Crusader Art in the Twelfth Century 9780860541943, 9781407329857

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
PREFACE
ABBREVIATIONS
INTRODUCTION
MAPS
1. CHURCH-BUILDING IN PALESTINE BEFORE THE CRUSADES
2. WESTERN CHRONICLES OF THE FIRST CRUSADE AS SOURCES FOR THE HISTORY OF ART IN THE HOLY LAND
3. DIE FASSADE DER GRABESKIRCHE ZU JERUSALEM
4. ROMANESQUE SCULPTURE FROM THE RHONE VALLEY TO THE JORDAN VALLEY
5. CRUSADER SCULPTURE IN CAIRO: ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE ON THE TEMPLE AREA WORKSHOP OF JERUSALEM
6. THE CENACLE ON MOUNT SION
7. NOTES ON THE MONASTERY OF MAR MUSA AL-HABASHI, NEAR NEBEK, SYRIA
8. DAMASCUS GATE, JERUSALEM, AND CRUSADER WALLPAINTING OF THE MID-TWELFTH CENTURY
9. THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF ABU GHOSH AND THE PATRONAGE OF MANUEL COMNENUS IN THE HOLY LAND
10. ITALY AND THE HOLY LAND: IMPORT-EXPORT, 2. THE CASE OF APULIA

Citation preview

Crusader Art in the Twelfth Century edited by

J aroslav Folda

The British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem BAR International Series IS 2

1982

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A • R • Hands, B. Sc • , M. A. , D • Phil. D • R • Walker, M. A •

B.A.R.-S152, 1982: 'Crusader Art in the Twelfth Century'

© The Individual Authors, 1982 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541943 paperback ISBN 9781407329857 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541943 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

Page Preface Abbreviations

vi

I ntroduction

i x

Maps 1 .

1 Church-Building Denys

British 2 .

in Palestine before

the ' Crusades

. .

5

Pringle S chool

of Archaeology

Western Chronicles f or the

of

the

History of Art

i n Jerusalem

First Crusade

i n the

a s

S ources

Holy Land

4 7

Xenia Muratova University of Paris 3 .

Die Fassade

der Grabeskirche

zu Jerusalem

71

Helmut Buschhausen I nstitut

für Byzantinistik und Neogräzistik der

Universität Wien 4 .

Romanesque to

the

S culpture

f rom the

Rhone Valley

Jordan Valley

9 7

Alan Borg D irector, 5 .

Crusader on the

Imperial War Museum, S culpture

Temple

i n Cairo:

London Additional Evidence

Area Workshop of Jerusalem

1 21

Z ehava Jacoby University of Haifa 6 .

The

Cenacle on Mount Sion

1 39

Hugh Plommer Wolfson College, 7 .

Notes

Cambridge University

on the Monastery of Mar Musa Al-Habashi,

near Nebek,

Syria

1 67

Erica Cruikshank Dodd American University of Beirut

i ii

Page 8 .

Damascus Gate,

Jerusalem,

and Crusader Wallpainting

of the Mid-Twelfth C entury

1 91

Lucy-Anne Hunt University of Birmingham 9 .

The Mural Paintings of Abu Ghosh and the Patronage of Manuel Comnenus

i n the Holy Land

2 15

Annemarie Weyl Carr S outhern Methodist University 1 0.

I taly and the Holy Land: The

Import-Export,

Case of Apulia

2 . 2 45

Valentino Pace University of Rome

iv

PREFACE

During the f rom various the visual

f irst

arts

i n the

vided the occasion S ome

f our days of 1 982

Latin East and Europe.

of them appear e ssentially a s at i t,

f or one

f rom the

s cholars

Their symposium pro-

they were

r ead at the

s ymposium,

stimulating d iscussions which took

and s till others have been contributed by

r eason or another,

were unable

f orm a collection which s tands on s earch on

g roup of

f or collecting t he papers comprised in t his volume

others have benefited place

a small

countries met in Jerusalem t o discuss r elations between

to be present.

i ts own a s

s cholars who, The papers

a r ecord of r ecent r e-

s ome of the major monuments of C rusader a rt,

most of them

dating f rom the twelfth c entury. This volume proceedings Thus

i s not intended to

of t he

symposium,

I should l ike to

hold

and

and College

and

f irst place.

British S chool, S chool,

i t,

University of Rome

i t i n the

D r.

i n particular Professor Valentino and John Wilkinson f or the

Canon John Wilkinson,

Denys Pringle,

I would l ike t o and t he

a publication of the

thank the British S chool of Archaeology in

Jerusalem f or a rranging Pace of the

s erve a s

and no other r ecord will be published.

i dea to

D irector of the

Assistant D irector of the British

thank the

s taff of St.

G eorge's Cathedral

I srael Academy f or their hospitality during the

s ymposium. I am most g rateful t o my colleagues on the Wilkinson and D enys

Pringle,

i n preparing this volume

f or the publishers.

edited with the a ccuracy of tain abbreviations ences

authors.

i n the

For their essential

role

and drew the t o

t hree

i n proofreading the

Pringle and Peter L each who, excellent maps

Walker,

we

at the

volume. R eports,

our g ratitude

S ams.

f inal

r espectively,

s tart of the

s hould l ike to express

encouragement a nd help

f inal typescript

L inda Houseman and Judy

the General E ditors of the British Archaeological

and D .R .

C er-

i nternal c onsistency has been

i n producing t he

Julia McVaugh r endered expert s ervice to D enys

i n mind.

of widely differing s tyles employed by the

I should like t o thank Lynda Burgoyne, My thanks

f oremost

and vii have been used f or r efer-

but otherwise

f ace

J ohn

labors

Each paper has been

its t ext and notes

l isted on pages vi

i n all of t he papers,

our primary goal

e ditorial board,

f or their unsung but s ubstantial

t ext.

prepared Finally, A .R .

Hands

f or their

i n publication. J.F.

ABBREVIATIONS

The or

f ollowing abbreviations f requently c ited

Periodicals

are

employed i n the

f or

l engthy and/

and Series:

AASOR

= Annual

AB

= The Art Bulletin

DOP

= Dumbarton

I EJ

= I srael

JRIBA

= Journal

LA

= Liber Annuus,

Monuments

notes

references.

Piot

of the American S chools of Oriental

Oaks

R esearch

Papers

Exploration Journal of the

= Acadgmie des

Royal

I nstitute of British Architects

Studium Biblicum Franciscanum i nscriptions

Commission de

la

et belles-lettres,

fondation Eugene Piot,

Paris,

Monuments

et Memoires PE(F) Q(S)

= Palestine Exploration

QDAP

= Quarterly of the

( Fund)

Quarterly

( Statement)

Department of Antiquities of

Palestine RB

= Revue Biblique

ZDPV

= Zeitschrift des

Sources Boase,

and

Studies:

" Ecclesiastical Art," Art

i n the

i n K . M. I V,

Buchthal,

Deutschen Palästina Vereins

Crusades, Crusader

Setton,

IV

=

States

ed.,

Hazard,

ed.,

Crusader

States,

Madison,

Painting

= H .

The Art

Buchthal,

Buschhausen,

Bauplastik

= H .

D ie

Crusades,

chapter

Miniature

Painting

Wormald,

Wissenschaften: D enkschriften,

I I.,

i n

the 1 957.

s üditalienische Bauplastik I I.

bis

österreichische Akademie der

Philosophisch - Historische Klasse, Bd.

vi

the

and

Oxford,

im Königreich Jerusalem von König Wilhelm Kaiser Friedrich

Vol.

3 .

with l iturgical

chapters by F .

Buschhausen,

" Ecclesiastical

and Syria,"

and Architecture of

1 977,

Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, palaeographical

Boase,

A H istory of the

H . W.

Miniature

T .S. R.

i n Palestine

108,

Vienna,

1 978.

Deschamps,

" La S culpture

f ran aise

S culpture

en Palestine"

f ran aise

l 'gpoque des croisades7 ( 1930 ), Enlart,

Croisgs,. I

& I I

pp.

= C .

Paris, Folda,

Enlart,

1 928,

1 099-1291,"

I ,

atlas

Monuments P iot,

architecture

Paris,

1 925,

i n two a lbums,

Crusades,

S culpture

Crusades,

" La

Vol.

3 1

Les Monuments des croisgs dans

t exte Vol.

" Painting a nd S culpture," and

Deschamps,

9 1-118.

l e royaume de Jerusalem: c ivile,

= P .

en Palestine et en S yrie ä

I V

= J .

r eligieuse e t

t exte Vol. Paris,

Folda,

I I,

1 926. " Painting

i n the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem,

i n K . M.

Vol.

IV,

S etton, H . W.

ed.,

Hazard,

A History of the ed.,

Architecture of the Crusader S tates,

The Art and Madison,

1 977,

chapter 7 . PG

= J .P.

Migne,

ed.,

Patrologiae cursus c ompletus.

1 61 Vols., PL

= J .P.

Migne,

ed.,

RHC:

Paris,

= Palestine Pilgrims Text H ist.

O cc.,

I f f.

=

Paris,

Vincent and Abel,

S ociety,

1 3 Vols.,

I I

1 896-1907.

i nscriptions et belles-lettres, Paris,

croisades:

Vol.

I f f.,

= H .

Vincent and F .-M.

r echerches de I I,

S eries Latina,

London,

R ecueil des historiens des

Jgrusalem, Vol.

c ompletus,

1 844-1864.

A cadgmie des

o ccidentaux,

S eries Graeca,

1 857-1866.

Patrologiae cursus

2 17 Vols., PPTS

Paris,

topographie,

1 844

historiens

f f. Abel,

Jgrusalem:

d 'archgologie et d 'histoire,

Jerusalem nouvelle,

f asc.

1 -4,

Paris,

1 914-

1 926. Weitzmann,

" Crusader

I cons,"

Crusader 4 5 Weitzmann,

= K . Weitzmann,

( 1963),

" Icon Painting,"

pp.

The Art Bulletin,

1 79-203.

= K .Weitzmann,

C rusader K ingdom," pp.

" Thirteenth Century

I cons on Mount S inai,"

49-84.

vii

" Icon Painting i n the

Dumbarton Oaks Papers,

2 0

( 1966),

I NTRODUCTION

••

,

When Count Melchior de Vogue v isited J erusalem to

s tudy the C rusader monuments

i nitiated modern in 1 982,

i n the

s cholarship on the

i t has been possible

on Crusader a rt i n Jerusalem,

Holy L and,

s ubject.

t o have

t he

bringing

i n April of

he

N early 1 30 years

f irst

i nternational

s cholars

t ogether t o

i n 1 860.

At a t ime when

1

f rom Cairo to R amla, Jerusalem,

continue

the trip,

t o

f amous j ourney

and then another day on h orseback t o r each

de Vogüe was

the Holy City only

i t took n ine days by c amel

l ater symposium

the discussion which de Vogüe began by the publication of h is book

1 854

e ffectively

a cquainted with i nternational

i n terms of p ilgrims who,

came every year e specially

a ssembling a group of

s cholars

d espite

f or Holy Week.

to exchange ü iews

Crusader monuments would have been

impossible

g atherings

i n

the hardships of The

i dea of

a nd examine the

i n

1 854,

but de Voqüe's

pioneering work l aid the very f irm f oundations which underpin the researches of t oday. I f Melchior de Vogue between the Visual Arts in 1 982,

c ould have visited the Symposium on

i n Europe and

i n the

L atin East"

and i f he c ould read the present volume,

he would no doubt

be amazed by the

c hanges which have occurred i n the

art

Certainly much thought and attention i s

s ince

on the he

1 860.

s ame major monuments using

employed. Nous vue

We might

avons etudie de

nous

s ome methods

s tudy of Crusader s till

[ les principaux monuments]

au double point de

l a decoration i nterieure,

avons donne une e squisse rapide de

et,

l eur h istoire,

of

2

i n the

but also in the media d ealt with a s well.

of the changes had a lready been beginning in h is own t ime,

c ourse.

I t i s notable,

f or example,

that a lthough he did not

publish a s ingle photograph i n his book, made

.., .

But de Vogüe would r eadily n otice major d ifferences not only

S ome

f ocussed

s imilar to those which

s ay a s he d id,

l 'architecture et de

i ssues and methods,

"Relations

i n Jerusalem

i n photography i n the

major research t ool by the end of the photographic c ampaign to

g reat

improvements were being

1 850s which would a llow i t t o become a c entury.

I ndeed the

s tudy the Crusader monuments

i n S yria-Palestine

was made by L ouis de Clercq i n the

1 850s.

preparation o f a s eries of

l arge a lbums Tiblished at virtually

the

s ame

t ime a s L es

s everal

Eglises de

l a T erre

This

f irst g reat

S ainte.

r esulted

i n the

Although these

a lbums were obviously of primary i nterest t o the pilgrim and de

C lercq's volume on the castles was

the

f irst

to Crusader buildings , and a ll of the volumes are s cholar

One of i n

they

f or

s tood

the i n

4

t he ways

i n which the present volume breaks n ew ground

by presenting n ew photographic material. i s

s olely devoted

i nvaluable

today a s a v isual r ecord of the monuments a s

1 858-1860.

what

ever

t raveller,

f act the

f irst extensive photographic

i x

i s

Annemarie Weyl Carr provides survey of the

extant

f rescoes

i n the Crusader church at Abu Ghosh.

publishes here the

f irst photographic

Musa a l-Habashi

S yria.

i n

L ikewise,

r ecord of t he

Erica D odd

f rescoes at Mar

The mural paintings of this monastery were

c learly part of the Christian heritage o f the region available t o Crusaders,

t he

a concept with which de Vog i i‘ was well a cquainted even i f

he was not able

to extend his

The most s ignificant undoubtedly

s tudies

l egacy to

i n architecture.

Crusader monuments at

i nto S yria very f ar.

t he C rusaders

5

i n the Holy L and was

Obviously d e Vogüe discussed the major t o

t heir

origins

i n the architecture of the region except in t erms of t he

s tudy

of

important examples

s ome

Church of the Holy

l ength,

but he

s uch as

S epulcher.

c ould d evote

La question mgritaient d 'e-tre etudiee, voyageurs

futurs.

s tarted by de Vogüe , and Pringle's

which the C rusaders i t possible

c omments

et

j e

that:

l a recommande aux

7

D enys Pringle's research on Crusader churches the work

t ime

the Church of the Nativity and t he

Nonetheless he

6

l ittle

f ollows directly

f rom

f ocus on the a rchitecture

f ound when they arrived i n the Holy Land will make

t o understand much more

f ully the d evelopments

i n the

twelfth c entury which resulted. It was

j ust these architectural developments and achievements

which had s o attracted de Vogüe and his 1 860.

immediate

s uccessors after

But whereas de Vogue was much c oncerned to a ssess

of gothic

a rchitecture

he could not s ee

and argue against i ts origins

the nature

i n the Arab East,

the possibility that the C enacle might be one

f icant example of an early gothic obscuring t he monument,

s tructure.

8

s igni-

This was a c ase of history

i f we are to believe what Hugh Plommer proposes.

I n principle the historical documents must complement the a rchaeology of the monuments

themselves,

would heartily agree.

a point on which de Vogue and P lommer

I n the case of the C enacle , however,

9

plexity of the archaeology and the have made

i ts

the

c om-

l ack of a f ull historical record

s tudy d ifficult and the understanding of

i ts

twelfth-

c entury date heretofore nearly impossible. The part of the present volume which would probably most have s tartled d e Vogue would be h e was book, l y

no s tranger t o

very l ittle was available

f orced t o r ely on the t exts,

a mind's-eye view . the

the papers on f resco painting.

such material,

Damascus Gate

Hunt,

f or h im t o s ee.

f rescoes

s tudied

as

i n

f ailed t o a rrest his attention,

r elatively brief,

D e Vogüe would have been equally

s till

1 °

s culptures

i n Cairo.

f ind

D espite

t o Cairo and h is discussion of the Haram i n J erusalem,

not allowed t o

d istant views

probably

s urprised and i nterested t o

h e nowhere r emarks on the phenomenon of was

s ur-

a nd because there were a

f orced to d ea1.

the discussion of Crusader

s everal visits

f orm

1 960s and they are n ot

At places where de Vogue could s ee

host of other i ssues with which h e was

h is

t o

the Churches at Abu Ghosh and at Bethlehem,

f ragmentary r emains

because his v isits were

i n this volume

he was most-

a ccounts,

i n the present volume by Lucy-Anne

because they were only excavated i n the

v iving paintings,

I nstead,

especially pilgrims'

Although

throughout h is

Obviously he could n ot have known anything a bout

mentioned i n any known t ext. their

which he mentions

enter

s polia.

the Haram a nd was

D e Vogüe,

of

c ourse,

c ompelled t o r ely on

f rom neighboring roof-tops a nd the c omments of a f ew

1 1

daring visitors,to

f ormulate his d escriptions.

Z ehava J acoby brings

together the major pieces

i n Cairo

l arger

f rom the Haram area workshop,

s tudy of

markable

f inding that

f rom Jerusalem, Of a ll

not

i n the

a s part of a with the r e-

s ome of the most important carvings were brought

j ust

the papers

most at home Pace,

s culpture

f or h er article here,

f rom St.

Jean d ' Acre.

i n our volume,

i ssues,

perhaps

de Vogüe would have been

methods and media

Buschhausen and Muratova.

Alan Borg's

f ound

i n those of Borg,

f ascinating e ssay i n

artistic biography t ouches on a c oncern with which de Vogüe was much interested.

Although de Vogüe was writing

known about the Nazareth capitals,

0 4

f ifty years

about the relationships of artists

are

through his book.

i n the East

i n

s outhern

I taly.

remarkable

f amous book, the

i n

s outhern

though written 1 3

and they

I taly.

i n Apulia,

c omplex problem were

i n t erms of Norman architecture

painting and s culpture

1 908,

s pecific relation-

i n the Holy Land and those

De Vogüe's views on this

mulated primarily

i n

and West

Valentino Pace r aises another major

aspect of this East-West problem i n discussing the s hips between C rusader artists

s oon t o have

which were only excavated

his questions f ound all

t oo

i n

S icily,

1 2

f or-

not

f rom

Nonetheless his opinions are

f orty-three years ' before Emile Bertaux's

s till deserve

consideration i n c onjunction with

new material presented here by Pace. Helmut Buschhausen i n

s tudying the

Church of the Holy S epulcher

i s

who both c ites de Vogüe directly i llustrations

1 28 years

l ater.

Buschhausen's work i s rooted Church of the Holy S epulcher, ship on the

s cholar

i n the present volume

in the notes and r euses one of de Vogüe's L ike de Vogüe who began the discussion,

i n the mainstream of

i nquiry about the

and Buschhausen i n reviewing the

s cholar-

f a pde casts a f resh eye on the many problems with

important new s uggestions about their Finally, Je

s outh t ransept f aTade of the

the only

s ais

s ome

i nterpretation.

when de Vogüe wrote: l e danger de

Nganmoins,

j e

c rois,

l ' archgologie de

l ' archeologie qu 'il y a un

l 'histoire:

he was expressing views

f aite avec

l es

l ivres,

i nconvenient reel ä s parer 1 4

on a fundamental methodological matter

not adequately appreciated by certain of his

s ometimes

contemporary c olleagues.

Xenia Muratova d emonstrates anew i n her paper that i nquiry i nto the t exts must obviously be an e ssential part of our a ssessment of Crusader art

i n the Holy Land.

Muratova addresses the

s ensibility of the Crusaders on their a rrival and a stutely

s heds much l ight on what the historical

t ell us about this. of art that we

a re

This volume,

deriving out of the

dedicated t o Melchior de Vogüe.

after a ll. Symposium on Crusader art i n J erusalem,

But we who

another,

when returning t o Jerusalem t o carry on our work. remind ourselves

again of t his

f act which i s

l ooking at other

s tudies c loser t o us Furthermore,

xi

i s not

s ponsored

f ormally

s tudy the Crusader monu-

s uccessors to him i n one way or

s cholarship.

t o

" an art

r eminding all who call themselves h istorians

i ndeed historians

by the British S chool of Archaeology

in current

1 099

t exts have

She provides an excellent example of

historian doing history,"

ments are a ll

i ssue of the artistic i n J erusalem i n

I t

particularly i s u seful

r eadily apparent

t o

i n

i n t ime and more h eavily used on the basis of the n ew ground

broken by the articles ward to years

i n this volume,

we c an c ertainly now l ook f or-

of s tudy of Crusader art a s productive and f ruitful a s

those which f ollowed de Vogue and whose works f ollowing papers: s uccessors all

Vincent and Abel,

t o

Enlart,

f ill

t he

f ootnotes of the

D eschamps and Boase,

worthy

the great Count.

Jaroslav F olda Paris June,

1 982

NOTES

1 .

Melchior de Vogüe,

2 .

I bid.,

3 .

Louis de Clercq, Archives de

c ours d ' un voyage en Orient

l 'Orient Latin,

1 860).

De Vogüe,

Voyage en Orient:

Les Eglises,

6 .

I bid.,

3 8-40,

7 .

I bid.,

40.

8 .

I bid.,

3 22-30.

9 .

I bid.,

3 92-93.

1 0.

I bid.,

7 9,

1 1.

I bid.,

2 66ff.

1 2.

I bid.,

401-03.

1 3.

E .

1 881),

( 1859-1860)," 3 65-71.

Chäteaux du t emps des

Croisades

3 8.

D jbail

( Byblos)

was

the northernmost

i n Syria.

3 91.

3 42.

Bertaux,

L ' Art dans l 'Italie meridionale de

r omain à l a c onquete d e D e Vogüe,

1 ( Paris,

( 1859-1860).

s ite mentioned by d e Vogüe

1 4.

( Paris,

" Inventaire d 'une c ollection de photographies

l e

Louis de Clercq, en Syrie

5 .

l a T erre Sainte

3 90.

execut es dans

4 .

L es Eglises de

L es

Eglises,

Charles d ' Anjou 3 92.

xii

( Paris,

l a

f in d e

1 903)-

l 'empire

•EDESSA (U RFA) •TAR5us

AN T I OCH

•ALE PPO

( A NT A KY

RAOQA •

•RUS AFA LATAK IA

•M A RQAE 5

• F -A MAG USTA T A RT U5 ( TO RTO5A )

HA MA

•C RAo

ES C A 4EVAL iERs ‚ JS H O MS • PAL MY RA

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1 . C HURCH-BUILDING

I N PALESTINE B EFORE D enys

I .

P ringle

I NTRODUCTION The

building works

Professor Prawer ' Until o f

o ur

t ime,

t he Holy

I ndeed, t he

t o

l eft by

the

C rusaders

t here was n ever a period in the

L and t hat w itnessed i n t he

t ake

1 2th c entury

c rusader

s uch

j ust r eligious buildings,

undertaken

i n Palestine b etween the

c .400-460)

and t he

c hurch buildings

such

of

the

l ater 1 2th

and a rchaeological t oday by physical

a group o f

buildings,

s ources,

question

i s

Christians

t he question o f

complicated,

heterogeneous

nature

o f

other

s aid t hat

t he empress Eudocia

Altogether s ome

and o f o f

these

s ome kind.

over

1 00

T he

2

- no more than 8 0 years

years

the

d ebate

f or example, a s

Burgundy

their a rchitectural

however,

both by t he

and b y t he existence

r ites,

Greeks,

i n t he

which may

one hand,

on the

other.

may

t imes cause

a t

b e

L atin K ingdom o f

A rmenians and S yrians for

r elated to 4

and to earlier Too much us t o

t herefore,

i n i n I I.

8 th

from which

c ertain cases a lready

Tuscany 6

5

t raditions

i n

c oncentration on t he l ose

I will

e xample, t raditions.

e astern and w estern and

i n r ecent

s ight

o f

i n

s uch

and southern

S yria-Palestine d ecoration,

r egions

I taly 7 i tself

h owever,

t he buildings underneath.

In

d eal principally w ith building t ypes;

a nd r ather than attempting to balance

which

a llegedly

c ontemporary work

Provence,

o rientalists and occidentalists, s ources

This

o wn

has f ocussed on t o d etails of s culptural d ecoration,

on t he

this paper,

-

o rigins.

C rusaders'

Crusader architecturg 3 i n g eneral

and Aquitaine, 8

o f

f or most

f eatures a re known to u s

Much has a lready been written on the o f

are

s urvival

who had d ifferent architectural n eeds and different building

characteristics

3 00

e rected in a well-defined a rea and within

the buildings whose a rchitectural raises

b e

church-building

c enturies a re known f rom c ombined

r emains

s o r elatively s hort a s pace of t ime i nevitably

i t may

t ime o f

1 9th c entury.

and 1 3th

l ong history

1

saw the most extensive programme o f

( A.D.

r epresented

h ave prompted

a f everish o utburst o f

kingdom'.

t o be

h istorical

i n P alestine

t o remark,

building a s

o f

THE CRUSADES

1 2th-century

t he

I i ntend

c onflicting a rguments o f l ooking a t

c hurch-builders

evidently did - draw t heir models,

e xisted t here when Jerusalem f ell

j ust one

o f

t he

i n Palestine may - and namely

t he

c hurches

t o the F irst C rusade

1 099. THE

C HRONOLOGY OF CHURCH-BUILDING,

One

factor which goes far

t o

1 1th c enturies

a ttention s imply

l ittle

t he

i s known o f

7 00-1099.

t o explaining why t he

i n Palestine have

in discussions o f

that

A .D.

o rigins o f t hem.

o r suspected to have been built d uring

5

churches o f

r eceived r elatively

C rusader a rchitecture

The buildings those

t he

l ittle i s

that a re known

c enturies and whose

f eatures

a re known

s ome

2 00

c hurch buildings

known f rom t he

o ver

1 00

f rom t he

1 3th.

i t hard t o t race the

time

a ny

e xisted,

o f

t he

to u s

are very

1 2th t o

1°

any continuous Arab c onquest

i s

f ew - barely

7 th

t he

which a lso makes

c hurch-building b etween

a rrival of

t hat even t hose buildings

c ompared w ith

c enturies 9 a nd

A s econd factor,

t radition o f

a nd

a score,

4 th to

the C rusaders,

t hat are known t o u s

i f a re

o ften v ery difficult to date precisely. I n t he

f irst

c entury

Christian communities, Melchites but

a lso

o f Muslim r ule ( A .D.

who

i n Palestine

included s ome Syrian Jacobites,

c ontinued to r epair existing c hurches t he

same

w ay a s

i mposed by however, or of

in t he

d ecline

c onversions

status

preceding two c enturies.

to

in the o f

i nclude

c ircular

a pses

Examples

i nclude

i n n umber,

s mall,

t he

Christ's

P rayer

s ocial

small,

Churches

a c hurch built

i n the

on t he Mount o f

a c hurch a t Khirbat

t rast with these

buildings,

the

( dhimmi)

meant

s oon after

c entury

w ith

t hat

t he

s emi-

adjoining

rooms.

in Jerusalem j ust

7 th-century

and t he east

f light

a nd e conomic

unostentatious and

built

l ate

O lives 12

an-Nitla,

c hurch o f

8 th- and

o f Jericho.

9 th-century I n c on-

1 3

o ne need only c onsider t he Byzantine

a rchitecture and d ecoration o f ( A. D.

1 1

8 th

n ew c hurches,

a r esult o f

s ingle-celled buildings

s o-called Third Wa11,

i n Jerusalem

r estrictions

a nd with or without n arthexes and o ther

north of phases o f

a s

subject c ommunities

f ew

o ften crudely built and d ecorated. Muslim c onquest

The

n umber o f C hristians

t he

t ended to be

s urviving O rthodox

Armenians a nd C opts,

c onstruction o f

I slam a nd t he d epressed

o f many members

n ew buildings

t he

and to build n ew ones i n much

t he Muslim a uthorities on t he

t he

6 29-750),

c onsisted mostly o f

6 88-691)

the

Dome of t he

Rock

( Qubbat a s-Sakhra)

o r o f t he mid-8th-century Umayyad palace

a t Khirbat a l-Mafjar to appreciate w hat the r ight kind o f patronage c ould produce W ith t he

i n t his period. 1 4 coming to power of t he Abbasid d ynasty in

tolerance which earlier Muslim rulers had s ubjects began t o building h istory

s how more f rom t his

by periodic notices of mobs o r

natural

f or example, killed.

9 23-924,

a ssistance

of

s uccessful

campaigning

t he

o f

t he

T zimisces

d estruction of t he

t he

adjoining basilica o f

Holy Sion,

Sabas was

mobs d estroyed the

t he

and , i n 9 66,

What

1 1th

i s known o f

c entury i s

t he

c haracterized

d estruction o f C hristian buildings by Muslim

which w ere

c aliph a l-Muqtadir

a nd John

t he

t he

their C hristian

and t heir subsequent r ebuilding.

R amla a nd Damascus,

( 960-969)

o f stress.

t he monastery o f St.

I n

1 5

C aesarea,

the

disasters

s igns

t ime until

7 50,

s hown towards

dome

s acked

Greek

I n

c hurches

i n A scalon,

then r ebuilt with t he

( Jacfar).

I n the

1 6

9 60s,

B yzantine emperors Nicephorus ( 969-976)

i n n orthern

of the Anastasis

C onstantine,

t he

Phocas

S yria brought a bout

( rebuilt 9 69-983)

the p illaging o f

t he burning a live

7 96,

a nd t he monks

o f John,

t he

a nd

c hurch o f

t he Patriarch o f

J erusalem. 1 7 The have

l ot o f

b een h elped

t he

Christian community in Jerusalem,

i n t he early

the Holy Places by the a t

t his

while

t ime

on t he Mount o f Olives a nd

i nside

the walls

to the

south of

c upola

o f

b etween built

9 th c entury b y

Carolingian dynasty.

the

t he

c hurch

o f S t.

Holy S epulchre.

a nd

through

8 30,

the

O rthodox

t he munificence

o f

c hurch

i nterest

Latin

i n

w ere built

o f

the

c ity i n Aceldama;

t he

Latins w as

a nd 8 20,

built

t he wooden

t he patriarch T homas a nd, o f St.

Mary Magdalen was

a l ocal magistrate

6

t aken

churches

may

Mary of

B etween 8 07

the Anastasis was r epaired by

8 10

s outh

t he

however,

i n

t he

north-eastern

part o f

t he c ity.

1 8

some

c hurches

and sanctuaries

t he

2 8

From this period we know of t he existence

d ocument known as t he A more t he

t he t he

c aliph Hakim

c aliph 's madness

rotunda o f

1 014,

only

C ommemoratorium d e

r esult of

l eft

t his

persecution,

b efore h is

t hat work

carry

out

i n 1 021,

In

1 027,

on Mount

One important was

t o

c reate a

improved.

and to r egain their

t he Byzantine

by the

nature

o f

structures,

a s

n ew d esign,

t he

t he

f ar

emperor

Constantine

s uch

C rusaders The

s ite

the

the

r eligious

( see Appx., east o f

t he

r otunda itself was addition

o f

was

( Fig.1.1,H)

a nd t o t he

s outh b y

the

the

Column o f

t hose

a lso of

( Appx.,

no.5)

ud

t he

t he

c omplex a t Lyyda

( Appx., ( Appx.,

Mary

a lso built

o r

r ebuilt

t hem a rchaeologically. 2 1

the

i t

t he

and t he

t o t he north by

c hapels

a trium,

s ite one

( F.1.1,C-E),

o f

t he

( Fig.1.1,B) t he

c entral

i n

1 102-03. 2 0

c ontinuing w ere

John

( Appx.,

t he

Prison

Golgotha

the English p ilgrim Saewulf o n t he

church of

a lso b eing r ebuilt. t he

Cross

t he Baptist no.12),

t he

a t

L atins

Some

Latin

and S t.

a t t his I t s eems,

7

t ime,

o f

c hurches

h owever,

o f

Karim S t.

Mary

t he episcopal

i n J erusalem,

Mary Magdalen but nothing

t he . Among

( c.1038-56) cA in

church

and v ery possibly parts

no.12).

o f the

s uch a s Calvary,

f ive

of St.

no.3)

l ay

the

c hurch by t he

i ncluded i n

G eorgian monastery of

c hurches

which

t his,

o f

c hurches

a nd a t Sabastiya

( 1058)

i ncluding St.

O rthodox

f or

l ine

t hat work was

no.8),

S courging,

t hree

C orbo and others

The various memorial

Passion,

f orming i n t his way

same

surviving a re

i s

a nd a gallery to provide

f lanked

s een b y

( Appx.,

the

r estorations under-

c ongregational

o f Anointing , were

a s eries

t ime

by

Constantine,

t he rotunda b etween

rotunda was

o ther

i ts p eriod;

the R esurrection

Meimaris,

o f people.

t hat were

R esurrection,

o f

To compensate

( Fig.1.1,F)

containing a baptistery,

At

o f Co i lasnon,

a ssociated with t he

and t he Place The

sanctuaries

c hurch

not r ebuilt.

r ebuilt east o f

basilica.

r epresents a

and added to,

The basilica o f

l arger n umbers

( Fig.1.1,G)

r ebuilt

to the r ecent

t urned i nto a s mall

c hapels and p laces

which was

s een,

earlier

communities which o wn t he building and t o t he

a n eastern apse

a ccommodation f or Christ

t hanks

F ig.1.1).

rotunda,

in f rom

a ccommodated into the

a rchitecture o f

1 1th-century

i nvestigations

no.9:

To

l ater.

now f airly well understood, taken by

h ad t o be

i mperial

to survive to b e

character o f

t en

I X Monomachus.

r espect with which t he

t he R esurrection a s

Byzantine

but

not f or a f urther

r estrictions placed on t he builders

and by the

f ifty years

archaeological

t he

t hey survived,

c hurch of

i t was

only

i t was

and c raftsmen were brought

s pite o f

a s

s triking example o f and a s

r enewed in 1 036,

a rchitects I n

1 9

b y

Hakim had granted C hristians

their c hurches

a ctually started under Constantine

t he work,

Constantinople.

were

Catherine

l ands.

e specially in J erusalem,

d eath

t reaty was

years

c

S t.

1 009,

t he c hurch o f

obtained permission to begin r ebuilding the Anastasis;

although t his

o ne

o f

a result

destroyed and,

including

c aliph 's

a s

1 8 O ctober

r econstruction when conditions

d espoiled possessions. V III

o f

it f rom

( c.808).

however, On

a lmost c ompletely

s tanding within the

t abula rasa f or

A lready

a t

9 96-1021 ),

c hurch buildings,

permission t o begin r estoring

o f

( A.D.

t he Anastasis was

a handful of

were

v irtual

c asis D ei

and pretended d ivinity.

Nativity in B ethlehem and t he monastery

S inai,

2 6 outside

c ataclysmic wave o f persecution and destruction took p lace

in t he reign of the of

i n Jerusalem and

i s

( c.1036-70), known o f

t hat many more

c hurches

had b een a n open

d estroyed than w ere f ield f or

r ebuilt i n t he

t he work of

1 1th

c entury.

r econstruction to c ontinue

T his

l eft

i n t he

1 2th

c entury. 2 2 I II . T YPES The

OF CHURCHES

B UILT BEFORE

1 099

c hurch buildings that were

known to u s

a rchaeologically

a re

s tanding in

l isted b elow

their g eneral planning a nd c onstruction d ifferent

t ypes

c hurches built The s imple

of building, i n

f irst

t he

1 2th

some

a lready,

among t he

buildings, c hurches d esign

porary;

after t he

Christian t hat u se

c entre

these into

late

8 th

t he

i n the

cA in

r oof, i n

c entury.

had

i s

built

cA bud

2 5

i n

t he

however,

O n

other hand,

f lecked mortar,

( Appx,

l ime mortar,

i s unlikely the way

r epaired

s eems

8 th-

of

Thomas

c annot

and t he

c hapels

t he

s till

c ontem-

l atter

i ndicates

a t hriving l ikely,

t herefore,

c ontinued

i n

the

constructed within i t i s

even b e

i ts

impossible

sure

that

t he

a

a earlier

t o date c hurch was s econd

t he Muslim c onquest. of t his phase

a re built,

o f s tone bonded with hard white c harcoal-

i n places with masonry bonded with c rude s herds

a Byzantine

of t he

( the

c hurches

t herefore

l umps

o f

of

t radition

1 2th-century

s eems probable.

s ingle-celled c hurches with barrel-

apses

r epresent o ne

Examples o f

a t

i nclude

Caiaphas),

Sabas)

St.

the

c ommonest

Mary o f t he S tephen,

S t.

i n J erusalem .

O utside

t he

a nd Z ir c i n

Karak

o f

S t.

Bethphage,

T iberias

( Montreal),

a nd r e-used

or sub-Byzantine

c haracteristics

House

(? S t.

a nd E lijah),

at Shaubak

H ere

t he walls

c hurch building.

i nclude

t ransition

t o b efore

1 1th-century date

Dar D isi

t he

to date

t o betray

Saviour

F ig.1.4),

a s ingle building.

The barrel-vault of t he

Crusader c onquest,

S t.

Moses

1 .2-3).

Their s imilarity

i n which

a nd s emi-circular

small

c ity they ( Sts.

to

the

vaulted naves t ypes

i n t he

F igs.

t hey a re

o f

Two

2 4

cA bud

a ll probability originally with

1 2th c entury.

of building a nd bears none

Probatica,

t hat

was

no.4: i n

earth mortar c ontaining ground-up pot

After

a s mentioned

nos.1-2:

a nd t hat t hey

Unfortunately

u sing smallish r ough b locks

An

t hese early

I t s eems quite

a barrel-vaulted nave

phase,

work.

( Appx,,

t hat t ime

i n

a s econdary phase.

i n use

the

I n

r epresented i n

south wall

i llustrated

either phase precisely a nd we s till

a nd,

i s uncertain.

1 1th c entury.

a l-Kanisa

t o s tone 26

s ingle-celled c hurch, s hell

a re

suggests

t he

a

1 2th c entury.

At Khirbat f rom wood wooden

however,

c hurches existed by

I n

a re w ell

2 3

a lmost i nvariably wooden.

dating o f t hese buildings i n

T hey

Arab conquest,

s oon a fter i t.

r oofs were

a nd construction,

) .

a number o f

c hurches w ith

l ocal h istory.

of barrel-vaulted naves

and the pointed a rch

s till

a nd a s emi-circular a pse.

of Mar Abdia a nd Dair Nastasia

The precise

a date

t he

a re

not.

r epresented by

t he

c hurches built

however,

early examples

i n

i s

a l ong

r epresented i n Palestine b efore

t hey r epresent

a nd others

r ectangular barrel-vaulted nave

Single-celled c hurches have

a nd

of which may b e parallelled with

c entury

and s implest t ype

1 099

( Appx.pp. 2 6-28

( Crac)

Fahma,

Mount T abor

( Jezreel),

a nd the

a nd a l-Wu c a ira

( li

castle Vaux

Moysi). A s econd pre-1099 buildings, by

that

i s

a masonry dome,

church

to say the

t ype

t hose

base

i s

r epresented by o ctagon-domed

having a small

o f which r ests

8

o n

square

nave

a n o ctagon

c overed

f ormed by

c losing off

t he

have

b een

Sts.

T heodori

t heir more

We

are

to the

the Holy

c ircular At one domed

s quare

however,

on safer chapel

S epulchre. the

o f

This

These

smaller

The dome

has now

pierce

c ircular drum which r ose s urvives

above

the

chapel has

a square

t he

east a nd west walls

above

squinches

a t

t he

( Pl.

o ctagonal 1 .1ab,

f rom the

cornice

1 .2b).

t ime

of the

of C hrist,

One

i s

f ound,

built by Constantine e laborate however, of the a nd the T he

structure a nd has

nave

c ornice

I X on Chios than

s emi-domes,

the

i n

1 045.

of the

d ome;

s quinches

and the

s emi-domes

are

r ounded.

f or

i n mausolea.

r epresented,

mausolea

a nd bath buildings o f the

Mamluk period, built

i n A .D.

f or example 1 274,

A idughdi Kubaki, The more

3 3

built

i n

of

both of which have

S t. domes

i s

o n

and of

the

Ayyubid period i n Damascus.

f ound

i n Palestine

i llustrated

Michael

Trinity

of

i n t he a nd i n

i n

t he

3 2

early

the

mausoleum of Amir i n A .D.

C .

1 289.

3 4

approach t o the problem of c overing a square

therefore , that the

architecture

1 2th c entury,

the Mamilla c emetery

l ikely,

the

i n

s quinches

a t Y ibna i n the mausoleum of Abu Huraira,

a c ircular dome

c hurches

s imilar

a nd w ith pointed

1 1th a nd

By

f ound i n Muslim

among the mausolea built

i n the

a nd i n J erusalem i n

u sual Byzantine

s pace with c entury

f or example,

a nd the

l iturgical purposes. Buildings

3 1

i n Byzantine

l imited s ize

i s v ery commonly

at Aswan,

3°

particularly common

i nterior

a lso

f irst-

a re

a re well

a re

the walls. a t

themselves

c emetery

s tructures

i n

begins

s pringing of t heir

c onstruction to our two J erusalem c hapels

Comparable

vaulting

the

s tructure

i n Egypt,

The

l evel of

s ub-dividing t he particularly

a more

squinches

a lso niches

d ifficulty of

o f

i s

sanctuary.

however,

partly no doubt b ecause of their type

( Nea Moni)

vault b etween t he

there

O ctagon-domed churches are not

a rchitecture,

1 2th

known else-

The church h ere

a nd n iches,

rather t han a t the

this

l ate

c ontemporary building i n J erusalem ,

with a pendentive

t he

are

i n the New Monastery

a rchitecture, c ontrast,

c onquest,

outer c ell of

which i s dated to t he

a double narthex a nd a triple

c ircular base l evel

l ikely that

After the Crusader

o ctagon-domed churches

f or example,

s urvives,

s calloping o f

l ine which s till

2 9

O ther Middle Byzantine where.

l evel.

r ebuilding o f the

the

R epose

same

s prung f rom a

I t s eems

I X Monomachus.

of the

( see Fig.1.1,D)

t he

c onstruction was used i n the

( P1.1.2a).

s outh

f rom a c ontinuous

c hapel under C onstantine c hapel

the

s callopped out o f t he north a nd s outh

a s imilar method of dome c entury

i n the m id-llth t o

nave with a s emi-

but s eems originally to have

this vaulting s ystem dates

1 2th

r esting o n pointed s emi-

s tilted a nd s pring

are

two churches t he

a ttributing a pre-12th-century

a s hort pointed barrel-vault

are

f allen,

end o f

which was built

c overed by a dome

niches

walls , and windows

i n

t he

the Constantinian baptistery

2 8

nave was

squinches.

c ornice;

however,

of t he Holy Trinity,

r uins

could perhaps Thecla a nd

The datQ 3 of these

though both existed by

g round,

This

of S t.

originally r oofed a nd m ight explain

ground plans.

apse preceded by

t ime

two Greek churches

J erusalem w ere

l ess

c entury over the o f

of the nave with squinches.

in which the

i n

or

a re not known, c entury. 27

date

corners

t he way

R epose

i n J erusalem by

a nd t he Dair a l- c Adas

pendentives

( P1.1.3-1.4).

vaulting s ystem o f

t he

same period.

9

3 5

chapels

r epresent d irect borrowings

t he

( now

two

1 2th-

S t.NioDdemus )

I t

s eems

o f t he

f rom Muslim

Holy

O ur

t hird pre-1099 c hurch type i s

known a s

quincunx o r

b y a more c olumns

o r

l ess

c ross-in-square,

square g round plan,

o r piers which

s upport

o btained by vaulting the and the

f our

s ometimes,

corner bays

with smaller

I n Palestine, 1 099

at

a t a d ifferent

this

Baptist

c upola.

The

r ebuilt with a c entral

c olumns. o f t he and

An

1 1th-century

c rosses

c olumns.

known, t ime,

a nd

1 2:

Precise

f or t he the

F ig.1.5:

i s

r epresented b efore

P1.1.5

f or this work the

d etails o f

c hurch was

columns

o f

a b).

T he

i s

the

6 th

c entury.

( and t heir painted surfaces)

were

e ncased

Mary

It was

in

cA bud

l ater

nave piers

s till

s hows

building.

3 7

( Appx.,

Aramaic,

built

no.

3 :

F ig.1.6)

f irst built

As

r ebuilt,

however, It

i n the

with

a vaulted r oof

s eems possible t hat these may t hough t he

fact

survives c heek-by-jowl with

t hat

This

that

this had t he f orm o f a square-shaped c olumned

s upported a c entral dome,

s outh arcade

A t

i n masonry

with an exterpally o ctagonal drum.

s upported by four masonry p iers. also have

f orms

a re n ot

1 2th

c entury,

basilica.

l arge g ranite

indicated by t he

c upola and vaulting

to have had a somewhat s imilar history.

5 th o r

o verall plan was

i n the

c hurch o f St.

S t.

H ere a 5 th-

i nscriptions painted on t he w alls

again r ebuilt

p iers and a new dome was built,

s eems

i s

o r,

I nvention of the Head o f

c upola carried on four

d ate

l etters

c ross e ffect

o r groin-vaults

l evel with g roin-vaults

6 th-century columned b asilica o f r oughly square

l ater

o therwise

i s c haracterized

w ith barrel-

t ype o f b uilding

no.

This

3 6

Church o f the

( Appx.,

f our-columned,

divided into nine bays by f our

a c entral a xial bays

domes.

Sabastiya in the

John the o r

four

the

c hurch.

i t

c ould not

r ebuilding

i nto the

i s

t hat t he c olumned

the two 1 1th-century

h ave been a true

dated to

s outh wall,

1 058 by

l evel w ith

c ross-in-square

an

the

i nscription i n s pring of the

a isle vaulting. Churches i n the

similar to

c entury

church

of St.

J ohn's

H elena,

Greek c hurches of

t he

Jerusalem and the

c hurch

S t.

St.

1 2th c entury in Palestine.

H elena's

s erves

i s

t he

to underline

types

l ate

Palestine

a t t he

j ust east

i nclude

o f the

Condemnation and o f St. o f St.

Nicholas

one

of

t he

8 th c entury

onwards.

Constantine

3 8

of t he

Jala.

t he

S pasm in

The

f act that

t ype known

i n P alestine

the

I ndeed,

commonest medieval

taken a s marking t he

time o f

o f

type.

B yzantine

T he

the

c hurch

c hurch at Sabastiya

i ntroduction of the t ype

I X's

built

t he early 1 2th-

Holy Sepulchre, Mary

i n Bait this

the eastern a ffinities

i s

f rom the

S abastiya continued t o be

o nly Latin church o f

c ross-in-square

could therefore be

a t

Examples

building

to

a ctivity i n

Jerusalem. Cross-in-square c ivil

architects

f or e xample, i n A .D.

s tructures were already b eing built by Roman

f rom t he

2 nd c entury,

c .560.

Furthermore,

3 9

a lthough

u sually only r eckoned to appear t he

l ate

5 th

o r

8 th c entur ,

6 th

c en

t he

1 2th when

i s

t he

c hurch

i ts

s eems

c entral

and one

l atterly c upola

Lazarus to have

i n B ethany had a t rue

c hurch a rchitecture t he

f irst d ecade

and the Abbot Daniel. ( Appx.,

i s f rom

b een dated to the

no.

6 : One

This

Fig.1.7),

c ross-in-square plan,

s upported on f our masonry piers.

1 0

i n Syria

c ross-in-square p lan

standing b y

s een by Saewulf

i s r epresented,

( Sergiopolis)

o ne P alestinian e xample has

i t was

o f S t.

the

in Byzantine

tur y4 U and wag c ertainly

of

which

however,

by an audience hall built at R usafa

with

o f t he piers

( the the an

s outh-west ) transverse

s till

s tands

a rches which

i nscribed s emi-circular

exonarthex.

Dating i s

While

i t

w ith a masonry

i t

o r,

i f

apse,

d ome

original

r emains

a t

l ack

o f

to make way f or

c hurch

s pringing

o f

The building h ad any reliable

Indeed,

d estruction o f

a modern c hurch. s ite

i t was

the

( Fig.1.7)

c ould have had a wooden roof. colonnades, a re

i n t he

6 th

already vaulted

r elatively t hin

i n the published plan

four masonry piers

arches supporting

c lear t hat

t hat period. s hown

s upported e ither by

the

t he

with f lanking pastophoria and an

i s by no means

walls and t hick p iers have been

o f

l ikely that a church existed o n t his

however,

t hat t he

h eight

f rom the excavation and by t he

architectural

s eems

c entury,

to the

complicated by the

s tratigraphic evidence much of the

up

s upported the vaulting.

s uggest

This might

i n normal basilican s tyle,

o riginal

f eatures,

by

t ransverse

a t imber roof with perhaps a wooden c upola over

t he

c entral bay. O ur

f ourth c hurch

trefoil plan. c rossing.

i s

r epresented by t hose

No d oubt

4 1

s uch buildings

Three examples

o f

t his

t ype

of

c hurch

f rom b efore

the C rusades,

a nd two o f them were

i n

c entury.

two that w ere

t he

1 2th

John the gone no.

i n Jerusalem,

F ig.1.9;

i n

r ebuilt

t he i n

P1.1.6a)

5 th o r 6th

the

1 2th

c entury,

a lso r epresented i n the

built

a t

s hows ( Pl.

1 4:

The

t hat

1 2th-century within

s urvival of a s pringer

i t o riginally had a dome

1 .6b).

