Croatia: Land, People, Culture Volume I 9781487595050

Table of contents :
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Contents
Illustrations
I. Geographic and Demographic Statistics of Croatia and Bosnia-Hercegovina
II. Archaeology
III. Political History to 1526
IV. Military History
V. Economic Development
VI. Ethical Heritage
VII. Folk Arts and Handicrafts
VIII. Literature: from the Illyrian Movement to Realism (1835-1895)
IX. Music
X. Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting
APPENDIXES
Index

Citation preview

CROATIA Land, People, Culture VOLUME I Edited by Francis H. Eterovich and Christopher Spalatin This boo d economi bookk represent representss aa surve surveyy ooff th thee cultura culturall an and economicc liflifee ooff th thee Croatian people, who have long been been noted for their their significant significant contributions contributions to to th thee arts and the humanities. humanities. IItt contains aa wealth of factual informatio informationn on various aspects aspects of one one ooff the mos mostt interestin interestingg regions iinn Europe Europe.. p thi The author authorss ooff the article articless whic whichh mak makee uup thiss wor workk araree al alll specialist specialistss in thei wo theirr respective fields. fields. The Theyy hav havee compile compiledd a scholarl scholarlyy revie review off man manyy of of th thee notabl notablee work workss by Croatian historians historians,, politica politicall scientists scientists,, artists artists,, an andd persons persons in other fields. fields. Ther Theree iiss also general informatio informationn on various various aspects aspects of geograph y anand d demography geography demography,, anandd statistic statisticss oonn population population,, ecology ecology,, religion, nationality and other importan importantt areas of Croatian lif lifee ar aree included included.. Other importan importantt features are are te tenn maps showing the administrative divisions of Yugoslavia and adjacent adjacentcountries countries,, and 32 pages of illustrations illustrations depicting folk arts arts,, handicrafts handicrafts,, music music,, painting, sculpture an andd architecture architecture.. i l l bbe e invaluabl e tto o libraries i l l bbe e aa usefu This referenc e wor reference workk wwill invaluable libraries,, and wwill usefull n affairs source ooff informatio informationn for historians historians,, writer writerss oonn Centra Centrall Europea European affairs,, students o d iin n th off art an andd ethni ethnicc developments developments,, an andd th thee layma laymann intereste interested thee Croatian people an d thei r cultural history. and their T E R O V I C H studie FRANCIS H.. EETEROVICH studiedd aatt ththee Dominica Dominicann Institut Institutee iinn Louvain Louvain,, Belgium, the University of Zagreb Croatia , the State State University Universityof ofOlomouc, Olomouc, University of Zagreb,, Croatia, Czechoslovakia, an andd the Dominican Dominican University in Etiolles, France. Sinc Sincee 196 19622 he at De in Chicago, where he he is is at he has taught taught Philosophy Philosophy at De Paul University University in Chicago, where . present Assistant Professor Professor. FRANCIS H

CHRISTOPHER SPALATIN wa wass educate educatedd iinn Yugoslavia Yugoslavia,, France France,, anandd Italy Italy.. He ha hass taugh taughtt iinn the Unite Unitedd States since since 1952 1952,, an andd iiss aatt presen presentt Associat Associatee Professor Professor ooff French aatt Marquett Marquettee University University,, Milwaukee.

C H R I S T O P H E R SPALATI N

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Ivan Mestrovic ( Painting by Gusta v Likan , 196 1 ).

CROATIA

Land, People , Cultur e

VOLUME I

FRANCIS H . ETEROVIC H Editor DE PAUL UNIVERSIT Y

CHRISTOPHER SPALATI N Associate Editor MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY

Foreword b y Ivan Mestrovic

Published fo r the Editorial Boar d by UNIVERSITY O F TORONT O PRES S

Copyright, Canada, 1964 , b y University of Toronto Pres s Printed i n Canada

In memory of IVAN MESTROVIC , sculptor and patriot, who embodied the Croatian genius

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Foreword

THE PUBLICATION o f a reference book in English abou t Croati a and th e Croatians i s lon g overdue . Th e Croatians , althoug h eage r t o lear n about others, have, t o a large extent , failed t o acquain t th e res t o f th e world wit h themselve s an d thei r culture . Muc h o f th e informatio n about Croati a an d th e Croatian s tha t appear s i n curren t foreig n publications i s unfortunatel y misleadin g o r inaccurate . Therefore , when I wa s presented wit h th e broa d outlin e of the aim s an d conten t of th e presen t work , I wa s eage r t o compl y with th e editors ' reques t that I writ e a foreword to it . Many readers , I fear , hav e no t eve n hear d o f th e Croatia n nation . This ca n b e partiall y explaine d b y th e fac t tha t fo r centurie s Croati a has no t appeare d o n th e worl d ma p a s a n internationall y recognized independent unit . Thos e wh o hav e rea d extensivel y abou t th e histor y of Europ e ar e doubtles s acquainte d wit h th e brav e conduc t o f th e Croatian soldier s i n th e armie s o f th e Turkis h an d th e Austria n Empires, bu t probabl y ver y fe w ar e familia r wit h Croatia' s politica l and cultura l history . Ye t th e histor y o f th e Croatians—no t onl y a s a people, bu t a s a natio n possessing it s ow n parliament , on e withou t whose consen t n o decision s affectin g Croatia' s fat e coul d b e mad e either i n peac e o r i n war—extend s bac k a t leas t t o th e nint h century. The nucleu s o f Croatia' s statehoo d ha s neve r cease d t o exist , an d th e consciousness of her nationa l individuality has never been dimmed , no matter ho w mutilate d he r territor y o r ho w infringe d upo n he r sovereignty. How could this relatively small nation, geographically s o vulnerable, from tim e immemorial the crossroad s and battlegroun d o f imperialism both ideologica l and political , surviv e and preserv e its nationa l individuality? What has save d her fro m assimilatio n or obliteration b y the numericall y and culturall y superio r Latin s and German s fro m th e

Vlli FOREWOB

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West an d th e overwhelmin g militar y powe r o f th e Ottoma n Empir e from th e East ? I n thi s referenc e work , th e answe r become s clear : Croatian religious , ethical , an d cultura l ideal s hav e inspire d th e people wit h th e courag e t o fight and eve n t o di e rather tha n giv e u p their freedo m and self-government. A fe w observations , th e frui t o f m y ow n meditatio n an d reflectio n on th e histor y an d characte r o f m y people , ar e no t amis s here . Recently a ne w theor y ha s bee n advance d concernin g th e possibl e Iranian origi n o f the Croatians ; be thi s a s it may , it i s certain tha t th e Croatians firs t appeare d o n th e Europea n stag e a s a branc h o f th e large Slavic family. When, in the seventh century, this particular grou p of Slav s lef t it s homeland—somewher e nort h o f th e Carpathia n Moun tains—and finally settled i n what i s now Croatia , it foun d itsel f amon g peoples o f mixed origi n an d divers e ethni c make-up : nativ e Illyrians , scattered Celti c tribes , remnant s o f the earlie r Roma n population , an d Greek colonist s on som e of the island s an d par t o f the Adriati c coast . The Croatian s impose d thei r languag e o n thes e group s an d throug h inter-marriage t o a certai n exten t altere d thei r ow n physical charac teristics. Ou t of this amalgamation there emerge d wha t i s today known as the Croatia n people . It woul d see m tha t th e Illyria n wa s th e stronges t influenc e o n th e Croatians, perhap s accountin g fo r th e martia l spiri t tha t the y hav e always exhibite d i n their resistanc e to aggressors. This trait , combine d with th e Slavi c inclination to cultivat e the soil , became, dow n throug h time, th e mos t typica l characteristi c o f the Croatia n personality . Fro m the Greek s the y probabl y derive d thei r lov e fo r th e se a an d thei r appreciation o f beauty . T o th e Celt s migh t b e attribute d th e mor e imaginative tendencie s manifeste d b y th e Croatians . Not lon g afte r th e Croatian s ha d settle d i n thei r ne w land , the y organized thei r ow n stat e an d free d themselve s almos t completel y from th e overlordshi p o f Byzantium . Croatia' s conversio n t o Chris tianity unde r th e auspice s o f th e Roma n Catholi c Churc h dre w he r into th e orbi t o f Western civilizatio n an d enable d he r t o mak e rapi d cultural stride s an d joi n th e rank s of the othe r civilize d nation s o f th e Mediterranean basin . Gradually , i n th e cours e o f centuries , th e Croatians als o forme d clos e politica l an d cultura l tie s wit h th e Germans. Thus th e Croatia n mentalit y an d cultura l trait s ar e basicall y Western. The fact tha t they were beneficiaries o f the Gree k and Lati n cultura l heritage di d not , however , mea n tha t th e Croatian s los t thei r distinc tive menta l characteristic s an d creativ e genius . The y hav e stubbornl y

FOREWORD I

X

—almost instinctively—maintaine d an d defende d thei r nationa l con sciousness an d thei r nationa l ego . Catholicis m di d no t transfor m th e majority o f th e Croatian s int o Latins , a s Isla m di d no t mak e th e minority Turks . Bot h Mosle m an d Catholi c Croatian s hav e looke d upon thei r coreligionist s a s thei r brethre n an d hav e live d u p t o th e high religiou s ideal s tha t the y hol d i n common . The y hav e don e so , however, unde r th e conditio n tha t thei r nationa l characteristic s no t be take n fro m them . Eve r sinc e thei r conversio n t o Christianity , th e Croatians hav e insisted upon—an d hav e obtaine d fro m th e Hol y See the unique privileg e o f using Church Slavoni c an d thei r ow n Croatia n language in the liturgy . A similar tenacity with regar d t o language was exhibited b y thos e Croatian s who , mainl y becaus e o f th e onslaugh t from th e East , embrace d Islam . I n spit e o f Turkis h domination , th e Bosnian Croatians have maintained their Croatia n language not onl y in their home s bu t als o i n th e administratio n o f thei r province , an d t o some exten t i n thei r literature . Th e authoritie s i n Constantinopl e ha d to us e th e Croatia n languag e t o communicat e wit h them ; an d whe n a numbe r o f Bosnian Croatians became important functionarie s of th e Ottoman Empire , the y sa w to it that th e Croatia n languag e wa s mad e a diplomati c language . Th e vigilanc e an d determinatio n whic h th e Croatians hav e show n i n retainin g thei r languag e i s typica l o f thei r unceasing struggl e fo r th e surviva l of their nation . Despite thei r valo r an d militar y prowess, the Croatian s hav e neve r been conquerors ; the y hav e neve r mad e clai m t o foreig n territories . "Defend wha t i s yours, and keep away from wha t belong s t o others " is one of their mottoes . They d o not conside r fightin g an d warmongerin g to b e thei r mission . Rather , throughou t th e centuries , man y o f thei r best citizens hav e devoted their-talents to creative and artistic pursuits . It i s significan t tha t eve n th e militar y leader s who m Croati a con tributed s o abundantl y t o bot h th e Austria n an d Ottoma n Empire s devoted thei r rar e moment s o f leisur e t o stud y an d t o literar y work . When almos t al l o f Croati a wa s eithe r subjugate d b y th e Turk s o r under Venetia n rule , th e smal l fre e republi c o f Dubrovni k produce d a veritabl e phalan x o f outstandin g poets . S o also di d severa l citie s o f Dalmatian Croati a whic h were not occupied b y a foreign power. Thus, while two-third s o f th e countr y wa s eithe r unde r foreig n yok e o r defending itsel f agains t aggressors , one-third—Dalmatian Croatia—wa s producing eminen t writer s an d humanists , buildin g magnificen t churches, an d otherwis e keepin g pace with the othe r civilize d nations. In thos e difficul t times , a considerabl e numbe r o f Croatians , notabl y many priests , too k refuge i n Italy , wher e quit e a fe w o f the m gaine d

X FOREWOR

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international fam e a s painters , sculptors , scientists , scholars , an d churchmen. Even whe n unceasin g war s decimate d the Croatia n natio n and reduced it s inhabitant s t o illiterat e peasants , the creativ e spiri t o f th e people wa s kep t alive . Th e peasant s carrie d o n th e Croatia n artisti c tradition, an d fro m th e village s there poure d fort h poetry , heroic bal lads, and lyri c songs, many of them containin g hundreds of verses. Th e peasants chante d an d recite d thes e verse s a t ever y gathering , keepin g the spiri t o f the nation aliv e an d th e cultura l threa d unbroken . When , in the eighteent h century , this poetry came to the attentio n o f Wester n poets and scholars, they were amazed at its richness and its fine artistic quality. T o thi s sam e categor y o f popula r creativenes s belon g th e colourful embroiderie s an d th e numerou s sarcophag i an d tombstone s scattered throughou t Bosnia n Croatia . Th e tomb s o f th e Bosnia n noblemen an d commoner s wh o ha d embrace d firs t Manicheis m an d later Isla m ar e th e mos t distinctiv e an d origina l artisti c creation s o f Croatia in the late Middle Ages. The Croatian s ar e a deepl y religiou s people : Christia n o r Moslem , the Croatia n take s hi s fait h seriously . Religio n form s th e basi s o f hi s personality, an d h e cherishe s i t a s a gift . Ther e i s n o doub t tha t thi s deeply-anchored religiou s fait h ha s bee n th e sourc e o f th e strengt h and spiritua l inspiratio n whic h ha s enable d th e Croatia n peopl e t o survive individuall y an d a s a natio n throughou t centurie s o f struggle . The ethica l motivatio n o f th e Croatians ' long an d bitte r struggl e ha s been th e yearnin g to enjo y freedo m i n thei r home s an d homeland . A s a man' s consciousnes s of himself a s a person an d a s a part o f a natio n increases, s o too doe s hi s strivin g fo r freedom . Thi s strivin g become s a prim e nee d fo r him , a s necessar y a s breathing . Onl y whe n thi s natural need ha s been satisfie d ca n he, a s an individual an d a member of a nation , live a ful l huma n life , cooperatin g voluntaril y with other s and participatin g i n th e large r huma n community . State d simply , th e aim o f the Croatia n struggl e fo r freedo m i s thi s : th e Croatian s desir e the opportunit y t o expres s themselves freel y an d full y i n ever y phas e of huma n endeavor . The y ar e strengthene d i n thei r desir e b y th e conviction tha t thei r caus e i s just. A sense o f justice an d fai r pla y ha s always animate d an d motivate d th e conduc t o f th e Croatians , bot h individually an d collectively . The y hav e alway s bee n read y t o suffe r and eve n t o di e fo r justice . Their neighbor s hav e ofte n calle d them — sometimes sneeringly—the nation which neve r stops speaking of justice. Yet the Croatian s refus e t o embrac e th e philosoph y that "might makes right" and the y ar e convince d tha t justice, which ca n be effecte d onl y

FOBEWOBD X

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through understanding , i s a basic la w that govern s al l human relation ships, whethe r betwee n individual s o r nations . The y believ e tha t justice an d righ t ar e the mean s by whic h lastin g peac e an d happines s for al l men will be brought about . It i s the hop e o f all who have contribute d t o thi s book that i t migh t help mak e Croatia an d her people bette r known and understood in th e light of truth and justice . May it find a sympathetic receptio n an d fulfil l its purpos e o f acquaintin g th e reade r wit h th e historica l backgroun d and cultura l value s o f th e Croatians , a peopl e tha t ha s alway s bee n and eve r wishe s t o remai n a respecte d an d worth y membe r o f th e great famil y o f free nations. IVAN MESTEOVI C South Bend, Indian a 1960

Editors' Note The distinguishe d sculpto r an d author , Iva n Mestrovic , die d o n January 16 , 1962 , befor e th e completio n o f thi s volume . T o th e ver y last day o f his life, h e strov e tirelessly afte r th e fulfillmen t o f the goal s which h e ha s se t fort h i n th e Foreword . I t i s ou r wis h tha t thes e studies b e presente d t o th e publi c i n hi s hono r an d memory . FHE, Editor CS, Associate Editor

Acknowledgments

THE PREPARATION o f thi s volum e required a grea t amoun t o f effor t o n the par t o f man y persons . I t i s no t possibl e t o lis t al l o f thos e wh o have contribute d i n on e wa y o r anothe r t o th e completio n o f thi s volume, but th e editor s wis h t o expres s their gratitud e t o al l o f them . For their valuable advice and assistance, the editor s would especiall y like t o than k th e following : Clemen t S . Mihanovich , St . Loui s Uni versity; D . A . Tomasic , Indian a University ; Ant e Kadic , Indian a University; Thomas F. Magner , Pennsylvania Stat e University; Franci s Dvornik, Harvar d University ; Domini k Mandic , Croatia n Historica l Institute (Chicago) ; Joseph Strmecki , University o f Wisconsin ; Kami l Avdic, Joh n Crera r Librar y (Chicago) ; Michae l Milkovich , Cornin g Museum o f Glas s (Corning , N.Y.) ; Josep h Batinica , Morga n Stat e College; Pava o Tijan , Consej o Superio r d e Investigacione s Científica s (Madrid); Iv o Vitezic , Universit y of Vienna ; Atanazije Matanic , Uni versity Antonianu m (Rome) ; and Aleksanda r Perc , Cologne . The editors would also like to express their gratitud e t o the administrations o f th e Widene r Library , Harvar d University , an d o f th e Harper Library , Universit y o f Chicago , fo r thei r kin d cooperation , and t o Professo r Roma n Smal-Stocki , Directo r o f th e Slavi c Institut e of Marquett e University , for hi s advic e an d encouragement . For permissio n t o us e illustrations , th e editor s ar e indebte d t o Ljubo Karama n (Ziva Starina), H . Aschehoug and Compan y (History of Salonitan Christianity, by Ejna r Dyggve) , an d Ele k Book s Limite d (Yugoslav Life and Landscape, b y Ale c Brown).

Contents

FOREWORD, b y Ivan Mestrovi c vi

i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Xl

l

LIST O F ILLUSTRATION S XV11

1

INTRODUCTION, by Franci s H . Eterovic h xx

i

I GEOGRAPHI

C AN D DEMOGRAPHI C STATISTIC S O F CROATI A AN D

BOSNiA-HEHCEGOviNA, b y Franci s H . Eterovic h 3 Geographic Locatio n 3 Yugoslavia, 3 Administrative Divisio n 4 People's Republics , 4 ; Boundaries , 5 ; Are a an d Surfac e Configuration, 5 ; Regions and Provinces , 6 Geographic Statistic s 7 National Park s an d Reservations , 7; Mountai n Peaks, 7 ; Rivers, 8 ; Lakes , 9 ; Artificia l Lakes , 9 ; Type s o f Soil , 9 ; Polja (Fields) , 10 ; Th e Adriati c Sea , 10 ; Islands , 11 ; Climate, 1 2 Demographic Statistic s 1 Population Accordin g t o Nationality , 15 ; Nationa l Minorities, 16 ; Religiou s Affiliatio n o f Population , 16 ; Cities o f Mor e Tha n 10,00 0 Population , 17 ; Centra l Railroad Stations , 19 ; Seaports , 19 ; Riverports , 1 9 Airports, 1 9

4

XÍV CONTENT

S

n ABCHAEOLOGY , b y Vladimi r Markoti c 2 Prehistory 2

0 1

The Palaeolithi c o r Ol d Ston e Age , 21 ; Th e Mesolithi c or Middl e Ston e Age , 23 ; Th e Neolithi c o r Ne w Ston e Age, 24 ; Th e Bronz e Age , 30 ; Th e Iro n Age , 3 5

Historical Archaeolog y 3 The Roma n Period , 3 9

9

Bibliography 7

1

in POLITICA L HISTOR Y T O 1526, b y Stank o Guldesc u 7

6

Theories o f the Croatia n Origin s 7

6

The Sevent h and Eight h Centuries— A Period o f Historical Darkness 8

4

The Formatio n o f th e Nationa l Monarch y 8

8

The Hungaria n Perio d 10

3

Medieval Bosni a 10

6

The Turkis h War s 11

1

The Accessio n o f th e Hapsburg s 11 Croatian Politica l Chronolog y t o 152 7 11

4 6

Bibliography o f Medieva l Croati a 12

2

iv MILITAR Y HISTORY , b y Iva n Babi c 13

1

The Conques t o f the Presen t Homelan d 13

1

Strategic Characteristic s o f th e Ne w Homelan d 13

2

The Nationa l State in th e Middl e Ages 13

3

The Croatian-Hungaria n Unio n 13

4

Croatians a s the Bulwar k for the Defens e o f Western Europ e 13 6 The Organizatio n o f th e Militar y Frontie r 13

9

On Foreig n Battlefield s 14

3

The Napoleoni c War s 14

5

From Napoleo n t o the Firs t Worl d Wa r 14

6

The Firs t Worl d Wa r 14

8

CONTENTS X

V

The Yugosla v Legion 15

0

The Yugosla v Arm y (1918-1941 ) 15

1

The Croatia n Arm y an d it s Enemie s i n th e Secon d World Wa r (1941-1945 ) 15

4

The En d o f the Wa r 16

4

v ECONOMI C DEVELOPMENT , by Drag o Matkovi c 16

7

Social Structur e 16

7

Changes Du e t o Christianit y 16

8

Production 16

9

Economic Change s 17

0

The Emancipatio n o f th e Peasant s 17

1

Agrarian Condition s in Bosnia-Hercegovin a 17

1

Changes in Agricultural Economy During the Capitalisti c Period 17

2

The Developmen t o f Urba n Lif e 17

3

Town Econom y and th e Guil d Syste m 17

4

The Spectacula r Growt h of the City-Republi c o f Dubrovni k 17 5 Mercantile Politica l Econom y 17

6

Forest an d Lan d Exploitatio n 17

8

Industrial Developmen t 17

9

The Capitalisti c Developmen t o f Croati a 18

0

The Developmen t o f Merchan t Fleet s 18

1

Salt-Water Fishin g 18

5

Ship-Building 18

6

Tourism 18

6

Bibliography 18

7

vi ETHICA L HEBITAGE , by Franci s H . Eterovic h 19 Basic Moral Principles 19 Divine Justice , 193 ; Idealized Vie w o f Morality , 195 ; Perfection o f Humanity , 19 6

1 3

XVÍ CONTENT

S

Principal Virtue s an d Vice s 19

7

Love o f Go d an d Neighbor , 197 ; Shortcomings , 201; Sense o f Justice , 206 ; Harmony, Order , Peace , 208 ; Freedom, 208 ; Work an d Recreation , 210 ; Fighting fo r Values, 211; The Dignit y of Man, 213; Vices Opposed t o Human Dignity , 21 7 The Moralit y o f Socia l Relation s 21

7

The Famil y an d Kinship , 217 ; Patriotism , 219 ; Th e Nation, 221 ; Stat e an d Church , 223 ; Internationa l Relations, 224 ; The Post-Wa r Stat e o f Morals , 22 5 vii FOL K ART S AN D HANDICRAFTS , b y Tom o Markovi c 22 Wood 22

6 7

Buildings, 227 ; Furnishing an d Decorating , 22 8 Pottery 22

9

Types, 229 ; Dinari c Pottery , 229 ; Bosnian Pottery , 23 1 Stone 23

1

Buildings, 231 ; Tombstones an d Othe r Stonework , 23 2 Metal 23

3

Ancient Heritage , 233 ; Byzantin e Influence , 234 ; Bosnian Metalwork , 23 4 Cloth 22

5

Regional Specialties , 235 ; Embroidery, 236; Colors, 236; Knitting, 237 ; Carpet-Weaving, 237 ; Fabric Art s i n th e Life o f th e People , 23 7 Gourd an d Eg g Colorin g 23

8

Tattooing 23

9

A Traditiona l Skill , 239; The Manne r o f Tattooing , 23 9 Bibliography 24 VIH LITERATUR

0

E : FRO M TH E ILLYRIA N MOVEMEN T T O REALIS M

( 1835-1895), b y K . B . K. 24

2

The Illyria n Movemen t (1835-1849 ) 24

2

Romanticism (1849-1880 ) 25

1

CONTENTS XV

Realism (1880-1895 ) 25 Bibliography 27 Croatian Author s (1835-1895 ) 27 ix MUSIC , b y Fedo r Kabali n 28 Early Histor y 28 The Nationa l Awakenin g 28 The Adven t o f Professionalis m 28 Modern Trend s 28 Post-War Development s 29 Performers 29 Musical Institution s 29 Bibliography 29 Scores and Collection s 30 Croatian Musician s 30 Discography 31 x ARCHITECTURE , SCULPTURE , AN D PAINTING , b y Ruz a Bajuri n 31

Ü

6 2 4 0 0 3 5 7 1 2 6 9 1 3 4 7

Architecture 31

7

Sculpture 32

6

Painting 33

4

Bibliography 34

5

Croatian Artist s 34

7

APPENDIXES 35

3

Appendix A: Biographies o f the Author s 35

5

Appendix B: General Referenc e Works on Croatian Lif e and Cultur e 36

2

Appendix C : Geographica l Name s 36

9

Appendix D: Pronunciatio n o f Croatian Letter s 37

5

Appendix E: Sponsor s and Assistant s 37

6

INDEX 37

9

Illustrations

Frontispiece: Iva n Mestrovic. Between pages 6 and 7 Sarajevo, capita l o f Bosnia-Hercegovina . Th e seapor t o f Dubrovnik , Dalmatia. Between pages 24 and 25 Mostar, Hercegovina . Velebi t Mountain , Lika. Moti f fro m Slavonia . Zagreb, capital of Croatia. Pula, Croatia : Templ e o f Rom a and Augustus ; Roma n Amphitheatr e from th e secon d century . Diocletian' s Palace : a s reconstructe d b y Hebrard; as it stands today. Between pages 56 and 57 Holy Trinit y Church , Split . Tombston e o f Quee n Helen , fro m th e tenth century . Th e oldes t inscription , abou t 110 0 A.D. , i n Glagolithi c Script, foun d a t Baska , o n th e Islan d o f Krk . Croatia n Kin g Zvonimir (?) , fro m th e elevent h century . A n earl y Croatia n tomb fro m Dalmatia. Dwellings: Sojenica o r sosnica i n Gornj a Dolina , nea r Bosansk a Gradiska, Posavina ; Brvnara i n Bosnia-Hercegovina ; Brvnaras i n Palanjek, nea r Sisak , Posavina; Bunja o r cerner. Between pages 232 and 233 Folk art s an d handicrafts : grindston e boxes ; woode n cups ; distaffs ; needle cases ; spools ; Dinari c pottery : wate r vessel s fro m Kiseljak , near Kresevo, Bosnia; tattooing design; embroidery design fro m North Western Bosnia ; costume s fro m th e 2epc e countrysid e i n Bosnia ;

ILLUSTRATIONS XI

X

woman embroiderin g o n a horizontal loom ; enameled bo x for religiou s books; leader o f the heroi c game alka; egg s wit h variou s designs ; lac e from variou s regions. Croatian authors: Stank o Vraz (1810-51); Petar Preradovi c (1818-72) ; Ante Tresic-Pavicic (1867-1949); Eugenij Kumicic (1850-1904). Between pages 280 and 281 Croatian authors : AnteKovaci c (1854-89); Josip Kosarac (1858-1906); Silvije Strahimi r Kranjcevi c (1865-1908) ; Augus t Harambasic (1861 1911); Ljudevi t Ga j (1809-1911) ; Iva n Mazurani c (1814-90) ; August Senoa (1838-81) ; Luk a Boti c (1830-63) ; Franj o Markovi c (1845 1914); Vjencesla v Nova k (1859-1905) ; Ksave r Sando r Gjalsk i (1854 1935); Janko Leskovar ( 1861-1949). Croatian Nationa l Theater , Zagreb . Vatroslav Lisinsk i (1819-54) , compose r o f th e firs t Croatia n opera . Zinka Milano v (1906 - ) , renowne d Metropolita n Oper a soprano . Gazi Husre f be y Mosqu e (sixteent h century) , Sarajevo . Zagre b Cathedral (thirteent h century) . Cloiste r o f the Francisca n Monastery , Dubrovnik (fourteent h century). Cloister of the Dominican Monastery, Dubrovnik ( fifteenth century ). Between pages 312 and 313 The Cathedra l i n Sibeni k (fifteent h century) . Porta l o f the Cathedra l of Trogir, sculpted b y Radovan. Ivan Mestrovic , "Pietà" ; "Croatia n History. " Joz o Kljakovic , "Th e Oath o f Kin g Zvonimir. " Maksimilja n Vanka , "Croatia n Deat h i n Pennsylvania."

Maps Facing page Yugoslavia an d Neighborin g Countrie s 4 Yugoslavia: Administrativ e Division s 5

XX ILLUSTRATION

S

facing page Croatia an d Bosnia-Hercegovin a 1

8

Main Prehistori c Site s in Croatia an d Bosnia-Hercegovin a 1

9

Croatia an d Bosnia-Hercegovin a i n th e Roma n an d Earl y Christian Perio d 4

2

Croatia an d Bosnia-Hercegovin a i n th e Middl e Age s 4

3

The Croatia n Kingdo m i n th e Tim e o f Kin g Tomislav, 92 8 A.D . 9

4

The Croatia n Kingdo m in th e Tim e o f King Petar Kresimi r IV , 1058-1074 A.D . 9

5

The Bosnia n State i n the 12th-14t h Centurie s 10

6

The Tripl e Kingdo m o f Croatia , Slavoni a an d Dalmati a afte r the Peac e o f Zadar , 135 8 A.D . 10

7

Introduction

WITH GREA T satisfactio n w e not e a considerabl e increas e o f activit y i n the fiel d o f Slavi c Studie s i n Nort h America today . Th e traditionall y small grou p o f students dedicate d t o Slavi c Studie s i s currently bein g augmented b y a n ever-growin g numbe r o f youn g an d enthusiasti c scholars. Although political an d militar y ground s have playe d a majo r role i n motivatin g thi s increase d interest, th e worl d a t larg e wil l n o doubt profi t fro m th e scholarl y researc h int o th e extremel y varie d Slavic cultur e tha t i s under way . If w e i n Nort h Americ a ar e t o contribute to the fulles t exten t to the preservatio n and sprea d of libert y and peac e i n th e world , i t i s essentia l tha t w e com e t o kno w an d understand th e Slavic nations. Yugoslavia i s perhaps bette r know n i n th e English-speakin g worl d than an y othe r Slavi c nation , wit h th e exceptio n o f Russia . It i s tru e that th e literature abou t Yugoslavi a that ha s s o far appeare d i n Nort h America ha s bee n o f a predominantl y politica l an d economi c nature , concerned, for practical reasons of the moment, almost exclusively with events an d circumstance s i n tha t countr y sinc e Worl d Wa r II . Th e Communist experimen t i n Yugoslavi a and th e variation s o n i t carrie d out b y Tit o afte r hi s officia l spli t with Mosco w in 194 8 are completel y new trend s i n the histor y of the people s o f Yugoslavia; now mor e tha n ever befor e ther e exist s th e dange r o f a partia l o r distorte d under standing of the histor y and cultur e of the country . An unbalanced and incomplete pictur e result s whe n Yugoslavi a i s studie d exclusivel y in the ligh t o f post-war political an d economi c data. W e believ e i t essen tial that an y thorough stud y of Yugoslavia must take into consideratio n the pas t cultura l lif e o f that country' s many component parts . Politica l regimes com e and go , but th e cultur e o f the peopl e i s passed o n fro m one generation t o the next , for it ha s it s roots dee p i n th e pas t an d i n the mind an d heart o f the people. Ther e can be no real understandin g of lif e an d cultur e i n moder n Yugoslavi a unti l thi s aspec t ha s bee n duly considered .

XXII INTRODUCTIO

N

Politically, Yugoslavi a consist s o f a federatio n o f si x people' s republics: Serbia , Croatia , Bosnia-Hercegovina , Slovenia , Montenegro, Macedonia, an d tw o autonomou s provinces rule d b y th e republi c o f Serbia, Vojvodin a an d Kosme t ( this las t term i s an abbreviation fo r th e names of the region s Kosov o and Metohija) . Fro m the standpoin t of nationality, Yugoslavia is not a homogeneous unit. Five main nationalities ar e foun d i n th e country : th e Macedonians , Montenegrins , Slo venes, Croatians , an d Serbs . Thes e fiv e nationalitie s spea k fou r mai n languages: Slovenian , Macedonian , Serbian , an d Croatian . Th e latte r two language s ar e regarde d b y man y scholar s toda y a s linguisticall y identical, wit h considerabl e difference s i n synta x an d vocabulary . There ar e thre e principa l religion s i n Yugoslavia : th e Easter n Orthodox religion, by and large the religion o f the Serbs , Macedonians, and Montenegrins ; the Roma n Catholic, th e religio n of the majorit y of Croatians an d Slovenes ; and th e Moslem , the religio n o f a hig h per centage o f th e Bosnia n an d Hercegovinia n populatio n o f Croatia n stock. Followin g thes e religiou s divisions , ther e ar e fou r clearl y recognizable culture s i n Yugoslavia : the Byzantin e i n Serbia , Mace donia, an d Montenegro ; th e Mosle m (Turkish , Arabic , Persian ) i n Bosnia and Hercegovina; th e German and Austrian in northern Croatia ; and th e Roman and Venetian in Istria, Croatian Littoral, and Dalmatia . All of these influence s have , however , blende d int o the particula r an d distinct culture s o f th e fiv e nationalitie s alread y mentioned , culture s whose origin s ar e ove r tw o thousan d year s old . Finally , i t shoul d b e added tha t ther e ar e i n Yugoslavi a today a t leas t a doze n nationa l minorities, mos t o f the m wit h thei r ow n particula r language , religion , and cultura l outlook . Albanians , Magyars , an d Turk s ar e bu t thre e important example s o f thes e minorities. The fact that many nationalities hav e been brough t togethe r t o for m one politica l uni t add s t o th e difficultie s facin g on e wh o wishe s t o arrive a t a n understanding o f these peoples , o f their cultures , histories , folklore, and languages. On e can easily be misled by over-simplification —the only sure wa y towar d a fuller gras p o f the rea l cultura l life , an d consequently o f the political , economic , and militar y lif e o f the people s in Yugoslavi a is to stud y the constituen t part s o f this nation , s o that a comprehensive, over-al l vie w o f th e Yugosla v mosaic o f culture s ma y eventually be obtained . The overwhelmin g majorit y o f Croatian s liv e i n tw o o f th e si x people's republics , Croati a an d Bosnia-Hercegovina . Croatia n ethni c borders spread , however , fa r beyon d thes e tw o republics . Croatian s live in Vojvodina—more specificall y in Back a an d Srijem , administere d

INTRODUCTION XX11

1

by th e republi c o f Serbia—an d i n Kosmet , als o incorporate d i n th e republic o f Serbia . Ther e ar e Croatian s i n th e part s o f Medjimurj e which ar e now incorporated i n the republi c o f Slovenia, and stil l others live i n th e regio n o f th e Ba y o f Bok a Kotorska , a s wel l a s i n severa l towns located southeas t of the bay, toward th e Albanian border o n th e Adriatic coast . The sectio n o f the coas t an d th e Ba y of Bok a Kotorska are no w par t o f th e republi c o f Montenegro . Smalle r settlement s o f Croatians ar e foun d i n neighborin g countries , suc h a s Hungary , Austria, and Italy , a s well a s in other Europea n lands , and i n the Nea r East, Nort h Africa , Sout h Africa , Australia , and Ne w Zealand . B y fa r the larges t numbe r o f Croatia n emigrants liv e i n Nort h an d Sout h America—in th e cas e o f th e latte r continent , especiall y i n Chil e an d Argentina. Th e author s hav e endeavoured , whereve r appropriat e an d possible, t o take into consideration the Croatian settlement s throughou t the world in their articles . The studie s o f Croatia n nationa l lif e an d cultur e containe d i n thi s volume are bu t th e firs t o f a number o f works that i t i s hope d wil l b e undertaken in this field. The editors , and many other Croatia n scholars throughout th e world , fee l tha t ther e i s a rea l nee d fo r thes e article s and other s like them, in view of the lac k of sufficient availabl e informa tion o n th e topic s wit h whic h the y ar e concerned . Th e studie s presented i n this volume are intended t o serve not onl y students of Slavic Studies bu t als o al l other s wh o ar e intereste d i n th e lif e an d cultur e of th e Croatians , an d i t ha s bee n ou r ai m to provide objectiv e dat a i n all the areas treated. FHE, Editor

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CROATIA Land, People , Cultur e

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1

Geographic an d Demographi c Statistics o f Croati a an d Bosnia-Hercegovina FRANCIS H . ETEROVICH

GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION Jugoslavia Croatia an d Bosnia-Hercegovin a ar e locate d withi n th e border s o f modern Yugoslavia , whic h i s officiall y calle d th e People' s Federativ e Republic o f Yugoslavia (PFRY) . Yugoslavia is surrounded by th e fol lowing countries : Italy an d Austria on the northwest ; Hungar y o n the north; Romani a on th e northeast ; Bulgari a o n th e east ; an d Greec e and Albani a o n th e southeast . Th e Adriati c Se a separates Yugoslavia from Ital y on the west. Croatia an d Bosnia-Hercegovin a ar e surrounde d b y th e followin g republics withi n Yugoslavia : Sloveni a on th e northwest ; th e autono mous province o f Vojvodina o n th e northeast ; Serbi a o n th e east ; an d Montenegro o n th e southeast . Th e territor y o f Croati a an d Bosnia Hercegovina extend s over tha t par t o f Europ e whic h i s compose d of three ver y differen t geographi c regions : th e Pannonia n Plains , th e Balkan Peninsula , and th e easter n shore s of the Adriati c Sea . Yugoslavia lie s betwee n 40 ° 51 ' an d 46 ° 53 ' nort h latitude , an d between 13 ° 23 ' an d 23 ° 02 ' eas t longitude . Croati a lie s betwee n 42° 23 ' an d 46 ° 32 ' nort h latitude , an d betwee n 13 ° 3ff an d 19 ° 26 ' east longitude . Bosnia-Hercegovin a lies betwee n 42 ° 26 ' an d 45 ° 15 ' north latitude , an d betwee n 15 ° 44' and 19 ° 41' eas t longitude .

4

CROATIA: LAND, PEOPLE, CULTURE

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIO N People's Republics SOURCE: Statisticki godiSnjak FNRJ, 1961 / Statistica l Yearboo k o f PFRY , 1961. Beograd , August , 1961 , 22-23; 476-7 . Thi s sourc e i s referre d t o hereafter a s SGJ, 1961.

The People' s Federativ e Republi c o f Yugoslavia 1 i s divide d int o si x people's republics: Serbia , Croatia, Bosnia-Hercegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro, an d Macedonia . Ther e ar e als o tw o autonomou s territories , the provinc e o f Vojvodina , an d th e regio n o f Kosovo-Metohija , bot h administered b y th e People' s Republi c o f Serbia . Th e border s o f th e people's republic s ar e determine d mostl y o n th e basi s o f nationality , with th e exceptio n o f Bosnia-Hercegovina , i n whic h Serbs , uncom mitted Yugoslavs , and Croatian s make up th e bul k of population . Each republi c withi n Yugoslavia is divided int o district s ( counties ), and eac h distric t int o commune s (towns) . O n Marc h 15 , 1961 , the division accordin g t o district s an d commune s was a s follows : Yugoslavia Croatia Bosnia-Hercegovina Total fo r the tw o republics District Bjelovar Cakovec Daruvar Dubrovnik Gospic Karlovac Koprivnica Krapina Krizevci Kutina Makarska Nasice Nova Gradiska Ogulin

Districts Communes 75 77 27 24 12 12

39

4 4 2

366

CROATIA: DISTRICTS 2 District Population Population Osijek 218,687 102,868 175,094 Pula 112,551 Rijeka 80,897 221,303 158,682 Sibenik 72,590 Sisak 171,449 114,409 66,214 Slavonska Pozeg a 226,873 Slavonski Bro d 88,626 99,920 185,764 246,606 Splitv _ 176,352 Varazdin 80,716 164,138 Vinkovci 80,670 94,484 109,585 Virovitica 142,900 Zadar 91,883 512,722 Zagreb 80,693 58,846

!The ne w Yugoslavia n constitution, adopted o n Apri l 7 , 1963 , ha s change d th e official nam e of Yugoslavi a to th e "Socialis t Federa l Republi c o f Yugoslavia. " This is the Communis t way o f sayin g that Yugoslavi a has advance d a s fa r a s Russi a o n the roa d t o Communis m an d ha s lef t th e "people' s democracies " o f Easter n Europe behind . Th e ne w constitutio n divide s Yugoslavi a into si x socialist republic s and tw o autonomou s provinces, Vojvodina and Kosovo-Metohija . 2 A revision of the territoria l division of districts wa s mad e on Ma y 1 , 1960. The population figure s show n her e fo r eac h distric t refe r t o th e censu s mad e o n March 31 , 1953 , but the y hav e take n int o consideratio n th e lates t territoria l division. In 196 2 a new territorial divisio n was introduced i n Yugoslavia, according to whic h th e numbe r o f district s an d commune s was considerabl y reduced .

YUGOSLAVIA AND NEIGHBORIN COUNTRIES

G

YUGOSLAVIA: ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS

GEOGRAPHIC AN D DEMOGRAPHIC STATISTIC S 5

BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA: DISTRICT S District Population District Banja Luk a 304,85 2 Livn o 107,38 Bihac 177,59 9 Mosta r 341,42 Brcko 244,42 6 Prijedo r 221,52 Doboj 285,59 1 Sarajev o 335,24 Gorazde 137,13 4 Tuzl a 357,56 Jajce 127,18 5 Zenic a 207,53

Population 6 0 8 2 3 3

Boundaries Croatia ha s th e followin g boundarie s withi n th e PF R o f Yugoslavia. On the southeast, the borderline starts at the entrance to Boka Kotorska and run s u p t o th e northwes t alongsid e th e easter n Adriati c Se a coastline, endin g a t th e mout h o f th e Dragonj a Rive r i n Istria . Thi s Adriatic borderlin e include s al l th e easter n Adriati c island s whic h extend alon g it s coast . O n th e northwest, th e borderlin e betwee n Slovenia an d Croati a follows the curv e of the Dragonj a River , crosse s the Óicarij a mountai n rang e an d climb s northwar d agai n t o Moun t Snjeznik (1,79 6 m.) . Fro m th e cit y o f Cabar , i t run s alongsid e th e Kupa Rive r t o it s south-pointin g curve ; fro m ther e i t crosse s th e 2umberacka Gor a a t Moun t Svet a Cor a (1,18 1 m.) an d reache s th e point wher e th e Sutl a Rive r emptie s into th e Sav a River. Fro m there , it follow s th e Sutl a Rive r t o it s source , crosse s Maceljsk a Gora , an d then joins the Drava River north of Vínica. Thence i t follows th e Drav a eastward t o Ormoz , leaving it to cross Slovenske Gorice and reac h th e Mura River. On the north, the Mura and Drava Rivers , and the border line betwee n Donj i Miholja c o n th e Drav a Rive r an d Ratin a o n th e Danube River , separat e Croati a fro m Hungary. O n th e east, th e borderline betwee n Croati a an d Serbi a run s alongsid e th e Danub e from Batin a to Ilok, and fro m Ilok , crossing Srijem , t o Lukavac o n th e Sava River. Bosnia-Hercegovina i s separate d fro m Serbi a b y th e smal l stretc h of the Sav a River from Lukava c to Raca and by the whol e length of the Drina River . Th e borderlin e betwee n the m an d Montenegr o cut s across th e Dinari c mountai n range, endin g a t th e poin t abov e th e southeastern en d o f Konavl i wher e Montenegro , Croatia, an d Bosnia Hercegovina meet . Th e borderlin e betwee n Bosnia-Hercegovin a an d Croatia run s o n the north along the Sav a River, on the west alon g th e Una River , and o n the southeast alon g the Dinari c mountai n range . Area and Surface Configuration Apart fro m th e Adriati c Sea, ther e ar e thre e characteristi c area s of Croatian an d Bosnia n relief: th e Coastlin e an d it s islands ; th e High lands, made up o f the Dinari c Alps , which cove r a good three-quarter s of th e territor y stretchin g fro m th e northwes t t o th e southeast ; an d

6 CROATIA

: LAND , PEOPLE , CULTUR E

the Pannonia n Plain s i n norther n Croati a an d Bosnia , wit h a fe w scattered low mountains. Area in Square Kilometers3 Yugoslavia 255,80 Croatia 56,53 Bosnia-Hercegovina 51,12

4 8 9

Total for the tw o republics 107,66

7

SOURCE: SGJ, 1961 , 316 . Th e tabl e indicate s th e are a o f Croati a an d Bosnia-Hercegovina in relation to that of Yugoslavia.

Regions and Provinces A regio n i s a sectio n o f a territor y whic h ha s specifi c homogeneous physical features that make it different fro m othe r areas o f the national territory. Som e region s i n Croati a hav e mor e tha n geographica l significance, an d revea l marke d cultura l differences a s a resul t o f prolonged foreig n dominatio n an d it s influences . W e wil l cal l area s that hav e onl y geographica l significanc e regions, and thos e tha t als o have cultural significance provinces. The Croatian regions and provinces are conveniently divided amon g three characteristic areas. In the Pannonian Plains there are the follow ing provinces : Uppe r Croatia, 4 Slavonia , Srijem, Baranja , an d Backa ; the region s t o b e foun d her e are : Zagorje , Medjimurje , Podravina , Posavina, wit h Lonjsk o Polj e an d Turopolje , an d 2umberak . I n th e Highlands on e find s thes e provinces : Lik a an d Krbava , Bosni a an d Hercegovina; th e region s her e are : Gorsk i Kotar, Pokuplje , Kordun , Krajina, an d Banija . O n th e Adriatic coast ar e foun d th e province s of Istria, Croatia n Littoral , an d Dalmatia ; th e region s o f thi s are a are : Ravni Kotari , Dalmatia n Zagora , an d Bok a Kotorska . Amon g th e islands of the eastern Adriatic coast are the following region s : Kvarner, the Mid-Dalmatia n Islands , an d th e South-Dalmatia n Islands . A re gional geography of Croatia cannot draw the boundaries of each region and provinc e exactl y becaus e o f thei r man y an d variou s historica l shiftings. However , an y reliabl e geographica l ma p o f Croati a wil l s

ln converting square kilometer s to square miles , th e following equivalence may be used: 1 squar e kilomete r =0.39 squar e mil e 1 squar e mil e = 2.5 9 squar e kilometers . 4 Upper Croatia , th e provinc e extendin g wes t o f Slavonia' s smal l Ilov a River , i s referred t o in this book by the followin g names: Civi l o r Ban's Croatia , i n contras t to th e forme r Militar y Frontier ; Croati a Proper , i n contras t t o th e res t o f th e Croatian provinces ; an d Norther n Croatia , i n contras t t o Souther n o r Dalmatia n Croatia.

Sarajevo, capita l o f Bosnia-Hercegovina .

The seapor t o f Dubrovnik, Dalmatia .

GEOGRAPHIC AN D DEMOGRAPHIC STATISTIC S 7

register th e name s an d boundarie s o f th e Croatia n region s an d provinces. GEOGRAPHIC STATISTICS National Parks and Reservations SOURCE: SGJ, 1961 , 36 . Onl y park s an d reservation s o f mor e tha n 1,00 0 hectares ar e listed . CROATIA District Hectare Paklenica Plitvice (Lakes ) Risnjak Zagrebacka Gor a

Area in Heigh t Abov e s Se a Level i n Meter s 100-1,700 586-, 1267 960-1,520 260-1,035

2,797 19,172 3,088 21,700

Zadar Gospic Rijeka Zagreb

BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA District Hectare Perucica Gorazd Trebevic Sarajev

Area i n Heigh t Above s Se a Level i n Meter s

e 1,40 o 1,00

0 700-2,00 0 900-1,60

0 0

Mountain Peaks CROATIA SOURCE: Geographic map of the People's Republic of Croatia. Zagreb: Ucila , 1960. Onl y peaks of more than 1,00 0 meters are listed. Mountain Pea Diñara Diñara Bioko vo Velebit Velebit Pljesevica Pljesevica Velebit Velebit Pljessevica Gorski Kota r Velika Kapel a Svilaja Velebit Cicarija Mosor Mala Kapel a Mala Kapel a Velika Kapel a Promina Medvednica

k Altitud Troglav Kamesnica Sveti Jura j Vaganski Vr h Mali Rajina c Ozeblin Pljesevica Satorina Visocica Kremen Risnjak Bjelolasica Svilaja Srnopas Ucka Mosor Seliski Vrh Makovnik Klek Promina SI jeme

e i n Meter s

1,913 1,849 1,762 1,758 1,699 1,657 1,649 1,624 1,619 1,591 1,528 1,533 1,509 1,404 1,396 1,330 1,280 1,164 1,182 1,148 1,035

8 CROATIA

: LAND , PEOPLE , CULTUR E

BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA SOURCE: SGJ, 1961 , 35 . Onl y peak s o f mor e tha n 2,00 0 meter s ar e listed . Mountain

Peak

Altitude i n Meter s

Maglic Volujak Cvrsnica Prenj Vranica Curkov Do l Prenj Treskavica Vran-Planina Bjelasnica Lelija Zelengora Treskavica Cincar

Maglic Yelika Vlasulj a Cvrsnica Prenj Nadkrstac Curkov Do l Lupoglav Barice Vran Vlahinja Lelija Zelengora Treskavica Cincar

2,386 2,337 2,228 2,155 2,112 2,111 2,102 2,079 2,074 2,057 2,032 2,015 2,008 2,006

Rivers SOURCE: Enciklopedija Jugoslavije, Vol . 4 . Zagreb , 1960 , 578 . Onl y river s of mor e tha n 5 0 km . ar e listed . Th e number s refe r t o th e ful l cours e of rivers within Yugoslavia. CROATIA Drainage Syste m Black Sea

Adriatic Sea

River Danube Drava Sava Kupa Zrmanja Krka Cetina

Length i n Km. Basi n Area in Sq. Km. 177,666 12,120 95,551 9,800 780 2,250 5,890

588.5 435.2 945.5 291 69.2 70.6 105

BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA Drainage Syste m

River

Black Sea

Drina Bosna Una Vrbas Neretva

Adriatic Sea

Length i n Km. Basi n Area in Sq. Km. 19,570 10,460 9,642 5,570 11,798

345.9 273 207 227 213

The tw o republic s hav e river s disappearin g int o th e subterranea n passages of the karst formation: River Lika Trebisnjica Gacka

Length i n Km . Basi n Area in Sq. Km.

76.2 99.7 47.8

1,570 1,948 830

9

GEOGRAPHIC AN D DEMOGRAPHI C STATISTIC S

Lakes SOURCE: SGJ, 1961 , 36 . Onl y lakes of more than 3 sq. km. are listed. CROATIA Area i n Se . Km . i

Lake Sq Vransko nea r Biogra d Ribnjak nea r Nasic e Prokljansko nea r Sibeni k Ribnjak nea r Garesnica Vrana o n the islan d of Cre s Crna Mlak a Ribnjak o n Grubisn o Polj e Lakes o f Plitvic e

Height Above Greates t a Level Dept h n Meter s i n Meter s

1.0 103.0 0.5 107.0 14.0 110.0 116.0 522-632

30.0 11.0 11.0 6.2 5.6 4.5 3.1 1.9

4 — 20 — 84 2.5 — 49

Artificial Lakes CROATIA

Lake Perucko on Cetin a

Area i n Sq. Km.

Height Above Sea Leve l in Meter s

13

—

Greatest Depth in Meter s

64

BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA Lake Jablanica o n Neretv a

Area i n Se Sq. Km . i

Height Above Greates t a Level Dept h n Meter s i n Meter s

14

270.5

70

Types of Soil SOURCES: Dat a ar e take n fro m th e followin g article s i n th e Enciklopedija Jugoslavije: Bosnia-Hercegovina , Vol . 2 , 9-11 ; Croatia , Vol . 4 , 137-139 ; Yugoslavia, Vol. 4 , 579-582.

The soil s o f Croati a an d Bosnia-Hercegovin a ar e variousl y consti tuted, accordin g t o climate , vegetation , an d geologica l factors . Th e soils o f the tw o republic s ar e divide d fo r th e sak e o f convenience int o the following groups . The principal regions in which the variou s type s of soi l are found ar e given in parenthesis. ZONAL SOI L GROUP S Podsols (everywher e in humid regions) Degraded chernozem s (Baranja and Srijem) Terra Ross a (Adriati c coast an d islands) Coastlandic brow n soil s (alon g the Adriati c coast ) Mountain black soil s (Dinari c Alps) Coastlandic climati c salt soil s (Kvarne r Islands )

10

CROATIA: LAND , PEOPLE , CULTUR E

INTERZONAL SOI L GROUP S Rendzins (Bosni a [Sarajevo ] and Hercegovin a [Mostar ] regions ) Mineral grey: brow n and yellow-brow n carbonated soil s (Croatia n Zagorje ) Alkaline soils (easternmos t part s of Croatia ) Marsh soil s (easter n Slavoni a an d Baranja ) Anthropogenous soils (originate d throug h man' s cultivation ) All thes e soil s are foun d intermixe d with zona l soils. AZONAL SOI L GROUP S These are youn g soils to b e developed int o zona l or interzonal soil. The mai n kinds are : Alluvial and deluvia l soils (alon g the Sava , Drava , an d Danub e Rivers ) Rough skeleto n soil s (o n mountain tops ) Sand-dune soil s (Podravin a and Lika) . LOESS, FLYSCH , AN D KARST Loess i s found everywhere , an d flys h i s found i n karstic areas . Karst is a bar e limeston e area foun d largel y i n the Dinari c Alps, along th e Adriati c coast, and on islands. It has bee n forme d as a result of the erosio n of the soi l due to the destructio n o f it s vegetatio n an d forests , an d b y th e dissolutio n o f limestone . However, on e finds , eve n i n thes e barre n areas , considerabl y larg e formation s o f fertile soil s close d i n valley s betwee n mountains . Thes e stretches o f soils ar e calle d in Croatia n Polja (fields) .

Polja (Fields) SOURCE: Nasa Domovina I . Zagreb , 1943 , 11 . Onl y field s o f mor e tha n 8 sq. km. are listed. Field Are Licko Livanjsko Glamocko Duvanjsko Imotsko Kupresko Gacko Sinjsko Krbavsko Gatacko Popovo Petrovo Ljubusko Kninsko Dabarsko Nevesinjsko Trebinjsko Vrgoracko Grahovo Konavosko Korenicko Gracacko

Height Abov e a in Sq. Km. Se a Level in Meter s 465.0 380.0 133.5 122.0 101.5 93.0 80.0 68.2 67.3 57.0 45.89 28.5 23.0 18.0 21.04 17.5 18.0 17.1 16.0 11.62 10.92 8.44

565-620 700-740 888-950 860-890 285-350 1000-1124 440-480 350-440 624-706 930-1000 225-260 265-290 70-100 230-270 470-560 830-890 270-285 1-57 770-800 69-90 637-665 544-547

The Adriatic Sea The Adriatic Se a is a gulf o f the Mediterranea n Se a located between the Balka n and Apennine peninsulas . I t ha s a surface o f approximatel y 135,000 sq. km., and i s about 77 0 km. long an d 21 0 km. wide, wit h a n average width o f 160 km. It i s only 72 km. wide at th e Otranto-Valon a

GEOGRAPHIC AN D DEMOGRAPHIC STATISTIC S 1

1

gate, which separate s th e Adriati c fro m th e res t o f the Mediterranea n Sea. The more shallow North Adriatic , wit h th e greates t dept h o f 266 m. near th e islan d o f Jabuka i s separated fro m th e deepe r Sout h Adriatic , which reache s its greatest dept h a t 1330 m . It is interesting to note tha t the easter n Adriati c coast ( on the Croatia n side ) continue s the depres sion process: th e coas t is still sinkin g into the sea . The resul t o f this is the narro w coastlin e whic h dovetail s betwee n th e se a leve l an d the west-facing high , bare , and steep Dinari c slopes . Furthermore , thi s sinking has resulted i n the formation o f more than 90 0 islands along th e coast, an d a maze of gulfs, bays, an d channels . Two peninsulas , Istri a on th e northwester n Adriati c Shore , an d Peljesa c i n Sout h Dalmatia , should als o be mentione d here . Islands SOURCE: SGJ, 1961 , 34 . Onl y island s o f mor e tha n 7 sq . km . ar e listed . Island Are Krk

Brae Cres Hvar

Pag

Korcula Dugi Otok Mljet Rab Vis Losinj Pasman Lastovo Solta Uljan Kornat Ciovo Olib Molat Vir

Murter Unije Silba Sipan Iz

2ut

2irje Sestrunj Prvic Drvenik 1st Plavnik Zlarin Maun Scedro Brijuni

a in Sq. Km. Highes t Altitude 407.9 395.9 336.1 289.0 287.0 272.6 117.2 97.9 86.1 85.8 74.5 56.9 52.7 51.9 45.7 33.1 28.6 25.6 22.7 22.3 18.6 18.0 16.8 16.5 16.5 15.5 15.4 14.8 13.6 12.0 9.6 9.2 8.6 8.5 7.5 7.4

534 778 650 626 348 568 338 514 404 587 588 274 417 237 288 236 218 72 142 116 127 138 80 223 170 153 131 186 356 177 164 194 170 64 113 42

12

CROATIA: LAND, PEOPLE, CULTURE

Climate SOURCE: SG/, 1961, 42-50 . Because o f thei r geographi c location , i n th e souther n par t o f th e northern temperat e zone , a s wel l a s thei r surfac e configuratio n an d large mountainou s area , Croati a an d Bosnia-Hercegovin a ar e land s with a diversifie d climate . There ar e tw o main climati c zones i n these areas, the Mediterranean and the Continental. The Mediterranean Climat e This climate , o n th e coastlin e and th e island s o f th e Adriatic , i s charac terized b y mil d winter s wit h moderate rain , an d b y dry , war m summers . July is the hottest month , and January the coldest . Temperature. Th e averag e temperature s o f th e mos t importan t localitie s on th e coas t ar e give n for the yea r 1960 . Centigrad e degree s ar e used . Th e maximum, minimum , an d averag e temperature s ar e give n fo r Januar y an d

July-

Station

High 13.4 31.1 14.0 29.5 17.0 30.7 16.6 34.0

Month January July January

Pazin Rijeka

July

Split-Marjan Herceg-Novi-Igalo

January July January uly

Low

-12.8 6.9 - 5.7 12.0 - 3.5 14.0 1.6 13.3

Average 3.1 18.2 5.5 20.6 7.8 23.0 9.2 23.1

Precipitation. Th e amoun t o f precipitatio n i s give n i n millimeters . Th e figures ar e fo r Januar y an d July , a s wel l a s th e whol e year , o f 1960 . Station

January

July

Yearly Tota l

68 70 128 103 72 108 102 156

154 115 201 145 49 22 69 48

1,569 1,121 2,338 1,395 1,021 824 1,520 2,353

Pazin Pula Rijeka Zadar Split-Marjan Hvar Dubrovnik Herceg-Novi-Igalo

Cloudiness. Th e averag e betwee n 0 (completel y clea r sky ) an d 1 0 (completely cloud y sky ) i s give n fo r Januar y and Jul y o f 1960 . Station Pazin Pula Rijecka Zadar Split-Marjan Hvar Dubrovnik Herceg-Novi-Igalo

January 6.4 7.6 4.7 6.3 6.9 6.3 6.4 6.6

July 5.2 4.5 4.7 3.0 3.2 2.9 2.8 2.9

GEOGRAPHIC AN D DEMOGRAPHI C STATISTIC S 1

3

Humidity. Th e averag e humidity , expresse d i n percentages , i s give n fo r January and Jul y of 1960 . Station Januar Pazin Rijeka Split-Marjan Herceg-Novi-Igalo

y Jul 80 68 65 75

y 75 66 58 62

Winds. Th e principa l wind s i n th e Adriati c climati c zon e ar e th e Jugo , the Bura , th e Mistral , and th e Burin . Th e Jug o (sirocco ) blow s fro m th e south, bringing the Africa n warmt h up t o the Nort h Adriatic. I t i s moistureladen, a fact whic h cause s precipitation. Th e Bur a is a dry, cold win d whic h blows from th e Dinari c Mountain s slopes ou t to the sea . It s spee d ca n reach 50 meter s per secon d an d ca n brin g deat h t o bot h me n an d animals . I t i s especially stron g and dangerou s in the Kvarne r region, near th e cit y o f Senj . Senjska Bura (Th e Bur a o f Senj ) i s well known in tha t region . The Mistra l is a coo l breeze whic h carrie s wit h i t som e small moderation of th e otherwis e unbearabl e summe r heat . Whil e th e continen t become s quite warm , the hig h se a remains comparatively col d an d send s it s refresh ing, cool air from a northwestern direction t o the war m shore s along the eas t Adriatic coast . Durin g th e evenin g hour s an d th e night , th e Mistra l i s followed b y the Burin , which blow s in th e opposit e direction , fro m th e lan d to the sea . It is a mild and fresh land wind. The Continenta l Climate This climat e is found in th e res t o f Croati a an d Bosnia-Hercegovina , and is subdivided int o the Mountai n and th e Pannonia n climates . The Mountai n climate i s foun d i n Lik a an d Krbava , an d mountainou s regions o f BosniaHercegovina. Th e summer s ar e hot , an d th e winter s col d here . Th e mos t elevated area s have short , cool summers and also lon g winters, durin g whic h the mountai n top s ar e covere d b y dee p snow . Valleys , protected fro m col d winds, enjoy milde r climate throughout the year. The Pannonian climate zone stretches over the Pannonia n Plains, bounde d by th e Mura , Drava , Danube , an d Sav a Rivers . I t als o spread s t o lowe r Bosnia an d Uppe r Croatia . Summer s here ar e ver y warm , th e temperatur e rising t o 40 ° C . an d over , while th e winter s are ver y cold , th e temperatur e dropping t o —2 0 C. , an d eve n lower. The lan d i s covered wit h sno w during the winter months. The dat a whic h follo w concernin g th e Continenta l climat e ar e base d o n the statistic s for the same year (1960 ) a s those give n fo r the Mediterranean . Temperature. Centigrad e degrees are used. Station Osijek Zagreb-Pleso Sarajevo Mostar

Month January July January uly January uly January July

High 7.7 34.3 17.2 32.2 15.0 31.4 17.0 34.4

Low

-23.2 5.2 -21.77 6.8 -16.44 5.9 - 7.0 13.6

Average 3.1 19.5 1.7 18.8 - 1.4 16.9 3.9 23.0

14

CROATIA: LAND, PEOPLE, CULTURE

Precipitation. Th e amoun t o f precipitation i s give n i n millimeters . Station

January

July

Yearly Total

84 28 42 88 74 114

90 119 112 120 95 69

827 863 951 1040 833 1565

Osijek Varazdin Zagreb Banja Luk a Sarajevo Mostar

Cloudiness. Th e averag e betwee n 0 (completel y clea r sky ) an d 1 0 (completely cloudy sky) is given. Station Osijek Slavonski Bro d Zagreb-Pleso Banja Luk a Tuzla Sarajevo Mostar

January

July

6.9 7.3 7.4 7.2 6.5 8.1 6.5

4.8 5.4 5.1 5.3 5.4 5.3 3.7

Humidity. Th e average humidity , expresse d in percentages, i s given. Station

January Jul

Osijek Slavonski Bro d Varazdin Zagreb-Pleso Banja Luk a Tuzla Sarajevo Mostar

89 86

82 87 87 82 84 71

y 74 73 77 74 77 76 73 54

Winds. Th e table list s winds according to their directio n in 1960. Number s refer t o thei r frequency , t o th e stillness , an d t o th e day s wit h stron g winds . Observations wer e mad e thre e time s daily , a t 7:0 0 A.M. , 2:00 P.M. , an d 9:00 P.M. Wind Directio n Day

City Osijek Zagreb-Pleso Sarajevo

Month January July January July January July

s with strong N N- E E S- E S S- W W N- W Stillnes s wind s 6 3 1 5 3 4 6 3 5 8 5 16 8 10 24 17 2 21 5 12 5 20 7 7 6 19 b 4 12 23 6 7 2 1 10 3 12 5 17 20 5 2 13 15 4 3 12 17

0 0 14 11 23 22

0 0 0 0 6 5

DEMOGRAPHIC STATISTICS There follo w som e o f th e mos t importan t statistic s o n th e demo graphy o f Croatia . Th e statistic s ar e official , an d ar e take n fro m th e

GEOGRAPHIC AN D DEMOGRAPHI C STATISTIC S 1

5 5

official statistica l publication s o f moder n Yugoslavia. Populatio n figures are give n first according to nationality an d religion , sinc e thes e appear eve n today to be the most important characteristics in the study of Yugoslavia n demography. Population According to Nationality SOURCE: SGJ, 1961, 325. Since th e populatio n statistic s o f th e 196 1 censu s hav e no t ye t bee n published i n thei r fina l form , th e figure s whic h follo w ar e thos e obtained i n th e censu s o f 1953 . A t tha t time , th e tota l numbe r o f inhabitants was : Yugoslavia 16,936,57 Croatia 3,818,81 Bosnia-Hercegovina 2,847,79

3 7 0

Total fo r the tw o republics 6,666,60

7

Croatian Population Yugoslavia 3,975,55 Croatia 3,117,51 Bosnia-Hercegovina 654,22

0 3 9

Total fo r the tw o republics 3,771,74

2

Serbian Population Yugoslavia 7,065,92 Croatia 588,41 Bosnia-Hercegovina 1,264,78

3 1 3

Total fo r the tw o republics 1,853,19

4

Uncommitted Yugoslav Population Yugoslavia 998,69 Croatia 16,18 Bosnia-Hercegovina 891,80

8 5 0

There ar e fiv e principa l nationalitie s i n Yugoslavia : th e Serbian , Croatian, Slovenian , Macedonian, an d Montenegrin . Moreover , bot h the federa l an d loca l Bosnia-Hercegovina n government s ar e no w attempting t o create a sixth nationality, the Bosnian . The populatio n of Croatia an d Bosnia-Hercegovin a is composed, in regard t o nationality , of Croatians , Serbs , uncommitte d Yugoslavs , and nationa l minorities . Uncommitted Yugoslav s are foun d mostl y amon g th e Bosnia-Herce govinian Moslems.

Total for the tw o republics 907,98 5 It wa s th e desir e o f th e editor s t o presen t th e fina l result s o f th e lates t Yugo slavian censu s i n thi s volume . Th e result s o f this census, whic h too k plac e i n 1961 , have, however , no t ye t bee n completel y published . Th e figure s use d i n thi s boo k are therefor e base d whereve r possibl e o n th e partiall y publishe d dat a o f th e 196 1 census, an d elsewher e o n thos e o f th e previou s census , take n i n 195 3 an d published in 1959 . B

16 CBOATIA

: LAND , PEOPLE , CULTUR E

National Minorities Croatia Bosnia-Hercegovin Slovenes Macedonians Montenegrins Albanians Magyars Turks Slovaks Gipsies Bulgarians Germans Romanians Ukrainians Wallachs Italians Czechs Russians Others Unknown Total

43,010 2,385 5,128 1,001 47,711 276 9,570 1,261 464 11,242 418 5,980 2 33,316 25,954 2,183 4,401 2,406

6,300 1,884 7,336 1,578 1,140 435 314 2,297 108 1,111 91 7,473 2 909 1,638 951 2,460 1,362

196,508

36,489

a

Total Population of the Two Republics Croatia 196,50 8 Bosnia-Hercegovina 36,48 9 Total 232,99

7

On Marc h 31 , 1953 , nationalit y group s wer e presen t i n Croati a an d Bosnia-Hercegovina i n the followin g percentages: Croatians 55. 7 Uncommitted Yugoslav s 13. 4 Serbs 27. 4 Minorities 3. 4

Religious Affiliation of Population SOURCE: Popis stanovnistva 1953. Konaeni rezultati za FNRJ i Narodne Republike: Knjig a I . Vitalna i etnicka obelezj a / Populatio n Census , 1953 . Final Result s fo r PFRY an d fo r the People' s Republics : Boo k I . Vita l an d Ethnic Characteristics . Beograd : Savezn i Zavo d z a Statistiku , 1959 . Tabl e II, 278-285.

The populatio n o f Yugoslavia , and o f Croati a an d Bosnia-Hercego vina, i s composed , in regar d t o religion , o f Roma n Catholics, Easter n Orthodox Christians , Moslems , Protestants , Christian s o f othe r de nominations, Jews, and non-Christian s of other beliefs. Befor e th e las t war, Yugosla v religiou s statistic s classifie d th e religio n o f Christia n citizens accordin g to th e religiou s affiliatio n show n on thei r baptisma l certificates. Non-Christia n citizens were classifie d accordin g t o rit e of affiliation. (Moslem s an d Jew s have a religiou s rite o f acceptanc e fo r new members . Fo r th e Jews , thi s rit e i s circumcision . Th e Moslem s have no officia l rite , but a child i s given a name which i s entere d i n a

GEOGBAPHIC AN D DEMOGRAPHI C STATISTIC S

17

register b y thei r religiou s registrar , calle d a n imam. ) Th e post-wa r Yugoslav statistic s o n religiou s affiliatio n ar e base d o n th e individua l citizen's declaratio n o f religion. A s a resul t o f thi s latte r method , th e statistics includ e those withou t an y religious affiliatio n a s well a s those who ar e undeclared , uncommitted , an d indifferen t a s t o religiou s affiliation. Th e number s pertainin g t o thos e withou t an y religiou s affiliation refe r mostl y t o th e member s o f th e Communis t Part y an d their families . I n spit e o f th e man y pressure s agains t religion , th e overwhelming majorit y o f Yugoslav citizens clai m membershi p i n on e of th e thre e majo r religiou s bodies . Easter n Orthodo x Christianit y is, by-and-large, th e religio n o f th e Serbs , Macedonians , an d Montene grins, an d o f a part o f the citizen s o f Bosnia-Hercegovina an d Croatia ; Roman Catholicis m i s th e religio n o f th e majorit y o f Croatian s an d Slovenes; an d Isla m is the religio n o f a sizable numbe r o f th e Bosnia n and Hercegovina n populatio n o f th e Croatia n stock . RELIGIOUS AFFILIATIO N A S O F MARC H 31 , 195 3 (POPULATION ) Other Total Roma n Easter n Religiou s Withou t Population Catholic s Orthodo x Moslem s Group s Religio n Yugoslavia 16,936,57 3 5,370,76 0 6,984,68 6 2,090,38 0 362,87 2 2,127,87 5 441, 406 83,300 7,064 490,960 Croatia 3,918,817 2,896,087 Bosnia917 ,720 601 ,489 1,002, 737 15,375 310,469 Hercegovina 2,847 ,790 Total for th e 98,675 801,429 924 ,784 two republics 6,766 ,607 3,497 ,576 1,444, 143 RELIGIOUS AFFILIATIO N A S O F MARC H 31 , 195 3 (PERCENTAGES ) Other Total Roma n Easter n Religiou s Withou t Population Catholic s Orthodo x Moslem s Group s Religio n Yugoslavia Croatia BosniaHercegovina Total fo r the

two republics

100 100

31.8 73.99

41.22 11.3

12.44 0.2

2.1 2.1

12.55 12.55

100

21.1

35.22

32.22

0.6

10.99

100

51.77

21.4

13.77

1.4

11.8

Cities of More Than 10,000 Population SOURCE: Statisticki Bilten. Prvi rezultati papisa stanovnistva od 31. marta 1961. godine / Statistica l Bulletin. First Results o f the Censu s Conducte d on March 31, 1961 . No . 214. Beograd: FNR J Savezn i Zavod z a Statistiku , October, 1961. Tabl e VIII, 44-50. The rapi d industrializatio n o f post-wa r Yugoslavi a ha s attracte d th e youth of the countr y to th e cities . Thi s facto r i s mainly responsibl e fo r

18

CBOATIA: LAND, PEOPLE, CULTURE

the considerabl e increas e i n th e numbe r o f cit y dweller s and , a t th e same time , fo r th e decreas e i n rura l population . Thi s increas e i n cit y population ca n b e see n i n th e statistic s o f the censu s o f 196 1 a s com pared with thos e of the previous census of 1953 . Croatia. The capita l cit y o f Croatia i s Zagreb. Th e Zagre b cit y limit s include th e followin g communes: Donj i Grad , Gornj i Grad , Dubrava , Maksimir, Medvescak , Crnomerec , Susedgrad, Remetinec , Tresnjevka , Trnje, and Pescenica. Zagreb Within the City Limits Population i n 196 1 427,31 9 Population i n 195 3 350,82 9 Increase 76,49

0 (21.8% )

The metropolita n are a o f Zagreb include s th e followin g communes : Zapresic, Samobor , Jastrebarsko , Velik a Gorica , Dug o Selo , Sesvete , and Zelina . Jastrebarsk o wa s no t include d i n metropolita n Zagre b when the censu s of 1961 was taken. Zagreb Within Its Metropolitan Limits Population i n 196 1 597,14 2 Population i n 195 3 512,72 2 Increase 84,420(16.5%

)

POPULATION O F CITIE S I N CROATI A The figures in the thir d colum n refer to the increase in population between the 195 3 and the 196 1 censuses. City Rijeka Split Osijek Karlovac Pula Slavonski Bro d Sisak Sibenik Varazdin Vukovar Zadar Vinkovci Dubrovnik Bjelovar Virovitica Slavonska Pozeg a Djakovo Koprivnica

Population 100,339 99,462 71,843 39,803 36,838 28,729 26,466 26,253 26,239 25,826 25,132 23,113 22,961 15,637 14,027 13,112 12,069 11,799

Percentage of Increas e 33 31 25 25 29

31 38 46 36 38 56 21 20 15 20 30 26 19

Bosnia-Hercegovina. Th e capita l cit y o f Bosnia-Hercegovin a i s Sarajevo. Th e figure s i n th e thir d colum n refe r t o th e increas e i n population betwee n th e 195 3 an d the 196 1 censuses .

CROATIA. AND

BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA

MAIN PREHISTORI

C SITE

IN CROATI A AN D BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA

S

GEOGRAPHIC AN D DEMOGRAPHIC STATISTIC S 1

9

POPULATION O F CITIE S I N BOSNIA-HERCEGOVIN A City Sarajevo Banja Luk a Tuzla Mostar Zenica Brcko Bijeljina Bihac Doboj Prijedor

Population 142,423 50,463 37,673 35,242 32,552 17,834 17,502 15,552 13,445 11,632

Percentage of Increas e 27

39 51 36 34 45 22 42 49 41

Central Railroad Stations SOURCE: Statisticki Godisnjak FNR}, 1962 / Statistica l Yearboo k o f PFRY , 1962. Beograd , August , 1962 , 626 . Hereafte r thi s sourc e i s referred t o a s SGJ, 1962 . Th e railroa d stations ar e liste d i n alphabetica l order . Croatia Bosnia-Hercegovina Bjelovar Sisa k Banj a Luka Prijedo r Dubrovnik Slavonsk i Brod Biha c Sarajev o Karlovac Spli t Bijeljin a Tuzl a Osijek Varazdi n Brck o Zenic a Pula Vinkovc i Dobo j Rijeka Vukova r Jajc e Sibenik Zagre b Mosta r

Seaports SOURCES: SGJ, 1962 , 626 ; Dobrincic , Martin . Razvitak glavnifih luka u NR. Hrvatskoj (Developmen t o f Principa l Harbor s i n th e People' s Republi c of Croatia) . Zagreb: Yugosla v Academy, 1959 , 8-29 . Croatia _ Bosnia-Hercegovina Montenegro Pula Sibeni k Ploc e Koto r Rijeka Spli t Bakar Dug i Ra t Kraljevica Omi s Crikvenica Makarsk a Senj Metkovi c Karlobag Dubrovni k Zadar Herceg-Nov i

Riverports SOURCE: SGJ, 1962 , 626 . Croatia Bosnia-Hercegovina Sisak o n Sava Brck o on Sava Slavonski Brod on Sava Osijek o n Drav a Vukovar o n Danube

Airports SOURCE: SGJ, 1962 , 627 . Croatia Zagreb Sarajev Split Mosta Dubrovnik

Bosnia-Hercegovina o r

2

Archaeology VLADIMIR MARKOTI C

ARCHAEOLOGY, lik e history , aim s a t explorin g an d reconstructin g th e human past . Th e tw o discipline s differ , however , i n tha t archaeolog y deals primaril y wit h prehistory , th e tim e befor e writte n documents , whereas histor y i s principally concerne d wit h th e subsequen t period . They als o emplo y differen t methods : archaeologist s excavat e an d historians use writte n documents . These tw o fields of research overla p when excavation s ar e neede d becaus e writte n document s ar e inade quate o r non-existent , a s i s th e case , fo r example , o f earl y Croatia n history. In thi s article , we shal l speak o f archaeology i n a broa d sens e and include both prehistory and historical archaeology, concludin g our brief summar y with th e comin g of the Turk s in th e fifteent h century. 1 It i s a relatively simpl e matte r t o determin e th e tim e whe n certai n historical culture s existe d an d whe n certai n event s too k place . Th e archaeologist ma y b e abl e t o fin d inscription s tha t mentio n dates , o r he ma y utiliz e historica l documents. I t i s mor e difficult , however , t o establish chronolog y i n prehistory . Th e archaeologis t i s i n a bette r position t o speak with authorit y on the late r part o f prehistory than o n the earlie r part . Certai n items , fo r example , were trade d ove r a wid e area, an d b y comparin g thes e wit h th e sam e o r simila r finds in Ital y or Greece , wher e historica l record s alread y existed , w e ar e abl e t o !Many scholar s were kind enoug h to rea d th e manuscrip t of this articl e i n part or i n ful l an d t o discus s i t wit h me . A substantia l numbe r o f thei r idea s an d suggestions hav e bee n incorporated . I t i s a pleasur e t o mention , the assistanc e of Dr. Hug h Hencke n o f Harvar d University , Dr . Rober t W . Ehric h o f Brookly n College, an d Mr . Rober t Rodde n o f Cambridg e University . Fo r he r editoria l comments, the autho r is indebted t o Mrs . Dody Giletti. Al l errors or omission s are, of course , my own . Th e articl e wa s writte n i n 195 9 an d revise d i n 1961 . Unfor tunately, it was not possible to include al l contributions publishe d afte r 1961 .

ARCHAEOLOGY 2

1

obtain a n approximatio n o f time . O f course , thi s metho d i s o f littl e help i n earl y periods . Fortunatel y a physicist , W . F . Libby , ha s recently devise d a method, called the "C-1 4 method " whic h i s of much assistance in thi s area . The C-1 4 metho d i s based o n th e radioactivit y of excavated organic material, such as charcoal. Thank s to this method, at th e momen t of writing w e ar e able to arriv e a t date s a s far bac k as 60,000 year s ago . Althoug h this metho d i s stil l no t full y perfected , i t gives a n approximatio n o f th e date s o f earl y cultures . However , th e C-14 method has not yet been extensivel y used in Southeastern Europe . The regio n whic h w e shal l conside r her e i s compose d o f wha t ar e today th e republic s o f Croati a an d Bosnia-Hercegovina , which , i n a sense, mak e up on e geographica l unit . Thi s wa s th e homelan d o f th e Illyrian tribes , an d eve n later, when thes e tribe s no longer existed , th e region wa s stil l occasionall y calle d Illyria . Archaeolog y is assiste d i n this region, perhaps mor e than elsewhere, b y place names that provid e hints o f certai n activitie s i n th e past . Generally , name s lik e grad, gradac, gradina, or gradiSte, meaning a town or a city, are an indication that a settlement is buried. In th e past , thi s regio n wa s divided administrativel y an d politicall y into man y provinces—Bosnia , Hercegovina , Dalmatia , Slavonia , an d Croatia proper 2—each provinc e showing , mainly for politica l reasons , a differen t degre e o f accomplishmen t i n archaeologica l work . Unti l 1918 th e bes t an d th e greates t numbe r of excavations were conducte d in Bosni a an d Hercegovina , whil e littl e wor k was don e i n Dalmatia , and eve n les s i n Croati a prope r an d Slavonia . Between th e Firs t an d Second World Wars there was "a considerable stagnation," 3 and durin g the latte r wa r archaeologica l excavatio n almos t ceased . Onl y th e German archaeologist Robert R. Schmidt excavated in eastern Slavonia, and th e Slovenia n archaeologist Josip Korose c made a few test pits i n Bosnia. Archaeological activities resumed after th e Secon d World War , and larg e scal e excavation s have been carrie d out , primarily i n Bosnia and Hercegovina , but als o to a certain exten t i n Croatia . I. PREHISTOK Y The Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age The earth' s pas t i s divide d int o geologica l ages . Th e las t age , whic h may hav e starte d ove r a millio n year s ag o an d whic h ende d abou t 2 The presen t federa l republi c o f Croatia , whic h consist s o f Uppe r Croatia , Dalmatia, Istria , an d Slavonia , is referre d t o i n this articl e simply as Croatia . 3 AIojz Benac , "Bosnia , Hercegovin a an d Montenegro, " Council for Old World Archaeology, Survey I, Are a 6—Balkan s (Cambridge , 1959) , 12 .

22

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10,000 year s ago , is calle d th e Pleistocene . Th e Pleistocen e ag e i s characterized b y periodi c advances of ice fro m th e nort h t o th e sout h and dow n from th e mountains. There were four majo r advance s o f ice, called glaciations . Interglacials occurre d whe n th e ic e retreated, leav ing a warm, sometimes subtropical climate. The culture s of this age ar e termed Palaeolithic 4 an d ar e divide d int o th e majo r division s o f Lower, Middle , an d Upper . I n ou r regio n onl y Middl e an d Uppe r Palaeolithic culture s hav e bee n discovered . The mos t importan t discover y wa s tha t o f Krapin a Ma n an d hi s implements in a cave near Krapina in northwestern Croati a by Dragu tin Gorjanovic-Kramberger. 6 H e excavate d fro m 189 9 through 190 5 at this site , whic h date s fro m th e thir d interglacia l period , perhap s som e 100,000 year s ago. Krapina Ma n belonged t o th e Neandertha l race , which ca n be describe d simply as being o f medium size and havin g a sloping forehea d an d n o chin . A grea t numbe r o f bone s wer e foun d which Gorjanovic-Kramberge r estimate d t o hav e belonge d t o te n individuals, althoug h anothe r schola r ha s estimate d tha t perhap s a s many as twenty individuals were represented. 6 Th e American physical anthropologist Ale s Hrdlicka 7 ha s state d tha t th e mos t significan t aspects o f the skeleta l find s wer e th e presenc e amon g the remain s of a fin e serie s o f teeth , th e primitiv e characte r o f som e o f these , th e undoubted brachycephaly ( round-headedness ) o f the skulls , the grea t range o f variatio n o f th e jaws , an d th e relativel y advance d charac teristics o f the lon g an d othe r bones . Krapin a Ma n wa s apparentl y a cannibal, fo r human bone s whic h ha d bee n burne d an d spli t length wise, probabl y t o extrac t th e marrow , wer e discovere d around th e walls o f th e cave . Th e sign s o f industry found wit h Krapin a Ma n ar e attributed t o th e Middl e Palaeolithi c Mousteria n culture , whic h i s characterized b y certai n point s an d "D"-shape d scraper s mad e o f stone. In 191 1 the Bukova c cave 8 wa s discovere d a t Lokve , nea r Rijeka , some ten mile s from th e sea . The Uppe r Palaeolithic culture t o whic h it belonged is later i n time than the Krapina' s Mousterian . The Uppe r Palaeolithic i s characterized b y greate r diversit y an d a diminishin g in size o f th e tools . Close to Krapin a an d nea r Varazdin i s th e Vindij a 4

For th e Palaeolithic , se e Sreck o Brodar , "Da s Palaolithikum i n Jugoslawien, " Quartdr I (Berlin , 1938), 140-172. 5 Dragutin Gorjanovic-Kramberger , Der diluviale Mensch von Krapina in Kroatien (Wiesbaden : C . W. Kreidel, 1906). 6 Ales Hrdlicka, "The Neanderthal Phas e o f Man," Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, LVII (1927) , 249-274. TAles Hrdlicka, "The Krapina Man," Xenia, 510-511 . SBrodar, "Palaolithikum," 148-149. The industry is attributed to "Aurignatian, " which occurred durin g th e latte r part of the fourt h glaciation .

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cave, wher e Stjepa n Vukovi c ha s bee n excavatin g fo r som e thirt y years.9 Th e sit e contain s evidenc e o f man y culture s an d i s contem porary with those of both Krapina and Lokve . There are also two small sites nearby : on e i s Vuglove c and th e othe r i s Mackov a Spilja . Mirk o Malez began t o excavat e in 1953 i n the Veternic a cave , six miles fro m Zagreb.10 Th e industr y foun d her e i s attribute d t o th e Mousteria n Culture. Cav e bea r bone s wer e foun d lyin g in a wa y whic h suggest s that bear-cul t ceremonie s ha d bee n performed . A huma n skull, 11 i n some ways different fro m tha t o f modern man, wa s als o discovered. I n a 195 3 test excavation , conducte d b y Malez , on e huma n bon e an d three bone artifacts were unearthed in the Cerovac cave near Gracac. 12 All the discoveries mentioned were made in caves. The first two open sites wer e foun d onl y recently : on e i n Samobor , clos e t o Zagreb , b y Malez;13 th e othe r i n Crkvin a near th e villag e o f Makljenovac, 14 tw o miles sout h o f Dobo j in Bosnia , where a fe w hundre d tool s o f Mous terian an d Upper Palaeolithic cultures were excavated by Djuro Easier . Not far away is the Uppe r Palaeolithic site, Kulasi, 15 also discovered by Easier. The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age When th e Pleistocen e Ag e ended , Palaeolithi c Ma n ha d t o adjus t himself t o th e post-glacia l environment , whic h sa w th e extinctio n o r g

lbid., 144-145 , 159-160 . Se e also , Stjepa n Vukovic , "Prehistorijsk o nalazist e spilje Vindije, " Historijski Zbornik, I I (1949) , 243-249 , an d Stjepa n Vukovic , "Paleolitska kamen a industrij a spilj e Vindije, " Historijski Zbornik, II I (1950) , 241-255. 10 Mirko Malez , "Paleontolosk o istrazivanj e pecin e Veternic e u 195 5 god," Ljetopis LXI I (Zagreb : Jugoslavensk a akademij a znanost i i umjetnosti , 1957) , 280-295; an d Mirk o Malez, "Novij a istrazivanj a pacin e u N . R . Hrvatskoj, " Acta geológica, I (1956) , 179-193. J1 The skull , modern i n type, wa s found i n th e Mousteria n industry . Sinc e othe r Mousterian tool s wer e foun d alway s wit h Neanderthal s o r Neanderthaloi d skele tons, this important fin d certainl y needs clarification . See Mirk o Malez , "Die Ho'hle Veternica, ein e neu e Palaeolithisch e Fundstell e i n Kroatien, " Bulletin scientifique, III (1956) , 11-12 . Se e als o Carleto n S . Coon , The Origin of Races (Ne w York : Alfred A . Knopf, 196 2 ), 554. 12 Mirko Malez , "Erste r Fun d de s oberdiluviale n Mensche n i m dinarische n Karst," Bulletin scientifique III , No. 2 (1956) , 48. 13 Mirko Malez , "Palàolithiku m i n Samobo r be i Zagreb, " Bulletin scientifique III, No . 3 (1956) , 49. Only one artifact was discovered tha t seems to belong t o th e Mousterian Culture. I t wa s probably th e work of a mammot h hunter, for mammoth bones were found nearby . "Djuro Easier , "Paleolitsk i nala z n a Usori, " Clasnik, N.S. , VII I (1953) , 215 223; Sreck o Brodar, " K odkritj u kamenih industri j ob Usori, " ibid., 225-236; Djuro Easier, "Paleolitsk i nala z n a Crkvin i u Makljemovcu, " Glasnik, N.S. , XI I (1957) , 93-108. 15 Djuro Easier, "Paleolitsko nalazi&e u Kulasima," Glasnik, N.S., XV (1960-61), 27-38.

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the northwar d migratio n o f mos t o f th e Pleistocen e animals . Th e cultures durin g thi s tim e ar e calle d Mesolithic . I n ou r regio n n o Mesolithic site s hav e bee n foun d yet . Bu t sinc e a Mesolithi c site , Crvena Stijen a (Re d Cave), 18 locate d jus t a fe w mile s insid e Montenegro, ha s bee n discovere d recentl y b y Aloj z Benac , i t i s likely tha t such site s wil l soo n be foun d i n th e are a unde r discussio n here . The Neolithic or New Stone Age THE EARL Y NEOLITHIC AGE 17

Neolithic cultures sprea d fro m th e Nea r Eas t int o Europe , an d ar e commonly characterize d b y th e presenc e o f pottery an d domesticate d plants an d animals . Neolithic innovation s radically change d th e socio economic conditions of man. In Greece 18 and probabl y Rumania , early Neolithic site s containin g the remain s o f domestic plants an d animals , but n o pottery, have been unearthed . I n ou r region, however, no such discovery has yet been made. THE MIDDL E NEOLITHI C AGE

The oldes t cultur e discovere d s o fa r i s Starcevo , whic h comprise d a huge are a includin g Bulgaria , Rumania , Serbia , easter n Hungary , western Ukraine, northeast Bosnia, and Slovakia. In Croatia it extende d at least as far a s Vucedol, near Vukovar, and Sarvas , near Osijek , bot h in easter n Slavonia. 19 I t wa s als o foun d a t Gornj a Tuzl a i n north eastern Bosnia. 20 Pottery i n thi s cultur e wa s crudel y mad e an d wa s sometime s hal f an inch thick. It wa s pinched o r impressed with th e top s o f the fingers or nails . Globula r vessel s ha d fla t base s an d sometime s smal l stand rings. Onl y a smal l percentag e o f potter y wa s painted . Ar t foun d expression i n idol s an d relie f decoration s o n pots. A t Sarva s one suc h relief decoration , showin g a woman, was found. The settlement s wer e "Mitja Brodar , "Crven a Stijen a (Stratu m V), " Glasnik, N.S. , XII (1957) , 51-55. See also Alojz Benac , "Crvena Stijena-195 5 (I-I V Stratum), " ibid., 19-50. 17 For the Neolithi c an d Coppe r Age s of Bosnia, Hercegovina , Dalmatia , and th e Littoral, se e th e excellen t summar y b y Aloj z Benac , "Studie n zu r Stein-un d Kupferzeit i m nordwestliche n Balkan, " 42. Bericht der Romisch-Germanischen Kommission 1961 (Berlin, 1962) , 1-171 . Unfortunately , i t wa s to o lat e t o incor porate thi s important monograp h int o this article . 18 Vladimir Milojció , "Die erste prakeramische bàuerliche Siedlun g de r Jungsteinzeit i n Europa," Germania, XXXIV ( 1957), 208-210. 19 R. R . Schmidt , Die Burg Vucedol (Zagreb : Da s kroatisch e archaologisch e Staatsmuseum in Zagreb, 1945 ). 20 Borivoj Covic , "Rezultat i sondiranja na preistorisko m naselj u u Gornjo j Tuzli, " Glasnik, N.S., XV I (1960-1961), 79-139.

Upper: Mostar , Hercegovina. Lower: Velebi t Mountain , Lika.

Motif fro m Slavonia .

Zagreb, capita l o f Croatia.

Left: Pula , Croatia: Templ e o f Rom a an d Augustus . Right: Pula , Croatia : Roma n Amphitheater fro m th e secon d century .

Upper: Diocletian' s Palace, reconstructed by Hébrard . Lower: Diocletian' s Palace a s it stands today.

