not have 20 this ‘ To explore

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audiovisual time frames means, therefore, to shift the focus, as it were, from ideal or implicit beholders (Kemp 1992, p. 20)21 and their supposed intuitive, Neo-Platonic, Kantian and later ‘intersubjective’ states of mind, and to follow ‘roads to recursion’, thus investigating automatic or natural, ‘self-generated’ frames and considering ‘interobjective’, that is, describable and communicable frames of reference.22 So much for the processual nature and exponential growth of material on process art. Our (self-critical) attention to, and broadening of, theoretical frameworks must simultaneously take account of the historical shift that has occurred from the 1960s paradigms in relation to ‘leaving the picture frame’, and the ‘(re-)entry into the image’, familiar from immersive media practices dating from the 1990s onwards. Countless examples in art demonstrate how important is attention to perceptual and conceptual frames and boundaries (Kacunko 2004); disciplinary and theoretical frameworks have shaped and framed both theory and practice to a great degree. Just when it was mainstream to ‘de-frame’ the image by shifting from simultaneity to diachronicity, and time-based art was very much en vogue, we found ourselves jumping willy-nilly into a kind of theoretical reaction that might be called the postmodernist spatial turn, and developing a new theory of space. The following table is just one way in which this might be visualised. Space Semiotic – Eco Signifying practices Representation Metaphor Painting – Photography Reframing Words in ‘Space’ ‘Postmodern’

Time Semiotic – Metz ‘Asemiotic signs’ / Reflection Presentation Metonymy Video Deframing ‘Images’ in Time ‘Modern’

The short text by Michel Foucault, entitled Other Spaces, dated May 1967 (cf. Chapter 8.3), is just one of several statements, often recalled in debates relating to heterotopias. There remains between different sorts of heterotopias (and heterochronies) a kind of mixed or mediating experience, that is, text has been increasingly over-used ever since, and that Eco capitulated in much

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Figure 55: Takahiko Iimura, Camera, Monitor, Frame: This is a Camera 1 (1976–98), installation, video tape & CD-ROM / DVD. From Iimura 2003, p. 29. Courtesy Takahiko Iimura

the same way before the mirror and its potential for generating time-frames (see Kacunko 2010, esp. p. 584ff.; Kacunko 2001, etc.). However, it is worth recalling here that Foucault’s focus on space crucially set the scene for ensuing postmodernist conclusions and for the whole rhetoric within visual culture studies, well

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observed, amongst others, by David Harvey (Harvey 1990). Since our interest lies more in the natural interplay of two Kantian central concepts, or formal assumptions (Formen der Anschauung) discussed in his Transcendental Aesthetics, that is, his notion of ‘time-space’, and less in the supposed abolition of ‘space’ and ‘time’ à la Gilles Deleuze,23 it behoves us to describe the time-and-space-consumSo I would like to close my argument with an example, set dialectically between

6.3 Camera. Monitor. Frame. Takahiko Iimura In his text, entitled Semiology of Video (1983), Japanese Takahiko Iimura (b. 1937) laid out his main theme, that is, the dialectic between the visual and language. With that phenomenon in mind (which should not be mistaken for a new version of the ut pictura poiesis perspective), Iimura also provides a conceptual fusion of space and time rarely found in recurrent modernist and postmodern theories. However, this conceptual fusion or dialectic of space and time, which is deeply anchored in Japanese culture and provides a conscious point of departure for the Japanese artist, may also prove to be a visual and conceptual point of departure for a fruitful collaboration to come between visual culture studies and Iimura’s piece, Camera, Monitor, Frame es or successions with apparently ‘self-telling’ and ‘self-explanatory’ audiovisual sequences, which seem to involve both ‘natural’ and ‘arbitrary’ signs in an anathe proto-Romantic attempts at language-motivated culturalism à la Vico, Herder et al. continuing in the work of Kittler (Kittler 2001) and more recent writers. The the videographic, textual, auditive and performative (kinaesthetic) elements of the 58–59.) The picture in Iimura’s case is taken as a shot or take or frame, and it has no subject, instead existing like an object with a predicate, an ‘object sentence’. While a picture/shot is treated by Metz (1972) (or Andrei Tarkowsky in 1985) as a ‘sentence’ and by Eisenstein or Peleshyan 24 as a ‘word’, Iimura provides an alternative, third theory that proposes a picture as being equivalent to an ‘object sentence’. It

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Figure 56: Takahiko Iimura, Camera, Monitor, Frame: This is a Camera 2 (1976–98), installation, video tape & CD-ROM / DVD. From Iimura 2003, p. 32. Courtesy Takahiko Iimura

is derived from the Japanese option of a sentence without an explicit subject. The we look at it or not. Intersubjectivity turns to interobjectivity; as we open our eyes, we see the frames (Iimura’s Semiology of Video is highly recommended reading for anyone looking for further textual access to his theory, based on the piece, and vice versa).

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‘Image’/‘Take’/‘Frame’ and their different conceptual equivalents Christian Metz

Sentence

Sergei Eisenstein

Word

Umberto Eco

Morpheme Phoneme

Takahiko Iimura

Object Sentence

The notion of a ‘post-photographic era’ was mooted in art historiography and visual culture studies by the early 1990s. It appears verbatim in the subtitle of William J. Mitchell’s study of electronic media, (1992), which marks the beginning of the history of visual culture studies and its cousin Bildwissenschaft. Much was invested in demonstrating and underpinning with

Figure 57: Takahiko Iimura, Camera, Monitor, Frame: This is a Monitor 1 (1976–98), installation, video tape & CD-ROM / DVD. From Iimura 2003, p. 37. Courtesy Takahiko Iimura

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Figure 58: Takahiko Iimura, Camera, Monitor, Frame: This is a Monitor 2 (1976–98), installation, video tape & CD-ROM / DVD. From Iimura 2003, p. 39. Courtesy Takahiko Iimura

visual culture studies and photogas process arts. Thus, it is high time that we reconsider today’s ‘post-photographic era’ with respect to its setting up of ‘negative’ objects and their roads to recursion, that is, their frame(ing)s, mirrors and videographic immediacy. Instead of dealing with friction and fragmentation in a post-modernist manner by reframing their manifestations, I think that we need to de-frame these conceptual re-framings and re-examine what has remained at the margins, now that the (cultural) margins have moved to the centre.

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Figure 59: Takahiko Iimura, Camera, Monitor, Frame: To see the Frame (1976–98), installation, video tape & CD-ROM / DVD. From Iimura 2003, p. 41. Courtesy Takahiko Iimura

7. On Speculative Difference The search for differences or essential contrasts between the phenomena of organic and inorganic, of animate and inanimate things has occupied many men’s minds, while the search for community of principles, or essential similitudes, has been followed by few; and the contrasts are apt to loom too large, great as they may be. D’Arcy W. Thompson, On Growth and Form (1917: p. 7)

animate and supposed fundamental difference between vital and non-vital phenomena […] as one learns to know the mineral kingdom and the living world more intimately the differences between them disappear. Stephane Leduc, The Mechanism of Life (1911: pp. 147–48) There is something of an indecision around différance: it is the history of life in general, but this history is (only) given (as) rupture (dating from) after the rupture, whereas the rupture is, if not nothing, then at least much less than what the clas[…] There is an indecision, temporality of life in which life is inscription in the non-living, spacing, temporalisation, differentiation, and deferral by, of and in the nonliving, in the dead. Bernard Stiegler, Technics and Time / La technique et le temps […] (1994/98) In Chapter 6, I visualised the interrelated phenomena and concepts of frames, mirrors, and visual ‘immediacy’ as blind spots of ‘visuality’ and ‘visibility’ in a schematic table (p. 136). While it focused on framings, describing diachrony and the syntax of dynamisation within process art, the present chapter aims to take the semantics of dissolution related to mirrors as a point of departure for a discussion about the ‘image’ within a pragmatics of performativity. The ‘here and now’, squeezed between the ‘immediacy of image’ and the ‘image of immediacy’ reveals its material and medial origins on the surface of the speculative difference. In Chapter 5, I summarised three basic differences between image and mirror with the purpose of challenging the phenomenological proposal of ‘iconic differ-

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are phenomenal, dependent on mirror phenomena, I proposed that the programmatic label, ‘iconic difference’ should instead be termed ‘speculative difference’. This difference keeps the central relevance focused on the relationship between the performativity of ‘images’ and mirrors, whilst maintaining its highly speculative or gradual character. The fact that some ontologically or anthropologically oriented image theories take that difference for granted by terming it ‘iconic’, for example, does not change its character. On the contrary, they add another, rather arbitrary connotation of the adjective, ‘speculative’ to the alleged difference in question. On the other hand, it must be acknowledged that attempts at delineation in relation to mirrors and images equally apply to frames and images. Within the context of the aetiology of images, the frame-image relationship appears not least to be informative and instrumental. In fact, this relationship, if nothing else, infers the possibility of a generalisation that would recognise either a secularising or a religious or magical function for the frames, in addition to acknowledging their presumed constitutive role in creating an ‘artwork’. The following discussion exframes of references and framing strategies, as well as providing an opportunity to ‘retune’ the examples used in line with stages of the ‘image’ debate that might occur in the future.

7.1 Framing fossils: on origins, images and acts In his Theory of the Image Act (2010), the art historian, Horst Bredekamp chose a rather spectacular example of a Palaeolithic hand-axe to illustrate, or rather to prove the origin of the ‘image act’. This – we may call it deductive – approach is symptomatic of the aetiology of images and of the corresponding founding myths that relate to the envisioned ontology of the image. Similarly, the art historian, Whitney Davis summarised his interest in the matter in the second chapter of his collection of essays Replications: Archaeology, Art History, Psychoanalysis (Davis 1996), entitled The Origins of Image Making Before I turn to the differences between these apparently similar interests, I wish to focus on Bredekamp’s argument, because it serves well to make my point. Strategically crucial to Bredekamp’s argumentation are the found frozen, framed, or encapsulated material marks, the alleged ontological difference between the matter and its medium. Thus, BreUrsprünge und Begriffe’ (‘Origins and terminology’), with a “ image”, in which the aforementioned

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Figure 60: Hand ax with inclusion of the fossil mussel Spondylus spinosus, West Tofts, Norfolk (England), ca. 200.000 years old. From: Bredekamp 2010, p. 28.

hand-axe is described and characterised under the heading, ‘Homo faber und ästhetische Differenz’ (‘Homo faber and aesthetic difference need to recall the wide range of instances, which demonstrate how such a deductive method, based on archaeological ‘proofs’, runs the risk of being subsequently denounced as being completely erroneous, even resulting in the potentially incor1 uations, may be buried along with inconsistent material ‘proofs’. Notwithstandinconsistency, or rather duplicity, of the argument itself. First of all, the ontological ‘what’ question in relation to ‘image’ is a dangerous one; it does not guarantee any special, ‘higher’ or ‘lower’ status to the object or mark. This echoes Goodman’s nominalist, complementary ‘when’ question in respect of art, which does not assist in delineating a line of difference between image and ‘counterpart’ (cf. Goodman inserts into his argument by means of his simultaneous introduction of notions of ‘iconic’ and ‘aesthetic’ difference. Not only does it appear confusing, it is so, at least as long as the implied aesthetics is not rec-

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ognised. I will return to Kant shortly, after analysing Bredekamp’s rather brief argumentation. His assertion that the hand-axes are evidence of early signs in mankind of the capacity for aesthetic differentiation is reasonable enough. In this case, he presumes the depicted within its enframed mussel fossil. However, Bredekamp’s analysis of, or rather, statement about, the object concludes rather abruptly with the passage, “With its perception of aesthetic difference, the framing of a special form also bears testimony to the will to reinforce it creatively. Here that distinction is conceived, which as ‘iconic difference’, belongs to the fundamental determination of the image as such.” (27)2 Bredekamp obviously acknowledges that the act of framing is the image act, but he does not consider other consequences of the act, guided as he is by his own ”image-active phenomenology”, as he terms his method (22), his purpose being to discover the inherent power of images, the potentia loaded within, or intrinsic to, the form (55).3 ‘aesthetic’ and ‘iconic’ difference as the precondition of the ‘image act’, he claims an interest in (the) act(uality) of the object only insofar as it is either not yet manifest as potentiality, or only after it has been terminated, frozen or encapsulated. The whole modernist pathos of traditional art history, as distilled in Warburg’s Pathosformel a non-existent disciplinary praxis. It unfolds further when, after expressing his solidarity with G. Boehm’s ‘iconic difference’, Bredekamp subsequently goes on image-anthropology. In fact, Bredekamp closes his ‘argument’ by claiming an elementary correlation between image creation and evolution (28).4 Along with Boehm’s ‘homo pictor’, just to name the stance to which he gives greatest focus, image-anthropology in Bredekamp’s case is accompanied by a Darwinist (and static) morphological dogma, which renders his undertaking rather adventurous.5 Bredekamp’s stance has been fundamentally challenged by the enquiries into the physical foundations of form and growth, as presented by D’Arcy W. Thompson in his On Growth and Form (1917), “ work of literature in all the annals of science that have been recorded in the English tongue”,6 which brings me to the epistemic twist we will need to adopt if we are to depart from the image ontology, as described above. What is also important about our wondrous object is that it represents a kind of pre-cultural artefact, a supposed contradictio in adjecto by which the Kantian aprioristic principles of legality, as related to ‘nature’ and purposelessness, or, inKantian delineation between our cognitive faculty of understanding, as applied to ‘nature’, on the one hand, and our power of judgment, as applied to ‘art’, on the

155 IMMANUEL KANT The whole system, as visualized in 1790 Critique of the power of judgment Entire Power of Mind

Cognitive Faculty

Principles a priori

Application to

Cognition

Understanding

Legality

Nature

Feeling

Power of Judgment

Purposness

Art

Desire

Reason

Ultimate Purpose

Freedom

1781 Critique of pure reason [Kritik der reinen Vernunft] (“ the first critique”) Reason “re-cognizes” nature (the domain of the truth/theory) by imagining laws 1788 Critique of practical reason [Kritik der praktischen Vernunft] (“ the second critique”) Reason “desires” the freedom (the domain of the “good”/praxis) by imagining the ultimate purpose(s) 1790 Critique of the power of judgment [Kritik der Urteilskraft] (“ the third critique”) The faculty of judgment “feels” the art (the domain of the “beautiful”) by imagining the purposness Figure 61: Immanuel Kant, an overview of his system

other, has produced a highly speculative difference, which the philosopher was forced to ‘overcome’ by the introduction of unsurprising examples. In the introduction to his Critique of Judgment (chapter VII), he presents his readers with “the aesthetic representation of the purposiveness of nature” as follows, “An individual judgment of experience, e.g., one made by someone who perceives a mobile droplet of water in a rock crystal, rightly demands that anyone general conditions of the determining power of judgment, under the laws of a possible experience in general. In just the same way, someone who feels pleasure in mere makes claim to the assent of everyone else, even though this judgment is empirical and is an individual judgment, since the ground for this pleasure is to be found in the universal though subjective condition of purposive correspondence of an object (be it a product of nature or of art) with the relationship of the cognitive faculties among themselves (of the imagination and the understanding) that is required for every empirical cognition.” (192)

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Another wondrous object, this time “a mobile droplet of water in a rock crystal” serves as corpus delicti for a ‘free play’ of images and imagination, which in turn serves as speculative proof for supposed aesthetic difference, iconic difference or other similar differences (or all at once). Why do we actually need all these differences, as suggested by Kant and hundreds of his postmodernist followers to date, if all of them are based on one common ground, a sensus communis? The reason lies in the unsolved problem of taste and the discriminative faculties of man, as formulated in the early Enlightenment. The rudimental wrecks of this complex dispute, out of which the disciplines of art history, aesthetics and archaeology, along with cultural studies, have emerged, whilst simultaneously distinguishing themselves each from the other and their common ground. The remains of this epistemic foundation of modernity subsist in today’s atrophied terms, amongst them ‘sensus communis’, ‘the sublime’ and the like. Paul Guyer is an eminent Kantian scholar, whom one certainly cannot accuse of being particular critical to the liberalist play with the truth, which Kant and his followers made socially acceptable. This renders his judgments perhaps a little more credible in this case. Kant asserted that, in ‘pure’ judgments of taste, “our pleasure in beauty is a response only to the perceptible form of an object, not to any matter or content it may have,” (for example, in the pictorial arts, according to Kant (CPJ, §14, 5, p. 225), “the drawing is what is essential.” (c.f. Guyer 2014) However, Guyer clearly recognises that, “ to maintain that in pure judgments of taste our pleasure is in the unity of the form of the object alone, he quickly recognizes that there are a variety of impure forms of beauty where what we respond to with the free play of our imagination and understanding is harmony between an object’s perceptible form and its matter, its content, or even its purpose. Thus, just two sections after his assertion of formalism, Kant introduces the category of ‘adherent beauty,’ which is the kind of harmony between an object’s form and its intended function that pleases us in a beautiful summer-house or racehorse.” (Guyer 2014)7 Thus, when we consider our hand-axe, or our encapsulated, mobile droplet of water within its rock crystal, ‘adherent beauty’ becomes one of the concepts, which themselves remain encapsulated between the design functionalism of the ‘form follows function’ axiom and the Darwinist, evolutionary morphology of ‘function following form’. The attempt to describe the dynamic between subject and object must, therefore, fail, if the concept of growth and its most important vector or parameter is not included, namely that of (physical) force. Therefore, D’Arcy W.

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Figure 62: D W Thompson, On Growth and Form [1917] Cover, Dover reprint 1992

and ‘image’ ‘work’ or ‘function’ as directional variables (in which the growth of matter increases, according to available energy).8 described this relationship, citing the example of karyokinesis, which is the movement within an encapsulated cell and (in the case of a eukaryote) its nucleus, in other words, its internal form and structure. D’Arcy complained about the vitalism of the zoologists and Darwinian morphologists who overemphasised evolution as the fundamental determinant of the form and structure (of living organisms) of his time (1917). His complaint and his conception of karyokinesis, which he shared vitalist projections, which stem from various conceptions of Bildwissenschaft. “ guage, even the simpler organic forms […] when he sees in snail, or nautilus, or tiny foraminiferal or radiolarian shell, a close approach to the perfect sphere or spiral, he is prone, of old habit, to believe that it is after all something more than a spiral or a sphere, and that in this ‘something more’ there lies what neither physics nor mathematics can explain. In short he is deeply reluctant to compare the living with the dead, or to explain by geometry or by dynamic the things which have their part in the mystery of life […]

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cause’ [familiar to us from Kant’s aprioristic principles (S.K.)] by the teleological concept of ‘end,’ of ‘purpose,’ or of ‘design,’ in one or another of its many forms ena of the living world; […] And, though it is in a very curious way, we are told that teleology was ‘refounded, reformed or rehabilitated’ by Darwin’s theory of natural selection, whereby ‘every variety of form and colour was urgently and absolutely called upon to produce its title to existence either as an active useful agent, or as a survival of such active usefulness in the past. But in this last, and .” (2,3,4) D’Arcy’s objection also applies to a certain extent to Bredekamp’s legitimate interest in the evolution of form, as expressed in his monographic treatises, such as those concerning Darwin’s corals (2005).9 Darwin’s usage of corals as visual metaphors for the evolution of life, which he subsequently rejected in 1857, returning to the tree model,10 demonstrates not only his struggle with the visual formulated by Ernst Heckel, although subsequently attributed to Darwin himself (cf. Breidbach 2006). However, at issue here is not whether many of us agree with his latter modes of interpretation of nature and social order. In order to interpret as a successful attempt at the taxonomy of domains, phyla, kingdoms, genera, and species of his analysis does not actually provide an argument, as he intends, for a strategic setting of priorities within art history as historical Bildwissenschaft. Darwin’s suggestion in respect of corals (that they are animals) – they have subsequently cell eucaryotes) – and may be used as a model or terest in the fossil remains of organisms, and in the tension, which they capture as an ‘image’ of a dying (‘mineral’) entity, albeit one that is simultaneously growing, can neither be framed nor captured by any of the Kantian concepts of beauty, the sublime, art or nature. Bredekamp’s interdisciplinary project aimed at de-differentiating the late Enlightenment’s tendency to compartmentalise, with all its postmodernist consequences, surely deserves recognition and respect. However, sadly, after scratching the surface of visible (mesoscopic) transformable on the altar of image and disciplinary loyalty. It is rather disturbing that most of the recent introductory publications on the subject explicitly and uncritically present such arguments in books destined for undergraduate students, arguments that will act as their initiation into ‘image studies’. In his book, Sunil

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Figure 1. Darwin’s dangerous diagram. This is the single illustration in Darwin’s “Origin of Species”, meant to show how from a group of species at the bottom (A–L) over thousands of generations a different set evolves. Some species change, some remain constant some get lost, new ones emerge.

Figure 5. The captivating coral. According to the ideas of Horst Bredekamp, parts of the diagram in Darwin’s origin of species (centre) more or less directly reflect the branching of properties of a specimen Darwin collected himself. Bossea orbignyana (left) is now known to be an alga, but Darwin assumed it was a coral. (With permission from Bredekamp’s book.)

Manghani uses an article, barely three pages long, by Florian Maderspacher, a rather positive review of Bredekamp’s book, to outline his argument for ‘thinking

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image no. 4 in Manghani’s review, which in itself is a quotation from Bredekamp’s book, in turn drawn from Darwin’s sketches.11 “ Darwin drew branched, bushy structures, which were punctuated towards the bottom. As inconspicuous as this may seem, it marks, according to Bredekamp, an important leap in thinking, namely that dead forms – fossils – have to be part of the picture of species formation. Bredekamp ascribes this transition in thinking to the as representing the dead fossils compared to living species.” (Maderspacher 2006) Thus, Maderspacher criticizes Bredekamp for taking his analysis “probably one step too far” by imagining how Darwin’s template, in fact, perfectly matched a special sample of the coral he had supposedly acquired in Patagonia. By overposed ‘evidence’ of an image act (or mimesis act) is given by Bredekamp. “On this thin evidence for topological similarity, Bredekamp builds a rather heavy conceptual framework, namely that by being taken out of its natural context the ‘coral’ was transcending into an object of art.” (Maderspacher 2006) However, this is lost in the use Manghani makes of illustrative argument for the purpose of demonstrating Bredekamp’s and Maderspacher’s inclination towards authoritative argument in favour of visual culture, albeit known by the alternate name of ‘image studies’. (Interestingly, Whitney Davis, one of Bredekamp’s fellow art historians what unintentionally bridging the gap between the two, as I will show below). As we saw at the beginning of this article, Bredekamp’s image act accords simultaneous primacy to image and art, which the author does in order to emphasise the deep etiological and anthropological connection between humans, images and art, and not least to underline the status of art history, Bildwissenschaft being vouchsafed secondary importance to its pre-eminence, as institutionalised at the the disciplinary loyalties of art history and image studies are too busy attacking each other’s ideological idioms and defending those of their own, they both remain unable to achieve their respective goals. This should be the point at which an inquiry should be continued, taking it beyond not only the mesoscopic, macroscopic and microscopic, but beyond anything ‘scopic’ at all. (cf. Jay 1988) Stromatolites, for example, are layered bio-chemical structures of this kind, ‘framed’ in shallow water by the processes of binding and cementation of sedimentary grains by bacteria), in particular cyanobacteria, which are assumed to be the most ancient

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evidence of life on earth (existing around 3.8 billion years ago). The formula that would best apply would not be res cogitans or res extensa, but instead res vivens (cf. Cheung 2008 and Ch. 10.).12 This is why traditional art history, trapped in the pitfall of the image, like both of its younger cousins, visual culture studies and Bildwissenschaft, has not been ready to go this far. It is for this reason that art historians have failed to date to formulate further frontiers of inquiry, which would secure their primacy within the humanities. Our material examples lead us backwards in time from Bredekamp’s model of the Palaeolithic, enframed, spiral-shaped mussel fossil to Kant’s exemplar of a mobile droplet of water trapped inside a rock crystal, and from Darwin’s evolutionary corals to our own ancient stromatolites, representing, as they do, microbial ecology and the aetiology of life on earth. When one pursues these invisible images, as metaphors of suspended animation, it permits one to bring so-called spores or ‘dormant’ bacteria into the equation. Bacteria trapped in amber might survive for hundreds of thousands of years within such incidental ‘framing’ without awakening the slightest doubt in their admirers, such as Kant, who might visually enjoy

Figure 65: Insects in amber. Dominican Republic. 23.8 to 5.3 million years old

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I wish to point out here is that the speculative differences outlined between the animate and inanimate mesoscopic objects ultimately rely on a subject which apparently does not play any role in the philosophy criticised and takes no account of the consequences stemming from that philosophy (essentially Hegelian). An honest epistemic turn towards an ‘egalitarian view’ necessitates that one leaves behind both the absolute, explicit, hidden or disguised ‘subject’ and ‘life’. Both subject and life are revealed in a mesoscopic perspective. Bredekamp speaks of his ‘certainty’ (Gewißheit major difference underpinning ‘iconic difference’. This ‘dual play’ (Doppelspiel) of the inorganic and independent existence (Eigenleben) (p. 21) is a mesoscopic encapsulation of the unknown and its subjugation to an overarching concept. This tacit metaphysics is the reason why the whole structure of the Bildakt, with its further differentiation into the schematic, substitutive and intrinsic, must collapse pline, the rather traditional Pygmalion topos again plays the main role. On another level, the drive towards ‘iconic difference’ impinges on the classic, philosophical principle of individuation and the question of how to apply the ‘what’ or ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘why’ or ‘how’ does not comes into play, however, that of agency does, or perhaps rather whether there is an autonomous agent involved. An autonomous agent substitutes the redundant, or rather dispensable, issue of ‘image identity’ (or ‘iconic detectable by means of a sensitivity to density and the direction of the medium and material, not via vision. and of the range of our behaviours, it, therefore, appears interesting to review the discussion begun in Erwin Schrödinger’s book, entitled What is Life? (1944), but to do so, however, without its materialistic concept of ‘stored information’ about the microcode of some aperiodic crystals, which were supposed by Schrödinger to designate the ‘behaviour’ typical of living systems. Instead, it is possible to perceive bacteria as a single-cell living organisms with them in our concept of information. Stuart Kauffman suggested an inclusion of the concept of an autonomous agent […] where “the cell exhibits a form of organization that is responsible for interpreting / changing the processes, it is involved in.” (Kauffman 2002)13 The parallelism between the notion of self-constraint (posited by Schrödinger), which we usually call a ‘choice’ or ‘free will’, opens up different options for observing what happens on, what I shall call, the ‘micro-human’

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emergence of the complexity of organisms and biological systems, as well as their self-organisation, from the same perspective from which we observe ‘evolution’ and ‘natural selection’.14 context of unpredictability and chance, which for computing would be a kind of mortal sin. When Kauffman concludes that, “Life is inherently open,” he actually sciences.15 We can demonstrate or ‘picture’ this ‘inherent openness’ by means of the formal principle of dissymmetry, which can be tracked, for instance, in the above-mentioned case of the framed fossil. Let us frame the case using geologist life, “Life is the dynamic process of breaking symmetry by means of employing energy within a dissymmetric system between activity within a cell enclosed by a membrane, independent of entropy, and powerful, temporal, simultaneous feedback, such as in earlier (fossil) dissymmetries, that is, fossil biospheres, from which the earth today creates energy and material sources.”16 The photograph of the Paleolithic hand axe gives visual form to Krummbein’s ‘powerful, temporal feedback’ in the guise of radial and spiral-shaped fossil marks set within a frame by a human approximately 200,000–450,000 years ago. The shape circumscribes the natural spiral movement of the double chirality of biological and anthropological objet trouvé or ready-made. The act of imagined spiritual or apotropaic function (equally none of the above may be true). the above-mentioned, dissymmetrical, recursive self-propagation of life by means of the natural mimicry of the process of enclosing, such as occurs when the cell’s inner and outer membranes form (Kauffman 2002, p. 126). What else can we learn from this wonderful bio-anthropological encounter? For one thing, that it mirrors the protracted line of difference between the ‘animate’ and ‘inanimate’. The reproduced freeze frame of our bio-anthropological encounter represents also a bio-semiotic encounter, a simultaneous clash or emergence of animated or breeding form and matter. “From a semiotic point of view”, states Jesper Hoffmeyer, “the decisive step in the process that led to the origin of life was the appearance in the world of a new kind of asymmetry, an asymmetry between insides and outside.” (Hoffmeyer 2010, p. 162)17 This formation of a closed membrane around

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Figure 66: Hand ax with inclusion of the fossil mussel Spondylus spinosus, West Tofts, Norfolk (England), ca. 200.000 years old. Offprint from Bredekamp 2013, p. 72

an autocatalytic, closed system of components brings about “such a stable integration of a self-referential digitally coded system into an other-referential analogy coded system [that] life.” (ibidem) I opened my argument with Bredekamp’s spectacular ‘example’ from his Theory of the Image Act. Its subsuming master concept of iconic difference appears as a speculative difference, and requires us to return to our own ‘example’ to question its status as ‘example’ per se. Bredekamp himself attempted to widen his argument some years later, not least in order to respond to the rather harsh critique coming from the German and English-speaking realms. Our 200,000-years old hand-axe, with its integral fossil mussel, Spondylus spinosus from West Tofts, lished in an anthology entitled, Transzendenzen des Realen, published by Horst hand axe appears at the very end of the article, which the focus has been slightly altered and widened with an attempt to justify Bre-

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dekamp’s new concept of the Enlightenment (Bredekamp 2013, p. 20), which he bases on the classical texts, key to German cultural studies, the philosophy of absolute idealism and those of early art history: Herder, Hegel and Franz Kugler.18 The iconic difference now informs his argumentation even more graphically and explicitly (one section also bearing the title, ‘Die Inklusion von Fossilien und die ikonische Differenz’), “It is this combination of utility and excess of form, the tension between which produces the visually active element of evolution […] The reason behind the creation, valuing and collection of well-established objects in particular rests on the capacity to engender a sense of difference by means of comparison. The differentiating comparison is the basis of every conscious establishing of order, and with it of distantiation. This manner of thinking in terms of iconic difference, to use the phrase coined by Gottfried Boehm, has been reinforced by a series of .” (Bredekamp 2013, p. 29) Another example demonstrates that observed asymmetry and framing act as converging phenomena, and result in the creation of both ‘life’ and ‘image’, and, ultimately, an ‘image act’. “The stone was not worked until it was fully functional; rather, its task was to frame the fossil as an image in relief and to set off this object to be emphasised against an encompassing surround, in order to create a charge between the two. Again, the principle of unintended asymmetry comes into play. Compared to the natural image, the stone acts as a frame fraught with tension.” (Bredekamp 2013, p. 30, image 71)19 image 71), and “simultaneously in and of itself links artwork and museum”, whilst the person who framed the fossil, according to Bredekamp, was able to create something unique by intentionally determining the difference between the chiralism of the fossil (as Bredekamp puts it “its direction”) and the materiality of the hand axe, as he placed the former along the precise axis of the artefact. “In framing this object and thus transforming it into an image, he brought into being the genre of ‘an image within an image’.”20 Bredekamp employs his fossil argument to mitigate against being dismissed for concerning himself with magic and mysticism, a charge he has had to face in recent years (Bredekamp 2013, p. 31). His discussion of the object demonstrates his understanding of the “concretisation of the intrinsic interlocking of form and function”, as had already been shown by Franz Kugler in his Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte (1842). Bredekamp was equally concerned to link the magic of the -

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Figure 67: Hand ax with inclusion of a fossil mussel, Moustérien, found from a. Turq. Photo from Michel Lorblanchet (La Naissance de l’Art. Genèse de l’art préhistorique. Paris 1999). Offprint from Bredekamp 2013, p. 71

berg’s Höhlenausgänge within this context (Bredekamp 2013, p. 32; cf. Blumenberg 1989, 1997, 2007). It is maybe rather more than a coincidence that Blumenberg’s anthropological philosophy and metaphorology emerged in the year and city of Bredekamp’s birth, that is, Kiel in 1947. It was then that Blumenberg was awarded a doctorate for his thesis, Beiträge zum Problem der Ursprünglichkeit der mittelalterlich-scholastischen Ontologie completed his Habilitation degree in 1950 with a study entitled, Die ontologische Distanz. Eine Untersuchung über die Krisis der Phänomenologie Husserls (both of these major academic works would remain unpublished). Alongside Blumenberg, Warburg and Hegel, Bredekamp has grounded his rather eclectic thought on, amongst others, the work of German philosopher, Wolfram Hogrebe’s concept of ‘rückstürzenden Metaphysik’ – very apposite in the case of our hand axe. A human 21

Bredekamp’s anthropological approach and his interest in the ‘intrinsic’ evolution of form, however, present an all too corrosive surface to attacks from independent radicals of the intuitionist, expressionist and immanent image camps. The

167 PRAGMATIC IMAGE-GAME

IMAGE-ACT

PRAGMATISTIC IMAGE AS TOOL

TESTING ACTS

Preferred view on the development of the picture-theory paradigms according to L. Wiesing & S. Seja (Seja 2009) A. Gehlen (image as immaterial tool to evidence / indicate / exhibit) E. H. Gombrich (the style of the image as immaterial tool) M. Vogel (images as media) M. Heidegger (images as tools) Figure 68: Picture-theory paradigms (“Bildhandlungsbegriffe”) according to S. Seja (2009)

On 16 April 2014, Horst Bredekamp was scheduled to give a later cancelled lecture in Berlin entitled, Der Faustkeil als Ursprung des Bildakts. Zum Prinzip von Differenz und Störung ed issue. I believe that the major stumbling blocks on Bredekamp’s image-paved roads to recursion are the images themselves as he conceives of them in anthropological and ontological terms. The title of the book cited above, Transzendenzen des Realen, resolutely demonstrates the philosophical direction he espouses. It adheres in part to what I will term the tendency to virtualisation evident in the German analyses of image. This tendency is represented by a disparate number of theories of the image as act (Handlungstheorien des Bildes, cf. Seja 2009). Bildhandlungsbegriffe’), which she characterises as pragmatic (image-game and image-act) and pragmatistic (image as tool and as testing-act). The teleology behind this attempt image-ontology, in which he proposes a development from the images tacitly understood as (communicative) signs to a phenomenological conception of them, where images are understood independently of how they are used, perceptually, as virtual tools. Probably the most important concept of retroactivity (‘Nachträglichkeit’) offered by Wiesing conceives of the use of the image as an immaterial tool. I consider it to be the culmination of image-narrative, which began with A. Gehlen (image as immaterial tool as evidence / artefact / exhibit), E.H. Gombrich (the style of the image as an immaterial tool), M. Vogel (images as media), and, not least, with M. Heidegger, who enshrined his tool concept in Sein und Zeit (1926, parts 14 and 18). Interesting to our argument, is Heidegger’s (and Wiesing’s [2004]22) ‘manual metaphoric’, that is, his characterisation of the features of the tool as “zuhanden” and “vorhanden”,

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in order to determine that tools are, in fact, predicatively indeterminate. Heidegimage, technology) is turned upside down in Seja and Wiesing’s interpretations and taken as the departure point for a comparison of images and material tools, with the aim of reconciling the concepts of tool and image (Seja 2009, p. 146). Interestingly, Heidegger’s prime example, a hammer (Heidegger 1993, p. 362), that is, a ‘modern hand-axe’, shows how awkward arbitrary standards (like that of the immaterial operability [‘immaterielle Handhabbarkeit’] of the image, cf. p. 152) might appear, when forcing matter into the Procrustean bed of the image. Test-acting & virtuality as espoused by Henri Bergson and his advocate Deleuze are thus re-activated as a clean ‘test’ beyond the dangerous dirty arena of matter, bacteria and such like.23 This tendency by some of the proponents of Bildwissenschaft takes as its point of departure the Husserlian differentiation between immaterial image-object and material image-bearer (‘Bildträger’) and insists on the difference between the tableau (‘Bildträger’) and image (‘Bild’). In this, the notion of the image-act is not focused on the tableau, but on the image, or, more precisely, on image perception 24

From this perspective, visibility becomes a special form of visible reality (Wiesing 1997, p. 192)25 end of 20th century continental thought in the Anglophone world, dominated by Heidegger’s phenomenology, as well as by the writings of Derrida, Foucault and Deleuze (cf. also Frank and Lange 2010).26 “ with these trends, what they give us is less a critique of humanity’s place in the world, than a less sweeping critique of the self-enclosed Cartesian subject. Humanity remains at the centre of these works, and reality appears in philosophy only as the correlate of human thought. In this respect phenomenology, structuralism, post-structuralism, deconstruction, and postmodernism have all been perfect exemplars of the anti-realist trend in continental philosophy.” (Bryant et al., 2011, p. 3) Levi Bryant, Graham Harman and others have instead proposed a deliberate counterpoint to the now tiresome ‘linguistic turn’, which posits ‘materialism’ and ‘realism’ under the heading of the ‘speculative turn.’27 There is no room to discuss this here. In any case, the fascination with phenomena, as seen in Bredekamp’s work, when taken as a model, is framed by perspectives that lack both radicalism and ‘realism’. Recent attempts to bridge theory and practice (Manghani 2013, Frank & Lange 2010, Bruhn 2009, et al.) share the same tendency with what is termed image-ecology in going ‘beyond the semiotic’. Perhaps a pathway oper-

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ating ‘below the semiotic’ would be a more promising one, after two decades of less than fruitful debate? Could it claim to have the potential for self-propagation as medium, matter and form, without becoming normative and whilst keeping actuality in focus?

7.2 Will the image have the last word? Will the image have the last word? This is a felicitous, rhetorical question posed by Oliver Grau (formerly a doctoral candidate under Horst Bredekamp’s supervision). He addressed it to both sides of the silent German-Anglo-American debate – silent, because it is marked either by disinterestedness in the other camp’s achievements or by serious anachronisms in the sense of delayed reception. I agree with him and with Bredekamp, as well as with James Elkins (2000/09) and others, who admit that visualisations from the natural sciences “are keystones in the creation of knowledge.” (Grau / Veigl 2011, pp. 5–6) However, I wish to emphasise again how important it seems to me to refocus our attention on sensations and sensing beyond the Bild or image and instead to consider processes by means of which media and matter change, shape and reshape our world and ourselves. Looking back on Bredekamp’s strategic argumentation, we can recognise that it stands and falls with his strict delineation of the framed fossil as ‘image’, excluding anything that might disturb the supposed ontological difference between material and medium. The ‘clear difference’ claimed corresponds to early Enlightenment thought on the separation between the order of the ‘living’ and that of the ‘non-living’, of the organic and the inorganic, which Ernst Georg Stahl, professor of medicine at Halle, termed diversitas conspicua in his De vera diversitate corporis mixti et vivi, et vtriusque peculiarium continum atque proprietatum necessaria discretione, demonstratio on this notion and to conceptualise this difference, on which Deleuze insisted so forcefully.28 Fossils can be situated within the tree of life (or better perhaps, ‘rhizomes’ of life), and ‘missing links’ are predictable even if their fossilised bodies have not (yet) been discovered. It can be argued that when Winckelmann described the Belvedere Torso, he employed a methodology akin to this, leading to the emergence of art history and archaeology as disciplines (Wassenaar 2012, p. 10). We know also that undisputed, fossilised, multicellular eukaryotes are ‘only’ 600 million years old, which means they are only twice as old as our natural fossil in its crafted surround (Wassenaar 2012, p. 3). Bacteria, as one-cell protocaryotes, of

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course, predate them by over three billion years, having displayed all conceivable strategies to survive. We know about bacteria which live inside worms, which themselves live inside insects, which in turn can cause blindness in people – a chain of events that “sounds like some nightmare Russian doll with a jack-in-thebox inside” (Wassenaar 2012, p. 34). Further, if we ‘look’ inside a cell, we know that “addition (or removal) of a phosphate to a particular site of a protein (often an enzyme) will change its charge and sometimes its shape and, as a result of that, its function.” (Wassenaar 2012, p. 36). Function follows form follows force – organisation precedes function, as Lamarck and subsequently Leduc, Dawkins and others have claimed in their responses to creationists. The ‘general’ requirements of life in a living cell or bacteria, according to the molecular microbiologist, Trudy Wassenaar, consist of a membrane, responsiveness to the environment, metabolism, homeostasis, reproduction, and evolving (by accumulation of DNA mutations). However, let us take the example of an early proponent of synthetic biology, Stephane Leduc, who excluded homeostasis from that list back in 1911, asserting of difference in respect of life. For him, “A living being is a transformer of energy and of matter, containing certain albuminoid substances, with an evolutionary form, the constitution of which is essentially liquid.” (Leduc 1911, p. 4) “In marked contrast to the permanence of matter and energy is the ephemeral nature of form, as exhibited by living beings. Function, since it is but the resultant of form, is also ephemeral […] All matter has life in itself – or, at any rate, all matter susceptible of incorporation in a living cell. This life is potential while the element is in the mineral state, and actual while the element is passing through a living organism” (Leduc 1911, pp. 6 and 9) Animate and non-animate matter can be consistently divided into colloids with an osmotic membrane containing liquids and crystalloids, and those with a look at our fossilised shell, one can see it simply as an ordinary case, known to us from the world of plants, where the various organs often radiate out from an axis repeatedly until complete revolution is achieved (Leduc 1911, p. 11). However, all examples can be subsumed under one common denominator. What our early hominid found fascinating about the form of the fossil was, of course, the fact that its external, visible growth was just the skeleton or shell, or, in other words, the ‘frozen’ image of the ‘osmotic growth’ that had generated the diffusion of the active or ‘growing’ portion of the gelatinous substance within it (Leduc 1911, p. 141). “The palaeontologist relies on different forms found in his rocks to classify his specimens; from the existence of a shell, he concludes the presence of life.