F ig.

c hurch t he

o f the

5th

c ella t richora.

of the known

i n

church

Byzantine We

c entury I t

4 4

i s

The

o f S t. o f

Elias

a t Taiyiba,

structures,

now move

o n

c ommon

of the

c olumned

c rossing piers c rossing

i n Byzantine

t he a re

t hese

c hurch

having d eveloped f rom the

i n the West.

however,

4 5

only examples the

t he

1 2th

With the exception

r ebuildings

of the of

t ype

earlier

noted a bove.

to consider two of the

r epresent our

A number of C rusader churches

l arger varieties of pre-

f ifth a nd s ixth types

a nd domed

r espectively.

s eem t o have b een built over t he

s ites

f ormer Byzantine columned basilicas which were either i n r uins

were t he

( al-Khidr),

a n earlier

1 2th-century c hurch buildings , namely columned basilicas

of

i t was

t riconch plan

a lso r epresented before

1 2th-century Palestine

basilicas;

( Appx., T heodosius,

on pendentives over t he

onwards,

Romanesque buildings

f rom

1 099

r uins b efore

4 2

ruins

f rom o ne

Triconchal planning was r elatively Roman

i n

St.

h ad under-

4 3

architecture c entury

i n

same p lan

c hurch o f

c hurch o f St.

1 .10).

t he

i n Palestine

to t he

än ethe

s tanding

but probably

no.

Taiyiba near Ramallah,

basilica.

s till

a nd t he monastery

( Appx.,

a re known

r ebuilt

r ebuilt

o r

o ver

a 5 th-century building which

s ubsequent r estorations but was 1 0:

built i s

Baptist

The

with a t riconch

o ften had a dome

d emolished to make way two buildings,

however,

i t often

only

a ffects

a s

( St.

J ohn),

R amla

( "St.

Joseph"),

the

a t

cA mwas

i s

Mount Tabor

a nd Kh.

Structural

u sually minimal;

east end.

f or example,

end may have b een d erived while

f or them.

the

I n

( Transfiguration)

east ends

r eutilizing the

O ne wooden-roofed can be

sure

survived

c entral

apse.

1 2th

1 1

f or

s ame

of Byzantine t hem in

t he

s ite; c hurches

1 2th

4 6

columned basilica o f t he

i nto t he

such

o f t he east

f rom a n earlier building on the

Sandahanna t he

i t exists,

a nd Nazareth,

a rrangement

had smaller s ingle-celled c hurches built against c entury,

a nd where

some Crusader c hurches,

triapsidal

o r

c ontinuity b etween

i t

6 th c entury that w e

i s still

s tanding today,

i s

t he church of t he Nativity i n B ethlehem.

T his h as

f ive a isles,

preceded by a n e sonarthex a nd a trium a nd t erminating i n a t refoil type of t ransept

( Appx.,

G eorge probably a lso until

1 099,

n o.

7 ).

s urvived

At L ydda,

t he basilica o f S t.

i n i ts three-aisled 6 th-century f orm

when i t was destroyed by t he r etreating E gyptians t o

prevent t he a pproaching C rusading a rmy making u se o f t he t imbers f rom i ts r oof f or t heir a ssault on t he Holy C ity S uch c hurches, 1 2th c entury,

a nd n one

i n Palestine. i t was d one o f

however,

s o

f ive bays,

a ll probability,

R omanesque

s econd bay f orming a n

The planning of t he

L atin,

the S t.

t ype

4 7

with t hree a isles

1 2th-century church a t L ydda c onforms t o a which r ecurs

1 2th c entury.

( or P arva),

St.

i n m any

I n J erusalem,

i s r epresented by t he churches of S t.

Mary Major

i n

( see F ig.1.11).

known a s t he d omed basilica,

of the l ater C rusader c hurches o f t he e xample,

s tyle,

i nscribed t ransept w ith,

a d ome over t he c rossing

t ype of s tructure,

1 2).

G eorge's was r ebuilt i n t he 1 2th c entury,

i n a more up-to-date t he

n o.

i s known t o have b een built by t he C rusaders

When S t.

4 8

( Appx.,

were a lready r egarded a s o ld-fashioned by t he

Anne,

Mary M agdalen a nd S t.

f or M ary

St.

J ulian.

T he c onstruction of a d ome over t he c rossing o f t he n ew n ave a nd t rans epts of t he church of t he H oly S epulchre s uggests t hat

i n t he

l ate 1 2th c entury

i ts builders may a lso have been i nfluenced by t he e xample

of e xisting domed basilicas. C omparisons have a lready been drawn between C rusader d omed basilicas and churches built i n s outh-western F rance 1 2th c enturies;

dome c onstruction i n Cyprus may have of buildings.

5°

s erved a s models

of St.

f rom Palestine

S ergius

f or both g roups

Various types of d omed basilica e xist i n t he B yzantine

a rchitecture of t he 6 th c entury o nwards, a re known

i n t he 1 1th a nd

Enlart a lso s uggests t hat e xamples o f B yzantine

4 9

i n Gaza,

i tself.

h owever,

5 1

a nd l ocal e xamples

O ne possible e xample

built b etween 5 27 a nd 5 36;

i s t he c hurch

but this

i s k nown

t o us only f rom t he c ontemporary a ccount of i t written by C horicius. A better parallel e xists i n t he monastery c hurch of S t. b etween J erusalem and J ericho

( Appx.,

a isled c olumned basilica of the l ate

n o.

1 3:

F ig.1.8).

H ere a t hree-

5 th c entury was r ebuilt i n t he

6 th,

or possibly 7 th , c entury a s a d omed basilica of f our bays,

dome

c overing t he

not known,

s econd bay.

however,

and t he r elative

v aulting. masonry

The d ome

s lenderness of t he p iers c ould

s uch a s w ood and t iles r ather t han

i tself c ould a lso have b een of t imber,

t hough

f ragments r ecovered i n t he e xcavation s uggest t hat i t w as

built o n s tone pendentives, building was

s till

presumably with a masonry d rum.

f or t he C rusader d omed basilica,

may be r ecognized i n t wo 1 1th-century c hurches,

of the C ross

( Appx.,

1 038 and 1 056,

a nd,

t he c hurch of S t. s eems t o date

T his

s tanding i n t he e arly 1 2th c entury.

More i mmediate l ocal precedents h owever,

t he

d etails of t he r oofing a re

Precise

s uggest the use of l ight material,

5 2

Euthymius,

n o.

8 :

F ig.1.12),

t he monastery

r ebuilt by t he G eorgians b etween

though i t i s d isfigured b y a 7 th-century r ebuilding,

John a t

f rom the

cA in

K arim

s ame period.

( Appx.,

n o.

5 :

F ig.1.13),

which

The plans of both t hese c hurches

i llustrate a d evelopment o f the Byzantine c ross-in-square plan by t he a ddition of a n e xtra bay t o t he west. l arge masonry piers

Both a re massively built,

s upporting t he nave a nd i nscribed t ransepts,

a d ome on pendentives over t he c rossing t ecture o f the monastery o f t he C ross

( Pls.1.7

f lanked by pastophoria,

T he choirs of both c hurches

i n t he n orthern o f which a t 1 2

a nd

The a rchi-

i s d istinguished by t he u se of

pointed a rches and g roin-vaults t hroughout. a re

- 1 .8).

w ith

cA in

Karim i s

t he

s tair

l eading down to t he

commemorated. phase; bay,

Neither

this

which

examples

a n

o f

t his St.

i t

i s

A s

o therwise type

of church.

a n original

I have

o f L ips

f eature

which was

t hese

( Fenarii 9 20)

t he

1 118

but

s ent or brought i n

s ource

1 136.

t he

a bove.

f or example

these

t echnique

t he

dome

i s

a re

s ave

f rom Byzantine

after t he

t hat they

may have i s

s erved a s models

1 1th-

where

them f or IV.

a nd

i n the West

they

l ack

o n triangular

B yzantine,

t he

5 4

i n which

s uch

1 2th-century R omanesque a s

transepts

Byzantine

c hurches

i n t he Latin Kingdom,

a nd domes.

Byzantine

counterparts

survive,

often on

essentially western

i n

a lmost I n contrast,

5 6

c hurches.

are

i n the West,

a lways

squinches.

What

t herefore,

o f

f rom

however,

i s

o n pendentives. While

5 7

a nd Romanesque

they may b etray the preference

a n eastern t echnique

While

a rchitects

t here exist barrel- or g roin-vaulted

c entury Crusader domed basilicas, t heir domes

f or

1 2th-century Crusader domed basilicas

a nd 1 2th-century

they are more

the

l ikely,

Greece

d ifficult to d etermine.

a s ine qua non of a ll Middle

1 1th-

s tress

t he

t reaty made by

s imilar to Crusader domed basilicas

their

t he West,

a

( Zeyrek

f amily monastery o f

t han to a ny of the Middle

to distinguish the domes,

a nd

t o take

I t would a ppear quite

5 3

of c onstructing a dome

a kin t o

Furthermore,

s eems

that t he

o r,

Crusader basilican buildings

a t Gaza a nd Ramla,

every r espect t he

o f

i n the W est 55

basilicas which

( Fig.1.14)

f rom which both Crusader a nd R omanesque

a ppear i s much more

d escribed

a d is-

f or example,

o f Christ Pantocrator

to Palestine

s uch a s

d erived the

c haracter

c hurches

r epresent

9 07)

spherical pendentives would s eem undeniably to be domes

a lso has

1 036.

How far buildings

g eneral

Cross

c omparable,

I sa Camii,

1 2th-century Crusader domed basilicas W est

i s

i nitial

uncertain w hether o r

i n Constantinople,

c hurch o f

or Asia Minor,

i n the

o f t he

i t i s

two churches

c hurch

a nd

Constantine

t he ultimate

i ts

of t he extra western

The monastery

that both were built by architects I X

i n

of c ontemporary B yzantine

of building,

with the

built between

t herefore,

t ype

( Bodrum Camii,

Camii),

Forerunner's birth

f eature.

1 2th-century example, Comneni,

t he

to have had a narthex

today,

a lready implied,

with the monastery the Myrelaion

unusual

John's has one

t inctly Middle Byzantine

Kilise

i n which

s eems

i ndeed might explain t he presence

i s

no gallery; not

c ave

c hurch

I n

continuing to

c haracter o f t he

1 2th-

I would s uggest t hat

o f

i n

t he masons who built

c onstruction.

5 8

CONCLUSIONS I n

conclusion,

we

may

a sk how f ar

a ny of the

d escribed

a bove may b e

r egarded a s

r eflecting

secondly,

how f ar such

traditions,

if

i n the

churches built

W e

have

s een a pse

c entury r ight

t hrough

was

a common

t he

the

square

1 2th.

a nd i n Palestine

church,

we

f rom perhaps

This

t ype

i t a s

o ctagon-domed building,

Muslim building practice. Byzantine

they existed,

may b e

a nd,

r ecognized

c entury.

t ype

s eem unwarranted to c ite

s econd type, buildings

1 2th

o f building

t hat the barrel-vaulted s ingle-celled c hurch with

s emi-circular i t m ight

i n the

t ypes

l ocal traditions

may

practice,

s eems I n

r ecognize

which

to

the

i s

so s imple,

a n example was

r epresent

third type,

a d istinctive

t he

however,

t hat Our

i n B yzantine

a d irect borrowing however, type,

a 8 th

o f c ontinuity.

not usual

continued to be built

1 3

a s early a s

t he

d erived

i n t he

f rom

cross-inf rom

1 2th c entury

and up t o the present day. though present e lsewhere c hurches

i n t he

1 2th

to

c entury,

s ites.

i t

c entury only a s

t he

1 1th

t he

from t he

t his

the

s uitable d ome

t han o f

i t,

has been

it s eems o f

and where

t o h ave

s imply

Apart

o f St.

o r b efore, James),

There

Indeed,

b een a matter

t his was

from the - we

l iturgical

Constantinople were l ong b efore

a rtists

1 120s,

s eems

to b e

t ype with t he

a s trong l iturgy

f rom t he

6th c entury,

o f Greek

c hurches

r easons.

t he r eason

the

i n t he

o f the

l ocal

i nfluence

a rchitects

d esign o f buildings. c hurch-builders

H oly Land.

Although t he

1 040s would have

l ocal masons

ended t heir working

the

Crusader programme

i mprove ment o f r elations between K ing Almaric I Ca menus

o f

W e have f rom

c hurch building g ot under

f rom 1 168 would have produced i nflux o f B yzantine builders

imperial o r

L atin patronage.

r esponsible

Baptist,

C alamon and St.

G erasimus

i n t he Jordan valley,

could help explain t he p ersistence

tradition of building in Palestine. have b een d estroyed and r ebuilt c hurches

Whether

i s

f rom two of

t he

patronage

o r

( as

done by

t he

t he

Church,

f rom outside,

t he

t he

i s

s trength

1 4

observable

o f

today) i ts

to

E lias

a s s eems B yzantine

c haracter o f

Furthermore, t he- r ebuilding was l ocal abbot,

6 2

t o traditions

c ase

St.

t hese monasteries

including t he

l ocal Arab masons.

owed more

to be

a lthough

and

a rchitects

J ohn the

a Middle

s o many t imes t hat t he

t raditionalism t hat s eems

of

Unfortunately,

t hem imply that,

c hurch types in Palestine population

Greeks,

d ifficult to d etermine.

officials o f

t he building work was

I f

6 1

f or r ebuilding t he monasteries o f St.

n ear B ethlehem and C hoziba in t he Wadi Q ilt were

s uperintended by

o ften

communities -

that t he

f or a f resh

i nscriptions

church

6°

conditions

their m edieval

to

f or them s eems

working under

t his

I n

5 9

t he

who w ere

l ikely,

H elena

l argely o f i ndifference

c entury Byzantine

active

and the emperor Manuel f avourable

t he

the known 1 2th-century

f eature

r equirements

s hould a lso c onsider

who worked on the projects o f the l ives

only one,

a convenient way o f vaulting t he

and t ransepts.

i n t he mid-llth

way in the

a ll

o f t he

and the workforce would have had on the s een that

type o f

Church o f St.

t herefore

i mportant

domes do o ccur,

t he nave

i n

o ther r espects

r ight t hrough t he

f rom t he

continuance

a more

t hat

two

e xcept

1 2th-century Latin basilicas whether o r not t he

i ntersection of

c lients

a ll

1 2th,

for which a c entrally planned building was

to have

had a dome;

o r

in

the

a gain for symbolic and l iturgical

the builders b een

o f

had a c ontinuous building history

a part

type are Greek.

L atin ones,

c ontrast,

to h ave

than a basilican o ne.

i tself

i s more problematical l ine b etween t he

t he West.

c entury,

c onnecting the

t hat was practised i n more

i tself;

i n

a lready noted,

( and t he Armenian cathedral f or

dome

d irect

and t hose

i n

s eem in s ome

c hurches built on t he

c hurch t ypes d iscussed above, 1 1th

a rgument

c entury

d e n ovo

type

s eem t o r epresent a Romanesque

in Palestine

examples o f

o f Crusader

domed basilica,

to show any

a lready known

seems

A s

f ifth type,

t his

c ross-in-square plan, Middle Ages.

o ur

o f

t he

a l-

t o a ppear

r ebuilding e arlier

t hough earlier buildings

building t he

a ll

o f

c olumned basilica,

not built

Crusader domed basilicas

o f

a r esult

seems

i s

of

t hat was

our f ourth t ype,

7 th-century t ype t hat

d ifficult

t echnique of

Thus,

The

s ixth t ype,

i s

domed basilicas

building

t riconch plan,

influenced the place

The

I n g eneral, the

1 2th

a 4 th-

places to have s ame

The

1 2th-century church a t Taiyiba,

o f the same plan.

r epresents the

i n the

i n medieval r ooted

i n t he

i nfluence

O rthodox l ocal

and

i ndividuality is

i llustrated

by

the way

in which i t was

t ime when other

t rue that western t raits The

h ood-moulding over

Jerusalem,

f or

marks on t he

church of

O rthodox

f eatures St.

a s

exist

Mark and St.

d o

o ccur

Nicholas

t he c hurch of

however,

i n the

and

them.

I t

i s

O rt l i pc iox churches. St.

Thecla,

in

s ome of the masonry

in Jerusalem imply masons

in building

the particithe church.

In

do we f ind such d istinctly western

1 2th-century Syrian Jacobite churches of

Mary Magdalen o r

Dair

1 2th-century

i s o f western t ype; S t.

i nfluences at a

f reely adopting

on s ome

or westernized,

churches,

James and the

to resist western

the n orth door o f

example,

pation o f w estern, f ew

able

e astern communities were

a z-Zaituniya

in the Armenian churches o f St.

in J erusalem.

NOTES This paper

r epresents a preliminary

c omprehensive c orpus o f

of the

the Latin Kingdom o f

to the Crusader

This project

in Jerusalem,

and

Jerusalem.

e ssay

i s

based on work f or

For

this

since t hey w ill

reason,

t ext a re

detailed references

n ot u sually g iven

e ventually a ppear

by

w ith the additional support o f

drawings from which Figures1.2-6 , 8, the project's

thanks

surveyor,

t o Michael

Peter

Burgoyne,

Wilkinson for

t heir

still remain ,

but

in t he

s ponsored by the British S chool of Archaeology t he B ritish Academy,

S ociety o f Antiquaries of L ondon and t he Seven P illars The

a

1 3th-century church buildings

churches mentioned in the

i n the following notes, corpus.

1 2th-

1 1-13

Leach.

comments on various

they and t he views

are derived were made

I would

Jaroslav Folda,

t he

of Wisdom T rust.

l ike

t o r ecord my

Peter Megaw and John

drafts of

t his paper;

e xpressed are my

mistakes

own r esponsi-

bility. 1 .

1 972,

416.

2 .

Pringle

3 .

Boase

1 982.

1 967,

Croisgs, 4 .

D eschamps, Kühnel

5 .

1 02-112;

Deschamps

1 964,

1 7-18;

2 89-293;

Enlart,

I , 2 2-35. " La S culpture

f rangaise en Palestine,"

1931;

1 932;

1 980.

D eschamps

1 964,

2 92-293;

and the contribution o f A .Borg in t his

volume. 6 .

B org

7 .

Buschhausen ,

8 .

D eschamps

9 .

O vadiah 1 970;

1 0. 1 1.

1 969. B auplastik.

1 964,

Pringle

1 982.

B aramki

1 938;

S ilva

1 982,

2 90-292;

See a lso the paper by V . K enaan 1 973;

1 975.

O vadiah and Gomez de Silva

O vadiah 1 970,

1 38,

7 9-80,

no.20.

1 5

no.

Pace below.

1 981;

6 8;

1 982.

O vadiah and Gomez de

1 2.

Bagatti 1 956; 8 3-84, no. 7 2;

1 3.

Baramki 1 955,

M ilik 1 960b, p 1.34. 50-51;

pl.

O vadiah and Gomez de 1 4.

Creswell

1969,

5 50-555;

4 0;

S ilva

6 5-131;

f ig.

Ovadiah

1 982,

1 970,

1 50,

5 45-577;

f ig.

Jerusalem , II,

9 36.

1 ;

no.

O vadiah 1 970,

1 15-116,

n o.

1 12de;

3 5e.

1 9-69,

5 89-629;

p1.1-37,

99-111. 1 5.

Vincent and Abel,

1 6.

Eutychius,

1 7.

1 8.

col.

1 151;

C oüasnon 1 974,

1 9;

J grusalem,

9 39-940.

Creswell

II,

1 969(1),

Canard

1 971;

Jerusalem, 2 0. 2 1.

ed.

Runciman 1 954(1 ),

B rownlow,

9 -14;

found on the

Vincent and Abel,

2 3.

O vadiah Roofs

2 7

n .3.

V incent and Abel,

Kenaan

1 973,

1 74;

9 36-938. 3 5-36;

Vincent and Abel,

1 970,

3 8-40.

3 4-37. s ite of

2 2.

No t race St.

t here

Mary

( cf.

Jgrusalem,

Lux I I,

o f any pre-Crusader c hurch of

t he Latins during

1 972;

t he r ecent

Vriezen 1 978).

9 42.

191.

consisting

o ccur.

1 9;

1 954 a),

II, 9 42-943.

German e xcavations

2 4.

I I ,

Runciman

3 0-32;

Coüasnon 1 974,

Jerusalem,

R iley-Smith 1 967, was

1 74;

Runciman 1 954(1),

1 21;

Vincent and Abel, 1 9.

Kenaan 1 973,

Bagatti

of stone b eams ( 1975)

has

resting on transverse arches a lso

s uggested t hat a barrel-vaulted

s tructure

lying within the v illage of a j-Jib north of Jerusalem,

should be

i dentified as a church of

The

the

i dentification i s questionable,

l ater

however,

Byzantine period. and e ven i f it were

a church t he building would have been e xceptional for Palestine, as and

Bagatti himself

churches Local of

and c rypts,

5 th-century Jdrusalem,

( Tzaferis

The ' earliest known e xample

Palestine

dated

t o May

timber

o f

and t he c ave 1 975, the

r oofs,

church at

l arge

number

however,

s upply of

t hough how much of

1 958,

i s

i n t he c istern

2 28-230). n atural woodland i n

2 5 n .6;

o f

4 th-

to

s hows

t hat

there w as

timber

f or

the wood was

1 6

S hepherds'

and e xclusive

the area o f

1 969(1),

the T omb

( Vincent and

s ubject to a drastic reduction, ( Creswell

5 th-

8 -10).

systematic

( Creswell

t he Muslim c onquest,

had been The

plentiful

7 89

i t t o

S ubterranean

enclosing

t he f ree-standing pointed a rch'

human exploitation 4 5-51).

t he c rypt

in the Valley o f Jehosaphat 8 21 - 8 31),

Well before

t o relate

a re sometimes b arrel-vaulted.

I I,

a t Ramla,

s eeking

i n Mesopotamia.

include

F ield near Bethlehem

employment o f

2 6.

h owever,

e xamples

the Virgin Mary,

Abel,

2 5.

a cknowledges by

6 th-century church buildings

6 th-century

building

l argely t hrough

Sperber

1 978,

basilicas w ith

s till a r elatively

i n the Byzantine period;

l ocal and how much

i mported f rom

t he

forests o f

1 970,

2 13;

Lebanon,

Mango

f rom one of

t hese

f or spanning

t he

2 2).

s ources, nave

i mported

( Procopius,

used for

the Dome o f

l ikely t o h ave

Cyprus

1 976,

o r

Lycia i s

f or

e xample,

o f Justinian 's de Aed.,

V ,

6 ,

To

4 88;

o f

cf.

1 4-15).

Hamilton 1 949,

u sed

Similarly,

t he

timber

f rom overseas was

unless

i t was

( Creswell 8 2-104

s imply

1969(1),

( esp.

2 5

9 3-95) ) .

e vidently e xtremely

costly at

i t would usually have been beyond t he r esources

t he Christian communities

s till possible

O vadiah

t he Rock and t he Aqsa mosque would s eem

6 50;

and

( cf.

t o have been

church in Jerusalem were

c ome f rom Syria or L ebanon,

i mport timber

all periods

l ikely

that t he vast c edars

Nea

taken f rom demolished C hristian c hurches n .5-642),

uncertain

It would s eem

l iving under Muslim rule.

i n e xceptional

c ircumstances,

h owever,

I t was when t hey

were able to c ount on f inancial h elp f rom outside and on t he good w ill of

the Muslim authorities.

patriarch Thomas and pine

f rom Cyprus

( Eutychius, Creswell the

( 807-820)

cited

1 969(1),

was

f or

i mport 5 0 o f

Jerusalem, the

in 1 480,

3 5).

c edar

I I,

roof o f

2 44-245;

t he c hurch o f

r epaired ' with wood brought from of Philip,

In general,

c hurches built a fter

t he

the Anastasis

i n Vincent and Abel, and,

e xample, t runks o f

1 21);

through the munificence

( Hamilton 1 947,

t o

t o r ebuild the d ome

Nativity in B ethlehem was

Venice

I n this way, a ble

however,

Duke of

Burgundy

t he t endency was

the Muslim c onquest t o be smaller

for

t han b efore

and to have vaulted roofs. 2 7.

Vincent

and Abel,

Jerusalem,

I I,

645;

2 8.

Vincent and Abel,

Jerusalem,

I I,

1 38-144;

2 9.

Folda 6 16;

1978; 9 65;

V incent and Abel,

f ig.

2 38;

3 0.

Krautheimer 1975,

3 1.

C reswell

1940,

3 2.

C reswell

1952(1),

and Ecochard

pl.

3 56;

f ig.

2 96;

1 36-144;

1 948,

9 3.

II,

5 78-579;

5 87-595;

Mango 1 976,

2 16-222;

p1.239-241.

pl.

109-114;

Sauvaget

4 0-41;

c f.

Pl.

passim.

and P inkerfeld 1950,

3 4.

Walls

1 974,

3 5.

S ee-also below,

3 6.

Krautheimer

3 7.

The

3 8.

K rautheimer

1 975,

3 59-362;

5 36;

3 9.

K rautheimer

1 975,

3 61;

3 01.

4 0.

Another possible example

4 9-50;

f ig.

2 1-24;

f ig.

1-11.

14;

pl.

XVII.

c f.

d e Vog t ie 1860,

n .58.

1 975,

5 36;

i s now c overed by a series o f

Jerusalem,

f ig.

1000.

1 01-118.

Mayer

which was

f our masonry piers, o f

Jerusalem,

9 85;

LIX.

3 3.

nave

9 20;

pl. i s

Mango

three groin-vaults. 1 976,

t he c hurch at

rebuilt w ith

3 8-39.

t he

a c entral

probably in t he

6 th

1 78-180.

Pool

c entury;

the vaulting system is unfortunately not known.

1 7

o f Siloam in

c upola supported on b ut t he rest ( Bagatti

1 971,

2 00;

Dickie 41. 4 2.

f ig.

1 899,

6 8 ;

Cf.

Krautheimer

The

c hurch that was

i n t he

1 971,

2 14-216;

1 941,

f ig.

l ocation];

on Mount N ebo

t richora

( Siyagha),

1 2th c entury,

church

O vadiah

1 970,

3 63;

c hurch may b e

c entury

castle,

porary.

On the

S t.

5 1-52,

no.

4 0;

A 5 th-

o r

t he Memorial o f Moses

may a lso be n oted

tw o

1 979,

no.

Bagatti 1 975,

pl.

1 971,

For example, Ovadiah 5 6

cA mwas

cavated

2 7

B agatti

= 6 1,

n o.

( Sailer

b uildings may b e c ontem3 5;

3 24-326;

4 9;

f ig.

8 ;

f ig.;

1 941,

7 2-73;

f ig.11;

6 3-64,

n o.

been t he

Whitehill

5 3;

pl.

The

2 5

1 15-120;

(c Amwas);

f ig.

This

i ts precise

s ome debate

3 7;

s ince

O vadiah and Gomez d e

s eems highly improbable,

a lignment w ith t he

j ust north o f

it.

t he masonry used at t he

may b e parallelled

The

7 0-76.

n o.138;

i t was

e x-

i t

f ountain S ilva 1 982,

given i ts o rientation

east end of

another B yzantine

d isparity between the qualities

east end and

i n o ther

Sabaita,

f ig.

Bagatti has even s uggested t hat c f.

at

K rautheimer

1 35-137,

b ut to a Roman monumental

, 1 58-162;

example,

1 970,

dating o f the t ri-apsidal e ast end

s ubject o f

1 920s.

1 968,

( 1971

basilica

1 1.1;

pl. • 23[ 1 ; O vadiah and Gomez

belonged n ot t o a c hurch, 1 ).

pl.

O vadiah

1 931.

C rowfoot

Sandahanna).

in the

no.

s tones of

i n the n ear-by 1 2th-

5 37.

in Catalonia:

has

2 93;

Schneider

2 14-217;

1 970, ( Kh.

s ee:

1 881(2),

1 32;

1 20-124;

work

c hurch

6 6-67,

5 6;

s imilar

suggesting that t he

and Kitchener

of

which

T heodosius

on t he more finely worked

c ompared with

Conder

1 22,

b ut w hich

f ig.66).

c hurch of

in Transjordan,

toothed-chisel markings

and

XVIII;

n o.78b).

i n B ethany,

s ame period a s

1 957,

i n t he

t he

at

8 3;

Sailer

T he

Pl.

pl.

9 2-93,

2 3-44).

d e S ilva 1982,

4 6.

n ot rebuilt

is the present Greek

cella

1 90-191;

1 970,

1 20-124.

( Bagatti

1 8 [wrong

1 898,

O vadiah

dates o riginally f rom t he

6 th-century

4 5.

8 -11;

probably pl.

4 4.

f ig.

1 975,

has been s ince,

4 3.

B liss and Dickie

2 51-257;

5 th-

i n t he rest o f t he c hurch

and 6th-century

K halusa and Kurnub

c hurches,

( Ovadiah

1 970,

f or

1 33-135;

1 66-173). 4 7.

William of

4 8.

C f.

Tyre,

Krautheimer

V II, 1 975,

2 2;

Runciman 1 954(1),

3 54.

2 77.

The only C rusader

c hurch known with

a wooden roof is the early and anomalous c hurch of S t. Tarsus 4 9.

B oase 2 7;

( Enlart, 1 967,

2 9

C roises,

1 03;

I I,

D eschamps

3 78-380; 1 964,

1 65;

pl.

Paul

Enlart,

C roisgs,

I ,

; 64-66.

5 0.

Enlart,

5 1.

K rautheimer

5 2.

Laudatio Marciani, Hamilton

Crroisgs,

I ,

1 975,

1 930,

6 5-66.

2 63-270; I ,

5 34.

1 7-76;

1 78-183;

t ransl.

K rautheimer

1 8

Mango

1 975,

a t

1 52).

1 972,

2 66;

6 0-68;

3 11-312.

c f.

4 ;

5 3.

K rautheimer 2 15;

5 4. 5 5.

1 975,

2 43-246;

3 76-386;

f ig.

C reswell

1 969(2),

Compare,

f or example,

Munt

( 1064):

5 6.

Whitehill

5 7.

Domes

308-317;

o ver

6 9-77;

1 968,

8 7-92;

5 8.

the n aves,

f ig.

3 9-42;

a re

2 91;

2 18-227).

in the West, where

are

and Fontevrault

( 1119).

n ot basilican but c ross-shaped

three with masonry domes

in 1 099. St.

They

John a t

L ydda,

cA in

which i s

e xamples.

the monastery

Karim

( Appx.,

I IIb,

from

over

5 0;

9 7;

5 7;

pl.

These were

include

of

5 )

and the

s till

Jerusalem,

A dome on squinches

century:

Appx.,

c entury:

no.

1 3),

( 11th-century: Appx.,

( 7th-century:

n o.

1 4),

Appx., no.

n o. 3 )

Bethany Appx.

i n the

St.

St.

Appx.,

dome was

r ebuilt by Constantine

standing Siloam

in 1 099.

( see n .

l ie under i n Gaza

60.

K rautheimer

1 975, d id,

Crusaders

these were e xceptional

volume

however,

t opographical

no.

6 ),

( 6th-

i n Jerusalem cA bud

( Appx., ( ?)

( 11th-

whose wooden n o.

but were n o

9 ).

l onger

c hurch at

c hurch whose r emains

( see

n .

4 2)

and S t.

build some centrally planned and built

Sergius

i n the case o f

the Church o f

O lives and symbolic,

imitating cA tlit.

3 21-322;

3 79;

3 91-392.

the contributions of L .-A.

1 9

churches.

f or special reasons;

t he Templars l church at

Runciman 1 954(2),

known

7th-

2 13-214.

The

i n the c ase o f

5 4,

H oly

see n .52).

But

on t he Mount o f

o r

Appx.,

Mary in

6 th-century

6 th-century

fig.

l onger

( 6th-

Theodosius

I X Monomachus

the Greek church i n Bethany

( 527-536:

e xample,

6 1.

another

1 87;

O ther domes which no

and the Anastasis i tself,

These are the

4 0),

the

( Cot Iasnon

1 47;

i s

Baptist

possibly St.

c entury:

1 1:

chapel of the

Euthymius

John the

1 0),

( Appx.,

6 14

( see n .28).

1 2),

a t

or

this may date

( 6th-century:

no.

8 ), ( ?)

to a 1 0th-

I I,

Three other domed churches are known t o us,

5 9.

baptistery

t he church of

1 099 b ut whose precise c haracter St.

s tanding

n o.

s urvives behind Calvary,

the a trium o f

those in the churches of

Sabastiya

t here

s till

( Appx.,

the chapel o f Melchizedech;

Trinity h as already been mentioned s urvived t o

2 83-

in Palestine

e piscopal c omplex

V incent and Abel,

XV).

s uch

1 974,

First,

t he rebuilding by t he abbot Modestus after

1 974, 7 2,

e xisting

the C ross

A b rick-built dome

in the south-eastern corner

churches

( Conant

undated but may perhaps belong

IVb).

Resurrection,

o f

no.

1 1th-century restoration of the pl.

churches

on pendentives of a t ype d irectly

1 2th-century a re

in t he

f ound in series These b uildings,

1 2th century include the f ollowing:

comparable w ith

2 8-29.

n otably

t hey a re

Known examples o f domed church buildings b efore the

pl.

t ransepts and c rossings o f major

( 1105-28)

h owever, pl.

1 98-206;

9 3-99.

on pendentives do occur

Angouleme

1 976,

the Catalonian example o f Sant L lorenç del

o f the Pgrigord region o f France, a s

Mango

2 59-261.

4 50-471.

Whitehill

1 968,

f ig.

2 20-225,

f or

t he Ascension

the Templum Domini,

See also in this

Hunt and A .-M.

Weyl-Carr.

6 2.

Masonry marks presence o f force

f rom Crusader

Latins,

( Pringle

Greeks,

1 981,

church buildings a lso suggest the Armenians and Arabs among the work-

1 76-177).

inscriptions are from Calamon and K itchener 1 892, f irst,

1 881(3),

4 41-446;

Conder

the G i-e ek

the

abbot James,

was

restored.

builders. the

1 73;

1 78;

during whose periods

1 92-199).

I n t he

i n authority the monastery

n ame

n ames o f

t he

l ocal

b oth t exts

o f the abbot,

this detail and g ives

s tate that

Greek and Arabic texts,

thus

b e

( i.e.

involved either as b uilders

t he

o r perhaps

2 0

l ocal a s

B ut t he

names of f rom J ifna,

observed b etween t he

t he Greek g iving greater

the Arabic t o

Gerasimus,

instead t he

Sabian and Musa a l-Jifnawi

A difference may

church hierarchy and

Conder

c arried out by Ibrahim and his b rothers.

while t he Greek text adds the t ext omits

c f.

( Lagrange

t he patriarch John and

i nscription f rom Choziba,

Ibrahim ' s brothers,

4 40-441;

and C hoziba

1 881(3),

the n ame o f

The Arabic text gives t he

On t he

near Ramallah).

1 892,

2 13-217)

and Kitchener

text gives

r estoration was

Arabic

The bilingual Greek and Arabic ( Lagrange

e mphasis

l aymen,

sponsors.

t o the

who were

BIBLIOGRAPHY Anonymus

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maj.,

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antichi edifici

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Bagatti, XIX,

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The

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t he

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A

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Church of the Nativity,

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The

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i n

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I EJ,

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d er Kreuzfahrerzeit",

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S tructural

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L evant,

CXI.

a s d escribed by Choricius

The

L ethaby

( 1973),

N .,

PG,

f ig.

church o f

a t B ethlehem

Yadin

M igne,

i n J erusalem",

The

( Oxford,

W . R.

N .,

XXIII

J .P.

1 949).

1 935,

Nativity

Royaume

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R .W.,

B ethlehem

ed.

a t Gaza,

1 78-191;

r ecord of archaeological g leanings

Harvey,

l e

archgol.

XV-XXII.

( 1930),

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A nnals:

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PEFQS

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" Three

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dans

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et c ivile

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Eine

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5 6-103.

Jerusalem",

R B,

I ( 1892),

4 39-456. Lux,

U .,

1 972,

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Shepherds'

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d e

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2 5

transmarinis

gestarum:

APPENDIX

Gazetteer of church buildings

existing i n 1 099 whose architectural

f eatures are known: 1 .

cA BUD

( 156.158)

Mar Abdia

( S. U .

( Fig.1.2). Abdia ):

S ingle-celled church with barrel-vaulted

nave and s emi-circular apse

in projecting r ectangular chevet.

Bagatti

1 960,

1 88;

f ig.3.3.

Bagatti

1 979,

1 19;

f ig.48.3.

Conder and Kitchener Ovadiah 1 970,

1 7,

1 881(2),

no.2;

8 -11c.

3 47.

p1.2.

S chneider 1 933. 2 .

cA BUD

( 156.158)

Dair Nastasia door

( Fig.1.3).

( St.

Anastasia ):

s urviving i n S wall. Bagatti

1 960,

Bagatti

1 979,119;

1 88-190;

Ovadiah 1 970,

1 8,

As no.

1 ,

with pointed-arched

8 -11c. f ig.3.2.

f ig.48.2. no.3;

p1.2.

S chneider 1 933. 3 .

cA BUD

( 156.158)

S itti Mariam

( Fig.1.6).

( St.

Mary ):

Three-aisled 5 -6c.

basilica with s emi-

c ircular apse and apsidioles;

r ebuilt i n 1 058,

i nscription,

s upported on

with vaulted roof

a s attested by an

f our piers

( vaulting

s ince rebuilt). Bagatti

1 960,

1 90-196;

f ig.1,

Bagatti

1 979,

118-119;

f ig.46;

3 -5.

Conder and K itchener 1 881(2),

p1.44, 2 89;

4 6.

3 02-303.

Milik 1 960a. S chneider 4 .

Kh.

1 933.

AL-KANISA

CAIN

( 160.123)

( Fig.1.4).

S ingle-celled church with s emi-circular apse and probably a wooden roof, of walls to

rebuilt 8 -11c. 3 8-39;

Ovadiah and Gomez de Silva 1 981, CAIN

St.

KARIM

( 165.130 )

pendentives, date

S t.

LX

Enlart,

Croisgs,

( Wilson,

phoria dating, i n

I ,

2 4-28;

AL- c AIZARIYA

Lazarus:

gallery

s uggested by comparison with no.

Daniel,

BETHANY,

f lanking choir,

f ig.10-14;

( 174.130)

Saewulf, Bagatti

( Wilson,

VIII, 1 971,

Ovadiah 1 970,

( Fig.1.7), mosaics,

f loor,

paintings.

2 2).

2 3(Brownlow,

2 3-24;

4 6).

f ig.60-67.

no.

1 8b; 2 6

pastO-

Saller's

5 c.

rejected by Bagatti and Ovadiah

f orm of the church existing

1 92-200; 3 0-31,

no narthex.

r ebuilt 1 675-90.

p1.1-4.

have been the result of a s ubsequent r ebuilding. X IX

? ,

church with c entral cupola,

narthex,

but t he

8 ,

5 1-52).

on basis of mosaic

Daniel,

3 6.

2 7.

Cross-in-square

f avour of 6 c.;

f ig.

no.

Domed basilica of f our bays with dome on

pastophoria f lanking choir,

Saller 1 946, 6 .

1 06-107;

2 30-231,

( Fig.1.13).

John the Baptist:

Mid-11c.

chevet thickening

s upport a barrel-vault.

Conder and Kitchener 1 881(3),

5 .

i n polygonal

with i nternal

p1.10.

i n 1 099

c ould

R ebuilt again

i n

1 2c.

O vadiah S aller 7 .

B ETHLEHEM

and Gomez de 1 957,

Mary:

a trium,

Anon .

S ilva 1982, f ig.

9 -12;

1 25-126,

pl.

n o.

5 b.

1 3-43.

( 169.123).

Nativity/St. narthex,

3 5-66;

I ,

6 c.

b asilica with

t refoil

t ransept,

f ive a isles,

mosaics,

still

wooden r oof, i n u se

t oday.

7 .

Daniel,

XLVI-XLVIII

S aewulf,

V II,

Bagatti

2 2

( Wilson,

( Brownlow ,

3 9-40). 2 2;

4 5-4 6).

1 952.

Hamilton 1 947. Harvey 1 935. Harvey,

Lethaby and Dalton 1 910.

O vadiah

1 970,

3 5-37,

n o.

O vadiah and Gomez de

2 2b;

S ilva

p l.

1 982,

7 3. 1 28.

Richmond 1938. Vincent and Abel, 8 .

Jerusalem,

Monastery o f

the CROSS,

Holy C ross:

Domed b asilica

o f

f our bays with dome on pendentives,

pastophoria f lanking choir,

no

n arthex o r gallery.

Daniel,

LVIII

S aewulf, Dowling

V I,

2 1

( 169.131) Tig.1.12; Dated

1 038-56.

5 0-51).

( Brownlow,

2 1;

4 4-45 ).

1 911.

1 000; JERUSALEM

DAIR AS-SALIB

( Wilson,

Vincent and Abel,

9 .

I I.

f ig.

( 171.131)

R esurrection

Jerusalem,

2 24;

pl.

XXIII

S aewulf,

5 52;

9 42-943;

( Fig.1.1;

pl.

V ,

Rebuilding

by Constantine I X Monomachus,

( Wilson,

1 7

9 68-969;

9 78;

1 .1,1.2b.).

( Anastasis)/Holy Sepulchre:

and associated c hapels Daniel,

I I,

LXXXV.

o f r otunda 1 036-48.

2 4).

( Brownlow,

9 -14;

5 4-57;

IX,

3 7-40).

Corbo 1 982. Cot lasnon 1 974, Vincent 1 0.

JERUSALEM St.

and Abel, ( 171.131 )

( Fig.

John t he Baptist:

rebuilt

7 c.

S aewulf, Dickie

I II,

1 3

7 8-79, 5 2.

2 69; 1 1.

LYDDA St.

pl.

wooden roof

no.

1 .11;

1 4;

6 7;

c upola,

in 1 2c. 4 0).

pl.

3 2.

1 902.

pl.

complex,

( destroyed VII

123.

5 -6.

Jerusalem,

E piscopal

i ncluding domed Daniel,

f ig.

I I,

6 42-668;

9 60-962;

f ig.

2 63-

L XIII-LXVI.

( 140.151)(Fig.

George:

2 48-259;

p1.1.6a).

l evel

f ig.

Schick

Vincent and Abel,

XXV. I I,

t refoil-planned c hurch with

( Brownlow,

2 46-248;

1 970, 1 901,

1 .9;

5 c.

at a higher

1 899,

Ovadiah S chick

and

pl.

j6rusalem,

i n 1099)

s tructure, ( Wilson,

1 .3b,1.4b.). including and,

l arge

t o S ,

6 c

basilica with

dependent

possibly a baptistery.

9 ).

William o f Tyre,

V II,

C lermont-Ganneau

1 396(2),

2 2. 1 02-109;

2 7

3 41;

4 71;

f igs.

b uildings

1 2.

SABASTIYA, S t.

SAMARIA

four-columned Daniel,

church

L XXIII

C rowfoot 1 937, Ovadiah 1 970, 1 3.

Monastery St.

( 168.186)

John t he B aptist:

o f ST.

( Fig.1.5;

or 6 c.

in 11c.,

( Wilson, 2 4-39;

1 2-17;

n o.

E UTHYMIUS,

four

Daniel,

XXXIX

Phocas,

18;

158;

KH.

f ig. pl.

Extant

in 1 2c.

( Wilson,

3 5-36).

( Stewart,

3 -10;

f rontispiece.

6 3.

KHAN AL- c AHMAR(181.133) 4 79-482,

bays probably in 6 c.

2 1

rebuilt as

rebuilt 1 2c.

Columned basilica o f

s ectile pavement.

p1.1.5).

c olumned basilica,

5 8).

pl.

1 57-158,

Euthymius:

basilica o f

5 c.

o r

( Fig.1.8).

rebuilt a s d omed

7 c.;

mosaic and opus

2 5-26).

Chitty 1932. Ovadiah 1 4.

Monastery St.

1 970,

103-104,

o f ST.

Theodosius:

n o.

THEODOSIUS, 6 c.

9 7;

pl.

4 4.

DAIR DAWSI

c hurch o f

( 176.125 )

t refoil plan,

( Fig.1.10).

with n arthex,

probably

ruined by 1 099 but r ebuilt in 12c. Daniel,

XXXVII

Phocas,

17

O vadiah

1 970,

S chick 1880,

Fig.

1 .1

Church of the plan of A . D. ( Key:

the

1 036-48 black

( Wilson,

( Stewart, 4 6-47, 3 4-37;

3 3).

2 4-25). no. pl.

Resurrection

3 2;

pl.

16.

I I.

( Holy S epulchre),

church a s rebuilt by Constantine ( after Coüasnon, 1 2th-c.

T omb of Christ;

choir;

( chapel of Adam )

diagonal

B = chapel of St.

Mary;

beneath Golgotha;

S t.

James;

H = Calvary chapel

J = parvis)

r estored;

containing the

C = chapel of S t.

E = chapel of

G = Prison of Christ;

2 8

s hading = 1 1th-c.

A = s ite of a edicule

D = chapel of the Holy Trinity; F = h igh altar;

I X Monomachus,

1 974)

s hading = 1 1th-c.;

open = s ite of

J erusalem:

J ohn;

0

S o

!

i m

F igure

2 9

1 .1

S EC -n oN

n terna l w i I f e u

n ot f u l ly a i r l-a b l ishao l

M

Fig.

1 .2

Mar Abdia,

cA bud:

plan of church

I

1 .3

P . E.

Leach,

BSAJ)

t h\

1r 1L 1I

Fig.

( drawing:

1 j s

ELEVAT I ON

I

?

pair Nastasia,

cA bud:

/

plan of

church

7/77 /77: '"7 7

77

( drawing:

P . E.

L each,

BSAJ)

)777.

r \ N 1 [ \ \ \ „ RocK t umb le

EX IS T I NG PHASE

CONJ ECTURAL 7 7 /

A

777/7/2, ,

PH ASE .

F ig .

1 .4

Kh.

cA in

al-Kanisa:

plan of

3 0

church

( drawing:

P . E.

L each,

BSAJ)

Church o f

St.

( drawing: ( Key:

John the Baptist,

P . E.

L each,

s tippling = building as

diagonal

shading = 1 2th-c.

S t.

Mary,

( Key:

Sabastiya:

plan

s tanding in

1 099;

e

?

T m

BSAJ)

cA bud:

Fig.

1 .5

alterations)

plan of church

s tippling = 5 th- or

( drawing:

6th-c.;

P .E.

diagonal 3 1

L each,

BSAJ)

s hading = 1 1th-c.

a lterations)

.•.•.

. 1 t . . . . . .r

1 : • : • : • : 1

« MP.

..L .

t . • 1 • •

: I L '• • • •

( after Saller,

.m « .•

A m,

9

0

3 2

p lan o f c hurch

R7 7 , 7 7 , -

F 777 1

33

0

0 St.

John the Baptist,

Jerusalem:

( after Vincent and Abel, ( Key:

I

s tippling = 5th-c.

plan of

Fig.

1 .9

l ower church

1 914a) to

7 th-c.;

diagonal

s hading = 1 2th-c.

I i

5

0

F ig.

1 .10

1 0 IM

St.

Theodosius,

Dair

Dawsi:

( after Vincent and Abel, 3 4

plan of

1 914b)

church

and

l ater)

of 1 2th-c.

o-

r f ‘F I T "

r -1

3 5

Tj1 ,

3 6 plan of church of

J ohn the c : 1 2

3 7 o f c hurch

Fenarii

I sa Camii

0_

0

3 8

P l.

1 .1a

Chapel of the Holy Trinity, looking S E

P l.

1 .1b

( photo:

Chapel of the Holy Trinity, l ooking E ( photo:

J erusalem:

interior,

author)

author)

3 9

Jerusalem:

interior,

J erusalem: 0 0 H

0

0 4 ) 0

Jerusalem:

0

C O

H t r ' t i 2 1 4

0

H r t i 0 E

n ,

H 4 -) 3 0 ( 1 4 t i ) r 4 C I ) ( Z S

0 c 5 U )

4 0

r d

•

04

4 1

P l.

1 .4a

D air a l- c Adas: ( photo:

P l.

1 .4b

L ydda:

baptistery

of d ome,

i nside of dome,

f rom S

author)

( ?)

i n the e piscopal complex,

f rom N ( photo:

4 2

author )

i nside

Pl.

1 .5a

Church of St. ( photo:

Pl.

1 .5b

John the Baptist,

Sabastiya:

f rom NW

author)

Church of S t.

John the Baptist,

l ooking E ( photo:

author)

43

Sabastiya:

interior

Church of St.

John the t g i

0

4 4

0

•• •

Church of St.

base of SE

, Q r f 4

Monastery of

the

Cross:

r i P -

c d rH

, — ( ‘ 1 4

4 5

C i ) t r,

0 0

7 : 4

• c o

0 e ) 04 7 5 . 7 1 .4

ç i

ti)

t a

0

O0 • 0 4 ( 1 ) • 4 ) 4 Jcz t 4 4 c r ) r d 4 4 -) Z

4 1

l ooking SE

0 •

• 1 0

0

a j

• 4 4 c . ) •

n i C l )

4 4 W 4 —) 0 )1 0 C O

r d e J

O 0

4 6

2 . WESTERN CHRONICLES

OF THE FIRST CRUSADE A S

FOR THE H ISTORY

SOURCES

O F ART IN THE HOLY LAND

Xenia Muratova

The event on which I would

l ike

to dwell

episode concerning the history and tragic ments

i n the Holy Land.

As

f ar a s

i s a r elatively brief

f ate of the artistic monu-

I know,

i t has never attracted a ny

particular attention and has only been mentioned i ncreasingly voluminous

i n passingl

i n the

l iterature on the cultural r elations between

the Latin West and the Holy Land before and during the Crusades. I t concerns a s tatue

f ound i n a l-Aksa mosque and destroyed by

Tancred of Caen and his warriors after the the capture of Jerusalem on the episode

i s related i n the

i n an exalted hexameter the

s tory of the

s eizure of a l-Aksa during

f ateful day of July 1 5,

Crusaders'

chronicles

twice.

s tatue constitutes an

chronicle published in the worked on his s ources.