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normally locate d nea r rivers . Fishin g wa s probabl y th e mai n occupa tion, bu t foo d wa s also obtained b y huntin g an d agriculture . W e hav e only two C-1 4 dates 21 for the Starcev o Culture, one 4915 B.C. , the othe r 4440 B.C . Sinc e these date s ar e probabl y no t th e earlies t ones , we ca n estimate that this culture began in the sixth millennium. A more difficul t task i s th e determinatio n o f it s end , since i t covere d suc h a hug e territory an d ma y hav e survive d much longe r i n the margina l tha n i n the central areas. However, as there are C-14 data fo r the later cultures, such a s th e Danubia n (abou t 400 0 B.C.) , an d th e beginnin g o f Vinca (4010 B.c.),22 we can estimate that i t ende d abou t 4200 B.C. In th e coasta l regio n n o earl y cultures hav e ye t bee n discovered , but, b y makin g comparisons wit h othe r Mediterranea n sites , w e ma y say that the earl y Neolithic was probably represente d b y cardial ware , so called becaus e th e surfac e o f the potter y wa s impressed by cardiu m shells. However , farthe r inlan d i n Hercegovin a southeas t o f Mosta r is the Zelena Pecina (Gree n Cave), 23 where excavation s were conducte d in 195 5 by Benac . There , th e lowes t laye r belonge d t o th e oldes t Neolithic cultur e discovere d i n Bosni a an d Hercegovina . Th e potter y found wa s impresse d b y nails , fingers , an d shar p tools . N o cardium shell-impressed war e was unearthed , perhap s becaus e the cav e lie s some distanc e fro m th e sea . Some monochrome dark gre y an d brow n pottery wa s also found there . Th e dark-gre y color in the potter y point s to connection s wit h th e Balkans , but certai n potter y forms , especiall y handles, poin t t o th e wester n Mediterranean. According to Benac , th e reason fo r thi s i s that Zelen a Pecina seem s to li e o n the borde r o f th e two cultura l areas . Ther e i s n o doub t tha t th e sit e i s close r t o th e coastal than the inland cultures. Benac believes tha t Zelena Pecina was partly paralle l i n tim e to , an d continue d eve n after , th e Starcev o Culture. The main occupation of its inhabitants, judgin g from th e bon e remains, was hunting. Another Neolithi c localit y i s Kakan j i n Bosnia . I t lie s o n th e lef t bank of the rive r Bosna , in Middle Bosnia , and wa s discovered i n 1933 by Mihovi l Mandic . A tes t excavatio n wa s conducte d agai n i n 1955 by Benac. 24 Th e sit e originall y comprise d 20,00 0 squar e meters , a n enormous are a fo r a Neolithi c settlement . Ston e implements include d 21

Vladimir Milojcic , "Zu r Anwendbarkei t de r C 1 4 Datierun g i n de r Vorge schichtsforschung," II Teil , Gemumia XXXV I (1958) , 415. 22 H. T. Waterbolk , "Th e 1959 Carbon-14 Symposiu m a t Groningen, " Antiquity, XXXIV (I960) , 15. 23Alojz Benac , "Zelena pecina," Glasnik, N.S., XII (1957) , 61-92. 24 Alojz Benac , "Osnovna obiljezj a neolitsk e kulture u Kaknju, " Glasnik, N.S., XI (1956), 167-182.

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small knives , som e havin g a n archai c appearance . Ther e wer e als o polished axes , bu t n o ston e arrowheads . Bon e wa s use d fo r makin g awls and, as in Starcevo , for spatulae o r spoons . Four-legged vase s ar e very characteristic s o f the area . Simila r one s wer e foun d i n Danilo, 25 near Sibenik , and in a cave near Trieste. Onl y one impressed sher d an d a fe w polychrom e one s were found . The Arnautovic i site nea r Visok o and the Danil o site belong t o the same culture . Th e cultur e itsel f doe s not sho w an y similaritie s wit h othe r culture s i n Bosni a an d Hercego vina. Benac believes tha t it started durin g Starcevo time s and continue d parallel t o th e earl y Vinc a Cultur e i n Serbia , bu t becaus e o f th e Adriatic quadrupedal vessel s it must have originated somewher e o n the Adriatic coast . Th e olde r Vinc a pottery , which i s grey , brown , an d sometimes red , extende d fro m Serbi a t o Srije m an d easter n Slavonia , and to northeastern Bosnia. THE LAT E NEOLITHI C AG E

In Slavoni a an d Srije m ther e wa s a loca l variatio n o f th e Lengye l Culture, originall y fro m wester n Hungary , whic h checke d an d re placed th e olde r phas e o f the Vinc a Culture . Bi-conica l an d knob-lik e flat-bottomed jar s ar e characteristi c o f thi s culture . I t wa s o f grea t importance fo r centra l Bosnia , fo r i t wa s th e primar y origi n o f th e famous Butmi r Culture . A younger phas e o f the Vinc a Cultur e mad e inroads int o Srije m an d int o th e vicinit y o f Tuzl a i n northeaster n Bosnia.28 The Butmi r sit e nea r Sarajevo , excavate d b y Vacla v Radimsky, 2T created grea t interes t amon g prehistorian s becaus e o f th e highl y artistic sens e expressed i n the idols there. For a long time only one sit e was known , and th e Britis h archaeologis t V. Gordon Childe 28 calle d i t a quit e eccentri c station . I n 1949 , however , Bena c discovere d a ne w 2B

For th e importan t excavation s at Danilo , se e Josi p Korosec , Neolitska naseobina u Danilu Bitinju. Rezultati istrazivanja u 1953 godini I (Zagreb : Jugoslaven ska akademij a znanost i i umjetnosti , 1958) ; Josi p Korosec , Neolitska naseobina u Danilu Bitinju. Rezultati istrazivanja u 1953 godini II, Prilozi I Supplement s (Zagreb: Jugoslavensk a akademij a znanost i i umjetnosti , 1959). 26 For th e Vinc a Cultur e a t Donj a Tuzla , se e Iva n Pus , "Neolitsk o naselj e u Tuzli," Clanci i gradja za kulturnu istoriju istocne Bosne, I (1957) , 85-102 ; Aloj z Benac, "Nek e nov e prethistorijske kulture u sjeveroistocno j Bosni," ibid., 209-213 . For Gornj a Tuzla , see Borivoj Covié , "Rezultati. . . ." For al l Vinca site s in Bosnia, see Alojz Benac , "Neolitski telovi u sjeveroistocno j Bosni i nek i problem! bosanskog neolita," Glasnik, N. S. , XV-XVI (1960-61) , 39-78; Aloj z Benac , "Grenzzon e de r Vinca-Kultur i n Ostbosnien, " Archaeologia lugoslavica II I (1959) , 5-11 . 27 Vaclav Radimsky ' an d Mori z Hoernes , Die neolitische Station von Butmir, I (Vienna, 1895) ; Fran z Fial a an d Mori z Hoernes , ibid., I I (1898) . 28 Gordon V . Childe , The Danube in Prehistory (Oxford , 1929) , 82 .

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site a t Nebo; anothe r sit e a t Kraljevic a nea r Nov i Sehe r wa s foun d long ago. Though al l three settlements belonged t o the Butmir Culture , they wer e no t occupie d durin g th e sam e perio d o f time . Nov i Sehe r was older, an d Neb o younger, than th e Butmir site. The stone industr y found i n the Butmi r Culture consisted of knives, arrowheads, and axes . Bone was used for awls and hoes. A few needles an d on e bone fishhook were discovere d a t Nebo . Ceramic s wer e bake d red , brown , an d yellow. White pain t was applied befor e firing and red paint afterwards . Some characteristi c form s includ e vase s o n pedestals , amphorae , beakers, and knob-lik e or pear-like jars which ar e als o known from th e Lengyel Culture . A s in Lengyel, th e pot s have few handles. Ornamen t consists of ribbons, triangles , rhomboids, and spiral s mad e i n th e for m of o r a combination o f C-shaped and S-shape d letters. Spiral s appear i n such grea t quantity , ofte n a s relief s bu t als o painted , tha t specia l studies hav e bee n devote d t o them. 30 Th e Butmi r peopl e wer e agri culturists an d raise d tw o kind s of wheat a s well a s barley, lentils , an d wild apples . The y als o had domesticate d dogs , pigs , goats , sheep , an d cattle, an d hunte d dee r an d bison . Seventy-tw o figurine s wer e dis covered a t Butmir , bu t onl y thre e a t Nebo . Som e wer e s o highl y artistic, including such details as hair, that som e archaeologists wer e a t first reluctant t o admi t tha t thei r creator s belonge d t o suc h a n earl y period. A figurine at Neb o show s that it s fac e ha d bee n painte d wit h red paint . Suc h a custo m i s stil l i n us e toda y o n certai n occasion s in Bosnia. Late Neolithic site s belonging t o th e Mediterranea n cultura l spher e were excavate d o n th e islands , o n th e coast , an d als o inlan d i n Hercegovina. Bes t know n amon g the m i s th e Graba c Cav e o n Hva r Island, wher e Grg a Novak excavated fro m 193 6 t o 1950. 31 Apart fro m a fe w ston e an d bon e artifacts , almos t al l find s consis t o f pottery . Incised potter y i s ornamente d wit h thatche d o r pricke d triangle s an d zig-zag ornaments. The painted pottery can be divided stratigraphicall y into thre e strata . Stratu m A consist s of three-colo r painting , suc h a s red band s enclose d b y grayish-blu e stripe s o n a yello w background ; the spira l wa s no t ye t known . The second , o r Stratu m B , consist s of red painte d pottery , som e of it cruste d wher e pain t had bee n applie d after firing . Th e nex t stratum , C , contain s blac k an d brow n pottery , 29 Alojz Benac , Prehistorijsko noselje Nebo i problem butmirske kulture (Ljub ljana, 1952) . 30 Branko Cávela , " O pitanj u originalnost i i datovanj u butmirsk e kulture, " Glosnik, N.S , IV- V (1949-50) , 397-402 ; Benac , Prehistorijsko, 113-147 . 31 Grga Novak , Prethistorijski Hvar. Grapceva spilja (Zagreb : Jugoslavenska akademija znanost i i umjetnosti, 195 5 ).

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and occasionall y the rim s an d neck s wer e painte d wit h cinnabar-re d paint whic h gav e th e potter y a lustrou s appearance . Th e identification of the cinnabar paint was a surprise, for this paint, a mercury compound, is poisonous. This is, apparently, th e onl y such discovery in th e world. Th e potter y consist s o f bowls , plates , jars , an d amphorae . Animal bones belonging to domesticated specie s hav e also been found . In the lowest stratum a sherd with incised lines, which Novak interprets as being a picture of a predynastic Egyptia n ship with two deck cabins, was found. If Novak' s interpretation i s correct, thi s i s the oldes t known picture o f a ship i n Europe . The painte d potter y o f Hva r i s simila r t o tha t o f Dimini , a lat e Neolithic cultur e i n Greece . I f thi s similarit y connote s actua l con nections, then w e can dat e th e sit e a s somewhat earlier tha n 3,00 0 B.C . The cultur e show s relationships wit h Sicily , Crete , an d Macedoni a a s well. Th e us e o f poison fo r th e paintin g o f potter y i s certainl y ver y intriguing. Nova k think s tha t suc h potter y wa s use d fo r religiou s rather tha n fo r everyda y purposes . H e als o believe s tha t th e cav e itself serve d fo r religiou s purposes only , and tha t th e populatio n live d in circular structures, built with a dry stone masonry technique, suc h as exist toda y t o serv e a s shelter s durin g ba d weather . Thes e structure s are calle d bunje i n Croatia . Som e fort y year s ag o thei r similaritie s with th e megalithi c structure s o f Malt a an d wester n Europ e wer e noticed.32 Certainl y som e wer e constructe d durin g th e Middl e Ages . However, a s n o excavation s too k place , w e d o no t kno w whe n the y were built. The Hva r Cultur e di d no t remain o n the Adriati c Islands. I t move d to th e coas t an d i n some instances eve n inland , as , fo r example , int o the valle y o f Neretva . Her e tw o site s ar e know n t o belon g t o th e same culture . On e i s i n Zelen a Pecina, 83 an d th e othe r i s Lisicici 34 near Konji c i n Hercegovina . Bot h site s wer e excavate d b y Bena c an d are nearl y identica l i n fin d material . Th e ston e industr y consiste d of knives, scrapers , arrowheads , an d axes . Bon e was use d fo r knives an d needles. Plates , bowls , an d one-foot-hig h vases wer e als o found. Re d paint ha d bee n applie d o n a blac k backgroun d o n th e vases , bu t handles had been rarely used. Lisicici has yielded onl y a few impressed sherds. Decoration s consiste d o f triangles , rhomboids , spirals , an d meanders. Sola r an d luna r ornament s ar e characteristic . Th e peopl e 32 Ciril M . Ivekovic , "Bunje , cemeri , poljarice, " Zbornik kralja Tomislava (Zagreb: Jugoslavensk a akademij a znanost i i umjetnosti , 1925) , 413-429 . 33 Alojz Benac , "Zelen a pecina, " Glasnik, N.S. , XII (1957) , 61-92 . 34 Alojz Benac , "Neolitsk o naselj e u Lisicicim a ko d Konjica s" Glasnik, N.S. , X (1955), 49-84.

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were primarily farmers , but the y als o hunted dee r an d boar. Th e site s are a t leas t partl y contemporar y wit h th e sit e o f Hvar . Clos e simi larities wit h Mediterranea n islands , suc h a s Malt a an d Sardinia , giv e indications o f th e maritim e origi n o f th e culture . Thoug h Lisicic i lie s near Butmir , i t seem s tha t ther e wa s n o contac t betwee n th e tw o localities. Moun t Ivan, whic h divide s Bosni a from Hercegovina , form s the borderlin e betwee n th e tw o cultura l areas . T o th e nort h o f thi s was th e Bosnian-Danubia n are a an d t o th e sout h th e Hercegovinian Mediterranean sphere . THE INTRODUCTIO N OF META L

Metal was first used i n the Nea r East, an d cam e to Europe firs t durin g the fina l phas e o f th e Neolithi c period . Sinc e coppe r wa s th e firs t metal worked, this phase is sometimes called th e Coppe r Age . The tim e was on e o f crisis, grea t migrations , an d cultura l transitions . Life wa s becoming insecur e an d settlement s wer e o n th e top s o f hills , usually fortified. Agricultur e continued, but stoc k raising became mor e prominent tha n before , especiall y th e raisin g o f sheep . Belonging t o thi s perio d wa s th e Bade n Culture , o f whic h th e bes t known sit e i n Slavoni a i s Vucedol. 35 It s potter y ha s dar k exteriors , is often channele d wit h alternatin g wid e an d narro w incisions , an d ha s large handle s whic h ris e abov e th e rim . Ston e remaine d th e majo r material fo r th e manufactur e of knives, axes an d adzes , but meta l wa s also used . House s wer e relativel y smal l an d usuall y square i n shape . Horse bones belonging to this culture have been foun d outsid e Croatia. The horses were probably domesticated an d used fo r drawin g wagons, the existenc e of which i s indicated b y a model foun d i n Hungary . At Vucedol, me n wer e burie d o n th e righ t an d wome n o n th e lef t sid e of th e grave . Th e dat e usuall y suggeste d fo r th e Bade n Cultur e b y comparison wit h Greec e i s 190 0 B.C. , bu t i t i s certainl y muc h earlier . Some Italia n archaeologist s deriv e som e features o f th e Earl y Bronze Age Rinaldon e Culture i n middl e Ital y fro m th e Bade n Culture , bu t no Bade n settlement s hav e bee n foun d betwee n Slavoni a an d Italy . This Italia n cultur e show s som e similaritie s wit h th e late r Vucedo l Culture. It i s not know n what cultur e existe d south o f the Sav a Rive r durin g the Bade n period, bu t numerou s chanc e find s o f coppe r tools , mostly axes, sho w tha t th e knowledg e o f coppe r ha d sprea d t o Dalmatia , 33

For th e Bade n Cultur e a t Vucedol , se e R . R . Schmidt , Die Burg Vucedol (Zagreb: Da s kroatisch e archàologisch e Staatsmuseu m i n Zagreb , 1945) .

30 CROATIA

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Hercegovina, an d Bosnia . Perhap s th e knowledg e o f meta l cam e t o these areas by sea. The Bronze Age Since coppe r i s a ver y sof t metal , smith s soo n bega n t o mi x i t wit h other metals . B y trial an d erro r i t wa s discovere d tha t th e bes t allo y is made up of nine-tenths copper an d one-tent h tin: this alloy is bronze. THE EARL Y BRONZE AGE

In thi s period w e have th e Vucedo l Culture, 38 s o called afte r th e sit e in Slavonia. It wa s thought that Slavoni a was the cente r o f the culture . Other site s wher e Vucedo l implements were foun d are , however, no w known in Hungary , Austria , Czechoslovakia , Eas t Germany , and Slovenia. In Sloveni a the best-known site is Ljubljana. Vucedo l pottery forms includ e bowls, pedestalle d cups , jars , and amphorae . Som e pots were cross-footed . Decorations wer e forme d b y cuttin g ou t th e cla y and, afte r firing, filling in th e hollo w wit h a whit e paste . Ornament s consisted o f triangles, squares , circles , stars , crosses , an d othe r geo metrical designs . Some of these design s may have survived until toda y as tattoo s i n Bosni a an d Albania . There wer e als o cla y mode l table s which probabl y serve d fo r cul t purposes . I n additio n to bronze, hor n and bone , a s wel l a s flin t an d othe r stones , wer e als o used . I n som e sites, battle axes (hamme r axes with knobbed heads) wer e found . Men and wome n wer e burie d i n th e sam e grave , whic h ma y o r ma y no t indicate tha t th e wido w ha d t o follo w he r husban d t o death . Grave s were i n cellar s o r cellar-like pits, an d pot s wit h foo d were lai d besid e the dead. The Vucedol and Ljubljan a Culture s moved southward. Element s of both subcultura l groups , primaril y Vucedol , hav e bee n foun d i n Bosnia.37 Furthermore , expansio n i s eviden t i n th e Sandza k region , which i s eas t o f Bosnia, an d als o i n Montenegro , Zelen a Pecina , th e mainland o f Dalmatia, an d o n th e Islan d o f Hvar. 38 Finally , i t seems , the cultur e crosse d th e Adriati c an d formed , at leas t partly , th e bas e from whic h th e full y develope d Bronz e Age Apennine Culture i n Ital y originated. A Vucedol settlement nea r Tuzla in northeastern Bosni a has recentl y 36

For the Vucedo l Cultur e a t Vucedol , se e Schmidt, Vucedol. Alojz Benac , "Zavrsn a istrazivanj a u pecin i Hrustovaci, " Glasnik, N.S. , II I (1958), 12. 38 For th e sites , see Josip Korosec , Predzgodovinska naselbina na Ptujskem gradu (Ljubljana, 1951) , 180-185 ; Stoja n Dimitrijevic , "Prilo g dalje m upoznavanj u vucedolske kulture, " Opúsculo Archaeologíca I (1956) , 5-56 . 37

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been identified. I t consist s of a tell ( a mound whic h i n th e cours e of time grow s ove r a settlement) havin g a diamete r o f some 10 0 meters. As it was a swampy region, perhaps th e Vucedol people ha d t o defend themselves agains t th e invadin g Tumulu s people . Th e date s usuall y ascribed t o th e Slavonia n Cultur e ar e 1800-160 0 B.C. , bu t som e archaeologists surmis e tha t i t existe d muc h earlier . As state d above , th e Vucedo l and th e Bade n people were burie d i n cellars o r cellar-lik e pits . Yet we fin d i n the site s o f th e Earl y Bronze Age o f Bosnia, 40 Hercegovina , Dalmatia , an d Istri a skeleton s i n a flexed position, surrounde d an d covere d b y ston e slab s an d wit h a stone hammer axe placed near the head. Th e grav e inventory doe s not provide an y clues a s to which cultur e thi s people ma y hav e belonged . Since ther e ar e n o ston e slab s i n th e Vucedo l Culture , th e questio n arises whethe r o r no t othe r Earl y Bronz e Ag e peopl e existe d contemporaneously wit h the Slavonia n people. At any rate, flexed burials were discontinue d afte r th e Earl y Bronz e Age, but ston e cist s wer e used throughou t th e Meta l Ages , especiall y i n Istria . THE ORIGI N O F TH E BADE N AN D SLAVONIAN CULTURES

Most archaeologists believ e tha t th e Bade n an d Vucedo l peoples wer e Indo-European speaker s wh o mad e inroad s o n a non-Indo-European , probably Mediterranea n speaking , area . Th e Indo-Europeanizatio n started wit h th e Bade n people , an d wa s probabl y complete d b y th e Vucedol people . Fo r thi s reaso n i t i s worthwhil e t o examin e th e possible origi n o f thes e cultures. 41 Som e author s conside r tha t th e Baden Cultur e cam e fro m norther n Europ e o r tha t i t was , at least , a Nordicize d Danubia n culture . Othe r archaeologist s poin t t o th e southeast, since , i t seems , part o f the potter y an d certainl y th e meta l originated there . Stil l othe r archaeologist s poin t t o similaritie s wit h some eas t Alpin e an d som e western Europea n cultures . Belation s t o local Danubian cultures , such as Lengyel, and similaritie s of ornaments to those on the Islan d of Cyprus have also been noticed . Most of thes e contradictions may , at leas t i n part , b e correct . Fro m whereve r thes e people came , they mixe d with th e loca l population and accepte d som e of th e nativ e traditions . Thi s coul d explain , fo r example , th e continuation o f som e Danubia n trait s durin g Bade n an d Vucedo l times. Since th e Bade n an d Vucedo l Culture s d o no t continu e th e olde r 39

Benac, "Neke nove," 209-213. See footnote 26 . See Borivo j Covic , "Nekolik o manji h preistoriski h nalaz a i z Bosn e i Herce govine," Glasnik, N.S. , XII (1957) , 241. 41 For variou s opinions , see Dimitrijevic, "Prilog, " 20-33 . 40

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traditions completely , thei r origi n mus t b e sough t elsewhere . Clos e analogies t o th e Vucedo l an d Eas t Alpin e site s i n Austri a sho w tha t they wer e related . Amon g othe r things , design s poin t t o a mor e northern par t o f Europe an d there must have been som e contacts wit h northern an d wester n Europea n groups . Th e ultimat e origi n must , however, b e sough t i n easter n Europe , an d perhap s eve n farthe r east . The Catacom b Grav e Cultur e o f the Ukrain e and th e Caucasu s shows many similarities to Baden, Vucedol, and other relate d cultures . I t ha d divided pot s lik e Baden , an d concentri c circl e motif s lik e Ljubljana . Cross-footed pot s lik e th e one s fro m Vucedo l hav e als o bee n found . Burials i n cellar-lik e pit s recal l catacom b graves . Bot h area s ha d a similar econom y in whic h stoc k breeding , includin g horses , played a major role . Th e buria l o f me n an d wome n i n th e sam e grav e show s identical socia l customs . The wago n mode l points als o t o th e steppe s and a n easter n origi n o f th e th e Bade n an d Vucedo l Cultures . Thu s archaeology suggest s that perhaps th e Indo-Europea n speakin g peopl e may hav e originate d somewher e aroun d th e Caucasus. 42 THE MIDDL E BRONZ E AGE

The Middl e Bronz e Age i s usually dated fro m 1600-125 0 B.C . Aroun d 1600-1500 B.C. the Tumulu s peopl e entere d Bosni a an d Hercegovina . Their cultur e i s calle d th e Tumulu s o r Glasina c Culture, 43 an d i t existed i n th e are a o f Glasinac , eas t o f Sarajevo , bu t i t i s als o known from othe r mountainou s area s i n easter n an d wester n Hercegovin a and fro m wester n Bosnia. Tumuli o r mounds were erecte d ove r graves , and eac h tumulu s contain s a t leas t on e burial . I n th e Glasina c regio n nine hundre d tumul i hav e bee n opened . I t i s estimate d tha t thi s number constitute s less than 5 per cen t o f the total number . Strangely , no weapon s hav e bee n foun d i n th e grave s o f thi s period . W e hav e learned a great dea l abou t th e buria l custom s of the Tumulu s people , but w e have no t learne d enoug h abou t thei r everyda y life , sinc e thei r settlements hav e bee n inadequatel y examined . Archaeological remains clearly sho w that thes e people wer e relate d t o other Tumulu s Culture s of Middl e Europe . Farther nort h i n Slavoni a wer e th e Urnfiel d Cultures . Thei r peopl e cremated thei r dead , burie d th e ashe s i n cla y urns an d covere d thes e 42 Marija Gimbutas , The Prehistory of Eastern Europe (Cambridge : America n School o f Prehistori c Researc h No . 20 , 1956) , 89 ; Gordo n V . Childe , The Dawn of European Civilization (Ne w York , 1958) , 156-301 . 43 For th e Glasina c Cultur e betwee n Sarajev o an d th e Drin a Rive r durin g th e Bronze Age , se e Aloj z Bena c an d Borivo j Covic , Glasinac I. Bronzano doba (Sarajevo, 1956) .

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with cla y lids . Th e burial s wer e no t marke d b y mound s an d were , therefore, mor e difficul t t o discover . Th e graveyard s ar e calle d urnfields, and thi s nam e ha s com e to stan d fo r th e cultur e a s a whole . In Hungar y an d adjacen t area s ther e existe d th e closel y relate d Pannonian Cultures . Th e grea t numbe r o f burial s indicat e tha t the y had a considerabl e population . Stoc k breeding playe d a larg e par t i n their economy . Horse s wer e no t onl y domesticated , bu t wer e als o used i n farming . Battl e axe s o f bronz e wer e clearl y derive d fro m copper prototypes . Characteristi c design s ar e simila r throughou t th e whole area . Ar t foun d expressio n i n idols , suc h a s th e one s foun d i n Dalj and Bapska . The westernmos t sit e o f a grou p whic h extende d a s fa r eas t a s Rumania wa s Bijel o Brd o i n easter n Slavonia. 44 Thi s cultura l grou p made th e highl y characteristi c two-stag e urns . Thes e urn s were , i t seems, th e prototype s o f th e Iro n Ag e Villanova n urn s i n norther n Italy. Th e Villanovan s were , o n th e othe r hand , th e predecessor s o f the Etruscans . Som e archaeologists , lik e Hug h Hencken, 45 fin d eve n greater similaritie s between th e Villanovan and the Pannonian cultures . The Bijel o Brdo Culture seems to have crossed the Sav a River, for on e such ur n i s said t o hav e com e from northeaster n Bosnia. 46 THE LAT E BHONZ E AGE

This period , usuall y date d fro m c . 125 0 B.C. t o perhap s 70 0 B.C. , witnessed grea t ethni c movements . The mos t important o f thes e wa s th e spread o f the Urnfiel d people . Urnfiel d migration s usually moved along flat land an d rivers , probabl y becaus e th e Urnfiel d peopl e cam e fro m a simila r environment . Migration s ofte n mea n wa r an d certainl y a n insecure life . Travelin g merchant s burie d thei r mos t valuabl e possessions, bronz e objects , an d occasionall y gold, hopin g t o uneart h the m after th e tim e o f troubl e wa s over . Thes e burie d meta l objects , o r hoards, ar e extremely valuable for archaeological studies . The greates t hoard, consisting of 700 pieces, wa s found in th e villag e o f Varos, near Brod i n Slavonia . Recentl y Zdenk o an d Ksenij a Vinski 47 mad e a «Gordon V . Childe , The Danube, 284-285 ; M . V . Garasanin , "Datiranj e dubovacko-zutobrdske grupe, " Zbornik Matice srpske, No . 2 (1951) , 83-88 . 45 Hugh Hencken , Indo-European Languages and Archaeology (Menasha : American Anthropologist , Memoi r No . 84) , 24 . 46 Alojz Benac , "Vaza bronzano g doba i z Bos. Bace, " Glasnik, N.S. , X I (1956) , 183-186. 47 Zdenko Vinsk i an d Ksenij a Vinsk i Gasparini , "Prolegomen a k statistic ! i kronologiji prethistorijski h ostav a u Hrvatsko j i u vojvodjansko m podrucj u Srijema, " Opúsculo Archaeologica, I ( 1956), 57-99.

34 CROATIA

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detailed stud y o f hoard s i n Croati a an d Srijem . Onl y a fe w o f th e seventy find s belonge d t o th e Middl e Bronz e Age . I f w e divid e th e Late Bronze Age into two phases, the first phase containe d forty-eight , the secon d fifteen hoards. This woul d indicate that th e greates t migrations too k plac e durin g the first phase , and tha t in the secon d phas e some stability had set in. Only a few hoards have been found belongin g to the late r periods . The Bijelo Brd o people migrated , perhap s with som e related groups , toward norther n Italy . Othe r Urnfiel d group s fro m Centra l Europe , especially fro m Hungary , sprea d int o Slavonia , norther n an d wester n Bosnia, Croatia , an d Istria , an d som e wen t eve n farthe r west . Th e necropolises in Dalj, near Osije k on the Danub e River , Vukovar, Velika Gorica an d Horvati , bot h nea r Zagreb , an d Ozal j o n th e Kup a Rive r belong t o th e Urnfiel d cultures . On e settlemen t wa s discovere d i n Novigrad, nea r Brod , i n Slavonia . Zagreb-Horvat i yielde d potter y which shows similarities with the potter y o f the Lausit z Culture whic h existed i n Eas t Germany . I f thi s sit e reall y belong s t o th e Lausit z Culture, the n i t i s th e southernmos t fin d o f thi s culture . Anothe r migration wa s t o Greece . Gree k traditio n maintaine d tha t onl y th e Dorians invade d Greece . Vladimi r Milojcic, 48 however , think s tha t there wer e a t leas t thre e wave s o f invaders . Th e firs t invader s wer e people o f uncertain origi n fro m th e inne r Balka n and Danubia n are a who i n th e thirteent h centur y invade d Greec e an d destroye d th e Mycenaean world. The second wave, in the elevent h century, consisted of Dorian s an d Thracians , fro m Albani a an d northeaster n Serbi a respectively. Th e thir d an d last wave of invaders was the Illyrian s fro m Bosnia an d Macedoni a who cam e in the nint h an d eight h centuries . At Donj a Dolina 49 ur n burial s wer e earlie r tha n inhumation . Thu s the beginning s of Donj a Dolin a and , probably , Ripa c fal l int o thi s period. In a newly discovered site near Gracanica 60 in northern Bosnia, ashes, burne d bones , an d othe r burie d object s wer e covere d wit h a n inverted pot . Jewelr y an d weapon s usuall y ha d bee n cremate d wit h the body , bu t ofte n the y wer e place d i n th e urn s afte r cremation . Pottery ofte n ha d wart s channele d wit h circles , especiall y i n Donj a Dolina. In Glasinac , however , th e ol d Tumulu s Cultur e continue d durin g 48

Vladimir Milojcic , "Di e dorisch e Wanderun g i m Licht e de r vorgeschichtliche n Funde," Archaologischer Anzeiger, (1948-1949) , 13-35 . «Ruzica Bizic , "Grobov i u Donjo j Dolini, " Glasník, N.S. , VI I (1952) , 222 . 60 Borivoj Covió , "Barice-nekropol a kasno g bronzano g dob a ko d Gracanice, " Glasnik, N.S., XIII (1958) , 94.

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this period. Connections with Middl e Europe wer e stil l noticeable, les s so with Hungary. Little contact existed, it seems, with Urnfield Culture s of norther n Croatia . I n Glasina c a few cremated remain s without urns were found , datin g bac k t o nea r th e en d o f th e Bronz e Age. 51 Suc h cremations were perhap s du e t o influence s fro m th e Urnfiel d Culture . In th e Littoral , however , grave s wit h skeleton s wer e discovered . Fibulae, o r safet y pins, having the form o f a violin bow, appeared no w for th e firs t time . B y th e en d o f thi s period , fibula e havin g a n arch like shape began t o appear. Th e first iron objects, such as a ring an d a small knife, also appeared . The Iron Age Iron was first used in northeastern Asia Minor, probably b y the Hittites , who retaine d th e secre t o f iron smeltin g until the breakdow n o f their empire afte r 120 0 B.C. Iron ha s man y advantage s ove r bronze ; i t i s harder, an d deposit s o f iro n or e ar e muc h mor e abundan t tha n thos e of copper . Bosni a i s especiall y ric h i n iron , an d it s numerou s mine s were active during the Iron Age and later periods. The Iron Age 52 laste d from th e tim e of the first use o f iron—in this region about 70 0 B.C.—until the comin g of Roman civilization. It i s divided int o the Earl y and Lat e Iron Age , the forme r calle d Hallstat t an d th e latte r L a Teñe . THE EARL Y IRO N AG E OH HALLSTATT PERIO D

The Glasina c Culture 53 continue d it s developmen t an d reache d it s highest leve l durin g the Early Iron Age. In the beginning only weapons and tool s wer e mad e o f iron . The so-calle d "princely " burials , wher e the triba l chieftain s were buried, began i n th e middl e o f thi s period . They wer e extremel y rich , containin g bronz e vessel s importe d fro m Italy an d perhaps from th e Nea r East. In on e such grav e a greave was found wit h a picture o f a stylize d shi p o n it, thu s indicatin g tha t th e greave had been traded fro m th e coast. These "princely" graves indicat e that socia l stratificatio n was highly develope d an d tha t politica l triba l units, a s describe d late r b y classica l writers , alread y existed . Sword s found i n grave s ha d bee n broken , probabl y fo r ceremonia l reasons , 51 Taline, tumulu s XIX , grave s 4 an d 5 (Aloj z Bena c an d Borivo j Covic , Glasinac I, 22) . Gucevo , tumulu s IV, grave 2 (ibid., 10) . 62 Alojz Benac , "Prehistorisk o doba, " Kulturna istorija Bosne i Hercegovine, ed . Alojz Bena c et al. (Sarajevo , 1955) ; Cir o Truhelka, "Bosn a u prehistorick o doba , Poviest hrvatskih zemal-ja Bosne i Hercegovine. Od najstarijih vremena do godine 1463, ed . Krunosla v Draganovi c (Sarajevo : Napredak , 1942) , 78-102 . 53 For th e Glasina c Cultur e betwee n Sarajev o an d th e Drin a River , se e Aloj z Benac an d Borivo j Covic , Glasinac, H. Zeljezno doba (Sarajevo , 1957) .

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and ther e wer e als o spear s an d knives . Hors e trapping s wer e foun d in som e chieftains ' grave s a s wel l a s i n som e o f th e grave s o f les s important personages . Glas s an d ambe r wer e imported , th e latte r from norther n Germany . Ar c an d spectacl e fibula e ar e characteristi c for thi s time . B y the en d o f this perio d Gree k import s bega n t o mak e their appearance . Settlement s wer e i n th e so-calle d gradine. Thes e were dry-lai d masonr y fortresses wit h fortification s o f earth , wood , stone, o r a combinatio n o f thes e thre e materials . Mos t o f the m hav e only on e trench , bu t a s man y a s thre e o r fiv e trenche s hav e bee n observed. Donja Dolin a an d Ripa c continue d t o develo p durin g thi s period . Both wer e pile-dwellin g settlement s nea r rivers . A t firs t ur n burial s were mor e commo n a t Donj a Dolina , bu t b y th e en d o f th e perio d inhumation prevailed . Th e corpse s wer e simpl y placed i n th e groun d or into wooden coffins . Si x burials i n wooden coffin s wer e foun d unde r houses. Women's grave s wer e riche r tha n thos e o f the men . Althoug h only on e thirtiet h o f th e know n settlemen t ha s bee n excavated ; seventeen house s hav e bee n unearthed , eac h containin g fro m tw o t o three room s an d a n atti c unde r th e roof . Ripac , o n th e othe r hand , is mor e simila r t o som e settlements i n Istri a tha n t o Donj a Dolina . Jezerine, in Bihac county, wester n Bosnia , was founde d i n the middl e of th e Hallstat t period , a s wa s th e nearb y sit e o f Ribici . Cremation belongs t o the las t phase o f the Earl y Iro n Ag e in Sansk i Most o n th e San a River , whic h scarcel y ha d an y connectio n wit h th e Glasinac Culture. Gorica , in Ljubusk i Count y in western Hercegovina , began th e practic e o f cremation abou t th e sam e time. Her e a regula r crematorium wa s found , fou r meter s wid e b y fiv e meter s long . Th e pits containe d ashes , charcoal , burne d bones , an d bronz e jewelry . Urnfield site s i n Istria , wher e th e urn s wer e place d i n cist s mad e of stone slabs , probabl y als o belonge d t o thi s period . Som e sites , how ever, practice d inhumatio n a s well . Urn s place d i n ston e cist s wer e found farthe r eas t i n onl y on e grave i n Jezerine . Th e settlement s i n Istria, calle d Castellieri , had ditche s o f concentric ring s made o f earth , wood, or stone as at Glasinac. The archaeologica l remain s o f nomadic horsemen group s stemming from th e en d o f this perio d hav e bee n foun d i n Dal j an d Vukova r in Slavonia. It i s thought tha t thes e remain s belonged t o the Cimmerians . Horse trapping s simila r t o th e Cimmeria n one s hav e bee n foun d i n Hungary an d identica l one s in Donj a Dolin a an d Macedonia . Perhap s the one s fro m Glasina c ca n b e attribute d t o th e Cimmerian s a s wel l and were obtained by trade.

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THE LAT E IRO N AG E OH LA TEÑ E

This perio d date s fro m c . 450 B.C. to the comin g of the Roma n civiliza tion. Thi s wa s th e perio d o f Celti c expansion , bu t no t al l artifact s which appeared durin g thi s perio d hav e to b e attribute d t o th e Celts . The Celt s actuall y occupie d onl y Croati a proper , Slavonia , an d part s of northern an d wester n Bosnia . Especially i n Slavoni a there ar e many place names of Celtic origin. Glass and ambe r were imported i n greater quantities tha n before , a s wer e Gree k helmets . Man y object s fro m Italy wer e importe d o r imitated , an d fo r th e firs t tim e potter y wa s wheel-made. The Glasinac Culture at first continued unchanged . "Princely" graves indicate politica l stability . Later , autochtonou s form s started t o dis appear an d foreig n element s appeared . B y th e middl e o f th e thir d century th e Glasina c Cultur e cease d t o exist—probabl y th e peopl e emigrated, bu t w e d o no t kno w t o wha t place . Afte r tha t time , th e Glasinac regio n wa s neve r a s densel y populated a s before . Donja Dolin a wa s occupie d unti l th e middl e o f L a Teñe . Sansk i Most, Gorica , an d Jezerine , o n th e othe r hand , continued , an d thei r greatest developmen t too k plac e i n th e middl e o f L a Teñe . Analysi s of excavate d materia l show s tha t Sansk i Mos t wa s close r i n tim e t o Donja Dolin a tha n t o Jezerin e an d Ribici . Ribic i wa s occupie d eve n after th e arriva l o f th e Romans . Mos t o f th e potter y a t Ribic i wa s wheel-made. Jezerin e i s closel y relate d t o Prozor , Kompolje , Vrebac , and Vital , nea r Otoca c i n Croatia . Thes e site s ar e attribute d t o th e Japodes tribe . A warrio r wit h a creste d helme t an d a spea r i n on e hand, incise d o n a Jezerin e ston e plate , seem s t o hav e bee n a Japodian. Cremation occurre d som e 25 per cen t o f th e tim e a t Donj a Dolina , increased t o almost 60 to 70 per cen t a t Sansk i Most and Jezerine , an d made u p 98. 8 per cen t o f all modes of burial a t Ribici . Thi s indicate s that crematio n wa s increasing agai n durin g the L a Teñ e period . Greek remain s hav e bee n foun d mostl y o n the island s an d o n th e coast, bu t littl e systemati c excavatio n ha s bee n don e yet. 54 Gree k imports appeare d early . A Corinthia n helme t foun d i n Glasina c i s dated fro m th e sixt h century B.C . Greek vase s o n th e coas t hav e bee n traced bac k t o th e sixt h o r fift h century , an d Gree k coin s a s early . A silver coin tetradrahmus dates fro m th e fift h centur y B.C. In addition , some thirty inscriptions in the Gree k language have been found . Actual 54 For th e Gree k remains , se e Peta r Lisicar , Crna Korkira i kolonije antickih Crka no. Jadranu (Skopje , 1951).

38 CROATIA

: LAND , PEOPLE , CULTUR E

colonies, accordin g t o Roma n writers , wer e founde d i n th e fourt h century B.C . The oldes t colon y i s believe d t o hav e bee n Iss a (Vis) . Other colonie s were , fo r example , Pharo s (Hvar ) an d Tragurio n (Trogir). However, since trad e existe d earlier , i t ha s bee n postulate d that ther e mus t hav e bee n a n earlie r Gree k city . I t i s believe d tha t this wa s th e Doria n colon y Korkyra Melain a (Korcula) . I t ha s bee n suggested tha t thi s cit y wa s founde d c. 58 0 B.C. Al l three Gree k citie s mentioned minte d thei r ow n coins. THE ILLYRIA N LANGUAG E AN D ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAIN S

In classica l time s Illyrian-speaking peoples live d i n th e regio n unde r discussion. Thei r language , whic h was Indo-European , i s known fro m only a few names and brief inscriptions . The proble m no w confronting us i s which o f the culture s t o connec t wit h th e Illyria n language . On e school believe s tha t th e peopl e of Vucedol an d relate d culture s wer e Illyrians. This thesis can hardly be accepted, sinc e the Italian Apennine Culture, whic h originate d t o som e exten t a t leas t i n th e Vucedo l Culture, occupie d most of Italy, and yet the Illyria n language has bee n identified onl y on the easter n coast of Italy. Anothe r schoo l holds tha t the Illyrian s came much later , in th e beginnin g o f the Iro n Age . Thi s is als o difficult t o accept , becaus e th e Glasina c Culture, accordin g t o Alojz Benac' s an d Borivo j Covic' s detaile d studies , doe s no t sho w any brea k a t thi s time . A thir d school , whic h seem s t o b e i n th e majority, connect s th e Illyrian s wit h Urnfiel d Cultures , suc h a s th e Pannonian an d eve n th e Lausit z Cultur e i n easter n Germany . How ever, i f the Glasina c people, wh o inhume d thei r dead , wer e Illyrians , one ca n hardl y se e how the Pannonian s and eve n th e distan t Lausit z peoples, wh o cremate d thei r dead , coul d als o hav e bee n Illyrians . In additio n t o th e styl e of burial, ther e were othe r shar p cultura l dif ferences betwee n thes e tw o groups , which indicate s tha t onl y on e of them could have been Illyrian. A fourth possibility remains, to connect the Illyrians and the Tumulus Cultures. Glasina c and , t o a lesse r degree , Castellier i i n Istri a ha d tumuli unde r whic h skeleton s ha d bee n buried . Th e differenc e wa s that a t Glasina c th e bodie s wer e extended whil e i n Istri a the y wer e flexed. Ancien t writer s stat e tha t Illyria n wa s spoke n o n bot h th e eastern an d wester n coas t o f th e Adriatic. 55 A fe w inscription s wer e preserved at Picenum56 in northern Italy, which show that the language 55

Hencken, Indo-European Languages, 23. Friedrich Duhn and Franz Messerschmidt , Italische Graberkunde, Zweiter Teil (Heidelberg, 1939) , 16 4 ff. ; Joshu a Whatmouth, The Foundation of Roman Italy (London, 1937), 107-108, 257. 56

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was relate d t o Illyrian . Th e Roma n write r Pliny explicitl y state d that th e Picene s wer e o f Illyria n origin . Th e tribe s o f Japyges , wh o occupied th e are a furthe r south , i n Apulia, ar e als o though t t o hav e been o f Illyrian origin . They spok e Messapic. This language , o f whic h some tw o hundre d inscription s have bee n found , i s believe d t o hav e been relate d t o Illyrian. 58 Bot h groups came fro m th e easter n Adriati c after 100 0 B.C. , an d bot h burie d thei r dea d i n a flexed position unde r tumuli a s i n Istria . Othe r archaeologica l remain s als o sho w stron g trans-Adriatic connections. 59 Therefore , th e fact s would indicat e tha t the Illyrians shoul d b e connecte d wit h th e Tumulu s rather tha n th e Urnfield Culture . Th e Venet i o n th e nort h Adriati c coas t cremate d their dead , an d therefor e coul d hardl y b e Illyria n speakin g o r o f Illyrian origi n a s it i s usually thought. For al l thes e reason s it doe s not see m possible t o connec t eve n th e Urnfield site s in Croatia with th e Illyrians . The archaeologica l remain s show similaritie s t o Urnfiel d culture s i n norther n Ital y an d Pannonia . It ma y b e that , afte r th e firs t invasio n o f th e Urnfiel d peopl e int o Illyrian territor y ended , th e Illyrian s began t o expan d back , an d th e increasing inhumation in such sites as Donja Dolin a and in Istria would tend t o substantiat e thi s view . I t i s therefore possible tha t mos t o f th e sites with mixed burials were, b y the tim e of the Celti c invasion , agai n populated b y Illyrian-speakin g people. Th e Celti c invasion , however , temporarily halte d Illyria n expansion . Th e Illyrian s late r trie d t o occupy thei r los t territories . Th e Japudes, a mixtur e o f Illyrian s an d Celts, accordin g t o classica l writers , wer e probabl y Illyria n speaking , since th e nam e Japodi , Japudes , an d Japyge s wa s foun d bot h i n Illyrian speakin g Picenu m an d i n Apulia . Thi s Illyria n expansio n was permanentl y stoppe d b y th e Romans. II. HISTORICA L ARCHAEOLOGY The Roman Period The tribe s o f Illyri a wer e numerous , and w e know , i n general , thei r locations. Th e following tribes live d alon g th e coast : th e Ardiaei, who lived i n th e are a fro m Albani a up t o th e Neretva River ; th e Dalmati, west of the Neretv a as far a s the Krk a River ; the Liburni, west o f them 57

KarI Kromer , "Zu m Picentenproblem, " Mitteilungen der prahistorischen Kommission der ôsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, V , No. 5 (1950) , 131 . 58 Antun Mayer , "Bosn a u ilirsk o doba, " Poviest hrvatskih zemalja Bosne i Hercegovine, ed . Krunosla v Draganovi c (Sarajevo : Napredak, 1942) , 105 . B9 Duhn an d Messerschmidt , Graberkunde, 26 6 ff. ; Whatmouth , Foundation, 111-112, 320-322.

40

CKOATIA: LAND, PEOPLE, CULTUBE

as far a s th e Ras a River i n Istria . Mor e inland i n Lika , Carniola , an d on the Kup a an d Un a River s dwelt the Japudes. Th e Jasi wer e locate d farther nort h i n Slavoni a as fa r a s the Drav a River . The Breuci wer e found i n norther n Rosnia , an d th e Sardeati alon g th e Vrba s River . The Daesitides ranged fro m Sarajev o eastwar d u p t o th e Drin a River, and th e lowe r Drin a wa s the hom e o f the Maezei. Aroun d th e sourc e of th e Krka , Una , an d Una c River s live d th e Ditiones, an d sout h o f them wer e th e Dindari, wh o probabl y gav e th e nam e t o th e Dinari c mountain range . Rot h side s o f th e uppe r an d middl e Neretv a Rive r were inhabited b y the Naresii, an d th e lowe r lef t ban k b y th e Daorsi. All thes e tribe s wer e Illyria n wit h th e exceptio n o f the Japudes , wh o are mentione d abov e a s a n Illyrian-Celti c mixture . Ther e wa s als o a Celti c tribe , th e Scordisci, wh o live d o n th e Danub e an d alon g th e lower region of the Sav a River. With th e formatio n of supra-tribal units , the Illyrian s became stron g enough t o sprea d thei r dominanc e t o th e Adriati c Sea . Th e Ardiae i attacked th e Gree k colonies on the Adriatic coast an d eve n made raids on th e Gree k mainland . This brough t the m t o wa r wit h th e Romans . The firs t clas h took place i n 229 B.C. The Roman s won, and peac e wa s restored. From thi s tim e on , Roma n cultural influenc e became notice able. Th e islands , th e coast , an d finall y th e interio r wer e graduall y occupied an d cam e unde r Roma n administration. 60 Illyria was now divided int o two provinces. One was called Dalmatia , which comprise d th e coast , easter n Istria , th e souther n part o f Croati a proper, Hercegovina , an d th e greate r par t o f Rosnia . The othe r pro vince wa s calle d Pannonia , t o whic h belonge d par t o f norther n Croatia proper, norther n Rosnia , an d Slavonia . Salon a wa s th e capita l city o f Dalmatia , an d Sisci a the capita l cit y o f Pannonia . In orde r t o preven t uprisings , th e Roma n militar y administration s built road s whic h connecte d thei r garrisons . The greates t constructio n period too k place i n th e firs t centur y o f ou r era , an d th e existenc e of the new roads was probably th e main factor whic h discourage d revolts . The mos t importan t coasta l road s wen t fro m norther n Ital y throug h Parentium (Porec) , Pol a (Pula) , Tarsatic a (Rijeka) , Seni a (Senj) , Salona (Solin) , Naron a (Vid) , Epidauru m (Cavtat) , an d o n t o Albania. Anothe r road , comin g als o fro m norther n Italy , le d throug h Siscia (Sisak) , Servitiu m (Rosansk a Gradiska) , to Sirmiu m (Srijemsk a Mitrovica). A third one , comin g fro m Petovi a (Ptuj ) i n Slovenia , le d 60

For th e Roma n period , se e Ferd o Sisic , Povijest Hrvata u vrijeme narodnih vladara (Zagreb , 1925) , Chapter s II I an d IV , 45-103 . Fo r Bosni a an d Herce govina i n particular, se e Dimitrije Sergejevski , "Dob a rimsk e vladavine, " Kulturna istorija Bosne i Hercegovine, éd . Aloj z Bena c et al. (Sarajevo , 1955) .

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through Aqu a Viva ( Varazdin), Murs a (Osijek), Teutoburgiu m (Dalj) , to Belgrade . Bot h o f th e norther n road s ha d man y connection s wit h each othe r an d wit h th e coasta l road. One suc h connectin g roa d le d from Soli n throug h Aequu m ( Citluk nea r Sin j ) t o Bosansk a Gradiska. Solin wa s als o linke d wit h Sirmiu m b y a roa d throug h Delminiu m (Duvno). The road s wer e abou t fiv e t o si x meter s wid e an d a s straigh t a s possible. The y wer e ofte n steepe r tha n th e highway s o f today , an d the grad e occasionall y wen t a s hig h a s fiftee n degrees . Suc h a con struction i s understandable , sinc e th e road s wer e buil t primaril y fo r military purpose s an d no t fo r th e convenienc e o f merchant s an d travelers. The network of roads was even more complex than it is today. Some modern roads have been built using the Roman roads for foundation; othe r Roma n road s ar e stil l visibl e today . Thes e road s ar e ver y important archaeologically, not onl y for knowledge abou t th e Romans , but als o abou t th e people s o f late r periods . The y indicat e th e route s used b y numerou s ethnic group s durin g th e Middl e Ages. At every 1,482 meters along the Roma n roads there wa s a milestone, then calle d marmar milliarium, and toda y calle d mramor (marble ) b y the local population. They stil l stand in the less accessible mountainous areas. Ther e were als o sentr y tower s whic h overlooke d th e road s an d stations, station s wher e horse s wer e exchanged , calle d mutationes, mansiones where the travellers could sleep, an d posita statio where th e mail stopped . Alon g th e road s wer e towns , calle d municipio, o r coloniae. Th e oldes t coloniae i n Dalmati a wer e Salon a an d Narona , and the oldest Roman town in Pannonia was Siscia. In the cente r of the municipia wa s a tow n hal l o r curia, a square o r forum, a courthouse , and a temple . A t Srebrnic a th e courthous e an d th e publi c bat h hav e been excavated , a t Duvn o th e forum , an d a t Pul a an d Srebrnic a th e temples hav e bee n unearthed . Statuette s o f a n empero r wer e place d in th e forum . Stone-walle d house s wit h bric k floor s surrounde d th e forum. The Illyrian s di d no t mak e bricks in pre-Roma n times. Brick s were at first imported fro m Istri a an d northern Italy . Late r the y were mad e by the army , and finally they wer e produced locally . Som e bricks ha d stamps showin g in what factor y they were made. Local factorie s hav e been foun d nea r Sarajevo , in Skelan i on th e Drin a River , i n Duvno , in Mogorjel o o n the Neretva , and i n Salona . Stamp s were als o put o n some oi l and win e amphorae . Privat e house s wer e mad e i n imitatio n of Roma n models , som e house s havin g centra l heatin g an d mosai c floors. Water wa s brough t into the town s b y mean s of aqueducts. Salona originall y consiste d o f thre e town s attache d t o on e another ,

42

CROATIA: LAND, PEOPLE, CULTUBE

the middle town having originally been a Greek city. 61 Salona had high walls with fou r gate s an d numerou s tower s whic h wer e buil t i n th e latter par t o f th e Roma n period a s a defens e agains t th e barbarians . Inside th e cit y ther e wa s a theater , a n amphitheater , an d a n arm s factory. Salon a wa s als o th e mos t importan t administrative , trading, and industria l center. The amphitheate r ha d 15,40 0 seats , fro m whic h it ha s bee n estimate d tha t th e cit y ha d a population o f approximately 60,000, althoug h thi s figur e i s probabl y to o low . At th e beginnin g o f th e Roma n er a th e populatio n o f Illyri a re mained organized in tribal units called civitates by the Romans . These tribal unit s ha d som e autonom y an d wer e unde r a praefectus o r praepositus wh o wa s assiste d b y hi s council , th e principes. Tomb stones o f me n wit h thos e title s hav e bee n unearthed . Later , thes e tribes obtaine d Roma n citizenship. We know very littl e abou t village s in Roma n time s because onl y a fe w farmstead s have been excavated , and w e d o not know , for instance, whether thei r house s were buil t in a row or were scattered. The military garrisons were built in square camps, at first surrounded by a n enclosur e o f earth , late r b y ston e walls . Smalle r camp s wer e about 12 0 to 15 0 meters on a side . Four suc h smal l camps hav e bee n found, bu t no t ye t excavated. The larges t military camp, situated nea r Stolac, ha d thre e ston e fortification s havin g a total lengt h o f ove r a mile an d a half . Diocletian' s Palac e i n Split , thoug h buil t a t th e turn of the thir d centur y as a residence o f the Empero r Diocletian an d his court, was built followin g th e rectangula r for m o f a military camp , and i t serve d fo r militar y purpose s a s well . Th e eas t an d wes t side s are eac h 19 1 meters long, the norther n i s 151, an d th e souther n i s 157 meters long. The wall s had sixtee n towers wit h thre e main gate s only , since the souther n wall was built bordering the sea . The workmen who built this palace were Greeks, for they lef t Gree k letters o n the walls . The palac e was supplied wit h wate r b y a n aque duct ove r five miles long which was repaired i n the nineteent h centur y and whic h i s stil l functioning . Inside th e palac e th e mos t importan t buildings ar e th e Mausoleu m of Diocletia n whic h today i s the churc h of St . Domnius, and the templ e to Jupiter, whic h today is the baptistry . Few excavation s have been made in the palac e itself . Th e mos t recent work revealed cellars with small rooms, and th e remova l of a Venetian wall brough t t o ligh t th e easter n o r Silve r Gate . Of abou t th e sam e date a s Diocletian' s Palac e i s Mogorjelo , o n th e 61 Kruno Prijatelj , "Einig e hellenistisch e Element e i n de r Skulptu r de s antike n Salona," Archaeologia lugoslavica, I (1954) , 29-37.

CROATIA AND BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA IN TH E ROMAN AN D EARL Y CHRISTIAN PERIO D

CROATIA and BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA in th e MIDDLE AGE S

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Neretva. Originally i t wa s a large countr y house, villa rustica, perhaps the emperor' s estate , bu t late r i t wa s modifie d fo r defens e purposes . It wa s rectangular i n shape, 10 2 meters long and 8 6 meters wide, wit h towers a t th e corner s o f th e walls . As in Diocletian' s Palace , orienta l and Hellenisti c influence s ar e noticeable i n the architecture . During th e Roma n perio d th e dea d wer e cremate d o r inhumed , cremation prevailing earlie r an d inhumation later. Coffins wer e of stone or lead , sometime s in house s o f brick ; ashe s wer e deposite d i n ston e or cla y urns. At leas t on e cemeter y nea r Sarajev o containe d grave s i n which th e dea d wer e place d i n a n east-wes t direction . Th e mos t interesting buria l custom s have bee n foun d amon g th e Japudes, 62 a t Ribici nea r Jezerine, wher e th e dea d wer e cremate d an d the n place d in ston e urn s whic h wer e o n th e averag e hal f a mete r hig h an d en graved wit h variou s scenes fro m everyda y life . O n on e ur n a woman can b e see n i n a sittin g position , turnin g t o th e right , a cantharus ( a pot fo r drinkin g wit h tw o high , vertica l handles ) i n he r hand . I n front o f the woma n stands a soldier wit h a spear i n hi s hand. Another scene show s a ro w o f wome n holdin g eac h other' s hands , th e firs t woman holdin g a cantharus i n he r lef t hand . Horseme n ar e show n singly an d i n a row. Animals depicte d o n the urn s includ e fish , cattle , snakes, an d boars , al l probabl y use d a s religiou s symbols . Th e boa r was, a s is wel l known , a hol y anima l t o th e Celts . Th e urn s see m t o imitate houses . The ston e urns were mad e betwee n th e first and thir d centuries A.D . Beside s som e similarit y to ancien t Greece , ther e i s als o a vagu e similarity to the archai c ar t o f the Veneti . Th e surviva l o f this art ma y hav e bee n cause d b y th e isolatio n o f the region . Inscriptions on altars and tombs are almost all in Latin. Gree k names have bee n foun d i n Gree k colonie s o n th e island s an d o n th e coast . Inland th e Gree k o r Hellenize d orienta l name s hav e bee n discovere d in minin g center s suc h a s Srebrnica , an d o n th e lowe r par t o f th e Neretva River . Tw o inscription s in Itali c wer e unearthe d i n wester n Bosnia, an d on e inscriptio n contain s th e nam e o f the Germani c tribe , Bastarnae. N o inscription s i n Illyria n hav e bee n found . Epitaph s i n Latin giv e th e nam e of the deceased , th e yea r o f his death , hi s status, and th e nam e o f th e ma n wh o erecte d th e tombstone . Famil y name s are seldo m foun d o n th e tombstones . Th e majorit y o f th e name s ar e Illyrian, an d onl y a fe w ar e Celtic . I f th e dea d perso n ha d thre e personal names, the first two were those of a Roman emperor, showing under whic h empero r h e o r hi s famil y receive d Roma n citizenship . 62 Dimitrije Sergejevski , "Japodsk e urne, " Glasník, N.S. , IV- V (1949/1950) , 45-94.

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Roman name s appea r a t first onl y casually , mixed i n wit h th e Illyria n names, bu t late r onl y Roman names ar e found . This give s a clu e a s to how fast Romanization spread i n the area . Mining continued during the Roma n period, an d exploratio n fo r ore was probabl y greate r tha n eve r before . I n th e valle y o f Japra , nea r Sanski Most , wer e iro n mine s an d tw o foundries . Coin s foun d ther e indicate tha t the y wer e i n operatio n i n th e secon d hal f o f th e thir d and i n th e fourt h centur y A.D . Lead an d silve r wer e mine d nea r Plumbum (Olovo ) an d Domavi a (Srebrenica ) respectively . Th e mining continued ther e int o the Middl e Ages, for olovo and srebro are in fac t Croatia n name s fo r lea d an d silver . Dalmati a wa s famou s fo r gold mining , and s o was the uppe r are a o f the Vrba s River. Ston e was quarried nea r Trogir , o n the islan d o f Brae, i n Fruska Gora , in Srijem , and near Vrapce, which is located near Zagreb . Coins wer e minte d i n tw o places ; on e min t wa s locate d i n Sisci a ( Sisak ), the othe r i n Sirmium . Besides their usefulnes s fo r dating , th e coin finds also show the intensit y and directio n o f trade. Fo r example , the coin s of the fifth and sixt h centuries ar e rarely found, thus indicat ing a lessenin g o f trade du e t o a perio d o f trouble . The religio n o f the Illyrian s i n prehistori c time s i s totally unknown , but i t mus t hav e bee n simila r t o tha t o f th e othe r Indo-Europea n peoples. Durin g the Roma n period, inscription s referring to thei r god s appeared. Unfortunately , the god s rarel y retaine d thei r nativ e names , but wer e mostl y translated t o fit the Roma n cosmogony. According to numerous finds , th e mos t popula r god , especiall y i n Pannonia , wa s Silvanus.63 H e was , i n a way , geneticall y relate d t o th e Gree k go d Panus, and wa s portrayed lik e him a s half ma n an d hal f goat . Silvanus is often depicte d i n the compan y of three nymphs, holding their hands . His ol d Illyria n nam e was , i t seems , Vidasus . Th e Illyria n goddes s Thana wa s transformed , probably, int o th e Roma n Diana , an d Venu s was known among the Illyrian s as Iria. Th e Japudes ' go d Bindu s was equated wit h th e Roma n Neptune . I n Istri a a go d b y th e nam e o f Boria wa s known . Apoll o wa s locall y know n a s Tadernus , an d i s considered b y som e scholar s t o hav e bee n originall y a Thracia n god . Medarus wa s th e wa r go d o f th e Illyrians . Late r hi s cul t sprea d an d has bee n foun d eve n i n Nort h Africa . A n unknow n Illyria n go d wa s known unde r th e Roma n name Terminus . A fe w inscription s t o hi m have bee n found , bu t n o pictures . Relief s foun d i n th e Japudes ' territory, especiall y nea r Bihac , which sho w a survival o f La Teñ e and 63 Irma Cremosnik , "Relje f Silvan a i nimf a i z Zalozj a (Bihaé), " Glasnik, N.S. , XI (1956) , 111-126.

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Celtic art , ma y represen t Celti c gods . Th e Roma n god s wer e wor shipped everywhere , primaril y b y Roma n soldier s an d officials . Th e most popular god was, it seems, Jupiter Capitolinus . Place name s like Crkvina, from crkva ( church ) show that a religious building i s buried . Thoug h som e ar e fro m th e Middl e Ages , th e majority, it seems, indicate Roma n places o f worship. I n late r centurie s oriental religion s cam e int o being . Th e tw o mos t importan t religion s were Mithrais m an d Christianity . Mithraism , originall y Persian , wa s a dualisti c religio n tha t worshippe d th e sun . Lik e Christianity , i t ap pealed t o the peopl e of the lowe r classes because o f the socia l equalit y which i t propagated. Othe r similaritie s t o Christianity lay in the form s of worship , suc h a s the blessin g o f the head , an d th e us e o f bread an d wine in communion. The Mithra temples ar e called spaelei, and inside , opposite th e entrance , ther e wa s usuall y a relie f showin g Mithr a a s a young ma n i n Persia n dres s killin g th e sacre d bull . Suc h religiou s centers hav e bee n foun d i n mor e tha n tw o doze n places. 84 Th e mos t important wa s a t Konjic , wher e a relie f depictin g th e secre t divin e service was found. EARLY CHRISTIANIT Y

Christianity, eve n afte r i t ha d bee n proclaime d th e officia l religio n o f the Empire , di d no t completel y chang e th e Roma n civilization. 85 Nevertheless, man y ne w trait s appeared , especiall y i n architecture . Christianity wa s introduce d ver y early ; missionarie s ha d alread y appeared by the first half o f the first century. The numbe r of Christian s must have become substantial , for th e first bishops wer e mentione d i n Sirmium towar d the end of the first century , and in Sisci a at the beginning o f the second . Th e greates t sprea d o f Christianit y occurred , however, durin g th e fourt h an d fift h centuries . Sinc e i n th e oldes t Christian cemeter y i n Salon a ove r hal f o f th e inscription s containe d Greek names, it can be assumed that, at least there, the Christian s were mainly Gree k speaking , eve n thoug h th e firs t missionarie s i n Salon a were from Syria. After Christianit y was proclaimed the state religion, pagan building s were partly , an d som e completely , destroyed , wherea s other s wer e merely take n ove r an d use d b y th e Christians . An interesting exampl e of thi s occurre d in the mountain s in th e vicinit y of Solin , wher e a cros s 64 Branimir Gabricevic , "Iconographi e d e Mitr a taurocton e dan s l a provinc e romaine d e Dalmatie," Archaeologia lugoslavica, I , 37-53 . 65 For earl y Christia n archaeolog y i n general , an d particularl y fo r Bosni a an d Hercegovina, se e fcir o Truhelka , Starokrscanska arheologija (Zagreb , 1931) .

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was place d abov e an d a t th e botto m o f a natura l grotto-lik e nich e which ha d serve d for pagan rites . Another instructive exampl e is fro m Salona itself , wher e a Roma n alta r wa s symbolicall y turne d upsid e down and made into a Christian font . A great numbe r of basilicas, o r early churches , hav e been excavated , some twenty i n Bosni a and Hercegovin a alone . Th e churche s diffe r i n many way s from th e basilica s o f other part s o f Europe, an d th e archi tecture show s classical , oriental , Gothic , an d eve n Syria n influences. The datin g o f basilica s i s no t a n eas y matter , sinc e fe w historica l documents ar e available . Knowledg e of the first invasion by th e Goth s and o f their destructio n of buildings an d churche s toward th e clos e of the fourth centur y sometimes helps t o determine if a basilica wa s built before o r after tha t event . Tw o of the oldes t churche s wer e discovere d in Hercegovina , an d excavate d b y Gir o Truhelka . On e i n Vidostak , near Stolac , was an extremel y small church, havin g dimension s of 7.8 0 by 3.80 meters . I t was rectangular i n shape wit h thic k wall s supporte d by pilasters o n the sout h side. The presbyterium , th e spac e befor e th e altar, wa s alread y separate d fro m th e nave . Sinc e thi s churc h wa s burned, an d sinc e th e coin s foun d ther e al l dat e fro m th e fourt h cen tury, i t i s postulate d tha t th e destructio n too k plac e durin g th e firs t invasion o f th e Goths . Borasi , i n th e valle y o f Trebizat , i s th e othe r church, whic h i s als o o f modes t dimensions . Th e aps e wa s semi circular o n the inside and squared wit h three walls on the outside . The entrance doo r wa s o n th e righ t side ; a n unusua l feature . Anothe r interesting exampl e o f earl y Christia n architectur e i s a basilic a o n Brijuni Islan d nea r Istria . I t ha s tw o row s o f seve n columns , divide d in three aisles. The aps e is missing, and th e sanctuar y i s inside. Simila r basilicas hav e bee n foun d nea r Klis , i n Dalmatia , an d i n a fe w othe r places in Istria. A genera l pauperizatio n followe d th e firs t invasio n b y th e Goths . Coins fro m thi s perio d hav e bee n discovere d onl y rarely . Mos t o f th e building materia l wa s take n fro m Roma n ruins , som e eve n fro m cemeteries. Large r churche s wer e no w built , an d fo r th e firs t tim e other building s were attache d t o the church , in on e of which live d th e priest. I n Skelani , i n th e valle y o f th e Drin a River , wa s a churc h which, althoug h o f modes t siz e fo r thi s period , ha d thre e building s connected t o it . Th e churc h i n Dabravin e nea r Vare s wa s almos t twice a s large a s th e earl y basilicas . Ornament s sho w classica l an d oriental influence . Th e ston e ornament s give th e impressio n o f havin g been copie d fro m woodwork . Her e wer e foun d representation s o f human being s whic h hav e no t bee n discovere d i n othe r churches .

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Buildings wer e attache d t o thi s churc h a s well . I t was , perhaps , a monastery, fo r i t wa s foun d i n a mountainou s area . I n a basilic a a t Breza nea r Visok o th e ornament s als o ha d th e characte r o f wood working. Otherwise, thi s basilica has very little similarity to the churc h in Dabravine , whic h i s nearby, althoug h bot h wer e probabl y buil t a t approximately the same time. Perhaps th e mos t important place in al l of Christianity fo r th e tim e following th e Roma n period, a t leas t archaeologicall y speaking , i s th e Field o f Solin. 66 Sinc e n o building s wer e erecte d followin g th e destruction o f Salona , archaeologists thu s hav e a uniqu e opportunit y to excavat e and stud y th e developmen t o f Christianit y i n grea t detai l from antiquit y t o th e comin g of th e Slavs . The souther n parts o f th e walls that separated the towns were destroyed, and the unifie d cit y was called Salona . It s religiou s cente r wa s th e episcopa l church , a three aisled basilic a popularly calle d th e Basilic a Urbana. Attached t o i t o n the souther n sid e wa s another three-aisle d churc h built i n the for m of a cross . Three door s led t o th e narthex , or lobby, which als o served as the cit y church . Bot h churche s wer e buil t i n th e firs t hal f o f th e fift h century an d wer e connecte d wit h on e another . Suc h doubl e churche s are also called twin churches, o r basilicae geminatae, one of them bein g always congregational , the othe r a memoria l church . Twi n churche s are know n fro m othe r region s too , as , fo r example , th e churc h o f St. Michael and th e churche s o f St. Mary and St . Thomas in Pula , th e Basilica Eufrasian a i n Porec, St . Donatus and St . Peter's i n Zadar, an d a churc h o n th e islan d o f Korcula . A n unusua l exampl e i s th e twi n church i n Bistu e Nova , o r Zenica , whic h als o consist s o f doubl e basilicas, bu t whos e tw o apse s ar e connecte d wit h a thir d apse— a completely ne w for m i n earl y Christia n architecture . Nort h o f th e cathedral i s the baptistry . The roun d baptistry, i t seems , was modele d after th e Mausoleu m of Diocletia n an d buil t i n th e secon d hal f o f th e fifth century . Th e column s wer e importe d fro m Byzantium . Simila r examples ar e known from Porec , Ravenna, and othe r cities . Thes e an d other feature s ar e collectivel y calle d Adrio-Byzantinis m b y Ejna r Dyggve. An unexpecte d fin d wa s mad e i n 193 1 whe n Dyggv e excavate d a basilica wit h a baptistry . I n hi s recentl y publishe d importan t inter pretation o f hi s findings , h e argue s tha t durin g th e earl y Christia n period onl y a bishop ha d th e righ t t o baptize, and , therefore , that th e newly discovere d basilic a wa s a n episcopa l cathedral , jus t a s wa s th e 68 Ejnar Dyggve , History of Salonitan Christianity (Oslo : Institutte t fo r sam menlignende Kulturforskning , Séri e A , XXI , 1951) .

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above mentioned Basilica Urbana. Since the churches were built abou t the sam e tim e an d wer e thu s contemporary , th e othe r dioces e mus t have bee n heretical, becaus e ther e coul d only be on e bishop in a city . The secon d basilic a was , accordin g t o it s style , buil t shortl y befor e 500 A.D. Thu s th e heretica l churc h must have been Arian , because th e Arian Goths occupied Salona from 481-535. Other churche s i n Salon a wer e a basilic a nea r th e harbor , th e Basilica Orientali s i n th e easter n city , an d th e Basilic a Occidentalis , which wa s nea r th e wester n gat e o f th e tow n an d th e amphitheater . This latte r churc h i s extremel y important becaus e i t ha d tw o smal l apses attache d o n the sid e o f th e main apse . Thi s featur e appears i n other part s o f Europ e i n th e eight h century , bu t thi s churc h i s tw o centuries earlie r tha n tha t period . Th e basilic a was , accordin g t o Dyggve, a precursor of the Romanesqu e church wit h a stron g projecting aps e an d tw o chapel s o n the side . The las t inscription i n Salon a is dated 61 2 A.D . Th e cit y wa s probabl y destroye d i n 61 4 by th e Avar s and th e Slavs , although th e ethnica l identit y o f th e invader s ha s no t yet been proven archaeologically. Early churche s were als o built i n th e for m o f a cross , consistin g of three semi-circula r apse s an d a rectangula r basis . Suc h churche s ar e called celia trichora. Besides the on e in Porec in Istria, the y are known in th e Orien t an d Nort h Africa , an d wer e buil t durin g th e earlies t Christian perio d a s well . Onl y two o f th e monasterie s hav e bee n dis covered, on e i n Rizinic e an d th e othe r i n Crkvine . Both monasteries were very small, and both were near Salona. Very littl e churc h furnitur e ha s survived . A n iconostasi s whic h separates th e nave from th e aps e has been discovere d in the churc h in Dabravine, nea r Vares . The alta r excavate d in th e aps e o f the churc h of Boras i wa s a simpl e ston e sla b 0.9 0 meter s lon g an d 0.6 0 meter s wide. Th e leg s o f th e alta r wer e als o discerne d i n a basilic a i n Varosluk, near Travnik. The capital s wer e in unusual forms: th e eagle , ox, and sheep . A plate discovered in Rusinac , near Split , shows a cross representing Chris t symbolicall y with tw o sheep . Anothe r relief fro m Zenica depict s a cros s an d Chris t watchin g a flock, guarding against snakes an d othe r animals . Othe r symbol s discovere d includ e plant s such a s th e acanthus , a s wel l a s win e grapes , an d palms , whic h ha d already bee n foun d o n Diocletian's Palace . Perhaps th e mos t common representation o f animal, fish, or fow l wa s tha t o f the peacock , usuall y located o n the tympanum , which i s the centra l an d uppe r par t o f th e iconostasis; other s show n wer e fis h an d pigeons . Geometri c decora tion consiste d o f rosettes , meanders , circles , semicircles , triangles ,

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rhomboids, monograms , and polygons , already known from prehistori c times. Crosse s and monograms showed grea t variation. A runi c alphabe t fro m th e sixt h centur y ha s bee n discovere d in scribed o n a colum n foun d nea r th e churc h o f Breza. 87 Th e alphabe t belongs, accordin g t o Sergejevski, 68 t o th e Germani c trib e o f Alans and no t t o th e Goths , as i s usually assumed. Gothic fibulae , however , have bee n discovere d nea r Travni k an d Mostar . Accordin g t o th e linguist Henrik Baric,68 the Goth s left thei r nam e in Gacko in Hercegovina, the Gacka River near Otocac , and the two villages named Gacani near Banjaluka . Th e nam e Brgud , whic h i s encountere d i n thre e places—near Skradin, near Rijeka , an d o n the Kr k Island—is perhaps of Germanic origin, although this i s denied b y th e linguis t Petar Skok . I t is not impossibl e that som e o f th e Goth s staye d i n Croatia , sinc e th e chronicles of the later Middle Ages confuse the Croat s with the Goths . While the majorit y o f historians believe tha t th e Roma n towns wer e destroyed by th e invadin g Slavs and tha t thei r inhabitant s escape d t o the coast, there are some indications tha t Roman civilization continue d inland fo r a certai n time. 70 However , i t doe s not see m likel y tha t th e Illyrian languag e survive d th e Roma n civilization . I t probabl y dis appeared befor e the Slav s invaded the country . THE EABLY SLAVIC PERIOD 71

This period include s th e culture s o f th e Slav s an d othe r people s which existe d afte r th e firs t invasio n of the Slav s in th e secon d half of the sixth century. Avaro-Kutrigur Culture 72 existe d i n th e sevent h century , an d it s center was located o n the Pannonian Plains. This cultur e i n many ways perpetuated Byzantin e an d Gothi c art . Th e mos t importan t sit e i n Croatia i s Cadjavica , wher e earring s an d decorativ e object s o f silve r and bronz e hav e been found . Anothe r site i s near Knin , wher e decor ated bronze objects have been foun d i n graves . Stipe Gunjaca believe s 67

Gregor Cremosni k an d Dimitrij e Sergejevski , "Gotische s un d Romische s au s Breza be i Sarajevo, " Vorlaufiger Bericht , Novitates Musei Sarajevoensis (Sarajevo , 1930). 68 Dimitrije Sergejevski , "Doh a rimsk e vladavine, " Kulturna istorija Bosne i Hercegovine, ed . Aloj z Bena c et al. (Sarajevo , 1955) , 106 . 69 Henrik Baric , Lingvisticke studlje (Sarajevo , 1954) , 76-77 . 70 Sergejevski, "Dob a rimske," 109-111. 71 For th e problem s o f earl y Slav s i n general , se e Josi p Korosec , Uvod v materijalno kulturo Slovanov zgodnjega veka ( Ljubljana, 195 2 ). 72 For th e Avaro-Kotrigu r an d Kesztehel y cultures an d th e culture s o f th e earl y Slavs, se e Ljubo Karaman , Iz hrvatske proslosti (Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska, 1930). For illustrations , se e Ljub o Karaman , Ziva starina (Zagrab , 1942).

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that a n importan t cente r fo r th e manufactur e of jewelr y existed nea r Knin. Thes e grave s probabl y belonged t o th e Avars , who , togethe r with th e Slavs , ar e believe d t o hav e bee n th e destroyer s o f Roman Dalmatia. The Avars are called Obr i in the Slavi c languages, and many place name s like Obrova c ma y sho w thei r forme r presence . The Avaro-Kutrigu r Cultur e develope d int o th e Kesztehel y Cultur e after th e Kutrigur s lef t Pannonia , an d laste d fro m th e en d o f th e seventh t o th e beginnin g o f th e nint h century . Th e cente r o f th e Kesztehely Cultur e was in western an d middl e Hungary . A great dea l of meta l has bee n found which had bee n worke d in for m o f geometri c decorations, ofte n representin g fighting animals . Such objects have also been foun d i n Velik a Gorica , Nov i Banovci , nea r Star a Pazov a i n Srijem, an d a t Biskupij a an d Smrdelj e nea r Skradi n i n Dalmatia . I n Velika Goric a a grea t numbe r o f knives , axes , cla y pottery , woode n dishes, an d bronz e buckle s hav e als o bee n found ; th e potter y wa s Slavic. Som e scholars believe tha t thi s cultur e belonge d t o th e Hun s and Avars ; other s attribut e it , probabl y correctly , t o th e Avar s an d Slavs. I t i s difficul t t o determin e whic h necropoli s wa s Avari e an d which Slavic . Velik a Gorica may hav e bee n Slavic . Krug near Zagreb , on th e othe r hand , i s believe d t o hav e bee n A \ ric , fo r her e th e skeleton o f a hors e wit h trapping s wa s foun d bu r d wit h a warrior . Very littl e i s know n abou t th e cultur e o f th e aarl y Slavs , sinc e archaeologists hav e bee n mor e intereste d i n th e R^man , earl y Chris tian, an d Croatia n periods , an d hav e neglecte d th e earl y Slavi c remains. Furthermore , Slavi c site s ar e no t easil y detected , becaus e most of them are still inhabited. Thu s we have learned abou t the earl y Slavs mostly from studyin g the content s o f their graves . Their cultura l remains d o no t exhibi t an y grea t wealth , perhap s becaus e almos t everything the y ha d wa s made o f wood and no t muc h was preserved . At firs t th e Slavi c cultures i n th e regio n unde r discussio n wer e prac tically identica l t o th e othe r Slavi c cultures , bu t graduall y the y changed, primarily due to outside influences. Wood wa s widel y use d b y th e Slav s for houses , furniture, fortifica tions, tools , an d containers. 73 O f meta l were , fo r example , th e twoedged dagger s of Viking type, which were also used i n western Europ e during Carolingian times. Such daggers hav e been foun d i n Biskupija, Koljane nea r Vrlik a i n Dalmatia , an d i n Mogorjelo . Potter y whic h i s without a doub t Slavi c has been foun d i n many places. 74 Th e pot s ar e 73

Josip Korosec, "Sloven i i drven a kultura, " Glasnik, N.S. , VI (1951) , 65-80 . Irma Cremosnik , "Nala z slovensk e keramik e u Rac i 194 7 god. i pregled nalaz a slovenske keramik e u Bosn i d o dañas, " Glasnik, N.S. , IV-V (1950) , 383-390 . 74

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large, withou t handles , mad e o f cla y an d tempere d wit h sand ; the y were wheel made. Decoratio n consisted o f wavy and paralle l lines , an d the pot s seeme d t o be imitations of the provincial Roma n pottery. Th e earlier Slavi c pottery might hav e bee n simila r to th e Roman , and thi s may accoun t fo r th e read y acceptanc e o f Roma n design b y th e Slavs . Some earl y hand-mad e pot s o f th e so-calle d Pragu e typ e hav e bee n recently describe d b y Z . Vinski.75 Vinsk i has attribute d thi s pottery t o the Slavs . Karaman, 76 o n th e othe r hand , ha s pointe d ou t tha t such pottery has been found i n Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovaki a as well, and that thi s territor y di d no t compris e the origina l Slavi c homeland. Th e pottery shows La Teñe influence, an d it is known that afte r th e collaps e of th e Roma n Empire nativ e styles flourishe d anew. Although th e Slav s evidentl y cremate d thei r dead , almos t al l th e burials o f the Kesztehel y Cultur e wer e inhumations . One perso n onl y was placed i n each grave . Rarel y were ma n an d woma n or parent an d child burie d together , an d al l were lai d i n rows. Skeletons were foun d in an extended position, usually with a n east-west orientation; the hea d was place d t o th e wes t an d th e arm s wer e generall y paralle l t o th e body. At first they were simpl y laid i n the earth , late r a wooden board was place d unde r them , an d stil l late r th e bodie s wer e place d i n wooden coffins . Pot s o f foo d an d weapon s wer e place d i n th e graves , and coin s were put i n the mouth s of the deceased . Th e coin s probabl y were intende d t o serv e a s paymen t fo r th e transportatio n o f th e deceased int o the othe r world , an d th e weapon s for hi s futur e use, o r perhaps s o that he coul d fight his way into paradise. I n si x such graves near Biskupija , daggers , knives , spur s o f th e Carolingia n type , flint , bronze fryin g pans , woode n pots , an d gol d coin s o f th e Byzantin e Emperor Constantin e V (741-775) wer e discovered . The coins indicat e that th e grave s dat e fro m th e en d o f the eight h century . The most significant find, however, wa s made in a woman's grav e i n Trilj, near Sinj . I n a simple earthen grav e in a village cemeter y a gol d treasure wa s found , consistin g of a necklace, three pair s o f earrings of the sam e type, bu t o f different size , a ring, two buttons , an d a Byzantine coi n o f Constantin e V . Th e differen t size s o f earring s signif y th e three age s o f a woman . Th e button s ar e remarkabl y simila r t o th e buttons use d eve n toda y i n Dalmatia . Th e jewelr y ma y indicat e tha t Byzantium was taking renewed interes t in Dalmati a durin g th e secon d half of the eight h century . The fac t tha t the jewelr y was mad e in 75 Zdenko Vinski , "Gibt e s frühslavische Kerami k aus de r Zei t de r siidslawische n Landnahme?," Archaeologia lugoslavica, I , 71-96 . 76 Ljubo Karaman , "Glossen z u einige n Frage n de r slawische n Archaologie , ibid., 11(1956), 100-109 .

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Byzantium also shows that the trad e connections with Byzantiu m were strong. There are, however, a few places wher e crematio n is known. One is Smrdelje, nea r Skradin , where gold-plate d bronz e object s hav e bee n found. Th e objects , probably obtaine d throug h trade , belonge d t o th e Kesztehely Culture , bu t th e decease d ar e believed t o have been Slavs . Another sit e i s Gorica, nea r Knin . Recentl y a ne w crematio n sit e ha s been discovere d b y Pava o Andjelic 77 unde r a tumulu s nea r Konji c i n Hercegovina. I t i s 4 meter s long b y 1.8 0 meters wid e an d i s oriente d in a northeast-southwes t direction . Th e uppe r par t o f th e tumulu s is made o f stone. Inside it, ashes , ceramics, egg shells , an d anima l bones have bee n found . Perhap s th e anima l bones cam e into the grav e fro m the feas t whic h th e Slav s held afte r th e funeral . Although tumul i ar e known fro m othe r Slavi c countries , thi s wa s th e firs t discover y o f a tumulus in thi s region . The grav e was fro m the eight h century , so perhaps crematio n continued longe r in the mountainou s areas. There are many place names connected with th e ol d Slavi c religion. Some examples are Svetigor a or "Hol y Mountain, " Bogovica from bog or "god " in th e Slavi c language , an d Trebist e fro m trebe meanin g "sacrifice," a wor d whic h doe s no t exis t an y longe r i n th e moder n Croatian language . Kapiite signifie s a paga n templ e o r altar . Th e general names of the Slavi c gods are preserved in th e name s of mountains or of their peaks, as in Djeva an d Djevor . The name s Triglav an d Trojanci, "th e three-headed one, " are reminder s o f th e fac t tha t th e Slavic gods had more than one head. The individual names of the gods, such a s Svantovid , have bee n preserved , probabl y i n Vidovic a o r Vidova Gor a o n Bra e Islan d an d othe r places . Mos t significant , however, ar e th e plac e name s of Perun, 78 th e hea d o f the Slavi c pantheon and originall y th e deit y o f al l Indo-Europeans : nea r Pazin , i n Istria , are Peruncovac , an d th e localitie s Trebisca an d Petrebisca . I n Poljice, near Split , ther e i s a hil l calle d Peru n a t th e bas e o f whic h flow s a brook calle d Zrnovnica , a nam e als o connecte d wit h sacrifices . Other names are scattere d i n Lika an d i n Bosnia . One plac e name d Peru n i s above th e villag e o f Slavin . Th e nam e Slavi n ma y o r ma y no t signif y that the Slav s move d int o a regio n wher e the old Roma n population still remained , sinc e i t i s unlikel y tha t th e Slav s woul d giv e suc h a name to a place inhabited by themselves. 7

Tavao Andjelic , "Dv a srednjevjekovn a nalaz a iz Sultic a ko d Konjica, " Glasnik, N.S., XIV (1959), 203-215. 78 Miljenko Filipovic , "Tragov i Perunov a kult a ko d juzni h Slavena, " Glasnik, N.S., III (1948) , 63-80.

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The old Roman civilization lingered o n during the early Slavic period in a few Latin-speaking cities of the coast . The most important archaeological objec t o f this perio d i s th e sarcophagu s o f John o f Ravenn a i n the baptistr y i n Split . Joh n wa s th e firs t archbisho p o f Spli t following the destructio n o f Salona . It wa s he wh o transforme d th e Mausoleum of Diocletia n int o the churc h o f St. Domnius, and Jupiter' s templ e int o the baptistry . Th e datin g o f the sarcophagu s is very controversial; th e majority o f archaeologist s plac e i t i n th e secon d hal f o f th e eight h century becaus e o f it s decorativ e style . A fe w writer s woul d dat e i t earlier, mainl y for historical reasons. Very similar in for m an d decora tion is the sarcophagu s of Prior Peter i n the cathedra l in Split , which i s usually dated somewha t late r tha n th e aforementione d one. According to a medieval chronicle, Archbisho p John brought the relics of St. Domnius fro m Salon a t o th e Spli t cathedral . Th e ora l traditio n o f th e archdiocese o f Spli t supporte d thi s view . Th e majorit y o f archaeolo gists, however, accepted the thesi s of Frane Bulic that th e relic s of the Saint ar e i n th e Latera n churc h i n Rome . Th e occasionall y bitte r controversy ended onl y recently, when Cvit o Fiskovic excavated in th e apse o f the Spli t cathedra l an d foun d a smal l bo x containin g bones. 79 The inscription say s that th e bone s wer e of St. Domnius and tha t the y were brough t t o Spli t b y Archbisho p John . In the Croatia n territory i n Sucurac, near Split , a tympanum in semicircular for m ha s bee n found . Thi s discover y show s tha t Christianit y was introduce d amon g the Croatian s earlie r tha n c . 80 0 A.D., th e dat e usually assumed. THE OLD CROATIAN CULTURE

After th e las t wav e o f Slav s an d Avar s ha d destroye d Roma n Salona, the Croatian s arrived abou t 626 A.D.SO Until Christianity was introduce d among them , thei r materia l cultur e wa s presumabl y simila r t o tha t of the othe r Slavs. A minority of historians believe tha t th e Croatian s were Christianized prio r t o th e nint h century , som e eve n placin g th e dat e in th e sevent h century . Wheneve r thi s ma y hav e happened , ar t his torians are of the opinion that the architecture w e are about to describ e is post 80 0 A.D. Thi s perio d i s called th e Ol d Croatia n Culture , an d i s defined t o includ e th e churche s an d residences , th e ric h an d ver y 79 Dominik Mandió , "Sv. Venancij ili sv . Dujam prv i biskup i osnovatel j solinskosplitske biskupije? " Hrvatska Revija, VII I (1958) , 250-252. 80 For th e cultura l remain s o f th e Croats , se e Ljub o Karaman , Iz hrvatske proslosti (Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska , 1930) . Fo r illustration s se e Ljub o Karaman , Ziva starina ( Zagreb, 194 2 ).