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Dunaliella and numerous

Since, however, forms which are apparently organic may be merely the product of osmotic growth, it is evident that he must reconsider his conclusions.” (Leduc 1911, p. 144) Leduc experimented a lot by dropping single drops of liquid substance into water, observing “a marvelous spectacle to see a formless fragment of calcium salt grow[ing] into shell […] and this as the result of a simple physical force. Why should the study of osmotic growth attract less attention than the formation of

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crystals?” Our present interest in crystalloids merge today very much with the interest of the Bildwissenschaft, Visual Culture Studies and Image Sciences in de-animated matter and their fascination for the ‘pathetic form’. It is not a bare coincidence when W.J. Mitchell uses ‘organic shapes’ of nautilus-images and crystals to demonstrate the ‘contrast’ to the synthetic images of ‘post-photographic’ era.” (cf. Mitchell 1992, Batchen 1994) There exists huge potential for shifting one’s focus from what I tend to call ‘post-colloidal studies’ back to the study of more essential colloids. In Leduc’s own words, “The resemblance between the osmotic growth and a living organism is much closer than between a living being and a crystal, there being not only an analogy to life, we must turn to osmosis and osmotic growth rather than to crystals and crystallization.” (Leduc 1911, p. 149) It may appear to the reader that I am going too far with these quotations, facts and assumptions. However, one should bear in mind that they have practically become truisms, used by artists, such as Per Kirkeby, when he says, “Crystals also have their lives, they grow incessantly, even when they have found their form. And a total/complete form never exists.”29 It tends to be less a truism, when it is stated by Kirkeby, who is also a natural scientist with a PhD in geology. The question is, are we ready to follow our curiosity and learn more about the ‘idiosyncracies’, which comprise the facts of living matter? The interest is there (as initially expressed by Pliny the Elder and again in the Early Modern age with its decompartmentalisation of and naturalia arrived at by means of curiositas) without question, and it is also permanently inscribed in traditional museum and exhibition-based arts. Both the documenta in Kassel and the Venice Biennale exhibited it clearly in 2013. Massimiliano Gioni, curator of the central pavilion in Venice, called it The Encyclopedic Palace in which, “Progression from natural forms, to studies of the human digital age, loosely following the typical layout of sixteenth and seventeenth-century cabinets of curiosities. In these eclectic microcosms, natural artefacts and marvels were combined to compose new images of the universe through a process of associative thinking that resembles today’s culture of hyper-connectivity.”30 In the geometric centre of the central pavillion, the collection of rare stones belonging to French writer, philosopher, sociologist, Surrealist, Roger Caillois (1913–1978), the most important theorist and historian of play and games were exhibited. Geology combined with mysticism in a grey area between the natural and magical order of things demonstrated the ambivalence between the fascination for correspondent objects and beings (as mentioned by Bredekamp above),

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Figure 70: Roger Caillois (1913–78), Petit poisson, from the installation The Writing of Stones. La Biennale di Venezia 2013. © M.N.H.N. – Minéralogie, Paris

and the wish to learn more about them with or without (Bredekamp’s) resistance to being consumed by magic and mysticism. While Caillois remained open to the 31 – his “ in progressions, [suggested] both a museum of natural history and the visionary maps of an alien landscape.”32 eralogical-human parallelism and his sociology of the sacred, on the one hand, and Blumenberg and Bredekamp’s anthropology seems obvious in their respectaste for recursions and loops, inspired by the organisation of living matter, as well as our cognitive capabilities. ment about the parallelism in the search for origins of images in the research of Horst Bredekamp and Whitney Davis. Davis himself even demonstrates a strong interest of this kind in recursive patterns and loops, such that they can be regarded as central to his thought (he calls them ‘replications’ in his own morphogenetic narrative). Within our context, the three leading (and critically reviewed) aspects or sequences in his General Theory of Visual Culture, which was published shortly after Bredekamp’s Theory of the Image Act, are of interest: formality (the sensu-

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a visual recursion of nonpictorial stuff ” (Davis 2011, p. 150). For Davis, who unlike Bredekamp primarily addresses the Anglo-American debate, the crucial operation of visual culture, as such, is “the recursion of vision and visuality” (47). This is important to him because the study of visual culture “ pure visuality” despite the fact that vision and visuality are not “reciprocally and recursively interdetermined” and “cannot be reduced to each other.” (233) This is, in fact, what has being described as the of both visual studies, as understood by W.J.T. Mitchell and some of the German-speaking proponents of Bildwissenschaft, who claim that the non-visual parts of the culture play the same important role within a context as do the non-cultural parts of the visual (Mitchell 2008, p. 241, Frank & Lange 2010, p. 10). Davis’s notion of the non-reducibility of vision and visuality to each other expressed by Davis himself, that “the theory of evolution does not encourage us to draw rigid distinctions between nonhuman behavioral situations and human cultural ones.” (Davis 2011, p. 191)33 We could admire the crucial ‘case’ or ‘rule’ of what Davis calls ‘occasionality’, as Bredekamp had done in the case of the fantastic framed shell – a tactile instrument as a sign of life, one purpose which, at least, would have been to take another’s life. Davis criticises Panofsky’s “positive archeology of the iconographic succession” and his anthropology, which is sometimes visual culture studies alongside Panofsky’s “neo-Kantian iconology” with its optimistic teacher, Cassirer, who was also Bredekamp’s role model. (253) Their ‘cognitive idealism’ (254) aims at constructing an ‘intersubjective world’ (254), a Kantian sensus communis. This is why the actual dispute between Bildwissenschaft and visual culture studies can be best witnessed in the parallel writings of Bredekamp and Davis. Moreover, Davis’s work draws on a parallel discussion between Heidegger and Cassirer dating from the 1920s and 1930 (260f.) On the other hand, Brestudent, Edgar Wind into his pantheon of Bildwissenschaftler, as he demonstrates in his Theory of the Image Act. Simultaneously, Bredekamp criticises Heidegger’s antias Davis’s role model. I believe that the afore-mentioned art historians do, indeed, historical perspectives to overcome these old, yet obviously still active, disputes. The strategy I wish to propose is twofold: on the one hand, we need to overcome the phantoms of singularity and intersubjectivity with a perspective, which perhaps does not bear any

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resemblance to ‘our own’ (‘common’) perspectives. We are running a long-term research program, known as Big Bacteria, which cannot be discussed further here. (cf. Ch. 10) On the other hand, we need to dig back into the history of our own sciences and humanities to get better acquainted with our own thought patterns in respect of image and with their limits. This is not the place to comment in depth on this research program, but I wish to mention a few cornerstones, at least. Nearly ten years ago, Otto Karl Werckmeister wrote The Turn from Marx to Warburg in West German Art History, a turn, to which the rise to pre-eminence of Martin Warnke and Horst Bredekamp has been deemed central (Werckmeister 2006, p. 213). It started with an international Warburg Congress held at Hamburg 1990 and with Brekedamp’s appointment to the professorship of art history at the Humboldt “It took West German art historians, led by Warnke and Bredekamp, nearly ten years to fashion the work of Aby Warburg and his library into a new, compelling paradigm for such a depoliticized social history of art with a German pedigree […] It was not the critical dissolution of the ‘Renaissance’ ideal into a self-serving ideology of the Florentine merchant class […] period’ […] Rather, it was Warburg’s later speculations about the life-sustaining power of images as an anthropological constant factor.” (Werckmeister 2006, pp. 216–17) “Warburg’s move from a social history of art to a fundamentalist anthropology of pictorial expression” was the path chosen. It found its reception in Scandinavia and the Anglo-American world via Nietzsche, who had been Warburg’s role model, and disillusioned students of Deleuze in France. The self-interested project of our own historiography should certainly reach back into the 19th century, since that was when the major philosophical authorities, who initiated the discussions we continue today, started to establish their 34

The rhetoric of today’s visual culture still considers its sources to lie primarily within the imagination and the intellectual environment of German Romanticism. As Gottfried Boehm once claimed, “Since Romanticism’s critique of reason, fantasy and imagination, visual perception and image have regained their old rights.” (Boehm 2006, p. 7).35 Therefore, sight too should be reconstructed as an active force, inherent in the subject, both historically and aesthetically. The goal was to liberate seeing in the writings of another forerunner and protagonist of the , Konrad Fiedler (1841–1895), “from its passive role within the philosophical insight” (Boehm 2006, p. 17). Fiedler’s answer to Kant’s (and also the Enlightenment’s) question of how one should avoid the relativity of taste, inscribed

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the former as the founder of ‘visibilism’, of the theory of ‘pure visibility’ and of German art theory. Fiedler’s attempt to separate art theory from aesthetics culminated, as had various comparable attempts at art-historical and art-philosophical formalism and the elitism of ‘pure visibility’ (Adolf von Hildebrandt, Georg Simmel), in a ‘phenomenological’ method, which aimed at assisting one to arrive at ‘pure visibility’, manifested in ‘clarity of spirit’.36 Benedetto Croce (1866–1952) was Fiedler’s younger friend and colleague. He rediscovered the work of Gianbattista Vico,37 who chose intuition to be a key element of his concept of aesthetics. In his main work, Aesthetics [L’Estetica come scienza dell’espressione e linguistica generale] (1902; cf. Croce 1930; Lönne 2002), however, the Italian literary critic and strict Hegelian stated that its only essential element was expression, explicitly understood as aesthetic mental synthesis, which would have consequence for the status he accorded reality within his concept of the image, “But, since an awareness that something is real is based on a distinction between representations of things that are real, and representations of things that are not, and since this distinction is not there to begin with, these primary intuitions will, in truth, be neither intuitions of what is real nor intuitions of what is not real. They will not be perceptions but pure intuitions. Where everything is real, nothing is real.” (Croce 1930)38 Accordingly, the distinction between reality and illusion is foreign to the nature of intuition. This philosophical conclusion reached by Croce and his ‘expression aesthetics’, which was primarily received later in Germany, mainly via Fiedler image discussion initiated a hundred years later. It was not only Croce’s Hegelianism that was taken to extremes within literary aesthetics. This also occurred with the link between ‘imagination’ and phenomenology, the ‘teaching about the visible’, intended for the hypostatising them, a relapse to Idealism and Materialism, which phenomenological mathematicians and logicians, such as Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) initially attempted to overcome.39 In the light of these events, the ‘activity of seeing’ was chosen as the basis on which an “entanglement of seeing and happening” takes place, and in which, following Merleau-Ponty and Husserl, an “intentional consciousness arranges the animated intersection of glances.” (Boehm 2006, p. 20).40 The substantiated, Cartesian way of thinking became a substantial way of seeing. The theory of sight became, above all, with Lacan and his chiastic model of sight entanglement, one of the founding myths of visual culture. Conversely, the expected consequences of his interest in the mimicry of animals, “a naturally given image process,” are less well-researched. In Boehm’s interpretation (Boehm

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2006, p. 24.), Roger Caillois’ writings (1913–1978), to which Lacan referred and ysed within their cultural and historical context. visual culture’s image theory, as conceived by theorists from G. Boehm to S. Freud and J. Lacan in his psychoanalysis, continues to resonate in the answer to the questions, “who interprets” or “who should interpret?” Consciousness is suggestive of an answer. The mirror serves as a symbol for this epistemological process, but it has been reduced primarily to the ability of the psyche to perceive objectively (i.e. in a distanced manner).41 The methods by which the image is self-legitimising via the phenomenology of perception, the phenomenological psychology of the imagination and the history of seeing have also led to the continuation and expansion of hegemonial claims in respect of the image as mediated by the imagination. (cf. Merlau-Ponty 1960, Sartre 1994, Kamber and Wulf 1984, esp. pp. 21–45) Recent contributions have demonstrated how the old debate might be continued under new conditions. Some of the catchwords involved include the “graphic quality of perceptions as well as conceptions”, “images as enactment forms of imagination” and also “world images and self-images as sub” (Schürmann 2004, pp. 60–62). The programmatics of the ‘new images’ that can be traced back without digression to Kant and Fichte describes its own perspectives too, as “The margin for possibilities that the formation of imagination opens are preferred to the hegemonial identity attribution of a categorizing reason, because it is developed as much more promising and liberal.” (Schürmann 2004, p. 79)42 We have heard different answers to a not entirely rhetorical question, “What do images do?” I believe that we need another epistemic turn in our disciplines but, especially, in our own research programs. Current research sensitivities and results indicated that there is an urgency to re-conceptualize the still images of today, the fossils of the future. Our encapsulated fossils and mobile droplets in rock crystal are met today with the potential we have for encapsulating swimming bacteria within liquid crystal, thus creating a novel form of soft matter: living liquid crystal. This new type of ‘active material’ promises to improve the early detection of diseases, and it also possesses desirable and supposedly controllable optical properties. The phenomenon known as ‘plop living’ is yet another example of the challenges that our tacit knowledge of images faces today (cf. Science Daily 2014). All the above-mentioned phenomena and their theoretical framings need agents and agencies in question may appear. Bredekamp’s Theory of the Image Act was a summary of his Adorno Lectures, held in 2007. The following quotation compris-

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es the three last sentences of Adorno’s Negative Dialektik. They are well suited to summarize my view as well: “The smallest innerworldly markings would be relevant to the absolute, for the micrological glance demolishes the shells of that which is helplessly compartmentalized according to the measure of its subsuming master concept and explodes its identity, the deception, that it would be merely an exemplar. Such thinking is in solidarity with metaphysics at the moment of the latter’s fall.” (Adorno 1966)

PART THREE Tracking back and look ahead: heritage and environment

8. Culture as capital in media democracy. Envisioning the post-visual condition 8.1 The political economy of the game: aleatoric agony A glance at the past decade’s western world cultural practice shows the contemporary art universe has expanded despite all current crises and dangers, criticism and denial. Today’s art history and visual culture faces questions in regard to what historical practice. Some voices advance a view of a scant ‘domestic demand’ in the sense expectations of students. However, some voices, assert that art history altogether still does not take on the provocation of new media, procedures and concepts as an internal chance. Rather it fends them off as a border, as something inauthentic or illegitimate, as a sign of a plebeian taste of the masses. (Reck 2003, p. 19; cf. Kacunko 2005, p. 147) Nowadays, just like throughout art history, one can assert without hasty anticipation that the quantitative problems of the (respectively current) expansion of the art and culture universe present a challenge just like the question of quality in terms of aesthetic or taste judgment. Solutions to the latter question on art critique and curating have ranged from ‘value free history of the problem’ approaches, according to the hopes and expecthe late intuitions and genius aesthetics (Benedetto Croce and J. v. Schlosser) and those of Hans Sedlmayr as godfather of the so-called structure analysis. In Sedlmayr’s essay, with the programmatic title Zu einer strengen Kunstwissenschaft (On a Strict Science of Art), he demanded the involvement of ranking and questions of value for the analytically-synthetic description of the artwork (Sedlmayr 1925) – a demand, to which one can at best certify an inductive or ‘expectationalWhether value-free or not, contemporary art and culture seem to never have had a future. They always cared too little or seemed not to care for knowing about their own history. They are permanently overrun by their own present, while their already unsystematically developed histories keep falling prey to ‘systemic’, circulating and curricular measures. And the latter are stated as reasons for calculated pessimism (or even cynicism), the root for hesitation and all the idleness. One can confront this argument with Yann Arthus-Bertrand’s sentence in the style of calculated pessimism: “It is too late to be a pessimist” (cf. Home 2009).

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TRACKING BACK AND LOOK AHEAD: HERITAGE AND ENVIRONMENT

Beginning in the 1960s representatives of the Kultermann was amongst, determined that “the value system stood under the innew media reality […] in stark contrast to the subject’s practice” and “one of the reasons for the erosion of the cultural survival strategy is the lack of ability of the art historian to understand the meaning of contemporary art and to integrate it in the overall context of art development.” (Kultermann 1995, pp. 240–41)1 Correctly translated, it is argued that a lacking readiness to register the dynamics of the development of art and to learn methodically how to deal with rampant proliferation of tentativeness in the research and teaching remains a problem. Therefore, a focus will be brought to the cultural and economic questions of the art-historical and culture-studies dealing with the same visual resources in alignment with the rather provocative title of this essay, which includes an equation between culture and capital. The assumption of culture as capital in today’s media democracy presumes to ask some rhetorical questions such as: What is more important to us (without deepening the problematic ‘us’ for an instant) – our race, gender, sexual orientation, or the amount of money in our pocket? Even if such disjunctive questions seem unfair, it remains that what matters to the globalized and especially contemporary neo-liberal form of most the money in our pockets. Capitalism’s competitive or agonal rules can be distilled from a cultural histo-

the aleatoric element or chance, which today represents a rear side of the globalized capitalistic economy and its important driving force. At the margins of the dialectical social order of competition and chance we can meet cultural forms like sports, casinos and lotteries, which correspond to the institutional forms integrated into social life – the economic competition and the speculation of the stock market lence, will to obtain power, trickery or superstition cannot be excluded, the agonal-aleatoric logic of the leading world’s system cannot structurally be reframed or reformed from the inside. This is because capitalism is, at least originally thought to be in its liberal structure, not discriminative, it does not have either a good or a bad Iustitia. Regardless of one’s race, culture or gender, capitalism swung its agonic sword of competition and could hit anyone by chance of the apparent pure, transcendental welfare models (in their normative difference to the conservative-mid-European

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AGÔN (Competition) PAIDIA Tumult Agitation Immoderate laughter

Kite-flying Solitaire Patience Crossword puzzles

LUDUS

Racing Wrestling Etc. Athletics

}

not regulated

ALEA (Chance)

MIMICRY (Simulation)

ILINX (Vertigo)

Counting-out Rhymes

Children’s initiations

Children “whirling”

Heads or tails

Games of illusion

Horseback riding

Tag, Arms

Swinging Waltzing

Masks, Disguises Boxing, Billiards

Betting

Volador

Fencing, Checkers

Roulette

Traveling carnivals

Football, Chess

Simple, complex, and continuing lotteries*

Contests, Sports in general

Skiing Theater Spectacles in general

Mountain climbing Tightrope walking

N.B. In each vertical columns games are classified in such an order that the paidia element is constantly decreasing while the ludus element is ever increasing. * A simple lottery consists of the one basic drawing. In a complex lottery there are many possible combinations. A continuing lottery (e.g. Irish Sweepstakes) is one consisting of one or more stages, the winner of the first stage being granted the opportunity to participate in a second lottery. [From correspondence with Caillois. M.B.]

and the liberal-Anglo-Saxon models) is that the just regulation of the globalized capital and the money in our pockets cannot be set in motion without unveiling the eyes of Iustitia. But unveiling her eyes would reveal the race-, culture- and resource-based calculi of the national states as the still perpetuating principles of exclusion in the same globalized world. This is why we bear in mind the difference between the liberal optimistic version of capitalism and it’s contemporary aftermath, the more discriminative and regulative neo-liberal version. Some of the premises of both the economics and the culture studies rely on each other’s rather reductionist conclusions, which again lay in the calculations of disciplinary exclusion. To depart from both the excluding, confrontative and calculatory allegedly all-including approach, it would require a kind of “capitalist culture studies” (Martin 2008, pp. 27–28) to overcome methodological and ideological shortages. Since such an integrative program is still a long way off, the purpose of this essay is to imagine Iustitia opening her eyes for a moment while leaving her sword aside. What would she see? What Karl Marx described 150 years ago seems to apply to what we may see today: “The bourgeoisie, by the rapid improvement of all instruments of production, by the immensely facilitated means of communication, draws all, even the most barbarian, nations into civilisation. The cheap prices of its commodities are the heavy artillery with which it batters down all Chinese walls, with which it forces

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the barbarians’ intensely obstinate hatred of foreigners to capitulate. It compels all nations, on pain of extinction, to adopt the bourgeois mode of production; it compels them to introduce what it calls civilization into their midst ... In one word, it creates a world after its own image.” (Marx & Engels 1998 (1848), pp. 39–40, quoted by Stallabrass 2006, p. 5) In David Harvey’s notable book Condition of Postmodernity (1990), he has taken Jean-François Lyotards The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (1979) as a point of reference for actualizing the analysis found in Fredric Jameson’s Postmodernism, or The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (1984). In Harvey’s analysis, the deployment of capitalism “brings advertising strategies into art, and art into advertising strategies” while making transparent that the production of culture has occurred “in a social, economic, or political vacuum” with consequence that “we should not read postmodernism as some autonomous artistic current. Its rootedness in daily life is one of its most patently transparent features”. (Harvey 1997, p. 63) This view represents not just a perspective of the neo-Marxist social theory and human geography, but also an issue of the so-called “topology of art” as Boris Groys described the related cultural regime in his Topologie der Kunst (2003). With consumption, understood as consummation or usage of goods, a chain, ‘goods – merchandise – value – consumption’ is named, which Groys has discussed in relation to moral concepts and stable value in art. He has diagnosed the abolition of all thinkable value and quality criteria in art with a solely free-market theory. A result of consequence-free theory is a dislocation of the originally auctorial decisions of the artists to their audience (maybe as a consequence of the artists’ responsibility exoneration). Moreover, this leads to a general over-production of art (which could be referred to as a main feature of art). (Groys 2003, pp. 20–21) The cultural and geographical demarcation or globalization of art, with the art consumer’s entry into an art union governed aristocratically and autocratically by artists, has resulted in a ‘Copernican turn’ in the art system: The ‘art producfollows a traditionally vanguard reputation by embodying the formerly (through the critical theory) consumer orientation, dismissed as decadent and as the most their freedom as inter-agents by performing a partly laborious, also kinesthetic parcours between the concept, (the moving) image, the installed embellishments of heterotopic and heterochronic periods and the synasthesia.

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Boris Groys deals in his analysis, amongst others, with the earlier (art-)theoretical derivation of constant consumption from the individual desire, targeting explicitly the founding fathers of the Visual Cultural Studies like Benjamin, Lacan and Foucault. Such a ‘psychologization’ and ‘personalization’ falls short, according to Groys, because the compulsion for consumption, for shopping, is, above all, of moral nature: “Behaving responsibly towards society, means today for the individual to buy as much as possible regardless whether he wants to or not.” (Groys 2003, p. 47)2 Apart from the certain cynicism (or, weaker: provocation) of the quotpolitical situation, a ‘topological’ objection against the dictate of heterogeneity, against the ‘colourful diversity’ as well as against mix and crossover in art. After all, the quoted ‘compulsion for shopping’ represented accordingly a political, economic and also mentality- and control-related partial cause for the neo-liberal taste of today’s ‘free art market’. This market refuses everything universal, uniform, repetitive, geometrical or reductionist. But precisely the aesthetic of the minimalist, ascetic, monotonous, boring and homogeneous is used to control and surveillance (visual) cultural studies, next to the postcolonial studies. It seems as if the purpose of the much-praised ‘diversity’ in its cultural studies’ understanding irrespectively and (un)intentionally wants to cover the monotony and predictability which is to be found within the uniformity of the economical and political system. Groys’ perspective acknowledges, at least implicit Benjamin Buchloh’s analysis, in which the contemporary art’s use-value transforms itself in a commodity of pure exchange-value. Art equals money while culture equals capital. (Buchloch 1997, pp. 68–9, cf. Stallabrass 2006, pp. 61–62) Does art remain, against the background of such allegations from the left-wing, still a well controlled, turbo capitalist playground and self-therapy centre for adults? Seen from this perspective, the interpretation value of the ‘merchandise art’ would be the only aspect that differentiates art from the barely controllable stock market game. But does the interpretation value have an information value if art is analyzed as merchandise? And does it make sense at all to want to check the ‘truth’ or ‘meaning’ in art, if the Kantean playful principle, the ‘as if’ and the fake determine the foundation, the difference’, on which all co-players and co-responsible persons must be relieved system(at) ically from their responsibilities? And is it not the art of the art-game to break the game-generated rules? This brings us to the end of our sketched cybernetic-biological circle: beyond freedom the compulsion is waiting in the wings, or at best the control, understood as

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a negative feedback. The Internet platform Second Life (SL) can be used as a litmus test for the solution of such aesthetic-epistemic paradoxes although it has passed its zenith around 2006. Strictly speaking (at least from the gamer perspective), it is not a game. But in its entirety it is also not art. It is, of course, merchandise from the department ‘services’, merchandise in which the extensively monitored and controlled freedom of its residents is a “blessing and a curse at the same time.” According to Christian Stöcker, part of the various ‘experimental musings’ in SL, which keep crossing the border into art and actionism is also the dream of a self-replicating, violence-free consumption critique. (Stöcker 2007, pp. 136, 82) An example of two artist avatars Amy and Slikerone planning a controlled virtual rat plague in a worldwide virtual department store illustrated Stöcker’s point quite well. Prolegomena to any future aesthetics of capitalism must consider the relationship between the ‘playful’ globalized art and culture production and its consummation. Julian Stalabrass provided recently an apparently dystopic vision, but indeed accurate retroanalytical explanation (cf. Stalabrass 2006). Florian Rötzer explored a decade earlier this relationship with a rather moderate view given the interactive, computer-supported and networked media. He named the gaming society as ‘ultimately cruel’, even though it might spread a lot of fun and commitment. It purports, according to Rötzer, “a chance equality, seemingly or not, as usual in games”, as if everything were possible. “However, the game rules are often unknown like in an adventure game” (Rötzer 1998, p. 77)3 or when attempting to dive into a new culture. This ‘unknownness’ of the game rules, of their sometimes arbitrary character, can be regarded as a negatively expressed characteristic of the unpredictability of which appears to be one of the most precious treasures in art. The diagnosis appears ‘lud(d)istic’ in a twofold manner, because a critique of the ‘gaming’ society under production and reception conditions of capitalism evokes ‘Luddism’ of the 19th century. This is a movement that managed to cause a grand confusion of cause and effect and rushed threatened workers not to unscrupulous large-scale manufacturers, but on the machines they put to use. “The games come in their growing complexity closer to life in a confusing environment and in contrast to the mass-medial range of products they can pull people out of their passivity in order to adjust them even better to the rhythm of machines.” (Rötzer 1998, p. 81)4 The ‘Luddites’ and ‘Luddism’ by Ned Ludd remained for a long time familiar in the context of symbolism. An insistent, rather Bakunjian description of the sentiment of the roaring twenties in Russia coming from the lengthy quotation:

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“Science is a history adjusted fearfully to the taste of time. The minology is spiritless and vapid […]. The recent results of science allow us just like their most stable, most founded laws to prove the incapability of the attempt of a reasonable explanation of the universe, to show the basic error of all abstract concepts, to classify metaphysics into the folklore museum of races and to ban any world view a priori […] In this obvious unorder a form of human society is established forcing the tumult. It works, it creates. It works with stock market crash and boom, it revalues everything. It has understood to emerge out of coincidences. No classic theory, no abstract concept, but an ideology could have foreseen this society. It is a colossal power, which surrounds the entire world today, which forms and kneads. It is the big modern capitalistic-shaped industry [...]. The intellectuals are still not clear about it, the philosophers know about nothing, the patricians and petty bourgeois live way too much following a pattern in order to notice and the artists are outsiders. Only the army of workers has experiences the creation of new life forms day by day, has worked on their exploitation, has contributed to its distribution, has adjusted itself immediately, has taken its place, has taken the controls in tits hands and has brought these new 5 side and the categories of time and space.” (Cendrars year, pp. 72, 137, 178, 180) Cendrars’ fascination with the untamed emotion and the machine points to an inextricable connection between Homo Faber and Homo Ludens, which has That is, a coexistence of the interest for economy and culture could be noticed just as the title of this essay expresses. The above quoted Caillois, who was even closer to Surrealism, orientated himself in exchange with Georges Bataille towards a socially-shaped cultural turn, which also shaped accordingly his interest in games. simulative character and its open cycle, pointed to the later so-called Ludology (or Game Studies6). Its debate against the semiotically and later poststructuralist expanded narratology (Lévi-Strauss, Barthes, Jakobson) reproduced the antagonisms, which too have been the inspiration for the cultural turn. The media-related discussion about dialectics of ‘interaction’ and ‘narration’ computer games and media art must also be considered if culture as capital in today’s media democracy is to be made comprehensible for art and cultural studies. Florian Rötzer has described the outlines of the ludistic-gaming society in the age of computers, the ‘roaring nineties’, with a recourse critical towards the rising cultural studies and to the Dutch Johan Huizinga who “has interpreted the game solely as a cultural factor” and with an allegation for its anthropocentric

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bias. Huizinga, namely, takes the easy path “in his culturally-conservative gesture, when he opposes the ‘ethical consciousness’ and the modern “agony of moral value measures.” The euphemistic equation of game and life lies in the promise that “upon starting the game a equality of opportunities exists for the players and that the rules may not be arbitrarily changed.” Rötzer emphasized, like Caillois, and as a reply to Huizinga, the aleatoric element designates playing as “an attempt to make the best out of the coincidence and to face it”, praising the unpredictability and its depth. (Rötzer 1995, pp.172, 173, 177, 184)7 The acceptance of games in general and in particular video and computer games as “socialization agents” (Schindler in Schwarz 1997, p. 51) can be applied in the context of unpredictability to the ascertainment of the social role of art, deby Caillois and others. Friedrich Schiller described the aesthetic freedom of the laws cannot be mistaken for restraints. The existential and cosmic dimensions of the game were presented by Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, and, for instance, by the game as a balance vis-à-vis, the destructive instinct under the condition of its non historical ascertainment of game concepts and learned processes. This is both in the area of process art (cf. Kacunko life’ category, like those of the popular video or computer games. For Frank Furtwängler’s analysis of computer games in the style of integration of their ‘narrative’ and ‘interactive’ features, interactivity’ as a “controlling, manipulating action of the acting system, including a feedback related to it.” (Furtwängler 2001, p. 375)8 Just like ‘interaction’, ‘realtime’ appears to be regarding the artistic and non-artistic game concepts no longer as a means, but a goal, a target term. Ernesto Grassi gave a respective interpretation of the game aiming at the present: “When playing the time of the everyday life is reversed in its continuity and the same hour obtains a new rhythm: thanks to the suspense of their expectations, the ‘present’ so far changes for the player and the observer […] the game is,

[…]. As long as the game is running, the change is dominating and in a cycle of ups and downs the possibilities for human actions appear like in a concave mirror”. (Grassi 1990, p. 108)9

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The appeal to the game term in art and culture theories serves the purpose of naming one of the most important areas of social at the same time, which is to the same extent interesting for art history and for visual culture. The game in its function as ‘the other’, of the (both big and small) narrative refers simultaneously to the work, which can rise in an Either-Or between ‘production’ and ‘consumption / reception’. Art history does not aim its interest exclusively at the production of the so-called exceptional artifacts just as the visual the so-called everyday life. The rebellion mentality, addressed in the Second Life resolutions, presumptions as well as research results. One can suspect that such a visual culture studies like in the proletarian-communistic revolution utopia of the dialectic materialism. And yet both certainly offer an unequal image as a potential explanatory model for the artistic and cultural (re-) production and consumption. Walter Benjamin cemented the law of supply and demand in one of the most memorable sentences of his famous and hopelessly over quoted artwork essay: “One of the foremost tasks of art has always been the creation of a demand which .” (Benjamin 1936)10 Not only the cultural logic of art but also advertisement, religion and the capitalist production and consumption ligion’, ‘capitalism’ or also ‘image.’ This is in the sense of visual representation in order to recognize the range of the Benjamian cultural paradigm shift from econand Caillois.11 In any case, the merchandise production here remains replaced by a reception-technical perspective of culture production. Despite the emancipatory effect of this turn, the one-sidedness of the Marxists focus on the work remains unsolved dialectically by the adding, for instance, another reception-technical element of the production-technical element of work. solved issues of cultural (self-)reception and the cultural ecology by neglecting the political-economical context. Primarily the historically-materialistic and dialectic access radically rejected by Foucault and Deleuze obtained its disciplinary form in the cultural studies sketched in its essential contours by Stuart Hall. The latter opted for a paradox strategy of ‘exposure’ from cultural substructures of the western societies by simultaneously not applying the same criteria to its own cultural practices. This void of in ovo and reproduced thus, has

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the same methodical inadmissibility and ideological characteristics, which characterized Trotskyits Marxism. Therefore, the Birmingham School of visual culture, reproduced from the onset of a paradoxical situation, in which its own self-concept of the cultural studies belonging to the political left-wing “[…] was understood as a major ally in the assault on conventional art history that the New Left launched in Britain.“ Hemingway pointed out political factors “that increasingly debilitated Cultural Studies as a critical practice also compromise Visual Culture Studies, and to an even greater degree […] the rise of consumerism and mediatic forms of mass entertainment were having corrosive effects on the communal and class conscious aspects of working-class culture.” (Hemingway 2008, pp. 11–12) What appears paradoxical about the historical genealogy of the visual cultural studies is its certain heterotopic position of ‘middle-class Marxism’ and thus its continuously presiding moment within the tremendous reforms of the welfare .

neo-liberalism and neo-nationalism since the late 1970s, while critical art history has been increasingly marginalized. The construed and generalized concept of the enemy, the art history, has meanwhile shifted both the cultural and economical critical art historians feel exposed absurdly to culturally political right. It was stated, “almost from the outset, cultural studies was understood as a major ally in the assault on conventional art history that the New Left launched in Britain.” (ibidem) However, the New Left has experienced a national turn and right-turn in the meantime, while this art history, which did not belong to the Left earlier, moved itself cautiously to the left. This brought about, as implied, a seemingly paradoxical situation for some art historians, who had to fend off cultural studies attacks (and that of the ‘tamed postmodernism’) from the right. At the core of the paradoxes of today’s complicated situation of art history and visual culture, is the common neglecting in both camps of work and game as two paradigms, of what I would like to name aesthetics of capitalism. Both paradigms of this aesthetics – work and game – are based on two principles: using Weber the ‘puritan’ feelings of logics of frugality and abstinence (which go back to the scholastic Occam’s Razor) and the logics of accumulation and extravagance referred to as ‘catholic’. In such a synopsis not only the institutional, curricular and term-historical imponderableness between art history and the visual cultural studies could be resolved, but it also opens the perspective to much deeper layers of the cultural and economic battle, to the bottom of which are those cognitive interests. In the sense of a prolegomenon of a future systematization and historization of the aesthetics of capitalism, some distinctive and prominent examples of the artistic

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and theoretical ‘resistance’ will be introduced in the following section with the purpose of a critical and self-critical handling of the ‘impasse’ between critical theory and cultural studies as described by Dave Beech and John Roberts. This is a battle of two ‘resistance’ options, whereby the globalizing capital is left aside.12 Since the mirror in its seemingly paradoxical function as an asemiotic sign (Foucault, Eco, cf. Ch. 6.2) seems to not suit well as an agent for the ‘signifying practices’ in cultural studies representation (cf. Evans & Hall 1999), the question ed of today’s electronic selfwe all dealing with something, which belongs, but is not really accepted as a culture? The Vanity as formal mortal sin perpetuates, hence, both its general and everyday reality is raised in a play between the Theatrum Sacrum and Theatrum Profanum revealing itself as a social game. In the early 1990s, Vilém Flusser pointed out how social theories start to give way to game theories; no longer understood as social phenomena, the societies in turn were seen as game types. This radical shift would explain, for example, the demise of Marxism and the fondness for the free market as a game of supply and homo ludens from the perspective of ‘game competence’, referring to the implied dialectic correlation between production and consumption. “The question about the competence and incompetence of the art consumer and art critic is bound to the question about the competence and incompetence of the art producer” and it is described as an intertwined “feedback relation”. (Flusser 1993, p. 113) Flusser was aware in principle game theory could quantify aesthetic pheof the visual culture studies, which advocate clearly that “ ture needs to be separated out from questions of quality”. (Rampley 2005a, p. 10) This position is a clear agency of the neo-liberal view. With a wonderful sarcasm, Flusser summed up the populist potential of such (also cultural studies related) The individual artists need not fear for now that one could work out how incompetent they are […] and yet the word is out that art is a kind of game.” (Flusser 1993, p. 114) But what kind of game was Flusser referring to? Maybe he was referring to the quoted turbo-capitalist game for well-off adults? In my opinion, an implicit statement of art as a special case of game theo-

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Supporting this can be seen in the accelerated production of ‘artists’ as outsiders and their physical settlement in ‘heterotopical’ and ‘heterochronical’ entities. The almost gap-free space-time between Copenhagen and Berlin is a good example for this centrifugal movement, of the globalizing capital in the context of the social structure reforms that have already taken place and are increasingly institutionalized. The forced ‘cultural entrepreneurship’ is now one of its most obvious symptoms.13 How do we deal with these crucial questions without access to the method of the pre-2008-time-stock market-gambling? This brings us to a methodological question, dealing with the ‘mass media’ and the ‘popular’.

8.2 Mirroring the mass-mediation: the democratisation of photography In James Elkins’ critical review on characteristics of visual cultural studies a decade ago, he stated “the most interpretive work is typically a very conservative kind of iconography derived from Panofsky.” (Elkins 2003, p. 105) The purpose of this section is not to trace a trail from Panofsky to Barthes and to another semioticand language-driven abstraction, which now represent the methodological canon of the visual cultural studies. Instead, I wish to address their interest toward a social critique of current image-making practices (cf. Sturken & Cartwright 2001) in the light of an early discerned The lack of connection between one’s own consumer’s view and the production’s view. These are disadvantages, which have led to an implicit canonization (and explicit neo-liberal instrumentalization) of ‘cultural products’, to which the explicit, narrowed canon of theories of the ‘founding fathers’ of the visual cultural studies seemed to be applied at best. This can be traced back, as already noted several times by various authors (cf. Ch. 6., note 2.), to a multiple lack of interest (1) in the media appreciation. Coupled with an also (4) programmatic interest in the theoretically and (5) the ‘popular’, following conclusion can be drawn: The horizon of the visual cultural studies has been constituted unfortunately through setting clear boundaries to its potential interdisciplinary relationships to art history, to philosophical aesthetics and to critical theory as well as to the ‘undisciplined’ studies of art and culture including artistic practices. Thus, turning an implicit and deep content cultural studies against the rest of

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in the middle of the eighteen century. (Heywood & Sandywell 1999, Sturken & Cartwright 2001, Mirzoeff 2002; cf. Elkins 2003, p. 17) Therefore, I would like to focus on at least a couple of central moments from the early genealogy of photography in order to show the advantages of an interdisciplinary and integrative perspective using particularly the example of this key medium of visual cultural studies (in spite of the latter’s methodological ideal of abandoning the discussion about the meta-medium of vision and visuality was revealed in a particularly distinctive way in the late 1930 when mirrors ‘with memory’ entered the arena of art, culture and media history – TV and video magnetoscope. When the for storage of mirror-mediated light values a century earlier, enthusiasm for the stored mirror cal way. The chemistry pushed the mechanics and optics into the background. In the consciousness of the protagonists, the audience and the critics, the genuine medial characteristics of the still indispensable mirror were mostly present metaphorically. The change in focus from the optical transmission to the mechanically-chemical storage caused a paradigm shift, whose sustainability only few medial ‘revolutions’ could be put a stop to. The mirror played in this process of ‘mass medialization’ of the medium photography, the role of a meta-medium. Thus, acted in several ways as a model for the cultural re-orientation from plastic-performative transmission media to two-dimensional-pictorial storage media. This process did not only bring drastic consequences for the area of art and science: Humans saw themselves and the world only in a picture as a picture and tural turn to picture, the modern history of the meta-medium mirror happened. The step from Camera Obscura to continuity line, 72.) Jonathan Crary recognized in the late 18th and early 19th century an aspect a new positioning of the benchmarks of inside/outside, which still postulated the Camera Obscura in an difference between the inner sensations and the outer signs is irrevocably blurred.” (Crary 1996, p. 35)14 The ‘liberation’ of the ‘sight’ and the ‘observer’ through the detachment from the Camera Obscura could be reseamless

Camera Obscura as a draw-

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Figure 72: Schematically shown operation difference between the Camera Obscura (above, with intersecting lines of light) and the mirror (below). From Eco 1988, p. 32

Crary saw the particularity of Camera Obscura in “its plural identity, in its‚ mixed ‘status as a cognitively-theoretical metaphor within a discursive order and as an object within a system of cultural practices.” (Crary 1996, p. 42)15 He referred to it as a “fabric” simultaneous with the observer and inseparable from him. These plural identity” characterized Camera Obscura. Secondly, the subject-object “fabric” describes a barely reproducible or ty of seeing. Also with a temporary-kinetic Benjamean perception, which allegedly disbanded the contemplative observer of the modern era, Crary describes the genuine, non-graspable nature of the

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To me, the shift of the Camera Obscura towards a ‘cognitive-theoretical metof the catoptric fabric of the “moved observer” (Hünnekens 1997) demanded by Crary and metaphorisizes it (the ing’ of guests in the Galerie des Glaces in Versailles and Baudelaire’s anonymous strolling in Paris as well as the visitors’ spiralled rambling through the mirror dome by Lord Norman Robert Foster in Berlin’s Reichstag remains ultimately gradual in media-theoretical sense). Freud and Marx understood the Camera Obscura as “an epitome of all procedures and forces, which hide, distort and feign”16 the truth, so testifying how hard the relative picture faith [Bildgläubigkeit] of both quoted authors tolerated their relative mirror aversion just as hard as their basic theories can be merged into a late ‘freudo-marxist’ school of thought. Furthermore, Crary’s talk of the paradigmatic observer, ‘captivated’ by Camera Obscura and liberating himself is similar to the Kantean blind alley of the abstract sensus communis showing a new ‘taste discussion’, which should be continued by renouncing the ‘taste science’ of the philosophical aesthetics (thereby leaving only the ‘beautiful’ side of it while supporting the viral one named ‘sublime’). One of Jonathan Crary’s initial hypotheses was “a broader and considerably more important change had happened in the structure of seeing” (16)17 at the beginning of the 19th century than the other that emerged with the development of photography after 1839 and with painting of the 1870s and 1880s. One cannot argue methodologically against his objection that one should consider much more a history of seeing than just the changes of representation forms. However, his explanation patterns can be argued against: Following Foucault, Crary retro-projected a progressing ‘emancipation’ of the observer in the late 18th and early 19th century, which was on the point of disbanding the ‘disciplination’ of seeing introduced by the Camera Obscura. Also following Foucault, he regarded a main problem as the alleged ‘disembodiment’ of the visual perception, which the Camera Obscura brought since the late 16th century. (51) Paraphrasing Carl Gustav Jung, the Camera Obscura has initiated an “individuation process” (49), a ‘monadization’, ‘isolation’ and ‘privatization’ of the observer; the Camera Obscura has been responsible for the Cartesian division of res cogitans and res extensa. The analogy between the eye and the Camera Obscura from La dioptrique (1637) by Descartes is accordingly “absolutely conventional”, because the “paradigm of the Camera Obscura gives indeed a priority to seeing; after all, this seeing is a priori at the service of a non-sensual faculty of thought, which alone generates a true concept about the world.” (41)18 What is bothersome about this interpretation is primarily a reductionist procedure leading to overestimation of

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the concept of Camera Obscura, which is then hypostasized as a ‘paradigm’. Seeing as an allegedly privileged form of ‘insight’ was to become, according to Crary, an object of observation and of interest for science when Kant and Schopenhauer were active. The modern research of light mechanics and the optical transmission was ‘internalized’ at the beginning of the 19th century in favour of “the psychology of the human subject.” (78) By identifying the medial transmission with the alleged “timeless alignment of the Camera Obscura” (78), the achievement of the underlying, mirror-mediated live transmission has remained ignored. The focus of the research should be instead shifted to another ‘apparatus’, to the “unstable physiology and transcience of the human body”. (78)19 seeing model of the Camera Obscura” (82) that is, the mentioned hypostatizing of the (medial) device into a structural model – with the allegedly passive recipient of sensory impressions applied just as little to the 17th century as it did to Schoppenhauer’s time. In the middle of the 17th century there was, namely, portable Camerae Obscurae with one or several so-called collight rays simultaneously on variously distant objects. This meant a manipulation, which clearly argued against the hypothesis of the physically or mentally ‘immobilized’ 2D artist or observer. The view, but it also enabled optical and catoptrical effects, which would not have been

The conveyed ‘irregularities’ with the Camera Obscura encouraged ‘active’ both to the diffusion of the distant highlights and because objects are presented smaller, but not less coloured in the Camera Obscura. The air perspective is, for example, minimized, because the colour strength as well as the extent of light, That is why colour accents and light contrasts appear overreached in comparison to natural seeing.” (Wheelock 1992, p. 96)20 in the 18th century big masters of the Camera Obscura like vedute painters from Venice, Canaletto and Guardi, to rise to the matching artistic challenges. A. K. Wheelock explained plausibly how Vermeer has “ case” the effects of the Camera Obscura “in a free creative way.” [ frei gestalterisch]. Accordingly, “ Camera Obscura on Vermeer’s work must […] not be overrated”, because he neither “retraced slavishly”, nor did he “paint copies in a dark room.” The Camera Obscura has been “solely a technical aid

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for the fuller perception of light and the colours of the world.” (Wheelock 1992, p. 96)21 As the French art historian Etienne-Joseph-Theophile Thore (1807–1869) rediscovered Vermeer three years before his death, Vermeer’s rediscovery was also due to the increased sensibility for optical and catoptrical effects happening beyond the alleged photographic ‘correctness’. Crary’s reductionist explanation tion and therefore the instrumentalization of the latter for its all-future ‘purposes’. Over a century later another French art historian, Daniel Arasse (1944–2003), pointed to the limits of the ‘positivist’ explanation regarding the application of Camera Obscura. Vermeer wanted, representatively for some other artists and scientists to put his pictures and concepts in relation with prestige, which the Camera Obscura was at that time. (Arasse 1996, p. 141) The suggested methodological boundaries and the environment of the Craryan pattern explanation appear more clear if one considers the competition of diverse ‘philosophical tools’ and other optically-kin(asth)etical attractions. The frequent mirror application appeared behind the targeted picture spectacle effects: But this implied by no means a paradigmatic degradation suggested by Crary and a neglect of the Camera Obscura (and the mirror as an instrumental meta medium of vision). Daguerrotype’s history of formation and reception offers a series of illustrious proofs on this. A short recall of the decisive path from daguerreotype to photography should serve the purpose of recalling the mirror’s important role in the related part of the media history. The painter and stage designer, Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre (1787–1851), opened a Diorama in the Rue Sanson in Paris in 1822 together with his paintCamera Obscura the master of the pictorial Trompe-l’oeil effects created illusions, in which not only historical and other scenes were almost ‘photorealistically’ demonstrated like in a panorama (Oettermann 1980; cf. Grau 2001 & 2003): Thanks to the complicated lighting methods on the transparently painted canvas, for instance, the change of day times and other transitory phenomena were simulated. (Peters 1979: 17/18) The early experiments with light-sensitive chemicals (silver salts) by Thomas Wedgwood (1771–1805) (Coe 1986, pp. 10–13), around 1800 followed other groundbreaking analyses of the ‘mass-medial’ potential of the ‘automatic’ Camera Obscura. The experiments were performed at the same time and partly completely independent from each other by Daguerre, Henry Fox Talbot (1800–1877, Kalotype), Joseph Nicephore Niepce (1765–1833, Heliograph) and Hippolyte Bayard (1801–1887, direct positive procedure) as well as by Herschel, Steinheil, Kobell and other ‘co-inventors’. (Billeter 1977, p. 257) However, Daguerre managed, even though only for a relatively short time, to ex-

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Figure 73: Daguerréotype-elements [http://www.photohistory-sussex.co.uk/DAGapparatus.jpg]

ploit commercially his invention, the daguerreotype, which is regarded up to today as the “ ” for it. (cf. Coe 1986, pp. 16–21 and Kacunko 2010, p. 415) The title of Richard Rudisill’s standard work about daguerreotype, The Mirror Image,, gave a simple and yet a matching description of the daguerreotype.

common salt solution quickened the daguerreotype’s light. What makes the daguerreotype to a modern ‘mirror image’ par excellence is not only the medial transposition of the Camera Obscura’s ‘recording’ (step 3) on the material medium, but, above all, the medium itself. remained the material pre-condition of the daguerreotype, which appeared right afverted (‘mirror-inverted’) image was recognized as such only because the mirror plate which could be viewed only after a certain angle revealed the silver layer blackened on it as an image. The ‘black-and-white’ of the daguerreotype should therefore be referred to as ‘mirror white’. While the dark parts of the copy were represented through the mirroring silver, the light parts appeared through a milkywhite layer. If one changed the viewing angle, depending on whether and how light image.