Raoul of Caen's

i n the anonymous

R ecueil des Historiens des Croisades under

imitatus et continuatus 3 whose author,

t ext after 1 131,

who

used Raoul of Caen's Gesta among his

4

In chapter CXII which precedes this cribes his hero,

s tanding alone on the Mount of O lives, j auna c oeli,

episode,

Raoul of Caen des-

the day before the conquest of the Holy C ity,

the moment and a dmiring Jerusalem: mater

conscious of the

" gloria mundi,

s olemnity of

..stella man s,...

s ola patris," 5 displayed i n f ront of him.

valley of Jehosaphat alone town.

i s rendered

important part of the versified

version i s reproduced almost word by word i n prose t itle of Tudebodus

I t

The

i n the Gesta Tancredi by Raoul of Caen 2 where

glorification of Tancred and of his knightly valour.

the

1 099.

s eparates him and his

Among other monuments

aeriam rotunditatem,

t roops

in the city " stupebat t emplorum,

Salomoniaci

The

6

f rom the

i nsolitam l ongitudinem,

quasi a lteram in urbe urbem." 7

by the

ord, by the copper cupola of the Temple of the L

gives us of the

a s

the

i t were another c ity within a c ity"). s s ame picture of the Haram area a and as we

I slamic and Crusader periods 8

The next day, was

This description

i t was s ee

by s pacious

s een by pilgrims

i t t oday.

i n the very area he had admired the day before,

to be one of the cruellest protagonists

of Muslims

" is amazed

l ength of the temple of Solomon and by the ring of

the unusual porticoes,

( Tancred

s patiosae

porticus gyrum, t emples,

s acred

Dominici

he

i n the monstrous massacre

i n a l-Aksa mosque , l eaving it overflowing with blood which

" reached to the knees of a horseman and to the bridles of the horses", i n the words of Raimond of Aguilers. The Salomonis

f irst t hing Tancred i s

a huge

s ilver

Stabat in excelso argentum grave,

9

s ees , having burst i nto the T emplum

s tatue adorned with

j ewels:

s imulacrum fusile throno,/Scilicet

cui vix

s ena

f erendo/Dextera s ufficiat

f ortis vix dena l evando.

/ Hoc ubi Tancredus prospectat:

" Proh pudor:

s ibi vult praesens,

s ublimis,

i nquit/Quid

imago?

/ Quid

s ibi vult haec 4 7

quae

s tat

effigies? quid g emma?

q uid a urum?

/Quid

s ibi vult ostrum?"

o stro/Muhammet r edimitus h oc Martis

e rat,

Nam gemmis

vel Apollonis s imulacrum:

non hic insignia C hristi,/Non

c rux,

Antichristus,/Muhammet pravus, socius nunc afforet,

c onviva baratri; Corruat ergo adhuc quasi v ideas

nos

quoque

Materia c arum,

/Abripitur,

( There

s tood on high upon a t hrone

hardly b e t his

such as six

a ble

to move

" For shame!

dirumpitur,

j ewels,

t his

s kilful

or t en t o

gold? /What

resplendent

Maybe

in gold./

even C hrist's?

not there./

t horns, Thus it

l ift

i t. /When Tancred be-

i s

s hould his

God's

f eet

P luto's f all

t he

i nsignia 7 /The

the one

s lave

parades a s God

s tatue

i s

s hall

snatched,

d ragged,

anonymous H e

f ortissimi

s tresses the t o move

noisseur o f Rather,

h e

After

s ize

t he

warriors the

t he

t ear

f urther down

Lord's

t he

l ift,

L et him

s ee

i t executed, /The

s hape,/

t he

t emple

b eheaded./

The metal,

f rom vile

warriors The

when

i ts

t o precious) . 11

t o t he

rough

s tyle o f his

i mage does t his

to t he

a ction

s tatue represent?,"

i t to p ieces.

H e

l iterature,

does not

c ultivated

con-

Raoul o f Caen.

c onclusion t hat t he effigy

i s , one

i n t he T emplum Domini.

the statue

d etails s ilver

s ix viri

t he perplexity o f Tancred a sking

t o t ake

and o f

its d estruction,

o f the p illage l aminae

o f

w ith w hich

gleamed a ll around...

a lmost one c ubit w ide about s even

S hame! a byss./

Insolent

s tatue which would t ake

and c lassical

d escription o f

on t o

house!/

o r Pluto a s does the much more

a rts

and puts

o f

" whose

warriors

Mars

t he

o f Petrus Tudebodus s lightly simplifies

c omes more quickly

writers pass walls o f

1 2

l iberal

o f Muhammad 13

be

c hanged back

and t en to

order to t he

mention Apollo,

was

i s

follower

rhetorical question,

and his

t he

l ost,

S olomon's

torn to pieces, i n

s tory described by Raoul , adapting i t

prose. t he

i s

a ppear presently!!

o rder more w illingly t han any o ther./

Costly in material but vile shape

to come,

a lmost d efiled us? /Scarcely had t he

o rder been i ssued a s you executing t his

t he

pernicious Muhammad./

f orthwith l et h im c ome down!/

by now has h e

- a re

i t not be

i nhabitant o f

i n

c ross,

transfixed f lank

not Christ: why should

i s possessed by t he

down quickly,

effigy,

o f the purple?"

i nstantly d estroy t he Antichrist. /For

house

i s

this e ffigy is o f Mars o r Apollo,/

nails,

a ssociate,

whose

Wherefore

o ver with j ewels and purple,

pristine Antichrist, /Depraved Muhammad, May my

b e,

i mage mean?

Yet C hrist's

t he

o f

s trong men /Would

i s t he purpose

d ecked a ll

c rown o f

a molten e ffigy /Made and

does this

Muhammad was,/Indeed, Perhaps

The

o btruncatur./

/Ergo diffictus d e

quoth h e,/Who should t his

l ofty image, /What

t hese

the

s uperbus

j ussum f uerat,

jusso complente

t rahitur,

s ed forma vile metallum:

s ilver,

held i t:

O h

e st open i S alomonis!/

f it preciosus.1°

heavy

the

nil

ambos

D ei potitur

i ste. /Statue

i pse? /Vix

j am stare peractum,/Milite

l ibentius i sto. v ile

s orpserit

a rce

D eus

j am d udum c orruat

/0 s i

/Jam meus hic

/Proh pudor!

/Vernaque P lutonis

citus

non c lavi,

quin pristinus

Muhammet perniciosus.

i lle f uturus!

p es supprimat Antichristos.

e t

/Numquid enim Christus? non s ertum,

non l atus haustum. /Ergo n eque h ic Christus: hujus

t otus

r adiabat et a uro. /Forsitan

t he " the

t hese

b oth

s anctuary: i nterior

appeared to

and of t he thickness o f a t humb; t heir weight 1 4 t housand marks.... . T hey f ind " receptacles o f various

4 8

s izes

s et

apart f or t he

vessels.... jewels,

The walls

others

c ult o f Muhammad...

and c olumns of the

under gold and s ilver;

by Tancred and t orn i nto p ieces."15 brought

i nto u se

c lothed the

o f

capture

cared for t he

numbers

o f

t he

o f Jerusalem.

Caen's Gesta w ere the

Crusade,

n eedy,

I t

1 7

s tories

" indulged

c riptions of

t he Gesta Tancredi,

o f

a rmed the

l ess

with the

day.u

their

epic

Raoul r eflects,

and believing in t he existence

The

author

anonymous

o f

ployed by hero,

tale

o f

s ome

u sed by Raou1,

( and not

s tory o f

which,

t he

2 7

H e

s hares

speaking a bout t he

t he

i mage

2 9

o r was i n the

mentions,

in t his

impulse

to the

3 °

in d elubris

l iterary

c opy

i dols.

i t no more than a o f Fulcher

was one

indeed,

o f the

t he existence

t he Monk,

whose

I slam a s

idolatrous when

a Temple

c hronicle,

written probably s ources of

description o f

unquam v enustiori

i nsignitis,

a l uxuriously

a rea and might have g iven an

e laboration of t he quis

r ite

2 8

i n r elation t o t he

i n the T emple

o f

particularly venerated

s uperstitioso ritu ' "

Mathome,

auro a rgentoque

In t he popular s ince

em-

t e

pulchrisque de te

t he

s tatue

c ultu c olitur, imaginibus

3 1

Muhammad statue

imagination o f

c ontinued • to be

t he C rusader period the

o f Savona,

e ach o ther's

s till existed,

but

3 3

P eter

s tate

in t he

o f P ennis 34

a ccounts o f

i dea o f

f irmly r elated to t he Temple

l ater writers - James of Vitry

P hilippe

a d es-

a C hristian

provides us with another indication o f

" 0 Mathome,

d ecoratis."

a s

c hronicle

s anctuary,

t he popular view o f

i mage o f Muhammad

by Raoul:

2 3

speaking a bout t he T emplum Domini

i s not u sually cited

Raoul's writings, d ecorated

i s

c liche

f alse r eligion and pagan

in a ll probability,

" idolatriae

The mention o f Robert 1 107,

i dolatrous

i dols o f Muhammad

s tatue

which the victorious e ntry o f Tancred put to an end.

b efore

t he wide-

i mage of Muhammad destroyed by t he

a passage

Fulcher,

2 6

i n nomine Mahumet"

by Saracens.

c apture

r emarkable for

pagan and

Tancred's

f ighting

t he T e elum Salomonis!)

" idolo

t he C hronicle

a s suggested by Monneret de Villard? 25

I n his c hronicle,

the

o f

2 2

Islam a s

r eal foundations

l iterary misinterpretation o f C hartres,

1 9

the d es-

i n t he

l uxuriously ornate

author to enhance

R aoul concerning

Crusader hero have

s ources

i f

a r eal event or n othing more t han a l iterary

an e rudite

R aoul

2 4

a c onqueror o f infidels,

Did the

of

o f

o f

t he F irst

c ourse, ' principally,

question a rises whether t he

cription of

h e

and hyperbolizing

who d id personally take part

spread popular Western medieval v iew o f v enerated by Muslims.

o f i t

Tarentum,

Even

2 0

t hey c ontain n evertheless many d etails

work o f

Out

Tudebodus ' imitator witnessed

t heir r ealism and undoubted t rustworthiness. The

s evered

d efenceless and

a nd Bohemond o f

i n memories every

2 1

were

s agacious man,

o f t he participants o f

have not t he precision o f

t he F irst C rusade,

of Jerusalem,

that

i s known t hat the main s ources

principally Tancred himself

1 8

incrustations

a rmy. u 16

both o f whom style,

t hese

" Tancred,

N either Raoul o f Caen a nd still t he

i nnumerable...silver

t hat which l ay inactive and useless.

naked,

added to t he

and

t emple were hidden under

such a s tatue

4 9

t hirteenth c entury,

3 2

and others 35 -continued to

t hat the Muslims

seeing it.

a rea

i n t he T emple

a s

i f

i t

prevented Christians f rom

t he

I t i s not a lways c lear whether t hese writers l ocated t he s tatue i n t he D ome of t he R ock the a l-Aksa mosque

( normally c alled t he T emplum D omini)

( Templum S alomonis).

o r i n

C onfusion may have b een

caused by t he e xistence of a s econd minor t radition by which , "vulgari a ppellatione," 36 mosque. 37 Thus, whole

t he n ame T emplum D omini was applied t o a l-Aksa

t ogether with Fulcher o f C hartres,

R aoul

i nitiated t he

l iterary t radition o f t he C rusader e poch d escribing t he i mage

of Muhammad i n t he T emple a rea. part o f t he whole

T his t radition c onstitutes a s pecial

s tream of popular Western l egends o n

I slam a s a

f orm of i dolatry. P icturesque r eferences t o t he s tatue of Muhammad f igure i n t he c hanson c alled L a C onquete d e J grusalem, 38 i n t he Chanson d ' Antioche

Jupiter,

4°

t he C hanson d u

t he poem of Baldwin of F landers,

4 2

and o ther works o f C rusader e pic.

4 4

4 1

Baldwin d e S ebourg 43 writings t he

t he Chanson d ' Aspremont,

'3 9

c hevalier au Cygne

i dol o f Muhammad a ppears t ogether with t he

t he r oman of I n t hese s tatues of

Apollo a nd T ervagant a s the s acred i mages which t he i nfidels

bring with them t o t he of the S aracens'

f ield o f battle;

l eaders;

4 5

h is

i dol a dorns t he t ents

a nd i t i s used when t he Muslims c onstrain

4 6

Christians t o a bjure t heir f aith.

4 7

Together with t he picturesque r emarks of R obert t he Monk, R aoul's d escription of t he a nd

s tatue

s ilver was a t the basis of t he C rusaders'

tales a bout t he un-

believable l uxury of t he d ecoration of Muhammad's

i mages.

O f t he o ne

i n Jerusalem t he author of t he C onquete d e J grusalem wrote: qui

i r eluist,

This

f antastic

s plendour a scribed t o Muhammad's

i mages - a necessary a ttribute o f a pagan i dol medieval writer - i s an obvious

i n t he e yes o f a

l iterary c lichg going back t o t he

E arly Christian l iterary t radition. But where

" De l 'or

d es perres d e c ristal,/Resclarcist t os l i t res e l

paveillon r oial." 49

t he

4 8

i n a l-Aksa r esplendent with g old

5 0

s hould we l ook f or t he b eginnings of t he

s tory a bout

s tatue of Muhammad i n a l-Aksa mosque which t he C rusaders passed

by word of mouth?

Was

t he popular b elief i n t he

i dolatry o f M uslims

s ufficient t o provide an impulse t o c reate t he d etailed,

r ealistic

picture o f t he capture a nd a nnihilation o f t he e nigmatic majestic " simulacrum"?

Can we

i magine t hat T ancred o r s omebody i n h is e ntourage

r eally had c ommunicated t o R aoul a f actual a ccount?

I n this c ase

R aoul's t ext might b e c onsidered a s a h ighly i nteresting d ocument contributing t o our knowledge of t he c ondition of works of a rt i n Palestine b efore the a rrival o f t he C rusaders. I n t his

c onnection i t i s worth mentioning the e vidence o f a ncient

a nd Early C hristian authors c oncerning t he e xistence of R oman s tatues i n t he H aram a rea.

The Bordeaux P ilgrim

5 1

the Temple a rea points out that where

" in t he building

f ar

f rom t he

s tatues t here

t o which t he J ews c ome every y ear. l ocation of t he

i nfer

s tatues

, 52

( in a ede)

5 3

o r

i tself,

i s a perforated s tone

i n t he

a s w e c an

f irst quarter o f t he

" devastating s pectacle"

of t he T emple

f rom t he a ccount of Ammianus Marcellinus a bout t he u n-

i n ruins.

s tatues.

( !)

s tatues

The B ordeaux P ilgrim i ndicates

s uccessful attempt of Julian t o r ebuild t he T emple, t ime

i n d escribing

i nside t he v ery building which,

f rom t he d escription by Eusebius

f ourth c entury deploring t he a rea,

3 33)

s tood t he T emple which S olomon built...there a re two

of Hadrian a nd not t he

( A.D.

I t i s

5 4

s tood f or a l ong

N either Eusebius n or Ammianus Marcellinus mentiors the i n t he C ommentaries o f S t.

5 0

J erome,

I n Mattheum a nd

I n I saiam,

that w e can g lean o ther

R oman s tatues i n t he Temple a rea. s tatue o f Hadrian s tanding i n t he equestri

s tatua,

diem s tetit,u

5 5

q uae

i ndications of t he e xistence o f S t.

( "Of Hadrian's equestrian s tatue which t o t his day And,

quondam e rat T eMplum e t r eligio D el, i dolum c ollocatum e st," 56 there

" De Adriani

i n i pso s ancto s anctorum l oco u sque praesentem

s tands i n the v ery Holy o f Holies").

of God,

J erome mentions t he e questrian

s anctuary o f t he T emple:

s tand t he

i n another p lace:

i bi Adriani

s tatua,

" Ubi

e t J ovis

( "Where once was the T emple a nd t he c ult

s tatue o f Hadrian a nd Jove's

i dol").

The l ocation of t he s tatues of Hadrian a nd of J upiter i n the T emple a rea was e vidently r elated t o the position of t he t emple o f Jupiter Capitolinus 57

a nd t o t he d edication o f J erusalem a s A elia

C apitolina t o A elius H adrian a nd Jupiter Capitolinus. possibly,

T hese were,

5 8

t he two s tatues mentioned bx t he Bordeaux P ilgrim and t aken

by him t o be two s tatues o f Hadrian. The pilgrims of t he s tatues a gain,

5

f ollowing c enturies 6 ° d o n ot mention the

a f act which c aused Creswell t o c onclude t hat t hey had

disappeared f rom t he T emple a rea s oon after t he f ourth c entury. Muslim writers, ( A . D.

1 047),

mosque,

6 3

s uch a s Mukaddasi

( A.D.

9 85)

6 2

6 1

a nd N äsir-i-Khusrau

who provide a v ery detailed description of a l-Aksa

built by t he Khalif Omar i n the

s eventh c entury 64

after t he earthquakes

i n t he e ighth c entury,

ence of R oman s tatues

i n t he T emple area.

A R oman marble h ead of an i mperial

a nd r estored

do mention t he exist-

6 5

s tatue,

f ound i n a wall bor-

dering the road t o Nablus durin9 the excavations by C lermont-Ganneau i n 1 873,

was d escribed by h im b7

6 6

and

the head of a s tatue of H adrian. B .

Mazar 69

i n t he

l ater by V incent a nd Abe1 68

a s

The r elatively r ecent e xcavations by

s outhern and western parts of t he T emple a rea r eport

among numerous R oman f ragments t he l ong known base o f a s tatue of Antonius Pius with an i nscription. of the

I t has been c onnected t o one

7 U

s tatues r eported by t he Bordeaux P ilgrim.

7 1

the base of t he e questrian s tatue mentioned by S t.

I t i s n ot, J erome.

however,

O ther

f ragments t end t o i ndicate the e xistence of more t han two R oman i n this a rea. 72 The

s tatues

s ources t ell u s n othing about the material of which these

s tatues were made.

The

f ragments discovered a re marble,

but t here i s

n o r eason why t he t emple of Jupiter

s hould n ot have c ontained a s tatue

of Jupiter Capitolinus

i n bronze,

Jupiter's

I f t he i t

i n s ilver o r

s anctuaries i n ancient R ome.

s tory t old by R aoul of Caen i s not pure l iterary i nvention,

i s d ifficult t o s ay whether the

meta1.

7 4

s tatue was o f s ilver o r of s ome other

The weight of t he a l-Aksa s tatue defined by R aoul - s ix v iri

f ortissimi were n ecessary t o move picturesque detail

i t and t en t o l ift i t - i s n ot

i n t he description of t he plunder;

e stimate t he a ctual weight of t he s tatue a t c a. about

a s was c ustomary i n

7 3

1 800 R oman pounds)

7 5

and t o

j ust a

i t a llows o ne t o

6 00-700 kg.

s ee i n i t a n a ntique metal

( that i s, s tatue and

n ot one of wood f aced with metal plates - a t echnique k nown f rom t he Early M iddle Ages onwards. • The t ured a s

s ize of t he s tatue may t hen be c onjec-

s lightly i n e xcess of t he normal height of a man,

i ng t o t he u sual p roportions of a ntique r epresentational

t hus c onform-

s tatues of

emperors and g ods. I n their p lundering operations 5 1

the Crusader warriors d istinguished

perfectly well o r a re

in vessels;

t he

often full o f

" silver" mosque

nature of metal, but

7 6

laminae

exaggerations.

The

7 8

l iterary

hyperbolae,

of emperors

i ts

a t any r ate,

in c oins

t hat

t he

was

This k ind o f description,

typical of Raoul who,

e stablished

l iterary

t he

testimony of Muslim

t he d escription o f

decked out w ith gold and purple,

c lichgs

of

t he s tatue, i t was

f raught with

in t his t he

a s

c ase,

may a lso

description of

i mages

o r gods.

Especially striking i s

a ccording to

Raoul o f Caen .

have d rawn on

or otherwise,

f rom t he walls of a l-Aksa

s ame may have happened t o

r esplendent with j ewels, d escribed by

It seems,

torn by the Crusaders

were made of l ead,

7 7

writers.

precious

t he descriptions of booty by C rusader a uthors

in t he description o f

t his

statue by R aoul

c onformity in many details w ith one of the most permanent

ancient motifs

o f Majestas - t hat o f

Jupiter

Capitolinus.

The

i con-

ography o f Jupiter Capitolinus, r epresented in its c lassical variants by t he c olossal marble statue in the Hermitage, Leningrad, 79 on several

l ate

Museum,

i mperial

coins n

and by a silver statuette

h ad b een adapted t o

t he

i mperial

f igure on a t hrone,

t he

naked breast

a re

- a feature noticed by Raoul

n ot t ransfixed"

Aksa) the

and a purple mantle.

8 3

rhetorical q uestion of

c erned

t he vestment o f

preserved of human o f

n otion o f

t he

i t i s difficult

Tancred,

rounded by

o r

8 5

give

fantastic

was

i n a l-

t o decide whether c on-

J upiter Capitolinus,

c ontrary

l egends

The

8 7

o f

a ntique and medieval

of a ncient statues w hich

idols

famous

Cordoba,

l egends

probability t hat o f

and destroyed in the twelfth

an antique

9 2

s tatue of Jupiter o r

a story which gradually became versions

i n t he work o f Raoul o f Caen.

an o ral

an antique

of

t he First C rusade c ould

a nd mixed up with features of various

on Muhammad

in C adiz,

in the c hronicle by P seudo-

8 8

Temple area before

of departure for

overgrown by details

of Muhammad and sur" Ymage Mahom"

s tatue of Hercules.

i s possible t hat

have been a point

f olklore

t radition e xisted c oncerning

s tatue within the Temple

which might have been used by Raoul

i n h is

a rea,

c hronicle,

may

a t radition a lso be

into c onsideration. But

e ven i f

one

considers

a pure

l iterary

invention,

t o our

understanding o f

medieval approach l edge o f

t he

Holy Land.

9 3

t he s tory

i t

the mentality o f

t o works of

l iterary sources t he various

a rt,

t he C rusader

as well as t o our

age and o f

t he

increasing know-

concerning artistic monuments in t he a spects

in h istorical writing

c hronicler's

r eported by Raoul of Caen 'as

c onstitutes an important c ontribution

As a l iterary invention,

interpolation o f Muhammad 94

8 4

t o the d isapproval

c onstituted a picturesque e lement

in fact an antique

S imilarly it

t he presence

the

- " the f lanks

in the statue

an element based on the

us several mentions

Hadrian preserved in t he

taken

s tatue of

and by numerous Arabic authors 9°

of popular

l ocation o f

" Quid s ibi vult ° strum?",

in t he Middle Ages a s

described by t he Anonymous 9 1

t he

haustum"

" insignia regia. + 1 86

s ources

Turpin 89

i ncludes

8 2

( "non l atus

an a ctual Roman

f airy-tale,

were interpreted

T he

Y et

e ffigies by Muslims,

The

i mage,

in t he captured Muslim sanctuary

an ingenious

c entury,

i n t he B ritish

a n i conography which a lready at the time o f Julius C aesar

8 1

description of r eal

it

i s

a c urious

of t he medieval

and o f

l egend about

the c ontamination of

e vents by a popular 5 2

e xample of t he t he

l egendary

t radition. was,

Writing

o f course,

t he Gesta,

t he

f ully j ustified

O f particular

interest

i s

t radition

relatively scant

i n medieval l iterary

i n one image.

l ike

which goes o r

of

t he

d i

tale o f

This c orresponds

R aoul to a

and

t heological

t reatment.

and made the

I t was

9 5

s ubject o f

n ot

l ong poems

the t ale about Muhammad being a heretical prophet,

back

t o

l egend,

Muhammad a s

Raoul

a pproach.

e schatology which surprisingly r eceived

stuffed w ith f antastic details romances,

of Tancred,

the association i n the

o f Muhammad and t he Antichrist popular

"Heroic d eeds"

i n s uch a l iterary

B yzantine s ources o f

the eighth and n inth c enturies ;

particularly widespread in t he

a v indictive heresiarch o f

a nd 9 6

W est,

9 7

which portrayed

t he Roman c hurch,

" seminator

9 8

scandalo e di scisma." 99 The

i dea o f Muhammad a s

and one of

t he

f orerunners

a major heretic

of

detailed elaboration i n medieval t radition. not only in t he popular Peter

t he Venerable 102

o f Fiore 104

l egends,

and Averroes 106

i n the

t hus

a pupil o f Satan

I n this

1 00

but a lso

1 01

and Alain of Lille,

and Vincent o f

a nd

the arrival o f Antichrist r eceived a

i n t he works of Joachim

1 03

Beauvais2 -° 5 and appears

f resco o f

tale he f igures

i n t he c ommentaries o f n ext t o Antichrist

t he f ourteenth c entury

a scribed

t o

Traini in t he Campo Santo at P isa. It seems

t hat t he

i dentification o f

the Antichrist appears

f irst

i n Spanish

period o f Muslim domination, o f

the

nascent R econquista,

the

a rising out o f

a s

Cordoba.

1"

f ound a particular

g inning

o f

related to

I t

i s

and

t he

t he providential and was

n egotio Terrae

c hrist a s

well known,

a l eader o f

t he

unable o f the

s ense,

the C rusaders'

v ictory

r epresentation of an

one of

m iscreants

t he

t emptation through t he

image

t he p lunder

and Achilles)12 the

image of

nova militia w ith o f

i dea o f

s educers

t he

t he Anti-

in t he world

a nd

1 °9

in o rder

" pseudo-prophets.

t he

t o d eIt

n 110

t hat Raoul u ses

Raoul was

probably

t o r ender v ividly t he meaning impact of a c oncrete picture :

o f the Antichrist h imself vanquished

about T ancred,

Raoul

I II,

deliverance of t he Holy C ity f rom t he

s ed

ation o f

t he

In t hat way

the Christian mission o f Tancred was

says

Innocent

found a c oncrete h istorical a pplication

predatory e ssence of Hector

famous bull o f

t he unum Antichristum,

a nd d estroyed by the C hristian c onqueror. o f

l iterature

c onquest of

1 08

t he Muhammad-Antichrist by h is hero,

t he C rusaders'

l eo,"

t owards t he be-

1 11

to refrain f rom the

c haracter

r esponse

not C hristians,included t he n otion o f

which

t he description of

o f

in s uch

by Alvarez of

C rusader i nvasion o f Syria a nd Palestine,

t erm of Antichrist.

power

o f

t he

Luminosus"

t hat t he medieval

Christ,

a re

a ll kinds of h eretics,

I n

1 213.

h owever,

a ll who

i s partly in t his

aspects o f

t he adversary o f

d uring t he

" Indiculus

formulated in t he

S anctae,

multi Antichristi preceding f ine

l iterature of

i deological c oncerns

t he t hirteenth century in t he eschatological

t he Holy Land, D e

i dea

t he

and i llustrated in particular

ninth-century writings This

i mages o f Muhammad w ith

t heological

t he heroic

stressed a nd t he

covered up a nd j ustified. comparing his

and stressing in t hat way a Knight o f C hrist f eatures o f

t he

intended combin-

s pirit of St.

a c lassical h ero in t he

the Greco-Roman heroical biography.

5 3

i n t he

" Non homo,

hero w ith A jax, B ernard's

t radition

But f or a ll Antichrist,

the broad

Raoul

t ies

Of particular importance, ideas i s

d iffused in

t he

area,

f act

t hat

j ust a t

understanding of t he

it moreover to a d irect in t he

l ight o f t he vague eschatological

t he C rusader milieu and e xpressed by Raoul o f Caen, t he

action of his

s tory t akes place in the T emple

t he , spot where the Templum Domini

Salomonis were thought to have b een situated. l ogical v iews h eld t o

o f

t he Crusader period were

c onfirm t he prophecies

C hristian writers, of God.

a s ingle t he

l iterary

t he

i n numerous

S t.

Raoul

l iterary l iterary

go back,

i n t his way

Pau1,

1 1

3 developed by

t he c reation of

the principal

e laboration o f

h is v ersion o f

t o S criptural

Jeremiah who speaks o f its

l ogical v isions o f Danie1 117 the

i dols t akes

and t hose o f

t he

l iberal

s alem, g ods

h e

John.

tenets

c om1 15

e schato-

t radition o f t he

in E arly C hristian writings

was

one o f t he most

A student at the School o f

c ultivated of

Caen where h e

s tudied

f ormer patriarch of Jerut o

antique heroes,

and with q uotations f rom V irgil, 122 Horace, I23 Ovid, 1 24 27 and Priscian. 1 28 C aesar, 126 Sallust 1 He u ses t he hexa-

1 25

in the most

value o f

the

i mportant parts

of his work.

f orm a nd of t he material

also goes back t o writers

t he Latin l iterary

The

out of which I t

i s

t he reflexion a bout the

f abrication of

u sui"

f rom

t er").

Tertullian's

1 30

a mean u se")

s tatue which had been

" inquinata,

c onsumpta"

profaned,broken,

t royed,

( "defiled,

a nnihilated")

works 132

and

Raoul's

s eems

1 31

t o be

f inds

v iolata,

a bout Tancred 's

time when the subject o f a c ertain r evival. n ew

a pagan

minuta,

more probably,

the

v ictory

destructa, desl iterary

indirect

f act t hat Raoul's

over the

the d estruction of

s ource

t he C hurch,

r elated to t he wide . propaganda

T his

subject

i s

1 33

I n t he

t he

e leventh

c entury;

seems

t o a

to manifest

a rtistic

O ttonian, twelfth

1 34

c entury

5 4

t heme o f

i t

ideals and a ims.

l iterary

i conography can be

early Spanish 135 t he

t he investiture but even more

o f C rusaders'

d eveloped n ot only in t he

I ts important

to Carolingian,

i dols

elaborated d uring

i s

traditions.

c reation o f

enemy's idol b elongs

I t may be partly r elated t o t he a ffirmation o f ,

c onception o f

t owards the end o f

scripts.

f racta,

chopped i nto p ieces,

struggle t o be

( " base mat-

d estruction of

description.

O f particular importance i s s tory

idols predestined

an e cho in n umerous medieval

a d irect or,

t he

c reated

u sed by C hristian

" vili materia"

description of t he

form i s

i n Tertullian t hat w e

" vilissimo

( "to

c omparison o f t his

t raditions 129

f or purposes o f moralisation.

f irst f ind

t he

I ts

to t he

and to the

t he t ext of t he Gesta with r eferences

Lucan,

t he

:

and monsters

meter

o f

destruction

gold and s ilver,

The

18

a rts under t he famous Arnulf , 121

l ards

t he

1 19

a s we know,

°

o f

curse a gainst the appearance and manufacture

form and develops

Raoul of Caen, 1 2

s tory

o f m iseries which God would

i dolatry ,116

and St.

t he C hurch Fathers.

C rusader writers.

f used in

a " real"

and a rtistic works during the M iddle Ages.

s end t o t he people because d escription and o f

i n t he Temple

l eans upon a l ong and a ncient tradition expressed

in particular,

to the prophecies o f

a nd

o ther

enemy - Muhammad-Antichrist.

mandment o f God t o Moses prohibiting idols made o f

o f pagan

e schato-

l inked with

t hese two t raditions were

image by means of

an i dol Raoul also

b eginnings

of

and t he Templum T he popular

t he Antichrist who would settle

s eizure of an idol o f I n

o f

about

In t he work o f

1 14

i mage of Muhammad-

e schatological a llusion.

a nd popular

t raced back

and Mozarabic 136

t he v ictory

o f

manu-

t he F ides

over I dolatria g oing back t o t he P sychomachia of P rudentius, o n s culptural a rchivolts of R omanesque c hurches, t he destruction of i dols

f inds a p lace

i n s uch d eveloped i conographical

programs a s that o f the mosaics of the C athedral o f Monreale. f inds

I t

1 38

i ts e xpression i n French i lluminated B ibles b eginning w ith t he

twelfth c entury,

i n i llustrations t o t he Book of Maccabees a nd

1 39

a cquires a f ixed f orm i n t he French Bibles Moralisges. t his

a ppears

a nd the t heme of

1 37

i conographical variant,

man prostrate t hat this s cripts 141

which i ncludes a

1 4°

I t i s

i n

r epresentation of a

i n f ront of a naked s tatue a nd pursued by a rmed men,

i conography appears

i n t he twelfth c entury i n C rusader manu-

based on Byzantine a nd French models.

I n t he c orres-

1 42

ponding miniature of t he Arsenal B ible of t he mid-thirteenth c entury,143 t he J ew prostrate i n f ront of a n a ltar i s r epresented

i n a Muslim

garment a nd wearing a turban t hat r epresents both r ealistic observat ion of c ontemporary l ife by t he C rusader painter a nd the vague Western n otions a bout particular r eligions.

T he miniature

1 44

o f t he massacres o f i nfidels memory t he t ale o f R aoul.

f eatures of the Judaic a nd Muslim

i tself s eems t o r ely on C rusader a ccounts i n t heir

s anctuaries,

a nd e vokes

The i conography of the pagan

i s a lways that of a naked s tatuette,

i n one's

s tatue,

however,

s ometimes holding a l ance.

This

s eems t o b e a remnant of a representational tradition which g oes back t o a ntiquity and r eminds one o f R oman s tatuettes of various d eities. Thus,

on t he one hand,

the s tandard a rtistic

1 45

i conography of t he

s cene of the destruction of i dols may have provided R aoul o f Caen w ith a point of departure

f or his v ivid a nd poetical description of the

d estruction of a n i dol of Muhammad,

thus

Muslim H aram by C rusader warriors;

on t he other hand,

symbolizing the c apture o f t he t he d escription

may i n i tself be p erceived equally a s one of the t estimonies t o a particular c onceptual

importance of this t heme.

A r eal event a nd r eal

f eatures

s eem t o b e

f used i n t he narration

of R aoul of Caen with an e stablished l iterary t radition of t he r epres entation of the d estruction o f i dols and with s everal n otions c oncerni ng the Muslim world which were part of t he Western popular c onsciousness i n t his period: 146 belief i n t he e xistence of i dols of Muhammad, a perception of I slam a s a k ind of i dolatry , and even a v iew of Muhammad a s a k ind of Antichrist. a ttempts at a s erious t he

This h ad l ittle

i n c ommon with t he

s tudy o f I slam i n the West,

f irst

i n particular,

with

f irst translation o f and c ritical c ommentaries on t he Qur'an

i nitiated at t he

i nstigation o f P eter t he Venerable.

the s tatue to a l egend,

the popular b elief i n the

t o an e schatological v ision, t he n ew C rusader D oes

1 47

R aoul r elated

i dolatry of Muslims

a h eroic biography i n c lassical

s pirit t o

i deals of the Christian h ero.

this half-fantastic

s tory o f an a ntique

s tatue d estroyed by

Tancred add anything t o the h istory of a rt i n t he Holy L and? value may appear quite r elative,

I ts

c ontributing s everal minor a nd

amusing details t o C rusader mythology. I n t he e xistence

f irst place,

however,

i t s uggests the

l ikelihood o f t he

( or a t l east of the l egend of t he e xistence)

a rea of a n antique

s tatue, probably of Jupiter,

i n t he T emple

until t he e nd of t he

e leventh c entury. S econdly,

i t c ontributes t o t he a s y et unwritten history of

medieval descriptions of t he s till e xtant or which r epresents a n

i maginary works of a rt,

i mportant a spect of the medieval a pproach t o

5 5

1 48

a rtistic

c reation.

Thirdly, t he medieval

it presents

Fourthly, question: f rom

t he

of t he

" Is

a rt

e xample

when Raoul o f

in t he

o f

a ssociation o f

o f Tancred t he

Muslim or C hristian,"

t hree possibilities which constitute a ccounts

of t he

a rtistic monument.

Caen puts i n t he mouth

t he statue ancient Roman,

c ultural interaction

w itness o f

a picturesque

l egend about Muhammad with a n

h e c hooses

t he principal c omponents

i n the Holy Land,

components which eye-

t he period rarely f orget when t hey mention works

Holy L and and the

idea of which i s

often in some way

present in their writings. Among all i s

t he

c hronicles of

d istinguished by

monuments

t he F irst Crusade

a f airly large

and works

of art.

T hrough

l iterary

c liches

Latin t radition a ppear the v ivid observations a rtistic works

o f

in solemn hexameters

stupuisset p ictor Achivus, anglus, a rtists of

t he

t hat i s , Greek,

H 149

- t he main a rtistic a rt of t he

He

Such

I n

( which may t he

enamels

work

i s also

t he

a nd t echnical

in precious i s

i s

a nd occasional

form in which

t hey

t han

knowledge

stained g lass,

i mpressions

a professional. a re precious and t aste

but a lso,

even i f

monuments

in Syria a nd Palestine at the a rrival of

t he

e ve

of

t he formation o f

F ifthly, o f t he

"Renaissance

interest

i s

a nd s polia, monuments

of

o f

antique

f irst c ollections l ogical 1 56

f inds

o f

Twelfth

t he West t he

C entury."

s culpture.

1 54

of t he a rtistic

t his was

o n

Among

B ourgueil,

of

t hem o f particular

antique monuments a s models

We know, t he

t he period

f irst manifestations

a pproach

in particular,

a ntique s culpture b elong

a nother writer o f o f

for

in g eneral,

t he C rusaders

t he formation of an aesthetic

a nd d istinguishes

Baldric

t he conditions

of

formation of

n ot only t he practical u se of but also

Guibert o f Nogent, ones.

t he

Y et

t he L atin K ingdom.

in the artistic history

t he preparation and t he

of

t hat

o f G ermany ; 153

a nd observations, a s well

a re presented,

a pproximately,

t hat

t he impressions of a o f

our understanding not only o f medieval mentality only

1 52

o f Greece;

t hat o f Arab a rtists;

wood and s tone,

n othing more

t ext-books.

twelfth c entury)

t he glory

c ast work,

c lichg w hich one

On Various Arts

t hat of I taly;

metals,

again these

s parse

book

Anglia

and materials

l iterary

f irst half of the

c ompared to the

l iterary

a k ind o f

t hat of Russia;

t he d escription by Raoul

t he

1 50

c reation

a es C yprus,

t echniques

l iterary works

cultivated amateur a s

e t

( Scottish and E nglish!)

v itrum T yrus,

t o a rtistic

examines painting , which

and niello,

F rance;

quibus v isis

scottus

c omponents participating in t he

goldsmiths ' work and i vory carving, o f

" Templa,

scultores

t he passage in Theophilus'

a lso be d ated t o a uthor

f usor Arabs,

" marmor Atlas,

f ind i n other medieval c omparison with

where

Robert o f Normandy , Raoul

Arab a nd Western

reference

proper to d ifferent peoples can

t he

Latin Kingdom.

t hen mentions

f errum." 151

a rchitectural

W estern c onquerors.

t he destruction of

Auri

t o

derived f rom t he

a nd i mpressions of

the Eastern world d iscovered by

Talking a bout t he burning of Antioch b y d escribes

t he Gesta Tancredi

number of r eferences

t o t his

period.

F irst C rusade,

the ancient

s arcophagi

to that the 1 55

studied archaeof rom C hristian

in h is poem d edicated t o Adele,

daughter o f William t he Conqueror a nd wife o f a nother participant of t he

f irst Crusade,

Stephen of Chartres, 5 6

describes

t he precious

statues

personifying Winds,

d ecorating t he c ountess'

d escription of a d ream where his h ero, s elf by c atching t he

bedroom.

1 57

f allen i nto a r iver,

f ragment of a n antique r elief,

H is poetical s aves him-

may s ymbolize

1 58

i n a way the r ecourse t o a ntiquity of c ultured Europeans of t his age. This upheaval i n the h istory of medieval t hought, with r egard t o t he g eneral f orms of the

i deas of r enovatio,

i n particular

t he e cclesiastical r e-

e leventh c entury a nd t he n ew c onceptions of t he C hurch,

Power a nd S ociety, might n ot have been s o c omplete w ithout t he cultural e xperience o f the C rusades.

The perplexity a nd bewilderment of

the C rusaders

i n f ront o f the ancient e ffigy d escribed by R aoul

s ymbolize t he

f irst

c ould

s teps of t his experience and of a n ew wave of

c ontacts by the West with a ntique M editerranean culture. The a rtistic h istory of the H oly L and i s a h istory of the p erpetual destruction and r econstruction of monuments.

I n the r econstruction of

the destroyed monuments of the Christian past the C rusader a rtists of t he L atin Kingdom were guided n ot o nly by i mported western a nd Byzant ine a rtistic t raditions a nd methods of work, h eritage a nd

i ts i mpact on t hem.

but a lso by a r ich l ocal

I t was expressed,in particular,

the wide r e-use of a ncient a rchitectural a nd s culptural

i n

f ragments 159

and i n the u se o f l ocal a rtistic r esources , both of which c ontributed t o the

i nterpretation a nd modification of the imported models c ir-

culating i n the H oly Land.

G reek painters,

Arab c utters and c arvers,

western s culptors - carriers of t he t hree a rtistic t raditions mentioned by Raoul of Caen - each of t hem played their part i n the c reation of the C rusader a rt o f the Holy L and.

The

f ragmentary c onditions of the

Crusader a rtistic h eritage makes s till more d ifficult t he a lready h eavy t ask of defining a nd d istinguishing their c ontribution t o the c ourse of a rtistic development i n t he Holy L and.

But i t i s c lear

t hat without the i nteraction and these c ontacts the a rt of the L atin Kingdom c ould n ever have become t he c omplex a nd mixed phenomenon of R omanesque culture that i t i s.

The Crusaders'

with an i mportant a ccount o f this

i nteraction,

c hronicles provide u s t hus c onfirming the

evidence of the a rtistic monuments themselves a nd i llustrating their i mportant value a s

s ources

f or t he history of a rt i n the Holy L and.

NOTES

1 .

E .

R enan,

" Mahomet e t l es origines de l 'islamisme,"

d ' histoire r eligieuse 1 955), ( Paris, des

1 71-172; 1 896),

s avants

H .

( 1857),

d e C astries,

2 78-281;

( 1903),

3 93

R .

Basset, U .

" Hercule e t Mahomet," Monneret d e Villard, X III

1 10

Z aborov,

( Vatican C ity,

1 944),

3 3;

Raoul of Caen,

cap.CXXIV,

( Moscow,

G esta T ancredi

i n R HC:

Petri Tudebodi

M .A .

H ist.

Etudes VII

( Paris,

Impressions et E tudes

dell'Islam i n E uropa n el X II e n el

cap.CXXIX, 3 .

L 'Islam.

( note );

grafiu krestovych pochodov 2 .

i n O euvres c ompletes,

s ecolo,

1 966),

J ournal L o S tudio

S tudi e T esti,

Vvedenie v i storio2 19-220.

i n e xpeditione H ierosolymitana,

O cc.,

I II

( Paris,

1 866),

6 95.

i mitatus e t c ontinuatus H istoria P eregrinorum,

i n P 1 IC:

Hist.

O cc.,

I II

5 7

( Paris,

1 866),

2 22-223.

4 .

L .

Brghier,

croisade,

" Introduction,"

ed.

and

5 .

Raoul of Caen,

6 .

Ibid.,

cap.CXII,

7 .

Ibid.,

6 85.

8 .

Cf.

1 864),

( Paris,

1 924),

XIV.

6 84-685.

Hist.

Occ.,

Raoul of Caen, I would l ike

in M .

de Vogüg,

L e Temple de Jgrusalem

2 80-281.

Raimundi de Aguilers, i n RHC:

1 1.

Brghier

6 84.

twelfth century,

( Paris,

1 0.

cap.CXI,

Histoire a nonyme de l a premiere

L .

the description of the Haram area by S aewulf a t the beginning

of the

9 .

trans.,

Historia Francorum qui

I II

( Paris,

cap.CXXIX,

1 866),

c eperunt

6 95.

t o express my gratitude

t o V .

Glasberg f or his

f riendly help i n the t ranslation of this t ext English as well as

I herusalem,

3 00.

f rom Latin i nto

f or the revision of t he English t ext of my

article. 1 2.

The mention of Apollo i n the

t ext of R aoul of Caen would a lso be

related with a popular Western c reed that Apollo was one of the principal deities of S aracens. XXXII,

verses

croisades 1 3.

4 16-417.

( Paris,

Cf.

1 932),

Cf.

a lso A .

Chanson de Hatem,

R oland,

Les poemes

i ntra Jerusalem e sse videretur.

totum aes relictis vertit,

ne

f orte,

ita s e c lauserant,

ecce videt s ex viri

f ortissimi ad portandum, quid

Erat quippe

susque ait:

" Numquid enim haec

latus vero i llius

imago,

qui

meis c ito nunc

quod erat

quae

quid aurum,

f uisset,

f uturus e st,

pristinus Antichristus. hic e sset cum i sto

s upprimerentur.

tamquam s it Deus,

H eu dolor!

ipsius audientes, et

f orma vile,

postquam dissectum e st,

5 8

i lle Anti-

nunc

i n t emplo

Dixitque ad

s uos

i pse

s uperbus

Tunc milites,

a bripiunt,

Mox ergo metallum,

tiosum.

0 S i

imaginem i psius

nam i ta

absorbere vellet."

confestim ascendunt,

punt atque obtruncant.

c lavis affixi

eumque deorsum mittite:

quod utinam j amdudum f actum f uisset: s i Deus nos

Rur-

Nam

Machumeth quomodo apud

s edere conspicitur!"

" Ascendite ergo c ito,

Non.

ambo vere pedibus

Qui vernaculus e st barathri,

a c

s ibi vult

Ergo non e st hic Christus ,

dominari videtur:

videtur,

" Proh pudor,

quid

pedes e jus

l ances perfossum.

nunc in Templo Domini per

circumstantes:

s tans

ut v ix

sublimi? quid

e st?

i nferos torquetur, Dei,

i ngressus,

fusile,

i ntuens: s tat i n

f igura Christi

s uspensus

sed e st pravus Machumeth, christus,

i lium d iri-

i lle

ipse Machumeth omnibus his r edimitus.

Christus quum i n l igno sunt,

i nterim

vix e tiam decem ad l evandum

s ibi vult haec effigies? quid gemma, ostrum?"

a lius ad

itaque t emplo,

Quod curiosus Tancredus

s ibi vult praesens

a lia

s e t ota agilitate

quod videlicet tanti ponderis erat,

sursum sufficerent. i nquit,

Patefacto

s imulacrum argenteum Machumeth,

in excelso throno,

8 ;

r eminiscens

i n T emplo Domini, i lluc

ipso quoquo modo morante,

piendum eum praeveniret.

ut quasi

Tunc Tancredus,

Sarracenorum r econditum e sse i llis qui

verse

3 61.

" Hoc quidem templuM tam amplum per c ircuitum erat, urbs

I ,

gpiques des

t rahunt,

s tare

j ussum dirum-

quod e rat carum materia

d e vili

f actum e st pre-

( "This

t emple's

l ooked

l ike another

c ircumference was,

t he entire t reasure o f T emple,

the

s elves up t herein, b eing

l aying hold o f

would

t he

t reasure. in,

j ewels,

" For

a s

shame,

this

gold,

o f Christ? No.

wood,

within t his

in t he

w ere God,

O h,

e ffigy!

he may be tormented

i mage

Lord's

the same being

Tancred,

c ontemplating s tatue

t hese

It was manifestly Muhammad w ho a gain:

" Could t his

be the

when he was hung up on t he

t hat

Alas, The

Because he

in

1 4.

Ibid,;

Raoul o f

1 5.

Petri Tudebodi

1 6.

I bid.

C aen,

c ourt

a byss,

f or

the

vol.X,

fasc.

"Raoul de Caen,

d 'Histoire e ccl siastique,

5 -13;

L .

" Die

Historisches Jahrbuch C aen,

once broken up,

1 9.

Raoul

2 0.

Raoul of Caen,

2 1.

Histoire anonyme.

a s

tear

to

costly in b ecame

i mitatus,

f irst t ime

secolo XII,"

R evue

B oehm,

d rag,

t he metal,

2 22.

i n the Holy Land R .

Manselli,

7 -10

( Roma,

G esta Tancredi 6 03.

5 9

storiche

1 955 ),

(Leipzig ,

e

4 -5. 1 881),

historien e t jcrivain,"

4 6

( 1951),

' Gesta Tancredi ' ( Munich,

"Raoul

A ccademia Nazionale dei

Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzugs

Glasener,

insolently, s oldiers,

della C lasse di S cienze morali,

s er.VIII,

von Sybel,

in his i f he

Tancred addressed

snatch,

Tudebodi

a s

t hrow him d own:

l ooks so

n ot b efore 1105-1107.

cultura del

R endiconti

f ilologiche,

of

t riumphant

2 22.

t hat Raoul appears

di Caen n ella

Petri

c ome were

p .695.

i mitatus,

a t t he Bohemund's

Presently,

i ts shape,

a fter being v ile.")

H .

t he

Thereupon t he

d id instantly go up,

substance and vile

Lincei,

n ative of

s wallow us."

t o

Muhammad in whatever

a ppears here

" Go up with s peed,

and b ehead the effigy.

s eems

i s

f eet would I i mmediately

what pain!

i t were already done!

precious

5 4-57;

not Christ but perverse Muhammad,

if Antichrist who

is s een s itting in the T emple o f God."

o beying his o rders,

H .

thrown open

t he molten s ilvern

e ffigy? wherefore

Christ,

in h ell,

T emple.

t his G od wished t o

p ieces

1 8.

l est

what d oes mean this

With both m l ;

t hose who s tood around him:

I t

s aw

l ift i t.

H e spoke

Therefore it was

and quickly destroy h im.