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characteristic decoration s whic h adorne d them , an d th e inscription s which place d th e whol e perio d i n historica l light . Les s often , othe r traits are considered. The culture is, on the whole , completel y differen t from th e previou s on e i n th e earlie r Slavi c period. I t i s the cultur e of the uppe r class , of the rulers , th e aristocracy , the church , an d th e cit y people. I t is therefore questionable whethe r one can cal l these remain s a culture. Perhaps the term Early Croatia n Art would be more suitable . The cultur e o f the lowe r classe s continued wit h littl e change , an d th e more distan t place s wer e fro m th e cultura l center s o n th e coas t th e stronger was the Slavic tradition. The churche s i n Croati a wer e small , buil t fro m ston e wit h a goo d deal o f mortar, and had divers e and unusual ground plans. Characteris tically, al l o f the m wer e vaulted . Th e vault s wer e i n th e shap e o f a cross, barrel , cupola , o r semi-cupola . Apse s were a t first semi-circular, and late r rectangular . Wit h buttresse s an d pilaste r strips , thes e churches stan d apar t i n European architecture. Th e remain s o f earlie r buildings wer e use d t o a very small degree. A unique exampl e i s th e monastery of Rizinice, near Solin, in the constructio n of which a Roman building an d a n Earl y Christia n chape l wer e used . Of th e grea t number o f churches that existed , onl y St. George's an d St. Nicholas ' i n Nin , St . Peter' s i n Prik o nea r Omis , St . Nicholas ' i n Selca o n th e islan d of Brae, an d St . Michael's i n Sto n remain standin g completely. St . George's i n Ravno , however , has bee n incorporate d i n a later church . The earliest churche s wer e thos e whos e apse s were no t yet separated , bu t wer e constructe d s o tha t th e wall s o f th e apse s formed par t o f the sid e walls of the church . Suc h are, fo r example , th e church in Rizinice near Split, which dates from th e middle of the ninth century, and St. Luke's at Uzdolje near Knin, which date s fro m th e en d of th e sam e century. These two churches eac h had on e aisle. St . Peter's in Zadar , o n the othe r hand , ha d thre e centra l column s with a n aisl e on eac h side . The essentiall y circula r plan , fro m whos e circumferenc e niches open , i s ver y common . St. Krsevan' s o n Kr k Islan d ha s three ; the Hol y Cross Church and St . Nicholas' in Nin have four niches . Some churches, suc h a s thos e o f th e Hol y Trinit y i n Poljud , nea r Split , St. Michael' s i n Pridraga , St . Ursula' s i n Zadar , St . Mary' s i n Trogi r have six, and a churc h i n Oslj e nea r Sto n even ha s eigh t niches . The churc h o f th e Hol y Cros s i n Ni n i s nine meter s lon g an d nin e meters wide an d is in the form o f a cross with a dome over the crossing. It wa s the Se e of a bishopric, an d wa s onc e describe d a s th e smalles t cathedral i n the world . It i s in many ways differen t fro m othe r circula r churches. Th e variou s niche s ar e no t arrange d i n a clover-shape d

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pattern, but rathe r are in a straigh t line , one afte r the other . Thi s characteristic i s als o foun d i n a churc h i n Bilice , nea r Sibenik , a t St. Vitus ' i n Zadar , at St . Michael's nea r Pula , an d i n othe r churche s in Istria as well. Another difference i s that the middl e aps e of the Hol y Cross Churc h i s square d fro m th e outside . Th e sam e thin g ha s bee n observed in the church of the Hol y Trinity near Split and in St. Ursula's in Zadar. The churc h o f St . Donatus , nea r Puna t o n th e islan d o f Krk , i s unusual. It i s built wit h the dr y ston e technique lik e a bunje structur e and ha s a diversit y o f vaults . Uncommo n als o i s th e cupol a i n th e church o f St. George i n Ravna , near Split , whic h i s elliptica l i n shape . St. Nicholas' , whic h i s i n a celia trichord form , i s usuall y regarde d a s the oldes t churc h wit h sid e niches, an d tha t o f the Hol y Cros s a s th e oldest of all churches. Ljubo Karaman, however, believes tha t both ar e relatively late, dating perhaps from th e eleventh century. Ejnar Dyggve estimated tha t th e circular churche s dated from th e tenth an d elevent h centuries. I f thi s reasonin g i s correct , the n th e oldes t churc h i s St. George' s i n Ravna , near Split , whic h date s fro m th e beginnin g of the ninth century. After th e arriva l of the Benedictin e orde r i n th e middl e o f the nint h century, th e styl e o f th e earl y churche s changed . Th e Benedictine s popularized th e three-aisle d for m o f church . Thei r perio d o f greates t building activit y wa s i n th e middl e o f th e elevent h century ; plac e names like Koludare and Koludrovica refer bac k to them . Three-aisle d churches wer e buil t eve n earlier , however . Th e oldes t i s tha t o f St. Mary in Bijaci, near Split , which date s from th e middl e o f the nint h century. On e o f th e tw o churche s i n Oto k nea r Solin , buil t i n th e middle o f th e tent h century , wa s als o three-aisled . Th e tombston e of Queen Hele n wa s discovered inside one of the churches . Since Thomas of Split , a medieva l chronicler , assert s tha t on e wa s th e mausoleu m church o f St . Stephe n wher e "man y king s an d queen s wer e buried, " and tha t on e was St. Mary's, the problem wa s to determine whic h wa s which. Th e excavato r Frane Bulic believed that th e large r churc h wa s St. Mary's and that th e Sepulchral churc h had no t yet been discovered . Later he hoped t o unearth it at Suplj a Crkv a ( Hollow Churc h ). However, the opinio n o f Karaman and Dyggv e tha t th e large r churc h wa s St. Stephen' s an d th e smalle r on e St . Mary's prevailed. However , i t i s strange tha t no t a single piece of tombstones othe r than tha t o f Queen Helen ha s been discovered . Dyggve believes tha t th e elevent h centur y church o f St. Peter i n Priko , which i s one-aisled , but divide d i n thre e parts, copie s th e mausoleum church. Simila r churche s ar e St . Michael's

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near Ston , St. Nicholas ' o n Brae , an d a grea t numbe r o f churche s i n Dubrovnik and on the nearby islands. When th e large basilica s wer e constructe d i n th e elevent h centur y for th e cathedral s and roya l monasteries, the custo m o f building smal l churches wa s discontinued. The architectur e o f these basilica s did no t imitate totally the styl e of basilicas o f the Roma n cities in Italy . Some forms an d motif s o f older churche s in Croati a wer e stil l copied. Thus , one may speak of the Dalmatian-Croatia n variant of early Romanesque architecture. A n exceptio n i s St . Peter' s o n th e islan d o f Rab , whic h corresponds t o othe r Benedictin e buildings i n southern Italy . Simples t in form is perhaps the Supetarsk a Draga church on the island of Rab , a basilica wit h thre e semi-circula r niches . Other s ar e th e churc h i n Biskupija, probabl y th e cathedra l o f th e Croatia n bishop , episcopus chroatensis, a nearb y churc h i n Stupov i which wa s somewha t larger , and th e bishop' s cathedral , St. Moses', in Biograd . Furthermore , ther e are a grea t numbe r o f monasterie s suc h a s St . Peter' s i n Poljice , St. Lucy' s i n Bask a o n th e islan d o f Krk , St . Domnius ' i n Trogir , St. Thomas ' i n Biograd , St . Andrew' s o n th e islan d o f Rab , an d St. Benedict's in Split. An interestin g proble m aros e concernin g th e identificatio n o f St. Peter's church , whic h wa s know n fro m document s a s th e churc h where kings had bee n crowned . Bulic, an d man y other archaeologist s after him , identifie d i t a s the rui n a t Gradina , near Solin , whic h wa s a centra l church . However , as it wa s mentioned a s a basilica, Dyggv e identified i t a s a nearb y three-aisle d basilic a popularl y calle d Suplj a Crkva ( Hollow Church ). The churc h was much larger tha n an y othe r in the vicinit y o f Solin, and therefor e best suite d fo r coronations. In Roma n towns o n th e coast , th e churc h tower s wer e buil t sepa rately fro m th e church , as , for example , in St . Mary' s in Ni n an d i n a church i n Privlak a i n Bok a Kotorska . Th e tower s o f th e Croatia n churches are, on the other hand, part of the church . These ar e massive, not divide d i n floors, and becom e narrower a t the top . On e such early tower i s stil l standin g i n th e corrido r o f th e wester n gat e o f Diocle tian's Palace. St. Stephen's churc h in Otok is unusual because o f its tw o towers. Thi s i s th e oldes t know n exampl e o f tw o tower s i n Europe . The origi n o f thes e churche s ha s provoke d man y discussions , an d there i s still no agreemen t amon g the specialists . Earlie r writers , suc h as R . Eitelberger , E . A . Freeman , T . G . Jackson , an d W . Gerber , believed tha t the y wer e a product o f Byzantin e influences. U . Villar d de Monneret was essentially of the sam e opinion, although he believe d that th e groun d plan an d th e decoration s wer e th e wor k o f travelin g

Holy Trinity Church , Split .

Upper: Tombston e o f Queen Helen , fro m th e tent h century . Lower: Th e oldes t inscription , abou t 110 0 A.D. , in Glagolithi c Script , foun d a t Baska, on th e Islan d of Krk.

Left: Croatia n King Zvonimir (?), fro m th e elevent h century . Right: A n early Croatia n tom b fro m Dalmatia .

Dwellings. Upper left: Sojenica o r sosnica in Gornj a Dolina , near Bosansk a Gradiska , Posavina . Upper right: Brvnara i n Bosnia-Hercegovina . Lower left: Brvnara i n Palanjek , nea r Sisak , Posavina. Lower right: Bunja o r cerner.

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Italian masters . C . M. Ivekovic a t first believed tha t th e Ol d Croatia n Culture copie d th e Roma n monuments , but h e late r emphasize d th e originality o f th e form s resultin g fro m th e geographica l positio n o f Dalmatia, wher e th e influence s o f Eas t an d Wes t met . Luk a Jeli c a t first supporte d th e Byzantin e theory , bu t late r believe d tha t th e churches wer e th e produc t o f a specia l Croatian-Irania n architectura l school brough t fro m th e Nort h b y Croatian s who , accordin g t o him , were descendant s o f the Irania n Alans . This opinio n caugh t th e atten tion o f Jose f Strzygowski, 81 wh o argue d throughou t hi s lif e fo r th e influences fro m th e Eas t o n Europea n ar t i n th e Middl e Ages . Originally h e ha d believe d tha t orienta l influence s reached Croatia n architecture directly , bu t late r h e change d hi s theory . Nea r Easter n art, especiall y i n Ira n an d Armenia , h e asserted , wa s no t brough t directly t o the cultura l centers of Europe, but wa s first transplanted t o the German s and Slav s in northern Europe; sinc e their building s were made o f wood , however , the y di d no t survive . Later , Strzygowsk i maintained, th e Croatian s brough t thos e form s t o th e shore s o f th e Adriatic Sea . They continue d to build wit h woo d for a time, bu t sinc e stone was available, the y bega n t o build wit h it . As a result, th e earl y churches i n Croati a containe d feature s of th e ol d Slavi c architecture , especially th e churc h o f the Hol y Cros s in Nin. Karaman, the best expert on Croatian art o f the period, emphaticall y denies ever y aspect of this theory. According to him, all churches were made by local builders, although there might have been som e imitation of th e Roma n and Earl y Christia n buildings. Th e builder s migh t hav ¿ arrived independentl y a t th e ide a o f centra l churches . Th e churche s do no t imitat e the monumenta l buildings eithe r o f the Wes t o r o f th e East. Th e diversit y o f th e groun d plans , th e smallness , the primitiv e technique, an d th e irregularit y o f th e arche s sho w tha t th e loca l builders ha d t o solv e their ow n problems , an d eac h di d s o accordin g to hi s ow n modes t knowledge . Ther e wer e n o stron g influence s fro m the outside , a s in similar cases in Spain during the Visigot h period an d in Englan d befor e William th e Conqueror . Thi s architectur e wa s no t especially Croatia n i n a n ethni c sense, sinc e i t existe d i n th e citie s o n the coas t a s well, which a t thi s tim e wer e Roma n speaking . Dyggve, on the othe r hand , had a different view . He believe d i n th e continuation o f Earl y Christia n ar t i n Dalmatia , especiall y it s Syria n component, and believe d in the influence s o f the missionarie s on Earl y Croatian architecture . H e argue d that , sinc e th e missionarie s intro duced Christianity , the y must also have brought their building method s 81

Joseph Strzygowski, Die altslawische Kunst (Augsburg , 1929) .

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and styles . This is not s o conspicuous because th e missionarie s did no t come fro m othe r countries , bu t fro m th e nearb y Roma n cities o n th e coast. H e insist s on th e similarit y in groun d pla n betwee n th e earlie r churches an d th e mor e recent ones . Examples of Byzantin e influences on the other hand are, according to him, the two-storied barrel vaulte d fore-hall o f St. Stephen's in Oto k and th e churc h a t Gradina . The Croatia n ruler s ha d thei r earl y court s a t variou s places . Th e courts consisted , at first, only of larger estates where th e ruler s staye d for a certain tim e in orde r t o attend t o stat e o r jurisdictional business . Traces o f on e court , whic h consiste d o f si x buildings, hav e bee n dis covered in Bijaci near Split . Building s were generall y decorate d i n flat relief wit h crosses , lilies , stars , cords , palmates , arches , birds , an d animals. Th e mos t characteristi c decoration s wer e th e interwove n laces (Geflechtsornamentik, scultura a intreccio). Thes e decoration s are foun d alon g th e coas t fro m Istri a t o Kotor . Earl y form s ha d two , and late r one s three , laces ; i n th e earl y Romanesqu e period two , o r more tha n three , lace s were th e fashion . Th e interweavin g i s ofte n s o complicated tha t a whole net is formed. Th e arcades were decorate d i n this way , as were th e cibori a ove r th e mai n altars , th e surfac e o f th e iconostasis and fonts, sarcophagi , the doors , and the windows . On some parts o f thi s decorativ e sculptur e trace s o f blue , red , an d gol d pain t have been discovered . The oldes t decoration i s perhaps th e on e on th e outer surfac e o f the fon t o f the churc h o f th e Hol y Cros s in Nin . Th e plastic motif s o f astraga l wer e stil l continued . Insid e th e thre e inter weaving laces which for m a cros s were th e classica l "eyes. " With th e adven t o f th e earl y Romanesqu e styl e i n th e elevent h century, thi s for m o f decoratio n bega n t o disappear . I t seem s tha t i t lasted longe r in Dubrovnik and souther n Dalmatia . Mos t twelfth cen tury churches , such a s St . Nicholas' in th e Spli t subur b o f Veli Varos, do no t hav e it . I t survived , however, i n th e villages , as , fo r example , in the churc h of St. Martha in Bijaci which was rebuilt b y th e peasant s toward th e clos e of the twelft h century. Furthermore , i t wa s foun d in the churche s o f Gradin a i n Solin , an d Volaric a i n Lika . Th e las t appearance o f thi s typ e o f decoratio n wa s probabl y i n th e thirteent h century on the wooden benches of the Spli t cathedral . Little is known about the churc h furniture of the period . Onl y a few of th e ston e object s have remained , suc h as , fo r example , th e icono stasis an d tympanum , which ofte n hav e inscriptions with th e nam e of the ruler . Th e tympanum , which wa s earlie r constructe d i n th e for m of a semiarch , wa s i n thi s tim e buil t i n a triangula r form . Suc h a n iconostasis stil l exist s intact i n th e chape l o f St . Martin , buil t aroun d

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800 in th e corrido r o f th e Port a Áure a (th e golde n o r norther n gat e to Diocletian's Palac e ). A ciborium with four arcades was reconstructed from piece s foun d i n th e churc h o f St . Marth a in Bijaci . Pillar s wer e either mad e fro m stone s take n fro m ruin s o r els e the y wer e rusti c imitations of classical columns. According to Truhelka, the mor e recent pillars clearl y sho w degeneratio n i n comparison with th e Roma n an d Early Christian ones. There i s n o agreemen t a s t o th e origi n o f thi s mod e o f decoration . There ar e proponent s o f th e theor y o f Langobar d an d Byzantin e origin, and thos e who believe that it originate d i n th e classica l style of the decoration . Fran e Radi e trace d thi s decoratio n t o Byzantin e art , but though t tha t i t existed earlier in Croatia than i n Italy . Strzygowsk i believed tha t the Croatians, like the Langobards, brought their styl e of decoration wit h the m fro m norther n t o souther n Europe . A n exampl e of thi s ar t i n northern Europ e wa s th e "animal " styl e in whic h anima l heads wer e interwove n i n th e laces . Truhelk a disagree d wit h thi s theory an d argue d tha t th e anima l style was in reality nothin g but th e continuation o f La Teñe ar t an d tha t i t occurre d to o early to influence the Croatia n decoration . H e believe d tha t th e decoratio n wa s autoch thonous i n Croati a an d alread y presen t i n Earl y Christia n art . Th e Croatians, however , develope d it , an d i t sprea d fro m Dalmati a t o northern Italy . Karaman , o n th e othe r hand , denie s tha t i t originate d from th e Langobar d art . H e point s ou t tha t thi s kin d o f decoratio n i s known apart from Italy , in France an d in the regions o f the Alps where the Langobard s did not live. The Langobardic art wa s also different i n technique, an d came too early in history to be an influence. H e believe s that i t originate d i n norther n Ital y an d sprea d t o Croati a towar d th e end o f th e eight h century . In bot h region s on e ca n fin d identitie s o f style an d technique . Dyggv e agreed wit h thi s theory . After 100 0 A.D . human figure s appear again . One o f the oldes t i s th e representation o f St . Mar y o n th e tympanu m i n th e churc h o f St. Martha i n Biskupija , no t ye t a relief , bu t rathe r a n incise d figure . Biblical figure s were beautifull y incise d o n plaques fro m th e elevent h century in the churc h o f St. Donatus in Zadar. Here w e se e the Fligh t into Egypt , th e Massacr e o f th e Innocents , th e Nativity, an d th e Adoration o f the Kings . In thi s last, the king s were not ye t show n wit h crowns, but still as the thre e wise men. From th e ruin s of St. Stephen' s "de pinis" near Split , a tympanu m showing Christ an d tw o angel s ha s been unearthed . A mor e develope d sculpture d scen e i s preserve d i n the baptistr y o f the Spli t cathedral , wher e a marble plate shows three bearded men . One, with a crown on his head, i s seated i n a chai r an d

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holds a cross in his right hand an d a scepter i n his left. Anothe r figure stands t o th e righ t o f th e crowne d man , an d a thir d lie s prostrat e before him. The controvers y as to whether th e sitting person represent s Christ o r a Croatian kin g was settled b y Karaman, wh o proved tha t i t pictured a Croatian kin g from th e secon d half o f the elevent h century , either Peta r Kresimi r o r Zvonimir . Dyggve believe s tha t Zvonimi r is depicted, an d tha t th e relie f wa s originall y in Suplj a Crkv a (Hollo w Church), nea r Split , which h e had identifie d as the crow n church . Th e clothes wor n b y th e monarc h ar e o f Prankis h fashion , wherea s th e prostration show s Byzantin e influence. Mos t interestin g i s th e crown , which ha s pearls extendin g over the ear s and thre e crosse s on the top . Late i n styl e i s a ston e relie f fro m th e islan d o f Kolocep , nea r Dubrovnik. Th e ornament s alread y sho w influence s o f th e incomin g Romanesque style . Th e relie f show s a boy blowing a horn, a dog , an d a winged horse . During th e Earl y Croatia n perio d churche s wer e painte d o n th e inside. A recentl y discovere d documen t state s tha t th e churc h o f St. George nea r Spli t containe d picture s o f five kings. Only on e fresc o from thi s time , has , however , bee n preserved . I t i s i n th e churc h o f St. Michae l i n Ston , an d show s a bearde d figure , th e king-founder , holding a model of the same church in his hands and wearing th e same type o f crow n a s Kin g Zvonimi r i n th e Spli t baptistry . Karama n believes hi m t o b e Michae l o f Dioclea , whic h i s th e presen t Montenegro. The onl y buildin g no t belongin g t o th e earl y Croatia n churche s i s the monumenta l church o f St . Donatu s i n Zadar , whic h stand s apar t from othe r churche s b y virtu e o f its siz e an d style . I t i s believe d tha t it wa s built afte r 805 , whe n Bisho p Donatu s visite d wester n Europe . It i s a centra l church , simila r t o th e Carolingia n roun d buildings, o r rotundas, in Aachen and Fulda in Germany. Local masters are assumed to hav e buil t it . Th e oldes t inscriptio n i s on th e fon t i n th e churc h o f the Hol y Cros s i n Nin. 82 I t give s th e nam e o f Duk e Viseslav , wh o i s 82 The inscriptio n i n Lati n i s a s follows : "He c fon s nemp e sunli t infirmes , u t reddat illuminates . Hi c expiant sceler a sua , quod d e prim o sumpserun t parente , u t efficiantur Xristicol e salubriter confitendo trinu m perhenne. Ho c Johanne s presbite r sub tempor e Vuissasclav o duci opu s ben e composui t devote , i n honor e videlice t sancti lohanni s Baptiste , u t intercédâ t pr o e o clientuloqu e suo. " Recentl y Mirk o Seper argue d tha t th e font , becaus e o f it s styl e an d inscription , wa s mad e i n th e eleventh century , but thi s positio n i s rejected by Karaman . Sinc e Duk e Viseslav is not know n fro m historica l documents , the proble m canno t b e considere d settled . See Mirk o Seper , "De r Taufstei n de s kroatische n Fürste n Visesla v au s de m friihen Mittelalter, " Nachrichten des Deutschen Instituts fur merowingischkarolingische Kunstforschung, No . 14-1 6 (1957-58) , 1-21 ; Ljub o Karaman , "O vremen u krstionice kneza Viseslava, " Peristil, II I (1960) , 107-109 .

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not know n from an y historical documents . Above the doo r o f the sam e church i s anothe r inscription , a n extremel y puzzlin g one, 83 whic h i s thought t o mea n tha t a Godeca v zupan (triba l chieftain ) constructe d the church . Th e firs t inscriptio n i s believe d t o dat e fro m abou t 800 A.D., when Christianity was presumably introduced, and th e secon d from th e elevent h century . Rizinice, give n t o th e Benedictine s b y Duk e Trpimir , whos e nam e was preserve d o n a fragment , "pr o Duc e Trepimero, " date s fro m th e middle o f th e nint h century . Th e nam e o f Duk e Branimi r ha s bee n found i n a t leas t thre e inscriptions . On e fro m Sopot , nea r Benkovac , contains th e oldes t mentio n o f th e nam e Hrvat: "du x Crvatorum. " Another wa s fro m Nin , an d a third , foun d i n th e ruin s o f a circular, four-apsed churc h i n Mu c nea r Split , bear s th e dat e 888 . Ther e wa s possibly a fourth, but onl y a part of the name, "animer," was preserved. In th e churc h o f St . Luke , a t Uzdolje , nea r Knin , a n inscriptio n ha s been discovere d bearin g th e nam e o f Duk e Muncimi r an d th e dat e 895. There ar e a t Knin two stone plates wit h inscriptions, one of whic h mentions th e Grea t Duk e Drzislav . Th e title , Grea t Duke , otherwis e unknown, i s highl y intriguing , fo r Drzisla v i s know n fro m historica l documents as a king. The most important archaeological discover y in Croatian histor y was made by Bulic , who in 189 8 excavate d the tombston e o f Queen Helen . The inscription states that th e Queen' s husban d was King Michael and her so n Kin g Stephen . Th e historia n Ferd o Sisi c identifie d th e king s Kresimir an d Drzisla v fro m thes e Christia n names . Thi s discover y settled th e controvers y a s t o whethe r th e Croatia n ruler s wer e king s in this time. The Englis h translation o f the inscriptio n reads a s follows: In thi s grav e rest s Helen , servan t o f God , th e famou s wif e o f Michae l th e King and mothe r o f Stephen th e King , who fo r a tim e held th e rein s o f stat e herself. Sh e renounce d roya l splendo r o n th e eight h da y afte r th e Ide s o f October. Sh e was laid her e i n the nine-hundre d an d seventy-sixt h yea r afte r the Incarnation , i n th e fourt h indiction , i n th e fift h luna r cycle , i n th e seventeenth "epacta, " i n th e fift h sola r cycle , a t th e sixt h day . Thi s i s she , who during her lif e wa s mother o f the realm , whereupon sh e became mothe r of th e poo r an d patrones s o f widows . Thus , o h y e brother , a s y e d o loo k here, pray , saying: Oh , Lord , b e mercifu l to her soul. 84

In th e archaeologica l museu m i n Spli t a colum n i s preserve d wit h an inscription which wa s correctly interpreted onl y a few years ago by the historian Mih o Barada.85 The inscriptio n record s th e victor y of th e 83

This inscription reads as follows: "Godesav o iuppano qui isto domo co[struxit]." The Englis h translatio n i s afte r Ferd o Sisic' s reading . Se e hi s Povijest, II I (I960), 107-109 . 85 Miho Barada, "Episcopus chroatensis," Croatia sacra, I (1931) , 161-215. 84

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archbishop o f Spli t ove r th e apostat e Sedeha . Sedeha , a self-style d bishop an d leade r o f th e religiou s opposition , lived , accordin g t o Thomas o f Split, a medieval writer, in th e secon d hal f o f the elevent h century, but th e decipherin g show s that he lived earlier . The medieval writer, i t seems , confuse d tw o period s o f religiou s struggles . Othe r inscriptions mention the names of zupans, abbots , and othe r persons of less importan t rank . Th e mos t significan t o f thes e inscription s wa s found i n the churc h o f St. Peter i n Poljice, o n the sarcophagu s o f Pete r Crni, know n fro m document s a s th e riches t businessma n o f hi s time . All o f these inscription s are i n Latin , bu t ther e ar e als o inscriptions i n the Croatia n language writte n i n Glagoliti c script . Th e oldes t inscrip tion o n ston e i s fro m Bask a o n th e islan d o f Kr k an d mention s Kin g Zvonimir, an d fo r th e firs t tim e i n th e Croatia n languag e th e nam e Hrvat appears . Th e documen t i s usuall y date d a s c . 110 0 A.D., but recently Josi p Hamm 86 argue d tha t th e beginnin g o f th e inscriptio n was mad e whe n Kin g Zvonimi r lived, an d h e date s i t a s 107 7 A.D . Glagolitic scrip t did not exis t only on the coast . Recently Marko Vego87 analyzed a Cyrillic inscription i n Hercegovina that also contained a few Glagolitic letters. Th e form s o f the Glagoliti c letters poin t t o th e tent h or eleventh century. This indicate s that i n Bosnia and Hercegovin a th e Glagolitic script existed earlier than the Cyrillic. It wa s formerly believed tha t th e Earl y Croatia n churche s and thei r characteristic decoratio n existe d onl y o n th e coast . However , th e first crkvina i n Bosni a excavated b y Irm a Cremosnik 88 in Rogaci , nea r Blazuj in the Sarajev o field, brought to light a circular churc h with six symmetrical niches, similar to the churc h of the Hol y Trinity in Poljud . The excavator estimates that it was built toward the en d of the twelfth, or a t th e beginnin g o f th e thirteenth , century . Another , a one-aisle d church wi h a semicircula r apse , wa s unearthed a t Lisicici 89 i n Herce govina, als o b y Cremosnik , an d show s a similarit y t o a churc h i n Biskupija. A thir d church , St . Peter' s i n Zavala , excavate d b y Mark o Vego,90 was one-aisled and believed t o be fro m th e twelft h century. I n the first and thir d churches , interweavin g lace s hav e bee n discovered ; 86

Josip Hamm , "Datiranj e glagoljski h spomenika, " Radovi, I (Zagreb : Staro slavenski Institut , 1952) , 5-72 . 87 Marko Vego , "Humack a ploca—najstarij i óirilsk i pisan i spomeni k u Bosn i i Hercegovini ( X il i XI stoljece) " Glasnik, N.S., X I (1956) , 41-61. 88 Irma Cremosnik , "Izvjesta j o iskopinam a u Rogacim a ko d Blazuja, " Glasnik, N.S., VIII (1953) , 303-315. 89 Irma Cremosnik , "Izvjesta j o iskopavanjim a na crkvin i ko d Konjica, " Glasnik, N.S., IX (1954), 211-226. 9 »Marko Vego , "Arheolosk o iskopavanj e u Zavali, " Glasnik, N.S. , XIV (1959) , 179-201.

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they hav e bee n foun d i n Livn o an d a t Glamo c i n Bosni a a s well . Farther north , the y wer e know n previousl y onl y i n Sisak . Afte r th e Second Worl d War , however, such decoration s wer e discovere d i n Marija Gorska , near Lobor , i n Hrvatsk o Zagorje. 91 Simila r decoration s in Rakova c and Banostor , i n Srijem, 92 accordin g t o Karaman , belong to Byzantine rather than to Croatian art. In th e villag e of Biskupija, a number of human figures made of stone have bee n discovered . On e o f the m i s o f a bearde d man 93 wit h a moustache, whos e clothe s ar e fastene d by a bel t fro m whic h hang s a Carolingian dagger . Roun d plates , probabl y o f bronze , wer e sew n along th e lowe r edge s o f thi s clothing , which , accordin g to Karaman, may have preserved th e for m o f the ancien t Slavi c clothing style . The placin g o f grave s i n row s continue d i n Dalmati a unti l abou t 1000 A.D. , but unde r the influenc e of Christianity the grave s were made of ston e and covere d b y a stone slab. Gradually , in th e nint h century , the custo m of placing pots with food, coins , and weapon s in the graves began t o disappear . I n Glavicine, 94 nea r Mravinc i aroun d Split , a necropolis fro m th e nint h an d tent h centurie s consistin g of 13 0 graves has been unearthed . The skeletons , extended as before, were placed in an east-wes t direction . A larg e numbe r o f object s wer e foun d wit h them, amon g them 7 8 earrings, 28 rings, 8 copper plate s an d shell s of a chicke n egg . The buria l o f the las t o f these object s wit h th e bodie s indicates that the old pagan customs had not yet died out completely in Dalmatia. I n a grav e nea r Mogorjel o i n Hercegovina , eve n a bear' s tooth ha s bee n found . Th e clothe s o f th e decease d wer e ofte n embroidered an d interwove n wit h gold . I n on e mal e grave , th e remains of a silk garment have been found . Als o discovered have been rare example s o f ston e sarcophag i i n whic h importan t peopl e wer e probably buried . I n on e such grav e th e skeleto n wa s surrounde d neither b y weapons nor pots of food, but rathe r by spurs, a cross, and a golden coi n o f th e Empero r Basiliu s (867-886). 85 Som e grave s con tained dagger s and spurs , and other s onl y bows, arrows , and axes . As these latte r tw o group s o f object s wer e alway s foun d separately , th e separation ma y indicate a special, o r at least military distinction. The Carolingian types of daggers98 continued t o be made during this period, but afte r th e year 1000 their uppe r parts wer e mad e longer. In the eleventh century, the daggers became more pointed. Such a dagger 91 Ljubo Karaman , "Umjetnos t srednje g vijek a u Hrvatsko j i Slavoniji, " HistorijskiZbornik,! (1948) , 110. ^Ibid., 117-119 . 93 9i Karaman, Ziva starina, 74. lbid., 110-116. 9B 96 Karaman, Iz Kolijevke, 215 . Karaman, Ziva starina, 124-126.

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depicted o n a ston e plat e foun d nea r Split , show s a warrio r wearin g a helmet, a dagger, a spear, and a shield. In the next century the handl e of th e dagge r becam e flat . Suc h types o f dagger s hav e bee n foun d i n Dalmatia, an d wer e als o reproduce d o n th e medieva l tombstone s i n Bosnia an d Hercegovina . Th e Slav s apparentl y di d no t hav e helmet s originally, bu t th e Croatian s adopte d the m i n th e eight h an d nint h centuries. Sinc e shield s hav e neve r bee n discovered , on e ma y assum e that the y wer e mad e o f woo d an d hide , an d were , therefore , no t preserved. Th e on e show n o n th e above-mentione d ston e plat e wa s small and round . Spurs, 97 whic h hav e bee n foun d in grea t number , were mad e ver y artisticall y i n th e for m o f an ar c wit h a short , shar p point. Usuall y the y wer e mad e o f bronz e an d silver , bu t som e wer e gold plated . Metal wa s als o use d fo r jewelry , especiall y fo r earrings . Som e 900 earrings have been discovered, most of them datin g from th e ninth an d tenth centuries . The y wer e mad e o f bronz e o r o f gold-plate d silver , and wer e eithe r smoot h or filigreed . Ornament s o f fro m on e t o thre e berries wer e ofte n attache d t o th e lowe r part . Usuall y th e earring s were discovere d i n th e grave s o f women, but som e male grave s con tained the m too . Th e custo m o f me n wearin g earring s di d no t dis appear, an d eve n toda y me n stil l wea r on e earrin g i n remot e village s in Dalmatia. Som e of the earring s were wor n i n th e ears , while other s hung over the temples from anothe r ring. This las t type was also found among the othe r Slavs , and thi s showed Byzantin e influence, althoug h they wer e mad e b y nativ e jeweler s wh o gav e the m thei r individua l characteristics. Afte r th e firs t millenniu m th e numbe r o f earring s placed i n grave s diminished . Ver y fe w fibula e hav e bee n discovered , and this ma y indicate tha t th e people use d belt s t o hold thei r clothin g in place . Th e clothes , eve n o f the commo n people, wer e perhap s als o of Prankis h origin. Farther north, i n Slavonia, especially along the Drav a River , a grea t number of cemeteries belonging to the Bijelo Brd o Culture98 have bee n discovered. Th e bes t know n localitie s ar e Bijel o Brd o itself , whic h i s near Osijek, fro m whic h the cultur e is named, Klostar near Djurdjevac, Veliki Bulova c nea r Ludbreg , an d Svinjarevc i nea r Vukovar . Thi s culture succeeded the Kesztehel y Culture, and i s dated by th e coin s of the Hungaria n kings a s having existed abou t 950-1150 . Its cente r wa s in th e Danubia n region s an d continue d th e earl y Slavi c tradition s t o which new traits were added. Th e earthe n grave s were placed i n rows oriented i n a n east-wes t direction . Besid e th e extende d skeletons , d., 126-128. 98/fcid. , 122-124 .

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which ha d gol d coin s i n thei r mouths , ther e wer e pot s wit h food , a custom tha t indicate s a cultura l la g o f a t leas t tw o hundre d year s between Dalmati a an d Slavonia . Other object s foun d i n th e grave s were necklace s o f interwove n bronz e wires, necklaces o f glass , brace lets, earrings , pendant s o n th e earrings , an d S-shape d earrings . Al though th e S-shape d typ e o f earring has bee n foun d amon g all Slavs, the cente r fro m whic h they sprea d wa s probably i n Hungary. Man y of these implement s wer e unknow n i n Dalmatia . Othe r meta l object s found were sickles, knives, scissors, and spoons. Slavic pottery , poorl y fire d an d decorate d wit h th e characteristi c weaving an d paralle l lines , ha s bee n foun d i n al l sites . Franj o Ivani cek," wh o recentl y conducte d a n excavatio n i n Bijel o Brdo , foun d two kinds of pottery above a Roman layer. The first is attributed to th e Langobards o f th e sevent h an d eight h centuries , an d th e secon d h e considered to be Slavic from th e tenth an d eleventh centuries. Vinski, 100 on th e othe r hand , believe s tha t bot h wer e Slavic , an d date s th e first type fro m th e eight h an d nint h centuries . Karaman 101 agree s wit h Vinski, an d state s tha t suc h potter y wa s made fro m th e eight h t o th e ninth centuries , an d tha t th e sam e typ e wa s als o foun d i n Prankis h pottery fro m Carolingia n to Ottonia n times . A new necropolis ha s been recently excavate d b y Vinski 102 i n Lijeva Bara, near Vukovar . Although som e 430 graves have been unearthed , it is estimated tha t thi s numbe r comprise s less than half th e total . Thi s indicates tha t a considerabl e populatio n live d i n larg e settlement s i n northern Croatia. A fortification i n Mrsunjski Lug , near Brod , was built in a n irregularl y circula r for m an d ha d a diamete r o f seventy-seve n meters. The constructio n was of pressed clay, and n o traces o f wood or stone wer e found . Vinski, 103 wh o conducted th e excavation , believe s that it was one of the fortification s buil t agains t the Hungarian s on th e Dilj Mountain. "Franjo Ivanicek , "Istrazivanj e nekropol e rano g srednje g vijek a u Bijelo m Brdu," Ljetopis, L V (Jugoslavensk a akademij a znanost i i umjetnosti , 1949) , 111 144. 100 Zdenko Vinski , " K izvjeíítaj u o iskapanj u nekropol e u Bijelo m Brdu, " Historijski Zbomik, IV (1951), 304-311. 101 Ljubo Karaman , " O potreb i povezivanj a arheologa , historicar a umjetnost i i historicara u proucavanj u ranosrednjovjekovn e Slavonije, " Historijski Zbornik, V (1952) , 62, n. 15. 102 Zdenko Vinski , "Prethodn i izvjesta j o iskapanj u nekropol e n a Lijevo j bar í u Vukovaru 1951. , 1952 . i 1953 . godine, " Ljetopis, L X (Jugoslavensk a akademij a znanosti i umjetnosti , 1955) , 231-255 . Se e als o Zdenk o Vinski , "Ausgrabunge n in Vukovar, " Ârchaeologia lugoslavica, II I (1959) , 99-109 . 103 Zdenko Vinsk i an d Ksenij a Vinsk i Gasparini , Gradiste u Mrsunjskom Lugu (Zagreb, 1950).

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In the late Middle Ages the Romanesque and Gothic styles sprea d t o Croatia. Architecture and ornament s do not show great differenc e fro m those in other countries . However , a t the sam e time , huge stone s were made int o tombstone s i n Bosni a an d Hercegovin a an d som e borde r areas o f the neighborin g countrie s in a way not know n anywher e else . MEDIEVAL TOMBSTONE S I N BOSNI A AN D HERCEGOVINA

Usually o n hill s overlookin g valley s a grea t numbe r o f necropolise s were built of large stones. They are locally called stecak, biljeg, mramor, or maéet. (Stecak come s fro m stati, "t o stand, " biljeg mean s "mark, " and maiet i s derive d fro m th e Italia n masseto, "bi g stone." ) Fol k tradition attribute s the m to the Greeks , Christians, Hungarians , giants , and the like. In orde r t o understan d th e man y an d complicate d problem s o f th e tombstones, w e shal l hav e t o sa y a fe w word s abou t Manichaeism. 104 Manichaeism wa s a n heretica l religiou s movemen t tha t combine d Christian concept s with the ol d Iranian dualism . Fro m th e Bogomil s in Bulgaria th e religio n sprea d throug h Albani a an d acros s th e Adriati c to Ital y an d France , wher e th e adherent s wer e calle d Patarene s an d Albigenses respectively . Domini k Mandi c believes tha t i t appeare d i n Dalmatia and Bosnia in the elevent h century . Soon the ruler, th e court , and th e majorit y o f th e aristocrac y an d o f th e peopl e accepte d thi s creed. Th e Manichaean s existe d i n Bosni a unti l th e comin g o f th e Turks in 1463. Thereafter they were gradually converted to the Moslem religion. A census taken in Bosnia and Hercegovin a i n 1887-1888 showed tha t the numbe r o f tombstone s wa s 26,067. 105 Anothe r censu s mad e som e ten year s late r reveale d 59,50 0 tombstones. 106 Mor e wer e discovere d later.107 The y hav e been foun d even i n countie s whic h wer e suppose d to hav e none . About 90 0 gravestones exis t a t th e sourc e o f th e Krk a River,108 and abou t 800 on the Peljesa c Peninsula and othe r localities i n 104 For th e bes t treatmen t o f th e Manichaea n problem s a s wel l a s th e lates t findings, se e Domini k Mandic , Bogomilska crkva bosanskih krstjana (Chicago : The Croatian Historical Institute, 1962). 105 Ciro Truhelka , "Sredovjecn i stecc i Bosn e i Hercegovine, " Poviest hrvatskih zemalja Bosne i Hercegovine, ed . Krunosla v Draganovi c (Sarajevo : Napredak , 1942), 633. 106 Aleksander V . Solovjev , "Bro j grobni h spomenik a u Bosn i i Hercegovini, " Glasnik, N.S., X ( 1955), 217-218. 107 Cvetko Popovic , "Manj i priloz i z a pitanj e bogumil a u Bosni, " Glasnik, N.S. , XII (1957) , 235-240. 108 R. S . Silovic , "Stecc i u okolic i Trogira, " Eulicev Zbornik (Split , 1924) , 689-693.

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Dalmatia. Furthermore , the y hav e bee n foun d i n Montenegro , i n western Serbia , a fe w i n centra l Serbia , an d som e allegedl y als o i n Albania. Recently some tombstones in Croatia have been recognize d as belonging t o the sam e category. These ar e in Lika, and thre e hundre d of the m have been found in a site in Slavonia. 110 Therefor e the origina l number o f tombstones in all the region s mus t hav e been abou t 75,000 . Although fro m th e sixteent h centur y o n a grea t dea l ha s bee n written abou t thes e tombstones , a systemati c surve y and descriptio n was starte d onl y some ten year s ago. Separate monograph s have bee n published abou t Radimlja , nea r Stola c i n easter n Hercegovina , an d Siroki Brijeg and Ljubusk i in western Hercegovina , Kupre s in wester n Bosnia, an d Olov o an d Ludmer , nea r Srebrenic a i n easter n Bosnia. 111 Some 1,50 0 tombstones hav e bee n described , an d thei r basi c form s defined. Mos t commo n ar e flat-lyin g slab s an d box-shape d block s o f stone. To differentiate between thes e tw o kind s of tombstones a n arbi trary siz e was taken; those stones under 4 0 centimeters i n height wer e considered flat-lyin g an d thos e abov e 4 0 centimeters box-shaped. Th e slabs make up a third, the box-shaped blocks a fifth, and sarcophag i on slabs mak e u p one-sevent h o f thei r tota l number . Othe r form s ar e plates o n slabs , box-shape d lock s o f ston e slabs , sarcophagi , an d obelisks. I n les s than a doze n instance s grav e stone s had th e for m o f a cross . Doubl e sarcophag i hav e bee n discovere d in a few places . Stele (a n upright place d stone) fro m ancien t buildings and amorphous stones wer e use d i n Ludme r only . Thi s latte r custo m i s know n fro m Bosanski Petrovac , i n wester n Bosnia , where amorphou s stones wer e used instea d o f tombstone s unti l quit e recently . I n Ludmer , three quarters o f the hew n stone s are o f a "standing " form , suc h a s stel e o r obelisks. I n Olov o onl y one ston e in 26 3 was thus . Th e larges t tomb 109

Luka Katie , "Stecci u Imotsko j Krajini, " Starohrvatska Prosvjeta, II I (1954) , 131-167. 110 Andjela Horvat , " O steccim a n a podrucj u Hrvatske, " Historijski Zbornik, IV (1951) , 157-165 . 111 The summar y wa s writte n usin g primarily the followin g monographs: Aloj z Benac, Radimlja (Srednjevjekovni spomenici Bosne i Hercegovine, I ) (Sarajevo , 1950); Aloj z Benac , Olovo (Srednjovjekovni nadgrobni spomenici, II ) (Beograd , 1951); Aloj z Benac , Siroki Brijeg (Srednjovjekovni spomenici Bosne i Hercegovine, III) (Sarajevo , 1952) ; Dimitrij e Sergejevski, Ludmer (Srednjovjekovni nadgrobni spomenici, IV ) (Sarajevo , 1952) ; Sefi k Beslagic , Kupres (Srednjovjekovni spomenici Bosne i Hercegovine) (Sarajevo , 1954) ; Mark o Vego , Ljubuski (Srednjovjekovni nadgrobni spomenici, VI ) (Sarajevo , 1954) . Th e tw o lates t works b y Beslagi c were publishe d to o lat e for consideratio n in thi s article . Thes e are Stecci na Blidinju (Zagreb : Jugoslavensk a akademij a znanost i i umjetnosti , 1959 ) an d "Boljuni . Sreknjovjekovn i nadgrobn i spomenici, " Starinar, XI I ( 1961 ), 175-205.

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stone i s th e on e nea r Sarajevo , whic h i s estimate d t o weig h abou t 70,000 pounds . O n th e whole , th e tombstone s i n Hercegovin a ar e larger, probabl y becaus e huge stone s were more easily available there . The origi n of the differen t form s i s still being discussed . On e school thinks tha t th e Slav s brought th e custo m o f building a woode n hous e over th e grav e fro m th e north , changin g i t late r fro m woo d t o stone . Some tombstones show clearly the for m o f a house, including th e roof . In fact , on e inscriptio n begins : "S e kuc a . . . " (Thi s hous e . . .) . Another schoo l see s clos e similaritie s wit h th e Roma n sarcophagi an d assumes that they were copie d from them . A third school finds similarities t o th e medieva l architecture in Dalmatia , especiall y i n Dubrovni k and i n Italy . Suc h similaritie s ar e seen , fo r example , i n arcade s an d colonnades, mainl y in Hercegovina . I t seem s that thes e thre e opinions are no t necessaril y contradictory , an d tha t the y ma y al l b e correct . Most o f th e tombstone s ar e withou t ornament . Accordin g t o Alek sandar Solovjev, 112 th e outstandin g historia n o f th e Bosnia n Manich aeans, in Radimlja County 48 per cen t of the gravestone s are decorated , in Sirok i Brijeg, 4 1 per cent , i n Olov o 2 3 per cent , i n Ludme r 1 6 per cent, i n Kupre s 11 % o Per cent , an d i n Travni k onl y 4 pe r cent . Th e ornaments consis t o f half-moons , stars , circles , rosettes , an d twiste d cords; feature s which hav e bee n know n sinc e Neolithi c an d Roma n times. Som e of them, lik e the rosette , ar e carve d i n woo d eve n today . There ar e als o spirals , flower s (fo r example , lilies) , plants , trees , swastikas, an d crosses . W e kno w littl e abou t th e meanin g o f thes e signs. I t i s thought , followin g Geor g Wilke, 113 tha t the y wer e al l death symbols. The moo n and star s are wel l know n signs of the night , and therefor e of death. Th e lil y is a symbol of the moon . The swastika is als o a deat h symbol . Th e circl e an d th e rosett e ar e though t t o represent th e sun , an d ar e symbol s o f hop e an d resurrection . Solov jev,114 o n th e othe r hand , think s tha t su n an d moo n ar e work s o f th e good god , and ar e the sk y ships that bring th e goo d soul s t o paradise . Towers ar e shown on a few stones. Many tombstones were decorate d with weapons , such a s a dagger o r a spear; som e are decorate d with a flag, a bow , a n arrow , o r a mace . I n Ludmer , dagger s ar e depicte d without a shield . Bow s and arrow s are characteristi c o f Hercegovina . Generally, a dagge r signifie s a fre e man , bu t i t ma y als o signif y a professional warrior . The grea t diversit y of weapons an d shields , an d 112 Aleksandar Solovjev , "Bogumilsk a umjetnost, " Enciklopedija Jugoslavije, I (Zagreb, 1955) , 644. 113 Georg Wilke , "Uebe r di e Bedeutun g einige r Symbol e a n de n Bogumilen denkmalern," Glasnik, XXXV I (1924) , 27-38 . 114 Solovjev, "Bogumilska, " 644 .

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their relationship s to each othe r ma y be du e to differen t militar y ranks. The heraldi c sign s diffe r eve n amon g Sirok i Brijeg , Ljubuski , an d Radimlja—all located in Hercegovina. On the stones in Hercegovina th e deceased i s ofte n depicte d standin g erec t wit h on e unnaturall y en larged ope n hand. Th e meanin g o f this i s unknown. Human figure s ar e depicte d engaged i n dancing , hunting , an d i n tournament. Th e danc e i s th e Sout h Slavi c kolo. I t i s a n ol d Slavi c custom to hold a feast a t which dance s are performed afte r th e burial . It i s believe d tha t th e danc e i n relie f o n th e tombstone s i s a funera l dance, fo r th e kolo wa s dance d i n revers e order . Suc h example s o f reversed dancin g whic h signifie d mournin g ca n b e foun d i n folklor e and poetry, 115 and this custom was also known in Croatia prope r i n th e nineteenth century . The figures show n in the danc e ar e men o r women only, but me n and women are als o shown together occasionally . There are a fe w huntin g scene s tha t depic t a bea r o r sta g hunt . Th e las t stone bearin g a n inscriptio n wa s unearthe d a t Visok o near Sarajev o a few year s ag o an d show s a hunting scene . A man wit h pointe d shoes , a moustache , an d a bear d i s depicte d holdin g a spea r wit h tw o lef t hands and hunting a bear with thre e dogs. In a fe w instance s othe r huma n figure s ar e show n standin g alone . Some knowledge o f the hierarchy o f the Manichaea n Church ma y help to understan d these . Th e bisho p o f the churc h wa s calle d djed, whic h in Croatian als o means "grandfather." The djed wa s als o known among the Bulgaria n Manichaeans ; he wa s assiste d b y a gost (guest ) an d a starac (ol d man) . Thi s las t titl e i s known amon g the Manichaean s in Italy a s ancianus. On two stones the inscription states that the decease d was a gost. On on e of them a figur e i s shown in a shor t dres s holdin g a boo k i n on e han d an d a can e i n th e other . Abou t a doze n stone s without inscription s sho w suc h a cane , whic h i s believe d t o signif y a hig h churc h official . Som e of thes e stone s ar e calle d locall y djedov stecak (grandfather' s tomb) . I t ha s bee n accepte d onl y recentl y tha t a bisho p ma y be burie d unde r such a stone. 118 From th e twelft h t o th e sixteent h centur y ther e wer e onl y a fe w churches an d a fe w crosse s i n Bosnia , fo r th e Manichaean s despise d them. However , archaeologist s hav e discovere d a fe w tombstone s i n the for m o f a cross. Some of them ma y possibl y be thos e of Christians , but other s belon g withou t doub t t o th e Manichaeans . I n th e latte r 115 Drago Vidovic , "Pretstav e kol a n a steccim a i njihov o znacenje, " Glasnik, N.S., IX (1954),275-278 . 116 Jovo Vukovi c an d Ant e Kucan , "Jeda n star i bosansk i nadgrobn i spomeni k i natpis," Glasnik, N.S., II (1947) , 51-68.

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instance, however, these are not real crosses , but rathe r stylized human figures,117 since th e Manichaean s showe d Chris t wit h horizonta l arm s and this , superficially, ma y look like a cross. In fact , o n some cross-like stones on e ca n clearl y recogniz e a head , eyes , a moustache , an d a beard. Although th e majorit y o f the peopl e see m t o hav e belonge d t o th e heretical church , it would be wrong to assume that under ever y tombstone ther e lie s a Manichaean . We find , fo r example , a tombston e i n the for m o f a cros s wher e th e decease d wa s ver y anxiou s not t o b e confused wit h heretics , sinc e th e inscriptio n state s tha t h e wa s o f th e true Roma n religion. In Sirok i Brijeg,118 a man i s depicted o n a tomb stone leaning with one hand against a tree holding a child wit h a cross in the othe r hand. Both the ma n and the chil d hav e aureolas , or halos, over thei r heads . I t i s believe d tha t th e ma n wa s St . Christopher , because almos t the sam e representation o f him ha s bee n foun d o n th e coat-of-arms i n th e cit y o f Rab , whic h i s Catholic . Furthermore , Catholicism i s confirme d b y tw o crosse d keys— a Catholi c symbol—o n the uppe r fac e o f a stone . I t i s possibl e tha t al l th e necropolise s i n Siroki Brije g belonged t o the Catholics . Perhaps thi s has als o been th e case i n Ljubuski , farthe r south , wher e one-thir d o f th e stone s ar e ornamented wit h crosses . Nea r Trebinje , i n easter n Hercegovina , a n inscription say s tha t th e decease d wa s calle d Nikolavus , a nam e derived fro m th e Catholi c Nikolaus . Furthermore, som e tombstones in eastern Hercegovin a ma y hav e belonge d t o member s o f th e Easter n Orthodox Church. Only a few of the grave s have been examine d by archaeologists , who for th e mos t par t hav e opene d th e one s locate d unde r spectacula r stones wit h th e assumptio n tha t the y belonge d t o importan t people . Grave robbers , i t seems , alread y ha d th e sam e idea , fo r th e majority of these grave s were empty; others , not robbed , containe d few objects . Fortunately a n undisturbe d grav e o f a n importan t statesma n ha s re cently bee n discovered. 119 I n additio n t o man y contemporar y objects , a glas s was found nea r th e skull , and th e corps e had a gol d coi n in its mouth, suggestin g tha t th e ol d pagan custom s had no t die d ou t eve n among th e highes t aristocracy . Stone s wit h inscription s hav e bee n found i n onl y som e hundre d instances , mos t o f the m saying , "Her e lies . . . o n his land, " o r "hi s inherited, " o r "hi s nobl e an d inherite d 117 Aleksander Solovjev , "Jes u l i bogomil i postoval i krst, " Clasník, N.S. , II I (1948), 81-102. 118 Benac, Siroki Brijeg, 47 . 119 Marko Vego , "Nadgrobn i spomenic i porodic e Sankovi c u sel u Biskup u ko d Konjica," Clasnik, N.S., X (1955), 164 .

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property," an d s o on . Ver y commo n i s a n inscriptio n whic h ha s als o been foun d quit e recentl y i n th e Unite d States : " I wa s a s yo u are , you wil l b e a s a m I. " Th e inscription s ar e i n bosanoica, th e Bosnia n variant of the Cyrilli c script . In a few instances i t is possible t o dat e the tombstone s b y th e for m of th e monument , but inscription s ar e preferable , sinc e names tha t ar e also know n fro m historica l document s sometime s appear . Thes e poin t to th e secon d hal f o f th e fourteenth , th e fifteenth , an d th e sixteent h centuries, as do the form s o f the daggers . Sinc e obelisks are customarily made b y Moslems , they poin t t o th e secon d hal f o f the fifteent h cen tury and later . Saber s ar e o f oriental origin , an d ar e found onl y o n th e obelisks. However , a s inscriptions represent th e cultura l climax , simple tombstones, especiall y thos e withou t decorations , may wel l g o back t o the thirteenth century , o r even earlier. BIBLIOGRAPHY Andjelic, Pavao . "Dv a srednjevjekovn a nalaz a i z Sultic a ko d Konjica, " Glasnik, XIV (1959), 203-215. Baric, Henrik. Lingvistiëke studi-je. Sarajevo , 1954. Benac, Alojz . "ZavrSn a istrazivanj a u pecin i Hrustovaci " Glasnik, N.S. , II I (1948), 3-42 . . Radimlja (Srednjevjekovni spomenici Bosne i Hercegovine, I) . Sarajevo, 1950 . — • . Olovo (Srednjevjekovni nadgrobni spomenici, II) . Belgrade, 1951 . •. Prehistorijsko naselje Nebo i problem butmirske kulture. Ljubljana , 1952. . Siroki Brijeg (Srednjevjekovni spomenici Bosne i Hercegovine, III) . Sarajevo, 1952 . . "Neolitsk o naselj e u Lisicicim a ko d Konjica, " Glasnik, N.S. , X (1955), 49-84. . "Preistorisk o doba, " Kulturna istorija Bosne i Hercegovine, ed . Alojz Benac et al. Sarajevo, 1955 . . "Osnov a obiljezj a neolitsk e kultur e u Kaknju, " Glasnik, N.S. , X I (1956), 167-182. . "Vaz a bronzano g dob a i z Bos . Race, " Glasnik, N.S. , X (1956) , 183-186. . "Crven a Stijena—1955 " (I-I V Stratum) , Glasnik, N.S. , XII (1957) , 19-50. . "Nek e nov e prethistorijsk e kultur e u sjeveroistocno j Bosni, " Clanci i gradja za kulturnu istoriju istocne Bosne, I (1957) , 209-213. . "Zelen a pecina, " Glasnik, N.S. , XII (1957) , 61-92. . "Bosnia , Hercegovin a an d Montenegro, " Are a 6—Balkans , I , COW A Survey. Cambridge : Counci l fo r Ol d Worl d Archaeology , 1959 , 12-13. . "Grenzzon e de r Vinca-Kultu r i n Ostbosnien, " Archaeologia lugoslavica,lll (1959) , 5-11 .

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Garasanin, Miluti n V . "Datiranj e dubovacko-zutobrdsk e grupe, " Zbornik Matice srpske, No. 2 (1951) , 83-88. Gorjanovic-Kramberger, Karl . Der diluvióle Mensch von Krapina in Kroatien. Wiesbaden: C . V. Kreidel, 1906. Hamm, Josip . "Datiranj e glagoljski h spomenika, " Radovi I. Zagreb : Staro slavenski Institut, 1952 , 5-72. Hencken, Hugh . Indo-European Languages and Archaeology. America n Anthropologist, Memoi r No. 84 . (Menasha , 1955) . Horvat, Andjela . " O steccim a n a podrucj u Hrvatske, " Historijski Zbornik, IV (1951) , 157-165 . Hrdlicha, Ales . "The Krapina Man, " Xenia Honoribus Illustrissimi Domini Professons Doctoris Caroli Gorjanovic-Kramberger. Zagreb , 1925-26 , 510511. •. "Th e Neandertha l Phas e o f Man, " Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, LVI I (1927) , 249-274 . Ivanicek, Franjo . "Istrazivanj e nekropol e rano g srednje g vijek a u Bijelo m Brdu," Ljetopis, L V (Jugoslavensk a akademij a znanost i i umjetnosti , 1949), 111-114. Ivekovic, Ciri l M . "Bunje , cemer i i poljarice, " Zbornik kralja Tomislava. Zagreb: Jugoslavensk a akademij a znanost i i umjetnosti , 1925 , 413-429. Karaman, Ljubo . "Crkvic a sv . Mihajl a ko d Stona, " Vjesnik hrvatskog arheoloskog dmstva, N.S., XV (1928). . Iz hrvatske proslosti. Zagreb: Matica Hrvatska, 1930. . Ziva starina. Zagreb, 1942. . " O umjetnost i srednje g vijek a u Hrvatsko j i Slavoniji, " Historijski Zbornik, I (1948) , 103-127 . . " O potreb i povezivanj a rad a arheologa , historicar a umjetnost i i historicara u proucavanj u ranosrednjovjekovn e Slavonije, " Historijski Zbornik, V (1952) , 57-62 . . " O bosanski m srednjovjekovni m steccima, " Starohrvatska Prosvjeta, III (1954) , 171-182 . . "Glosse n z u einige n Frage n de r slawische n Archáologie, " Archaeologia lugoslavica, II (1956) , 100-109. Katie, Luka . "Stecc i u Imotsko j Krajini, " Starohrvatska Prosvjeta, II I (1954), 131-167. Korosec, Josip . Predzgodovinska naselbina na Ptujskem gradu. Ljubljana , 1951. . "Sloven i i drven a kultura, " Glasnik, N.S. , VI (1951) , 65-80 . . Uvod v materijalno kulturo Slovanov zgodnjega veka. Ljubljana , 1952. . Neolitska naseobina u Danilu Bitinju. Rezultati istrazivanja u 1953 godini, I . Zagreb : Jugoslavensk a akademij a znanost i i umjetnosti , 1958. . Ibid., II, Prilozi (Supplements ) 1959. Kromer, Karl . "Zu m Picentenproblem, " Mitteilungen der pràhistorischen Kommission der Oesterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, V , No. 5 (Vienna, 1950). Malez, Mirko . "Di e Hôhle Veternica , ein e neu e Palàolithisch e Fundstell e in Kroatien, " Bulletin scientifique, II I (1956) , 11-12 . . "Erste r Fun d de s oberdiluviale n Mensche n i m dinarische n Karst, "

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Bosne i Hercegovine, éd . Krunosla v Draganovic . Sarajevo : Napredak , 1942. Vego, Marko . "ArheoloSk o iskopavanj e u Zavali, " Glasnik, XI V (1959) , 179-201. . "Humack a ploc a najstarij i cirilsk i pisan i spomeni k u Bosn i i Herce govini ( X il i X I stoljece), " Glasnik, X I (1956) , 41-61. . Ljubuski (Srednjevjekovni nadgrobni spomenici, VI). Sarajevo, 1954. . "Nadgrobn i spomenic i porodic e Sankovi c u sel u Biskup u ko d Kon jica," Glasnik, N.S., X (1955), 157-167 . Vidovic, Drago . "Pretstav e kol a n a steccim a i njihov o znacenje, " Glasnik, N.S., IX , 275-278. Vinski, Zdenko . "Ausgrabunge n i n Vukovar," Archaeologia lugoshvica, III, (1959), 99-109. •. "Zu r Anwendbarkei t de r C1 4 Datierun g i n de r Vorgeschichtsfor schung. I I Teil, " Germania, XXXV I (1958) , 409-417. •. "Gib t e s frülislavisch e Kerami k au s de r siidslawische n Landnahme? " Archaeologia lugoslavica, I (1954) , 71-96. . "Prethodn i izvjestaj o iskapanju nekropol e na Lijevoj barí u Vukovaru 1951, 195 2 i 195 3 godine," Ljetopis, L X (Zagreb : Jugoslavensk a akademija znanost i i umjetnosti, 1955) , 231-255. Vinski, Zdenk o an d Vinsk i Gasparini, Ksenija . Gradiste u Mrsunjskom lugu. Zagreb, 1950. . "Prolegomen a k statistic i i kronologij i prethistorijski h ostav a u Hrvatskoj i u vojvodjansko m podrucju Srijema, " Opúsculo Archaeologica, I (1956) , 57-99. Vukovic, Jov o and Kucan , Ante . "Jeda n star i bosansk i nadgrobn i spomeni k i natpis," Glasnik, N.S., II (1947) , 51-68. Vukovic, Stjepan . "Paleolitsk a kamen a industrij a spilj e Vindije, " Historijski Zbornik, II I (1950) , 241-255. . "Prehistorijsk o nalazist e spilj e Vindije, " ibid., II , 243-294 . Waterbolk, H . T . "Th e 195 9 Carbon-1 4 Symposiu m a t Groningen, " Antiquity, XXXIV (1960), 14-18. Whatmouth, Joshua. The Foundation of Roman Italy. London , 1937. Wilke, Georg. "Ueber die Bedeutung einiger Symbol e an den Bogumilendenkmálern," Glasnik, XXXV I ( 1924), 27-38.

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Political Histor y t o 152 6 STANKO GULDESC U

THEORIES OF THE CROATIAN ORIGIN S No CONTEMPORAR Y accounts o f th e comin g o f th e Croatia n peopl e t o the land s occupie d b y thei r present-da y descendant s hav e survive d t o our time . I n th e absenc e o f verifiabl e records , divers e theorie s hav e been advance d t o explai n wh o th e origina l Croatian s wer e an d wh y and ho w the y cam e t o settl e alon g th e Adriati c littora l an d i n th e northern Balkans . Sinc e thes e severa l theorie s ar e discusse d i n som e detail i n m y History of Medieval Croatia, it wil l suffic e t o allud e t o them very briefly i n this essay. 1 When th e concept s o f moder n nationalis m penetrate d int o th e Croatian land s i n th e firs t par t o f th e nineteent h century , the y wer e pervaded b y romanticis t influence s stemmin g fro m th e literar y an d artistic vogu e tha t ha d swep t Europ e afte r th e Napoleoni c wars . A group of Croatian an d foreig n intellectual s conceive d th e ide a tha t th e Croatians, Serbs, and Slovene s were descende d fro m th e Illyria n tribe s who ha d inhabite d th e Adriati c an d Balka n area s i n ancien t times . Later o n wide credence was given to the notion that the Croatians were a purel y Slavi c stoc k an d originall y identica l wit h th e Serbia n an d Slovene tribes . Thi s assumptio n was an d continue s t o b e base d upo n the fac t tha t th e Croatia n languag e belong s t o th e Slavi c linguisti c family an d resembles th e speec h o f the Serbian s and Slovenes . Bu t w e know tha t th e Finno-Ugria n Bulgars , whos e nam e i s perpetuate d i n that o f the mode m Bulgaria n state , wer e absorbe d an d Slavicize d by their mass of Slavonic subjects, so that today they ar e considere d to b e iStanko Guldescu-Juldanic , History of Medieval Croatia to 1526 (Th e Hague : Mouton & Co., 1964), Chapter s 2-3.

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an indisputabl y Slavi c people . Ther e i s a n increasin g amoun t o f evidence accumulatin g t o sugges t tha t th e primitiv e Croatia n tribe s experienced th e sam e fate. As late a s the thirteent h century , however , the Croatia n nobilit y seem s t o hav e bee n consciou s o f it s non-Slavi c origin.2 Unfortunatel y the survivin g record s o f thi s cast e provid e n o clues t o th e solutio n o f th e myster y o f th e Croatia n ethni c identity . The earlies t evidenc e o f th e presenc e o f Croatian s i n Europ e i s th e mention o f thei r nam e i n th e Gree k for m Choroathos i n inscription s carved o n tombstone s near th e sit e o f th e Gree k colon y o f Tana'i s i n southern Russia . Thes e sepulchra l inscription s dat e fro m th e secon d or thir d centur y A.D . Mos t scholars ascrib e the m t o Irania n (Persian ) elements wh o fo r man y centurie s dominate d th e steppe s o f souther n Russia. Undoubtedl y th e Scythian s an d Sarmatians , wh o succeede d one another as masters o f the steppe land, both included in their rank s a mélang e o f Irania n frontie r elements. 3 Inevitabl y th e Sarmatian s i n particular mus t hav e exerted grea t influenc e over th e Slavi c people s who live d betwee n th e Do n an d Danub e Rivers , fo r the y achieve d political dominanc e ove r them. 4 Eve n genuinel y Slavi c tribe s wer e subjected t o Irania n rulin g castes . Th e lat e Rumania n historian , Dr . Nicolae lorga , i s onl y on e o f a numbe r o f competen t scholar s wh o believe that the Slavs made their first appearance in history as members of th e Sarmatia n confederation . Professors Francis Dvorni k and Nikol a 2upancic thin k tha t th e origina l Croatian s wer e a n Irania n Sarmatia n rather tha n a Slavi c people.5 On the othe r hand , ther e i s an increasin g tendency t o credi t th e Tana'i s inscription s t o stil l anothe r Iranian Caucasian group , th e Alans . Thi s trib e appeare d o n th e Blac k Se a 2

V. Klaió , "Hrvatsk a plemen a o d XI I d o XV I stoljeca, " Rad Jugosl. akad. znanosti i umjetnosti, CXX X (1897) , 15ff . Se e also L . Hauptmann , "Di e Herkunft der Kârntne r Edlinge, " Vierteljahrschrift fur Sozial-und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, XXI (1928) , 263-274 , an d hi s "Podrijetl o hrvatskog a plemstva, " Rad, CCLXXII I ( 1942 ) ; Thoma s Archidiaconus , Historia Salonitana, Vol . XXVI o f Mon. spect. hist. Slav, meridionalium (Zagreb , 1894), 25 . 3 M. Rostovtseff , Iranians and Greeks in South Russia (Oxford , 1922) , 38-39 ; E. Minns , Scythians and Greeks (Londo n an d Ne w York , 1923) , 41-43 . Th e findings o f thes e scholar s should b e compare d wit h thos e o f Ma x Wasmer, Untersuchungen uber den altesten Wohnsitz der Slaven: 1. Die Iranier in SUdrussland (Leipzig, 1923) . *Rostovtseff, Iranians, 135-146 , passim; M . Ebert , SUdrussland im Altertum (Bonn an d Leipzig , 1921) , 106. B N. Zupancic , "Prvobitn i Hrvati, " Zbornik kralja Tomislava u spomen tisucugodisnjice hrvatskoga kraljevstva (Zagreb , 1925) , 291-296 ; F . Dvornik , The Slavs. Their Early History and Civilization (Boston , 1956) , 22-24 , 47-53 . Se e also B . Antonoff , Skythien und der Bosporus (Berlin , 1931) , passim; Minns , Scythians, 35-129, passim; L. V . Südland (Pilar) , Juznoslavensko pitanje (Zagreb , 1943),viii-x, 6-9, 11-12.

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littoral i n the first century o f the Christia n era , settle d aroun d Tanaïs , and remaine d i n thi s are a fo r thre e ful l centuries . In thei r ow n language th e Croatian s cal l themselve s Hrvati. Ther e seems t o b e a n etymologica l connectio n betwee n thi s ter m an d th e Alan word for "friend," hu-urvatha.e On the shore s o f the Blac k Sea th e Alans absorbe d tw o Sarmatia n peoples , th e Sirac i an d Aorsi . Man y Alans, too , affiliate d themselve s wit h th e Gothi c natio n which , i n th e third centur y A.D. , replace d th e Sarmatian s a s th e master s o f souther n Russia. The name s "Safrac " an d "Andag, " which appea r i n th e Gothi c annals, ar e clearl y Alanic. Also, the Goth s undoubtedl y absorbe d bot h Sarmatian and Slavi c groups during their tw o centuries o f rule ove r th e steppe land . Ofte n th e Roman s themselves di d no t kno w whethe r th e peoples livin g wes t o f the Vistul a were Gothi c o r Sarmatian. 7 To th e eas t o f th e Goth s an d Alans , i n th e basin s o f th e Do n an d Donetz Rivers , ther e live d a confederatio n o f tribe s whic h bor e th e name Antes. 8 The y wer e a rulin g warrio r cast e o f Iranian-Caucasia n origin who had subjugate d a larger mass of Slavic farmers. Henc e the y were usuall y thought t o be Slav s themselves. Antes , Goths, an d Alan s all yielded t o the advance o f the Hun s about 375 A.D. For some time th e Antes, alon g wit h th e Ostrogoth s (Eas t Goths ) an d Alani c element s associated wit h th e latter , remaine d subjec t t o th e Huns . I n th e fifth century, th e Ante empire was revived, an d Croatia n tribe s wer e know n to th e wes t o f th e Ant e confederacy . Ther e i s reason t o believ e tha t these Croatian s represented a n amalgam o f Iranian stock s who were o r had bee n rule d b y th e Ostrogoths , bu t wh o ha d becom e Slavicize d through associatio n an d intermarriage wit h Slavi c element s whic h ha d survived th e Hunnis h holocaust. 9 Ther e mus t als o hav e bee n inter marriage betwee n th e Croatian s an d the Antes. Meanwhile th e Visigoths , o r Wes t Goths , accompanie d b y a larg e 6

Roman St . Kaulfuss , Die Slawen in den Altesten Zeiten bis Samo (623 ) (Berlin, 1842) , 6-9 . Hauptman n accept s thi s identity . 7 Caspar Zeuss , Die Deutschen unà ihre Nachbarstamme (Munich , 1837) , 275 312, 691-694 ; P . J . Safarik , Slavische Alterthümer (Prague , 1837) , I , 16 . 8 Both th e Byzantin e historian , Procopius , an d th e Goth , Jornandes , see m t o have bee n awar e o f th e non-Slavi c origin o f th e Antes . O n thi s people , se e L . Niederle, Manuel de l'antiquité slave ( 2 vols. ; Paris , 1923) , I , 189-193 ; Schor d B-ekmursin Nogmov , Geschichten und Lieder der circass. Volker (Leipzi g 1866) ; and Jornandes ' accoun t i n Theodo r Mommse n (éd.) , De origine actïbusque Getarum, Vol. V of Mon. Germaniae histórica (Berlin, 1882), 62-63 . 9 This thesi s ha s bee n advance d wit h particula r referenc e t o th e Goth s rathe r than t o th e Iranian s b y Professo r Bu s o f th e Universit y o f Ljubljana , i n Kralji dinastije Svevladicev (Ljubljana , 1932) . A s indicate d elsewher e i n thi s study , however, th e Irania n an d th e Gothi c theorie s o f Croatia n origin s ar e dependen t upon on e another .

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Alanic contingent , ha d fle d acros s th e Danub e t o escap e th e Hun s between 37 6 an d 37 8 A.o. 10 A t th e beginnin g o f th e fift h centur y a mixed Visigothic-Alani c horde, unde r Radaga s and Alaric , descende d upon Ital y an d thos e territorie s tha t ar e toda y know n a s Croatian . Other suc h inroad s occurre d i n 406 , 459 , 471 , an d 489 . Thi s last indicated invasio n resulte d i n th e establishmen t o f a n Ostrogothi c kingdom tha t include d Italy , Dalmatia , Bosnia , Slavonia , Istria , an d what i s toda y know n a s Uppe r Croatia . I n fact , fro m abou t 45 4 A.D . until th e middl e o f the followin g century, the Ostrogoth s claimed rul e over al l lands sout h o f the Danub e an d eastwar d o f th e confluenc e of that rive r wit h th e Sava . Th e bul k o f thei r Visigothi c kinsme n ha d moved westwar d b y thi s tim e int o Gau l an d Iberi a (moder n Franc e and Spain) . Th e Irania n an d Gothi c theorie s o f th e Croatia n origin s depend upo n th e assumptio n tha t considerabl e number s o f Goths , Alans, and othe r Iranian stocks included in the Gothi c horde, remaine d in th e land s tha t wer e destine d t o becom e Croatian . I n a wa r tha t lasted fro m 53 4 to 55 3 the Byzantine s ( Eastern Roma n Empire ) over threw th e Ostrogothi c kingdom , an d th e Ostrogoth s "wen t ove r th e mountains," a s contemporary chroniclers put it , an d disappeare d fro m the pages o f history. Were thes e mountains the Julian Alp s at th e hea d of th e Adriati c Sea? Their father s an d grandfather s had crosse d thes e ranges i n 489, when Theodori c the Younge r led the m ou t o f the latter day Croatian territories into Italy. Som e authorities think that groups of Alans, an d possibl y othe r Irania n element s a s well , staye d i n th e backlands o f Dalmatia , Uppe r Croatia , an d Bosni a whe n Theodori c took the bulk of his people o n to Italy. 11 Professor Ljudmi l Hauptmann , who does not put muc h faith i n the identificatio n of th e Croatian s wit h the Ostrogoths , nevertheless has acknowledge d tha t ther e i s no reason to suppos e tha t th e Gothi c o r Irania n settlement s establishe d b y Theodoric i n Uppe r Croatia , Bosnia , an d othe r region s o f moder n Croatia disappeare d whe n th e Italia n kingdo m o f the Ostrogoth s col 10 E. Benenger , "De r westgotisch-alanisch e Zu g nac h Mitteleuropa , Manus Bibliothek, LI (1931) , 11 8 ff. HQn the Alani c element in Croatian ancestry, see Luka Jelic , Hrvatski spomenici ninskoga podrucja iz dobe hrvatskih vladara (Zagreb , 1911) , 2-32 , passim. Se e also Hauptmann , "Di e Herkunf t de r Kárntne r Edlinge"; Dvornik , The Slavs, 64 ; Z. Vinski , Uz problematiku starog Irana i Kavkaza (Zagreb , 1940) , 20-21 ; P. Lesiak , "Edling-Kazage, " Carinthia ( Klagenfurt ), I (1913) , 84 . Th e wor d "Kaseg" crop s u p i n man y Croatia n settlement areas. It seem s t o hav e designated the member s o f a rulin g Irania n cast e tha t dominate d Slavi c agriculturists . Pro fessor Hauptman n think s that ove r a perio d o f man y centuries , beginnin g i n th e pre-Christian era , a n Irania n trib e know n a s th e Harahvat i emigrate d fro m ol d Iran into th e Caucasus where they intermarried with a Caucasia n tribe, th e Kasegs . The Alan s ma y represen t a n offshoo t o f thi s union .

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lapsed. Ther e certainl y wa s availabl e t o th e Ostrogothi c fugitive s from Ital y a ready-mad e "hideout " i n th e moder n Croatia n uplands , whether the y made use of it or not. Although th e Byzantine s drove th e Goths fro m th e Dalmatia n coast , th e powe r o f th e Greek s di d no t extend fa r inland . An d while mos t scholar s stil l ten d t o discoun t o r t o explain awa y thei r testimony, th e fac t canno t b e overlooke d tha t thre e of th e fou r oldes t survivin g account s tha t dea l wit h th e settlemen t o f the Croatian s o n th e Adriati c positivel y identif y thi s peopl e wit h th e Goths.13 The composer s o f thes e chronicle s d o no t see m t o hav e been 12 Dr. Ru s ha s contende d tha t ther e wa s a Gothi c grou p i n th e latter-da y Croatian land s tha t survive d th e collaps e o f th e Ostrogothi c Italia n kingdom . See Kralji dinastije Svevladicev, ISlff . Professo r Hauptmann' s statemen t appeare d in a n issu e o f Germano-slavica (Prague , 1935) , 98 . Th e lat e Professo r Franci s Preveden als o acknowledged , in his History of the Croatian People (Ne w York , 1955), tha t th e Croatian s probabl y absorbe d "rathe r small " group s o f Goths . 13 In 150 9 ther e wa s foun d nea r Omi s wha t i s usuall y referre d t o a s th e "Ol d Croatian Chronicle " o r Kraljevstvo Hrvata (Kingdo m o f th e Croatians) . A Lati n and late r a n Italia n translatio n o f thi s wor k wer e made . Th e translatio n cam e to b e know n a s the Libellum Gothorum o r "Boo k o f th e Goths " becaus e i t state d that th e Goth s wer e th e peopl e fro m who m th e latter-da y Croatian s derived . Dr . Dominik Mandi c has recentl y advance d evidenc e t o prov e tha t thi s chronicl e wa s originally writte n betwee n 107 4 an d 1081 . Se e hi s Nenapisano poglavlje hrvatske pismenosti (Bueno s Aires, 1961) , 377-379 . Thi s i s a specia l reprin t o f a n articl e that appeare d i n Hrvatska Revija (Bueno s Aires) , XI, No . 4 (44) . Mandi c think s that th e unknow n compile r confuse d th e Goth s wit h th e Croatian s becaus e th e Latins use d t o cal l Croatian s "Goths, " tha t is , "barbarians, " a s a derogator y for m of reference , an d therefor e simpl y lumpe d th e tw o together . See , however , hi s Bosna i Hercegovina (Chicago , 1960) , 36-37 , 39 , i n whic h h e note s th e earl y association o f th e sub-Carpathia n Kajkavci-speakin g Slavs—who m h e believe s t o be th e ancestor s o f th e peopl e o f moder n northwester n Croatia—wit h th e Goths . See also , fo r a mor e detaile d treatmen t o f th e Kraljevstvo Hrvata, hi s Crvena Hrvatska (Chicago , 1957) , Chapter II . A Lati n pries t wh o kne w Croatia n seem s t o hav e translate d th e Kraljevstvo Hrvata int o Lati n betwee n 114 3 an d 1163 . H e joine d t o i t additiona l material s pertaining t o hi s nativ e Duklj a (Dioclea) , togethe r wit h a descriptio n o f event s of whic h h e himsel f ha d bee n a n eyewitness , o r whic h h e ha d hear d abou t from peopl e wh o wer e ol d whe n h e wa s stil l a youn g man . Hi s chronicl e becam e known a s th e "Chronicl e o f th e Pries t o f Dioclea. " Availabl e edition s includ e Ivan Crnci c (éd.) , Popa Dukljanina Ljetopis (Kraljevica , 1874) ; Ferd o Sisi c (éd.) , Letopis Popa Dukljanina (Beograd-Zagreb , 1928) ; an d V . Mosi n (éd.) , Ljetopis popa Dukljanina (Zagreb , 1950) . Se e als o "Kraljevstv o Hrvata, " i n "Presbyter i Diocleani, D e regn o Sclavorum, " ed . J . Luciu s (Lucie) , De regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae (Amsterdam , 1666), 287-302 ; G . Schwandtne r (éd.) , Scriptures rerum Hungaricarum II I (Vienna , 1748) , 474-509 ; Iva n Kukuljevió-Sakcinski , "Kronik a hrvatska i z XI I vieka, " Arkiv za povjestnicu jugoslavensku, I (Zagreb , 1851) , 1-37. Archdeaco n Thomas o f Split , wh o probabl y finishe d hi s Historia Salonitana (Vol. XXV I o f Mon. spect. hist, Slav, mend.) shortl y befor e hi s deat h i n 1268 , also describe d th e Croatian s a s Goths , bu t sai d the y wer e als o know n a s Slav s because the y cam e fro m Poland . Se e chapte r 7 o f hi s work , an d th e defens e o f its accurac y b y Fathe r Kerubi n Segvic , Toma Splicanin (Zagreb , 1927) , an d "Tommaso l'arcidiacon o e l a su a opera, " a supplemen t t o Bollettino d'archeologia

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aware, however , o f the large Irania n elemen t that wa s included i n th e Gothic nation . No r d o th e supporter s o f th e Irania n theor y o f th e Croatian origin s see m t o realiz e tha t th e validit y o f thi s hypothesi s depends upo n th e intimat e associatio n o f Iranian s an d Goth s ove r a period o f three centuries. In an y case , i t appear s eviden t tha t th e ancestor s o f th e moder n Croatians wer e a mixed ethnic group . Iranian-Gothi c blood mus t have thinned ou t progressivel y wit h th e passag e o f time . Ther e wer e n o neighboring Gothi c o r Iranian group s fro m whic h th e Croatian s could draw accretion s o f strength , possibl y exceptin g th e Irania n lasyges , who, until well into the fourth century, dominated variou s Slavic tribes along the lef t ban k o f the Danube . Abou t 334 A.D. a Sla v revolt drov e them acros s th e rive r int o Roma n territory , an d subsequentl y the y came unde r th e rul e o f th e Ostrogoths . Probabl y the y wer e th e las t non-Slavic group to contribute a strain of blood t o the nascen t Croatia n nation befor e or durin g th e tim e tha t i t effecte d it s settlemen t o n th e Adriatic.14 When thi s settlemen t o n th e Adriati c Se a occurre d i s a matte r of speculation. Th e earlies t know n commentator o n Croatia n affairs , th e e storia Dalmata (Split , 1914) . Se e als o Segvió, I Croati e la loro missione storica durante tredici secoli (Rome , 1941). On th e Gothic-Croatia n relationship , se e als o G . Ruggeri , Contributo all' antropología física délie regioni dinaríche e danubiane e dett' Asia anteriore (Firenze , 1906); Ludwi g Gumplowicz , "Die politische Geschicht e de r Serbe n und Kroaten, " Politísche Anthropologische Revue, ann o I (Lipsin , 1913) , 780 ; Johann Valvasor , Die Ehre des Herzogthums Krain ( Laybach-Ljubljana, 1689) , II , 157-159 ; Tadij a Smiciklas, Poviest hrvatska ( 2 vols. ; Zagreb , 187 9 and 1882) , I , 79 ; Ferd o Sisi c (éd.), Enchiridion fontium historiae Croatiae (Zagreb , 1914) , 139-14 8 (docu ments). O f course , th e Ostrogoth s wer e subjecte d t o Irania n cultura l influences from th e firs t day s o f thei r arriva l i n souther n Russia , a s thei r ar t show s ver y clearly. 14 According t o thei r ow n account , th e lasyge s wer e o f Media n descent . Thei r customs, mores , an d administrativ e organizatio n closel y resemble d thos e o f th e Parthians. I n 47 1 the y accompanie d th e Ostrogoth s an d Alan s i n thei r invasio n of Dalrnati a an d uppe r Croatia . O n thi s people , se e Kar l Freiher r v . Czoernig , Ethnographie der Ôsterr. Monarchie ( 3 vols. ; Vienna , 1857), II, 16ff . an d Mandic , Bosna i Hercegovina, I , 31-32. A popular accoun t o f the Irania n theor y in genera l is give n i n Fr a Otó n Knezovic , Poviest Hrvata (Madrid , 1961) , 16-17 . Dr . Mandic summarize s this theor y i n Crvena Hrvatska, 198-199 , an d hi s footnote s on pag e 19 8 contain a referenc e lis t o n thi s subject . Se e als o S . Sakac , "Iranisch e Herkunft de s kroatische n Volksnamens, " Orientalia Christiana periódica, X V (1949), 313-340; H . Grégoire , "L'origine e t l e nom des Croate s et leu r prétendu e patrie caucasienne, " La nouvelle Clio, I V (1952) , 323 , and V (1953) , 3 , 466; George Vernadsky, "Great Moravi a and Whit e Chorvatia, " Journal of the American Oriental Soc., LX V (1945) , 257-259 ; L . Hauptmann , "Kroaten , Goten , un d Sarmaten," Germanoslavica (Prague) , II I (1935) , 347 ; Südland (Pilar) , Juznoslavensko pitanje, viii-ix.

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Byzantine emperor , Constantin e Porphyrogenitus , compose d hi s De administrando imperio betwee n 94 8 an d 95 2 A.D . H e asserte d i n thi s volume tha t hi s predecessor , Empero r Heraclio s (610-641) , invite d the Croatian s to take possession of the easter n shor e of the Adriati c for the purpos e o f drivin g ou t a neo-Hunni c trib e know n a s th e Avars , who were giving Byzantium trouble a t the time. 15 Most scholars accep t Constantine's accoun t o f th e Croatia n settlemen t an d assum e tha t i t took place between 62 6 and 64 1 A.D. From th e coas t the Croatia n clans fanned ou t t o take possession of old Roma n Illyria an d Pannonia , tha t is, o f moder n Uppe r Croatia , Bosnia , an d th e territor y betwee n th e Drava an d Sav a Rivers 18 that late r wa s to become know n as Slavonia . It ca n b e inferre d tha t th e Croatian s extende d thei r swa y southwar d as far a s present-day Albani a and inlan d u p t o th e Drin a River . Despite the widespread credenc e give n t o Porphyrogenitus' relation, there are obvious discrepancies i n it. H e sai d tha t th e Croatian s cam e to the Adriati c from Whit e Croatia, which la y north o f the Carpathia n Mountains. Alfred th e Great of England (871-90 1 ), the compile r o f the eleventh-century Russian Primary Chronicle, o r Book of Annals, an d various ninth - an d tenth-centur y Ara b commentators , all mentio n thi s state, whos e sea t apparentl y wa s i n th e vicinit y o f th e moder n Polis h city of Cracow. Now, i f th e Croatian s cam e fro m thi s are a t o Dalmati a fo r th e express purpos e o f expellin g th e Avars , or mor e probabl y th e Slavi c subjects o f the Avars, from thi s Byzantine-claimed land, they must have set som e kin d o f recor d fo r celerit y o f movement . Populatio n migra tions i n ancien t an d medieva l time s wer e slo w affairs , unles s som e aggressive group such as the Hun s was driving another mobile elemen t in wild flight ahead o f it. There is no indicatio n tha t th e Croatian s lef t their trans-Carpathia n homelan d becaus e o f hostil e pressure—unless , indeed, it was to escape the dominatio n of the lowlan d Slav s o f modern Poland, wh o wer e beginnin g t o organiz e a stat e an d t o impos e thei r rule upon their neighbors. In 626 the Avars and the Slavi c tribes subjec t to them were besiegin g Byzantium itself . Sinc e the cente r o f the Ava r power wa s betwee n th e Danube an d th e Tisza , ther e coul d hardl y hav e bee n a corporal' s 15 The eminen t Russia n historian, Georg e Vernadsky , identifie s th e Avar s wit h the Irania n Sarmatian s an d th e Antes . He believe s that the y entere d Europ e fro m Turkestan. Se e hi s Ancient Russia (Ne w Haven , 1943) , 82 , 90 . Th e Byzantin e Theophanes describe d th e Avar s a s a n "insolen t peopl e o f unknow n origin." Se e also Ott o Maenchen-Helfen , "Th e Yiieh-Chi h proble m reexamined, " Journal of the Amer. Oriental Soc., LX V (1945) , 71-81 ; Czoernig , Ethnographie, II , 16 , 27-32, passim; Valvasor, Die Ehre, II, 214-225 . 16 Porphyr., De adm. imperio, éd. Moravcsik-Jenkin s (Budapest , 1949) , chapte r 30, 142 , and chapte r 31, 146 , 148 .

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guard o f Avars lef t i n Dalmatia . Doubtles s ther e were Slavi c subject s of th e Avar s i n Dalmatia , bu t wh y woul d a n empero r a s astut e a s Heraclios have depended upon pseudo-Slavs to fight other Slavi c tribe s that wer e givin g hi m s o muc h opposition ? An d ho w coul d h e hav e gotten int o touch wit h peopl e livin g north o f the Carpathian s o n suc h short notic e an d the n hav e wafte d the m t o Dalmati a o n som e sor t of magi c carpe t i n tim e fo r the m t o hav e rendere d hi m an y servic e against th e Avars ? When thes e consideration s ar e take n int o account , it i s hard t o escap e th e convictio n tha t Porphyrogenitu s erre d eithe r purposefully o r throug h ignoranc e i n recordin g thi s stor y o f th e Croatian settlement. 17 It has to be remembered tha t the Byzantin e ruler wa s not intereste d in writing history as such. He wanted t o compile a guide or instruction sheet for hi s so n an d successo r t o orien t hi m i n way s o f dealin g wit h Byzantium's neighbors . Constantin e VII may have wante d to establis h a traditio n o f Croatia n cooperatio n wit h Byzantium . Or h e ma y onl y have repeated a n accoun t of the Croatia n settlemen t tha t ha d popula r credence a t Byzantiu m in hi s day . H e undoubtedl y dre w som e o f his information fro m th e Byzantin e archives , bu t h e relie d chiefl y upo n reports receive d fro m imperia l agent s i n th e Dalmatia n town s o f Spli t (Spalato), Zada r (Zara) , an d Dubrovni k (Ragusa) . Neithe r thes e individuals, nor any tenth-century Croatian s who may have visite d th e imperial court , ca n b e assume d t o hav e possesse d muc h knowledg e about event s tha t ha d occurre d i n th e Croatia n land s thre e o r fou r centuries previous. It might be noted, however, that Constantine stated tha t the meaning of th e wor d "Croatian " wa s "thos e wh o hol d muc h land. " I n 1948 , Abbé Tadin , a t a congres s o n Byzantin e studie s hel d i n Brussels , expressed hi s opinio n tha t th e suffi x mir, whic h appear s i n s o man y Croatian names , originally meant "lord," as did mihr in ancient Iranian . Some o f the name s mentioned i n th e Byzantin e ruler's accoun t woul d also seem to be Iranian rather than Slavic. To sum up, the litera l accurac y of this Byzantine account seems to be fully a s suspec t a s thos e o f th e Croatia n settlemen t foun d i n othe r 1T For criticism s o f Constantino' s relation , se e F . Rack i (éd.) , Ocjena starijih izvora za hrvatsku i serbsku poviest (Zagreb , 1884) , 1-42 ; an d Armi n Pavic , De administrando imperio (Zagreb , 1906) . I hav e no t ye t ha d a n opportunit y to examin e th e recen t critica l stud y offere d b y B . Grafenauer , "Prilo g kritic i izvjestaja K . Porfirogenet a o doselenj u Hrvata, " Historijski zbormk, V (Zagreb , 1952), 1-56 . Th e emperor' s work gives tw o contradictor y accounts of the Croatian settlement. Chapte r 3 0 seem s t o hav e bee n writte n b y a differen t autho r tha n chapters 31-36 . Probabl y Porphyrogenitu s use d differen t secretarie s t o writ e up hi s notes . Chapter s 29-3 0 shoul d b e compare d wit h chapter s 1- 3 o f th e Dioclean chronicle .