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It was not only this direct evidence, which relieved the contemporary observers to regard the daguerreotype in the context of the obviously still not forgotten art and culturally historical media history of the mirror. There were several reasons that led to this comparison between mirror and daguerreotype and its invasion of the human consciousness. The ‘inconvenience’ of the daguerreotype’s observation due to the need to look at the success of the later procedure. Despite its brilliance with tone-saturated depth, the faithful textural reproduction and the tenderness of half-tones (Dewitz & Kempe 1983, p. 11), which stood head and shoulders particularly above the paper photography, the daguerreotype failed because of its own reproduction-technical inimitableness. The ‘detour through the paper negative’ introduced by Fox Talbot brought about the medial and cost-technical advantage of reproduction. The ‘image addicresults of artistic mirror experiments into the background and put them into image production and observation machines. Along with the cultural storage techniques of image, writing, and numbering, the mirroring or cultural technique’ or method of transmission, which joined the three, caused plenty of misunderstandings after becoming more ‘visible’. The later visual art and photo theories laid the mirror-transmitted conditions of development and continuation of analogous photography underneath thick and dusted allowed for a metaphorization of the photographic procedure, which became later a basis for some of the alleged “media-immanent consideration of photography”. (Kemp, W 1980, p. 25) This was from the same sides that abandoned discussion about post-modern and ‘cultural’ focus. The naming was a ‘metaphorical misunderstanding’, clearly expressed in the title of an earlier work by Henry Fox Talbot, The Pencil of Nature. (Talbot 1844; cf. Batchen 2004 & 2006) Even the greatest proponent of the daguerreotype, Jules Janin, who described precisely the manifold mirror-conditioned nature of the procedure, slid into methaporics in his enthusiasm when describing the daguerreotype as a “graphic in the hand of all people”, as a “pencil, which obeys just like the intellect.” At the same time it is “ 22 faithful memory Philip Hamerton recognized in 1862 the alleged medial ‘predestination’ of the later photography in its function as a storage technology of graphic reproduction: “The general opinion tends to regard photography as perfect as a mirror image with just a lack of colour […]. Photography is the blackening and decomposition of a salt through some sun rays. It is ‘a drawing through light’, the etymologist

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says […]. I beg your pardon, but it is not a drawing through light and the word photography is a false denomination: if a photography were really drawn through light rays, then it would be much more true to the original than it is.” (Hamerton 1862, quoted after Kemp 1980, p. 143.)23 The ‘cultural technique’ of photography was conceived only partially as a storage medium and later described as a component of the history of the ‘mass media’ of print reproduction. The predestination and the essential component of the former, the mirror, (as a transmission medium or the meta medium of all viwhile the photography became mostly subject to stories of optical curiosities and language metaphors. In the sense of the the precise observations led to the desired results both in the camp of the cultural studies and in those of the art history. (cf. Kemp 1980, p. 26)24 But the material carrier of the medium daguerreotype is not the copper plate, but the smoothly polished copper plate, that is, the copper mirror and it is precisely what makes the mirror a meta-medium of the medium daguerreotype unlike the medium of photography. This is what accounts for the observed ‘peculiar discrepancy’ between daguerreotype and photography together with the difference in the mass reproduction. However, this ‘speculative’ difference must not be projected on its history of cause from the perspective of photography and its history of effect, because the photography as a graphical medium is then seen only in the prism of its medial law of numbers and the mass reproduction. Just like the camcorder later united the three functions of recording, transmission and storage of images, sounds and motion sequences, the photographic apparatus united in one box the optically-catoptric, mechanical and chemical mechanisms for recording, transmission and storage of light trails. In both cases, the later dominating ‘cultural technique’ of storage shaped not only the ‘popular’ usage and consumer behaviour but also the behaviour of historians and theorists.25 Hence, one perceives the mirror as meta-medium of visual transmission distracting when observing performativity turned into an image. All in all, the daguerreotype ultimately failed because of its ‘mass’-media and reproduction-technical incompatibility (unique character and the limitation in coarsening) and because of its consumption-technical inadequacies (’inconvenience’ of observation through of the fragility of its medium. The triumphant advance of photography as a medium of cancellation and manipulation of sizes and relations, as well as of representation and phantasm, at the same time caused changes to the term art and artist as well as to the style history

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of visual arts in the 19th century. The production and observation procedures that helped the photography rise as an art genre and massdaguerreotype. They shaped and conditioned the ‘mass taste’ not only in Paris and London, but also in Hamburg, Munich, Berlin and Copenhagen. There was indeed a seeming contradiction between the process-oriented 19th century, which was focused on communication and transmission, and its “evidence paradigm” (Kemp 1980, p. 33), its passion for securing of evidence and storage of all kinds. In the area of storage and transmission of visual material, the elaborate, but fast wet plate process (collodion process) by Frederick Scott Archer (1813– 1857) created a production and consumption technical boom. One of the most distinctive manifestations of ‘mass medialization’ happened with Paris-based photographer Andre Adolphe Disderi’s (1819–1890) invention of the Carte-de-visite photography. In the early 1870s, Richard Leach Maddox (1816–1902) developed the dry procedure, followed by further steps of the machine-aided development photography. On the other hand, the latter led to chronophotography (high-speed photography) and to simulations of synesthesia (silent movie, 1895). At the same time, an unparalleled aesthetically-artistic development took place accompanied by a successive style change in the second half of the 19th century. (cf. Dewitz & Kempe 1983, Peters 1979, Scharf 1968, Scheid 2000 and Kacunko 2010 – Ch. 18. & 19.) Both historically and present day unwritten medial laws require media, in the early phase of their development, to put their ‘immanent’ features into the daguerreotype fell prey to the reproduction power of photography. Also these medial laws wish to penetrate all content-related areas of life (into the so-called ‘daily life’) and the universe, which were out of reach for the medial predecessors. The 1840s and 50s caused an unparalleled removal of taboos in its form and its range with the erotic and pornographic daguerreotypes, i.e., stereodaguerreotypes. This removal of taboos found its equivalent in the realism and impressionism. (cf. Kacunko 2010, pp. 471–492.) A debate followed on principles for and against photography, whose proponents (Wey, Delaroche, Frith, Laborde, Holmes, Claudet, Reulbach, Southworth, Emerson, Davison, Gale, Poe etc.) and opposers (Nietzsche, Kolloff, Topffer, Baudelaire, Campbell, de Sainte-Santin, Thausing) also discussed important individual problems in a more or less sophisticated manner, such as the subject of sharpness vs. sharpness less, art ideal vs. nature ideal, retouche-usage and many others. The disturbing (self-) tif in a daguerreotype is to be assessed not more and not less than a normal case,

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when the image, writing and numbers). For the art historian Thausing the “disturbing the daguerreotype was allegedly a serious point of criticism. A century later, the art historian Wolfgang Kemp characterized the 1970s and 1980s with a reference to the “mass studio photography” also as “a particularly unpleasant time in the history of photography”. (Kemp 1980, p. 159) In this context, one must regard, above all, the aesthetical or taste-technical argument as ‘unpleasant’, which did not comply with the retouch and the so-called composit photography. A good example is the allegory The Two Ways of Life and photographed by Oscar Gustave Rejlander (1813–875), a photographer and failed painter (as many of his colleagues). The theoretical, allegedly ‘mass-medial immanence’ of photography found thus its master in an elitary taste, which remained an art-historical taboo for the sake of the academic discipline just like the mass-medium mirror. Interestingly, W. Kemp illustrated the fragmentary continuity of the photography with the words “gross counter-example” of “the history of aesthetics” or of the history of taste. (Kemp 1980, p. 42) One needs to ask, however, what would remain from the dia immanent’ of the artistically used media at the same time the ‘taste immanent’ of artistic decisions and the verdicts were taboo. A programmatic and later tolerated demarcation from aesthetics and media studies brought about exactly such an inadmissible tabooing. A similar approach could be also observed later in the context of the Cultural Turn. Meanwhile it is typical to see the fate of early artistic usage of media accompanied by a strongly expressed need to talk, by propaganda, by pornography and by excess. This was also in the case regarding printing and later video as well as the Internet, just like it was in the 19th century for the media daguerreotype and photography and for the visual meta-medium, the mirror, which could unfold in its usage as a ‘war machine’ both in real and mythological Venus etc.). These were throughout the millennia, characteristically, visual as well as a hidden diversity of applications and functions in art, culture and science. Those who determined the ‘designation’ of photography as ‘mass-medium’ medium of the daguerreotype only as its seemingly ‘pre-established’ pre-stage, were either bedazzled by the respective time or were motivated by their own agenda. In both cases their view for the visual meta-medium, mirror, residing in the in-between of the visual and at an early stage of the resistance of the culturally-conservative elite vis-a-vis the

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medial effects of the capitalist production methods. The later postmodern taste for veiling and un-veiling was anticipated in a pre-Raphaelitan manner and pre-protaste tending towards – we would certainly say today – kitsch. This occurred due to the fascination of effects that impeded a cognitive interest in the causes and hence created way for the already initiated aesthetics of capitalism, shinning through as Realism and Impressionism of the alliance of photography and painting between the pre-Raphaelits’ moralization and the Symbolists’ amoralization. The taste for symbolistic intoxication and masking, to which Caillois opposed as illinx-mimikry the agon-alea couple in a game-interrelation, matches the example of the Swedish painter and photographer just like it matches the symbolistic streaming’s of the late Victorian age. Both display structural similarity to the postmodern taste of veiling and unveiling, which Benjamin expressed in his description of the tension between the artwork’s cult value and its exhibition value: “Works of art are received and valued on different planes. Two polar types stand out; with one, the accent is on the cult value; with the other, on the exhibition value of the work.” (Benjamin 1936, section V.) Writing under the impression of the modernist ‘mass-medialization’, Benjamin accounted for the later uncritical usage of the term “mass” by a part of the media studies and the biggest part of the cultural studies.26 Some years after Benjamin, Nikolaus Pevsner described the same ‘mass-medialthe “world’s workshop and paradise of a successful bourgeoisie” (the description which wonderfully covers the Marx-quote from the beginning of this article): “The economists and philosophers were blind enough to justify ideologically the criminal attitude of the employers. Liberalism dominated the philosophy as well as the industry in an uncontrolled manner giving the industrialist complete freedom in the production of the shoddiest and ugliest things, if he managed to get rid of them.” (Pevsner 2002, pp. 29–30)27 The consequences were temples of secularization and the sacralization of daily life. The industry, described by contemporaries as “a modern deity, which wants to build its temple on the ruins of old temples” (Koloff 1839, pp. 401–3), brought with the Crystal Palace in London a large-scale ‘temple’ of commercial culture, which would be imitated in a smaller form in 1853/54 with the Glass Palace in Munich and which was followed by other ‘industry exhibition buildings’ in whole Europe. (cf. Hitchcock 1994, Ch. 7.) The receiver of the notorious composite photography by Oskar Rejlander, Prince Albert, saw the Crystal Palace as the longed for symbol and “monument of industry capitalism.” (Haubl 1991, p. 821)

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About four times the size of St Peter’s Basilica in Rome, this temple of secularization conveyed not only the message of free trade and division of labour but also it represented an attempt for aesthetic modernization. Pevsner gave exquisite descriptions of the exhibited “bulky” tapestries and trivial drafts for silk scarfs and, above all, the reasons for this “artistic breakdown”. He understood this not only in the form (the triviality in detail) and technology (the industrial production), but also in the gradual change in the European thought since the Reformation as well as in the gradual change of social ideals. (Pevsner 2002, pp. 31–33) This “age of revolutions” 1776–1914 (cf. Kemp 2003, Ch. 4.), however, trig-

be best analyzed in (shopping) arcades, the “hall of mirrors of Flannery.” (Haubl 1991, p. 794) The arcade belonged to the ‘interspaces’ observed by Walter Benjamin, Michel Foucault (‘heterotopia’) and also Margaret Morse (‘virtualities’; cf. Morse 1998, esp. Ch. 1., pp. 3–35.), whose history of development is to be regarded as inseparable from the mirror’s history of development. During the Second Empire, the new insurance industry for mirror breaks proentire streets. (Melchior-Bonnet 2002 [1994], p. 97; cf. Steckel 1890) The allotment of bigger estates taken from the church and the aristocracy led to the creation of smaller and relatively expensive effective surfaces. This secured high returns for the housing speculators, which had to be used intensively. In order to raise the turnover, all required measures for the stimulation of purchase had to be taken, such as the grand design of the ‘shopping paradises’ for the city residents. The art exhibition space was similar to what it was about to become, a department store with counters: “The purpose is to create a solid basis and a background for an object that is supposed to be seen and sold. So, the tendency is to let the audience participate in a familiar or desired ‘ambiental’ situation, so that it can ‘purchase’ it economically and mentally. The velvet on the walls, the big plants, the “artistic” pedestal as well as the grand and barock frame tended to elevate the exhibited objects into the sacral and precious”. (Celant 1982, vol. 2: XIX)28 In the quoted passage Germano Celant sees the beginning of ‘installation art’ genealogy that would shape art of the late 20th century like no other genre. The ‘rules of the installation’, still formed by the accumulation process, adapted gradually with their ‘quantitative method’ of the overshadowed art and wonder chambers, and the mirror and china cabinets of the 15–19th, to the challenges and functions of the metropolis.

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In 1837 S. F. Lehrs informed the readers of the German society magazine Europa. Chronik der gebildeten Welt (Europe. Chronicle of the educated world) that one could no longer take a single step in Paris after the July revolution in 1830 “without seeing his own self. Mirror to mirror! In cafés and restorations, in boutiques and warehouses, in Salons pour la coupe des cheveux and Salons litteraires, in bathrooms and everywhere, ‘every inch is a mirror’!”29 Benjamin too wrote later in his Passagen-Werk about Paris as the Second Empire (1852–1870): “Paris is the mirror city: asphalt as smooth as mirror on its streets, glass baricades in front of all bistros. An abudance of panes and mirrors in the cafés in order to make them brighter.”30 This was not only the case in Paris, but also in most of the European and non-European cities. It was the beginning of a process, which has continued almost without interruption until now. Like Paxton’s conservatories and exhibition palaces, the arcades belonged to the same type of interspaces, in which the borders between the inner and outer glass and mirror cladding. According to Benjamin, the mirrors belonged to the “most striking decoration elements” of the arcades not primarily because the illumination of the interior, but rather because of the “attentuation of the exterior”, that is, an ‘escapist’ moment: “An aspect of the ambiguity of the arcades: their abudance of mirrors, which fabulously expands the rooms and hinders the orientation.” (Benjamin 1983, p. 672)31 Flaneurs’ understanding did not free up a gaze on the medially and topical historical conditions of the arcades, brothels and other more or less mirrored rooms and ‘ most of the other Freudian terms are ultimately based on one aspect of the mirror history. This is either the ‘narcism’ or a ‘mirror interest’ turned into a metaphor of the ideal and individualized (Jungian) ‘self’. Emphasizing the “everyday life of the utopia in the advertisement” as a symptom of a “general semiotization of the metropolis”, the genuinely asemiotic and medial aspects of the mirror gets lost in the semiotization. Mirrors’ initial economically-caused and only in that way culall other contexts. One usually searched behind the mirrors. (Haubl 1991, p. 809)

8.3 Speculative difference revisited: Magic realism and rational symbolism The iconographically and hermeneutically characterized image interpretations relying on literary argumentation contributed to the psycho-analytically and cultural studies-shaped interpretation of the mirror subject. They led partly to the

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turning away from the versatility of material and medial opportunities of the mirror and to the sub complex understanding of the speculative difference (cf. Ch. 7). The shift in subject, particularly to the ‘gaze’, resulted from a turn away from the mirror, like with the latently or explicitly into the archive of literary-historical continuity of depersonalization results. This resulted in the transmission of a corresponding interpretation in painting too, which seemed to be particularly suitable for surreal image cultural studies founding fathers to surrealism is reason to provide prominent counter-examples of artists, who like Dalí or Giacometti, were mostly active outside the surrealistic Paris circle. Thus, I want to bring attention to another possible parallel narrative, which shifts between the art historical and culture studies camps. This is interesting for both camps and simultaneously offers alternatives in content and methodology for both of them. Frida Kahlo was certainly part of this parallel narrative in a versatile manner. of the great Mexican painter Diego Rivera, who acted as a representative of a socialistic propagated Realism as a counterpart to Pollock, the representative of a capitalistic propagated Abstraction. The relevant parallel narrative through the second-hand testimony of the fascinating personality of Frida Kahlo can also be told here, as Leo Trotzki’s lover. At the latest when she personally declined Breton’s dictatorially-propagated automatic Surrealism, she opened up an alternative perspective for many artists outside the art centres and outside the theoretical and ideological mainstream that dominated them. I would like to present here, above all, the example of the Belgian painter and preferred his own interpretation of the ‘magical’ aspects of the reality of everyday objects: As otherwise expected, his painting La reproduction interdite (1937–1939, or Portrait of Edward James) expounds the problems of the conventional relation between subject/object and the corresponding mirror 74.) The representation has a semantic shock effect because the phenomenon mirror represents (as a blank position of the visuality and interpreting seeing patterns) a cultural constant, which still reaches around and has dominated for centuries, a moment of repression. In the case of La reproduction interdite the reference to a quite concrete – fantastic – literature lies unlike in many other examples in the The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (1838) by Edgar Allan Poe, a passionate proponent of the daguerreotype and the early photography. However and irrespectively, whether this was Poe’s reference to a latent cannibalism of the shipwreck in his novel,

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Figure 74: Magritte (René François-Ghislain Magritte), La reproduction interdite (1937/39). Rotterdam, Museum Boymans – van Beuningen

the effectiveness of the painting must be allowed beyond the writer’s appeal to the later Symbolism and the even later related mindsets in art. It is precisely in opposition to the scattered contextual clichés that image owes its popularity to the evident and possibly simple turn of a ment of the potential voyeur.

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An existentialist “instruction for a self-exploration trip” (Haubl 1991, p. 482)32 in the quoted adventure novel. This instruction, however, does not comprise the catoptric-sculptural achievement of the artwork. Doubtlessly, it completes the iconography of the painting remaining an ingredient, which is ultimately exchangeable. The reason for the ledge because it becomes cognitively clear through the representation of the book and its mirror a long tradition of his famous Flemish predecessor of the 15th century with. The person who interprets applies here in the pursuit of “deepest meaning layers of the image” (Haubl 1991, pp. 563–4) recursively one’s own psycho-analytical “penetrated” mechanisms of projection to oneself. The explanation of the image title by Forbidden Reproduction (Schneede 1973, p. 107), which has also been labelled as “rarely uninspiring” (Haubl 1991, p. 487), certainly gives a further and, above all, also uninspiring metaphor-free reference: It is the ‘artfulness’ of the mirror, mostly regarded as a blank position of the visual and mostly overseen as a medium. What is forbidden about the reproduction is the violation of the culturally engrained, medial principles of the respective medium: the mirror as a meta-medium of visual transmission is capable in certain cases of much more, for instance, than Magritte shows us. The ‘popularity’ of his painting attracted artistic appropriation practices and thus a rise in research interest for the postmodern-inspired visual cultural studies. Some of the examples for artistic appropriation range from works in the area of photography (J. A. Deelder 1984), over video and computer (Alexander Hahn) to Magritte’s compatriot Stefan de Jaeger and his closed circuit video-installation La Mort de Narcisse (1979/1982). The closed circuit video installation Mirror (2000) of the Estonian artist Anu Juurak with the feedback-technical application of the electronical mirror can be taken as another comparative example as well and as representative for hundreds of pieces from the medial mirror-installations boom of the 90s. It becomes clear Magritte was critical towards a psycho-analytically shaped interpretation of his painting. Further proof can be found in the artist’s statements like his presented mirrors, the metaphorization, the literarization and, above all, the symbolization: “I do not believe in the unconscious and also not that the world presents itself to us as a dream, with the exception of sleep. I do not believe in the daydream. I also do not believe in imagination. It is arbitrary and I am in the pursuit of the truth and

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the truth is the mystery. Finally, I do not believe in ‘ideas’. If I had some, my pictures would be symbolic. But I assure you, they are not.” (Magritte 1985, p. 451)33 Another set of well-known examples should bring our retroanalytical (historical and methodological) considerations a step closer to the repressed options of Magical Realism and Rational Symbolism and not least to the present day’s significant theories and signifying practices. Let us continue with a mirror in our hands, which according to Eco (cf. Ch. 6.2) is an asemiotic object par excellence. While the art of the 1970s and 1980s fathomed with its means all consequences of the new ‘paradigm shift’ introduced by Foucault, the French philosopher and discourse analytic, it looked for an indirect option from the spatiotemporal aporias, which Velazquez had already used consciously with his Las Meniñas to reach the limit of the medium of painting.34 snapshot, the impression of a seemingly paradoxical ‘everyday theatrics’ in Las Meniñas (cf. Kacunko 2010, Ch. 12) must be related to an abusively overused text by Michel Foucault against the possibility of live video recording, available around 1966 and artistically applied by Jacques Polieri as well as by Marcial Raysee. This book documenta 10 in 1997 after its confusing interim ‘plunge’ under the title Other Spaces [Andere Räume current epoch as an epoch of the space, an epoch of the simultaneous, of the near and far, of coexistence and existence apart. (Foucault 1997, p. 262) He differentiates here two non-trivial space types, “which are related to all others and yet contradict all other placements.” (265) These are, on the one hand, utopia, the placements without a real place and, on the other hand, heterotopia, the actually realized utopia. In between there is a “sort of a mixed or median experience” (266), the mirror. The mirror is insofar both utopia and heterotopia, as it is “a place without a place”, that is, a utopia and at the same time existent, therefore, a heterotopia as well. Furthermore, Foucault distinguishes two sorts of heteretopia “bound to the storage of time” (270): the crisis heterotopia and the aberration heterotopia. Spaces belong to the latter, which individuals are placed, whose behaviour deviates from the norm: convalescent homes, psychiatric clinics, prisons, cemeteries, museums or libraries. Foucault opposes to all heterotopia bound to the storage of time those heterotopia, which, in contrast, are bound “to the most ephemeral, the most temporary, the most precarious of the time”, to the celebration. These are “no longer eternal, but absolutely chronic heterotopia.“ (Foucault 1997, p. 270.; cf. Kacunko 2010, p. 584.) Other Spaces tible for the culture studies contemplations of the 90s and remains relevant until today. This became very obvious for the global art audience during the documenta 10

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Figure 75: Diego Velázquez, Las Meniñas (1656). Madrid, Museo del Prado

1997: the head of the program, Catherine David (b. 1954) drew conclusions from the tive’ in the sense of a clear reference to the achievements of documenta 5. A discussion forum on the questions of art and society with scientists, writers and architects was an integral part of this ‘manifestation culturelle’ just like the Internet space Hybrid Workspace

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There were also two other decisions, which were particularly revealing for this mirror history. First, the concept planed an explicit departure from modernity in stead, a return to the historical vanguard (Futurism, Dada, Surrealism) took place, heterotopia-space concept by Foucault. While the architectural ‘utopia’ was ‘illustrated’ through examples of architectural and urban proposals by Aldo van Eyck or Rem Koolhas, the entire Kassel downtown was designated temporarily as a provisional ‘heterotopia’ by partly indiscernible addition of artistic installations. The mirror introduced as a ‘mediation element’ in Foucault’s text was applied in a large work complex by Michelangelo Pistoletto, who integrated the mirror into his own artistic work like no other. The second bold decision related to documenta 10, which stroke even more ex negativo referred to the abandonment of painting and also of traditional sculpturing. Apart of the omnipresent photography the medium video experienced, then over thirty years after the beginning of its usage in the art context, its deserved, although very late acceptance at an international level. Michelangelo Pistoletto must be indeed regarded as a ‘pioneer’ of the modern object and installation art with mirrors and realized cycles since the 50s. Pistoletto’s explicit decline of the reductionism in the narcissism theories are important and his simultaneous self-positioning within the art of modernity aside the over-potently developed duchampian. He described the Narcissus myth as a ‘prehistoric event’, which had nothing to do experience. The Narcissus myth represented a human exclusively controlled by instincts. For Pistoletto, the story’s beginning depicted the point of time when the human actually recognized his or her own image in the mirror and when the phenomenon of rationality was revealed, since “rationality allows the human, to transform the image of his own desire into a concrete form without drowning in it.” (Pistoletto 1982, p. 158.)35 This critique of the Lacan and other desire theories is joined by the critique of the Large Glass (1915–23) by M. Duchamp, because Duchamp reached based on his basically already postmodern ‘indifference’36 “that state of narcissismyth and the ‘large glass’ as border connotations of two different prehistories.” (Pistoletto 1982, p. 162)37 Michelangelo Pistoletto belonged, as well know in the late 60s, to the above quoted Germano Celant established Arte Povera, a rather loose group of Italian artists who dedicated themselves to the transformation of the mechanisms of art activities and preferred simple materials and forms from the everyday life to the

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caused a desired penetration into levels of reality in contrast to the mobility of the The penetration into life as a passionate expression of desire is contained in the mirror just like the penetration into the cold clarity of the mirror is contained in the rationality of thought, which supports the creative risk of life. For me, the mirror remains the reference point, in which art re-discovers its origin in order to become again a necessity of life.” (Pistoletto 1982, pp.162–3)38 Misleadingly, Pistoletto was regarded as an artist of the ‘popular’ or Pop-Art because of his mirror application in the 70s, although his works have a temporal parallel to concept and land art too. Installations like Raggera die Specchi (1973) used mirrors aligned in 45° or 60° degrees, as used by Robert Smithson or Carl Andre, for instance. The political and critical statement by Pistoletto and the Arte Povera moralizing undertone. When the famous Pistoletto’s L’Etrusco (1976) holds his hand in a salve greeting gesture, the latter must be ‘read subjectively’ together with the subjectivity’ is displayed in the installation arrangements like Il designo dello specchio (1979) with seven mirror elements as well as in Divisione e moltiplicazione dello specchio (1978). The mirror must be comprehended in Pistoletto’s work as an absolutely rational prerequirement for the transformation of the impulsive or instinctive ‘imagination’. The early modern subject-object relation is dismissed in several works by memorizing to separation and disengagement from the cultural ballast, however without violent, ‘barbarian’ solutions. Pistoletto used colour on polished steel too (Naked man with a hammer The Fountain, 1966), applying the entire palette mostly used in relation to the mirror of ‘everyday’, addressed tenor. Self-referentiality remains not taboo as well because the works are never interpretatively exhausted in it as the Separation and multiplication of the mirror (1975–1978) demonstrates: Here, “the parallel between the division of the mirror’s unity and the division of the material’s unity is investigated, which brings as a result the multiplication of the mirror, on the one hand, and the biological procreation, on the other hand.” (Pistoletto 1982, pp. 162–3)39 Daniel Buren, to take another ‘classical’ example, expressed in his early salient text Mise en garde (1969) how he handled the concept of art. The proclaimed ‘disappearance’ and ‘erasure’ remained for Buren in contrast to the early spokespersons of the Concept Art like Seth Siegelaub or Sol Lewitt still faithful to the material object and its realization. Finally, the mirror is required to make

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Figure 76: Michelangelo Pistoletto, L’Etrusco (1976). Installation with mirror. Ft. Worth, Modern Art Museum

an appearance and the simultaneous disappearance sensually experienceable in its were an identifying feature of Daniel Buren’s art. In the course of the years, the mirrors in his art gained dominance without ‘stripping off’ the stripes. However,

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Buren’s statement about traditional basic materials and the term ‘work’ as well as the idealist art concept can only partially explain the extensive usage of the mirror. The mirrors’ functions as instruments or media of seeing can be retraced in further examples, which is outside the framework of this discussion. (cf. Krystof 1996, Kacunko 2010, p. 589ff.) Buren’s investigation of the physical, functional, intellectual, cultural or institutional character of the respective places led at the latest by the end of the 80s Le Pavillon coupé, découpe, taillé, gravé (1989) in Nagoya, in Deux diagonales pour un lieu (1989.) or in (1989) in Paris. ice Biennale in 1986 can be regarded as part of this gradual (and by no means ‘development technically’ understood, irreversible) shift in Daniel Buren’s work. The application of plane mirrors, which have more often possessed chromatic qualities in the past years and have occasionally re-found a new proximity to painting, suggests a neutrality, which makes demands already on the choice of the invariable ‘stripe elements’. Given the ‘uncorruptness’ of the applied plane mirrors, which Bruce Nauman (Corridor Installation with Mirror, 1970) and particularly Dan Graham have

Figure 77: Daniel Buren, Deux diagonales pour un lieu (1989). Institute of Contemporary Arts Nagoya. From Krystof 1996, 24. © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2014

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Figure 78: Daniel Buren, Around the Corner (2005). Guggenheim Museum New York. A part of a trepartite installation, Thannhauser Galleries. © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2014

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a falsely understood neutrality. The ‘indifference’ and ‘neutrality’ of the mirror parent pavilions since 1978) also acts as a comment on the glass and mirror architecture, understood as ambivalent ‘perfect showpiece’ of modernity. On the other hand, Buren keeps showing his interest in mirrors as pivotal instruments or media, because they ‘conquer’ the context instead of the object and because they are in the position of “showing certain things, which only mirrors can show. I would even go so far and say that the mirror never reproduces something mimetically, but it always shows something different. Furthermore, it changes the room and allows the observer to see more and in a different way.” (Buren in Krystof 1994, p. 20)40 When discussing ‘speculative difference’ of the real mirror in a nutshell, the French artist concluded that “everything happens here in ‘real size’, which is why on the viewpoint of the observer” (Buren in Krystof 1994, p. 140)41 as well as “it seems to me that the artwork should open the eyes instead of blinding them, it single angle of view.” (Buren in Krystof 1996, p. 22)42 Hence, ‘other rooms’ open up more obviously than others, with which Foucault and some of his followers maneuvered themselves into a power- and discourse-theoretical blind alley, in my opinion. In Buren’s work, the application of mirrors points clearly to the role the explicit observer assumes (in opposition to the ‘implicit’ observer in the sense of Wolfgang Kemp [1992]). In numerous texts, Buren defended his key concern to keep his own works, like in Magritte’s case, away from any symbolics and simultaneously not to ”let them suffocate in a tautology of seeing” (Buren in Krystof 1994, p. 21)43. For instance, he referred to the mirror as an “active ‘collage’ for good” (107)44 and conceived it as an opportunity to practice art and design in a current and at the same time ‘asymptotic’ aspiration to become a ‘better’ reality.

9. Great Dane meets Dalmatian. Ejnar Dyggve and the mapping of Christian archaeology Old man: So, you thought about living in Versailles for a long time before you actually moved here. Young man: No, I had to experience Versailles in order to understand Sanssouci.1 Studying, researching and teaching art history in Southern, Central, or Northern Europe still means practicing quite different things. Everybody who has this privToday we live in a globalized age, in which the calls for a World Art History (Daor even to survive at all. Between the German Bildwissenschaft and Anglo-Saxon Visual Culture on the one hand and Bio-Art and Bio-Media on the other, today’s art history sees itself threatened mainly by the need to make seemingly ever faster paradigm shifts. The current sense of cultural fragmentation, dislocation, and the apparent absence of coherence seem to undo cultural unities (Blundell 1993; Chatthe theory and praxis of cultural continuity. To capture art and culture in their historical dimension means primarily the will to adopt such a continuity assumption, that despite of its fragility can always be postulated again. As the point of departure of such a continuity assumption serves the truism, that historicizing denies an idea of inevitability. The art historical methods and procedures cannot in fact “be conceived before the solution of the problems, but only developed along with their solutions” (Sedlmayr 1958, p. 56).2 Already Hans Sedlmayr – taking the mantle of Jacob Burckhardt’s successor – has called for an art and cultural history with “an inclusion of results that exist in other areas and address the problems that arise in the study of any kind of events” (Sedlmayr 1958, p. 54).3 However, Sedlmayr has limited cooperation with other disciplines to a professional-pragmatic one: cooperation would in fact only be possible “if the character of an area has been already so established, that one’s own method of approach and objects of interest aren’t threatened by contact with other sciences” (Sedlmayr 1958, p. 61). This is important to remember today, in light of the current relationship between art history and visual culture that can only be called unsatisfactory. But, even more precarious, in fact almost severed, are the bonds between the former inseparable

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sister disciplines of art history and archaeology. Therefore, within this limited framework, I want to relate the current situation of the discipline of art history to the Early Middle Ages, the time when today’s Europe began to take shape. We time before thoughts of continuity and a European identity, a time that ultimately prehistory and preconditions of art historical research and to take a long-term process approach to cultural formation. I take up Mike Featherstone’s prompt to focus “upon certain phases in the history of particular societies” as a promising way “to understand the processes that lead to the formation and deformation of the cultural sphere” (Featherstone 1995, p. 32). As a case in point, I propose the art historical and archaeological research undertaken into Early Medieval art and architecture and its role for our discipline today. Pars pro toto, I would like to bring to mind the work and character of the deserving, but unfortunately almost forgotten archaeologist, architect and also art historian, Ejnar Aksel Petersen Dyggve 4

ologies which ultimately lead him to become one of the most cited pioneers in comparative cultural studies in mid-twentieth century Europe. Subsequently, I will

Figure 79: Ejnar Dyggve portrait (author unknown)

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summarize obvious arguments for ‘digging Dyggve’ today and propose steps towards an interdisciplinary research program for a revaluation of Early Medieval Ejnar Dyggve and his work lies in the potential for representatives from Denmark and Croatia, representing the North and South of Europe, respectively, along with members of the wider European history of art community, to work together on a comparative revaluation of Art and Culture in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. This ambitious program might appear displaced and anachronistic in a time when, as Homi Bhabha argues, “the very notion that we can undertake a comparative analysis based upon homogeneous national cultures, consensual traditions or ” (Bhabha 1994, p. 5). As it happens, “ coherence and order” (Featherstone 1995, p. 1) was also a well-worked theme in the aftermath of the First World War; this was a time marked by cultural relativism and crisis, and it was also when Dyggve started his archaeological investigations. Obviously, the comparable situation between then and now produced and still produces a range of outsiders and outsider groups – not least around the art historian and archaeologist communities, whose ‘double consciousness’ had, and has, been formed from experiences “both inside and outside the West, inside and outside modernity.” To understand and to learn from the experiences of the ‘migrant’s double vision’ demands, as Featherstone argues, “a conception of culture which not only discovers increasing complexity in the current phase of globalization, but also looks at previous phases of globalization and its relationship to modernity […] In effect we need to investigate the conditions for the development of the cultural sphere by focusing on particular historical sequences and locations” (Featherstone 1995, pp. 11–12, 15). Our fellow art historians and Christian archaeologists know very well that the millennium of the Byzantine Empire provided the foundation for Europe’s geographical and chronological continuity. Aware of the variety of cultural idioms within this ‘movable frame’, and also aware that an attempt or even just the expression of ‘translating an idiom’ bears a contradictio in adjecto, we must construct or think of these idioms or cultures, including those of the art and architecture of Late Roman and Medieval times, as processes or transformations. That makes us archaeologists of chunks of the fragile continuities which in one form or another set themselves into the mosaic of the Grand Narratives that, only a couple of decades ago, Lyotard and followers viewed as having been dismantled (Lyotard 1979).

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As Ejnar Dyggve received the chance to work in service of the then pioneering comparative cultural studies (DK: sammenlignende kulturforskning), he presumed.5 His digging around the peripheries of the continent allowed him to practice comparative cultural studies on a European level that went beyond the contemporary ‘snapshot’-level, and it is this realization of the potential of a broader perspective that has motivated us to initiate the transcription, translation and publishing the Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv Split and to place it at the disposal of further inquirers.6 In the next section, I would like to draw the reader’s attention to some details and contexts of Dyggve’s work and its reception: in my view their contemporary current art historical investigations and the redevelopment of relations with Christian and Early Middle Ages archaeology.

9.1 Frames and frontiers, crossroads and continuities What Dyggve found soon after his arrival in Split and Salona were extant crossroads, both topological and chronological. He found them in situ either still in 7 The variety of epigraphic monuments, he asserts, is not least an expression of the strong connection between church and state, which promoted the visual arts with the same intensity and dedication. What Ejnar Dyggve found, was therefore also proof or indication of a cultural continuity of transformation, which still provided a living, experienced sense of identity. This might have reminded him not least of his studies in Scandinavia. On this general level, Dyggve’s Croatian colleagues (then and now) share and value his continuity-assumption and the orientation that he provided through his thorough research. “The grandeur of the Roman provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia as of Istria in the Early Middle Ages depended in large part on the late antique heritage and of its bearers. That was mainly the coastal cities, where life has not died, although it was quite modest 2005; compare Dyggve 1933a; et al.). After the Frankish battles with Byzantium, which ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 812, circumstances were favourable for the development of arof both the patriarch of Aquileia (with the formal elements like the nave church

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Figure 80: A view of Salona-site in May 2005 (today’s Solin, on the north border of Split in central Dalmatia), showing a central part of the engravings intra muros. (© Slavko Kacunko)

with three apses or the neutral cruciform church) and the Franks (with the characteristic Westwerk), the huge number of a hundred preserved Pre-Romanesque Antiquity remained visible in the three-aisled basilica with three polygonal apsand functions, to which, amongst others, the best archaeologists and art historians from all over the world have been drawn to interpret their meanings and paths of 8 The typological diversity of the churches of that time has been widely researched, producing what would seem highly cogent arguments for theories of the continuity of late Antique tradition (including complicated ‘six-leaves’-central forms with their variants) and of their autochthonous development. It is therefore tecture on the Adriatic Coast often tend to combine these seemingly incompatible explanatory models – just as their predecessors did in stone, one might say. The been described as a “mixing of own experiences with those of the foreign travelled

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masters [...] Located at the crossroads of these worlds, the Croatian lands took ideas from both sides, but they also added territorially inherited elements.” With the churches with rounded buttresses, “these early masters have made their very own contribution to European Pre-Romanesque This is perhaps the boldest, and at the same time precarious, context for today’s rethinking of Dyggve’s continuity thesis, to which I will return shortly. It is important to bear in mind that any future attempt to produce theoretical syntheses related to the art of architecture at the dawn of Europe will have to take the This applies among other things to the theory of the ‘Frontier Zones’ (Whittaker 1994), which “runs the risk of whitewashing the fact by evoking an image of all time peace and easy penetrability of the borders” (Syrbe 2013, p. 18), similarly, the theory of ‘Contact Zones’ (Pratt 1991). In an international conference on Frontiers in East and South Central Europe, organized by the in Split in June 2013 (Frontiers 2013), Neven Buda emphasized in his talk about the Early Medieval boundaries in Dalmatia/Croatia between the eighth and eleventh centuries, that when the Roman province of Dalmatia was split into the Byzantine and Carolingian entities, and a Croatian ethne formed, the latter did not necessarily follow the logic of the ecclesiastical borders or those of the changing administrative division – and of particular interest in this context, it did not always follow the borders between liturgies (Budak 2013, p. 7). It is this complexity, which prompted Dyggve to repeatedly emphasize the importance of the ‘archeological proof’; advice which Dygge clearly followed himself as evidenced by the caution he exercised in the use of written documents. We are left with the “ boundaries in local art history from the perspective of the geography of art” (Pelc 2013, p. 16) – and the other way around – so important also to “transborder art historical writing complex once environmental factors are taken into considerations. In these the ecohistorical dynamics between the Adriatic / Mediterranean, Pannonian / Central European, and Dinaric / Balkanic play as important a role as the political and 9 I will return to Dyggve’s contemporary Ljubo Karaman (1886–1971) and his hypotheses about the border, provincial and peripheral regions in the context of the polarizations between the (dis-)continuity theses of these two important co-players and competitors. Respecting the seductive power of both arguments, it seems relevant to emphasize – as another of Dyggve’s Croatian contemporaries did in 1925 – that “a look at the physical map of Europe shows that the space, which our country [today’s Croa-

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tia] includes, is located in the transition zone between East and West, North and South” (Lukas 1925, p. 25).10 This virtual cultural crossroad, which runs from frames and represents what Lukas called the “Transgression Zone”, where national, cultural and political as well as climatic factors need to be taken into account for an “anthropogeography” (Lukas 1925, pp. 32) – a maybe surprisingly modern notion even for contemporary migration studies.

9.2 Mapping motifs and methodologies After providing a précis of the impressions which Ejnar Dyggve might have acsite frontier of Europe in the interwar years, we should take a look at the frames and frontiers of Dyggve’s inquiry, as they were shaped between the two poles of Europe, and at the same time they have shaped contemporary discussions between comparative cultural studies, archaeology and not least art history.11 In an article that appeared shortly after Dyggve’s death, Kay Fisker quotes from Dyggve’s small autobiography highlighting his impression of having lived two lives. “One life as a practicing architect, caught in his youth as a revolutionary avant-garde architect. And another life as an archaeologist, researcher and ” 12 (Fisker 1961, p. 1). his ‘second life’ as archaeologist, researcher and art historian came during his the Technical School where he was introduced to the Viennese School, Sezession, Jugendstil and Art Nouveau. From the beginning of his studies at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in Copenhagen (1909–20), Dyggve reacted against the National Romanticism of his professor, Martin Nyrop (1849–1921) and the still widespread academicism. Dyggve, who became the leader of a little group of oppositional students in 1910, later wrote about his experiences:13 “But these new common-European efforts went around our Danish Academy of Fine Arts […] That which they [Dyggve’s group or “cell”] sought, looked like

the work outline, and that this should not only take the form of drawing, but also of a written expression. And they also wanted to reach a sharpened perception of the technical peculiarities of the respective material. Ultimately their goal was

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education.” (Dyggve quoted in Fisker 1961, p. 3)14 Dyggve provides an appropriate account of his response as it would develop henceforth: “Through a functional analysis, the tasks were dissolved in their components, and this analysis was translated into an idiom determined by the characteristics of the chosen material. To arouse the feeling of space it happened that we considered the cubic mass compared to an included fourth dimension, a concept that only recently, thanks to [...] Our program was to keep the historical styles outside the present architecture. And yet we didn’t want to deny historical study. On the contrary, I have mentioned that we found it necessary to examine the architecture and crafts of previous times.” (Dyggve quoted in Fisker 1961, p. 3)15 In response to the accusations that his group consisted of ‘revolutionaries’ and ‘internationalists’, Dyggve countered that small societies like Denmark did not have a purpose in themselves (Dyggve quoted in Fisker 1961, pp. 3, 5).16 Dyggve’s political convictions found expression in a pertinent search for the chronological, topological, and above all ‘functional’ continuities, which themselves became the necessary support in his life-long integrity, both as a public and private person. I am taking a late example just to exemplify how Dyggve’s motives and methods matched each other. The meeting of ‘North’ and ‘South’ can be seen from this perspective rather than as a byproduct: at the very beginning of his short study, explicitly titled as an ‘art history’, on the monolithic dome of the Theoderik mausoleum in Ravenna, Dyggve quotes several art historians of a nationalist-romantic bent from the German-speaking realm, such as Kugler, Eitelberger (1861) and especially A. Haupt: “A stone monument in which the mighty blood-stream of the North still pulsates and is still recognizable in detail” or “In the vast dome of its stone ceiling we recognize the Nordic feeling” (Haupt quoted in Dyggve, 1957, pp. 5–6).17 Dyggve insists that the quoted author is harking back to Fritz Kugler and his links to the North that were expressed in 1856, namely that Theoderic’s grave relates to “that indestructible rock load that was stacked on top of the graves in the old home” (Kugler quoted in Dyggve 1957, p. 6).18 Other quotes, obviously too embarrassing for the main text, can only be found in the footnotes, like the one from S. Fuchs from his book about the art of the Eastern Goths (1944), where he writes how “the king was a German, and so, at power of the blood, there broke forth in the megalithic builder’s attitude a basic instinct of his breed” (Fuchs quoted in Dyggve 1957, p. 13).19

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“This writing is poetry. It is not architectural history”, commented Dyggves (ibid.),20 while the related utterances of Josef Strzygowski received a more differentiated commentary (Strzygowski 1929, p. 137). Dyggve’s little publication can be taken as characteristic of his working method and moral: only eleven pages text visual culture’, one might say, of which half are photographs and the other half drawings with a focus on function and on comparable examples, similar to his Funktional[Functionalism in the Amphitheatre] (1950) and many other publications from the mid-1920s on. In order to fully understand the motives and methods that Dyggve applied as life’, at his own architectural practice. His suggestions for a scenic cottage complex in Tibirke Hills represented an early and radical rethinking of the nature conservation issue. Dyggve designed several summerhouses for this exclusive location from 1916 onwards.21 Denmark, this complex eventually became a starting point for Dyggve’s activities for the Danish Society for Nature Conservation (DN).22 However, this committhese disputes began in the mid-1920s when culture-radicalist writer, designer and architect Poul Henningsen started a campaign against the so called “Snob Hills” in the journal Kritisk Revy. His attacks were directed towards the “lost aesthetic” of DN, and Henningsen likened DN’s management of environmental issues to a “dictatorship”, and he referred to the related activists, as “nature fascists”.23 Perhaps, ironically it was a right-wing Danish Prime Minister – Anders Fogh Rasmussen – who eventually announced the abolition of the DN’s successor (Naturrådet) in his New Year’s speech on January 1, 2002. Henningsen’s ‘functionalistic’ attacks on Tibirke-cottages seem no less misplaced when one reviews their original, rather sober dispositions and not least the functionalist vein in Dyggve’s own theory and praxis. Dyggve appears to have become more purposeful in his functionalist thinking as he shifted his focus from architecture to archaeology and especially to problems of sepulchral liturgy. To map his leading methods inevitably implies a questioning of his motives. Maybe the most appropriate way to describe them – especially with regard to the later argumentation on archaeological issues, as outlined by the American sculptor Horatio Greenough in 1852, but which primarily became famous through its later usage by the American architect Louis Sullivan, the major representative of the Chicago School. This phrase has often been misinterpreted as a call for renunciation of ornament and it applied neither to Sullivan’s nor to Dyg-

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gve’s environmental ‘functionalism’ at that stage. It is important to bear this is in mind when studying Dyggve’s permanent and changing interests in Tibirke.