1 7.

speed,

his f eet were f ixed with nails and his f lank was t ransfixed a l ance.

here,

i ts

a ll

L ord's

s hut t hem-

t he t emple being h e

quoth he,

Because

t he pristine Antichrist.

i f

t hose who

hardly six among the strongest men

t his purple?" these.

r ecalling that

s hould f orestall him in

on high? what does mean t his

decked w ith a ll

e ffigy

o h,

Thus, behold,

suffice to move and t en to

s tanding

way

time being

someone else

such weight

i t attentively:

with

t he

Then,

was hoarded i n t he

o f M uhammad standing on a l ofty t hrone,

manifestly o f

was

so e xtended that it

- Tancred went thither with

t oo slow,

and Tancred having gone e ffigy

S aracens

- l eaving a side for

h imself

indeed,

c ity within Jerusalem.

1 956),

5 -21;

R .

Manselli,

der Radulf von Caen," 4 9-51.

Praefatio,

6 03-604.

2 2. 2 3.

R .

Manselli,

E .

Renan,

1 877),

6 -11.

1 71

ff.;

1 10-112;

P igeonneau,

H .

1 883),

7 2

f f.;

Paris,

La

l itterature

H .

Prutz,

B eitrag

H .

Prutz,

" Uber

zur

de

des

L e

Cycle de

l a croisade ( St.Cloud ,

Kulturgeschichte der K reuzzüge

Castries,

1 4

fran aise

Gautier

Geschichte der

f f.;

R .

Basset,

au Moyen Age

von Compi gne

3 91

( Paris,

4 9;

Otia de Mahomete.

E in

der Wissenschaften zu München,

The

W estern belief

its

reflection

t he

Chronicon of

twelfth

ed.

8 53-854;

CLXXXVI,

material

cap.

2 580

2 55

Manselli,

ff.;

3 490

epics.

ff.;

the

quamvis

idolo

i n quod e tiam nullum Chartres,

"Tancredus

1 866),

suas

l ege

t o

the

count de

to

i do ls of

Castries.

cuncta vel tunc

I herosolymitana,

quam a libi

f acto eas

vastarent,

cap.

XXVI,

RHC:

Fulcher H ist.

f estino

cursu ingressus,

l apidesque pretiosos arripuit.

Sed hoc

e is

r emisit,

deicum

O cc.,

3 57.

appretiata a geretur,

t riae superstitioso ritu ingredi

cuncti Saraceni

l ibentius

Christianum permittebant."

autem Templum dominicum

et argenti,

s ua

in nomine Mahumet

ingredi

H istoria

( Paris,

i d

3 661 f f.)

collection of

8 .

faciebant,

in

3 12),

( LXVIII,

3 4.

ubi precationes

eo n ihil

CCLXV,

t he references

made b y

1838),

de Roland

A r ich

c entury,

in Histoire de

( Paris,

"Hoc Templum dominicum in veneratione magna

eadem

thirteenth

1 249,

Chanson

CCLII,

epics was

habuerant,

auri

such a s

in t he

f f.

2 6.

t .III

l iterature

c o1.101)

in the

vol.I V

f rom the

concerning particularly

Monneret de Villard,

of

Akademie

f f.;

o f Muhammad f inds

CLIV,

XXXIX,XLV,LX )

epic,

2 5.

2 8.

( PL,

et Mennechet,

Muhammad in Crusader

2 7.

o f idols

and encyclopedic

and post-Crusader

H .de Castries,

K .B.

7 3

2 20.

( Chronique de Saint-Denis,

P .Paris

Crusader

1904),

and in the Speculum H istoriale of Vincent de

and in the medieval t he

( Munich,

existence

Hugh of Flavigny

( Lib.XXIII,

in c hronicles France,

in the

1 903

Zaborov,

in theological

century

B eauvais

3 2-35;

z ur

S itzungsberichte der philoso-

phisch-philologischen und der historischen Klasse der

2 4.

G .

1 888),

Mohammedfabeln im M ittelalter und

Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzzüge,"

Monneret de Villard,

( Berlin,

f f.;

l oco sacrosanto quum Sarraceni

exercerunt,

s inebant."

Fulcher

q ui

l egem

multum

r estaurans, l icet

i n

suam idola-

e tiam Christianum nullum

of Chartres,

c ap.

XXVIII,

359-

3 60. 2 9.

Robert

the Monk,

( Paris, 3 0.

C f.

3 1.

Robert

3 2.

H .

Historia

Iherosolimitana,

RHC:

Hist.

O cc.,

t .III

1 866). Glasener; R . Manselli; the

" Quociens ponentes of Vitry,

Monk, autem

L .

Boehm.

8 78.

s anctam civitatem possident,

in templo, Historia

nullum

ymaginem Machometi

christianum permittunt

Hierosolymitana,

1 896).

6 0

c ap.LXIII,

intrare."

PPTS,

X I-2

James

( London,

3 3.

Philippus Savonensis, s chrift

3 4.

3 5.

f ür

ed.

M . A.

Petrus

d e Pennis,

Libellus de

l atin,

IX

3 55.

C f.

Neumann,

Katholische Theologie,

( 1902),

cod.lat.

1 4731 o f

the

X I

O esterreichische Z eit-

( Wien,

1 872),

l ocis ultramarinis,

4 7.

Revue de

Bayerische Staatsbibliothek

l 'Orient

i n München,

f ol.89. 36.

3 7.

"Regiam quae vulgari

appellatione Templum Salomonis

W illiam o f

T yre,

Historia rerum

RHC:

O cc.,

t .I

Hist.

Z .

Vilnay,

E .

Kirschbaum,

The

H oly

( Paris,

before the

c hronicles

of

t he

p .204-205. S ee

R ichard C .

n ote

imitatüs

R ichard

( Paris,

l e P Lerin, 1 976),

Chanson d ' Aspremont,

1 878),

L e

l ivre Voisin

ed.

1 877),

de Baudoyn,

L .

de Douai, 1 ,235

Brandin,

4 5.

Chanson d 'Aspremont,

Conquete 4 6;

4 7.

I n

S .

p .108;

( Paris,

ed.

C .P.

( Valenciennes,

1 919).

S errure and

1 841).

Chanson d ' Antioche,

Li Bastars

L XXX,

d e J erusalem,

2 086;

de Bouillon,

CLXXXVIII,

5 565-5568,

Le Cycle d e

5 580;

4 8.

Robert

4 9.

Conquö 'te de J erusalem,

cap.V;

ed.

A .

Conque `te

Scheler

5 316 f f.

Chanson d ' Antioche,

l a c roisade

( Paris,

Baudouin o f Sebourg, de C astries,

Baudouin o f Flandre, the Monk,

Duparc-Quioc

f f.

2 35;

Duparc-Quioc,

the Roman o f

Poem of

p .255

1 877),

S .

1 836).

H .

( Bruxelles,

vol.I

comte de Flandre,

4 4.

I ,

ed.

f f.

Li romans de Bauduin d e S ebourc

de Jgrusalem,

La Conquete de Jerusalem,

f f.

a u Cygne e t de Godefroid de Bouillon,

2 204

( Bruxelles,

de C astries,

Histoire t he action of

6 31-632.

La Chanson du Chevalier

A .

C f.

also places

La Chanson d ' Antioche,

cap. V,

( Paris,

T he

above.

l e Pelerin e t Graindor H ippeau

1 73.

I V

Jerusalem

t he Muhammad idol by Tancred in t he T emplum 1 3

4 3.

4 6.

1 977),

t he Rock and a l-Aksa mosque.

vol.II 4 2.

( Warminster,

1 6;

Bd .

coL (?)258; Wilkinson,

Tudebodus'

( Paris,

4 1.

Crusades

( 1965),

I konographie,

between t he Dome of

ed.

4 0.

a nd Maps

Christlichen 1 972) ,

3 .

F irst C rusade d o n ot a lways make t he d istinction

the destruction of

3 9.

V III,

d icitur."

t ransmarinis gestarum,

anonyme, Domini. 3 8.

1 844),

Land in Old Prints

L exikon der

( Rome-Freiburg-Basel-Wien, P ilgrims

in partibus

Duparc-Quioc,

2 70;

in the

2 55.

8 78. 6 462-6465;

6 1

Chanson d ' Antioche,

v .II,

1 955),59-60.

V .

5 0.

5 1.

C f. Tertullian,

D e

De

St.

Tractatus,

Z enon,

C ivitate D ei,

V incent and Abel,

The

I ,

PL,

XI,

co1.765;

PL,

XLI,

PEQ

( July-Dec.

v .I

( Oxford,

Early Muslim

1 969 2 ) ,

in Jerusalem during

1 976),

S t.

co1.184;

co1.296.

Jgrusalem ,II, 1 6-18; K .A .C . creswell,

" Christian P ilgrims

Wilkinson,

PL.

cap.VII,

t r.IV,

J .

7 7-78;

3 0-31;

the Byz-

W ilkinson,

Jerusalem

p .173.

Bordeaux P ilgrim,

Eusebius Caesarensis, VIII,

5 4.

l ib.I,

Umayyads A .D.622-750,

antine Period,"

5 3.

cap.XVIII, l ib. VI,

Architecture,

P ilgrims, 5 2.

i dolatria,

Augustine,

PPTS,

I ,

B ,

p .20.

Demonstratio E vangelica

( Paris,

1 628),

3 .

Ammianus Marcellinus,

H ist.,

t .IV,

( Paris,

1 977),

l ib.

XXIII,

I ,

7 8-79. 5 5.

Commentarium in Mattheum, Christianorum,

Series

5 6.

Commentarium

5 7.

Vincent and Abel, of the Lord

in I saiam,

Vincent and Abel,

5 9.

The Bordeaux

6 0.

Wilkinson,

6 1.

Creswell,

6 2.

Cited by G .

1 5,

c .2,

v .9;

I I,

1 975),

Jgrusalem,

in S t.Jerome,

vol.77

Opera,

C orpus

( 1969). Ibid.,

1 6-18;

B .

v ol.73 Mazar,

( 1963). The Mountain

2 37. I I,

1 5;

B .

Mazar,

2 34-235.

P ilgrim.

Jerusalem P ilgrims,

p .173.

p .31. L e

1 890),

1 8-20.

6 3.

I bid.,

2 3-27.

64.

Ibid.,

9 -11;

6 5.

G .

6 6.

C h.

S trange,

Creswell,

L e Strange,

1 2;

1 873-74,

Palestine under

I

t he Moslems

( London,

2 9-35.

Creswell,

C lermont-Ganneau,

t he y ears

I ,

Jgrusalem,

( New York,

5 8.

XXIV,

l atina,

3 73-380.

Archaeological Research ( London,

1 899),

i n Palestine d uring

2 59.

6 7.

I bid.,

2 60.

6 8.

Vincent a nd Abel,

6 9.

Mazar,

7 0.

" Tito Ael Hadriano Antonino Aug P io P P Pontif Augur

Je-rusalem,

I I,

3 7-38,

2 34 ff.

i bid.

6 2

D D,"

Mazar,

7 1.

E .

Otto,

Jerusalem.

D ie

G eschichte d er Heiligen Stadt

gart-Berlin-Köln-Mainz, 7 2. 7 3.

Mazar, A . B.

1 980),

( Stutt-

1 72.

2 37.

Cook,

Z eus.

A Study in Ancient

R eligion

( Cambridge,

1 914),

vol.II. 7 4.

Among

t he antique

statues mentioned b y medieval w riters

a cross quite o ften references l atten .

The

f amous

destroyed in t he Basset,

3 94,

4 01.

N ear

Cadiz,

c entury,

S everal

Middle Ages in t he w riters

idol o f

t welfth

to statues in bronze, t he antique was made o f

antique

Silver

Raoul

i s

a s

s tatues which

also n ot t o be e xcluded,

for

g e r ne

We have , by t he silver

C hrist,

another

in Jerusalem a t s ize,

t he Holy S epulchre.

Cf.

t he weight o f

8 ;

c entury

Boase,

o r

of

the Achilles Dish

in diameter. a l-Qazuni, fell

7 6.

does n ot

Cf.,

for

( Paris,

7 8.

Raoul o f Cf.

O .

8 0.

1 879),

3 32;

3 59,

Caen,

Waldgauer,

Jovi

the

X CV;

Petri

Die

( Paris,

cf.

a statue

( St.

Peters-

Crusades , I V,

( Mainz,

5 0,

-

Römisch-

4 .645 Kg,

Dozy,

5 3

Yaqut

i n Cadiz,

c entury,

1 76,

RHC:

cm and

which

weighed

R echerches

3 s ur

l e Moyen Age,

interior

Albertus

Occ.,

Historia,

t .IV 2 61;

Fulcher

6 94.

i mitatus,

c ited by L e

2 04;

H ist.

o f

2 22.

a l-Aksa mosque b y Nazir,

Strange,

2 6.

antiken Skulpturen der Ermitage,

in J .

Maurice,

1 98,

I ( Berlin-

Numismatique C onstantinienne,

pl.VIII,

6 3

7 .

7 6.

7 4 c m in d iameter;

4 ff.

1 912),

in

c upola of

4 01.

de Aguilers,

Tudebodi

t he

of

i gumena Daniila,

v .II

l 'Espagne pendant

Basset,

Raoul of Caen,

in 1 047,

1 928),

s tatue

e leventh

convincing;

R aimundi

3 63;

6 95;

Conservatori,

vol.III

Hercules' o f

Histoire Anonyme,

the description of

L eipzig,

Römermuseum)

Historia Hierosolymitana,

who visited i t 7 9.

n aroda,

Roman pounds,

l itterature de 1 881 ),

example,

of Chartres, 7 7.

- 5 0

o f

s eem very

l a

( Leyden,

Aquensis,

Khojdenie

" Ecclesiastical A rt,"

( Augst,

t hat t he c lub

l ' histoire et vol.II

- t hat o f

T he a ssertion of Arab medieval w riters,

d own a t the beginning

pounds,

Greek and Lipinsky,

a s placed on t he

t he M issorium o f Theodosius

Germanisches Z entralmuseum )

A .

9 2.

this t ime

Skazaniia russkogo

book

S trong, 5 -6;

mentioned by t he abbot Daniel

t he

1 849),

3 96-

into

indication of t he e xistence

t he twelfth

ed.,

D .E.

1 966 ),

1 975),

th p beginning o f

bourg, 7 5.

way,

statue

ciborium o f

Basset,

T ecnologia d elle arti d alle origini

( Firenze,

e xceeding human

i n Sakharov,

i n the

especially i f one t akes

( London,

e smalti.

alla f ine del Medioevo

a huge

s urvived

intense a ctivity o f silver m ines of t he N ear

Roman Gold and Silver Plates

of

H ercules,

l atten.

t he statue d escribed by

East in antiquity a nd early M iddle Ages. a rgento,

comes

o r

E ast and were described by Arab medieval

a possible material

consideration the

O ro,

s tatue o f g ilded

seem t o have been made o f bronze or b rass.

3 99.

one

b rass

8 1.

Cook,

8 2.

A .

8 3. 8 4.

Z eus,

A lföldi,

f ig.699.

" Insignien und T racht der römischen Kaiser," M ittei-

l ungen des

D eutschen Archaeologisches I nstituts,

Abteilung,

50

Raoul

( Rome,

o f Caen,

In t he

1 935),

Römische

f f.

1

695.

Hermitage statue the purple of t he mantle was made of red

marble.

8 5.

vol.II,

One has

t o remember

also t he wide use of gilding

" statua inaurata,"

Catullus,

t ique and medieval

s culpture.

Contrary

C arminae,

t o general opinion,

8 1)

( cf.

and c olouring of an-

t he d isapproval

of human represen-

tations in I slam h as n ever been a c ategorical prohibition by On t he question o f

i mages

in

I slamic a rt:

de

l 'Islam primitif

en face

I I

( 1915),

C . Margais,

2 39

musulman,"

I conoclasm," sium o f

f f.;

Byzantion,

( Birmingham, The s tatues

1 977),

p .161 . ff .;0.

Papers

S tudies,

f igures,"

d ecree of Jazid

given a t . t he Ninth

L 'iconoclasm byzantin.

to be

a s uspicious

O .

The

n otion o f purple a s

or

imperial

col.

Basset;

8 8.

Anonyme d e

Raban Maur,

9 0.

1 965 ); C .

La

d ite A .

( Paris,

Grabar,

1 957),

2 43-244;

a l-Qazuni,

a s

one o f

t he

is present

1 06.

I ,

col.

Universo,

1 374;

t he d ivine

Cassiodor,

Etymologiae,

PL,

CXI,

i mperial

in medieval

PL,

LXXXII,

c o1.579.

3 3. r ois d e Tol de

( Paris,

1 865 );

( Montpellier,

de Turpin

Hamel,

Turpin,

Historia

1880), cap.IV,

( Lund,

1881),

d e

Der P seudo-Turpin von Compostela

( Geneve,

by Ed-Dimichqi,

Vat . Reg.

1 976). Cosmographie

Yaqut, • Mo ld jem e l-boldän,t.IV Adjgib

8 -9;

4 6-47;

t raduction d u P seudo-Turpin d u ms.

Buridant

I n particular, 3 70;

9 1.

3 02-305;

( Munich,

1 886),

Pub-

and by A .

Chronique r im e d es derniers

P seudo-Turpino

6 24,

ed.

f f.

2 4-25.

La c hronique

Castries,

PL,

St . I sidore,

De

Karoli Magni e t Rotholandi Wulff,

1 975

document absent s eriously.

the n ecessary a ttributes of

co1.505;

C ordoue,

De

2 3

Roman Empire,

T ertullian,

LXIX,

1 885),

Paris,

( 1956 ),

" purpure r egum," t he

Monneret de Villard,

( Paris, G .

t o

one of

i mage.

6 95-696;

8 7.

8 9.

a s

PL,

March

4 6.

going back

Variarum,

I X-X

Dossier archeologique

C f.

c onsciousness

Spring Sympo-

in the e ighth c entury,commanding t he

seems

l ished by A . Vasiliev in DOP,

i nsignia,

l 'art

" Islam a nd

University o f Birmingham,

f rom e arly Muslim sources and n ot t o be t aken

8 6.

i mages d ans

Grabar,

4 5 ff.

to be broken,

Grabar,

l aw.

" L'attitude

Journal a siatique,

" La question des

7 ( 1932 ),

I conoclasm.

Byzantine

des a rts

Lammens,

e l Makhlouqät

( St.-Petersbourg, ( Leipzig,

( Göttingen,

1 870),

1 849),

3 70.

The s tatue was destroyed i n 1 145-1146 by t he Arab admiral Ali b en c isa , who hoped to d iscover in i t a t reasure, but he r eceived only which

1 2

t housand d inars

i t was made.

Dozy,

for

t he p ieces of gilden l atten out of

XCI;

6 4

B asset,

4 01.

9 2.

Basset,

3 96;

9 3.

Basset,

3 93.

94.

About

Monneret

t he popular medieval

Po sies populaires R .

Schroeder,

tung XIII

( Torino,

1 886),

1 889),

Journal

e t

a rts l a

ch.XII

d e

italiana,

XIV

H .

" Uber

Prutz,

1 99-281;

s er.

der

I I,

E .

Wadstein,

1 25;

V .

l ique,

Die

( Paris,

1 903),

81; 9 6. 9 7.

A .

Alphandery, d ' Ancona,

9 8.

col.

Z iolecki Castries; 9 9.

Dante,

d e

( Paris,

Castries,

Douttg, s cience

" Spigolature l etteratura

2 55-315;

Otia de Mahomete";

l e Moyen Age

1 909),

L atin,"

in

2 61-277.

I deehgruppe

( Leipzig,

1 896),

in Dictionnaire d e T heologie c atho1 363-1365;

H .

P reuss,

Die Vorstel-

( Leipzig,

1 906),

o f

( Oppeln, Prutz;

V II.

Cf.

Carmen d e

A .

A . d' Ancona,

XXVIII,

1 01.

Jacob o f Voragine,

2 14-216.

f raudibus Mahumetis, ed.

d ' Ancona,

Alphandgry,

A .

Ecclesiastical

F .

M ichel

PL ,

CLXXI,

( Paris,

1 831);

Roman d e Mahomet d i Alexandre dou Ponts,

1 887);

1 00.

T heophanes,

t he L ibrarian and De Administrando Imperii

L e Roman d e Mahomet,

Schroeder;

d ' Ancona,

E .

f f.

Lavardin,

Inferno,

a rticle of

Graf,

2 04 ff.;

t o t he C hronographia

1 345-1366;

Dumgril;

A .

S torico della

col.

by Constantine,

Hildebert o f

I ( 1889);

G iornale

i m späteren Mittelalter

History by Anastasius ( cap.XIV)

t he

4 25-428;

2 76.

2 04

I n particular,

l etteratura i taliana,

l a Socigt4 d ' agriculture,

e schatologische

l ungen vom Antichrist

3 67-405;

review o f

Gautier von Compiegne

"Antgchrist,"

Dumgril,

" La l eggenda di

juillet),

"Mahomet-Antichrist dans

Ermoni, t .I

R enan,

E .

1 847),

a ltfranzösische D ich-

d ' Ancona,

vol.

1 890),

Mglanges Hartwig D erenbourg 9 5.

in d er

( 1889,

d i Maometto,"

( Torino,

P .Alphandgry,

E .

s ee:

( Paris,

S torico della

Mgmoires de

l a Marne,

l eggenda

; A .

G iornale

d es savants

" Mahomet Cardinal,"

on Muhammad

du Moyen Age

und Aberglaube

i n Occidente ,"

d ' Ancona,

3 3.

l egends

l atines

Glaube

( Erlangen,

Maometto

per

d e Villard,

p .203,

2 66-271,

2 19ff.,

2 45ffj

ed.

Douttg;

d e

2 77.

v .35.

2 28

f f.;

Alphandgry,

L egenda Aurea,

cap.

p .265.

1 81

( Dresden,

1 890),

8 27-

8 31. 1 02.

Peter

t he Venerable, CLXXXIX,

PL,

I d.,

Epistola d e t ranslatione

c ol.

i n l atinum s ectam..., quaedam brevis 1 03.

Adversus

duo,

Alain o f col.

3 07,

L ille, f f.

Mahometanos,

6 59 PL,

nefandam sectam saracenorum l ibri

f f.

See,

CLXXXIX,

contra haereses, De See

f ide

co1.649-651;

PL,

co1.669,

CLXXXIX,

Id.,

col.

f f.

6 5

l ib.IV,

6 78;

e x a rabico

Summula

6 51-658.

catholica c ontra haereticos,

i n particular,

co1.421

in particular,

s ua qua f ecit t ransferri

PL,

Contra paganos

CCX, seu

1 04.

In the

h istorical prophecies

presented a s

one of

s even kingdoms d elle M . 1 05.

f igure

R eeves,

preceding

that

B .

Hirsch-Reich,

B eauvais,

Bellovacensis,

vol.IV

Dobbert,

of

" Der

2 vol.

1 624,

rpr.

Triumph des Todes

f dr Kunstwissenschaft, della Morte

1 960);

ed

and others, O ffner,

A Critical

sec.IV,

vol.I

Dodge,

c esco Traini 1 07.

PL,

CXXI,

1 08.

PL,

CCXVI,

Tradition,

f f.;

co1.818;

I Ep., D ei,

Libellus

de Antichristo, CXX,

Commentaria in

St . Bruno, Lombard, 5 01;

2 :18;

Expositio Vita et

qui

e st

PL,

S eville

Meiss,

in T recento

Attributed to Fran-

D iss.

PL,

XLI,

( Baltimore,

XXXIV,

co1.1999;

co1.686-687;

co1.1291-1295; PL,

l ibrum Judicum e t in L eviticum,

Decretum, idols,

gentium"

1 978).

PL,

delle

co1.281;

PL,

CLXIV,

CVIII,

co1.438

PL,

C XCI,

f igure,

De

Adson,

Paschasius

CXXV,

Ruth,

Antichristi,

XII,

cap. 19,

and of

Raban co1.1171;

f f.;

Peter

c o1.139-148;

pl.XIV.

Raban Maur,

PL,

CLXI,

same

encyclopedias

I sidore,

De

Etymologiae,

Universo,

co1.785.

St . Cf.

t he Beast together with

" simulacra ,"etc., in t he

in t he medieval

and Raban Maur.

3 14-315;

PL,

I l Libro

M .

( New York,

c ontrarius verbo Christi Antichristus est."

the pagan gods, d iis

of Florentine

4 4-52;

t he Black D eath

Hincmar,

collocation of Antichrist

" De

P . ( Pisa,

2 63-264.

CI,

c o1.798;

descriptio

Ivo of Chartres, t he

c ap.19,

Corpus

Supino,

2 61-262.

St . Augustine,

Joachim of F iore,

"Omnis

B .

Camposanto

2 1-40;

1 962),

and SinoPies

A lphandery,

lib.20,

I . nel

Innovation and Technique

Alphandery,

S t.John,

PL,

after

ed.

z u P isa,"

1 -45;

7 ( 1894),

t he Camposanto in P isa,

Civitate

Maur,

4 ( 1881),

In t he

Speculum

912.

S anto

and Historical

the Frescoes

co1.513

Radbertus,

1 10.

in

s ive

1 965),

( Berlin-New York,

Painting in Florence and S iena B .K.

lib. XXIII.

Camposanto monumentale di Pisa

R .

1 964);

Tondelli,

pl.XIV.

i i Giudizio Universale

Paintin9,

Mural Paintings:

L .

1 953),

in Campo

Archivio Storico dell' arte,

Sanpaolesi

1 09.

Graz,

" Il

di Pisa,"

( Turin,

Il Libro

ed.

Speculum Quadruplex

R epertorium Trionfo

da F iore,

Speculum Historiale,

( Douai,

Muhammad i s

of the dragon symbolizing

the Antichrist.

dell'abbate G ioachino

V incent o f

E .

of Joachim of Fiore,

s even heads

Vincentius Majus, 1 06.

t he

l ib.XV,

o f PL,

cap. VI,

c hapter I sidore of LXXXII,

PL,

CXI,

col. col.

4 26-427. 1 11.

Cf.:

" 0 s i

ambos

hujus socius nunc

1 12.

I bid.,

1 13.

II Thes5.,

1 14.

St . Cyrille,

Catecheses,

D e

cap. CXXVIII,

Dei,

C ivitate

l ymis

afforet

i lle

pes supprimat Antichristoa" R aoul

Caen,

cap.CXXIX,

6 95.

6 95.

2 :4.

reparare,

t entabit."

f uturus/Jam meum hic

of

PL,

XV,

XLI,

1 5,

e t omnes veteris

Raban Maur,

D e

PG,

co1.685.

l egis

Universo,

cal. 4 27.

6 6

X XXIII, C f.:

co1.889;

St . Augustine,

" Nam et templum Jerosoc aeremonias

l ib. XV,

cap. VI,

r estaurare PL,

CXI,

1 15.

Exodus,

2 0:23.

1 16.

J eremiah,

1 17.

Dan" 1 1:8.

1 18.

R ev" 9 :20.

1 19.

Tertullian,

8 :16.

D e

cap.XII-XIII, VI,

XXV,

PL,

co1.226ff;

i dolatria, PL,

V ,

I ,

co1.767;

Cassiodor,

St.

Augustine,

St.

Z eno, Tractatus,

cap.XVIII,

c o1.397;

Lactantius,

Variarum, IV,

Liber contra Symmachum,

PL,

PL,

VI, X I,

LX,

1 20. 1 21.

H .

Glasener,

R .

Foreville,

R .

Manselli,

1 22.

..

cap. LII,

cap.XXXVI, 1 23.

6 45)

6 32;

6 20;

( cap. XVIII, Manselli, 1 24.

Augustin Fliche

The quotations cap.XIX,

cap.LII,

6 20;

6 45;

6 45;

cap.XXVI,

6 99),

the Tristia Manselli,

1 952), 6 19),

( cap.IX,

cap. LXVIII, ( 604;

cap. LXXI, 6 24;

R ufinus

c o1.528-529.

8 5-86;

cap.XV, 6 57,

L .

Boehm,52-56.

the Georgics 6 11;

6 58,

cap.XLII,

6 20;

the Ars amandi

etc.). 6 17;

etc.) 6 37;

( cap.XIX,

cap.XXVI,

6 24;

Manselli,

cap.XVIII,

1 3.

6 19;

and f rom the Odes

cap.LXIX,

6 56).

( cap. LXIX,

cap.XXVII,

1 26.

Cap.CLIV,

1 27.

Cap.XXXIII,

1 28.

Cap.CXII,

1 29.

"Materiam s uperabat opus."

1 30.

PL,

I ,

c o1.399.

1 31.

I bid.,

co1.344.

7 14;

Manselli,

6 30;

6 85;

1 19.

6 56)

( cap.XVIII, ( cap.XXXIX,

6 19; 6 35;

and the H eroides

cap.

( cap.CXXV,

6 25;

Cf.

6 33,

etc.

Manselli,

1 4.

Manselli,

Manselli,

cap.XXXVIII,

1 4.

1 4.

a lso the

Ovid,

Metamorphoses,

I I,

5 .

s imilar u se of tautological

ex-

i n the description of the destruction of enemies

the medieval

CXIX,

cap. LXV,

1 4.

Cap.XIX,

( XCIII,

XXI,

i n Etudes medigvales

f rom the Metamorphoses

6 92).

C IV,

c o1.184;

1 4.

6 54),

S ee note

XLI,

Aurelius Prudentius,

co1.981-998;

PL,

( Paris,

f rom the Epistles

cap.CXXXV,

pressions

PL,

VI,

co1.717;

Julius Firmicus Maternus,

X II,

( cap.XVIII,

1 25.

1 32.

LXIX,

1 3ff.

and the Aeneid

cap. LII,

The quotations 6 88;

PL,

XXXIX;

"L 'gcole de Caen au X I e s Acle e t l es origines

Raoul quotes the Bucolics 6 20;

I ,

cap. VII,

PL,

Apologetica, PL,

co1.296;

normandes de l ' Universitg d ' Oxford," offertes

c o1.765;

f alsa r eligione,

X III,

Historia e cclesiastica, 1 6ff;

I ,

Adversus gentes,

co1.116;

De Errore profanarum r eligionum, Aquileiensis,

D e

VII,

De Civitate Dei, I ,

PL,

Arnobius,

epic,

1 198-1203;

i n particular XCIV,

i n the Chanson de R oland

1 226-1228;

1 326-1336).

6 7

XCV,

1 246-1249;

i n

1 4.

1 33.

Book

of Maccabees,

the ms.

University L ibrary,

c od.

f rom St . Gall,

P erizoni,

Buchmalerei von Sankt Gallen 1 34.

1 35.

Gospel m s.

of

t he

ms.Bib1.94,

Bible o f

R oda,

A .

( Leipzig,

1 912),

pl.

f ig. 1 36.

L eiden,

Merton,

Die

LV.

e leventh c entury,

Bamberg,

f .154v.

Paris,

BN,

ms.lat.6,III,f.143v.

katalanische Bibelillustration um d ie Wende tausends

c entury,

f .17v.

s chool of Cologne,

L ibrary,

tenth

1 7,

und d ie a ltspanische Buchmalerei

W .

des

Neuss,

Die

e rsten Jahr-

( Bonn-Leipzig,

1 922) ,

1 30.

Beatus

of the K ing F erdinand,

Madrid,

BN,

ms. B. R.31

( Vit.14-2) ,

f .220v. 1 37.

T he

a rchivolts

Saintonge, 1 38.

T he History of

1 39. 1 40.

C f. A .

British d e

1 41.

Padua,

1 42.

Buchthal,

1 43.

1 526,

1 44.

See

La B ible moralis6e vol.III

1 45. 1 46.

It i s

a monstrous

vol.II,

p .XXVIII,

c entury

f i s.5211,

de

1 47.

PL, 1 48.

l egis

CLXXXIX,

t he

C enturies

f .339r.

XXXIV,

2 51ff.

Buchthal,

M ini-

C f.

t he portrait of d ' Arsenal.

f .II,

H .

Martin,

( Paris,

they a re

7 7,

l egends

8 2;

p1.128.

surrounding

t he subject matter of

( Paris,

i mage of

1 879),

" plebeia o pinio,"

G esta D ei per

f rancos,

RHC:

1 28ff.

Epistola;

R obert o f Chester,

s aracenorum quam Alcoran vocant, co1.657

t he

s eriously by t he most cultivated c on-

Praefatio

a s e

in

t ranslatio,

f f.

Some monuments of imaginary The Gothic.

IV,

3 15-317.

Peter the Venerable, l ibro

XXXIII,

l a B ibliotheque d ' Arsenal

a ccording t o Guibert of Nogent, IV

XXXII,

C rusades,

in t he B ibliotheque

s ignificant t hat

O cc.,

h Oxford,

British L ibrary,

f ish with human head in ms.1163,

Miniature Painting,

t emporaries;

c onserv e

p1.447.

ms.14.

d ' Arsenal,

Muhammad were not taken

Hist.

1 913),

2 3-24 of the present a rticle.

twelfth

Buchthal,

i llustr e

P1.80.

Catalogue des manuscrits n . d.),

( Paris,

f .184v.

f .4v.

Bibliotheque

notes t he

ms. Add.38115,

" Painting and Sculpture,"

Muhammad a s of

Castro and Castrense o n the West wall

M iniature Painting,

a ture Painting,

c hurch of Aulnay in

c athedral.

Biblioteca Capitolare,

Folda,

Paris,

t he saints

L ibrary,

Laborde,

f a ade of the

1 130.

et Londres,

m s.Harley

6 5;

o f

t he Monreale

Paris

of t he West

after

s culpture

a re

d escribed b y P .

L iterary Sources and Interpretations

( Princeton,

1 960),

" Architekturphantasien

i n d er

6 8

1 59-204.

See

a lso:

F rankl,

t hrough E ight J .

T rier,

mittelalterlichen Dichtung,"

Germanisch-Romanische Monatsheft, H .

L ichtenberg,

deutschen Dichtung 1 49. 1 50.

Raoul of Caen, Of s pecial of Caen,

XVII

( Heidelberg,

( Münster

cap. LXXVII,

i nterest

i s

which may be

i .W.,

1 931).

6 61.

the mention of English artists by Raoul explained not only by his belonging to t he

anglo-norman cultural circle.

We have

important evidence of t he

presence of s everal cultivated Englishmen the beginning of the twelfth c entury Holy Sepulchre artists

i n the

1 120's,

i n the Holy Land.

A .

the prior of the

e .g.)

a nd of the work of English

Borg,

" Observations on the histoJ erusalem,"

the Warburg and Courtauld I nstitutes, " Ecclesiastical Art,"

i n the Holy Land a t

( William,

r iated l intel of the Holy S epulchre, Boase,

1 929);

Die Architekturdarstellungen i n der mittelhoch-

1 28;

XXXII

Folda,

Journal of

( 1969),

p .

3 5-38;

" Painting and S culpture,"

2 52-254. 1 51.

Raoul of Caen,

1 52.

C .

Dodwell,

cap. LXXVII,

I ntroduction,

( London-New York, 1 53.

Theophilus,

1 54.

A .

Esch,

1 961),

6 61. i n Theophilus,

4 .

" Spolien.

Z um Wiederverwendung antiker Baustücke und

S kulpturen im mittelalterlichen geschichte, Panofsky,

De D iversis Artibus

XVIII -XXXIII.

5 1

( 1969 ),

1 55.

E .

1 56.

Guibert of Nogent,

H .I,

I talien,"

Archiv f ür Kultur-

p . 1 ff.

R enaissance and R enascences Autobiographie,

ed.

( Stockholm,

E .R .

Labande

1 960), ( Paris,

7 2. 1 981),

2 10-211. 1 57.

P .

Abrahams,

L es oeuvres pogtiques d e Baudri de Bourgueil

( Paris,

1 926). 1 58.

I bid.

1 59.

J .

S trzygowski,

Spätantike und

Orient oder R om.

Beiträge

f rühchristlichen Kunst

Archeologitcheskoie puteschestvie po S irii Petersbourg,

1 904),

p .

Coüasnon,

3 6ff.;

Jerusalem Art," 1 60.

C .

( London,

8 0ff.;

Enlart,

Folda,

Croisgs,

I ,

2 08ff.;

Enlart,

zur G eschichte der

( Leipzig,

1 901),127ff.;N.Kondakov,

i Palestine

Croisgs,

I ( Paris,

The Church of the Holy S epulchre

1 974),

p .

6 0ff.;

Boase,

6 9

i n

" Ecclesiastical

" Painting and S culpture," p . 2 2ff.

( St. 1 925),

2 8Off.

3 . DIE FASSADE DER GRABESKIRCHE Z U JERUSALEM Helmut Buschhausen Alisa Vladimirovna Bank Die Grabeskirche der Menschheit.

S ie

zum 7 5.

Geburtstag

zu Jerusalem 1

i st e ines der ehrwürdigsten Bauwerke

i st e ines der s prechendsten Z eugnisse

f ür die

ununterbrochene T radition vom Grab Christi an dieser Stelle.

Matth.27,

5 7-60: Als es abend geworden war, namens Joseph,

kam ein r eicher Mann aus Arimatäa,

der auch e in Jünger J esu g eworden war.

g ing zu Pilatus und bat um den L eichnam Jesu. P ilatus, hüllte Grab,

i hn auszuliefern.

D ieser

Da befahl

Und Joseph nahm den L eichnam,

ihn i n eine Leinwand e in und l egte

ihn i n

das e r in den Felsen hatte hauen lassen.

s ein n eues Dann wälzte

e r einen Stein vor den Eingang des Grabes und ging weg. Mark. 1 5,46: Er l egte

i hn i n e in i n den Felsen gehauenes Grab.

( Siehe

auch Luk.23,50-53). Der ort war Golgotha,

Joh.19,41:

Es war aber an dem Ort,

wo er g ekreuzigt war,

und i n dem Garten ein neues Grab,

e in Garten

i n dem noch niemand

bestattet worden war. Nach der Zerstörung Jerusalems

7 2

durch Titus hatte Hadrian die

nun Aelia Capitolina genannte Stadt wieder aufgebaut und auf Golgotha e inen Tempel der Venus auf e inem Tempelplatz errichten lassen,

j edoch

blieb das Wissen um das Grab Christi an dieser Stätte e rhalten. dem.

I .ökumenischen Konzil

von Jerusalem t eilnahm,

zu Nikaia,

Auf

an dem auch Bischof Makarios

wurden die Freilegung des Grabes und der Bau

einer Kirche beschlossen, von Helena,

3 25

deren Grundsteinlegung anlässlich des Besuches

der Mutter Konstantins,

im Heiligen Land und der wunder-

baren Auffindung der Kreuzreliquien im darauffolgenden Jahr erfolgte. Der Tempel wurde beseitigt; das Christi erkannt,

das aufgefundene Felsgrab wurde a ls

der Felsen um das Grab abgetragen und über

diesem e in Z iborium von antiker Art errichtet. diesem Grabmonument lässt

s ich mithilfe

ampullen aus dem Heiligen Land,

Eine Vorstellung von

s zenisch verzierter Pilger-

Glasgefässen,

zweiseitig verzierten Stein i n Washington,

Elfenbeinen,

e inen

e inem Reliquienkästchen

im S chatz von Sancta S anctorum zu R om und den Rundtempeln

i n vornehmlich

östlichen Evangeliaren der s ogenannten kleinen Folge g ewinnen, auf

j ene Urexemplare

zurückgehen,

die Konstantin der G rosse

Eusebius zu Caesarea i n Palästina

f ür den

d ie

3 31 bei

l iturgischen Gebrauch

i n

den Kirchen der neuen Hauptstadt Konstantinopel anzufertigen und zu i llustrieren bestellt hatte. Zustand vor der Narbonne,

3

zu Baalbeck

welches f olgt,

Analogien b2sitzt, im L ibanon.

2

Als direkte Kopie des Grabes

Z erstörung durch die Perser gilt das i n

i n s einem

S teinmodell

zu

s einen Proportionen weitgehend dem Rundtempel

aber auch s onst etwa

i n d er ö stlichen Kunst der Antike

i n der Exedra des al -Dar bei Husn al-Sulaiman

Hierin darf e in Hinweis auf die künstlerische Herkunft

des Architekten

Z enobius

- e in

s yrischer Name - gesucht werden. 7 1

Von

d en verschiedenen R ekonstruktionen d es Grabmonumentes ist die von J . Wilkinson 5 die e inleuchtendste. sicherlich

Ausgehend von den f ür das Grabmonument

a ls unveränderbar b indenden,

d es Grabes Christi s elbst, in d ie Tiefe,

unterteilt,

o blongen Grundrissproportionen

streckt er das Modell von Narbonne auch f ür das

Dach,

k lar

l ichen Grabbau und d er vorgestellten Ädikula und Säulenstellung verblendet sein,

u nd z war

Adikula entspricht d er d es Grabbaus; d er Enge des Raumes, gross.

Auch da,

g estellt

d ürfte das Grab

acht).

E s

( im Cod.

Jerusalem,

z u Narbonne,

z ugrundegelegen haben, i enene und

ein wenig

t rotz z u

f rühchristlicher T radition gerecht z wei

Säulen dar-

a rmenisches Patriarchat

a ls

nur

2 555 6 sogar

analog z um T empel

i n Baalbeck und

Proportionen f ür die Konstruktion

doch wohl

j ene Eusebius

a ls

h eilig ersch-

f ür d ie Anzahl der Kanones massgebliche Zahl

haben dürften. Yolande

f este die

i m 9 .

d er Vorbau e rscheint a ber,

wiederholt mehr

dürften d em Grabmonument,

z um Modell

e rst

B reitenerstreckung d er

i n d er rekonstruierten Form kaum den

von vorn g esehen,

s ind

D ie

g egenüber d em Vorbau proportional

zahlreichen Abbildungen vom Grab a us werden,

l asst es m it e iner

in d er allerdings

Jahrhundert überlieferten Anzahlf elf.

e in wenig

z wischen d em e igent-

B eiden Forderungen wird man g erecht,

z ehn enthalten

wenn man mit

d el Pozzo 7 und a usgehend von d er R ekopstruktion des

J .

Wilkinson

f olgende Grundrisskonstruktion annimmt: Zieht man durch d en Mittelpunkt konstriert von d em Punkte

e ines Kreises e ine Gerade,

l inken S chnittpunkt

ausgehend s ieben

e ines in d en Kreis einbeschriebenen Z ehnecks,

s chlägt mit

einen zweiten K reis,

und

s chlägt von d essen r echtestem

S chnittpunkt m it d er Geraden wiederum zweimal d ie S ehne d . h.elf

und

d emselben Radius um d en anderen S chnittpunkt

d es Z ehnecks

ab,

i n j ede

R ichtung

so kommt man a uf g enau 1 1 Punkte,

S äulen und d en konstatierten grösseren Abstand

z wischen d en v ier

inneren S äulen d er

b eiden Kreise.

B ei einer s olchen R ekonstruktion wäre die Ädikula merklich kleiner als

in d en vorgeschlagenen Lösungen;

a uch s tanden die b eiden vorderen

Säulen nach Massgabe d es Z ehnecks enger b eieinander, f rontaler

S icht

Das Dach einer

j e

zwei z useiten d es Eingangs

z u

so das b ei

s ehen gewesen wären.

würde Grabbau und Ädikula einheitlich möglicherweise

S pitzkuppel mit g ebusten S tichkappen übergriffen haben,

i n Form wobei

d ie Ndikula wohl

doch einen wesentlich kleineren Dreiecksgiebel gehabt

haben dürfte und

s omit d en Abbildungen eines R undtempels

c hriften Wien, Y erevan,

Matenadaran C od.N.4814 8

bezeugen d ie

l eider

z umeist

gerecht geworden wäre.

f ortretuschierten

Aufgrund e ines tief

d es

i m Verlauf d es

d er mächtigen Rotunde mit drei

i nneren Atriums

i nnere Atrium schloss

einem am Cardo Maximus

s ich eine

j edoch

i m W estern a usgerichtet. und Basilika

d es

4 .

nicht geostet, Im S üden,

sowie

l ag die Kirche von Golgotha,

7 2

zwölf Säulen i m 1 0 I m Westen an

s ein.

fünfschiffige Emporenbasilika m it

a usgerichteten Narthex

das bereits um die Mitte

i n einer b reiten

4 .Jahrhunderts von

Exedren und ü ber

Wechsel mit v ier Pfeilerpaaren überbaut worden

es war

dass hier konkret das

l iegenden Mauerfundaments d ürfte das Grab-

Nische gestanden haben und e rst

t ellt war ;

9

s ei.

monument an d er ö stlichen S eite

Martyrium,

Schliesslich

I nschriften a uf d er Darste-

l lung eines Rundtempels im Evangeliar von Adysch, Grab C hristi g emeint

das

i n d en Hands-

Mechitharisten-Congregation Cod.697 und d essen Kopie

an,

das sogenannte

Jahrhunderts f ertigges-

s ondern a uf das Grab Christi zwischen

i nnerem Narthex

o ffensichtlich eine

Kapelle

über

d em weitgehend abgetragenen Golgiiha-Felsen,

nördlich 6 14

z erstörten die Perser

Kaisers H eraklejos Jahre 9 66 Opfer

i st ein g rosser

f ielen .

die Grabeskirche,

unter Modestos

1 009

Anastasis bis mithilfe

z ur

liess

d em Tor

und Dach

j edoch

Z um

z um

a us

widerstand die mächtige

Konstantin

I X.

Monomachos

l iess

Geldzuwendungen die R otunde mit d em Grab C hristi Beibehaltung der

unter Verzicht auf Vorhof

die mithilfe des

wiederaufgebaut wurde.

d er 12Fa tim -Ha id kim e aldie G rabeskirche

H öhe der Emporen.

e rheblicher

wiederherstellen unter artige

( +623)

B rand verzeichnet,

religiösen Gründen zerstören ;

aber

ein w enig weiter

stand d as monumentale Kreuz.

Pfeiler-und

S äulenstellung,

die konstantinische Basilika.

z ur Rotunde wurde

z u

D er a trium -

1 3

einem doppelgeschossigen K reuzgang

ausgebaut und anstelle des Eingangstores

z ur Rotunde e ine mächtige

Apsis

der

e rrichtet,

welche die Rotunde

nach O sten ausrichtete.

n un,

a lten T radition gemäss,

Das Grab Christi war

nun der Grabeskirche

inkorporiert. 1 4 Am wohl

1 5 . Juli

eine

1 099 wurde

i hrer

Jerusalem durch d ie Kreuzfahrer

e rsten kunstlerischen Tätigkeiten dürfte

Grabmonument Christi ausgerichtet haben.

D er Rest d es Felsens

bereits von d en Byzantinern z um S chutz vor Marmorplatten a bgedeckt worden.

die

die

s päter,

tiges

möglicherweise

durch Manuel

Goldkreuz e rsetzt w urde,

Hwarezmier das Grabmonument V erzierung vor dem Grab p heten n ach Medina,

wo

dem Dach,

sowie eine

Z eichnung des

Komnenos durch

1 257

s chickten

s ie

abweichen,

die

e in Raub d er Flammen wurden.

Jahrhunderts

l m Cod.

Alle Abbildungen,

1 8

z ur

z um Grab d es P ro-

s ehr bald e rsetzt worden s ein,

1 4.

i stischen Stil restauriert.

die

P lattenverkleidung und

Die beiden S äulen,

Urb.

die

stammen aus der Z eit danach:

z umindest 1 362.

i m manier-

n atürlich Zuallart

l eicht 1 585,

B ernardino Amico

1 591-96,

1 724-44 und wohl

f ür die meisten Nachbildungen d es Heiligen Grabes

i m Abendland,

b esonders

bares Vorbild dienend,

Cornelius de B ruyn 1 688,

Die

1 /

Vat.

1 555 hat B onifacius von Ragusa das Heilige Grab

voneinander

1 6

e in mäch-

z umindest h at dieser gegen 1 170

s tanden, s ie

I .

C hristi seiner

Marmorverzierung dürfte aber Jahre

die

Nach Matthäus Paris haben 1 244 die

s einer vorgeblendeten Arkaden beraubt.

l aut e iner

1 106

silberbeschlagene C hristusstatue auf d em Dach,

goldene B edachung g estiftet.

Im

war

Säulenverblendung des Aussenbaus

d en von S äulen getragenen Baldachin a uf

überlebensgrosse,

i n Mittel-

E lzearius Horn

und Südosteuropa a ls unmittel-

die Z eichnung bei B ernard B reidenbach

Das Kreuzfahrermonument i st w eitgehend verlorengegangen. Franziskaner-Konvent der Grabeskirche D oppelsäule über

s oll

herrühren könnte.

1 488.

Einzig

s ich das Fragment

aus gotischer Z eit e rhalten haben,

dem Grabmonument

1 5

das

Reliquiensammlern mit

Daniel vermerkt bereits

Marmorverkleidung des Grabbaus, und

eingenommen; s ich auf

i m

e iner

das wohl von der Kuppel

Dieses

a ber

d ürfte kaum viel

anders ausgesehen haben a ls das a ufgrund von Fragmenten und z eitgenössischen B eschreibungen eindeutig r ekonstruierbare Mariengrab i n der Kirche Sancta Maria Kreuzfahrer mag n ach

s einer

i m Tale

Josaphat.

a lso als Z eugnis

S chändung

1 9

Das Mariengrab z ur Z eit der

d afür gelten,

durch d ie Hwarizmier

dass das Grab C hristi

sehr

b ald in s einer Gestalt

w ährend d er Kreuzfahrerzeit w iederhergestellt worden i st, d ie

Wiederherstellung

H öhle b eschränkt hat. l ichen T eil s chliesslich stellung

zur

Z eit des Manierismus auf

Am 2 .

O ktober

der Galerie hinter

der Armenier O pfer

f iel.

und dass

aus,

im s üdöstd em

Die Wiederher-

s ehr groben Barokstil durch die Architekten

7 3

s ich

Innere der

1 808 brach ein Feuer

dem A ltar

das g esamte Katholikon z um

in einem

d as

Komnenos von Mytilene und D rako von Rhodos hat das u rsprüngliche Erscheinungsbild d er Kirche w eitgehend B ei der

Eroberung Jerusalems durch die Franken b estand d er Bau

des Konstantinos l ag daher für die

e nstellt.