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early source s suc h a s th e Kraljevstvo Hrvata (Kingdo m o f th e Croa tians), whic h probabl y wa s compose d betwee n 107 4 an d 1081 , th e Lfetopis Popa Dukljanina (Chronicl e o f th e Pries t o f Dioclea) , appa rently writte n betwee n 114 3 an d 1163 , an d th e thirteenth-centur y Historia Salonitana. If anything , these thre e later versions of the settle ment migh t b e considere d mor e reliabl e tha n Constantine' s stor y because loca l materials , bot h writte n an d oral , wer e availabl e t o th e compilers of these works, while th e imperia l commentato r did not hav e access to such sources. A compariso n o f al l fou r o f thes e tale s o f th e Croatia n settlemen t suggests tha t thi s natio n too k possessio n o f it s ne w homelan d i n several waves rather than in one sudden push-button mass movement.18 If ther e is anything t o the stor y that Heraclio s imported th e Croatian s to figh t th e Avars , o r th e Slavi c henchme n o f th e Avars , ther e mus t have been Croatia n groups close r a t hand tha n in the trans-Carpathia n area t o serv e hi s purpose . A numbe r o f historians , sociologists , an d archaeologists believ e that , whil e ther e ma y hav e bee n a Croatia n invasion o f Dalmatia betwee n 62 6 and 641 , thi s eruptio n di d no t mark the firs t appearanc e o f Croatian s i n thi s province . I n othe r words , there probabl y alread y wer e Croatia n element s livin g in th e Croatia n and Bosnia n bac k country , an d i t i s fro m the m tha t th e resident s o f White o r Grea t Croati a nort h o f th e Carpathian s learne d abou t th e attractions o f th e ne w settlemen t area . I t migh t b e remembere d tha t the Byzantin e historian Procopiu s note d tha t th e Germani c Vandals , even afte r the y ha d establishe d a kingdo m i n norther n Africa , con tinued t o kee p i n touc h wit h thei r kinsme n wh o ha d remaine d i n middle Europe . There is nothing more likel y than tha t Croatia n band s who ha d establishe d themselve s i n th e norther n Balkan s at a n earlie r date stil l manage d t o kee p i n contac t wit h tha t par t o f thei r natio n which remaine d i n trans-Carpathian Whit e Croatia . THE SEVENT H AND EIGHTH CENTUBIES—A PERIOD O F HISTORICAL DARKNESS There i s n o positiv e informatio n a s t o th e religio n o f th e Croatian s when the y arrive d in their ne w habitat i n the Balkans. 19 Porphyrogeni 18

See Mandic , Bosna i Hercegovina, I, 28-45 ; Südlan d (Pilar ) ]u&noslavensko pitanje, 4-10 ; Rus , Kralji dinastije Svevladicev, 13 1 ff . O n ol d Whit e Croati a north o f th e Carpathians , see F . Racki , "Biel a Hrvatsk a i Biel a Srbija, " Rod Jugoslavenske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti, LI I (1880) , 141-164 . 19 Nadko Nodil o publishe d a serie s o f articles , entitle d "Religij a Srb a i Hrvat a na glavno j osnov i pjesama, prica , i govor a narodnog, " i n Rad betwee n 188 5 an d

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tus' histor y indicates tha t the y ma y hav e bee n baptize d a s Catholi c Christians soo n after thei r arriva l in Dalmatia . There i s some question as to whethe r th e empero r mean t tha t a regularly organize d Croatia n church wa s se t u p a t thi s tim e o r whether h e wa s onl y talkin g abou t a clerica l reorganizatio n o f the alread y establishe d Dalmatia n church . Dr. Mandi c ha s recentl y draw n ne w evidenc e fro m ecclesiastica l records t o strengthe n th e suppositio n tha t i n Dalmati a a numbe r of Croatian group s ma y hav e bee n baptize d i n th e tim e o f Heraclios. 20 It i s not certain , however , tha t th e Croatian s were pagan s i n th e first part o f the sevent h century . Professo r Miho Barada believes tha t the y were Arian Christians, since they wer e rule d by o r associated wit h th e Arian Ostrogoth s and Visigoth s for s o long a perio d o f time. 21 Proponents o f the Gothi c theor y o f Croatia n origin s als o hav e argue d tha t the baptis m reported b y Constantin e wa s one designed t o purge the m of heres y rather tha n t o conver t them fro m paganism. 22 It seem s certain tha t for some time the Croatian s fought against an d persecuted th e Lati n an d Slavi c element s tha t the y foun d livin g i n Dalmatia and adjacent regions. About 678, however, they seem to have been involve d i n a peace tha t th e Byzantin e emperor , Constantin e I I Pogonatus, conclude d wit h th e Avars. Two years later , th e Croatian s are suppose d to hav e promised Rom e that the y woul d not moles t the Latin inhabitant s o f Dalmati a an y longer. 23 Probabl y the y agree d t o refrain fro m attackin g th e Slav s wh o ha d precede d the m int o th e coastal lands as well.24 1890. Tha t curiou s medieva l compilation , L'Abrégé des merveilles, whic h con tains som e references t o "Slavs " wh o "follo w th e religio n o f th e Magian s (Zoroa strians) an d ador e th e sun, " an d wh o als o wer e fir e worshippers , shoul d b e compared wit h th e accoun t of th e Ara b Ibn Rusta , wh o wrot e a n accoun t o f th e Croatians i n Galicia , basin g i t o n a ninth-centur y sourse . Se e J . Markwart , "Osteuropaeische unà ostasiatische Streifzuege (Leipzig , 1903) , 466-469 . Som e Moslem source s sa y tha t th e earl y Croatian s worshippe d cattle , whic h ma y indicate a carry-ove r among som e Croatia n elements o f th e veneratio n fo r cattl e prescribed b y Zoroaste r in ol d Iran . O n th e ol d Slavi c religion , se e als o Valvasor, Die Ehre, 373ff . 20 Dominik Mandió , Rasprave i prilozi / Studie s an d Contribution s (Rome , 1963), 109-144. 21 The Historia Salonitana declare d tha t the y wer e "ver y rud e Christian s o f Arian belief. " Professo r Barad a believe s tha t th e Croatian s accepte d th e Aria n heresy durin g thei r perio d o f associatio n with th e Ostrogoths . "Nadvratni k VI I stoljeóa," Serta Hoffilleriana (Zagreb , 1940), 415 , n . 56 . 22 Father Segvi c ha s expounde d this theory in variou s writings. 23 S. Sakac , "Ugovo r pap e Agaton a i Hrvata, " Croatia Sacra I (Zagreb , 1931) , 1-32; Historia Salonitana, chapter 10. 24 It seem s to m e that ther e i s no evidenc e t o suppor t th e assumptio n share d b y Professors Mandi ó an d Prevede n tha t th e Croatian s mixe d peacefull y wit h th e Slavs wh o ha d precede d the m into Dalmati a and othe r areas . As indicated above ,

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There i s much evidenc e t o indicat e tha t b y th e en d o f the sevent h century the Croatia n ethnographic boundarie s reache d alon g the coas t from th e Ras a River in Istria to deep into wha t is now Albania. Inland , the Croatia n tribesme n occupie d wha t w e kno w in ou r ow n tim e a s Upper Croatia, the land between th e Sav a and Drav a Rivers , and part of wha t late r becam e souther n Hungary , mos t o r al l o f Bosni a an d Hercegovina, an d section s of easter n Sloveni a and Carinthia. 25 Three Croatia n principalitie s gre w u p withi n thi s framewor k o f settlement. Northwes t o f th e Cetin a Rive r la y th e ne w Whit e o r Dalmatian Croatia . I t encompasse d moder n Uppe r Croatia , wester n Bosnia, norther n Dalmatia , an d easter n Istria . Pannonia n Croati a included th e Sav a land s o f moder n Slavoni a and, at leas t fo r a time , Srijem an d norther n Bosnia . Sout h of th e Cetina , extendin g a s fa r a s the lak e o f Scutar i i n Albania , wa s wha t cam e t o b e know n a s Re d Croatia. It seem s likely that throughou t th e sevent h an d eighth centurie s th e Croatians acknowledge d Byzantin e sovereignty , althoug h th e Greek s were no t abl e t o mak e thei r powe r fel t outsid e o f th e militaril y organized Dalmatia n Them e (province ) whic h clun g t o th e coast , where i t include d suc h citie s a s Split , Trogir , an d Zadar . Dr. Mandi c has recentl y endeavored t o prov e tha t i n th e autum n o f 75 3 th e Croatian "king" or chieftain, Budimir, convened a grea t meeting o f the Croatian clans on the field of Duvno ( Delmno ) high up i n the Bosnian mountains.26 This meeting is mentioned in the Kraljevstvo Hrvata, an d in th e Chronicl e of th e Pries t o f Dioclea, but ther e i s no indicatio n o f the date. 27 Othe r authoritie s believ e tha t i t too k plac e i n th e nint h o r tenth centuries. 28 Althoug h Mandi c ha s constructe d a serie s o f in there is reason to suppos e that i t wa s th e Slavi c subjects of th e Avar s rathe r tha n the Avar s themselve s who m th e Croatia n conqueror s expelle d fro m Dalmatia . The document s offered i n F . Racki ( ed. ), Documenta historiae chroaticae periodum antiquam illustrantia, Mon. spect. hist. Slav, mend., VI I (Zagreb , 1877), 271-272, should b e compare d wit h page s 26-3 3 o f th e Historia Salonttana. Se e als o J . Mikoczi, Otiorum Croatiae liber unus (Buda , 1806) , 89-112 ; an d Mandic , Bosna i Hercegovina, I, 45, 387-389. 25V. Klaic , Povijest Hrvata ( 5 vols. ; Zagreb , 1899-1911) , I , 32-33 ; N . Z . Bjelovucic, Etnografske granice Hrvata i Slovenaca (Dubrovnik , 1934) , 11 ; Niederle, Manuel, I , 90 ; J . Horvat , La formation de la Croatie d'aujourd'hui (Zagreb, 1943), 75-79. 26 D. Mandió, Hrvatski Sabor na Duvanjskom Polju g . 753 ( Buenos Aires, 1957 ). 2T Chapter 9 o f the Kraljevstvo Hrvata and als o o f th e Ljetopis Popa Dukljanina contain mentio n of a work called th e "Methodos, " whic h Dr . Mandi ó presume s to be a sor t o f recor d o r protoco l o f th e proceeding s o n th e Duvn o Field . Se e Sisic, Letopis, 302-308 ; Mosin , Ljetopis, 50-56 ; Mandic , Crvena Hrvatska, 18-38. 28 The "Nestor o f Croatian historians," Iva n Kukuljevió-Sakcinski , foun d a corre -

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genious hypothese s to prov e hi s case , the questio n o f th e dat e o f thi s Sabor o r assembl y wil l doubtles s remai n a subjec t o f argumen t fo r a long time to come. There i s n o historicall y verifie d mentio n o f th e Croatian s a s suc h until th e tim e o f th e Prankis h monarch , Charlemagn e (769-814) . I n 791 Charlemagne attacke d th e Avars , wh o stil l rule d muc h o f Danu bian Europe . Som e Croatian s wer e subjecte d t o thei r authorit y an d there may have been a blending o f the tw o groups . Bu t i n 79 5 Vojno mir, princ e o f Pannonia n Croatia , aide d th e Frank s i n capturin g th e main Ava r hring, o r fortifie d circula r camp . I t wa s locate d i n th e ol d territory o f the Iranian lasyges between the Danube and Tisz a Rivers. 29 By 79 6 th e overthro w o f th e Ava r powe r wa s complete , an d a t thi s point th e Avar s disappea r fro m th e page s o f histor y a s completel y a s the Sarmatian s an d Ostrogoth s befor e them . Mos t o f th e survivor s seem t o hav e bee n settle d unde r Croatia n chieftain s i n Lowe r Pan nonia, th e distric t extendin g fro m Orljav a t o Zemun , which include d the latter-da y Bosnia n Posavin a and the Macv a sectio n of moder n Serbia. Som e Avar remnants may have been lef t i n north Dalmatia an d in the Lika an d Krbava areas. 30 Vojnomir ha d rule d the tribe s betwee n th e Danub e an d th e Drava , probably a s a vassa l o f th e Avars . Ther e wer e variou s non-Croatia n Slavic group s unde r hi s authority . Afte r th e overthro w o f th e Ava r state, h e ha d t o accep t Prankis h overlordship . The Frank s ha d seize d the Byzantin e ports in Istria o n their marc h eastward to do battle wit h the Avars ; thi s actio n brough t the m int o touc h wit h th e Istria n an d Dalmatian Croatians . The y penetrate d int o Dalmati a a s fa r a s th e Zrmanja River . Thus they were able to impose thei r rul e upo n Dalma tian a s wel l a s upo n Pannonia n Croatia . Betwee n 81 2 an d 81 7 the y seem t o have effecte d agreement s with Byzantiu m whereb y th e latte r acknowledged thei r contro l of the tw o northern Croatia n principalitie s while mos t o f Re d Croati a remaine d withi n th e Gree k spher e o f influence.31 spondence between th e Sabo r that th e Kraljevstvo an d Ljetopis reporte d a s being held fo r th e purpos e o f settlin g religiou s an d administrativ e matters , an d th e recorded act s of th e ecclesiastica l Syno d o f Spli t o f 925 . O n thi s poin t se e below. Sisic though t tha t th e Sabo r too k plac e abou t 884 . Othe r historian s hav e date d it a s late as 1059 . 2»Racki, Documenta (M.S.H.S.M. , VII) , 295-297 ; Valvasor , Die Ehre, IV , 247-249; Han s Pirchegger, "Karantanie n un d Unterpannonie n zu r Karolingerzeit, " Mitteilungen des Inst. f. Oesterr. Geschichte, XXXIII ( 1912), 274. 30 On Avaria n survival s amon g Croatia n famil y names , se e Czoernig , Ethnographie, II , 16 . Se e als o Klaic , Povijest, I , 42-43 . 31 Mandic, Hrvatski Sabor, 18-19.

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Both White o r Dalmatia n Croati a an d th e Pannonia n Croatia n princi pality ha d a s their political overlor d the Coun t o f the Friulia n March . The Friulia n Marc h was on e of the borde r territorie s se t u p b y Char lemagne o n th e frontier s o f his extensiv e empire. Bot h Croatia s wer e subordinated t o th e spiritua l jurisdictio n of th e Prankis h patriarc h o f Rome. Parenthetically , i t i s important t o note tha t th e Frank s di d no t have t o emplo y amon g the Croatian s th e tacti c o f forcible conversio n to Catholi c Christianit y tha t highlighte d thei r relation s wit h s o man y other contemporar y peoples. Thi s circumstanc e i n itsel f tend s t o but tress the thesis that the conversion of the Croatian s must have occurred in the seventh century. Prankish rule apparentl y weighed mor e heavily upon th e Pannonia n Croatians tha n i t di d upo n thei r Dalmatia n kinsmen . Prince Ljudevit , who ruled the Pannonian element from hi s capital of Sisak on the Sava, protested agains t the exactions imposed upo n his people b y th e Coun t of th e Friulia n March . Whe n h e faile d t o receiv e satisfaction , h e resorted t o arme d rebellion . Fro m 81 9 to 82 2 he pu t u p a successfu l resistance t o th e Prankis h armies , althoug h th e Dalmatia n Croatia n ruler Princ e Born a sided wit h hi s Germanic overlord s in thi s struggle . Evidently ther e wa s little solidarit y o f feeling amon g the Croatian s of this era , fo r eve n afte r Born a die d (821 ) hi s soldier s continue d t o fight fo r th e Franks . Finall y Ljudevi t wa s defeated , an d a relativ e of Borna assassinated him. From thi s tim e unti l th e las t quarte r o f th e nint h century , th e Dalmatian Croatians served the Italia n Carolingian s faithfull y enough . For a time , too , th e Pannonia n Croatian s vigorousl y defende d th e Prankish frontier s agains t th e Bulgars , wh o betwee n 82 7 an d 84 5 exerted themselve s to take ove r Ljudevit' s Pannonia n legacy . I t migh t be note d tha t ther e i s n o mentio n i n th e survivin g source s o f an y involvement o f th e Serbia n tribe s i n thi s struggle . I n th e absenc e o f such mention , i t i s difficul t t o comprehen d ho w th e Serbian s coul d have occupied th e territory between th e Croatia n and Bulgarian settle ment areas , a s thei r moder n descendant s clai m tha t the y did . Ther e should b e take n int o account , too , th e circumstanc e tha t th e Prankis h chronicler an d biographe r o f Charlemagne, Einhard, note d i n 822 . H e referred to the Serbians, in his Annals, as a nation know n to the Frank s by hearsay only . Thes e fact s mak e i t eviden t tha t th e contentio n advanced b y Ljudmi l Hauptmann an d othe r writer s tha t th e Serbian s must hav e been neighbor s o f the Croatian s in ancient times , an d mus t have com e t o th e Balkan s wit h them , lack s an y kin d o f historica l

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substantiation. I n an y case , th e Bulgar s too k possessio n o f easter n Pannonian Croatia or Srijem abou t 845. The las t perio d o f the three-cornere d Frankish-Croatian-Bulga r wa r coincided wit h th e reig n o f Prince Misla v in Dalmatia n Croatia . Th e principal achievemen t o f this rule r wa s th e creatio n o f a navy , which in 83 9 is reporte d t o hav e defeate d a Venetia n flee t tha t saile d int o Croatian waters . Misla v is als o though t t o hav e signe d a treat y wit h the representative s o f the Republi c o n the islan d o f Korcula followin g this encounter . H e organize d his court o n the Prankis h model bu t too k advantage o f th e weakenin g o f Prankis h authorit y unde r th e les s capable successor s of Charlemagne to concentrate in his own hands th e administration o f justice , the protectio n o f th e church , an d comman d of the arme d forces. 32 Apart fro m th e reference s containe d i n th e Prankis h annals , th e Croatian nam e appears, fo r the first time sinc e the Tanaï s inscriptions , in a charte r issue d b y Mislav' s successor , Trpimir , unde r dat e o f March 4, 852. There has also been preserved a broken stone inscription which designate s Trpimir as "dux Chroatorum." Although Trpimir gav e his nam e t o th e nationa l dynasty , which , i n th e followin g century , transformed th e Croatia n land s into a kingdom, his own offsprin g wer e passed ove r o n hi s deat h i n 86 4 in favo r o f a certai n Domagoj . Thi s latter rule r seem s t o hav e favore d th e Lati n churc h part y ove r th e pro-Byzantine ecclesiastical elemen t tha t existe d amon g the Croatians . He also had to fight another war against the Venetians. Then, following the deat h i n 87 5 of the Prankis h empero r an d Italia n king , Loui s II , Domagoj revolte d agains t Prankis h authority . Althoug h thi s uprisin g was carrie d throug h t o a successfu l conclusion , Domago j did no t liv e to see the triumph o f the national cause. His deat h i n 87 6 initiate d a perio d o f internecin e warfar e tha t capped th e struggl e agains t th e Franks . Princ e Branimir , the so n of Domagoj, an d a relativ e o f Trpimir , emerge d fro m thi s civi l strif e a s the Croatia n "stron g man. " Branimir acknowledge d neithe r Prankis h nor Byzantin e suzerainty, and he may be regarde d a s the rea l founder of Croatia n independence . H e provoke d th e Venetian s b y imposin g a new ta x lev y o n thei r shipping , an d the n i n 88 7 he inflicte d a sever e defeat upo n th e Republic' s navy . The Serenissim a ha d t o agre e t o pay an annua l tribute t o th e Croatia n ruler s in retur n fo r th e righ t o f fre e navigation in the Adriatic. For his part, Branimi r undertook to restrain the piratica l inclination s o f hi s seafarin g subjects , a s wel l a s thos e o f the Neretva n corsairs , who sometime s acknowledge d th e authorit y o f 32 For a popula r accoun t o f Croatia n histor y i n thi s par t o f th e century , se e Tadija Smiciklas , Poviest hrvatska ( 2 vols. ; Zagreb , 1879-1882) , I , 171-178 .

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the Croatia n rulers . Branimi r als o involve d himsel f i n Pannonia n affairs. Branimir's contemporar y i n Pannonia n Croati a wa s Princ e Braslav . Braslav aide d Svatopluk , rule r o f th e Moravia n Slavi c state , agains t the Frank s i n 873 . Soon thereafte r h e returne d t o hi s Prankis h alle giance, however , an d i n 88 4 he receive d fro m hi s Germani c overlord s title t o th e land s betwee n th e Drav a an d Sava . H e the n di d homag e to the Byzantin e empero r for thes e territories . Thereupo n the Gree k ruler entruste d hi m wit h th e defens e o f "al l Pannonia " agains t th e latest wav e o f neo-Hunni c invader s t o overrid e easter n Europe , th e Magyars. Brasla v foun d himsel f unabl e t o hol d bac k th e Magya r menace withou t outsid e assistance . H e appeale d fo r hel p t o Branimir , who dispatche d Trpimir' s son , Muncimir, t o oppos e th e Magya r inroads. I n 891 , Muncimir repulse d a Magya r assaul t upo n th e Pannonian Croatia n land. 33 H e seem s t o hav e succeede d Branimi r i n th e following year as ruler of the Dalmatia n Croatians. When Brasla v died, sometime betwee n 89 3 an d 896 , the wa y wa s clea r fo r th e unio n of Pannonian Croatia—whic h include d th e moder n Posavin a an d Podra vina regions—wit h Dalmatia n Croatia . Th e boundar y betwee n th e two Croatia s a t thi s epoc h appear s t o hav e extende d fro m th e Kup a River t o Kozar a i n Bosni a an d the n throug h th e mountain s o f th e Bosnian Posavin a t o th e Drinjac a Rive r a t it s confluenc e wit h th e Drina. Beyon d th e Drin a ther e la y the Serbia n country . At Bijaci , nea r Trogi r (Traù) , Muncimi r maintaine d a barbaricall y brilliant court . Documents surviving from hi s reign mentio n th e name s and office s o f variou s iupani (counts ) an d cour t officials. 34 Muncimi r asserted tha t h e reigne d b y hereditar y righ t an d h e dispense d justic e from th e sam e ston e sea t tha t hi s father , Trpimir, ha d use d fo r thi s purpose. H e sen t hi s son, Tomislav , t o Pannonia n Croati a t o establis h the authorit y o f hi s hous e ove r tha t lan d a s soo n a s h e hear d o f th e death of Braslav. Tomislav had t o figh t of f the renewe d assault s o f th e Magyars , wh o swam thei r horses acros s the Drav a t o attac k Pannonia n Croati a fro m all sides . Th e oldes t Hungaria n chronicle , tha t o f th e Anonymou s Notary of Bela IV (1236-1273) , says tha t i n th e yea r 90 0 the Magyar s actually conquere d al l of the Croatias . They rod e victoriousl y throug h the Bosnia n an d Dalmatia n mountain s t o th e Adriati c t o captur e 33 On thi s wa r an d Braslav' s reign , se e th e document s i n Racki , Documenta (M.S.H.S.M., VII), 379-382. 34 Daniel Farlati , lllyrlcum sacrum ( 7 vols. ; Venice , 1751-1819) , III , 82 . Muncimir himsel f bor e th e titl e o f "Divin o muñer e iuvatu s Chroatoru m dux. " See Documenta (M.S.H.S.M. , VII), 14-17; Sisi c (éd.) , Enchiridion, 124 .

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Split.35 Bu t ther e i s n o historica l confirmatio n of suc h a n event , an d Zagreb, Pozega , an d Vukovar , whic h th e Notar y say s th e Magyar s captured o n their wa y back to Hungary , did not exis t at this time . Th e consensus o f historica l opinio n i s tha t th e Notar y confuse d th e happenings a t th e en d o f the nint h centur y wit h th e event s tha t accom panied th e Hungarian-Croatia n union tha t wa s effecte d betwee n 109 1 and 1107 . Undoubtedly th e Magyar s laid wast e th e Uppe r Pannonia n countryside fa r an d wide , fo r Bavaria n source s fo r th e yea r 90 0 say that no t a churc h remaine d standin g i n thi s region , an d tha t th e inhabitants fle d t o th e Croatian s an d Bulgarian s fo r shelter. 36 Thi s statement indicates tha t it was Slovakian western Pannoni a rather tha n Croatian Pannoni a tha t th e Magyar s conquered . Th e oldes t Croatia n chronicles, whic h antedat e the Notary' s accoun t by a considerabl e margin, declar e flatl y tha t Tomisla v repelled al l Magya r onslaughts. 37 This versio n o f th e Croatian-Magya r conflict s seem s mor e credibl e than th e Hungaria n source , fo r jus t a fe w year s afte r 90 0 Croati a reached th e pinnacl e o f it s power . S o complete a recover y fro m th e subjection reporte d b y th e Notar y woul d indee d b e remarkable . There is no doubt tha t th e Magya r attacks upo n Pannonia n Croati a did accelerat e the unio n o f the tw o Croatias , however. Tomisla v himself i s reporte d t o hav e take n ove r th e governmen t o f Pannonia n Croatia i n a forma l ceremon y hel d a t Sisak , wher e Ljudevi t an d Braslav had onc e reigned. Whethe r thi s even t occurre d befor e o r afte r Tomislav succeede d Muncimi r a s rule r o f Dalmatia n Croati a i s no t known definitely . I n a n entr y tha t refer s t o th e yea r 914 , the thir teenth-century Historia Salonitana accord s t o Tomislav the title "Duk e of th e Croatians. " Othe r source s indicate tha t h e ma y hav e assume d the dignit y o f kingshi p b y thi s time. 38 B y 92 3 th e pop e evidentl y recognized hi s royal status, although man y authorities believ e tha t th e Croatian rule r was crowned (o r perhaps crowne d himself) onl y in 925. 35 S. Endlicher (éd.) , "Anonym i Belae régis notari i de gesti s Hungaroru m liber, " RerumHung. Mon. Arpadiana (St . Gallen, 1849), 118 . ^Documenta (M.S.H.S.M. , VII), 387. S7 Crncic (éd.) , Popa Dukljanina Ljetopis, 22 . Crnci c believe s tha t principa l Hungarian-Croatian conflict s occurre d i n 91 9 an d 92 4 whe n th e Hungarian s rode through Istri a t o attac k Italy . Croatia n cavalr y strengt h explain s wh y Tomisla v was abl e t o defea t these nomad s who consistentl y defeated th e Frank s an d othe r Germanic tribe s unti l 955 . See Smiciklas, Poviest hrvatska, I, 217 , 222 . 38 F. Racki , "Kad a i kak o s e preobraz i hrvatsk a knezevin a u kraljevinu, " Rod, XVII (1871) , 70-89 . Se e also Documenta (M.S.H.S.M. , VII) , 189, an d th e tex t of th e lette r writte n b y Pop e Joh n X (914-928 ) t o Tomislav , give n i n Iva n Kukuljevic-Sakcinski (éd.) , Jura regni Croatiae, Dalmatiae, et Slavoniae ( 3 vols. ; Zagreb, 1861-1862) , I , 8-11 ; Documenta (M.S.H.S.M. , VII) , 189; Sisic , Enchiridion, 216 ff .

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Two years earlier, the Byzantin e emperor, Romanus Lecapenus, ha d ceded t o Tomisla v th e contro l o f Split , Zadar , an d Trogi r o n th e Dalmatian mainland , and o f Krk an d Ra b amon g the Adriati c islands. Thus the Croatia n coastland became politically independent o f Byzan tium, an d soo n Tomisla v wa s abl e t o brin g unde r hi s scepte r th e islands o f Vis, Brae, an d Hvar . Onl y Dubrovni k an d Koto r no w stoo d outside th e powe r o f the Croatia n king. Byzantium had t o make thes e concessions t o th e risin g Croatia n powe r becaus e th e Bulgars , unde r one o f their greates t tsars , Simeon I, ha d initiate d wha t i s referre d t o sometimes a s th e Bulgar-Byzantin e "Hundred Year s War. " It wa s t o end onl y in 1018 with th e tota l collapse o f the Firs t Bulgarian Empire . This denouemen t migh t neve r hav e com e abou t ha d th e Bulgar s succeeded i n inducin g Tomisla v t o mak e commo n caus e wit h the m against th e Greeks . It i s at leas t doubtfu l that Byzantium , plagued a s it wa s b y Asiati c an d othe r foes , coul d hav e withstoo d a combine d Bulgar-Croatian assaul t i n th e da y o f Simeo n an d Tomislav . But , as indicated above , th e Byzantine s outbid thei r rivals , an d th e Croatian s defeated a n attempte d Bulgaria n invasio n o f th e newl y constitute d kingdom.39 The las t year s o f th e reig n o f thi s firs t o f th e Croatia n king s were signalized b y th e convenin g o f importan t churc h synod s o r councils , which wer e held a t Split between 92 5 and 928. An important issu e tha t required settlemen t wa s th e us e o f th e nationa l languag e i n th e services o f th e Croatia n churches . Earl y i n th e Middl e Age s th e Croatians had develope d a form o f script base d o n an alphabe t know n as the Glagolitic , rather tha n upo n Lati n letters . This Glagoliti c alpha bet an d scrip t i s no t relate d t o th e Cyrilli c alphabe t an d writin g devised b y th e Byzantin e missionaries , Cyri l an d Methodius , fo r th e use of the Moravia n Slavs, whom they were endeavorin g t o conver t t o Christianity. Unless , indeed , a s Professo r Mandi c ha s latel y asserted , Cyril and Methodiu s became acquainte d wit h th e Glagoliti c an d use d it a s th e basi s fo r thei r constructio n o f th e Cyrilli c letters. 40 I n an y ^Documenta (M.S.H.S.M. , VII) , 116, 391-393 , 425 . Se e als o D . Mandic , "Croatian kin g Tomisla v defeate d Bulgaria n empero r Symeo n th e Grea t o n Ma y 27, 927, " Journal of Croatian Studies, I (1960) , 32-43 . Recentl y materia l ha s been discovere d o n th e Croatian-Bulga r peac e conclude d afte r thi s battle . Se e Vinko Foretic , "Korculansk i kodek s 1 2 stoljeca," Starine, XLV I (1956) , 30 . 40 See Mandi c Nenapisano poglavlje hrvatske pismenosti, 364-367 . Se e als o hi s Hrvatski Sabor, 35-38, an d Crvena Hrvatska, 208-211 . Mandic' s findings , whic h are buttresse d b y reference s t o ecclesiastica l an d othe r records , shoul d b e compared wit h th e explanatio n offere d b y M . Hocy , "Di e westliche n Grundlage n der glagolitische n Alphabets, " Südostdeutsche Forschungen, I V (Leipzig , 1939) , 509-600. Se e als o F . Dvornik , Les Slaves, Byzance, et Rome au IX siècle (Paris ,

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case, th e Spli t syno d o f 92 5 eithe r deal t wit h politica l a s wel l a s ecclesiastical affairs , o r Tomislav convened a specia l Sabo r whic h too k up bot h stat e affair s an d churc h matter s soo n afte r th e Spli t delibera tions ended. A s already mentioned , Professo r Mandic is convinced tha t the grea t Sabor tha t is described withou t definit e indicatio n o f date in chapter 9 of the "Ol d Croatian Chronicle, " o r Kraljevstvo Hrvata, an d of th e "Chronicl e o f th e Pries t o f Dioclea, " too k plac e i n 753 . H e believes tha t chapte r 9 o f thes e volume s ar e bot h base d upo n a n eighth-century Croatia n source , th e "Methodos, " whic h containe d th e record o r protocol o f the proceeding s o f the Sabo r o n the Duvn o field. This wor k is mentioned i n chapte r 9 of each o f the tw o late r Croatia n chronicles, bu t n o cop y o f i t ha s survive d th e ages . Henc e man y scholars have reached differen t conclusion s concerning the dat e of this Sabor, an d man y o f them fee l tha t i t mus t hav e bee n hel d soo n afte r the Spli t synod of 925, possibly for the expres s purpose o f controvertin g some o f th e decision s reache d b y thi s grea t churc h council . Thi s dispute ove r th e dat e o f th e Sabo r promise s t o b e on e o f th e mos t hotly disputed point s in Croatian historiography. Since it is not possibl e in a n abbreviate d treatmen t o f this kin d t o examin e th e severa l these s advanced wit h th e car e tha t the y merit , i t seem s bes t t o leav e th e matter ope n fo r further investigatio n an d t o merely refer th e intereste d reader t o the source s of fuller information. 41 Nothing mor e is hear d o f Tomisla v afte r th e Syno d o f Split , unles s he wa s indee d th e rule r wh o preside d ove r th e Sabo r o n th e Duvn o field. H e i s suppose d t o hav e die d o n Marc h 1 0 or 11 , presumably i n 928, but th e history of the period 928-93 5 is extremely unclea r an d ha s given rise to much controversy among historians.42 As a matter o f fact, from thi s tim e unti l th e en d o f the twelft h century , th e Papa l Registe r 1926), 319-320 . Th e bes t genera l treatmen t o f th e us e o f th e Clagoliti c an d o f the Slavoni c liturgy i n th e service s o f th e Croatia n churche s i s probabl y stil l I . Tkalcic, Slavensko bogosluzje u Hrvatskoj (Zagreb , 1904) . 41 Kukuljevic cam e t o th e conclusio n tha t th e Spli t syno d mus t hav e bee n connected wit h th e crownin g of a Croatia n kin g on th e Duvn o Field , a s reporte d i n chapter 9 o f th e ol d chronicle s (Kraljevstvo an d Ljetopis}. Se e hi s serie s o f articles, "Prvovjencan i vladaoc i Bugara , Hrvat a i Srba , i njihov e krune , "Rod, LVII (1881) , 188-233 , LVII I (1881) , 1-52 , an d LI X (1881) , 103-157 . Se e also Documenta (M.S.H.S.M. , VII) , 187-197; Farlati , Illyricum Sacrum, III , 84-102; Tomislav Maretió , "Prv i spljetsk i sabo r i glagolica, " Zbornik Kralja Tomislava, 385-390. Fo r a popula r Croatia n conceptio n o f th e Spli t proceedings , se e Klaic , Povijest Hrvata, I , 83 . Se e als o th e document s i n Sisic , Enchiridion, 211-224 . 42 Some historian s believ e tha t h e die d i n 92 8 an d wa s succeeded, presumably by a brother, wh o reigned a s Trpimir I I fro m 928-935 . Others believ e tha t ther e was n o Trpimi r II , bu t tha t Tomisla v continue d t o rul e fo r som e year s afte r 928. O n this point, compar e Mandic, Crvena Hrvatska, 171-182 , wit h S. Runciman, History of the First Bulgarian Empire (London , 1930) , 211 .

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contains onl y thre e reference s to Croatia n affairs . No r d o Byzantine , Venetian, o r Frenc h chronicler s hav e muc h t o sa y abou t event s i n Croatia. We d o know that th e Croatia n ruler s ha d brough t int o bein g a nationa l state , whic h reache d th e apoge e o f its developmen t unde r Tomislav. Hi s kingdom included som e 100,00 0 squar e kilometers , and its population must have exceeded 2,000,00 0 persons. These figures are truly impressiv e fo r tenth-centur y Europe . Writin g i n th e middl e o f this century , Porphyrogenitu s state d tha t Croati a too k i n th e entir e coastal stretch fro m Istri a to the Cetina . But the imperial annalis t said, too, tha t part s o f ol d Re d Croatia , notabl y Zahumlje , whic h la y between th e Neretv a Rive r an d Dubrovnik—an d thu s include d wha t today i s central Hercegovina , an d Trebinj e o r Travunja , whic h occu pied th e regio n betwee n Dubrovni k an d Kotor—wer e Serbia n rathe r than Croatia n territories. I n Tomislav's tim e these areas were include d within the framework of the Croatia n kingdom. The explanatio n o f th e chang e i n th e politica l nationalit y o f thes e districts i s to b e foun d i n th e circumstanc e that , upo n th e conclusio n of th e shor t reig n o f Tomislav's son , Kresimir I (Th e Old) , civi l wa r broke ou t betwee n hi s son s or thei r respectiv e partisans. 43 I n 94 8 the Venetians too k advantag e o f thi s interna l dissensio n t o attac k th e Croatian coast . Th e Serbians , too , were abl e t o seiz e Zahumlje , Trebinje, par t o f Bosnia, and severa l Croatia n ¿upe ( districts tha t corres ponded o n a smal l scal e t o th e countie s o f Hungar y an d wester n Europe).44 I t i s eviden t tha t th e empero r identifie d Zahumlj e an d Trebinje, a s wel l a s Duklj a (Dioclea) , whic h la y sout h o f Kotor , in terms o f political rathe r tha n ethni c nationality . Ecclesiastica l record s prove that al l of these territorie s wer e Roma n Catholic, use d th e Lati n liturgy, an d wer e subordinate d t o th e archbishopri c o f Split , th e metropolitanate of the entir e Croatian kingdom. 45 Between 94 9 and 96 9 the legitimat e Croatia n kin g appear s t o hav e been Kresimi r II, althoug h thi s younge r so n o f th e firs t Kresimi r ha d some difficulty i n quenching the fires of civil war tha t ha d cos t the lif e of hi s elde r brothe r Mirosla v ( 945-949 ). Graduall y Kresimir was abl e to re-establis h hi s contro l ove r th e Primorje—th e coas t betwee n th e 43 Mandic believe s tha t Kresimi r I reigne d onl y fro m 93 8 t o 944 . See Bosna i Hercegovina, I, 185 , 286. 44 Mandic, Bosna i Hercegovina, I, 186. 45 Mandic, Crvena Hrvatska, 107 . O n thes e lands , se e als o N . Z . Bjelovucic , Crvena Hrvatska i Dubrovnik (Zagreb , 1929) , 5-24 ; F. Sisic , Povijest Hrvata u vrijeme narodnih viadora (Zagreb , 1925) , I , 456-457 ; Knezovic , Poviest Hrvata 58-100; Sisi c (éd.) , Letopis, 305-307 . For th e ethni c details , se e Mandic, Crvena Hrvatska, 107-12 3 and 184-186.

CROATIAN KINGDO in the time of

KING TOMISLAV

M 928 A H

THE

CROATIAN KINGDO M

in the time of KING PETA R KRESIMI R I V 1058-1074 A.D . BOUNDARIES BOUNDARIES O F TH E REGION S UNDE R KRESIMIR'S CONTRO L

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Cetina an d Neretva . About 960 he drov e the Serbian s from tha t par t of Bosnia whic h ha d falle n unde r thei r control . Kresimi r utilize d th e services o f a numbe r o f Jewis h counselor s an d h e maintaine d diplo matic an d commercia l relation s wit h th e Khaza r Jewis h stat e i n southern Russia , which shortl y was t o succum b t o th e pressur e o f th e Muscovites. Kresimi r II use d Jewis h emissaries , too, t o establis h con tact wit h Abderrhame n III , th e Calip h o f Spanis h Cordoba , wh o maintained a Croatia n bod y o f guards a t hi s court . In 96 9 Kresimir's son , Stipa n Drzislav , succeede d t o a n inheritanc e that was still divided. Stipa n was an abl e diploma t an d h e se t to work to repai r th e damag e sustaine d b y th e kingdo m durin g th e perio d of internecine struggle . Throug h the cultivatio n of friendly relation s wit h Byzantium he wa s successfu l i n extendin g Croatia n sovereignt y south ward onc e more. Perhaps his sway extended a s far as northern Albania, where Croatia n linguisti c element s stil l linge r i n th e speec h o f th e population a s an evidence o f a very long period o f Croatian occupatio n in pas t times . Sometim e betwee n 98 6 an d 98 9 th e Gree k empero r granted Drzisla v a gol d crow n an d othe r regali a symboli c o f royalty. It i s thi s circumstanc e whic h explain s th e referenc e mad e i n th e Historia Salonitana t o Drzisla v a s th e firs t o f the Croatia n kings . Th e father o f Croatian historiography, Franjo Racki, seem s to have proved , however, tha t Tomisla v was the first Croatian king, although i t i s tru e that thi s powerfu l rule r ma y simpl y hav e crowne d himsel f withou t bothering t o secur e internationa l recognitio n o f hi s status . Wherea s Tomislav bore the title "Rex Chroatorum," Drzislav styled himsel f "Rex Dalmatiae e t Croatiae. " Probabl y thi s wa s th e designatio n tha t th e Byzantines conceded t o him. The long "Hundred Year s War" no w was nearing it s climax , and th e Bulga r tsa r Samue l was seekin g Croatia n support, jus t as his predecesso r Simeo n had don e i n Tomislav' s time . Once agai n th e Byzantine s outbi d th e Bulgars , however , throug h th e grant o f the regali a an d approva l o f th e extensio n o f Croatia n contro l southward alon g th e Dalmatia n shore . Samue l promptl y attacke d Duklja, Kotor , an d othe r places , an d fo r a time his forces wer e abl e t o take possession o f part o f Srije m an d Bosnia. 46 Bu t th e Bulgar s coul d not wag e wa r o n tw o front s an d soo n ha d t o abando n thei r Croatia n conquests. Chapter 1 3 of th e Historia Salonitana notes tha t th e boundarie s o f Drzislav's kingdo m reached northwar d t o th e Danube , whil e chapte r 15 affirm s tha t th e jurisdictio n o f th e Bisho p o f Knin , wh o bor e th e 48 Sisic, Povijest Hrvata u vrijeme narodnih vladara, I , 468-469 ; Mandic , Bosna i Hercegovina, I, 113 , 287 , 372 , 392 .

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title "episcopus chroatensis" extende d to th e Drava . Historicall y thes e statements are important because they do much to invalidate the clai m later advanced by the Magyar s that the y too k possession of the Drava Sava lan d a t th e beginnin g o f th e tent h century . Certainl y Drzislav' s power mus t have reached t o the Drava , o r the spiritua l jurisdictio n of a bisho p wh o wa s his vassa l would scarcel y hav e bee n acknowledge d in that region. Tradition attribute s the adoptio n o f the Croatia n coat-of-arms, a re d and whit e ches s o r checke r board , t o Stipa n Drzislav . Thi s monarch' s diplomatic skill did not enable him to stave off the troubl e with Venice that develope d towar d th e en d o f his reign. Dog e Pete r Orseol o concluded a commercia l agreemen t wit h Byzantium , whereb y Venic e received th e righ t t o trad e i n al l parts o f the Easter n Roma n Empire. Orseolo then refuse d t o pay th e tribut e that Venic e had owe d t o th e Croatian rulers from th e ninth century . In 994 the Republi c attempte d to seiz e th e Croatia n islan d o f Vis . When Drzisla v die d i n 997 , wa r broke out between his sons over his inheritance. His younger offspring , Kresimir an d Gojslav , joine d forces t o figh t thei r elde r brother , Sveto slav, an d the y accepte d Venetia n assistanc e to wi n the day , an d s o to take over their father's state. Kresimir an d Gojsla v the n exercise d a kin d o f join t dominio n ove r the Croatia n kingdom. Stipan, the so n of Kresimir, married Hicela , th e daughter o f Dog e Pete r Orseolo. 47 Followin g th e deat h o f th e latter , the Republi c exile d th e Orseol o family . Kresimi r an d Gojsla v too k advantage o f this developmen t t o reimpos e Croatia n contro l ove r th e Dalmatian cities , which Orseol o had temporaril y won fo r Venic e afte r Drzislav's death. But by 1018 Basi l II o f Byzantium had ende d th e long "Hundred Year s War " wit h th e Bulgar s an d ha d extinguishe d Bul garian independenc e altogether . Kresimir , too , ha d t o acknowledg e Greek suzerainty. During his last years of rule, he took care to cultivate friendly relation s with Byzantium , but h e als o allie d himsel f wit h th e Hungarian kingdo m whic h h e aide d i n a wa r tha t i t fough t agains t Conrad I I o f Germany . The contentio n late r advance d b y th e Hun garians—that the y gav e Slavonia , th e lan d betwee n th e Drav a an d Sava Rivers , to th e Croatian s as a rewar d fo r th e assistanc e rendere d by th e latte r i n th e struggl e with th e Germans—i s certainl y erroneous . It i s nonetheles s no t altogethe r clea r wh o controlle d Slavoni a i n th e eleventh century. The oldes t surviving sources refer t o it as a masterless land. A t leas t Kresimi r III , o n hi s deathbed , ha d th e satisfactio n of knowing tha t th e accessio n o f hi s so n Stipa n woul d b e unopposed . 47

On thi s perio d see Documenta (M.S.H.S.M. , VII) , 425-29.

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Stipan ha d bee n educate d i n Venic e an d ha d travele d widel y i n various parts o f the the n know n world. Despite hi s Venetian upbring ing an d kinshi p wit h th e Orseolos , h e pursue d anti-Venetia n policie s after hi s coronation . H e worke d vigorousl y t o comba t Venetia n in fluences in th e Dalmatia n towns , bu t th e exac t statu s o f these place s vis-à-vis Venice and th e Croatia n kingdom during Stipan' s reig n i s not known.48 He is reported t o have bestowed a twenty-five-mile stretch of territory, includin g th e valle y o f the Ombl a River , upon th e Croatia n city stat e o f Dubrovnik . H e i s als o said t o hav e founde d churche s i n this tow n an d i n other s i n it s vicinity. 49 Stipa n die d i n 1058 , leavin g two sons , Peta r Kresimir , an d a younge r offsprin g whos e nam e ha s not bee n preserve d fo r posterity , althoug h th e so n o f thi s anonymous prince wa s evidentl y name d Stipa n afte r hi s grandfather . Petar Kresimir , wh o ruled a s Kresimi r IV , wa s a shrew d diplomat : he knew how to take advantage of every fluctuation in the international situation. Byzantiu m stil l retaine d a shadow y lega l sovereignt y ove r Split, Trogir , an d Zadar , but th e validit y of her right s depende d upo n the strengt h of her militar y power. I n 107 1 th e fata l disaste r o f Manzikert los t t o he r foreve r her mos t importan t province, Anatolia , whic h henceforth wa s t o be a recruiting groun d fo r th e Selju k an d Ottoma n Turks rathe r tha n fo r Byzantium , a s i t ha d bee n i n th e past . Th e Dalmatian town s hastene d t o recogniz e th e sovereignt y o f Peta r Kresimir afte r thi s event . Th e Croatia n monarc h no w wa s abl e t o establish undispute d Croatia n contro l ove r the entir e littoral , includin g the Neretvan territory. Even before Manzikert, the definitive incorporation o f the Dalmatia n towns i n th e Croatia n kingdo m had virtuall y been a foregon e conclusion. The papac y supporte d Croatia n territoria l aspiration s a s a coun terpoise t o th e powe r o f Byzantium . Yet, up t o th e latte r year s o f th e reign o f Peta r Kresimir , th e Lati n coasta l citie s ha d maintaine d a lukewarm attitud e towar d acceptanc e o f Croatia n sovereignt y ove r them, an d the y ha d flirte d wit h Venic e a s wel l a s wit h Byzantium . Papal recognitio n o f Peta r Kresimir' s titl e o f "Kin g o f Croati a an d Dalmatia" confirmed hi s assumption of authority along the entir e coast . It i s only from hi s tim e o n that Dalmati a cam e t o b e full y integrate d 48

Farlati, Illyricum sacrum, I, 223 . Th e Lati n towns an d island s were becoming Croatianized, however . Se e Sisic , Povijest Hrvata u vrijeme narodnih vladara, I , 297 ff. , 408-41 1 passim, 436 , 483 , 522ff. , 612 ; Mandic , Postanak Vlaha prema novim poviestnim iztrazivanjima (Bueno s Aires , 1956) , 18-19 ; Knezovic , Poviest Hrvata, 117 . Sibenik , Biograd-na-Mor u and othe r places wer e ethnicall y Croatian. 49 F. Appendini , Notizie istorico-critiche sulle antichità, storia e letteratura di Ragusei ( 2 vols.; Dubrovnik, 1849), I , 163 .

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with Croati a proper , an d tha t th e ter m Tripl e o r Triun e Kingdo m could b e legitimatel y use d t o describ e th e unio n o f Croatia , Slavonia , and Dalmatia . Re d Croati a an d Bosni a wer e include d i n th e Croatia n state, whic h no w appeare d stronge r tha n i t ha d bee n i n th e da y of Tomislav and Drzislav. But religiou s dissensio n was tearing apar t fro m withi n th e imposin g edifice buil t u p b y th e Croatia n monarchs . I n al l likelihood th e Mas s had bee n celebrate d i n th e nationa l languag e i n man y Croatia n churches sinc e th e tim e o f Branimir. 50 The ide a o f a nationa l church , in communio n with Rome , but followin g Byzantin e rather tha n Lati n practices, wa s popular i n tenth - an d eleventh-centur y Croatia . Excep t for th e hierarchy , whic h ofte n include d non-Croatians , fe w Croatia n priests kne w much, if any , Latin. Churc h synod s held a t Spli t i n 1059 and 106 0 prescribed th e us e o f Latin an d th e Roma n rit e i n al l o f th e Croatian churches. 51 Peta r Kresimi r cede d suprem e ecclesiastica l authority t o th e Lati n bishops . Henc e the y ha d read y acces s t o th e court and were able t o exert much influenc e upo n the political policie s of th e state . A serious schis m the n develope d betwee n th e adherent s of th e nationa l church ide a an d th e advocate s o f the Lati n party . Th e bishop o f Knin , wh o i s supposed t o hav e favore d th e nationa l churc h group, functioned as Petar Kresimir' s chancellor. Hi s offic e issue d laws , decrees, charters , an d othe r documents . I n on e o f these , tha t date s from 1066 , ther e occur s the firs t officiall y recorde d us e o f the Croatia n name that has come down to us, although ther e i s no doubt tha t it was employed ofte n enoug h long before this time. 52 In th e day s of the nationa l rulers , "Croatia" meant al l the lan d fro m the Adriati c inlan d as far as the Drav a and the Drina . Mostl y it included th e territor y a s fa r eas t a s th e Drina , whic h marke d th e westernmost extensio n o f Serbia n sovereignty . Ofte n th e Byzantin e historians noted that west of this river there live d a nation that differe d from th e Serbia n wit h respec t t o government , religion , nationa l life , and customs. 53 It is probable that dialectica l difference s i n the speeche s used by the two peoples wer e mor e pronounced than the y are today. 54 ^Documenta (M.S.H.S.M. , VII), 192. ^Enchiridion, 232-238. See also Farlati, Illyricum Sacrum, III , 127-130 . ^Documenta (M.S.H.S.M. , VII) , 511-512. Th e us e o f Croatia n term s fo r court dignitarie s indicate s tha t Croatia n a s wel l a s Lati n mus t hav e bee n spoke n in court circles . 63 Mandic, Crvena Hrvatska, 184-186. 5 *Since th e middl e o f th e nineteent h century , th e Croatian s hav e use d th e ijékavski speec h o f th e sto dialec t a s th e commo n literary language . Th e Serb s us e the ekavski speec h o f the sam e dialect. Henc e th e idea ha s arise n tha t th e Croatia n and Serbia n literar y language s ar e identical , an d th e ter m "Serbo-Croatian " ha s

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"Dalmatia" usually mean t onl y th e Lati n citie s an d island s o f th e ol d Byzantine Theme , althoug h sometime s th e ter m seem s t o hav e bee n employed t o designat e th e whol e coasta l stretc h a s fa r a s th e Cetina , and eve n southwar d o f that river . Th e nam e "Slavonia " wa s stil l no t used by the Croatians themselves to describe th e territor y between th e Drava an d Sava . Earl y medieva l source s distinguishe d betwee n thi s area, whic h wa s know n a s "Pannonia n Croatia, " o r "Croati a o f th e Sava," and th e "land s o f the Vindes, " that is, of the Serbians , Slovenes , and Slovaks . Bu t th e Italian s referre d t o al l Croatia n district s a s "Slavonian," an d i n tim e thi s ter m cam e t o b e synonymou s wit h "Croatian." Venice was a slave-trading entrepôt , an d the Venetian s did not differentiat e between th e Croatia n an d Serbian , Slovene , or othe r Slavic prisoners tha t the y took. 55 The insistenc e o f many Croatian s o n the maintenanc e o f Gree k practice s i n th e Croatia n churches , an d o n the us e o f the Glagoliti c rathe r tha n th e Lati n script , unquestionabl y helped identif y thi s people o f mixed origin a s a purel y Slavi c group. 58 On Peta r Kresimir' s deat h i n 107 3 o r 1074 , hi s nephe w Stipan , th e legitimate hei r t o th e throne , wa s se t asid e i n favo r o f Slavac , wh o probably wa s th e hea d o f th e grea t Snacic—or , possibly , th e Kacic — clan, whic h controlle d th e Neretva n an d adjacen t territories . Michae l Dukljanski, o f Duklja o r Dioclea i n old Re d Croatia , too k advantage of this dynasti c alteratio n t o declar e th e independenc e o f the Re d Croa tian or Dioclean state . Owin g to the Manziker t catastrophe, whic h ha d so weakene d th e powe r o f Byzantium , an d t o dynasti c strif e i n th e Greek empire , Michae l was able to set himself up a s a sovereign i n his own right , an d hencefort h th e path s o f th e tw o norther n Croatia s were t o diverge , perhap s forever , fro m thei r ol d souther n associate . Today th e Serbia n ethni c strai n ha s replace d th e Croatia n i n larg e parts of this old Croatian territory. 67 Slavac seem s t o hav e bee n ba n o f th e Neretva n provinc e a t th e been coine d t o describ e them . Dr . Christophe r Spalati n o f Marquett e University, a linguisti c expert , treat s thi s proble m i n hi s articl e "D o Croat s an d Serb s spea k the sam e language?, " Osoba i Duh (Madrid , 1951) . Unti l th e las t century , the Croatian s habituall y use d cakavski o r kajkavski dialect s i n thei r writin g more than the y do today. 55 See R. Heynen, Zur Entstehung des Kapitalismus in Venedig (Stuttgart , 1905), 32-35. 56 On the effec t o f the persistenc e of Byzantine practices in the Croatia n churches, see F . Sisic , Pregled povijesti hrvatskoga naroda (Zagreb , 1911) , 1-72 . 57 For th e ethni c details , se e Mandic , Crvena Hrvatska, 107-123 , 184-186 . Mandic believe s tha t th e Kraljevstvo Hrvata wa s writte n betwee n 107 4 an d 108 1 to justif y th e secessio n of th e Re d Croatia n territor y fro m th e Croatia n kingdom: Bosna i Hercegovina, I , 189-190 , 290 , 334 , 339 ; Nenapisano poglavlje hrvatske pismenosti, 397; Crvena Hrvatska, 18-38.

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time of Petar Kresimir' s demise. The title "ban" is a peculiarly Croatia n designation, an d i s generall y take n t o b e indicativ e o f th e Irania n origin o f th e Croatia n nation . Th e ban s o f th e nationa l dynast y wer e great territoria l lord s whose status resembled that o f the ol d Marzbans of th e Irania n kings. 58 Ther e seem s t o hav e bee n thre e o f the m i n Petar Kresimir' s time . Accordin g to a n Austrian source , th e Chronicon pictum Vindobonense (Wiener Bilderchronik), a certai n Dimita r Zvonimir had functione d a s ban o f a territory "whic h la y near Hungar y and Carinthia. " Thi s regio n i s generall y assume d t o b e th e lan d between th e Drav a and Sava , or Slavonia, although, as indicated above , no reall y definit e dat a abou t eleventh-centur y Slavoni a ha s survive d the vicissitude s of the ages . Zvonimir's clan affiliatio n i s unknown, bu t he mus t hav e belonge d t o on e o f th e twelv e grea t house s tha t rule d south o f th e Gvoz d Mountain s i n ol d Whit e o r Dalmatia n Croatia , because he married the sister of the Hungaria n king, who certainly wa s unlikely t o besto w he r han d upo n jus t anybody . Zvonimi r seem s t o have bee n absen t fro m Croati a a t th e tim e o f Kresimir IV's death ; h e was aidin g hi s Hungaria n kinsme n i n a wa r tha t the y wer e fightin g with th e Serbians. 59 Probabl y thi s i s wh y Slava c wa s abl e t o mak e himself king , sinc e Peta r Kresimi r ha d associate d Zvonimi r wit h himself i n detail s o f governmen t durin g th e las t year s o f hi s reign , an d surviving document s mentio n thi s brother-in-la w o f th e kin g o f Hungary i n suc h a wa y a s to sugges t tha t h e wa s bein g groome d fo r th e royal dignity . Slava c was abl e t o functio n a s kin g fo r onl y abou t on e year (1074-1075) , fo r th e Norman s o f Apuli a invade d Dalmatia , captured him , an d carrie d hi m of f to Italy . Wit h thi s ephemera l rule r out o f th e way , Zvonimir's accession t o th e thron e wa s assured . Pop e Gregory VI I sen t a papal legat e t o crown him, and Zvonimi r acknowledged th e Croatia n crow n to b e a fief of the papacy. 60 The immediat e consequenc e o f thi s actio n wa s tha t Byzantiu m transferred t o Venic e al l o f th e ancien t lega l jurisdiction s an d right s that she once had exercise d over the citie s and islands of her Dalmatia n Theme. Fo r th e momen t thi s wa s onl y a n empt y gesture , sinc e Zvonimir ha d a fir m gri p o n th e entir e coasta l territor y onc e th e Normans ha d withdrawn . Bot h Croati a an d Norma n Sicily no w wer e 58 See M. Ehtéchan, L'Iran sous les Achéménides (Fribourg , 1946), 40. BSLadislas V . Szalay , Geschichte Ungarns, trans . H . Wôgere r (Pest , 1866) , 189-190; Documenta (M.S.H.S.M. , VII) , 453 . 60 On thi s "tim e o f troubles, " se e Mandic , Bosna i Hercegovina I , 188-190 ; Sisic, Povijest Hrvata u vrijeme narodnih vladara, 538-566 , passim; Documenta, (M.S.H.S.M., VII), 103-146; Jura regni, I, 16-29; Matija Mesio, "Dimita r Zvonimi r Kralj hrvatski, " Rod XXXI X (1877) , 115-141 .

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papal vassals , so Zvonimir allied himsel f with th e Byzantin e bête noire , Robert Guiscard, the rule r o f Sicily. Their combine d squadron s wo n a great victor y over the Byzantin e and Venetia n squadrons , of f Corfu i n 1084. Afte r thi s event , th e Gree k emperor Alexiu s Comnenus made hi s peace with the papacy an d asked Rome to aid him in his perennial war with the Selju k Turk s who held Anatolia, the ol d reservoir o f Byzantine military powe r an d agricultura l prosperity . Th e answe r t o thi s appea l was the launchin g of the Firs t Crusad e a decade later. First , however , the papacy wante d Zvonimir to lead a kind of Croatian crusad e agains t the Bogomi l heretics i n Bulgari a and a nomadic people, th e Patzinak s or Pechenegs , wh o wer e threatenin g Byzantiu m in thi s sam e area . The Croatian kings were not absolute or arbitrary rulers. They had t o secure the consen t of Sabor, the parliamentar y assembly of high nobles and prelates , befor e the y coul d sen d a n arm y outsid e th e border s o f the kingdom . I t i s a singula r fac t tha t afte r thei r conques t o f thei r present-day homeland , the war s fought by the Croatian s in the cours e of thei r subsequen t histor y hav e almos t alway s bee n defensiv e ones . But Zvonimi r wa s faithfu l t o hi s obligation s t o th e papacy , an d h e is popularly suppose d t o hav e convene d a grea t Sabo r o n th e field of Knin. Ther e i s some indication tha t freeme n i n general , a s wel l a s th e nobles and prelates, ma y have attende d thi s meeting , fo r peasants an d mountaineers see m t o hav e bee n present . The y ma y hav e com e onl y as attendant s o r bodyguard s o f th e lords , however . Ba n Peta r Snaci c assumed th e leadershi p o f th e factio n which di d no t wan t t o execut e the papa l commissio n agains t th e heretic s an d nomads . Th e feu d between th e nationa l (Byzantin e practices ) an d th e Lati n churc h parties seem s to have flamed up agai n too. The norther n Croatian s ar e said t o hav e backe d Zvonimir , bu t th e argumen t culminate d i n a general melee , in which Zvonimi r was fatally wounded. Popular tradi tion stil l designate s a littl e hill , th e rotna gomila (Conspirator' s Mound), as the place where he met his end. But the whole story of this Sabor ma y b e a n inventio n o f late r writers , fo r ther e i s n o positiv e mention o f Zvonimir after 108 7 in th e mos t authentic extan t sources. 61 As tim e passed , a golde n haz e cam e t o surroun d th e memor y of 61 Dr. Stjepa n Gunjaca , th e directo r o f th e Museu m of Croatia n Antiquitie s i n Split, ha s written the lates t word on this question and ha s adduce d much evidence to prov e tha t Zvonimi r die d a violen t death , a s traditio n ha s it . Se e hi s "Kak o i gdje j e svrsi o hrvatsk i kral j Dimitrij e Zvonimir, " Rod, CCLXXXVII I (1952) ; see als o Crnci c (éd.) , Popa Dukljanina Ljetopis, 32-36 ; F . Racki , "Dopunjc i i izpravci z a starij u povjes t hrvatsku . 3 . O smrt i hrvatskog a kralj a Dimitrij a Svini mira," Rod, XI X (1872) , 62-104 ; I . Krsnjavi , Zur historia Salonitana des Thomas Archidiacon in Spalato (Zagreb , 1900) , 146-169 .

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Zvonimir's reign . Typica l o f th e nostalgi c tribute s t o th e las t grea t national king is this one: Also i n th e tim e o f the grea t kin g there wa s jo y in th e whol e land , becaus e there wa s a superfluit y o f good s o f al l kind s an d th e fin e citie s possesse d great wealt h i n gol d an d silver . An d th e poo r di d no t fea r tha t the y woul d be exploite d b y th e ric h no r th e wea k tha t the y woul d b e expose d t o th e violence o f th e strong , no r th e servan t tha t hi s maste r woul d d o hi m a n injustice. Fo r th e kin g hel d hi s protectin g han d ove r all , an d a s h e himsel f possessed nothin g unlawfully, so he di d no t permi t other s t o d o so . And th e land wa s ful l o f goods o f every kind, and th e adornment s which th e wome n and youn g people wor e ha d greate r value tha n th e wort h o f an entir e estat e in other countries. 62

Certainly th e kingdo m seem s t o hav e prospere d economicall y i n Zvonimir's time, for Croatia n maritime commerce, since the earl y days of Peta r Kresimir' s rule, overshadowe d that o f Venice i n th e Adriatic , and wa s wel l known in th e Mediterranea n as well. I n th e fal l o f 1888 , when th e Austrian s wer e layin g a railroa d lin e fro m Siveri c t o Knin , they found it necessary to cut through a hillock known popularly a s the Kapitul, whic h was located about on e kilometer east of the presen t sit e of Knin . They uncovere d the remain s of church buildings , an d furthe r investigations undertake n b y th e note d Croatia n archaeologis t Fran e Bulic revealed adequat e evidence tha t Knin was a principal sea t o f old Croatian royalt y an d th e cente r o f it s administratio n o f justice . Ston e sculptures an d marbl e slabs , ornamente d wit h a variet y o f interlace d patterns tha t ar e typicall y Croatian, were recovered. Zvonimir himself is supposed t o have been buried nea r Knin , where th e Croatia n crown and othe r roya l regalia probabl y wer e kept fo r a time afte r hi s death . The myster y tha t surround s th e ultimat e fat e o f thes e symbol s of Croatian royalty remains unsolved. Stipan II , th e las t of the Hous e of Trpimir, no w wa s retrieve d fro m a monaster y i n whic h h e ha d spen t twelv e year s o f hi s lif e (1077 1089). H e seem s to hav e reigne d onl y until 1090 . I n 109 0 Ladisla s of Hungary too k possession o f al l territor y u p t o th e Gvoz d mountains , that is , o f presen t da y Slavonia . Apparentl y th e Hungaria n monarc h did no t ente r thi s Croatia n distric t a s a conqueror , bu t i n respons e t o the plea s o f at leas t some elements i n th e Croatia n populatio n an d i n accordance wit h th e wishe s o f hi s ow n sister , Zvonimir' s widow . Anarchy seems to have threatened durin g the year s of Stipan II' s weak 62 Lucius (Lucie) , De regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae, 308. Se e also Mila n Sufflay , "Zu de n alteste n kroatisch-ungarische n Beziehungen, " Ungarische Rundschau, I V (1915), 888 . Bu t ther e are evidence s o f internal dissensio n i n Zvonimir' s Croatia, too: see Documenta (M.S.H.S.M . VII), 117, 124 , 140 .

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rule, and many people probabl y wante d t o see the restoratio n of peace and order, whoever would restore it.63 Petar Snaci c is then suppose d to have been pu t o n the thron e by th e national churc h party , which wa s als o anti-Hungarian . Accordin g t o the fourteenth-centur y Venetia n chronicler , Dándolo , Peta r reigne d until 1097, whe n he was defeated and killed by Koloman, the new king of Hungary . There i s no other historica l record o f "King" Petar Snacic . Dr. I. Krsnjavi constructe d a chain of evidence a t the beginnin g o f th e present centur y to prove tha t Zvonimir actuall y was killed o n the field of Kni n i n 1089 , bu t tha t popula r traditio n manage d t o confus e hi s demise wit h th e fat e o f a legendar y "counter-king " wh o oppose d th e Hungarian claims. 64 The lack of agreement concerning the career s and destinies o f thes e tw o individual s i s indicativ e o f th e fac t tha t th e factual framework of Croatian medieval histor y is pervaded by lacunae which have given rise to much controversy and speculation. Henc e the early perio d o f th e Croatia n stor y doe s no t posses s the clarit y tha t i s to b e foun d i n th e nationa l records o f man y othe r peoples . THE HUNGARIA N PERIO D For more than fou r centurie s Croati a and Slavoni a were no w destine d to share the fat e o f Hungary. The Venetian s tried har d t o tak e possession o f Dalmatia , bu t Koloma n mad e goo d fo r th e momen t th e Hungarian clai m t o thi s par t o f th e Trpimirovi c legacy . Fo r a lon g time Croatia n historian s have endeavore d t o prov e tha t i n 110 2 Kolo man concluded , wit h th e twelv e grea t clan s sout h o f th e Gvozd , a n instrument know n a s th e Pacta Conventa, whic h recognize d th e legitimacy of his succession to the inheritanc e o f the Hous e of Trpimir . In retur n h e guarantee d th e integrit y o f the existin g propert y posses sion o f all freeme n an d agree d t o respec t an d maintai n Croatia n law s and customs . There probabl y wa s som e kin d o f agreemen t effecte d between Koloma n an d th e Croatians , bu t abou t a decad e ag o Dr . Ljudmil Hauptman n prove d tha t th e charte r supposedl y issue d b y Koloman t o the tow n o f Trogir—which supplie s th e foundatio n for th e knowledge of the provision s of the suppose d Pacta Conventa—seems t o be a falsificatio n datin g fro m th e fourteent h rathe r tha n fro m th e beginning o f th e twelft h century . I t i s interestin g t o note , however , es

Historia Salonitana, chapter 17. KrSnjavi, Zur historia Salonitana, 34-41 . Th e authorit y fo r th e reig n o f Peta r Snacié i s th e fourteenth-centur y Venetia n chronicle r Dándolo . Se e A . Dándolo , Chronicon Venetum, ed. Muratori, XII . 64

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that unti l almos t th e middl e o f th e nineteent h centur y th e Magyar s themselves neve r denie d th e Croatia n thesi s of a peaceful arrangemen t made betwee n thei r ancestor s an d th e Hungaria n ruler . The n a nationally chauvinisti c element , calle d int o lif e b y Loui s Kossuth , began t o clai m tha t Koloma n ha d mad e n o agreemen t wit h th e Croatians—he ha d simpl y conquere d them. 65 What reall y happene d wa s tha t a kin d o f federa l relationshi p wa s established betwee n th e tw o countries . Unti l 130 1 th e Magya r roya l line o f the Arpad s ruled Croati a a s well a s Hungary . Bu t thes e Hun garian king s di d not have th e powe r t o legislat e a t thei r ow n pleasur e in s o far a s Croati a an d Dalmati a wer e concerned . Withou t a formal invitation from Sabor , the medieval Croatian parliament, the sovereigns were no t eve n suppose d t o ente r Croatia-Dalmati a wit h a militar y force. Th e actua l ruler s o f Croati a an d Dalmati a wer e th e Croatia n bans. Ther e i s a popula r saying , "Tk o sudi , ona j viada " (H e wh o judges, rules) , tha t expresse s th e traditiona l Croatia n concep t o f th e Hungarian-Croatian relationshi p unde r th e Arpads . Srijem, however , probabl y wa s take n ove r b y th e Magyar s a s earl y as 1071, an d the Arpads seem to have felt tha t Slavoni a was Hungaria n rather tha n Croatian territory. The twelve grea t clan s had no propertie s between th e Gvoz d an d th e Drava , s o they wer e no t intereste d i n th e fate o f the Drava-Sav a lands. They di d se e to it, however, tha t foreign ers receive d n o holding s sout h o f the Gvozd . Unti l th e las t quarte r o f the thirteent h century , th e Arpad s usually were crowne d separatel y a s Hungarian an d Croatia n kings . They swor e o n th e cros s and Bibl e t o respect Croatia n law s and t o maintain Croatian right s an d privileges. 66 It i s only in 1451 tha t w e find the first instance o f a Hungaria n statut e being applie d to the Croatian country . Hungarian rather than Croatia n laws apparently prevailed i n Slavonia. 67 65 Stephan Horvath , Ueber Kroatien ais eines durch Unterjochung erworbene ungarische Provinz and des Kônigreichs Ungarn wirklichen Teiles (Leipzig , 1844) . Sisic ha s summe d u p th e evidenc e o n bot h th e Croatia n an d Hungaria n side s of this argumen t i n hi s Enchiridion, 409-423 ; se e als o page s 462-46 4 an d 561-562 . The Croatia n interpretatio n o f th e dua l relationship i s presente d i n J . Pliveric , Eeitrage zur Ung.-Kroatische Bundesrechte (Zagreb , 1886) , 204-228 . Se e als o Sufflay, "Z u den alteste n k.-u. Beziehungen," 889; Krsnjavi , Zur historia Salonitana, 146-169. 66/wra regni, I, 22, 23, 26, 29, 31, 35, 36. 6T In th e nineteent h century , th e Kossuthis t elemen t i n Hungar y advance d th e claim that the Magyar s owned the lan d between th e Drav a and Sav a as early as the tenth century . Accordin g t o thi s schoo l o f thought , i t wa s onl y i n th e thirteent h century tha t th e territor y containin g the moder n counties of Zagreb , Varazdin, an d Krizevci cam e t o b e calle d Slavonia . The y wer e no t know n a s Croatia n unti l th e last decade s o f th e eighteent h century . Se e F . Pesty , Die Entstehung Kroatiens (Budapest, 1882) , 71-72 . Dr . Mih o Barad a ha s advance d th e suggestio n tha t Dimitar Zvonimir was a member o f a junior branch o f the Trpimirovi ó line o f king s

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As heir s o f th e nationa l rulers , th e Arpad s rule d al l o f Dalmati a north o f th e Makarsk a littoral . A long-drawn-ou t struggl e fo r th e control of the coastlan d began wit h Venic e after th e deat h o f Koloman, who ha d know n ho w t o restrai n th e ambition s o f th e Italia n "Quee n of th e Adriatic. " Bot h th e Arpad s an d thei r successors , th e Angevins, who reigne d fro m 130 1 t o 1382 , expecte d themselve s t o preserv e Croatian commercia l and national interests vis-à-vis the risin g power of Venice. Bu t i n 116 3 th e las t grea t empero r o f Byzantium , Manue l Comnenos, inflicted a severe defea t upon th e Hungarian-Croatia n dua l kingdom. H e invade d Dalmati a i n person , an d w e ar e tol d tha t th e Croatian ¿upani ( local noble administrators ) had t o appea r befor e hi m barefooted an d wit h rope s aroun d thei r necks . Fro m 116 8 t o 1180 , Dalmatia, Bosnia , Srijem, an d al l Croati a fro m th e Velebi t Mountain s to the Neretva acknowledged Greek sovereignty. Manuel's deat h ende d this renaissanc e o f Byzantin e dominanc e i n th e Balkans , an d i t wa s Venice whic h profite d ultimatel y from th e interlude . The particula r objec t o f Venetian aspiration s was th e tow n o f Zadar. In 1202 the doge, Henr y Dándolo , induced th e host that had assemble d at Venic e fo r th e purpos e o f launchin g a fourt h crusad e agains t th e Mohammedan power s whic h dominate d Egyp t an d th e Hol y Land , to divert its effort s t o th e captur e o f Zadar. Th e succes s o f this endeavo r enabled th e Venetians to plant thei r feet firmly in Dalmatia fo r th e first time sinc e Roma n days . I n thes e tempestuou s year s o f wa r wit h Byzantium an d Venice, th e Arpads were i n no position t o combin e th e administration o f thei r Hungaria n an d Croatian-Dalmatia n kingdoms . Even whe n th e late r Arpad s ha d th e intentio n o f effectin g a close r union o f th e tw o countries , dynasti c quarrel s an d externa l pressures, such a s the Mongo l invasio n o f 1241-1242, permitte d th e continuatio n of Croatia n autonomy . The Subi ó clan emerge d a s masters of the land s south o f the Gvozd , an d whe n th e Arpa d lin e becam e extinc t i n 1301 , the "kingmaker, " Mlade n Subie , engineere d th e accessio n t o th e Croatian-Dalmatian thron e o f Charles Robert of the Neapolita n branc h of th e Frenc h hous e o f Anjou . Th e Magyar s chos e anothe r ruler , an d only i n 130 7 wa s Charle s Rober t abl e t o mak e goo d hi s claim s i n Hungary. Thi s episod e ha s been cite d a s evidence o f the fac t tha t th e Croatians di d no t conside r tha t thei r kingdo m wa s par t o f th e Hungarian state . The y merel y recognize d th e suzeraint y o f the Hungaria n reigning hous e ove r Croatia-Dalmatia . Charles Rober t allowed the Croatian s to go their ow n way for almost which governe d Slavoni a durin g th e elevent h century . Se e hi s stud y "Dinasticko pitanje u Hrvatsko j X L stoljeca, " Vjesntk za arheóíogiiu i hitforiiu dalmatinsku (Split, 1932) , 159-174. :

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twenty years . Finall y h e intervene d i n Croatia n affair s t o curtai l th e power o f Mlade n II Subi e who had arouse d th e ir e o f other Croatia n noble houses . Onc e th e kin g had remove d Mlade n fro m th e Croatia n scene,68 a noble "Fronde " developed, whe n the Nelipi c family invoked Venetian assistanc e agains t th e roya l power . Charle s Robert' s suc cessor, Louis I (1340-1382) , fought severa l wars with Venic e over th e possession o f Dalmatia . Althoug h th e Serbian s mad e commo n caus e with th e Venetian s agains t th e Hungarian-Croatia n state , Loui s suc ceeded i n reuniting all the Croatia n territory between Istri a an d Kotor. Even Dubrovni k recognized hi s nomina l sovereignty. Parenthetically , it should be noted that Dubrovni k represented a synthesis of the Lati n and Croatia n cultures . I t wa s neve r a Serbia n town , althoug h mos t Western writer s o f th e moder n er a designat e i t a s such. 69 I t wa s referred t o i n earlie r time s a s th e "jewe l o f th e Croatia n crown " al though i t maintaine d it s independenc e fro m an y outsid e politica l authority b y astut e diplomac y durin g a grea t par t o f it s history . Because o f the treatmen t mete d ou t t o Mlade n I I Subie , hi s famil y cherished a burning hatred agains t th e Angevi n rulers. They accepte d assistance fro m bot h th e Serbian s an d th e Venetian s an d di d no t scruple t o betra y Croatia n territor y int o th e hand s o f thes e peoples . Finally, Loui s I induced th e pope t o persuade the m t o exchang e thei r fortress o f Ostrovica, key t o th e defense s of Zadar an d Sibenik , for th e territory o f Zrin j o n th e Un a River . Thus , i n late r time s th e hous e of Subie became known as the Zrinski. MEDIEVAL BOSNIA Louis I marrie d Elizabet h Kotromanic , th e daughte r o f th e Ba n o f Bosnia. Bosni a doubtless wa s a n earl y Croatia n settlemen t area 70 an d seems t o hav e existe d a s a littl e principalit y alon g th e uppe r cours e 68

There appear s t o b e n o basi s fo r th e popularl y hel d conceptio n tha t Charle s Robert di d awa y wit h Mladen . Se e Mih o Barada , "Vrijem e smrt i i obiteljsk i odnosaji bañ a Mladen a II, " Zbornik naucnih Radova Ferdi Stëicu, éd . G . Nova k (Zagreb, 1929) , 167-171. 69 The Croatia n dialec t wa s use d i n thi s city-stat e a t leas t fro m th e elevent h century, an d probabl y lon g before that . Unti l lat e i n th e Middl e Age s Serbia n wa s not spoke n here , an d Serbian s wer e no t allowe d t o remai n overnight withi n th e town walls . O n th e questio n o f th e introductio n o f th e Serbia n dialec t int o Dubrovnik, se e M . Resetar , "Di e ragusanische n Urkunde n de s XIII-X V Jahrhun derts," Archiv fur Slavische Philologie, XV I (1894) , 321-368 , XVI I (1895) , 47-87. 70 E. Diimmler, "Ueber die álteste Geschichte de r Slaven in Dalmatien," Sitzungsberichte der philosophisch-histor. Klasse d, Wissenschaften in Wien, XX (1856) , 373-374, 397-398 ; Sav a Stedimlija , Crvena Hrvatska (Zagreb , 1937) , passim; Poviest hrv. zemalja Bosne i Hercegovine (Sarajevo , 1942) , passim; D . Mandió ,

-BOSNIAN STAT E inthe 12t h -14th CENTURIES

BOUNDARIES -12th CENTURY TIME OF BAN STIPA N KOTRO M ANIC TIME OF KING T V R D K O , 1377-139 1

THE

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X

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BOUNDARIES

ZUPAS OR ¿URANIAS OF MEDIEVAL SLAVONIA BOUNDARIES I. ZAGRE B II. KRIZEVCI III. 2A60R A

ROADS AND CARAVAN IV. VARAZDIN V VIROVITIC A VI. POZEGA

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VII. BARANJ A VI. VUKOV A

X. GORICA XI. GOR A

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XII. DUBIC A

XIII. SAN A XIV. VRBA S

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of th e Bosn a River i n th e earl y perio d o f Croatia n history . Th e terri tory that in modern time s has constituted norther n an d wester n Bosni a was usually closely allie d to or united wit h th e Croatia n stat e up t o th e time o f Mirosla v (945-949). 71 Owin g t o th e civi l wa r tha t brok e ou t during the reign of Miroslav, the Serbian s were able t o take possession of par t o f Bosnia. 72 Hercegovina , whic h toda y take s i n part s o f wha t used to be the Trebinje an d Zahumlje states , describe d b y Constantin e Porphyrogenitus, wa s rule d b y th e Croatia n Hrani c princes , whos e sway extende d als o alon g the coas t fro m Omi s to Kotor . Thei r castl e of Stipangra d dominate d th e chie f tow n o f the region , Blagaj. 73 About 960 the Croatia n kin g Michae l Kresimi r II expelle d th e Serbian s fro m Bosnia an d reunite d i t with Croatia. 74 I n th e las t stage s o f the Bulgar Byzantine "Hundre d Year s War," however , firs t th e Bulgar s and the n the Byzantines mastered Bosnia. 75 Stipan I brough t thi s land bac k int o the Croatia n politica l framewor k between 104 0 and 1042 , and i t re mained par t o f th e Croatia n stat e comple x unde r bot h Peta r Kresi mir I V an d Zvonimir. 76 Bodin , so n o f Michae l Dukljanski , who—a s noted above—ha d establishe d Re d Croati a o r Duklj a a s a separat e kingdom afte r th e deat h o f Peta r Kresimir , too k advantag e o f th e disorder tha t brok e ou t i n Croati a a t th e en d o f Zvonimir' s reig n t o seize Bosnia. 77 When Bodi n die d i n 1102, Duklja experienced a perio d of civi l strife , an d Bosni a becam e a politica l derelict . Th e Arpa d monarchs o f Hungary-Croati a wer e anxiou s t o restor e th e Croatian Bosnian unio n unde r thei r ow n scepter , bu t fo r a tim e th e Bosnian s successfully resiste d th e fulfillmen t o f thi s policy. 78 Abou t 1137 , however, Bel a th e Blin d (1131-1141 ) conclude d a friendly agreemen t with th e Bosnia n nobility, whereb y northwester n Bosnia to th e lowe r course o f th e Bosn a Rive r an d alon g a lin e runnin g fro m th e uppe r Vrbas t o the Makarsk a littoral recognize d hi s sovereignty. 79 Whe n th e Kotroman famil y cam e t o th e for e i n Bosnia , despit e som e conflict s "The Croatia n character o f Bosni a an d Hercegovina, " The Croatian nation In its struggle for freedom and independence (Chicago , 1953), 108-113 ; Mandio , Bosna i Hercegovina, I, 182, 184-185, 347-358. 71 Mandic, Bosna i Hercegovina, I, 186, 286. nibid., I, 185. ™lbid., I, 118. 74 Jtfcid., I , 186 ; J. Pauler , "Wi e un d vvan n ka m Bosnie n an Ungarn?, " Wissenschaftliche Mitteil. aus Bosnien und Hercegovina, II (Vienna , 1894) , 160. 7B Mandi6, Bosna i Hercegovina, I, 187. ™lbid., I, 187-188. 77 7fcíá., I , 290 ; F. Racki . "Borb a juzni h Sloven a za drzavn u neodvisnos t u X I vieku," Rad, XXX (1875), 93. 78 Mandi6, Bosna i Hercegovina, I, 341-342. 79 PauIer, "Wie und wann, " 158-163 ; Mandic , Bosn a i Hercegovina, I, 190-19 1 and 342.

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with th e Hungarians , the y foun d i t expedien t t o acknowledg e Arpa d suzerainty.80 The Kotroman s functione d a s hereditar y ban s o f Bosni a unde r th e Arpad a s wel l a s th e Angevi n kings . Th e statu s o f Bosni a vis-à-vi s Hungary wa s analogou s t o tha t o f Croatia . Hungaria n law s di d no t apply in either o f these Croatia n lands, and th e unio n was in eac h cas e a purel y persona l one , th e sol e ti e wit h Hungar y bein g throug h th e person o f th e king . Th e Hungarian s interfere d i n Bosnia n interna l affairs onl y in connection with th e severa l "crusades" launche d agains t the heretical Bogomi l sect, which was very strong in medieval Bosnia. 81 The Bosnians, however, did have to supply military aid to the Magyars in th e war s fough t b y th e latte r agains t th e Venetians , Bohemian s (Czechs), and Serbians. 82 O n the othe r hand , whe n Serbia , unde r he r most powerfu l rule r Stepha n Dusha n ( 1330-1356 ) attacke d Bosni a i n 1350, Hungar y lef t th e Bosnian s t o wor k ou t thei r ow n salvation . Stipan I I Kotromani c succeeded i n defeatin g th e Serbia n attempt s t o annex this old Croatian territory. 83 His successor, Stipan Tvrdk o Kotromanic, continued t o acknowledge the overlordshi p o f Louis I o f Hungary-Croatia for a time. Th e Kotromanic famil y originall y ha d take n a favorabl e attitud e toward s th e Bogomil heretics, but fro m th e middl e o f the thirteent h centur y i t ha d become strongl y Catholic , an d henc e was hated b y a large par t o f the population. A major rebellio n on the part o f the Bogomi l nobility drov e Tvrdko ou t o f Bosni a between 136 5 an d 1367 , an d h e recovere d hi s authority there only by virtue of the military assistance that he receive d from hi s sovereign, Louis. 84 The rapi d deca y o f the Serbia n state , especiall y afte r th e disastrou s defeat sustaine d a t th e hand s o f th e Ottoma n Turk s o n th e Marits a River in 1371 , create d a situatio n in th e Balkan s that mad e i t possibl e for Tvrdk o t o se t himsel f u p a s a n independen t sovereign . Loui s I' s involvement i n Polis h an d Neapolita n affair s reduce d hi s interes t i n Bosnia, and , a s alread y pointe d out , h e himsel f wa s marrie d t o a member o f Tvrdko' s family . Apparentl y he ha d n o oppositio n to , an d perhaps eve n favored, Tvrdko's regal ambitions . Tvrdko first strengthened hi s state b y addin g t o i t a par t o f ol d Rasci a (Serbia) , calle d 80 Mandic, Bosna i Hercegovina, I, 195-197 , 201 , 203 , 206 , 233-239 , passim, 278-279, and footnotes 557 , 342-346, 349, 355-358. 81 Professor Mandi c has contribute d th e lates t stud y of the Bogomils , Eogomilska Crkva Bosanskih Krstjana (Chicago , 1962) . 82 Mandic, Bosna i Hercegovina, I, 191 , 195 , 342 , 343, 346 . wibid., I, 228. Mlbid., I , 238-240.

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Podrinje, becaus e th e annexatio n o f thi s territor y gav e hi m a stron g natural frontie r i n th e bel t o f mountain s betwee n th e tributarie s o f the Drin a an d th e Morava . Then, i n 1377 , h e proclaime d himsel f kin g of Bosni a an d too k possessio n o f Trebinje. 85 But , in thi s perio d o f th e Middle Ages, the idea prevaile d that onl y the pope or the Hol y Roman ( German ) Empero r ha d th e legitimat e right t o creat e ne w kingdoms . Thus Tvrdk o coul d no t secur e internationa l recognitio n o f hi s ne w royal status , especially sinc e the Hol y Roma n Emperor, Charle s I V of Luxemburg, wa s groomin g his son , Sigismund , to succee d Loui s I i n Hungary-Croatia. Charle s and Sigismund both considere d Bosni a to be an integra l par t o f the Croatia n stat e an d wer e unlikel y t o yiel d thei r claim t o it . Therefor e Tvrdk o decide d t o clai m th e Serbia n crown , which wa s an ol d an d legitimat e one . Althoug h he wa s relate d t o th e Nemanya dynasty , whic h rule d Serbia , h e ha d n o actua l righ t t o cal l himself "Kin g o f Serbia, Bosnia , and th e littoral, " a s he commence d t o do. A s a matter o f fact , Tvrdk o ha d n o interes t i n Serbia n affair s an d did not eve n devot e the attentio n tha t migh t hav e bee n expecte d of him to the newly acquired Podrinje. 86 After th e deat h of Louis I in 1382 , Tvrdk o effecte d a friendly agree ment wit h hi s relativ e an d Louis ' widow , Elizabet h Kotromanic , whereby h e wa s abl e t o tak e possessio n o f Koto r ( 1385 ). Elizabet h acted as regent of the Hungarian-Croatia n kingdom during these years. Since Loui s lef t n o mal e heirs , th e queen-regen t marrie d of f he r daughter Mar y to Sigismun d of Bohemia. The latte r wante d t o estab lish th e hereditar y righ t o f hi s famil y t o th e newl y create d Bosnia n crown, a s wel l a s t o th e Hungarian-Croatia n thrones . Therefor e h e proposed tha t th e Kotromanici , a t leas t afte r Tvrdko' s time , shoul d content themselve s wit h thei r ol d hereditar y ba n status . Tvrdk o wa s unwilling t o se e his stat e swallowe d u p i n Hungary-Croatia , and th e Croatians themselve s preferre d t o hav e a s thei r rule r on e o f th e Neapolitan Angevin s rather tha n Sigismund . In 138 7 an d i n th e suc ceeding years , Tvrdk o encourage d th e pro-Angevi n part y i n Croatia Dalmatia, an d i n 1389-9 0 h e eve n succeede d i n takin g possessio n of the wester n par t o f th e ol d Zahumlj e stat e an d th e territor y betwee n the Neretv a an d th e Cetina . Th e civi l wa r ragin g i n th e Croatia n kingdom betwee n th e partisan s o f th e Angevin s and th e follower s o f Sigismund allowe d hi m t o exten d hi s authorit y eve n further—al l th e way fro m th e Cetin a t o the Zrmanja . H e had alread y asserte d hi s own claim t o th e Croatia n thron e an d h e no w proclaime d himsel f "Stipa n *slbid., I, 246. wibid., I, 245-246.

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Tvrdko, b y th e Grac e o f Go d Kin g of Rasci a (Serbia) , Bosnia , Dalmatia, Croatia , an d th e littoral." 87 Bu t before h e coul d consolidat e hi s holdings, h e died—earl y i n 1391 . Tvrdko's passin g cleare d th e wa y fo r th e assertio n o f Sigismund' s ascendancy in all of the Croatia n lands . Stipan Dabisa, wh o succeede d to th e Bosnia n inheritance, neede d Sigismund' s assistanc e agains t th e mighty powe r o f th e Ottoma n Turks , wh o ha d crushe d th e Serb s o n the Kosov o Polje (Fiel d o f the Blackbirds ) i n 1389 , an d wh o i n 139 3 extinguished Bulgaria n independenc e mor e effectivel y tha n Basi l I I of Byzantiu m ha d bee n abl e t o d o almos t fou r centurie s before . Accordingly, Dabisa seem s to have made an agreement with Sigismund, whereby h e recognize d th e overlordshi p o f the latter. 88 I n 1394 , how ever, Sigismun d carrie d th e wa r agains t th e Angevi n part y int o Bosnia an d accuse d Dabis a o f supporting th e insurgents . The Bosnia n ruler ha d t o ced e bac k t o th e Hungarian-Croatia n kingdo m th e land s taken fro m i t by Tvrdko. 89 Civil war broke out in Bosnia as well as in the Croatia n lands proper , after Dabisa' s deat h i n 1395. 90 A combine d Turkish-Serbia n attac k upon Bosni a in 139 8 failed , despit e th e confuse d situatio n tha t pre vailed in the kingdom. 91 A new "kingmaker, " Hrvoje Vukci c Hrvatinic, now bega n t o dominat e Bosnia n politics . H e als o le d th e part y i n Croatia tha t favore d th e candidac y o f th e Angevi n claiman t t o th e Croatian throne , Ladisla s o f Naples. Th e Croatian s actuall y crowne d Ladislas a s their kin g at Zada r in 1403 . Bu t h e entruste d Vukci c with the defens e of his interests and returne d t o Naples for safety . Si x years later, Ladisla s sol d th e right s t o Dalmati a tha t h e ha d inherite d through th e Hungaria n Angevins—Venic e pai d hi m 100,00 0 ducat s for th e cessio n o f hi s claims . This transactio n virtuall y brough t t o a n en d th e three-century-lon g struggle fo r th e possessio n o f th e easter n Adriati c shore . Sigismun d was to o much preoccupie d b y th e war s tha t h e ha d t o fight with th e Turks, a s wel l a s wit h th e Hussit e revolt s i n hi s ow n Bohemia , t o resist th e Venetian s i n Dalmatia . Onl y throug h th e violatio n o f a safe conduct given to the partisan s of Ladislas was he abl e t o make his authority recognize d i n Croati a itself . No r di d h e succee d i n endin g Bosnian independence , althoug h h e pu t intermitten t pressur e o n tha t state, whic h neede d hi s help agains t the Turks . It wa s the Turk s who, for th e nex t thre e centuries , wer e t o challeng e th e powe r o f Venic e in th e ol d Croatia n heartland , Dalmatia . ^Ibid., I, 247. 88/fcíá. »Ifcid., I , 251.

8

»°Ibid., I, 254.

, I , 249-250. ^ïbid.

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1

In th e fifteent h centur y th e successio n t o th e Hungarian-Croatia n throne cam e t o b e governe d b y th e electiv e rathe r tha n b y th e hereditary principle . Sigismun d died i n 1437 without mal e issue. Afte r the abandonmen t o f hi s claim s b y th e kin g o f thei r ow n choice , Ladislas o f Naples , th e Croatian s preferre d t o stan d aloo f fro m th e competition tha t develope d between the Jagellons of Poland-Lithuania , the Austria n Hapsburgs , an d othe r claimants . The y eve n refuse d t o send representative s t o th e assemblie s hel d b y th e Hungarian s t o decide between Georg e Podiebra d o f Bohemia , Alfonso V o f AragonNaples, an d th e Hapsburg , Empero r Frederic k III . Perhaps jus t be cause o f thi s abstentio n o f th e Croatian s fro m th e deliberations , th e Magyars passed over all of these candidates an d electe d a s HungarianCroatian kin g Matthia s Corvinus , th e so n o f th e Magyar-Wallac h military paladin , Joh n Hunyady , th e Sibinjani n Jank o o f Croatia n popular legend . Owin g t o th e fac t tha t h e wa s no t o f roya l descent , the Croatian s ha d n o specia l feelin g fo r Corvinus. 92 Wit h hi s illigitimate so n Iva n Corvinu s the y enjoye d excellen t relations , however . Ivan marrie d a Frankopa n an d functione d fo r som e years a s ban an d duke o f Croatia eve n afte r hi s father's deat h i n 1490. 93 THE TURKIS H WARS By thi s time , Croati a ha d becom e th e mai n bulwar k o f Europea n defense agains t th e Ottomans . In 139 1 the Turk s raided Slavoni a and carried of f sixteen thousan d captives . However , Peta r Morovi c inter cepted an d destroyed the Mosle m column near Pozega on its way back to Turkis h territory . Then Hrvoj e Vukcic , i n th e cours e o f hi s peren nial feu d wit h Sigismund , introduced th e Turk s a s auxiliarie s into th e Croatian lands . Anothe r Croatia n nobl e house , th e Kosaca , emulate d this example , afte r i t separate d Hercegovin a fro m th e Bosnia n state . This divisio n o f cours e facilitate d th e swallowin g o f bot h entitie s b y the Turkis h empir e whic h engulfe d Bosni a in 146 3 and Hercegovin a in 1482. 94 Many Bogomils accepted Islam , as did th e nobl e landowners who wer e anxiou s t o sav e thei r properties . Th e bul k o f th e othe r Croatian inhabitant s emigrate d i n the cours e of the followin g century , »2KIai6 Povijest Hrvata, III, 83-93. On th e relation s o f Iva n Corvinu s wit h th e Croatians , se e F. Sisic , "Rukovet spomenika o herceg u Ivanis u Korvin u i o borbam a Hrvat a s Turcim a ( 1473— 1496)," Starine, XXXVIII (1937) , 1-180 . 94 A. Knezevi c Kratka povijest kralja bosanskih, Vol. I, Pad Bosne (Dubrovnik, 1884); J . W . Zinkeisen , Geschichte clés osmanischen Reiches in Europa (Gotha , 1854), II, 148-149 . 93

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especially afte r th e fal l o f th e grea t borde r fortresses , whic h lon g continued t o protec t Croati a prope r an d Hungar y fro m large-scal e Moslem invasions , even whe n th e Bosnia n kingdo m itsel f ha d cease d to exist . The Ottoman s brought i n Serbians , Kutzo-Vlach s o r Macedo Rumanians, Albanians , an d othe r Orthodo x elements . B y th e latte r part o f th e nineteent h century , mos t o f thes e people s ha d becom e Serbianized. Henc e th e Serbian s wer e abl e t o advanc e an d t o hav e accepted b y Wester n authoritie s th e clai m tha t Bosni a an d Herce govina were ethnically Serbian, since the Catholi c Croatia n grou p now constituted a minority. 95 The collaps e o f Bosni a naturally facilitate d Turkis h penetratio n o f the remainin g Croatia n lands . I n 147 8 the ba n arm y cu t of f an d de stroyed a n Ottoma n raidin g colum n some 21,000 strong . Juraj Vitove c and th e Zrinski s (Subici ) inflicte d tw o mor e sever e defeat s upo n Moslem armie s i n th e year s immediatel y following . Onc e again , i n 1491, th e ba n force s smashe d a Turkis h array , killin g 900 0 o f the m and liberatin g 18,00 0 captive s take n by the Ottoman s in the Hapsbur g lands.96 Then , i n th e earl y summe r o f 1493 , another stron g Mosle m column swep t ou t o f Bosni a t o execut e th e Asiati c tactic , learne d from th e Mongols , of leavin g "onl y eart h an d water " behin d it. 97 Hastily, Ban Mirko Derencin called up the feudal levies o f the noble s south o f th e Gvozd . Thes e hurriedl y assemble d an d indifferentl y mounted units arrived i n time to intercept the raider s a s they returne d from Austria n territory . Nea r Udbin a th e Croatia n leader s hel d a grim wa r council . Member s o f th e Frankopa n family , veterans o f th e incessant borde r fighting , warne d Derenci n t o dela y hi s attac k unti l the raider s reached mountainou s terrain , wher e th e spee d o f thei r horses woul d coun t fo r little . Derenci n insiste d tha t Croatia n hono r 9B Proof o f th e Croatia n characte r o f Bosni a u p t o th e tim e o f th e Turkis h conquest i s afforde d b y ( 1 ) th e identit y existin g between Croatia n an d Bosnia n documentary forms , (2 ) th e us e o f the Croatia n syste m o f datin g rathe r tha n th e Byzantine calenda r followe d b y th e Serbians , (3 ) th e distinctivel y Croatia n terminology an d ecclesiastica l name s employe d i n the medieva l Bosnia n churchesBosnian la y names , too , were distinctivel y Croatian , (4 ) th e essentiall y Croatia n characteristics o f Bosnia n architecture , bot h wit h regar d t o genera l desig n an d specific ornamentation—fo r instance , th e peculiarl y Croatia n ornamenta l troplet, which consist s o f thre e wove n strips , an d (5 ) th e us e o f th e Bosancic a scrip t ( which represent s a developmen t o f the Croatia n Glagoliti c writin g ) i n al l Bosnia n literary remnant s includin g thos e o f th e heretica l Bogomi l sect . Se e Poviest hrvatskih zemalja Bosne i Hercegovine, I , 698-705 , 823-829 ; Mandic , Bosna i Hercegovina, I, 450-458. 98 Aleksije Olesnicki , "Bezimen i tursk i Ijetopisa c o bojevima Turak a s a Hrvatim a godina 149 1 i 1493," Rod, CCXLV (1933) , 210-219. 97 On th e effec t o f th e Turkis h cavalr y raid s int o Croatia , se e J . Predavec , Selo i seljaci (Zagreb , 1934), 69.