9.3 The beginnings of architectural historiography

contours through an attempt to map his motives and methods. But Dyggve’s spethe complex genealogy and relationships between the architectural historiography and those of art history. His genuine reaction to Romanticist historiography both in the realms of architectural theory and art historical explanation patterns was certainly informed by the critical “not only the theory and practice of the protection of monuments, but also the new evaluation and methodological approach to the history of art. Also the evaluation of the Pre-Romanesque and Early Romanesque art in Europe was closely 24 linked with it ography in his opus magnum Dalmatia Praeromanica (2008f), which is a good starting point for comparative historiographies of art, architecture and archaeology. Shifting the focus from the Europe-wide operating (and known) authors like A. Venturi, W. Gerber, D. Frey, J. Strzygowski and S. Bettini to the more locally operating colleagues in the North, South or East of Europe may be undertaken, for example, by picking up such complementary contexts like those of Denmark and Croatia, where, again, the comparative investigation of the life-long collaboration and competition between Ejnar Dyggve and Ljubo Karaman could well serve as a model. Before turning to this particular issue, it should be emphasized historiography with his early investigations into the use of technology and construction in the archaeological and art historical work on site. Also, the work of his counterparts and conconsideration in the comparative re-evaluations of the pertinent architectural historiography. H. P. L’Orange cites an early article by his colleague and collaborator Ejnar Dyggve in the Danish national journal Nationaltidende of July 6, 1924 with the title The Danish Examinations in Salona (De danske undersøgelser i Salona), which describes how “he has developed there his peculiar research personality and research morale, which since then has molded everything he did thereafter” (L’Orange 1962, p. 104)25 About the

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Technique and Representation of Excavations, written over three decades after Nationaltidende. Dyggve writes about “the astonishing methodnatural sciences, while summarizing both his dedication to the visual explanations and visual culture in the work in situ. He emphasizes the distinction between the actual digging and its displaying, the immersion and the “The value of elucidation by means of graphical representation must not falter if an archaeological publication is to satisfy. And yet illustration has been previously often considered an added value, but it is not addition, but a permanent documentary value in the work, and it deserves to be realized with serious and binding responsibility.” (Dyggve 1955)26 Today, in an age when cultural studies basically follow the post-humanistic theories grown out of the Cold War, it doesn’t seem to be very popular to contextualize (Dyggve’s) views which belong to what has been called ‘post-war humanism 1945–60’ (Hamilton 1997, p. 75f). However, this was precisely the context in seeing, and seeing is also visual thinking, a process taking place in time.27 ThereOnly out of our present time and using our skills and our media may we understand the decisive moments and the fragile continuities of art history. As previously mentioned, the schism between the approaches of art historiof the last century. Dyggve’s master drawings and precise archaeological reconstructions not only set new standards and received wide international recognition; they were prime heralds of the mentioned change. Like every change, it was accompanied by disputes and antagonisms, especially when the identity of the respective disciplines and even more, those of the respective national contexts, appeared to be at stake. This brings us back to one of the most absorbing and still confusing questions, crucial for the understanding not only of art and architecture on the frontiers of Europe, but also at the continent’s ‘centre’, or rather its changing centres over the period of time. In the section Frames and Frontiers, Crossroads and Continuities above, I have touched on the complex question of the cultural continuity and discontinuity on the European continent on a rather general level. The quoted recent theories and views share a common origin in the no-man’s-land between the hypothesis of were probably those of the two contemporaries under study, Ejnar Dyggve and

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Ljubo Karaman. After his study of art history in Vienna with Strzygowsky and in Split (1920), Karaman emphatically attacked Strzygowsky’s theory (amongst others) according to which the Croats had transferred models of Northern wooden architecture to the Adriatic. He expanded his negation of the continuity-thesis both topologically and chronologically, deducing an absence of continuity between Late Antiquity and Early Middle Age architecture in Salona, the former capital of Roman Dalmatia and latter point of departure for today’s Dalmatian capital Split book entitled From the Cradle of Croatian History (1930), Karaman interpreted the fascinating quantity and hardly commensurable quality of the seventh to twelfth century buildings in the Croatian area with his coinage of the ‘free-shaped buildings’.28 With his understanding of the special forms we encounter in the Dalmatian peripheral environment he explicitly rejected the thesis of the local mimesis of Antiquity as well as the continuity of building between Late Antiquity and the Early Medieval period, and argued that the arrival of Croats in fact impacted as a caesura in the development of the Dalmatian cities and the temporary decoupling of their ties with Europe. The scale of the present publication does not allow us to reopen the discussion of the interesting deviances of this ‘discontinuation’-theory with respect to the manifold forms of the three-, four-, six- and other multi-apsidal churches in the cities of the Roman province of Dalmatia, whose Late Antiquity origins and their later imitations Karaman of course could not deny. What interests us at this point is his encounter with Dyggve. Karaman was a close collaborator of with whom he published the well-known study about the palace of the emperor Diin 1894, an organization for the preservation of history from the age of Croatian national rulers and helped Christian Archaeology in that same year. Dyggve actually met Karaman when the latter was the secretary of and an assistant of the Provincial Conservation Department for Dalmatia. When Dyggve came back to Dalmatia in his new, important function as the leader of the excavations for , Karaman had served already two years as the chief conservator for Dalmatia in Split. Of course, it was both in the nature of his job and his genuine dedication to watch carefully over the Danish archaeological excavations in and around Salona, which revolved around and were of Croatian history in those surroundings. However, to say ‘Danish’ means in this -

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Figure 81: Ejnar Dyggve (2nd from right) in front of the Split’s Cathedral inside the palace of the st

st

post-postmodern (hypermodern etc.) time, this kind of arrangement may appear quite modern to us, perhaps too modern, with an effect of having a right person at the right place, but still being somehow out of place. To paraphrase Foucault’s famous dictum, one might specify that the reason for Dyggve’s ‘heterotopic’ being the remains of the mausoleum of the Croatian kings (St. Stephen’s Church) at the site of the Šuplja Crkva

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who proved what Karaman Šuplja Crkva site should be focused on searches for another church called St. Moses.30 In the same year, 29

location of Gospin Otok (Lady’s Island) in 1898 and the discovery of the sarcoph-

states that according to a friendly note from “ ment proves that the Church of St. Stephen, where the Croatian kings were buried, is located on the same Gospin Otok” (Dyggve 1929, p. 572)31 near Salona – i.e. not at nearby Šuplja Crkva important question about the location of the burial places of the Croatian kings not least by raising the typically topological question of the ancient road and the passage of the river Jadro in Roman times. In 1930, Karaman published a report of the General Assembly of the society of April 10, 1928 with a summarized status quo of these works on site and his announcement of the larger documentation to be published in his opus mag-

Figure 82: Salona-site, back-drawing from Ejnar Dyggve from 1932. Šuplja Crkva (‘Hollow Church’) is located on the east side (on the far right), north of the river Jadro. The location of the Otok (‘Island’) can be seen on the south-east side

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num From the Cradle of Croatian History later in the same year. Karaman decided excavations on the Gospin Otok and announce Ejnar Dyggve’s forthcoming publication. He also used the occasion to guess, perhaps in a hurry, which one of the two churches on the Gospin Otok is actually St. Stephen’s (with the mausoleum of the Croatian kings) and which St. Mary’s (Karaman 1930a, pp. 3f, 17). As it turned out, there were no remains of the mausoleum on site of the Šuplja Crkva, but Dyggve’s continuation of the excavations there in 1931 brought senchurch on the site of the Early Christian basilica. On March 17, 1931, Fra L. Marun wrote in the Jutarnji List the following enthusiastic (and with respect to the found facts wrong) report, which highlights the respect for the Danish researcher: “A friend of mine has recently written from Solin, that the Danish architect […] I immediately wrote a greeting to the architect Dyggve, who made this discovery, for the study of local history in Split. In this congratulation I have said how extraordinarily glad I was to hear the good news about his discovery of a large three-aisled old Croatian basilica in Solin on this side of the coast. Furthermore I declared, although I had then not yet seen the basilica, that it is the most important early Croatian discovery in general made between Trogir and Omiš. Our people should be grateful for all of his Old Croatian works, especially for this latest […] Checking these excavations on site [lately] or, more correctly, the start of excavation […] I felt an indescribable emotion of exaltation both with respect to the professional and wonderful probing diggings, and because of the importance of the initiated discovery of the basilica, which is yet to be seen in outlines, along with some other enclosed buildings. Without further hesitation I became convinced that the positions of the graves of the Croatian princes and ”32 covered Early Romanesque three-vessel basilica was indeed the location of the St. Moses Monastery. At the same time, its dedication to St. Peter (which gave it it’s contemporary name Ss. Peter and Moses) indicated that it was the church in which Demetrius Zvonimir of Croatia was crowned in 1076. This proof was of exceptional importance because Zvonimir (died 1089) was the last native king who exerted any real power over the entire Croatian state, thanks to the political alliance with the Pope along with the constitutional recognition of the Croatian Kingdom (Regnum Dalmatiae et Chroatiae) and its stable international position.33

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Also, Karaman reported immediately about this sensational discovery in almost journalistic accuracy, however not in an enthusiastic manner as in the quoted case of Lujo Marun. Like Marun, Karaman gives Dyggve the style “arh.” as he used to do in his correspondence, meaning an “architect” (Karaman 1931, p. 13). There are also some indications of a competitive relationship between Karaman and Dyggve, which still cannot be proved in detail, but I think are worth mentioning because of the consequences for the excavations in Salona which this might have at least indirectly caused (but also pars pro toto for the sometimes rather

a means of putting the architect in his place – a rather lowly one in the interpretation-chain of ‘art historian-archaeologist-architect’. Dyggve himself contributed to 83). I believe that this question of status between the three professions continued to hold its validity even after Dyggve’s death and that it has had negative consequences for interdisciplinary research. I will return to my conclusion in this matter

Figure 83: Basilica on the site of Šuplja Crkva, Dyggve’s attempt of axonometric reconstruction from the Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv Split. (With kind permission of the Conservation department in Split)

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which I have in mind here has to do with the abandonment of further excavations in Salona, which is to be regarded as a substantial loss for Christian archaeology, art history and other related disciplines. In his review of the previous research into the Coronation Basilica of King Zvonimir, Mate Zekan concludes that “In spite of splendid results, systematic excavations at the site were interrupted till as late as wider area around the church eries (Zekan, 2000, p. 25834 Dyggve’s excavations on the locations of Šuplja Crkva and Gospin Otok have also a kind of basilicae geminae on the second site, the Croatian king’s coronation

Zekan names “primarily unresolved property rights and slow land acquisition, followed by the termination of the contract of E. Dyggve and his return to Denon the Solin area” (Zekan 2000, p. 254).35 Which of the three named reasons was the decisive one, if any at all? Zekan continues his report with a mention of the modest excavations at Šuplja Crkva in Dyggve likewise visited this site in the same year and quotes Karaman’s statement about the decision as to whether it would be worth keeping the excavations opened and visible or not, “We will make a decision this fall when a new administration will be elected and when we meet the agreement in September with architect Dyggve, who carried out the excavations” (Karaman in Zekan 2000, pp. 254– 55).36 therewith, unfortunately, end the archaeologsite” (ibid.).37 drawal. Was the obviously failed agreement of September 1936 prepared long before that time? Still notably missing in the historiography of this particular ‘case’ are the minutes of events between 1930 and 1935. Some indications about Dyggve’s struggle to continue his work on site can be found in Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv Split there: from spring 1930, an application to the Yugoslav Academy, signed by the president of tion results. Curiously, there are two exact versions of the same letter, one written

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in German and another in Danish. It seems obvious that Dyggve could count on support elsewhere. In Dyggve’s archive in Split there is also a short-term contract extension for his own salary dated February 6, 1932. Finally, Dyggve’s nomination as an honorary member of president and Karaman as a secretary) means probably – with respect to the continuation of the work in situ work of “architect Dyggve” in Solin as “ results from the research of Danish archaeologists and especially Dyggve (Marin 1985, p. 17). There is no need to speculate further about the backgrounds of the art historical, archaeological and other related games at that time; a time that has become immortalized on close this micro review of the beginnings of architectural historiography between Denmark and Croatia with a last look at the complementary and also presumed competitiveness between Karaman and Dyggve. An attempt of its ‘meta-reading’ might also contribute – again pars pro toto – to the revaluation of the institutional frameworks and the strategic orientations of art history in the mid-twentieth-century.38 In 1954, the Croatian Society of Art Historians terpart of the Danish Association of Art Historians most important art historical magazine, in which the question of the (dis-)continuity between Antiquity and the Romanesque was the featured subject.39 Milan historical position of Pre-Romanesque architecture in Dalmatia (Prelog 1954), while Ljubo Karaman published a summary of his favoured review work recent publications and statements from areas of art history Dalmatia: criticism and methodological considerations (Karaman 1954a) and – as a separate article – his long review of Dyggve’s History of Salonitan Christianity from 1951. Apart from a few acts of courtesy, the latter was a slating review. Dyggve’s search for the formal characteristic and genealogy of Pre-Romanesque architecture by following the functional questions and assumptions like the ‘following’ of the graves of the local martyrs by the burials in the Salonitan cemeteries both extra muros and intra muros (‘FFF’-issue mentioned above) is an eyesore for the Croatian follower of the Viennese school of art history. Seen from this perspective, the topic of the double churches in the Episcopal complex in Salona and the translation of the (cult of the) graves into the city walls, has been particularly attacked, sometimes with argu-

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ments of the type of the “slighter sense of hygiene of medieval man” (Karaman 1954, p. 180).40 lona meet with Karaman’s contempt (the former has been accepted in the mean-

greater freedom of the peripheral environment.” Myth and reality in Karaman’s hypotheses about the frontier (border), provincial and peripheral regions have been widely discussed not only in Croatia, or at the 100th anniversary of his birth. Ejnar Dyggve has 41

approaches to the question of continuity and discontinuity as well as identity and difference at scholarly symposia (Karaman) and through the translations of their Radovi Instituta Povijesti Umjetnosti [Journal of the Institute of Art History the “Myth and reality “origin” of Karaman’s thesis on the origin of Pre-Romanesque sculpture. Finally, which brings us back to the theme of Dyggve’s and Karaman’s archive, sharing as 42

published the second edition of Karaman’s Problems of periphery art with an afAnother coincidence of (dis-)continuity on an institutional level can be traced History in Zagreb, which was founded in 1961, the year of Dyggve’s death.43 In his article from 1954 in the aforementioned journal of the Croatian society of art historians, he writes about the two major, but complementary theses in interpretation of the origin of the Pre-Romanesque architecture in Dalmatia – those of Dyggve and Karaman. The Prelog actually leaned towards Dyggve’s thesis about

44 “passive negation of antiquity However, the Prelog tended more to support Karaman, as do contributions from some later experts of this particular period, who have generally followed the discontinuation-thesis.45 It may, therefore, be concluded that both contrary theses of (dis-) like Dyggve and Karaman seemed to have ‘performed’ their respective rightness),

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always in relation to the excavated archaeological remains. It applies to a long line historical and socioeconomic perspective, it could be generalized to some extent, in line with Mike Featherstone, that “cultural specialists are often caught in an ambivalent relationship toward the market that may lead to strategies of separation and distancing to sustain and promote the autonomy of the cultural sphere” (Featherstone 1995, p. 16). Such favouring of the autonomization of the cultural sphere by the placing of cultural production above economic production belongs also to the approved strategies of parts of today’s cultural studies.

History of Salonitan Christianity and who has also written extensively about the chronology of the Pre-Romanesque architecture in Dalmatia, speaks of the invaluable contributions made by Dyggve Dyggve’s fundamental theories about the origin of early Romanesque art in Dalmatia and beyond [are still] valid […]” and continues: “I believe that the conclusions regarding the Byzantine components in the formation of some type-groups of the Dalmatian Pre-Romanesque, or about the Carolingian “westwerk” at some others […] do not at all diminish the same theorole of the late classical tradition precisely in a way that was mapped by Ejnar 46 Dyggve half a century ago.”

9.4 Province, frontier, periphery: mapping the cultures between Jelling and Salona In the divided Europe between the wars, Dyggve began to look for evidence of cultural continuity and found successions of myth, cult and ritual on the frontiers of today’s continent without visible borders. He raised questions about the origins and maintenance of a particular image of culture (Featherstone 1995, p. 14). His excavations in Salona near Split in Dalmatia and Jelling in East Jutland still serve as evidence for the Christianization of today’s Croatia and Denmark and are closely bound to the national identities of both countries. Dyggve’s convictions of the causal priority of topological, liturgical and other functional elements over

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the formal elements of ‘style’ have led him to defend his continuity-hypothesis, which has, as we have seen, provoked a fruitful debate since its appearance in the 1920s. Through both the explicit and implicit debate and its representatives, disciplinary institutional and other actors, cantly contributed to the creation of contemporary comparative cultural studies. It is obvious that the latter cannot be regarded as a synonym for cultural studies as they are practiced in the Anglo-Saxon world and in Scandinavia today. We are talking about the comparative cultural studies developed between Copenhagen and Split with their strong anchorage in the Middle-European, German speaking experts between France and Greece. The comparative cultural studies in this understanding served Dyggve both as a framework and a point of departure for his early work in Dalmatia, at the same time he was able to achieve such Europe-wide recognition and acknowledgment that his pertinent (and necessary) ‘culture diplomacy’ helped to promote his approach in the countries where he worked and thought.47 should demonstrate his methodological ‘comparatism’ and his historiographical interest, both led and followed by his ‘polyhistoric’ breath of Europe-wide cross references. The living praxis, declared as a goal and motive, not in spite, but because of all its unpredictable transformations is clearly expressed in Dyggve’s late text about the development history of the sanctuary, entitled From evangelist church to the church of power (Dyggve 1956a). The methodological there as in his earlier texts as a self-corrective and a rhetorical means of appellation. While the tasks within the old Christian studies were so much easier to solve in his time than in his predecessors’, their efforts should always remain recognized, says Dyggve. “But”, he continues, “I am convinced that the researchers who wrote about church building and liturgcal history half a century or more ago, would be surprised and at many points dismissive towards the newer redifference in method” (Dyggve 1956a, p. 12).48 Dyggve makes clear that his (“the newer”) research doesn’t want to overrule the irreplaceable written tradition, but “endeavors to widen the understanding of this tradition […] by recognizing the archaeological and iconographic monuments as messengers from the very vibrant, old Christian society” (ibid.).49 Dyggve’s comparative visual materials (Dyggve 1956b) have therefore massively supported this apparently simple message, bearing the wish of recognition for those responsible for the visualizations, which still serve as a ‘primary’ work-

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Figure 84: Marusinac, an important cemetery-site outside of Salona’s city walls. Dyggve’s attempt of reconstruction from the Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv Split. (With kind permission of the Conservation department in Split)

historical questions of typology and style were not Dyggve’s main concern, his entitling of the continuity-thesis between the Late Antiquity and the Early Romanesque as ‘Adriobyzantinism’ became nearly a status of style, provoking an ongoing quérelle

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rather geo-historical terminus technicus here either, but it should be stated that the task of ‘mapping’ or ‘measuring’ the encountered cultures should be regarded heri-

Dyggve’s colleague and supporter F. Weilbach has summarized that in Dyggve’s views, “his propaganda and his own landscape architecture have survived and show the worth of his theory” (Fisker 1961, p. 51).50 During and just after WWI, Dyggve remained seized, as Weilbach claims, by an even stronger interest in metrical systems, in classical proportion rules and in archaeology. This mélange as well as Dyggve’s later focus on the supposed holy places (Vi-s) from Denmark’s tially these concerns were motivated by Dyggves unbroken ‘FFF’-interest in the functions of human-built places, blended with the search for continuities in and between communities. In his overview about the Development of archaeological research and study in Dalmatia throughout the last millennium counter with Weilbach and the Danish archaeologists, including the contractual questions, terms and conditions of the deal between the Yugoslavian state and the Rask-Ørsted Foundation between 1919 and 1924. All costs of the excavations of the landed properties; all found objects had to remain in the country, while the 51

During his stay in Denmark at the time of the German occupation, Dyggve took the opportunity to write a review of Danish archaeology, which – to quote an American professor of European Archaeology – “has been a subject of academic investigation in Denmark longer than most other places in the world have been nations.”52 Dyggve depicts the Danish research and archaeological explorations in the Balkan Peninsula, in Egypt and the Near East as an inauguration of a long and successful tradition. It had begun with Peter Oluf Brøndsted (1780–1842), “a pretty philosopher”,53 as Lord Byron called him and was followed by a long line of Danish archaeologists,54 right through to Dyggve’s own mentors and collaborators like J. L. Heiberg (1854–1928), F. Weilbach (1863–1937) and M. Johannes Brøndsted (1890–1965). By 1916 Weilbach had already published a monograph about Diocletian’s Palace in Split (Weilbach 1916) and was able to make the acquaintance Rask-Ørsted Foundation (1919–72) offered a young Dyggve the opportunity to

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ical expedition to Salona. The expeditions in 1922 with Brøndsted and in 1923 with Ingrid Møller then laid the foundation for Dyggve’s autonomous work in Croatia. While Brøndsted turned to Denmark and to the ‘Nordic themes’, Dyggve

ruption in the archeological excavations in Salona in the 1930s, Dyggve directed his appeal to the international public by naming Salona – with the richness of its old Christian monuments, cemeteries and “16 large basilicas” – as comparable only with Rome and Ravenna (Dyggve 1943a, pp. 159–60).55 In his overview of the golden age of Danish archaeology, Dyggve concludes by following his words about Salona and some further research in Palestine with a tribute: “ port, Danish archaeology could not have maintained as it has, its place in the competition of lish fruitful international collaboration between colleagues.” (Dyggve 1943a, p. 164; see also Dyggve 1948)56 During the occupation, Dyggve was also engaged in the resistance by helping interned Yugoslavians in Scandinavia. In 1943, Dyggve curated an ethnographical exhibition dedicated to Dalmatia at the National Museum in Copenhagen.57 After the WWII, he became the president of the Danish-Yugoslav Friendship Society 58

Figure 85: Jelling, a drawing from Archeology Forum. [http://www.arkeologiforum.se/forum/index.php?topic=5460.40]

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During the 1940s, however, Dyggve was better known for his excavations in the National Museum in Copenhagen, “[Regarding Jelling] there was a need for an archeologist with the technical capability, with the sense for context, with an eye for detail […]” (Brøndsted 1962, p. 118).59 These were exactly the faculties which shaped Dyggve’s deep involvement in what would later be called architectural historiography. This involvement was a very conscious one and accompanied by a deep research enthusiasm (L’Orange 1962, p. 105). During the German occupation of Denmark 1940–45 “Jelling became a national symbol”, as Steen Hvass writes. The National Museum of Denmark made extensive excavations in both burial mounds in 1941 and 1942.60 One of the reasons for the works (especially regarding the deep cut into the south mound) was the prevention of possible destruction by the occupation forces. Ejnar Dyggve and Paul Dyggve’s numerous publications on Jelling as the most important site from Viking-times and the most distinguished monument of Danish history cannot be reviewed here. The later revision works, new discoveries and publications have also brought new insights and posed further questions.61 What is of particular relevance to the current discussion is Dyggve’s recapitulation in his article from 1957 with the title Tradition und Christentum in der dänischen Kunst zur Zeit der Missionierung [Tradition and Christianity in Danish Art at the Time of Proselytiza-

Figure 86: Jelling-site with two mounds and the church in between on August 24th 2013. (© Slavko Kacunko)

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tion]. He summarizes there his excavations and also the actual preservation work in Jelling. The moments and places of encounter (or the ‘contents’) illustrate both the range of the underlying motive and method: “On the encounter of the Christian mission penetrating, from Mediterranean culture, the old Scandinavian culture […] only little archaeological material is available to date. However, we urgently need the knowledge of the archaeological facts to animate and support the results obtained from the written sources.” (Dyggve 1957a, p. 221)62 That may sound ‘modernist’ today, and in fact it shows how the modern approach already included the ‘post-modernist’ critique of Grand Narratives. The difference lies in an obvious absence of cynicism in the work and thought of Ejnar Dyggve and some of his fellow architects, archaeologists and art historians. The national narratives and other story-tellings have in fact been made more transparent by their setting into parenthesis instead of hiding them in the long endnotes. The royal tribe which resided in Jelling was critically important for the gathering of the Danhere a situation comparble with those he found around Salona one decade before, as he found and interpreted the important buildings on Šuplja Crkva and especially on Gospin Otok, where, as mentioned above, a mausoleum of the Croatian kings from the same time (976) and of same historical importance as the runic stones in Jelling. Though remains of the royal palace or ‘kongsgård’ respectively have yet to be found at either site, both of which are regarded as ‘cradles’ of the respective nations. On one of the runic inscriptions from the Jelling stones, the conversion of Harald Bluetooth (ca. 910–87) to Christianity has been summed up in the famous inscription “King Harald bade these memorials to be made after Gorm, his father, and Thyra, his mother. The Harald who won the whole of Denmark and Norway and turned the Danes to Christianity” Together with the church and the two grave mounds, the rune stones in Jelling not only symbolize the transition from paganism to Christianity and from Nordic grave rituals to Christian religious practice, but obviously they trace the ethnicity directly related to the kingdom as an administrative structure. Dyggve follows the same method as he did in Salona in his examination of the wide-ranging topology in Jelling, he also follows a similar line of consideration of the chronological and comparative frameworks related to the central functional and liturgical issues. The oldest construction from the time of King Gorm (died in 958) consisted of a presumably nearly 200 meters long geometrically formed sanctuary, a so-

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Figure 87: Jelling, on the south of the church: Harald’s stone with the runic inscription

called ‘Vi’, connected to the Northern hill with the grave place. To explain the enormous size of the site, in some publications Dyggve used his usual method of comparative visualization, which in this case appears a bit questionable: I am referring to a kind of ‘tryptich’-drawing with the ‘Vi’ in Jelling between Delphi and “a modern example”, which he describes as the City Hall in Copenhagen that his former teacher, Martin Nyrop, built in the National Romantic style (Dyggve 1964, p. 29). The peculiar V-shape of a sanctuary sub divo Dyggve here seems heritage (Dyggve 1957a, p. 222). His questioning of the dimensions of the geographical, historical and cultural continuity leads him also to attempt a mapping of the comparable sites. In one of his later publications called Three sanctuaries of Jelling type, Dyggve compares Jelling (excavated in 1941), Tibirke (examined in 1954) and Tingsted (on the island of Falster, examined in 1955) to provide proofs and a satisfying theory of continuation, while obviously the existing doubts need to be parried. So the opening statement that “it is commonly agreed that the Vi, enclosure” (Dyggve 1960, p. 3; 1955a) bears the traces of his dispute with Karaman (Karaman 1954) and other critics of his earlier reconstruction of the cemetery-building in Marusinac in Salona and its interpretation as basilica discoperta, a construction with a presumed centred sub divo-element. But also the ‘Vi’-theory itself seemed to bounce. Dyggve’s methodological ‘hand’ is visible when he argues for Tibirke in a similar topological manner as he did when he presented his New

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research on the crossing over the river Jadro near Salona (Dyggve 1929; et al.) and examined the contexts around the mentioned important sites of Šuplja Crkva and Gospin Otok by Salona. He explains that, “topographically there was no need for a road in this place [“Tibirke”]” and how “the road runs in the direction of Tibirke church, […] originally formed an open-air sanctuary of the same large size and of exactly the same shape as that known in Jelling” (Dyggve 1959/60, p. 3). Seen in this context, the still existing ‘mystery’ of choosing Jelling for a “powerful royal place” (Hvass 2000, p. 13)63 may be reviewed in the light of Dyggve’s seemingly ‘down-to-earth’, topographical explanation type, mentioning not least an “Ox Road, a main foundation through Jutland to Dannevirke and further southward, which runs just a few kilometers from here [Jelling], from the earliest times” (Dyggve 1955b, p. 128).64 It is indeed generally known that such ‘Oxen Roads’ played an important role until and even beyond the Thirty Years War of the seventeenth century. The place where the Treaty of Westphalia was signed between the Catholics and Protestants in 1648 lies on such a crossroads, in Germany known as ‘Ochsenbrügge’ [Oxen-Bridge], today’s Osnabrück.65 Like in Dalmatia and elsewhere, in relation to Jelling Dyggve writes about the continuity in the use of local building materials in order to include it, in this case, in an argument about the overall context and the continuity of form and function of the pagan and the two further sanctuaries between the two huge barrows in Jelling (Dyggve 1957a, p. 229). He concludes that: “Although they represent the sharpest contrasts in the religious sense, seen architecturally they are typical representatives of one and the same Nordic culture. The mere fact that the altar consisted of an unhewn boulder, is in this respect very eloquent testimony.” (Dyggve 1957a, pp. 229–30)66 Admittedly, this may be Dyggve falling prey a little to the rhetoric he had attacked in the previously quoted article from the same year, when the similar ‘meaningfulness’ and ‘self-documentary’ of the ‘Nordic feeling’ in the monolithic stone ceiling in Ravenna had been made out by several art historians of the national-romantic attitude. But in our monographic and yet comparative context of Dyggve between the poles of Europe the patterns of questioning the form-function under the open sky’. Would it be over-interpretation to read an ideal of convergence and continuation between nature and culture into this? Dygg-ve’s commitment as a member of the Nature Conservation Council (1924–8; 1937–57), of the Danish Society for Nature Conservation Executive Committee, of the Agriculture Minis-

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Danish Town Planning Plenary Session (1926) speaks for such a reading. In any case, Harald’s church with an atrium sub divo (Dyggve 1957a, p. 222) and other comparable examples of the ‘open’ sanctuaries belong without doubt to Dyggve’s most discussed contributions of all. Before I turn to this issue and to Marusinac as a most prominent example, I would like to add another comparative interpretation related to the runic stones in Jelling. Dyggve sees in these monuments not only “the image of initially undisturbed continuity we have gained in Jelling from observations on the wooden church”, but also the fact, that the Rune stone in which Harald announced the conversion of the Danes to Christianity “was not composed in Latin, but in Danish and with runes” (Dyggve 1957a, p. 231).67 What attracts attention is not only Dyggve’s interest in the circumstances of the ‘Latinic turn’ that followed the conversion, with a long period of coexistence of pagan and Christian customs, but also the comparative method that used what the international community regarded as ‘unorthodox’ written sources. He refers as he does in several History of Croats (1917) and writes how: “The Synod of Split, in March 1060, condemned the use of the Glagolitic [...] letters, by the way of their equation with goticas literas (= runes) […] It would be worthwhile to delve into the very detailed tradition of the developmental history of the Catholic church in Dalmatia and through possible useful parallels, to be able to throw light on similar questions in the missionising of […] Scandinavia, for example, on the church’s relationship to the runes.” (Dyggve 1957a, p. 231, note 17)68 but indeed, the Northern concern about the Runic alphabet, which was used for various Germanic languages before the adoption of the Latin alphabet, parallels the South Slavic concern at about the same time regarding the Glagolitic alphabet, the oldest known Slavic alphabet from the ninth century (even if the latter retained currency much longer in some regions of coastal Croatia. Dyggve takes king Tomislav received the recommendation from the Pope John X to the Slavs to learn “the language of the Roman Church […] closely associated with the doctrine of the Roman Church” (Dyggve 1957a, p. 235, note 31).69

temples found in the North of Europe (Dyggve 1956c; et al.). Dyggve takes the information on and interpretation of Slavic gods like Swantewit and pillar houses both from Saxo Grammaticus’s (c. 1160–after 1208) Danish history until 1185, Gesta Danorum and from the reconstructions and unsolved questions posed by J. Strzygowski and Carl Schuchhardt (1859–1943) (Dyggve 1956, p. 37; 1959, p.

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193). Also, with respect to the Swantewit-temple on the island of Rügen, Dyggve speculates – with another comparison to Jelling – about the liturgy under the open skies: “the Holy of Holies had no walls, but was isolated by ciborium-like suspended purple vela” (Dyggve 1959, p. 194).70 For the sake of consistent comparison of Dyggve’s research results with those of others we should not conceal the criticism of Olaf Olsen, who invested, according to his own words, a lot “into a proper investigation of the whole question of continuity from pagan to Christian sites of worship in Scandinavia” (Olsen 1986, p. 126). In his book about the historical and archaeological Viking studies (1966), Olsen has summarized, among others, the results of the revision works in Jelling and other sites with presumed ‘Vi’-sanctuaries in Denmark in the early 1960s. Apart from the “only written ‘evidence’ of some interest”, the famous letter from Pope Gregory the Great to Abbot Mellitus from 601 with an instruction to the missionaries in England to convert the heathen temples into churches (of which Olsen also doubts that it would have been transferred to the Denmark of the tenth century) and the proved existence of the centre in Jelling, Olsen does not see any archaeological basis for the theory of continuation. And apart from Knud J. Krogh’s conclusions upon the revision works in Jelling, which differed from Dyggve’s vertical reconstruction of the ‘three phases’ of pagan and Christian sanctuaries, the general conclusion of Olsen’s historical, archaeological, and topographical investigations remains at least with respect to Jelling’s disposition of monuments. Olsen states that “the Jelling ‘sanctuary’ could in fact be a variant of the boatshaped Viking burial framed by menhirs” and that “under one of the large royal barrows he [Dyggve] found the remains of an evidently V-shaped boundary of upright stones, with the apex pointing south and with the church lying inside the boundary” (Olsen 1986, p. 128). However, Olsen was not convinced that this deep layer was a proof of a pagan sanctuary. It seems that Olsen supports this assumption with another revision of one of ‘Dyggve’s’ ‘Vi’s, that in Tibirke, which Olsen himself had dug in 1964, while on the case of Tingsted, Olsen claims, “Dyggve’s V-shaped enclosure was based only on lines on a sketchy map from 1784”, and the “study of proper cadastral maps and observations on the spot made it clear beyond doubt that the enclosure had never existed” (ibid.). Seen from outside, it seems that Olsen has actual archaeological proof (ex negativo, however) that there was no continuity of the Christian cult within the physical pagan enclosure. In the case of Jelling, the basis of Olsen’s argument seems to me to be another ex negativo proof, however based on a contrary conviction to that of Dyggve, thus offering an explanation which is per much weaker as proof-category of a kind of “thick layer of sand” like in Tibirke. The proof-catego-

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ry for Tingsted lies between the two proofs mentioned above, and is based on an indirect, visual representation (a map), so holding the whole dispute still in a relative balance. Finally, the negation of direct continuation between the pagan and Christian phases does not imply the non-existence of the relationship between the two, as the title of Olsen’s summary article suggests. The at least generally comparable praxis seen in building designs between the pagan, old Christian and Pre-Romanesque times, could be a further indirect argument for the continuation theory. Dyggve’s own excavations at the Šuplja Crkva site from 1931 show for example the Early Romanesque building on topological continuation within the walls of an Christianized Croats at a place where there were already foundations and a supply of other building materials. I think that Dyggve generally had this kind of continuation in mind, which always consisted of the liturgical and political arguments ‘from above’ and ‘from below’, the pragmatic needs and capabilities of the natives on site (Dyggve 1943). It may still be plausible that Dyggve (not in spite of, but because of his integrity as a researcher) slightly changed his attitude from ‘rebel’ to ‘romantic’ over the half century. But, if these adjectives were to be taken in their literary (historical) sense so comparing young Goethe to Baudelaire, it should become clear that such clichés would apply neither to Dyggve nor to Karaman nor to any of their respective supporters. The material related to Dyggve’s work in Jelling and Tisvilde at the National Museum of Denmark and his drawings from the Danish National Art Library in Copenhagen will hopefully help to strengthen one or another chain of indications.71

From

, Salona and Salonae to Solin. From Case to Model

In 1939, seven years after the adjournment of his archaeological mission for the Bimental Researches in Salona in which he together with Rudolf Egger summarized the results of the work in the old Christian Cemetery of Marusinac outside the Northwest walls of Salona which included St. Anastasius’ mausoleum, a large pose (Dyggve 1939 and 1940a; Egger 1936; et al.). Two of four most controversial ‘cases’ in Dyggve’s career and, yes, pillars of his theory, have their origin here: one is the reconstruction proposal of basilica discoperta,72 another the interpretation of the mausoleum of St. Anastasius as a paradigm in the development of a typo-

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the later formulation of ‘Adriobyzantinism’. The third refers to the existence of the basilicae geminae in the Episcopal centre of Salona and the fourth is linked to the mentioned sanctuaries of ‘Jelling’ type. Neither the genealogy and typology of the ‘Vi’-s in Denmark nor those of the churches with rounded buttresses in Croatia can be examined here; both of them belong to the genuine monuments of European cultural heritage which continue to inspire art history and Christian archaeology, still leaving many more individual insights than could be digested in one essay. In any case, Dyggve’s fascination with the mausoleum from Dioclecian in Split and Theoderik in Ravenna to those in Jerusalem, Kalydon or Pécs, just to name a few, can in retrospect hardly be com-

of comparative material related to Anastasius – from the Anastasius-Dyptichon (Dyggve 1938, p. 7) to the problem of the ‘Basilica Anastasis’ (Dyggve 1939, Ch. V and VI, pp. 80ff, 107ff.; 1940; 1940a; 1941; 1943). In the case of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem Dyggve announced characteristically that he wouldn’t want to support his reconstructions and argumentations with the written sources exclusively, but also, for example, with masonry of the related [Constantine] period (Dyggve 1941, p. 6).73 He used the comparative written materials extensively, however, when, for example, he reported on the pilgrim Aetherias from the later fourth century, noting that, “although […] by the expression ‘basilica Anastasis’ she means the same as the expression ‘locus subdivanus’, i.e. the large and beautiful ‘quasi-atrium’, the text-editor has still refused to recognize such an ” (Dyggve 1941, pp. 6–7).74 Dyggve writes not only in this case about Jerusalem, but has Marusinac as known from his own excavations in mind – and he quotes it throughout the whole text. Marusinac serves as an explanation-key par excellence. In the same year, Dyggve reports about Ravennatum palatium sacrum as a hypertral ceremonial basilica, but the involvement of the ‘sister-city’ Ravenna might easily be read as a wink to Marusinac and Salona with direct references to the Researches in Salona III in 1939 (Dyggve 1941a).75 Dyggve’s reconstruction of the cemeterial north complex in Marusinac is implicitly present also later, when he writes about the function of the detached clergy bench (Dyggve 1952a), and certainly when there comes a need for a response to general attacks on the ‘discoperta’ issue. In the case of one doctoral dissertation that attempted to reconstruct the north complex in Marusinac with the help of the modern statics, Dyggve delivered a new indication providing a pilgrim record, while Rudolf Egger supplied the linguistic support (Dyggve 1956, pp. 87–88, 90).

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Figure 88: Marusinac, Dyggve’s axonometric reconstruction of the assembly with basilica discoperta from the Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv Split. (With kind permission of the Conservation department in Split)

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roof’ in Salona, stating with respect to Dyggve, that these objects or complexes “already in the earlier stages of research yielded results that have either enriched or foresaw the science of archaeology ecclesia sine 76 tecto or basilica discoperta, which served Dyggve as references, and reviews engineer, Dr. Stäussler) before concluding that the cemeterial north complex in Marusinac would still obviously have to be sub divo

1940) completely rejected Dyggve’s theory about this possible transition state between the building-type of mausoleum and martyrium the more acceptable solutions in the interpretation of Egger and his proposal of a special type of cemetery with arcades (Arkadenfriedhof; Egger 1939, p. 118) and the similar one by Karaman. Karaman emphasized in his review from Peristil that “Dyggve […] persistently highlights the belief in the intimate connection of mains […] and writes that every martyr’s grave in the cemeteries was, so to say, the altar […]; on the other hand, he supposes, that in the open central area of the basilicae discopertae the funeral dances had been held before the tombs of the martyrs in the sanctuary” (Karaman 1954).77 Karaman questions accordingly an unbridgeable difference between the idea of open cemetery and open sanctuary (as basilica discoperta). After comparison with other sources from the east Adriggve’s assumption of the martyr-grave in the sanctuary of the ‘open basilica’. He supports his conclusion with later excavations, which Dyggve undertook in the Episcopal centre in Salona in 1949 with the support of, among others, Rendic-Miosevic himself. Dyggve partially published the results of these revision works in the second issue of Peristil from 1957, which was dedicated to Karaman’s 70th anniversary. Dyggve’s article with the title Nova basilica discoperta u Solinu [New Basilica Discoperta in Solin critical review of History of Salonitan Christianity Peristil life-long discussion between the two rival opinions. Dyggve relates the new hypertral composed oratorium found on the west side of the nartex of the basilicae geminate (called oratorium “E”) to the basilica discoperta in Marusinac (Dyggve 1957b, p. 59). In his principal defence (along some

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sizes some important facts related to the time delay in the reception of Dyggve’s research in Croatia and in general: The History of Salonitan Christianity from 1951 was a rather short and concentrated summary of six lectures, held at the Institute for Comparative Cultural Studies in Oslo in 1946, but Dyggve was not yet able to include the results of his revision works in the Episcopal complex from tional Congress of the Christian Archaeology in Aix-en-Provence 1954, while

Karaman and Dyggve between 1954 and 1957 is not just a further indication of a reductionist explanation pattern for an obvious rivalry: This is also a link in a chain of proofs and arguments that Dyggve was only able to digest and deliver in a process of his rather extensive comparative cultural studies between the ‘poles’ the idea of the hypertral shape of the oratorium “E” was not at all an issue in spite of many discussions he then had with Dyggve, and concludes that this idea sub78

“We constantly emphasized the role of the extraordinary connoisseur of antique and especially early Christian architecture, Ejnar Dyggve, to whom both study. If today we cannot follow that great connoisseur of the Salonitan monument-heritage in all details, his undeniable merit is that he showed and gave architectural solutions as well as reconstructions for several of Salona’s exceptional monuments or memorial complexes, which he managed to take out of anonymity, but also out of some kind of abstractness. Today, we have still gained, thanks to his research and aim to explain all these issues, a clear representation of a new type of Salonitan early Christian cult architecture, in which a spacious courtyard (atrium?) surrounded by triple porches has become a dominant element.” 79

It should be added that some of the problems of transition from the suburban Heroon-martyrion to urban community church and the further questions of the funeral and Eucharistic liturgy, which Dyggve tried to understand, still remain unsolved (Lemerle 1958, p. 379; Dyggve 1934). The transcribed records of his research from the Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv Split will surely reveal more details. After he visited Split and Solin in the summer of 1960, he gave away the rest of the material related to his most recent research at the Episcopal cult centre in the beginning of

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fute some of the conclusions enclosed there. Other archival materials are expected to provide more indications about Dyggve’s research genealogy both on basilicae discopertae and especially on the second major subject of his research in Salona; the basilicae geminate in the Episcopal centre. Dyggve published several smaller essays related to this huge complex, which History of Salonitan Christianity: “After Rome Salona is the most important urban area on European soil for studies in archaeology of early Christianity” (1951, p. IX). The explanation of the two large, parallel oriented basilicas in its Episcopal center required inquiry into the paths of differthe ‘micro-migrations’ of both living and dead citizens of Salona on the other. The History of Salonitan Christianity, which contains a central theme of the “Christianity intra muros” (Chapters II and III) and “Christianity extra muros” (Chapters IV and V). The whole can be interpreted from this perspective as a saga about insiders and outsiders written by someone who was both an insider and outsider. It is hardly necessary to mention that Dyggve also emphasizes that “ hand, made in this chapter, have been based on purely archaeological observations” (Dyggve 1951, p. 117). Here he takes a back seat and expresses his hope to “encourage other and fresh quarters to undertake detailed studies and through that to help pave the way for the long wanteing large publication on the history of Salonitan Christianity” (Dyggve 1951, p. X). The sixth and last chapter, on the time after the fall of Salona in the early seventh century is hardly an abstract of the multifaceted interdisciplinary studies and the important excavations around 1930, – questions of comparative cultural studies in the context of continuity between Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Dyggve’s message is complex and simultaneously directed both to his critics in Croatia and in Denmark: “ Croatians, because this lack of archeological remains actually seems to be so characteristic of the presence of the Slav tribes. It must not be taken, in any way, to mean that they were without an independent culture of their own, but it has been a culture which, like the Nordic culture and art, on so many points has been based on an easily perishable material, on wood, osier band, and wool. How instructive would it not have been if it had been possible to follow the very beginning – the

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the present time not possible. We may, on the other hand, show to some extent how these pagan immigrants adapt themselves to the religious ways already marked during the Christian time of Salona.” (Dyggve 1951, p. 129) The discussion of continuation and cultural comparison leads to the questions about the Croatian buttress architecture with critical remarks to Strzygowski, but especially to Karaman and his thesis of its autochthonous character. For Dyggve, “there is thus no basis for speaking of an autochthonous Croatian early medieval art of building […] During the time of mission the erection of new church-buildings is not a free stylistic problem, a question of general taste; no, at the back of it stands the missionary work with all its special presuppositions” (Dyggve 1951, pp. 138–39). Having Dyggve’s ‘functionalistic’ presuppositions in mind, this conclusion does not surprise at all; Karaman’s response in Peristil three years later appears in retrospect similarly expected as well. His drive to the comparative cultural studies underlines Dyggve once again: “On the basis of this architectural ecclesiastical-historical picture drawn, meeting between the fresh young Slav immigrants and the apparently demolished classical Christian civilization. There is certainly something universal about this meeting.” (Dyggve 1951, p. 142) Dyggve’s motivation becomes transparent in the last sentence, where he reports on the time-frame of ca. 300–1000 and: “a work of research, which is so much more important than the formation of the states of Europe of the present day, and essential sides of our whole social life up to the two world wars, built on this long wrongly disregarded period of stirring centuries, that bear the stamp as well of worship of authority as of a gradually increasing individual civilization.” (Dyggve 1951, p. 143) One year after publishing the History of Salonitan Christianity, Dyggve further elaborated a few questions linked to the ‘double churches’ in the Episcopal centre in Salona in the text entitled The Origin of the Urban Churchyard. He returned especially to demonstrating a kind of a ‘continuous shift’ from the burials extra muros into those intra muros. Although the provisions of the Roman Twelve Tables-Law, according to which the burials must be done outside the city walls, have covered the long period of a full millennium, their validity seemed not to be practiced subsequently. “Certain tendencies towards private burials in the towns must be evident”, concludes Dyggve, because the “prohibition in repeated imperial edicts […] of course otherwise would have been unnecessary” during the Byzantine times. “It is this repeated emphasizing that seems important to me, as the

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of the laws of the empire scarcely in itself entitles one to draw any conclusion at to this point” (Dyggve 1952, p. 149). Dyggve describes the ‘migrations’ of the dead related to the cult of the martyrs with words like “invasion” and “dramatic rivalry” (pp. 150–51), concluding that both archaeological as well as literary facts indicate that there was only one safe means of remedying this stagnation of the urban church, and the means was the introduction of the martyr-cult in the urban church (p. 152). Further work around the churches of St. Stephen and of St. Mary, recovered at the above mentioned location Gospin Otok just outside the east city walls should provide further support for the theory of the ‘double churches’, and additional information about the yet unresolved question of the situation of the palatine church of the Croatian kings and queens. Also some results are expected from the transcription of Dyggve’s unpublished notes, which indicate some remains of the walls 80

Later investigations have challenged the attribution of the southern old Cro-

[1998]), an earlier assumption about the basilicae geminate has been revived 81

ests, from the Roman theatre and Byzantine palace to the Nordic pagan and Christian memorials. With his innovative methods, his systematic and detailed procedures, standardized excavation and reporting, he certainly represented the outstanding features of Danish archaeology. Another feature and a condition sine qua non was national interest and support. It is our wish to reintroduce Ejnar managed to encompass both the North and the South of Europe in his work; and then to discuss and present it through exhibitions and publications, both to Danish and Croatian colleagues and the general public. Especially it is our wish to map, highlight and also make available for our younger fellow art historians the features of Christian archaeology as seen through the eyes of Ejnar Dyggve, whose two dearest signatures were that of danus and of civis salonitanus. Today’s visitors to the gorgeous archaeological site of Salona near Split still Denmark indeed considered [Dyggve] as a giant of its science,

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Figure 89: One of the entrances to the Salona-site with the reconstruction-drawing map of Ejnar Dyggve as it is today

and he, in turn, well aware that he belongs to a modest nation, has emphasized his nationality even in the signatures of his drawings (delineavit Ejnar Dyggve Danus it says on some drawings of ancient Salona)”82 Dyggve published the results of his research in many different languages and his ‘polyglot’ character can doubtlessly be compared with that of Schliemann. Yet, as P. Lemerle completely understandably laments in his text about Dyggve and Christian archaeology, Dyggve’s immersion in his own language realm had the surprising ‘downside’ that: “[his pamphlet] is written in Danish and only quotes, references and illustrations would let me guess its content and interest. It would have been desirpublished. It would have been even more desirable if Dyggve would agree, after brief as they are, can only convey incompletely and certainly too sketchily the richness, diversity, and creative ingenuity of a mind that has much to offer us yet. Notwithstanding, I hope Ejnar Dyggve will permit me to offer them to him on behalf of all as a testimony of loving friendship.” (Lemerle 1958, p. 382)

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Figure 90: Jelling-site with the newly marked widened areal in the shape of parallelogram, as on August 24th 2013. (© Slavko Kacunko)

Figure 91: Jelling-site with the oval shape of the ‘ship’, newly marked with the betony blocks, as on August 24th 2013. (© Slavko Kacunko)

The purpose of writing this essay in today’s lingua franca was obviously and primarily to make the envisioned comparative cultural perspective readable for the interested public both in Denmark and Croatia. Dyggve’s own ‘two lives’ as an architect and an archaeologist can also be viewed on a geographical scale, making him

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Denmark with Henrik, Prince Consort of Den-

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Denmark appraising the famous baptistery of th

Split in April 1977. (With kind permission of during the visit in Split in April 1977. (With

alin situ church and two rune stones between the two burial mounds is now visibly framed by ship, which itself is girthed by a larger ‘fence’ forming a parallelogram, so showing

Another of Dyggve’s favourites, Diocletian’s Palace in the Old Town of

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As a matter of fact, Split was the part of ager Salonitanus and not the other way around. As the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia, Salona was the actual source of the later cultural continuity of the east Adriatic coast. Tomislav’s brother 1950s and organized it before Tomislav took over to tend it and before the Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv

Dyggve’s invitation in Copenhagen in 1958 to systematize his archive in Copenhagen and to bring Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv Split. (With kind

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itage sites. He said, “I would support it with all my power, and, by the way, Dyggve would have done so, too.” The long and deserving history of Danish and Croatian archaeology provide without doubt promising perspectives for future collabora-

monument site on September 10th 2013. National Museums director Per Kristian Madsen on the right. (Photo: Claus Fisker) © BT 2013

special exhibition of the Dyggve Archive Split on October 24th 2014 in Split.