I X.

anfangs

Monomachos über dem G rab Christi w eiter;

k eine Notwendigkeit

f ür

installierten Kanoniker wurden

i m W esten

Sitz des Patriarchen i m Nordwesten errichtet; 1 187

die Moschee des

Hospital.

cO mar

Gegen 1 140

entschlossen h aben . dafür an:

e rbauen.

a ller

l oca

oration an d en Wänden, bereits von M .

d er Kirche,

hier

s ich

z u

i n der

s ancta unter

d er

S aladin das

l ediglich d ie Gründe

einem D ach.

und zwar über

l ag

a lten Kirche und d ie Quaresmius 1 606-26

l ateinischen Inschrift von der

M osaikdek-

der Golgotha Kapelle;

s ie wurde

de Vogüg a ls die vorletzte Z eile der bei Johann von

Würzburg überlieferten Weiheinschrift

e rkannt.

Der

entstellte Name meint den Patriarchen Fulcherius, fünfzigste J ahr 1 149.

l iess

einem N eubau d er Kirche

Auch Wilhelm von Tyrus gibt

überliefert den Rest einer

Wohnungen

Südlich der Grabeskirche

aber dürfte man

der unzureichende Platz

Vereinigung

e s

e inen N eubau vor.

nach

der

E roberung der

i n der L esung

d as Datum d as

S tadt durch d ie Franken,

a lso

2 0

Die Kreuzfahrer haben die Apsis vom Bau des Konstantinos Monomachos durch

einen Triumphbogen e rsetzt,

d er die Rotunde mit d er

O sten anschiessenden romanischen Basilika verbindet, mächtigen Querschiff, eine T reppe Der

Kirche weichen.

H elena a bwärts

genannt Martyrium,

Nach Oster n s chliesst

und Vorratsräumen an.

als K rypta

s ich d er

K reuzgang

Kapitelhaus,

d er Kanoniker

R efektorium,

gedecktes Querschiff und Ambulatorium. d er

Küche

Die Kirche besitzt d urchaus in Palästina

entwickelte s tilistische Eigenarten der Kreuzfahrerkunst,

wie

Hier

die mogli. cher-

byzantinische Vorhof musste also d er romanischen

mit d en üblichen Bauten Dormitorium,

Erdbeben

n ach

e inem

dem Kalvarienberg besteht.

z ur Kapelle der hl.

weise der konstantinischen Basilika, gedient hat.

aus

e iner geosteten Apsis mit d rei radialen t iefen

Kapellen und d en vier Kapellen über f ührte

die

Das Äussere

1 927 vollständig neu angefertigt.

e twa f lach-

wurde

n ach einem

Viele romanische E lemente,

t eilweise mit Masken verzierte Konsolfries und die umlaufenden

Treppen der Kuppel,

sind verlorengegangen.

Konstruktion der Kuppel,

d ie j edoch

T he obvious prototype C luniac pilgrimage n ature of

o f

Aquitanisch erscheint

t he

c rusading work would be a

c hurch of Southern France,

t he vaulting.

This

f inely molded ribs,

a s tyle

c rusading kingdom.

The

i s o gival

most

splendor o f

t he

s imilar

t o

t hat which

The type o f

Suger

F rom various a ccounts

t he abbey church o f St. by an 1 149,

which,

t he

was consecrated on t he

f iftieth anniversary o f

7 4

the

a s

S t.

D enis

in Jerusalem;

Denis was c onsecrated

t he Holy Sepulcher,

entries,

i s t herefore

was introducing at

i nscription preserved by Quaresmi

c alendar

t hey w ere a l-

t he vault

a lmost contemporaneously with t he building years before

in

r ough f inish s uggests t hat

i nterior d ecoration,

c ertainly painted.

the

i n t he

laid horizontally

originally the vaults were plastered. t he

but f or

i n form w ith

l ittle used e lsewhere

s tones a re

the French fashion and t heir o f

die

einen engen Fensterkranz a ufweist.

in 1 144,

f ive

i s established

and confirmed by 1 5th of J uly,

t aking

of

t he city. 2 1

Die Hauptfassade l iegt l ichen Querschiffarm;

i m Süden der

i hr vorgelagert

dessen Westseite gebildet wird aus Kapellen, s päter

d ie e rste d er

Hl.

Kirche, ist e in

den Apsiden von d rei g eosteten

z weite,

d ie

Zeit s tammend, a uf d er

dem Gedächtnis d er

die d ritte,

i st Jakobus

Ostseite

E rzengels Michael und des

h l.

O pferung Isaaks

l iegen d ie Kapellen des

geweiht

H of begrenzt durch e ine Kolonade aus dem g eschlossen e rscheint.

ebenfalls aus

s owie das Abraham-Kloster, i st.

1 1.

n ur noch e ine Säule e rhaltengeblieben i st, n icht mehr

e inen

war das

dem J üngeren geweiht.

des Hofes

Jakobus,

S ubstruktion f ür

Johannes des Täufers,

Baptisterium der byzantinischen Kirche, Ihnen gegenüber

s üdHof,

T rinität dient als

e rrichteten Turm, d ie

byzantinischer

s ie f ührt in den l ängsrechteckiger

dass

N ach S üden i st der

Jahrhundert,

von der

aber

so dass der P latz heute

Ö stlich an den H aupteingang

ansch-

l iessend und d ie B asen vom rechten Gewände des ö stlichen P ortals übers chneidend,

f ührt e ine T reppe vorbei an

S äulenstumpf zum

zwei geschossigen,

Kalvarienkapelle, Gestalt

e inem heute f üntktionslosen

kuppelüberwölbten Vorraum der

a uch Frankenkapelle genannt,

e ines Grabbaus

der

dem Grab der Königin Melisende Josaphat z u vergleichen

empor,

i st.

in der

Kirche

S ancta Maria i m Tale

E in Glockenturm e rhob s ich e inst

2 2

v ier Geschossen und m it einem K uppelabschluss über T rinität.

E r

nahm der

d ie Gesimse,

i n

der K apelle der

h l.

ausgewogen gegliederten Fassade d ie Symmetrie,

verdeckt das westliche Fenster s chneidet

welcher die

K reuzfahrer im Heiligen L and h at und mit

in der

oberen Fassadenzone und über-

welche o ffensichtlich n ach Westen weitergeführt

worden s ind. Die Südfassade w ird von s chon aufgrund

i hrer

z wei mächtigen Portalen beherrscht,

gekerbten S pitzbogen a ls der

Architektur verwandt e rscheinen, l elen

i n Sizilien haben

Maria d ell' Ammiraglio, der

Z eit König Wilhelms

n ur in der

im Abendland aber die meisten Paral-

( Palermo, Ss.

L a Cubula,

Trinitä

I I.

La Martorana = Sancta

( Magione ),

s tammt ).

die allerdings

e rst

Die Doppeltorigkeit d ürfte

Position der Fassade an der Südseite der

aus n icht

Kirche h aben,

denn auch im Westen gab es Doppeltore mit zwei eigenen Tympana Sainte-Marie),

d ie

f atimidischen

( Oloron-

i n dem geistigen Vorbild, dem sogenannten v v Goldenen Tor am Haram a -Sarif, das während der K reuzfahrerzeit a ls j enes

Tor

sondern

angesehen w urde,

durch das

Heilige Stadt e ingezogen war,

Christus am Palmsonntag in d ie

und d as

in der

O sterwoche d as

Zentrum

von l iturgischen Prozessionen von Bethanien n ach J erusalem war. Die mit kleinteiligem und wucherndem B lattwerk mit wehtem Akanthus

2 3

z um T eil windver-

verzierten K apitelle t ragen durchlaufende und

einheitlich o rnamentierte Gebälke mit abschliessendem A stragal. Ranken auf den Gebälken s ind Blattwerk,

dass

Entlang der

s ie

s o

s tark geometrisiert und von

i hren o rganischen Fluss weitehend e ingebüsst h aben.

B ogenfelder verläuft

s ich weitgehend

D ie

s o d ichtem

ein anderer Fries,

e iner Folge von Kreisen m it dichtem

dessen Ranke s tacheligen B latt-

werk angeglichen h at und s eine geographisch nächsten Parallelen i m Inneren des

Felsendoms

hat,

Die untere Z one der Fassade wird n ach

oben h in begrenzt durch e inen w eit ausladenden Fries d er m it s pätantiken E lementen und d ichtem B lattwerk überzogen i st und der oberhalb der l age

aber

Doppelfenster

abtreppt,

seitlich der

w eitergeführt wird über d ie ganze Frankenkapelle.

gleich i st das

r eich gekröpfte T raufgesims,

ganze Südfassade verlaufend, den Achsen der

das,

ebenfalls

O rnamentüber

diese n ach oben hin abschliesst.

b eiden Tore korrespondiert

reich abgestuftes Doppelfenster m it

in der

ebenfalls

deren Kapitelle windverwehtes Akanthusblatt

7 5

s ich

e igentlichen T orandie M it

oberen Zone e in

gekerbten S pitzbogen,

z eigen.

Ein l anger

B lattfries

folgt der

Fassadenteil b eiden

Bogenlaibung und

s etzt

n ach beiden S eiten weiter

s eitlichen Fenster,

z weiten Bauphase verdeckt

von denen d as i st,

der

s ich über

den e igentlichen

f ort und überfängt auch d ie l inke durch den T urm der

a ber später

durch

e in Geschoss

reduziert worden i st. D er Stil

der

Bauplastik

i st durchaus

n icht einheitlich,

dürften vollkommen verschiedene und a uch

z eitlich

abweichende Vorlagen verwendet worden s ein. Platz gegeben, C .

Enlart hat

e ingeräumt,

Schliesslich

etwa Jordanus me d ie

dass

s ind

S teinmetzen am Bau

s olche

a uch

t ätig g ewesen sein N .

Künstler

z ur Kreuzfahrerzeit d ie

a bgeleitet,

Bauformen kontinuierlich, Das

z u koptischen,

umayyadischen und abbasidischen Kunst. n ichts enge

e inzuwenden,

B ezeihungen

Nach N .

e s

reicht von d er

syro-pälastinensischen

Historisch

J erusalem gehabt,

Rahmani

V ergleiche

a ller

d em

besonders

B ei

2 5

e inen Teil

B etonung

z ur G rabeskirche. ö stliche S ehr v iel

2 4

d er vorgeschlagenen

e inheimisch-christlicher

schliesslich hatte König Balduin

1 .1115

e twa

z ahlreiche

o b nicht

s ollte d ie Frage nicht ausser

2 6

e in Teil

der

Bauplastik der

zumindest vertritt B . gesimse,

nämlich das

Dachgesims und

und

z war

in

bau

s elbst z uzuweisen und

absetzt,

Ursprung

s innvoller

an der Fassade a lso aus

d er

in P ernes,

j enes Gesims,

das

d ie b eiden Zonen

b eide Gesimse

Bauplastik,

aber

Restutut

f inden s ich in gleicher Form a m

i n der

h ier g esucht werden

Provence s ollte,

( um

1 140),

z u Jerusalem o ffensichtlich n icht versetzt worden s ind,

f ränkischen Z eit

s tammen müssen .

In d er Provence,

e rscheint

d ie Frage,

ob wirklich

Bauformen i n Jerusalem dass hier

waren und d ie O rnamentformen aus nämlich aus

E s s tellt

l okale Baumeister unter Verwendung s elbst d ie B auplastik a n der

der Grabeskirche angefertigt e s vielmehr,

haben .

V iel

e inleuchtender

abendländische Werkmeister

t ätig

den U rsprungsländern i mportiert

,

den n ördlichen und s üdlichen Provinzen von Frank-

E inzige Ausnahme dürften d ie s tacheligen Ranken a uf

B and s ein,

nämlich

l assen s ich auch n ahezu motivgleiche Rankenfriese z u den

t raditioneller Südfassade

so d ass

z umal d ie Friese

Kämpfern oberhalb der Gewändekapitelle der Portale f inden. s ich daher

welches d ie beiden Portale übergreift,

j enem

hierfür dürften-wie

w iederholt postuliert - d ie Ranken von Goldenen T or

z u J erusalem d as

Vorbild abgegeben haben. Aber Einfluss

2 7

a lso dem G ründungs-

Frankenkirche w iederverwendet worden s eien.

D ie beiden Horizontalgesimse Portalgiebel der Kirche S .

z uzuweisen s ei,

dass d ie beiden Horizontal-

der konstantinischen

i hrer ö stlichen Variante, in der

a cht gelasten werden,

S pätantiken selbst

B renk d ie Ansicht,

der Fassade gegeneinander

reich.

S yrer

t ransjordanischen Bereich Palästinas in das entvolkerte

J erusalem gehölt,

haben,

z u

i st h iergegen

bewohnten Ranke geschaffen worden.

z urück.

m it

schliesslich h aben a lle christlichen Kulturkreise

z u

e inleuchtender weist L .Y. Künstler,

a llerdings

S pektrum d er Vorlagen

K enaan sei von ebensolchen Künstlern a uch der

T ürsturz mit der

vornehmlich

w elche von der Spätantike

i st a usgesprochen a ls weit angenommen worden; spätantik-justinianischen,

wie

K enaan h at d aher

B auplastik denn auch aus der heimischen B autradition,

an bis

B ereits

i nschriftlich bezeugt,

einigen Metamorphosen fortgesetzt hätten.

der

nicht d er

in Anbetracht der s tark voneinander

fecit am Turm der Grabeskirche.

c hristlich orientalischer

a us

i st hier

die e inzelnen Motive und Formen abzuleiten.

a bweichenden Stile auch l okale könnten.

E s

z umindest

s tark voneinander

auch d ie

anderen Werkmeister

d er Französischen K unst

des

7 6

s cheinen t rotz a llem unter dem 1 2.

Jahrhunderts gestanden z u

haben,

so dass man d en Anteil einheimischer

vergleichbare Champagne: die Ranken

O rnamente f inden s ich

B erteaucourt, i n der

sogar wörtlich P icardie;

Künstler

Ferri res-en-Gatinais,

Laibung

begrenzen d arf,

i n der P icardie und

i n der

C halons-sur-Marne,

des westlichen Fensters der Frankenkapelle

i n Trie-Chateau;

d ie Blattformen ebenfalls

2 8

d ie Formen s ind a lso

z um überwiegenden Teil aus

i n der

N ordfrank-

reich i mportier-t . Die beiden Tympana des Doppelportals s ind heute westliche f ührt,

i st a us kleinteiligen,

s auber

l eer.

die mit i hren vortretenden T eilen e in Muster

gestellten Rauten mit seichten Gruben bilden, Teil mit Mörtel

a usgefüllt

s ind,

Einlagen enthalten haben. f indet

s ich aber auch

( San Paolo d i

die

aus übereck-

z um überwiegenden

möglicherweise u rsprünglich aber

Das Muster

ist

i slamischen verwandt;

in d er Kunst König Rogers

Peltuinum),

Das

2 9

g eschnittenen Quadern aufge-

es f ragt

s ich aber,

Träger von Mosaikengedacht gewesen i st.

I I.

e s

in Unteritalien

ob e s ursprünglich a ls

Aufgrund l eichter Abbrüche

an den Archivolten war es mit einer

d icken Putzschicht verschmiert,

die verlorengegangen

ä usserlich gesehen ,

i st,

Untersuchungen s ind mir

s ich aber

n icht möglich,

Tympanon vergleichen l ässt. oberhalb des Frieses der a llerdings

auf

H ier

i st auf

grosse T eil e iner

e iner Tympanonwand,

l eichbares Muster

aus sauber gefügten und die wegen der

bezeichnenderweise

gepickelt s ind.

detta porta che c ol f igliuolo

z udem viel grösseren

b eiden Tympana:

volte e l avorate

s 'apre,

e bianco.

con belle

In s o

Si e una f igura di Sancta Maria

in b raccio,

ed e opera musaica,

ma o ra

ungebräuchlicherweise

feld oberhalb d er beiden Portalbogen plazieren, in das noch

in e ines d er

ö stliche,

wo auf

z u sehen waren.

Grabeskirche, würden s ich

Tympanafelder,

e rst unter Kaiser Manuel

auf

befunden haben,

wie v iele Komnenos

i m Inneren der

entstanden s ein,

da das

Zumindest aber

Tympanons d em

f ordert das Marienbild

ein christologisches Thema im westlichen

Jerusalem um

b ereits vor

dem Einwirken Manuels

1 170 an d er Fassade

der Grabeskirche

denn J ohannes von W ürzburg und T heodoricus

berichten von e iner Türen z u

I .

i konographische Probleme e rgeben,

Mosaiken müssen s ich aber

Komnenos

wie e s der

wahrscheinlich doch

ä ltere l Photos Mosaikreste oberhalb des Frieses

a ls Gegenstück doch wohl I .

dann etwa von i n das Zwickel-

sondern,

d ann aber

Sollten d ie Mosaiken,

Titelheiligen vorbehalten war. Portal.

l a

3°

B edeutung einer Trumeaufigur,

Text sagt,

c olonne

l 'arco della

Kaum möchte man die Mariengestalt mit d em Jesuskind, der

s ehen,

Fra Nicolo da Poggibonsi b erichtet

e rosso,

maggior parte e guaste.

z u

besseren Haltbarkeit von Mosaiken in e inem der

L e porti sono ad a rco, di porfido verde,

ä lteren Abbildungen dicht s olchen Putzschicht

die ohne ein dem westlichen verg-

Hausteinen besteht,

1 347 von einer Mariendarstellung

denn t echnische

m it . derjenigen i m ö stlichen

Inschrift

( 1170)

i n l eoninischen H exametern oberhalb der

Christi E rscheinen vor Maria Magdalena

( Joh.20,13):

Johannes

von Würzbug: In superliminari

e cclesiae

ploras? en jam

( statt:

d ignum recoli,

jam v ivum

s ancti s epulcri:

ianiam)

Theodoricus:

7 7

quem quaeris,

( statt:

t u modo )

Qui,

mulier

a doras.

t angere

Me

n oli;

Ante

fores ecclesie

i nter

duas

i anuas

dominus Christus

reverendo habitu q uasi l a i n a morte r esurgens consistit, cuius pedes Maria Magdalena prostrata, pedes t angens,

iacet.

D er

adoras,

tangere

n oli.

O rt d er

ad

i psos

Cui Dominus cirographum porrigit

hos versus continens: q ueris,

n on t ar nen

Quid,

mulier,

Me dignum recoli,

Darstellung war

ploras? iamiam quem

quem

i am v ivum t u modo

unzweifelhaft der

d en beiden Bogen d es Doppelportals.

Zwickel

Auch t hematisch

zwischen

i st das Bild des

auferstandenen Christus ein s innvoller Abschluss d es Fassadenprogramms. Das

östliche

P ortal e iner

i st d urch

S aladin 1 187 vermauert worden.

Türsturz

i st mit

F iguren,

S irenen und Vögeln bewohnt

W erkstatt der Daurade s chreibt

in Toulouse

i st.

T .S. R.

1 180,

Boase hat

s ie mit der N .

K enaan

während L .Y.

möglicherweise a uch ein

von einem europäischen Künstler angefertigt

wobei Handschriften aus dem S criptorium der Grabeskirche

Art des P salters der Königin Melisende den Küunstler könnten,

sie deutet d ie

s chliesst

D er

menschlichen

i n Verbindung gebracht,

zwischen 1 150 und

f rüher datiert,

l asst,

die von Kentauren,

s ie einheimischen c hristlichen Kunstlern z u,

Rahmani den Fries wenig

Ranke verziert,

s ein

i n der

inspiriert haben

Darstellung des Frieses aber symbolisch und

s ie mit der vom westlichen Portal

z u einer Sinneinheit

z usammen: ..a symbolic representation of o f

sinful men,

hell and t hreatened on all

e vil.

It

s tands

caught

i n a direct contrast

t o

t he

western l intel,

where r epresentations of C hrist point the way men to follow i n t he

s teps

o f the master

t he Eucharist and Resurrection . t he

inside o f

t he c hurch

Das R elief b esteht aus d rei i st e ine auf

der

Rückseite

wahrscheinlich Singular

l assen s ich

s tammt das

l intels.

h owever,

die ö stliche von

S chrankenplatte;

3 2

i hnen

d ie O rnamente

i n die mittelbyzantinische Zeit d atieren;

S tück a us dem Bau des Konstantinos Monomachos.

i st in der Ranke der Vorderseite die

s inusförmige Hauptranke, Die Hauptranke

i st eine Folge von kleinen Hüllblättchen e ingeschlossen;

hierfür kenne

i ch keine

n icht an der Daurade Eigenart

direkten Parallelen,

in Toulouse

der Abruzzen

Santa Maria entstanden,

( ab 1 125),

z u B ominaco,

Sant ' Angelo

s ie

s ich auch

s ind vielmehr

z u P ianella).

es n ahelegen würde,

eine

Wesentlich

wäre d er

s päter

Rankenfries

wollte man ihn m it den mittelitalienischen d er Marsen

vergleichen und von diesen ableiten, d er Kirche

sie f inden

3 3

( San Liberatore a l Maiella b ei S erramonacesca,

a ls d ie Weihe d er Kirche

S anta Maria delle Grazie

folgenden Monumente

Jahrhunderts entstanden

s ein;

z u Luco

n e Marsi;

sie dürften a uch e in durchaus

bindendes Datum l iefert die Kirche l aut Inschrift

umfasst s an S alvatore Maria del C armine

voran mit einer Kanzelplatte 3 4

die

in

n ach-

z eigen w esentlich f lachere Ranken a ls die genannte

und die von d er Grabeskirche,

Fassade

not

3 1

von der d ie eigentlichen dichten Rundungen ausgehen. s elbst

t o

T he major t hemes t o w hich

S teinplatten ,

z erschnittene byzantinische

for v irtuous

to Jerusalem,

i s dedicated a re,

a ctually represented on t he

i n the coils

sides by r epresentatives of

1 238

S anta Giusta

entstanden

z u Paternö,

z u Celano,

i st,

die

h eute verbaut

San Nicola

7 8

e rst z u B eginn des

1 3.

n icht f ür a lle B eispiele z u

B assano,

Gruppe

deren

der Monumente

i n der Kirche S anta

z u Avezzano,

San C esidio

z u

Trasacco.

Es sei

3 5

d arauf verwiesen,

dass d ie Friese der

b eiden

Portale thematisch s ich kaum miteinander verbinden l assen, über

d en Umweg der

S ymbolik.

Kirchenportale üblich f igürliche Kreuzigung,

B ilder

i st,

e rwarten,

Auch würde man,

ebenfalls etwa

auf

n ahezu g leich gebildet,

i st.

der Passion Christi,

i st der

w ie

a lso Themen a us den Mysterien,

Die Profile beider

j edoch

l ediglich

romanische

dem rechten Türsturz

S zenen aus

Höllengang und Auferstehung,

denen d ie Kirche geweiht

wie e s für

f igürliche,

T ürstürze

s ind

westliche w egen

der Winkelung des unteren T eils oberhalb der Kapitelle o ffensichtlich für dieses en

Portal geschaffen,

während die Unterkante des m it dem westlich-

Fries gleichhohen ö stlichen u rsprünglich gerade verlaufend a usge-

f ührt war und e rst n achträglich durch Einschneidungen i n d as untere Profil auf d ie b eiden Kapitelle abgestimmt worden i st, bedenkenswert i st,

natürlich,

was

zwar

wie d ie unterschiedlichen vertikalen

Profile des ö stlichen Türsturzes,

r einer

Z ufall

s ein kann,

e benso

wie auch d ie andersartig profilierte Laibung des gesamten Tympanonbogens.

Die genannten Monumente mit den vergleichbaren Ranken i n

Mittelitalien d ürften a lle anden sein ; sollte

i m

2 .

V iertel

des

1 3.

Jahrhunderts

e r mit den mittelitalienischen Monumenten

werden,

entst-

übertragen a uf Jerusalem müsste der Fries m it der

nach d er Rückeroberung

1 229 entstanden sein.

J erusalems durch Kaiser Friedrich

I ch möchte

j edoch glauben,

Kirche von 1 149 beide Friese an der fertiggestellt waren.

Auf

dass

I I.

z ur Weihe der

Fassade der Grabeskirche bereits

k einen Fall

mittelitalienischen Monumente unter i n Palästina entstanden s ind;

Ranke,

i n Verbindung gebracht

n ehme

i ch an d ass d ie

dem Einfluss der K reuzfahrerkunst

denn nur

l ückenlose Stilentwicklung verfolgen,

in I talien l ässt s ich die

nicht a ber

in Palästina;

d ort

s tehen d ie Monumente i soliert. D er Portals

f igürliche Fries auf dem T ürsturz der Grabeskirche

d er romanischen Plastik,

da e r

a bsolut keine Parallelen hat. beide Friese

1 930

i n das

( Pl.

z u Jerusalem gehört

a ls

des westlichen

in der gleichzeitigen R eliefkunst

36

Aus k onservatorischen Gründen wurden

R ockefeller-Museum z u Jerusalem übertragen

und befinden s ich dort als Dauerleihgaben. n otwendig,

3 .1a)

z u den grössten Rätseln

starke Verfallsspuren des

D ie

Überführung wurde

S teins f estgestellt wurden,

d ie man auf Chemikalien des Mosaikgrundes

z uruckgeführt h at,

d ie durch

R egen a llmählich herabgelaufen s eien und den Steinfrass der R eliefs hervorgerufen haben s ollen . Relief,

Es

i st nur

e rstaunlich,

dass das

westliche

in d essen T ympanon keine Reste von Mosaiken e rhalten w aren,

wesentlich stärker vom Steinfrass angefallen

i st

a ls

das östliche,

dessen Tympanonaufgrund ä ltere Photos mit S icherheit mit Mosaiken ausgestattet war. Auf

dem R elief

s ind f unf Szenen dargestellt:

1 .

Die Auferweckung d es L azarus.

vor

Christus,

3 .

Christus

um

s endet

n ach d er

herbeigeführt w ird. Männer 4 .

das

2 .

Eselin,

Paschamahl vor,

Die

i n Jerusalem e in. B enennung

h eitlich . Louis

der

indem 5 .

a ls

z u b erichten .

s amt Füllen w eiter

rechts

s ie das

B ilder

Osterlamm s chlachten.

nimmt das

Bild m it dem Einzug

Das Abendmahl. in den

de Rochechouart

meint aber weiter

die

Unterhalb der Aussendungsszene bereiten z wei

Den grössten T eil des R eliefs

Christi

Maria und Martha e rscheinen

i hm das Verscheiden d es Lazarus

e inziges

1 461

I tinerarien i st n icht

i mmer

B ild Maria Magdalena z u s ehen,

7 9

ein-

e rkennt d en Einzug in Jerusalem, d ie

Christus d ie Füsse

s albe,

s icherlich h at e r das Bild mit. Nr .2 verwe-

c hselt: In portali sunt

s culpture

i nter quas

duas

s olum cognoscere:

prima Marie Magdalene obsculantis pedes Domini; tura Christi palmarUm. Felix Fabri

ingredientis

a lia s culp-

s anctam c ivitatem cum ramis

3 7

deutet d ie Aussendung n ach d er Eselin als Vertreibung

d er Geldwechsler

aus

dem Tempel;

Niccolö da Poggibonsi

gibt

a llerdings

n icht

nämlich d en Verrat des Judas und d ie Gefangennahme C hristi,

e s

fehlt

j edoch die

e r

d ieses

r ichtigen Reihenfolge,

z usätzlich

F ra

e r gibt,

3 8

Szenen an, sollte

i n der

d ie Ansicht übernimmt Zuallart.

1 345 die merkwürdigste D eutung,

zwei w eitere

Begegnung von Maria und Martha mit Christus,

Bild a ls J udaskuss m it gleichzeitiger

G efangennahme

gedeutet haben? E e cci

intagliato

come C risto r isuscitö Lazzaro;

c ome Cristo montö asina;

l a t ertia come

I erusalem esce s tendendo Cristo

fuori,

discepolo;

dass

entstanden

i st,

da der Z eit

i l

come

die b eiden z uletzt genannten S zenen o rnamentale Fries mit

l inken

S icherheit

s o tiefgreifende

nicht mehr möglich.

Aus dem R elief mit dem Einzug Christi S tück des S teins mit dem E sel

i n Jerusalem ist ein g rosses

und der Gestalt Christi herausge-

Auch die ältesten Abbildungen von d er Fassade der Grabes-

kirche von s ehr grosser Genauigkeit, 1 864 39

und die b ei Wilson von 1 865,

Photo,

das von O stheim von 1 860

L ehr-und Versuchsanstalt Ch.

c ome

la quinta,

a ls Fra Niccolö ihn s ah;

Veränderungen waren zu der

brochen.

La quarta

dem rechten Türsturz als Fortsetzung der Folge des

abgebildet gewesen wären, f rüher

i ncontro c olle palme,

t erra...

e da Giuda a bbracciato.

i st kaum anzunehmen,

e inst auf

s econda,

i f anciulli, e ' 1 populo grande d i

la cena c o'

fu preso,

l a

e ' 1 poledro a llato a ll'-

e fanoglisi

l e vestimenta per

Signore fece

Es

i n s ull'asina,

1 873

nämlich die bei P ierotti von s owie d as ä lteste mir b ekannte

i n d er Sammlung Höhere Graphische

z u Wien 41

C lermont-Ganneau fand

4 0

z eigen bereits die Fehlstelle.

i n einem a rabischen Haus

z u

Jerusalem

ein S teinfragment mit einem Ausschnitt aus d em Einzug in J erusalem das C hristus und d en Esel wiedergibt;

e r glaubte,

verlorengegangene aus dem Fries der Grabeskirche; f indet

s ich heute

i m Louvre

konnte n achweisen,

dass

Grössenverhältnisse h aben kann,

4 4

es

Das Programm auf

l ässt

s tammt e s aus d em Mauristankomplex b ei s ich m it den e benfalls wohl dort gefun-

der

i m Museum d es G riechisch-Orthodoxen

i st

d em f igürlich verzierten Türsturz vom Eingang n ur

aus d er spezifischen B edeutung d es Bauwerks,

h eiligsten Reliquien der Christenheit

das G rab Christi, Liturgie

H enschel -Simon

z usammensehen: 15

z ur Grabeskirche d as eine der

B ereits E .

s ei d as S tück b e-

das aufgefundene Fragment n icht z um Fries gehört

denen Fragmenten von Bauplastik Patriarchats

4 3

d as

aus stilistischen Gründen und wegen anderer

wahrscheinlich

der Grabeskirche;

z u Paris.

dieses

4 2

h eiligen Stadt Jerusalem voll

B egebenheiten aus der Karwoche kung des Lazarus

b ewahrt,

und der besonderen Funktion d er Kirche dargestellt,

e rklärbar.

d ie

Es sind

b eginnend mit der

zu B ethanien bis hin z um Abendmahl.

8 0

n : imlich

f ur

Erwec-

Das e igentliche

Mysterium d er G rabeskirche,

nämlich L eiden,

T od,

s tehung das Herrn s ind i m I nneren d es Bauwerks s o dass die Darstellungen Mysterien s ind.

E s

Grabledung und Aufer-

z u vergegenwärtigen,

s elbst nur e in I ntroitus z u d en e igentlichen

s ei aber n ochmals daran e rinnert,

dass man g emäss

a bendländischer G epflogenheiten an Fassaden v on Kirchenbauten, b esonders d er H eiligtümer e ntlang d er P ilgerstrassen n ach S antiago d e C ompostela,

auf d em Fries des zweiten,

P ortal die F ortsetzung d er Darstellung,

d em e rsten g leichwertigen

nämlich R eliefs mit d em Tod,

d em G rab Christi und d er Auferstehung e rwartet;

s tattdessen i st

l ediglich d er o rnamental v erzierte F ries z u s ehen. Z usammenstellung f indet

D ie g leiche

s ich wiederholt auch an den Fassaden besonders

o beritalienischer K irchen d es

f raglichen Z eitabschnitts,

j edoch s ind

dann die ornamentalen F riese auf d ie i n i hrer B edeutung geringeren S eitenportale beschränkt.

Es

s ei a uch n och e inmal daran e rinnert,

dass nur d er f igürliche Fries der Portalanlage e ingepasst und g ewiss f ür d iese auch hergestellt worden i st,

d er o rnamentale,

G estalt d es P rofils und g leicher Höhe,

j a wohl auch passender B reiteners-

t reckung,

a ber n icht,

und e s e rhebt s ich nach wie vor d ie F rage,

l etzterer n icht n achträglich e ingesetzt worden s ei. l inke Portal d ie K irche betreten,

ob

M it i hrem heutigen

P rogramm l ässt s ich d ie D oppeltoranlage nur e rklären, durch das

t rotz g leicher

wenn man e inst

s ich i n i hr die Heils-

mysterien vergegenwärtig und s ie dann durch das ' r echte Portal wieder v erlassen hätte.

Das quellenmässig überlieferte Portalmosaik,

nämlich

N oli me t angere , gibt z umindest e inen deutlichen H inweis auf d ie n icht d argestellten,

beziehungsweise

f ehlenden S zenen.

g eographischen Nähe d es Tales Josaphat, P arusie Christi e rwartet wurde,

I n Anbetract d er

i n d em bekanntlich d ie Zweite

wäre d ie Darstellung d es E rscheinens

C hristi oder d es Jüngsten G erichts im zweiten Tympanonfeld s ehr wohl d enkbar. Das P rogramm d es

f igürlich v erzierten Türsturzes i st aus der

z ifischen Funktion d er G rabeskirche z u Jerusalem z u v erstehen. z elnen

Bilder

s pe-

D ie e in-

f olgen i n narrativ k ontinuierlicher Weise der S chrift

g emäss von l ink nach rechts aufeinander.

E inem j eden Bild i st

I konographie entsprechend P latz e ingeräumt, i nnerhalb d er Folge,

s einer

n icht aber s einer Bedeutung

d ie durch das Evangelium s elbst g egeben i st.

Und

t rotzdem wurde durch Umstellung von zwei B ildern das P rogramm auf e inen bestimmten Grundgedanken bezogen, g emacht worden i st: d er

S chrift,

d er s omit d eutlich s ichtbar

L iest man d en kontinuierlichenFries

weckung v ertauscht worden.

Man k önnte e inwenden,

um der Symmetrie willen vorgenommen worden wäre;

dass d iese Umstellung d enn zwei g ewichtige

I nneraumbilder s ind an d ie Enden d es Türsturzes plaziert, s ehr

i n d er Abfolge

s ind d ie Bitte von Maria und Martha mit d er L azaruser-

betonen d iese

s tark und v erleihen d er e rzählenden Darstellung e inen s ymmetris-

chen Akzent.

Eine i konographische Besonderheit hebt das B ild mit d er

B itte von Martha und Maria weit über d ie S childerung e iner biblischen E rzählung hinaus;

Christus

s teht n ämlich überhöht auf e iner Weltkugel,

und Kniefall d er beiden Frauen darf z usätzlich a ls Adorationsgestus vor dem Königtum Christi g edeutet werden.

D ie D arstellung hat i hre

Entsprechung i m B ild mit d em Einzug Christi

i n Jerusalem;

d enn

unterhalb des E sels war i m vergangenen Jahrhundert d eutlich s ichtbar ' und

i st heute n och i n F ragmenten e rhalten d ie Personifikation d es

Himmels R om,

i n der Art etwa d es Arkadensarkophags,

j etzt i n den Grotten von St.

P eter,

ehemals

g egeben.

im L ateran z u

Beide E lemente

dürfen a ls deutlicher H inweis auf das Königtum C hristi a ngesehen werden,

das

s omit auf die Mitte d es Frieses hin o rientiert

i st und

möglicherweise d ie b isher n icht g edeutete Umstellung d er beiden e rsten B ilder e rklärt.

8 1

Versuche

einer

s tilistischen Zuweisung des Frieses an e ine be-

s timmte europäische Kunstlandschaft haben s tets nur e ine von den Darstellungen

zur Grundlage e ines Vergleichs erhoben.

von Saint -Gilles -du -Gard haben bereits A .K. Stil

aus der Provence abzuleiten;

ganzen Türsturz verlaufen, etwa

i n Nizza,

Einzugbilder,

46

Die P ortalfriese

Porter verlanlasst,

den

d ie über e inen

s ind aber auch i n der Toskana zu f inden,

San Leonardo a l Frigid ( ) bei Massa Carrara,

heute

im

Metropolitan Museum of Art z u New York und g eschaffen gegen 1 175 durch Biduinus.

I konographisch besser

4 7

San Cassiano a Settimo,

Pisa,

l ässt

vergleichen,

s ich der Türsturz von

da auf der

4 8

l inken S eite

die Bitte der beiden Frauen und die Erweckung des Lazarus s ind,

die beide der Blindenheilung

f olgen.

zu s ehen

Ebenso häufig f inden

s ich

in den beiden eng zusammenhängenden Kunstlandschaften Provence und Oberitalien ausgedehnte Abendmahlsbilder von diesen,

etwa der Pontile

zu Modena,

i nnerhalb von Friesen.

Viele

der an der Fassade von Saint -

Gilles -du-Gard oder der an der Kirche Notre-Dame-des-Pommiers zu Beaucaire

s tammen von L ettnern,

bzw.

S chranken.

D ie Lazarusbilder

4 9

waren auch an den S chranken zu Chichester 5 ° z u s ehen und die von Durham 51 hat aufgrund des

erhaltenen Reliefs S zenen aus dem Erscheinen Christi

nach dessen Tod getragen.

Wegen des

t echnischen Befundes

die Plazierung des Frieses an der Grabeskirche Alterschranke natürlich aus.

s cheidet

Zu Jerusalem an e ine

Die genannten Monumente haben A .

die Herkunft des Meisters der Grabeskirche i n der Provence j edoch

5 2

s ind die Vergleiche von rein i konographischem Charakter.

Abendmahlsbilder

f inden s ich a llenthalben

etwa Chateauroux, Paris.

Borg

z u s uchen;

Saint-Benigne

zu D ijon,

i n romanischen Kirchenportalen, S aint-Germain-des-Pres

zu

Die Themen haben auch zu einer Spätdatierun9 d es Reliefs

nach der Weihe der Kirche von 1 149 Anlass g egeben,

5 5

kaum s tilistische Voraussetzungen vorhanden

und obwohl d er beste

i konographische Vergleich, Fortunat z u Charlieu, s teht

5 4

das

in burgundischer Tradition

S aint-Julien-de-Jonzy )

um die Mitte d es

1 2.

also g leichzeitig mit der Entstehung der Grabeskirche

Jerusalem angesetzt wird.

Hier

f inden

Tisch mit ähnlich gefaltetem Tuch, l ei Gerät,

obwohl hierzu

das Tympanon der Prioratskirche Saint-

( p1.3.1b )

( Neuilly-en-Donjon,

Jahrhunderts,

s ind,

zu

s ich auch der halbkreisförmige

aufsichtiger Tischplatte mit a ller-

wahrscheinlich e inem f ortgebrochenem Judas vor der Tafel

und vor a llem mit winzigen Arkade unterhalb des T isches, Inneraum kennzeichnet. auf Türstürzen

Aber auch die

s ind durchaus n icht auf den

i enischen Raum beschränkt,

e s

die d en

langgestreckten Einzugsbilder s üdfranzösisch-oberital-

s ei nur an die Pfarrkirche von Pompierre

i n den Vogesen erinnert. Und trotzdem glaube

i ch,

dass der Künstler aus einer anderen

Kunstlandschaft nach Jerusalem gezogen

i st.

Die Kenntnis von dem Fries beruht auf Autopsie, Photos und Umzeichnungen,

die den Erhaltungszustand

l ichen Zeiten dokumentieren. 1 914;

I II:

I :M . De Vogüg

P .

Deschamps

1 964.

s erien auszugehen; und viele Details verifizieren, Szenen

I I:

L .H.

Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities

( jetzt I srael Department of Antiquities IV:

1 860;

aber auch auf zu unterschied-

1 930;

Alle Untersuchungen haben von den vier Abbildungs-

denn der Erhaltungszustand i st heute l assen

besonders die

z um überwiegenden Teil

s chlecht,

f ortgebrochenen

wo die beiden R eliefplatten anein-

Nur e in wenig weiter rechts

grosse Ausbruchstelle

s ehr

s ich nur mithilfe ä lterer Abbildungen

i n der Mitte des Friesus,

anderstossen.

i n J erusalem )

Vincent

i n Palestine,

i st auch die genannte

im Bild mit dem E inzug i n Jerusalem.

8 2

Markant w ird d er Fries I nnenraums

f lankiert:

Möglicherweise

d urch die beiden Darstellungen eines

das Haus des L azarus und d er Abendmahlsaal.

dürfen s ie a uch als Darstellungen d er beiden S tädte

B ethanien und J erusalem b etrachtet w erden,

z wischen d en s ich d ie

Vorbereitung

a uch die L iturgische

z um Mahl und d er Einzug,

Vergegenwärtigung vollzogen haben. symmetrische Begrenzung

anderer

T radition auf Triumphbögen, fuori

l e mura

B ethlehem.

z u R om,

Die

S zenen

etwa

beiden S tadtsymbole s tänden dann

a ls

i n e iner

S anta Maria Maggiore,

L angen

San L orenzo

l etztere mit der Darstellung von J erusalem und

Die Bogenfolge,

gezeichneten Häusern, a ls

aber

mit

aufgesetz en F ialen,

Melonenkuppeln

Uberdachung von S zenen

i st

perspektivisch

und einer g ekehlten L aibung,

i nnerhalb d er

f ranzösischen Bauplastik

nicht ungewöhnlich und b esonders häufig auf G ewändekapitellen z u f inden,

Chartres,

L e Mans,

Saint-Loup-de-Naud,

Nesle-la-Repost,

Nazareth.

bzw .

daher häufig auf andere Kunstgattungen aus-

überliefert,

e s muss

gewichen werden .

Zu n ennen aber

Viel weniger Friese

und

i m H eiligen L and s elbst;

s ind e rhalten,

sind Courdes und Fecamp,55 beide

d er Normandie und beide gegen die

Jahrhundertmitte unter

von Chartres entstanden,

Saint-Lazare und Dijon,

Bgnigne. Haus,

Gemessen a n d en beiden genannten I nnenansichten

in w elchem C hristus die

d essen unteren Geschoss bildbeherrschend. f ür

eigene

D ie

S zenen an,

hin geöffnet,

durch

und Martha hervor, beim Adventus erstrebt dort war,

a uf

das

sie

s ind,

I g ut s ichtbar,

S eite

i hre

Zur

i n d er Mitte

z u

um Christus i st

z u

s ehen,

I konographie

i n entgegengesetzte

Richtung,

z u e iner grossen Gruppe z usammengefasst der

j ubelnden " Höhle"

I sraeliten vom Einzug

in d rei F iguren a uf

der

S zenen hat A .

die s ich naturlich

i st natürlich

s ingulär,

in J erusalem b ekannt, Für

hämlich

o bwohl

i sieren; Eine

l etztere

n och

den geöffneten Codex e r

i n d er

s oll vielleicht

es sei n och einmal

d as

dürfte

K eines d er

e s kaum Parallelen geben,

Hand Christi

i n beiden Bildern

S elbstzeugnis Christi s ymbol-

an die Weltkugel

I II IV

s ichtbar,

e rinnert.

Epidermis der Gestalten a ber Z eit der geben.

s ichtbar.

An v ielen S tellen besonders

Romanik s cheint

es

i st die

ürsprüngliche

noch recht g ut e rhalten,

Innerhalb

der

z umindest

B auplastik Frankreichs

z um Stil keine

i st z ur

direkten Parallelen z u

Die Darstellungen e rwecken den Eindruck,

8 3

s tark

be i näherer

so dass man i n vielen D etails

s chenken muss.

ä usseren Bilder B ethanien und Abendmahl II gut

der hier

z ur gleichen Z eit

s tilistische B eurteilung wird natürlich durch d ie

B etrachtung und a uf

a uf

i n d iesem

wofür der Melisende psalter ein gutes Z eugnis

d er Umzeichnung I G lauben

s ie

i m l inken

e rweitern l assen,

korrodierte Oberfläche beeinträchtigt und wird besonders

der

d er

Borg einen grossen T eil

und alle waren auch

einige D etails a llerdings

z u Bethanien,

auch

i n J erusalem f olgen,

a us P latzgründen nicht ausgeführt werden können.

i st.

d er gleich

und Füllen a ls

s uchen hat.

Vergleiche genannt, Bilder

s tets

d es Frieses s ichtbar,

ein grosser B ogen

s ymmetrische Entsprechung haben,

B ild nichts

Israelit,

dem Einzug Christi

j a a uch die vier

r echts oberhalb

z ur Friesmitte

n ämlich das Volk hinter Maria

kontinuierliche Stil

j edoch bewegen s ich

s ie rein h Uz Asig z umal

D er

e r wird besonders

i n

viel weniger

nichtsdestoweniger

Türen kommt

s owohl B esitzer und Jünger mit Esel

b eide Gruppen

Zwickel

s ind a ber

die

i st das

geben zwar die Bildfelder

b eziehungsweise ein alter

j ene Apostel überfängt, o bwohl

b ereitet w ird,

b eiden Inneräume

s chmale

Saint-

Einbringung d es Esels b efiehlt und

Paschamahl

z u b egrüssen.

worden;

einer Höhle

aber

Avallon,

i n

d em Einfluss

a ls

s ei d ie Vorlage

a us anderem Material a ls d em S teinrelief g ewesen,

haben d och d ie Köpfe

e ine g ewisse Verwantschaft mit j enen von d en f ragmenten d er i m I I. Weltkrieg verbrannten ehernen D omtür z u B enevent. überaus

h intereinander g estaffelten G estalten, d ie L andschaftsangaben, i n d er L andschaft

d ie v ielen Überschneidungen,

d ie perspektivischen Verkleinerungen von t ief

t ehenden G estalten und d er e rzählerischen Momente

l assen an e ine Vorlage aus der Buchmalerei, b einkunst d enken, R aum,

D ie D ichte d er

5 6

f igurenreichen Kompositionen mit z ahlreichen G ruppen a us

a llenfalls aus d er E lfen-

dann j edoch a n e in Werk aus dem n ordfranzösischen

d er primär durch d ie Gestalt d es g rossen Kunstmäzens S ugerius

von S aint-Denis g erade um d ie Mitte d es Jahrhunderts maasländischem E influss g estanden hat.

s tark unter

V on d en z ahlreichen V ergleich-

s möglichkeiten s eien aus P latzgründen nur wenige g enannt: Abendmahl

i n d er B ibel von F loreffe

d es Nikolaus von 1 181 markierung z u s ehen

( p1.3.2)

( p1.3.3a);

d ie r echts s tehende R ückenfigur i m

um 1 160-1170

vor d em Stadttor l inks ( p1.3.4b);

Paschalammes ( p1.3.5b ).

( p1.3.3b)

( p1.3.3c);

i n derselben S zene

Bild mit d er B estrafung Hagars B erlin

A ltar

i st e benfalls d ie w inzige Arkade a ls Boden-

B ild mit d er Bitte von Martha und Maria d em Heribertschrein,

d as

- auf d em Verduner

und d er Amos a uf

d er Anführer d es Volks

( p1.3.4a )

und Abraham i m

i m P salterfragment M s.

7 8 A 6 z u

d er kauernde D iener i m B ild mit d er B ereitung d es

( p1.3.5a)

und Daniel

i n d er B ibel von B onne-Esperance

F igürlich verzierte Bronzereliefs aus d em f raglichen

Kunstraum f ehlen z u der Z eit, n icht vergleichen.

und d ie Bronzetür von G nezen l ässt s ich

E lfenbeine

j edoch haben d ie notwendige R elieftiefe;

d ie bekannten Stücke aus Köln aus d em 1 2.

J ahrhundert z eigen i n d en

n eutestamentlichen B ildern oft Gruppen mit d icht h intereinander g estaffelten F iguren,

5 7

j edoch i st der Faltenstil s ehr unterschieden.

Aus d iesen G ründen möchte

i ch e ine Vorlage a us d er Buchmalerei eher

d enken a ls aus d er g leichzeitigen Elfenbeinkunst. E ine

s olche Vorlage mit der Bildfolge dürfte dem Künstler i n

Jerusalem g egeben g ewesen s ein.

O b e r e in E inheimischer war,

wie e s

f ür e inen a nderen S teinmetzen a n der Fassade durch O rnamentvergleich mit der Porta Aurea überzeugend nachgewiesen worden i st, mangels

s tilgleicher Monumente n icht e ntscheiden,

d er Einzigartigkeit,

5 8

l asst s ich

darf a ber a ngesichts

d ie n icht aus d er a bendländischen S teinmetzkunst

der R omanik e rklärt werden kann,

n icht ausgeschlossen w erden.

Z umindest

dürften d ie Vorlagen i m n ordfranzösischen R aum z u s uchen s ein.

Auf

architektonische B eziehungen der Grabeskirche z u J erusalem z u S aintD enis wurde bereits h ingewiesen, Bauplastik im F rankenkreuzgang.

s ie g elten a uch f ür e inen T eil d er S ollte e s i n Nordfrankreich d och

5 9

vergleichbare R eliefs g egeben haben, Komposition,

würden s ich d ie D ichte,

d ie Ansammlung d er Figuren,

d er

d er d ie T iefenstaffelung

und d er D etailreichtum des F rühwerks e ines d er g rossten Künstler d es Mittelalters,

Nikolaus von Verdun,

gänzlich voraussetzungslos

besser v erstehen,

d a e s n icht mehr

i nnerhalb d er e uropäischen Kunst

s teht,

s ondern d ie g enannten Merkmale i n d er a ngegebenen Kunstlandschaft doch vor d em B eginn d er Arbeit am Verduner A ltar g egen 1 170 vorhanden g ewesen wären, a bstands

t rotz d es natürlich bewussten ungeheueren Qualität-

( p1.3.6).