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demanded tha t h e giv e battle o n th e ope n plain . T o thi s th e Franko pans answere d bitterly : " O Ban , this i s not a cavalry parade fro m on e village t o another t o play a Hungarian car d game . On this da y you ar e initiating th e rui n o f the Croatia n nation . Today yo u wil l se e how th e Turks can fight." Three generation s o f th e oldes t nobilit y o f th e lan d fel l almos t t o a ma n i n thi s battle , fo r eve n afte r th e fiel d wa s obviousl y lost, th e lords fough t o n stubbornl y rathe r tha n see k safet y i n flight . A t th e last, man y o f the m turne d thei r horse s loos e "tha t th e goo d steed s might live, " an d waite d dourl y o n foo t fo r th e fina l assault . Th e ol d aristocracy sout h of the Gvoz d neve r recovere d fro m thi s disaste r on th e Krbavsk o Polje, whic h eve r afterwar d ha s continue d t o bea r the nam e "Fiel d o f Blood." 98 No w th e wa y wa s ope n fo r foreigner s to acquir e land s i n Croatia , an d ultimatel y fo r non-nobl e element s of alie n origin to take over the national leadership. Despit e th e failings of th e ol d rulin g class , it ca n hardl y b e sai d tha t eithe r middle-clas s intellectuals o r politica l chief s o f peasan t origi n hav e bee n abl e t o give a mor e fortunate direction t o Croatia n energie s sinc e th e eclips e of the nobility than di d the aristocrac y during its period o f ascendancy. The survivin g lord s pu t u p a bette r figh t agains t th e Turk s i n th e years tha t followe d th e Krbavsk o Polje tha n hav e th e moder n leaders of th e natio n i n th e struggl e wit h th e Communists . Every inc h o f th e blood-soaked ground that remained to the ancient Triple Kingdom was grimly contested . I n 151 3 Ba n Peta r Berislavic , th e "fathe r o f th e peasants," completel y crushe d a hug e Ottoma n force. Eigh t year s later, h e wo n anothe r brillian t victor y bu t wa s ambushe d b y sixt y Turks near Korenica. Though unattended, h e refused t o surrender , and he literall y die d o n his feet with his sword i n his hand. I t seeme d tha t his deat h release d th e flood waters tha t h e ha d kep t damme d u p fo r a time , fo r b y 152 3 th e horsetai l standard s wave d ove r Ostrovica , th e old stronghol d o f th e Subi e princes o f Bribir. Now th e hou r o f Jajc e ha d struck . O n Augus t 29 , 1526 , Loui s I I Jagellon o f Hungar y and Croati a le d th e Hungaria n par t o f hi s army to disaste r o n th e fiel d o f Mohacs . Althoug h fe w Croatian s wer e in volved i n thi s debacle , th e contes t fo r th e vacan t thron e tha t ensue d between th e Austria n Hapsburgs an d Joh n Zápolya, voyvoda o f Tran sylvania, paralyzed th e force s o f resistance. Srijem , an d al l o f Slavonia 98 On this battle , se e Olesnicki, "Bezimen i turski" ; Valvasor , Die Ehre, IV , 390 392. Valvaso r offers a versio n o f th e altercatio n between th e Frankopan s an d th e Derencin differen t fro m th e on e give n here , whic h i s base d upo n a Glagoliti c manuscript preserved i n a Dalmatian monastery.

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as fa r a s Osije k an d Djakovo , fel l t o th e sta r an d crescent , an d th e Bosnian pashas ravaged Venetian-claime d Dalmatia . Soo n the expose d Lika an d Krbav a district s shuddere d beneat h th e hoof s o f the Turkis h horses. Ottoman military tactics anticipate d th e later Nazi , Fascist, and Marxist method s o f devastatio n an d extermination . Th e Venetia n Marino Sañudo, declared tha t by the end of 1533 th e Turks had carrie d off 600,00 0 peopl e fro m th e Croatia n territorie s t o sel l i n th e slav e markets o f th e East . T o replac e thi s populatio n loss , th e Ottoman s imported Orthodo x groups. I t shoul d b e remembere d tha t th e sultan s long continue d t o us e Serbians , Albanians , Greeks , Bulgars , variou s categories o f "Vlachs," an d othe r Orthodo x stock s a s auxiliar y troops . They gav e to these element s lan d i n Bosnia , Slavonia , and thos e part s of Croati a prope r tha t the y wer e abl e t o master . THE ACCESSIO N OF THE HAPSBURGS The Austrian Hapsburg hous e had wo n considerable popularit y amon g the Croatians , owin g partl y t o th e characte r o f Maximilia n I (1493 1519) an d partl y t o th e circumstanc e tha t thi s famil y wa s practicall y the onl y sourc e fro m whic h th e Croatian s ha d bee n abl e t o secur e military an d financia l ai d i n thei r unendin g struggl e wit h th e Turks . The Berislavi c an d Keglevi c familie s i n particula r wer e Hapsbur g partisans. An d eve n befor e th e deat h o f th e las t Jagello n kin g a t Mohacs, Sabo r ha d seriousl y considere d th e advisabilit y o f secedin g from Hungar y an d acceptin g th e suzeraint y o f Archduk e Ferdinand , the brothe r o f the Hol y Roman Emperor, Charle s V , who als o wa s th e king of Spain and th e rule r o f many other territories." On January 1,1527, the Croatian Sabor accepte d th e claims advance d by Ferdinan d t o th e Jagello n inheritance. 100 Unfortunately , Coun t Krsto Frankopan , wh o earlie r ha d conclude d a n agreemen t wit h th e Hapsburg ruler , decide d t o repudiat e hi s bargain . H e induce d th e Slavonian Sabo r t o declar e fo r Zapolya , an d th e resul t wa s civi l war . Frankopan himsel f fel l i n the first encounter , an d th e Slavonia n Sabo r promptly acclaime d Ferdinand , wh o seem s t o hav e enjoye d genera l support amon g the Croatians , although onl y a minority of the Magyar s espoused hi s cause . Findin g himsel f unabl e t o resis t th e Hapsbur g power wit h hi s ow n resources , Zapoly a invoke d Turkis h assistance . The consequenc e o f his actio n wa s tha t fo r a centur y and a half muc h "Südland (Pilar) , Juznoslavensko pitanje, 24. 100 I dea l extensivel y wit h thi s episod e i n th e firs t chapte r o f m y Hapsburg Croatta-Slavonia from 1526 to 1814, which is now being prepared fo r publication .

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of Croati a an d Dalmatia , a s wel l a s Slavonia , Srijem , an d centra l Hungary, suffere d th e blightin g effect s o f Turkis h misrule . Durin g this perio d thes e territorie s wer e cu t of f altogethe r fro m anythin g except hostil e military contact wit h th e force s o f Western culture . Th e Orthodox element s mentione d abov e likewis e gaine d a fir m foothol d in th e Croatia n lands . Eve n tha t par t o f Croati a whic h live d unde r Hapsburg rul e wa s littl e mor e tha n a militar y frontie r province , a gigantic arme d cam p wher e th e farme r coul d onl y g o ou t t o wor k his fields armed to th e teet h an d wit h a saddle d hors e standin g clos e beside hi m ready for instant night if, as so often happened , a n Ottoman raiding part y appeared. The Croatian s ha d entere d upo n a ne w an d painfu l perio d o f their national history. It woul d hav e been n o consolation t o the generation s of thos e times t o kno w that their twentieth-centur y descendant s wer e to experience an eve n harsher destiny .

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CROATIAN POLITICAL CHRONOLOGY TO 1527 700 B.c.-lOO A.D . Irania n Scythians , Sarmatians , Alans , an d Ante s settl e an d dominate larg e area s o f souther n Russia . Subjugat e an d in fluence Slavs, bu t ar e eventuall y absorbe d b y them . 2nd-3rd centurie s

Greek equivalent s o f "Croatian " (Khoroathos an d Khorouatos) carve d o n tombstone s nea r Gree k colon y o f Tañái s o n Black Sea.

3rd-4th centurie s

Goths contro l stepp e land s o f souther n Russia . Fus e wit h Iranian element s an d dominat e man y Slavi c groups . Defea t Antes.

375-376 A.D.

Huns overthro w Gothi c empire . Goths , Iranians , an d Slav s under Hunni c dominatio n o r fle e southwar d acros s Danube . Ostrogothic—Alanic invasion s o f present-da y Croatia n ter ritory. Ostrogoth s rul e Dalmatia , Istria , Bosnia , Lowe r Pannonia ( Slavonia ), Srijem , Uppe r Croatia . A Croatia n state nort h o f th e Carpathian s know n a s Whit e o r Grea t Croatia seem s t o hav e com e int o bein g a t som e undisclose d time. First recorde d Byzantin e notice o f entranc e o f Slav s i n considerable number s int o th e Balkans. Beginning o f Byzantine-Ostrogothi c war . Fightin g i n Dalmatia an d Bosnia , a s wel l a s Italy . Ostrogothic expeditio n t o Dalmatia , moder n Uppe r Croatia , and Bosni a to enlis t "loca l barbarians " (Slavs , Alans , or other Iranians? ) a s allie s agains t Byzantines . Som e Slav s brought int o Dalmati a b y Goths . Other Slavi c invasion s reported . Ostrogoths nort h o f th e P o allowe d t o leav e Ital y b y thei r Byzantine conquerors . Contemporar y chronicler s not e onl y that the y "wen t ove r th e mountains " (Julia n Alp s a t hea d of Adriati c Sea?) . N o furthe r trac e o f th e Ostrogoth s i n history. Avar-Slavic invasio n o f Dalmatia .

5th century

527 534 547-548

551-553 553

592 597-598, 600 601 602 614 626-641

641-671

New Avar-Sla v inroads . Byzantines defea t Avar s and Slavs . Slavs settl e i n Istri a an d Venetia . Salona capture d b y Avar s an d Slavs . Croatians invad e Ava r territor y an d defea t Avar s an d thei r Slavic vassals . Croatian s tak e possessio n o f Dalmati a an d spread ou t fro m her e ove r Slavonia , Uppe r Croatia , Istria , Bosnia, an d Illyricu m (Diocle a an d Coasta l Albania) . Writing thre e centurie s afterward , Empero r Constantin e Por phyrogenitus VI I o f Byzantiu m state s tha t thi s Croatia n invasion cam e fro m Whit e Croati a o r Trans-Carpathia n Croatia. Reported baptism s o f Croatians .

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680 Croatia

n tribe s repute d t o hav e conclude d agreemen t wit h Papacy, whereb y the y agre e t o refrai n fro m attackin g Latin s in Dalmatia an d Istria . 8th centur y Formatio n o f th e thre e Croatia n principalitie s o f Whit e (west o r Dalmatian) , Re d (southern) , an d Pannonia n (northern) Croatia . 753 Accordin g t o calculation s o f Professo r Domini k Mandic , "King" Budimi r convene s a grea t Sabo r (meeting ) o n th e field o f Duvn o i n wester n Bosni a t o settl e administrativ e and ecclesiastica l detail s o f the nascen t Croatia n state . 795—796 Princ e Vojnomi r o f Pannonia n Croati a aid s Frank s t o over throw the Ava r empire. Ava r remnants settled unde r Croatia n chiefs i n Lowe r Pannonia . 796-803 Whit e (Dalmatia n o r western ) Croati a an d Pannonia n (northern) Croati a becom e Prankis h vassa l states . Croatian s reported attendin g Prankis h cour t a t Aachen , wher e thei r linen garment s arouse Prankis h envy . 812—817 Frank s an d Byzantine s conclud e agreement s whereb y th e Dalmatian citie s an d island s remai n unde r Byzantin e sovereignty, whil e th e res t o f th e Croatia n land s remai n subject t o the Franks. 819-822 Revol t o f Pannonia n Croatian s (Princ e Ljudevit ) agains t Franks. Princ e Born a an d Dalmatia n Croatian s ai d Frank s against Ljudevit . Einhard , Prankis h chronicler , identifie s Serbians a s a natio n know n to the Frank s by hearsa y only. 823 Frank s for m ne w politica l uni t fro m Whit e (Dalmatian ) Croatia, Friulia , Istria . Become s par t o f Prankis h kingdo m of Italy . 839 Croatia n flee t (Princ e Mislav ) reporte d t o hav e defeate d Venetian navy ( Doge Peter Tradenic o ). Peace treaty follows . Venetians ma y hav e agree d t o pa y tribut e fo r navigatio n privileges i n Adriati c waters . 845-864 Reig n of Prince Trpimir . 871 Croatia n flee t aid s Frank s t o captur e Bar i fro m Arabs . Byzantines attac k Dalmatia n coast . 876 Unsuccessfu l Croatia n attack o n Grado ( Italy, near Aquile a ). Prince Domago j initiates Dalmatia n revol t agains t Prankis h rule. 878—879 Civi

l strif e i n Croatia . Princ e Branimi r emerge s a s Croatia n "strong man."

880-890 Princ

e Brasla v reigns a t Sisak , capital o f Pannonian Croatia . Maneuvers betwee n Franks , Bavarians , Byzantines , an d Magyars. Request s Dalmatia n aid agains t Magyars .

891 Muncimir

, son o f Trpimir , sen t b y Branimi r t o ai d Braslav . Repulses Magya r attacks .

899-900 Magyar

s rid e throug h wester n Pannoni a t o attac k Italy . O n return la y waste Uppe r Pannonia ( Slovakia ). Inhabitants flee to "Croatian s an d Bulgars " fo r protection . N o historica l confirmation o f th e clai m advance d b y th e Hungaria n

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chronicler, th e "Anonymou s Notar y o f Bel a IV " (1236 1273), tha t th e Magyar s overran Croati a i n th e yea r 900 . 910-914 Tomisla v becomes duke o f th e Croatians . 923 Tomisla v become s firs t Croatia n king . 927 Croatian-Bulgaria n war (Simeo n I) . 925-928 Ecclesiastica l Syno d o f Split . 945-949 Civi l strif e i n Croatia . Serbian s mov e int o Zahumlje , Tre binje, Bosnia , and severa l Croatia n Zupe (counties) . 948-952 Empero r Constantin e VI I Porphyrogenitu s o f Byzantiu m composes De administrando imperio. Chapter s 29-3 6 o f this wor k constitut e earlies t survivin g detaile d historica l account o f th e Croatians . 960-968 Michae l Kresimi r I I recover s Bosni a an d othe r Croatia n territories fro m th e Serbians . 986-989 Stipa n Drzisla v receive s golde n crow n an d othe r regali a symbolic o f royalt y fro m Byzantium . Assume s titl e Re x Dalmatiae e t Chroatiae . • 989-992 Stipa n Drzisla v brings Latin citie s an d islands ( Split, Trogir , Zadar, etc. ) under Croatia n control . 993 Wa r betwee n Galicia n Croatian s an d Russians . Outcom e unreported, bu t evidentl y involve d disappearanc e i n Russi a of th e Croatia n name, whic h i s mentione d ofte n i n account s of tenth-century Ara b writers ( Ibn Rusta, Gardizi, etc. ). 994-999 Venetian s attac k Vi s an d Neretva n corsai r state . 997-1000 A.D . Civi l wa r betwee n th e son s o f Stipa n Drzislav . Venetian s seize Dalmatia n citie s an d islands . Princ e Stipa n sen t t o Venice a s hostag e an d marrie s (later ) Hicela , daughte r o f Doge Pete r Orseolo . 1007-1018 KreSimi r II I restore s Croatia n contro l ove r th e Lati n town s of Dalmatia . 1024 Byzantine s tak e Kresimir' s wif e an d younge r so n t o Constantinople a s hostages. Kresimi r cultivates friendl y relation s with bot h Byzantine s an d Magyars . Status o f Lati n town s unclear. 1027 Magyar s help Kresimir to rewin Trogir an d Split . 1029 Hungarian-Croatia n army defeats Germans (Aug . 29?). 1031 Accordin g to nineteenth-centur y Hungaria n historians , Hungary in this yea r cedes Slavoni a t o Croati a fo r th e assistanc e against th e German s mentione d above . llth century Russia n Primar y Chronicl e (Boo k o f Annals ) mention s Galician an d Adriati c Croatian s (Ch . X , XXI, XLV) . 1059-1060 Churc h Synod s a t Spli t prohibi t us e o f Glagoliti c an d Slavonic liturg y i n Croatia n churches . 1061-1064 Rebellio n o f nationa l churc h part y (Byzantin e customs , Glagolitic alphabet—Vu k an d Zdeda) . 1074-1075 Slavac , probably head o f the grea t Ka& c clan, succeeds Peta r Kreiimir I V (1058-1074 ) a s king . Norman s an d Venetian s

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1089 1089-1091 1091 1094 1091-1097 1095 1096 1097 1102

1107 1116 1138

1168-1180 1180

1181-1191 1202 1241 1242

1268

119

invade Dalmatia . Norman s carr y of f Slava c t o Italy . Com position o f oldes t survivin g Croatia n chronicle , Kraljevstvo Hrvata ( Kingdom of the Croatian s ). Dimitar Zvonimi r is crowned b y papal legate. Acknowledge s that th e Tripl e (Triune ) Kingdo m of Croatia , Slavonia , an d Dalmatia i s a papa l fief . (Zvonimir' s triba l origi n unknown , but Professo r Mandi c believe s tha t h e belonge d t o a junio r branch o f th e Croatia n roya l hous e whic h reigne d ove r Slavonia). Reported assassinatio n o f Dimita r Zvonimi r a t a Sabo r hel d on th e fiel d o f Knin . Stipa n I I ascend s throne . Anarchical condition s prevai l i n Croatia , Slavonia , an d Dalmatia. King Ladisla s o f Hungar y invade s Slavoni a an d annexe s Croatian territor y u p t o Gvoz d mountains . Norman s agai n invade Dalmatia . Ladislas reporte d t o have founded bishopric o f Zagreb. Reported reig n o f Petar Snaci c as king o f the anti-Hungaria n element. Provincial Syno d a t Zadar . Crusading armies traverse Croatia an d Dalmatia . Hungarians invad e Croatia n territor y sout h o f Gvozd . Re ported battl e o f Petrov a Gor a an d deat h o f Peta r Snacic . King Koloma n of Hungar y probabl y conclude s som e kind o f agreement wit h th e Croatia n clan s sout h o f th e Gvozd . Croatia-Dalmatia become s associate d o r autonomou s king dom unde r suzeraint y o f Hungaria n roya l house . Croatian troop s sen t t o Apuli a t o figh t agains t th e Norman s on behal f o f Byzantium . Byzantiu m acquiesce s t o extensio n of Hungaria n contro l alon g Dalmatia n coast . Beginning o f Hungarian-Croatia n war s agains t Venic e fo r possession of Dalmatia . Bosnia acknowledge s sovereignt y o f Hungarian-Croatia n king. Byzantines establis h contro l ove r Croatia n lands . Ban Kuli n establishe s virtua l independenc e o f Bosnia . Venetians unsuccessfull y besiege Zadar . Venetians diver t Fourth Crusade from Egyp t to Zadar. Mongols overrun Hungar y afte r victor y on Sajó River . Mongols devastat e Slavoni a an d Croatia . Fai l t o tak e Kni n and Trogir . Reporte d destructio n o f larg e Mongo l arm y o n Grobnicko (Graveyard ) Polje . (Smalle r Mongo l force prob ably trapped an d destroye d here . ) Bel a I V grant s fa r reach ing autonom y to Gric—th e upper tow n o f Zagreb . New privilege s t o Gri c an d Zagreb . Burgher s free d fro m military service , certai n taxes , an d othe r obligations . Arch deacon Thoma s o f Spli t compose s Historia Salonitana.

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s refus e t o recogniz e accessio n o f Stephe n V o f Hungary. 1272 Sabo r appoint s Pavl e Subi ó ban . Serf s allowe d righ t o f appeal from seigneuria l t o bana l court . 13th centur y Bogomi l heres y stron g i n Bosnia . Papac y incite s crusade s against it . 1301 Arpa d lin e o f Hungarian-Croatia n king s die s out . Mladen I Subie ("th e kingmaker" ) ha s Charle s Rober t o f th e Neapolitan Anjou s crowne d a s Croatia n king . Magyar s choos e other candidate s bu t finally recognize Charles Robert' s clai m in 1307. 1322 Subi e an d Nelipi c familie s quarrel . Charle s Rober t break s power o f Mladen II Subie . 1346-1348 Hungarian-Croatia n wa r agains t Venice . Zada r revolt s against Venetia n rul e bu t Loui s I fail s t o remov e it . 1353 Stipa n Tvrdk o succeed s Stipa n Kotromani c a s ban o f Bosnia. Vassal o f Loui s I o f Hungary-Croatia . 1358 Loui s I force s Venic e t o relinquis h he r claim s t o Dalmatia . 1372 Tvrdk o take s advantag e o f deca y o f Serbia n powe r t o seiz e districts alon g the upper Drina , Trebinje , th e Peljesa c penin sula, and the Dalmatia n coas t dow n to Kotor . Maintain s good relation s wit h Louis , wh o i s involve d i n Polan d an d elsewhere. 1377 Tvrdk o proclaim s himsel f "Kin g o f Bosni a an d Serbia. " 1378 Venetian s captur e Sibeni k an d destro y tow n archives . 1380 Loui s I agai n defeat s Venetians . Force s reaffirmatio n o f provisions o f peac e o f 1358 . Th e Adriati c virtuall y a Hungarian-Croatian Sea. 1383 Tvrdk o encourage s Croatian s to suppor t clai m o f Neapolita n Anjous t o Croatia n thron e agains t pretension s o f Louis ' widow an d daughte r (Elizabet h Kotromani é an d Mary , he r daughter). 1383-1385 Civi l war in Croatia. 1388-1390 Tvrdk o extend s contro l ove r part s o f Dalmati a an d Croatia . Claims Croatia n crow n himself , bu t i s defeate d b y Mary' s husband, Sigismun d of Luxemburg. 1391 Deat h o f Tvrdko . Recessio n t o Hungary-Croati a o f th e Croatian territor y acquire d b y Bosnia . Turks invade Slavoni a and ar e beaten b y force s of Petar Morovic . 1401 Al l Dalmati a excep t Dubrovni k acknowledge s Ladisla s o f Naples. 1403 Ladisla s crowne d kin g a t Zadar . Entrust s protectio n o f hi s interests i n Croatia-Dalmati a t o Hrvoj e Vukció , wh o als o dominates Bosnia n political life . 1408 Sigismun d make s his authority recognize d i n Croatia-Dalma tia and in Bosnia. 1409 Ladisla s o f Naple s sell s hi s hereditar y clai m t o Dalmati a t o Venice fo r 100,00 0 ducats.

POLITICAL HISTOR Y T O 152 6 12 1412 Venetian 1421 Trogir 1435 Pressbur

1

s take Sibenik again. , Split , Brae , Hvar , Korcul a fal l t o Venice . g die t set s u p Croatia n an d Slavonia n defensiv e districts agains t Turkish attacks . 1448 Hercegovin a splits of f from Bosni a ( Duke Stipan Kosac a ). 1463 Turk s conque r Bosnia . Par t o f Croatia n populatio n accept s Islam. Othe r Croatia n element s emigrate . Turk s impor t Orthodox settler s (Serbs , Greeks , Bulgars, Albanians , Ma cedo-Rumanians (Vlachs ) into Bosnia. 1464 Recaptur e an d heroi c defens e of Bosnian stronghold o f Jajce . In revenge, Turk s ravage Dalmatia and Croatia . 1468 Majo r Turkis h inroad into Croatian lands. 1478 Croatian s destroy Turkish raiding force . ura 1479 J j Vitovec defeats large Turkish army . 1480 Coun t Ivan Frankopan cede s Kr k t o Venice . 1481 Son s of Stipan Kosac a cede Makarska district to Venice . 1482 Hercegovin a fall s t o Turks . Sam e proces s o f religiou s con version, emigration , an d importatio n o f Orthodo x element s as in Bosnia . 1483 Zrinski s defeat Turkish invasion force. 1491 Croatian s recogniz e Maximilia n I o f Austri a a s thei r king . He take s possessio n o f Istri a an d norther n Dalmatia . Maxi milian conclude s Treat y o f Pressbur g wit h Jagello n king s of Poland-Lithuania. Hungarian-Croatia n throne s t o Jagellons , but Hapsburg s t o succee d t o thi s inheritance i f Jagello n lin e becomes extinct . Croatian s defeat Turkish raiding army. 1493 Defea t o f Croatians by Turk s on Krbava Polje . Fata l blow t o old nobilit y south of Gvozd. 1513 Ba n Petar Berislavic crushes Turkis h army. 1514 Turk s ravage Lik a an d Krbava. 1521 Berislavi c again defeats Turks, but i s separated fro m hi s men and killed . 1522 Berislavi c an d Keglevi e familie s pres s Loui s I I Jagello n t o entrust defens e of Croatia n Kvarne r coas t wit h Sen j and other Croatia n fortresse s to Archduk e Ferdinan d Hapsbur g of Austri a (grandso n o f Maximilian I). Knin an d Kli s repuls e Moslem attacks . 1526 Hungaria n arm y defeated b y Turks a t Mohacs . Louis II, las t of the Jagellons , falls . Frankopan i and Karlovic i organiz e defense o f Slavoni a an d Croatia . Srije m an d muc h o f Sla vonia overru n b y Moslems . Ilok , Vukovar , Osijek , Djakov o taken. 1527 (Jan.-Sept . ) Croatia n Sabo r accept s clai m t o thron e advance d b y Ferdi nand. Slavonia n Sabo r decide s (Jan . 6 ) i n favo r o f Joh n Zapolya, Magya r Voyvoda o f Transylvania. Civil war results . Slavonian Sabo r declare s fo r Ferdinand afte r deat h i n battl e of Coun t Krst o Frankopan , Zapolya' s chie f advocat e i n Slavonia.

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The oldes t know n sourc e fo r th e stud y o f Croatia n histor y i s th e De administrando imperio, compose d by , unde r th e directio n of , o r b y order o f Emperor Constantin e VI I Porphyrogenitu s between th e year s 948 an d 952 . I t i s th e genera l consensu s o f opinio n amon g moder n scholars tha t th e second-oldes t source , Kraljevstvo Hrvata (Kingdo m of th e Croatians) , wa s written durin g th e year s 1074-1081 . It consist s of twenty-thre e shor t chapter s an d wa s penne d originall y i n th e Croatian western or cakavStina dialec t an d in the Glagoliti c scrip t used in medieva l Croatia . A Latin cleric , know n i n histor y a s th e Pries t o f Dioclea, translate d thi s Croatia n wor k int o Lati n an d adde d anothe r twenty-four chapter s t o it . Hi s literary activit y seem s to have covere d the year s 1148-1163 . I n late r time s hi s wor k cam e t o bear th e titl e of De regno Sclavorum. Stil l anothe r ancien t sourc e i s th e Historia Salonitana, which probabl y wa s complete d b y Archdeaco n Thoma s of Split shortl y before his deat h i n 1268 . Ther e ar e a numbe r o f edition s of thes e olde r work s and a s man y interpretations o f thei r content . The firs t attemp t tha t wa s mad e t o elaborat e a recita l o f Croatia n history o n the basi s of these source s was that o f Ivan Luci e (Lucius) , in hi s wel l know n study , De regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae libri sex (Amsterdam, 1666) . A secon d writer , worth y o f consideratio n eve n today, wa s the Jesuit Danie l Farlati , who dealt extensivel y wit h political a s wel l a s ecclesiastica l material s i n hi s grea t work , Illyricum sacrum, published i n eigh t volumes in Venice betwee n 175 1 an d 1819 . The father of modern Croatia n critical historiography wa s Dr. Franj o Racki ( 1828-1894 ), who lon g functione d a s president o f the Yugoslav Academy o f Sciences an d Art s i n Zagreb . H e contribute d t o th e pub lications o f this Academy a vast amount of source materials and critica l discussions. Othe r nineteenth-centur y Croatia n historian s o f statur e were: Ivan Kukuljevic-Sakcinsk i (1816-1889) , ofte n referre d t o a s th e Nestor o f Croatian historiographers ; Sime Ljubi c (1822-1896) , who i s known principally because o f his compilation of materials dealin g wit h Croatian-Venetian relation s in th e Middl e Ages, and als o fo r a simila r work o n Ragusa n history ; an d Radosla v Lopasi c (1835-1893) , wh o concerned himsel f chiefl y wit h th e histor y o f th e Croatia n Militar y Frontiers. Modern Croatia n historian s includ e Iva n Kr . Tkalci c (d . 1905) , Vatroslav Jagi c (d . 1923) , Tad e Smicikla s (d . 1914) , Vjekosla v Klai c (d. 1928) , th e archaeologis t Fran e Buli c (d . 1934) , Ferd o Sisi c (d .

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1940)—who was perhaps th e mos t prolific o f modern Croatia n writers , Ôiro Truhelk a (d . 1942) , Mih o Barada (d . 1957) , Grg a Novak , Jaroslav Sidak, Domini k Mandic, and Stjepa n K . Sakac . The lif e an d wor k of Sisi c i s describe d b y Jarosla v Sidak , i n th e thir d editio n o f Sisic' s Pregled povijesti hrvatskoga naroda (Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska , 1962) , 491-507. A fe w word s shoul d b e sai d abou t Bosnia n historiography , sinc e Bosnian history has bee n divorce d fo r suc h lon g period s o f tim e fro m the histor y o f th e othe r Croatia n lands . Attentio n wa s firs t draw n t o Bosnian histor y by th e abbo t Mavr o Orbini, i n hi s II regno degli Slavi (Pesaro, 1601) . Farlati, i n the followin g century, devote d page s 37-3 9 in th e fourt h volume o f his Illyricum sacrum t o a stud y o f th e histor y of the Catholi c bishopric of Bosnia, and gav e this land muc h incidenta l mention i n th e othe r volume s o f thi s monumenta l wor k a s well . I n 1776, Farlati' s collaborator , Fili p Lastric , published hi s Epitome vetustatum Bosnensis provinciae a t Ancona . A few year s later , Maximilian Schimek brough t ou t hi s Politische Geschichte des Kônigreiches Bosnien und Rama i n Vienna . After a laps e o f ove r hal f a centur y ther e appeared, i n 1851 a t Zagreb, Zemljopis i poviesnica Bosne ( Geography and Histor y o f Bosnia) . Th e autho r o f thi s wor k wa s Slavolju b Bosnjak (Iva n Franj o Jukic) . Th e firs t critica l documente d stud y o f Bosnian history was made by Vjekosla v Klaic , whose Poviest Bosne do propasti kraljevstva (Histor y o f Bosni a t o th e Fal l o f th e Kingdom ) was published a t Zagreb in 1882. Dr. Ivan Bojnicic translated thi s wor k into Germa n under th e titl e o f Geschichte Bosniens (Leipzig , 1885) . In 1888 , th e Hungarian , J . V . Asboth , publishe d anothe r worthwhil e study, Bosnien und Her ce gavina ( Vienna ), an d thi s wa s subsequentl y translated int o English. Another Magyar, Dr. L . Thallóczy, finished his Studien zur Geschichte Bosniens und Serbiens im Mittelalter at Munic h in 1914 . Severa l of the work s of Dr. Gir o Truhelka an d o f Dr. Domini k Mandic hav e bee n cite d i n th e genera l bibliograph y give n below . I t might als o b e note d tha t Truhelk a contribute d studie s o f a grea t number o f document s an d inscription s copie d fro m medieva l tomb stones i n Bosni a t o suc h publication s a s Glasnik zemaljskoga muzeja u Sarajevu (Bulleti n o f th e Provincia l Museu m i n Sarajevo ) an d Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen ( Vienna ). Apart fro m a n enormou s quantit y o f periodica l materials—suc h a s Racki's "Bogomili i Patareni," which h e brought ou t i n volume s seven, eight, an d te n (1869 , 1870 ) o f Rod, publishe d b y th e Academy-an d special treatise s o f variou s kinds , systemati c historie s o f Bosni a an d

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Hercegovina hav e bee n prepare d i n recen t year s b y th e following : Dr. Vladimi r Corovic , Historia Bosne, Par t I (Belgrade , 1940) ; Pro fessor Krunosla v Draganovi c (éd.) , Poviest hrvatskih zemalja Bosne i Hercegovine, I (Sarajevo , 1942) ; an d Dr . Mandi c (Studie s a s liste d in the following bibliography ). I. SOURCE S

Acta Bosnae potissimum ecclesiastica cum insertis editorum documentorum regestis. Ab anno 924 usque ad annum 1752, ed . Eusebiu s Fer mendzin (Monumenta spectantia historiam Slavorum Meridionalium, Vol. XXIII). Zagreb: Yugoslav Academy, 1892 . Acta Croatica, Vol. I., ed . Djur o Surmi n (Mon. Historico-iuridica Slavorum Meridionalium). Zagreb , 1898 . Codex diplomaticus regni Croatiae, Dalmatiae et Slavoniae, Vols. II—XV , ed . Tade Smicikla s an d Mark o Kostrencic . Zagreb , 1904-1934 . Danduli Andreae Chronicon Venetum (Scriptures rerum Italicarum, Vol . XII, ed . G . Muratori) . Milano , 1728 . Secon d edition , Bologna : E . Pasto rello, 1938-1958. Diplomatarium relationum reipublicae Ragusinae cum regno Hungariae, ed . J. Gelcich an d L. Thalloczy. Budapest, 1887 . Einhardi Annales, éd . G. H. Pertz (Scriptures Rerum Germanicarum, Vol. I , 1895). Johannis Diaconi Chronicon Venetianum, ed . G . H . Pert z (Monumenta Germaniae histórica, Vol . VII ; G . Monticolo , Cronache Veneziane antichissime, Vol. I). Rome , 1890, 59-171 . Jornandes, "D e origin e actibusqu e Getarum, " ed . Theodo r Mommse n (Monumenta Germaniae histórica, Vol. V). Berlin , 1882 . "Kraljevstvo Hrvata " / Th e Kingdo m o f th e Croatians , "Presbyter i Dio cleani," De regno Sclavorum, ed. J. Luciu s (Lucie ) (De regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae). Amsterdam , 1666 , 287-302 . Se e G . Schwandtner' s editio n of sam e i n Scriptures rerum Hungaricarum, Vol . Ill, Vienna , 1748 , 474 509. Se e als o Kukuljevic-Sakcinski , Ivan , ed . "Kronik a hrvatsk a i z XI I vieka" / A Croatia n chronicl e o f th e Twelft h century , Arhiv za povj. Jugoslavensku I . Zagreb , 1851 , 1-37 ; SiSic , Ferdo . Letopis Popa Dukljanina. Beograd-Zagreb , 1928 , 383-416 ; Mosin , Vladimir . Ljetopis popa Dukljanina. Zagreb , 1950 , 39-68 . Kukuljevic-Sakcinski, Ivan , ed . Jura regni Croatiae, Dalmatiae et Slavoniae. 3 vols. Zagreb, 1861-1862 . . Monumenta histórica Slavorum Meridionalium (Acta Croatica, Vol. I). Zagreb , 1863 . . Codex diplomaticus regni Croatiae, Dalmatiae et Slavoniae. 2 vols . Zagreb, 1874-1875. . "Regest a documentoru m regn i Croatiae , Dalmatiae , e t Slavoniae , saeculi XIII, " Starine. Vols . XXI , XXII , XXIII , XXIV , XXVI , XXVII, XXVIII. Zagreb: Yugoslav Academy. Ljubic, Sime . Listine o odnoSajih izmedju Juznoga Slavenstva i mletacke republike. Vols . I-X. Zagreb: Yugosla v Academy, M.S.H.S.M.

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Monumento, spectantia historiam Slavorum Meridionalium. Vols . I-XLIV . Zagreb: Yugosla v Academy, 1868-1948. Monumento historico-juridica Slavorum Meridionalium. Vols . I—XIII. Zagreb : Yugoslav Academy, 1877-1938 . Monumento. Croatiae Vaticana. Vol . I , ed . Domini k Mandic . Chicago-Rome , 1962. Porphyrogenitus, Empero r Constantin e VI L De administrando imperio, ed . Moravcsik-Jenkins. Budapest, 1949 . (Chapters 29-36. ) Presbyteri Diocleani , De regno Sclavorum. (De regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae, ed. J . Luciu s [Lucie] . Amsterdam , 1666 , Popa Dukljanina Ljetopis, ed. Iva n Crncic . Kraljevica , 1874 ; Letopis Popa Dukljanina, ed . Ferd o Sisic. Beograd-Zagreb , 1928 ; Ljetopis popa Dukljanina, ed . Vladimi r Mosin. Zagreb, 1950. ) Racki, Franjo , ed . Documenta historiae chroaticae periodum antiquam illustrantia (Vol . VII, M.S.H.S.M.). Zagreb, 1877. SiSic, Ferdo . Prirucnik izvora hrvatske historije (Enchiridio n fontiu m historiae Croatiae) . Vol. I (t o 1107) . Zagreb, 1914. Strohal, Ivan , ed . Statuti primorskih gradova i opcina / Statute s o f th e Coastal Towns and Municipalities . Zagreb, 1911. Supetarski kartular, ed . Vikto r Nova k an d Peta r Skok . Zagreb, 1952. Thalloczy, Lajos , an d Hodinka , Antal . Codex diplomaticus partium regni Hungariae adnexarum (A horvat veghelyek okleveltara / Archive s o f th e Croatian Frontier Fortresses, 1490-1527) . Budapest, 1903. Theiner, Augustinus , ed . Velera monumento histórica Hungariam sacram illustrantia. Vols. I-II. Rome , 1859-1862. , ed. Vetera monumenta Slavorum meridionalium historiam illustrantia maxima parte nondum edita, ex tabidariis Vaticanis deprompta et collecta. Vol. I . Rome, 1863; Vol. II. Zagreb , 1875. Thomas Archidiaconus . Historia Salonitana, éd . F. Rack i (Vol . XXVI , M.S.H.S.M.). Zagreb, 1894. Tkalcic, Iva n K. , ed . Monumenta histórica episcopatus Zagrabiensis saec. XII et XIII. 2 vols. Zagreb, 1873-1874 . •. Monumenta histórica liberae et regiae civitatis Zagrabiae. Vols . I—XI . Zagreb, 1889-1905 ; Vols . XII-XVIII , 1929-1953 , edite d b y Emilij e Laszowski. II. HISTORICA L AND SCIENTIFI C REVIEW S

The followin g periodical s contai n a grea t man y relativel y shor t treatment s or discussio n o f historical questions , sources , an d othe r material s relatin g t o Croatian history . Anali Historijskog Instituía u Dubrovniku / Annal s of the Historica l Institut e in Dubrovnik , 1952 — Arhivski Vjesnik / Bulleti n o f Archives. Zagreb , 1958 Bolletino di archeologia e storia dalmata. Vols . I-XLII. Split , 1878-1920 . Bulletin international de l'Académie Yougoslave des sciences et des beauxO arts. Classe d'histoire e t de philologie. Zagreb , 1932 Casopis za hrvatsku povijest / Journa l o f Croatia n History . Zagreb , 1943—4 . Croatia Sacra. Vols. I-XIV. Zagreb, 1931-1944 . Glasnik zemaljskoga muzeja u Sarajevu / Bulleti n o f the Provincia l Museu m

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in Sarajevo . Sarajevo , 1889-1945 . Ne w Series . Vols . I-XVIII . Sarajevo , 1945-1962. Godtisnjak Istorijskog drustva Bosne i Hercegovine / Yearboo k o f th e Historical Societ y o f Bosni a an d Hercegovina . Vols . I—XIV . Sarajevo , 1949-1962. Historijski Zbornik / Historica l Studies . Vols . I-XIV . Zagreb , 1948 Hrvatska proslost / Croatia n Past . Zagreb, 1940-1944. Jadranski Zbornik / Adriati c Studies . Split , 1956 Ljetopis Jugoslavenske Akademije Znanosti i Umjetnosti / Chronicl e o f th e Yugoslav Academ y o f Science s an d Arts . Vols . I-LXIII . Zagreb , 1867 1962. Narodna Starina / Nationa l Antiquities . Vols . I-XII . Zagreb , 1922-1933 . Rod Jugoslavenske Akademije Znanosti i Umjetnosti / Acta , Yugosla v Academy o f Science s an d Arts . Vols . I-CCCXXII . Zagreb , 1867-1962 . Radovi Instituía Jugoslavenske Ákademije u Zadru / Acta , Institut e o f th e Yugoslav Academy in Zadar. Zadar, 1954 Slovo. Casopis Staroslavenskog Instituía. / Th e Word . Revie w o f th e Ol d Slavic Institute. Vols . I-X. Zagreb, 1952-1960 . Starine / Antiquities . Yugosla v Academy . Vols . I-L . Zagreb , 1869-1960 . Stari pisci hrvatski / Ol d Croatia n Writers . Yugosla v Academy . Vols . I XXXV. Zagreb, 1869-1962 . Starohrvatska prosvjeta / Ol d Croatia n Civilization . Ol d series , 1895-1903 . New series , 1927-1928 . 3r d Series , 1949 - . Yugoslav Academy. Vjesnik Drzavnog Arhiva u Rijeci / Bulleti n o f the Stat e Archive s in Rijeka . Rijeka, 1953-1956 . Vjesnik Historijskog Arhiva u Rijeci / Bulleti n o f the Historica l Archive s i n Rijeka. Rijeka , 1957 Vjesnik Hrvatskog Arheoloskog Drustva / Bulleti n o f th e Croatia n Archeo logical Association . Zagreb, 1879-1891 . Ne w Series, 1895-1943 . Vjesnik Hrvatskog Drzavnog Arhiva / Bulleti n o f th e Croatia n Stat e Archives. Ol d Series, 1899-1918 . Ne w Series, 1925-1945 . Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju dalmatinsku / Bulleti n o f Dalmatia n Archeology and History . Split , 1920-1962 . (Thi s journa l is a continuatio n of th e Bolletino di archeologia e storm dalmata, liste d above. ) Vrela i prinosi / Source s and Studies . Zagreb, 1932-1941 . Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen aus Bosnien und der Hercegovina. Vols . I-XIII. Vienna, 1893-1916 . Zbornik Historijskog Instituid Jugoslavenske Akademije u Zagrebu / Bulleti n of th e Historica l Institut e o f th e Yugosla v Academ y i n Zagreb . Zagreb , 1954Zbornik radova. SveuHiliste u Zagrebu. Filozofski Fakultet / Yearboo k of Studies. Universit y o f Zagreb . Departmen t o f Philosophy . Zagreb , 1953m. SPECIAL O R REGIONAL STUDIES

Appendini, Fr . M . Notizie istorico-critiche sulle antichità, storia e letteratura de' Ragusei. Ragusa (Dubrovnik) , 1802-3. Barada, Miho . "Episcopu s chroatensis, " Croatia Sacra I . Zagreb , 1931 , 161 — 215.

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. "Dinastick o pitanj e u Hrvatsko j X I stoljeca, " Vjesnik za arheologiju * historiju dalmatinsku. Vol . 50, 1928-29 . Split, 1932 , 157-199. Bjelovucic, N . Z. Crvena Hrvatska i Dubrovnik / Re d Croati a an d Dubrov nik. Zagreb, 1929. Bogisic, V . Pisani zakoni na slovenskom jugu / Writte n Law s i n th e Slavi c South. Zagreb, 1872. Buc, S . Nasi sluzbeni povjesnicari i pitanje podrietla Hrvata / Ou r Officia l Historians an d th e Questio n o f th e Origi n o f Croatians . Zagreb , 1941. Bulic, Frane . "Dolazak Hrvat a i pohrvacivanje Dalmacije " / Th e Comin g of the Croatian s an d th e Croatizatio n o f Dalmatia , Sveslavenski Zbornik. Zagreb, 1930. Bulic, F., and Bervaldi, J., "Kronotaksa spljetski h nadbiskupa " / Chronolog y of th e Archbishop s o f Split , Bogoslovska Smotra. Zagreb , 1913. Cessi, Roberto . Venezia e i Croati. Rome, 1942 . Chalandon, Ferdinand . Les Comnènes. Etudes sur l'empire byzantin au XI et XII siècles. Jean II Comnène (1118-1143) et Manuel I Comnène (1143-1180). Paris , 1912. Czoernig vo n Czernhausen , Karl . Ethnographie der Oesterr. Monarchie. 3 vols. Vienna, 1857. Dabinovic, Antun . Hrvatska drzavna i pravna poviest / Croatia n Constitu tional and Lega l History , Part I. Zagreb, 1940. . "Le s Angevin s e n Croati e e t e n Hongrie, " Annales de l'Institut Français de Zagreb, nos . 5, 6 , 7 , 9 , 12 . Zagreb , 1938 , 1939, 1940 . Digovic, P. Dalmatie. Lausanne, 1944 , 1-69. Dvornik, Franci s F . Les Slaves, Byzance et Rome au IX siècle. Paris , 1926. . The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilization. Boston , 1956. Engel, Johan n Christia n von . Staatskunde von Dalmatien, Kroatien, una Slavonien. Halle, 1798. . Geschichte des Ungarischen Reichs und seiner Nebenlander. 3 vols . Halle, 1798-1801 . Farlati, Daniel. Illyricum Sacrum. 8 vols. Venice, 1751-1819. Gebhardi, L . Geschichte der Konigreiche Dalmatien, Kroatien, Slavonien, Rascien, Bosnien, Rama, und Ragusa. Pest, 1805. Godra, Barth. Monographie von Syrmien. Zemun , 1873, 1—84. Gruber, Dane . Nelipic, knez cetinski i kninski / Nelipic , Coun t o f Cetin an d Knin. Zagreb, 1886. , and Spincic , Vjekoslav. Poviest Istre / Histor y o f Istria. Zagreb , 1924. Gumplowicz, L . Politicka poviest Srba i Hrvata. / Politica l Histor y o f th e Serbians an d Croatians . (Specia l reprin t an d translatio n o f th e articl e written i n Germa n b y Gumplowic z fo r th e Politische Anthropologische Revue of the sam e year.) Zagreb , 1913. Hammer-Purgstall, J . von . Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches. 1 0 vols . Vienna, 1836. Heynen, R . Zur Entstehung des Kapitalismus in Venedig. Stuttgart , 1905, 32-35. Horvat, Josip . Politicka povijest Hrvatske. Vol . I. Zagreb, 1936. . Kultura Hrvata kroz 1000 godina / A Thousan d Year s o f Croatia n Culture. 2 vols. Zagreb, 1939 , 1942. •• . La formation de la Croatie d'aujourd'hui. Zagreb , 1943.

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Horvat, Rudolf . Povjest Hrvatske. Zagreb , 1904 . Second ed . 1924. . Povjest Medjumurja. Zagreb , 1907. Second ed . 1944. Jelic, Luka . Hrvatski spomenici ninskoga podrucja iz dobe hrvatskih narodnih vladara. / Croatia n Remain s Fro m th e Vicinit y o f Ni n Datin g Fro m the Tim e o f the Nationa l Rulers . Zagreb, 1911 . Klaic, Vjekoslav . Slavonien vom X bis zum XIII Jahrhundert. Zagreb , 1882. . Povjest Hrvata. 5 vols. Zagreb , 1899-1911 . . "Hrvatsk i sabor i d o god . 1790 " / Th e Croatia n Diet s t o 1790 , Zbornik Matice Hrvatske. Zagreb , 1925, 247-311. Knezovic, Fra Otón . Hrvatska povijest. Madrid , 1962. Koharic, Janko. Das Ende des kroatischen Nationalkonigtums. Zagreb , 1904. Kovacic, Josip. Hrvatska prije hiljadu godina pa do dañas. / Croati a Fro m a Thousand Year s Ago Until Today. Zagreb , 1926. Kriskovic, Vinko . Hrvatsko pravo kucnih zadruga / Croatia n La w o f th e Communal Family . Zagreb , 1923 . Krmpotic, M . D. Croatia, Bosnia, and Hercegovina and the Serbian Claims. Kansas City, 1916. Krsnjavi, Isidor . Zur historia Salonitana des Thomas Archidiacon in Spalato. Zagreb, 1900. Kukuljevic-Sakcinski, Ivan . Borba Hrvatah s Mongoli i Tatari / Th e Struggle o f the Croatian s with th e Mongol s and Tartars . Zagreb , 1863 . Lenel, W. Die Entstehung der Vorherrschafts Venedig an der Adria. Leipzig , 1897. Mandic, Dominik . Postanak Vlaha prema novim poviestnim iztrazivanfima / The Origi n o f th e Vlach s Accordin g t o Ne w Historica l Investigations . Buenos Aires, 1956. . Crvena Hrvatska. Chicago , 1957. . "Hrvatsk i Sabo r n a Duvanjsko m polj u god . 753" / Th e Croatia n Sabor o n th e Fiel d o f Duvn o i n th e Yea r 753 , Hrvatska Revija, VII . Buenos Aires, 1957, 5—40. . Bosna i Hercegovina. I . Drzavna i vjerska pripadnost sredovjecne Bosne i Hercegovine J Th e Stat e an d Religiou s Affiliatio n o f Medieva l Bosnia and Hercegovina . Chicago , 1960. . "Nenapisan o poglavlj e hrvatsk e pismenosti " / A n Unwritte n Chapter o f Croatian Literature , Hrvatska Revija, XI , 1961. . Bosna i Hercegovina. II. Bogomilska crkva basanskih krstjana / The Bogomi l Churc h o f th e Bosnia n Christians . Chicago , 1962 . . Chroati Catholici Bosnae et Hercegovinae in descriptionibus annis 1743 et 1768 ex. Chicago-Rome , 1962 . Marczali, Henry . Les relations de la Dalmatie et de la Hongrie du XI au XIII siècle. Paris, 1899. . Ungarisches Verfassungsrecht. Tubingen , 1911 . Markovic, Ivan . Dukljansko—barska metropolita / Th e Metropolita n Se e of Dioclea-Bar. Zagreb, 1902. Markwart, J . Osteuropaeische und ostasiatische Streifzuege. Leipzig , 1903 , 466-469. Mayer, E . Die dalmatisch-istrische Munizipalverfassung im Mittelalter und ihre rômischen Grundlagen. Split, 1903. Mikoczy, J. Otiorum Croatiae liber unus. Buda, 1806.

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Minns, E. H. Scythians and Greeks. Cambridge, 1932 . Niederle, Lubor . Manuel de l'antiquité slave. 2 vols. Paris, 1923 , 1926 . Novak, Grga . Proslost Dalmacije / Th e Dalmatian Past . Vol . I. Zagreb, 1944 . Orbini, Mavro . II regno degli Slavi. Pesaro, 1601 . Pilar, Ivo . " O dualizm u u vjer i stari h Slovjen a i o njegov u podrijetl u i znacenju" / Dualis m i n th e Belie f o f the Sout h Slav s an d It s Origi n an d Meaning, Zbornik za nar. zivot i obièaje Juznih Slavena, XXVIII (1931) . . Juznoslavensko pitanje / Th e Yugosla v Question . 2n d ed . Zagreb , 1943. v-31 . Pliveric, Josip . Beitrdge zur Ung.-kroatische Bundesrechte. Zagreb , 1886 . (Especially 204-228). Preveden, Francis . A History of the Croatian People. Vol . I . Ne w York , 1956; Vol . II. Ne w York, 1962 . Prodan, Do n Ivo . Je U glagolica pravo svih Hrvata? / Wa s th e Us e o f th e Glagolitic Scrip t th e Righ t o f Al l Croatians ? Zadar , 1904 . Racki, Franjo. Odlomci iz drzavnoga prava hrvatskoga za narodne dinastije / Fragments o f Croatia n Stat e La w i n th e Tim e o f th e Nationa l Dynasty . Vienna, 1861 . — • . Ocjena starijih izvora za hrvatsku i serbsku poviest / Criticis m o f the Oldes t Source s o f Croatia n an d Serbia n History . Zagreb , 1884 . Rostovtseff, M . Iranians and Greeks in South Russia. Oxford , 1922 . Ruggeri, G . Contributo all' antropología física délie regioni dinariche e danubiane e dell' Asia anteriore. Firenze, 1908 . Rus, Joze . Kralji dinastije Svevladicev / King s o f th e Svevla d Dynasty . Ljubljana, 1931 . . Krst prvih Hrvatov in Srbov. Ljubljana, 1932 . Safarik, Jos . Slavishe Alterthumer. 2 vols. Prague , 1837 . St . Kaulfuss, Roman . Die Slaven in den àltesten Zeiten bis Samo (623). Berlin , 1842 . Sakac, S . Histori-jski razvoj imena "Hrvat" od Darija I do Konstantina Porfirogeneta / Historica l Development o f the Nam e "Croatian " fro m th e Time o f Dariu s I t o tha t o f Constantin e Porphyrogenitus . Zagreb , 1943 . . "Ugovo r pap e Agaton a i Hrvat a prot i navalno m ratu " / A Pac t between Pop e Agatho n an d th e Croatian s agains t a n Aggressiv e War , Croatia Sacra I. Zagreb, 1931 , 1-84 . Schimek, Maximilian . Politische Geschichte des Kônigreiches Bosnien und Rama. Vienna, 1787 . Segvic, Kerubin. Toma Splicanin / Thoma s o f Split . Zagreb , 1927 . . Borba za hrvatsko bogosluzje i Grgur Ninski / Th e Struggl e fo r the Croatia n Liturg y an d Gregor y o f Nin . Zagreb , 1930 . . Die Kroaten und ihre Mission wahrend 13 Jahrhunderte der Geschichte. Zagreb , 1941 . . Die gotische Abstammung der Kroaten. Berlin , n.d . (A n Italia n edition o f thi s wor k appeare d i n 1941—1942. ) Sermage, Coun t C . J . P . Die ursprungliche Vereinigung der Kônigreiche Croatien, Dalmatien und Slavonien mit der Krone Ungarns. Vienna , 1836 . Sidak, Jaroslav. "Crkva bosanska" i problem bogumilstva u Bosni / Th e Bosnian Churc h an d th e Proble m o f Bogomilis m in Bosnia . Zagreb, 1940 . Sii>ic, Ferdo . Vojvoda Hrvoje Vukcic Hrvatinic i njegovo doba (1350 1416) / Duk e Hrvoj e Vukci c Hrvatini c an d Hi s Times. Zagreb , 1902 .

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. Hrvatska povijest. 3 Vols. Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska , 1906-13 . •. Pregled povijesti hrvatskoga naroda. Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska . Firs t éd., 1916; Third éd., 1962. . Die Wahl Ferdinands I von Oesterreich zum Kônig von Kroatien. Zagreb, 1917. . Geschichte der Kroaten. Vol . I . Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska , 1917. •. Povijest Hrvata u vrijeme narodnih vladara / Histor y o f th e Croatians in th e Tim e o f the Nationa l Rulers. Zagreb, 1925. -, ed . Letopis popa Dukljanina. Beograd-Zagreb , 1928. -, ed . Prirucnik izvora hrvatske historije. 1. Do god. 1107 (Enchiridio n fontium hist . Croatiae) . Zagreb , 1914 . . Poviest Hrvata za kraljeva iz doma Arpadovica. Zagreb , 1944. Smiciklas, Tade. Poviest Hrvatske. 2 vols. Zagreb, 1879, 1882. Stedimlija, Sav a M. Crvena Hrvatska. Zagreb, 1937. . Tragom popa Dukljanina / O n th e Trai l o f th e Pries t o f Dioclea . Zagreb, 1941. Sticotti, P . Die rômische Dioclea in Montenegro. Vienna , 1913. Strohal, Ivan . Pravna povijest dalmatinskih gradova. 1. Osnove razvitku pravne povijesti dalmatinskih gradova / Lega l Histor y o f th e Dalmatia n Towns. 1 . Base s fo r th e Developmen t o f th e Lega l Histor y o f th e Dalmatian Towns . Zagreb, 1913. Strzygowski, J . Starohrvatska umjetnost / Ol d Croatia n Art . Zagreb, 1927. Sufflay, Milan . Hrvatska i zadnja pregnuca istocne imperije pod zezlom triju Komnena (1075-1180). Zagreb , 1901. Szallay, Ladisla s von . Geschichte Ungarns. Trans . H . Wôgerer . Pest , 1866 . Thalloczy, Lajos . Studien zur Geschichte Bosniens und Serbiens im Mittelalter. Munich and Leipzig , 1913. Tkalcic, Iva n K . Slavensko bogosluzje u Hrvatskoj / Th e Slavoni c Liturg y in Croatia. Zagreb , 1904. Tresic-Pavicic, A . Izgon Mongola iz Hrvatske / Th e Expulsio n o f th e Mongols from Croatia . Zagreb, 1942. Truhelka, Ciro. Nasi gradovi / Ou r Towns . Sarajevo , 1904. . Kraljevski grad Jajce / Th e Roya l Town o f Jajce . Sarajevo , 1904. Úrica, Nikola . Kako je postala "unija" izmedju Hrvatske i Ugarske? / Ho w Did the "Union" Between Croatia and Hungary Come About? Zagreb, 1905. Valvasor, Johan n von . Die Ehre des Herzogthums Krain. 4 vols . Laybac h (Ljubljana), 1689. Vernadsky, George. Ancient Russia. New Haven, 1943. Vinski, Z . Uz problematiku starog Irana i Kavkaza / Th e Proble m o f th e Old Iranians an d Caucasians. Zagreb, 1940. Wasmer, Max . Untersuchungen über den altesten Wohnsitz der Slaven. 1. Die Iranier in Südrussland. Leipzig , 1923. Weigand, Gustav , Die Sprache der Olympo-Wallachen. Leipzig , 1888. •. Vlacho-Meglen. Leipzig , 1892. Zbornik kralja Tomislava u spomen tisucugodisnjice hrvatskoga kraljevstva / The Kin g Tomisla v Antholog y i n memor y o f th e Millennia l Anniversar y of th e Croatia n Kingdom . Zagreb, 1925. Zeiller, J. Les origines chrétiennes dans la province de Dalmatie. Paris, 1906. Zinkeisen, Baro n Johann . Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches. 7 vols . Hamburg, 1840-1863 .

4

Military Histor y IVAN BABI C

THE CONQUES T OF THE PRESENT HOMELAN D ACCORDING T O Constantine Porphyrogenitus , th e Byzantin e Empero r and historian, the Croatian s had, in the sixt h century A.D . in present-day Poland, an organized an d militarily powerful state calle d Grea t Croati a or White Croatia . They move d to th e south , enliste d b y th e Byzantin e Emperor Heraclio s ( 610-645 ) t o subdu e an d pacif y th e Avars , a war like Asiati c people , who , fro m thei r stronghol d i n th e Carpathians , constantly plundere d th e northwestern par t of the empir e betwee n th e Adriatic Se a and th e Drin a River . I n bitterly fough t battles , th e Croa tians succeede d i n routin g th e Avar s completely, an d i n subsequentl y settling th e conquere d lands . Because of a lack o f fertile soil , a part of them moved northward t o the are a betwee n th e Sava , Una, Drava an d Mura River s an d settle d there . Thes e event s di d no t occu r a s a singl e happening, bu t rathe r too k place ove r a perio d o f decades . A s a rule , the Croatia n warrior s wer e th e first to ente r ne w territory . Afte r the y had drive n awa y th e enem y an d pacifie d th e area , th e res t o f th e population followe d an d too k possessio n o f th e conquere d lands . Eventually the y absorbe d th e remnant s of the Avars , Celts, Goths , an d some Slavic tribes alread y found there, an d began t o build thei r natio n on the conquere d soil . The basi c uni t o f the Croatia n state , whos e mai n feature—a s every where i n that epoch—was its military organization, was the large famil y (zadruga). Man y closel y relate d zadrugas forme d a brotherhoo d (bratstvo). Thes e in turn unite d int o district s (¿upas). Th e hea d o f a ¿upa wa s th e ¿upan, i n whos e hand s suprem e power—primaril y mili tary, bu t als o judiciar y an d tributary—wa s held . I n tim e o f war , th e ¿upan had t o lead th e arme d force s o f the ¿upa, which were compose d

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of a fixe d numbe r o f full y arme d an d equippe d me n place d a t hi s disposal b y eac h zadruga an d bratstvo. Thes e force s wer e mad e u p mainly o f highl y mobil e ligh t cavalry , arme d wit h lances , bows , an d arrows. Thei r tactic s consiste d in swif t movements , violent attack s b y surprise i f possible, an d stead y pursuit o f th e defeate d enem y until i t was destroyed . Thi s wa s a ne w typ e o f army, one whos e tactic s wer e superior to the old-fashione d ones of the Roma n legion. Suc h were th e forces which defeate d the Avars, and which conquere d an d pacified the area whic h fro m tha t tim e unti l thi s ha s bee n th e homelan d o f th e Croatian people. 1 In th e highe r structuratio n of the Croatia n state's politica l an d mili tary organization, many ¿upas wer e groupe d into provinces (banovinas) each wit h a ban as its head. Nominally , the ban was to b e electe d b y the zupans; i n point of fact, in most case s he ros e to power by his own merits an d capacities . Durin g importan t wars , h e wa s th e suprem e commander of the unite d forces o f all ¿upas. STRATEGIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEW HOMELAN D The land s which th e Croatian s conquered an d settle d hav e undergon e changes o f name throughout history. These land s includ e th e territor y that is at present known under the regional names of Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, Bosnia , Hercegovina, an d Istria . Except o n the norther n an d northwestern sides , where the y lie open to Central Europe , thes e land s have good natural boundaries and form a closed strategi c area. O n th e west, th e boundar y i s th e Adriati c Sea ; o n th e souther n an d easter n sides, th e boundar y i s a lin e startin g near Budv a o n th e Adriati c an d going throug h th e Montenegri n mountains to th e uppe r Drin a River , following i t t o it s confluenc e wit h th e Sav a River , an d the n following the Sav a t o th e Danube. 2 Thi s i s th e lin e whic h th e Empero r Theo dosius dre w a s the divisio n between th e Wester n an d Easter n Roman Empire. I t i s based upo n geographica l fact s an d no t upo n an y casua l or compulsor y circumstances. The land s which li e o n th e eas t sid e of this boundary represent a separate geographi c an d strategi c entity—th e heart o f th e Balka n area—through whic h th e principa l strategi c ways lead fro m Asi a an d th e Aegea n Se a to Centra l Europe . Whereas thes e land s ar e th e bridg e betwee n Asi a an d Europe , th e Croatian homelan d shoul d no t b e considere d a bridg e a t all . I t i s iLjudmil Hauptmann , Die Kroaten im W 'andel der Jahrhunderte (Berlin : Wiking Verlag, 1943), 56ff . 2 Vidal d e l a Blanche , Geografía Universal ( Barcelona, 1928 ).

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rather a n integral par t o f Central Europe , wit h its flank open t o attac k from th e east , an d it s economi c rout e t o th e outsid e worl d leadin g through th e Adriatic . In an y historical perio d whe n thes e lands , o r a part o f them, were dominate d by a power whos e center o f force la y t o the eas t of their natural boundaries—in th e Balkan s or in Asia—politica l and strategica l equilibriu m wa s broke n t o th e detrimen t o f al l o f Europe.3 Fo r thi s reason , durin g th e histori c epoc h o f th e Turkis h invasions, thes e land s wer e th e battlefiel d o f man y nation s an d th e bulwark fo r th e defens e of Europe fro m th e dange r originatin g i n th e neighboring importan t area , th e hear t o f th e Balkans . Historica l con tinuity ha s strengthene d thi s natura l division , making the Drin a Rive r a boundar y betwee n th e Easter n an d Wester n churches , betwee n th e Croatian an d Serbia n state s durin g th e Middl e Ages , an d eventuall y between two civilizations, the Occidenta l and th e Byzantine . THE NATIONA L STATE IN THE MIDDLE AGES The geographical configuratio n withi n this area did not help to promote the formatio n o f a unifie d state organization . Chain s o f mountain s divided th e are a int o separat e geographica l entities . A t first , then , several independen t state s (banovinas) wer e formed . Pannonia n Croatia spran g u p betwee n th e Una , Sava , an d Drav a Rivers; i n northern Dalmati a an d Bosnia , Whit e Croati a wa s formed ; an d i n southern Dalmatia, Hercegovina, and parts o f present Montenegr o and Albania, Red Croatia arose. Pannonian Croati a ha d t o endure heavy fighting with the Franks , a t that tim e th e mos t powerfu l stat e i n Europe . Th e Croatians , unde r Ban Ljudevi t Posavski , durin g struggle s which laste d fo r mor e tha n twenty years, defeated ten Prankish armies. Finally, however, Ljudevit fell in a battle near Sisa k ( 822 ), and his state was subjected to Prankish sovereignty for almos t a century . White Croati a ha d simila r problem s with Venice, which tried it s utmost to secure politica l an d commercia l domination o n th e easter n coas t o f th e Adriatic . Ther e wer e man y fluctuations i n thi s struggle , unti l th e Croatia n Princ e Domago j destroyed th e Venetia n flee t (877 ) an d force d Venic e t o pay a yearly tribute fo r th e privileg e o f fre e navigation . Thi s privileg e laste d unti l the yea r 1000 , when Venic e defeated th e Croatia n fleet and conquere d some islands on the Croatia n coast . Re d Croati a soo n disappeared. It s northern region s wer e unite d wit h Whit e Croatia , whil e thos e area s 3 Ivan Babic , "Yugoslavi a i n Wester n Strategy, " The Croatian Nation in Its Struggle for Freedom and Independence (Chicago , 1955) , 3 1 Iff.

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which la y beyon d th e aforementione d natura l geographi c boundarie s were lost for the Croatian nation. 4 Croatia ros e to her zenith unde r Princ e Tomislav , wh o united al l the Croatian land s an d proclaime d himsel f kin g (925 ) i n th e tow n o f Duvno, in western Bosnia . The Croatia n arm y a t tha t time , accordin g to Constantin e Porphyrogenitus , wa s mad e u p o f "a s man y a s 60,00 0 horsemen and 100,00 0 foot-soldiers, up to eighty galleys , an d u p t o one hundred cutters. . . ,"5 The structur e of this army corresponded roughly to th e socia l structur e o f th e natio n o f tha t time . Th e horseme n belonged mostl y to the rulin g class, that is , to the Croatia n tribe s wh o conquered an d rule d th e land . The y represente d th e elit e an d th e shock-force o f the army . The footme n cam e mostly from th e Croatian ized remnants o f other peoples ; the y forme d th e forc e whic h supplie d garrisons in the land and kept order there . Tomislav was succeeded by various kings, the mos t notable o f whom was Peta r Kresimi r (1058-1074) , unde r whos e rul e Croati a reache d the pea k o f her strength . I t shoul d b e stresse d that , i n spit e o f suc h extraordinary power , th e Croatian s neve r engaged i n offensiv e an d imperialistic wars . They protecte d thei r lan d successfull y i n defensiv e wars, defeatin g th e Bulgaria n Kin g Simeon , th e greates t o f al l Bul garian rulers , throwin g hi m bac k ove r th e Drin a Biver , an d repellin g Hungarian attacks coming from th e north. 8 THE CROATIAN-HUNGARIA N UNIO N When Kin g Zvonimir, one of the Croatia n rulers, die d childles s ( 1089 ), the Hungaria n Kin g Ladislaus lai d clai m t o the Croatia n throne , sinc e Zvonimir's wido w wa s hi s sister . Th e Croatian s electe d Peta r Svaci c as thei r king , who resiste d the Hungarian s for a shor t time , but who was eventuall y defeate d i n battl e i n th e Gvoz d Mountain s (1097 ) i n Upper Croatia . Feelin g tha t th e Croatia n resistanc e ha d nevertheles s not bee n completel y broken , th e ne w Hungaria n King , Koloman , wisely preferred t o negotiate with th e Croatians . In 110 2 a Hungarian Croatian treat y calle d th e Pacta Conventa wa s concluded . Thi s treat y was to be the cornerstone of the Croatia n nation until 1918 . Throug h i t the Croatian s entere d int o a persona l unio n wit h Hungary—th e Hun garian-Croatian kin g pledge d himsel f t o respec t th e constitutiona l 4

Ferdo Sisic , Povijest Hrvata u doba narodnih viadora I Histor y o f Croatians in Times of National Rulers (Zagreb , 1925). 5 Babi6, The Croatian Nation, 7. 6 Francis R . Preveden , A History of the Croatian People, I (Ne w York : Philosophical Library, 1955).

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rights o f Croatia. I n th e militar y provisions of the treaty , th e Croatian s pledged themselves t o put a t the disposa l of the king , should a foreign enemy cros s th e frontier s o f the kingdom , a forc e of a t leas t te n full y armed cavalryme n fro m eac h zadruga. Thes e force s woul d b e main tained b y th e Croatian s unti l the y crosse d th e Croatia n boundar y on the Drav a River ; fro m tha t poin t thei r maintenance an d pay woul d b e the responsibilit y o f the kin g for th e duratio n o f the war. 7 The adoptio n o f the Christia n fait h o f th e Wester n Churc h (i n th e seventh century), and of a common life with th e Hungarians , graduall y changed th e whol e socia l structur e o f th e Croatia n nation . Th e old , zadruga typ e of society was replaced b y a feudal system of the Wester n pattern. Man y nobleme n los t thei r wealth , becam e peasants , o r emi grated t o cities . Other s accumulate d wealt h an d powe r an d becam e feudal lord s wh o turne d thei r ow n tribesme n int o serfs . Som e hel d power a s hereditary rulers , challengin g eve n th e powe r o f kings . Th e most notable o f these rulers were Paul an d Mlade n Subi ó ( 1298-1322 ), who rule d a s hereditar y ban s o f Croatia-Dalmatia , a s wel l a s o f Bosnia.8 This social transformation in its turn influenced the military organization o f th e nation . Durin g th e earl y year s o f th e Hungarian-Croatia n union, th e ol d zadruga syste m prevailed. T o ever y ¿upa a secto r wa s assigned fo r defense; the ¿upas establishe d thei r ow n armie s by a levy which coul d be partial o r general. If grea t dange r wer e in sight , man y ¿upas woul d unit e thei r armie s unde r th e comman d o f th e ba n o r king.9 One of the most important military events of the perio d occurre d in 1242 . A hug e Mongolia n army, unde r Genghi s Khan' s commander , Batu Khan, penetrated into Croatia after it had defeate d everyon e wh o opposed it, including the Hungarians on the Saj ó River . In Croatia, thi s army experienced its first losses on the way from Pekin g to the Adriatic. In spit e o f a long siege , Bat u Kha n was no t abl e to brea k th e defens e of th e fortres s o f Kalni k (norther n Croatia) , wher e Kin g Bel a ha d taken refuge . Whe n hi s troops suffere d heav y losse s a t Grobnick o Polje, Trogir , and Klis , Bat u Kha n bega n to withdraw . At abou t the same time, news of Genghis Khan's death reached th e army , whereupon it turne d bac k t o Russia . Thu s Europ e wa s free d fro m on e o f th e greatest danger s in its history.10 7

§isi6, Povijest Hrvata, 318ff . Rudolf Kiszling , Die Kroaten. Der Schicksalsweg eines Südslawenvolkes (Graz-Kôln, 1956), 13. 9 Slavko Pavició and Franjo Perse, "Hrvatska vojna povijest," / Croatia n Military History, Nasa Domovina / Ou r Country , I (Zagreb , 1943) , 18 7 ff. 10 Sisi6, Povijest Hrvata, 412. 8

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In the twelfth century , the traditional ¿upa militar y organizatio n had already disappeare d an d ha d bee n replace d b y th e feuda l patter n common t o Wester n Europe . Eac h noblema n ha d hi s ow n army , cor responding i n strengt h t o hi s wealth an d ambitions . I n th e fourteent h century, the feuda l armies in Croati a wer e organize d accordin g t o th e bandería system . Ever y bandería ha d 40 0 men an d wa s divide d int o units consistin g o f one-half , one-quarter , o r one-eight h o f th e total strength o f th e bandería. Ther e wer e normall y bot h king's-ow n an d ban's-own banderías i n Croatia . Al l powerful warlord s ha d thei r ow n banderías; th e mos t notable wer e thos e o f the prince s Frankopa n an d Subic-Zrinski, th e prince s Nelipic , Kurjakovi c o f Krbava, an d Baboni c of Blagaj , the bisho p of Zagreb, and th e prio r of the monaster y of Vrana in Dalmatia. Many minor noblemen ha d thei r ow n troops, as did ever y ¿upa an d som e important cities . Whil e som e o f th e force s were com posed o f mercenaries, mos t of them wer e militia-typ e troop s base d o n levy. Take n a s a whole, Croati a possesse d a n impressiv e arme d force ; but, a s often happene d i n feudal times , it wa s not alway s used fo r th e benefit o f th e kin g an d th e country . Frequentl y i t wa s use d fo r th e settlement o f difference s betwee n th e nobleme n themselves , o r eve n against th e king , especiall y i n th e dynasti c feud s whic h plague d Hungary an d Croati a afte r th e extinctio n o f th e Arpa d dynast y (1301).11 Suc h was th e militar y pictur e o f Croati a befor e th e tim e of the Turkish invasion. CROATIANS AS THE BULWAR K FO R THE DEFENSE O F WESTERN EUROP E After defeatin g th e Bulgarian s o n the Marits a Bive r (1371) , an d th e Serbs a t Kosov o Polj e (1389) , the Turk s turne d t o th e Balkan s (espe cially t o th e Serbia n land s wit h thei r importan t strategi c route s o f Nisava-Morava and Vardar-Morava ) as a means of penetrating int o th e heart o f Europe. The Croatians , of necessity, wer e thei r firs t victim. I n defending thei r homeland , th e Croatian s a t th e sam e tim e defende d Europe—sometimes helpe d b y her , sometime s abandone d b y her—i n a series of bloody wars lasting over a period o f more than fou r centuries . The Turk s first entered Bosnia . This Croatia n lan d led , durin g th e Hungarian-Croatian union , a more o r less independent life . Nominally , all Bosnia n ruler s wer e vassal s o f Croatia n kings ; ho w fa r thi s wa s enforced i n practice depende d upo n the situation o f the moment. 12 Th e "Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 16. L. V . Suedland , Juznoslavensko pitanje I Th e Proble m o f Sout h Slavi c Peoples (Zagreb , 1943) , 7 9 ff. ; Savfe t Basagic , Kratka uputa u proslost Bosne t Hercegovine I A Brie f Introductio n Int o th e Pas t o f Bosni a an d Hercegovina , (Zagreb, 1886). 12

MILITABY HISTOR Y 13

7

unfortunate fact i s that th e Turk s cam e into Bosni a at th e invitatio n of the Bosnia n rule r Hrvoj e Vukci c Hrvatinic , t o hel p hi m i n hi s feu d with th e Hungarian-Croatia n kin g ( 1415 ). I n th e year s tha t followed , they penetrated into Croatia, devastating the land a s far as the Austrian border. B y 143 5 the y wer e alread y i n possessio n o f Sarajevo , an d i n 1437 th e Bosnia n king , Stephe n Tomasevic , acknowledge d thei r supreme authority . I n 1463 , however , unde r pressur e fro m hi s Hun garian-Croatian suzerain , h e refuse d t o pa y th e yearl y tribut e t o th e Turks. Emi r Mohamme d I I ( 1430-1481 ) the n entere d hi s territor y with a stron g arm y an d defeate d an d beheade d hi m a t Jajce . Th e Bosnian-Croatian independen t state thu s disappeared , an d Bosni a remained unde r Turkis h dominatio n unti l 1878. 1S Mohamme d I I re ceived the titl e of Fatik (Conqueror) , and soo n became sultan . A wise statesman, he promised not to interfere with th e feuda l structure o f the country, an d hel d ou t hope s o f powe r an d glor y t o it s nobilit y b y making accessibl e t o the m th e highes t place s o f authorit y i n th e empire. Th e whol e of the nobilit y an d a large section o f the res t o f th e population—mostly thos e o f th e Bogomi l faith (a n heretica l Christia n sect)—peacefully passe d ove r t o th e Islami c religion . Becaus e o f thi s peaceful conversion , Bosni a remaine d th e onl y countr y i n th e whol e Turkish Empir e wit h a Wester n feudal-typ e socia l structure , an d during th e followin g centuries i t becam e practicall y autonomous . The Turkish authoritie s interfered littl e in local affairs ; th e rea l power wa s in the hand s o f the loca l Croatian nobility—th e only hereditary nobilit y in th e empire . Man y o f th e noble s ros e t o th e highes t position s an d made histor y a s ruler s an d militar y leaders. 14 I n tha t er a o f religiou s intolerance, thi s conversio n mad e th e Catholi c an d th e Islami c Croatians enemies . Thus , whil e thes e tw o group s fough t fo r th e glor y of their respectiv e religions , Croatia n bloo d wa s she d o n bot h sides . In subsequen t years , the Turks began a series of incursions deep into Upper Croatia . T o fac e thi s grav e menace , th e Croatian s create d th e rank o f "captain-general " (1477) . Th e militar y leade r wh o hel d thi s title ha d t o b e nominate d b y th e Croatia n parliamen t (Sabor) , an d was subordinate d t o th e ban . H e wa s responsibl e fo r th e country' s defense, and led the arme d forces in war.15 The Croatian s assume d th e offensive i n 1478 . Betwee n th e Un a an d Glin a River s the y route d a Turkish army of 20,000 cavalrymen, and pursue d an d destroye d i t near Jajce ( Bosnia ). By 1479 the Turk s were agai n defeated by Ba n George 13

Hauptmann, Die Kroaten, 29 ff. Joseph Matl , Das kulturelle una politische Werden der Suedslaven (Berlin , 1929), 158 ; Iva n Kukuljevic , Znameniti Hrvati / Famou s Croatian s (Zagreb , 1886). 15 Hauptmann, Die Kroaten, 36 ff. Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 26 ff. 14

138 CROATIA

: LAND, PEOPLE , CULTUR E

Vidovec; an d i n 149 1 Ba n Ladislau s Eggervar y defeate d a Turkis h army of 11,000 men. In 149 3 th e Turkis h commande r Jaku b Kadu n Pash a brok e int o Croatia. Ba n Mirk o Derencin , havin g raise d 15,00 0 men , me t hi m a t Krbavsko Polje , nea r Udbina . Th e Turks , wit h thei r swif t horsemen , won a sweepin g victory . I n thi s battle , on e o f th e mos t fatefu l i n Croatian history , Croatia n losse s totaled 12,50 0 men , amon g the m th e cream o f th e Croatia n yout h an d th e bul k o f th e country' s nobility . Their propertie s graduall y cam e int o the hand s of new noblemen , mostly of German and Hungaria n origin , and thu s began the tendenc y toward denationalizatio n o f th e Croatia n lands . Moreover , fo r a lon g time Croatia wa s too weak t o furnish a n effectiv e defense—it s lan d wa s continually expose d t o invasion s an d devastation , an d th e populatio n either perished , wa s take n int o Turkis h slavery , o r fle d t o th e north . To th e Croatia n region s th e Turk s brough t thei r subject s fro m Asi a and th e Balkans : Vlachs , Bulgarians , Greeks, Serbs , Armenians , Czin czars, an d others . Bein g mostl y o f th e Orthodo x faith , th e sultan s favored thei r subjectio n t o th e Serbia n Orthodo x Church , whic h wa s obedient t o an d subordinate d t o th e Turks , i n contras t t o th e Roma n Catholic Church , whic h wa s independen t an d hostile . Thes e peoples , then, becam e Serbs , althoug h the y wer e no t o f Serbia n blood. 16 Sultan Solima n the Great , i n his driv e t o Vienna in 1521 , conquere d Belgrade an d Saba c i n Serbia , bu t h e wa s no t abl e t o conque r th e fortress o f Petrovaradin , i n easter n Croatia . Eventuall y h e withdre w the bul k o f his army, but easter n Slavoni a and Srije m remaine d unde r Turkish occupation. In the spring of 1526, Solima n returned, completel y routing th e arm y of the Hungarian-Croatia n kin g Louis, who drowne d in the swamp s near Mohac s ( Hungary ). Very few Croatian s too k part in thi s battle , ye t i t ha d a n importan t influenc e upo n th e futur e o f Croatia. Since they wer e now in great danger , th e Croatian s looke d for some way of strengthening the defens e of their lands . To this end , the y elected Ferdinan d o f Hapsburg a s their kin g in 1527 . I n thi s way the y affirmed thei r sovereig n right s a s a kingdo m independen t o f th e Hun garians, and a t the sam e time they linke d thei r fat e with th e Hapsbur g dynasty for some centuries t o come. 17 It i s an historical fact that the declin e of the Turkis h offensive powe r was connecte d wit h th e name s o f tw o Croatia n militar y leaders . Th e first o f thes e wa s Ba n Nichola s Jurisic . Whe n Solima n th e Grea t an d his Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha Sokolovi c ( the mos t successful Grand Vizier i n Turkis h history , and , ironically , a n Islamize d Croatia n fro m 18

Suedland, Juznoslavensko pitanje, 7 9 ff

. 17

Sisic, Povijest Hrvata, 19 7 ff.

MILITARY HISTOR Y 13

9

Bosnia) marche d agains t Vienna in 1532, they were met a t the fortress of Kisze g ( south Hungary ) by Jurisic. A long, unsuccessful siege o f th e fortress made Soliman lose too much time and force d hi m to turn back . In 156 6 he returned onc e more against Vienna. This time th e Croatia n Count and Ba n Nikol a Subie Zrinski blocked his way a t th e fortres s of Szigetvár, Hungar y (formerl y Sziget) . The Turkis h arm y o f 100,00 0 men an d 30 0 guns wa s no t abl e t o brea k th e resistance , i n spit e o f a siege tha t laste d fo r severa l months . Whe n th e defender s wer e lef t without foo d an d ammunition , they made a last heroic suicida l attack , in whic h mos t o f the m fell . Histor y ha s awarde d Ba n Nikol a Subi e Zrinski th e honorar y titl e o f "th e Croatia n Leónidas. " Thi s episod e inspired th e Germa n poe t Kar l Theodo r Korne r t o writ e a famou s tragedy (Zriny), an d th e Croatia n compose r Ivan Zaj c t o creat e th e most popular Croatian opera, Nikola Subió Zrinski. Soliman died durin g the sieg e o f Vienna , an d hi s whol e army , demoralized , withdrew . Vienna wa s thu s saved , an d a n armistic e whic h wa s signe d a t Constantinople wa s later repeatedl y renewed, so that peac e followe d for a long period.18 THE ORGANIZATIO N O F THE MILITARY FRONTIE R Owing t o th e continuin g Turkis h menace , th e Croatian s decide d t o establish a permanent defens e organization. Thus a militar y organiza tion o f a ne w an d origina l type , calle d Vojn a Krajin a (Militar y Fron tier Zone ) was born. Mos t of the Croatia n people live d unde r i t unti l 1881, an d it has left dee p traces o n the Croatia n people an d thei r way of living . The initial organization laid dow n by the Croatia n Sabo r in Krizevci ( 1537-38 ) stipulated th e creatio n o f a militia-type army based o n levy, which wa s to be subordinate d to the ban. The captain-genera l wa s to lead it in the field. The land was divided into a Vendían Militar y Zone between th e Drav a an d Kup a Rivers , an d a Croatia n Militar y Zon e between th e Kup a and th e Adriatic . As impoverished Croatia wa s no t able t o bear al l the expenses , the Austria n provinces of the Hapsburg s agreed t o a yearl y contribution . Initiall y ther e wa s n o continuou s defense line , bu t simpl y a networ k of castles , strongholds , fortresses, and fortifie d cities . Som e o f thes e ha d permanen t garrison s whic h could b e reinforce d b y hastil y mobilize d militia. 19 Thi s organizatio n 18 Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 25 . Ferdinan d Strobl , "Tuerkenkrie g 1541-45, " Aliens Handbuch, 304 ff. 19 J. H. Schwicker , Geschichte der Oesterreichischen Grenze (Vienna , 1883) , 112.

140 CROATIA

: LAND , PEOPLE, CULTUEE

was strengthene d i n th e Bruc k Edict (1578) , b y whic h a permanen t war counci l wa s forme d in Graz , th e ran k o f "Administrato r o f Vojn a Krajina" wa s created, th e strengt h o f the permanen t arm y was fixed at 4,000 men , an d a yearl y contributio n b y th e Austria n province s o f 500,000 Kronen was established. The first administrator to be appointe d was Archduke Charles of Hapsburg, a very able man. His first act wa s the constructio n o f a fortres s (name d Karlova c i n hi s honor ) o n th e confluence o f the Kup a an d Koran a Rivers . This wa s t o be th e strong hold of the whol e defensive system.20 In 159 3 th e lon g period o f peace cam e t o a n end , whe n th e Turk s penetrated int o Hungar y and Croatia . They wer e defeate d a t Sisa k by Count Egenburg , bu t i n th e followin g year, wit h th e hel p o f a ne w army, the y succeede d i n conquerin g Sisak . Subsequently , th e mai n Turkish wa r operation s were , fo r a time , transferre d t o Hungary . I n Croatia, blood y an d devastatin g guerrilla warfare then too k place, bu t this di d not substantiall y change th e genera l situation . Th e onl y even t worth mentionin g wa s th e conques t o f th e fortres s o f Petrinj a b y Captain-General George Lenkovic, which permitted th e advanc e of the Military Frontie r limi t t o th e Un a River , thu s formin g a separat e district name d Bansk a (Ban's-own ) Krajina , subordinate d directl y t o the Ban.21 In 163 0 th e Militar y Frontier wa s withdraw n fro m th e authorit y of the ba n an d th e Sabor , an d place d unde r tha t o f th e emperor . Th e whole male population o f the Militar y Frontier wa s subject to lifelong military service, but thereb y obtaine d the advantage o f being fre e men, subject directl y t o th e emperor , rathe r tha n bein g serf s t o noblemen . The entir e zon e wa s divide d int o tw o regions , eac h on e unde r a Colonel-General. A system of alarm was perfected which permitted th e gathering, in fixed places, of between six and seven thousand men within a few hours. 22 All of these measures strengthened th e militar y capabilities of the Frontie r in a certain sense, but als o created dee p disconten t among th e Croatia n nobility , becaus e the y infringe d upo n Croatia n constitutional rights. After th e Turks suffere d a decisive defea t at Vienna (1683) , desperate effort s wer e mad e t o driv e the m ou t o f Hungar y an d Croatia . I n the latter , Colonel-Genera l Coun t Leslie , fro m Varazdin , conquere d Virovitica an d som e othe r Slavonia n fortresses , includin g Gradisk a (1684). Th e followin g year, Ba n Nichola s Erdôd y cleare d th e Turk s 20

Franz Vanicek , Spezialgeschichte der Milttaergrenze, I (Vienna , 1875), 6 2 ff. 21/Znd., 76 ff . ^Ibid., 8 6 ff.