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9.5 Rewind to the future: recent research on Dyggve in context Digging Dyggve goal of a new digitizing of the Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv Split, which is still not transcribable in its present low-resolution form. This archive documents Dyggve’s work as an architect-curator at the Archaeological Museum in Split and as the leading archaeologist of the company (specialized in research of the Old Croatian monuments in the region) for the Salona-excavations as well as an associate and period 1947–2008. In the part dedicated to the Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv Split 2012, pp. 557–90), there is a description of the process of the donation of the archive to the city of Split. Dyggve invited architect Jerko Marasovic to his home in Copenhagen in February 1958 to help with the systematization of the material related to Dyggve’s extensive excavations and other research activities along the east Adriatic coast and after a fruitful two-month collaboration, a research structure ordered along topological lines was set out. It included data negatives and Dyggve’s own manuscript and typewritten notes, most of them in Danish. From the book documenting the use of the archive, it has also been documented which parts of the archive are currently lacking and which parts, where and when, have been lent to the users (some of whom have died). In other words, the material, the most of which is today under the auspices of the Conservation arranging, including the restoring of its borrowed parts and its completion as well as a new digitization. versity of Copenhagen, Søren Kaspersen, Jens Fleischer (both retired in 2014), and Nicoletta Isar, we have formed the Ejnar Dyggve Research Group Copenhagen with the purpose of realizing the last mentioned, a seemingly simple – or in the words of Jens Fleischer, “down-to-earth” project of transcription and translation into English of the digitized material as well as making it available for further death as an occasion for that and contacted the colleagues in Croatia immediately.

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have supported the initiative. With the priceless mediation and consulting help of Goran Blagus, a friend and colleague from the Croatian Ministry of Culture in Zagreb, the Ejnar Dyggve Research Group Copenhagen has received the right of 2015, as noted in the Cooperation Statement of the Minister of Culture Prof. Dr. Andrea Zlatar Violi, dated September 24, 2012. However, after the visit of part of our group to Zagreb and Split in 2012, we have decided to widen the concept, so project with the title Ejnar Dyggve and the Reconstructing the Roots of Christianity in Europe – Meeting the Perspectives two somewhat shortened, following applications named A legacy renewed: The Ejnar Dyggve Digital Archives – a Danish-Croatian collaboration project. These rather disappointing, but with respect to Dyggve’s long absence from agendas in Denmark not really unexpected results, have resulted in both new insights and strategic perspectives and showed how an enhanced creative and proactive approach remains a must: there followed two further trips to Croatia, of which the last, to Split, took place in July 2013 together with the new collaborator, Anne Haslund Hansen from the National Museum in Copenhagen. Thanks to the Copenhagen, the National Museum of Denmark and not least the Ministries of Culture and Science in Croatia, we have been able to co-organize an international conference Ejnar Dyggve. Creating Crossroads, which took place in Split in Croatia, November 7–9, 2013. So, out of necessity our second phase has turned to tive to address further goals related to the envisioned rediscovering of one of the internationally most renowned Danish scholars. The Conference was cooperation with the in Split and it assembled an international network of experts on the research area related to the Shaping of Medieval Europe. (cf. Dyggve 2013). The exhibition and a catalogue dedicated to Ejnar Dyggve in October–November 2014 (cf. Dyggve 2014) were the subsequent public events organized by the Ministry of Culture of the Republic Croatia and the Danish Culture Agency in Split. They culminated with the formal and her visit in Salona. A new contract for a new digitizing of the Ejnar Dyggve Archive Split and its public availability Online were public signed in Split as well. The future discourse on Dyggve and his role in the comparative culture research

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planned transcription and translation of the Dyggve archive; 2) to re-introduce

Europe and re-estimate his importance for today’s art- and architectural history and comparative cultural studies.

10. Coreless. Bacteria, art, and other incommodities 10.1 Big bacteria: a future framework for the arts, sciences and humanities1 10.1.1 Preliminary Being the oldest, smallest, most abundant and structurally simplest organisms, bacteria are ubiquitous, diverse and variant, as well as vital for all other life forms. Bacteria’s materiality, aliveness and invisibility challenge recent visual and representational explanation patterns. This most primitive cell exhibits a form of organisation that is responsible for interpreting and changing the processes it is involved in. As such, bacteria cannot be completely captured neither in the concept of representation nor in that of information. The methodological efforts to overcome the crisis of scriptural representation “have been building up steam since the post-modern era and the turn to the sensory dimension in the 1980’s.” (Zilberg 2012, p. 18.) The simultaneous rise of the research of visual representation and the bodily which covers the invisible but living matter, agents or acteurs and affects us no less than the mass and social or cellular media coverage. Throughout the previous decades, the paradigmatic-genealogical oriented methodological perspectives have determined bacteria either in toto or as models which represent human agencies, societies or ecological systems, so going beyond bacteria’s quantity, qualities, relations and modalities.2 At the same time, emerging sub disciplines of the life sciences. like synthetic biology interpret bacteria mainly as media and material (‘bio-bricks’3) or as breeding-containers for sub-cellular processes, so going below the necessary requirements of these basic organisms.4 The purpose of the forming of Big Bacteria research network is to examine both the abovementioned impasses and bacteria’s fundamental features that make them the basic media, tools and agents of living matter. The aim is to understand when, where, why and how bacteria has served and increasingly serve as omnipresent motives, metaphors and models for rethinking relations between natural and health sciences, the humanities and the arts, by building not least on the recent results of international interdisciplinary research.5

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10.1.2 The central hypothesis The central hypothesis and the concept is represented by the methodological and content structure of the network with the purpose of enabling an effective interdisciplinary collaboration on concrete sub-projects while remaining clearly arranged and controllable with respect to their outcomes. Big Bacteria’s central hypothesis is that interdisciplinary inquiry in bacteria’s quantity, qualities, relations and modalities provides an overall potential to boost corresponding research with an immense variety of societal and industrial applications. Bacteria are therefore to be methodologically treated as (a) indispensable matter of knowledge (bacteria as epistemic objects, material and media) and as (b) methods for its acquiring (bacteria as epistemic tools for analysis and synthesis), as well as (c) agents and agencies (bacteria as epistemic subjects of historicising and experimentation).

10.1.3 Bacteria as Epistemic Subjects, Objects and Tools Big Bacteria

1 Agency

2 Form & Growth

3 Size & Sensing

4 Diversity

5 Productivity

A Epistemic Objects (Material & Media)

Dust as Matter & Medium in Environmental Research

Patina & Bio Film in Preservation of Heritage and Environment

Classifying Cultures: Bacterial Taxonomy & Mediality

Bacteria’s Metabolic Diversity

Health & Wealth: Microbial Ecology and Sociality

B Epistemic Tools (Analysis & Synthesis)

Bacterium and Cell: Autonomous Agents, Acteurs & Information

Epistemic Twists: Motility & Adherence

System Models & Behavioural Patterns

Bacteria’s Variation Diversity: Mutation & Recombination

Duplicity: Bacteriology and Synthetic Biology

C Epistemis Subjects (Historicizing & Experimentation)

Res vivens: The Discursive Fields of Life

Bacteria’s Structures & Visualization

Epidemic Twists: Germ Theory of Disease

Bacteria Tweaking in Contemporary Culture

Between Lab and Field Research: Bacteria’s Etiology & Evolution

Big Bacteria’s hypothesis and central concept bound into the net of the methodological divergences (A–C) and content convergences (1–5)6, related to the research questions

A. Bacteria as epistemic objects [A1] As a matter of fact, bacteria are the basis of permanently changing and sensing living matter. Microbial ‘dust’7 and ‘patina’ (Toyka 1996, Krumbein 2003, Gor-

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bushina et. al. 2000) as material and medium represent an important case for bacteria’s agency to be systematised. [A2] While the related research on bioremediation (Lovley 2001, Wassenaar 2012 et. al.) and biodeterioration8 is already used in artistic and heritage. [A3] To sense and comprehend the nature and the cultures of sense and comprehend ourselves within our world in a more profound manner. The (1853–1938) brought about a still valid pre-molecular approach by staining bacteria (Gram Stain ism and a valuable diagnostic tool in both the clinical and research environment. The method relies on different colour staining of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, depending on the physical differences of their cell walls, while this epistemologically fruitful dichotomy is being aesthetically implemented. The new and emerging methods of phylogenetics, cladistics and systematics of bacteria follow the molecular approach9 in different strands with the purpose of integrating genomics with taxonomy and systematics.10 With respect to the thousands (if not hundreds of thousands) of uncharacterised type strains of bacterial species with validly published names (by April 2014 there are ca. 2.300 valid bacterial names listed), it is clear that the future microbiology, rely on such results. At the same time, both the major classifying cultures are bringing about new bacteria species as epistemic objects by naming them, although most of them are not known to exist outside the laboratory. An interdisciplinary look at the preceding and molecular approaches to this rapidly changing ing genomes and living matter for responding to the urgent requests. [A4] As irreplaceable components of recycled matter, foremost due to their metabolic diversity, enabling them to obtain carbon atoms and energy from practically everywhere on Earth. This diverse feature, seen by many as the true nature of bacteria, makes them the real synonym of ubiquity, which

diphtheria, pneumonia, cholera, blood poisoning, syphilis, gonorrhoea, plague, anthrax), the study of the economic importance of bacteria clearly indicates that the bacteria prevail and require an appropriate elucidation and an advanced educative approach and inclusion in the curricula.11 The material and medial, synthetic and analytic as well as experimenting and historicising aspects of the protection and productivity brought by bacteria represent the global needs

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that can be adjusted on local level. The profound impact of bacteria on the world’s ecology (being a precondition for life) brings about the urgent need for interdisciplinary research at the intersection of health and wealth. Finally, microbial ecology and sociality are stacked together in the rather cursorily described phenomena of bacterial ‘suspended animation’ in form of spores or ‘dormant bacteria’. The former concepts of pleomorphismus of micro organisms and other hypotheses supported by the optically observed endosymbiotic microscopy after G. Enderlein) require further inquiries and systematisations of bacteria.

B. Bacteria as epistemic tools [B1] Analytical and synthetic research approaches and explanation patterns to the bacterium and cell reveal the long-standing methodological and practical tensions between the concepts of life and autonomous agents (Kauffman 2004, Bedau 2007), acteurs and the concept of information. (Schrödinger 1951, Wilson 2001) Bacteria as one-cell organisms are described from the biosemiotic perspective as the simplest natural cases of an observing system (Hoffmeyer, Pattee), which makes them not only an interpretation instance, but also leaves room for questioning how our habits represent the most general forms of interpretation. (Hoffmeyer 1998) At the same time, the accompanying concept of ‘iconic absence’ (Hoffmeyer), challenges the concept of representation, pointing out the related, long-standing epistemic life. The latter converges with the abovementioned concepts in the dispute between the cybernetic suggestions life and those of general biology (Kauffman), geology and marine biology (Krummbein, Gorbushina, Caneva, Gram), as well as the biosemiotic (Hoffmeyer et. al.) [B2] The knowledge about the adherence and motility of bacteria, their magnitude and the internal form and structure of cells, has potential to microscopy (both analogue and electronic). A very simple yet effective technique, it is well suited for analysis of live and unstained single-celled organisms. More general morphological questions (karyokinesis) (Thompson 1917, p. 23ff.) provide further interdisciplinary openings both of and for synthetic approaches.12 [B3] At the interconnection between their size and sense, bacterial interactions provide us with models of social behaviour (quorum sensing)13 which make it unavoidable to acknowledge the underlying constructivism in the bacterial taxonomy. [B4] Since bacteria’s rapid mutation-capacity is followed by an offensive use of recombination

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techniques to provide an immediate reaction in the globalised context, the clearly recognised, labour-induced (multiple-) resistance problem of lethal bacteria requires adjustments of strategies and deeper interdisciplinary 2014. Cf. Schmitt 1982 and recent research in MRSA/ORSA.) Both analytical and synthetic approaches should be put respectively in an interdisciplinary perspective. [B5] Micro organisms have also been increasingly central in philosophy and art. (Cf. Kauffman, Latour, Pattee, Peirce, Hoffmeyer, Schrödinger, Leduc, Thompson)

C. Bacteria as epistemic subjects [C1] In respect to both the historicising and the experimental approaches to life at its most basic level – the one cellular life of bacteria – competing requirements of life for a microbe exist, and as such serve as ‘container’ or breeding medium directly meeting the needs of synthetic biology or other applications of molecular life as res vivens and the problem of agency offers, therefore, further profound cultural-historical and anthropological insights into the philosophical, epistemic and medicinal questions related to bacteria and microbial research.14 Today we are engaged with life that both juristically and economically seems to be indestructible and is therefore dealt with as exchangeable, patentable, recombinable and saleable. The increasingly perfect closed-circuit technologies for visualisation, data acquisition and control (Cf. Bogard 1996, Kacunko 2004 & 2010) are providing us with constant images of such life, while its and modifying survival strategies of the ‘subject matter’. This innate permeability and capability of the cohesion of bacteria as epistemic objects, which can also serve as subjects, agents or instruments of understanding, are of particular interest here. Bacteria mark the identitygap between the res cogitans and res extensa. As res vivens,15 these coreless onecell organisms build today’s dominant core media and materials of art and science projects involving biotechnologies. They are also emblematic of how much biological research has always been dependent on the very representation of its objects of bacteria (Gram Stain) clearly demonstrates. Considering that “map making is world making” (Nelson Goodman, Ways of Worldmaking, 1978), bacteria have been overlooked as subject matter since their adaptive mediality and in-betweeness is not prone to the ontological construction of subjectivity. And yet, current initiatives such as the Human Microbiome Project explore the fact that the human body contains over ten times

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more microbial cells than human cells, epistemologically turning individual organisms into symbiotic ecological communities. [C2] Bacteria’s structural simplicity (three basic forms of bacilli, cocci and spirilla) and the possibility as well as strategies of their visualisation (for example of peptidoglycan which serves a structural role in the bacterial cell wall, giving it both a structural strength and counteracting the osmotic pressure of the cytoplasm) still belong to the most interesting epistemic aesthetic. Both the stained and not-stained bacteria (the latter visually ‘captured’ in movement), as well as less known analogue and digital microscopic techniques, belong to this research question. [C3] The historiography and the experimental and medical praxis, art and literature deliver the best documented (if not interpreted genealogy and the dialectic between miasma theory and humoral16 theory of immunity on one side and the contagion, cellular or germ theory of infection on the other, became problematic nearly ten years ago from the perspective of the sociological history of science. (Cf. Sarasin et. al. 2007) However, the relationship of bacteria as agents and ‘acteurs’ (Latour 2007), both in their concrete applications and appearances today and outside of the disease and epidemiology context, remained a desideratum. [C4] The still underdeveloped praxis of bacteria tweaking in contemporary – for either of the abovementioned contexts – further innovative educational and implementation formats, particularly in the context of the relatively recent phenomena of ‘bio-garages’. [C5] Even if we have learned most about bacteria from studies in the laboratory, it remains important to understand and further explore the limits of both the experimental and historical approach. Also the advantages and limitations fossil stromatolites et. al.) (cf. Lesch & Zaun 2010) suggest the need for case studies placed between the analogue cultured and digitally modelled results on the surface of bacterial diversity.

10.1.4 A personal retro-perspective art history, pedagogy and philosophical inquiry productive for the ‘liveness’ of the processual arts has resulted in a dissertation about the concepts, performances, installations and video tapes of a German artist lead to a global overview of the closed-circuit video installations (2004). From my discoveries in content-related relationships, a particular interest in systems models

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and behavioural patterns (including the study of physical, biological and anthropological systems) has emerged. Further inquiry can appropriately been teased with the title ‘From live art to life art’. Seen through the disciplinary glasses, it became clear that the actual sciences are operating between the mechanisation of living and the animation of technology (2014i; 2012c,d; 2011b,c,e; 2010d,e; cf. Hauser 2013). The term ‘ this transformation in which the degree of equality of human and nonhuman actors has apparently transformed the alleged polarity between the humanities and natural sciences. In the context of the emerging interdisciplinary discourse, the abovementioned comprehensive historical and theoretical review (2004) was placed (cf. Weber 2003, Hauser 2003, Reichle 2005, Whitelaw 2005).17 Because the differences that observers register (and we measure) are heavily dictated by biologically and culturally created interests, an ethological (behaviour-oriented) approach delivered an important link in a chain of disciplines, providing a truly interdisciplinary perspective invisible and the concept of ‘ aesthetics’ (2014c; 2012a,b,c,d; 2010a,b,c; 2009a,b) on the crossroads of biosemiotics, biotechnology, art and culture revealed not least that there are common points of departure generated out of the ‘pitiless beauty’ of bacteria linked among others to light, colours and social behaviour have been explored over the past 10 years in collaboration with the artists working in this domain (2014a,b,e; 2013c). The neologism ‘ research-based art by Sabine Kacunko, who, in the context of her art and science projects, had the opportunity to work with geomicrobiologists, immunologists and cultural and natural further unpredicted insights and revealed the urgency of building an international interdisciplinary team and network which is hoped to be operational very soon. In order to build the interdisciplinary team and network, an initiative project team (IPT) is being formed which consists of the internationally renowned, leadsciences as well as humanities including participants in other R&D excellence centres in wider research network of authors which build the core of the present state of the 18 The hypothesis and central concept presented above include important elements of the disciplinarily dispersed knowledge on the subject matter in order to demonstrate the urgent need for interdisciplinary actualisation and systematisation. IPT’s individual research results indicate that the understanding of the specialised nature sciences (like that of bacteriology) plays as

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humanities, cultures and societies as the latter play for the sciences and (cultural) humanities, as well as the changing and remaining issues of collaborative productivity, have been addressed as ever with miscellaneous rhetoric and strategic points of departure, pointing out rightly that the need for an interdisciplinary curriculum development in the arts, sciences and humanities represents one of the major challenges.19 However, collaborative potential at the research level and especially the power of artists to change the perspectives of the scientists don’t seem to be encouraging. pressing the conviction that basic ity of ‘data’ and ‘nature of data’ should not be compromised by collaborations with non-scientists. (Zilberg 2012, p.18.) The practical answers to these existing methodpothesis and central concept. The ‘implicit’ or ideal observation and observer (like the reception aesthetics in linguistics [W. Isser] or art history [W. Kemp] use them) must therefore be replaced by an ‘explicit’ observer and the practice of observation, where ‘immersion’ and ‘ opening the observation and appraisal praxis to the recent international research which also includes non-human agencies. The cell, which performs this task of bringing about the epistemic object by interpreting it – the embryonic reading of the chromosome – thus appears as “the simplest natural case of an observing system.” (Pattee 1996, cf. Hoffmeyer 1998) From this perspective, the vitalistic concept of an observer on one side and the calculatory concept of measurement on the other – both epistemic concepts – meet in the concept of the interpreter as both subject and object (as cro human’-perspective (Kacunko 2012) in the time of the alleged ‘anthropocene’, the extension of research from the aetiology of art onto the aetiology of life also opens a corresponding perspective to the birth, life, death and ‘resurrection’ of life sciences within the context of the humanities. The following artists, working both within and outside the label ‘Bio Art’, belong to the international art-based research circle to be linked to the Big Bacteria network: Eduardo Kac, Edgar Lissel, CritiFeuerstein, Tuur Van Balen, Anna Dumitriu, Andy Gracie, Marc Dusseiller, Yashas Shetty, Mukund Thattai, Paul Vanouse, Marta de Menezes, Peta Clancy, Andre Brodyk, Julien Haye, SymbioticA, Oron Catts, Karen D. Thornton, David Kremer,

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IPT is supposed to guarantee the programme’s impact and implementation through the building and coordination of a related international network. Not least humanities and sciences, one of the critical constructing areas of the network is the analytical, historical and communicative aspect of dealing with the acquired data and information.

10.2 Life, death and dusty rebirth: bacterial circuits and aesthetics

To ask for the origins of life is to ask for the origin of the environment Jesper Hoffmeyer (1998) The origin of the here represented, initially art-historical, interest in this area was delivered, on the one hand, by the early monographic works on video and media art (2001), which have ultimately led to a global, historical mapping of Closed system models and behavioural patterns’, the focus has moved more and more away from ontological questions to epistemological questions and from information theories to bio-epistemologies. Subsequently, as mentioned, the neologism ‘bacteria art’ has been applied for the research-based art. The reason for this was the fact that the artist demonstrated an extensive understanding about the role and meaning of bacteria and her top priority was to convey the respective contents by presenting her work deliberately to as wide an audience as possible, which was virtually confronted It was from this perspective that the uniqueness of this approach became clear, i.e., that the artist set herself apart from most of the representatives of so-called bio-art. Approximately two-thirds of the latter has worked either randomly or on several occasions with bacteria. (cf. 10.1.3.) However, none of them, as far as I can of bacteria at the centre of medial public with such a programmatic consistency.20 Sabine Kacunko resorts in her bacteria art, amongst others, to the patina and evidence of surface changes, which she also makes accessible for art using naturalduce the interdisciplinary and also media-pedagogic potentials of the respective

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Figure 97: Sabine Kacunko, Negative of the wild boar skull populated by with bacteria. Kunstverein Coburg 2003 © Sabine Kacunko

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bacteria so far can be most clearly conveyed through the related research-based art. The former should be illustrated using an artistic position, which has conprogram. The currently globally spread, academic programs on art-based research (Art-based Research; Practice-based Research etc.) have researched the linkages between research through art, research about art and research that uses art. This cross-disciplinary, ic usage of artistic processes as sources for comprehension and conveying of experiences by researchers, institutions and the audience. On the other hand, it delivers insights into the cross-disciplinary, epistemic twists, which, in turn, represent a high relevance for future education and professional practice. If one intends to search for formative lessons and experiences about the ‘bacteria art’21 by Sabine Kacunko, one is forced to leaf through the books of her between Scylla and Charybdis of the religion and natural sciences by diving into the basics of the cell biology, molecular biology and the emerging ecology. The reactivity of microbes and other organic substances to their environment and, above all, the structure, the metabolism and the ecology of bacteria in reference to the energy cycle and cycle of materials have repeatedly been a subject of her artistic interest. In densely written notebooks the natural found ranging from the general organisation of the bacterial cell and chemical reactions of species of bacteria to Micrococcus, Thiobacillus and ‘jumping genes’ on bacterial plasmids. (Schmitt 1982, p.139–ff.) They also contain notes about antibiotic resistances and corresponding ‘natural monuments’.22 With the bacteria art by Sabine Kacunko in mind, alleged contradictions come undone even more naturally and without theoretical constraint when biology, the life science, is regarded as a fringe science par excellence. Art as fringe science and bearer of ‘interface aesthetics’ implies in this context, the apparently creative and interpretative basics of the natural sciences and refers to the general macro connections between art and science that continuously reform and transform themselves especially on the micro-level. In retrospect, it becomes evident how the ‘fringe arts’ and ‘fringe sciences’ found their medium in bacteria art, after the early interpenetration of biology and religion left the context. The alchemy, operating preferably in the shadows, of this procreative and at the same time highly explosive mixture became the common working method of the graduate from the Düsseldorf Arts Academy in the 1990s, when she created extreme close-up pictures of still life (in this case literally nature morte) by dint of

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daylight and thus revealed a fascinating, meaningful and important transformation. This bacteria art in the 2000s. The (self-) appreciation of the individual artistic vision became more important during the ensuing period, especially along the interface between art and technology, biology and geology. The ‘truth’ – as ancient Greek a-leteia or un-concealment – manifested itself as a mission that the most famous German visionary of the Middle Ages, Hildegard von Bingen, described memorably as: “You have the task to reveal the concealed things.” With her closed-circuit video installation Product of Life (2002),23 theme circle of her art; the circle in which ‘the animate light’ (Hildegard von work was an interactive, large image installation consisting of slide material 400 cm high and 160 cm wide.24 A boar skull was chosen as a motif, a large-sized black-and-white photo work of the artist (Skull [Schädel], 1997), whose negative was starting to fall apart due to colonisation by bacteria. This act of colonisation of the alleged ‘dead’ by the alleged ‘living’ can be marked as the beginning of the ‘bacterial art’ of Sabine Kacunko. The process set in motion was documented with a digital imaging procedure by using slides to present the decay of the negative With this and numerous ensuing installations under the hypernym P.O.L. Art (Product of Life), Sabine Kacunko set out in uncharted artistic, medial and scienout. This group of works remained distinctive for the next decade, for example the installation Culture Round Culture (2002). Here the artist let bacteria eat an original negative with the Fish [Fisch], 1997). The process of the decomposing negative was projected live onto the wall with all the paradoxes showing up in this context. “The observer becomes,” Sabine Kacunko states in a description of the project, “a witness of the different phases of decay and destruc” This project questioned at a general level “the present time in the context of culture and religion” falling obviously on good ground. Culture Round Culture was the biologist, Wolfgang Krumbein.25 The fruitful dialogue between art and science in pursuit for the suitable mediation processes of this dialogue, which are increasingly shifting into the public sphere. The required analysis of the meaning behind the origination process of largesized photo objects by Sabine Kacunko stretches pars pro toto from her complete

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Figure 98: Sabine Kacunko, Bloody Moon. Installation, Kunstpalast Düsseldorf 2003 © Sabine Kacunko

oeuvre to the highlighted origination process of her ‘bacteria images’. The ensuing video installations, among others Life (Leben, 2002), can be seen as a consistent continuation of the photographic and videographic natura morta e viva of the artist (Kacunko 2004, p. 728), who has been evolving since the mid-1990s. The ‘artistic’ engages thus in a dialog with the ‘natural’, with the content and the meaning, the ‘animate’ of the art opposes the formally seemingly ‘dead’ motif from the nature and experiencing simultaneously its continuous living in it.

10.2.1 SAY(IL)ING / BO(O)TSCHAFT The early and interim phase of Kacunko’s work was followed by the project SAY(IL)ING [BO(O)TSCHAFT] that has been realised in several stages. This project focuses primarily on the objects in the public sphere with a particular cultural or ecological background. The starting point creates the increasing excessive demand of the bearer of democratic decision-making processes under globalised conditions of medial and any other hyperproduction. In this regard, according to

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Figure 99: Sabine Kacunko, BOOTSCHAFT-Plange Mühle. Installation, Düsseldorf 2006 © Sabine Kacunko

the initial analysis of the artist, it is becoming more and more important to illuminate both metaphorically and factually the individual contents, among which are the surfaces of natural and cultural ‘sayings’, and thus to visualise their meaning patina of an object (e.g. a public building) will be projected onto the surface of the same object as a live video image. Thanks to the medial visualisation of its microscopic structure, the ‘history’ and the ‘present’ of the illuminated object and its surroundings ‘unwind’. It is circularly demonstrated, documented and presented to the public for presence of the represented object into a cultural subject. This constellation of observed and observing subjects evokes the tendencies of the present interaction with the ‘objects’ and ‘subjects’ of the natural-historical and cultural-historical and later widely adopted. (for critique of Latour’s position cf. Ch. 1) relevance and topicality through the interlocking of technology, culture, ecology and economy, which obviously does not orientate itself primarily to economic growth. The growth that Sabine Kacunko acts on encloses, however, the logic of the above separate disciplines in the age of (as to referred by Latour) ‘techno

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cultures’, by focusing on their mutual ‘resource-materialistic’ (cf. Kacunko 2010) fundaments and future prospects. The project SAY(IL)ING is, in this regard, based upon a seemingly simple ‘observation’: microbes produce the natural chemical and organic substances solved in them, create a protective the ‘patina’ – protects objects from decay as analogous memory of the past. Art poses in this context as a ‘guardian’ of this sensible protective layer, which (re) presents simultaneously a medial-material ‘natural-analogous’ bearer of culture/

10.2.2 Patina The term ‘patina’26 shows especially clearly what political-shattering effect hides in the recognition of the beauty of irreversibility and what kind of aesthetic and perception-psychological aspects the acceptance of the patina involves. While some look at the elimination of traces of time as an “intolerable ‘ facelifting’” that “negates the history of the objects” (Toyka 1996, p. 7), some attribute it with ‘dignity’ and a protective function. So far, unfortunately, it has not gone beyond wishful statements that questions of patina should be asked, not least perception-psychologically but also “based on what criteria the rejection or acceptance of patina tion, decomposition, destruction on the one hand and the acceptable signs of use of age-related color shifts and any patina on the other?” (12) The Naturalis Historiae of Pliny the Elder handles the subject of the surface treatment of bronze statues or questions about the much more rationally than modern times; with J. J. Winckelmann on the one hand, and the Romantics on the other. Art and science have seldom been in the position to mediate consciously and effectively between the yearning for a lost life in accordance with nature on the one hand and the future utopia on the other hand. The rightly oft-quoted [The] Lure of Antiquity and the Cult of the Machine (Bredekamp 1993) were thrown out of the mutually dependent balance on the release patina – conceived as protection and seen as ruin – is also the interface where art and nature, matter and spirit as well as philosophy, religion and other views intertwine in a particularly pronounced way. (Art) history is both readable and measurable from the patina as from a patina and its microbial

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condition for natural and cultural history does not only result from the relatively new ascertainment of geology that the bio-erosion (caused by the colonisation of bacteria and other microbes) has stronger impact on material than, for instance, wind erosion. We learn from it too that the balance is dependent on material and If one wanted to express it in W. E. Krummbein’s words – put bluntly – one could say: “Nothing is dirt, everything is life.”27 From this consciously ‘vitalism-susthe modern art be derived; but politically sensitive questions of the preservation of monuments, their publicity and sustainability are put into a new perspective as well. The fact is that nowadays the “decision about monument worthiness” is “no longer in the hands of the public or public force” but “partly at the discretion of a segmented public or even an individual person” (Ratzmann 2008, p. 41) – these facts also have to be seen as a consequence of privatisation strategies, the strengthened will for the power of images, their digital storage and complete attribution as well as manipulation.

10.2.3 Life The question about ‘life’ under the conditions of its decay and simultaneous mechanic-chemical reproduction is posed in the context of the complete oeuvre of Sabine Kacunko both from the artistic and the the aspects of the molecular machinery, the circuit of metabolism and the genetic network as well as the aspects of the biosynthesis of the membrane, but we still do not know what makes the living cell naturally alive. (Kauffman 2002, p. life question’ comes from the biochemist and physicist, astronomer and philosopher, doctor and system theorist, Stuart Kauffman. In his work with models in the various areas of biology, especially in developmental and evolutionary biology, he points out that the understanding of the fundaments of ‘life’ for biology would mean the establishment of a so-called ‘general biology’. This general biology would have to act free from the restraints of a terrestrial biology, which is the only one that we have known so far, in order to be able to ask the questions about the laws of the biosphere in the entire universe. (cf. Kauffman 2004 & Atkins 2002) Thus the ‘Gaia’ hypothesis today is experiencing not only its actualisation accepted in expert circles, but also its expansion. For the argument here analyzed by Sabine Kacunko in her numerous media performances, it is important that the perspective expansion in Kauffman’s

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theory happens only through a criticism of the reductionist her project SAY(IL)ING [BO(O)TSCHAFT] she not only distances herself from she also applies the means and methods of molecular biology, geology and other natural the ‘macro narratives’ and ‘micro narratives’. The key question of the book What is life (1944) by Erwin Schrödinger (Schrödinger 1951) referred to the source of the astonishing order in the ‘biological system’. The answer to this question did not reply to the question, according to Kauffman, that was asked in Schrödinger’s book title. To put it simply, he ‘shortened’ his question about ‘life’ that led him to the assumption that the order of the living requires a stability of chemical bonds. odic crystals, whose structure would have to include a microcode of the animate organism. About a decade later James D. Watson and Francis Crick discovered indeed the molecular structure of the aperiodic consistency of the desoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), whose microcode, in the sense of the genetic code itself, was understood another decade later. However, unlike the co-founder of the quantum theory and the ‘philosophic physicist’ Schrödinger, Kauffman did not pose the question on what the source of the biological order is, but: “what must a physical system be in order to be an autonomous agent?” Kauffman’s ‘tentative’ answer was: “An autonomous agent must be in the position to reproduce itself (1) and to accomplish at least one thermodynamic operating cycle (2).” (Kauffman 2002, p.128f.) Kauffman takes a bacterium in a glucose solution as an example. The bacteria ‘love’ sugar, as many of us know, and by swimming in such an environment, life apart of their ability to reproduce themselves asexually through splitting. Subsequently, Kauffman not only admits that his ‘tenanimate’) remains circular, but in this case to quote the concrete chemical systems described by Kauffman; (130–1) the characteristics of his ‘provisional’ ‘autonomous agent’, which can be derived from the outside the chemical balance, i.e. the ‘autonomous agent’ depends on an asymmetry, that is, an imbalance. As such the ‘autonomous agent’ creates a new class of ‘networks with systemic unbalancing’ with an innate self-reproduction and the operating cycles. The concept ‘work’ (occasionally used metaphorically as ‘play’, but, of course, in the ‘case of life’ it is irrelevant what term is used here as a metaphor for another one) remains

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for ‘work’ comes and – second – ‘work’ cannot be done in isolation. The universe must be divided into at least two parts (‘material’ and ‘environment’). This division in ‘material’ and ‘environment’ means thus: a limitation, a constraint, but also a rule or a law. But where do these come from, without having already done the ‘work’ of their becoming. This question shows that they – applied to ‘life’ – produce a vicious circle. Schrödinger’s question about the ‘source of the biological order’ or ‘life’ could, according to Kauffman, do nothing better than generate an ‘information-technical’ or ‘informatic’ concept with the assumption of ‘stored information’ responsible for the release of energy, this ‘stored information’ can be used to produce new energy that can be used for the new ‘work’, which again creates new constraints etc. Although a dividing bacterium does precisely this, we do not have even a draft for an adequate theory to explain the organisation of the process of 28

So the theoretical fundaments of the arranged marriage between information technology and molecular biology would have to be asked practically about their legitimacy. Therefore it is no surprise when Kauffman describes, in the same breath, the dispersion pattern of microscopic monads and their macroscopic counterparts of the biosphere – the endangered rain forests. From it and again using the example of the “obscure molecular mutation in the bacterium”, Kauffman derives his most famous thesis: that the self-organisation in the creation of the complexity of organisms and biological systems is as important a factor as the Darwinian selection.29 The unpredictability reinforced with it – the deadly sin of computing – could be also conceived as a chance, as Kauffman writes in the conclusion: “Life is inherently open, and its understanding will require raising physics and chemistry to new levels, wherein the future is open rather than predictable in prestated categories.” (Kauffman 2002, p. 140).

10.2.4 Environment In the decades since Ada Lovelace’s time many of the achievements of artists and scientists have been ignored and it would be meaningful and purposeful nowadays and networked, curricular, military and commercial science, military and economy. (cf. representatively Ryan 1992) Sabine Kacunko asks a number of questions with her project SAY(IL)ING [BO(O)TSCHAFT] referring directly to the principles of

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‘lab art’ that obeys the ‘techno sciences’. The public space turns into a lab, in which the interrelations of things or creatures with their environment is analyzed and continuously communicated. The precarious relationship between wind erosion and bio-erosion (bacteria and other microbes) is, for example, analyzed between the analogous and virtual public space. While sensual perception on the one hand dialogue and the so-called aesthetic experience of the recipients remains oscillating at the interface between various concepts. In particular, the question about the condition of cultural goods in the context of a sustainable development is put forward. Not only does the currently widely discussed system ‘environment’, often reduced to temperature affected changes, become an artistic subject. But also the system ‘material’, the microbial bacteria by means of desert dust come to the fore. Sabine Kacunko explains the issue China’s efforts to stop this tendency with the project ‘China’s green wall’. For the interactive installation SAY(IL)ING – HAN HAI (Dry Sea), presented in Beijing in October 2009, microscopic

Figure 100: Sabine Kacunko, Dry Sea. Interactive Installation, Platform China Contemporary Art Institute Peking 2009. © Sabine Kacunko

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Figure 101: Sabine Kacunko, BOOTSCHAFT-Life Flag. Installation and events in the public space, Berlin. Here: Ambassy of Israel, Berlin 2010. © Sabine Kacunko

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patina’ grown by Anna Gorbuschina (BAM Berlin) was projected onto a screen, but the more exhibition visitors that entered the room, the more the patina image faded away, the less the pristine ecological and aesthetic balance persisted. A year later Sabine Kacunko managed to create another diplomatic piece of art, in which the appellative aspect stepped out of the shadows of the visualised processes even more. On the occasion of the 300th anniversary of the Charité Berlin, an exhibition and art action titled LIFE FLAG – NEWS FROM EVERYWHERE took place at the Robert-Koch-Forum / Institute for Microbiology and 101.) The project was realised in collaboration with the Institute for Microbiology and Hygiene of the Charité Berlin and the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing. The complete action picked out the ecological, political and economic balance and both conscious and unconscious human activities involved in it as a The project consisted of a series of different media art actions and events in the public space. Its focus was on the efforts for a synthesis out of economic growth and environment protection as a challenge for the 21st century. The densely distributed network out of 129 embassies in Berlin – the European capital with the most diplomatic representative bodies – was used for the circulation of the SAY(IL) ING ecological concerns together as a motif, metaphor, model, material and medium. The participating 75 embassies received the LIFE FLAG presentation of micro organisms was chosen as a fundament for the motif. Their ‘protein factories’, the so-called ribosomes, were coloured with molecular-biological technologies, the FISH ( ) diagnostics, by a team at the Institute for Microbiology and Hygiene at the Charité. The thus visibly made ribosomes appear both in bacteria, plants and animals as well as in humans. In the process a new subunit of the 16s rRNA sequence was discovered that occurs in plants, animals and humans and the artist as its discoverer named this ‘Oceanobacillus Pulvirenatus’ – ‘Dusty Rebirth’. The bacteria cultures originated from a historically unique dust sample from the Sahara Desert, which Alexander von Humboldt received as a gift in 1823. Today the sample is in the Naturkunde Museum Berlin and is property of the Ehrenberg collection. The Berlin action was also the starting point for further art actions that were continued over the globally spread network The question that arose here was and is: What particular meaning can such invisible processes to the unaided eye have for us? First, is certainly the meaning

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Figure 102: Sabine Kacunko, Alexander von Humboldt’s dust sample from the Ehrenberg Collection, Berlin 2011. © Sabine Kacunko

of the operation matrix of our biotechnological age, in which molecular biology, above all genetics, in connection with computer technology as bioinformatics amalgamate into a new powerful technological reality. The possibility for isolaplanet accessible as a primary raw material resource. LIFE FLAG used the methods of recombination in the service of a BO(O)TSCHAFT / SAY(IL)ING, which addresses the application of ecological and human resources as well as art and science as sources of collective knowledge. In this way Sabine Kacunko celebrates with this project not an appellative or utopian art, but a deeply realistic one, since it is based on existing networks. Not only the virtual networks of the Internet but the naturally and culturally analogous networks of embassies and messages, the representatives of the humankind. Second, the question about the meaning of invisible processes, which LIFE FLAG ment-forming micro organisms that were visualised on the surface of the LIFE FLAG make sure that one can speak rightly so of the smallest biological causes with great aesthetic impact. A social plastic (maybe not entirely in the sense of J.

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Beuys) without the stagnancy of a sculptural form, but an animate transformation – a message, so to say, made sure that the artistic process was grasped as an emergence of culture as an expression of the transformation of nature. LIFE FLAG served as a symbol and metaphor for this transformation of the animate, which

10.2.5 Bacteria Since the successful reanimation of the historical dust sample in LIFE FLAG, the artist has made further visible traces in the dust the subject of her investigation. The ‘reanimated’ bacteria cultures created digital and analogous sayings; they became the centrepiece and initial point of the ensuing media installation and other projects. In these projects, the blunt beauty of the bacteria culture in its other, all-embracing meanings was brought to the public’s attention. Sabine Kacunko repeatedly points out in her projects the multiple ‘functions’ or views that the earliest known so-called archaea or archaebacteria were the blue-green coloured cyanobacteria, which built the material as marine blue-green algae and make up 30

The blue-green pigmented cyanobacteria, thanks to the chlorophyll they contain, are regarded as ‘inventors’ of photosynthesis, that (including the carbon dioxide by means of light-absorbing pigments) is responsible for the transformation of sunlight into chemical energy. They thus created their own metabolism and ability to reproduce (asexually, by division) making the bacteria unlike the equally old, resistant and metamorphic (but still captured between ‘life’ and ‘death’) viruses into the ‘animate’ creatures in the most accepted sense of this word. bacteria here described in an artistic, bacteria: pigment formation. The bacteria act as living pigments and are hence responsible for the perceivable diversity of our world. The micro organisms produce in their metabolic processes pigments as waste products and thus a new artistic-aesthetic experience. Apart of the soft-focus impact of the affected surface the ‘bacteria art’ by Sabine Kacunko also ‘artistic’ – patina, lies, above all, in its colour. The subjective ‘nature of colour’ receives, however, through the artistic intervention its objective, resource-technical ‘grounding’, by putting the bearer, the molecular processes responsible for the pigmentation, at the centre of atten-

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tion. The colour of the respective object contains its subjective constitution trathe colour of the object is physically seen and determined by the wavelengths view, too, contains subjective elements through the change of the observer’s position. Philosophers like Ludwig Wittgenstein or Ernst Cassirer demanded at the beginning of the 20th century to correlate the physical, philosophical and also art-theoretical of the natural philosophy against the physical observation of the light would be amiss.31 Particularly interesting with regard to the bacteria art of Sabine Kacunko, is the ‘ambivalent’ function of melanin, whose impact still doesn’t seem to be understood despite intensive experimental researches. Melanin as black pigment is responsible for colour changes on the surface. In other words, they are responsible for the ‘patinisation’ of mineral substrates32, but their impact has a protective as well as a destructive force. Comprehension of the relation between the ecology of the micro organisms on surfaces and the radiation to which they are exposed – of the ‘material’ and its ‘environment’ – could possibly be reached also through a genetically controlled intervention into the production of photoactive melanin. The ‘ambivalence’ of melanin as a (‘protective’, unreactive) stable radical lies also in they can create free (‘destructive’, reactive) radicals. In Sabine Kacunko’s work notes there are, amongst other items, references coming from the Max Planck Institute for developmental biology33 taken on 4th September 2003 about the evolution of social swarming in bacteria, a subject that adds another quality to the abilities of these micro organisms than those already discussed. The references relate to the ‘social’ difference between the wild types of the soil bacterium, Myxococcus xanthus, and its mutants. While the former swarm together on soft fertile soil (Agar), their non-social mutants lose certain extra-cellular extensions (Pili).34 Generating artistic value out of such molecular-biological proof of the social behaviour of bacteria could not succeed without further ado after everything that has been said if missing. To Sabine Kacunko it was, however, important to refrain from easily digestible parallels at this undoubtedly tempting point. This parallel between people, social animals and many kinds of bacteria on the one hand and the survival behaviour of our entire eco-system with the people at the top on the other, reaches deeply into the insights and assumptions about ‘life’ previously discussed. It is es-

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pecially interesting that the ‘ambivalence’ of bacteria mentioned above is shown in the context of patina formation, which relates to the destruction and the protection of the respective substance. Its ‘social behaviour’ and ‘cooperation’ goes so far in the Myxobacteria (to which the Myxococcus xanthus belong) that they gather in large groups in order to swarm over surfaces and chase and kill ‘victim organ100,000 Myxococcus xanthus cells, which then create a three-dimensional semen structure in order to survive the lack of food, drying out or heat. The whole, which certainly should not be seen as a contradiction to the formation of their ‘individuality’. The mass expansion or swarms of bacteria is presumed to be dust’. In this process we see the development of something similar to the short-term and long-term memory of the bacteria. A daughter cell ‘learns’ and ‘decides’ faster than the parent cell.35

10.2.6 Crystals One year after the big project in Berlin, the media art project SAY(IL)ING – CRYSTAL MIRROR was presented at the Ecolé des Beaux-Arts in Paris on 27th November 2011.36 In an accessible media sculpture made out of carbon there was a video microscope, beneath which was a Petri dish, which contained animate cell cultures that could be experienced in an audio-visual manner. The cells in question were the historical bacteria culture from the Ehrenberg, which had also been the starting point in SAY(IL)ING – LIFE FLAG and were reactivated or ‘reanimated’ by Prof. Dr. Anna Gorbuschina. Images of the growth process of the reanimated bacteria cultures were transmitted live on the Internet and were thus accessible on the project’s website for virtual visitors. The carbon sculpture referred to the coordinates of the Pyramid of Cheops and consisted of the mid apex in an octahedron, to which ultra sound spots were attached. By using a specially developed software, the bases of the bacteria cultures’ DNA were transformed into tones and by using the current wind coordinates on site they were The desert dust was originally found in Calabria and handed to the humanist Alexander von Humboldt in Paris in 1823, who then submitted it for evaluation in Berlin. It was determined that the dust originated from the Sahara and had

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Figure 103: Sabine Kacunko, Micrograph of the reactivated microorganisms from Humboldt’s dust sample from the Ehrenberg Collection, Berlin 2011. © Sabine Kacunko

correlation of various eco-systems. The micro organisms from the Sahara Desert today feed further eco-systems on their way to Europe, as well as the rainforests in South America. The Sahara dust reaches Paris via a strong south current over the Mediterranean and the Alps. The winds bring plant nutritive substances such as calcium, magnesium or micro organisms with the North African dust. Dust, sand and organic material have permanently been transported from the barren dry desert of the Sahara to the tropical rainforests of South America by the wind. The ‘rebirth’ of an almost 200-year-old bacterium as a product of interdisciplinary collaboration and the productive interplay of culture, politics and science is seldom so strongly associated with a historical personality like Alexander von Humboldt. The German humanist lived and worked in Paris for many years up until 1827. As is well known, there were many practical aspects to Humboldt’s research work. The human was supposed to be enabled to use nature as sustainably as possible.37 CRYSTAL MIRROR

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Figure 104: Sabine Kacunko, BOOTSCHAFT- Crystal Mirror. Media sculpture, École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts de Paris (ENSBA) 2011. © Sabine Kacunko

10.2.7 Asymmetry At this point another fascinating aspect of the social life of bacteria arose, both in artistic awareness and as an experiment in praxis. This aspect adds to the three mentioned characteristics of bacteria, thus temporarily closing the circle around ‘life’, ‘death’ and the ‘dusty rebirth’ in the artistic work of Sabine Kacunko. But here it is necessary to turn once again to a contemporary of Robert Koch. Around 1860, Louis Pasteur noticed that polarised light rotates by 7 degrees in natural tartaric acid, but not in synthetically produced tartaric acid. Natural tartaric acid, which contains only one kind of crystal, is optically active and therefore rotates the polarisation level of the polarisation light. The synthetically produced tartaric acid, on the other hand, contains two kinds of crystal, one of which is merely the mirror image of the other. The mineralogist Pierre Curie continued to develop thoughts on the difference between ‘animate’ and ‘inanimate’, before Iwanowitsch Wernadski, as the “Pasteur Curie principle of dissymmetry”. From this demarcation line between animate and inanimate systems in relation to sym-

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metry differences between crystals and creatures, Wernadski derived that one can distinguish a biological from a physical space-time continuum. (Krumbein & Levit 1997).38 Following Pasteur, Curie and Wernadski’s biogenic dissymmetry,39 natural minerals (in accordance with the 32 crystal classes of the Euclidean order) are inanimate, whereas natural organisms (entities comprised of molecules similar to minerals) are animate. Whilst constantly symmetric minerals can form, at maximum, an hexakis octahedron or can comprise 48 hedrons in their most advanced form (such as a garnet or a carbuncle stone), organisms have greater numbers of levels of symmetry, with more complex forms than an hexakis octahedron, albeit without being precisely symmetrical (left and right brain hemisphere, left and right hand, both single strands of a DNA double helix, and so on). That is why the creation of dissymmetry in biological membranes can be regarded as what has long been believed to be the difference of the ‘animate’ (dissymmetrical examples from biology include amino acids rotating to the left and right, carboxylic acids, and sugar). The dissymmetric or animate state is maintained, according to geologist, W. E. Krummbein, “through the animate matter using cosmic means (solar energy and stardust) against the thermodynamic laws. It marks explicitly the topology (phenomena) and mode of operation (processes) of the neuronal cells and systems (networks), but not those of the computers that are symmetric and work symmetrically.” (Krumbein and Levit 1997, p. 35)40 It follows from this theory, for example, that human life and its end might not be connected with brain function. Bacteria and other collections of atoms were proof of this (they ‘live’ without brain function) and digital computers were used as negative examples. A thesis which set invisible, yet fundamental, irreversible boundaries to the range of biosciences. Herein lies a real chance to use productively and synergetically (certainly not in the sense of their economic usability) the connections between art, science, philosophy, religion and other views, as well as life praxis. “Life is the dynamic process of the symmetry breaking using energy in the dyssymmetric system between membrane enclosed cell incident dependent on the entropy and the forceful temporal feedback with simultaneous like earlier (fossil) dyssymmetries, fossil biospheres, out of which the current earth extracts energy and material sources.” (ibid.)41 Viewing ‘life’ as a fundamental activity of the biosphere, conceived as a highly organised system of matter and energy, leads to a long overdue notion of the dynamic balance of the eco-system of Earth and, under favourable conditions, to the possible prevention of our premature death in a bacterially-dominated system. Bacteria yield an almost -

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Figure 105: Sabine Kacunko, BOOTSCHAFT- Crystal Mirror. Media sculpture, École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts de Paris (ENSBA) 2011. © Sabine Kacunko

tions with the environment. The bacteria art of Sabine Kacunko shows us clearly the mapped asymptotic convergence of instrumental questions and questions of

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description of asymmetric cell membranes as output sources of ‘unpredictability’ and ‘life’: “

” From this mediative and easily balanced position between analogy and digiwas able to maintain through a double, analogous-digital coding ), the relevance of the complete artisticwhich has acquired relevance beyond the versatility and multiplicity of the visu-

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alisation technologies used and crosses the narrow circle of art and its history, the art market as well as natural and cultural politics. The principle of recording, processing and reproducing the invisible in the context of the visualisation methods and strategies in art of the 20th and 21st centuries can be understood by looking at the SAY(IL)ING project beyond the artistic-aesthetic dimension as an epistemic model, as a social metaphor and also as a test case of interactivity. However, this project demanded an artisticspared no efforts in assessing a triple parallel between the development of the media engineering, modern and contemporary art and culture and the corresponding theory formations. The project SAY(IL)ING by Sabine Kacunko heads in this direction exactly, like the recent work entitled Looping Life Connecting the open-for-interpretation surface of images with the development of art and media history, gives the most insightful approach to access Sabine Kacunko’s work. The impossibility of penetrating the shown work beyond the surface of the artist’s images inevitably poses the question about the meaning and expressiveness of the (re)presented formation and decay processes of the photographic, videographic and digital image. From the chaos and the method, with which she artistically perpetrates death and its healing, Sabine Kacunko has unoutcomes contribute to the pivotal questions: what the meaning of art in an engineered society is and to what extent does it still have the capacity to visualise, interpret and represent the world in the media age.