8 4

NOTES 1 .

M .

d e Vogüg,

Vincent J .

F inegan,

and

t he

L . H.

L es Eglises d e

and Abel,

The A rcheology

B eginnings

Vincent,

D .

o f the

Baldi,

of

Grabeskirche I tinerarien:

J .

Crusades(Warminster,

Zuletzt:

1 949);

D .

The

I ,

1 2Off.;

Life of Jesus

Barluzzi, K .

I l

S anto

Schmaltz,

Mater

( Strassburg,

1 918).

Jerusalem P ilgrims

Baldi,

e ccles-

Zu den before

Enchiridion Locorum

( Jerusalem , 1 955). H .

und H .

Buschhausen,

Mechitharisten-Congregation s chrift d er ( Berlin,

A .

W ilkinson,

1 977);

1 860), 1 18ff.;

C roises,

( Princeton ,1969 ) , Nr.181-184;

Church

Marangoni,

i n Jerusalem

Die

( Paris,

Enlart,

New Testament,

iarum.

Sanctorum

J .

Lauf f ray,

l e

Temple

Das Evangeliar

z u Wien.

Jahrtausendwende

1980),

und

Eine

i hre

Codex

6 95

armenische

der

Prachthand-

spätantiken Vorbilder

1 8ff.

"La Memoria Sancti

rond d e Baalback:

Constantinien,"

4 .

the

Early

L .

Sainte

8 9-300;

( Bergamo,

the

3 .

II,

Sepolcro di Gerusalemme Quellen und

2 .

l a Terre

Jerusalem,

Melanges de

38

( 1962),

1 99-217.

B .

Bagatti

und E .

Testa,

S epulcri

Essai

d e

du Mus e

d e Narbonne

r estitution du Saint

e t

S epulcre

l ' Uniyersite Saint-Joseph de Beyrouth,

Il Golgota e l a Croce

( Jerusalem,

1 978),

Taf.6. 5 .

J .

Wilkinson,

H istory," und J .

" The

Tomb o f

L eyant,4

( 1972),

Wilkinson,

L eyant, 6

( 1974),

6 .

S .

7 .

Y . del Pozzo,

8 .

L .

Taf. 28;

H .

L ia rt

armgnien

( Ms.

in der

9 .

S ch. Die

5 6

und H .

1 0.

Ch.

Amiranaschyili,

1 1

A .

of

the

1 977),

Abb.83. in Jerusalem,"

I nst.Univ. Wien),

2 6.

( Jereyan,

Katalog d er ( 2

Gruzinskaja miniatjura

The

P . A.

Underwood,

Church of

" Die

DOP,5 the

" The

1 980) ,

ed.,

Sonderausstellung Wien,

Holy

( Moskau, Fountain

( 1950),

P rozessionen d er

4 1-138,

S epulchre

( 1961-62), 221-304; S .

Lateiner

H istorisches Jahrbuch,

" G i l edifici

basilica d el " Scayo

Barag

Armenische Handschriften d er

i n Wien.

Gospels,"

d er Kreuzzüge,"

Corbo,

D .

t he Holy Sepulchre,"

1 981),

1 966), o f

L ife

Taf.6. in

Abb.44.

( London,

1 972),

XI.

S chönfelder,

Zeit V .

VII,

S tructural auch:

1 1.

Coüasnon,

Taf.

( Paris,

Kunsthist.

Buschhausen,

I nschriften bei:

Manuscripts

its

Siehe

and

Ö sterreichischen Nationalbibliothek und

of

i storii Vaspurakanskoi miniatjur

Mechitharisten-Congregation Abb.

Outline

Gestalt des Grabmonuments Christi

2 8.10.1980 Iz

An

Taf.X A-B.

1 79-187.

" Die

Zakarjan,

68-97,

" The Monza-Bobbio Flasks

D er Nersessian,

Seminararbeit

Christ:

3 2

d ella santa Anastasis

D ers.,

Sepolcro,"

" Nuove LA,

1 4

s coperte

8 5

( 1911),

d ella S .

zur

5 84ff.;

a Gerusalemme ," LA,12

archeologiche

( 1963-64),

della capella d ell'Inyenzione

in Jerusalem

2 93-338; Croce

n ella

Ders.,

e nuovi

reperti

archeologichi nella basilica d e l S .

( 1965),"

LA,

1 5

( 1964-65),

S epolcro di G erusalemme ( 1979),

2 79-292;

Palestine

B .

3 18-366;

" Problemi

1 971),

LA,

2 9

The Church f rom the Gentiles

i n

5 6ff.,

1 63ff.;

" L'identificagione dei proto-capitelli del 2 2

( 1972),

3 0-47;

C .

Katsimbinis,

C . S .

T inelli, S epolcro,"

the Area of the Canons' LA,

2 7

( 1977),

1 97-208: ( 3

R .

ed.,

Krautheimer,

Corbo,

" La basilica del

Passegna archeologica delle LA, 1 2.

1 9

L .E.

( 1969),

Browne,

S .

Runciman,

Byzantion, 1 4.

1 5.

the

1 4th century

" The Byzantine

Boase,

1 971),

4 3,

( 1948),

( Cambridge,

Croisgs,

' Protectorate"

Coüasnon,

I I,

1 2Off.;

a .0., A . W.

1 ( 1921),

Crusades,

Folda,

( Jerusalem, Jerusalem

8 Off.;

M .

i n the Holy L and,"

Clapham,

" The Latin monastic

6 8ff.;

J .

4 24ff.,

1 7.

Matthäus Paris,

1 8.

Savauget,

1 9.

B .

S BF,

1 5

Bagatti,

LA,

2 2

Prawer,

Crusades,

The Latin K ingdom of

4 32f.

Nr.2-3.

Chron. major,

R er.Brit.Script"

5 7,

VI,

( Paris,

3 48;

1 947),

I conographiae Monumentorum Terrae Sanctae ( Jerusalem,

" Nuove

( 1972),

1 962),

4 2. ( 1724-

3 6.

s coperte a lla tomba d ella Vergine a Getsemane,"

2 36-239;

Vergine a G etsemane," " L'edicola crociata

The

i n the Holy Land

La mosqu e omeyyade de Mgdine

E lzearius Horn, 1 744),

6 57,

Jerusalem,"

" Ecclesiastical Art,"

" Painting and S culpture,"

1 972),

Enchiridion,

Boase,

The Crusaders

1 970),

Baldi,

P .

B envenisti,

( London,

Taf.XXV.

3 -18;

( London,

1 6.

t ime of

6 0ff.

2 07-215.

Antiquaries Journal, IV,

1 969,"

f rom the

1 933),

K ingdoms and S trongholds of the Crusaders

Abb.24;

2 69ff.;

Harvey, R eport

S epolcro a Gerusalemme . edifici nel

buildings of the church of the Holy S epulchre,

IV,

W .

Final

6 5-114.

1 8

T .S. R.

Enlart,

S .

s trutture d egli

6 2ff.;

S urvey,

The Eclipse of Christianity i n Asia

Muhammad t ill 1 3.

Early Christian

L ondon , 1 980),

The Church of the Holy S epulchre, S tructural V .

New Lay-out of

R efectory by the Greek Orthodox Patriar-

and Byzantine Architecture ( London , 1 935);

LA,

" The Uncovering of the Eastern

Side of the Hill of the Calvary and I ts Base: chate,"

sul Santo

i n una r ecente publicazione,"

Bagatti,

( Jerusalem,

S epolcro a Gerusalemme

D ers"

Ders.,"L'apertura della tomba della

LA,

2 3

( 1973),

3 18-321;

M .

s ulla tomba della Madonna,"

Piccirillo, LA,

2 2

( 1972),

2 91-314. 2 0.

M .

2 1.

Boase,

2 2.

A .

Prodomo,

2 4

( 1974),

N.

Kenaan,

2 3.

de Vogüg,

I EJ,

2 3

a .0.,

2 15ff.;

S chmaltz,

" Ecclesiastical Art,"

a .0.,

Crusades,

I V,

1 60. 7 7-78.

" La t omba della r egina Melisenda a l G etsemane,"

LA,

2 02-226. " Local Christian Art i n Twelfth Century Jerusalem,"

( 1973),

I I,

2 22.

8 6

2 4.

2 5.

2 6.

2 7.

N .

K enaan, 2 3

L .Y.

( 1973),

Rahmani,

2 6

( 1976),

J .

Prawer,

2 7

( 1952),

J .

Prawer,

1 979),

E .

Christian Art i n Twelfth Century J erusalem,"

I :

1 67-175;

I I:

2 21-229.

" The Eastern L intel of t he Holy S epulchre,"

" The

s ettlement of the Latins

P .

Meyer, A .

B .

Borg,

( Oxford,

Brenk,

Heiliges

Architectural

1 972),

L efevre-Pontalis,

M .L .

Abb.

Bulst-Thiele,

3 1.

Rahmani,

3 2.

E .T.

Enchiridion,

R ichmond,

T .S. R .

( Bern,

s .

1 3

( Paris,

' Auferstehungskirche'

' Franken'

( 1979),

0 .

im 1 2.

4 42-471,

dort 4 45f.

" Church of the Holy S epulchre:

QDAP,

Boase,

1 ( 1932),

" The arts

Lehmann-Brockhaus,

I .C.

Gavini,

R om,

1 928),

medioevale

2 ,

Notes on a recent

Taf.I,2.

i n the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem,"

P .

" Die Kanzeln der Abruzzen im 1 2.

Fig.408 und 409,

3 1

"La S culpture 9 2;

M .

e l intelli medioevali C .

ä Jerusalem," ( 1923);

P .

Enlart,

3 8.

Baldi,

3 9.

E .

Enchiridion,

4 1.

Ch. W .

Wilson,

Gidal

Monuments

" Basilica del Santo S epolcro La Terra Santa,

4 5

( 1969),

l 'eglise du Saint-Sepulcre

Terre Sainte R omane

1 954),

2 41ff.;

( L' Abbaye

Prawer,

" Journal de Voyage," 1 ( 1893),

Kingdom, ed.

S te.

Marie de

a .0.,S.430f.

C . Couderc,

2 41.

Nr.954,1-2.

Bd.II

Ordinance

( London,

( Luzern,

Cambridge,

Survey of Jerusalem

Ewiges Jerusalem 1 850-1910. N .

2 60f.,

Jerusalem Explored Being a Description of the Ancient

and Modern C ity, 40.

Architettura

o .J.),

Bulletin de la s ocietg des Antiquaires de France

l ' Orient l atin,

Pierotti,

Portale,"

del

L ouis de Rochechouart, R evue de

Abb.348.

Moretti,

( Rom,

Jh.,"

I ( Mailand,

f rangaise en Palestine,"

Piccirillo,

" Sculptures de

Deschamps,

l a Pierre-qui-Vire, 3 7.

M .

s ecolo

und 1 3.

6 .

Abb.2-3.

( 1930),

1 06-117.

6 ( 1942/44),

4 11 und 4 21;

i n Abruzzo dal VI a l XVI

Deschamps,

Piot,

2 ( 1938/1939),

Storia dell' architettura i n Abruzzo,

Abb.1 und 3 08, 3 6.

i n

Jahrhundert,"

Nr.954,2.

Römisches Jahrbuch f ür Kunstgeschichte, 3 5.

l 'ancien

1 894).

Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 3 4.

Stuttgart,

i n Romanesque

a .0 " 1 27.

discovery," 3 3.

S peculum,

2 3 und 9 9.

" Die Mosaiken d er

Frühmittelalterstudien, Baldi,

Land

S culpture

L ' architecture r eligieuse dans

Jerusalem und die Bauten der

3 0.

i n Jerusalem,"

4 90-503.

diocese de Soissons du XIe au XII e 2 9.

I EJ,

1 20-129.

2 57;

Provence 2 8.

" Local

IEJ,

1 864),

Taf.XXXII. 1 865),

2 2.

Einführung und Bildlegenden,

Tim

Frankfurt am Main,1980), 8 7

( o.O.,

Taf.II.

4 2.

Ch.

Clermont-Ganneau,

during the years 1 15;

Ders,

Archeological researches

1 873-1874

l ittgraires, M .

Aubert,

de

la Renaissance,

Louvre 4 4.

3 .Folge,

E .

1 2

et des

1 950),

Henschel-Simon,

QDAP,

( 1946),

4 6.

A . K.

" Condrieu,

Porter,

( 1924-1925),

C .

Gömez-Moreno,

( Mailand, 4 8.

Salmi,

4 9.

E .

a .0.,

Doberer,

träger," 5 0.

G .

5 1.

G .

Jerusalem and St.

Gilles,"

Art i n America,

1 927),

The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin,

Salmi,

L 'architettura romanica in Toscana

Taf.CCXVI. Gömez-Moreno,

a .0., Abb.4.

"Romanische Figurenfriese und Bandmann

1 979),

Nr. XII,

i hre ehemaligen Bild-

( Berlin,

" The Chichester Reliefs,"

( London,

Zarnecki,

f rom Jerusalem,"

" The Doorway of San L eonardo a l Frigido and the

Taf.CXVI;

Zarnecki,

Mus e du

Abb .380.

Gedenkschrift G .

S culpture

Moyen Age,

1 17-129.

3 49-362; M . Rom,

et

s culptures du Moyen Age,

t emps modernes, I ,

Problem of Master Biduino," ( 1965),

s cientifiques

Taf. XIA.

" Note on a R omanesque relief

Bauplastik,

2 3

6 5,

7 5-76.

Buschhausen,

1 3

1 12-

Nr.83.

4 5.

4 7.

Archives des missions

9 ( 1891),

Bd.I,

s cientifique e n Palestine

Description raisonnge des

( Paris,

i n Palestine

1 899 und 1 896),

"Rapport sur une mission

et en Phgnicie en 1 881,"

4 3.

( London,

in:

1 971),

Studies

7 7-94. i n Romanesque

F ig.l.

L ater Romanesque Sculpture,

1 140-1210

( London,

1 953),

Taf.67. 5 2.

A .

Borg,

"Observation on the Historiated L intel of the Holy

S epulchre,

Jerusalem,"

I nstitutes, 5 3.

J .

Prawer,

R evealed l ich:

N .

3 2

( 1969),

" The

" The

the Holy Sepulchre Ages: 5 4.

B .

Rupprecht,

5 5.

H .

Buschhausen,

1 11-113.

s culptured ed.

Hirmer,

B .Z.

D er Verduner Altar.

1 979),

3 16-326.

i n Frankreich

1 974),

Romanische Bronzen: ( Zürich,

Das Emailwerk des Nikolaus ( Wien,

1 980),

La Haute-Normandie

la Pierre-qui-Vire,

L eisinger,

C rusader Church of

( Jerusalem,

Romanische Skulptur

Normandie romane:

l ichen Europa

Jerusalem

Abb.193.

L .

H .

in:

i st mir nicht zugäng-

i n Jerusalem i n the Middle

Kedar

im Stift K losterneuberg

Musset,

L eider

l intels of the

von Verdun Marie de 5 6.

M .

1 975),

1 976),

i n Jerusalem,"

Selected Papers,

( München,

2 5-40.

Lintels of the Holy S epulchre,"

( Jerusalem, Kenaan,

Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld

1 956),

8 8

Abb.10; ( L ' Abbaye Ste.

Taf.139.

Kirchentüren

Abb.108-123.

im mittelalter-

5 7.

A . I II

5 8.

N .

Goldschmidt, ( Berlin, K enaan,

Die Elfenbeinskulpturen aus

1 923),

Buschhausen, Baukunst

d er

r omanischen Z eit,

6 -11.

" A l ocal Trend in Crusader Art

Jerusalem Revealed, 5 9.

N r.

i n Jerusalem,"

in:

114-115.

Bauplastik,

Abb.235-237;

E .Gall,

i n Frankreich und D eutschland,

Abb. 9 -10.

8 9

I

D ie

gotische

( Braunschweig,

1 955),

Sudfassade:

Charlieu,

Q 4,

I

9 1

J AW

. 1, 1‚

Abendmahlsbild

P l.

P l.

3 .2b

3 .2a

B ibel von F loreffe,

Jerusalem,

G rabeskirche

9 2

Abendmahlsbild

westlicher Türsturz,

5 .

S zene

9 3

K losterneuburg,

J erusalem,

U ) . • z c o z : 3 ) •( 4 i f r i • c r )

• H

c : Q

r t 5

g • • H ( 4 4

• E

G ) ri P H o r t •

1 0 4 ) 4 ) i n K 1 • . o 0 4 -) , c

1 79

C * 1

1

r I

1 81 Judgement o n t he w est

P l.

7 .4

T he C hapel:

painting of E lijah a nd E lisha,

l ayer s howing t he Evangelist

1 82

( photo:

u nder a s econd

a uthor)

P l.

7 .5

The C hapel, ( photo:

apse:

Mother of God B lachernitissa

a uthor)

1 83

P l.

7 .6

The Chapel, ( photo:

apse:

author)

1 84

S t.

John Chrysostom

1 85 the Evangelist Mark

1 86

r 4

1 87 s cene

f rom the Last Judgement,

1 88

Saints H elena

and Julia

P 1.

7 .11

T he C hapel, ( photo:

n orth a isle:

a uthor)

1 89

s tylite

s aint

8 . DAMASCUS GATE,

JERUSALEM,

AND CRUSADER WALLPAINTING

O F THE MID -TWELFTH

CENTURY

Lucy-Anne Hunt

While much of the evidence churches

i n Palestine derives

f or the painted decoration of Crusader

f rom documentary

the a ccounts of pilgrims t o the Holy Land, decoration survive,

e ither

i n

cycle

Latin K ingdom i s

the

excavated at Damascus Gate,

1

f resco

O ne

s uch example of wall-

f ragmentary r emains of a painted

Jerusalem.

Excavations undertaken at Damascus Gate, J erusalem,

particularly

f ragments of

s itu or retrieved during excavation,

which deserve more detailed consideration. painting i n the

s ources,

s ome

on the north wall of

during 1 964-5 by the British S chool of Archaeology i n

Jerusalem on behalf of the Jerusalem Municipality and the Jordanian D epartment of Antiquities . r evealed important evidence occupation of Jerusalem. of the excavations,

published i n

1 970,

Professor J .B.

cussed the uncovering of the Crusader gateway, painted masonry blocks were

f ound i n a small

immediately to the west of the present gate. this

chamber be

identified with the

s uggestion has been repeated t o Crusader J erusalem.

l evels a s

i ts

i n most

will be

e lucidate

offer a basis gramme. i n the t o

Hennessy proposed that

2

the evidence of the three the Roman,

this paper aims

After a review of the

mentary s tate,

s everal

Byzantine and

currently available evidence of the Crusader

s tarting point,

f ocused on the

during which

i rregularly-shaped chamber

s ubsequent l iterature relating

c ontribution the discovery makes t o the wallpainting.

s urviving

t o r econsider the

s tate of knowledge of Crusader

archaeological evidence,

f resco pieces.

e lements of the original

t he problem of the

i n Palestine,

i dentification of the Chapel put

s hows

the C rusader

occupation of J erusalem,

and a s olution f orward.

angled roadway.

l eve1,

3

reveals

St.

Stephen's Gate,

A towered gateway

( P1.8.1 A ,B)

which t ook a r ight-angled turn to the

f rom the present gate

known

was by way of an

gave a ccess to this s outh-west twenty

and entered the city at the

s ame place.

Hennessy associated the two buildings which were approached by ( P1.8.1 C ,D )

Umayyad cisterns, cavations,

with this phase.

and while

the building t o

the south

Both were built over apparently

( P1.8.1 E )

Running around t he

of the Chapel was a plastered bench, ' an emplacement

1 91

,

s tepped

that to the north c ollapsed during ex-

r e-used the c istern beneath. Hennessy described a s

of which

t hat during Crusader

entry t o the c ity at this gate,

throughout the Middle Ages a s

doorways

which

f or the painting when i t i s considered

Professor Hennessy's Report and plan of the excavations,

metres

f rag-

f or arguing the extent of the original d ecorative pro-

A date can be proposed

roadway,

attention

Despite their

ensemble can be discerned,

context of Crusader art e lsewhere

P1.8.1 here

f indings

Hennessy dis-

I t i s hoped that the promised complete publi-

cation of the excavations will Taking the

Crusader

' Chapel of Abraham ,' and this

main phases of occupation at Damascus Gate: Crusader.

f or the

I n a short preliminary R eport of the

i s

the Chapel,

which

s outh and west walls

and a long the east wall what f or an a ltar.'

Still

i n

s itu

i s an a lcove a chute

( Pls.8.1-2 F ),

( Pls.8.1-2 G ),

which i s c onnected t o a t rough o utside by

and which was matched by another t rough o n t he

opposite s ide of t he r oadway

( P1.8.1 H ).

t he painted masonry blocks were

f ound,

I t i s

i n t his chapel t hat

a nd i t i s t his a rea o f t he e x-

c avation which must b e c onsidered i n more d etail.

H ennessy s uggested

that the gate r emained i n g ood r epair until t he d estruction by t he Khwarismian Turks i n 1 244. L ater e ntrances w ere built over t he rubble-filled C rusader r oadway, a nd C rusader masonry was r e-used b y Suleiman

i n t he c onstruction of t he present g ate

c entury,

on t he

R . W.

Hamilton's

i n t he

l ine of t he R oman wall which H ennessy, f indings of 1 937-8,

Wall of J erusalem.

s ixteenth f ollowing

t ook t o b e H erod Agrippa's T hird

4

Thus t he C rusader gate c onstituted a n i ndirect a ccess gateway, comparable t o bent a ccess e ntrance c omplexes i n other Frankish f ort resses,

s uch a s K erak,

Beaufort a nd the thirteenth-century multiple

bent a ccess e ntrance a t Krak des Chevaliers. r emain i n r espect of H ennessy's plan, two entrances

( P1.8.1 C ,D)

t he e ast of t he

l ine of t he R oman was a lso used

s everal q ueries

I t ' i s possible t hat t he

i ncluding t he e ast a nd west t owers

i n t he C rusader period,

( P1.8.1 J )

However,

a nd t he phasing o f t he walls t o

( P1.8.1 J ).

f ortifications

way was c ombined with i t t o c ore'

were cut,

' Crusader c ore'

5

e specially t he date a t which t he

a nd t hat t he bent a ccess r oad-

f orm a barbican c omplex,

with t he

' Crusader

a nd a n e xtension f rom t he west t ower.

• This brief s urvey of t he c urrently available a rchaeological evidence l eads

t o the

l ooked at i n detail originally a n f orm the n orth,

s pecific c onsideration o f t he c hapel.

( P1.8.2),

i rregularly-shaped r ectangle,

s outh e nd,

o f which t he walls P , Q, R

w ith P and t he e xtension of R c ontinuing t o t he

once c ompleted by a l ost n orth wall.

l ost northern part of the building. at a l ater date,

When

t he plan s uggests that t he c hapel was

T he e ntrance was

i n t his

The a ccess D must have b een c ut

a s i t broke t he painted dado wall

presumably putting t he chapel out of use.

( Pls.8.3,4) , t hereby

I t matches t he

s imilar

e ntrance on t he north s ide of the r oadway. At t he

s ite a t D amascus Gate t oday merely t he t races of painting

s urvive on the e ast a nd s outh walls.

On the e ast wall

immediately t o the n orth of t he a lcove and b elow r emnants of,

f rom n orth t o s outh,

r epeated once,

This

i s a ll

i t,

t he

w ith a

that r emains of t he painted dado o f which

H ennessy published a n e xcavation photograph above

( reproduced h ere a s P 1.8.4a ) ,

s tart of what must have b een a s cene of t he

Annunciation

( P1.8.3).

4a,b )

f oot of t he Angel of t he Annunciation a pproaching t he

i s

t he

Virgin's plinth,

Evident i n t he e xcavation photographs

The a lcove

i s t he wall a rea a round i t.

t he dado painting,

a re s till visible a t t he 2 .30 m .

i s white-plastered i nside a nd out, T his p laster i s of t he s ame phase a s

6

a nd t herefore

i ndicating t hat t he a lcove was of c .

( Pls.8.

which i s d ecorated with a pattern o f white d ots

s eparated by s quares. a s

a re

a b lue t riangle a nd a r ed c ircle

outlined i n white against a n o chre background,

r ed border above. with,

( P1.8.2 P )

( between D a nd F )

i ntegral with the d ecorative

i n u se

i n t he c hapel.

s cheme,

T races o f paint

s outh-west c orner of t he c hapel a t a h eight

These c omprise part of a r ed b order which r uns d own

t he r emaining s ection of t he C rusader wall a nd t urns e astwards a bove t he

f irst

s tone c ourse a s a f rame

f or t he

s ince-destroyed wall

of which a f ew t races of b lue a re v isible a t t his s outh wall. l ayers,

A ll

t he

s urviving

c learly of t he

l ower

f rescoes,

l evel o f t he

f ragments a re o f two v ery s imilar

s ame phase. 1 92

These r emnants,

w ith t hose o n t he

east wall,

provide e vidence t hat t he painted b locks f ound d uring the

excavations a s

r ubble

p iled on t op o f g raph

i n t he middle o f

t he c hapel

f loor,

t he east wall d ado painting i n t he

( here P 1.8.4a ) , a re

a t a l ater t ime.

and s een

e xcavation photo-

i ndeed i n s itu a nd n ot brought f rom e lsewhere

T hese painted blocks,

n ow i n t he R ockefeller Museum,

must b e d iscussed before r eturning t o t he question o f the i dentification o f the chapel. T he

s even painted masonry b locks a re

t hin underlayer o f plaster

s tone under t he painted l ayer surfaces

t oo.

P 1.8.3 and P 1.8.5a)

t he Annunciation f acing r ight. a re o utlined i n d ark r ed,

with w hite h ighlights.

T he a ngel's head,

7

o range.

T he

l ess

t ime o f

a ngel,

wall.

h is

A gain,

d rapery

r ed-painted w all d elicate T he

i s

( P1.8.3,

l ower

( P1.8.3

n o.4;

P 1.8.5b)

t he angel's

P 1.8.6a )

c learly e tched T he

e xtends.

As

a nd c onveys,

8

s hows

even

t he b ack o f

n otably i n t he

T he

w ith l ow

a pplied

a bove a band o f i s outlined

9

" V"

i n d ark

I ndicative o f t he

s hapes d own t he s hin

s ome g reen,

e specially a t r ed,

t echnique h ere produces a r oughness

s plashing o f

f ramed w ith f igure

garments.

d rapery a bove t he knee i s

T he painting

sketchy white s hading

i s

f illed i n w ith d ark r ed b elow.

n o.3;

i n dark blue/grey w ith

s ketched with white.

halo

l evels o f more t hickly

h ighlighted with white.

e dge o f t he block.

o f f inish,

T he ange rs

in dark r ed a gainst a b lue background,

s tyle o f painting h ere a re drawn

a gain

l ighter r ed a nd

f irm d raughtmanship,

o rnamented i n t hree

f orward l eg

f rom t he knee,

i ndicated by

f rom w hich a g rey v ertical

t endril s crolls w ith a rches

angel's

i s

i n r ed,

D ark r ed and g rey l ines a re d rawn

A c riss-cross d esign a ppears

r ed on a paler r ed/pink,

t he

e xcavations.

g reen and white f or

o chre patterning.

s houlder

f luttering a gainst the background o f a d ecorated

outlining i s

t he u se o f b eige,

t he f igure

t he

s haded i n paler

a quality o f t ense e nergy.

Another painted b lock t he

h alo and s houlders

e vident n ow t han t hey a re on t he photo-

s hows vigour,

i n i ts present s tate,

o n t he

l argely d estroyed,

i s d rawn i n d ark r ed,

t he

d iagonally b ehind t he f igure, t he h ead

i s

s een c learly,

with t he

a gainst a blue background.

a w hole,

f ace

The b ack o f

T he hair

c urls a re

g raph t aken a t t he o chre,

c an be

white a nd o range strokes,

s plashed w ith w hite.

( no.5

s hows t he h ead o f t he Angel o f

a nd while t he

p ink/ochre o f t he c hin and n eck g reen,

t he

and f requently a ppearing on t he o ther

The painting o f one o f t hese b locks

r econstruction,

r ed,

i rregularly s haped, w ith a

a pplied t o prime t he f ront f ace o f

r ed a round t he knee a nd t he

a web o f

t hinner b rushstrokes.

The

wall t o t he r ight o f

t he

o chre a nd d ark r ed.

Three other masonry b locks s how t races o f painting ,

one o f o range/red b rushwork o f

t he angel

( P1.8.3

n o.6),

s imilar t o that 1 0

and r ed paint a nd o riginally p ieces in t he Museum, d ado still s cene,

i n s itu,

t aken

i s painted o range/red, patterned with i mmediately t o t he r ight

w hile two o thers

r etain t races o f b lue

f ormed part o f t he d ado. i n c onjunction with t he

g ive a n i mpression o f

w ith t he angel d ressed

T hese painted

l amentably f aded

t he e ast w all Annunciation

i n a r ed c loak o ver a white/grey g arment,

b efore an a rchitectural backdrop,

a pproaching t he p linth o f

t he

l ost

V irgin. While

t he angel f ragments a re

painted head photographed a t t he P 1.8.6b)

s till well v isible,

t ime o f

has d eteriorated badly. 1 1

t hat o f a

t he excavations

( P1.8.3

n o.7;

A g ood c olour photograph p ublished

by K enyon i n 1 967 i s n ow u seful i n d escribing t he haloed head w ith a c urtained building t o t he l eft o f i t. 1 2 P art o f t he r ight e ye and

1 93

eyebrow of the

f igure c an be s een,

w ith brown curly hair l ike t hat of

t he a ngel but h ighlighted with t he o chre c olour. with pinkish-red.

T he o chre h alo

outer white r ing.

T he background i s d ark b lue,

blue,

T he f ace

l eft of the curtain i s dark red.

pletely obliterated,

s haded

w ith a n

w ith a reas of p aler

presumably the underpainting s howing t hrough,

t o t he

i s

i s o utlined i n d ark r ed,

while t he a rea

The f ace has n ow b een c om-

a nd o nly s ome g reen u nderpainting i s v isible,

a lthough the curtain a nd p art of t he halo c an s till b e d iscerned. The

f rame of t he curtained

s tructure

i s o f r ed w ith d etails

The c urtain i s pale g reen marked w ith s tronger g reen

" V"

1 3

i n o chre.

f olds.

A t

the t op of t he c urtain a re dark r ed a nd w ider o chre-coloured horiz ontal bands,

a nd u nder t hese were,

a s o n K enyon's photograph,

t wo

bright r ed s tripes. The conclusion t o b e drawn t he

s mall

by a r ed border, c ircle d esign. c iation,

f rom t hese painted

i s t hat

O n t he e ast wall was c ertainly a s cene of t he A nnun-

f igure of t he a ngel was

l ively

( if s omewhat r oughly

s hown moving t owards t he p linth o n

which the Virgin was r epresented. was

f ramed

above a n o rnamental dado o f a n a lternating d iamond a nd

of which the boldly d rawn,

executed) north,

f ragments

c hapel was probably d ecorated t hroughout with s cenes

E lsewhere,

o n t he e ast wall o r t he

the haloed f igure - perhaps a nother a ngel o r a s aint,

t he r ight of a curtained s tructure.

t o

B earing i n mind t he problems of

dealing with s uch f ragmentary material,

c ertain parallels

f or t he

i conography a nd s tyle of t he Damascus G ate painting c an be s uggested t o offer a date

f or t he painted chapel.

N o other monumental L atin K ingdom,

s cenes of t he Annunciation s urvive

a lthough i t

i s known

Annunciation was d epicted over t he t riumphal a rch, r otunda and the choir,

between t he

of the Church of t he H oly S epulchre,

amongst t he mosaics a t B ethlehem.

f rom t he

f rom pilgrim a ccounts t hat t he

The

1 5

a nd

1 4

s tarting point f or c omparison

with C rusader painting must t hen be t he Annunciation i n t he M elisende P salter,

which i s t he f irst i llustration of t he manuscript

The P salter was a scribed by Buchthal t o t he S epulchre b etween 1 131-43.

A lan Borg has r ecently a rgued f or t he

1 6

l ater t erminus a nte quem o f 1 149,

c ontemporary with t he r efurbishing

of t he Church of t he H oly S epulchre. P salter's

1 7

The v ivid c olours of t he

i llustration a nd t hat of t he a ssociated Sacramentary

particular,

with t he M issal o f the Holy S epulchre,

t he D amascus Gate painting. i s

( P1.8.7).

s criptorium o f t he H oly

H owever,

t he

f igural

1 8

a re

i n

s hared by

s tyle of t he P salter

s tatic by c omparison w ith the e nergetic q uality o f t he D amascus

Gate a ngel.

Buchthal c ited e leventh-century Byzantine models a s

pertinent t o t he arrested c haracter of the M elisende P salter i llust ration,

1 9

while t he wallpainting s eems t o h ave d epended on n earer-

c ontemporary Byzantine

s ources.

The v itality of the a ngel c an b e

c ompared with Annunciation s cenes a round the mid-twelfth c entury, S t.

L uke

g roup,

i n t he C odex Ebnerianus

e specially MS.

Vat.

G r.

f rom C onstantinopolitan M SS of

e specially t hat over t he portrait o f ( P1.8.8)

2 0

a nd o thers o f t he

1 162 of a f ew y ears

a rtist of the D amascus G ate p ieces , then , is

l ater.

2 1

s ame T he

l ikely t o h ave b een a

Byzantine r ather than a L atin a rtist. S ince

t he

f igure of t he V irgin

P salter and s eated Virgin c ould b e d iagonal t he

s cene

i s

s tanding i n t he M elisende

i n t he Byzantine manuscripts,

r econstructed e ither way.

t he D amascus G ate

I t i s n ot c lear whether t he

l ine behind t he a ngel's back might s uggest a s tructure behind l ike t he V irgin's h ouse,

known f rom a l ate Comnene i con

1 94

on Mount

S inai,

s tructure point o f

t hat of

comparison w ith

f rom one of appears

i n w hich case the Virgin was

2 2

such as t he

O ne

of

ange rs

wallpainting

t he most

l ower

paintings of

t he Melisende

in the Visitation

l eg.

i n t he

i s

t he

These

t he f igures o f St.

Margaret

a re of

t he

c .

" V"

( P1.8.9)

s ame date,

t o

t he

1 140s

t he Damascus

especially one

inscription o f n ot

a ll the in 1 169.

i s o ffered by c omparison with i n Palermo

( P1.8.10)

1 143-11 5 1 by the Admiral George of Antioch. to t he c haracter of

o f

t he" V"folds

angel.

A f urther

c omparison f or

highlights

c an be

B ethlehem,

a ccepted amongst t he mosaics o f

s uggested with the

s tyle may i ndicate t hem t o be T hese o f

c omparisons with

around

angels o f-the

another,

Byzantine

t he mid- twelfth

Western painting,

c entury

a re m pre

comparison w ith manuscript workmanship o f

Gate painting.

to other monumental survives or

f ruitful

a ssumption be

o f

and perhaps

s ingle programme was

the Holy S epulchre, to t he

upon which

i s

o f

the

C hurch of

1 400, to

This

and M .

t hat o f

Anne's

Lazarus

a lthough

o ffering

3 3

I ts

i n 1 138 t o which

f irst a bbess.

3 1

r edecoration

of pilgrims

s imilarity o f

t he

a fter

s culpture

3 2

c ertain points o f

a s

c ontact.

The

i s known to have been

described by t he p ilgrim John

rebuilding has been associated with the

t he Benedictines of

O rfali

a re the

two o ther painted decorative programmes survive

in 1 165.

a ctivities of

The

C hurch

where Melisende herself was

H oly Sepulchre.

in t he mid-twelfth c entury,

of Würzburg

a t Bethany,

i n the writings

c ommemorating t he Agony a t Gethsemane

rebuilt

t he

s criptorium o f

to become t he

t he Virgin,

and the

f rom Gethsemane and S ebaste, c hurch

i n t he

P iccirillo has pointed to t he

Fragments o f

t he

and which surely

t hat Queen Melisende patronised t he

Anne's

and rea s

i s known to have f ounded

an a ssumption made

both St.

both royal,

in 1 149 29

t he tomb o f

came from St. t he Tomb of

i s

can be

a ctivity must have been c entred f or

Queen Melisende

a lso possible

buried.

the

especially

The Melisende P salter and o ther M SS

a n unnery with a c hurch • near I t

f or

f rom t he military o rders.

known to have been produced a t this time

s ister Yvette

1 140s,

the redecoration o f

c onsecration

stimulated work elsewhere.

her

the

s upported by r eference

S econd C rusade

Queen Melisende,

3 °

f eatures a s

A fair amount

around the

C rusader

Holy Sepulchre.

t han d irectly with

d ecoration f rom t he Latin Kingdom which e ither

t he optimism heralding the

y ears prior

2 7

i llumination and monumental work

t he a ctivity o f particular patrons,

some

.

2 8

f lecting

o f

a isle a t

a lthough t he d ifference of

a bout the mid-twelf t h century

Can this

d educed of decorative programmes

most important

" splashed"

C rusader monumental work

i s known f rom written s ources?

a ssociated with

and n orth

and can be endorsed by such general

point to Byzantine Damascus

1 169,

The

2 6

t he head

slightly earlier phase o f work.

and other

blue background and t he white-ringed halo. T hus

A more t he

c lose resemblance of style a lso extends t he

another

c olumn

a c lue to a period of a rtistic the mosaics

Annunciation at the Church of the Martorana d ecorated between

which

2 3

s ome o f t he c olumn

An

. 24

i s

a ctivity well before t he completion of specific dating

f eatures o f

and while

t his

A f inal

shaped f old pattern on the

compared w ith

1 130 , 25

a simpler

P1.8.6b)

P salter.

t he Nativity at Bethlehem,

c olumn painting dates it t o paintings

i n the

s tylistic

can b e

Church of

( P1.8.3 no.7;

( fol.Iv)

strong

o r

i llustration.

P salter is the hanging c urtain

f ragments

s cene

i ndicative

Gate painted fragments

seated;

t he Melisende P salter

the Abbey o f

also s uggested the

1 95

l avishness

t he V irgin of Joasaphat, of

t he enterprise

benefitted

from t he

royal patronage

of wallpainting was

f ound during

of Queen Melisende,

t he

excavations

an angel a nd part of Christ's crossed n imbus, the Museum of the s cene

F lagellation.

from t he Agony i n

f ragment

s hows

Crusader c hurch. cus Gate,

C hrist The

3 6

and t he

of t he

s ame

unlikely,

i s made

t he

r etains

c orner of t he

angel

of green

h ead

for

artist,

c hurch.

John

John,

upper

F lanking t he n iche on either

s ide of

angels,

north

of which t hat L ike t he

f irmly drawn,

t he

pel,

s cenes are

c olours.

i n t he Holy L and.

( Samaria)

t he main

1 180.

John

t he

f igure

i s

a ngel's g arment

r ed.

while

As

i n t he i n

l ively a nd

c ompared t he

t hat of t he d ate

I Comnenos' that

the

S ebaste

of the o ther monas-

S ebaste monastery, B esides,

4 2

t he

a ctivity a nd

t he

comparison w ith t he the mid-twelfth T he ments

north-east

c entury

s eems more

with Queen M elisende,

as w ell

f inal problem t o be

Annunciation of

d edication of t he

Chapel

of a small

Codex

c hurch

i s

east wall

t he

s hortly a fter

t hen,

w ith monu-

s ome possibly a ssociated i llumination a nd other

t hat of the s uggests

j ust outside

1 96

that t he

" known

t o be based o n

Cambrai

identification

g iven t o t he C hapel

while H ennessy a ccepted

Abraham a s being

s eems i n

n ow-

s hortly after.

the

St.

T his a ssumption

map of J erusalem i n t he 1 150,

a s manuscript

to t he Virgin, t o

a d ate only

T he prominent place

t he V irgin on

c onsistent t he

i nto a ccount

a ssociated,

1 140s,

c onsidered

C hapel.

might have been dedicated records." 44

t he

work of this period or

of t he D amascus Gate

c .

i n

i n

l ikely.

D amascus G ate painting c an be

monumental

T aking

4 3

Damascus Gate paintings,

f ounded or r edecorated

T he

l ate e leventh c entury c hape1.

t here

even by John

and

l ost paintings of t he

s econd

patron-

between t he

t his monastery must have b een

a s early a s

L atin

i n t he

influence of Greek artists a t i s known even

t he

Damascus Gate c ha-

C rowfoot

however,

1 185.

t ime

i s purple over

Jordan Valley i s r ecorded,

of t he

c hurch

t he

depicts

the w ings are edged

i n t he

church w ith

l ikely,

i s no mention of h is patronage who visited t he

n iche

t hrust of Manuel's patronage,

Baptist

t he painta t

s cene i s a pair o f

While Manuel's patronage

4 1

t he

i s

i n t he

n orth-east

t he better preserved

to t ally with Manuel

I t

4 °

the

and s uggested a g eneral

twelfth c entury

1 160s a nd

i s

framed with r ed borders.

a lso a t S ebaste,

i n

t he upper

s trokes,

r ebuilding of t he

paintings precede

Phocas,

s imilar models.

I nvention of his Head.

s ide T he

s plashed with bright

s tonework of t he

s cene

Damascus Gate angel,

with a g auze of f ine white a nd

l ate

i n

i n bright

i n b lack

t ery of St.

b een

help of a wash dräwing made lower t he

age

h ave

i s n ot

a pproach,

Now i n a very d ecayed condition,

3 8

out with t he t he

t he

a l-

two paintings

the Baptist at t he

D ecapitation of St.

half of

s omething o f angel,

John the Baptist at S ebaste

T he

c athedral

f or t he

to what may w ell

3 9

t he

s hares

s hading and t he h ead has n one

of C rowfoot's excavations.

b lue,

( P1.8.12)

A s imilar date

3 7

chapel of St.

can be made

( P1.8.11).

i nstead t hat

a rch of t he

f ragments of the painted d ecoration of the n iche

c rypt below t he i ngs

s uggested

t riumphal

and hair of the Damascus Gate

T he Greek Church of S t. s till

f rom t he

G ethsemane painting s hows a different

perhaps by a L atin

i n

a

who published a w ater-

Bagatti

3 5

i nterpreted a s

same white-ri med h aloes a ppear as a t D amas-

f ace

i ntensity.

but

1 924.

i n Majesty

G ethsemane

the modelling of the though more use

i n

a nd i s n ow preserved

f ragment was

t he Garden by Orfali,

colour drawing of t he piece the

T he

A f ragment

3 4

s howing t he head of

( Bibl. the

the presence

C ambr.

Gate of

St.

t he

f rom Crusader Ms.

4 37)

S tephen

on t he of

l abelled

' Ecclesia S .

H abrahr.'

t he identification o f t his with that b e

o f

a Coptic

saint,

Serapion,

the column f rom which another

takes

i ts

name.

and that this

that the Chapel during

The B ritish

4 7

at Damascus

l ikely

i t was

the u se o f

Similar chapels are

a ssociation a lso argues

f or

of c ity g ates.

i n

the public,

5

a l avabo and

here

example.

The f irst,

i n any p ilgrim's

i n the e ast wall.

accounts.

another

a cross the roadway.

It

i s possible

that during

s lab was

f ound

t o have been found in the e xcavations

taken by Wilson and Warren i n t he

c ross,

remains door

suggest t hat purposes

t he Chapel was

f igure

s cene which decorated t he

b ate ,

o f

then known a s

Chapel dedicated t o

St.

t he

building

time o f

1 139.

of the

S t.

o f St.

was

the

John

John,

Monastery

Church o f

something

to H ospitaller patronage.

s tandably

t ake a strong

T he

h ave

interest

u sed

f or secular

at

e nclosed w ithin t he

i tself s hould be i ntense

the Holy Sepulchre

s ophistication o f MS

it was

,

E gerton

i ndeed b uilt and decorated

comparable painting at t he T he

S ebaste may

a lso owe

H ospitallers would under-

i n a s hrine of t heir patron in t he mid-century

contemporaneously with regal patrons

1 97

the

n orth wall,

b een a H ospitaller

a period of

t he Baptist at

O rder might have been responsible

a rtistic patronage,

t he Chapel

c utting of

churches at other major p ilgrim s ites;

O rder

John,

in the mid-twelfth c entury.

I f the C hapel at Damascus Gate w as

Knights

tempting

f rom a n Annunciation

the painting

a lso a period which produced MSS o f by

i s

of St.

fragments o f painting

This may

S econd C rusade,

is

in 1 187.

including the redecoration o f

and construction o f

I t

5 2

l ater

e ast wall of the Chapel

t he Virgin;

the

a ctivity,

The

of an angel,

attributed t o a Byzantine a rtist working This,

a nd another

s econd phase of

the city

Stephen's.

the

a nd charitable a ctivities The

the

i s by

the double-barred

d econsecrated and perhaps

R econstruction of

Gate yields the

5 1

s ide and demolition of the

e ven before t he capture

one o f

t he H ospitallers

f or conjecture.

i n the e ast

To sum up: Damascus

the Gate.

i t

at Damascus Gate under-

twelfth century bear

e ven more a matter

( P1.8.1 D )

o f

and whose military

5 3

that this was

e xcavations a

nineteenth century.

l ink these f inds with the K nights

Patriarchal

the

incised with a double-barred c ross,

might have been combined at

H ennessy

matched a s

and charitable i deals o f

s ignificant

throughout the

s uggests

in e ither case be c on-

reported

s eals

the

t he c istern below

t o the poor,

The Chapel might

s istent with the dual military

whose

commonly

t o which the paintings

the presence o f

f or the d istribution of a lms

t o

other

This military

4 8

knowledge n o r eference to a chapel

a chute

i s

b ut

t rough for the use o f p ilgrims and

B ut to the author's

I t

( ecc1esia)

the garrison s tationed

that t he archaeological e vidence

t he C hapel.

° a v iew supported by

Military O rders.

t he remaining part

church

a dedication to the Virgin,

the Chapel. is made

h owever,

f ound in the fortifications o f

' Atilt f or

included the u se of the a lcove

suggested this was

an i dea which h as r evealed,

4 9

It has b een pointed o ut t wo building phases belong,

not a proper

f or

in the C rusader period,

protectress

i s

e xcavations

t he Gate,

B ab a l Amud,

s o c annot be associated with any b uilding

a m ilitary chapel

the Gate.

c ities

the Gate,

Furthermore the proportions of

the Chapel suggest t hat

c hurch could

i nside

Gate was part o f t he barbican constructed

t he Latin o ccupation,

on the Madaba map. more

n ame for

j ust

T he a ssociation w ith the Copts

4 6

been taken up e lsewhere.

a t

St.

s uggested t hat

i n the M iddle Ages was c onfused

i dentified on the s ixth-century Madaba map,

near

o f

Vincent and Abel

4 5

church

f or

s aint.

5 4

i mportant

l ike Queen

Melisende;

a d istinctly Byzantine manner o f work had e volved prior

t o Manuel during

I

the

Comnenos'

1 160s

and

r efurbishment o f

7 0s

( and discussed

The Damascus Gate painted f ragments a s

they provoke

their value t he

1 140s,

a re

the Holy Shrines in Palestine i n t his volume by A .

Weyl Carr).

s ignificant n ot only i nasmuch

speculation about t he Chapel

i tself,

b ut a lso for

i n f ocussing attention on a phase o f Crusader painting in both at Jerusalem and

e lsewhere

i n t he Latin K ingdom.

NOTES

1 .

I should

l ike t o

t hank Prof.

cavation photographs o f ( reproduced here,

J .B.

P ls.8.4a,b,

5a,

h is courtesy during my visits t he painted b locks o f

1 977

l ogical

2 .

3 .

6 a,b );

Dr.

L .Y.

Rahmani f or

t he Rockefeller Museum t o

and Dr.

S .W.

t here,

H elms

reproduced h ere and for h is

e vidence.

f or

i n

t he B ritish Academy which e nabled me t o attend the at t he

B .S.A.J.

H ennessy, Jerusalem,

H amilton,

1 937-8,"

1 964-6," c f.

an

Levant , 11

Hennessy,

Plan,

( 1944),

2 2-3,

( 1970),

2 2-7.

" Preliminary R eport on Excavations,"

Fig.1 and P lates.

" Excavations

QDAP,10

Excavations,"

S ymposium

in January 1982.

" Preliminary Report on E xcavations at the Damascus

For what f ollows,

R . W.

s ummer

c ömments on the a rchaeo-

f rom

J .B.

t he

kindly d rawing

held

Gate

s tudy

I also gratefully a cknowledge a t ravel grant

especially pp.24-7; 4 .

t o

f rom t he Excavation h oused

and January 1982;

P ls.8.1,2,3

Hennessy f or making his e x-

t he painted b locks a vailable to me

a gainst the N orth Wall

1 ff;

F igs.1-2

Hennessy,

o f Jerusalem,

" Preliminary

and Plates;

t he

R eport on

third wall remains

i ssue.

5 .

W . Müller -Wiener, Castles of the C rusaders ( London, 1 966), 4 7-8, 6 2-3 and 5 9-62 respectively, with plans a nd e arlier bibliographies.

6 .

H ennessy,

7 .

Front

f ace of

plaster l ayer) 8 .

" Preliminary Report on Excavations,"

i s

cm.

o f

Front one

each

c .

the block,

f ace o f

0 .4

back

c m.

The b lock

Each

l ayer o f

i s plastered

( one

i s

O ne

which

c m.

as much a s

and e vens

t he

l ayers a t the

s haped.