MILITARY HISTOE Y 14

1

from Croati a a s fa r a s th e Un a River , whil e othe r Croatia n forces , under Markgrave Louis von Baden, penetrated int o Bosnia and wo n an important victor y nea r Derventa . Th e Francisca n pries t Luk a Mesi c freed Lika , and anothe r priest , Luk a Imbrisinovic , free d Pozega . Th e war receive d ne w impetu s whe n th e famou s Princ e Eugen e o f Savoy assumed leadership. H e won a decisive battle at Senta , Vojvodina, an d conquered Belgrade , an d eve n Sarajevo . Eventuall y th e Turk s signe d a peac e treat y a t Srijemsk i Karlovc i (1699) , whereb y the y ha d t o abandon al l of Croatia and Slavoni a except fo r a part o f Srijem. I n thi s way a larg e par t o f th e Croatia n land s agai n becam e free , althoug h Bosnia remaine d unde r Turkis h an d Dalmati a unde r Venetia n rule . The limits of the Militar y Frontier wer e now advanced to the Un a an d Sava Rivers . O n th e negativ e side , th e repopulatio n o f th e newl y conquered areas produced the exodus of a part of the Croatian Catholic population from Bosnia . To their homes the Turks brought peopl e fro m the Balkan s and fro m Asia . The newcomers—a s ha d happene d befor e —adopted both the Orthodox religion favored by the Turks and Serbia n nationality; late r the y forme d th e Serbia n minorit y i n Bosnia , whic h has remained one of the cause s of tension betwee n Croatian s and Serb s right down to the present time. 23 After a shor t perio d o f peace , th e Turk s agai n attacked , bu t wer e defeated i n Hungary an d Croatia . By a new peace treat y i n Pozarevac ( Serbia ) in 1718, the y lost a part of Bosnia. But in a new war they were victorious, an d afte r 173 9 th e frontier s o f Croatia agai n ra n alon g th e Una-Sava line. During this period, Croatian territor y amounted to some 15,500 square miles : 3,70 0 i n Civi l Croati a unde r th e ban , an d 11,80 0 in th e Militar y Frontier. 24 Th e latte r ha d abou t 36,00 0 me n fi t fo r military service. 25 I n spit e o f all reforms, these men wer e no t satisfac torily organized into closed and well-disciplined tactica l units. Constant contact with the Turks and with cruel methods of warfare had lef t thei r traces upo n th e soul s and habits o f these warriors , and upo n th e whol e population a s well. The area , i n short , wa s no t populate d wit h peace loving people. Act s of brigandry and plunderin g wer e rathe r common. This fact , an d eve n mor e th e wis h t o use i n a rational wa y th e extra ordinary capacitie s an d excellen t militar y performance s o f thes e fighters, hardened a s they were by physical strai n an d a frugal life , le d to th e decisio n fo r on e mor e thoroug h refor m o f th e statu s o f th e Military Frontier. A series o f extraordinary measures against brigandry 23

Suedland, Juznoslavensko pitanje, 7 9 ff.; Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 34 ff. Babic, The Croatian Nation, 16. 25 Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 39. 24

142 CROATIA:

LAND , PEOPLE , CULTURE

followed, whic h eventuall y ended whe n a figure who has since becom e a legend , the Croatia n Baro n Franjo Trenk , enliste d fighter s fro m th e Frontier (b y grantin g the m amnesty ) i n a militar y unit , "Trenk' s Pandurs." H e brough t the m t o th e Europea n battlefields , wher e the y covered themselve s wit h glor y becaus e o f their extraordinar y militar y exploits, and at the same time gave rise to tales an d legends o f hardshi p and cruelty. 20 The organization of the Militar y Frontier underwen t variou s changes. Its final form, taken in 1752, was the following: 27

Ban's-VarazdinKarlovac: Genera l Command in Zagreb

Slavonia-Srijem : General Command in Petrovaradin

Infantry Regiment 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 11

7 8 9

Name of Regiment Karlovac-Lika Karlovac-Otocac Karlovac-Ogulin Karlovac-Slunj Varazdin-Krizevci Varazdin-Djurdjevac 1st Ban's-Own 2nd Ban's-Ow n

Headquarters Gospió Otocac Ogulin Karlovac Bjelovar Bjelovar Glina Pétrin ja

Brod Gradiska Petrovaradin

Vinkovci Nova Gradiska Mitrovica

At the head o f the whole organization was a commanding general wit h headquarters i n Zagreb . H e had , a s hi s immediat e collaborators, tw o field marshal s and fou r generals . The hea d of ever y regimen t was a colonel, and the regiments were divided into battalions, companies, and platoons. Th e high-rankin g officer s wer e mostl y German , althoug h a small numbe r o f the m wer e Croatian . Lower-rankin g officer s wer e predominantly Croatian . O n ever y echelon , righ t dow n t o battalion , there was an office r (wit h a corresponding staff) fo r each o f the follow ing duties : militar y affairs , justice , technica l services , fores t service , schools an d education , an d genera l administrativ e services . The com manding office r wa s entruste d wit h an d responsibl e fo r al l military , judiciary, an d administrativ e activities, an d othe r dutie s a s well. Eac h branch o f service was governe d b y well-conceive d writte n statutes . Practically th e whole population lived in a constant state of war, an d every abl e ma n fro m ag e eightee n t o sixt y wa s subjec t t o militar y service. Th e me n alway s ha d t o hav e thei r weapon s wit h them , eve n while workin g th e fields , read y a t an y momen t t o leav e thei r dail y 26

Vanicek, Spezialgeschichte, I , 531 ff. Pavicic-Perse, "Hrvatska vojna povijest, " 194 .

27

MILITARY HISTOR Y 14

3

occupations an d mov e t o thei r gatherin g places . Withi n tw o t o si x hours th e unit s coul d b e assemble d a t thei r place s read y t o mov e t o battle. I n recompens e fo r this impose d militar y service, n o ma n wa s a serf; al l the inhabitant s of the Frontie r wer e fre e men . Besides militar y service, th e whol e populatio n wa s subjec t t o publi c work s service , s o that unde r militar y disciplin e roads , bridges , publi c edifices , schools , irrigation systems , and th e lik e coul d be built . Th e schoo l syste m was, for tha t epoch, quite advanced ; there were almos t no illiterates, and th e major par t o f th e me n spok e fairl y goo d German . Th e militar y capa bilities o f th e Militar y Frontie r wer e extraordinary . I n 1815 , fo r in stance, o f the 940,54 8 person s wh o live d i n th e Frontier , 473,00 0 wer e men. O f these , 135,92 4 were suitabl e fo r militar y service , tha t is , 47.4 per cen t o f th e entir e mal e population . The peasant s wer e th e cornerston e o f thi s whol e organization . I n 1815 the y mad e u p 94. 1 pe r cen t o f th e population . Wisel y planne d succession law s wer e promulgated , whic h prohibite d th e splitting-u p of rural properties s o that an economically powerful entity , based upo n the traditiona l typ e o f zadruga, wa s preserved a s th e basi c unit o f th e whole economi c and socia l structure. It wa s able t o subsist eve n whe n all the me n fit for military servic e were o n the battlefield . The Militar y Frontier, moreover , served a s a sanitary cordo n fo r th e whole of Europe against the plague and othe r disease s from th e Asiatic region. I n 171 0 a "Plagu e Edict " wa s promulgated , whic h wa s late r reinforced. Whe n pestilenc e wa s know n t o b e presen t i n Turkey , al l travelers an d merchandis e comin g from ther e were subjec t t o twenty one, twenty-eight , o r forty-two-da y quarantin e dela y befor e bein g allowed t o ente r Croati a an d t o mov e farthe r int o Wester n Europe. 28 ON FOREIG N BATTLEFIELDS When th e Turkis h peril lessened , th e Hapsburg s becam e involve d i n a series o f conflicts wit h variou s European powers , an d the y use d Croa tian troop s in al l their majo r war s o f that time . Thes e troop s consiste d mostly of light cavalry armed with lances and arquebuses , and excelle d in reconnaissanc e missions , swif t attacks , an d pursuits . Th e heav y cavalry (cuirassiers ) wa s arme d wit h heav y sword s an d pistols , an d was used t o pierce the enemy' s battle formation. Th e infantr y ( muskateers ) was arme d wit h ligh t fusil s ( muskets ) ; arquebusiers use d heav y fusils; an d lancer s wer e mostl y arme d wit h lances . Ther e wer e als o some artillery units. 28

Hugo Kerchnawe, Die alte Militaergrenze (Vienna , 1943) , 35 ff.

144

CHOATIA: LAND, PEOPLE, CULTURE

The Croatian s too k part i n the Thirt y Years ' War o n al l th e battle fields in Europe . I n 1619-162 0 the y fough t i n Bohemia . I n 162 2 the y were th e firs t t o ente r Heidelberg , afte r swimmin g across th e Necka r River under circumstances which became legendary. They defeated th e Hungarian leade r Gabo r Betlen , an all y o f Gustavu s Adolphus ( 15941632) o f Sweden , i n 1626 . Th e Croatian s penetrate d dee p int o Ger many, a s far a s Rostock, and too k the fortres s o f Stralsund an d Ruge n Island. I n th e decisiv e battl e o f Liitze n (1632) , wher e Gustavu s Adolphus fell , th e Croatian s playe d a decisiv e par t wit h thei r twent y cavalry squadrons . Thei r action s i n th e battl e o f Nordlinge n (1634 ) were a major factor in that victory. They fought under th e comman d of the most renowned military leaders o f that epoch: Coun t Wallenstein , Count Tilly , Croatia n Coun t Georg e Zrinski, Genera l Isolany , Genera l Johann vo n Werth , Ba n Nichola s Zrinski , hi s brothe r Peter , Genera l Piccolomini, an d others. 29 Whenever thes e leaders had Croatia n troop s under thei r command , they ha d t o assum e th e titl e "Genera l o f th e Croatians." Th e leaders , an d th e Croatian s with them , ofte n passe d a s mercenaries from on e side to the other— a rather commo n occurrence i n those times . Everywhere th e Croatian s distinguishe d themselve s wit h extraordinary militar y exploits. Their capabilitie s wer e wel l known , as was their faithfulnes s t o thei r leaders ; thu s the y wer e sough t afte r fo r the most responsible missions and duties . The Frenc h king , Louis XII I (1610-1643), formed a body-guard of Croatians, which was part o f the French roya l guar d unti l th e Frenc h Revolution . A t th e cour t o f Saxony's Prince-Elector Joh n George, a Guard unit calle d th e Kurfürstliche Kroaten Leibcompagnie zu Ross (Prince-Elector' s Croatia n Cavalry Body-Guard Company) was formed i n 1656. 80 After th e Thirt y Year s War , th e Croatian s were use d i n th e Wa r of Spanish Succession. They distinguished themselves in battles a t Mantua and Mila n in Italy, Hochstadt in Germany, and in the Netherland s an d France. I n man y of these battle s the y wer e le d b y th e famou s Princ e Eugene o f Savoy. 31 I n th e Seve n Year s War betwee n Mari a Theres a and the Prussian King Frederick, th e Croatian s took important parts in decisive battle s a t Rosbac h and Leytje n (1757) , Kunnersdor f (1759) , Thorgau (1760) , Budjejovice , an d others . The y covere d themselve s with militar y glory , an d wo n estee m fro m al l militar y leaders , eve n from thei r enemies , as the best o f soldiers. Yet, at the sam e time, having brought wit h the m th e crue l method s o f thei r traditiona l warfar e 29

Pavicic-Perse, "Hrvatska vojna povijest," 196 .

wibid.

31

Vanicek, Spezialgeschichte, II , 11 2 ff.

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5

against th e Turks , they s o excelled in brutality tha t i t became common to say: "Deliver us, O Lord, from th e plague, war, and the Croatians." 32 During th e sam e epoch , othe r Croatia n unit s continue d t o figh t th e Turks at home. A Croatian corps some 30,000 men strong, under Princ e Lichtenstein, defeate d th e Turk s a t Dubic a i n 1788 . Anothe r corp s of 12,000 men , unde r Coun t Mitrowski , conquere d Saba c (Serbia ) an d Novi (Croatia). 33 THE NAPOLEONI C WAR S In 179 6 and 1797 , Croatian s made up par t of the Austria n army which fought agains t Napoleo n i n Ital y unde r Genera l Davidovi c (als o a Croatian). B y the peac e treat y o f Campoformio (1797) , th e Venetia n Republic wa s suppressed , an d th e Hapsburg s obtaine d contro l o f al l of it s possession s eas t o f th e Adig e River , includin g Dalmatia . Afte r many centuries, al l the Croatian provinces, except Bosni a and Hercegovina, were thu s unite d unde r th e sam e power. I n th e ne w war agains t Napoleon, som e 48,000 Croatians fought i n Germany and Italy . Having lost th e battl e o f Austerlit z (1805) , th e Hapsburg s ha d t o ced e al l former Venetia n possession s t o Napoleon , wh o unite d the m i n th e newly formed Kingdo m of Italy.34 In 180 9 th e Croatian s ha d approximatel y 100,00 0 men , fightin g i n Italy, Germany , an d Poland . Furthermore , a Croatia n Karlovac-Corp s of abou t 10,00 0 me n unde r th e Croatia n Genera l Stojcevic , fough t a t home agains t som e 12,00 0 me n o f Marsha l Marmont, with th e ai m of driving th e Frenc h fro m Dalmatia . Thi s war , in which guerrill a tactic s were sometimes used, was a very bitter one . Eventually the Croatians , reinforced b y a corp s fro m Uppe r Croati a unde r Genera l Knezevic , forced Marmon t to withdraw t o Zadar, where he tried t o embark . Th e war was nevertheless los t in the battl e a t Wagram, an d the Hapsburg s had t o han d ove r t o Napoleo n th e territor y o f fou r Militar y Frontie r regiments, an d a par t o f Civi l Croati a u p t o th e Sava . Thi s area , together wit h Dalmati a an d som e othe r provinces , wa s unite d i n th e "Province o f Illyria " under th e rul e o f Marmont. 35 Of al l his conquests, Napoleo n wa s most favorably impressed b y th e military organizatio n o f th e Militar y Frontie r an d th e valu e o f it s soldiers. H e kep t th e whol e organizatio n intact , formin g thre e regi ments calle d th e Régiments de Chasseurs cFIllyrie (late r calle d th e Régiments Croates), whic h too k par t i n th e victor y parad e i n Pari s 32

Rupert Schumacher , Des Reiches Hofzaun (Darmstadt , 1942) , 1 7 S. Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 49 ff. Schumacher, Hofzaun, 3 7 ff . ssyanicek , Spezialgeschichte, IV , 249 ff.

33

34

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( 1811 ) . H e forme d a specia l militar y schoo l fo r Croatian s i n Karlova c and sent some two hundred Croatia n youths to French militar y schools. In 1813 , Le Premier Régiment des Hussards Croates, composed o f six squadrons, wa s forme d in Karlovac . On th e whole , abou t 1 1 per cen t of th e Croatia n populatio n o f Illyri a wa s drafte d fo r Frenc h militar y service.36 Under French command, the Croatian s fought in the army of General Carré (1809) ; in 1811, i n the divisio n of General Baro n Delzons; i n th e division o f General Pourrailly in 1812 ; an d i n th e division s of General s Junin and Oudinot in 1813. Afte r th e Napoleoni c defeat at Moscow , the First an d Thir d Regiment s o f Croatian s under Fiel d Marsha l Sljivari c (also a Croatian ) forme d th e rearguar d whic h save d th e remnant s of the Grande Armée fro m fina l annihilatio n i n th e retrea t ove r th e Berezina River . O n tha t occasion , Napoleo n himsel f addresse d th e Croatians with the word s : "Croatians, yesterda y I personally witnesse d your heroi c deeds . Yo u have wo n glor y an d immorta l honor." I n hi s memoirs, Marsha l Marmon t quote s thes e word s o f Napoleo n whe n referring t o th e Croatians : " I neve r ha d bette r an d mor e valian t soldiers."37 Eve n now , i n th e home s o f many peasant s i n Croatia , th e French militar y awar d o f th e "Légio n d'honneur " ca n b e foun d i n a place o f honor. At th e sam e time , thos e Croatian s wh o remaine d unde r Austria n rule fough t o n th e sid e o f Austria . I n th e Battl e o f th e Nation s a t Leipzig, Croatian s ha d th e misfortun e of having t o figh t agains t eac h other. After Napoleon' s defeat a t Leipzig, th e Croatians , under Genera l Radivojevic, attacke d Karlovac , which wa s defende d b y French-Croa tians. Thes e latte r change d thei r allegianc e an d passe d ove r t o thei r brothers withou t fighting . Othe r Croatia n troops , unde r Genera l Tomasic, conquere d norther n Dalmatia , fightin g o n occasio n i n col laboration wit h th e Britis h fleet . Finally , a Croatia n army , unde r General Milutinovic , conquere d souther n Dalmatia , th e forme r Re public o f Dubrovnik , an d Bok a Kotorska , wher e the y ha d t o figh t against th e Montenegrins , who , instigate d b y Russia , claime d Bok a Kotorska for themselves.38 FROM NAPOLEO N T O THE FIRST WORLD WA R After Napoleon' s fall , relativ e peac e reigne d i n th e Croatia n lands , interrupted occasionall y b y Turkis h incursion s fro m Bosnia , whic h 3

«Kiszlmg, Die Kroaten, 48 if . Pavicic-Perse, "Hrvatska vojna povijest, " 197 . 38 Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 49 ff.

37

MILITARY HISTOR Y 14

7

sometimes provoke d blood y punitiv e expedition s o f Croatia n troop s deep int o Bosnia . Th e Karlova c regimen t attacke d Kule n Vaku f i n 1835, fo r example , an d fou r regiment s wer e sen t agains t Turkis h fortress o f Izacic in 1836. 39 In 1848 , th e Hungarian s raise d th e banne r o f nationa l freedo m against th e Hapsburgs . Unfortunately , the Hungaria n concep t o f free dom meant the subjugation of other nationalities in the Hungaria n par t of th e empir e t o their hegemony . I n defens e of their nationa l interests, the Croatian s aligne d themselve s agains t th e Hungarians . Ba n Baro n Joseph Jelaci c wa s appointe d b y th e empero r "Ba n o f Croati a an d Slavonia, Governor of Dalmatia an d Rijeka , an d Suprem e Commander of al l Croatia n troops. " When, becaus e o f certai n politica l intrigue s a t the Viennes e court , thi s appointmen t wa s withdrawn , Jelacic refuse d obedience and , solemnl y confirme d b y th e Sabor , mobilized al l Croa tian troop s o f th e secon d an d thir d lev y (th e elit e fightin g troop s of the first levy were in Italy under Marsha l Radetzky). O n September 7 , 1848, h e declare d wa r o n Hungar y "i n th e nam e o f th e Kingdo m of Croatia, Slavonia , and Dalmatia, " an d o n September 1 4 he crosse d th e Drava Rive r with som e 45,000 troops. H e defeate d th e Hungarian s a t Schwechat.40 Defeate d als o by th e Austrian s and Prussians , th e Hun garians capitulate d a t Vilagosz . Late r politica l development s turne d these victorie s mor e agains t Croatia n tha n Hungaria n independence . The Croatian s mad e up th e bul k of the Austria n army which, i n 1859 , defeated th e Italians at Custozza. In the war against Prussia in 1866, the Croatian ligh t cavalr y wo n significan t initia l successe s i n th e battl e at Koeniggraetz , althoug h thes e initia l victorie s wer e nullifie d b y th e later course o f the battl e o n other part s o f the battlefield. A Hungarian-Croatia n agreement settle d th e relations between thes e two nation s i n 1867 , th e yea r afte r genera l obligator y militar y servic e had bee n introduced i n Croatia. 41 The militar y provisions of the agree ment provide d fo r separat e Croatia n arme d forces , calle d Hrvatsko Domobranstvo ( Croatian Home-Defenders ). These forces wer e subordinated to the common Hungarian-Croatian War Ministr y in Budapest, and a separat e departmen t fo r Domobranstvo wa s establishe d there . The Domobranstvo consiste d o f fou r infantr y regiment s (th e 25t h i n Zagreb, the 26th in Karlovac, the 27th in Sisak, and the 28t h in Osijek) , the 10t h Cavalr y Regiment in Varazdin, and the 6th Artillery Regiment in Zagreb. Administratively , they forme d a separat e Croatia n Military 39

Vanicek, Spezialgeschichte, IV , 17 4 ff. Hauptmann, Die Kroaten, 65 ff. «Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 55 ff. 40

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Region in Zagreb, and in war the 42nd Division. Their officia l languag e was Croatian . A gradua l suppressio n o f th e Militar y Frontie r bega n i n 1871 , an d the Frontie r wa s definitely incorporate d into th e civi l administration of Croatia i n 1881 . A thoroug h militar y reorganizatio n wa s th e result . From th e ol d Frontie r regiments , a ne w divisio n (th e 36th ) wa s formed. I t consiste d o f four infantr y regiment s (th e 16t h i n Bjelovar , the 53rd in Zagreb, the 78th in Osijek, an d the 79t h in Gospic), the 6t h Cavalry Regimen t i n Varazdi n an d th e 13t h Artiller y Regimen t i n Zagreb. The official languag e in these units was German, and they were a part of the common Imperial Army. Together wit h the 42n d Divisio n they forme d the 13t h Arm y Corps , wit h headquarter s i n Zagreb. 42 A t the hea d o f thi s corps , an d o f bot h Croatia n divisions , wer e suc h Croatian general s a s Grba , Borojevic , Sarkotic , Snjaric , Lipovcak , Ljubicic, Uzela c (late r suprem e commande r o f th e Imperia l Ai r Force ), and Mihaljevic . In 1878 , Austri a received th e mandat e fro m th e Berli n Congress t o occupy Bosnia and Hercegovina. Two Croatian generals were entruste d with thi s task . The mai n force , composed mostly of the Croatia n 13t h Corps, unde r Genera l Filipovic , crosse d th e Sav a Rive r a t Slavonsk i Brod and , afte r rathe r heav y fighting, conquere d Sarajevo . Anothe r force, unde r Genera l Jovanovic, penetrated fro m Dalmati a int o Herce govina, and , afte r mino r skirmishes , entere d Mostar . These wer e th e last militar y event s involvin g Croatia n participatio n befor e th e Firs t World War . THE FIRS T WORLD WAR In the First World War, the Croatian people made up about 13 to 14 per cent o f the monarchy' s entire mobilized manpower. Bosni a and Herce govina, take n alone , where eve n me n sixt y year s o f ag e wer e drafted , gave an incredibl e 3 0 per cen t o f its populatio n t o th e wa r effort. 43 A t the outbreak of the war, there were i n the Imperia l Arm y 375 generals and admirals ; o f these , 5 5 general s an d 2 admiral s wer e Croatians. 44 The Croatian s fro m Uppe r Croati a an d Slavoni a wer e incorporate d mostly into the 13t h Arm y Corps ; those fro m Dalmati a an d Istri a int o the units of the 15t h an d 16t h Army Corps and int o the Imperia l Navy; while those from Bosni a and Hercegovina were taken into eight BosniaHercegovina regiment s an d eigh t Bosnia-Hercegovin a ligh t battalions . 42

Alphons Wrede, Geschlchte der L u. k. Wéhrmacht (Vienna , 1903) , 35 ff. Pavicic-Perse, "Hrvatsk a vojn a povijest, " 199 . «Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 97.

43

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9

During th e initia l wa r period , th e 13t h Arm y Corp s wa s employe d against Serbia on the Sav a and lower Drina Rivers; the Dalmatian units were used on the upper Drin a and Lim Rivers; and the Bosnian s fought mostly o n the Russia n fron t an d partl y o n the Serbian . Th e tw o offen sives agains t Serbi a i n 191 4 wer e unsuccessful , du e i n par t t o th e excellent fighting qualities o f the Serb s and thei r experienc e fro m th e Balkan wars , an d i n par t t o th e poo r leadershi p o f the Austria n commander, General Potiorek . Th e experienc e o f this period demonstrate d that no t onl y th e Croatian s bu t als o th e member s o f th e Serbia n minority from al l Croatia n lands—i n whose willingness t o figh t agains t the Serb s ther e wer e som e doubts—fough t i n a distinguishe d manne r in Serbi a an d elsewhere , an d coul d b e considere d amon g the bes t of the monarchy's troops. The feelin g of belonging to the Croatia n homeland tha t prevaile d amon g th e Croatia n Serbs , was , a t tha t time , stronger tha n thei r Serbia n nationa l consciousness . Late r o n i n th e war, th e spirit s o f everyone—Croatian s an d others—ebbe d becaus e o f the course of political events in the monarchy. At th e en d o f 1914 , th e bul k of the Croatia n troops wa s transferred to the Russian front, where they took part in the winter offensiv e a s the main shock-forc e which pushe d th e Russian s back fro m th e Tata r an d Jablanica passe s i n th e easter n Carpathians , an d conquere d Stanisla v and Niznio w in Galicia . I n th e Gorlitz e offensiv e (May , 1915) , the y fought i n Bukovina, where the y drov e the Russian s bac k t o th e Bessarabian frontier , an d hel d thei r position s agains t repeate d an d blood y counter-attacks durin g th e whol e yea r o f 191 5 an d th e beginnin g o f 1916.45 When Ital y entere d th e war (May , 1915), all Dalmatian troops wer e hastily brough t fro m th e quie t Serbia n fron t t o th e Italia n front , an d were merged into the 58th Division. A little later, almos t all the Bosnian troops, an d fo r a tim e som e units fro m Uppe r Croatia , fough t agains t Italy unde r Marsha l Borojevic. Th e fightin g spiri t o f the Croatian s o n the Russia n front fel l lowe r an d lower. Parts o f the 36t h and th e whol e 42nd Divisio n wer e badl y route d i n 191 6 betwee n Dnjepe r an d Prut , and desertio n wa s widesprea d becaus e o f th e stubbor n refusa l o f th e Hungarians t o acced e t o Croatia n claim s fo r th e politica l reorganiza tion o f th e monarchy . Later , i n 1917 , Wilson' s Fourtee n Points , con taining th e righ t t o self-determinatio n of peoples , looke d ver y attrac tive to the Croatian s on the Russian front. Th e Croatian s o n the Italia n front fough t unti l th e ver y en d i n a n examplar y way. Thei r struggl e was no t fo r th e kin g an d emperor ; i t wa s rathe r fo r th e defens e o f 45

Pavicic-Perse, "Hrvatska vojna povijest," 199 ; Kiszling , Die Kroaten, 97 ff.

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Croatian soi l against Italian imperialism , expressed in the provision s of the famou s Londo n Treaty , alread y widel y know n amon g them . Th e flagrant failur e o f th e Italia n thirtee n offensives , an d th e nea r break down of Italy, were mostly the result of the extraordinar y and stubbor n resistance o f the Croatians. 46 Eve n whe n th e Sabo r formall y brok e tie s with th e monarch y on October 29 , 1918, an d proclaime d th e indepen dent "Stat e o f Slovenes , Croatians , an d Serbs, " an d eve n whe n th e armistice wa s signed , Croatia n troop s kep t o n resistin g th e Italians . They separate d th e non-Croatia n leader s fro m thei r ranks , electe d their ow n Croatia n officers , and , i n relativ e order , unde r ver y ligh t Italian pressure , graduall y withdre w (b y foo t an d b y rail ) t o thei r homeland, wher e the y disbanded. Som e Croatian unit s i n the Austrian army i n Albani a withdre w i n perfec t orde r t o Bok a Kotorska, wher e they wer e demobilize d i n th e mos t orderl y manne r an d sen t bac k t o their homes . The Croatian s o n th e Russia n front wer e les s fortunate . They becam e involve d i n th e disordere d circumstance s o f th e genera l collapse an d revolution , an d a grea t numbe r o f the m neve r reache d home.47 THE YUGOSLA V LEGION The ide a o f a Yugosla v Legion,48 compose d exclusivel y o f Croatians , Serbs, and Slovene s from th e monarchy , many of whom were prisoners of wa r in Russia or emigrants in America, originated wit h th e Yugoslav Committee, which, o n the Entente' s side , acted fo r the liberatio n o f th e southern Slav s from Austria-Hungary . The purpos e wa s t o contribut e to th e Entente' s militar y victor y an d t o obtai n i n thi s wa y bette r understanding fo r th e Yugosla v cause. Thi s ide a was , fro m th e ver y beginning, oppose d b y th e Serbia n government , especiall y b y Prim e Minister Pasic . H e wa s willin g t o accep t volunteers , bu t onl y i f the y joined th e rank s o f th e Serbia n army , which, afte r it s expulsio n fro m the homelan d i n 1915 , wa s reforming on Corf u an d Bizerta . This was , in fact , the clas h betwee n basic concept s whic h late r destroye d Yugo slavia: th e concep t o f Yugosla v unity wit h equa l right s fo r al l he r peoples, a s oppose d t o tha t o f Serbia n hegemony . When th e Serbia n government , wit h th e agreemen t o f th e Allies , obtained permissio n from th e Russia n authorities fo r voluntary draftin g among th e prisoner s i n th e Russia n camps—mostl y Croatians—th e re sponse was poor. This was chiefly owin g to the principles involved , bu t «Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 101 , 121-122 . "Ibid., 11 8 ff. Pavlova Milada , Jugoslavenski Odbor / Yugosla v Committee (Zagreb , 1924) ; Pavle Ostovie , The Truth About Yugoslavia (Ne w York , 1952) , 6 2 ff . 48

MILITARY HISTOR Y 15

1

also partly t o th e Balka n methods ( insults, beatings, physica l tortures , and s o on ) use d b y member s o f th e Serbia n mission , t o whic h th e Austrian Slav s were no t accustomed . A little later , whe n th e Serbia n emissaries passe d fro m voluntar y t o compulsor y drafting , a serie s o f disturbances brok e ou t amon g th e prisoners , mainly i n Odessa . Thes e were suppresse d wit h th e utmos t cruelty ; a mass murdering o f prisoners took place, an d thei r corpse s were throw n int o th e Blac k Sea . Thi s lasted unti l th e whol e affai r wa s stoppe d b y th e Russia n authorities . While th e exac t numbe r o f thos e murdere d wa s neve r known , i t ha s been estimate d at between te n an d thirt y thousand . Eventually a unit unde r th e nam e o f the "Serbia n Voluntee r Corps " was formed. When Romani a collapsed i n 1916 , th e 1s t Division o f this corps wa s hastil y sen t t o Dobrudj a t o sto p th e Bulgaria n advance . These men fough t magnificently ; o f some 18,00 0 soldiers, this divisio n lost almost 60 per cent—2,16 2 dead an d 7,37 0 wounded. Eve n afte r thi s exploit th e dissensio n withi n th e Corp s continued, an d i n 1917 , 12,74 0 enlisted me n (7,35 2 Serbs , 3,78 7 Croatians , 1,24 1 Slovenes , an d 36 0 others) an d 15 1 officer s ( 4 Serbs , 9 8 Croatians , 4 2 Slovenes , an d 7 others) lef t th e corps . Ther e remaine d onl y 19,47 2 enliste d me n an d 779 officers . Thi s forc e wa s transferre d fro m Russi a t o th e Salonik a front, reinforce d by volunteer s fro m America , and a t las t change d it s name t o th e "Yugosla v Division. " Abou t 28,00 0 me n stron g (almos t equal t o th e strengt h o f th e entir e Serbia n army), 49 thi s forc e too k a decisive part in the break-throug h of the Bulgaria n and Germa n lines at Salonika in 1918. Thes e events, widely known throughout Yugoslavia, contributed muc h t o th e weaknes s an d lo w moral e o f th e futur e Yugoslav army. THE YUGOSLAV ARMY ( 1918-1941 ) When Yugoslavi a was create d (1918) , th e Serb s too k th e rein s o f th e army, a s well a s o f the whol e state . The y adopte d th e viewpoin t tha t the new army was a simple continuation of the ol d Serbian arm y unde r another name . They , i n consequence , ignore d an d suppresse d th e whole militar y past—traditions, customs , forms o f organization , an d s o on—of al l non-Serbian peoples i n Yugoslavia. The ol d Serbian army was an excellen t fightin g instrument . Th e Serb s ar e generall y firs t clas s soldiers: valiant , self-confident , intelligent , capabl e o f acting indepen dently, an d faithfu l t o thei r companion s an d thei r units . O f extraordi nary physical resistence, the y represent a type of warrior as good as one 49 Svetozar Pribicevic, La dictature du Roi Alexandre. (París, 1933) , 62.

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could wis h for. Their rank s di d not posses s a high standard o f military knowledge, ye t the y compensate d fo r thi s b y commo n sense , a spiri t of initiative, an d a willingness to do their best, even to die in fulfillmen t of thei r duty . Abov e all , th e whol e arm y wa s imbue d b y a fanatica l Serbian patriotism . I n th e ol d Serbia—nationall y homogeneous—thi s represented a great mora l force. I n th e new multinational state , i t was anachronistic an d acte d agains t al l non-Serbian nationalities, primaril y against th e Croatians, who were the most numerous and most national istic. Moreover, by tradition, the Serbia n army always became involve d in politics . I t wa s Serbia n arm y officer s wh o (1903 ) murdere d Kin g Alexander Obrenovi c an d hi s wif e Draga , an d brough t th e Karadjor djevic dynast y t o th e throne . Fo r decades , Serbia n arm y officer s (Chetniks) organized an d conducte d illega l guerrill a warfar e i n Macedonia agains t th e Turks , Bulgarians , Greeks , an d Albanian s i n order to furthe r Serbia n imperialisti c aims . Serbia n arm y officer s like wise organized the murde r of Archduke Franz Ferdinan d an d hi s wif e in Sarajev o ( 1914 ), which even t wa s th e immediat e caus e o f the Firs t World War . The ne w arm y wa s numerically strong , wit h 200,00 0 men i n peace time an d almos t 2,000,00 0 me n i n war . Fro m sixtee n peacetim e divi sions, twenty-eigh t wa r division s an d tw o mountai n brigade s wer e established. O f these , thirtee n infantr y divisions , one cavalr y division , and on e mountai n brigad e wer e t o b e forme d o n Croatia n soil . Yet , because o f a complicate d mobilizatio n syste m ( imposed b y considera tions of Serbian political interests to th e detrimen t o f military efficienc y and principles) , onl y si x o f th e infantr y division s ha d a Croatia n majority amon g th e ran k an d file, all unde r Serbia n leadership. 50 The ne w army' s basic principle s o f military organizatio n (th e sam e which wer e i n effec t i n 1912 ) wer e outmoded , ye t n o substantia l reforms were made until 1941. Th e military leaders wer e neither willin g nor able to reorganize the army according to the standar d necessar y for modern warfare . Instruction wa s rudimentar y an d inadequate . Finan cial mean s (2 5 t o 3 0 per cen t o r mor e o f the yearl y nationa l budget ) were wasted i n a se a of incompetence an d corruption . Th e traditiona l Serbian an d Croatia n custo m o f formin g arm y unit s fro m me n o f a single region , wh o ar e boun d t o clos e spiritua l ties , wa s deliberatel y broken an d substitute d fo r b y th e so-calle d "extra-territoria l militar y service." Thi s consiste d o f bringin g Serbia n soldier s t o Croatia n gar risons (i n order to have occupational forces there ) an d dispersin g non Serbs i n smal l group s far fro m thei r home s (thu s avoidin g th e dange r BO

Author's private archive .

MILITARY HISTOR Y 15

3

of possibl e rebellions ). This wa s on e of the mai n causes of the brea k i n the spiritua l cohesio n whic h ha d distinguishe d th e unit s o f th e ol d Serbian army , as well as that of the Croatian . In promotion s an d appointment s t o importan t positions , nepotis m and political reliabilit y (exclusivel y fro m th e Serbia n viewpoint) wer e the mai n criteria—no t aptitude . Th e officer s o f th e forme r Austro Hungarian arm y wer e accepte d onl y afte r a lon g an d humiliatin g screening. Man y did no t wan t t o be subjecte d t o thi s procedure , an d many others resigned shortl y after admission . The non-Serbs, especially the Croatians , wer e rarel y admitte d t o militar y schools . The y wer e held bac k in promotion s and poste d in garrison s far fro m Croatia n lands. Th e whol e lif e o f th e arm y wa s subordinate d t o th e ai m o f making i t th e backbon e o f Serbia n hegemon y ove r th e non-Serbia n nationalities, an d no t th e instrumen t fo r th e defenc e o f th e countr y against foreign enemies. The nationa l compositio n of the Yugosla v army at th e beginnin g of 1941, b y percentage , wa s roughl y a s follows ( The militar y law , base d on th e Serbia n famil y pattern , favore d th e exemptio n o f Serb s fro m military service, and thus the figure 35.5% in the thir d column. ) :51 Nationality Serbs Croatians Slovenes Macedonians Albanians Hungarians Germans Others

Population Rank and file Non-coms

Officers

Generals

41.0 30.0 9.0 6.0 5.0

38.0 32.5

84 8 5 1

79 10 9

97 2 1

4.0

3.5

2

2

3.5 1.5

9.0 6.5 5.5

3.5 1.5

Not on e non-Ser b becam e a n arm y commander , o r wa s appointe d t o any hig h positio n i n th e Wa r Ministry , i n th e Genera l Staff , o r i n military schools , o r othe r leadin g positions . Onl y tw o Croatian s an d one Sloven e were , fo r a shor t time , divisio n commanders . Th e arm y interfered continuall y i n politics , provocativel y promotin g Serbia n national interests , traditions , an d values , and suppressin g al l others. I t organized Chetni k units within the army , and Chetai k political militia bands for terrorizing the non-Serbian population. In 1936 , th e Croatia n Peasant Part y (whic h containe d th e overwhelmin g majority o f Croa tians) wa s compelle d i n self-defens e to for m "Croatia n Peasan t an d Citizens' Protection-Troops " (Hrvatska Seljacka i Gradjanska Zaitita). This militia ha d smal l value as a fighting force i n a regular war , yet it s very existenc e contribute d t o limitin g th e excesse s o f Chetni k band s Sl/fcid.

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and th e Nationa l Polic e (gendarmerie). Th e mora l standard s o f th e army fel l lowe r an d lower . I n th e critica l year s afte r 1938 , whe n a large numbe r o f reservist s wer e calle d t o arms , man y sign s o f dee p moral crisi s were visible . Mutinies occurred , for example , i n th e 42n d Regiment i n Bjelovar , th e 106t h Regimen t i n Karlovac, i n unit s i n Banjaluka an d Mostar , and i n othe r unit s a s well. Th e onl y answe r of the militar y authorities , however, wa s oppression , neve r reform. After th e cou p d'éta t ( a conspirac y o f arm y officers ) o f Marc h 27 , 1941, genera l mobilization was ordered. The response o f the populatio n was poor: les s than 50 per cen t o f the peopl e i n non-Serbian areas, and a poor 60 per cen t i n Serbian areas , responded. When , o n April 6, th e Germans an d Italian s attacked, th e arm y collapsed withi n a fe w days . The Germans , comin g fro m Bulgaria , completel y route d th e bes t o f the Serbia n division s in Serbi a an d Macedoni a betwee n Apri l 6 an d April 9 , without an y seriou s fighting . The y entere d Belgrad e withou t opposition o n Apri l IS. 52 O n th e Croatia n front , th e Croatia n Sav a Division offere d wea k resistanc e sout h o f th e Drav a River , an d the n yielded. Th e German s entere d Zagre b o n Apri l 10 , some hours afte r the Croatian nationalist circles had proclaime d th e "Independen t Stat e of Croatia, " severin g all tie s wit h Yugoslavia . The Slovenia n divisions quietly disperse d an d disappeare d betwee n Apri l 6 an d Apri l 9 . Th e Hungarians occupie d Back a an d Baranja , an d th e Italians , takin g advantage o f German victories , simply marched int o par t o f Slovenia , the wester n par t o f Croatia , Dalmatia, an d Montenegro , an d encoun tered n o serious resistance. During all this time, the Chetni k army units and Chetni k militi a band s followe d i n th e rea r o f th e fleein g armies , spreading terro r an d committin g atrocitie s agains t th e non-Serbia n population unti l the time when the y fused wit h th e defeate d army . On April 17 , the Serbia n Genera l Kalafatovi c signe d th e surrender. 53 THE CROATIA N ARM Y AN D IT S ENEMIE S I N TH E SECON D WORL D WA R (1941-1945) Authority i n th e Independen t Stat e o f Croati a (Nezavisna Drzava Hrvatska: N.D.H. ) was taken over by Dr . Ante Pavelic, th e hea d o f an ultranationalistic pro-fascis t Croatia n politica l group , Ustasha . Paveli c ruled i n a dictatoria l way ; eve n afte r a kin d o f Croatia n Sabo r wa s constituted, he wa s the onl y and omnipoten t rule r o f the country . Th e state, i n fact , wa s neve r reall y fre e an d independent . I t wa s divide d 52

Kurt Tippelskirch , Geschichte des zweiten Weltkrieges (Bonn , 1951) , 171 . 53Tippelskirch, Ibid., 17 1 ff.

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5

into a Germa n an d a n Italia n occupationa l zone . Th e relatio n o f th e new Croatian arm y to the occupational Italian 2n d Army was regulated by the Pact of Rome and by other arrangements made later a s the nee d arose. All Croatian troops in their zone were operationally subordinate d to the Italians . Theoretically , the Italian s als o had th e right s o f control over the instructio n an d organizatio n of the whol e Croatia n army ; but , in practice, the y wer e neve r i n a positio n t o us e thes e rights , becaus e the Croatians , an d eve n th e Germans , di d everythin g t o avoi d this . The relation o f the ne w army to the German s was settled accordin g t o the practical loca l situation. All Croatian armed forces—including thos e in th e Italia n zone—depende d o n the German s for organization , arms , and equipment . Trainin g wa s lef t mostl y t o th e Croatians , althoug h some unit s wer e instructe d i n Germa n trainin g center s i n Austria , in order to avoid Italian interference . From the very first, the Croatia n arme d forces bega n t o develop int o two separat e parts : th e Regula r Arm y (Hrvatsko Domobranstvo— Croatian Domobrans) , an d th e Ustash a Militi a (Ustaska Vojnica). This arrangemen t was later regularize d b y law ( 1942 ). In establishin g the Croatia n arme d forces , numerou s obstacle s ha d t o b e overcome . While th e Croatia n people greete d th e fal l o f Yugoslavia with jo y and , in a certain sense, were gratefu l t o the German s for contributing t o th e destruction o f this "jail o f the Croatia n nation," the greate r par t o f th e Croatians distruste d Hitler' s polic y an d wer e fearfu l o f the possibilit y of hi s victory . The y als o distruste d Paveli c an d th e Ustash a govern ment, o n th e on e han d fo r bein g exponent s of th e Nazi-Fascists , an d on the othe r fo r not bein g abl e t o bring orde r an d organizatio n t o th e country. The resentment agains t the Ustash a government gre w deepe r after it forcibl y disbande d the Hrvatska Seljacka i Gradjanska Za$tita, and stil l deeper afte r th e signin g of the Pac t o f Rome ( 1942), by whic h almost th e whol e Croatia n coas t wa s cede d t o Italia n imperialism . Discriminatory measure s on the par t o f the governmen t in favor o f th e Ustasha Militi a shoo k th e moral e i n al l th e rank s o f th e Croatia n Domobrans, whic h ha d t o bea r th e heavies t par t o f the fighting. The lac k o f professiona l officer s an d o f non-commissione d officer s was a sever e handica p fo r bot h th e Croatia n Domobran s an d th e Ustasha Militia. This lac k of officers was due partly to the fac t tha t the Serbs, durin g th e twenty-thre e year s o f th e existenc e o f Yugoslavia, did everythin g i n thei r powe r t o restric t th e admittanc e o f the Croa tians t o militar y schools. The numbe r o f officers , wh o wer e traine d i n allegiance to the Yugosla v unit y to whic h th e ne w Croatia n stat e wa s opposed, wer e no t considere d trustworth y fo r th e ne w army . Th e

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anger an d hat e accumulate d i n th e recen t pas t b y th e Serb s an d Croatians, a s wel l a s th e anti-Croatia n propagand a fro m th e Com munists and Serbians—mostl y amon g the Serbia n minorit y in Croatiatogether wit h th e Allied propaganda agains t th e Nazi-Fascists , cause d a par t o f the populatio n t o rebe l agains t th e newl y create d Croatia n state. Lac k o f experienc e i n ruling , a narro w politica l outlook , an d errors and grav e misdeeds of the Ustash a authorities i n suppressing th e rebellion helpe d swell the rank s of the rebels and aggravat e th e tas k of the Croatian arme d forces. The Italian s sabotaged ever y effor t o f the Croatian s i n th e political , economic, an d militar y fields . The y neve r permitte d a n orderl y con scription o f recruits in thei r zone , hindere d th e operation s an d move ments o f Croatian troops, an d openl y helped th e rebels . Th e German s did no t trus t th e Croatian s entirely , an d the y hel d ver y tigh t contro l over the organization of the Croatian armed forces. The y permitte d th e forming o f ne w units , an d supplie d arm s an d equipmen t onl y a t moments an d i n measure s which suite d thei r necessitie s an d interests . They use d th e Croatia n troop s chiefl y i n fiel d operation s tha t wer e necessary fo r th e protectio n o f thei r communicatio n link s wit h th e Balkans an d o f area s importan t t o thei r wa r economy , makin g i t scarcely possibl e fo r th e Croatian s t o defen d th e objective s an d area s vital t o thei r nationa l life . Becaus e o f thes e facts , an d man y othe r difficulties o f lesse r importance , th e growt h o f th e Croatia n arme d forces neve r wa s able t o procee d i n a n orderl y an d systemati c wayimprovisations, half measures, and almost daily changes in purpose an d plans were forced by circumstances. The Croatia n army , a s wel l a s th e whol e Croatia n nation , was , i n fact, engage d in two wars simultaneously. First there was the great war in whic h thei r rea l rulers—th e Nazi-Fascists—exploite d the m fo r thei r own (Nazi-Fascist ) interest s (conversely , the Croatians , i n s o fa r a s they wer e abl e wit h thei r limite d opportunities , trie d t o exploi t th e Germans fo r th e organizatio n an d equipmen t o f th e Croatia n arme d forces ). The second war was the limited Croatia n private war, impose d upon the m b y th e Communis t and Serbia n rebels . Th e mai n goa l of this wa r was the preservation o f the Croatia n state , an d th e avoidanc e of th e restoratio n o f Yugoslavi a either unde r th e rul e o f th e Serbia n hegemonists o r under Communis t dictatorship. Thoug h thi s latte r wa r was o f primary and vita l interest an d importanc e for th e futur e lif e of the nation , the Croatian s coul d carr y it o n only sporadically, i n areas , and wit h th e limite d force s allowe d the m b y th e occupyin g armies .

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They considere d the Germans to be their natura l allies , for th e moment , in their struggl e agains t th e Communist s and partl y agains t th e Chet niks, ye t a t th e sam e tim e a s thei r oppressors—i n Hitler' s futur e Ne w Europe. The y looke d t o th e Allie d victor y as a means o f saving themselves fro m Hitle r an d Mussolini , and a t th e sam e tim e distruste d th e Allies fo r helpin g th e Communist s an d fo r thei r vie w o f th e possibl e restoration o f Yugoslavia. In suc h a complicated politica l situation , the whol e nation, its arme d forces a s well a s its individuals , coul d no t fix upon a logica l an d con sistent lin e o f conduct . I n thi s fac t lie s th e explanatio n o f th e ever changing behaviou r o f th e arm y unit s i n th e fighting—revealin g a strong fighting spirit fo r some time, then sufferin g inexplicabl e defeats , later winnin g sweepin g victories again , an d s o on . Th e force s o f th e Croatian Domobran s consiste d o f a n army , a navy , an d a n ai r force . The whol e territor y wa s divide d int o thre e Corp s Region s (Zagreb , Brod, and Sarajevo.) 54 Initiall y five divisions were formed. A Volunteer Legion (fille d partl y b y compulsoril y drafte d personnel) , consistin g of one infantry regiment an d on e artillery group , wa s sent to the Russia n front. Thi s Voluntee r Legio n wa s eventuall y destroye d a t Stalingrad . The commande r o f the 6t h Germany Army, Field Marsha l von Paulus , under whos e comman d th e Croatian s ha d fought , onc e state d tha t o f all th e auxiliar y troop s o n th e Russia n fron t th e Croatian s wer e th e best fighters ; the n h e liste d th e Slovaks , Romanians, Hungarians, an d Italians, i n tha t order. 55 Th e ai r forc e sen t a comba t an d a bomber group t o Russia , and th e nav y a smal l detachmen t t o th e Blac k Sea . Later on , for reason s o f prestige, th e Italian s force d th e incorporatio n of on e Croatia n battalio n int o th e Italia n arm y o n th e Russia n front . The Croatia n Domobran s were a true "people' s army. " Their officer s and ran k an d fil e wer e overwhelmingl y democrati c i n outlook . Th e greater par t o f the m wer e no t partisan s o f th e Ustasha ; rathe r the y leaned mostl y o n th e Croatia n Peasan t Party , whic h wa s considere d to b e i n favo r o f th e Allies . Som e attempt s wer e mad e b y th e high ranking officer s o f th e Croatia n Domobran s t o establis h contact s wit h the Allie s for the dua l purpos e of fighting agains t the Nazi-Fascist s and o f avoidin g dominatio n o f th e countr y b y th e Communist s afte r the war , bu t o n th e Allie d sid e n o understandin g wa s encountered . B4

"Zakonska odredba o oruzanoj sil i NDH" / Law s Concernin g the Organization of th e Arme d Force s i n th e Independen t Stat e o f Croatia , Vo/n i Vfesnik (March , 1942). B5 Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 188 .

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Thus th e Croatia n Domobran s fought t o th e bitte r end , tryin g vainl y to preserv e Croatia n live s an d home s fro m destruction , an d th e Croatian stat e fro m extinction . I n al l th e fightin g i t refraine d fro m any for m o f violenc e agains t th e civilia n population . Bu t whil e th e Domobrans fough t th e blood y wa r a s humanel y a s possible , man y others di d just the contrary . The negative attitud e towar d th e Ustasha regime an d towar d th e Axi s polic y sometime s resulte d i n passivit y and a lac k o f fightin g spirit. 66 According t o law , th e Ustash a Militi a ( a roug h equivalen t o f th e Fascist Militi a an d th e SS ) ha d t o b e fille d b y volunteers . Owin g t o a lack of enthusiasm among the Croatia n yout h for the Ustashas , it was partly fille d b y a compulsor y draft . A t firs t te n battalions , an d on e battalion fo r the protectio n o f railways, were formed ; a little late r te n additional battalion s wer e added . A n overwhelmin g numbe r o f th e officers, an d a part o f the rank an d file, were partisans of the Ustashas; they wer e mostl y idealist s an d fanati c Croatia n nationalists . Resent ment agains t th e Serbs— a consequenc e o f th e Serbia n misdeed s i n former Yugoslavia—wa s anothe r characteristi c trai t whic h dominate d their feelings . The y fough t bravel y wit h fanaticis m an d passion , bu t also sometime s cruelly , neithe r askin g no r givin g mercy . The enemie s o f th e Croatians , beside s th e German s an d Italians , were th e Chetnik s an d th e Partisans. The Chetni k movement began i n Serbia, immediatel y afte r th e capitulation , unde r th e leadershi p o f the forme r colone l o f th e Yugosla v army , Draz a Mihajlovic . Th e rebels too k the nam e "Yugosla v Arm y in the Homeland, " althoug h they wer e exclusivel y Serbia n Chetniks . Whe n th e German s forcibly suppressed th e rebellion , th e remainde r of the Chetnik s fled to Montenegro an d easter n Bosnia . Center s o f rebellio n spran g u p i n Herce govina an d i n othe r place s wher e th e Ustasha s ha d begu n t o tak e cruel vengeanc e fo r Chetni k misdeed s committe d durin g th e wa r days. Th e Communist s remaine d quie t a s lon g a s th e Soviet s wer e bound b y th e Soviet-Germa n Pact . The y rose , unde r th e leadershi p of a n old-tim e Communist , Josep h Broz , calle d Tito , onl y afte r Molotov's appea l (Jun e 22 , 1941 ) t o al l Communis t partie s o f th e world t o ac t accordin g to th e decision s of the Sevent h Congres s o f th e Comintern. A t firs t th e Chetnik s an d th e Communist s (commonl y called Partisans ) worke d together. Thei r leader s eve n me t o n tw o occasions t o dra w u p a commo n plan fo r action , bu t coul d no t agree . B6 On th e Domobrans , see : Stephe n Clissold , The Whirlwind: An Account of Marshal Tito's Rise to Power (London : Cresse t Press , 1949) ; Kiszling , Die Kroaten.

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Very soo n the y fel l ou t wit h eac h other , thei r disagreemen t stemmin g from th e clas h betwee n th e tw o basic concept s concernin g th e futur e of the people s of Yugoslavia. The Chetnik s represente d th e ol d imperialisti c ide a o f a Grea t Serbia whic h woul d absor b th e whol e o f Macedoni a an d Montenegr o and most of the Croatia n lands. Based on his legal authority, Mihajlovic ( who was promoted to the rank of general and appointed Wa r Minister by th e exile d Yugosla v governmen t i n London ) intende d t o for m a n organization, Yugosla v in nam e an d Serbia n i n fact , abl e t o assum e power i n th e countr y afte r th e Allie d victory . Takin g advantag e o f the fac t tha t th e Croatian s ha d fough t o n th e Axi s side , h e hope d t o subjugate the m an d impos e upo n the m th e hegemon y o f th e Serbs — the onl y co-participants i n th e Allie d victory . Du e t o th e movement' s narrow ideologica l basis an d the lo w moral standard s o f its leaders, i t attracted onl y th e ultrachauvinisti c elemen t o f th e Serb s an d thos e people wh o ha d n o othe r escap e fro m th e terro r o f th e occupyin g armies and the Ustashas. These circumstances , togethe r wit h a lac k o f abilit y t o organize , prevented th e Chetnik s fro m formin g a n efficien t politica l an d militar y system. The y los t groun d everywhere , eve n i n Serbia , an d ver y soo n ceased t o be a n important facto r i n the struggl e agains t th e occupyin g armies. Fro m October , 1941 , onward , the y practicall y abandone d all fightin g agains t th e invaders , excep t fo r som e mino r clashe s an d the helpin g o f downed Allie d airmen. In orde r t o survive , th e Chetni k commanders, with the consent of General Mihajlovic , concluded forma l pacts o f collaboratio n wit h th e Italians , wh o use d the m partl y fo r fighting agains t the Partisan s and eve n more for the persecutio n o f th e Croatian population . I n Serbi a the y collaborate d fro m th e ver y begin ning with, an d receive d financia l an d materia l hel p from , th e hea d of the pro-German puppet government of General Nedic . Within Croatia n territory, wit h th e hel p o f th e Italians , whos e imperialisti c aim s coincided wit h thos e o f th e Chetniks , the y dedicate d themselve s t o th e physical exterminatio n o f th e Mosle m an d Catholi c population , wit h the purpos e o f clearin g certai n area s whic h th e Serbia n imperialist s claimed fo r themselves. Occasionall y they fough t against the Partisans , their mos t dangerou s contender s fo r futur e power . When , i n 1943 , the Italian s surrendere d t o th e Allies—eve n earlie r i n som e areas—th e Chetniks conclude d forma l pact s o f collaboratio n wit h th e German s and with their arch-enemie s the Ustashas. Thus, paid , armed , equippe d and fe d b y Italians , Germans , an d Ustashas , som e Chetni k unit s sur vived th e wa r and , togethe r wit h th e Germa n an d Croatia n armie s

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withdrew t o Austri a an d Italy , wher e the y surrendere d t o th e Allies . General Mihajlovi c wa s late r caugh t b y th e Communists , tried, an d shot. Th e whol e histor y o f th e Chetni k activitie s durin g th e wa r i s a notorious exampl e o f Byzantin e duplicity an d treachery. 57 The Partisan s (whos e officia l nam e wa s "Th e Yugosla v National Movement fo r Liberation" ) nominall y represented al l Yugosla v political parties an d ideologies . Their officia l claim s were th e creatio n o f a new Yugoslavia , federativ e an d democratic , wit h equa l right s fo r al l her peoples and with a normal social structure according to liberalistic principles. Attracte d by suc h a broad ideologica l basis an d b y skillfu l propaganda, man y truly democrati c element s side d wit h them . The y were, moreover , joined b y thos e force d t o fle e fro m thei r home s be cause o f Chetni k an d Ustash a atrocities , Germa n repressions , Italia n intrigues, an d Partisa n provocations . Thu s thei r rank s swelle d con tinually i n spit e o f grea t losse s suffere d b y the m i n variou s phases o f the war . Th e rea l powe r insid e th e movemen t was i n th e hand s o f a small numbe r o f hard-cor e Communis t revolutionaries , wh o hel d al l important an d ke y position s o f a politica l an d militar y nature . Thei r real aim s wer e th e takin g ove r o f powe r i n th e ne w Yugoslavi a (federative i n exterio r form , bu t rule d b y a highl y centralize d Com munist dictatorshi p wit h a social structure alon g a stric t Marxis t line), previous destruction of the ol d political orde r and socia l structure, an d the eliminatio n of all real o r potential enemie s of Communism, even of their forme r partner s i n the struggle. 58 It i s not the object of this study to deal in detail with th e vicissitude s of al l th e militar y operations o n Croatia n soil . The wa r rage d al l over the country — it wa s typica l an d destructiv e guerrill a warfare . Because the thre e domesti c protagonists— the Ustashas , Chetniks, an d Partisan s —were extremists , this warfar e assume d th e mos t blood y an d bruta l forms. Th e atrocitie s o f th e Chetnik s an d Ustasha s were mostl y th e product o f passion , mutual hate , an d nationalisti c hysteria ; bu t the y were nevertheless th e wor k of amateurs. The atrocitie s o f the Partisan s were, however , th e wor k o f experience d professiona l terrorists , an d were planned wit h a doubl e purpose : th e exterminatio n of al l actua l or potentia l contender s fo r futur e power , an d th e deliberat e an d 57Qn th e Chetniks , see : Clissold , The Whirlwind; Winsto n Churchill , The Second World War (London : Cassell , 1948-54) ; Mlade n Lorkovic , Kroatiens Kampf gegan Bolschevtemus; Vjekosla v Vrancic , Hochverrat—II liai. Armée; Enciklopedija Jugoslavije / Encyclopedi a o f Yugoslavia, II (Zagreb , 1956) , 57 2 ff . 58 On th e Partisans , see : Clissold , The Whirlwind; Kiszling , Die Kroaten, 179 flf.; Fedor Dragojlov , "Partisanenkrieg, " Wehrkunde (Munich , 1956) ; Milova n Djilas, The New Class (New York, 1957).

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cunning provocation s of Germa n an d Ustash a repression o f th e help less population, whic h the n wa s force d t o tak e refug e i n th e Partisa n ranks. Thu s ever y instanc e o f destructio n an d terror , fro m whicheve r part i t came , worke d t o th e advantag e o f th e Partisan s an d helpe d them i n thei r driv e to power . The firs t Partisa n actio n bega n i n Serbia . Late r th e Partisan s organized smal l groups all over the country , which committe d a serie s of act s of sabotage, attacks on communications, and th e like . Th e mos t important o f thes e act s wa s th e rebellio n aroun d Drva r i n Bosnia . There, som e 3,00 0 industria l workers , le d b y Communis t leader s an d aided by th e deliberat e passivit y of the Italians , drov e ou t th e existin g Croatian authorities , conquere d a wid e are a i n wester n Bosnia , an d there organized the first territory under Communis t power. Durin g th e course of the war, it became the mai n stronghold for all further opera tions on Croatian soil . From tim e to time the Communist s were drive n out of this area, but the y always managed to regain it . In th e middl e of 1942 al l Partisan force s fro m easter n Bosni a joine d this area , enlarge d it, and , i n Novembe r o f tha t year , forme d th e "Antifascis t Counci l for th e Nationa l Liberatio n o f Yugoslavia " in Bihac . Abou t thi s sam e time thei r arme d force s wer e thoroughl y reorganized . Fro m small , mostly improvise d Partisa n detachments , the y organize d thei r force s on a real militar y basis. Their force s consiste d o f 2 arm y corp s wit h a total o f 9 divisions , 3 6 independen t brigades , 7 0 battalions , 1 5 com panies, an d 7 9 Partisan detachments— a tota l o f some 150,000 men. 59 The growin g menac e t o Germa n communications , a s wel l a s t o economically importan t area s withi n Croatia n territory , an d th e evi dence tha t th e Italian s wer e systematicall y sabotagin g ever y actio n directed agains t th e Partisan s (an d eve n helpin g the m secretly) , forced th e German s t o enlarg e th e Croatia n army . A t th e beginnin g of 1942 , fou r ne w mountain brigades, a mobile police brigade, an d tw o volunteer regiment s were established . Ou t o f the rearmos t parts o f th e Croatian Legion on the Russia n front, reinforce d by me n fro m Croatia , the 369t h Legio n Division , Vra^a Divizija ("Devil' s Division" ) wa s formed i n Austria ; it s ran k an d fil e wer e mainl y Croatians , whil e most o f its officer s wer e Germans . It wa s formall y stipulate d tha t thi s division (a s wel l a s tw o othe r Legio n division s se t u p later ) shoul d be use d exclusivel y fo r fightin g o n Croatia n soil . Th e 369t h Legio n Division wa s 12,00 0 me n stron g an d arrive d o n th e Croatia n battle fields a t th e en d o f 1942 . Th e Croatia n Domobran s the n consiste d of about 125,00 0 men . The Ustash a Militi a increased it s 2 5 battalions t o 59

Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 18 4 ff.

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35 an d a defensiv e brigade , totalin g 23,00 0 men . Fro m thi s forc e of about 148,50 0 me n (withou t th e 369t h Division) , som e 90,70 0 me n were read y fo r servic e a t th e front. 60 From th e en d o f 1942 , th e Croatia n arme d force s gre w steadil y a s the genera l Germa n military situatio n worsene d an d th e ever-presen t menace i n southeaster n Europ e compelle d th e German s t o increas e the strengt h o f th e auxiliar y force s unde r thei r command . I n th e second hal f o f 1942 , they decide d t o creat e a secon d Legio n Divisio n (the 373r d "Tige r Division") . Thi s divisio n wa s combat-read y i n 1943. Here , also, all of the officer s an d mos t of the rank s were German. After th e Germa n defea t a t Stalingrad , th e intensifie d S S predominance i n German y wa s als o fel t i n Croatia . I n spit e o f oppositio n i n high Croatia n militar y circles—an d eve n o f th e leadin g circle s o f th e Wehrmacht i n Croatia—Himmle r sen t S S Group Leade r Kammerhofe r to Croatia . H e establishe d hi s headquarter s i n Osije k and , wit h th e consent o f Pavelic , pu t unde r hi s powe r al l Croatia n polic e forces , forming a polic e divisio n for th e protectio n o f railways . Thi s divisio n had som e 10,000 men, half o f them Croatian s an d th e othe r hal f mad e up o f Germans an d th e member s o f th e Germa n minorit y grou p fro m Croatia. Moreover , h e forme d a n S S division (HandAar) o f Croatia n Moslems fro m Bosnia . All o f thes e force s wer e directl y subordinate d to Himmler. 61 With th e capitulatio n o f Italy ( September, 194 3 ), a serie s o f event s was initiated , al l o f which wer e o f capital importanc e fo r th e politica l and militar y situatio n in Croati a in the year s to come. O n th e positiv e side fo r th e Croatian s wer e th e fact s tha t the y wer e free d fro m th e hated Italia n occupational forces an d that they recovered the territories which they were forced to cede t o Italy accordin g to the stipulatio n of the Pac t o f Rome. They als o disarmed many Italian unit s an d capture d large amount s o f arm s an d equipment . O n th e negativ e side , th e Partisans capture d eve n large r quantitie s o f Italia n arm s an d equip ment. A t th e conferenc e a t Tehera n (November , 1943) , the y wer e accepted b y the Allies as a military ally. On November 29, Tito create d the "Nationa l Committe e fo r Liberation, " whic h wa s recognize d b y the Allie s a s a de facto governmen t fo r Yugoslavia . Mihajlovic wa s definitely abandoned ; th e exile d governmen t i n Londo n enjoye d Allied hospitalit y bu t hel d n o real power. A little later , th e Allie s sent 60 VjekosIav Vrancié , "Postrojenj e i brojcan o stanj e hrvatski h oruzani h snaga " / Organization an d Number s o f th e Croatia n Arme d Forces , Godisnjak Hrvatskog Domobrana (Bueno s Aires, 1953) , 152 . 61 Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 188 .

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to Yugoslavia a British militar y mission, headed b y Genera l MacLean ; another membe r o f th e missio n wa s Mr . Randolp h Churchill . Th e supply o f arms , ammunition , an d equipmen t fo r th e Partisa n arm y was organize d b y se a an d air , an d th e suppor t o f thei r operation s b y the Allie d ai r forc e wa s assured . Al l thi s gav e th e Partisa n politica l movement an d thei r arm y ne w impetus , an d mad e possibl e fo r the m military operation s o n a larg e scal e a s neve r before . Defeate d an d decimated i n combine d Germa n an d Croatia n offensive s earlie r i n 1943, the y no w recuperated an d gre w eve n stronge r tha n before. 62 In orde r t o mee t th e ne w situatio n brough t abou t b y th e defectio n of Italy , the German s promised the Croatian s modern arm s an d equip ment fo r fou r mountai n an d fou r ligh t brigades , an d on e motorize d brigade, a s wel l a s simila r arm s fo r Pavelic' s Ustash a Body-Guar d Brigade. Yet , partl y becaus e o f a lac k o f ne w recruit s (onl y 17,00 0 were available), and partly because of changes i n the genera l situation , these reinforcement s were neve r received . Instead , a mor e thoroug h reorganization o f the Croatia n arm y was effected . Mos t o f th e Domo bran an d Ustash a units wer e combined : fro m 3 mountain, 4 light an d 23 Ustasha brigades, 1 5 infantry divisions were formed. A new Legio n Division, th e 392n d o r Flava (Blue) , starte d it s trainin g i n Austria . A shoc k brigad e an d a defensiv e Ustash a brigad e wer e formed . Al l training center s wer e place d unde r a n Instructio n Division . Th e tota l strength o f the Croatia n arm y at tha t tim e was 258,000 men. 63 The las t reorganizatio n o f th e Croatia n an d o f th e Partisa n armie s took place a t th e en d o f 194 4 and th e beginnin g o f 1945 . Al l Croatia n Domobran unit s wer e incorporate d int o th e Ustash a formations ; five Ustasha corp s wer e formed , consistin g of fro m thre e t o fou r division s each. Th e 1st , 2nd , an d part s o f th e 3r d Corp s wer e statione d i n Slavonia, the remainde r of the 3r d and th e 4t h in northern Bosnia, and the 5th in southwestern Croatia. 64 The Partisan forces , which, betwee n August an d Octobe r o f 1944 — with th e suppor t o f Russia n armo r an d some Bulgarian units— conquered al l o f Serbia an d Belgrade , consisted at th e sam e time of 50 divisions, grouped into 4 armies. The 3r d Army (7 divisions ) wa s statione d i n easter n Slavoni a an d Backa ; th e 2n d (12 divisions ) i n th e are a o f Tuzl a i n Bosnia ; th e 1s t (1 0 divisions ) in Srijem ; an d th e 4t h (1 4 divisions ) i n centra l Dalmatia . Seve n divisions wer e hel d a s Tito' s reserve . H e had , moreover , th e suppor t of Russia n tank s and o f the Bulgarians . It mus t be note d tha t th e siz e eaclissold, The Whirlwind; Churchill , The Second World War. 63 Vrancic, "Postrojenje," 15 6 ff. 64 Kiszling, Die Kroaten, 214 .

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of th e Partisa n division s was muc h smalle r tha n tha t o f thos e i n an y regular army. 65 During the sam e period (1944-1945) , the Germa n withdrawal fro m the Balkan s was in ful l swing . A front in easter n Slavoni a (mostl y on the Bosu t River) , easter n Bosnia , an d Hercegovin a wa s temporaril y held. A serie s o f violen t an d blood y Partisa n attack s followe d (especially on the Bosu t River), yet th e fron t held unti l th e sprin g of 1945, when , in the framewor k of the genera l withdrawal, th e Germans , as wel l a s th e Croatia n troops , withdre w o n al l fronts . Gradually , mostly under heavy fighting, they abandoned the whole of the Croatia n territory. I t mus t b e stresse d that , i n spit e o f th e desperat e politica l and militar y situatio n (i t wa s eviden t t o everyon e tha t th e German s had los t th e wa r an d tha t th e Croatian s wer e o n th e losin g side) , the Croatia n arm y maintaine d a hig h fightin g spirit . Stric t militar y discipline, a sens e o f duty , an d a determinatio n t o figh t t o th e las t moment prevaile d everywhere . Th e me n fough t th e las t battle s fo r their homes , hopin g fo r som e chang e i n th e genera l situation , on e which neve r came . The y continue d t o withdra w i n a mos t orderl y manner, and fough t on bitterly i n spite o f a lack of ammunition, which the German s ( already shor t of al l kinds of war material s ) kep t mostly for themselves. THE EN D OF THE WAR

On Ma y 4 , 1945 , a meetin g o f th e Ustash a governmen t wa s hel d i n Zagreb. I t wa s decide d tha t th e entir e governmen t woul d withdra w the followin g day t o Klagenfurt , Austria , in th e hop e o f establishin g contact (whic h wa s never made ) wit h th e Allie d militar y authorities . Pavelic would follow a day later. On the nigh t o f May 6 General vo n Loeh r (unde r whos e command the Croatia n troop s had fough t durin g th e las t phas e o f the war ) informed Paveli c i n Rogask a Slatin a (Slovenia ) tha t th e German s ha d signed th e surrender . He passed o n t o Paveli c al l rights an d responsi bilities o f comman d ove r th e Croatia n troops. 68 Th e nex t morning , Pavelic ordere d an acceleration of the withdrawal of the Croatia n army (which wa s alread y i n Slovenia) . He ordere d th e arm y t o cros s th e Austrian borde r an d t o surrende r t o th e Englis h instea d o f t o th e Partisans. Then he lef t th e arm y to its fate , fled with a smal l escort t o 65 Dusan Kveder , "De r jugoslavisch e Partisanenkrieg," Algemeine Schweizerische Milizschrift, VII-IX . 66 Fedor Dragojlov , "De r Rrie g 1941-1945, " Algemeine Schweizerische Milizschrift, VII.

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Austria, an d avoide d persona l participatio n i n th e fatefu l event s o f the following days. The Croatia n troops continue d thei r withdrawa l i n a n orderl y manner, partiall y repellin g Partisa n attacks , nea r Donj i Dravogra d and Prevalje . Th e las t battl e wa s fough t o n Ma y 1 3 against th e 51s t Partisan Division 67 fo r th e possessio n o f th e bridge s ove r th e Drav a River a t Dravograd . O n Ma y 1 4 th e Croatian s reached th e are a o f Bleiburg, which wa s alread y i n Englis h hands . Th e commanders o f the variou s units , lackin g order s fro m thei r superiors , establishe d contact with the Englis h for the purpos e o f surrendering to them . Th e English a t firs t accede d t o thei r wishe s an d ordere d th e musterin g of troop s fo r a n allege d inspection , bu t th e nex t da y the y change d their minds . Englis h tanks , togethe r wit h Partisa n units , surrounde d the Croatians ; Spitfire s fle w ove r them , an d a n orde r wa s issue d t o lay down their arm s immediately. The Croatian s were formally assured both b y th e Englis h an d b y th e Partisan s tha t the y woul d b e treate d according t o th e rule s o f the Genev a Conventio n regardin g prisoner s of war. About 100,000 men laid dow n their arms ; some 20,000, realizing the dange r o f bein g hande d ove r t o th e Partisans , fough t thei r wa y out an d escaped . Anothe r colum n o f som e 100,00 0 men—partl y arm y units and partly civilia n refugees—which ha d no t yet reached Bleiburg , surrendered i n various places. The English crowded thi s human mass into the are a o f Bleiburg, an d then hande d the m ove r to the Partisans . The latter immediatel y bega n to transport th e me n by foo t i n several column s to Maribor . As soon as they were ou t o f the sigh t an d contro l of the English , th e mas s murde r began; som e 5,000 me n wer e sho t befor e reaching Maribor . Ther e th e rest wer e enclose d i n barrack s an d depot s a t Tezno , an d durin g th e following days , i n a systemati c way , al l member s o f forme r Ustash a units, a s well as almost all regular officer s o f the Croatia n Domobrans , were murdered and their corpses thrown int o the tank defence trenche s of th e ol d Yugosla v fortifications . Here , an d i n som e othe r place s i n Slovenia, some 40,000 Croatian soldier s wer e murdered . Th e rest wer e led b y foo t t o severa l priso n camp s i n Croatia , th e larges t o f whic h was a t Preck o ( a subur b o f Zagreb ). At th e en d o f May , so-calle d "deat h columns " wer e organized ; b y foot, withou t foo d an d water , th e me n wer e marche d hundred s o f miles, throug h Croatia n villages , b y wa y o f Bjelova r an d Osije k t o 67 Milan Basta (Com . Gen., 51st Partisa n Division), "Sest daña rat a nakon rata"/ Six Day s o f Wa r Afte r th e War , Nedeljne Informativne Novine (Septembe r 4 , 1960).

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Petrovaradin an d the n t o Vrsa c (Banat) . Anyon e who wa s no t abl e to marc h becaus e o f hunge r o r weaknes s wa s shot , an d hi s corps e left o n th e road . Th e villager s wer e strictl y prohibite d fro m offerin g food o r drin k t o th e prisoners , an d sometime s men an d wome n wer e shot for helpin g th e weakene d men . In Vrsa c and i n Kovi n a serie s of mock trial s wa s se t up , i n whic h man y o f th e remainin g prisoner s were sentence d t o death . Onl y a fe w returne d t o thei r homes . I t i s estimated tha t abou t 100,00 0 me n (th e exac t numbe r wil l neve r b e known) los t thei r live s o n their wa y fro m Bleibur g t o Vrsac .

5

Economic Developmen t DRAGO MATKOVI C

CROATIAN ECONOMI C HISTOR Y ha s it s origin s i n th e unexplore d pas t o f the Croatian tribes who pursued animal husbandry, hunting, apiculture , and agricultur e i n thei r earlies t settlement s i n Whit e Croatia . I t i s known today that even in their origina l native land th e Croatian s wer e engaged in blacksmithing, metallurgy, and trade. The territory betwee n the Drava , Danube , an d Drin a River s and the Adriati c Sea , where th e Croatians ha d settle d i n th e sixt h an d sevent h centurie s A.D. , afforde d such a variety o f climate and soi l that prerequisite s fo r various type s of economic activit y wer e present . Ol d trad e route s an d militar y roads , which bound Europe and Asia, crisscrossed this territory. This are a was composed of zones o f different economi c systems which complemente d one another. Soi l and climati c conditions i n most area s were favorable to agriculture . Th e Adriati c Se a provide d a basi s fo r a fre e an d intensive development of interregional trade. Eve n in the earlies t times, urban lif e flourishe d alon g th e coast . Stron g commercia l intercours e insured a market for home products. Shipping, trade , an d various craft s developed i n th e Dalmatia n coasta l citie s i n th e Roma n days ; later , these wer e o f utmos t importanc e t o th e economi c developmen t o f Croatia. Th e Croatian s learne d muc h abou t seafarin g an d deep-se a fishing, as well as about viticulture , fro m the Roma n populatio n of the coastal cities , as the latte r was graduall y assimilate d by the Croatia n people. SOCIAL STRUCTUR E The Croatians , at the tim e of their settlement , wer e made up o f several tribes whic h wer e subdivide d int o bratstva (brotherhoods) . Thes e i n

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turn consiste d o f close-kni t kinshi p group s calle d zadrugas, whic h conducted and held property i n common and stoo d under the directio n of an elected elder . Large-scale private land ownership by an individual person o r famil y wa s originall y unknown. A Croatia n trib e wa s rule d by a zupan (hea d of the tribe) whose territory was called th e zupa, and later the iupanija. A s a rule, th e zupa ha d a centrally-located fortifie d place, which was originally used a s a place o f refuge, an d late r als o as the seat from whic h the territory was ruled. Whe n several zupas unite d to for m a large r unit , thei r commo n rule r wa s calle d a ban. I n th e course o f time , th e mos t successful ban impose d hi s supremac y upo n the others. Late r th e bans an d othe r triba l leader s graduall y becam e vassals o f the Croatia n king an d receive d fief s fro m him . Rulin g fami lies graduall y emerged , whic h endeavore d t o appropriat e triba l property an d t o subjugat e the fre e peasantry . The us e o f woodlands, pastures, an d wate r resource s wa s regulated at firs t accordin g t o th e need s o f the origina l settlers , an d then , afte r the developmen t o f the village , by the villag e community. However, i n those region s wher e cattle-raisin g prevailed , settlemen t union s laste d longer, a s di d th e holdin g o f propert y i n common . Eve n afte r th e distribution o f arabl e lan d an d th e creatio n o f individua l peasan t economies, woodlan d an d pastur e land s remaine d undivide d a s common property . Fro m th e elevent h centur y on , individua l propert y ownership becam e mor e common . In th e thirteent h century , th e triba l system experience d it s mos t significan t decline . I n th e proces s o f feudalization th e majorit y o f the farmer s becam e serf s (kmeti). Ver y few peasant s an d craftsme n remaine d free . Unti l th e fifteent h centur y there wer e eve n som e genuine slave s o n the Croatia n lands . The serf s were boun d t o the soi l an d wer e allowe d t o leav e thei r lan d onl y b y permission o f the landlord . The right s o f the landlor d were constantl y expanded, and th e dutie s o f the serf s increase d proportionately. Unde r the commo n crow n o f Croati a an d Hungary , Croati a develope d a nobility, whos e well-know n familie s acquire d th e positio n o f might y landlords. Thu s th e agricultura l syste m o f Croati a becam e simila r t o that of Western Europea n feudalism. CHANGES DUE T O CHRISTIANITY The medieval influence of Christianity in Croatia was reflected not only in th e worshi p an d outlook of th e people , bu t als o i n thei r manners , customs, and needs , i n their materia l and intellectua l culture , and , las t

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but no t least , i n their economi c way o f life. The need s o f a great num ber o f monasteries an d churche s calle d fo r mor e elaborat e equipmen t and grea t buildin g projects , whic h resulte d i n th e developmen t o f architecture, handicrafts , and art s o f all kinds. The fin e arts an d orna ment, mural , an d churc h paintin g likewis e developed . Th e Croatian s of tha t tim e wer e proficien t i n meta l work . The ar t o f th e goldsmit h also blossomed , bu t wa s centere d exclusivel y i n th e cities . Th e fac t that, littl e b y little , som e churches o r churchme n became landowners , meant tha t the y assume d a n increasin g importanc e i n th e economi c development o f th e country . With thei r conversio n t o Christianit y i n the sevent h century , th e economi c relation s o f th e Croatian s wit h Western nations considerably increased. In th e fourteent h century , th e zadruga—the typica l Slavi c cla n organization—was almos t i n th e proces s o f dissolution , owin g t o Croatia's lon g contac t wit h Wester n Christia n nations , wher e th e zadruga di d not exist. However, when the power of the stat e weakene d during th e Turkis h wars , th e zadruga blossome d t o ne w life . Thi s organization was a communit y base d upo n bloo d relationshi p and collective ownershi p o f land, i n whic h on e family , o r severa l families, tilled the soil as a unit, and in which there was only a limited amount of division o f labor . Whe n a zadruga spli t up , ever y hea d o f th e famil y founded a new smalle r zadruga with hi s childre n an d grandchildren. 1 The zadruga became particularl y importan t o n th e so-calle d Militar y Frontier (i n Croatian , Vojna Krafina; i n German , Militar grenze) where it survived until the nineteent h century . PRODUCTION The basi s of the Croatia n econom y consisted o f cattle-raising, hunting , and farming of a primitive and extensiv e character. Th e reaso n for this lay in the constan t wars, invasions, and destructio n to which the popu lation wa s expose d fo r man y centuries , whic h afforde d littl e oppor tunity fo r peaceful activity . In agricultur e the farmin g methods o f th e original settlers , brought fro m Whit e Croatia , had hardl y change d u p to th e beginnin g o f th e eighteent h century . Th e us e o f manur e wa s virtually unknow n unti l tha t time . Grai n production playe d a decisiv e part i n agriculture . Viticulture was als o of great importance. Dalmatia produced an d exporte d oliv e oil. Horticultur e an d fruit-growing , howiMilan Iviic, Temelji seljackog zakonika / Foundation s of the Agricultura l Code (Zagreb, 1933), 20.

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ever, develope d relativel y late . Potatoe s wer e no t raise d unti l th e eighteenth century . Th e mos t advantageou s condition s fo r agricultur e prevailed i n the large-scal e economie s o f the nobility , sinc e thes e ha d at thei r disposa l not onl y a larg e numbe r o f workmen—whic h wa s of decisive importanc e i n th e Middl e Ages—bu t als o becaus e the y ha d better farmin g equipmen t an d bette r organizatio n o f production . Cattle-raising wa s also well developed . Th e monasterie s owne d exten sive pasture lands and raised cattle . Th e hors e was of great importanc e as a means of transportation. The mos t common domestic animals wer e hogs, goats , an d bee f cattle . However , shee p wer e als o important , owing to the fac t tha t thei r raisin g require d relatively littl e effort , an d that thei r productio n o f milk an d woo l was considerable . Poultr y wa s raised o n every large an d smal l farm . Water-drive n mill s wer e use d i n many places . Fishin g wa s successfull y carrie d on , especiall y i n th e regions on the Adriatic Coast . ECONOMIC CHANGES With Croatia' s rapi d adaptatio n t o th e economi c standar d o f th e neighboring middle European countries, agricultural laws also change d in favor o f the grea t domains . This process o f development, alon g with the prevalenc e o f variou s socia l an d economi c abuses , resulte d i n a n impoverished peasantry . Th e increase d economi c and socia l powe r o f the nobilit y led no t onl y to weakening of central government , but als o to som e form s o f exploitatio n i n socia l life . A s a resul t o f war s an d foreign invasions , th e origina l Croatia n nobilit y wa s decimate d an d their land s give n t o foreig n nobles , wh o fel t themselve s bound solel y to the land and not to its inhabitants. The numerous and steadily growing privileges , an d th e socia l power o f the nobility , a s well a s o f som e of th e uppe r clergy , worke d very muc h t o th e detrimen t o f th e inde pendence an d personal freedom o f the peasan t population . Th e history of th e Croatia n people, whic h fo r centuries had staunchl y defende d it s national independence , record s a tragi c lo t fo r th e peasantry . War s often destroye d a t on e fell swoo p what th e peacefu l labor o f centurie s had achieved . I n thes e wars , a s wel l a s i n economi c an d natura l disasters, th e politica l an d economi c strengt h o f th e Croatia n peopl e steadily declined . Th e dissatisfactio n o f th e oppresse d peasantr y re peatedly cause d unfortunat e uprisings . Th e mos t famou s o f thes e insurrections wa s i n th e yea r 1573 , whe n th e Croatia n peasantr y revolted, unde r th e leadershi p o f Matija Gubec . Bu t th e peasant s soo n suffered defea t a t th e hands of the noble s an d wer e horribl y punished .

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1

THE EMANCIPATIO N O F THE PEASANTS After severa l vai n attempts, the freein g o f the peasant s in Croati a wa s achieved i n th e yea r 1848 . Thu s wa s ende d th e administrativ e an d judicial power o f th e landlords , an d th e persona l services o f th e serf s to them. Another aspec t o f th e peasan t emancipatio n wa s th e agricultura l organization of a strip of land along the borde r o f the Ottoma n Empir e known a s th e Militar y Frontier , whic h wa s organize d i n 1553 , an d whose boundarie s wer e finall y determine d i n 1746 . Thi s organizatio n was formed to safeguard not only the Hapsbur g Empire bu t als o all of Western Europ e agains t Turkis h attacks. I n thi s territory , whic h wa s subdivided int o severa l militar y regions, every man betwee n th e age s of eightee n and sixt y was constantly i n military service. These "border people" (i n Croatian , Granicari; i n German , Grenzer) remaine d free , that is , they never becam e serfs, althoug h th e soi l they tilled belonge d to th e emperor . Th e militar y authorit y in thi s regio n wa s responsibl e not onl y for al l economic matters, but als o fo r al l othe r issue s dealin g with agriculture . Th e regim e o f th e Militar y Frontie r wa s abolishe d in the year 1881, an d this strip of territory was annexed to the Croatia n motherland. In Dalmatia an d Istria ther e existe d a special typ e of feudal tenancy called th e colonatus, according t o whic h th e colonus (tenan t farmer ) tilled lan d tha t wa s no t hi s ow n an d wa s obligate d t o tur n ove r a previously determine d portio n o f th e harves t t o th e landowner . Al though th e colonatus wa s simila r t o th e ser f system , i t nevertheles s differed decidedl y fro m it . Th e distinguishin g characteristi c o f th e colonatus was its privat e juridica l contract betwee n tenan t and land owner. Thi s practic e ha d it s origi n i n Roma n law , an d ha d no t ye t disappeared a t th e tim e o f th e Secon d Worl d War . AGRARIAN CONDITION S IN BOSNIA-ÜEHCEGOVIN A In Bosnia-Hercegovina , lega l condition s o f rura l societ y develope d i n a manne r differen t fro m thos e o f othe r Croatia n regions . Here , too , a serf syste m existed. Th e Bosnia n serf, however , wa s originall y oblige d to tur n ove r t o th e lor d onl y one-thir d o f th e harvest , an d wa s no t obliged t o rende r an y othe r services . H e wa s fre e an d eve n abl e t o leave hi s place o f residence, s o that hi s positio n wa s bette r tha n tha t of hi s contemporarie s i n norther n Croatia . I n additio n t o serfs , ther e were free farmers and also slaves.

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The conques t o f Bosnia-Hercegovin a b y th e Turk s effecte d n o essential changes . A t firs t th e agraria n order , despit e som e changes , remained basicall y a s it ha d been . Sinc e th e noble s becam e converte d to Islam, they wer e abl e to retain thei r possessions , and thei r relation s with thei r serf s als o continue d t o follo w th e sam e patter n a s before . In principle , onl y Moslem s coul d b e manoria l lords , an d Christian s could b e onl y serfs , or , i n a ver y fe w cases , fre e farmers . Graduall y there developed i n Bosnia-Hercegovina a system of municipalities wit h a predominantl y Mosle m population. Thi s socia l an d economi c struc ture wa s commo n t o Bosnia-Hercegovin a unti l th e beginnin g o f th e nineteenth century . I n th e cours e o f time , however , th e agraria n situation wa s change d b y variou s measure s predominantl y advan tageous onl y t o th e feuda l lords . Thi s mad e th e positio n o f th e peas antry unbearabl e an d le d t o unrest , an d eventuall y prove d t o b e on e of th e cause s o f the occupatio n o f Bosnia-Hercegovin a b y th e Austro Hungarian Monarchy . This occupatio n introduce d an d furthere d th e economic development o f Bosnia-Hercegovina. Serfdom wa s not , how ever, entirel y abolishe d unti l afte r Worl d Wa r I . CHANGES I N AGRICULTURA L ECONOM Y DURIN G TH E CAPITALISTI C PERIO D The sprea d o f money and th e credi t econom y shook the foundation s of the zadrugas. A la w o f 188 0 facilitate d th e break-u p o f th e zadrugas, and thei r rapi d disintegratio n an d a partitionin g o f thei r estate s fol lowed. The result of this was the divisio n of the lan d into small sections. Numerous miniature farms cam e into existence, an d a farm proletaria t developed. I t wa s onl y forty year s later tha t furthe r subdivisio n o f th e land was partially arrested. In order t o build homes and farm buildings, and to purchase cattle and implements, the new owners were force d to borrow considerable amounts of money. This led to heavy indebtedness on the part of the new farmers . The rapi d an d inorgani c break-u p o f the zadrugas, and th e gradua l transition fro m th e natural, and later feudal , econom y t o a market an d money econom y completel y change d th e structur e o f th e agricultura l system i n Croatia . Th e positio n o f Croatia n agricultur e wa s consider ably weakene d b y oversea s competitio n i n th e Europea n markets . Owing to a great deman d fo r credit, man y inexperienced an d unskille d peasants fel l int o th e hand s o f usuriou s money lenders , wh o i n man y cases completel y ruine d th e peasants ' statu s a s independen t farmers . These dispossessed farmers no w sought a living either b y hirin g themselves ou t a s far m laborers , o r b y movin g into th e cities , whil e man y

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMEN T 17

3

even decide d t o emigrate t o th e Unite d States . A flight from th e lan d began, on e which coul d no t be stemme d i n th e followin g decades. As a result o f these conditions, the Croatia n farmer s began t o buil d up th e cooperative syste m as the onl y effective instrumen t for self-help. In Pannonia n Croatia , cooperative credit association s were firs t organ ized in the year 1900, an d purchasing and sellin g cooperatives i n 1907. 2 In Istri a th e firs t cooperativ e was founded a t Kopa r i n 1884 , an d wa s followed b y a credit unio n in Pula in 1892 . I n Dalmati a th e firs t credi t cooperative wa s begu n i n 1896 , an d i n Bosni a in 1904 . I n Zagre b th e "Croatian Agricultura l Bank " was establishe d i n 190 2 a s a federatio n of al l Croatian credit unions. Little by little, othe r types o f cooperative s were founded, which later wer e merged into a larger federation. In th e year 191 9 th e "Centra l Associatio n of Croatian Farmers ' Cooperatives " came int o being . One yea r late r the Catholic-oriente d "Cooperativ e Association" followed. The larg e cooperativ e organization , "Economi c Union" (Gospodarska S/oga) , founde d i n 1935 , wa s o f considerabl e importance, no t onl y economically but als o politically . The agraria n reform s effecte d afte r Worl d Wa r I benefite d onl y a limited number o f small farms. The y brought neither economic strengt h to the peasantry as a whole, nor any tangible alleviatio n t o the popula tion pressure s o n the land . Th e outdate d agraria n constitution s o f th e individual Croatia n region s wer e no t altere d t o kee p pac e wit h th e changing need s o f th e peasantry . The agraria n reform s di d no t solv e the economi c problems o f agriculture, an d afte r th e tapering-of f o f th e post-war boo m period, there came in 192 7 a rapid increas e in peasan t indebtedness. I n orde r t o preven t th e complet e financial-politica l breakdown o f the agricultura l system, the governmen t was forced , o n April 19 , 1932 , t o issu e a genera l moratoriu m o f farmers ' debts . Th e general credi t shortage which soon arose weakened the entire economic process t o such an extent tha t th e moratorium , originally intende d a s a provisional solution , developed int o a permanent condition . Nor wa s it possible to re-establish the financial solvency of the farmers . THE DEVELOPMEN T O F URBAN LIFE In Croatia , durin g th e Middl e Ages , urban lif e an d cultur e wer e rela tively wel l developed . Th e tow n wa s no t onl y th e cente r o f economi c life, bu t als o th e focu s o f spiritua l an d materia l culture , whic h 2 The informatio n o n th e cooperativ e syste m i s take n from : Vilk o Rieger , Das landwirtschaftliche Genossenschaftswesen in den kroatischen Landern / Th e Agricultural Cooperativ e Syste m i n th e Croatia n Land s (Berlin , 1939) .

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fostered economi c welfare too. It was especially i n regard t o its wealth that th e tow n contraste d sharpl y wit h th e village , wher e povert y an d a very modest material culture reigned. Durin g the entire Middle Ages, the urba n econom y o f th e Croatia n countrie s showe d a developmen t that wa s t o a larg e exten t independen t an d markedl y differen t fro m that o f th e villages . Som e o f th e earlies t Croatia n citie s develope d around pivota l militar y points , not a s center s fo r barte r an d trad e fo r the surrounding population, but rather as places o f refuge durin g times of war . The periodic visits of foreign merchants to the villages and importan t market places awakened in the Croatians the initiative for the exchange of goods . The medieva l Croatian citie s require d frequen t visits by th e traveling merchant s wh o coul d satisf y th e economi c needs o f thei r population. Thes e merchant s settle d wher e a deman d fo r good s ha d been forme d and wher e the y foun d customers . The y establishe d per manent marke t places, wher e th e farmer s woul d mee t onc e a week t o exchange thei r produc e fo r manufacture d goods . This weekl y marketday usuall y took place i n the busies t part o f the city , wher e th e shop s and workshops of merchants and craftsme n were to be found. TOWN ECONOMY AN D THE GUILD SYSTE M In tim e th e cit y achieve d a soli d economi c an d lega l order , whic h also insure d th e existenc e o f variou s craftsme n b y providin g certai n legal protectio n fo r them . Th e wor k o f th e craftsma n belonge d t o a long tradition in the Croatia n lands . Its earlies t for m wa s the domesti c craft, whic h wa s carried o n chiefly b y women . The organizatio n of th e handicraft econom y was ver y primitiv e i n th e beginning . Fo r a lon g period o f time, the perso n producing handiwork at hom e worke d lon g hours fo r a se t clientele , usin g th e latter' s material . Th e craftsman' s product wen t directl y t o th e consumer—ther e wa s n o middleman . During the Middle Ages, the craftsman held a respected positio n in the Croatian socia l order. Through th e organizatio n of guilds an d brother hoods, his efficiency wa s increased. Strict regulations governing training and admissio n int o th e guild s contribute d t o thi s ne w efficiency . I n Croatia, roya l privilege s wer e grante d th e guild s abou t th e middl e of the fifteent h century . Th e craft s an d th e citie s becam e importan t sources o f culture i n Croatia. I n th e cours e of time, however, th e craf t guilds became monopolistic and used their power t o limit competition . From th e en d o f the seventeent h century , an d especiall y i n th e nine -

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5

teenth century , th e guild s showe d sign s o f decline , an d finally , i n 1859, the y wer e dissolve d an d replace d b y fre e trade. 3 The city , in its organization, represented a much more perfect entit y than the village. Over a period o f several centuries, the cities develope d into center s o f trad e an d busines s a s wel l a s o f consumption . Thes e cities wer e endowe d wit h municipa l charters , wit h a numbe r o f economic an d lega l privileges , an d wit h relativel y grea t economi c independence. The y ha d thei r ow n administrations , an d thei r ow n finances an d tarif f regulations . I n Pannonia n Croatia , th e followin g cities wer e give n privilege d statu s a s "fre e roya l cities" : Varazdi n (1209), Zagre b (1242) , Krizevc i (1252) , Koprivnic a (1356) , Sen j (1483), and Karlovac (1777). 4 THE SPECTACULA B GROWT H O F TH E CITY-REPUBLI C O F DUBHOVNI K The city-republi c o f Dubrovnik was particularly known throughout the entire Mediterranea n becaus e o f it s extensiv e trade . Fro m th e yea r 1358, Dubrovni k was unde r th e protectio n o f the Hungarian-Croatia n kings, an d thu s experience d a rapi d rise. 5 Almos t th e entir e trad e on the Balka n Peninsula wa s fo r centurie s in th e hand s o f the merchant s from Dubrovnik , wit h who m eve n th e Venetian s and Genoves e coul d not kee p pace. 6 Dubrovnik established it s own trading posts , one afte r another, i n al l o f th e large r citie s o f th e Balka n Peninsula, an d i n al l the significan t citie s o f the Nea r East. Dubrovnik did not asser t itself a s an independent city-republi c by force, but rathe r by its excellent system of government and it s skillful diplomats. This city-republi c wa s th e onl y medieval cit y sout h o f th e Danub e which was never occupied by the Turks. In orde r to promote trade an d simultaneously t o advanc e an d insur e shipping , Dubrovni k began, a t a ver y earl y date , t o mak e commercia l and politica l agreement s wit h other citie s an d states . Th e mos t flourishin g perio d o f Dubrovnik' s trade was between th e thirteent h an d fifteenth centuries. 7 Trad e wit h the interior wa s carried o n by caravan. It wa s not until th e tim e o f the Turkish supremac y i n th e Balkan s tha t th e trad e o f Dubrovni k 3 Rudolf Bicanic , Doha manufdkture u Hrvatskoj i Slavoniji I Epoc h o f Manufacturing i n Croatia and Slavoni a (Zagreb, 1951), 77. 4 Josip Horvat , Kultura Hrvata kroz 1.000 godina / 100 0 Year s o f Croatia n Culture (Zagreb , 1942), 23, 79. 5 Franjo Lepel , Geschichte der Stadt una Republik Ragusa / Histor y of th e Cit y and Republi c of Dubrovnik (Dresden, 1931), 10. & Ibid., 21. tlbid., 22.