List of Illustrations We thank all those who have given copyright permission to use and quote from their work throughout the essays. The publisher and the author apologize for any errors or omissions in the list below. If contacted they will be pleased to rectify these at the earliest opportunity. 1. Content-related categorization of closed circuit video installations, applicable for process arts (Kacunko 2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2. (Kacunko 26. April 2012), from the unpublished Inaugural lecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3. Peter Campus, Interface (1972), closed circuit video installation. Kölnischer Kunstverein, Cologne 1974. Courtesy Wulf Herzogenrath archive, Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 4. Peter Campus, Shadow Projection (1974), closed circuit video installation. Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse NY 1974. Courtesy Wulf Herzogenrath archive, Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 5. Peter Campus, Shadow Projection (1974) drawing. Courtesy Wulf Herzogenrath archive, Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 6. Formal description parameters for closed circuit video installations, applicable for process arts (Kacunko 2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 7. Technical description parameters for media installations, applicable for process arts (Jim Campbell 1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 8. Frank Gillette, Video: Process and Meta-Process, front page, catalogue of his solo exhibition, Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse NY 1973 . . . . . . . . 46 9. Les Levine, Iris (1968). First public show in the studio of the artist Studios, 119 Bowery, New York on 10.09.1968. Commission of Janet and Robert Kardon. Collection of the Philadelphia Museum of Fine Arts. Courtesy Les Levine. Three camera perspectives with artist. Courtesy Les Levine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 10. Bill Viola, Instant Replay (1972). Experimental Studios, School of Art, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

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11. Bill Viola, Localization (1973). Noble Room / Watson Theatre, Syracuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 12. Bill Viola, Bank Image Bank (1974). Lincoln First Bank, Rochester NY, 7. January – 1. February 1974. Courtesy Bill Viola Studio . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 13. Bill Viola, Bank Image Bank (1974). Courtesy Bill Viola Studio . . . . . . . . 53 14. Bill Viola, Bank Image Bank (1974). Courtesy Bill Viola Studio . . . . . . . . 54 15. Electron Movers, Video Maze, poster of the exhibition curated by Richard Simmons, Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse NY, 26. September – 22. October 1975. Courtesy Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse . . . . . . . . . 56 16. Bill Viola, Il Vapore (1975). Galerie Zona, Florence, June 1975. Courtesy Bill Viola Studio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 17. Bill Viola, Rain – Three Interlocking Systems (1975). Everson Museum of Art 1975. Courtesy Bill Viola Studio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 18. Bill Viola, Rain – Three Interlocking Systems (1975), concept and drawing of the artist. Courtesy Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse . . . . . . . 61 19. Bill Viola, Rain – Three Interlocking Systems (1975), concept and drawing of the artist. Courtesy Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse . . . . . . . 62 20. Bill Viola, letter to James Harithas, Everson Museum of Art Syracuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 21. Bill Viola, He Weeps for You (1976), The Kitchen Center, New York, 11.–22. January 1977. © Gail Nathan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 22. Bill Viola, He Weeps for You (1976), a concept drawing. Courtesy Wulf Herzogenrath archive, Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 23. Bill Viola, „He Weeps for You“, documenta 6, Kassel, 24.06.–02.10.1977. Courtesy Bill Viola Studio & Wulf Herzogenrath . . . . 67 24. Bill Viola, „He Weeps for You“, documenta 6, Kassel, 24.06.–02.10.1977. Courtesy Bill Viola Studio & Wulf Herzogenrath . . . . 67 25. Bill Viola, „He Weeps for You“, detail. Courtesy Bill Viola Studio . . . . . . . 68 26. Nam June Paik (1932–2006) and the students of the Art Academy Düsseldorf, Video Venus, Videoperformance (1978), poster . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 27. Nam June Paik and the students of the Art Academy Düsseldorf, Video Venus . . . . . . . . . 78

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28. Video Venus.

. . . . 79

29. Nan Hoover (1931–2008) at the Art Academy in Düsseldorf. Courtesy Dawn Leach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 30. „Neue Akademie in Düsseldorf“ (1987), a newspaper article by Helga Meister, Westdeutsche Zeitung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 31. Matthias Neuenhofer, RAS (1990), Videotape, 7:48. Courtesy Matthias Neuenhofer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 32. Matthias Neuenhofer, pob (1991), Videotape, 5:05. Courtesy Matthias Neuenhofer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 33. Matthias Neuenhofer, pob (1991), Videotape, 5:05. Courtesy Matthias Neuenhofer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 34. Invitation for the video program Das im Entwischen Erwischte (Caught while escaping. Video in Düsseldorf, the young generation 1990–1995) „Black Box“-Kino im Filmmuseum Düsseldorf 1995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 35. CCSDS Reccomendation for an OAIS Reference Model (business) . . . . . . 99 36. Process Arts Archive & Database Reference Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 37. CCSDS Reccomendation for an OAIS Reference Model (administration) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 38. Process Arts – a preliminary categorization & quotability (projects) . . . . 107 39. Process Arts – a preliminary categorization & quotability (sources) . . . . 109 40. Process Arts – a preliminary categorization & quotability (persons) . . . . 110 41. Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn, Hendrickje (c. 1648), National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh, GB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 42. Dieter Kiessling, Mirror Photo (2006/2008), photograph 92 x 75 cm. Courtesy Dieter Kiessling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 43. Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn, Moses destroyed the tablets of the Law, 1659. Gemäldegalerie, Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 44. Susan Milano, Video Swing (1974), Closed Circuit Videoinstallation. Courtesy Susan Milano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

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45. two parallel mirrors (Periskop-Mirror). According to Hero of Alexandria, reconstruction of Nix and Schmidt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 46. Stitch with the representation of St. Thomas Aquinas (1488), from Opusculum Praeclarum, Venice-Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 47. Pepper’s Ghost, named after John Henry Pepper, director of the Royal Polytechnic Institute in London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 48. Praxinoskop, Functioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 49. Electromagnetic radiation spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 50. The molecular structure of glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 51. Bell Labs in Holmdel, New Yersey (1962), Architect: Eero Saarinen . . . . 126 52. Hall of Mirrors at Versailles (1678–1684), Architect: Jules Hardouin-Mansart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 53.

(1975–9), Foster Associates, Ipswich, GB . . 129

54. Tower of Winds in Yokohama (1986), Architect: Toyo Ito . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 55. Takahiko Iimura, Camera, Monitor, Frame: This is a Camera 1 (1976–98), installation, video tape & CD-ROM / DVD. From Iimura 2003, p. 29. Courtesy Takahiko Iimura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 56. Takahiko Iimura, Camera, Monitor, Frame: This is a Camera 2 (1976–98), installation, video tape & CD-ROM / DVD. From Iimura 2003, p. 32. Courtesy Takahiko Iimura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 57. Takahiko Iimura, Camera, Monitor, Frame: This is a Monitor 1 (1976–98), installation, video tape & CD-ROM / DVD. From Iimura 2003, p. 37. Courtesy Takahiko Iimura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 58. Takahiko Iimura, Camera, Monitor, Frame: This is a Monitor 2 (1976–98), installation, video tape & CD-ROM / DVD. From Iimura 2003, p. 39. Courtesy Takahiko Iimura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 59. Takahiko Iimura, Camera, Monitor, Frame: To see the Frame (1976–98), installation, video tape & CD-ROM / DVD. From Iimura 2003, p. 41. Courtesy Takahiko Iimura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 60. Hand ax with inclusion of the fossil mussel Spondylus spinosus, West Tofts, Norfolk (England), ca. 200.000 years old. From: Bredekamp 2010, p. 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

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61. Immanuel Kant, an overview of his system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 62. D W Thompson, On Growth and Form [1917] Cover, Dover reprint 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 63.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

64. Darwin’s Diagram with Bredekamp’s interpretation, from Maderspacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 65. Insects in amber. Dominican Republic. 23.8 to 5.3 million years old . . . . 161 66. Hand ax with inclusion of the fossil mussel Spondylus spinosus, West Tofts, Norfolk (England), ca. 200.000 years old. Offprint from Bredekamp 2013, p. 72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 67. Hand ax with inclusion of a fossil mussel, Moustérien, found from a. Turq. Photo from Michel Lorblanchet ( préhistorique. Paris 1999). Offprint from Bredekamp 2013, p. 71 . . . . . . 166 68. Picture-theory paradigms (“Bildhandlungsbegriffe”) according to S. Seja (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 69. rectangular prism-shaped brine inclusions, surrounded above and below

Dunaliella . . . . . . 171 70. Roger Caillois (1913–78), Petit poisson, from the installation T he Writing of Stones. La Biennale di Venezia 2013. © M.N.H.N. – Minéralogie, Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 71. p. 54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 72. Schematically shown operation difference between the Camera Obscura (above, with intersecting lines of light) and the mirror (below). From Eco 1988, p. 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

300

73. Daguerréotype-elements [http://www.photohistory-sussex.co.uk/ DAGapparatus.jpg] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 74. Magritte (René François-Ghislain Magritte), La reproduction interdite (1937/39). Rotterdam, Museum Boymans – van Beuningen . . . . . . . . . . . 207 75. Diego Velázquez, Las Meniñas (1656). Madrid, Museo del Prado . . . . . . 210 76. Michelangelo Pistoletto, L’Etrusco (1976). Installation with mirror. Ft. Worth, Modern Art Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 77. Daniel Buren, Deux diagonales pour un lieu (1989). Institute of Contemporary Arts Nagoya. From Krystof 1996, 24. © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 78. Daniel Buren, Around the Corner (2005). Guggenheim Museum New York. A part of a trepartite installation, Thannhauser Galleries. © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 79. Ejnar Dyggve portrait (author unknown) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 80. A view of Salona-site in May 2005 (today’s Solin, on the north border of Split in central Dalmatia), showing a central part of the engravings intra muros. (© Slavko Kacunko) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 81. Ejnar Dyggve (2nd from right) in front of the Split’s Cathedral inside (1st

st

from left), Split 1958. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

82. Salona-site, back-drawing from Ejnar Dyggve from 1932. Šuplja Crkva (‘Hollow Church’) is located on the east side (on the far right), north of the river Jadro. The location of the Otok (‘Island’) can be seen on the south-east side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 83. Basilica on the site of Šuplja Crkva, Dyggve’s attempt of axonometric reconstruction from the Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv Split. (With kind permission of the Conservation department in Split) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 84. Marusinac, an important cemetery-site outside of Salona’s city walls. Dyggve’s attempt of reconstruction from the Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv Split. (With kind permission of the Conservation department in Split) . . . . . . . . 238 85. Jelling, a drawing from Archeology Forum. [http://www.arkeologiforum.se/forum/index.php?topic=5460.40] . . . . . . 240

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86. Jelling-site with two mounds and the church in between on August 24th 2013. (© Slavko Kacunko) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 87. Jelling, on the south of the church: Harald’s stone with the runic inscription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 88. Marusinac, Dyggve’s axonometric reconstruction of the assembly with basilica discoperta from the Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv Split. (With kind permission of the Conservation department in Split) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 89. One of the entrances to the Salona-site with the reconstruction-drawing map of Ejnar Dyggve as it is today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 90. Jelling-site with the newly marked widened areal in the shape of parallelogram, as on August 24th 2013. (© Slavko Kacunko) . . . . . . . . . . 256 91. Jelling-site with the oval shape of the ‘ship’, newly marked with the betony blocks, as on August 24th 2013. (© Slavko Kacunko) . . . . . . . . . . 256 92. . . . 257 93. th

century, . . . . . . . . . 257

94. has followed Dyggve’s invitation in Copenhagen in 1958 to systematize Ejnar Dyggve Arhiv Split. (With kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 95. of the Jelling monument site on September 10th 2013. National Museums director Per Kristian Madsen on the right. (Photo: Claus Fisker) © BT 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 96. opening of the special exhibition of the Dyggve Archive Split on October 24th 2014 in Split. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 97. Sabine Kacunko, Negative of the wild boar skull populated by with bacteria. Kunstverein Coburg 2003 © Sabine Kacunko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

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98. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 99. ....................................... 100. 101.

. Interactive Installation, Platform China . . . . . . . . . 281 . Installation and events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

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dust sample from ...........

103. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 105. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

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References by Chapter

Chapter 1 1 Stocker 2003, 13. Original text: „Der zentrale Diskurs über die Prozesshaftigkeit der Medienkunst und die damit einhergehende Verlagerung der Wertigkeiten vom Objekt zum dynamischen System [ist] in den Hintergrund getreten.“ 2 Original text: „Wir wollen aber bei dieser Unterscheidung […] einige philosophische Ungereimtheiten übersehen, wie diese, dass natürlich in der digitalen Kunst analoge Elemente und in der analogen Kunst digitale Elemente vorhanden sind, denn letzten Endes ist jeder kontinuierliche, analoge Vorgang in kleinste diskontinuierliche Teile zerlegbar, so wie eine kontinuierliche Linie durch diskontinuierliche Punkte konstruiert werden kann […] Und genau das macht die digitale Kunst, analoge Vorgänge der Natur digital darzustellen bzw. aus Ziffern analoge Bilder zu erzeugen.“ 3 Cf. Marta de Menezes and Ch. 10. 4 Margaret Morse called the inherent essential element of the video installations “The space-inbetween representation” ( an art of “presentation”, wherein the beholder would be surrounded by a spatial Here and Now – a construction, that would be based on concrete (not illusory) space. Further discussion is contained in various compendia and theories of installation art of the past 15 years. – Cf. discussion in Petersen 2009. 5 Original text: “[…] es aber nicht bloß mit einer einzigen Intention zu tun [haben], sondern mit einer unübersehbaren Abfolge sich entwickelnder Intentionsmomente […] Und wenn wir den Prozess auch nicht nacherzählen können, so können wir ihn doch postulieren. Ein bestimmter Prozess ist vielleicht nicht rekonstruierbar, aber die grundsätzliche Annahme, dass ein Prozess stattgefunden ” As quoted in Kacunko 2004, p. 23. 6 With respect to the in most markets a few dominant companies control production, but there are few in which consumption is regulated. The commercial art world tries to hold both reins tight” while art’s important task seems to become competing with mass culture. There is a certain impass between the two sources of his thought – the Marx’ and the Bourdieu’s (1993). 64 7 Sloterdijk’s piece on Cynical Reason (1983) would be one of the particulary wide read approaches in the German spoken realm. Certainly, the question remains how cynical this approach might 8 For further critique of different anti-rationalist perspectives see Kitcher 1993, Brown 1999 and Boghossian 2007, works especially pointed out by Harman. be said to indicate a limit of the Hegelian dialectical process, something that eludes Hegel’s grasp”

Freudian Death Drive as co-agents of the recent Cultural Turn.

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10 Cf. Bourdieu 1996, p. xiv.: “I would simply ask why so many critics, so many writers, so many philosophers take such satisfaction in professing that the experience of a work of art is ineffable, a struggle the defeat of knowledge; and where does their irrepressible need to belittle rational suitable word, its transcendence.” Principia Mathematica (1910–1913) to build a system of symbolic logic and mathematical axiomatic. As a staunch opponent of the static and substantive methods in philosophy, as well as the corresponding bifurcation of reality, Whitehead pointed early on in his “epochal theory of time” to the elements of the theory of relativity and quantum physics. From his process philosophy, especially the temporal atomicity is to be considered here with its crucial thesis which asserts that the time is determined by the atomistic imaginary events, so that it is regarded as quantized time, which smallest units are indivisible. This has direct consequences for the understanding of the reception-technical operations that can be, I claim, best studied on examples of the process arts which include in my interpretation audio- and videographic, installative and (hyper-)textual practices. In the perception mode of the “presentational immediacy”, simultaneous world is according to Whitehead consciously detected as a continuum of extensive relations. This mode of perception takes place in the later, creative, integrative phases of the concretization process. On the one hand are vaguely perceived relationships reinforced in their importance, while on the other sensations can be shown, that are not related to the physical capturing. This is for example the case with optical deceptions caused by optical tricks or physiological disorders. They represent the pure fashion of presentational immediacy as a visualization of something that is not given. This pure form of the presentational immediacy does not provide any information about the past or future. It mediates a form; this form is however derived from a spatio-temporal area the way it is mediated in the presentation (Gegenwärtigung) of the perceived. The presentation place has a fourth dimension of temporal extension. This fourth dimension is spatialized as the ostensible presence of what is perceived.

Chapter 2 1 See especially Kacunko 2004. It includes descriptions of ca. 1.100 Closed Circuit video installa2 ‘Closed-circuit’ describes a live transmission of audio visual signals resembling the method facilitated by radio and television: the direct ‘closed-circuit’ connection between apparatus for recording and broadcasting (loudspeaker or monitor/projector) arises by means of auditory or visual presence of his or her own live video image and the relevant ‘medium of remarkable and at the same time the most disconcerting feature of the basic technology. 3 “Closed-circuit or feedback – term for an installation, in which the result of its production is simultaneously its point of departure, for instance, a camera, whose video monitor.” Schwarz 1997, p. 187. 4 “Closed-Circuit – feedback, “geschlossener Kreislauf”. Usually understood today as the feeding back of visual signals, particularly in video installations; term employed for the process of recording a monitor image with a camera, which has just produced that monitor image.” Donga 1998, p. 227.

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5 “The self-feeding, self-imaging, and environmental surveillance capabilities of closed-circuit television provide for some artists a means of engaging the phenomenon of communication and perception in a truly empirical fashion similar to medium may in fact constitute the only pure television art, since the teleportation of encoded electronic-signal information is central to its aesthetics […].”Youngblood 1970, pp. 337/339. 6 “Video […] is able to convey in real-time an instantaneous simultaneity of events, which can merge man’s inner and outer perceptions in a total Gestalt experience.” Yalkut 1974, p. 3. 7 “But in contrast, the closed-circuit, environmental videographers are trying to make use of what in the medium is not like […] In the last analysis, environmental (tapeless) video, the kind whose only product is the heightening of consciousness and the enlargement of useful experience, seems to me the only interesting video art.” Kaprow 1974, p. 95. 8 “The camera and monitor, as […] employed in closed circuit installation and performance, are […] only in second place comes their narrative relationship to television.” Frieling 1999, p. 12. 9 M. Rush also laid stress, in reference to early video practice, on the difference between the ‘immediacy’ of Closed Circuit video installation and the application of pre-produced videotape: “[…] For [...] early practitioners of video art [...] [it] was video’s capacity for instantaneous transmission of image that […] was most appealing, in addition to its relative affordability [...] the spontaneity and instantaneity of video were crucial. Video recorded and revealed instant time, whereas had to be treated and processed.” Rush 1999, pp. 83–84. 10 “Only here in the face of the cult of the instant experience, which one wants to relate to us, does experience, which has been processed physically or mentally in closed circuit, and has been conveyed via that medium, the transmission of which has been reacted to by a participating individual. Thus a video performance or installation is appropriate to the medium only when it makes sensible use of the effects of perception.” Kahlen 1980, p. 11. 11 The text has appeared under the same title also in: New Artists Video. A Critical Anthology, ed. Gregory Battcock (New York: A Dutton Paperback 1978). 12 Dinkla 1997, p 38–40. – Also Annette Hünnekens wrote about the “principle of closed circuit installation”, which she discussed in the same breath as “database” work on videodisc. See Hünnekens 1997, p. 22. – Cf. Kacunko 2004. 13 See for example exhibition Mind Frames – Media Study at Buffalo 1973–1990 (ZKM Karlsruhe 2007) and Art and the Moving Image, 1963–1986 14 The range of the system-theoretical contextualizations of ‘life’ represents on the other side the theoretical implications related to the contemporary ‘bio-art’ and ‘bio-media’. It could be exempli-

to the later bio-semiotic approaches) of Norbert Wiener with its reducibility of everything to the input / output model. To the mediators between the two belongs certainly the biologist Ludwig von Bertallanffy with his theory of learning-ability of feedback systems. 15 Cf. Brier 2008 and Hoffmeyer 2010. – Extensive bibliography can be found online on http://biosemiotics.org/. 16 For discussion about the continuity between the analogue and digital ‘code’ see Schröter & Böhnke 2004.

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Chapter 3 1 Lat. video, vidi, visum. 1) see, notice, recognize 2) live at the same time as somebody, experience 3) observe, consider, visit, take care of something 4) feel, understand, comprehend, have in mind, consider, think 5) know, deal with, intend, aim. Cf. Sretenovic in Kacunko 2004, p. 847. 2 In his video tapes Double Vision and Dynamic Field Series from 1971, Campus already used the possibilities of superimposing images and virtual shifts of space which were also presented in his installations from this period. 3 The text about the closed circuit video installations of Peter Campus. Cf. Kacunko 2003. 4 Campus: “They continued that idea of confrontational imagery and it just became too much for me, I had to stop.” 5 The travelling exhibition was organized by Max Bense and Jasia Reichard. It was on display also in London, in Corcoran Gallery in Washington D. C.; Reese Palley Gallery in New York and Contemporary Art Museum in Houston, Texas. 6 Everson Museum presented recently a retrospective exhibition entitled Video Vault: The 70s Revisited (March 4–July 27 2014) with works of some of the artists named here including Bill Viola. 7 Viola would also analyze the Snow, Ken Jacobs, Hollis Frampton, and Stan Brakhage. He certainly found in the performances his growing interest in a space-consuming and multi-sensoral art too. 8 Experimental Studios, School of Art, 9 Rotonda di via Basana, Milan 05.–08.03.1975 10 Lincoln First Bank, Rochester, New York, 07.01.–01.02.1974. The video monitors were arranged in two groups standing some 30 feet apart (groups each three monitors wide and two high). One monitor group was allocated four cameras and connected to monitors there. Two of the latter they took in the space between the two monitor groups in horizontal and vertical pans respectively. The resulting images appeared on the upper and lower central monitors. The other two cameras were installed to be static and directed and focused at the monitors standing opposite. On the other side were placed another four cameras and their monitors connected in situ. Two of these were installed rigid as above and directed at the opposite side; the other two upon the escalators behind the exhibition space. The image of the downward escalator was to be seen on the uppermost middle monitor of the second monitor group; the image of the upward-bound escalator appeared on the lower middle monitor. The live video images of the users travelling up and down, on the monitors stacked one on the other, created the impression that the two sets of users were moving toward each other – only to vanish into the imaginary space between. 11 Viola, description of Bank Image Bank, manuscript. Bill Viola Studios. 12 The Kitchen Center, New York, 19.–23.02.1974 13 Viola, description of Mock Turtles, manuscript. Bill Viola Studios. Of course mock means not only ‘false’ or ‘imitated’ but also as a verb, ‘to make fun of something’. And then there is the ‘false’ ingredient in that gourmet dish, mock turtle soup.

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14 The Kitchen Center, New York, 19.–23.02.1974

16 Shirley Clarke with her TP-Videospace Group and Shirley›s daughter Wendy Clarke with their “Video Toys” and other interactive works were also suitable for such a game criticism in the art context as well along to the Women’s Video Group close to The Kitchen contest, video makers like David Cort, John Randolph Carter and others. Possibly also a series of earlier experimenters with the manipulation of the electronic signal like Nam June Paik, Dan Sandin or Eric Siegel belonged at least partially to the targets as well. the Albright-Knox Gallery, Buffalo, New York in November 1974 (Performance with Alvin Lucier). 18 Three oscillators emitted pure tones over three loudspeakers spread throughout the room. Their frequencies lied in the range of ca. 200 Hz close to each other so that strong audible beats emerged. walls so that the beats changed. The work was presented in this form for a whole evening in this version. It was conducted as a performance in another version, but only the closed circuit video wasused. Alvin Lucier performed the music. 19 Bill Viola, excerpt from the statement, manuscript. Bill Viola Studios. 20 Maria Gloria Bicocchi founded and opened the video production space Art/Tapes/22 in Florence couple of years earlier by Gerry Schum, who died in 1973 by suicide. Cf. Ch. 4. – The Centro Video Arte in the famous Palazzo dei Diamanti in Ferrara (1972) and few other galleries in Rome and elsewhere in Italy complemented the list of the early “videosalette” in Italy (cf. Sossai 2002, p.19). 21 Gallery Zona, Florence, June 1975. The installation was exhibited for only one day. Viola stated that Il Vapore vised for the videotape Olfaction (1974). (Viola, description, manuscript. Bill Viola Studios) – Videotape Olfaction (1974): Five discrete actions occurred in the same space and were recorded from

on their previous existence in time. The videotape is based on the functioning of the sense of smell, a sensory modality strongly linked to memory and designed to integrate information about past events into the present moment. (Viola, description, manuscript. Bill Viola Studios) 22 Cf. Going Forth By Day (Berlin 2002).

contained a high-backed chair with two speakers built into the back at head-height. A bell, suspended from the ceiling, hung in front of the rear wall. In one corner of the room, a CC video camera in the same corner, such that it hung below the camera. In the corner diagonally opposite, a screen was mounted and the projector directed at it. A microphone stood at one corner of the room; another stood immediately next to the chair. The room was lit from the ceiling. The artist moved about in the room for an hour or so, walking around slowly, ringing the bell now and then or sitting down on the chair; at intervals he would stop to drink or eat, helping himself from a little table placed by the chair. The installation proper entailed this tape being played on a video player which, like the camera, was connected with an SEG. This dissolved the two image sources and showed them in the

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video projection. The exhibition-goers were able to explore the space, sit on the chair or watch the the speakers on the chairback. 24 In his eponymous video tape Viola sat also the dissolve and extended the idea of the spatial interpenetration of real and mediated material to the temporal aspect. (cf. Viola in Torcelli 1996, p. 288, note 33). 25 Viola, letter to Wulf Herzogenrath 1976. Archive Wulf Herzogenrath Berlin. He Weeps For You were in Synapse Video Center, Syracuse The Kitchen Center, New York, 11.01.–22.01.1977 and Documenta 6 in Kassel, 24.06.–02.10.1977. 27 Viola 1975 in Viola & Violette 1995. Cf. also the videotape Migration (1976), as described by Torcelli 1996, p. 216. Edith Decker characterized He Weeps for You as „eine reine Closed Circuit Installation“ (Decker in Herzogenrath & Decker 1989, p. 295). 28 “And when I speak about God, I don’t necessarily mean Christ, you know, or Buddha, or Mohammed, or any of the formal religions, because the people in religious history are just the vehicles for the message from the universe. And so we shouldn’t really worship the person – like Christ, for example – but we should really take his message in our hearts, you know? And so the ultimate connection is between ourselves and the universe and nature, you know? That’s really the real connection” (Viola, ibidem.). 29 Ibidem, pp. 98–99. 30 Ibidem, p. 95. 31 The famous tape is described as a personal response to the spiritual extremes of birth and death in the family. 32 The “period eye” was concept devised by Michael Baxandall (Baxandall 1972) who argued that 2004. 33 Campus: “I’m getting to the point where I’m interested in eliminating movement, and there’s just a transformation of energy...I think my installations...they eliminate the mind-body dichotomy, body in those pieces – well, not exactly; you are thinking with your mind/body. They don’t make that separation…” (Peter Campus as quoted in Gill 1992, p. 86.) 34 Cf. Rudel 1985. 35 According to Bourdieu, “ damental … oppositions […] large-scale productions […]

-

newcomers – Bourdieu’s ‘strategical consecration function’ in a bit more complicated way. 36 Very few authors have dedicated longer passages to Campus-Viola connection and if, then without conclusions which go beyond the general links known from earlier second hand literature like London 1987. Cf. Chris Townsend (2004), sporadically, pp. 125–127. 37 Peter Campus, conversation with Barbara Nierhoff, 2003 p. 232.

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38 Bill Viola’s fourteen executed and several not executed closed circuit video installations are clear indications. To the not executed ones belong according to my knowledge Blue Fame (Projection of Bricks), Diving Tables and Function at the Junction. 39 Cf. installation Threshold (1992), an off-site installation One Market Plaza. 40 For an usual negative critique of Bill Viola’s work (which itself cannot further be analyzed here) see Keith 1998.

Chapter 4 1 The initiatives and activities of the been evaluated as decisive impulses for the continuous work of the artist with the video in Germany. The television gallery Gerry Schum (Berlin & Hannover, 1968–1970), the video gallery schum (Düsseldorf, 1970–1973) and in particular both ‘television exhibitions’, the broadcasted shows Land Art 22.40–23.27; rerun on 06.09.1973 on the 3rd channel (WDR-Cologne) – and – SWF, Baden-Baden, 1st channel, 30.11.1970, 22.50–23.32; rerun on the 3rd channel (WDR-Cologne) on 28.06.1973, 21.00 – offered a wide audience the possibility to see these works of Land Art, Arte Povera and Concept Art that were specially designed for TV. – Cf. Groos & Hess & Wevers 2003 and Wevers & Schwarzbauer 1984. – Cf. also Wirths 1988 and Voggenreiter & Wirths 1993. – For detailed information and bibliography cf. Fricke 1996. 2 For the creation history of this department cf. Wevers & Schwarzbauer 1984. (18.01.2011), transcribed and edited by Tatiyankina & Trifonova as part of the project seminar Video art in Rhineland I. I held the seminar in the winter semester 2010/11 as a mutual project of the Institute for Art History and the Institute for 4 Stein und Meer [Stone and sea] (1976, 1:10 min) was shot in Super-8 format. Cf. [http://www. ivo-dekovic.com/] [accessed on 4 October 2014]. 5 Cf. [http://www.norbert-kricke.de/] [accessed on 4 October 2014]. 6 Concerning the lack of video technology and the corresponding educational situation a similar attitude remained characteristic for a part of the graduates from the Arts Academy Düsseldorf up to the late 1980s. Cf. Wevers & Schwarzbauer 1984 as well as Wirths 1988. 7 I received this 8 Friedemann Malsch wrote in 1990: “A fruitful situation for the young video artists arose out of the relationship of tension, which resulted from the differing programmatic positions of Wevers and Paik.” (Malsch 1990, p. 45.) 9 Krempel 1996, p. 15. – The New York-based Paik usually visited his Düsseldorf students twice a year. 10 “In retrospective […] the Paik class turned out to be the probably most progressive and successful video forge in Germany in the last twenty years […] May the pioneering spirit, that was present in the class and is history now, ray in the future.” (Von Wiese & Rennert 1996, p. 5.)

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lour) were the core of the device pool in 1984. I owe this (and related technical) information mostly to the extensive discussions with Hubertus Neuerburg and Heinz Getrost (State Academy of Arts Düsseldorf). 12 Cf. the equipment list in Von Wiese & Rennert 1996, p. 128–9. 13 P5 (the “Pavilion”) was used until 1988, when it was torn away, while the room 215 in the main

‘improvements’ done as a bit anachronistic in an interview with the author in 1999.

15 This information is primarily based on a discussion with Axel Klepsch at the Arts Academy Düsseldorf on 12.10.2000 as well as with Heinz Getrost on 13.10.2000.

17 This way not only could feedback be created without cameras and edited in real time, but also the image editing could be programmed on different levels. The apparatus’ functioning can be compared to a digital video synthesizer. Neuenhofer used this device in his last two years in Düsseldorf more than his fellow students. The video tape Ras, particularly, was created using the Fairlight device to a great extent. 18 This is the label of a no longer existing British company. 19 They were being altered from a 1-channel to a 4-channel up until 1995 and in addition one could convert the NTSC signals in a PAL standard. Neuenhofer used these particularly in his video tape pob. 20 Cf. the installation tape E-Turm. 21 Heinz Getrost in an interview with the author on 13.10.2000. 22 Heinz Getrost evaluated in particular the acquisition of Amiga computers as a false investment. He pointed out the fact that the last few Amiga computers, partly sponsored by Paik, were purchased ca. 1 year before the termination of the particular company. Neuenhofer emphasized in addition their quality and advantage that the students gained by learning programmed design on these computers at that time. 23 The new regulation from 1976 did not allow the enrolment of new students in the department. “The students must be enrolled in a class at the academy and they can use the syllabus of our ering their duties in their own classes according to their choice of artistic means.” Cf. Wevers & Schwarzbauer 1984. – The separated location of the ‘video class’ (so-called ‘Rhine wing’ [‘Rhein24 A. Melitopoulos applied for a place at the university and was accepted as fellow in 1996. 25 The program, comprised by the author, Caught in the Escape. Video in Düsseldorf 1990–1995. The young generation [Im Entwischen Erwischte. Video in Düsseldorf 1990–1995. Die junge Generation] (Black Box – cinema at the Film Museum, Düsseldorf, 17.05.1995) could be realized thanks to the generous (not least technical) help by all the artists presented. It showed video tapes by Alexandra Hopf, Patrick Jambon, Carmen Mankel, Angela Melitopoulos, Aurelia Mihai, Kyung

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Ja Na, Matthias Neuenhofer, Diana Ramaekers, Christine Schröder, Yvonne Lee Schulz, Gabriele 26 Kyung Ja Na in a talk with the author on 04.10.2000. Kunstforum International). 28 This data is taken from the survey for the projects of the art academies and a short description by Hubert Neuerburg from 24.03.1992. – Cf. Lüpertz 1992. I would like to express my gratitude here to Hubertus Neuerburg for all the information and the material provided. 29 Approval meeting from 05.04.1992, Aalto-Theater Essen, fax from Jörg von Kirschbaum to Hubertus Neuerburg from 05.05.1992. Press archive (H. Neuerburg) of the State Art Academy Düsseldorf. 30 The same source. 31 The opportunity of ‘breaking off’ certain light values (luminance signals) and using another video signal instead. 32 The Sony Video 8 Recorder EV-S850PS, the Hitachi colour video camera (chip camera) VKC2000E and the Sony Color Corrector XV-C700. M. Neuenhofer in a conversation with the author in December 2000. 33 Matthias Neuenhofer in a conversation with the author in December 2000. 34 Neuenhofer exhibited RAS RAS ran without sound. The hexagonal pedestals were arranged in a honeycomb form so an empty space was created in the middle of the ensemble due to the form difference of the TV sets. 35 Matthias Neuenhofer, unpublished master thesis, pp. 16/17. version black bars were created at the top and the bottom of the screen by using the difference to the European PAL system (with the greater number of lines and a correspondingly higher resolution). 37 An example is the time-based Corrector P 152-B (information from Heinz Getrost from 2000). 38 HARRIS, 517 Highband, Digital TBC (price back then: ca. 40,000 DM). 39 This is the reason why there are only a few highband working tapes from Neuenhofer’s Düsseldorf times. on Apple Macintosh computers with their ‘media composer’). The information from the quoted source is not quite correct; it can be, at most, an ‘online editing’, since Neuenhofer had already assembled his video tape Suer in 1993, two years before the ‘market launch’ of the device with the aid of the 41 After the important exhibition “Prospect 71 Projection” (1971) the following exhibitions with video parts took place in the State Art Gallery in Düsseldorf up to 1992: „Düsseldorf Video“ (1981) Sculptural events [Skulpturale Ereignisse] (1991) with video works from Nan Hoover and Franziska Megert; a compiled retrospec-

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tive in Zurich and Basel by Nam June Paik (1991/92); and also the important, touring exhibition by Bill Viola (1992); cf. Ch. 3 and the corresponding bibliography. 42 One of the early exceptions is, for instance, Wolfgang Kahlen. 43 The keyword ‘Performing Archives’ delivers an important cross-reference to the concept

Studies (IKK) faculty member Solveig Gade received the Routledge Prize in the context of PSi (Performance Studies International), a professional association founded in 1997 to promote comthe spring of 2009, Solveig Gade established an informal study group, Performing Archives. The project focused on the archive as both visual databases and structural systems contributing to the renewal of ontological approaches to performance studies and visual culture. A particularly important aspect of this research concerns the institutional and political structure provided for culture and art to develop within it. This seems to have had momentum: the same year saw the appearance of Simone Osthoff’s case study (2009) and an exhibition bearing the title Performing the archive which presented innovative space- and time-based interfaces as access to the online-media art archives (since 2007). [http://www.netzspannung.org]. (Accessed on 15 October 2011). – More about these contexts may be found in the full text online reader Sustainable Archiving of Born-Digital Cultural Content cessed on 15 October, 2011] 44 Mitchell, WJT 1994. – The other dispositions, especially those between the Visual Culture, Visual Studies, Bildwissenschaft and the Cultural Turn cannot be considered here at all. Cf. Chapters 6, 7 and 8. 45 A short and not updated list of the project-attempts includes: Ars Publica, Archiving the Avant Datenbank der Virtuellen Kunst, NRPA – New Radio and Performing Arts Inc., Digitalcraft.org, IDC – Institute for Distributed Creativity, Intute – Arts and Humanities, Die Patinnen e. V., MeArt Locator, Ljubljana digital media lab (Ljudmila), Video Data Bank, Video Art Denmark, Vektor, Inside Installations, Variable Media Network, Run Me, Heure Exquise, Gallery 9, Turbulence, Web3Dart, Foundation Daniel Langlois / CR+D Database, Whitney Artport, Electronic Arts InDigital Game Archive, Cinovid, Museum 2.0, NetBehavior – A Networked Artists Community, Archive, Media Matters – Tate Gallery ArtDeCom, MuSe, Bildrausch, CCS BArd, Artnetweb, ELO – Electronic Literature Organisation, Netzwerk Mediatheken, Eyebeam, Arbeitskreis Film-

20 Arte Contemporanea, Curating Degree Zero Archive, HTTP – House of Technology TErmed Praxis, Deutsches Rundfunkarchiv, Curating.info, Curating NetArt, Digicult, Tate Net Art, Haus kyo, DEAF – Dutch Electronic Art Festival, Medienrezeption.de, The Western Front: Media Arts, DiaCenter: Artists’ Web Projects, Akustische-Medien.de, TEAS – The Escape Artists Society, The Thing, Zim. Zentrum für interaktive Medien, CCA Wattis Institute for Contemporary Arts, INM – Institut für neue Medien, The Rose Goldsen Archive of New Media Art, Aktive Archive, Cultura 21, Nomads + Residents, c3 Center for Culture and Communication, The Netherlands Media Art

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Institute, Foro artistico, Artservis, DAM Digital Art Museum, CIANT International Centre for Art and New Technologies, Trace Archive, Assemblage, Ludwig Boltzmann Institut Medien.Kunst. Forschung, The New Media Encyclopedia, Rhizome.org, ASA Art Service Association, Perforum, Bildwechsel, The Danish Video Data Bank, AV-arkki, netart-Datenbank, Kulturdatenbank, Medi46 Kenneth Goldsmith, ‘Epiphanies’, Wire, Issue #327, May 2011. Available online: [http://www. thewire.co.uk/articles/6445/] [accessed on 15 October 2011]. 47 [http://www.thecitrusreport.com/2011/features/a-good-read-archiving-is-the-new-folk-art/] [accessed on 15 October 2011]. 48 Cf. [http://bombsite.com/issues/117/articles/6071] and [http://gonze.com/blog/2011/06/03/thetransformative-power-of-save-as/] [both accessed on 15 October 2011]. 49 Cf. [http://artnetweb.com/theoricon/austria/linz.html] and [http://www.artnetweb.com/wortzel/] [both accessed on 15 October 2011]. 50 Strauß 1981, p.74 (end of the second scene). – See more in Schneider 1987. 51 “ that after a few passes through a reference, we very rarely go back to it in its original form. It sits in the archives like an orange rind, with most of the real juice squeezed out. The contributions from these references form sturdy members of our structure, and are duly tagged as to source so that acknowledgment is always implicitly noted. The analysis and digestion that any of us makes on such contained in those papers merely to try to make up for the pitifully sparse possibilities available for symbol structuring in printed text.” (Engelbart 1962). 52 “A record if it is to be useful to science, must be continuously extended, it must be stored, and above all it must be consulted […] ly, but he certainly ought to be able to learn from it […] One cannot hope thus to equal the speed mind decisively in regard to the permanence and clarity of the items resurrected from storage.” (Bush 1945) construction’ or ‘temporarily (in-)active -visible or -available’: LARM Audio Research Archive, PERFORMING ARCHIVES (G. Borgreen et. al.), Svend Thomsen Documentation-Archive (of Performance-, Installation-, Live-Art, Dance, Poetry, Theatre, Exhibitions, Events), an Archive of International Video Art (Kunsthal Nikolaj, former Videogalerie at Huset), an Archive Project related to the ‘unstable’ Artworks (related to the Roskilde-Museum), an Archiving Project related to the Monumental Sculpture in Copenhagen, a Fluxus-Archive (related to the northwest Europe), Berlin, Copenhagen et. al. (Peter van der Meijden et. al.), Torben Søborg Archive of Independent Danish Video Art, Media Art Database, Ejnar Dyggve-Archive, etc.

Chapter 5 p. 204. Pendergast refers among others to Feynman 1985.

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research in the quantum mechanics and the spectral-analysis, which again leaded to the radio- and neutrinotelescopy until to the gravitations-waves-telescopy. The width and depth of this research and its practical applications have been indicated elsewhere. For telescopes see Andersen 2007. 3 The Swiss architect and architectural historian Adolf Max Vogt has expressed it that way in Edward & Vogt 1985, p. 101. 4 The roots of an extensive glass-usage in the modern architecture could be of course followed back to Bruno Taut and even further back to the mid-nineteen century. 5 Novak, Liquid Architectures. 6 [http://www.asymptote.net/]. [accessed on 4 October 2014]. from 2008 has borrowed its theme – a Transmitting Architecture from one essay of Marcos Novak which dates back in 1995. 8 [http://www.mediafacades.eu/2008/institutions/mag] [accessed on 4 October 2014]. 9 Cf. research network Negotiating (In)Visibilities (IKK, Copenhagen) and Steiner & Veel 2015. 10 See Pold & Andersen 2011, Pold & Hansen 2006, Sommerer & Mignonneau & King 2008 and Sommerer & Mignonneau &, Lakhmi 2008). 11 [http://www.framings.org/]. [accessed on 6 November 2014].