5 2.52 x 6 0.00 i s

Also two

l ayer o f plaster

t riangularly

block measures f ine,

2 6.5 x 3 2.00 t hick.

cm. 1 .2

There cm.

s urface of

i s

t hick t he

only i n places

s tone.

i s smoothly cut.

Front face plaster,

cm.

which

l ayer o f plaster,

and e lsewhere very The

1 2.5 x 1 1.5

thick.

Front face of block measures back

1 0.

0 .4

on t he back a s well.

o f plaster,

9 .

b lock measures

a pprox.

pl.XXIIIB.

of b lock measures

which

c ontinues

5 6 x 5 2

cm.

on t he reverse.

1 98

Only one

l ayer o f

1 1.

Front

face

l ayers t o 1 2.

5 -6 mm,

K .M.

Part

o f

1 7.

1 95-6,

A .

L a.

Borg,

E xcavating

Pls.76-8 o f

Jgrusalem,

a l.,

e specially

I I,

2 61 and n .2,

2 0.

on t he

which

O xford,

to the

2 1.

C .

2 2.

K .

2 4.

Weitzmann, und d ie

Buchthal, South

r eproduced

J erusalem," M artindale,

7 -12,

d ependence o f

1 4

f f.

t he

Anastasis

t he Latin Patriarchs

and 1 40-1.

Buchthal r efers f aces

F itzwilliam Museum, Damascus

o f the

McClean

Gate painting.

e specially 2 f f. Auct. 1 977),

W ilson,

T .

I nf.

I .

1 0.

S ee

2 4-5,

No.

3 9,

pp.59

f f.

with earlier

a later date t han t he

i n the Escorial,

M iniature d ella

H ntter,

O xford:

Mediaeval G reek B ookhands

a rgues

The

I .

Bd.I,

t welfth c entury" for t he M S;

f orthcoming.

O milie

H .

Buchthal,

its M iniatures and

C odex Ebnerianus Dr.

a nd M SS o f

J .C.

the

Anderson.

d i G iacomo Monaco

( Rome,

f ol.122r p 1.53.

" Eine Spätkomnenische Verkundligt ingsikone d es z weite byzantinische Welle

f ür

H .

M iniature

a isle,

Nativity, Art,"

1 973),

f ol.118r p1.51;

Festschrift 2 3.

Borg a nd A . 1 981),

a re c urrently b eing studied b y

Stornajolo,

S inai

N .

N ew T estament M S

group

1 910),

A .

Byzantine modelling o f t he

( Stuttgart,

( Abb.238);

Binding,"

s ame

eds.

( Cambridge,

a ccepted " early

Greek

i s

L iturgy a nd M etrology

Byzantinischen Miniaturenhandschriften,

( Cambridge,Mass.,

i ts

The Annunciation

i s particularly c lose to t he

Bodleian L ibrary

f ormerly

Nativity a t B ethlehem

( Oxford,

t he

Bodleian L ibrary, ms.

bibliography

" The

f or

Miniature Painting,

d er

w ith t he t ext of

l ost apse mosaic of t he Holy Sepulchre.

Sacramentary

Buchthal,

Corpus

i s

( II,2).

w ith that of seals of

Miniature Painting,

Cambridge

1 9.

a rgues

and P1.22a)

4 9)

( London,

and halo v isible t oday

S tudies of Medieval Art,

S eries 1 11)

P salter,

Jerusalem,

Ms.

o f H istory

l ost apse mosaic o f the Hol Y Sepulchre,

1 0-11,

in t he

( p. 16

Y ears

f ace

M iniature Painting 1 f f. •

" The

Buchthal,

f ine c oating

X IX in c olour.

t he

The Church of the

( BAR International

1 8.

3 ,000

a nd Pl.

presented to C hristopher Hohler,

o f

T here a re two

2 5.

i n T he Vanishing Past,

s cene

c m.

1 c m thick.

d escription c ited p .288

1 910),

Buchthal, on Pl.

x 1 09.4

o chre and d ark red.

Harvey et

( London, 1 6.

Jerusalem,

Vincent and Abel,

W .

a pprox.

the underpainting

Theodoric's 1 5.

5 7.00

t he upper varying between a v ery

l ower

1 62-3,

in green, 1 4.

t he

Kenyon,

1 967), 1 3.

of block measures

of plaster,

von E inem

Painting,

s eventh c olumn;

B ethlehem

Crusades,

IV,

( Berlin, p .3,

c f.

( Jerusalem, 1 23.

1 99

d es

1 965),

1 2

Jahrhunderts,"

2 99-312 and plates.

pl.lb.

R .W. 1 947),

Hamilton, 7 6;

Church o f

Boase,

t he

" Ecclesiastical

2 5.

Hamilton,

Church o f

the

( Virgin a nd Child);

S .

C rucesignatorum T errae 2 6.

O .

D emus,

The Mosaics

Nativity, d e

S anctae

of

Corpus

o f Norman Sicily Demus

7 7,

1 974 ),

( London,

1 949),

( p.82)

Nativity a t B ethlehem,

P1.10.

2 8.

The blue background i s known f rom early C omnene

C hurch o f

C yprus,

and i s

the

c ommon amongst painting in t he

at the Grotto in Gethsemane

l ogiche

a l Monte degli U livi

paintings

2 9.

V incent and Abel,

3 0.

Buchthal,

Saller,

of

i n

Corbo,

R icerche Archeo-

1 965),

2 7) , t he

c olumn

f resco c ycles at Abu Ghosh.

The

i n C rusader i llumination and i cons. I I,

2 60-90.

2 2,

r eferred to the f ertile period

Second C rusade

of which

Chapel

quotes t he I n B .

( cf.

f rescoes

Latin Kingdom i tself,

V .C.

M iniature Painting,

mosaic work, and the

common

Jgrusalem,

s hortly b efore t he

3 2.

f f.,

( Jerusalem,

at B ethlehem and t he

white-ringed h alo i s

S .

7 3

t o the r ich

c olour in the Martorana mosaic.

Harvey,

3 1.

2 24-5.

r efers

2 7.

a s

f ig.14

I nscriptionum

( Jerusalem,

especially p .80 and P 1.49 a -b. u se

B ethlehem,69,

S andolo,

for b oth MS

t he f ragments

s urvive

i llumination and

in t he

Calvary C hapel

t he Franks.

Excavations

a t Bethany

( Jerusalem,

1 957),

1 09

f f.,

account of William of Tyre.

Bagatti et al.,

i n G ethsemane t he History

New Discoveries at t he

( Jerusalem,

1 975),

7 8-82;

Tomb o f

H .E.

Mayer,

of Queen Melisende o f Jerusalem," DOP,

t he V irgin " Studies

2 6

i n

( 1972),

1 69-70. 3 3. 3 4.

S . G.

O rfali,

O rfali,

Gethsemani

G ethsemani,

2 4

( Paris, f f.

I t

1 924),

1 8 f f.

i s unlikely

h ave been in a position t o offer patronage h er

fall

i n t he 3 5.

in

1 152

and d eath

at any t ime between

i n 1 161;

c f.

Mayer,

G ethsemani, c entury)

p .13

( where he erroneously

a nd Pl.IX.

a nd P l.LXXXVIII,

2 ,

V incent

a nd Abel,

dates

i t t o t he

Jerusalem,

corrected t he date t o t he

t welfth

I I,

C roisgs, B .

I I,

Bagatti,

R ivista d i g ives 3 7.

3 8.

J . w.

" Tempera nell'

and details

1 5

Crowfoot,

Churches

e specially pp.36-8, ( plan ),

a ntica basilica d i

Gethsemane," 1 53-9,

F igs.

Gethsemane,"

a t Bosra a nd Samaria - Sebaste, t he

f rontispiece

2 00

1 -2,

1 54,

a ngel.

in J erusalem Supplementary Paper

describes

1 6b-c;

( 1938),

of t he plaster.

" l' aspetto grave" o f t he

School o f A rchaeology P ls.12

antica basilica d i

Archeologica Christiana,

" Tempera nell'

r eferred t o

Enlart,

4 68.

measurements

Bagatti,

p .1007

c entury,

but only r eproduced a drawing o f t he Orfali watercolour;

3 6.

" Studies

History of Queen Melisende," 1 75.

Orfali, f ourth

f rom power

t hat the Queen would

s cenes

a nd a dditional

in c olour.

B ritish 4 ( 1937), f igures;

3 9.

Crowfoot,

Churches

at Bosra a nd Samaria - Sebaste,

P1.16c.

4 0.

C rowfoot,

Churches

a t Bosra a nd Samaria - Sebaste,

3 7.

4 1.

J .L.

La Monte,

Suzerain o f

" To what extent was

the

e specially pp.261

4 2.

f f.,

prestige

i n t he Holy

Crusades

( London,

Crowfoot,

t he

B yzantine Empire

Latin Crusading States?," dates the

h igh point

t he

7 ( 1932),

o f B yzantine

Land between 1 167-1180;

1 972),

Churches

Byzantion, H .E.

i mperial

Mayer,

The

1 24-5.

a t Bosra and Samaria - Sebaste,

2 5,

c ites

t he

a t

3 1,

P1.17d,

d escription. 4 3.

Crowfoot,

Churches

d escribed a row o f John, the

which have

c hurch

s ince

t o t he

Hennessy,

4 5.

Vincent

d isappeared.

H e

r ebuilding

on the basis

Report on Excavations,"

Jerusalem,

I I,

9 47

" Karten und Plane

z ur Palästinakunde

hundert,"

( 1891),

ZDPV , 14

Chapel o f St. o f

of the

i nscriptions on their s crolls.

" Preliminary

and Abel,

in t he

dated the

l ate eleventh c entury

palaeography of the 4 4.

Bosra and Samaria - S ebaste,

n imbed painted f igures

1 38-40,

2 6.

a nd 9 65; a us

dem

R .

Röhricht,

7 . bis

1 6.

taf.4,and earlier

Jahr-

r eferences

c ited there. 4 6.

Vincent and Abel,

4 7.

J .

Prawer,

ed. 4 8.

Y .

C .N.

Jerusalem,

Johns,

( Jerusalem, " Excavations

An Unfinished Church the

The

J ohns,

F ig.1

r eference

o f.

R .

P ilgrim 's S uburb,"

a t

f or " Les

murs,

probl me

t o

C astle, QDAP,

o f

Early Christian

sanctae

o fferts

I o we

D r.

D .

For

the growth o f a s

( 1931-2);

( 1935),

1 22-137,

l ocated a gainst

The plan i s

reproduced.

' Atlit

( 1932);

of t he Castle,"

QDAP,

3

e n

2 71 and n .3;

its origins

l es

t ours

c entury,

sacred protection

i n Roman

l aw,

c f.

des enceintes u rbaines

d roit r omain,"

Andrd ' Piganiol,

t his

in t he sixth

and Byzantine Architecture, W .Seston, e t

l e

Melanges d ' arch6ologie

Vol.

3

( Paris,

r eference and s everal helpful

1 966),

comments

t o

Pringle.

Virgin between t he role

1 975),

a c ity has

r es

d 'histoire

1 489-1498.

' At i lt

4

P ilgrim's C astle,

t he V irgin a s protectress

l es portes et

d es

in Jerusalem Revealed,

f acing p .145.

Krautheimer,

t he gates

XXX.

1 02-5.

t he middle gate.

2 nd edn . ( Harmondsworth,

t he

s pecial

l ate

Journal

" The Virgin's

o f

" The

d evotion o f Constantinople

6 th-early

warrior-protectress

Averil Cameron, The

a t

a nd P l.

early thirteenth-century church

" Excavations

For

et

a nd n .3

Ancient T ell and the Outer D efenses

( 1934), 4 9.

1 975),

in t he

the town wall south of C . N.

9 23

" Jerusalem in C rusader Days,"

Yadin

d escribes

I I,

of

T heotokos

7 th

t he i n

c ity,

An Episode

C entury Constantinople,"

i n

t he

B yzantion,

2 01

see

the

s ixth-century

T heological Studies,

R obe:

c enturies,

n .s.

2 9

History 4 9

a nd

a rticles by C onstantinople,"

( 1978 ),

7 9-108,

of Early

( 1979),

t o t he

t he Virgin's

4 2-56.

a nd

Seventh-

5 0.

H ennessy,

" Preliminary

R eport on Excavations,"

5 1.

H ennessy,

" Preliminary

R eport on Excavations,"

s tates i t was

found in dgbris

on the

s tairs

of

2 6-7. 2 6 and P l.XXI, t he

n orthern

building. 5 2.

5 3.

Capt.

Wilson and Capt. Z .

l ink

t he

s lab with a m ilitary order.

J .

o f

D elaville

J« rusalemn t he

Jacoby kindly

The Recovery

D r.

Jerusalem,

l e

IV,

R oulx, " Note

( Paris,

s eal u sed by

( or

1 910),

t he

Iatin

See

( Paris,

W . K. R .

was

o f

to

a lso G . 2 32

Bedford a nd R . t he

1 169.

adopted a s

One

d e

S .

l ' Ordre d e

1 3

f f.

face

J ean d e S aint-Jean d e

and plates,

i ts history, s hows

f f.,

describes

t he earliest

the Grand Master t he t wo-

Sigillographie de

l 'Orient

and examples r eproduced in P ls.XI-XII.

Holbeche,

The

1 902),

O rder'of

2 -3,

points

t he Hospital o f St. out t hat

o f Jerusalem by t he F irst Crusade,

the patrön saint o f

2 02

( London,

a possible

i n profile kneeling before

S chlumberger,

( London,

capture

l 'ordre

o rder t hroughout

1 943),

John o f Jerusalem

s ur

S ceaux d e

especially

a group of Hospitallers)

a rmed c ross.

time

l es

of Jerusalem

raised the question o f

Melanges

sur

known example dating

5 4.

Warren,

1 871).

the o rder.

f rom t he St.

J ohn

\ N 0

I

Pl.

8 .1

I

I

I

P lan of J .B.

Crusader

Hennessy,

Damascus F ig.

1

10 m

5

Gate

Structures

" Preliminary Jerusalem,

at

Damascus

Gate,

adapted

R eport on Excavations

1 964-66,"

( plan courtesy of Dr.

S . W.

Levant, Helms)

I I

at

( 1970),

f rom the p .

2 3,

( 1 , . . . 1 1 1 1

7 7 L .f + ._ . I 1 _ _ I 7 / /

/ / / / /

,

/ / / / / // / / / /• / / / / / / / /

/

P l.

8 .2

P lan of

the

Hennessy, ( plan

-

—

/

Crusader Chapel

at Damascus

Gate,

" Preliminary R eport on Excavations,"

courtesy of Dr.

S . W.

2 04

Helms)

adapted Fig.

I

f rom

e l —

0 —

R econstruction of the

P l.

8 .4a

Damascus Gate Chapel:

east wall painted dado in s itu

photograph courtesy o f Prof.

P l.

8 .4b

Damascus Gate Chapel:

J . B.

detail of a ngel's

( Excavation photograph courtesy o f Prof.

2 06

( Excavation

H ennessy )

foot, J .B.

east wall painting Hennessy)

P l.

8 .5a

Damascus Gate Chapel: c ourtesy o f Prof.

P l.

8 .5b

J .B.

Damascus Gate Painting:

head o f angel

( Excavation photograph

H ennessy)

back o f angel

2 07

( Photograph L . -A.

H unt)

Pl.

8 .6a

Damascus

Gate Painting:

forward l eg of angel

photograph courtesy o f Prof.

Pl.

8 .6b

Damascus

Gate Painting:

courtesy

o f Prof.

J .B.

J . B.

haloed head Hennessy)

2 08

( Excavation

Hennessy)

( Excavation photograph

Pl.

8 .7

MS.

L ondon,

from H .

BL Egerton 1 139,fol.

B uchthal,

Jerusalem

1r,

Annunciation

( Photograph

M iniature Painting in t he Latin Kingdom o f

( Oxford,1957),P1.1a)

2 09

P l.

8 .8

MS. Oxford,

Bodleian L ibr.

Auct.

T .

i nf.

1 .10,

f ol.

the Evangelist Luke and t he Annunciation ( Photo

f rom I

Hütter,

Corpus der Byzantinischen

Miniaturenhandschriften, Bodleian L ibrary,

Bd.

S tuttgart,

2 10

I ( Oxford, 1 967),

Abb.

2 38)

1 18v,

P l.

8 .9

Church o f t he Nativity, S t.

Margaret

Bethlehem:

c olumn painting o f

( Photo courtesy of the

of Antiquities and Museums)

2 11

I srael D epartment

2 12

P l.

8 . 1

S ebaste,

C hurch of S t.

of a n a ngel ( Photo

J ohn t he Baptist:

f rom north s ide o f n iche

L .-A ,

Hunt)

2 13

painting

i n t he c rypt c hapel

2 14

painting of a n a ngel f rom t he

9 . T HE MURAL PAINTINGS THE

OF ABU GHOSH AND

PATRONAGE OF MANUEL COMNENUS

IN THE HOLY LAND

Annemarie Weyl Carr

A quarter o f

a c entury has passed s ince Buchthal e stablished

strongly Byzantinizing f rom Outremer. was

t he

c haracter

Yet this

1

fact remains

c ardinal medium of B yzantine

the primary

O utremer t hey L atin a rt

a nd

l eave us

r espond to;

interchange

t ook place

to what culture; o f

the

they r eflect

c entury

twelfth c entury;

s hips

f ind.

in the

case

The

of

faces

o f Abu Ghosh are barely

a nd all

f igures

church has

c entury

l ed scholars

t o

1 244.

I ts

a nd emerges St.

only

J eremiah.

f rom 1 141 t o

c rypt,

a pses

t otally s heathed in p laster c olours

and

saw

a nd painted.

c an of

t he

a rchway over

c an be

upper

stairs

l abeled

t he

south one. this

D iehl

c ites

the Comte

in the

m uch of

l aps

c rypt.

The

c ompass-drawn outlines

c hurch.

s offit

Traces o f paint

t hough t hey a re

t oo

f igural or abstract. f igural program.

o ccupied the c entral

occupied t he

north c onch;

a nd L atin

l abels

a nd

sat

Two r egisters of standing

c entral

apse,

s aints

s till

a s ingle row o f

c onch

i tself,

a nd i s

l egible on

haloed f igures

7

n ot v isible

adorned t he wall o f

f aintly

t he

in the

inscription b eneath t he Anastasis,

i n the a pse

a nd t he c ircles

d e Piellat

s aw traces of s imulated

a s well,

in their

a l ong

t itle of

of t wenty-four water-

s ubject matter was

l abels

of that p eriod, l ater

inlay decorated t he

t o the upper

today.

suggest

t he

decorated w ith an extensive

with souls

cannot have been

n orth apse

under

i magery

" Resurrectio Domini,"

t he Deesis with Greek

a gain in

t hough a ssuredly of

In 1 901,

P iellat

6

The area

3

a nd perhaps

W ith a strong l ight,

f igural

three a pses,

church was

three Patriarchs but

the

t o s uggest whether

Anastasis,

a pse;

of

crypt

the twelfth-

5

and s imulated marble

d iscerned in t he

The T he

no t races

i n the plaster.

in t he dado,

a braded

1 187,

covered with e ight-pointed stars whose

s till b e seen

drapery

s ite with

i n a series

c an be verified today.

P iellat records

h ave

f irst t wo nave bays were once

now preserved in the monastery.

vaults a re

t he

rarely mentioned in documents

r ecorded whatever was still v isible what P iellat

They

c laimed a ll but

a sacred object into t he

to identify

in s ixteenth-century texts The

4

which has

superbly preserved c hurch, i s

arise

2

quod moderni Fontenoid vocant."

to t he Hospitallers

t welfth-century date,

a nd why r elation-

o f these questions

a nd f rom seepage of moisture

i ncorporation a s

" castellum Emmaus,

b elonged 1 226

of Christ,

l ater east

interchanges

l egible today.

f rom intentional i conoclasm,

f rom the spring whose o f the

A ll

the mural c ycle at Abu Ghosh.

images

suffered both t wo

k ind a re so hard t o

of

a cculturation,

t he

o r the c ontemporary

between Europe and Byzantium in the of e ither

a spects

a C rusader

how they r elate to either

t hirteenth

in the

s tylistic o r

a sking what d istinctive

whether

Painting

a nd so was bound t o become

Yet t he monuments he published show n o

developmental unity, and if so,

d ifficult t o a ssess.

art,

avenue o f whatever a rtistic

Latin East.

t he

of twelfth-century m iniature painting

the

t he wall of

t here.

Nothing

t he i s

v isible on the wall of the with to

l ions rampant

a segment of

of the

main apse.

T he

8

the

A delicate v inescroll r uns

and window

down beside the

E lsewhere--on the d ado,

l unettes

above

all but

patterns

( P1.9. 6 a).

The

nave piers

a re

aisle walls.

borders

f irst bay,

t rius. i cons,

Diehl

T he walls

9

the

c alls

in

t he

C rucifixion.

wall shafts with

bordering

two bays

The i nlay,

there

of t he nave-

i s

of

any r eference

l ed Diehl

o f

the

r egion in

1 187,

who attributed the work to d ecorate t he i n t he

1 160's

Ghosh murals t here

i s

c ompleted.

in

a s

does n ot

t o t he notion of

a l arger scheme

o f

Byzantine,

Comnenus, The

i s

a s

t he

t wo painters was

a nd

f or

T he

s aints

second,

h ighlights,

t he

f irst bay

t he

f ace

o f

S t.

1 2

a nd

Euthymius,

Moreover,

a s

Yet t he t he

t he

D iehl had supposed i dentification

e ra o f Manuel

f ascination

I

s tanding

t hat s ame,

smoothly

preserved Apostle

f igure

a isle, c ape

f orms

f or

e vident

in

a re broader

f or colour.

s trong,

t he b road,

( P1.9.3) and t he

n orth

o f which o nly

s urvive

( P1.9.

a isle

a nd

than painterly

f abric patterns

a nd

Basil

in t he

s outh

t he

s outh . apse

s aint

i s

a ccomplished o f

interestingly , painted t he

f eeling

Anastasis

t he

t he

Demetrius'

H is

d elicate

in t he

T he more

s moothly shaded rather

o f the n orth a isle:

Abel

s houlder in

other

o f St.

with

t ially preserved f ace of St. the

a t

for t he C rucifixion a nd t he K oimesis,

f irst bay o f

c ompositions.

a nd a l ess

the

h ands.

more stolid a rtist,

a f inicking

f ine d etail, o f

The Abu

1 1

two hands,

e asily

i nterrupted.

r esponsible

i n

d eftly proportioned,

Jacob's

l east

a nd a s belonging t o

s pume green f olds

prominent a psidal l ess

implied a date

d eath in 1 180.

i tself s o

and imagery o f b oth major

t he superb,

t he h and,

s ent by Manuel I C omnenus Euthymius,

a t

l oss o f

o n the other

Comnenian c haracter of t he Abu Ghosh paintings

s tyle

6 b)

Runciman,

unquestionably c orrect.

the

t he

the

t hat t he decoration

fact nor photograph.

l end

l unette

Though

a nd the a bsence

to a ssociate e ither with t he murals

it exists

t he images

1°

t he work of

which s urvive today in neither c ycle

t o suggest

t o a Greek painter

f act,

the Koimesis;

c ontrast b etween the

f inal ones,

1 170's before Manuel's

a re,

n o way

abrupt

Orthodox monastery of St.

o r

l unette above

r ight--stood in t he

i nterrupted by t he H ospitallers'

a nd n ever

o f vast

the Virgin on

no t race of plaster in t he s ub-

B oth t he

and the bare

to Emmaus

o f

the west were probably o nce painted

f ully plastered f irst bays church had been

t he

s outh wall D eme-

s outh and t he Koimesis

i cons on

f ields.

s tood t o

a re painted with a pair

h is

i n i ts

f lanking

i magery c eases a t this point.

t hese

s imulated marble

s equent

an e asy v iew

Basil

t he warrior saint on the

Half-length f igures occupied t he

the

are d ivided b y r ed

i n the narrow

Melchizedek--presumably with Abraham t o above the

g iving

l abeled G eorge;

s econd bay

C rucifixion on the

the north.

n ave

e ach housing a mounted military saint

T he warrior saint on the north was

the

s tanding

s aint t o t he

wall s hafts,

the walls

f ield and standing saints

r ight of him.

but

r egister

inlay w ith geometric

high and widely spaced,

In the

i nto t riptychs,

b road c entral

l ower

t he s econd a isle bay--,

takes the form of a s imulated marble

the

not t o this a rea,

faces of t he piers between t he apses a nd

o rnament

o f

description o f a f abric

r efers

i nitial nave piers were painted with huge

north of the main a pse. piers

Diehl's

a garment which P iellat c opied f rom the

western faces of f igures.

s outh apse:

in roundels probably

a nd o ther

He a lso painted

o live green modeling o f smooth

s urfaces

of

are r epeated in t he pars mooth,

g reen

( P1.9.9a).

modeled green shoulder w ith

s houlder

of

A c ontrast

t he prominently

in the r ight half of t he Koimesis--also d ressed in

2 16

g reen

( P1.9.2)--shows c learly t hat t wo d ifferent hands produced t hem.

F or a ll t heir c ontrasts, c ontemporaries. t ical t o t hat

T he

i n t he

h owever,

t he two painters w ere a ssuredly

s pume g reen u sed by the K oimesis master

i s

s tanding s aint o f t he n orth a isle bay;

t he

f lowing f olds of S t.

D emetrius'

f lowing r obes of t he

s triding C hrist

c ape a re e choed i n t he s imilarly i n the Anastasis;

s tylistic a nd i conographic motifs o f b oth painters parallels T he

i n monuments of t he

s tyle o f t he painter o f t he t wo nave i n s oft,

p lane.

The

i cons

i s best s een i n

( Pls.9.1a,b,2,5a).

v ibrant t ones--green,

y ellow,

v ibrant medium b lue--against a b lue g round. b ehind them,

a nd t he

1 3

f ind t heir c losest

s ame d ate.

t he mourning Apostles of t he Koimesis s tand out

i den-

g ray,

T he

f igures

maroon a nd a

A s imple a rcade r uns

a ligning the c omposition i n s trict parallel t o t he p icture f igures t hemselves a re

s lender,

with r opy l oops o f d rapery,

f aceted h ighlights a nd what s eem t o h ave b een s oftly modeled f aces. T he c olour s cheme

i s c lose t o that o f N erezi,

l uminous pastels,

passages o f maroon,

with i ts b lue g round,

a nd r ich,

medium b lue.

The

I 4

f rontal a rcades r ecall those o f e arly twelfth-century miniatures. T he

K okkinobaphos Master,

however;

t he Bethlehem mosaics of c oulisse

s ees a f inal,

1 169

a very

1 6

s imilar a rcade

( P1.9.7a );

a nd the

c entury.

The a rcade a t Abu Ghosh i s

1 7

of t he c entury, s tyle,

t oo,

a s

( P1.9.2).

The l oose,

f rom BaCkovo,

t hird quarter of t he twelfth c entury.

h ighlights

f olds on the

and

A ssociated e specially w ith

1 9

f igure's

s leeve and c hest,

s how that the Abu G hosh painter cannot be

f igures t hat s table,

t he

f ace t his o ne o n t he opposite

w ith l ooping, ( P1.9.5a ).

s lender

Such a ttenuated,

1 156,

f igures of N erezi,

t oo,

modeling t hat one

t oo,

s ees a t N erezi,

o f t he dynamic

with varied c olours c reating

i n Abu Ghosh,

p lementary t ones o f g reen a nd maroon. s tyle,

T his d iffers

While one must r emember t hat a human and t hat a s tyle

i n u se

i t s eems

s till

i n

' 70's,

1 187,

i n t he g ray pallium

which i s c omposed o f c om-

where white h ighlights run

s tatistical averages,

f rom t he t echniques

i n l ines over l ocal

l ife

i s n ot a s um o f

l ike t his c an well h ave b een

l ikely that

i t was

f ormulated i n t he

between N erezi a nd Theodore Apseudes'

C ertainly i t must a ntedate

f orm r eady

The t echnique o f

i s u sed with particular e legance

l eft of t he K oimesis

i n t he murals o f

with t heir e xpressive

s olar p lexus,

( P1.9.5b).

s hades,

s ide o f t he bier

r opy f igures w ere b eing

when t hey appear

parallels with t hose of Abu Ghosh

1 160's o r

f ar d ifferent

r opy f olds that e cho t heir a ttenuated

bundles of r opy drapery c oiling over t he

c olours.

o n t he

f rom Theodore himself.

u sed at l east a s e arly a s

a t t he

f irmly dated

a re r eadily c omparable w ith those of a f igure by Apseudes

a nd dangly s tance

n eutral

s ensed

i n f orms that d o not c rystallise i nto a purely l inear

i n h is models

2 0

a s c an b e

s lender proportions a nd the painterly t reatment of t he

The angular

o ther hand,

P skov;

i s

f aceted h igh-

u sually a ttributed t o t he

Among more

1 8

i n the E ncleistra of 1 183 c ome t o mind.

The

f igure

both Nerezi of 1 164 a nd t he paintings of Theodore A pseudes

N erezi a re the

l ess

The

s een i n the Apostle a t the r ight of t he K oimesis,

i n a c omparison with a f igure

( P1.9.9b),

' 90's

s impler than t hose a t t he e nd

l ights a nd easy proportions are broadly C omnenian,

t racery.

s een i n

f orms of t he t hirteenth

a nd s uggests a s omewhat e arlier t aste.

balanced a nd without e xaggeration

monuments,

i s

f lat a rchitectural

d ecorative development i n t he 1 180's a nd

b efore g iving way t o the t hree-dimensional

a re

1 5

f rontal a rchitecture c ontinued t o be u sed at mid-century by the

Encleistra.

s uch e arly t hirteenth-century works a s t he

murals of S tudenica or t he miniatures of B erlin,

2 17

S taatsbibliothek,

Quarto 6 6. by t he St.

D emetrius

invites t he

t he same

c entury.

( P1. 9.6b).

Christ

I t

2 2

f olds

c hronological conclusion

r ippling d rapery T he

comparison with

c omplex of o f

Much

2 1

superb f lood of

r ich

that once

c omplexity

o f the

t he f ully f ledged dynamic

i s a lso

t rue,

l ike t hose

however,

i n t he

i n Theodore Apseudes'

f rom something more f luent,

i s s uggested

f ormed the cape o f f old patterns

s tyle at

t he end of

t hat a highly schematic

angels o f

1 191

at Kurbinovo o r

t hat

Anastasis must have been schematized

presumably something

l ike t his

f rom t he

1 170's. The

i conography of

t hough each Koimesis, n enian,

image

the

i s

groups

but the bevy

a round C hrist

i s

t he

t o e ither

s ide

o f

o f

t hat

s eems

angels

unusual.

f aintly perceptible, Such

c lusters

end o f

t he bier

T heoderich, Virgin's was

of

angels

f rom t he

are

o f

t hree

a re n ot

c omfortably Com-

r ight,

h is

l oros

s till

a nd P iellat records

f urther a ngels at C hrist's

found in surviving

c entury,

i mages o f

in d escribing

t he

i mage o f

in the valley of J ehoshaphat,

t he

a ngels.

on C yprus.

t he K oimesis

emphasizes t hat C hrist T his

2 4

suggests

t hat a

t he Koimesis d id e xist

in Comnenian J erusalem in which

C hrist was

surrounded by angels.

Under these c ircumstances,

T he

s cene

l abeled

o f

c ould be

attributed confidently t o t he

t he Crucifixion i s more highly inflected.

in Greek,

f lank

the

s cene;

mourners

s tand beneath C hrist's

Longinus

i s

and

r ight

an angel d roops t he

l eft.

h er head as i s,

i f

art.

particular

for

vogue and

t hen

a ll o f

L onginus

its

i nclusion o f

i n B erlin,

Quarto

2 7

f ainting Virgin,

The

f igures here t he

reveals the

in t he Crucifixion:

9 3, and the G elat Gospels i lluminated before c rowd, c entury

a re,

a ccordingly, t he

might not belong i s

to

3 0

t hat

not necessary.

t o the

t han t hose

The modeling i s

c entury,

E cclesia

2 6

in Paris,

B iblio-

in t he Mavriotissa a t Kastoria,

a pplicable

l ong-tailed eye

d ramatically

a s wel1.

t he period a round

t hird quarter o f

a re broader

in

1 219;

t hey a ppeared again in monumental painting,

children gathered

t he t hirteenth i n time

to t he

are equally

modeled f orms. h eads o f

7 4;

t he Abu Ghosh scene

w ork

by

R eplete though

1 100.

twelfth

t he

i n t he n ave,

with

f iner

l ap

( P1.9 .3).

and one wonders d ate.

In

smoothly

f act,

i n t he

One o f

them

Crusader painting

s uddenly whether

Though t he colours

2 18

2 9

•

a ccomplice.

e specially d eep a nd powerful i n Jacob's

com-

c entury.

i mages o f his

s o c haracteristic o f

l ater

All

2 8

both purely B yzantine

Comnenian d ate and purely Byzantine o rigin o f

painter's

d riven a way

c an be paralleled in

thieves

6 6,

e leventh

a ttributed by Epstein to

The

i s

i n t he Gelat Gospels includes t he

grec

and a ttributable

l eft hand;

t he twelfth c entury saw a

s ilhouetted a gainst the

t ogether with of

o f t he

National Library

theque Nationale,

ponents

( P1.9.4a).

c omponents

i n the

the

f emale

f igure o f Ecclesia hovers

labeled in Latin,

and Synagoga had appeared

r ecently

The two t hieves,

John and three

a d ramatically gesticulating

a d iminutive

T he second half t he

t he Matthean miniature g esturing

t he 1 170's.

T he Virgin r aises one hand t o her b reast and

t hey a ppeared in Athens, 1 170's,

a rms

c lose t o fainting

however,

Middle Byzantine

t he

r ight hand;

s ide while Synagoga,

from his

i mage

S t.

s ilhouetted against a c rowd beneath Christ's

in t he a ir beneath h is

on the

Mary,

2 5

2 3

at t he

variant of

version in Abu Ghosh

t he

l eft.

though a rchangel s d o gather at one

in the Mavriotissa in Kastoria.and Monagri

a ccompanied by a multitude o f

d ating, In t he

once to h ave c lustered

A Byzantine archangel,

twelfth

however,

t omb

the bier

stood to C hrist's

haloes and j eweled staffs Koimesis

t wo n ave s cenes r einforces t his

exceptionally elaborately conceived.

however, i n t he

t hese

such

i n

i mages

a break

A nastasis and

D eesis

are s tronger

bay o f

the

t he r ippling D emetrius' d ence

o f

f olds c ape;

a re t he

l ayers.

no

l ess

i n T heodore.

Emmanuel

t welfth

in t he

o f

i n t he

a re

l ate

1 190's

Urbinus Graecus

A detail o f

C hrist here

t hat adorns

t hroughout the middle quarters

The

lyre-backed t hrone,

on t he

e lventh twelfth.

o f

rare motif in the

prevalent and

nave,

both

style

c ompatible

i s

not

these,

l ate twelfth

and

i magery

w ith a d ate

o f

t he t his

however,

for

( Pls.9.4b,c). in the

The

appearance

Neophytus'

i ts occurrence

in t he

l yre-backed t hrone was a rt a t

of western taste.

1 170's.

The

s ur-

only two

is strategically

3 8

c ontrast

1 170's

n o more

t his t ime,

H ere , a s

a re persuasively G reek,

in t he

in C omnenian

t he mature

and has

century in S t.

c ontext

i n t erms

f or

s een a t all

century,

i n western than in Byzantine

explained

woven with

c hlamys

c entury

is rare

the Encleistra.

C ertainly t he

for Christ

c annot b e

nave o f

a plausible

i tself.

It

One o f

3 7

i n t he

c reates

i n Palestine

apse

i mperial portraits of

a pattern pervasive

other hand,

century.

it appears

" New S ion"

s outh

c ostume o f K ing

a c hlamys

in t he

of t he twelfth

t he thirteenth

placed: this

the

e xactly--in t he

its back bears

viving Byzantine art o f in t he

a garden w hose

t he D eesis would s eem to seal

fabric

parallels

i s

t o

I t appears

3 3

i s enthroned on a l yre-backed t hrone.

a rt

t he

i t f rom

r ecently identified with Manuel

T he

a fter

c an f ollow

in the Encleistra.

a ppear

2 or--more

Comnenus himself.35 The

The

3 2

a lready in t he

s lightly l ater Trikomo

turns out t o be

t hat

Graecus 6 66,

C hrist

one

art

What Diehl had called a modified imperial

f leurs-de-lys

emperor in Vatican, attribution.

c hildren re-

i n Byzantine

Christ in the Garden,

f lower-like patterns

Vatican,

t he

c losely c omparable t o t hose in the

David in t he Anastasis. same

f inds a c lose stylistic

in Byzantine the

S t.

e vi-

forms resemble

emperor Manuel himself.

t hrough

n o

i n t he Encleistra:3 1

w idespread

Equally strongly Comnenian

3 4

robe powdered with t he

1 106

i mage o f

t endrils

of A bu Ghosh.

t hat became t he

t hose o f

shows

smoothly modeled

especially in Cyprus,

o f t he

latter in t he

d ecorative

comparable t o f ragmentary,

c ompanion,

a f eature

A sinou o f

n ave paintings

large,

than his

reign o f

c entury:

t he paintings t he

The

t hough

The heavily modeled heads o f

l ong-tailed eye had become early

the t ones u sed in t he Koimesis;

Annunciate Gabriel

high-domed c ranium images

i n t he south apse and initial t o

risen Christ are

and t he plaster,

a pse painter, t he

those

identical

Theodore Apseudes'

c onfrere f lect

o f

s uccessive

t hose o f t he

a nd darker,

n orth a isle

i n t he

and c ompletely i n manner r e-

f lects no more than a c ontemporary second h and. The

relationship b etween t hese

Hunt has

shown that a t radition o f

Outremer

already in t he

1 140's;

two painters

t here

3 9

western wall painting

f rom t he twelfth

d eep,

t he background

very

v ibrant blue l ike

Greek dicate

o f

c hurch of St. a l ocal

of

t he

at S ebaste,

1 140's.

T his

i s

a rtists known f rom t he twelfth

of Nerezi and outstripping T heodore the

date,

t he apse

nave l ike

i cons,

so,

painter though

t he rippling

i s

n ot

i ndependently mature a rtists.

he

i s

h owever,

i s

i ntimated

i nhe i n t he

t he painter

o f

t he

t he most outstanding

a pproaching

the painter T he

f rom that o f

the master

signals o f

t heir c ommon

s imilar t he

Whether

2 19

among

c entury,

derivative

Thus

The

4 °

in t he

Apseudes in e xcellence.

i t reflects

r obes.

y et t ruer o f

in

l ittle

a nd this might

i f

4 1

o f quality and monumentality not

t he

e xisted

r emarkably

century in Jerusalem.

a pse painter.

C rucifixion and Koimesis at Abu Ghosh:

of

in fact,

in the Abu Ghosh Anastasis

John t he Baptist

o rigin f or

i llustrates a l evel

manner o f

i s,

t he vibrant blue used in the mid-century murals

wall paintings mural

i s hard t o guess.

Byzantine wall painting

two would appear

t heymet

t o be

fortuitously a t Abu

3 6

Ghosh;

whether t hey traveled together;

a rtists,

itinerant painters

questions.

These

a re

among

clear,

however,

i s that both

l evel of quality not known the

1 170's.

n ot

t heir

The

most

of their

style and

of images

a rea of Cyprus

the use

a s

e ach

n oted,

of

t he Abu G hosh murals,

For i f

has a notable,

images i s

t he painters

c entral axis

if s ingular,

o f

t he

i s not.

Byzantine.

Mavriotissa at Kastoria,

One

s enses

T he u se o f

I t occurs

anti-Semitic

Both the

at Abu Ghosh .

t hem with The

4 3

S ince

t he

c entral portion o f

t hat he

the Jew,

t riumph

t omb,

h owever,

however,

the

c ycle

a s

a narrative one. t he

nave

d ucing

dear

t o our painter.

t he

t o

t he

n ave

o f

e astern

a s

Diehl has

conjuring

Byzantine.

In i tself,

4 5

t he t heme of the d isplacement

But t heir

in a d ialectical

t hat would have

suggested.

The o rigin of

4 6

subsequent

c ontinue the t heme o f

t rue Church--the c leansing

C rusaders.

t he Abu Ghosh

i magine how t he

o f

t he

t emple--that

the paired s cenes pro-

d isposition on e ither

c onfrontation c orresponds better

ones.

It recalls

t he

t ailoring

o f

Byzantine

4 7

t o

t han t o

coupled t hemes o f Abbot Suger's

enameled c rosses studied by the Buschhausens,

remarkable

E ven

c onfronted s cenes,

i nterpretation of

contemporary western c onceptions o f iconographic programs or the

c learly 4 4

a ssumed a t her death

Ecclesia in d ialectical pairings

t his message i s

s ide of

T heo-

i ncluded c reates a c lear message

i s hard t o

Supper at Emmaus,

of unbelievers by t he so

one

the Koimesis

so t he motif was

would have been decorated t o

l iberation o f t he

I t

t he pairing is very complete, was

this

included here.

in a dialectical pair

images militate a gainst the

i ncluded

i s

i n e ternity.

Placed as they a re

t he

u se

t he Koimesis has been

t riumph over Synagoga of Mary-Ecclesia,

of

and

confrontation of Crucifixion a nd Koimesis

t hese bays

bier.

t he First Crusade in

in t he painting o f

here where Ecclesia a nd Synagoga a re t o

in Byzantine art,

t he Jew was

d id appear

in Comnenian Outremer and available

t he

the Virgin 's

only other instance of their

t he

t hat adorned t he Virgin's

of

t he

42

Ecclesia a nd as Mary--from

a ftermath o f

we do not know whether

tells u s

without

t he nave.

combination of scenes and i ts

c ontent are highly e xceptional

northern Greece.

known

t oo,

in t he

t he C rucifixion and Koimesis f orm

the Church--as

t he Jews.

Epstein a ssociates

derich

Internally,

t he C rucifixion i ncludes Ecclesia and S ynagoga;

liberation o f

annoyance of

destroyed,

a lready in the

the two together,

Comnenian precedent.

where

vocabulary

seen in t hese two s cenes an anti-Semitic statement pro-

c laiming t he t he

i s

t he message t hat

t his

t he Koimesis includes the Jew who t ried t o upset Epstein has

in f act,

and their

d ecoration on t he western wall of

in Abu Ghosh,

a

and Palestine b efore

t he C rucifixion and t he Koimesis.

i mage

What

and reflect

b ut the high and purely Byzantine quality

i magery.

t hese

nave w ith

a s

i n the

a re purely and even excellently Byzantine,

t hey build with

Here,

in Jerusalem at t his point.

a re Byzantine a rtists,

striking f eature o f

Comnenian date,

l ocal

t he most difficult and s ignificant ques-

t ions posed by t he wall paintings i s

whether one or both were

o r Constantinopolitan imports remain open

windows

and suggests a

I magery t o western and Crusader

ideology. The t he

same C rusader

emphasis emerges

i n t he

i nitial

warrior saints George and Demetrius dominate

Crusader

enthusiasm

i llustrated by t he

for

t he Byzantine military

n ave bay,

s paces.

where

T he

saints is vividly

western i cons on Mount S inai.

2 20

t he 4 8

I t

emerges,

t oo,

i n t he out

exhortations

in his

o f C rusader

l eaders,

a s

The apses,

too,

use Byzantine

t hemes.

i con par

excellence o f

T he Anastasis,

U sed on C rusader

seals

Anastasis Rotunda

t o

c ourse,

and t aken over

a t Abu Ghosh.

in C rusader monuments o f on the other

h and,

Byzantine apse, c ontent here. those o f

t hree

a place

f ar

greater extent o f

f unerary

i mage,

Camii.

apses,

t he Maiestas Domini,

i nvocation of

time

content,

a gain d ialectical, N ew Testament. g ether. And t he

The

h owever.

i n Byzantium with the c hapels

An e schatological

5 2

i mportant here.

time.

The

a ssumes

i t

i s

i s

a famous votive

c onnotations

at Abu Ghosh

a lso

e vocative of

the C rusader quest a lto-

i mage,

the Heavenly Jerusalem.

and reconsecrate the

as pilgrims

in quest o f

t he Heavenly Jerusalem of

f orm i mplies

it i s once

imploring

s alvation.

t hree patriarchs c onstitute t he Byzantine image par

t he holy sites

a

f ocus

s pecific

To a certain e xtent,

But

of

i f To

a c ounterpoise between O ld Testament and

D eesis

o f salvation, c ome

forming

n ever s een i n a t he a psidal program's

whose apocalyptic

which

end of

enthusiasm

westerh ones t end t o

end of

a more particular

were

i n Byzantine f unerary

t hem implications o f the t he

a well-known a psidal The three patriarchs,

5 1

a ssociated

bring with t his

i s

overtone may well be

t han Byzantine

s elf - c onscious

i mage t aken up with

c entury.

B aekovo and t he Kariye

specifically

t he

t he q uestion o f

i mages a re

and s o have

n ot

i mage

t he twelfth

t hough a Byzantine

All

for

the

in the

i s f lanked by t he D eesis

The Deesis

and a votive

and pose vividly

L ast Judgement,

I t

5 °

t hree patriarchs.

c omposition in Byzantium,

Crusader

t he n ew C rusader c hoir

an obvious candidate

and the group o f

t he

the holy sites.

f rom t he Monomachan apse o f

adorn t he apse o f

c hurch

4 9

had become

C hristian repossession of

i magery o f

t he

pointed

i mages selectively t o address

of

Holy Sepulchre, it was

on the

B rown has

s tudy on eastern and western s ainthood.

C rusader

l ike

Peter

the

t emple of

t o

l iberate

t he new J erusalem h ad

n ew J erusalem o f

eternal

e xcellence

Those who had c ome

s alvation.

C hrist's

The apses

prophecies:

i nvoke

t hat

over-riding image. The murals o f Abu Ghosh, two

l anguages.

widely conversant with the Byzantine

a rt,

c hurch

c reate

t o

worked

Manuel o f

in f act,

expanding imagery of twelfth-century

Byzantine and western i deas

i s

w ith

t heir

about

Byzantine

1 170

f rom the

i conography

t ransept a cross s ignature o f

interchange.

5 3

t he

t ime--if

germane

1 158 onward, Byzantium. Mango,

a n ave whose upper

t he . mosaicist Basil

C ertainly t he any--

f or

l ast two decades such an

t he Holy where a massive

c ycle o f

Manuel himself had a v ivid

all

t estify t o

o f Manuel's

F rom a lly o f

in t he Holy Land;

i ndicated that Manuel

2 21

t his

reign were

i nterchange t o occur. i nterest

f estive

r egister still b ears

t he Kingdom o f J erusalem had been t he military

Nelson and Magdalino have

e ra o f s criptorium

and western

the basilica a t Bethlehem,

t ree of Jesse on t he entrance wall faced a 5yzantine the bilingual

The

and appears

i llustrate

from t he

staurothecai produced by t he goldsmiths o f

S epulchre;and the mosaics o f i cons in the

c oncerns.

impressive,

t he murals

in C rusader monuments

t he Gospel B ooks o f

t he Holy s epulchre the

a C rusader monastery

interchange between Greek and

Byzantine and western t hat exceptional

I Comnenus:

o rnament;

o f

considerable quality,

i n O utremer.

T he blend o f n ot,

of

in t he militant s etting o f

i mply a very considerable c ultural

L atin Christians

i s

e xhibit a remarkable melding

a cycle e xpressive of western C rusader

i nterpenetration of t o

t hen,

Here Byzantine painters

l ooked upon

his

reign as

t hat o f a new Constantine,54 and patronage o f

tinian p ilgrimage s ites--no and t he

reconquest of

t o this

c onception.

t iousness,

g ifting

opulent g ifts storing

t he

interest

l ess

Manuel engaged

t he Crusader princes o f renovating

1160's

and

c hurch and s tate a like w ith

t he pilgrimage

fortified monasteries o f

t hat c haracterizes t he

interchange

a s

the

s urge o f

' 70's

building

i n J erusalem.

Greek

culture

C rusaders t ine

culture

a rea o f

factors.

did exist. o f

contemporary

t he

I t w as

twelfth

n ot

can be

c entury,

s ensed

t he Gospels,

1 170,

Latinus

Vatican,

supplgment grec 1 335,

5 6

l ocal

i t.

H ow distinct

5 8

s lavish

and one

f rom Paris,

a s well.

The

which

i magery o f

c uriosity about

the

i n t he

s urviving

c entury.

6 0

know are Byzantine

f ragments

l ocal , taste.

I f

b espeaks

Nonetheless,

i n t he

only the

i s n otable

l ess

is r esponsive

his presence here

t he m id-

offer

it

i n c haracter but

i cons,

t hat

pretentious

and e specially t o metropolitan ,

s ervice

a t olerance toward Byzantine a rt,

of

t he L atin

it d oes n ot

i n any s ense

i mply a t olerance

t oward t he

I f

anything,

t he

t he Abu Ghosh cycle r eflects an e ffort

on

t he part o f T he

t he

e xcellence of

its

patrons to r ise above

s econd factor which must be

s ignificance of

Manuel himself might Manuel

s eem

t o

a s

I Comnenus.

t aken i nto

the Abu Ghosh murals

a patron.

s uggest

The

l ocal C hristian culture. t heir

i s

l ocal

surroundings.

a ccount

t he modus

e xcellence o f

t hat he had,

t he

2 22

in a ssessing

operandi o f

nave painter h ere

a s R unciman surmised,

But Manuel's methods

5 9

quite

e xecuted i n t he L atin

The manner at Abu Ghosh,

t he n ave

s uperb

Graecus 7 56.

Only with Hunt's

i nto wall painting o f

The

t he

o f

i s

l ocal Greek e xpression.

f ragmentary.