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gradually bega n t o sho w sign s o f decline , despit e th e privilege s re ceived fro m th e sultans . Nevertheless , Dubrovni k wa s abl e t o retain , until th e tim e o f Napoleon , it s aristocrati c an d republica n for m o f government. I n th e fourteent h century , a constantl y use d trad e rout e led fro m Dubrovni k to Prizren, a flourishing commercial city, an d stil l farther t o th e significan t mining cit y o f Nov o Brdo , nea r Prístin a i n Serbia.8 Fro m Pristin a yet anothe r trad e rout e le d to Bulgaria . Among the exporte d good s o f tha t period , a n importan t rol e wa s playe d b y textiles, whic h Dubrovni k ha d begu n t o produce. 9 Dubrovni k als o carried o n a bus y trad e i n sal t an d certai n othe r article s o f genera l consumption. I n th e se a trade , th e insuranc e busines s wa s o f grea t importance.10 Th e coin s minte d i n Dubrovni k itsel f boaste d a wid e circulation. However , othe r large r citie s o f Dalmatia , suc h a s Zada r and Split , also had thei r own mints. Man y types of money wer e foun d in th e variou s territorie s o f Croatia . No t onl y mone y minte d i n th e Croatian land s was circulated, bu t als o that o f many foreign cities an d states. Money was used primarily as a means of payment, but als o as a measure of value. It almos t completely replaced barter , an d slowl y bu t surely accelerated th e tradin g of goods in the medieva l urban economy of Croatia . O f all the Croatia n mints, that o f Dubrovnik wa s i n opera tion fo r th e longes t time , fro m th e twelft h t o th e nineteent h century . MERCANTILE POLITICA L ECONOM Y Charles V I (1711-1740) , Mari a Theres a (1740-1780) , an d Josep h I I (1780-1790) fostere d economi c developmen t i n th e Croatia n region s through suc h measures as the foundin g of manufacturing concerns an d trade companie s an d th e buildin g o f road s an d harbors . Wit h th e abolition o f inlan d tariff s i n 1715 , th e obstacle s t o inlan d trad e wer e removed. Mail service, which until then wa s anything but uniform , an d lay eve n partl y i n privat e hands , wa s completel y reorganized . I n th e year 171 7 fre e shippin g wa s proclaime d fo r th e Adriati c Sea , an d i n 1719 Rijek a wa s declare d a fre e port. 11 I n th e sam e year , th e Orien t Company, the mai n exponent o f the darin g economic-political idea s of sibid., 26. 9 Grga Novak , "Vunena industrij a u Dubrovniku " / Woo l Industr y i n Dubrov nik, Resetarov Zbornik (Dubrovnik , 1931) , 99-107 ; D . Roller , Dubrovacki zanati u XV i XVI stoljecu I Dubrovnik' s Skill s in th e 15t h an d 16t h Centurie s (Zagreb , 1951), 5. 10 J. Tadic , "Pomorsk o osiguranj e u Dubrovnik u u XV I stoljeéu " / Maritim e Insurance i n Sixteent h Centur y Dubrovnik , Resetarov Zbornik (Dubrovnik , 1931) , 109-112. "K. Berger, Der Hafen von Fiume / Th e Harbo r o f Rijek a (Kôln , 1936) , 16 .

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7

Charles VI , wa s founde d i n Trieste . Thi s compan y als o extende d it s activity t o the Croatian ports and territories. Mercantil e policies le d t o an increas e i n national wealth throug h th e promotio n of shipping an d wider trad e wit h foreig n countries . Thes e enterprise s wer e furthe r supported b y trad e agreements . However , th e protectiv e tariffs , intro duced i n the year 1754 by the Hapsbur g monarchy to the advantag e of the economi c developmen t o f the Austria n lands, badl y hampere d th e further developmen t o f the manufacturin g industry i n Croatia. 12 The building and upkeep o f roads in Croatia had bee n neglecte d fo r centuries; thus , i n orde r t o furthe r commerce , man y ne w road s wer e built durin g th e eighteent h century . I n 172 6 th e firs t roa d whic h connected th e por t o f Rijeka wit h Karlova c and th e interio r wa s built , and a t th e en d o f th e eighteent h centur y th e roa d connectin g th e harbor o f Senj and th e interior wa s completed. 13 At this sam e time th e work of regulating the mos t important Croatian river, the Sava , began. Until the middle o f the eighteent h century , shipping an d ship-buildin g on th e Croatia n river s ha d develope d onl y spasmodically. B y the en d of th e eighteent h century , shippin g o n th e Sav a an d Danub e ha d become considerabl y mor e lively, an d ship-buildin g increased , i f onl y slowly. In th e eighteenth an d nineteenth centuries , th e mos t important wharfs o n the Sav a were locate d i n Sisa k and Jasenovac , and thos e of the Drav a Rive r i n Vukova r an d Petrovaradin , a s wel l a s i n Osijek. 14 Of prominent economic importance was the Luis e Road, built betwee n Rijeka an d Karlova c i n th e yea r 1811 , an d counte d amon g th e mos t beautiful an d moder n o f Europea n highway s a t tha t time. 15 Durin g these years, a considerable transit trade flourished between th e Danub e valley and th e Adriatic harbors. This trad e wen t throug h th e Croatia n lands, bringing the m grea t economi c advantages. Croati a soo n becam e an independen t custom s district wit h it s ow n custom s boundaries . Characteristic o f the 'development o f Croatian manufacturing a t th e end o f th e eighteent h an d th e beginnin g o f th e nineteent h centurie s was th e fac t tha t handicraf t production i n smalle r o r large r establish ments stil l prevailed , whil e i n Wester n Europ e industria l capitalis m had alread y starte d t o develop . Durin g th e middl e o f th e eighteent h century, mining , whic h ha d alread y bee n activel y pursue d i n th e sixteenth an d seventeent h centuries, was reactivated. By the middl e of the nineteent h centur y a number of smaller mining centers an d smelt ing works, a copper foundry , a sulphur factory, as well as several small 12

Bicanic, Doha manufakture, 15 . "Horvat, Kultura, 73, 128. 14 Bicanio, Doha manufakture, 139. 15

Horvat, Kultura, 177.

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coal mines , were i n operatio n i n norther n Croatia. 16 Durin g th e sam e period sil k cultur e develope d significantly , and Croatia n sil k enjoyed a good reputation on the international market . FOREST AND LAND EXPLOITATIO N In th e secon d hal f o f th e eighteent h centur y an d a t th e beginnin g of the nineteenth , th e forests , whic h wer e fo r th e mos t par t o f prim e quality an d represente d Croatia' s greates t natura l resource , covere d more tha n hal f o f th e surfac e o f th e land . Th e mos t extensiv e forest s were onc e those of beech an d oa k trees. There were als o considerabl e woods o f elm , ash , maple , linden , an d alde r trees . Pin e forest s wer e represented mainl y by fir, juniper, an d pin e trees . Althoug h sawmills, such a s th e on e i n Cabar , fo r example , ha d alread y existe d i n th e seventeenth century , extensiv e exploitatio n o f th e Croatia n fores t wealth reall y di d no t begi n unti l th e eighteent h century , an d durin g the first half o f the nineteent h centur y i t represente d th e mos t important branc h o f manufacturing in th e land. 17 O f grea t significanc e was the productio n o f oa k barre l staves , whic h wer e exporte d i n larg e quantities t o England , France , an d Germany . However, i n th e cours e of time , th e bes t oa k forest s o f Croati a wer e destroye d b y reckles s exploitation. Th e productio n o f potash , whic h wa s als o base d o n exploitation o f the forests , had long been commo n in Croatia , but onl y from aroun d 1750 unti l abou t 185 0 wa s there a sudde n growt h i n thi s branch o f production. 18 A t th e sam e time, th e productio n o f charcoa l was significant , an d customer s wer e foun d no t onl y i n th e nativ e foundries, bu t als o abroad, wher e i t wa s exporte d i n grea t quantities , as was potash. During this period, Croati a had onl y a few small textile enterprises, wherea s th e leathe r industry , wit h it s mos t importan t centers in Rijeka, Osijek, Karlovac, and Zagreb, was better developed. 19 In th e productio n o f food , th e efficien t suga r refiner y erecte d i n the yea r 175 0 a t Rijek a ha d specia l importance ; durin g the eighteent h century an d th e beginnin g o f th e nineteenth , thi s refiner y wa s th e largest manufacturin g concern i n th e entir e Austria n Empire, a s wel l as on e o f th e larges t i n Europe. 20 Rijek a wa s als o the mos t important center for grai n mills and the productio n of noodles. It had numerou s oil works, brandy and liquo r distilleries , an d a considerable number of breweries. Thi s city was the mos t important center of production in th e 16

Bicani6, Doha manufakture, 89 . nibid., 106. wibid., 145.

wibid., 122. °Ibtd., 155 .

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Croatian land s durin g th e pre-capitalistic period, an d i n the yea r 184 2 it possesse d a s man y a s sixty-tw o differen t productio n plants. 21 From th e secon d half o f the seventeent h century , tobacc o was raise d in Croatia , an d tobacc o factorie s cam e int o bein g i n al l o f th e cities ; in th e yea r 1809 , thirt y suc h plant s operate d i n Rijek a alone. 22 Th e production o f glas s an d brick s ha d als o begu n t o sho w considerabl e progress b y th e en d o f the eighteent h century . INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMEN T Industrial developmen t gaine d momentu m i n Croati a i n th e 1840's , partly i n connectio n wit h th e technica l developmen t i n Wester n Europe. Th e Croatia n economy , patterned o n the exampl e of Wester n Europe, was gradually built up on a capitalistic foundation. I n the year 1835 th e first steam engine wa s put int o operation in th e pape r mil l of Rijeka. Thi s factory , founde d i n 1828 , wa s Croatia' s firs t industria l enterprise. Th e firs t spinnin g machine s wer e introduce d i n 184 7 a t Varazdin, an d mechanica l loom s a t Rijek a i n 1851 . Th e firs t steam operated sawmil l was erected i n Prezid (1849) ; the first sugar factor y in Cepin ( 1836 ) ; and th e first steam mill in Varazdin ( 1846 ). A factory for machin e constructio n was opened i n Rijek a i n 1854 . Th e yea r 185 6 saw the first Croatian match factory buil t in Osijek; this was one of th e first factories o f its kind in Europe. In th e sam e year a factory for far m machinery wa s erected , als o i n Osijek . I n 186 0 steam-drive n plow s were put int o operation o n Croatian farms. 23 Of grea t significanc e for th e Croatia n econom y was th e foundin g of the Firs t Croatia n Saving s Bank in th e yea r 1846 . I t wa s not onl y th e first bank o f its kind, but als o numbered itsel f amon g the first banking establishments o f southeaster n Europe. 24 Thi s bankin g institut e soo n developed int o th e mos t powerfu l ban k i n al l th e Balka n countries . New mean s of communications were opene d u p b y th e inventio n of the electri c telegraph . Soo n thereafter, i n 1851 , th e firs t Croatia n tele graph lin e wa s constructed , connectin g Zagre b wit h Vienna . I n th e year 186 2 th e firs t railroa d line , Sisak-Zagreb-Zidan i Most-Trieste wa s completed.25 Wit h thi s line , Austri a hope d t o diver t Croatia n trad e from Rijeka . The first railroad lin e in Bosnia, Dobrljin-Banja Luka , was 2iHorvat, Kultura, 333 . 22 Bicanie, Doha manufakture, 160 . Mlbid., 215 . 24 Horvat, Kultura, 331. 25 J. Gornicic-Brdovacki , Razvitak zeljeznica u Hrvatskoj do 1918 godine I Rail road Development i n Croatia Until 191 8 (Zagreb , 1952), v.

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put int o operatio n i n 1872 , an d i n th e followin g year th e railroa d lin e Budapest-Zagreb-Rijeka cam e int o being. 26 I n th e yea r 189 1 th e mos t important narrow-gaug e stretc h wa s opened : Brod-Sarajevo-Metko vic.27 During the following decades, until 1918, severa l railroad systems were built i n the variou s Croatian territories—not , however , accordin g to the need s o f the Croatia n economy , but rathe r accordin g to those of Austria an d Hungary . A s a result , th e railroad s i n th e Croatia n land s represented a mos t inorgani c network , a s fa r a s th e Croatian s them selves were concerned. THE CAPITALISTI C DEVELOPMEN T O F CKOATIA Characteristic o f th e Croatia n econom y o f th e 1860' s an d 1870' s wa s the development , wit h ever-increasin g strength , o f industria l produc tion. A second important factor in these time s was the rapi d expansio n of th e railroads and steamers. With th e ne w industria l development , in which English , French , an d Germa n capita l als o participated , ther e arose a tendenc y towar d a concentratio n o n dwelling s an d business , which initiate d a movement of the populatio n fro m th e countr y t o th e city. Since the importance of handiwork declined i n favor o f mechanization, the craftsme n fel t themselve s threatened b y th e upsurg e of industry and the y demanded restrictions on free trade . The principl e of fre e trade was , however, retained a s a basi s o f economi c life . The transitio n perio d i n th e economi c developmen t o f Croati a wa s accompanied b y considerabl e difficulty . Competitio n wit h foreig n products se t in , whic h cause d grea t an d irreparabl e har m t o handi crafts i n Croatia . A numbe r o f handiwor k establishment s wer e ad versely affected an d gradually disappeared entirely . In connectio n wit h this development , certai n village s an d citie s decline d economically . I n spite of this, the more enterprising craftsmen adapted themselve s to th e newly-created situation . New branche s o f handicrafts sprang up , suc h as the mechanical , electrical, an d chemica l ones , an d a t th e beginnin g of th e nineteent h centur y on e could count 70 , and b y 1862 , mor e tha n 120 different branche s o f handiwork i n Croatia. 28 Though certai n condition s favorabl e t o trad e an d t o th e industria l economy di d exis t in the Croatia n lands , the economi c development of Croatia was very much hampered b y th e fac t tha t it was economically wibid., vi. 27

F. Martin , Eisenbahngeographie Jugoslaviens / Railroa d Geograph y of Yugo slavia (Würzburg , 1937) , 10. 28 Bicanic, Doha manujakture, 47 .

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dependent o n Austria an d Hungary . These latte r nation s pursued th e policy o f developin g industr y only in thei r ow n countries . I n spit e of this, Croati a wa s able t o develo p unti l th e beginnin g o f World Wa r I its own , though humble , industr y i n variou s part s o f th e country , usually involvin g the factory-typ e processing o f domestic products . Of specia l significanc e in this regar d wer e grai n mills , oil refineries, canneries, an d suga r refineries . Alcohol , textiles, wood , furniture , an d paper were manufactured. Also of importance were iron foundries and blast furnace s i n Vares , Topusko, an d Beslinac , a steel-rollin g mil l i n Zenica, rich sof t coa l mines in Kreka , Banovici, Zenica, Vares, Mostar, Siveric, Golubovac , Krapina , Budinscina , an d Ras a (Podlabin) , an d iron or e mines in Vares, Ljubija, Petrov a Gora, and Trgovsk a Gora. At this tim e the utilizatio n o f the ric h water-power o f the Croatia n river s also began, whic h resulte d in the erectio n o f a serie s o f power plants . After Worl d Wa r I , a renewed expansio n of industria l activit y wa s evident, particularl y in its effec t upo n the textile , mining , and foundry industries. Especiall y worth y o f mentio n ar e th e erectio n o f a new, larger steel-rollin g mil l i n Zenic a an d th e beginnin g o f operation s i n the aluminu m factor y i n Sibenik . Th e textil e industr y enjoye d rapi d development a s th e basi s o f th e productio n o f consume r goods . Th e shoe industr y als o flourished, especially a t th e sho e factory i n Borovo, the largest in the Balkan countries. The wood, furniture, aluminum, and cement industries , whic h operate d o n native ra w materials , wer e like wise able to make significant progress. The machine industry succeede d in expanding , particularl y i n th e manufactur e of railroad cars , i n rail road repai r workshops , i n ship-building , an d i n th e productio n o f agricultural implements an d machines . Not unti l shortly before Worl d War I I di d th e systemati c utilization o f th e significan t Croatia n oi l wells begin , with th e ai d o f the America n Vacuum Oil Company. Th e building u p o f a machin e industr y wa s prevente d b y a shortag e o f capital, sinc e the surplu s of domestic capital, a s a result o f the inimica l economic policy of the Belgrad e government toward Croatia, remained very small . Foreign capita l wa s thu s greatl y needed , an d befor e lon g the investmen t o f foreign capita l increase d considerably . THE DEVELOPMEN T OF MERCHANT FLEET S The Adriati c Se a ha s alway s bee n a decisiv e facto r i n th e Croatia n economy, and th e sourc e of several importan t economi c branches wit h which th e Croatian s have concerne d themselve s ever sinc e settlin g o n the coast. In addition to providing industries of minor importance, such

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as th e spong e an d cora l fisheries , th e se a ha s bee n importan t fo r shipping, fishing, ship-building, and salt production. Mor e recently, th e tourist trade ha s lent additiona l economic significance t o th e sea . The Croatian s have ha d a noteworth y shippin g industr y eve r sinc e they settle d alon g th e Adriatic , althoug h th e earlies t instance s o f shipping ca n hardl y b e counted , sinc e ther e wa s n o clearl y define d difference betwee n th e warship s an d th e trad e ship s o f th e period . Dubrovnik, at a very early time, establishe d a n international reputatio n for it s shipping , an d it s flag was encountere d o n al l seas . It s warshi p fleet was small, and this accounted for its larger commercia l fleet. Even in th e sixteent h centur y th e ship s fro m Dubrovni k saile d al l th e sea s of Europe. 29 I n thos e time s th e cit y ha d a t it s disposa l ove r 30 0 large ships.30 I n 165 4 approximatel y 16 0 large tradin g vessel s wer e i n it s possession—several of which had a capacity o f over 27,000 hectoliters— in addition t o a large number of smaller ships. 31 However, th e horribl e earthquake o f 166 7 wa s a grea t blo w t o Dubrovnik , an d th e cit y recovered ver y slowly, never regaining its former siz e an d significance . The coasta l citie s o f Split , Zadar , Trogir , Hvar , Korcula , Kotor , an d Sibenik wer e als o o f importance t o maritim e trade. Thei r fleets , how ever, i n n o wa y compare d wit h th e flee t o f Dubrovnik . Nevertheless , for a lon g tim e Spli t wa s th e mos t importan t harbo r o n th e Adriati c coast. In orde r t o counterac t piracy , which cause d muc h difficult y fo r th e Croatian coasta l cities , an d i n orde r t o safeguar d shippin g o n th e Adriatic, the cities united , an d thereby the y wer e abl e t o count o n th e support o f Venice . When , i n 1420 , Venic e sprea d it s powe r ove r th e Croatian coasta l cities , sh e eliminate d thei r forme r cit y autonomy . Since thi s affecte d trade , Dalmatia n shippin g therefor e diminishe d i n importance. In the year 1422, Venice issued a decree that al l Dalmatian ships wer e require d t o land i n Venice first, and late r o n even stronge r measures wer e taken , whic h considerabl y hampere d shippin g o n th e Croatian seacoast. 32 Whe n Venic e recognized th e independen t cit y of Dubrovnik a s a dangerou s competitor , i t enlarge d th e harbo r o f Spli t and erected there a storage plac e fo r its Balkan trade. Merchants fro m 29

Around 1500 , Palladius Fuscus (of Padua ) wrote , in his De situ orae Illyricae: "Nulla Europa e par s ade o abdit a es t .. . u t i n e a Ragusino s no n invenías nego tiantes." ("N o par t o f Europ e i s s o hidde n . . . tha t on e woul d no t fin d i n i t Ragusan merchants." ) Quote d in th e Oxfor d Dictionar y under the entr y "Argosy. " 3°Grga Novak, Noue more I Ou r Se a (Zagreb , 1932). subid., 160 . 32 Vladislav Brajkovic , Etude historique sur le droit maritime privé du Littoral Yougoslave (Marseille , 1933), 63.

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the great Turkish Empire, as well as from Indi a an d Persia , visite d th e city of Split. Thus shipping and trade in the Croatia n coastal cities was saved from certai n downfall . After th e discover y o f Americ a an d o f th e se a rout e t o India , th e importance o f trade i n the Mediterranean , and wit h i t tha t o f trade i n the Adriati c Sea , diminishe d considerably . Europea n trad e too k t o other routes. It wa s the beginnin g of the gradua l but certai n decreas e in trade and shippin g for Venice, and als o for the Dalmatia n cities . At the en d o f the eighteent h century , the Croatia n cit y o f Kotor in Bok a Kotorska cam e t o th e for e wit h it s flee t o f tradin g vessels . Ove r 300 ships for heavy shipping and more than 30 0 smaller vessels were at it s disposal.33 However , thes e fleet s wer e mostl y destroye d durin g th e Napoleonic Wars. During th e Frenc h occupatio n o f Dalmati a fro m 180 5 until 1814 , trade an d shipping agai n blossomed . During thi s period, it is reporte d that th e importan t harbo r o f Triest e serve d th e majo r par t o f th e Croatian trading vessels. 34 The pirate raids of 1808 were again a bitter blow to shipping. England conquered th e islan d o f Vis in 1811 ( losing it the next year ), which consequently becam e the cente r fo r smugglin g goods from Englan d to Dalmatia, Italy, and Austria. After th e overthro w of Napoleon, Dalmatia wa s annexed by Austria in 1814—Venice no longer existed as a city-republic—and more peaceful times bega n a t las t fo r th e Croatia n seacoast . I t wa s abl e t o rene w successful effort s t o reconstruct what a n epoc h o f wars and unres t ha d destroyed in trade relations and economic wealth. In the year 186 9 the Suez Canal was opened, and , as a consequence, the importanc e o f th e Adriatic Sea , particularly fo r trad e wit h Indi a an d Eas t Asia , gre w considerably. Despit e th e fac t tha t steamship s wer e graduall y becom ing commo n a t tha t time , th e perio d betwee n 185 0 and 187 1 repre sented th e ris e and th e clima x of Croatian shipping . At tha t tim e th e harbors o f Bok a Kotorska , especiall y Perast , an d th e peninsul a o f Peljesac wer e mos t importan t because o f th e number s o f thei r ships . During th e middl e o f th e nineteent h century , th e shippin g o f Bok a Kotorska recuperate d fro m th e losse s suffered durin g th e Napoleoni c Wars, and in th e year 185 2 more than 6 0 ships wer e at it s disposal . I n 1865 the Peljesac Shipping Company Incorporated (Peljesk o Brodarsko Dionicko Drustvo ) wa s founded , wit h 3 3 vessels for shippin g o n th e high seas. The maritime prosperity brought about by sailing vessels did not last 33

Novak, NaSe more, 253. A. Premuzio, Privreda (October , 1933), 176.

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long, however . B y th e 1890's , steamship s ha d com e t o th e for e an d brought with them an upheaval in ship-building an d shipping methods which cause d a serious crisis. The first steamships docked in the harbo r of Rijek a in 1840, and 187 0 saw the first steamer located there. Steamers pushed sailin g vessel s more an d mor e int o th e background , an d th e reduction o f Croatia n sail-shippin g ensue d i n rapi d order , s o tha t sailing companie s were discontinued . I n th e yea r 188 8 eve n th e onc e mighty Peljesac Shippin g Company shut down. Croatian shippers wer e too conservative ; furthermore , a lac k o f necessar y capita l di d no t enable the m t o mee t th e dange r tha t th e ris e o f th e steame r repre sented. Th e forme r center s of sail-shipping wer e unabl e t o recuperat e from thei r los s o f capital. Austria and Hungar y took advantage o f th e situation an d develope d shippin g i n Triest e an d Rijek a respectively . Trieste became the main harbor for the Austrian half o f the monarchy , and Rijek a fo r th e Hungaria n hal f o f it. Onl y thes e tw o harbor s wer e connected wit h the interior vi a good railroad connections , whereas th e other harbors remained isolated an d had onl y local importance. The first Croatian coastal steamship company, Krajac an d Company , was founded in the yea r 1871 , merge d with th e M . Svrljuga an d Com pany freigh t concer n i n 1891 ; thu s cam e int o bein g th e Hungarian Croatian Steamshi p Company, with headquarters i n Rijeka . Thi s soon developed int o th e mighties t coasta l freigh t compan y i n th e Austro Hungarian Monarchy. At the same time, five other steamship companies existed i n Dalmatia , bu t thes e maintaine d onl y coasta l shipping . I n spite o f thi s fact , Dubrovni k enjoye d greate r advancemen t bot h i n coastal and ocea n shipping, an d i n 1910 wa s the hom e of the following companies: Racic , Marinovic , Dubrovack a Plovidba , Krunajevi c an d Jelicic, Obaln a Plovidba , an d Gracié . Thu s Dubrovni k onc e agai n became th e foca l poin t o f Croatian shipping . With th e ai d o f generou s governmen t subsidies , Austro-Hungarian shipping develope d favorably , and in 191 4 i t had a t it s disposal ove r a million gross tons. Not only the captains and officers, bu t als o the crews, were almos t exclusivel y Croatian . Afte r th e fal l o f Austria-Hungary (1918), th e majo r par t o f the flee t wa s assigne d t o Ital y an d France . Yugoslavia received only those ships whose owners were Croatian. Th e assignment t o Ital y o f th e harbor s o f Triest e an d Rijeka , whic h wer e economically so closely connected with the Croatia n coasta l territories, represented a grea t obstacl e fo r the reorganizatio n o f shipping, whic h was onl y made wors e b y a lac k o f understandin g o n th e par t o f th e Yugoslav government. During th e year s betwee n 192 4 an d 1930 , Croatia n shippin g mad e

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notable advancements . Th e increas e i n tonnage , cause d almos t exclu sively b y the ris e in tramp steamer tonnage , ca n be trace d t o both th e constant enlargin g o f th e establishe d flee t an d th e foundin g o f ne w companies. Th e world-wid e economi c crisi s whic h bega n i n 192 9 affected Croatia n shippin g mos t unfavorably. After th e stagnatio n an d shrinking of tonnage, the year 193 7 agai n brought a notable boom , an d the Dubrovni k Shippin g Company , Incorporate d (Dubrovack a Paro brodarska Plovidb a A.D . ) remarke d i n it s busines s repor t fo r th e yea r 1937 "tha t [1937 ] shoul d b e remembere d a s a brillian t perio d o f fre e shipping." Th e tota l Croatia n flee t tonnag e i n 193 8 wa s 416,63 0 gross tons. In additio n t o passenger an d freigh t servic e to Italian , Albanian , Greek, Turkish, Bulgarian, and Rumanian harbors, Croatia als o carrie d on freigh t service s wit h th e harbor s o f th e Nea r East , Nort h Africa , Spain, France , England , th e Nort h Sea , th e Balti c Sea , an d Sout h America. Durin g th e Secon d Worl d War , wit h th e sinkin g o f a majo r portion o f Croatian tonnage , th e eventfu l history o f Croatia n shippin g received a further might y blow . SALT-WATER FISHIN G Deep-sea fishin g wa s fo r centurie s o f vital importanc e t o th e Croatia n coastal population, since the extensive coastline has little arable surfac e which coul d provid e sufficien t sustenanc e for the inhabitants . Fishin g was and is still the most important branch o f economy for the numerous towns alon g th e coast . Se a foo d represent s a n essentia l par t o f th e nutrition of the people who live there. A large portion of the populatio n which was active in agriculture also participated i n the fishing industry. Large fish runs have alway s been commo n in th e Adriatic , an d gener ally consis t o f sardines , mackerel , an d tuna—th e so-calle d "blue-fish. " There i s a distinctio n betwee n winte r an d summe r fishing, and th e latter i s o f decisiv e economi c importance . Th e summe r fishin g seaso n was apparentl y alread y wel l develope d i n the fourteent h century , an d there ar e document s fro m th e middl e o f th e fifteent h centur y whic h refer t o it s developmen t an d organization. 35 Sinc e tim e immemorial , the bluefish caught in the summer season have been salted , and in more recent times they have been canned fo r export. Lately th e result s of the catch hav e becom e poorer , an d earlie r time s prov e muc h bette r b y comparison. In th e yea r 1553 , fo r example , th e fisherme n o f Vi s alon e caught ove r 200,00 0 pounds o f sardines i n a singl e night . Th e fishin g 35 Grga Novak , Dokumenti za povijest ribarstva I Document s fo r th e Histor y of Fishing, I (Zagreb , 1952) , 21.

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vessels wer e als o much mor e numerou s in earlie r times—fo r example , in 184 8 th e fisherme n o f the islan d o f Vi s owne d 14 2 different fishin g vessels.38 SHIP-BUILDING Ship-building, especiall y a t th e seacoast , ha s alway s been on e o f th e oldest an d mos t importan t branche s o f th e Croatia n economy . A tradition man y centurie s old , togethe r wit h favorabl e climati c condi tions, whic h enabl e wor k to continu e throughou t th e entir e year , ha s proved favorabl e t o th e developmen t o f ship-building . Buildin g materials wer e availabl e i n th e interior—th e ric h Croatia n forest s pro vided wood, and the mines iron. From th e en d o f th e eighteent h century , ship-buildin g showe d favorable advancement , and afte r th e 1830' s rapid development . How ever, th e greates t pea k wa s reached i n th e yea r 1855. 37 Th e Croatia n shipbuilders develope d suc h skil l tha t the y becam e famou s fa r an d wide, an d thei r ship s were esteeme d an d sough t afte r becaus e o f their seaworthiness. Th e mos t significan t shipyards wer e foun d i n Rovinj , Gres, Krk, Volosko, Losinj Mali , Rijeka, Martinscica , Bakar , Kraljevica, Senj, Trogir , Zadar , Sibenik, Split , Milna , Korcula , and Gruz . Later, wit h th e declin e o f sailin g vessels , thes e shipyard s los t thei r importance. I n mor e recen t times , however, th e shipbuildin g industr y has agai n develope d alon g th e Croatia n coast . Th e mos t importan t shipyards a t th e presen t tim e ar e locate d a t Pula , Rijeka , Kraljevica, Trogir, Split, and Korcula. TOURISM Croatia, situate d a s i t i s between Eas t an d West , i s b y it s natur e a n ideal tourist land. Wit h a variety of landscapes, a position geographic ally favorabl e t o transportation , goo d climati c conditions , historica l and cultura l monuments , and picturesqu e citie s an d towns—especiall y those o n th e coast—Croati a fulfill s ever y natura l requiremen t fo r a tourist country . Th e mos t remarkabl e an d wonderfu l contrast s ar e found alon g the Adriati c coast with it s man y islands; a n inexhaustibl e variety o f landscap e surprise s an d bewitche s th e foreig n guest . Fo r these an d othe r reasons , the touris t trad e bega n t o develo p alon g th e Croatian coas t i n relativel y earl y times , an d b y th e en d o f th e nine teenth century , severa l citie s an d towns—abov e al l Dubrovni k an d 36

Novak, Nase more, 19. Bicani6, Doha manufakture, 129 .

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Opatija—were counte d amon g th e best-know n center s o f th e touris t trade in all Europe. Even thoug h a rapid developmen t o f tourism would hav e been ver y important t o th e Croatia n econom y befor e th e Secon d Worl d War , possibilities were not sufficientl y utilized . Thus tourism, because o f th e neglectful attitud e o f th e Belgrad e government , coul d no t b e full y developed a t th e time . A t th e heigh t o f the touris t season , transporta tion an d accommodatio n wer e inadequate , eve n fo r th e deman d fro m within th e countr y itself , s o that privat e home s ha d t o assis t in takin g care o f foreigners . Germa n tourist s wer e th e mos t numerou s grou p provided fo r b y Croatia n hotel s an d roomin g houses . Othe r tourist s came mainl y fro m Austria , Switzerland , an d Czechoslovakia . Th e number o f tourists durin g th e month s o f June, July , August , and Sep tember comprise d three-fourth s of all the tourist s during a give n year , and becaus e o f th e lac k o f prope r accommodatio n a t tha t time , th e economic aspect s o f Croatia n tourism suffere d extensively . Foreig n tourism was concentrated on the coast areas, where lodging possibilities were best. During th e las t yea r o f peace , 1938 , th e touris t trad e i n Croati a brought i n foreig n currenc y amountin g to som e seven millio n dollars . This amoun t withou t a doub t show s the succes s of tourism in Croatia , and prove s th e grea t attractio n whic h th e Croatia n sight s alon g th e Adriatic coas t hav e fo r foreigners . With th e outbrea k o f th e Secon d World War , tourism i n Croati a wa s disastrousl y curtailed a t th e ver y moment when i t was ready t o come into its own. BIBLIOGRAPHY Barada, Miho . Starohrvatska seoska zajednica / Ol d Croatia n Villag e Community. Zagreb, 1957. Berger, K . H., Der Hafen von Fiume / Th e Harbo r o f Rijeka. Kôln, 1936. Beritic, L . Utvrdjivanje grada Dubrovnika / Fortificatio n o f th e Cit y o f Dubrovnik. Zagreb, 1956 . Bersa, J . Dubrovaóke slike i prilike / Dubrovnik' s Image s an d Conditions . Zagreb, 1941 . Bicanic, R . Ekonomska podloga hrvatskog pitanja / Economi c Basi s o f th e Croatian Problem . Zagreb , 1938 . . Doha manufakture u Hrvatskoj i Shvoniji / Manufacturin g Era i n Croatia and Slavonia . Zagreb, 1951 . Bosendorfer, Josip . Agrarni odnosi u Slavoniji / Agraria n Relation s i n Slavonia. Zagreb, 1950 . Brajkovic, V . Etude historique sur le droit maritime privé du Littoral Yougoslave. Marseille , 1933 .

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Bratanic, B. Orace sprave u Hrvata / Arabl e Implements i n Croatia . Zagreb , 1939. Decaris, A . Die Agrarfrage Dalmatiens / Th e Agraria n Proble m i n Dalmatia . Split, 1928 . Despot, M . Privreda Hrvatske XVII-XX stoljeca / Croatia n Econom y fro m the Seventeent h t o the Twentiet h Century . Zagreb , 1957 . Draskovic, J . Disertacija ili razgovor darovan gospodi poklisarom zakonskim i buducem zakonotvorcem kraljevinah nasih. Zagreb, 1832 . Fellner, A. Die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung der Muehlenindustrie KroatienSlavoniens / Th e Economi c Development o f the Mil l Industry i n Croatia Slavonia. Vienna , 1921 . Fiskovic, C . Nasi graditelji i kipari XV i XVI stoljeca u Dubrovniku / Ou r Architects an d Sculptor s o f th e Fifteent h an d Sixteent h Centurie s i n Dubrovnik. Zagreb, 1947 . Fortunic, V. Crtice o ribarstvu uopce, a nadasve na podrucju bivse Republike Dubrovacke / Shor t Histor y o f Fishing i n General , an d Especiall y o f th e Fishing in the Territor y o f the Forme r Republic of Dubrovnik. Dubrovnik , 1930. Gornicic-Brdovacki, J . Razvitak zeljeznica u Hrvatskoj do 1918 godine / Development o f Railroads in Croati a to 1918 . Zagreb , 1952 . Hefele, F . Nasi domaci obrti / Ou r Hom e Crafts . Zagreb , 1896 . Herkov, Z . Gradja za financijsko-pravni rjeënik feudalne epohe Hrvatske / Materials fo r the Financia l an d Lega l Dictionar y o f the Feuda l Epoc h i n Croatia. Zagreb, 1956 . Herkov, Z . Statut grada Rijeke iz g. 1530 / Statut e o f th e Cit y o f Fiume i n the year 1530 . Zagreb , 1948 . Horvat, J . Kultura Hrvata Kroz 1.000 godina / 100 0 Year s o f Croatia n Culture. 2 vols. Zagreb, 1939 , 1942 . Horvat, R . Kako su nekada zivjeli hrvatski obrtnici / Ho w th e Croatia n Craftsmen Onc e Lived. Zagreb, 1929 . Hribar, A . Kolonat ili tezastina / Kmetsk i odnos i u Primorju . Zagreb , 1923 . Ivsic, M. Les problèmes agraires de Yougoslavie / Th e Agraria n Problem s of Yugoslavia. Paris, 1926 . . Temelfi seljackog zakonika / Foundation s o f th e Agraria n Code . Zagreb, 1933 . . Drustveni zivot na selu / Villag e Social Life. Zagreb, 1937 . . Problemi suvremenog zivota / Problem s o f Contemporar y Life . Zagreb, 1937 . Jelinovic, Z . Barba za jadranske pruge i njeni ekonomski ciljevi / Struggl e for th e Adriati c Railroads and it s Economic Aims. Zagreb, 1957 . Jirecek, K. , an d Cvjetkovic , B . Vaznost Dubrovnika u trgovackoj povijesti srednjeg vijeka / Dubrovnik' s Importanc e i n th e Commercia l Histor y o f the Middl e Ages. Dubrovnik, 1915 . Kestercanek, F . Kratka povijest suma i sumskog gospodarstva u Hrvatskoj / Brief Histor y of Forests an d Fores t Econom y i n Croatia . Zagreb , 1883 . Kriskovic, V . Hrvatsko pravo kucnih zadruga / Croatia n La w o f Domesti c Communities. Zagreb, 1925 . LakatoS, J. Industria Hrvatske / Th e Industry of Croatia. Zagreb, 1924 .

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Laszowski, E. Gradja za gospodarsku povijest Hrvatske u XVI i XVII stoljecu / Material s fo r th e Economi c Histor y o f Croati a i n th e Sixteent h an d Seventeenth Centuries. Zagreb , 1951 . Laszowski, E . Rudarstvo u Hrvatskoj / Minin g i n Croatia . Vols . I an d II . Zagreb, 1942 , 1944 . Lepel, F . Geschichte der Stadt und Republik Ragusa / Histor y o f th e Cit y and Republi c o f Ragusa. Dresden, 1931 . Mayer, E. Die dalmatinisch-istrische Munizipalverfassung im Mittelalter und ihre rômischen Grundlagen / Th e Dalmatian-Istria n Municipa l Constitu tion and its Roman Foundations. Weimar, 1903 . Mayer, H . Da s dalmatinische Kolonat / Th e Dalmatia n Colonate . Vienna , 1911. Matasovic, J. Iz ekonomske historije 175-1758 / Som e Facts of the Economi c History fro m 175-1758 . Zagreb , 1929 . Matkovic, D . Die Seeschiffahrt und SeeschiffahrtspoUtik Jugoslawiens / Maritime Navigatio n an d Yugoslavia' s Maritim e Policy . Cologne , 1939 . Medini, M . O postanku i razvitku kmetskih i tezackih odnosa u Dalmaciji / About th e Origi n an d Developmen t o f Manoria l Relation s i n Dalmatia . Zadar, 1920 . Mirkovic, Mijo . Ekonomska historija Jugoslavije / Economi c Histor y o f Yugoslavia. Zagreb, 1958 . Milobar, F. Izabrana poglavlja iz narodnoga gospodarstva / Selecte d Part s of the Nationa l Economy. Zagreb, 1902 . Muderizovic, R. "Bosanski majdani za turske uprave" / Bosnia n Mines Under Turkish Administration , Glasnik Zemaljskog Muzeja XX X (1918), 21-28. Novak, G. "Vunena industrija u Dubrovniku d o sredine XV I stoljeca" / Th e Wool Industr y i n Dubrovni k unti l th e middl e o f th e Sixteent h Century , Resetarov zbornik (Dubrovnik , 1931) . . Nase more / Ou r Sea. Zagreb, 1932 . . Proslost Dalmacije / Th e Past o f Dalmatia. 2 vols. Zagreb, 1944 . . Dokumenti za povijest ribarstva na istocnoj obali Jadranskog mora, sv. I: Otoci Vis i Hvar / Document s for the Histor y of Fishin g on the Eastern Shor e o f the Adriatic Sea, vol. I: Island s o f Vis and Hvar . Zagreb : Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts , 1952 . Omrcanin, I . "La Zadruga Croata ossi a la comunità d i famiglia in Croazia" / Croatian Zadrug a o r Domesti c Community , Annuario di Diritto Comparato e di studi Legislativi, vol . XXVII, fase. 10 , 1952 . Pivec-Stelè, M . La vie économique des provinces illyriennes 1809-1813. Paris, 1930 . Poparic, B . Povijest pomorstva I , I L / Histor y o f Seafaring. 2 vols . Zagreb , 1932, 1933 . Rieger, V . Das landwirtschaftliche Genossenschaftswesen in den kroatischen Landern / Th e Agricultura l Cooperativ e Syste m i n th e Croatia n Lands . Berlin, 1939 . Rifeka / Fiume . Zbornik / Symposium . Zagreb, 1953 . Roller, D. Dubrovacki zanati u XV i XVI stólfecu / Dubrovnik' s Craft s i n the Fifteenth an d Sixteent h Centuries . Zagreb, 1951 . . Agrarno-proizvodni odnosi na podruèju Dubrovaeke republike od

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XIII do XV stoljeca / Agrarian-Productiv e Relation s i n th e Territor y of the Republi c o f Dubrovnik fro m th e Thirteent h t o th e Fifteent h Century . Zagreb, 1955 . Steiner, V. Die Volkswirtschaft der Konigreiche Kroatien una Slavonien vom Standpunkte der Landwirtschaft / Th e Economi c System of the Kingdoms of Croati a an d Slavoni a fro m th e Agricultura l Viewpoint . Zagreb , 1917 . Tadic, J . "Pomorsk o osiguranj e u Dubrovnik u XV I stoljeca " / Maritim e Insurance i n 16t h Centur y Dubrovnik , Resetarov zbornik (Dubrovnik , 1931), 109-112. Tomasevich, J . Peasants, Politics, and Economics in Yugoslavia. Stanfor d & London, 1955 . Utisenovic, M. Die Hauskommunionen der Südslaven / Th e Domesti c Com munity of the Souther n Slavs . Vienna, 1859 . Vrbanic, F . Prilozi gospodarskom razvoju hrvatsko-slavonske Krajine u 19. vijeku / Contributio n t o Economi c Developmen t o f th e Militar y Frontier in the Nineteent h Century . Zagreb , 1900 .

6

Ethical Heritag e FRANCIS H . ETEROVICH

ETHICAL TENETS have the power to guide any national life t o its explicit goals. The ancien t an d accumulate d wisdom of life direct s a people i n determining it s trues t relationshi p t o it s ow n materia l an d spiritua l resources, to its neighbors in the world, and to God. Ethical values help to mould a balanced, honest , self-controlled people whic h wil l respect , love, cultivate , and , i f necessary , di e fo r th e sam e cherishe d values . These intangibl e value s ma y themselve s becom e th e nation' s highes t goals: i t i s a sig n o f hig h moralit y an d cultur e i n a peopl e whe n i t steadily sacrifice s visibl e an d immediat e good s fo r thos e whic h ar e invisible an d ultimate . A n examinatio n o f th e nationa l cultur e o f a nation woul d b e incomplet e withou t a stud y o f that country' s ethica l heritage. There i s a basi c ethica l unit y i n mankind . Commo n principle s o f ethics an d orderly life are the heritage o f all nations—both civilized an d primitive. I t woul d see m to follo w the n tha t a stud y o f ethica l values among th e Croatian s coul d no t especiall y hel p on e reac h a n under standing of their cultura l personality. Yet each natio n has incorporate d and practiced universal principles of ethics in its own unique way. Each nation cherishe s som e value s mor e tha n other s t o th e exten t tha t a number o f well-defined values become characteristic component s of its particular wa y o f life . Th e Croatian s to o hav e emphasi/e d an d cherished certai n values . The qualit y o f "cherishing," o f cultivatin g an emotional attachment , require s tha t w e tak e int o accoun t no t onl y values but als o attitudes towar d those values. Religion an d ethics , althoug h the y ar e tw o distinc t spheres , hav e been closel y unite d i n th e lon g histor y o f mankind. Ethic s ha s mad e

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religion a practical wa y o f life; religio n ha s give n moralit y its foundation, aim , and sanction . Within Croati a an d Bosnia-Hercegovin a there are thre e mai n religiou s groups , th e Roma n Catholics , th e Orthodo x Eastern Christians , and th e Moslems . Each o f these group s follows it s own system of ethics. This study is primarily devoted to a consideration of th e ethica l heritag e o f the Roma n Catholi c Croatians . It i s important, in order t o avoid any misunderstanding, to point ou t that a grea t par t o f the Croatia n Catholi c ethica l heritag e date s fro m the pre-Christia n era . Amon g the virtues , tha t ste m fro m thi s period , one may mention hospitality, honor, fidelity, tightly-knit familial bonds , and a deep love for the native land. Among the perennial vices that can be trace d bac k t o this er a ar e revenge , envy , and a destructiv e hatre d of th e enemy . Christianit y ha s strengthene d thes e virtue s and , t o lesser degree , subdue d man y o f these vices ; i t ha s als o added it s ow n individual contributio n t o th e Croatia n ethica l heritage : a n emphasi s on lov e o f Go d an d neighbor , an d th e salvatio n o f th e individua l through th e working s of grace. We shal l attemp t t o presen t th e basi c trait s o f th e Croatia n mora l personality by analyzing the salien t ethical principles , th e chie f virtue s and correspondin g shortcomings , as well a s th e moralit y o f th e socia l relations o f thi s people . Th e are a considere d i n thi s articl e i s rathe r an extensiv e one ; eac h valu e and it s contrar y coul d b e a n interestin g subject fo r a n individua l study . Ou r intention , however , i s t o giv e the reade r a comprehensive , over-al l view o f genera l Croatia n ethica l values an d attitudes . There ha s bee n t o thi s poin t to o littl e researc h in th e collection , classification , an d interpretatio n o f th e mora l fact s and value s among the Croatians . In ou r stud y we have draw n o n fol k songs an d proverbs , beliefs , customs , an d laws , passage s fro m litera ture an d poetry , an d example s fro m political , military , legal , an d social history . T o thes e source s we have adde d ou r ow n observations, reflections, an d conclusions , a s wel l an d hav e mad e us e o f th e fe w articles an d book s tha t hav e bee n writte n o n th e subject . A vas t tas k stil l lie s ahea d i n thi s are a o f study , however . Muc h more research need s t o be carrie d ou t i n this field. Insufficien t statisti cal informatio n pertinen t t o th e topi c i s a s ye t available . I t i s ou r earnest desir e tha t thi s stud y serv e as a beginning—howeve r modest — and a stimulu s t o student s t o engag e i n scientifi c researc h o n th e Christian mora l heritage 1 amon g Croatians . !In th e cours e o f this study , w e hav e assume d tha t th e reade r i s familiar wit h the natur e o f Christia n morality , whic h derive s fro m bot h th e Ol d an d th e Ne w Testaments. Th e Ten Commandment s (Exodu s 20: 1-8 ) condense s th e moralit y of

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BASIC MORA L PRINCIPLES Divine Justice The Catholi c Croatian s are , a s a rule , a God-fearin g people . The y believe tha t Go d i s th e zealou s guardia n o f th e mora l order . H e i s often depicte d i n Croatia n fol k song s an d storie s a s intervenin g i n human affair s i n orde r t o protec t th e innocent , rewar d th e good , encourage mora l actions, give testimon y to truth an d justice , and eve n foretell th e victor y o f thos e wh o ar e persecute d becaus e o f thei r honesty and integrity.2 Above all , Go d is , i n Croatia n folklore , th e judg e an d avenge r o f the wicked . I n fol k literature , a n "enrage d divin e justice" ofte n perse cutes th e criminal : th e reprobat e canno t fin d peac e o f mind , live s haunted b y hi s conscience , an d die s in terribl e agony ; his sou l is the n thrown int o hell , an d hi s body , no t permitte d eve n th e res t o f th e grave, i s taken b y evi l spirit s an d goe s abou t disturbing people . Thi s terrible punishmen t i s vividl y described , fo r instance , i n th e poe m "Prokleti Duka Setkovic" (Damned Duk a Setkovic) , about a man who killed hi s mother i n the mos t cruel way. 3 I t i s not merel y coincidenc e that th e grea t literar y work s of the Croatian s have s o often expresse d the centra l ide a o f thei r genera l mora l code : tha t divin e justic e punishes evi l men . Marko Maruli c (Marcu s Marulus , 1450-1524) , a grea t Christia n humanist an d th e fathe r o f Croatian Renaissanc e literature , dedicate d his lif e t o th e restoratio n o f the mora l values whic h h e believe d wer e on th e declin e i n hi s day . Hi s epi c poem—th e firs t Croatia n printe d work—"Istorija svet e udovice Judit" (Th e Histor y o f the Hol y Wido w Judith), writte n i n 150 1 an d publishe d i n 1521 , applie s th e biblica l narrative o f th e Boo k o f Judit h t o th e Croatia n people , wh o wer e the Ol d Testament , an d th e Sermo n on th e Moun t ( Matthew, chapter s 5 , 6 , and 7 ) gives th e principa l point s o f the moralit y o f the Ne w Testament . Th e centra l them e of th e Ol d Testamen t i s justice , whil e tha t o f th e Ne w Testamen t i s love—lov e of God an d neighbor . I n th e Christia n view , th e spiri t o f th e Ol d Testamen t existe d chiefly i n th e zealou s observanc e o f th e Law , whil e tha t o f th e Ne w Testamen t consists i n inne r sanctificatio n b y mean s o f participatio n b y th e faithfu l i n th e divine lif e o f wisdo m an d love , a participatio n usuall y terme d "th e lif e o f grace. " 2 Petar Bakotic , "Poja v cud a i zako n red a u narodno j knjizevnosti " / Th e Appearance o f Miracle s an d th e La w o f Mora l Orde r i n Fol k Literature , Zbornik za narodni zivot i obicaje Juznih Slavena / Scientifi c Paper s O n th e Lif e an d Customs o f South Slav People. Vol . 31 (Zagreb : Yugosla v Academy of Sciences an d Arts, 1937) , 47. 3 Number 39 in Hrvatske narodne pjesme / Croatia n Fol k Songs . Vol. I. Junacke Pjesme I Heroi c Song s (Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska , 1896) , 113-122 .

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fighting th e Turk s a t th e ver y wall s o f hi s nativ e cit y o f Spli t i n Dalmatia. The poe t seek s to instill courag e i n his hard-presse d peopl e by giving them a message of hope: just as divine justice once punishe d Holofernes an d his army, who threatened t o destroy the Jewish people , so th e sam e divin e justic e wil l no w punis h th e Turk s an d sav e th e Croatian peopl e fro m captivity. 4 Ivan Gunduli c (Joanne s Gondola , 1588-1638 ) o f Dubrovni k wrot e Osman, an epi c poe m i n twent y canto s (tw o o f them , th e fourteent h and th e fifteenth , ar e missing , but substitute s wer e masterfull y composed by Iva n Mazurani c in the nineteent h century) , in whic h he describes th e victor y o f Ladislaus , th e Polis h king , ove r th e Turkis h Sultan Osma n in 1621 , an d th e deat h o f the latte r a t th e hand s o f his janissaries durin g th e rebellio n whic h too k plac e i n Constantinopl e the nex t year . The poet , profoundl y Christian in his attitud e towar d faith an d morals, sees in these two events a great sig n of the liberatio n of th e Slavi c peoples fro m th e Turks . Th e basic ide a o f hi s poe m i s found a t th e beginning an d a t th e end : th e migh t of tyrants and thei r empires wil l pas s away , an d th e prou d wil l b e humiliate d an d th e humble exalted by divine justice. 5 Ivan Mazurani c (1814—1890), a moder n Croatia n poe t o f humanis t and Christia n tradition , ha s show n in hi s epi c poem "Smr t Smail-Ag e Cengica" (Deat h o f Smail-Ag a Cengic ) tha t divin e justice inexorabl y punishes al l despot s an d tyrants . A handfu l o f Montenegri n fighters , the instrument s of divine justice, fortifie d o n a nigh t tri p t o th e head quarters o f Smail-Ag a by th e mysterie s o f th e Christia n fait h an d th e sacraments of penance an d th e Eucharist , arriv e a t daw n an d surpris e the crue l part y o f Smail-Ag a and hi s dignitaries , wh o enjo y torturin g the Christians . Montenegrin s kill Smail-Ag a and hi s henchmen . Mazuranic composed hi s poem wit h a firm conviction an d wit h a n unflinch ing fait h tha t i n th e eterna l orde r o f thing s ever y jus t an d ever y evi l ma n will b e rewarde d i n du e tim e accordin g t o thei r merits . Thi s i s th e ide a which permeate d th e whol e intellectua l an d emotiona l lif e o f the poe t . . . this is the philosophica l an d mora l thought which pervade s hi s whole literar y activity, an d thi s i s th e centra l ide a o f hi s poe m Death of Smail-Aga Cengic. . . . This is the reason wh y his poem—though ful l o f blood, revenge, the sufferin g o f th e innocent , an d o f craftines s an d th e wors t passion s o f the depravate d huma n soul—leave s a feelin g o f serenit y an d optimism . Th e poet i s consolin g th e jus t wit h th e convictio n tha t huma n injustic e i s 4 Milorad Medini , Povijest hrvatske knjizevnosti u Dalmaciji i Dubrovniku / History o f Croatia n Literatur e i n Dalmati a an d Dubrovnik . Boo k I : Sixteent h Century (Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska , 1902) , 85. 5 Franjo Trograncic , Storia della letteratura croata. Dalí' Umanesimo alla Rinascita Nazionale (Secól o XV-XIX ) (Studium . Rome, 1953) , 163-165 .

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transitory an d divin e justic e inexorable , an d wit h fait h i n th e ultimat e victory o f moral values ove r th e momentar y triumph o f evil. 6

Idealized View of Morality The fol k songs , stories , an d proverb s o f Croati a mainl y describ e tw o types o f huma n beings : th e on e kin d i s aggressiv e an d violen t an d has n o mora l standards ; th e othe r i s innocen t an d God-fearin g bu t unfit t o fight , an d henc e ofte n a victi m o f th e mor e aggressiv e typ e of individual . Th e forme r live s accordin g t o th e standard s o f th e animal world , i n whic h th e suprem e la w i s th e preservatio n o f biological life . The violen t ma n i s compared to a beast an d i s called a man "withou t a soul. " H e i s lawles s an d homeles s an d a t wa r wit h society an d it s institutions. In contrast , th e innocen t ma n live s accord ing t o ethica l huma n standard s an d God' s commandments . H e be lieves tha t th e sou l is the bette r par t o f the huma n bein g an d tha t i t is destine d t o liv e eternally . Thi s ma n doe s goo d an d avoid s evil , regardless o f sufferin g an d trial s a t th e hand s o f th e godles s an d aggressive man , an d regardles s o f th e los s o f good s whic h h e migh t incur in obeying the la w o f God an d o f his conscience . This idealized vie w of morality is very common among the Croatians. To them th e worl d is a stage o n which evi l men fight with goo d men. The good , i n spit e o f al l adversities , ar e boun d t o win . Thi s wil l happen eithe r b y long-suffering an d passive resistance t o the evi l men, as th e folk-literatur e theme jus t mentione d indicates, o r b y honorabl e battle agains t thei r enemy , a s folk-poetr y abundantl y illustrates . B y and large , Croatian s hav e bee n mor e inten t o n th e latte r course , o n fighting thei r enemie s tha n o n sufferin g a t thei r hands . Th e fightin g spirit i s particularl y stron g amon g th e Diñar a Mountai n dweller s i n Bosnia, Hercegovina , Lika, and Dalmatia n Zagora. On the othe r hand , there are others—livin g o n the norther n plain s an d alon g th e souther n coastal areas an d islands—wh o believ e tha t a n enem y can b e defeate d by mor e peaceful means . Both group s hav e t o endur e lon g struggle s and suffering . Th e struggl e i s unequal , becaus e th e evi l men , o r th e enemies o f th e nation , us e ever y means , regardles s o f morality , an d fight no t onl y openly , bu t secretly , usin g al l manner s o f ambush , deceit, fraud , an d conceale d murder , whil e th e goo d me n mus t fight honorably an d relentlessl y fo r victory . In fact , th e sufferin g o f a small °Ivan Mazuranic, La morte di Smail-Aga Cengijic. Poema. Introduction, transla tion, an d footnote s b y Franj o Trograncié . (Genova : Briano , 1949) , xxii . Se e als o J. W. Wiles, The Death of Smail-Aga Cengic (London , 1925) . Trogranci c present s some worthwhil e reflection s o n th e mora l conten t o f thi s epi c poe m i n hi s introduction.

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nation lik e Croati a ha s ofte n reache d th e mos t tragi c dimension s i n time and intensity. 7 Perfection of Humanity In Croatia , wha t migh t almos t b e terme d a cul t o f humanit y (¿ovjeitvo) ha s developed dow n through the centuries. True humanity is understoo d a s a synthesi s o f th e bes t an d nobles t qualitie s o f th e human being . I t consist s i n a harmoniou s blending o f biologica l an d moral qualities i n th e sam e person. The greates t achievemen t o f one's life is to be the perfect man. The knigh t (vitez), whos e deed s ar e relate d i n fol k songs , typifie s ideal humanity. His physical and spiritual virtues are developed to th e utmost degree . Th e health , strength , an d beaut y o f hi s bod y fin d a n excellent an d a superio r counterpar t i n th e qualitie s o f hi s soul . Together, a perfec t bod y an d a perfec t sou l mak e hi m a perfect , integral man . The knigh t has n o vices . H e command s admiration an d respect. H e protect s th e innocen t an d fight s thei r oppressors . H e nobly defends his hono r in battle— a battl e whic h i s fought openly, o n the field of honor, and accordin g to rules. This vivid image of knightly humanity is still very much alive among the Croatia n people, especially among thos e i n Bosnia-Hercegovina . There, chivalr y i s mor e a moral concept tha n a feudal title. Besides th e knight , ther e i s anothe r magnificen t figur e i n Croatia n 7

It i s interestin g t o not e her e tha t tw o book s hav e recentl y bee n writte n b y outstanding Croatia n politica l leaders , bot h livin g i n exile . Th e title s o f thes e tw o books ar e almos t identical , bu t th e conten t o f eac h i s writte n i n a differen t spirit . Dr. Vladk o Mace k (d . 1964) , the presiden t o f the Croatia n Peasan t Party , whil e in Washington , D.C. , ha s writte n In the Struggle for Freedom (Ne w York : Rober t Speller an d Sons , 1957) . Pp . 280 . Pacifism , th e mai n trai t i n th e personalit y o f Dr. Macek , pervade s th e page s o f hi s accoun t o f th e las t sixt y year s o f Croatia n history, viewe d i n th e perspectiv e o f th e birth , growth , triumph , an d presen t survival o f the émigré s o f his politica l party . Thi s leade r o f a onc e might y politica l party amon g the Croatian s was th e decide d opponen t o f tyranny, and ye t h e firmly believed tha t i t i s bette r t o suffe r injustic e tha n t o inflic t i t upo n others . H e dismissed violenc e a s a mean s of politica l gain . Dr. Ant e Paveli c (d . 1960) , th e founde r an d leade r o f th e Ustash a Movemen t among th e Croatians , wa s o f th e vie w tha t th e injustic e an d violenc e tha t th e Croatians suffere d a t th e hand s o f th e Serb s shoul d b e retaliate d agains t b y force . He founde d th e Croatia n Liberatio n Movemen t amon g th e Croatia n émigré s afte r the las t war. Th e purpos e o f this organizatio n i s the sam e as was that o f th e Ustash a Movement, wit h th e differenc e tha t it s member s conside r th e enemie s fro m who m the Croatia n peopl e mus t b e liberate d t o b e th e Communist s wh o too k ove r i n Yugoslavia afte r Worl d Wa r I L Dr . Pavelié' s successo r i s Dr . Stjepa n Hefer , a rather moderat e an d wel l educated man . Hefer' s book , whic h reflect s current idea s and attitude s amon g th e member s o f th e C.L.M. , i s entitle d Croatian Struggle for Freedom and Statehood (Bueno s Aires, 1959) . Pp. 238 .

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folk literatur e an d song . Thi s ma n i s simpl y calle d "hero " (junak), and, a s a rule , h e i s noted fo r hi s mora l integrity , although , contrar y to th e knight , h e may have vices . Her o ma y have eithe r a n earthl y o r a heavenly origin ; in an y case , his mission is to d o the wil l of God an d of othe r heavenl y beings. H e ofte n show s consideration and humanit y toward hi s enemies . Rea l persons—suc h a s th e tragi c her o o f th e battle o n Krbavsk o Polj e (1493) , Ba n Mirk o Derencin ; Ba n Peta r Berislavic (1513-1520) ; Ba n Nikol a Subi e Zrinsk i (1542-1566) ; an d Ban Peta r Zrinsk i (1665-1670 ) an d Coun t Franj o Krst o Frankopan , both beheade d i n Wiene r Neustadt , nea r Vienna , i n 1671—hav e re mained i n th e memor y o f th e peopl e a s heroic figure s t o b e admire d forever. PRINCIPAL VIRTUE S AND VICES Love of God and Neighbor The central virtue in the Christian moral scheme to which the Croatians adhere i s love o f Go d an d o f one' s neighbor . T o Christians , Go d i s a loving Father , wh o ha s create d al l goo d things . Th e worl d i n it s beauty an d majesty , an d huma n nature, wit h it s capacit y fo r strengt h and beauty , wisdo m an d intuition , jo y an d happiness , ar e th e gift s of divin e love . I n Hi s greates t gift , Go d sen t Hi s son , Jesu s Christ , to redee m me n fro m th e slaver y o f origina l si n an d persona l sin s an d to make all men childre n o f Go d throug h grac e an d heir s o f heavenly glory—provided tha t the y cooperat e wit h th e workings o f grac e i n their souls . Thi s cooperatio n prove s itsel f principall y b y lov e o f God . But thos e who love God must als o love al l men; al l men ar e brethren , one o f another. This spirit o f universal brotherhoo d ha s inspire d man y Croatians throughout their history. Christian lov e o f neighbo r urges , i n th e firs t place , th e practic e o f almsgiving ( milostinja ) an d th e feedin g o f the poor . The destitute , th e needy, th e poor , th e prisoner—al l ar e considere d brethre n i n Christ . They shoul d no t b e discriminate d agains t o n accoun t o f religio n o r ethnic origin . A good deed don e fo r the m equal s th e sam e dee d don e for Chris t Himself . Moreover, the Churc h preache s th e Gospel , whic h relates work s o f charit y t o th e salvatio n o f one' s soul , an d sinc e charitable deed s hel p th e soul s o f th e dea d t o reac h heave n mor e easily an d mor e speedily , man y a goo d Croatia n feuda l lor d o r piou s and ric h commone r woul d leav e hi s possession s t o churche s fo r charitable purposes. Churches an d monasterie s had a great shar e in caring for the needy . In ou r ow n time , befor e th e en d o f World Wa r II , whe n th e govern -

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ment an d privat e agencie s too k ove r th e tas k o f socia l welfar e an d relief, man y religious groups , particularl y o f women—lik e th e Sister s of Merc y o f St . Vincen t D e Pau l an d th e Sister s o f th e Hol y Cross operated hospitals , home s for th e aged , orphanages , an d kitchen s fo r the poor . City governments were als o active in taking care o f the poo r and sick , even i n the distan t past . Th e city-republi c o f Dubrovnik , t o mention onl y on e exampl e here , had , i n th e eighteent h century , beside th e foundation s sponsore d b y churche s an d monasteries , cit y foundations fo r lepers , fo r helpin g variou s artisans , suc h a s car penters an d shoemakers , fo r providin g dowrie s fo r poo r girls , fo r hospitals, fo r distributin g foo d an d clothe s t o th e poor, an d fo r th e ransom o f those Ragusans who, while sailin g and tradin g o n th e seas , had falle n int o captivity . Ther e wer e n o fewe r tha n twenty-fou r foundations for this latter purpose alone.8 Love fo r one' s neighbo r i s perhap s bes t represente d amon g th e Croatians i n friendl y relationship. Friendshi p (prijateljstvo) i s highl y valued an d sough t afte r eagerly . I t i s buil t upo n th e principl e tha t human qualitie s attrac t mutua l admiratio n an d esteem . Friendshi p develops i n a mutua l communicatio n o f th e inne r conten t o f friendly feelings an d thoughts . Ther e i s n o need , however , tha t friend s shar e their inne r lif e completely . Th e innermos t par t o f thi s lif e i s neve r exposed, eve n betwee n th e closes t friends . Friend s ar e fe w an d care fully selected , an d th e loyalt y o f friends i s tested b y mutua l hel p an d sacrifice. I t i s interestin g t o not e her e tha t difference s o f opinio n i n religious, political , an d eve n cultura l matter s wil l brea k friendship s very easil y amon g th e Croatia n people . A disagreemen t i n suc h vita l matters i s neve r purel y academi c o r marginal ; it immediatel y affect s one's socia l relations , an d particularl y friendship , th e mos t delicat e of the m all. The spiri t o f lov e o f neighbor ca n b e easil y detecte d i n th e hospi tality (gostoprimstvo) tha t i s traditiona l amon g th e Croatians . Hospitality i s on e o f th e mos t conspicuou s socia l virtue s amon g th e Croatians, an d i t i s encourage d b y Christia n brotherl y love , althoug h its root s g o deepl y int o pre-Christia n Croatia n history . I t carrie s a strict dut y t o lodg e a strange r caugh t i n ba d weathe r o r i n th e dark ness o f night . A guest , whethe r h e b e a fello w countryma n o r a foreigner, i s welcome d a s thoug h h e wer e God' s persona l messenger . 8 Kosta Vojnovi c ed . Bratovstine i obrtne korporacije u republici dubrovackoj od XIII. do konca XVIII. vijeka, 2 vols . Monumento, histórico—iuridica Slavorum Meridionalium (Zagreb : Yugosla v Academy , 1899-1900) I , 173 .

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Guests ar e traditionall y wel l fe d an d sheltered , an d eve n presente d with gift s t o tak e home . For centuries , Catholi c Croatians accepted refugee s and immigrants from variou s part s o f th e Balka n Peninsula , peopl e wh o ha d fle d before th e Turk s o r wh o were, durin g th e period s o f Turkis h dominion, settle d b y th e Turk s themselves i n th e Croatia n lands . Th e Croatians ha d ofte n bee n require d t o fle e fro m th e Turk s an d thu s they understoo d th e fat e o f th e banished . Th e newcomer s belonge d to man y races, bu t wer e chiefl y o f on e religion—th e Orthodox . Othe r groups tha t hav e com e t o Croatia , thoug h i n smalle r number s tha n the Orthodox , have found a n amicable reception i n their new country . Germans, Slovenes , Czechs , an d Slovak s hav e fel t s o muc h a t hom e in Croati a tha t i n spit e o f having thei r ow n school s an d pres s man y have bee n assimilate d an d hav e becom e full-fledge d Croatian s with out coercion . These group s have give n the natio n a long serie s o f outstanding contributor s t o culture . I n recen t generation s alone , on e might mentio n bishop s lik e Josi p J . Strossmayer , Antun Bauer , Josi p Stadler, an d Antu n Mahnic ; universit y professor s suc h a s Mila n Sufflay, Aleksanda r Gahs, and Ljudmi l Hauptmann ; musicians such a s Vatroslav Lisinski , Fran Lhotka , an d Bori s Papandopulo; an d writer s like Stanko Vraz and August Senoa. The spiri t o f brotherhood (bratstvo) ha s le d Croatian s t o th e ide a of unitin g th e Sout h Slavi c nations. Th e Germa n nationa l awakenin g of th e nineteent h centur y foun d a receptive spiri t i n Croatia . Th e native nobility , learne d clergy , an d othe r literat e me n wer e th e firs t to conceive and advocat e the unio n of all South Slavic nations into one single commonwealth. The leadin g apostle of this idea wa s the Roman Catholic pries t an d late r bishop , Josi p J . Strossmaye r (1815-1905) . His notio n o f suc h a unio n wa s t o mak e Croati a a cultura l cente r o f the Balka n Peninsul a fro m which th e radiatio n o f th e Christia n civilization an d th e unio n o f tw o Christia n Churches , th e Roma n Catholic an d Easter n Orthodox , coul d b e effected . Thi s highl y idealistic conceptio n o f a Yugosla v commonwealt h di d no t spread , however, amon g the othe r Sout h Slavic nations. In spit e o f a lac k o f understandin g o n th e par t o f th e Croatia n Orthodox, wh o side d mor e an d mor e wit h th e Serbs , th e ide a o f a Yugoslav commonwealt h encompassing Croatia , Serbia , Slovenia , an d other Sout h Slavi c peoples continue d t o gri p th e imaginatio n o f th e best Croatia n minds . On th e ev e of the Firs t Worl d War , an d durin g that war , som e prominen t Croatians , suc h a s th e politician s Ant e

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Trumbic an d Fran o Supilo , th e artis t Iva n Mestrovic, 10 an d intel lectuals lik e Hinko Hinkovic and Josi p Jedlovski managed t o emigrat e from Austria-Hungar y an d t o reac h Britain , France , an d America . In 191 5 thes e me n founde d th e Yugosla v Committee i n London , a n organization whic h advocate d th e unio n o f al l Sout h Slavi c people s after th e war . The y foun d suppor t i n al l o f the Allie d an d associate d countries (excep t Italy) , bu t the y wer e finance d exclusivel y b y th e Croatian emigrants o f the America n hemisphere, particularl y b y thos e of th e Republi c o f Chile . Becaus e o f tw o differen t conception s o f th e Yugoslav Commonwealth—th e Croatia n conceptio n o f a federatio n o f free an d equa l peoples , an d th e Serbia n vie w o f a politica l an d economic expansio n tha t woul d mak e Yugoslavi a int o a n enlarge d Serbia—the Yugoslav Commonwealth never really worked in practice.11 Yugoslavia collapse d lik e a hous e o f card s i n 194 1 unde r th e attac k of Hitler' s armies . During th e las t wa r th e mos t outstandin g Croatia n advocat e o f universal brotherhood—throug h hi s sermon s in Zagreb' s cathedra l an d his actio n o f givin g protectio n t o Jews , Orthodox , an d politicall y persecuted Catholics—wa s lat e Aloysiu s Cardina l Stepina c (1898 1960). Durin g th e war , whe n th e Germa n soldier s wer e patrollin g the street s o f Zagreb , Archbisho p Stepina c preache d man y famou s sermons condemnin g th e racia l politic s promote d b y Nazism . Radi o London an d America n an d Russia n station s diffuse d thes e sermon s on many occasions. Typical o f the conten t o f these importan t talk s ar e the followin g inspirin g words , delivere d o n Octobe r 25 , 1942 , th e Feast of Christ th e King , in the Cathedra l o f Zagreb: . . . All nations and all races, as reflected i n the worl d today , have the right to lead a lif e worth y o f men an d t o b e treate d wit h th e dignit y with which 9 Ante Smit h Pavelic , Dr. Ante Trumbic—Problemi hrvatsko-srpskih odnosa / Dr. Ant e Trumbic—Problem s o f Croatian-Serbia n Relations (München , 1959) . Pp . xvi + 337 . Th e autho r expertly describes the leadin g role o f Dr . Trumbi c i n th e Yugoslav Committee during World War I . 10 Ivan Mestrovic , Uspomene na politicke ljude i dogodjaje I Memoir s of Political Men an d Event s (Bueno s Aires , 1961) . Pp . 417 . Chapte r 2 o f this book treats th e part Mestrovic had i n the Yugosla v Committee. "P. D. Ostovic, The Truth About Yugoslavia (Ne w York: Ro y Publishers, 1952) , 54, 76 . I t i s interesting to not e tha t whil e most o f th e Croatia n founder s o f Yugo slavia, throug h the Yugosla v Committe e and otherwise, have been disappointe d i n both th e Roya l an d Communis t Yugoslavias , an d hav e give n u p th e ide a o f th e Yugoslav commonwealth , Mr. Ostovic , himsel f a Croatia n an d a participan t i n th e Yugoslav Committee , has kep t hi s politica l fait h i n Yugoslavis m agains t all odds . But h e honestl y points out i n hi s wor k th e difficultie s stemmin g from th e politica l men, non-Croatians , who wer e responsibl e fo r th e failur e o f bot h Yugoslavia s t o bring abou t a jus t solutio n t o th e proble m o f th e fiv e mai n an d thre e mino r nationalities which make up the nation.

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one treat s a man . Al l o f them withou t exception , whethe r the y belon g t o the rac e o f Gypsie s o r t o another , whethe r the y ar e Negroe s o r civilize d Europeans, whethe r the y ar e deteste d Jew s or proud Aryans , have th e sam e right t o say, "Ou r Father , who art in heaven" (Matt . 6:9). . . . That i s why the Catholi c Churc h ha s alway s condemned , an d condemn s toda y a s well , every injustic e an d ever y violenc e committe d i n th e nam e o f th e theorie s of class , race , o r nationality. . . . One cannot extinguis h from th e fac e o f the earth Gypsies or Jews because on e considers them inferior races.12

Shortcomings The nobles t for m o f lov e o f neighbo r i s tha t o f behavin g towar d a n enemy a s on e woul d toward one' s ow n brother. Thi s i s charit y i n th e highest degree , an d i t i s no t easil y achieve d b y individuals , an d seldom by nations. Croatians have the usual shortcomings with respec t to this form o f charity. They look upon a n enemy not a s a brother, bu t simply a s a n evildoer , a n aggressor , a ma n "withou t a soul. " The y possess not onl y a spirit o f self-defense, whic h i s justifiable an d under standable, bu t the y als o hav e a convictio n tha t th e enem y mus t b e destroyed. The la w o f vengeance (osveta) i s a n ancien t custom : i n th e distan t past i n Croatia , i t ofte n happene d tha t whe n a membe r o f a join t family (zadruga) o r cla n wa s kille d b y a n enemy , th e survivin g re latives swor e revenge upo n the kille r and hi s family. Bloo d vengeanc e was a sacre d dut y o f al l th e member s o f closel y unite d familie s an d clans. Christianit y ha s overcom e thi s custom , bu t th e spiri t o f ven geance ha s not , however , disappeare d altogether . One of the reason s why many gifted an d resourcefu l Croatian s have not foun d recognitio n amon g thei r peopl e i s th e existenc e o f a pre valent an d deep-seate d envy , ofte n referre d t o a s "Croatia n envy " (jal). Wha t i s th e motivatio n o f thi s collectiv e vice ? I s i t pride , o r vainglory, whic h induce s peopl e t o b e afrai d o f bein g overshadowe d by others ' goo d qualities ? O r perhap s discomfor t in th e presenc e o f persons wh o ar e differen t fro m others ? Or i s it a feelin g o f inferiorit y caused b y encounterin g superio r individuals ? Eac h o f thes e factor s may pla y a n influentia l part i n th e creatio n o f enviou s feelings . Al l of the m together , however , d o no t yiel d a satisfactor y answer t o th e question of the caus e o f "Croatian envy. " 12 Richard Pattee , The Case of Cardinal Aloysius Stepinac (Milwaukee : Th e Bruce Publishin g Company , 1953) , 279 . This i s b y fa r th e bes t wor k o n th e tria l of Archbisho p Stepina c hel d fro m Septembe r 3 0 t o Octobe r 11 , 1946 . Th e boo k contains abundan t documentar y materia l supportin g th e innocenc e o f th e accuse d prelate. We hav e reviewed this book i n th e Journal of Croatian Studies, II ( 1961). Acknowledgment i s mad e her e t o th e Bruc e Publishin g Compan y fo r thei r kin d permission to quote from Professo r Pattee' s book,

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It seem s that a n explanatio n o f this trait ca n be foun d i n a nationa l psychology tha t ha s resulte d fro m lon g centurie s o f har d fightin g against man y aggressors . Th e Croatia n peopl e ar e strongl y self-pro tective an d tenacious , an d t o som e exten t nationally suspiciou s an d sensitive t o politica l dangers . Croatia n env y seem s t o b e a hidde n fear o f potential enemies . Superior individuals appea r t o th e Croatian s to b e especiall y susceptible—becaus e o f thei r greate r power s an d gifts—of wantin g t o dominat e others ; suc h peopl e are , then , potentia l enemies. Th e destructio n o f suc h "enemies " follow s th e regula r patterns o f env y in action : gossip , defamation , hatred o f th e enemy' s success, jo y i n hi s failure , abandonmen t i n hi s misery . It i s ofte n though t tha t anothe r fault , discor d (nesloga), i s th e typical vic e amon g Croatians . Self-consciou s and self-reliant , a gifte d observer an d thinker , critica l o f others , an d ofte n dissatisfie d wit h himself, th e Croatia n i s to o rugge d a n individualis t t o joi n an y kin d of organize d activity . H e i s unprepare d an d undiscipline d t o agre e upon th e basi c aim s an d principle s o f a particula r organization , an d yet h e i s very imaginativ e an d inventiv e concernin g ends , ideals , an d distant goals , regardles s o f an y organize d practica l workin g towar d them. On e ma y sa y tha t th e Croatia n i s to o attache d t o distan t an d lofty goal s t o b e bus y abou t th e particula r mean s leadin g t o them . He ofte n lack s a realisti c approac h t o life ; h e doe s no t kno w ho w t o plan t o reac h a particula r goa l b y usin g th e mean s availabl e her e and now. The emphasi s o n individua l self-sufficienc y tha t characterize s th e Croatian ha s far-reachin g socia l consequences . Conflict s withi n th e family, village , an d tow n ar e ver y frequent . Th e natio n i s no t ye t blended int o on e fram e o f mind ; ther e ar e a s man y regiona l type s as ther e ar e majo r province s o f Croatia . A fe w o f thes e migh t b e mentioned, togethe r wit h thei r genera l characteristics . Th e Dalmatia n is a n extrovert , quick t o react , quic k t o understan d peopl e an d prob lems. Th e Bosnia n tends t o b e proud , manly , choleric , an d dignified . The Slavonia n is often a diligent worke r who react s slowly an d judge s slowly.13 I t i s tru e tha t som e unit y exist s i n language , nationa l con sciousness, patriotism, a strong demand for political independence, an d the attachmen t to the Western civilization—bu t this unity is less secure in matter s o f concret e cooperatio n fo r th e attainmen t o f political , economic, and cultura l goals. As a rule, on e may sa y that th e achieve 13

Vladimir Dvornikovió , Karakterologija Jugoslovena I Characterolog y o f th e Yugoslavs (Belgrade , 1939) . Thi s wor k contain s usefu l materia l o n th e psycho logical an d ethica l personalitie s o f the variou s nationalitie s i n Yugoslavia .

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ment o f unit y an d cooperatio n betwee n differen t regions , politica l parties, an d cultura l organization s i s ordinaril y ver y difficult , unles s all are equally threatene d b y some common danger, an d thi s i s indee d the situatio n wit h regar d t o th e Croatia n people . Dominated b y foreig n power s for too many centuries, th e Croatian s have develope d a rathe r negativ e attitud e towar d an y politica l authority. Thi s doe s no t mea n tha t the y rejec t leader s i n th e politica l or an y othe r sphere ; o n the contrary , the y experienc e a rea l nee d t o be led . Bu t instea d o f givin g t o thei r leader s organize d support , the y give the m thei r lov e an d faith . Leader s ar e accepte d o n emotiona l grounds, becaus e o f thei r persona l charm , thei r selfles s servic e t o national ideal s an d t o thei r identificatio n wit h th e people' s dreams . They ar e expecte d t o perfor m wonderfu l deed s an d t o achiev e goal s literally b y themselves ; the y ar e looke d upo n b y thei r neighbor s a s heroes wh o posses s extraordinar y o r eve n superhuma n powers . Another vic e oppose d t o brotherl y lov e i s religiou s intoleranc e ( nesnoSljivost ) . Interfait h conflict s ar e likel y t o aris e i n a pluralisti c society. Sinc e i t i s not possibl e fo r al l religion s t o b e true , an d sinc e every ma n think s his ow n religio n i s th e tru e one , i t i s a n eas y ste p to th e conclusio n tha t othe r faiths , bein g wrong , hav e n o righ t t o exist. Besides , ever y religio n i s expansiv e i n it s natur e an d seek s ne w adherents i n orde r t o sho w them th e wa y o f salvation. As long a s thi s is don e peacefully , usin g persuasio n an d goo d example , religiou s intolerance i s no t likel y t o b e aroused ; bu t quarreling , fighting , an d the us e o f power an d coercio n i n inter-religious relations represent th e type o f religious intoleranc e t o whic h w e refer . Catholics, Moslems , an d Orthodo x i n Croati a hav e hel d firml y t o their ow n religion s an d hav e becom e extremel y sensitiv e abou t an y interference fro m th e religion s o f thei r countrymen ; the y hav e ofte n refused t o hav e an y connection s wit h th e member s o f anothe r faith , even i n civi c life. True , al l agree tha t th e us e of force i s a n unsuitabl e method o f spreadin g religio n an d tha t fait h canno t an d mus t no t b e forced upo n anyone , tha t i t i s a gif t fro m Go d whic h mus t b e freel y accepted. Ye t i n spit e o f this , histor y reveal s u s man y example s o f misdirected zeal , b y whic h th e believer s o f on e fait h force d thei r religion on others. The struggle s betwee n Croatian s o f the Catholi c fait h an d thos e of the Mosle m faith laste d for four centuries . Bot h groups have remaine d faithful an d fir m i n thei r religions . Bosnia n Moslems, as a n elit e van guard o f the Turkish Empire, invaded th e last remnants of the Croatia n Catholic territor y fro m th e fifteent h t o th e nineteent h centur y i n a n

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attempt t o includ e al l o f Croati a i n th e Mosle m world . Suc h zea l and missionar y fervor, suc h fidelity to Islam , ha s no t bee n see n sinc e medieval times. Nonetheless, Croatians o f the Catholi c belie f defende d every inch of their land staunchly, fought an d die d "fo r the honorabl e cross and their precious freedom. " No wonder that the many memories of th e pas t ar e stil l vivi d enoug h t o fomen t distrus t an d mutua l sus picions amon g the Croatia n people . The Orthodo x who fle d fro m th e Turks , o r who wer e brough t int o Croatia b y the Turks , lived i n peace wit h th e olde r nativ e inhabitant s until the las t century . The n activ e propagand a fro m Belgrad e was started amon g them , an d i t wa s sai d tha t the y wer e Serb s becaus e they share d th e sam e religion a s the resident s o f Serbia ; thei r loyalty , therefore, wa s no t t o thei r nativ e lan d o f Croatia , bu t t o Serbi a (where religion an d natio n hav e bee n identified , t o th e detrimen t o f the former) . Th e propaganda wa s successful. Th e Orthodox sided first with Khue n Hedervary , th e ba n i n Zagre b wh o wa s force d o n th e Croatians b y th e Hungarian s i n th e year s 1883-1903 . Firs t th e Hungarians and then th e Austrians heaped privilege s o n the Orthodox. When th e ne w stat e o f Serbs , Croatians , an d Slovene s cam e int o existence i n 1918 , an d th e Serb s began t o mak e out o f i t a n enlarge d or Greate r Serbia , the y found , ami d growin g Croatia n opposition , loyal helper s amon g the Orthodox . Durin g th e year s o f th e las t war , when th e Croatians established thei r ow n stat e o n th e ruin s o f Yugo slavia, th e Orthodo x professe d thei r loyalt y t o th e exile d Yugosla v government in London. Thus they joined the ranks of Serbian Chetniks, under th e leadershi p o f General Draz a Mihajlovic , an d fough t Catholics an d Moslem s enliste d i n th e rank s o f th e arme d force s o f thei r new state, i n the Domobra n arm y and th e Ustash a Militia. The tim e fo r blood y reveng e seeme d t o bot h side s t o hav e arrive d then an d there . Th e civi l war , inspire d b y politica l an d religiou s dif ferences, brok e ou t i n al l it s brutality . Hat e blinde d bot h sides . Atrocities were perpetrated dail y by each side; the Chetniks specialized in exterminatin g the Mosle m and Catholi c population , an d th e Ustashas retaliated agains t the Orthodo x population. I n addition , th e Com munist Tito, the leade r o f a small group of Partisans, advanced quickly when th e Allie s endorse d hi s cause , late i n 1943 . Tit o abl y exploite d the blood y conflict s amon g the thre e religion s an d betwee n th e tw o political plan s (th e Croatia n an d th e Yugoslavian ) i n orde r t o insur e a ful l post-wa r victor y fo r hi s Communis t Party. Meanwhile , Germa n and Italia n troop s sided wit h on e o r anothe r o f th e thre e contenders, in th e hop e tha t th e mutua l bleedin g woul d hel p thei r caus e i n th e

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Balkans. Hel l brok e loos e ove r Croatia ; deat h an d th e destructio n of property , roads , an d railroad s sprea d acros s th e mountains , plains , and coasta l areas . Th e victor y o f Tit o i n 194 5 impose d silenc e o n al l other Yugoslavia n group s an d raise d th e Communis t caus e abov e all othe r interest s an d struggles . Sinc e then , religio n ha s bee n force d to limi t itsel f t o ritua l observance , an d th e desir e fo r politica l in dependence ha s bee n ruthlessl y suppressed . A few word s on the Reformatio n i n Croati a ar e perhap s appropriat e here. Whe n th e teaching s o f Joh n Calvi n sprea d throug h Hungar y and started t o gai n a foothol d i n Croatia , th e Croatian s soo n girde d themselves t o sto p an y penetratio n b y thes e ne w doctrines . Th e Croatian Die t formulate d a la w i n 156 7 tha t "everyon e wh o leave s the Catholic religio n be proscribed, an d that he shoul d not b e allowe d to posses s an y persona l o r rea l estates , t o occup y an y position, o r t o have an y decoration i n the kingdo m of Croatia an d Slavonia." 14 Whe n the Hungarian s tried to sprea d Calvinis m in Croati a by passin g a law at th e Die t i n Pressbur g (Bratislava ) i n 1597 , th e Croatia n Ba n Iva n Draskovic ( 1596-1608 ) stoo d adaman t agains t suc h a n intrusion . H e declared tha t h e woul d rathe r separat e th e whol e o f hi s real m (Croatia an d Slavonia ) fro m th e unio n wit h th e Hungaria n crow n than let into Croatia, while he was its ban, that plague , deadly to souls, and mos t fata l t o th e country. 15 I n 1609 , Ba n Tom a Erded i Baka c unsheathed hi s swor d befor e th e Hungaria n an d Croatia n repre sentatives i n th e Die t a t Pressburg , an d sai d abou t Calvinism : "Wit h this sword—i f i t canno t b e don e otherwise—w e shal l defen d ourselve s against tha t plague . W e hav e thre e river s th e Drava , Sav a an d Kupa. We shal l hav e ou r ne w guest s drin k on e o f them." 16 The Croatia n Diet , i n a n effor t t o kee p ou t th e Calvinis t bran d o f Christianity—already legall y accepted i n Hungary—repeatedl y state d in subsequen t decree s a t th e beginnin g o f th e seventeent h centur y that i t recognize d onl y th e Roma n Catholi c religio n i n Croati a an d Slavonia, an d ordere d heretic s (Calvinists ) expelle d fro m it s lands . 14

Kocijanió, Pape i hrvatski narod, 56. Georgius Rattkay , Memoria regum et banorum regnarum Dalmatiae, Croatiae et Sclavoniae inchoata ab origine sua, et usque ad presentem annum MDCLII deducta. Vienna , 1652 . W e hav e use d th e Viennes e editio n o f 1772 . Th e tex t i s found o n pag e 169 : " . . . s e mall e cu m univers o Regn o a b union e Hungarica e Coronae separari , quar n mortifera m illa m animaru m pestem , a c funestissima m Reipublicae labe m su b Banat u suo admissam aut concessa m videre. " 10 Rattkay, Memoria regum, 148-9. The tex t reads as follows: "hoc , inquit , ferro , si alite r fieri non poterit , pestem ista m a nobi s eliminabimus , tresque nobi s adsun t fluvii Dravus , Savus , e t Colapis , e quibu s unu m novi s hospitibu s sorbendu m dabimus." 15

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This specia l la w o f the Croatia n Diet , differen t fro m an d oppose d t o that o f the Pressbur g Diet, wa s ratified b y Kin g Rudolph o f Hapsbur g (1576-1608) o n Januar y 16 , 1608, and b y hi s successo r Matthia s I I (1608-1619) o n Decembe r 6 , 1608. 17 Thos e times , however , ar e gon e and forgotten . Once the Protestant s finally came to Croati a the y live d there undisturbed . Th e Croatian s sa w clearl y tha t thei r countr y ha d become a lan d o f man y creed s an d tha t a spiri t o f lov e i s th e mos t suitable on e t o inspir e goo d mutua l relation s amon g Croatian s o f different faiths . Sense of Justice Another deep-seate d ethica l characteristi c o f th e Croatia n peopl e i s its sens e o f justic e (pravda). Thi s smal l nation , s o ofte n endangere d by grea t an d powerfu l neighbor s desirou s of satisfyin g their imperial istic longing s i n Croatia , whette d it s sens e o f justice . Th e Croatian s themselves hav e no t claime d neighborin g territories , bu t the y hav e fiercely defende d thei r ow n lan d agains t aggressiv e neighbors . Throughout thei r histor y the y hav e faithfull y followe d th e simpl e and basic law of justice : to each, his own. This sam e sens e o f justice i s foun d amon g th e peopl e wit h regar d to thei r dealing s i n interna l affairs . The y hav e ofte n mad e law s t o secure an d promot e justice . Croatia n law s wer e firs t propose d i n assemblies, where clergy , noblemen , an d commoner s would mee t an d decide o n particula r lega l principle s an d measures . Example s o f collections of laws made in this way are the Methodos i n the ninth century , ratified a t Duvn o Polje i n Bosni a in 753; 18 th e Vinodol Code (Zakon Vinodolski, 1280) 19; an d th e Poljica Statute (1460). 20 These , an d 17 Ferdo Sisi c (éd.) , Monument o spectantía hístoríam Slavorum meridianalium. Vol. XL I (Acta comüialia regni Croatiae Dalmatiae Slavoniae. Vol . IV: 157 8 t o 1608). Th e supplemen t fo r th e year s 1573-160 5 i s als o foun d i n thi s volum e (Zagreb: Yugosla v Academy, 1917) . Pp . xxi i + 603 . The tex t o f th e la w o f th e Croatian Die t o f Jul y 5 , 1604 , stating it s wis h t o uphol d th e Roma n Catholi c religion t o th e exclusio n o f Calvinis t infiltration , i s foun d o n page s 449-450 . Th e ratification b y Kin g Rudolp h o f Hapsbur g i s foun d o n pag e 496 . The ratificatio n of th e sam e law by Kin g Matthia s II i s contained i n vol. V, 9-10 o f Acta comitialia. 18 Dominik Mandic , "Hrvatsk i Sabo r n a Duvanjsko m Polj u godin e 753 " / Croa tian Die t o n Duvno Polje in the Yea r 753, Hrvatska Revija I (Bueno s Aires , 1957) , 5-40. Se e the discussio n o n Methodos, p . 34 . Se e als o page s 367-36 9 i n Mandic , "Nenapisano poglavlj e hrvatsk e pismenosti " / Unwritte n Chapte r o n Croatia n Letters, Hrvatska Revija I V (1961) . 19 The tex t o f th e Vinodol Code ha s bee n criticall y edite d b y R . Strohal , i n M-jesecnik Pravnickog Drustva u Zagrebu, 1912 . We hav e use d a reprin t fro m thi s monthly, entitle d "Zako n Vinodolski—Uvod , Teks t i Tumac" / Th e Vinodol CodeIntroduction, Text, and Commentary. 20 The text o f the Poljica Statute wa s publishe d i n Monumenta Historico-iuridica

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many othe r code s which hav e bee n preserved , poin t t o th e hig h lega l consciousness o f thei r composers . The cod e o f Vinodol , fo r instance , expresses i n its fifth, sixth, and sevent h section s a dee p understandin g of humanit y i n th e wa y i t solve s question s concernin g publi c orde r and th e securit y of property; ther e ar e well-establishe d fine s fo r steal ing another' s property , bu t ther e i s n o capita l punishmen t attache d to an y crime . Onl y crime s agains t th e princ e an d hi s cour t wer e punishable b y deat h i f th e princ e s o deemed . Feuda l la w i n feuda l times! After th e fourteent h century, the Croatia n peopl e mad e thei r law s through thei r representatives , th e clergy , nobility, an d guil d delegate s in the Diet. Once a law had been made and promulgated i n their Diet , it ha d a bindin g forc e o n all—lawmaker s an d commo n people alike . The rulin g grou p o f citizen s ha d t o fulfil l thei r well-define d dutie s toward th e people , jus t a s th e peopl e ha d t o perfor m thei r dutie s towards th e government . When th e king , the emperor , o r the nobilit y did no t ac t i n accordanc e wit h justice , th e peopl e becam e restles s and read y to revolt. From th e en d o f th e fifteent h century , th e Croatia n peasant s con tinually revolte d agains t th e feuda l imposition s of their landlord s an d sought th e justic e an d libert y establishe d i n pre-feuda l days . Thi s demand fo r th e "Ol d Justice " (Stare pravice) wen t o n fo r man y centuries an d culminate d i n 1753 , whe n a norther n Croatia n peasan t from Stubica , Matij a Gubec , le d th e mos t famou s o f thes e revolts . Although the revol t did not succee d and its leader was killed , Gube c remains i n Croatia n histor y a s a symbo l o f th e struggl e agains t in justice. Dr. Ant e Starcevic felt thi s dee p sens e of justice in his people when , in th e nineteent h century , h e founde d th e Part y o f Right ; it s mai n purpose wa s the vindicatio n o f the righ t o f the Croatia n peopl e t o b e an autonomou s politica l entit y i n th e Austro-Hungaria n Empire . Similarly, i n th e twentiet h century , th e larges t politica l part y amon g Croatians betwee n th e tw o worl d wars, the "Croatia n Peasan t Party, " took a s th e mott o o f it s lega l struggle : "Fo r Justic e an d Humanity. " This part y wa s founde d i n 190 4 b y th e brother s Ant e an d Stjepa n Radie. Slavorum meridionalium, Vol . IV : Statuta lingua croatica conscripta (Zagreb : Yugoslav Academy, 1890). Pp. Ixxxi i + 265 . I n thi s volum e are foun d th e statute s of Vinodol , Poljica, Vrban , th e islan d o f Krk , and th e town s o f Kastav, Veprinac, and Trsat . Th e materia l has been edite d b y Dr . Franj o Racki , Dr . Vatrosla v Jagic , and Dr . Ivo Crncic.