Chapter 6 1 The present essay extends my argumentation on strategies of interpreting meaning between diachronicity and synchronicity as sketched out in Kacunko 2013a, esp. pp. 85–8. That, in turn, summarizes my earlier observations on 2 The following chronologically ordered readers and critical comments on them include further primary literature and early initial texts, which don’t need to be listed here: Fausing & Larsen 1980, Bryson & Holly & Moxey 1991, Jay 1993, Jenks 1995, Cartwright 1995, Jay & Brennan 1996, Bird et. al. 1996, Burgin 1996, Davis 1996, Foster 1998, Elkins 2003, Van Eck & Winters 2005, IMAGE 2005f., Grau & Veigl 2011, Rimmele & Stiegler 2012, Walker & Chaplin 1997, Hall 1997, Mirzoeff 1998, Barnard 1998, Heywood & Sandywell 1999, Doy 2000, Jensen & Jensen & Christensen & Poulsen 2000, Jacobs 2001, Barnard 2001, Sturken & Cartwright 2001, Carson & Pajaczkowska 2001, Holly & Moxey 2002, Jones 2003, Crouch & Lübbren 2003, Dikovitskaya 2005, Rampley 2005, Van Eck & Winters 2005, Kacunko & Leach 2007, Falkenhausen 2007, Davis 2011, Sachs-Hombach & Schirra 2013, Rimmele & Sachs-Hombach & Stiegler (announced), Elkins & Manghani (announced). 3 Original Text: „Diesem Gedanken folgend sind Frames als sich immer wieder aktualisieren.“ Geilert 2013, pp. 311–31. framing research is FrameNet, a lexical, machine and human-readable database project of English. It is based on a theory of meaning called Frame Semantics, derived from the work of Charles J. Fillmore. (Fillmore

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2010 and his earlier publications; cf. Meier 2013: 123). Cf. [https://framenet.icsi.berkeley.edu/fndrupal/] (accessed on 11 May 2013). 5 The term Process Arts denotes videographic, performance and installation as well as acoustic and (hyper-)textual art: this includes, widens and to a certain extent de-semiotizes the older term and genre of (New) Media Art. The blurring boundaries between the media, artistic disciplines, institutional and individual practices defy any attempt at a generally useful term. Our proposition, if it works, navigates cheerfully around any extant term that, by dint of established use in semantic, contentual or even disciplinary and institutional vocabularies, might smack of priority assumed for or standardizing divisions, but simply as observations of certain existing modes of expression as broadly discerned by the art/critical community. As for pondering the collective singular art and the rather bon-viveur plural usage of the term arts, and the way they relate (or not) to the ‘non-artistic’ realm, that is a discussion that would exceed the bounds of the present paper by far. 6 There has been increasing encounter and discourse both spoken and written between the German-speaking Bildwissenschaft image theory community and the English-speaking analysts of Visual Culture. Cases in point have been the international lecture series ‘Bildwissenschaft & Visual Culture’, 2013–14, the symposium ‘What Images Do’ in 2014 and the conference ‘What is an Image’ and [http://www.karch.dk/whatimagesdo]. The Berlin-based research group BildEvidenz. History and Aesthetics has the non-congruence between the German term and its English counterpart, ‘Pictorial Evidence’ in mind as ‘technical’ or ‘fundamental aesthetic categories’ which constitute ‘a genuine, visual presence in [their] own right.’ See [http://bildevidenz.de/en/]. 7 See the explanation of the concept in the Wikipedia article on Ergodicity. [http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Ergodicity] 8 See the short online article on Rahmen by Hans Jürgen Wulff in the Lexikon der Filmbegriffe: index.php?action=lexikon&tag=det&id=6323]. (accessed on 20 April 2014). For further reading see Simmel 1922 and Kübler 1970. 9 Eco developed an analogy to physics and Niels Bohr’s corpuscle theory. ”The cancelling of the seeming antinomy of light as a corpuscle/wave as demonstrated by Bohr highlights precisely this – physical theorems of this kind are not of fundamental ontology, but merely phenomenal theorems.” in the Kantian enquiry as to the world as a ‘quantum continuum’ or ‘quantum diskretum’ (in Kant 1981, p. 485). Die Semiotik arbeitet nicht daran, das Qualitative auf Quantitatives zu reduzieren, weil es für sie nicht nötig ist, zu jenem Grad der Analyse fortzuschreiten, jedoch reduziert sie das Kontinuierliche auf ein System von Differenzen (...) Vorgang der Kultur, die die Denk- und Weltanschauungsweisen in Ausdrucksweisen systematisiert hat.“ Eco 1971, p. 93. 11 For the discussion on the perspectives of literary,

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Spielmann 2000 and 2005. 12 Eco 1988, p. 52 as quoted from the German translation in Kacunko 2010, p. 703. 13 See Eco 1988, p. 39. That German translation uses the expression ‘starre Designatoren’. Mirrors are described by Eco as ‘asemiotic signs’. – See also Kacunko 2010, p. 292, footnote 220, and the context described in chapter 24, Spiegel, Kunst und elektronische Medien.

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14 An alternative to Eco from the perspective of ‘iconicity’ and ‘pictorial semiotics’ has been published severally, in print and online, by Göran Sonesson (Lund). He proposes a reading of the mirror as a sign. for his contribution to the FRAMINGS conference and the corresponding anthology. 16 For further context on Mendelssohn as the ‘Defender of Reason’ see Beiser 2009. 17 Original text: „Die vermöge ihrer Natur mit der bezeichneten Sache nichts gemein haben, aber doch willkührlich dafür angenommen worden sind.“ 18 I have elaborated the contexts of the respective positions elsewhere (Kacunko 2014). To a certain extent prominent Bildwissenschaftler voices have been elaborated on in Kacunko 2010, especially Chapter 21, Der Wille zur Macht der Bilder, and in Kacunko 2007 and 2005. 19 For an interesting and arguably decisive challenge to Chomsky’s theory, see Everett 2005. 20 Interest in such research avant-la-lettre can be found in the mathematical logics and analytical philosophy of the early 20th Century on, as in G. Frege, L. Wittgestein and C. K. Ogden, among others. Ogden attempted in his The Meaning of Meaning (1923; Ogden 1989, with a preface by linguistics, literary analysis, and philosophy, and the semiotics of Charles Sanders Peirce. In the process he initiated the ‘linguistic turn’ of British philosophy. Amongst the many who extended Ogden’s ‘Semantic Triangle’ and postwar analytic philosophy, the Norwegian philosopher and ecologist Arne Næss, in his major work Interpretation and Preciseness (Jacob Dybwad, Norway, 1953) applied the Set Theory to the problems of language interpretation. Accordingly, any word, phrase, or sentence can be considered as having different and permanently changing potential interpretations, depending on prevailing language tum), seen together as logical instruments in evaluation of interpretations, pseudo-agreements etc. One cannot help but recall Russel’s Paradox and the set theory. 21 I have argued against W. Kemp’s ‘implicit viewer’-theory in Kacunko 2005, 2007 and 2010 (esp. pp. 420–1, footnote 72).

23 For Deleuze’s concept of a continuing differentiation and updating of the virtual and its possible interface with the feedback frames discussed here, see Deleuze 1992, p. 29f. – For an attempt visual culture on a digital and electronic basis (via Tarkowskij and Godard) and a corresponding concept of a “plasmatic information-image” see Meldgaard 2013. – Representative for a number of authors that relate to Deleuze’s Cinema I. and Cinema II. in order to conceptualize an ‘other time’ (to a certain extent parallel to Foucault’s ‘other space’ idea), see Schaub 2003. 24 Armenian director Artavazd Peleshyan’s own theory of ‘Distance-Montage’ sought to extend mental documentary, Wremena goda [http://www.montagetheorie.de/ html]. See also Peleshyan’s website (in French): [http://www.artavazd-pelechian.net/]. (accessed on 4 October 2014).

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Chapter 7 1 In case of the allegedly original Galileo-drawings, the author in question had to face an extensive, not always fair public criticism. For the public critique and debate cf. among others: Süddeutsche Zeitung 107. from 10./11.5.2007, Neue Züricher Zeitung 71. (international issue) from 26.3.2014, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung from 23.3.2014 (12. Sunday), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung 18. From 22.1.2014, Die Zeit 27.12.2013, Die Zeit from 16.1.2014. The discussion about the late discovery of the mentioned, itself late contribution to the debate between the German semiotic and phenomenological schools of the Bildwissenschaft demonstrates is, as far as I am able to recognize, an example of a smug writing and a ‘disclosure’ science journalism which uses precisely the methods of Bredekamps’ criticized approach oriented on the material proofs, possible objectivity and etiology. 2 Original text: „Die Rahmung einer Sonderform bezeugt mit der Erkenntnis ästhetischer Unterschiede ausch den Willen, diese gestaltend zu verstärken. Hier ist jene Unterscheidung angelegt, die als „ikonische Differenz“ zur Grundbestimmung des Bildes gehört.“ 3 Original text: „Ausbildung einer bildaktiven Phänomenologie, die auf die in der Form steckende potentia abzielt: Zur Kraft der Bilder selbst.“ 4 Original text: „Mensch ist, wer Naturgebilde in Bilder umzuformen und diese als eigene Sphäre zu bestimmen vermag […] ein elementarer Zusammenhang zwischen Bildschöpfung und Evolution des Menschen besteht.“ 5 Bogen (2005) describes four prominent positions related to image and art: „Ikonik“ (Imdahl), „Bild und Kult“ (Belting), „Metamalerei“ (Stoichita), and „Bild, Schrift, Notation“ (Bredekamp et. al.) – Cf. also Bruhn 2009 (19) with further references. 6 The quote stems from Peter Medawar, 1960’ Nobel Laureate in Medicine. 7 Cf. chapter 7. Kant: Playing with Truth and 7.1. Kant’s Theory of Free Play – Jacques Derrida’s deconstructive reading of the Critique of Judgement by Immanuel Kant (1790) in The Truth in Painting (1978) dedicated an entire chapter to the problem of parergon (marginal or secondary decoration). Mike Featherstone (1995) puts Derrida’s deconstruction in perspective by asserting how “the problem of the dominance of the immediacy of modernism, is the reassertion of form. But here it is not the directed form seeking to centre itself within the construction of a metaphysical or logocentric scheme, but the endorsement of the primacy of the written culture, of opting for play against the discipline imposed within formal cultural practices […] For Derrida (1973: 135) play entails ‘the unity of chance and necessity in an endless calculus’. Life becomes the free play of forms void of any ulterior purpose. Within play-forms the life persists, gathered together into the play of form for its own sake. For Deena and Michael Weinstein (1990), who make this argument from an interesting synthesis of the ideas of Simmel and Derrida, postmodern culture entails this type of deconstructionist play, a privileging of ‘deauthorized play’, something which occurs when we are watching within contemporary consumer culture (e.g. the shopping mall, theme park, etc., discussed above).” (Featherstone 1995: 85, note 4) 8 “The form, then, of any portion of matter, whether it be living or dead, and the changes of form that are apparent in its movements and in its growth, may in all cases alike be described as due to the action of force. In short, the form of an object is a ‘diagram of forces’.” (11) 9 Bredekamp relies on Darwin’s sketches in Notebook B.

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Origin of Species from 1859. Cf. review on Bredekamp’s monography in The British Journal for the History of Science (Weber 2008). 11 Cf. a number of similar learning book concepts and even points of departure (John Berger) which are to be found at Mangani (2013), Bruhn (2009) et. al. primacy of internal ordering processes against a perceived one. Cf. Cheung 2008, p. 11. A believed difference („deutliche Differenz“ [diversitas conspicua]) between the order of the living and non-living, which corresponds to the difference between the organic and inorganic is described among others in Stahl’s De vera diversitate corporis mixti et vivi, et vtriusque peculiarium continum atque proprietatum necessaria discretione, demonstratio (1707), p. 148. 13 This argument brought about by Stuart Kauffman and the ‘General Biology’ has been included already in my article entitled Life, death and the dusty rebirth. About the mediation of say(il)ings or Bo(o)tschaften between art and science (2012/14), which is also included in this volume. 14 “Could you say that an obscure molecular mutation in a bacterium might allow the bacterium to detect a calcium current from a ciliate and take evasive action? I think not. More generally, I think we just don’t have the concepts ahead of time to state what all possible Darwinian preadaptations might be, nor can we state what all possible environments might be.” (Kauffman 2002, p. 137). 15 Peirce has recognized this fundamental redundancy as he proposed a semiotic approach to the relationship between the interpreter (Thirdness), the object (Secondness), and the sign (Firstness). While this relationship is crucial for the interpretative sciences like Art History or Archeology, biologists have found the fruitful way to project these epistemological and ontological claims onto the life-process itself: In the Triadic Semiosis-Process of becoming a ‘man’ (for example) the Y-chromosome takes as a sign the position of Firstness, the DNA as an object the one of Secondness, while the cell is interpreted as an actual interpreter. – When Heinz von Foerster formulated sentences like had in mind, when he described the basic quality of reality as randomness or chaos – in accordance with modern thermodynamics (and the general tendency towards entropy). 16 Original text: „Leben ist der dynamische Prozess der Symmetriebrechung unter Energieeinsatz im dyssymmetrischen System zwischen membranumschlossenem von der Entropie unabhängigem Geschehen der Zelle und der gewaltigen zeitlichen Rückkopplung mit gleichzeitigen wie früheren (fossilen) Dyssymmetrien, fossilen Biosphären aus denen die heutige Erde Energie und Stoffquellen schöpft.“ (Krummbein and Levit 1997) 17 Page-quoting after the available Online-version on the webside of the author. [http://www. jhoffmeyer.dk/] 18 Kugler, F 1842, Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte. 19 Original text: „Der Stein wurde nicht bis zur Funktionstüchtigkeit ausgearbeitet; vielmehr bestand seine Aufgabe darin, dem fossilen Bildrelief einen Rahmen zu geben und den herauszuhebenden Gegenstand gegenüber diesem umgebenden Rand in eine spannungsvolle Position zu bringen. Erneut kommt das Prinzip der intendierten Asymmetrie ins Spiel. Gegenüber dem Naturbild fungiert der Stein als eine spannungsgeladener Rahmen.“ 20 Original text to the image 72: „Der Höhepunkt dieser ostentativen Steinkunst stammt aus … Dieser ca. 450000–200000 Jahre alte Faustkeil ist gleichsam in sich selbst die Verbindung von

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Kunstwerk und Museum. Die Silhouette gehorcht dem Stil der symmetrisch-asymmetrischen Zubereitung, aber in der Mitte des Bauches sitzt die fossile Muschel […] als eine Sonderform. Mit einer bemerkenswerten Finesse ist das Fossil in die zentrale Achse des Gebildes gebracht worden […] Auf der Basis dieser Differenzbestimmung hat der Fossilrahmer etwas Einzigartiges geschaffen […] sein Auge muss diese Form mit einer solchen Wertschätzung wahrgenommen haben, dass die Gattung des ‚Bildes im Bild‘ in die Welt gesetzt.“ (Bredekamp 2013, p. 30) 21 Original text: „Nicht die Fertigung des autonomen Werkzeugs macht den Menschen aus, sondern vielmehr die Verbindung der Zubereitung mit dem inhärenten Eigenlauf der Form.“ 22 Original text: „Was für eine Art von Werkzeug hat der Mensch durch das Bildmedium an die Hand bekommen?“ (Wiesing 2004, p. 116), quoted after Seja 2009, p. 121. 23 Deleuze denies the difference between the virtual and real and transfers it instead to the difference between the virtual and actual. Cf. Seja 2009, p. 163. 24 Seja writes here about a “philosophical interpretationism” in relation to Eva Schürmann’s theory. cf. Seja 2009, p. 105. 25 Original text: „Wenn die reine Sichtbarkeit zu einer Form des Seins wird, dann sieht der Betrachter kein Zeichen mit gegenständlicher Referenz, sondern eine Sonderform der sichtbaren Realität.“ Cf. Seja 2009, p. 185. 26 The phenomenologist’s side is illustrated there with E. Husserl, M. Merleau-Ponty, G. Boehm, G. Böhme and also Wiesing, for whom for example diagrams do not have the status of images (cf. Wiesing 2005). An attempt to cross the image („Darstellung“) and picture („Vorstellung“) is made by Karin Knorr-Cetina with her concept of “viscourse” (Knorr-Cetina 2002 [1999]). 27 Cf. similarities in terminology by Massumi and Manning in their MIT-series Technologies of Lived Abstraction with possible paradigms like “speculative pragmatism” and “speculative realism” are named. Cf. Shaviro 2009, p. VI. 28 There is no space here to discuss contemporary Deleuze adherents and the corresponding revival of recourses to Whitehead and Kant [such as Isabelle Stengers (2008) with her Speculative Constructivism, or more recently, Steven Shaviro (2009).

30 [http://www.labiennale.org/en/art/archive/55th-exhibition/55iae/]. (accessed on 15 October 2014) 31 For further readings, check out Caillois’ two books discussing his philosophy of stones; Pierres and L’Écriture des pierres. 32 [http://www.artandsciencejournal.com/post/53960547810/roger-caillois-the-writing-ofstones]. (accessed on 31 October 2014) 33 Because the differences that observers register (and machines measure) are heavily dictated by both biologically and culturally created interests, an ethological (behavior-based) approach delivers an important supplement in a chain of disciplines, providing a widened interdisciplinary perspective on the phenomena in question, previously preferably negotiated from an etiological (origin-oriented) point of interest. 34 This section is partially adapted from the last section of Kacunko 2010, p. 501ff.

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35 Original text: „Seit der Vernunftkritik der Romantik gewannen Phantasie und Einbildungskraft, Anschauung und Bild alte Rechte zurück. be still relevant for representatives of the younger generations. For instance, it is explained that “the early Romanticism shows that [the] theory and artistic realization of the consolidation of the senses can be also considered a mirror of the perception discussion of that time.” Original text: „Gerade die Frühromantik [zeige], dass [die] Theorie und künstlerische Umsetzung der Verschmelzung der Sinne auch als Spiegel der Wahrnehmungsdiskussion der Zeit betrachtet werden können.“ Cf. Heibach 2004, p. 171. 36 Within the recent iconographic debate of the ending 20th century Lambert Wiesing advocated a resumption of the term of the ‘pure visibility’ and its application to the new production conditions of media images too. This gives the images precisely that subjectivity which should not fall victim to from the perspective of Bildwissenschaft. Cf. Wiesing 2000. 37 Cf. Kacunko 2010, section 19.: Zur Geburt der Geschmackswissenschaften (p. 446f.) and Konklusionen: Spiegel als Metamedium der Visualität (p. 761f.) 38 Eng. translation by Colian Lyas. German version is previously cited in: Kacunko 2010: 503 and Kacunko 2001a, p. 7. : „Da aber das Bewußtsein der Realität auf der Unterscheidung von realen und irrealen Bildern beruht, und da eine solche Unterscheidung im ersten Augenblick nicht existiert, werden jene Intuitionen in Wahrheit weder Intuitionen des Realen noch solche des Irrealen, nicht Wahrnehmungen, sondern reine Intuitionen. Wo alles real ist, ist nichts real.“ revaluation of the basics of the humanities the recent attempt tried also to secure the status of the visual studies within the interpreting or understanding humanities, but without wanting to lose the nominal connection to technological, natural and social sciences. 40 Original expressions: „intentionales Bewusstsein […] die leibhafte Überkreuzung der Blicke“. 41 Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961) even quoted the place from the apocryphal apostle story of the I am a mirror to you, in which you recognize me.” [„Ein Spiegel bin ich dir, der du mich erkennst.“] Jung cites here chapter 95 of the so-called Johannesakten: “The classical mythical example of the value of the differentiation between subject and object through the power of about Perseus and Medusa. If one looks at Medusa directly, then he turns into stone, that it, she represents a psychic content which destroys the I. She can be conquered only if one looks at her through the for a symbol of the process of culture, which relieves the human from his destructive Medusa-like horror of the raw existence. Language, art, drama and education hold up the mirror of Athena to humanity, which allows the soul to emerge and to develop.” Original Text: „Das klassische mythische sich im Mythos von Perseus und Medusa: Schaut man Medusa direkt an, so wird man zu Stein, d. h. sie repräsentiert einen psychischen Inhalt, der das Ich zerstört. Sie kann nur überwunden werden, Ich halte Athenas Schild-Spiegel letztlich für ein Symbol des Prozesses der Kultur, die den Menschen von seinem zerstörerischen medusischen Horror rohen Daseins erlöst. Sprache, Kunst, Drama und Bildung halten der Menschheit den Spiegel der Athena vor Augen, der es Seele ermöglicht, aufzutauchen und sich zu entwickeln.“ Cf. Schneemelcher 1989 and Edinger 1986. 42 Original text: „Die Möglichkeitsspielräume, die die Bildungen der Einbildungskraft eröffnen, sind […] gegenüber den hegemonialen Identitätszuschreibungen einer kategorisierenden Vernunft

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vorzuziehen, weil sie viel gestaltiger und freiheitlicher geartet sind.“ – Already Diderot knew that our imagination is less strict than our eyes. The mentioned scientists and artists as well as the ones their perception, before the acquired knowledge should be ‘carried somewhere’ (meta-pherein).

Chapter 8 1 Original text: „ […] in krassem Gegensatz zur Praxis des Faches“ […] „Einer der Gründe für die Aushöhlung der kulturellen Überlebensstrategie ist die mangelnde Fähigkeit des Kunsthistorikers, die Bedeutung der zeitgenössischen Kunst zu verstehen und in den Gesamtszusammenhang der Kunstentwicklung zu integrieren.“ 2 Original text: „Sich der Gesellschaft gegenüber verantwortungsbewusst zu verhalten, bedeutet heute für ein Individuum, so viel wie nur möglich zu kaufen – unabhängig davon, ob es das will oder nicht.“ 3 Original text: „Wie bei Spielen üblich, scheinbar oder nicht, Chancengleichheit vor“ […] „Oft aber sind die Spielregeln unbekannt, wie bei einem Adventure-Game.“ 4 Original text: „Die Spiele nähern sich in ihrer wachsenden Komplexität dem Leben in einer unübersichtlichen Umwelt an und sie haben gegenüber den Angeboten der Massenmedien […] die Eigenschaft, die Menschen aus ihrer Passivität herauszuholen, um sie jedoch desto besser dem Rhythmus der Maschinen anzupassen.“ 5 Original text quoted: „Die Wissenschaft ist eine ängstlich dem Zeitgeschmack angepasste Geschichte. Die wissenschaftliche Terminologie ist geistlos und schal […] Die jüngsten Ergebnisse der Wissenschaft gestatten uns ebenso wie ihre stabilsten, fundiertesten Gesetze gerade nur, die Untauglichkeit jedes Versuchs einer vernunftgemäßen Erklärung des Universums zu beweisen, den Grundirrtum aller abstrakten Auffassungen aufzuzeigen, die Metaphysik in das Folkloremuseum der Rassen einzuordnen und jedwede Weltanschauung a priori zu verbieten […] In dieser offensichtlichen Unordnung setzt eine Form der menschlichen Gesellschaft sich durch und bezwingt den Tumult. Sie arbeitet, sie schafft. Sie arbeitet mit Börsenkrach und Boom, sie wertet alles um. Sie hat es verstanden, aus Zufälligkeiten hervorzugehen. Keine klassische Theorie, keine abstrakte Anschauung, eine Ideologie hatte diese Gesellschaft voraussehen können. Sie ist eine kolossale Macht, die heute die ganze Welt umspannt, formt und knetet. Es ist die grosse moderne Industrie kapitalistischer Prägung [...] Die Intellektuellen machen sich das noch nicht klar, die Philosophen wissen von nichts, Patrizier und Kleinbürger leben viel zu sehr nach der Schablone, um etwas zu merken, und die Künstler sind Aussenseiter. Nur das Heer der Arbeiter hat das entstehen der neuen Lebensformen Tag für Tag miterlebt, hat an ihrer Erschliessung gearbeitet, zu ihrer Ausbreitung beigetragen, hat sich sofort angepasst, ist auf den Sitz gestiegen, hat das Steuer in die Hand genommen und diese neuen Lebensformen allem Entsetzens- und Protestgeschrei zum Trotz mit Höchstgeschwindigkeit durch Ziel gebracht, den Rasen am Strassenrand und die Kategorien von Raum und Zeit verwüstend.“ 6 In 2008 and 2009, some of the mentioned issues related to art and games have been widely and more in depth discussed in my seminar Games. Rules. Learning: The ludic Aspects of Art in the 20th and 21th Century I & II art and culture shows their hard edges especially where the corner stones of game theory (Von Neumann) and cybernetics (Wiener) collide. According to Timothy Druckrey there were especially

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interactivity) the decisive elements which have deeply infected “the intricate link between the cybernetic and the biological.” Druckrey 1996: 17. 7 Original text: „In seinem kulturkonservativen Gestus leicht, wenn er gewissermaßen, das ‚sittliche Gewissen‘ der modernen ‚Erschlaffung der moralischen Wertmaßstäbe‘ gegenüberstellt.“ […] „bei der Eröffnung eine Chancengleichheit der Spieler besteht und dass die Regeln nicht willkürlich verändert werden dürfen.“ […] „Versuch, das Beste aus dem Zufall zu machen und gegen ihn zu setzen“. 8 „ auf ein dynamisches, medial vermitteltes System, inklusive einer damit verbundenen Rückkopplung.“ 9 „Durch das Spiel wird die Zeit des alltäglichen Lebens in ihrer Kontinuität aufgehoben, und dieselbe Stunde erhält einen neuen Rhythmus: kraft der Spannung ihrer Erwartungen verwandelt sich für den Spieler und Zuschauer die bisherige ‚Gegenwart‘ [...] das Spiel ist, wenn auch nur das Scheingerüst einer Ordnung, etwas durchaus Ernstes, und zwar deshalb, weil es die Regeln ernst nimmt, die das Verhalten eines jeden Spielers bestimmen [...] Solange es im Gange ist, herrscht Veränderung, und in seinem Auf und Nieder entfalten sich Möglichkeiten menschlicher Handlungen wie in einem Brennspiegel.“ 10 Original text: „Es ist von jeher eine der wichtigsten Aufgaben der Kunst gewesen, eine Nachfrage zu erzeugen, für deren volle Befriedigung die Stunde noch nicht gekommen ist.“ the future. 12 Dave Beech and John Roberts (2002) described this impasse as the “philistine controversy”: “There is no shared ground between seeing mass culture as the site of popular resistance to structures of authority and the view that mass culture is one the main structures by which individuals are alienated from their humanity and interests.” (Beech & Roberts 2002: 148.: … 63. Cf. Gray 2008: 63. versity of Copenhagen with the course Cultural Entrepreneurship in Theory, History and Praxis, by including among others, readings of Weber, Adorno & Horkheimer, Habermas, Sennett, Casson, Giddens, Harvey, Featherstone, Heelas, Bourdieu, Bjørkås, Spilling, Leadbeater & Oakley, Caves, Cowen, Towse, Menger, Mangset, Abbing, Beech & Roberts, Ellmeier, Røyseng and Gray. 14 Original text: „Eine neue Positionierung des Betrachters außerhalb der festen Bezugspunkte von Innen/Ausen, die die Camera Obscura noch voraussetzten, in ein unmarkiertes Feld, in dem die Un“ 15 „In ihrer pluralen Identität, in ihrem ‚gemischten‘ Status als erkenntnistheoretische Metapher innerhalb einer diskursiven Ordnung und als Gegenstand innerhalb eines Systems kultureller Praktiken.“ 16 Original text: „Inbegriff all jener Verfahren und Kräfte, die die Wahrheit verbergen, entstellen und vortäuschen“. Cf. Kacunko 2010: 410, and the Ch. 18. 17 Original text: „Eine breitere und wesentlich wichtigere Veränderung in der Struktur des Sehens ereignet hatte.“ 18 Original text: „Paradigma der Camera Obscura tatsachlich dem Sehen Priorität einräumt, steht dieses Sehen doch a priori im Dienst eines nichtsinnlichen Denkvermögens, das allein einen wahren Begriff von der Welt gibt.“

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19 Original text: „Unstabile Physiologie und Vergänglichkeit des menschlichen Körpers“. 20 Original text: „Daher wirken Farbakzente und Lichtkontraste im Vergleich zum natürlichen Sehen übersteigert.“ 21 So it could be shown that and how the Camera Obscura had a much wider meaning for painters like Vermeer than a simple composition aid. Cf. quoted works of Wheelock and Kacunko 2010: 410ff. 22 Original text: „Eine Graphik in der Hand aller“ […] „Stift, der wie der Verstand gehorcht.“ […] „ .“ 23 Original text: „ halten wird wie ein Spiegelbild, nur dass die Farbe fehlt […]. Zersetzung eines Salzes durch einige Sonnenstrahlen. Sie sei ‚Zeichnung durch Licht‘, sagt der Etymologe […]. Man verzeihe mir, aber sie ist nicht Zeichnung durch Licht, und das Wort Fotograwürde, dann wäre sie viel wahrheitsgetreuer, als sie ist.“ – This is why the Héliographie of Niepce medium. 24 Original text: „ Vorgang ihrer Namensgebung mit der Phase nach der Veröffentlichung bis hin zur beginnenden ständige Entstehung von Zeichnungen, Lithographien oder Kupferstichen; ihre Mittel, die Camera obscura, die Kupferplatte und das Zeichenpapier, entstammen dem Metier des Graphikers.“ 25 Wolfgang Kemp’s criticism of the “emphatic” recipient orientation of post-structuralism (by him ironically abbreviated as VLF – Viewer Liberation Front) was at an early stage related also to the digital interactive media art which would offer only apparent alternatives. Cf. Kemp 1992: 19–20. 26 I refer here to the corresponding bibliography as quoted in the Chapter 6., note 2. 27 Original text: „Werkstatt der Welt und [dem] Paradies einer erfolgreichen Bourgeoisie“ […] „Die Volkswirtschaftler und Philosophen waren blind genug, die verbrecherische Haltung der Arbeitgeber ideologisch zu rechtfertigen. Der Liberalismus herrschte unkontrolliert in der Philosophie wie in der Industrie und gab dem Fabrikanten vollständige Freiheit zur Herstellung der schäbigsten und scheußlichsten Dinge, wenn es ihm nur gelang, sie loszuwerden.“ 28 Original text: „Der Zweck besteht darin, eine feste Grundlage und einen Hintergrund für einen Gegenstand zu schaffen, der gesehen und verkauft werden soll. Die Tendenz ist also, das Publikum an einer bekannten oder gewünschten „ambientalen“ Situation teilnehmen zu lassen, damit es len“ Sockel sowie die prunkvollen und barocken Rahmen tendieren dazu, die ausgestellten Objekte ins Sakrale und Preziöse zu heben.“ 29 Original text: „Ohne sein liebes Ich zu erblicken. Spiegel an Spiegel! In Cafe’s und Restaurationen, in Boutiquien und Magazinen, in Salons pour la coupe des cheveux und Salons litteraires, in Bädern und überall, ‚jeder Zoll ein Spiegel!‘ 30 Original text: „Paris ist die Spiegelstadt: Spiegelglatter Asphalt seiner Autostraßen, vor allen heller zu machen Industriekapitalistische Spiegelschau, pp. 804-898.

Die Verspiegelung der Metropolen.

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31 Original text: „Ein Aspekt auf die Zweideutigkeit der Passagen: ihr Reichtum an Spiegeln, der die Räume märchenhaft ausweitet und die Orientierung erschwert 32 Original text: „Anleitung fur eine Selbstentdeckungsreise.“ 33 Original text: „Ich glaube nicht an das Unbewußte und auch nicht daran, dass die Welt sich uns als ein Traum darstellt, außer im Schlaf. Ich glaube nicht an den Wachtraum. Ich glaube auch nicht an die Imagination. Sie ist willkürlich, und ich suche nach der Wahrheit, und die Wahrheit ist das Mysterium. Schließlich glaube ich auch nicht an ‚Ideen‘. Wenn ich welche hätte, wären meine Bilder symbolisch. Nun, ich versichere, sie sind es nicht 34 Jose Ortega Y Gasset already saw in Las Meniñas the representation of a particular moment, which is and can be at the same any moment (in the particular family frame), but gives the picture “such a strict uniformity in the temporal dimension, that we had to wait for that amazing mechanical invention of the snapshot in order to reach something similar and at the same time in order to be able to lay open Velazquez’ bold artitsic intuition”. Original text: „Eine so strenge Einheitlichkeit im Zeitlichen [gibt], abwarten mußten, um etwas Ähnliches erreichen und gleichzeitig die kühne künstlerische Intuition des Velazquez freilegen zu können“. 35 Original text: „Rationalitat gestattet es dem Menschen, das Bild seines eigenen Begehrens in eine konkrete Form zu verwandeln, ohne darin zu ertrinken.“ 36 Cf. remarks on Derrida in the Chapter 7. 37 Original text: „Wiederum jenen Zustand eines narzisstischen Ertrinkens, der mit dem Tod der tionen zwei verschiedener Prähistorien.“ – As Brancusi-agent, Duchamp was very well informed about the art-speculation market of his time. For different critical views on Duchamp and his reception cf. Hopkins 2006. 38 Original text: „Das Eindringen in das Leben als leidenschaftlicher Ausdruck des Verlangens ist im Spiegel enthalten, wie auch das Eindringen in die kalte Klarheit des Spiegels enthalten ist in der Rationalität des Gedankens, der das kreative Wagnis des Lebens stützt. Für mich bleibt der Spiegel werden.“ 39 Original text: „Parallele zwischen der Teilung der Einheit des Spiegels und der Teilung der Materieneinheit ermittelt, die als Resultat die Vervielfachung des Spiegels einerseits und die biologische Zeugung andererseits erbringt.“ 40 Original text: „Bestimmte Sachen zu zeigen, die nur Spiegel zeigen können. Ich wurde sogar so weit gehen, zu sagen, dass der Spiegel nie etwas mimetisch wiedergibt, sondern immer etwas anderes zeigt. Darüber hinaus verändert er den Raum und ermöglicht es, mehr und auf andere Weise zu sehen.“ 41 Original text: „So geht hier alles in ‚Echtgröße‘ vonstatten, weshalb die Metapher nicht ein fur “ 42 Original text: „Das Kunstwerk sollte, scheint mir, die Augen öffnen, statt sie zu blenden, es sollte .“ 43 Original text: „Nicht in einer Tautologie des Sehens ersticken zu lassen.“ 44 Original text: „Eine für immer aktive ‚Collage‘.“

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Chapter 9 1 Original text: Alter Mann: So haben Sie lange an Versailles gedacht, bis sie hier leben konnten / Junger Mann: Nein; so habe ich lange in Versailles verkehren müssen, um Sanssouci zu begreifen (An excerpt from a dialog in the video installation Dans la vision périphérique du témoin [‘In the Peripheral Vision of the Witness’, 1986] by Marcel Odenbach. Collection Musée National d’art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris). 2 Original text: “nicht […] vor der Lösung der Probleme ausdenken, sondern nur an ihrer Lösung entwickeln” lassen. 3 Original text: “das Heranziehen von Ergebnissen, die in anderen Gebieten vorliegen und Probleme betreffen, die bei der Erforschung jeglichen Geschehens auftreten.” 4 He changed his last name from Petersen to Dyggve in 1906. Dyggve or Dyggvi in Old Norse means ‘useful, effective’ and still has a phonetic resemblance to the Danish word ‘dygtig’ (studious, diligent). According to Snorri Sturluson’s Ynglinga saga (1225), Dyggve or Dyggvi was a Swedish king, Domar’s son, who’s origins reach in a direct lineage to Domald, Visbur, Vanlande, Swegde and Fjolde back to Freya, one of the most important goddesses in Norse mythology. 5 To learn to get along with chance and opportunity is literally the ability taught in the cult of Tyche that was propagated in Salona after Constantine’s death. Salona received such a symbol, the city Tyche (Martia Iulia Valeria Salona Felix), erected at a central location, the Porta Caesarea. Tyche Salonitana remained as the representative of urban values from the time of Diocletian and during of continuity. 6 Architectural decoration and sarcophagi are some of the most important material sources for symbolic and ornamental iconography in circulation was reinforced from the end of the fourth century onwards. This ‘style’ was enforced in Salona in particular through the practice of the local bishops: With their own example – by burials in the ‘iconoclastic’ (‘only’ epigraphic) sarcophagi – they continued an ancient tradition, which was gradually eroded by technical, formal and conceptual changes in the production of sarcophagi and with the type of funeral. One of the reasons for the long persistence of ancient traditions in Salona was not least the rich and diverse epigraphic heritage, which, however, meant a substantial deviation from the pagan Roman epigraphy. See note 5 and current projects, like the Epigraphical Database related to Forschungen in Salona I–III, [http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/main?url=bi]. More bibliography on the epigraphic repp. 66f. 7 Salona Sotteranea Christiana, a paraphrase from Roma sotteranea of Antonio Bosio (1632) was a working title of my planned doctoral thesis of 1999 with the purpose of revaluating “Genesis, 300.–600.” 8 See

, [http://www.ffzg.hr/pov/zavod/triplex].

9 Original text: “ obuhvataju, nalazi u prijelaznoj zoni Istoka i Zapada, Sjevera i Juga. Uzme li se kao pregradna padne Evrope, dok se prema istoku evropsko kopno proširuje i postaje sve masivnije i kompaktnije, -

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klimatski utjecaji ulaze tu s obje strane.” 10 I have linked it to the Dyggve conference in Croatia, Creating Crossroads, see section 9.5. The provides an opportunity to reproduce a possible ‘preview’ of the third step of our Dyggve project, the title and concept of which have been conceived together with Anne Haslund Hansen in Split in June 2013. After the previous talks with Jens Fleischer and colleagues at the National Museum in Copenhagen as well as the recent talks with the Head the Conservation department in Split Dr. RaEjnar Dyggve Arhiv Split to receive enough interest and support to be able to set up the research network entitled Mapping of Christian Archeology: Towards a comparative Revaluation of Art and Culture in the Early Middle Ages as well as the exhibition Great Dane meets Dalmatian. Ejnar Dyggve and the Mapping of Christian Archeology in Split and Copenhagen (2014/16). Their tentative structure serves as menone hand and to map his motifs and methodologies on another. 11 Original text: “Ét liv som udøvende arkitekt, ovenikøbet i sin ungdom en revolutionær avantgardearkitekt. Og ét liv som arkæolog, forsker og kunsthistoriker. Det sidste kom i årenes løb helt til at overstråle det første.” Fisker’s quotes stem from Dyggve, 1958. With kind thanks to Anne Haslund Hansen. 12 Dyggve names the following group members: Mehrn Ludvigsen, Otto Valentiner, Aage Rafn, Kay Fisker, Axel G. Jørgensen, Ingrid Møller, Volmar Drost and Povl Stegmann as well as the painters Jens Adolf Jerichau and Asger Bremer (Fisker, 1961, p. 3). 13 Original text: “Men disse ny almeneuropæiske bestræbelser gik udenom vort danske Kunstakademi [...] Det, de så hen til, så ud som en manifest, de ville tage problemerne op i teoretisk

ville nå til en skærpet sansning for materialets tekniske ejendommeligheder. De ville endelig også, ” 14 Original text: “Gennem en funktionsanalyse blev opgaven opløst i dens komponenter, og denne analyse blev omsat i et formsprog, bestemmt ved egenskaberne hos det valgte materiale. For at pirre rumfornemmelsen hændte det, at vi betragtede den kubiske masse i forhold til en indført kompositionsteorien [...] Vort program var at holde de historiske stilarter uden for nuets bygningskunst. Og dog gik vi ikke udenom det historiske studium. Tværtimod, jeg har nævnt, at vi fandt det nødvendigt at undersøge ældre tiders arkitektur og håndværk.” 15 Original text: “[...] vi blev kaldt omvæltere og internationalister [...] Vores lille samfund havde ikke et mål i sig selv [...].” 16 Original text: “Ein steinernes Monument in dem der gewaltige Blutstrom des Nordens noch pulsiert und in dem Einzelnen noch erkennbar ist […] In der ungeheuren Kuppel ihrer Steindecke erkennen wir das nordische Gefühl” (Dyggve’s quote from A. Haupt, Wachsmuths Lex. D. Bauk., 1930, p. 617). 17 Original text: “[…] jene unverwüstbare Felslast, die in den alten Heimatlanden über den Gräbern der gewaltigen emporgeschichtet ward” (Dyggve’s quote from Fr. Kugler, Gesch. D. Bauk., 1856, p. 398).

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18 Original text: “Aber der König war Germane und so kam bei seinem Grabmal in merkwürdigem Anachronismus als grossartiges Zeugnis für die ewige Macht des Blutes, in der megalitischen Baugesinnung ein Urinstinkt siener Rasse zum Durchbruch” (Dyggve’s quote from S. Fuchs, Die Kunst der Ostgotenzeit, 1944, p. 41). 19 Original text: “Dette skriveri er digtning. Det er ikke arkitekturhistorie.” 20 [http://historie.dn.dk/#get=/Article/Focus/63]. 21 http://www.dn.dk/]. 22 [http://historie.dn.dk/#get=/Article/Focus/21]. ne samo na teoriju i praksu zaštite spomenika nego i na novo vrjednovanje i metodološki pristup samoj povijesti umjetnosti. S time je bilo ” See active approach to the architectural heritage.” 24 Original text: “[...] kort sagt, her utviklet han den eiendommelige forskerkarakter og forskermoral som siden skulle prege alt hva han skapte.” 25 Original text: “Der Wert der Aufklärung mittels der graphischen Darstellung darf nicht versagen, wenn eine archäologische Publikation befriedigend sein soll. Und doch ist die Darstellungsarbeit früher oft als Zugabe betrachtet worden; sie ist aber keine Zugabe, sondern ist eine Arbeit dauernden dokumentarischen Wertes, und es gebührt, sie unter ernster und bindender Verantwortung auszuführen.” Croatian Society of Art Historians 27 Original text: “

art history. .”

whose dissertation about Gottschalk at the court of the Croatian prince Trpimir (1933) still inspires a large number of Croatian art historians and archaeologists. He was a chaeological museum in Split until 1959, before he died two years later, just three weeks after Dyggve in Copenhagen, on August 26–27, 1961, curiously the day of St. Anastasius’s martyr-death in 304. 29 The published document, found in 1929 in the Split diocesan archive contends that both sought churches are on the island (insula in qua existunt ecclesiae B. Virginis et Sti. Stephani). For this reason, further research on the location of the Hollow Church had to cease, and all attention has since been focused on the position of the Lady of the Island (Zekan, 2000, p. 250). 30 Original text: “ [hat] nach einer mittelalterlichen Urkunde erweisen können, daß die Kirche des Hl. Stephanus, wo die kroatischen Könige begraben wurden, auf derselben Otok-Insel [Gospin Otok] gelegen ist.” 31 Original text: “Prijatelj mi je nedavno pismeno dojavio iz Solina, da je danski arhitekt Dr. Dyggve zadnjih dana otkrio veliku starohrvatsku trobrodnu baziliku u kliškom polju […] Odmah

like u Solinu s ovu stranu Jadra. Nadalje sam rekao, premda tu baziliku nisam vidio, da odmah

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za ovaj najnoviji […] -

[…]” (Fra L. Marun, Knin, March 17, 1931). perimeters of the largest Early Christian basilica extra muros: “The location of the Early Romanesque building within the walls of an early Christian basilica from the sixth century is of foremost in the proportioning of the whole and in the assembling of parts in its exquisite building organism Gospin Otok with the Croatian king’s capella palatina Palatinate, or the court moglo bi ju se smatrati capellom palatinom, tj. dvorskom crkvom.” The fact of the obvious continuation of the Late Antique and Medieval architecture on site speaks for the conscious usage of the given proportions of the earlier, larger building, including the front walls. “It is therefore not impossible that they deliberately hold them as evidence of their antiquity ” (ibid.) “ ” Lemerle emphasizes Dyggve’s original interpretation: “[…]

formes extérieures du culte de l’ empereur ont exercée tant sur les rites que sur l’ art de l’ ancienne Église ugla, zbog tijesne povezanosti sa Salonom 33 New searches showed that the Early Romanesque church was built within a large paleo-Christian basilica of the cross ground plan, taking space just a bit wider than its nave. Walls of the earlier basilica, erected in the sixth century, preserved up to 3.5 meters high, surrounded the walls of the 34 Original text: “[…] najprije zbog neriješenih imovinsko pravnih odnosa i sporog otkupa zemljišta, a potom i zbog prestanka radnog ugovora E. Dyggveu i njegovog povratka u Dansku, te na” 35 Original text: “ se o tome sporazumima u septembru sa arh. Dyggveom, koji je te iskopine izveo.” 36 Original text: “

.”

37 For further development of the architectural historiography in the second half of the twentieth -

documents/1594.pdf], as well as the Peristil bibliography. 38 For the relevance of the Old Croatian architecture in the context of the general history of the European Pre-Romanesque see Goss, 1978.

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329

39 Original text: “ doba antike izazvao zabranu pokapanja u samom gradu.” 40 Original text: “

.”

41 [http://www.dpuh.hr/]. 42 The Institute was formally established in 1961 due to the efforts of two leading art historians historical topography, and not least the preservation of the art heritage in Croatia. and the like can be discussed here, but its resemblance, taken on the level of the individual competitors’ relationships, can be seen in reoccurring explanation patterns: I have in mind Horst Bredekamp’s study on St. Peter in Rome and the metaphor of the “productive destruction”, in relation to the meaning of the “principle” while interpreting that, what was eventually built, primarily as the result of cutting lines in the maelstrom of divergent interests (of Bramante, Sangallo, Michelangelo and others) (Bredekamp, 2008). As a matter of fact, this metaphor itself relies on an expression of Dyggve’s and Karaman’s contemporary, Austrian-American economist Joseph Alois Schumpeter capitalism with the help of the term “productive destruction” which should lead, contrary to what Marx claimed, through the rise of the “entrepreneurship”. His theory of ‘continuity through discontinuation’ (Schumpeter, 1942) matches to some extent even Karaman’s earlier theories of “tactical loss”. Cultural Transfers on the Adriatic from the 5th to the late 8th Century in Their Political Context and the Question of ‘Adriobizantysm’”: “There is practically no evidence, or scarce details, of trading or cultural transfers after the Slavic incursions at the beginning of the 7th century […] but, in the second half of the 8th century new prosoon afterwards the Carolingians” (Jurkovic, 2013, p. 13; see the related issue of ‘Adriobizantysm’, Dyggve, 1933; et al.). 45 Original text: “ grupa dalmatinske predromanike, ili pak o karolinškom ”westwerku” kod nekih drugih [...] nipošto

Dyggve 46 For the fantastic line of Dyggve’s awards as an architect, archeologist, and art historian as well as a cultural diplomat, see the article in Danish Wikipedia. 47 Original text: “Men jeg er overbevist om, at de forskere, som for et halvt århundrede siden eller stejlt afvisende overfor forskningens nuværende stade, som vi vel først of fremmest er nået hen til på grund af en forskel i metode.” 48 Original text: “[...] den bestræber sig for at udvide forståelsen af denne overlevering [...] ved at gammelkristne samtid.” 49 Original text: “Dyggves synspunkter, hans propaganda og hans eget landskabelige byggeri har imidlertid overlevet og viser hans teoriers værdi.”

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50 Original text: “[…] Rask-Oersted-Fondet u Kopenhagenu […] potrošilo se 163.000 dinara – sve ostale troškove nosilo [186] […] [1922] Prema onoj pogodbi dansko društvo .” 51 [http://www.danskemuseer.com/english/WhatDanishArchaeologyMeanstoMe.html].