Kingdom during

t o

l ocal book

Vatican,

t he great volume of wall painting

t han Abu Ghosh.

5 7

t he Gospel harmony

Constantinopolitan i s a ll-important here,

t he master

d ate.

on t he o ther hand,

merest hint of

n ot

t he

i llustrating

corresponding miniature

twelfth

same

s urvived i n twelfth-century

i n this volume has insight

Hospitallers

about the

t hey d raw on wholly d ifferent

f idelity the

c entury in Palestine emerged.

in quality

t heir a p-

Bibliotheque N ationale,

f rontispiece,

a ny interest o r

e xamples we

l eft no i mprint

The C rusader

Evidence a bout mural painting i s more

t hat o f

s tyle

f rontispieces expressing

e leventh-century Constantinopolitan manuscript, t o b e

a rt

a l ocal Greek manuscript of

t raditions,

Cypriot c odices.

t he

t he

one f rom a C rusader Gospel Book o f about

5 974,

with a c ruciform c omposition,

a rticle

A l ocal B yzani llumination,

This

in comparing two

rooted in a very ancient t radition o f

obliterating

i nto

t he

i nterested t he

l ocal.

developing a distinctive

Stylistically and technically d ifferent,

effort

t ake o f

unquestionably a ctive t hroughout t he

the Crusaders as we know

t he harmony of

The

one must c haracter

In the realm o f manuscript

a rt of Constantinople.

proaches were

c opies with

h owever,

One i s t he

margin.

ostentatious o rnamentalism was quite d ifferent f rom t he

art of

i conographic

s ubject

c ultural

t his

The Byzantine a rt t hat

Constantinopolitan.

l ively,

on t he

On n o

t han the need t o

i llustrates

upon this margin,

significant

Cyprus and Palestine was

s econd half whose

Abu Ghosh

involved here.

was

His

a splendid showcase of Christian s trength and

in t he Holy Land.

two very

and r e5 5

and r enovation

unanimity was bound t o generate a margin o f

Before elaborating a ccount

s ites,

the Jordanian d esert.

can Greek and Frank have been more f ully unanimous T his

c entral

i n this patronage with c onscien-

c ontributed extensively t o

fervor.

c ouncils

Italian and Anatolian territories--was

and relics,

rebuild Palestine

t he Pales-

t han t he c alling of C hurch

been s ent by

s eem in fact t o have been

rather

different.

Very seldom do w e

a rtisans

i nto

t he Holy Land.

t rinaire

a nd repetitive

t hat Manuel rebuilt Even i n

o f his projects,

s tyle

a f ew years the

We know

t hat was l ater.

too

Bethlehem a re

c olour

scheme,

h owever,

s een i n Palestine

do.

in t he

t ransept,

But

t hough

Manuel was

At home

t he

images at

c lerestory

i n t he C efalü l avish

i n a ll res-

a nd t he sensitivity t o t he

contemporaries.

i s impossible t o

to provincial.

own

c ulture,

h e w as

Basil

a nd may have been

l ess

a t

area which had l east a g enera-

c oncerned t han t he

about gradations o f quality f rom metropolitan

He provided

l avish

e vidence

f unds

and sumptuous models,

to c onvey t he

y ielded by Manuel's projects,

t hen,

the notion t hat t he patron emperor

metropolitan painters

any profusion

i n

a ccomplished masters, c ome

however,

l ike

i n expectation o f were

l ess masters

t he mosaicists o f

t o Palestine.

t he nave painter

employment. a s

a nd

i mperial origin o f

l ittle corroboration for

have

and

But t hey were

dealing in Palestine with an

relied confidently upon t hese T he

Whether say.

and mosaicists a t work f or

i n his

s elf-conscious Franks

of

c olouristic

three-dimensionality that c haracterize both t he Abu

had Byzantine painters

c ommission.

l oose,

l ess c losely t o

T he angels of t he

n ot t he best t hat C onstantinople had t o offer,

64

o f

t o guess whether a nd

e xactly contemporary o nes

s cenes

Ephraim were a ctually l ocal men

tion.

l eft half

a nd t he technique of

c apital

t han t he S icilian mosaics

and his metropolitan

provincials.

t he

f rom a ny seen in Sicily.

adhere more or

expressive body rhythms

implications o f

f elt

c haracterized

and s howy imperial

gold and s ilver,

awkward and i nsecure.

l ack the

6 1

d ecoration of

and t he

f ulsome

a rt in t he

l avish u se of

And the

Ghosh master

( P1.9.7a)

a re radically d ifferent

compare poorly with t he 6 3

d oc-

f igure types a nd d ramatic modeling--above o f Thomas

l ittle a bout mosaic

metropolitan norms

the

to determine t he manner of the Monreale mosaics

T he

c olors,

setting t echnique

pects,

t he mosaic

n ot s eem t o have

do belong clearly t o t he

tesserae

t he garish

vault.

Manuel does

The

i n t he Doubting

the Ascension 62--

l aying

s tyle nor

in t he monasteries

concern ' with metropolitan purism t hat has

t he Frankish patrons.

export

b rittle

i mply t he presence o f Constantinopolitan painters.

the basilica at Bethlehem,

all , t hose

t he

dedicatory inscriptions

that most v isible

o verriding

f ind h im a ctually introducing

N either

o ffers

s ent

A c ertain number

a t Abu Ghosh,

Manuel's

the

g reat

must

c ontributions,

such t han money a nd models--models

t he pilgrim basilicas,

a nd money in t he

f or

f orm of

imperial g ifts. Partly,

perhaps,

because they were n ot

of t ransient outsiders, highly stimulating broad,

the models

t o t he

l ocal G reek a rtistic

boldly h ighlighted forms of the mosaic

accomplished and t horoughly Byzantine columns

a t Bethlehem.

b rittle

f orm,

The

6 5

can still be

murals at C hoziba

6 6

One

offers

a means

patterned, of Paris, 1 170

H ere,

o f

c omparison

t oo,

it

i s

John on one of

i n t he

t hat

a ssociable with

the

t he garish

c haracterized the

( P1.9.8a) , a nd i ts

Taphou

4 7

in manu-

note t hat t he brightly

( P1.9.8b)

l ocal painters

kin , gives way

t o a more aggressively modeled mode--first

Greek O rthodox Patriarchate,

the

s eated Joachim,

with s eated Evangelist portraits

1 335

-

t hat

a fter

s een i n Jerusalem , i s

i mmediately

s trongly highlighted Constantinopolitan e xport

2 23

t he

The seated f igure h ere

interesting t o

smoothly modeled manner Supplement grec

t he

a lbeit in a more

and r ed garment recall

and golden modeling at Bethlehem.

It i s

t he overpainting of

s ees i t

c olors

s cripts.

t radition.

i mage of St.

s ensed beneath

( P1.9.7b).

e xclusively

f igures that govern t he

s ame showy manner,

whose mustard yellow h ighlights

a bout

i n t he hands

introduced by Manuel proved t o be

style.

I conographically,

6 7

t oo,

we f ind

l ocal

cycles

vations of metropolitan Constantinopolitan a rt. striking

i s

d evotional

t he

incorporation of t he n ew,

i cons

l ike t he Man o f Sorrows

l ittle Gospel Books produced in l ocal

i nto t he

c ontemporary

t radition burgeoned to become a major

n enian manuscript production whose d istinctive to govern

the

untouched, T he

o utput o f

c haracter

of

t han

doubt,

l ocal

a b roader

a rtists,

I t

i s

notable

intensive opening

l ocal G reek

The murals

r eason,

t hen,

i llum-

a t Abu Gosh,

a s well.

eyes

however,

The C rusaders,

f ixed on t he

interest

t he C rusader t he

numbers.

emerges a s

no

art t hat was

a v igorous a nd significant

o f Palestine t o contact w ith t he

a nd

t o

T he

i n c ourtly r ather

t han provincial

i mpact o f

t his

a nd it

above a ll

i s

i nflux on t he t o

t his

l ocal l ocal

patronage proved stimulating and g enerative. Crusader patrons was

a lso powerful,

a s

t he murals o f Abu Ghosh prove.

for

a rt

Crusader

i s

h arder

t o a ssess.

tation t oward Constantinople

l eft

l ocally r ootless,

perhaps

c reative

t he Crusader

i ssue of

s ee Crusader

a rt

d ifferent.

Abu Ghosh

t he

a rtistic

Its

t radition

i mpact on t he

Yet

t he Holy

i ts s ignificance

L atin patrons' 1 187

came

a rt

e clectic

t oo soon,

Byzantinism i s hard t o t race.

again in t he

emerges,

c ulture i n n ovel

Possibly because their orien-

t he

s imply because

e merging

B oth

t radition that Manuel's

the manuscripts f rom

Sepulchre and

margin o f

c apital.

the obligations of a new C onstantine

a vailability in Palestine of metropolitan models

was profound,

very

°

i n t he Greek and t he L atin s pheres alike f or the

responsiveness

we

It remained l argely

t he h ighly specialized and courtly

had their

emperor Manuel's l ed t o

l ate Com-

from C onstantinople.

T he era o f Abu Ghosh, one.

to

8

s cript and style were

i llumination o f J erusalem.

t he Crusader manuscripts. t here was

t he

emanating

no

t he 6

metropolitan a rt, current of

interchange between Latin and

due partly,

suggest t hat

i llumination o f

t he Nicaean period.

by the L atin

a bsence o f

i nation i s

l ess

e arly

however,

t he most

e arly twelfth-century

l arge numbers by l ocal craftsmen.

S timulated by expanded c ontact with t he

adopting inno-

Among

t hen,

t hirteenth a s

t o

When

7 0

c entury,

a witness

and

t he it i s

a v ery

narrow

interchange.

NOTES

1 .

Buchthal,

2 .

Major

Miniature Painting , 1 -38 and e specially

d iscussions

Folda, ( Paris,

Steve, 1 950);

et son histoire C .

r endus

( formerly Qaryat a l- tI nab )

" Painting a nd Sculpture,"

and A .M.

3 25;

of Abu Ghosh

Diehl, de

8 9-96. Sandoli,

Fouilles L .-H.

i nscriptions

Corpus

( 1099-1291 ).

de

IV,

2 59-261;

e l-l Enab Ab ü Gösh

and F .M.

1 932),

" Les f resques

l ' Acade i nie des

T he

Crusades,

Qaryet

V incent

( Paris,

3 5-38.

Abel,

3 86-393;

Emmaüs.

Enlart,

de Vaux

Palestine Sa basilique

C roises,

r eglise d iAbou-Gosch,"

i nscriptions

include: R .

e t b elles-lettres

I I,

3 15-

C ompteS( 1924),

recorded by P iellat a re g iven i n S .

D e

I nscriptionum C rucesignatorum T errae Sanctae

Testo,

t raduzione e a nnotazione

2 40-243.

2 24

( Jerusalem,

1 974),

3 .

Quoted from T heoderich by V incent and A bel See Theodericus, Bulst, S ee: S .

Editiones Heidelbergensis, Belard o f Ascoli

d e Sandoli,

( Jerusalem, 4 .

1 980),

6 .

( as

in note

2 above),

i dentical

in n ote

p .391,

2 41-242

See V .

SBF,

no.

a s

Ibid.,

9 2.

9 .

I bid.,

9 2.

1 0.

I bid.,

9 4.

1 1.

S .

1 2.

Gustav Kühnel a lso distinguishes the s tanding

A History

o f

a ttributing

the

s ite,

in n ote

2 above).

1 965),

f igs.

t he C rusades,

I II

( New Y ork,

t hem t o a t hird hand.

f igures

1 965),

c er-

the

t hat

of

t heir

bodies--are more angular

painter of the

s till v isible--in t he

t he apses.

apse painter's

Since

f igures,

t he

3 81.

on the

They a re

painter of the Koimesis and C rucifixion, a re

2 3-24.

9 1.

tainly not by t he f olds

making

R icerchi a rcheologiche

( Jerusalem,

8 .

d rapery

i n

vol.2

in t he Grotto in Gethsemane Corbo,

Diehl

n ave p iers,

2 a bove),

1 6

( both

7 .

Runciman,

4 2.

a ssociate t he

c hanging n ame o f

in type to t hose

degli U livi,

( as

1 976),

Terrae S anctae

t he a pses have been published b y Folda,

and Sandoli,

but a re higher in quality. al Monte

and W .

n ot the original d edication.

watercdburs o f

XXXIV-XXXV,

They a re

( Heidelberg,

D escriptio

2 ) , p .387.

M . L.

46.

it l ikely t hat t his was

f igs.

i n n ote

eds.

Itinera H ierosolymitanae C rucesignatorum,

Vincent and A bel

Piellat's

XVIII

( 1112/1120),

d edication to J eremiah with the

5 .

( as

Libellus de L ocis Sanutis,

a nd

l ower parts

t han a ny t hat s urvive by t he l ower body survives

however,

in n one of

I am hesitant to make a

judgement. 1 3.

The

f olds

a re visible only piecemeal under very strong

They a re painted Christ t o 1 4.

The blue

of

t he Virgin's r obe t he blue ground

an Apostle

S ee,

f or

1 6.

f ig.

See Vatican, Omilie Codices

f or

instance,

I llustration o f 1 954),

the a pse

l ight.

expand the body o f c onch.

i n t he Deposition at N erezi

in t he

s ame way

that

s tands

t he blue garment

i n t he r ight-hand g roup in t he Koimesis at Abu

Ghosh stands out, 1 5.

and used t o

f ill t he broad b ottom o f

out a gainst of

in dark g reen,

instance.

Vatican,

g r.

3 94,

t he Heavenly Ladder

XVII,

68.

g r.

1 162,

f olio

1 42r:

f olio

5 r:

J . R.

o f J ohn C limacus

C .

Stornajolo,

Martin,

The

( Princeton,

M iniature delle

di Giacomo Monaco .e dell'evangeliario greco u rbinate, e Vaticanis

S electi,

Series Minor,

1 42r.

2 25

I ( Rome,

1 910),

f olio

1 7.

D ramatic examples o f s tance, in t he

in t he

the a rchitectural c oulisse occur,

wall paintings

Ludwig I I

Buchthal,

C entury," 1 8.

V .

1 9.

Cyprus

1 55

inand

Schnütgen

A .

and J .

Stylianou,

( Stourbridge,

Worc.,

1 964) , p 1.29;

" An Unknown Byzantine Manuscript o f

Ca moisseur,

Lazarev,

2 25

Cologne,

5 ( oh m Phillipp s 3887):

The Painted C hurches o f

f or

1 192 a t L agoudera on Cyprus

c losely contemporary miniatures o f

Museum, H .

of

( 1964),

the T hirteenth

p1.1

Storia d ella p ittura bizantina

( Turin,

1 967),

2 22-

and p1.348.

On Nerezi:

I bid.,

2 00-201 and pls.301-308;

Freske u J ugoslaviji McLean and H . Makedonien

E .J.

Hallensleben,

( Giessen,

d u moyen-äge ( Paris,

( Belgrade, 1 963),

Hawkins,

f igs.

V .

pls.

D juriC,

V I-VIII;

Die Monumentalmalerei f igs.

en Yougoslavie

1 954),

1 974),

2 9-45;

( Serbie,

1 5-21.

G .

H amann-

in S erbien und

Millet,

La Peinture

mont4ndgro),

M acgdoine,

On the Encleistra:

" The Hermitage of St.

V izantijske R .

Neophytos "

C .

I

Mango and

DOP,

2 0

( 1966),

1 19-206. 2 0.

S .

Yamshchikov et al.,

Monuments, V . 2 1.

1 2th

Lazarev,

D juriC

( as

P skov,

Art T reasures

- 1 7th C enturies

O ld Russian Murals and Mosaics i n n ote

1 9

a bove),

pls.

1 978 ),

( London,

XVI,XVII;

" Der B erliner Codex Graecus Quarto wandten a ls Beispiele des

and Architectural

( Leningrad,

R .

pl.

2 1;

1 966),

9 9-107.

Hamann-McLean,

6 6 und seine n ächsten Ver-

S tilwandels

i m f rühen 1 3.

Jahrhundert,"

in S tudien z ur Buchmalerei und Goldschmiedekunst des M ittelalters, Festschrift Hermann U sener 2 2.

For

instance,

in D juri

2 3.

1 183

19 a bove ),

p l.

7 4.

2 4.

f ig.

pls.

T heoderich que

see

S .

Monagri,

( as

in note

migratio domine eius Dominus

X II,

or t he

1 191,

C hrist o f

in Mango and Hawkins

Pelekanides, see

S .

Cyprus

Boyd,

t he ( as

and

K auTop a ( Thessaloniki, " The

C hurch o f

t he

I ts Wallpaintings,"

DOP,

3 a bove ),

p .

3 1:

2 8

" In celatura quoque,

quibus in i psam c riptam descenditur,

n ostre

c ernitur

n oster I hesus

e sse

C hristus

e t e ius animam suscipiens

d epicta,

incumbit,

u bi dilectus filius

cum multitudine

angelorum

ad c elestia t ransfert,

a pos-

tolis

gemituose a stantibus et devotum e i ministerium e xhibentibus.

Cuius

c orpori

s anctissimo f eretro imposito dum superpositum

velamen vellet quidam

I udaeus

e i gladio amputavit...." t hen 2 5.

pl.

4 0-41.

i psis gradibus,

assistens

2 25-250.

1 08.

On Monagri,

Panagia Amasgou, ( 1974),

1 9 a bove),

i n t he Encleistra,

On t he Mavriotissa, 1 953),

1 967),

t he Annunciate Gabriel at Kurbinovo o f

( as in n ote

Anastasis o f i n n ote

with

( Marburg an der Lahn,

i n Kurbinovo o f

A f urther

t he Good Thief.

form t he word

I f

a ngelus utrasque manus

a ngels actually appears

can be d iscerned t he v isible

( 1 ) ux 1 1, t his may have

c ontained

of

1 191.

inscription i n .Greek

the f eet o f and have

avellere,

The bevy

t he

name of

2 26

i n part b eside

l etters

do,

indeed,

been a votive inscription,

the painter.

See P 1.9.4d.

2 6.

On Athens

9 3:

A .

Marava - Chatzinicolaou and C .

Catalogue of the National Texts

Library of Greece,

1 0th - 1 2th Century

Gelat Gospels

de

Quarto

6 6:

I :

( Moscow, G .

4 52.

1 966),

Millet,

H .

Omont,

( Paris, 2 8.

A . W.

As

3 0.

See

Epstein,

f olio

On the

and pls. ( Paris,

S tahl,

1 910),

The Early Christian

( Unpublished M . A.

New York University,

thesis,

1 966).

AB,

5 211 ):

6 2

( 1980), ( as

Buchthal ( as

( as

Mango and Hawkins

i n note

3 2.

On the history of the Emmanuel T itle and Image

Dates and

2 06.

i n note

3 1.

Pantocrator:

s iecle

" Middle Byzantine Churches of Kastoria:

2 above),

i n particular the Arsenal Bible

l ' Arsenal,

3 4-39.

s ur r iconographie

5 1r.

emphasized by Folda

f or the

2 3-24

6 54.

Amiranashvili,

Evangiles avec peintures byzantines du X Ie

1 929),

Implications," 2 9.

S .

s iecles

s ee H .

I conography of t he Penitent Thief

2 7.

f ig.

R echerches

et XVI e

On t he Good Thief:

I nstitute of Fine Arts,

1 978),

this miniature):

l 'gvangile a ux XIV e , XV e

f ig.

Manuscripts of N ew T estament

( Athens,

( though not

Gruzinska a Miniatfüra On Berlin,

T oufexi-Paschou,

I lluminated Byzantine Manuscripts of the

( Paris,

i n note

Bibliotheque d e

1 above),

1 9 above), image,

2 61.

f igs.

pls.

6 2-81.

7 2-73.

s ee J .T.

Matthews,

( Unpublished Ph. D.

The

dissertation

Institute of Fine Arts of New York University,

1 976),

6 0-61. 3 3.

On Asinou and T rikomo,

s ee A .

the Byzantine A rt of Cyprus XXII,

2 .

On t he relationship of the

" Hagios Chrysostomos, H paxTumä 1 972), 3 4. 3 5.

T OO

na oTou

Trikomo,

6 ucevoüs

Mango and Hawkins Lazarev

( as

Nelson,

( as

i n n ote

Asinou.

X ,

2 and

s ee D .

Winfield,

Byzantine Painters at Work,"

1 9 above),

1 8 above),

i n Vatican,

" The Emperor

As well as

in Nerezi,

gr.

a uveö t oi „ou,

I I ( Nicosia,

2 51,

6 66,

s ee P .

Princeton,

Panteleimonos Mount Athos,

8 ( 1981),

Coislin

2 00.

2 9; The

O n the

i dentity

Magdalino and R .S.

f orthcoming.

Garrett

Sabas near Jerusalem i n New York, 9 39;

s een

i n the

i n the apse of P erachorio,

and

f rom the middle quarters of the c en-

H .P.

Kraus;

and Paris,

3 ,

1 136;

produced

i n

the

Mount Athos,

Gospel Book of

1 156;

Bibliotheque Nationale,

l atter . two books were probably produced around

i n Cyprus o r Palestine:

Manuscripts

2 60.

this kind of pattern can be

University L ibrary,

Vatopedi

3 6.

i n Byzantine Art of the Twelfth Century,"

in a number of manuscripts Monastery of S t.

f ig.

pls.

f ootstool of the Blachernitissa

1 170

pls.

two churches,

m unpoXoyumoO

i n note

Byzantinische F orschungen,

tury:

Masterpieces of

1 965),

2 85-292.

of the emperor

3 6.

Papageorghiou,

( Nicosia,

A . W.

Carr,

f rom the Twelfth C entury,"

2 27

" A Group of Provincial DOP,

f orthcoming.

3 7.

On t he

l yre-backed t hrone,

S tudies Pa.,

i n

t he

1 975),

see A .

Dynamics o f

C utler,

Byzantine

5 -52 and especially 2 9-30 , w here he

c entury example:

an

Mango and Hawkins

( as

3 9.

See

in note

4 0.

Surviving wall paintings

19 above ),

t he article by Lucy-Anne Hunt

L .-A.

include:

Hunt

1 57 and f ig.

in t his

in pilgrimage

volume. in and a round Damascus Gate

Basra and Samaria-Sebaste,

t he

c hapel o f

S ebaste British

Supplementary Paper, 1 6 C );

t he

IV

( J.W.

the

( London,

i n t he Grotto on t he Mount of 2 3-30

t he east wall o f t omb; o f

t he

t he head o f

t he Agony

1 924),

pl.

2 above,

and f igs.

p .

5 4, XXXVI

nave c olumns

a t Bethlehem

forthcoming);

the murals

attribution

paintings

at Bethlehem,

i s

That

s ome o f

unquestionable.

t he Evangelist, of

a -b );

( Folda,

t he

t he

t oo.

t high

understood as Byzantine.

s tele.

in

t he Basilica ( Paris,

( Folda,

a s

in note

s aints on t he

2 55-256 and Gustav Kühnel , i tself;

XXXVII

a ,

s tele a t

and t he b and c ).

Candi-

and t he Bethpage

at Bethlehem a re western

l ook Byzantine,

f igure

and St.

John

and a c omparison

i n t he mosaic o f

The Bethpage

t he

i s

o f

s tele

i s

i rretrievable.

t he

images

t he

a t ragedy: f orms

I wonder,

i s n ot due to

t han t o the o riginal in the Raising of

i mages.

The

Lazarus is easily

but wonder in the

s tory

h ere

i s n ot

l ight o f

s imilar

Both works were overpainted

how-

t his

I have n ot s een the paintings

a t Bethlehem,

attribution whether

o f

insinuated i tself into the

c haracter

modern overpainting r ather

Bethpage

s ite

t he Greek d esert f athers

s urviving

t he western f lavor

D eesis C hapel

a s

t ransept makes a Byzantine a ttribution

s eem plausible for him,

modeling o f Jesus'

( Corbo,

Gethsgmane

Deesis Chapel there,

t he modern repainting has so i f

O lives

the s tanding

column paintings

T hose of

t he E lijah w ith t he

ever,

O rfali,

at Abu Ghosh

on t he other hand,

t heir o riginal

f rontis-

t o a western artist have b een the c olumn

Transfiguration in the

that

2 5-37,

i mages o f Jesus

t he s hadow of a head on

at B ethlehem

2 61-262 and f igs.

dates f or s tele.

and G .

t he Deesis Chapel

( Folda,

C hurches a t

s tairway into t he c hurch of t he Virgin's

2 57 and f igs.

B ethpage

1 937),

an angel discovered a t the

( Corbo,

I X);

1 9-25);

t he

Archaeology in

i nscription a nd r esidual

in Gethsemane

( see

invention o f

C rowfoot,

S chool of

note

6 above,

4 4.

s ites

head o f John t he Baptist at Jerusalem,

one twelfth-

t he Annunciation f rom t he

in this volume );

piece and pl.

( University Park,

c ites

i con in Leningrad.

3 8.

Jerusalem

Transfigurations.

I conography

t o

i n t he

i n the E lijah's

t hat of

t he

s ame insinuating

spirit. 4 1.

Crowfoot

4 2.

Pelekanides

4 3.

A .W.

i n n ote 4 0 ( as

Epstein,

toria: of

( as

i n n ote

a bove ), 2 3

" Frescoes of

Evidence

a nd L .-A.

above),

7 0.

G esta,

2 1,

i s c urious,

pating t he other. the C rusades

with

1 ( 1982),

f orthcoming.

Wake

The

t he Mavriotissa

a t

t he more provincial monument antici-

Given the

i n both

n ear Kas-

and Anti-Semitism in t he

chronological relationship o f Abu Ghosh and t his point

i n this volume.

t he Mavriotissa Monastery

of Millenarianism

t he F irst Crusade,"

pl.

Hunt

association o f

i nstances,

2 28

this

it would be more

i mage-pair with c omfortable

t o

imagine

its having been forged i n

r adiated from t here. Epstein a rgues: Santorini f igures on

while her

i s v ividly correct, be

t hat

and having

t he Mavriotissa is

a ssociation o f i ts

at Cosmosoteira of

t he other hand,

the Holy L and,

I t may be that it i s

l ater

s tyle with

a lso t rue

t hat a number

1 152

s how a s imilar k inship.

this

image-pair

the Holy Land a lready b efore

i ts u se

t he Holy Land i n stimulating

i conographic

than

t hat of of

I t may,

h ad been forged i n

a t Abu Ghosh.

The role

i nvention has y et

of to

be investigated. 4 4. 4 5.

See

a bove,

note 24.

I t has been suggested that the not

i n t he

upper

church,

or spring

at A bu Ghosh:

3 87-389.

Various

Anonymous V III

in;

T .

Tobler,

should

et l ike

c rypt , i .e,

Vincent and Abel

( ca.

ed.,

XV.

site of Emmaus was

in the

( as

t exts mention the spring

t he

IX. x n .

but

1 185)

and E rnoul,

Descriptiones

( Leipzig,

t o t hank Dr.

Denys

in note

a s

1 96 a nd 2 18

Pringle

f ountain 2 above),

t he h oly s ite,

C itez

e x saeculo V III.

r espectively.

f idelity. his

T he Annunciation,

d isciples

t he necessity o f

t he 4 6.

s hrine o f

the Nativity,

Emmaus

f inding

which

Christ's

t eaching o f I magining

in t he c rypt would relieve one

a place for

t he t heme

i n the n ave of

c hurch.

Nurith Kenaan presented an Holy S epulchre

a t

on May 9 ,

preted as

t he C leansing

Maccabees'

1 981,

was

made

the Temple;

in the

i nside

regard t hat the Hospitallers

t he Holy S epulchre.

foundation back t o

Knights

( London, Belmont where

o f St.

1 967),

John

3 87).

et f ilios Hiis

c um f iliis I srael.

modern Suba

s aints

l ess,

suis,

c .

1 050 - 1 310 castle of

Zova

( Vincent a nd Abel,

c astellum Emmaus,

i pso r esurrectionis

T he e lusiveness

( Heb.),

a s

i n note

by the Crusaders,

t he

in n ote

2

has Thus

B elmont appellantur.

quod moderni

a nd may have

church l ocated at

Fontenoid

s ue d ie duobus

i s

the scenes

c leansing o f

s edit

expugnabat c ivitatem

d iscipulis

who n ever became

been pointed out i t

3 above),

in quibus

of the Maccabees,

interpretation o f

t he theme of

( as

quando Antiochus

of t he m ilitary Orders,

Hospitaller

t raced

R iley-Smith,

in their

sunt montes Modin,

generously b y S hefali Rovik. "Maccabaean"

o f interest in

( J.

( Arab .),

I sta montana a modernis

a diacet

ubi Dominus

a pparuit."

perhaps,

noted by Theoderich

l oco v icini

montibus

vocant,

it was

T he proximity of their Emmaus--presumably Abu

" Huic

Mathathias

i s,

of t he twelfth c entury

c laimed to possess

o f Modin,

Ghosh--to Belmont i s 4 2:

I t

Judas Maccabaeus

the Maccabees were buried

above,

a ssociation,

in J erusalem a nd C yprus

3 2 ), and

the site

t he same

i nscription on t he t omb of B aldwin I I

j ust

The

i nter-

the Temple a nd a ssociated with t he

this

t heir own

l intel o f the

Conference at Kalamazoo,

in which the c entral s cene was

o f

cleansing o f

pointed out,

i nterpretation o f the

t he Medieval Studies

Michigan,

p .

This

w ith n o c oncern f or h istorical

a nd the Ascension a re good examples.

the p ilgrimage o f

in grottos

I

f or ' t hese references.

would adhere perfectly to Palestinian p ilgrimage behavior, l ocated many e vents

cf.

( 1228-31), quoted

Terrae Sanctae

1 874) , pp.

c ommemorated

at t he

t o me very

unwise t o attempt a at Abu Ghosh.

t he Temple was

N onethe-

one e spoused

a ssumed a particular cogency Emmaus and in t he

2 29

in a

s hadow o f Modin.

4 7.

Panofsky,

E .

Its

Abbot Suger

Art Treasures,

and H .

on

the Abbey Church

second edition

Buschhausen,

" Studien

Geschichte - K unst - Kultur,

4 8. 4 9.

Weitzmann, P .

B rown,

, (Stuttgart,

o f

t he Ways,"

edited by D . A .

Borg,

B aker

V ,

" The

in The

O rthodox C hurches

1 976),

Martindale

graphie de

Lost Apse Mosaic of

( Oxford,

l ' Orient

B abi 4

L es

des

e t programmes

t he Deesis

a s

1 969),

8 2,

the

pl.

1 2b)

note

façade

and in t he

4 0).

Z .

s culpture of

Artistic Traditions Rejection?," Relations E ast), of

Hospital

d er

' Franken ' ( 1979),

1 2.

1 966),

B ooks;

2 76;

( as

Buchthal

the staurothecai: Jahrbuch der

S ymposium on

in the

i n her

L atin

r econstruction

( M.L. Bulst -Thiele,

" Die

in J erusalem und die Bauten

in n ote

1 8 above),

Underwood,

Vatican,

l at.

H .

Meurer,

2 22 and p1.352.

T he Kariye D jami,

2 01,

2 04,

I II

2 07.

5 974,and Paris,

in note 1 above),

B . N.,

2 5-38 and pls.

"Kreuzreliquiare aus

O n B ethlehem:

of the angels

on t he

L e Sanctuaire

de

ture

on t he

in Greek

Gustav Kühnel

B asil

l at.

3 4-38.

O n

Jerusalem,"

other

n orth wall. tympanum hand,

of

determined,

t he

1 65,

Bethlgem:

f ind his

S econd Ecumenical

l etters

s uggested might be Syriac occupy remains t o be

V incent and Abel, 1914),

t he

s ignature

t hen.

2 30

w hich

Lucy-Anne

s ame f ield a s i s mono-,

s tudy.

t oday beside one s igna-

C ouncil,

ninth and t enth w indows on the

some

Whether Basil's

in a f orthcoming

i s c learly v isible

l a Nativite ( ( Paris,

s pace between the

On t he

s ignature.

and

s taatlichen Kunstsammlungen in B aden-Württemberg , 13

7 -18.

b elow the

( as

see P .

Latin s ignature of

wall.

Chapel

Fusion or

in t he

i ncludes the Deesis

passim and pls.

On the Gospel

The

( see

used i n

Jahrhundert," Frühmittelalterliche Studien,

s ee L azarev

K ariye Camii,

( Princeton,

( 1976),

pp.92-

i n n ote

4 66).

On B aCkovo, On the

im

i t was

Meeting,

1 982

B etween the Visual Arts in E urope

' Auferstehungskirche'

a s

( "Western a nd Eastern

Latin Kingdom:

t he mosaics of t he Calvary

1 34.

e leventh-

B ethlehem

s uggested that

a paper read on 1 January

Mosaiken der 1 3

t he

i n the

and B ulst-Thiele

1 18,

( BabiC,

( Buchthal,

Deesis Chapel at

Jacoby has

9 .

B ibliotheque

8 5,

occurred n ot only among t he

L atin Melisende P salter

1 above,

I ,

d glises byzantines.

in the Rotunda of t he Anastasis

in the

Sigillo-

an apsidal c omposition,

i conographiques,

3 ( Paris,

a nd

Borg a nd

7 7-78 and p l.

9 3),

but

A .

S chlumberger,

des

J erusalem,"

L iturgy

eds.

century mosaics

above,

5 3.

annexes

Cahiers archeologiques,

I n J erusalem,

G .

1 943),

t he Deesis

chapelles

Fonction l iturgique

H ohler,

7 -12;

( Paris,

On t he votive function o f see G .

5 2.

1981),

t he West,

the Holy S epulchre,

Studies o f Medieval Art,

l atin

a nd

1 6.

Metrology Presented t o Christopher

5 1.

the Württembergisches

2 47-277.

49-84.

( Oxford,

in The Vanishing Past, A .

H .

"Eastern and Western Christendom in L ate Antiquity:

A Parting

5 0.

a nd

7 2-77;

in D ie Z eit der Staufer:

Exhibition a t

1977),

" Icon Painting,"

1 979 ),

z u den t ypologischen K reuzen der

I le-de-France und des Maaslandes," Landesmuseum

o f St.-Denis

( Princeton,

b i-

s outh

Hunt

t he Latin or

t rilingual

5 4.

C .

Mango,

P .

Magdalino,

" The C onciliar Edict o f " Manuel Komnenos

and Modern Greek Studies, ( as 5 5.

We

in note know,

1 166,"

f or

4 ( 1978),

instance,

a bove,

3 81 ),

I II,

s alem,

and

t hat Maria,

t he Apostle Philip

zugleich ein Beitrag

und Staatssymbolik," monasteries, St.

5 7.

( as

G .

pl.

5 8.

DOP,

( Runciman,

the wife o f

f rom him

( H. E.

l at.

( 1967),

5 974,

f olio

1 83

3 v,

n185).

see Buchthal

B .N.,suppl.

I llustrations of

Byzantina Vindobonensia,

7 2,

opening o f t he

eleventh

g r.

attribution o f e tudes be

1 1

( Vienna,

Pontifi-

and

in n ote

( as

1 4

( 1957),

1 335

i tself

p l.

group o f

Cyprus and Palestine. fore

the

National L ibrary

B .N.,

g r.

8 3

D arrouzes's

g r.

8 3,

reflects T rier

s ition accompanies t he

" Plures

canon t ables , o f

t he harmony

a very

6 1,

j udgment c an only

f uisse,"

o f

( as

i n n ote

Both

c onvent at B ethany and t he and

i t

t o me.

1 above),

pl.

1 42a.

i s

the

suppl.

strong

t ies with

c hurch

1 140's.

i n

a r eflection l ike

out

i n the

B . N.,

s uch

t he c ruciform c ompo-

the Gospels.

Buchthal

cycles,

and by

o ld t radition s een

t his

frescoed

7 4,

c ruciform c omposition be-

in which

f or pointing

major

which has

t he

Nancy Netzer

J erusalem were

see J . R evue d es

Dionysiou 4 --belong t o t he

codices,

western manuscripts a s

t he

o f 1 168.

Greek manuscripts which preface

The use of

c anon t ables

1 01.

on the possible Cypriot

1 52.

and Mount Athos,

s tyle"

see

in n ote 2 6 above),

t he highly controversial Paris,

byzantines,

1

in Byzantine

"Autres manuscrits originaires de C hypre,"

"decorative

E lijah,

a c ruciform c omposition

in Paris,

7 4 t o C yprus;

fact that t he two further

gr.

t he

f olio 6 v,

1 979),

t he canon tables in Athens, c entury

( as

canon t ables w ith a c ruciform composition--Paris,

6 0.

r eceived

strengthened by t he Cypriot attribution of Athens

the

5 9.

I ,

" Das

Among

1 335,

t he Prefaces

point out t he use o f

They attribute Athens Darrouzes,

Mayer,

z ur Forschung f iber H errschaftszeichen

2 1

For Paris,

T he

5 5-61 and pl. 7 4 o f

i n n ote 11

l ateinischen Könige von Jeru-

Marava-Chatzinicolaou and Toufexi-Paschou at t he

a s

Amalric

3 6 above).

4 0.

Galavaris,

Gospels,

Magdalino a nd N elson

Choziba and C alamon.

i n note

For Vatican, above),

3 30;

Byzantine

Manuel restored those o f John t he Baptist,

Euthymius,

Carr

( 1963),

t hat William of Tyre r eceived c ostly g ifts

kale von Tyrus und die K rönung der

5 6.

1 10-112;

for the Cathedral of T yre

a rm of

1 7

3 5 above ).

from Manuel the

DOP,

and t he Great Palace,"

o f St.

Anne

i n

Nothing r emains of

only with Lucy-Anne

the

I am indebted t o

Hunt's

of the Sebaste and Damascus Gate murals

t o

have had any insight

i nto

of wall painting in t he

Latin Kingdom b efore

t he

t he

c haracter

1 170's.

murals a re e specially valuable c entury wall painting n earest Palestine development t he

t hat w e

t he dearth o f m id-

Cyprus i s

the Byzantine province

i n which one c an o bserve the pattern of

i n t he wake o f

t he C rusades. of

1 140's

T he Sebaste and Damascus Gate

i n v iew o f

on . C yprus.

t he

t hese

attribution

Here,

t oo,

both

a rtistic

t he Comnenian c ustodianship a nd

t he wall painting in t he

s econd half

twelfth c entury b ecomes progressively more pretentious

2 31

and more

responsive

which this

to metropolitan n orms.

The mechanism t hrough

happened--whether t hrough l ocal painters,

Constantinople,

or painters

painters

i s not understood i n Cyprus,

any more than

i t

i s

i n Palestine.

Certainly the Abu Ghosh painters cannot be

shown t o have c ome

f rom Cyprus;

c losely enough l inked

and their manner

i s not quite

with that of Theodore Apseudes

t o permit the conclusion t hat

Theodore had l earned his Constantinopolitan mannerisms 6.

f rom

f rom s ome other cosmopolitan place--

Wall paintings which s till century s tate image of the

They i nclude a l unette

s aints venerating the B lachernitissa,

s offit of the

and

they s till

Baptist.

Though

r eflect the character of

I nscriptions

their doctrinaire

s trikingly the

and a picture on

lunette of Joachim i n the wilderness.

their Comnenian s tyle.

the

i ntimation of their twelfth-

survive only at Choziba.

extensively overpainted, Choziba,

g ive any

i n Palestine.

s urvive

f rom Calamon a nd

f ormula of d edication r esembles

r eport of John Phocas a bout

the monastery o f J ohn

Y WE RE vi : g ye E

That at Calamon r eads:

1 3c o (1

Mo

\A

T O ( 1 )T L , v t • I le PT IS T OO ( W&VVOU) I ( ou r) p (L ) d t pxou ( xo t,) l ax i :q 3ou T OO b ou(pevou) : see S . Vailh , " Les Laures de Saint-Gerasime et de

Calamon,"

Echos d 'orient,

2 ( 1898-99),

i s r ead a s

follows by A . M.Schneider,

zu Choziba

im Wadi

e l Kelt,"

n ap(o0aa)

äVemcvi ,Gen

1 16.

That at Choziba

" Das Kloster d er T heotokos

Römische Quartalschrift,

I M ov(T ))

bat

b£

x Lp

3 8

( 1931),

3 07:

!ß p ax 4

x( o ci ,) T oi ig d t ä cX ( poi )g a i r rot i " E ( TeL) B ( ac iuXeCag) I X ( pLaTot i) H( av -r oxpC c ropos) v I u ( 3 M( up) T ( 1 01 .) T ( c )ü) f i youpe ( you) P epaa( i t) Pou. B oth I brahim 's name a nd his l ack of f urther qualification

s uggest

that he was

a stery of the Prodromos

i n the

a l ocal person.

J ordan Valley,

Of the mon-

the

Greek pilgrim

John Phocas wrote:

" ...the Monastery of the

Forerunner...having

been l eveled to the

ground by an earthquake,

now by the munificent

hand of our Emperor, entirely r ebuilt, d ence of the

Manuel Comnenus,

the prior being e ntrusted with the

r estoration."

cription of the

c rowned by God,

S ee Johannes Phocas,

Castles and Cities,

From the

A Brief D es-

Also of Syria and Phoenecia,

P laces

i n Palestine,

Palestine P ilgrims T ext Society,

1 892),

2 7.

i nto these the

immediate

that

s uch

audience,

raises

plexes came taken

and of the Holy

l ocal overseership that

5 ( London, I have r ead

i nscriptions has been challenged by D enys Pringle,

grounds

that he

importance of

i n

on

inscriptions were determined by their

not by absentee eminences.

this volume,

The

suggestion

that the builders of these c om-

from Constantinople,

i nto account

-

City of Antioch

even unto Jerusalem; The

has b een s uperinten-

i s a s erious one,

i n weighing the

r ole of Manuel

and must b e Comnenus

i n

the Holy Land. 6 2.

Gustav Kühnel has done us an mosaics. transept by the

This

images.

All

s ame workshop,

they are d istinctive. the Doubting of ever,

f acial

The overtly

Thomas and the

t ypes

are a s consistent a s

" dynamic

s tyle"

f irmer,

more

s tolid

dangling donkey with her the

i n the

apostolic

h ow-

i n t he other

i n

t he model.

Transfiguration

guide

imagery of the Melisende Psalter,

2 32

character of

f orms

r evealing at the very l east a d ivergence

both r epeat

i n c leaning the

l eft half of the Ascension,

s play-legged posture of the disciple

and the

s ervice

surviving images must have been executed f or the

contrasts with the

s cenes, The

i ncalculable

c leaning has r evealed a s tylistic duality i n the

i n the Entry suggesting

t hat the model for compare

Buchthal

Bagatti, pls. 6 3.

O .

4 3

and

D emus,

Bagatti 6 4.

G li

s aw

o f

i nto t he

Damascus Gate.

at Bethlehem, gold,

silver

had all

On their

( as in n ote

suppl.

see M .

Rosen-Ayalon,

t he

s ame

in t he

t radition

d ecade

t hat

realm of min-

Bethany,

and t he

t he Haram,

1 335,

2 37-253.

C ertainly

that help to d etermine

white tones and the presi n l arge quantities

all

and remind one t hat Palestine

t o produce materials

f ig.

see n ote

" Une mosaique medievale

( 1976 ),

for mosaic.

X XXII b .

6 1 a bove.

see C arr

( as

in note

3 6 above );

C .

Catalogue des manuscrits grecs:

l e

s upplement grec,

vol.

no.

6 57 - 6 58.

XL-L;

A .

See

folios

see W . H.P.

( Cambridge,

1 897), t he

i cons

6 5v,

1 14r

and 1 67v:

V .

On t he history

3 7.

LichaYeva,

( Oberlin,

Papers,

Ohio,

see A .W .

can be

twelfth-

V .

o f

these

i cons,

see H .

the Christ Child

pls.

( Moscow,

The LXXI

1 977),

Maguire,

" The

in Byzantine Art,"

3 0;

H .

Belting,

" An

I mage and

Provincial

one

I ts Function

DOP,

On t his kind of small Gospel Book

s een i f

XXXIV,

Byzantine Manuscripts f rom C enturies,

3 4-35

w ith pictures, t he

Late

f orthcoming.

c ompares these books

w ith

the

l ate

and early t hirteenth-century manuscripts from t he Holy

b e

that

c reative

in Buchthal

t he Bible

i ssue o f

c odex " Un

i s

( as

i n n ote

1 above),

S an Daniele d bl Friuli

•

J erusalem in the 1 170's;

a re unlikely t o be

Pace,

1 936),

1 05,

S ixth Annual Byzantine Studies Conference

Sepulchre, reproduced

complex

( Chicago,

g r.

Willoughby ,

The Man of Sorrows in Byzantium,"

1 -16.

Carr,

II

Twelfth and Early Thirteenth

models

9 7-106 a nd pls.

Colwell and H .R .

Vizantirskaia Minrätura

1 980),

Liturgy;

( 1980-81),

It may

G reek and Syrian Min-

1 931),

B ußXua .V ixn,

E .C.

I conography o f Simeon w ith Abstracts of

pp.

o f Simeon Glykophilon and t he Man of

of Karahissar,

and CVI;

the

Hatch,

Mass.,

1 960),

Saltykov- nedrin Public Library,

pl.

This

( Paris,

1 26-127.

i n L eningrad,

Four Gospels

in t he

9 01-1371

Papadopoulos-Kerameus,

i n particular

Sorrows

I II,

T aphou 4 7,

in J erusalem

I ( Leningrad,

7 0.

5 ;

Concasty,

On Jerusalem,

6 9.

8 3

a bsence o f

2 a bove ),

gr.

pl.

t radition may well have run back

facilities

c ondition,

On Paris,

1 952),

Astruc and M .-L.

iatures

6 8.

t he

t he

Anne,

and mother-of-pearl

itself

1 948),

t he mosaic

1 140's,

t he vibrant green tesserae

t he mosaics o f

6 6.

would c arry

R evue biblique,

recall

Folda

( London,

t he Melisende P salter

noisy color scheme,

6 5.

w ith B .

( Jerusalem,

p1.45.

decade of the

T he mosaic

S aint-Sepulcre,"

ence of

di Betlemme

and the murals o f St.

ccnsiderably f arther:

6 7.

a bove),

the Holy S epu lchre

l east

t he production o f

the

s acri

actually a l ocal one:

pls. 4b and 5 b,

of Norman S icily

in n ote 6 2

i ature painting,

au

s cenes w as

1 above),

antichi edifici

The Mosaics

( as

at

i nitial

in n ote

4 4.

The mosaics back

t he

( as

any

later

a c onundrum unto

i potesi per

l a

than t he

i tself.

i llustrates

its Byzantine

1 170's.

But t his

See most recently

s toria della produzione

2 33

pls.34-54.

libraria

i talo-meridionale: Friuli,"

La Bibbia

La miniatura

' bizantina'

i taliana

d i

S an Daniele

i n e tä romanica

e gotica,

del Congresso di storia della miniatura i taliana 131-157.

t his

in Europe

Travel Grant this

1 978 ),

e xtraordinary manuscript.

My attendance at t he

want t o

Atti

( Cortona,

I am indebted to Valentino Pace for showing me c olor

pictures o f

Arts

d el

Symposium on"Relations Between the V isual

and in t he

Latin East" was made possible by a

from t he American C ouncil o f L earned Societies.

e xpress my warmest

e xperience

a ccessible

t hanks

t o me.

2 34

to

I

the Council for having made

2 35 r ight h alf

P l.

9 .2

Abu Ghosh, ( photo:

K oimesis:

a uthor)

2 36

r ight half,

mourning a postle

P l.

9 .3

Abu Ghosh, ( photo:

s outh apse:

author)

2 37

Patriarch Joseph

f abric on t hrone

I ,

0 0 ( .5

'H ( . 1)

r C 9

X 'H

4 4 H

W. H C J )

4 -)

r d

• . 1 2

H

• w

4 J g i

0 .0 E4

0

Q . = 0 0

7 2 . 4

5 . 4

. 0

4 ) 4 0 0 r d

0 4 )

0

0

n i

YV e Z

0

( .r . ) P o

H

( N i )

. 0

0

Z

.

,

3 4 1 1

W W

WW W 1 1 11, 4 10 1 1r . .

H H 0 H

0

0

0 4 )

0

0 : 1

. • 0

P 0 0 X

Q -

1 4 1

. 0 0 r _ 5

r d

c s )«

2 38

beneath E cclesia

W M

0

t o

c Y ).

r t

2 39 Dumbarton Oaks)

s outh a isle:

t 4 1 0

0


g r

r n H

R 4

2 61

N

" Icon

Painting,"

0

4 1

"Icon Painting

•

••

0 . 4

2 62

Pl.

1 0.3

S inai,

I con:

Weitzmann,

St.

S imeon

and St.

" Icon Painting,"

2 63

f ig.

Barbara 46)

( photo:

Pl.

1 0.4

S inai,

I con:

Weitzmann,

St.

Catherine and St.

" Icon Painting,"

2 64

f ig.

Marina

5 0)

( photo:

P l.

1 0.5

Mottola, ( photo:

Cripta di

San N icola:

author)

2 65

S t.

Parasceve

P l.

1 0.6

J erusalem, ( photo:

Minbar of Qadi Burhan e d -D in,

author)

2 66

detail

P l.

1 0.7

Barletta, ( photo:

S anto S epolcro:

c apital of t he c iborium

I stituto c entrale per i l c atalog° e l a

documentazione,

R ome)

2 67

P l.

1 0.8

Jerusalem,

Mosque Al-Aqsa,

( photo:

Radovan,

Z .

Mihrab Zakariya,

Jerusalem,

2 68

detail

c ourtesy of Z .

Jacoby)

Pl.

1 0.9

San C lemente a Casauria, ( photo:

Anderson-Alinari,

2 69

Nave capital Florence)