53 Christian Hansen (1803–83), Theophilus Hansen (1813–91), M.G. Bindesbøll (1800–56), Peter Schmidt (1836–1925), Maria Mogensen (1882–1932), K. F. Kinch (1853–1921), M. Frederik Poulsen (1876–1950), Mogens Clemmensen (1885–1943). Dyggve begins his review with the predecessors of the sixteenth century. 54 Original text: “L’importance de Salone comme champ de fouilles repose d’abord et surtout sur

.” 55 Original text: “ publication qui n’ait une dette de reconnaissance à l’égard de ces fécondes fondations danoises. Sans l’appui de celles-ci l’archéologie danoise n’aurait pu maintenir, comme elle l’a fait, sa place dans la compétition scientique qui aura toujours pour but, sous sa forme idéale, d’établir une .” 56 More information can be acquired from Anne Haslund Hansen (National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen), who has found the related documents on site. 57 Original text: “

.”

58 Original text: “[Ift. Jelling] Her var brug for en arkæolog med teknisk evne, med sans for stor sammenhæng, med øje for detaillen [...].” 59 The two burial mounds, about 70 meters in diameter and up to 11 meters high, two rune stones and two rows of large monoliths build “presumably the remains of Scandinavia’s largest stone ship, an impressive burial site with the erect stones placed in the shape of a 170-meter-long ship presumably with a grave in the middle” (Hvass, 2000, pp. 83–84). 60 See Dyggve, 1943b; 1957, p. 221 and two Dyggve bibliographies from 1959 and 1961 (Bruun, 1959 and L’Orange, 1962 / Brøndsted 1962). For the chronology of the works until 2000 see Hvass, 2000. 61 “Über die Begegnung der vordringenden, von der Mittelmeerkultur bestimmten christlichen Mission und der alten skandinavischen Kultur […] liegt bis jetzt nur wenig archäologisches Material vor. Dennoch bedürfen wir dringend gerade der Kenntnis archäologischen Tatsachen zur Belebung und Unterstützung der aus der Schriftquellen gewonnenen Ergebnisse.” 62 “At man valgte Jelling til det magtfulde kongesæde har stadig heller ingen forklaring.” 63 Original text: “Og Oksevejen, hovedåren ned gennem Jylland til Danevirke og videre sydpå, den løber fra uroldstid kun få kilometer herfra.”

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64 From May 15 to 23, 2005, we co-organized under the collaborative auspices of the Department Zagreb the excursion under the heading of Charlemagne and Croatia/Karl der Grosse und Kroatien experience and process in vivo and in situ the cultural links between the medieval territories of modern-day Germany and Croatia – ties that art history has only scantily taken into account for all their long tradition. The development of this idea can be retraced to the pilot exhibition in the European exhibition series, Croatians and Carolingians that ran from 1999 to 2000. From June 20 to October 25, 2004 there was also an exhibition coordinated by the Cathedral Treasury and the Diocesan Museum at Osnabrück, entitled Karl der Grosse und Osnabrück. both the formal vocabulary of Early Medieval, ‘adriobyzantine’ art at the interface of Europe’s Southeast and West, and the historical background of this geographical area. The problem of methods arose regarding the attribution, dating and iconography of the monuments, and this was debated with particular regard to the problem of so-called ‘mixed styles’. The advantages and disadvantages of pursuing analysis of interdisciplinary width – comparative art historical and stylistic, archaeological and historical – soon became apparent. The excursion also provided the students and teachers with the opportunity of direct and critical comparison of two quite different art historical procedures, methods and mentalities linked to the ‘North’ and ‘South’, with the effect of sensitizing awareness for the local, regional and international differences in theory and research. The different convictions in the conservation and tending of monuments made for particularly invigorating study in working directly with the monuments in ground plan and elevation; and in working with the fragments of architectural sculpture and sculpture in its own right. 65 Original text: “Daher sind Gorms Tempel und Haralds Stabkirche, obgleich sie in religiöser Beziehung die schärfsten Gegensätze darstellen, architektonisch gesehen typische Vertreter einer und derselben nordischen Kultur. Allein schon die Tatsache, daß der Altar aus einem unbehauenen Feldstein bestand, ist in dieser Beziehung ein sehr sprechendes Zeugnis.” 66 Original text: “Das Bild der anfangs ungestörten Kontinuität, das wir in Jelling durch Beobachtungen an der Holzkirche gewonnen haben […] Runenstein, in welcher Harald Bekehrung der Dänen zum Christentum verkündete, [war] nicht lateinisch abgefertigt sondern in Dänisch und mit Runen geschrieben.” 67 Original text: “Die Synode zu Split, März 1060, verdammt den Gebrauch der von […] glagolitischen Lettern, indem sie die so mit goticas literas (= Runen) gleichstellt […] Es würde lohnend sein, sich in die recht ausführliche Überlieferung der katholisch-kirchlichen Entwicklungsgeschichte Dalmatiens zu vertiefen und möglicherweise durch brauchbare Parallelen Licht auf ähnliche Fragen im Mission… Skandinaviens werfen zu können, z.B. auf das Verhältnis der Kirche zu den Runen […].” 68 Original text: “ die römische Kirchensprache […] eng verbunden mit der röm. Kirchenlehre, zu lernen.” 69 Original text: “Das Allerheiligste hatte keine Wände, sondern war ziborienartig durch aufgehängte purpurne vela isoliert.” Copenhagen, and Markus Bogisch. 71 Dyggve presented his theory in several congesses like XIVe Congrès International d’Histoire de l’Art, Bale 1936; XVe Congress in London in 1939, at the Congrès International d’Archéologie crétienne in Rome in 1938 (See Lemerle, 1958, p. 378, note 3).

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72 He repeats such methodological-technical arguments several times later (as quoted above, Dyggve, 1956a, p. 12; 1957a). 73 Original text: “at hun med udtrykket ‘basilica Anastasis’ mener det samme som med uddrykket ‘locus subdivanus’, d.v.s. det storre og smukke ‘quasi-atrium’, har bearbejderne af teksten dog .” 74 Further ten years later becomes the Holy Chamber of Oviedo and the asturian architecture the leum in Marusinac (Dyggve, 1952, pp. 126–27). 75 “Non longe autem ab Ebron ad passus trecentos in loco, qui dicitur Abramiri, est domus Iacobi, ubi ecclesia sine tecto constructa est.” (Petrus Diaconus, liber de locis sanctis, in “Itinera Hierosolym”, 110, 28–38). See also Arhidiakon 1960: “De Betlehem autem usque ad ilicem Mambre medium discurrit cancellus et ex uno latere intrant christiani et ex alio latere Juddaei incensa facientes multa.” (Itinerarium Antonini 76 Original text: “Dyggve […]

-

[…] bio, tako rekavši, oltar […] a s druge strane domišlja se, da su se u otvorenom središnjem prostoru ” (As quoted by 77 “ […] .” 78 Original text: “

-

dao arhitektonska rješenja, i rekonstrukcije, nekoliko izuzetnih salonitanskih spomenika ili spomenickih kompleksa, koje je tako izveo iz anonimnosti ali i neke vrsti apstraktnosti. Danas smo

.” 79 Original text: “U splitskom Dyggveovu arhivu nalaze se neobjavljeni podatci o kompleksu zgrada uz crkvu sv. Stjepana, pa ako je u Solinu postojala starohrvatska vladarska rezidencija, zuje i oznake utvrde s ostatcima zidova i kula.” 80 To the further listed examples of basilicae geminate belong, among others, those in Stari Grad (Hvar), Srima near Sibenika, Dikovaca near Imotski, Zenica and Dabravina in Bosnia, Crikvine near Zmijavci in Imotska Krajina, and further international examples, listed by Dyggve – not least the Peristil 81 Original text: “Danska ga je zaista smatrala velikanom svoje znanosti, a on je zauzvrat, svjessvojih nacrta ‘delineavit Ejnar Dyggve Danus

.”

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82 Original text: “Mais il est écrit en danois, et seules les citations, les références et les illustrations m’en laissent deviner le contenu et l’intérêt. Il eut été souhaitable qu’au moment où paraissait état de sa pensée. / Ces quelques lignes traduisent assurément de façon bien incomplete dans leur a encore beaucoup à nous apporter. Que Ejnar Dyggve me permette pourtant de les lui offrir, au nom de tous, en témoignage d’affectueuse amitié.”

Chapter 10 ary bacterial research at its early stage. Although the ideas and formulations do not yet include the later, further elaborated aspects like subprojects and important mediation elements set up by the initial project group (ITP), I owe important inputs from the critical discussions with its members to whom I would like to give credits: Sabine Kacunko, Jens Hauser, Tobias Cheung, Thomas Söderqvist, Adam Bencard, Jens Lohfert Jørgensen, Thomas Bjarnsholt and Lone Gram as well as to other unnamed colleagues and institutions working between the humanities, science and arts who provide powerful impulses to this ambitious enterprise. 2 Kuhn 1962, Foucault 1966, Bloor 1976, Fleck et. al. 1979, Knorr-Cetina 1981 & 1995, Lynch 1985, Rheinberger 1997, Lenoir 1998, Burke 2000, Landwehr 2002, Zittel 2002, Sarasin 2003 & 2007. 3 With respect to both the historicising and the experimental approaches to ‘life’ on its most basic level – one cellular life of bacteria – competing requirements of life for a microbe exist and as such serve directly to the needs of synthetic biology or other applications of molecular biology. If membrane, responsiveness to the environment, metabolism, homeostasis (maintenance), reproduction, questions still play an important role throughout the related meta-discussion. 4 Armstrong & Beesley 2011, De Lorenzo & Danchin 2008, Hauser 2008, Hauser & Schmidt 2011, Langton 1989, Leduc 1912, Newman 2004, Bedau 2007, Rasmussen et. al. 2009, Riskin 2007, DeLanda 2011, Thacker 2004, Spitzer 1942, Hoffmeyer 1998 & 2008. 5 Malina 2011, Jacques 2012, Edwards 2008 & 2010, Buczynski 2012, Klein 2010, Nowotny 2011, Naghshineh 2008, Repko 2008, Sethi 2009, Reilly et.al. 2005, Moran 2010, Reid 2011, Wilson 2001 & 2010. 6 The productivity of the methodological diversity between the (natural) sciences and (cultural) humanities are here accompanied by the less emotional, but still towards interdisciplinary-oriented analysis of the ‘two cultures’ (Snow, C. P. 1963 [1959]). The latter interdisciplinary approach is known from some of the leading academic projects like Image Knowledge Gestaltung. An Interdisciplinary Laboratory (Berlin) which partially inspired the structure of the presented project. Within the context of problem-oriented base projects, this project with inclusion of 22 disciplines aims to “engage in inquiries that transcend the boundaries of each core discipline, while retaining a focus on their central research topics 7 Microbial dust as material and bacteria’s agency to be systematised. Only recently, has dust’s ubiquity and its permanent appearance “as an element of mixing

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and circulation” (Gethmann & Wagner 2013) been approached from an interdisciplinary perspective, showing its future research potentials and important information both about the state of the current environment and about our behaviour and habits. In this context, bacteria’s intercontinental migration in the form of dust from the Sahara to the Amazon and its importance, as well as the historical roots of this knowledge and awareness, have been initially described and publicly presented. Another concrete urgent issue related to the possible (and Beijing) has been emphasised by art and science projects in situ (Kacunko 2011, Kacunko & Gorbushina 2013c). trol in the context of applying biotechnologies in cultural heritage protection and conservation relies on detailed knowledge of biogenic patina (biopatina sensu lato), that has lead to improvements in restoration treatments through the production of photo-active Melanine, needed for the replacement of monument components or for re-building purposes. The dialectics or ‘ambivalence’ of melanins is therefore highly important. Through their light-sensitivity they are performing their role as ‘protective’, inert or ‘stable’ radicals and at the same time, the sulphur-containing pheomelanines perform, va, Krummbein, Gorbushina, Kacunko and Wassenaar 2012: p. 179 (pseudomonas). 9 Bacteria’s structural simplicity and the methods of the former’s visualisation provided a certain systematic insight up to now, although mostly focused on the history of the molecular biology’s experimentation. Further need for the explanation of the structural strength of the cell and its shape performed by peptidoglycan and MreB protein shall be provided by a systematisation of the visualisation practices of the bacteria and their underlying aesthetics. By looking into or sensing the cell itself, we know that “addition (or removal) of a phosphate to a particular site of a protein (often an enzyme) will change its charge and sometimes its shape and, as a result of that, its function.” (Wasenaar 2012, p. 151) – Cf. Todar, Rheinberger 1997. – Molecular approach methods are: (1) the analysis of the amino acid sequences of key proteins; (2) the analysis of nucleic acid base sequences by establishing the percent of guanine (G) and cytosine (C); (3) nucleic acid hybridisation, which is essentially the mixing of single-stranded DNA from two species and determining the amount of base-pairing (closely related species will have more bases pairing); (4) nucleic acid sequencing especially looking at ribosomal RNA. 10 Cf. Chun & Rainey 2014. Some attempts to estimate the total number of bacterial and archaeal 11 Recent popular and introductory works as well as websites designed for educational purposes (Todar, Wassenaar 2012) recall the modernist popular metaphors related to the bacteriology of the last third of the 19th Century (cf. Sarasin et. al. 2007). 12 Cf. recent announcements about new synthetic biology circuits that combine memory and logic 13 Between analysis and synthesis of the bacteria understood as system models and behavioural patterns provides the best appropriate environment for an interdisciplinary interpretation of the interactions between the bacterial, nonsexual cell division (by Quorum Sensing (cf. Bonnie Bassler bibliography). 14 Cf. Cheung 2010a & b, 2011, 2013, 2014. – For immunology and research of TTSS (Type Three Secretion System [appendices on a bacterial body that are used as an injection needle, to inject effector proteins into a eukaryotic target cell]) and bacterial toxin tagets cf. Wassenaar 2012: pp. 30–34 and 65–66.

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Life as res vivens and the problem of agency has offered profound cultural-historical and anthropological insights into these philosophical, epistemic and medicinal questions, which are to be further elaborated with respect to bacteria and microbial research between the early Enlightenment and the modernity. Cf. Cheung 2008, 2011, 2013, 2014. body was thought to contain a mix of the four humors: black bile (also known as melancholy), yellow or red bile, blood, and phlegm. Each individual had a particular humoral makeup, or ‘conof the humors resulted in disease. 17 These interests were accompanied by an avalanche of new human behaviour (which brought Bateson’s ecological aesthetics [Bateson 1973] and aesthetics of recursion back into play), the questions related to the concepts of culture (Guddemi), representation and information as well as to the links between complexity and cognition, consciousness and information appeared in both live and life-performing art as best-suited models and micro-systems for an experimental approach to both vision and cognition. Mentioning anthropology (Rappaport), molecular biology (Bruni) and the semiotics (Pierce), the issues linked to the observer within the real and mediated environments have opened further enquiry into what Otto Rössler described in his Endophysics as an attempt to approach the observer-question from the perspective of modern and quantum physics. 18 Poissant 2005 & 2012, Pandilovski 2008, Reichle 2005 & 2009, Edwards 2008 & 2010, Bunt 2008, Bulatov 2004, Anker & Nelkin 2004, Thacker 2003 & 2004 & 2005, Bolter 1999, Krohs & Toepfer 2005, Ray 1998, Bartens 1999, Fox Keller, Neumann-Held & Rehmann-Sutter 2006, Squier, Karafyllis 2003, Keck & Pethes 2001, Kelty, Rieger, Holzhey 2007, Gumbrecht, Pentecost 2008, Munster 2005, Hoppe-Sailer 2002, Gessert. 19 Cf. Malina 2009 & 2010 & 2012. – The question of whether the tools, information, resources and standpoints from other disciplines can answer the problems they are studying, has usually been of art-science collaboration. The typical complaint of the more critical tongues, especially from the sciences, tend to discuss the “problem of the competing plethora of terms and initiatives for crossdisciplinary interactions, be they interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, paradisciplinary, transdisciplinary and most recently antidisciplinary.” (Zilberg 2012: p. 4). In his meta-analysis of a larger number of SEAD white papers related to the abovementioned themes, Jonathan Zilberg criticises the rhetoric of ‘overcoming’ the gap (or also Breaking Down the Silo [Malina]) between the “two cultures” both from the systematic and historical reasons (“It is by and large taken uncritically as a self-evident truth which the authors universally seek to overcome” [Zilberg 2012: p. 4]). 20 The artist (Berlin) is married to the author (Copenhagen). At this point neither the pre-history nor the process of their either converging or intersecting interests in bacteria research could be illustrated in detail. Any questions on the independence of their respective work and research and transparency, as well as on their possibly challenged by visiting their individual websites (www.slavkokacunko.com; www.sabinekacunko.de) as well as reviews, critiques etc.). 21 The term will be used without quotation marks in the remaining text. 22 Cf. . Ed. From the Industrial association for herbicides and pesticides (incorporated society) (IPS), Frankfurt/M. – Cf. F. Klingauf, International Symposium for 33, p. 159.

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23 Size: 400 cm x 600 cm. Material: 20 Kb slides / 1 light box 20 cm x 200 cm / 1 Negativ 9 x 12 cm with bacteria cultures / 1 live camera / 1 computer / 1 projector / 1 metal shelf. 24 As in the installation Origin of Light (2001) the neon tubes attached to a motion sensor were motif could be recognised in Product of Life when the light was turned off. Otherwise one could observer itself.

26 The term will be used without quotation marks in the remaining text. 27 Wolfgang Krummbein, verbal statement in an interview with author, Berlin 2009. 28 “This organisation of process is carried out by any dividing cell, yet it is stunning that we have no language – at least, no mathematical language of which I am aware – able to describe the closure of process that propagates as a cell makes two, makes four, makes a colony and, ultimately, a biosphere. This self-propagating organisation of process is contained in the concept of a autonomous agent […] The cell exhibits a form of organisation that is not captured by our concept of information – a concept that leaves out any mention of constructing constraints on the actual occurrence of anything in the real physical world.” Kauffman 2002, p. 135. 29 “Could you say that an obscure molecular mutation in a bacterium might allow the bacterium to detect a calcium current from a ciliate and take evasive action? I think not. More generally, I think we just don’t have the concepts ahead of time to state what all possible Darwinian preadaptations might be, nor can we state what all possible environments might be.” Kauffman 2002, p. 137.

lehre im Lichte der modernen Physik’ (1941). in Heisenberg, W 1984, Gesammelte Werke (ed. by W Blum, H-P Dürr & H Rechenberg, section C. Volume 1.). Munich, pp.146–60. – Cf. J. Pawlik, Theorie der Farbe, Cologne 1969. 32 The charge transfer is presumed to be a possible cause for the change in colour of the surface. – Cf. Krummbein 2003 – Cf. Gorbushina, A A & Dornieden, T & Krumbein, W E 2000, Eppard, M, W E Krumbein, C Koch, E Rhiel, J T Staley & E Stackbrandt 1996. 33 Gregory J. Velicer and Yuen-tsu N. Yu from the Max-Planck Institute for developmental biology in Tübingen. Cf. Nature, vol. 425, 4, Sept. 2003. Further information online at [www.tuebingen. mpg.de]. 34 Although two stems, which spring from the Pili-less mutants, have re-developed the ability of social swarming, they managed it with fundamentally different mechanisms and patterns than the wild type. 35 The following lines describe vividly this sort of social Darwinism: “When the times get tough, the bacillus gets pregnant. The bacilli usually split evenly and homogeneously. As soon as tough times come, one of the two daughter cells or the mother cell transforms into a non-survivable protective cover. In this manner one of the two cells can outlive for centuries to reach new green seen in the evolution theory too as the better survival principle, as ‘kill in order not to be killed’.” Krumbein, 1997.

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36 The performance opened the 17th ICOMOS general assembly, which was under the auspices of 37 The project CRYSTAL MIRROR in Paris made it also possible to trace back this story with a virtual parcours through Paris and to communicate complex relations between the environment and humankind with apps designed by Sabine Kacunko. By using additional GPS software the hotspots of the parcours (Louvre, Planetarium, Obelisk, Museum of Natural Science) became real experiencable places. 38 Cf. Krumbein 1997, pp.4–7. 39 Around 1860 Louis Pasteur noticed that the polarized light rotates by 7 degrees in natural tartaric acid unlike the synthetically produced tartaric acid. As a result of it only the natural tartaric acid, that contains only one kind of crystals, is optically active and therefore rotates the polarization level of the polarization light. The synthetically produced tartaric acid, on the other hand, contains two kinds of crystals, from which one kind of crystal is merely the mirror image of the other one. The mineralogist Pierre Curie continued developing the hence underlined difference between ‘animate’ and ‘ Wladimir Iwanowitsch Wernadski (1863–1945) as the “Pasteur Curie principle of dissymmetry”. Wernadski derives from this demarcation line between animate and inanimate systems regarding symmetry differences between crystals and creatures that one can distinguish a biological from a physical space-time continuum (cf. Krumbein and Levit 1997). D’Arcy W. Thompson’s classic inquiry, in which the “very complicated phenomenon” of the asymmetry of the cell and the emergence of the chemical asymmetry according to the difference in the inner and outer pressure on the nucleus of the cell has been described. Cf. Thompson 1917, pp. 166; 168ff. 41 The quote is available online at [http://www.presse.uni-oldenburg.de/f-aktuell/9714ebkr.htm]. [accessed on 18 October 2014]. processes for the understanding of ‘life’ in the sense of the cellular activity. “Cellular membranes never form de novo by self-assembly of their constituents; they always grow, in an essentially homomorphic fashion, by accretion, that is, by the insertion of additional constituents into pre-existing membranes […] All major activities of cells are topologically connected to membranes. In the prokaryotes (bacteria) the plasma membrane (the active membrane inside the cell wall) is itself in charge of molecular and ionic transport, biosynthetic translocations (of proteins, glycosides etc.), assembly of lipids, communication (via receptors), electron transport and coupled phosphorylation, photoreduction photophosphorylation, and anchoring of the chromosome (replication) (de membrane structures of mitochondria, chloroplasts, the nuclear envelope, the Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, lysozomes etc.” Hoffmeyer 2006, p. 15. 43 “It is however important to stress the interdependence of the analog and the digital as two equally necessary forms of referential activity arising like twins in the individuation of that logic which we call life. The digital code is the seat for self-referential activity, i.e. the redescription in a sequential alphabet of all the macromolecular constituents of the organism, whereas the analog codes are engaged in non-self-referential activity, i.e. the semiotic looping of organism and environment into each other through the activity of their interface, the closed membrane. To claim that only the digital twin is semiotic whereas the analog twin remains in the sphere of classical dynamics is to block the only possibility for transcending Pattee’s semantic cut position.” Hoffmeyer 2006, p. 17.

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Chapter 3 Adelmann, R, Hoffmann, H & Nohr, R F (eds.) 2002, REC – Video als mediales Phänomen. VDG Weimar. Ars Electronica 1992 (exhibition catalogue) Linz. Baxandall, M 1972, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style. Claredon Press Oxford. Baxandall, M 1972, Paintings and Experience in Fifteenth-Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style. Clarendon Press Oxford. Bellour, R 1985, ‘An Interview with Bill Viola’, October 34, Fall. Belton, J 1997, ‘Looking Through Video: The Psychology of Video and Film’. In M Renov, M & E Suderburg (eds.) 1997, Resolutions: Contemporary Video Practices Press Minneapolis, Minnesota, pp. 61–72. Bernardini, A (ed) 2012, (exhibition catalogue). Silvana Editoriale Milan. Bernier, R 2014, The Unspeakable Art of Bill Viola: A Visual Theology. Pickwick Eugene, Oregon. Bill Viola (exhibition catalogue). Musée d’Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris 1983. (DVD). Grand Palais, Paris 2014. Bill Viola: A Twenty-Five-Year Survey (exhibition catalogue). Whitney Museum of American Art New York 1997. Bourdieu P 1993, The Field of Cultural Production. Polity Press. Cambridge. Boyle, D 1985, Subject to Change: Guerrilla Television Revisited. Art Campbell, J 1996, Lecture, Museum of Modern Art N.Y. SECA Award, San Francisco. Campus 1999, ‘Peter Campus in an interview with John Hanhardt’, in Bomb (Sommer). Campus 2003, ‘Peter Campus, conversation with Barbara Nierhoff’. Peter Campus. Analog + Digital Video + Photo 1970–2003 (exhibition catalogue, Kunsthalle Bremen), Bremen. Campus, P 1974, Peter Campus (exhibition catalogue). Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse NY. Campus, P 1974, ‘Video as a function of reality’, in Peter Campus, exhib. cat. Everson Museum of Art Syracuse. Daniels, D 1997, ‚Kunst und Fernsehen – Gegner oder Partner‘. In R Frieling & D Daniels (eds), Medien Kunst Aktion. Die 60er und 70er Jahre in Deutschland. Springer Vienna & New York. Ferrari, L (ed) 2011, Bill Viola: 10 opere video single chanel 1976–1994 (exhibition catalogue) Galleria di Franca Mancini Pesaro). Danilo Montanari Editore Ravenna. Gill, J B 1992 (1976), ‘Video: State of the Art’ (published originally as a report for the Rockefeller Foundation, 1976). in Eigenwelt der Apparatewelt: Pioniere der Elektronischen Kunst = Pioneers of electronic art. Ars Electronica exhibition catalogue. Linz, pp. 63–88. Herzogenrath, W & E Decker (eds) 1989, Video-Skulptur retrospektiv und aktuell 1963–1989. DuMont, Cologne. Herzogenrath, W 1979, ‘Picture of People’, in Peter Campus: Video-Installationen, Foto-Installationen, Fotos, Videobänder (exhibition catalogue Kölnischer Kunstverein & Berliner Kunstverein), pp. 10–11.

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Index

A advertising 131, 184 aesthetic difference 153, 154, 156 aesthetics 13, 17, 20, 33, 55, 68, 69, 72, 87, 88, 91, 102, 133, 153, 156, 176, 181, 185, 186, 190, 192, 195, 202, 203, 269, 270, 271, 273, 305, 334, 335, 354, 356, 362 aesthetics of capitalism 186, 190, 203 aetiology 33, 152, 161, 270 aetiology of images 152 agents 21, 22, 25, 45, 177, 184, 188, 263, 264, 266, 267, 268, 303, 334, 369 aliveness 72, 263 allographic 140, 141 analogue 12, 25, 31, 36, 37, 43, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 108, 119, 266, 268, 305 animate 69, 151, 162, 163, 170, 242, 274, 275, 279, 285, 287, 289, 290, 337 anti-realist 15, 168 archiving 9, 98, 312, 313, 341, 342, 347 art-based research 270, 273 art-based Research 273 art history 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 18, 20, 21, 33, 35, 45, 73, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 102, 108, 113, 133, 136, 145, 154, 156, 158, 160, 161, 165, 169, 175, 181, 182, 189, 190, 192, 200, 217, 218, 219, 222, 223, 224, 226, 227, 228, 233, 234, 237, 248, 268, 270, 327, 331, 354, 362 Arts Academy Düsseldorf 75, 76, 79, 80, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 309, 310, 346 asemiotic 21, 191, 205, 209, 315 asymmetry 163, 165, 279, 289, 292, 337 autographical 140, 141 autonomous agent 162, 279, 336 autonomous agents 264, 266 B bacteria 8, 10, 12, 21, 22, 160, 161, 162, 168, 169, 170, 175, 177, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274,

275, 277, 278, 279, 281, 283, 285, 286, 287, 289, 290, 291, 293, 301, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 354, 359, 368, 369, 374 bacterial art 269, 274 behavioural patterns 32, 264, 269, 271, 334 Bildakt 162, 355 Bildwissenschaft 10, 21, 139, 147, 157, 158, 160, 161, 168, 172, 174, 217, 312, 315, 317, 320, 349, 351, 353, 354, 355, 356, 358, 361, 362, 374 biosemiotics 269, 292, 305 Birmingham School of visual culture 190 blobs 130 body 28, 30, 38, 41, 50, 57, 58, 72, 82, 89, 138, 172, 196, 267, 308, 334, 335 broadcast 28, 47, 57 C Camera Obscura 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 299, 322, 323 capitalism 16, 17, 18, 182, 183, 184, 186, 189, 190, 203, 329 capitalist culture studies 183 catoptrical 118, 196, 197 cell 157, 158, 162, 163, 169, 170, 223, 263, 265, 266, 267, 268, 270, 273, 278, 287, 290, 292, 318, 334, 336, 337, 373 chirality 163 Christian Archaeology 10, 228, 251, 376 cinematic code 137, 138, 139 cinematic image 137, 138, 139 closed circuit 7, 25, 27, 29, 31, 39, 40, 43, 44, 57, 63, 71, 73, 208, 295, 305, 306, 307, 309 closed-circuit 20, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 57, 63, 68, 69, 70, 131, 139, 267, 268, 274, 304, 305 comparative cultural studies 21, 218, 220, 223, 237, 251, 252, 253, 262 computer 28, 29, 30, 31, 36, 42, 43, 73, 85, 100, 106, 130, 186, 187, 188, 208, 284, 336

378 concept art 75 confrontational imagery 42, 70, 306 contemporaneity 19 contemporary art 12, 18, 45, 75, 136, 181, 182, 185, 293, 303, 342, 362, 372 continuity 33, 44, 70, 75, 93, 128, 188, 193, 202, 206, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 227, 228, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 243, 244, 245, 246, 252, 258, 305, 325, 329, 366 co-processing 50 coreless 7, 8, 10, 263, 265, 267, 269, 271, 273, 275, 277, 279, 281, 283, 285, 287, 289, 291, 293 coreless core 7 correlationism 15, 16 critical art history 190 critical theory 184, 191, 192 cultural difference 17 cultural entrepreneurship 192 culturalism 145 cultural media studies 133 cultural regime 14, 20, 184 cultural studies 11, 15, 18, 21, 33, 111, 142, 156, 165, 185, 187, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 200, 203, 205, 206, 208, 218, 220, 223, 227, 236, 237, 251, 252, 253, 262 cultural technique 120, 121, 199, 200 cultural techniques 125, 131 Cultural Turn 9, 202, 303, 312, 350 curating 109, 181 curator 26, 45, 94, 106, 172, 260, 306 curiositas 172 cybernetic 28, 32, 33, 50, 52, 63, 120, 185, 266, 305, 322, 353 cybernetics 32 D daguerreotype 193, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 206 data 11, 27, 29, 30, 35, 98, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 109, 111, 134, 260, 267, 270, 271, 311 database 99, 102, 107, 108, 109, 111, 305, 314 deconstructionism 15 deframing 143 diachronic 135, 137, 139, 141, 142 diachronicity 138, 143, 314

INDEX

difference 15, 16, 17, 21, 27, 74, 97, 117, 118, 123, 140, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 162, 163, 164, 165, 168, 169, 170, 182, 183, 185, 193, 194, 195, 200, 205, 206, 216, 235, 237, 242, 250, 267, 286, 289, 290, 299, 305, 311, 318, 319, 337 digital 11, 12, 17, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36, 37, 42, 43, 55, 83, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 130, 132, 142, 172, 268, 274, 278, 285, 290, 292, 293, 303, 305, 310, 311, 312, 316, 323, 337, 353 digital media art 25, 30, 31 discourse 11, 13, 14, 18, 28, 36, 37, 99, 209, 216, 261, 269, 315, 319 dissymmetry 163, 289, 290, 337 Dublin Core, MPEG-7 111 dust 15, 264, 281, 283, 284, 285, 287, 288, 302, 333, 334 E Early Middle Ages 218, 219, 220, 252, 326 ecological 33, 35, 50, 263, 268, 275, 283, 284, 335 emancipatory 35, 189 enlightenment 145, 156, 158, 165, 169, 175, 335 environment 7, 12, 25, 27, 44, 99, 106, 111, 113, 126, 127, 130, 170, 175, 179, 182, 184, 186, 188, 190, 192, 194, 196, 197, 198, 200, 202, 204, 206, 208, 210, 212, 214, 216, 218, 220, 222, 224, 226, 228, 230, 232, 234, 235, 236, 238, 240, 242, 244, 246, 248, 250, 252, 254, 256, 258, 260, 262, 264, 265, 266, 268, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 276, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 286, 288, 290, 291, 292, 333, 334, 337 epistemology 16, 32, 37 ethology 33 experience 12, 18, 19, 26, 30, 36, 37, 41, 43, 47, 50, 58, 65, 69, 71, 73, 78, 89, 97, 100, 103, 107, 111, 118, 135, 137, 138, 143, 155, 209, 211, 217, 263, 281, 285, 304, 305, 306, 331 explicit observer 216

379

INDEX

F 137, 142, 145, 181, 224, 234, 277, 303, 305, 309, 315, 343, 346

fossil 153, 154, 158, 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 169, 170, 268, 290, 298, 299 frame analysis 135 frame generator 139, 142 frame-image relationship 152 frames 7, 12, 14, 37, 115, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 139, 140, 142, 143, 144, 146, 151, 152, 223, 316, 375 framing 133, 134, 135, 141, 152, 154, 161, 163, 165, 314, 353 G Galerie des Glaces 127, 195 gaze 205, 206, 368 General Theory of Visual Culture 173, 355, 364 genetics 32 glass 38, 65, 117, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 205, 211, 216, 298, 314 globalization 184, 219 H hand axe 163, 164, 165, 166 heritage 7, 12, 97, 98, 102, 108, 179, 182, 184, 186, 188, 190, 192, 194, 196, 198, 200, 202, 204, 206, 208, 210, 212, 214, 216, 218, 220, 222, 224, 226, 228, 230, 232, 234, 236, 238, 239, 240, 242, 243, 244, 246, 248, 250, 251, 252, 254, 256, 258, 260, 262, 264, 265, 266, 268, 269, 270, 272, 274, 276, 278, 280, 282, 284, 286, 288, 290, 292, 325, 327, 329, 334, 371 heterochronic 118, 184 heterotopia 204, 205, 209, 211 heterotopias 143 heterotopic 118, 184, 190, 229 historical 7, 12, 17, 20, 21, 25, 31, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 42, 43, 44, 45, 65, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 85, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 101, 102, 108, 112, 127, 132, 141, 143, 158, 174, 176, 177, 181, 182, 188, 190, 197, 199,

202, 205, 206, 209, 211, 217, 218, 219, 220, 222, 224, 226, 234, 236, 238, 239, 242, 243, 246, 247, 253, 257, 267, 268, 269, 271, 273, 276, 285, 287, 288, 329, 331, 334, 335, 375 historiography 21, 25, 29, 33, 133, 134, 147, 175, 226, 233, 234, 241, 268, 328 homo ludens 191 humanity 21, 103, 104, 106, 117, 125, 131, 132, 161, 175, 263, 269, 270, 271, 320, 333 hypermedia 38, 104, 112 hypermodern 229 I icon 141, 142 iconic absence 266 iconic difference 16, 21, 118, 151, 152, 154, 156, 162, 164, 165 idiom 18, 219, 224 illusion 140, 142, 176, 183, 353 image 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 21, 25, 26, 29, 30, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43, 50, 52, 55, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 65, 69, 70, 71, 72, 83, 87, 88, 91, 92, 98, 99, 117, 118, 120, 121, 126, 128, 132, 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 142, 143, 151, 152, 153, 154, 157, 158, 160, 161, 162, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 175, 176, 177, 184, 189, 192, 193, 198, 199, 200, 202, 205, 206, 207, 208, 211, 222, 236, 245, 274, 276, 281, 283, 289, 293, 304, 305, 306, 307, 310, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 337, 351 image act 21, 152, 154, 160, 165 image-active phenomenology 154 image as tool 167 image-game 167 image identity 162 image-ontology 167 Image Sciences 172 immediacy 7, 12, 19, 21, 26, 69, 97, 115, 132, 136, 142, 148, 151, 304, 305, 317 immediate 19, 64, 267 implicit observer 216 inanimate 151, 162, 163, 289, 290, 337 index 16, 141, 142, 240, 300, 315, 316, 339, 372, 375

380 information 11, 27, 30, 40, 82, 94, 97, 99, 101, 103, 106, 107, 108, 112, 135, 162, 185, 245, 254, 263, 266, 271, 280, 304, 305, 307, 309, 310, 311, 316, 330, 334, 335, 336 input 25, 27, 31, 41, 69, 103, 305 interactive 27, 28, 29, 30, 42, 98, 104, 105, 109, 130, 136, 186, 188, 274, 281, 307, 323 interactivity 30, 188, 293, 322 interface 38, 39, 295, 348 internet video 35 inter-objective 133 interobjective 121, 143 inter-objectivity 123 interobjectivity 146 inter-subjective 133 intersubjective 121, 143, 174 intersubjectivity 146 intuition 16, 19, 176, 324 invisibility 17, 117, 123, 130, 131, 263 invisible 21, 72, 117, 121, 122, 130, 131, 132, 136, 161, 263, 269, 283, 284, 290, 293 K Kantian 14, 15, 68, 143, 145, 153, 154, 156, 158, 174, 315 karyokinesis 157, 266

L Late Antiquity 219, 228, 238, 368 liberal 13, 14, 177, 182, 183, 185, 191, 192 liberalism 203 life 7, 12, 26, 32, 33, 38, 51, 55, 57, 61, 63, 70, 73, 74, 85, 142, 151, 157, 158, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 169, 170, 172, 174, 175, 182, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189, 201, 202, 203, 205, 211, 212, 220, 223, 224, 225, 226, 245, 250, 253, 263, 264, 266, 267, 269, 270, 271, 273, 274, 275, 277, 278, 279, 280, 282, 285, 286, 289, 290, 292, 293, 295, 302, 305, 317, 318, 333, 335, 336, 337, 345, 357, 363, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373 life art 269 linguistics 134, 140, 142, 270, 316 linguistic turn 168, 316 live art 269 liveness 71, 140, 268

INDEX

live projection 55 live recording 57 live transmission 69, 196, 304 live video 25, 28, 30, 31, 41, 42, 47, 50, 51, 55, 58, 66, 68, 69, 70, 72, 76, 209, 276, 304, 306 M magic realism 205 mass culture 17, 303, 322 mass media 27, 192, 200 mass medialization 193, 201 mass-medium 201, 202 mass taste 201 materialism 18, 168, 189 materiality 165, 263 media art 11, 20, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 37, 42, 43, 45, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 106, 111, 132, 187, 271, 283, 287, 312, 323, 368 media democracy 17, 181, 182, 183, 185, 187, 189, 191, 193, 195, 197, 199, 201, 203, 205, 207, 209, 211, 213, 215 media studies 97, 98, 133, 142, 202, 203 mediation 37, 94, 142, 192, 211, 261, 274, 318, 333 medium 18, 21, 26, 27, 28, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 45, 50, 52, 54, 71, 82, 84, 87, 92, 96, 97, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 127, 135, 139, 140, 142, 152, 162, 169, 193, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202, 208, 209, 211, 265, 267, 273, 283, 304, 305, 323, 332, 333, 339, 342, 347 membrane 163, 170, 278, 290, 292, 333, 337 mesoscopic 158, 160, 162 meta-medium 42, 121, 193, 200, 202, 208 metaphor 31, 143, 374 metaphorical 120, 140, 199 metonymic 140, 141 middle-class Marxism 190 mirror as meta-medium of visual transmission 200 mirror-feedback 139 mirror image 198, 363 mirroring 29, 69, 118, 121, 123, 127, 139, 198, 199 mirrors 7, 125, 128, 205, 298, 315, 347 mise-en-abyme 139

381

INDEX

modernity 156, 211, 216, 219, 335 morpheme 137, 139, 147 moved observer 195 multimedia 30, 37, 47, 104, 105, 108, 112, 134 N naturalia 172 natural sciences 106, 125, 132, 169, 227, 269, 273 neo-liberalism 17, 190 neo-nationalism 190 new media 20, 28, 30, 63, 85, 98, 100, 101, 181, 182 new media art 20, 28, 98 non-reducibility of vision and visuality to each other 174 O OAIS 98, 99, 103, 105, 106, 297 object-oriented 15, 18 object sentence 147 observer 41, 52, 57, 64, 125, 133, 154, 188, 193, 194, 195, 196, 212, 216, 270, 274, 286, 335, 336 ontological difference 152, 169 opacity 121, 123, 130 open system 25, 33 osmotic growth 170, 171, 172 other-referential 164, 292 output 25, 27, 30, 41, 69, 287, 292, 305 P Pathosformel 154 patina 264, 271, 276, 277, 283, 285, 287, 334, 370, 371, 373 performance 86, 94, 307, 312, 313, 344, 351, 354, 368, 374 performativity 36, 98, 101, 136, 151, 152, 200 phenomenological 132, 151, 167, 176, 177, 317 phenomenology 15, 119, 139, 154, 168, 176, 177 phoneme 137, 139, 147 photography 18, 36, 80, 82, 140, 142, 148, 192, 193, 195, 197, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 206, 208, 211, 366 picture faith 195 plop living 177

plural identity 194 pornography 202 post-Kantian 14 post-modern 16, 74, 126, 199, 263 postmodern 32, 143, 184 postmodernism 15, 17, 168, 184, 190, 356, 360, 366 postmodernity 184, 339, 340, 350, 351, 361 post-photographic era 147, 148 post-postmodern 229 post-structuralism 15, 168, 323 post-visual condition 21, 181 power of judgment 154, 155 Practice-based Research 273 presentation 13, 19, 29, 47, 79, 95, 96, 107, 111, 112, 283, 303, 304 process art 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 25, 26, 28, 30, 32, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82, 84, 86, 88, 90, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 135, 136, 139, 140, 141, 143, 151, 188 process philosophy 19, 20, 304 processuality 11, 13, 36, 38 processual objects 111 protocaryotes 169 pure visibility 176, 320 pure visuality 174 Q quality 37, 47, 58, 85, 101, 103, 123, 125, 127, 134, 140, 142, 177, 181, 184, 191, 228, 286, 310, 318 quotability 107, 109, 110, 297 R rationality 211, 212 rational symbolism 205 reality 15, 16, 17, 19, 26, 29, 30, 31, 36, 38, 39, 40, 50, 70, 79, 84, 95, 106, 118, 120, 133, 137, 168, 176, 182, 191, 206, 212, 216, 235, 284, 304, 318, 340, 341, 343, 345, 346, 356, 359, 366, 370 real time 26, 29, 30, 55, 68, 91, 310 real-time 26, 30, 36, 52, 92, 112, 119, 139, 305 recursion 9, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 142, 143, 148, 167, 174, 335, 375

382 redundancy 33, 318

118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 130, 131, 135, 155, 191, 199, 201, 202, 206, 207, 208, 227, 237, 267, 270, 276, 277, 286, 287, 304, 320 reframing 143 repetition 19, 32, 346 representation 8, 16, 18, 19, 28, 36, 37, 43, 50, 69, 70, 104, 120, 134, 140, 155, 189, 191, 195, 200, 206, 208, 227, 247, 251, 263, 266, 267, 297, 303, 324, 335 research-based art 269, 271, 273 res vivens 161, 267, 335 retroactivity 167 retroanalysis 18, 20 retroanalytical 17, 18, 20, 45, 186, 209 Rhineland 20, 75, 309, 347 roaring nineties 28, 187

INDEX

speculative turn 168 Spondylus spinosus 153, 164, 298, 299 storage 21, 98, 120, 193, 197, 199, 200, 201, 209, 278, 313 storage media 21, 193 structuralism 15, 168, 323 subjectivity 13, 15, 19, 212, 267, 320 sublime 74, 156, 158, 195 subsuming master concept 164, 178 succession 18, 174 surveillance 26, 29, 30, 36, 52, 132, 185, 305 suspended animation 161, 266 symbol 141, 142, 177, 203, 241, 285, 313, 320, 325 synthetic biology 170, 263, 267, 333, 334, 373 Syracuse 39, 40, 41, 45, 46, 47, 49, 51, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 62, 63, 64, 69, 70, 295, 296, 306, 308, 343, 344, 345 system models 32, 264, 271, 334 T

S salience 135 science 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 32, 71, 102, 106, 110, 117, 118, 120, 121, 125, 131, 132, 134, 141, 154, 163, 169, 175, 187, 193, 195, 196, 202, 217, 227, 250, 254, 263, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 273, 274, 277, 280, 281, 284, 288, 290, 313, 317, 318, 320, 333, 334, 335, 358, 369, 371, 374 102, 104, 106, 108, 111, 124, 174, 181, 187, 190, 200, 234, 239, 240, 260, 261, 265, 270, 271, 274, 278, 279, 283, 285, 287, 292, 293, 305, 327, 335 self-processing 50 self-referential 13, 17, 33, 90, 164, 292, 337 Semiology of Video 145, 146, 351 sensus communis 156, 174, 195 simultaneity 89, 143, 305 speculative constructivism 20 speculative difference 16, 21, 151, 152, 155, 164, 206, 216 speculative realism 18, 319 Speculative Realism 14 speculative seeing 35, 37, 97

tagging 36, 108, 109 tamed postmodernism 17, 190 taste 16, 102, 141, 156, 173, 175, 181, 182, 185, 187, 195, 201, 202, 203, 253 taste judgment 181 technoscience 269, 372 television 25, 27, 28, 29, 35, 36, 57, 72, 73, 78, 304, 305, 309, 317, 345, 346 temporality 17, 18, 19, 151 thinking with images 159 topology of art 184 transformation 37, 89, 100, 105, 211, 212, 220, 269, 274, 285, 308, 342, 347 transformativity 38 transmission 26, 27, 54, 69, 106, 118, 119, 120, 139, 193, 196, 199, 200, 201, 206, 208, 304, 305 transmission media 193 U ut pictura poiesis 145 V video art 20, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 35, 36, 40, 42, 45, 47, 49, 55, 75, 78, 79, 93, 94, 95, 96, 305, 314, 349, 362, 375

INDEX

video camera 31, 40, 41, 47, 50, 52, 54, 55, 57, 58, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 131, 307, 311 video feedback 21, 25, 88 video freeze frame 142 videographic immediacy 142, 148 video image 25, 29, 41, 50, 55, 60, 71, 276, 304 videotape 25, 27, 36, 50, 63, 68, 69, 73, 305, 307, 308 virtualities 204 virtuality 120, 168 visibility 17, 25, 118, 136, 142, 151, 168, 176, 320 visual communication 133, 134 visual culture 7, 11, 12, 14, 21, 33, 35, 69, 73, 98, 113, 133, 135, 140, 142, 144, 145, 147, 148, 160, 161, 174, 175, 176, 177, 181, 189, 190, 191, 217, 225, 227, 312, 316, 354 visuality 7, 118, 121, 123, 130, 132, 136, 151, 174, 193, 206, 352 visual studies 132, 133, 136, 174, 320

383