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Harmony, Order, Peace Perhaps th e mos t significan t ethica l trai t amon g Croatian s i s thei r striving for harmony (sklad), orde r (red), an d peace (mir). Throughout th e lon g centurie s o f thei r history , th e Croatian s hav e show n reverence fo r the blessings o f order an d peace. This should b e credite d to th e fac t tha t the y entere d th e circl e o f wester n Europea n nation s very early in their histor y through thei r christenin g i n the sevent h an d eighth centuries ; thi s cultura l an d religiou s affiliatio n ha s deepl y em bedded int o thei r mind s Greek harmony , Roman order, an d Christia n peace. Christianit y tame d th e Croatian s fro m th e daw n o f thei r history o n th e shore s o f th e Adriati c Sea . Not onl y di d Christianit y start thei r cultura l history , bu t als o i t lai d th e foundatio n fo r thei r ethical civilizatio n an d thei r assimilatio n t o th e West . The traged y o f Croatia's longing for peace is written i n many bloody wars impose d o n th e natio n throughou t it s history . Th e Croatians ' own fighting has bee n defensive ; t o them , wa r i s a grea t disaste r an d causes only a loss of material and spiritual values. I t shoul d b e avoide d at al l cos t an d ma y b e resorte d t o onl y whe n necessar y t o repe l aggression. Althoug h smal l i n area , th e republics o f Dubrovni k an d Poljica wer e prototype s o f a harmonious , a n orderly , an d a peacefu l world. Th e Statute of Poljica, alread y mentioned , i s a lega l documen t showing a democratic functioning of the rulin g group i n their relation s with commoners , serfs, foreigners , an d slaves . Iva n Gunduli c (1589 1638) presente d Dubrovnik's vie w of the world in his drama Dubravka, in whic h Dubrovnik' s idea l wa s reveale d i n it s socia l an d spiritua l harmony,21 order, and peace. Freedom Another ethica l valu e treasured b y th e Croatian s i s freedom (sloboda), which the y hav e alway s sought , thoug h neve r a t th e expens e o f th e freedom o f othe r nations . Th e Croatian s hav e constantl y trie d t o harmonize their desir e an d struggl e for liberty wit h ethica l principles . Freedom t o the m i s simpl y th e necessar y atmospher e i n whic h bot h national and individual personalities can be fully an d freel y developed . The Croatian s hav e als o wanted freedo m for othe r nation s an d neve r have becom e oppressors ; the y hav e sympathize d wit h al l nation s i n 21 It is interesting to note that the Croatia n word skladan (courteous ) ha s a richer meaning in the usage of Dubrovnik than elsewhere. In Dubrovni k it means not only "courteous," bu t als o "th e whol e harmoniou s and balance d personality. " Rjecnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika / Dictionar y o f th e Croatia n o r Serbia n Languag e (Zagreb: Yugosla v Academy, 1880-1958). See the entr y skladan, under D.

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their struggl e fo r freedo m an d independence . Ukrainian , Polish , Slovak, an d Macedonia n patriot s ar e abl e t o coun t man y friend s among th e Croatians . Croatian repugnance to foreign domination is well known . For many centuries al l the politica l powers of Byzantium, Venice, Vienna, Budapest, an d Belgrad e foun d th e subduin g o f th e Croatian s a n excep tionally difficul t task . The Croatian s have spen t muc h o f thei r histor y offering stubbor n resistanc e t o foreig n power s wh o attempte d t o tak e away thei r nationa l culture an d t o impos e a n alie n language , eve n a n alien national consciousness upon them. The Italianization , Germanization, Magyarization , an d Serbizatio n o f Croati a ha s succeede d t o a very mino r extent ; th e Croatian s hav e survive d al l o f th e trial s an d ordeals receive d a t th e hand s o f foreig n powers . Fo r thi s the y hav e paid a hig h pric e i n bloo d an d sorrow , however . Freedom is apt t o be full y appreciate d onl y when i t i s onc e o r eve n often lost , an d the n won bac k with difficulty . Thi s i s the histor y o f th e Croatians, a histor y o f tear s i n Croatia n home s an d o n battlefields all fo r freedom . "Bette r t o dro p int o th e grav e tha n t o becom e a slave" i s a popula r fol k sayin g o f theirs. 22 T o th e Croatian s freedo m is second onl y to their religion . Thu s thi s mott o in thei r centuries-lon g struggle wit h th e Turks : "Fo r th e venerabl e cros s an d preciou s freedom."23 The fre e Republi c o f Dubrovnik possessed a ful l appreciatio n o f its freedom. O n th e whit e fla g o f thi s republic , whic h saile d o n man y seas fro m th e sixteent h t o th e nineteent h centuries , th e Lati n wor d for freedom , libertas, was inscribed. Above the entranc e t o th e fortress Lovrijenac, whic h wa s use d t o defen d the cit y o f Dubrovnik fro m th e sea, ther e is stil l a Lati n inscriptio n whic h reads : Non bene pro toto libertas venditur auro (Freedo m shoul d no t b e sol d fo r al l th e gol d [in the world]) . The first hymn to libert y i n Europea n literatur e wa s composed i n Dubrovnik. 24 Ivan Gundulic , at th e en d o f his Dubravka, enthusiastically praises freedom i n these terms : O beautiful , O precious , O swee t liberty ; Gift i n which the Lor d gave us all riches; You are the tru e cause o f all our glory ; You ar e the splendo r of this Dubrava.25 22

In Croatian: Bolje pasti u grab, negó btti rob! In Croatian: Za krst casni i slobodu zlatnu! 24 Josip Horvat , Kultura Hrvata kroz 1.000 godina / A Thousand Years o f Croa tian Cultur e (Zagreb, 1939), 363 . 25 Dubrava is the poeti c name for the the n city-republi c of Dubrovnik (Ragusa) . 23

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All silver, all gold, all human lives Cannot pay for your pure beauty!26

Work and Recreation The Croatia n feels tha t al l honest work (rad) i s worthy o f respect. H e develops justifiabl e pride, strength , an d self-confidenc e i n workin g for his family and regard s laziness as a dishonorable wa y o f life. A s a rule, he ha s t o wor k hard t o gai n th e necessitie s o f life . Nevertheless , wit h the exceptio n o f the populatio n i n Slavoni a an d Uppe r Croatia , wor k is no t generall y looke d upo n a s a n all-obligin g duty , bu t ofte n rathe r as something of a necessary evil. It is too hard in the fields, too distasteful i n the factory , and to o monotonous in the office . Man y Croatians d o not seem t o realize tha t th e raisin g of economic standards i n their ow n lives depend s primaril y upon th e rationa l divisio n o f tasks amon g th e people wh o mus t d o thei r par t o f the wor k effectively . Th e Croatian s are, however, rightly resentful when forced labor is imposed upon the m in order to achieve common goals. It i s interesting t o poin t her e t o a n attitud e manifeste d b y man y of the Croatia n intelligentsi a towar d manua l work . I n a recen t boo k o n Poland thi s attitud e wa s describe d wit h regar d t o th e Polis h intelli gentsia. Becaus e o f the simila r lin e o f thought o f these tw o group s o n this point , th e followin g excerpt fro m thi s volume , Poland: Its People, Its Society, Its Culture, is relevant. One might justifiabl y substitut e th e phrase "ol d Croatia n nobility " fo r "ol d Polis h nobility" : Among th e intelligentsi a ther e i s a tendency t o loo k dow n o n an y kin d of physical labor. The typ e of work whic h is most value d i s that which involve s intellectual activity . A shar p distinctio n i s mad e betwee n th e "lif e o f th e spirit" and th e "gra y life " o f everyda y existence . Havin g absorbe d man y o f the trait s an d attitude s o f the ol d Polis h nobility , th e szhlackta, th e intelli gentsia tend t o vie w themselve s a s th e "aristocrat s o f though t an d spirit" . Learning an d educatio n ar e viewe d a s end s i n themselves . T o hav e broa d intellectual interest s i s a mar k o f "culture " an d sophistication , bu t littl e emphasis i s place d o n th e practica l us e o f one' s knowledge , despit e th e government's effort t o popularize vocational training.27 28 In Croatian : O lijepa, o draga, o slatk a slobodo , / da r u ko m sv a blaga visnj i nam Bog je do, / uzroc e istini od nase sv e slave, / ures u jedin i o d ove Dubrave, / sva srebra , sv a zlata, sv i ljucki zivot i / n e mog u bi t plat a tvo j cisto j Ijepoti l Stari pisci hrvatski I Ancien t Croatia n Writer s (Djela Gfiva Frana Gundulica I Work s of Gjiv o Franj o Gundulic , Boo k 9) . Thir d edition . Edite d b y Djur o Kôrble r an d revised b y Mila n Resetar. (Zagreb : Yugosla v Academy, 1938) , 318 . 27 Clifford R . Barnett , Poland: Its People, Its Society, Its Culture (Ne w York : Grove Press , Inc. , 1958) , 406 . Acknowledgmen t is made t o th e autho r an d t o th e original publishe r o f thi s book , Huma n Relation s Are a Files , Inc. , fo r grantin g permission to quote from thi s book.

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This tren d o f hig h estee m fo r th e intellectua l a t th e expens e o f vocational work has resulted from a type of education which was highly valued i n Croatia betwee n th e worl d wars. The humanitie s have bee n decidedly more value d tha n vocationa l training b y th e smal l fragment of populatio n geare d t o highe r education . Th e humanities—law , philosophy, th e communicatio n arts, science , history , an d geography train students first to think and judge critically, the n t o plan a n action , but d o not particularly teach student s how to carry out this plan. Ideas —original o r common , great o r small—ar e hel d i n muc h mor e estee m than their application t o life. The Croatian s enjo y lif e i n general an d recreation i n particular. Th e folksong accompanie s the wor k of the peasan t an d i s sung in praise of plowing, sowing , harvesting , weaving , an d housework ; al l o f thes e agrarian an d domesti c activitie s hav e bee n idealize d i n poetr y an d song. Weddings , baptisms , feast-days , an d religiou s holyday s ar e occasions fo r th e hard-workin g peasan t t o celebrate . Eve n funeral s provide opportunitie s t o mee t friend s an d t o invit e the m t o a n abun dant table . Dancing , singing , an d playin g ar e inseparabl e fro m thes e celebrations. Drinkin g an d toasting , usuall y wit h a home-mad e wine , have ver y elaborat e rules , an d th e Statute s o f Krizevc i (Krizevacki Statuti) ar e noteworth y i n thi s connection . Beside s al l o f this , th e people livin g i n citie s fin d thei r entertainmen t i n sports , movies , th e drama, and opera . One o f the mos t cherished Croatia n recreationa l activitie s i s a conversation (razgovor) i n friendly circles . Radio and televisio n bega n t o interfere onl y recentl y wit h th e lon g an d arden t hour s spen t i n th e enjoyment o f th e ar t o f conversation . Nor d o th e Croatian s convers e only abou t busines s outlook s an d abou t presen t o r contemporary problems; their favorit e topics ar e those related to the national past an d to futur e politica l interest s an d th e effec t o f internationa l affair s o n national politics. Fighting for Values An understanding of the tru e meaning of life an d o f the specia l mission of a n individua l an d o f a nation i s the mos t powerful stimulu s in th e struggle (barba) t o attai n th e goal s o f life . Suc h a struggl e i s no t a simple discharg e o f surplu s energy ; rather , i t i s a positiv e activit y i n the servic e of higher ideals . The goal s of the Croatian s throughout th e centuries o f thei r struggle s hav e bee n thei r indestructibl e values : freedom, justice , an d th e securit y o f hom e an d country . Onc e thes e ethical value s ar e place d abov e materia l goals , they deman d sacrific e

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and heroism . Thi s i s th e reaso n behin d th e heroi c struggle s o f th e Croatians. The y hav e ver y ofte n ha d t o exchang e th e plowshar e fo r the sword or gun in order to preserve thei r country and their own lives. Ethical value s becom e stronge r whe n adhere d t o throug h man y struggles; i n strivin g fo r highe r goals , th e mora l personalit y i s buil t up to unsuspected heights. I n fatefu l moments , in wars, in the mids t of ruin, in the face of persecution an d death , individuals an d group s may suddenly reveal a moral power whic h the y coul d never hav e imagine d in peacetime . "Hardshi p reveal s heroes " i s a commo n sayin g o f th e Croatian people. 28 Croatian heroism has been acclaime d in modern times throughout al l of Europe . Ther e wer e fe w war s i n Europ e i n whic h th e Croatian s did no t participat e an d i n whic h the y di d no t behav e heroically . Bu t those far-flun g struggle s wer e i n th e servic e o f foreig n commander s and thei r particula r aims . The mai n struggle , o f course, was a t home , in th e defens e o f th e homelan d agains t th e Turkis h invasion . Th e Croatian militar y leaders—th e Subies , th e Berislavics , th e Nelipics , the Zrinskis , an d th e Frankopans—wer e rea l heroes , an d the y wer e recognized as such by the grea t military figures of Europe, Napoleo n I, Frederick II , Pete r th e Great, an d the Ottoma n sultan, Suleiman I, th e Magnificent. We shal l cite onl y two examples of heroic Croatia n resistance to th e Turkish invasions. In 1566 , with onl y a small troop of selected soldiers, Nikola Zrinski dared to resist a huge Turkish army from th e fortres s of Sziget i n Hungary . Befor e the decisiv e battle , h e spurre d hi s fighters on by swearing that he would live and di e together wit h them , an d his soldiers all swore the sam e oath. The next day, he and almos t all of his followers wer e kille d i n battle. A second exampl e o f Croatia n courag e occurred in 1595, whe n the Turks threw their tremendous armed might against the stronghol d of Petrinja nea r Sisak , and wer e repelled by the Croatians at th e wall s of the city . Th e commander s and fighters in th e besieged tow n urge d eac h othe r t o figh t unti l deat h " . . . fo r th e Christian faith , fo r th e Catholi c religion , fo r thei r homes , fo r thei r wives an d children , fo r thei r mos t value d possessions , for th e welfar e and preservatio n of their belove d Fatherland . . . ," 29 28

In Croatian: Na mud se poznaju junaci. Rattkay, Memoria regum, 157-8 . Th e ful l tex t i n Lati n read s a s follow s (italicized part s ar e thos e quote d abov e i n English) : "Ei a bon i socii ! mascul o pectore nun c est opus , quand o extrema m fat i nostr i videmu s imminere horam , et ideo antequa m au t turpite r occumbamus , aut cert e i n immanissima m abducamur servitutem, pugnemus fortiter imprimis pro fide Christiana, pro Religione Catholica, pro arts, pro focis, pro coniugibus, liberis, charissimisque pignoribus, pro salute 29

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In th e sixteenth , seventeenth , an d eighteent h centuries , th e Turk s devastated an d dissecte d Croatia, reducing he r t o a stat e o f reliquiae reliquiarum o f th e onc e famou s Croatia n kingdom . However , the y were never quite abl e t o subdue her militar y migh t an d consequently never succeede d i n occupyin g al l o f Croatia . Struggl e an d sufferin g have only led the Croatians to love their faith and freedom, their homes and homeland with greater intensity. The Dignity of Man Croatians, bearin g th e influenc e o f Christianity , hono r th e dignit y of the huma n person. They conside r the greates t o f all good s to b e ma n himself; man is an intelligent and free individual worthy of respect. Th e Croatian i s not a gregarious person and dislike s being looke d upo n a s one of a mass. H e think s with hi s own mind, feels wit h hi s ow n heart, and i s prou d o f hi s thought s an d hi s freedom . I t i s sai d tha t thre e Croatians in a group will always represent three political parties—a fac t which emphasize s thei r independen t thinkin g abou t commo n issues. The civic and, to some extent, religious conformity impose d on modern man find s a n unsympathetic reception amon g the Croatians . Slavery, a s a conditio n completel y contrar y t o th e dignit y o f th e human person, has not been favore d b y th e Croatian s in thei r history . In the Middle Ages, the Croatian king, Zvonimir (1074-1089), pledged himself unde r oath to "oppose the slave trade"30 in his lands, which lay denique, atque conservatione Patriae dulcissimae; na m null a ia m superes t nobi s futura via , praete r dextra s et virtutem , vict i nulla m speremu s salutem. " 30 Prince Zvonimi r too k thi s oat h i n th e Churc h o f St . Pete r i n Salon a i n 1076 , when lie was crowned Croatia n kin g by Gebizo , a legate o f Pope Gregor y VII . Th e content o f th e oat h ha s a specia l significance , i n tha t i t contain s ver y advance d moral an d socia l reform s fo r thos e times . Her e i s th e complet e Lati n tex t o f th e oath o f Kin g Zvonimir; th e italicize d part s indicat e th e reform s to whic h Zvonimi r pledged himself: "I n nomin e sánet e e t individué Trinitatis . Ann o dominice incarna tionis millesim o LXXVI , indiction e XIV , mens e octobris . Eg o Demetrius , qu i e t Suinimir nuncupor , de i grati a Croati e Dalmatiequ e dux , a t e Domin o Gebizo , e x apostolice sedi s legation e Domin i nostr i pap e Gregori i potestate m obtinente , i n salonitana basilic a sanct i Pétr i synodal i e t concord i totiu s cler i e t popul i election e de Chroatoru m Dalmatinorumqu e regn i regimine pe r uexillum , ensem , sceptru m e t coronam inuestitu s atqu e constitutu s rex , tib i deuoueo , sponde o e t polliceor , m e incommutabiliter completuru m omnia , qu e mih i su a reuerend a iniungi t sanctitas , uidelicet u t i n omnibus e t pe r omni a apostolic e sed i fide m obseruem ; e t quidqui d hoc in regno tarn apostólic a sede s quam sui legati sanxerun t au t sanxerint , irreuocabiliter custodiam; iustitiam excolam, ecclesias defendam; primitie, décime, omniumque ad ecclesiam pertinentium procurator existam; uite episcoporum, presbyterorum, diaconorum, subdiaconorumque, ut caste et regularíter uiuant, prouideam; pauperes, uiduas atque pupillos protegam; parentelle illicitam copulam destruens legitimam dotem annula sacerdotisque benedictione constituant et constitutam corrumpi non permittam; hominum uenditioni contradicam; atque in omnibus que

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on th e crossroad s betwee n Byzantiu m an d Wester n Europe . Th e Statute of Poljica containe d human e law s fo r th e treatmen t o f slaves. The Republi c o f Dubrovnik abolished th e slav e trade in the yea r 1416, at a tim e whe n slaver y flourished all ove r the Balka n Peninsula (an d would continue to flourish until the nineteenth centur y ). The Ragusans justified thei r act in the following significant words, found i n the decre e of thei r Greate r Council : "W e conside r suc h trad e t o b e base , evil , and abominable, against al l humanity, and to bring a great burde n an d disgrace to our city, that human beings, made in the image an d likeness of ou r Creato r ar e treate d a s merchandis e an d sold , a s i t were , lik e animals."31 Epic fol k poetr y ofte n mention s hono r (cast), fac e (obraz), an d honesty (poétenje), thre e of the value s treasured by th e Croatians , al l of which ar e connected with personal dignity. 32 In the patriarcha l join t family o f peasants an d shepherds , hono r wa s regarde d a s th e highes t value. Suc h a valu e i s a n extremel y personal one : every adul t mal e acquires o r lose s it o n accoun t o f hi s goo d o r ba d conduct . A heroi c moral code from pre-Christia n times determines wha t i s honorable an d what is dishonorable in one's conduct. In Croatian feudal society, honor and dignit y were clas s privileges. However , a n individual coul d los e i t if he did not live up to class standards. The National Awakening in th e nineteenth centur y introduced a collective typ e o f honor for the whol e ad rectitudinis statum congniunt, deo auctore, me equum exhibeam. . . ." Se e Franjo Racki , Documenta historiae croaticae periodum antiquam illustrantia (Zagreb, 1877) , 103-4. King Zvonimi r undertoo k t o carr y ou t th e followin g socia l an d mora l reforms in hi s kingdom : t o practic e justic e for all , to defen d th e churches , an d se e tha t they receive d thei r rightfu l shar e o f contribution s fro m th e faithful ; t o se e t o i t that th e clerg y lived chaste and orderly lives; to protect th e poor , th e widows , an d the orphans; t o end the practic e o f marriage between close relatives, an d t o provid e a dowr y s o tha t marriage s coul d b e celebrate d i n churche s wit h a rin g an d th e benediction of a priest; to oppose the slav e trade; an d t o do , with th e hel p of God, all that honesty and integrity required. 31 "Considerantes tale m mercantia m ess e turpem , nefaria m e t abominabile m e t contra omne m humanitate m e t ceder é a d no n paruu m onu s e t infamia m ciuitati s nostre, videlice t quo d human a species , fact a a d imagine m e t similitudine m creatoris nostri , conuert i debea t i n usu s mercimoniale s e t vendatur , tamqua m s i essent animali a bruta. " Se e Constanti n Jirecek , "Di e Bedeutung vo n Ragus a i n der Handelsgeschicht e de s Mittelalters, " Die Feierliche Sitzung der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Vienna , Ma y 31 , 1899) , 193 , n. 58 . 32 Jovan Brkic , Moral Concepts in Traditional Serbian Epic Poetry ('s-Graven hage, The Netherlands : Mouton an d Co., 1961). Pp . 177 . The autho r analyze s th e concepts of honor , faith, an d treaso n (ch . 4 pp . 99-110) , examinin g th e epi c fol k poetry o f th e Dinari c tribe s i n Montenegr o and Easter n Hercegovina . Th e sam e values ca n b e note d amon g the Croatia n peopl e i n Bosni a an d wester n Herce govina, a s wel l a s i n othe r Croatia n regions .

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nation. Personal , class , an d nationa l hono r coul d b e achieve d onl y by complying with th e mora l code o f the particula r society , b e i t patriar chal, feudal , o r national . Dishono r (sramota), ba d reputatio n (cm obraz), an d th e charg e o f dishonest y (nepoétenje), attribute d t o a person wh o commit s immora l deeds , ar e th e greates t disgrace s a Croatian can suffer. 33 Croatians fee l tha t huma n dignit y an d hono r deman d thei r faithful ness (vjera, vjernost) t o a n oat h o r a pledge , contract , o r pact , an d more especiall y t o a person . The y regar d th e breac h o f a pledge , o r unfaithfulness (nevjera), a s shame or disgrace (sramota), and , in military life , a s treaso n (izdaja), t o b e punishe d exemplarily . However , conflict betwee n tw o loyaltie s coul d arise . Tw o example s migh t b e taken fro m earl y Croatia n histor y t o illustrat e thi s point . Ljudevi t Posavski (c. 810-823) , a ruler o f Pannonian Croatia , trie d to thro w off the Prankis h yok e an d succeede d i n challengin g th e Frank s fo r tw o years. However , Duk e Born a (c . 810-821) , a rule r o f Dalmatia n Croatia, an d a Prankis h vassal , allie d himsel f wit h th e Frank s an d fought agains t Ljudevit , th e unfaithfu l Prankis h vassal . Th e people , faced with thi s conflic t o f loyalties, looked upon Ljudevi t a s a hero an d Borna as a traitor.34 A secon d exampl e o f thi s kin d o f dilemm a involve s Kin g Zvonimir, who kep t unti l deat h th e emphati c an d solem n formul a o f th e oat h used i n medieva l treaties, " I d o firmly pledge" (Deuoueo, spondeo et polliceor), whic h he mad e to Pope Gregor y VII o n the occasio n o f his coronation o n Octobe r 9 , 1076. 35 Hi s mysteriou s deat h (1089 ) i n th e field near Kni n ha s ofte n bee n attribute d t o overzealou s loyalt y t o his oath, b y whic h h e trie d t o provid e me n an d arm s fo r th e Crusade s organized b y Pop e Urba n I I (1088-1099) . Th e peopl e sa w in Zvoni mir's foreig n policies a dange r t o their ow n existence. 36 In heroic folksongs, th e wor d of honor (¿asna rijeè o r besjeda) i s th e 33 Valtasar Bogisic , Zbornik Sadasnjih Pravnih Obicaja u Juznih Slovena: Gragja u odgovorima iz razlicitih krajeva Slovenskoga Juga (Zagreb : Yugosla v Academy , 1874), 576 . Bogisic has collecte d opinion s o f peopl e i n differen t Croatia n region s on th e topic s o f hono r an d dishonor . H e use d th e followin g question s i n hi s inquiry: Wha t i s the vie w o f th e peopl e concernin g hono r an d dishonor ? D o the y prefer sever e penaltie s t o disgrace ? Th e answer s whic h h e obtaine d ar e liste d according t o the differen t region s i n which the y were collected . Th e grea t majorit y of thos e questione d answere d tha t the y hel d hono r i n hig h estee m an d woul d prefer eve n a sever e penalt y t o los s o f honor . 34 Francis R . Preveden , A History of the Croatian People, I (Ne w York , 1955) , 52-53. 35 Racki, Documenta, 104 , n. 30. 36 Preveden, History, 85-86.

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highest pledge a knight or hero may give. If he breaks his word, a hero, or any other violator , loses his honor and fall s into disgrac e (sramota). High estee m fo r th e wor d o f hono r i s shown , fo r instance , i n th e folksong Banovic Strahinja,*7 i n which Ba n Strahinic , a Croatia n hero , meets an old dervish, his former prisoner . Here, as in many other cases , the breac h o f a pledg e i s regarded no t onl y a s a socia l dishono r an d shame but a s a moral offense a s well.38 As a rule, th e Croatian s have shown , throughout thei r history , grea t fidelity to their collectiv e treatie s an d pledges. Th e Catholi c Croatian s have ofte n bee n single d ou t fo r thei r loyalt y t o th e Roma n Church . Pope Joh n X (914-928 ) calle d the m "ver y specia l son s o f th e Hol y Roman Church " (specialissimi filii sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae);39 Pope Le o X (1513-1521 ) honore d the m wit h th e titl e "bulwar k o f Christianity" (antemurale Christianitatis);w an d th e lat e Pop e Joh n XXIII, i n a eulog y o n th e lat e Cardina l Stepina c referre d t o "ferven t and piou s Croatia." 41 However , histori c pressures , a s wel l a s today' s political conditions , have estrange d a goo d numbe r o f Croatian s fro m their ancestral faith . Croatian soldiers , fightin g i n foreig n armie s o n man y Europea n battlegrounds i n the past , hav e distinguishe d themselve s b y fidelity to their militar y oaths . Napoleo n employe d Croatia n regiment s i n hi s Russian campaig n (1812) , an d h e value d thei r militar y virtue s an d their faithfulness. 42 Th e Austria n emperors looke d o n the Croatian s a s their trustworth y an d loya l subjects . Th e Militar y Frontie r (Vojna Krafina) i n Croati a wa s fo r centurie s th e bes t defens e o f th e Austro Hungarian Empire . Loyalt y t o thei r countr y ha s cos t th e Croatian s immense materia l an d spiritua l sacrifice . Th e conqueror s o f thei r country have perceive d th e unshake n fait h o f the Croatian s an d hav e tried to minimize this mora l force b y callin g i t "stubbornness" o r "irra tional idealism " a t variou s times . Th e fac t i s tha t Croatia n histor y consists i n th e struggl e o f th e peopl e fo r thei r freedom—religious , political, economic, and social . ^Serbocroatian Heroic Songs: Novi Pazar, Serbocroatian Texts. Collecte d b y Milman Parry , an d edite d b y Alber t Bate s Lor d (Belgrade-Cambridge , 1953 ) II , 2, p. 34. 38 Bogisic, Zbornik, 452 f. 89 Ferdo Sisic , Prirucnik izvora hrvatske historije I Handboo k o f Source s o f Croatian History , Vol . I, Par t 1 : T o th e yea r 110 7 (Zagreb , 1914) , 215 . 40 Ooazia Sacra (Rome , 1943) , 20-21 . Thi s i s a symposiu m o f monograph s on the personalit y of the Catholi c Croatians. ^L'Osservatore Romano, Vatican City, February 18 , 1960. *2Nasa Domovina (Zagreb , 1943), 197.

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Vices Opposed to Human Dignity A number o f vice s pose rea l threat s t o th e self-respec t and dignit y o f the Croatians . Alcoholism, not only as an individual, but als o as a social vice, is all too prevalent amon g the people . Unfortunately , no statistic s are availabl e t o picture more specificall y the evi l caused t o bot h bod y and spirit by the immoderate use of such alcoholic beverages a s brandy, wine, an d bee r i n Croatia . Nonetheless , it i s certain tha t thi s vic e ha s spread throughou t th e country , an d tha t i t i s especiall y prevalen t i n Srijem, Slavonia , an d Bosnia , an d les s widespread , bu t nevertheles s existing, i n Croatia n Zagorje , Norther n Croatia , Dalmatia , Lika , an d Hercegovina. A vic e almos t unknow n i n Croati a befor e thi s century , whic h ha s spread throughou t th e countr y between th e worl d wars , is that o f th e use o f vulga r expressions . These originate d in , an d continu e t o com e from, th e neighborin g countrie s t o th e eas t o f Croatia . Thi s vic e i s definitely a degradin g on e wit h respec t t o th e cultura l leve l o f th e nation an d t o th e dignit y o f it s citizens . Finally, anothe r vic e shoul d b e mentioned , whic h i s o f a mor e anti-religious nature, tha t o f blasphemy an d cursing: blasphem y (hula or bogo-hulenje) dishonor s God, an d cursin g (kletva), i s an utteranc e by which one wishes that evil befall one's fellow man. These tw o habits contribute t o th e lowerin g o f th e mora l an d religiou s leve l o f th e Croatian nation . Blasphem y i s especiall y prevalen t i n Dalmati a an d Dalmatian Zagora , an d cursin g i n Croatia n Zagorj e an d Norther n Croatia. Th e Croatia n Die t ha s formulate d severa l decision s agains t blasphemy an d cursing, 43 an d durin g th e las t wa r a la w wa s passe d concerning thes e tw o vices , an d th e Churc h ha s als o ofte n use d it s parish mission s to fight them. THE MORALIT Y OF SOCIAL RELATION S The Family and Kinship For th e Croatians , a physicall y and morall y healthy famil y lif e i s th e foundation o f the nationa l life. Owin g to the custom , once common, of a large joint family ( zadruga ) living unde r th e sam e head—usually th e 43 For example , th e la w agains t blasphem y formulate d a t th e Hungarian Croatian Die t a t Pressbur g in 1563 , repeate d an d reinforce d by th e Croatia n Die t in 1756 . Fraknoj , Vilmos , Monumento comitalia. Regni Hungariae. Magya r Országgyülési Emléke k 1557-1563 . (Budapest , 1876) , 596 .

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oldest male—th e Croatian s have develope d a sor t of cult o f the famil y and th e nearest of kin.44 In modern times, the foundations of the patriarchal typ e of family al l over the world have been shaken. The Croatian family has not escape d the influenc e of the moder n age, but mos t of the olde r familia l habits and values have remained. Croatian parent s have the fina l decisio n i n the choic e o f the spous e for thei r son s an d daughters . Th e parent s tak e int o consideratio n th e family background s and the individual qualities o f the youn g man an d woman involved . A youn g ma n contemplatin g marriage , the y feel , should lik e wor k and b e thrifty ; a youn g lady ough t t o b e skille d i n the way s of housekeeping, an d shoul d hav e a humbl e an d submissiv e nature. Th e requisit e virtue s o f a marriageabl e young lady, Croatia n parents believe, include modesty, innocence , patience, an d a capacit y for endurin g work. She is expected , i n short , t o b e abl e t o loo k afte r her household. The custom s surroundin g a Croatia n weddin g ceremony , i n bot h home an d church , creat e a dramati c effec t upo n th e newly-weds , on e which remain s in thei r memor y for th e res t o f their lives . Th e famil y hearth i s considered sacred among the rural people , wh o still mak e up at least one-half of the Croatia n people. Stric t discipline is practised i n the education of children, and they are taught to respect an d obey thei r parents an d thei r grandparents . A s a rule , a chil d i s looke d o n a s a blessing from God . A large family is felt to be a foundation of economic strength i n th e rura l areas , sinc e technologica l advance s hav e bee n 44 This ma y be illustrate d b y th e ric h variet y o f kinshi p term s i n Croatian . Th e family circl e i s widel y extende d t o includ e relative s o n bot h sides . I n addition , the bes t man (vjencani hum) and the bridesmai d (djeventsa), the godfathe r (kum) an d th e godmothe r (kuma) ar e ver y clos e t o th e famil y members . Godparenthood (kumstvo) i s a n ancien t institutio n tha t entail s th e lifelon g obligatio n of godparent s t o thei r godchildren . I n Dalmatia , ever y marrie d woma n i n a village i s an aunt, an d ever y married man a n uncle, t o all the children there . More over, tw o person s ma y becom e ver y closel y relate d t o eac h othe r b y mutua l consent a s brothers-by-friendshi p (pobratimi), o r sisters-by-friendshi p (posestrime) o r brother-sister-by-friendship . Thei r familie s mus t agre e an d recogniz e this relationship . It i s obvious tha t thi s practic e o f creatin g a larg e circl e o f famil y relation s ha s its origi n i n th e join t typ e o f famil y (zadruga), onc e ver y commo n amon g Croatians. Fo r kinshi p term s i n Croatia n amon g th e peopl e i n Bosni a an d Hercegovina, se e Iva n Zovko , "Rodbinsk i naziv i u Herceg-Bosni, " Zborník za narodni zivot i obicaje Juznih Slacena. Vol. 7, No . 2 (Zagreb : Yugosla v Academy, 1902), 369-381 . Th e abov e entries , kum, kuma, pdbratim, an d posestrima, ar e explained i n Rjecnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika (Zagreb : Yugosla v Academy, 1880-1958). Se e als o Vladimi r Mazuranic , Prinosi za hrvatski pravno-povijesni rjecnik (Zagreb : Yugosla v Academy , 1908-1922) .

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applied to farming only in a minor way as yet in Croatia. Th e virtues of family lif e ar e als o praised i n Croatia n folksongs an d poems . Th e mos t moving amon g these describ e th e lov e whic h unite s th e famil y mem bers: th e lov e of a mother for he r children , o f a sister fo r he r brother , or th e lov e share d b y a youn g couple . Th e lov e o f famil y member s prescribes tha t on e is alway s ready t o put fort h th e greates t sacrifice s and eve n t o suffe r deat h fo r th e sacrednes s an d hono r o f th e family . Although th e birth-rat e i n Croati a i s high i n compariso n wit h tha t of som e Europea n nations , birt h control—keepin g th e famil y dow n t o perhaps on e o r tw o children—i s commo n in som e parts o f the country , especially i n Slavonia , Srijem , an d Norther n Croatia . Othe r area s remained almos t untouched b y thi s practic e betwee n th e worl d wars , but i t would be hard t o find any particular distric t wher e birt h contro l is no t i n us e today . Abortio n ha s bee n practice d fo r som e year s i n Slavonia, Bosnia , an d Hercegovina , t o som e exten t i n Dalmatia n Zagora, and i n al l of the citie s o f Croatia. Afte r th e las t war , instance s of abortion wer e widespread i n Dalmatia, although n o statistics as to its prevalence ther e are as yet available. 45 The reasons why these method s of limiting births ar e used in Croati a are various, and i t is interesting t o note tha t economi c grounds d o not seem to be th e most common ones. Slavonia and Srije m ar e the riches t areas o f the country , an d ye t th e poores t districts—Lika , Hercegovina , and Dalmatia—hav e th e mos t children . Slavonian s ofte n justif y th e limitation o f the number o f children in a family b y their desire to hav e their propert y remai n in th e possessio n o f one famil y an d no t t o hav e it divided . Bu t moral reasons are als o very important here , an d lac k of instruction, moral sloth, and lac k o f faith ofte n pla y larg e role s i n thi s matter. Th e divorc e rat e i n Croati a ha s expande d i n th e post-wa r years. Younge r people ten d t o gro w u p withou t stron g religiou s an d moral education an d ofte n loo k upon divorc e as the ever-presen t "out " for marriage s which ar e not working well. Patriotism Croatians ar e known throughout th e world for their patriotism. Next to his mother an d hi s wife an d family , th e Croatia n ma n love s hi s home land (domovina) th e most. For a n explanation o f such a deep patrioti c love, on e needs t o turn t o the sacrifice s mad e an d th e tear s an d bloo d spilled fo r the homeland; everyone holds deares t that for which h e has 45 See Tomo Habdija, "Rasirenos t pobacaja u svijet u i kod ñas i njegovi uzroci " / The Exten t o f Abortion s throughou t th e Worl d an d Amon g Us , an d It s Reasons , Zivot / Life , I (Zagreb , 1939) , 39.

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sacrificed th e most . Anothe r reaso n fo r th e Croatians ' stron g patrioti c love lie s i n th e fac t tha t full y one-hal f o f the m ar e rura l people . Th e love whic h th e ma n o f th e soi l ha s fo r hi s land , an d fo r hi s forests , rivers, and mountains, is universally known. There i s beauty i n Croatia , an d ther e i s wealth ; bu t ther e ar e als o wastelands an d poo r farmin g areas . Man y a Croatia n peasan t ha s t o scrape togethe r sufficien t foo d for himself an d hi s famil y fro m a smal l portion o f poo r land . Strangel y enough , however , suc h frugalit y an d intimate dependenc e o n th e lan d onl y cause s th e me n t o lov e thei r land eve n more . The y loo k o n i t no t primaril y a s a sourc e o f wealth , but a s a source of food for sustaining life. Croatian fol k poem s have been writte n i n praise of many geographi cal feature s o f th e country , includin g river s suc h a s th e Sava , Drava , Danube, Drina , Neretva , Cetina , an d Kupa . Mountain s tha t ar e frequently referre d t o ar e th e Diñara , Velebit , Trebevic , Pljesevica , Jahorina, Vlasic , an d Romanija . Amon g town s ofte n cite d w e fin d Rijeka, Bakar , Senj , Zadar , Dubrovnik , Kotor , Kladusa , Kris , Mostar , Sarajevo, Banjaluka , Travnik , Bihac, Sisak, and Osijek . Als o referred t o in fol k song s ar e whol e region s o f Croatia , fo r example , "flat " Srije m (ravni Srijem), "rich " Slavoni a (bogata Slavonija), "wide " Posavin a (Siroka Posavina), "little" Medjimurje (malo Medjimurje), "poor " Lika (siromaSna Lika), Istria , "the orphan " (sirotica Istra), "proud " Bosnia (Eosna ponosna), "heroic " Hercegovin a (junaeka Hercegovina), an d "small" Dahnatia (moleña Dalmacija). Th e Croatia n nationa l anthem 48 immortalizes thi s intens e lov e fo r th e homeland , especiall y i n it s first two and its last two stanzas : O beautiful, ou r homeland, O valiant and beloved country. Ancestral land of ancient glory, May thou always live honorably! We love thee, since thou are glorious to us, We love thee, since thou art unique to us. We love thee, where thou art a plain, We love thee, where thou art a moutain!

46 Composed b y Antu n Mihanovi c (1796-1861 ) i n 1835 , unde r th e titl e Horvatska Domovina / Croatia n Homeland . I t wa s se t t o musi c b y Josi p Runjanin (1821-1878 ) in 1846 , an d was declared the nationa l anthem in 1891 . Fo r the histor y and conten t of the Croatia n nationa l anthem, see the articl e "Hrvatska himna," b y Vink o Nikolié , Hrvatska Revija, I V (Bueno s Aires , 1955) , 393-398 . The sam e autho r ha s writte n i n Spanis h o n thi s subject , i n Studia Croatian I , 1 (Buenos Aires , 1960) , 7-9 . Th e Croatia n nationa l anthe m i s similar—i n bot h inspiration an d content—t o th e son g tha t American s conside r thei r "second " national anthem , America the Beautiful, b y Catherin e Le e Bate s an d Samue l August Ward.

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Flow, speedy Sava, flow, Let not the Danube lose thy strength. Wherever thou art murmuring, tell the world That the Croatian shall love his home While the su n warms his fields, While the storm bends his oak trees, While the grave hides his dead, While his living heart beats!47 The Nation The Croatia n peopl e hav e strive n fo r centurie s t o attai n self-govern ment an d th e independenc e o f a national state . Befor e the y cam e int o the countr y along th e Adriati c in th e sevent h century , the y ha d thei r own state nea r Krakow , in present-day Poland. Soo n after thei r arriva l in thei r ne w homeland , the y organi/e d a state wit h nationa l rulers , which laste d fro m th e sevent h centur y unti l th e beginnin g o f th e twelfth century . Though in some degree combine d wit h an d unde r th e rule o f the Hungarian s (sinc e 1102 ) an d th e Austrian s (sinc e 1527) , the Croatian people retained som e attributes o f statehood unti l th e en d of the First World War . Croatia's struggl e fo r politica l independenc e coul d ver y easil y b e compared wit h th e America n struggl e fo r independence , fo r bot h efforts had a simila r ethica l background . It may be said , in the final analysis, tha t th e Declaratio n o f Independenc e amount s t o this : tha t governments ar e no t absolut e bu t exis t fo r th e securit y o f certai n inalienable right s o f their people , an d tha t whe n a governmen t fails i n this task , it loses its authority an d may be replaced. Th e governmen t of the Britis h Crown—th e reasonin g o f th e Declaratio n states—faile d t o perform it s task in the Unite d Colonies; on the contrary, it acted agains t its legitimate duties. Therefore, the British Crown lost its authority over its American subjects, who were a s a consequence no t merel y free , bu t also ha d th e dut y t o se t up thei r ow n government . Americ a thre w off English master y primarily becaus e tha t rulin g power di d no t fulfil l th e duties whic h a governmen t ha s towar d it s citizens , th e dutie s o f pro tecting the m an d improvin g thei r prosperity . Thus , i t wa s onl y ethica l for a peopl e t o elec t thei r ow n government , on e whic h woul d bette r satisfy th e demand s o f justice and th e commo n good. 47 In Croatian : Lijep a nas a domovino , / O j junack a zemlj o mila . / Star e slav e djedovino, / D a b i vazd a casn a bila ! / Mila , kan o s i nam slavna , / Mil a s i nam ti jedina . / Mila , kud a s i nam ravna, / Mila , kud a s i planina ! / Teci , Sav e hitra , teci, / Nit ' ti Duna v silu gubi . / Ku d li sumis , svijet u reci : / D a svo g doma Hrva t ljubi / Do k m u njiv e sunc e grije , / Do k m u hrasce bur a vije . / Do k ni u mrtv e grob sakrije, / Do k mu zivo srce bije !

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The Croatia n cas e is a similar one, in that th e Croatian s have born e much injustic e fro m foreig n governments . Th e lis t o f injurie s an d injustices committe d agains t the m b y regime s wit h headquarter s i n Vienna, Budapest , an d Belgrad e i s too lon g t o b e recounte d i n detai l here. The Croatians were halted i n their material and spiritual development by foreigners who could not o r would not sympathiz e with thei r needs. Therefore , althoug h the y posses s th e desir e t o remai n goo d neighbors t o everyon e and t o understand full y th e ever-growin g need for worl d union (bu t not merger! ), they believe tha t a free democrati c republic o f their ow n i s th e bes t guarante e tha t the y wil l b e abl e t o peacefully develo p thei r ow n abilities, culture , an d materia l resources. The classica l and Christia n interpretation of the stat e is that i t must make secur e th e commo n well-bein g o f th e people ; th e stat e i s no t established fo r th e purpos e o f acquiring , preserving , an d broadenin g the power of the governing group. In their Die t ( Sabor ), the Croatians themselves conducte d thei r nation' s busines s an d decide d whethe r t o go into battle in order to defen d their homeland ; lon g ago they organ ized thei r ow n judicia l syste m an d electe d thei r ow n rulin g bodies . For thes e people, th e stat e was a moral association wit h a moral goal: the commo n good o f its citizens . Above the doo r o f th e Lowe r Hous e (Malo Vijece) i n Dubrovnik, this inscription can still be found : Obliti privatorum; publica curate, that is, "Forget you r private interest s and see t o th e republic' s interests. " Th e rura l republic s o f Poljic a an d Vinodol ar e tw o example s o f widesprea d democrati c government . A democratic interpretatio n o f governmen t i s innat e i n th e Croatians . They wan t their ow n government in order to make their ow n decisions concerning themselve s an d t o develop themselve s freely . The y despis e the ide a o f an y for m o f tyranny , whethe r o f thei r ow n o r o f foreig n making. This consciousnes s of a national stat e has remaine d aliv e amon g th e Croatians throug h th e cours e o f man y centuries . Th e fol k poem , "Marina Kruna " (Th e Crow n o f Mary) 48 i s generall y interprete d symbolically a s a n expressio n of th e dee p sorro w of th e Croatian s fo r their los t kingdom , whic h fel l t o th e Hungarian s i n 1102 , an d th e longing of the nation to renew its independent state of the Middl e Ages (before 1102) . The poe m begin s with thes e movin g lines: A cold wind blew, —O, darling mine — A cold wind frowned . 48

134.

Petar Grgec , Hrvatske narodne pjesme I Croatia n Fol k Songs (Zagreb , 1943) ,

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It blew from the East , To carry awa y Mary's crown. 49

State and Church In the Byzantine East, especiall y in the centuries closel y preceding th e Great Schis m o f 1054 , ther e wa s n o clea r divisio n betwee n tempora l (state) an d spiritua l (church ) powers . Rather , ther e prevaile d a system whereb y a n emperor held suprem e contro l over the Church , eve n in those matters o f faith an d moral s normally reserved fo r th e Churc h authorities. In Wester n Europe , whe n th e Wester n Roma n Empire crumble d i n the fift h century , th e Churc h remaine d th e onl y mora l an d ofte n th e only politica l powe r durin g th e barbaria n invasion s fro m Asi a an d northern Europe . Th e Churc h continue d t o be faithfu l t o her spiritua l mission of the sanctificatio n an d salvatio n of souls, but he r bishop s an d priests wer e ofte n force d t o carr y th e swor d i n orde r t o defen d cathedrals an d convent s fro m th e barbarians ' attacks . Unde r thes e conditions, th e authorit y o f the Churc h gre w steadily unti l i t reache d its highes t poin t i n the Middl e Age s unde r Pop e Gregor y VII ( 10731085). Th e Churc h i n Christia n Europ e regarde d hersel f a s bein g above the state, adherin g to the principle tha t spiritual power i s above temporal. Whil e thi s principl e i s i n itsel f perfectl y righ t i t wa s to o often applie d incorrectly , with th e resul t tha t undu e clerica l influenc e was frequentl y foun d i n politica l matters . A simila r stat e o f affair s prevailed in the centurie s o f Humanism and th e Renaissance , and eve n later, unti l i n th e las t centur y th e basi c tene t o f secularism , the tota l separation o f Church an d state , was proclaimed. The Croatian s generall y oppos e both caesaropapis m an d clericalis m with regar d t o relations betwee n Churc h an d state . O n the whole , th e Church an d th e stat e i n Croati a hav e worke d togethe r bu t hav e no t united. Only in time of war an d othe r calamities has the situatio n been otherwise. Fo r example, when the governin g group disintegrate d in th e struggle wit h th e Turks , the Archbisho p of Zagreb assumed the state' s government. However, he returned thi s power to the civil authorities as soon a s the latte r wer e reorganized . Th e Croatia n Die t respecte d th e Church, an d vic e versa , bu t eac h authorit y wa s sovereig n i n it s ow n field—the Church i n th e spher e o f Croatian spiritua l life , i n th e real m of the sanctificatio n an d salvatio n of her followers ; th e stat e in the field of th e worldl y an d tempora l prosperit y o f Croatia n citizens . Chris t 49 In Croatian : Popuhnu l j e hladan vetar, / A j n i nena , zlat o moje , / Popuhnu l je hladan vetar, / Hlada n veta r o d Levanta / I odnesa l Mar i krunu .

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Himself designate d thi s divisio n o f powers, whe n H e said : "Rende r t o Caesar th e thing s tha t ar e Caesar' s an d t o Go d th e thing s tha t ar e God's" (Luk e 20:25). Bot h spiritua l an d civi l power s ar e autonomous in thei r ow n realms , althoug h thei r cooperatio n i s necessar y an d natural, for they both work for the benefit o f the people. This is particu larly true where matters such a s the educatio n o f youth, public morals , and interfait h relation s ar e concerned—area s i n whic h bot h power s have vital interests. The histor y o f th e relationshi p o f th e Croatia n Die t an d th e Arch bishop o f Zagreb, coupled wit h th e tragi c experienc e o f the peopl e o f Yugoslavia betwee n th e tw o recent wars , whe n th e Serbia n Orthodo x Church wa s the stat e Church—t o the detrimen t o f all other churches shows clearl y th e justificatio n o f the Croatia n ideal: a fre e stat e an d a free Church . International Relations In internationa l relations, th e politica l lif e o f the Croatian s has alway s remained o n th e leve l o f fair play : th e Croatia n idea l o f internationa l relations has never been base d o n deception, power , o r aggression. The contract o f th e Croatian s wit h Pop e Agatho n i n th e sevent h centur y (at th e ver y beginnin g o f lif e i n thei r ne w country ) state d tha t the y would neve r lea d aggressiv e war s agains t othe r nations , bu t tha t i f others shoul d invad e them , the y woul d defen d themselve s an d b e defended b y St . Peter, tha t is , by th e Church . The contex t o f that pac t has bee n preserve d fo r u s b y th e Byzantin e Emperor , Constantin e Porphyrogenitus. The Emperor stated : After thei r baptism, the Croatian s made a pact signed with their own hand and made under strict and solem n oat h to St . Peter th e Apostle , t o the effec t that they would neve r violate the territor y o f others t o wag e war s o n them , but rathe r tha t they woul d liv e i n peac e wit h al l those wh o wishe d it . Th e Pope of Rome himself ha d promise d them that if other people should invad e the territor y of the Croatian s and forc e them to war, God would fight for th e Croatians and would aid them; and [that ] Peter, the disciple of Christ, would procure victory for them. 50 The Christia n concep t o f a just war ha s dominate d Croatia n thinking — and henc e Croatia n history—fo r mor e tha n thirtee n hundre d years . History bear s n o recor d o f an y Croatia n desire , muc h les s o f an y attempt, t o conquer foreign lands. Their wars have been defensiv e wars. Small nations, suc h a s Croatia , canno t affor d t o us e unfai r method s 50

Constantine Porphyrogenitus , De Administrando Imperio, ch . 31 , quote d i n Racki, Documenta, 291-292.

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in internationa l relations , eve n i f the y shoul d wis h t o emplo y them . For, if ethics in international relations be denied, only one rule remains : might make s right, a vicious principle which place s th e smal l nations, economically an d militaril y weaker , o n th e losin g side . O n th e othe r hand, by preserving their own borders, by stressin g the basi c right s of all nation s t o equalit y an d freedom , an d b y pointin g t o thei r ow n cultural values , smal l nation s ma y exercis e reasonabl e hop e fo r th e final victory of justice over injustice, freedom ove r tyranny, and cultur e over barbarism. The Post-War State of Morals The traditiona l wa y o f lif e amon g th e Croatia n Catholi c peopl e ha s been gravel y disturbe d a s a resul t o f th e Communis t take-ove r o f political powe r i n Yugoslavi a (Ma y 1945) . Tito' s regim e claime d th e whole ma n righ t fro m th e beginning . I t impose d a Marxis t worl d outlook, dialectica l materialism , an d a Marxis t ethic , i n whic h th e destiny an d happines s o f the individua l is secondary to tha t o f collective Marxis t goals . I n principle , th e ne w regim e exclude s an y othe r creed an d code . I n practice , i t proceed s slowly , sinc e th e en d o f religious "superstition " an d "capitalist " moralit y canno t b e achieve d overnight. To that end, the Communists have concentrated thei r effort s on th e yout h o f th e country . In man y instance s th e yout h hav e bee n taught secularize d Christian ideals of self-sacrifice, brotherl y love , hard work, an d discipline—al l fo r th e victor y of Communis t cause. We hav e n o read y answe r t o th e importan t questio n o f what i s lef t of Christian morality and patriarchal values among the Croatia n people after almos t two decades o f Communist indoctrination. Ha s th e regim e succeeded i n moldin g a new , Marxis t type o f youn g ma n an d youn g woman? Judging from th e youn g (twent y t o thirty year-old ) refugee s from Yugoslavi a i n recen t years , on e migh t observ e tha t th e yout h resent everythin g connecte d wit h Communism , and henc e th e Com munist ethic s a s well. However , n o othe r syste m of moralit y i s known to many of them, an d therefore , they regar d economi c values a s being on th e to p o f th e valu e scale . I n Croati a today , Christia n moral s ar e still strong in small but vigorou s groups in the town s and cities , a s well as among the peasants at large. I n spit e o f the apparen t truc e betwee n the Communist regime and the Church, there is nevertheless a constant struggle carrie d o n beneat h th e surfac e betwee n thes e tw o rival s fo r human mind s an d hearts . N o one ca n predic t wit h certaint y th e out come of this conflict.

7

Folk Art s an d Handicraft s TOMO MARKOVI C

THE FOL K ART S o f th e Croatian s ar e distinctive , an d thei r handicraf t work i s especiall y noteworth y fo r it s richnes s o f for m an d ornament . Even toda y th e Croatia n people tak e grea t prid e in making with thei r own hand s man y article s o f fin e craftsmanshi p fo r us e i n thei r dail y life and to enhance their home s on special occasions, such a s feast days . The elaboratio n an d ornamentatio n o f th e handicraf t item s i n whic h the Croatian s specializ e clearl y expres s th e fine aestheti c sens e whic h these people possess . The origin s o f fol k carving , pottery , building , metalcraft , weaving , design, an d tattooin g ar e t o b e sough t i n th e man y land s wher e th e Croatians live d throughou t thei r lon g history . Som e o f thes e cultura l activities ma y have originated i n the Croatians ' former homelands—th e country aroun d th e moder n Krakow , and , some scholar s argue , th e region o f Ira n (Persia) . Other s wer e begu n an d adapte d i n th e Croatians' presen t country ; ethnologist s ter m th e product s o f thes e cultural activities "protobalkanic." 1 Other cultura l products, th e origin s of whic h hav e bee n trace d bac k t o th e Mediterranea n shores , ar e called Preroma n an d Roman . Throug h th e ages , man y cultura l in fluences have com e t o th e Croatian s fro m othe r area s too—fro m th e Pannonian Zon e and th e Alpin e Zone, 2 fro m th e Germani c north , th e 1 Milovan Gavazzi , "Etnografsk a struktur a Balkana" / Th e Ethnographi c Struc ture o f the Balkan s (Zagreb : Mimeographe d lectur e series) , 31 . I n th e writin g of this article , th e autho r ha s mad e use of note s take n a t th e Universit y of Zagreb i n the year s 1928-1932 , durin g th e regula r lecture s offere d b y Dr . Milova n Gavazzi , professor o f anthropology; hi s ow n research materials collected i n Bosnia-Hercego vina, 1932-1945 ; an d interview s held i n refuge e camp s a t Ferm o an d Bagnol i in Italy, 1945-1948. 2 The Pannonia n Zon e include s th e are a o n bot h side s o f th e Danub e River , which wa s settled b y the North Croatians, Hungarians, and Rumanians . The Alpin e

FOLK ABT S AN D HANDICRAFTS 22

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Christian an d Mosle m east, th e Appenin e west , an d particularl y fro m Venice. I n thi s way , significan t differentiations appeare d amon g th e Croatian provinces , an d thes e ar e continue d i n thei r fol k arts , especially i n thos e o f Bosni a an d Hercegovina , bu t als o i n thos e o f Dalmatia. Thes e difference s wer e furthe r strengthene d b y historica l events, bu t i n spite of all differences, a common national consciousnes s and on e languag e hav e remained . Thes e latte r tw o element s hav e bound th e man y an d varie d cultura l influence s i n Croati a int o on e cultural whole . Our divisio n o f th e Croatia n fol k art s follow s th e on e customaril y used in ethnology: work is classified unde r th e categorie s o f wood, clay, stone, metal, and cloth . In orde r t o give a more comprehensiv e pictur e of th e fol k art s i n Croatia , w e shal l includ e i n thi s discussio n th e activity o f gour d an d eg g coloring , a s well a s that o f tattooing , whic h is stil l o f muc h significanc e i n som e regions . Colo r wil l b e treate d throughout a s a medium of ornamentation. WOOD Buildings Wood i s use d i n constructin g man y o f th e home s typica l o f Croatia . Sojenice o r soènice are very ancient palafitte houses ( dwellings built on piles fixe d i n th e bed s o f lakes or river s ) an d ar e foun d toda y o n th e Bosna an d Pliv a Rivers , as wel l a s i n Posavina , nea r Slavonsk i Brod, in Jasenovac, an d i n Star a Gradiska . This typ e o f dwellin g belong s t o the Protobalkani c Cultura l Perio d an d date s fro m th e Iro n Age . Thi s is evident fro m th e discoveries of the palafitte settlements of that perio d found i n the villag e o f Donja Dolin a o n the Sav a River, near Bosanska Gradiska.3 Dwellings calle d brvnare, made fro m ordinar y logs , ar e th e typica l homes foun d in mountainous regions that ar e covere d wit h timber . I n the wester n par t o f Posavina , wher e ther e ar e larg e oa k forests , thi s type i s th e mos t commo n o f woode n peasan t dwellings . Th e brvnare once had severa l wings and were richly decorate d wit h wood carvings . Even churche s wer e buil t exclusivel y fro m woode n materials , and in Zone includes peoples settle d in the Alp s and belonging to th e followin g countries: a smal l part o f northwestern Croatia , Slovenia, Austria, northern Italy , Switzerland , and southern France. 3 Gavazzi, "Etnografsk a struktura, " 8 , 31 ; Cir o Truhelka , "Bosn a u dob a pre historicko" / Bosni a i n th e Prehistori c Age , i n th e symposiu m Povijest hrvatskih zemalja Bosne i Hercegovine I Histor y o f th e Croatia n Land s o f Bosni a an d Hercegovina, published b y th e learne d societ y Napredak an d edite d b y Krunosla v Draganovió (Sarajevo , 1942) , 90-93.

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Turopolje on e can stil l se e some twelve smal l woode n churche s whic h date fro m th e er a o f the Baroqu e architectura l style. 4 Furnishing and Decorating In makin g pieces of furniture for the home , woo d i s the mos t commo n material use d by the Croatia n craftsmen . It is used in making balconies , stairway railings , shelves , wal l cabinets , an d chests—al l o f whic h ar e decoratively carved. Man y article s fo r dail y us e ar e als o beautifull y carved b y hand , suc h a s scythe-handles , grindston e boxes , distaffs , spindles, spools , woode n cup s an d othe r vessels , needle cases , mirrors , flutes, an d stools . Th e techniqu e o f decoratin g i s varie d an d include s gouging,5 chip-carving, 8 line-carving, 7 perforating, 8 wood-burning, 9 dotting,10 inlaying o f wire i n wood, an d sealin g wit h wax. 11 Decorativ e motifs popula r amon g these artisan s ar e dots , straigh t an d wav y lines , vegetal configurations , an d geometrica l figures , especiall y triangle s and circles, whic h are often filled in with a six-pointed star . Animal and human motif s ar e use d les s frequently ; the y ar e usuall y foun d o n tw o objects, canteen s an d fiddle s (gusle). Amon g the very ancien t decora tive motif s of th e Croatian s i s th e cros s wit h smal l hooke d ends , th e swastika, tha t i s stil l see n o n ol d distaff s an d colore d eggs , an d i n embroidery work . Th e Moslem s o f Centra l Bosni a cal l suc h crosse s ¿abice, that i s to say , "littl e frogs. " Outstanding center s o f ornamental han d wor k in wood ar e foun d in 4 Ljerka Topali , "Drven e crkvic e i seljack o drven o graditeljstv o u Turopolju " / Little Woode n Churches an d Peasan t Wooden Architectur e in Turopolje , a specia l reprint fro m Etnografska istrazivanja i gradja / Ethnographi c Researc h an d Materials, Book III (Zagreb , 1941). 5 Gouging (dubenje) i s don e wit h a specia l too l twiste d an d adapte d t o th e kind o f object to be worke d on, suc h as a grindstone box , a troug h (fo r the water ing an d feedin g o f animal s ), o r a canoe . See Milova n Gavazzi, "Obradba drveta " / Woodwork , in the serie s under th e genera l titl e "Etnografij a Juzni h Slavena " / Ethnography o f th e Souther n Slavs (Zagreb : Mimeographe d lecture series) . *Chip-carving ( rovasenje ) involve s th e cuttin g an d simultaneou s carvin g o f individual design s (lines ) o r othe r elements , suc h a s smal l triangles, s o tha t th e profile o f the carvin g is in the for m o f a wedge. 7 Line-carving (wood-carving : crtkanje drva) i s the makin g of commo n designs on case s an d chest s wit h th e ai d o f shar p tools . Thi s techniqu e i s a ver y ancien t one. Gavazzi, "Etnografska struktura." 8 Perforating (piercing : rod no proboj) consist s i n th e cuttin g o f decorativ e motifs throug h thi n woode n surfaces . Gavazzi , "Etnografska struktura. " 9 Wood-burning (etching : zezenje) i s done wit h a red-ho t stylus ; the desig n is burned into the wooden surface. Gavazzi , "Etnografska struktura." 10 Dotting (punching : punciranje) i s done with a small iron punch, whic h print s small decorativ e dot s o n case s an d flutes . Thi s i s a ver y ancien t decorativ e motif . Gavazzi, "Etnografska struktura. " n Sea!ing wax is laid in cut-out motifs i n wood. Gavazzi, "Etnografsk a struktura. "

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western Bosnia , particularl y i n th e are a surroundin g th e town s o f Livno, Duvno , Kupres , an d Prozor ; i n neighborin g Hercegovina , i n the tow n o f Konjic ; an d i n th e Dalmatia n Zagora . The peopl e o f th e Coastal Zon e mak e chest s tha t ar e simila r i n ornamentatio n t o thos e made i n th e Appenines . Th e woodwor k o f th e tow n o f Konji c i s notable fo r it s Orienta l name s an d characteristics . W e shoul d als o mention th e famou s woodwor k o f th e tow n o f Livno , i n whic h silve r wire i s inlai d i n woode n object s suc h a s tobacc o cases , ciga r holders , canes, inkstands , and blotters . POTTERY Types Two kind s o f pottery-making 12 ar e prevalen t amon g th e Croatians . The on e typ e i s found in th e Dinari c Alpine Region, stretching west ward t o th e Adriati c coast, an d eastwar d t o th e Drin a River . I n thi s method, the pottery is made from cla y that is mixed with fine limestone (the mixtur e is calle d vrsta), an d the y ar e worke d i n a spira l tech nique that involves the use of a potter's whee l operated wit h on e hand, while th e othe r han d model s th e clay . Th e object s ar e bake d i n the open , withou t an y kiln . Thes e simple , indee d almos t primitive , products ar e no t glazed , bu t ar e merel y sprinkle d (th e ver b i s kaliti in Croatia n ) o r spattere d wit h a liqui d barle y paste . The secon d metho d o f pottery-making involves cla y whic h ha s no t been mixe d with lime, so that it produces a smooth surface, whic h ca n be easil y polished. Th e modelin g i s don e wit h th e ai d o f a potter' s wheel tha t is operated b y foot, an d both hand s are thu s fre e t o d o th e molding. Th e finishe d object s ar e work s o f fine r craftsmanshi p tha n those typica l o f the Dinari c Region , and quit e creativ e ornament s ar e produced i n on e o r mor e colors . Thi s metho d i s employe d i n th e Pannonian Zon e and i n th e territor y borderin g o n th e Alpin e Region. Dinaric Pottery Among th e significan t object s of the Dinari c potter y grou p ar e pekve sometimes calle d crijepnje o r pokljuke. Thes e ar e low , cone-shape d covers use d fo r bakin g brea d o n th e ope n hearth . I n usin g these , hot ember s ar e poure d aroun d th e littl e upturne d cla y ledges , whic h encircle th e outsid e o f th e pekva, an d whic h keep th e ember s fro m 12 Milovan Gavazzi, "Keramika ili loncarstvo" / Ceramic s or Pottery, "Etnografij a Juznih Slavena " / Ethnograph y o f th e Souther n Slav s (Zagreb : Mimeographe d lecture series ).

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falling upo n th e fireplace . Th e pekve originate d i n th e Ancien t Pro tobalkanic Period . Thi s wa s indicate d i n th e discover y o f a pekva dating bac k t o th e Bronz e Age . Th e discover y wa s mad e i n excava tions nea r Ripac 13 an d th e pekva whic h wa s uncovere d ther e i s identical wit h thos e i n us e today . The so-calle d pijure ar e larg e cla y vessel s shape d somewha t lik e a deep dish , and are used to separate cream. Keeping in mind the ancien t pastoral tradition s o f th e Croatia n lands , i t i s no t unlikel y tha t th e pijure als o belon g t o th e Ancien t Protobalkani c Cultura l Period . Mángale ar e larg e roun d pan s an d loo k like inverte d hat s risin g fro m round pedestals . Ho t ember s ar e placed i n these vessels, and the y ar e used fo r warmin g hand s an d fo r roastin g coffe e beans . Th e wor d mángale i s o f Turkis h derivatio n an d signifie s a glowin g ember . A clay vesse l tha t i s identica l wit h th e present-da y mángale o f bake d clay wa s discovere d i n Mrsunjsk i Lug, 14 nea r Brodsk i Stupni k i n th e district o f Slavonsk i Brod, wher e Slavi c stronghold s datin g fro m th e early Middl e Age s have bee n found . Toda y th e mángale ar e popula r throughout Bosnia-Hercegovin a an d i n th e Mosle m east . I n ope n workshops an d i n th e Orienta l typ e o f ope n marke t place , the y ar e considered indispensabl e for heating. Another articl e o f Dinari c potter y i s th e cup, whic h i s ver y usefu l for conservin g butte r an d fo r preservin g jam . Th e cup ha s a smal l circular base , is wide in the middle, an d has a rolled-edge to p whic h is somewhat broade r tha n it s base . Th e siz e o f th e cup varie s con siderably. This containe r i s similar to the Roma n amphora , except tha t it ha s n o handles . Professo r Milova n Gavazz i i s incline d t o believ e that th e wor d cup originate d i n th e Illyria n language, 15 althoug h thi s term i s common amon g the Turks . Bakre ar e a mor e shallo w typ e of bowl, wit h a lip-edge , an d ar e use d fo r cookin g cornmeal , cabbage , dry meat , and othe r simila r foods . In Bosnia , the bardad and testije are jug s i n frequen t use . Th e bardak ha s a bea k o r spout , whil e th e testija doe s not . Th e Moslem s us e thes e ware s fo r ritua l washings , a s well as for many other purposes. The potter y whic h w e hav e describe d i n thi s sectio n i s plai n an d only occasionall y contain s incise d o r molde d ornamentation . Th e decorative motif s ar e strokes , dots , an d rectilinea r an d curvilinea r patterns, whic h ar e presse d i n wit h th e fingertip s aroun d th e borde r ls

Milovan Gavazzi, "Etnografska struktura, " 32. Zdenko Vinski , Gmdi&te u Mrsunjskom Lugu I Ruin s i n Mrsunjsk i Lu g (Zagreb: Archaeologica l Museum, 1950), 19 . An expositio n o f the first excavation of a Slavi c stronghold fro m th e earl y Middl e Ages i n Croatia . 15 Gavazzi, "Keramika." 14

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or, i n th e cas e o f jar s an d jugs , i n th e conve x are a a t th e middl e of the container . Bosnian Pottery In Bosni a on e find s pitcher s an d variou s othe r type s o f potter y o f fantastic shape s wit h name s and form s simila r to thos e o f the Mosle m East. Th e tow n o f Kiseljak, 16 nea r Visoko , is a note d cente r fo r wor k with incise d ornamental motifs an d fo r decorations execute d i n a light chestnut-brown color . Haberland links the wor k of Kiseljak with that of the Mycenaea n products . Gavazz i is more inclined t o thin k tha t thes e objects ar e influence d by th e Levantine-Arabi c ceramics. 17 The primitiv e cerami c production s tha t w e hav e mentione d ar e i n direct contras t to the potter y of the Norther n Zone. Some of the form s of th e latter—glazure , variegate d flora l motifs , an d plasti c decoration s in plan t an d anima l patterns—indicate tha t the y originate d a t a late r time in histor y tha n th e mor e primitive objects . STONE Buildings Stone i s th e chie f materia l use d i n buildin g house s i n th e Adriati c Zone an d i n th e kars t regions of Bosni a and Hercegovina . Amon g th e very ol d structure s o f this typ e ar e th e poljarice, cernen, and bunje.18 These ar e roun d littl e house s constructe d fro m block s o f ordinar y stone, an d the y resembl e a lo w tower wit h a n irregula r cupola . The y have severa l row s o f circula r ring s stretchin g aroun d thei r girth , an d at the to p o f the cupol a is an opening on which a disc is placed. Thes e structures ar e use d for shelte r a s well a s for storage , an d the y ca n b e seen throughout Dalmatia . From a comparison with object s discovered in souther n Italy , Sardinia , an d o n th e norther n borde r o f Africa , i t is evident that these stone constructions belong to the Ancient Mediterranean Cultural Period. In passing , i t might b e wel l t o touc h upo n th e ol d ston e structures , ie lbid. Se e also Arthu r Haberland , "Di e volkstümlich e Kultu r Europa s i n ihre r geschichtlichen Entwicklung, " in Geor g Buschan, Illustrierte Volkerkunde, Boo k I I (Stuttgart: Streckerun d Schroder , 1922-26) . 17 Gavazzi, "Keramika." 18 Gavazzi, "Etnografsk a struktura, " 36 . Se e als o hi s "Primitivn e nastambe " / Primitive Dwellings , i n th e lectur e serie s "Etnografij a Juzni h Slavena" ; an d Cir o Ivekovic, "Bunje , cernen , poljarice, " i n th e symposiu m dedicate d t o th e firs t Croatian Kin g Tomisla v Zbornik kralja Tomislava (Zagreb : Yugosla v Academy, 1925).

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which th e Croatian s erecte d upo n thei r arriva l o n th e Adriati c coast . The churche s an d oratorie s foun d her e ar e predominantl y small. 19 Some o f thes e ar e stil l standin g today ; i n a grea t man y cases , how ever, onl y th e foundation s hav e bee n preserved . A grea t dea l o f decoratively interwove n ornamentatio n characterize s thes e churche s and oratories . Dr . Ljub o Karaman , on e o f the bes t cultura l historian s in the field of Croatian art , points ou t tha t i n the constructio n of thes e churches ar t wa s introduce d b y th e Slavs. 20 Josi p Strzygowsk y finds remarkable resemblance s betwee n th e structur e o f th e smal l ol d Croatian churche s an d tha t o f th e Sassanid s i n Sarvista n an d th e Persepolis in Persia. These resemblance s ar e emphasized b y thos e who adhere t o th e theor y o f th e Irania n origi n o f th e Croatians. 21 Tombstones and Other Stonework Among Croatia n artisti c work s i n stone , th e tombstone s fro m th e Middle Age s whic h are foun d in Bosni a and Hercegovin a are out standing. Thes e ar e calle d steed o r mramorovi an d ar e ascribe d t o "Bosnian Christians. " According t o Alexande r Solovjev 22 som e 59,50 0 of these stone markers have been found . Onl y a few are inscribe d wit h the bosancica scrip t an d decorate d i n relief . Th e best-know n monu ment i s tha t erecte d i n memor y o f Prijezda , a noblema n wh o late r became ba n o f Bosnia. It i s foun d i n Zgosca, 23 nea r Vare s i n Bosnia , and date s fro m th e thirteent h century . Today i t i s to b e foun d i n th e National Museu m in Sarajevo . Thi s monumen t is shaped lik e a house , with th e followin g dimensions : th e double-eave d roo f ha s a lengt h of 8'8" ; th e heigh t a t th e corner s is 4'9", an d t o th e pea k o f the roof , 5'6"; th e widt h a t the bas e is 4'6", an d a t the edg e o f the eaves , 4'9". The ston e rest s o n a larg e fla t supportin g base . I t i s decorate d wit h a chisele d relie f which display s scene s fro m th e dail y lif e o f th e aristocracy o f th e time : huntin g scenes , richl y adorne d horses , an d gay publi c festivals—amon g whic h i s th e famou s nationa l kolo, a dance. A significan t numbe r o f thes e tombstone s ar e foun d i n th e neighboring Dalmatian Region . Notable als o are th e tombstone s o f th e 19 Ljubo Karaman, Pregled umjetnosti u Dalmacifi I A Survey of Art i n Dalmati a (Zagreb: Matic a Hrvatska, 1952) , 16-19.

wibid., 16. 21

Stjepan Sakac , "Intorn o all ' etnogenes i slava . Nuov e opinion! sull' origin e e la formazione de i popol i slavi, " La Civiltà Cattolica 2383 , 238 5 (Rome , Oct . 1 and Nov. 5, 1949). 22 Maja Miletic , 'TKrstjani * d i Bosni a ali a luc e de i lor o monument i d i pietra, " Orientalia Christiana Analecta (Rome , 1957) , 25. 23 Ciro Truhelka , Studije o poriieklu I Studie s o f Origin s (Zagreb : Matica . Hrvatska, 1941) , 44-57,

Handicrafts. Upper: Grindston e boxes . Center left: Woode n cups . Center right: Distaffs. Lower left: Needl e cases. Lower right: Spools .

Dinaric pottery. Wate r vessels fro m Kiseljak , nea r Kresevo , Bosnia.

Upper: Tattooin g design . Lower: Embroider y desig n fro m North-Wester n Bosnia .

Upper: Costume s from th e Zepc e countryside in Bosnia. Lower: Woma n embroidering o n a horizontal loom.

Left: Enamele d bo x for religious books. Right: Leade r of th e heroi c gam e alka. Hi s righ t han d rest s o n th e yataghan, a long Turkis h knife.

Croatian folk art : eggs wit h variou s designs.

Croatian lac e fro m variou s regions.

Croatian authors . Upper left: Stank o Vra z (1810-51) . Upper right: Peta r Preradovi c (1818-72). Lower left: Ant e Tresic-Pavici c (1867-1949) . Lower right: Eugeni j Kumicic (1850-1904) .

FOLK ART S AN D HANDICRAFTS 23

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Moslem aristocrats , especiall y i n Sarajevo , Travnik , and Livno , amon g other place s i n Bosnia an d Hercegovina . Th e tombstone s i n som e of th e olde r Catholi c cemeterie s ar e als o outstandin g an d ar e dis tinguished b y thei r beautifull y elaborate d symboli c decoration s an d inscriptions i n bosanoica. To these work s in ston e one might als o ad d th e numerou s Croatia n stone bridges , especiall y tha t o n th e Neretv a Rive r i n Mostar , an d the one s i n Visegra d an d i n Trebinje . Throughou t Croati a ther e ar e also man y differen t fortifications , castles , an d fort s o f ston e worth y of note; and in both Bosnia and Hercegovina ther e are numerous mosques with slender minaret s and watch towers. METAL Ancient Heritage For a prope r appraisa l o f th e accomplishment s o f th e Croatian s i n the field of handicrafts in which meta l is used, it is well to keep in mind that th e knowledg e o f metalcraf t wa s probabl y ver y scant y i n th e ancient homelan d o f th e Croatians . I t wa s onl y i n thei r ne w countr y that the y cam e o n a rather highl y develope d ar t o f metal production . We ca n assum e this fro m th e prehistori c meta l artifact s discovere d i n Croatia. A s a tangible exampl e of the influenc e whic h th e people s wh o preceded the Croatian s exerte d o n the futur e inhabitants o f their land s one might mention the well-know n headgear o f the inhabitant s o f Lika. These ar e littl e roun d cap s tha t hav e a decorativ e ornamenta l tassel which hang s ove r on e temple . A replic a i n bras s o f suc h a ca p wa s found i n th e excavation s o f object s datin g fro m th e Bronz e Age , i n Kompolje, nea r Gospic , i n the provinc e o f Lika. 24 Th e ancien t manne r of formin g thi s replic a wa s th e sam e a s th e moder n techniqu e o f hammering brass.25 Brass is used in modern times in Croatia for making many popular accoutrements , such a s earrings, and , amon g the peopl e in Bosni a and Dalmatia , a s a fring e fo r hea d coverings . The Croatia n techniqu e o f workin g wit h meta l wir e originate d i n some distant age. The artisan twists and winds wire in spiral motifs an d thereby produce s lovel y fringe s an d loops . Thes e artisti c wir e fringe s are very common in parts o f the Dinari c Alps. They ar e reall y no more than a n imitatio n o f simila r decorativ e object s fro m som e prehistori c period. 24 Gavazzi, "Etnografsk a struktura, " 33 , an d Musk a nosnj a / Mal e Costumes , "Etnografija Juzni h Slavena." 2B Milovan Gavazzi , "Obradb a Kovina " / Meta l Work , i n th e lectur e serie s "Etnografija Juzni h Slavena, "

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Byzantine Influence New method s o f workin g with meta l wer e acquire d fro m Byzantium , by wa y o f th e neighborin g Lati n coasta l citie s whic h wer e unde r Byzantine politica l jurisdiction . In recen t time s historian s hav e accen tuated th e influenc e o n th e Croatian s o f thei r Pannonia n neighbors, 26 for alon g Lak e Balato n ther e existe d a cente r o f combine d meta l an d leather production , which th e Hungaria n archaeologist s ascribe t o th e Kutrigurian Avars . T o thi s are a belon g als o th e discoverie s i n th e cemetery of Biskupija, near Knin. 27 The Byzantin e influence is revealed in th e finding s a t th e Women' s Cemeter y i n Tril j nea r Split . Fro m available historical data, we learn that i n the tim e o f Peter Kresimi r IV ( 1058-1074 ) mentio n was mad e o f a native goldsmit h by th e nam e of Grubisa.28 Late r a contemporar y o f Kin g Zvonimi r (1076-1089) , Bishop Lawrence o f Split, 29 sen t his ow n maste r craftsma n to Syri a t o learn th e goldsmith' s trade , i n orde r tha t h e migh t mak e variou s articles fro m preciou s metal s fo r us e i n churches . In th e followin g centurie s (fro m th e twelft h t o th e eighteenth) , stronger tie s wit h Byzantiu m an d Ital y advance d th e Croatia n tech nique o f workin g wit h meta l stil l further . Thi s i s eviden t fro m th e crosses, candlesticks , reli c containers , an d othe r sacre d vessel s tha t have com e dow n t o us . Th e outstandin g center s o f thi s craf t wer e Zadar, Rab , Nin, Biograd-on-the-Sea, Trogir , Split , Dubrovnik , an d Boka Kotorska. Bosnian Metalwork In th e secon d hal f o f th e fifteent h century , Bosni a cam e unde r th e influence o f the Turkis h east, and eve n toda y i t manifest s a number of distinctly Turkis h characteristics . W e fin d i n Bosni a th e ric h cultura l inventory an d inspiratio n o f the Orient . I n th e fiel d o f excellen t workmanship i n meta l w e shoul d mentio n especiall y swords, 80 knives , pistols, enamele d boxe s fo r religiou s books , cases , containers , an d cartridge holders . Thi s typ e o f metalwor k i s don e b y hammerin g perforations an d indentation s o n the revers e sid e o f the objec t wit h a 26

Karaman, Pregled, 13-14. ^Ibid., 14. 28 Josip Horvat , Kultura Hrvata kroz hiljadu godina I Th e Cultur e o f th e Croa tians Through a Thousand Years (Zagreb , 1939) , 120. ^Ibid. 30 Vejsil Curcic , "Starinsk o oruzj e u Bosn i i Hercegovini " / Ancien t Weapons i n Bosnia an d Hercegovina , Glasnik Zemaljskog Muzeja u Sarajevu ( 1926), 109£E . Se e also Mila n Praunsberger , Oruzje starih Hrvata u povifesti i u narodnoj pjesmi I Weapons o f th e Ancien t Croatian s i n Histor y an d Fol k Song s (Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska, 1943) ,

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31

small mallet, producin g a modele d qualit y i n relie f o n th e fron t o f the metal . Th e Bosnian s als o engag e i n th e art s o f engravin g an d chasing—carving an d chiselin g wit h shar p tools , an d perforatin g bras s for delicat e trim . The y als o granulat e melte d silve r o r gol d wire , producing littl e bead s o r drops , se t i n a serie s o f ornamenta l patterns . A favorit e craf t o f th e Bosnian s involve s th e techniqu e o f filigree , especially in earrings and bracelets. In this process, the meta l i s twiste d and worke d into a spira l motif, o r interwove n i n th e for m o f a woole n cord, t o for m man y kind s o f delicat e ornaments . W e hav e alread y referred t o another specialt y o f the Bosnians , the inlayin g of metal wir e in wood , notabl y i n ciga r holder s an d cigarett e cases . Inlayin g i s als o done in metal, by insertin g filaments or smal l plates of precious metal , gold o r silver , i n th e hollo w o f another metal . This metho d i s used t o make decorate d gu n shafts , dagge r sheaths , an d inscribe d motto s an d name plates. The insertion of semi-precious stones and variegate d glas s in meta l i s a n ar t tha t th e Bosnian s emplo y i n th e makin g o f belts , handles o f knives , and yataghan s (Turkis h lon g knives) . Th e decora tive design s o n thes e object s usually consist of rectilinear o r meander ing lines, geometrical figure s o f different combinations , flowers, foliage, birds, cypresses , mosques , watc h towers , hexagrams , an d representa tions o f the huma n eye , whic h ar e supposedl y o n watc h fo r il l omens. CLOTH Regional Specialties Cloth enable s artisan s wit h ric h imagination s t o mak e man y things , notably article s o f clothing, bu t als o items o f adornmen t fo r dail y use , such a s towels , bandanas , an d pouches . Al l o f th e region s i n Croati a are bountifull y represente d i n thi s sphere . Th e norther n sectio n o f Croatia, betwee n th e Sav a an d Drav a Rivers , an d th e territor y sur rounding th e Kup a River , ar e area s i n whic h th e peopl e revea l grea t skill in tailoring, dying , and i n the production o f decorative pieces, such as veils, shoulderettes, aprons , sashes, and sox. The bes t preserve d centra l are a o r nucleu s o f th e original , ancien t art o f dressmakin g i n it s variou s forms i s alon g th e uppe r Posavin a i n the directio n o f Zagreb, especially i n towns like Pisarevina, Oresje , an d Sveta Nedjelja . I n th e south—i n northwester n an d wester n Bosnia , al l of Hercegovina , th e Dalmatia n Zagor a an d norther n Dalmati a an d 31

Gavazzi, "Obradb a kovina. " Se e als o hi s Hrvatska narodna umjetnost I Croa tian Folk Ar t (Zagreb , 1944), xvi.

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Lika—the fanc y wor k o f th e peopl e i s distinctive , particularl y wit h regard t o vests , shirts , sashes , aprons , veils , sox , an d slippers , al l o f which ar e richl y decorated . I n Lik a an d i n norther n Dalmatia , richl y embroidered re d cap s wit h th e lette r S , formed b y a strin g o f beads , are characteristic. The significanc e o f this decorative S is obscure; some scholars believ e tha t i t i s derive d fro m th e swastika. 32 Embroidery The member s o f th e urba n populatio n o f Bosnia-Hercegovina , espe cially the young women, do fine work with needles, embroider y frames , rich sil k threads , an d silve r an d gol d wire . The y embroide r fanc y handkerchiefs (i n gol d an d silve r threads) , towels , shirts , bandanas , and sashe s for underwear . Man y of the design s which the y us e ar e of Oriental inspiration, and this is seen especially in motifs such as flowers, twigs, birds, mosque s and watch towers. Two technique s o f embroider y ar e use d i n Bosnia-Hercegovina . In one, the metho d i s to first trace the patter n o n line n cloth ; th e secon d method involve s th e countin g o f stitches . Muc h o f th e Croatia n em broidery i s done on linen, which i s woven in th e home o n a horizontal loom, an d i s ofte n interwove n wit h colorfu l stripes . Th e Croatian s also embroide r o n wool , and thi s i s particularl y tru e o f the peopl e i n the Dinari c Zone and its neighboring region s in the making of clothing. The custo m o f combinin g embroider y wit h leathe r craft , an d wit h leather i n general , i s restricted t o th e norther n regio n o f Croatia , an d resembles th e wor k o f th e Magyar s and Slovak s close by . Colors A common characteristic o f Croatian peasant dres s is its especiall y fine color harmony . I n thi s domai n th e peasant s ar e rea l masters . Har monious colo r combinations , achromati c blac k an d whit e combine d with red , yellow , an d blue , creat e beautifu l color schemes. Re d play s an essential role in the peasant' s costume . Among the secondar y color s of violet, orange, purple, an d green , violet i s the Croatia n favorite , and more especiall y tha t shade o f violet which is most brilliant. Secondar y colors are usually discreetly accompanie d b y one o f the primar y colors in Croatian dress. In ever y combination o f colors, the mos t favored ar e the bright ones. The tertiary colors—those colors which ar e a combination o f secondar y ones—ar e ofte n use d i n th e peasan t costume . Fro m ^Enciclopedia Esposa, Vol . 5 8 (Madrid , 1927) , 1172-1174 . Se e als o Rodne y Gallop, Los Vascos (Madrid , 1955), 186ff .

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this tertiar y compositio n resul t th e riches t an d mos t picturesqu e harmonies. In thi s respect th e peasant reveals his very fine taste.33 Knitting Both i n th e textil e work s an d amon g individuals , knittin g play s a n important rol e i n Croatia n life . Numerou s Croatian s ar e adep t a t knitting stockings , sox , slippers , and gloves , all in the mos t beautifu l manner o f interlacing. Thi s skil l is develope d an d elaborate d t o ver y advanced degree s i n th e urba n territories o f Bosnia and Hercegovina , and, in the north , in the land s whic h borde r on the Alpin e Zone. Carpet-Weaving Carpet-weaving34 o n a vertica l loo m i s a specia l techniqu e whic h i s widespread throughou t Lika , Slavonia , an d right acros s Bosnia-Herce govina. Among the man y well-known centers o f this craf t ar e Sarajevo , Livno, Duvno , Glamoc , Prozor , an d Foca . Popula r decorativ e motif s used in Croatian carpet-weaving ar e geometrical designs, zig-zag lines, step motifs , an d stylis h plan t an d anima l motifs—al l o f whic h reflec t Oriental traits . O n olde r tapestrie s on e ma y not e tha t th e line s o f th e ornamental design s ar e smalle r an d mor e precis e tha n o n late r ones . At on e tim e th e geometrica l an d geometricize d desig n prevailed , bu t gradually it was largely supplanted by the naturalistic design, including —to som e extent—th e zoomorphi c design . Nevertheless , geometrica l patterns are stil l of significanc e in the ornamentatio n of Croatia n tapestry. Fabric Arts in the Life of the People In the Croatia n textile arts, the creato r o f an object frequently fashions his product wit h th e ai m that it serv e as an embellishmen t tha t migh t add jo y an d gaiet y t o life . Thi s characteristi c i s especiall y notabl e i n the countles s public celebration s a t whic h th e product s o f th e textil e arts help to enliven an d to ad d atmospher e to th e kolo an d t o ga y fol k tunes. Th e thre e element s o f beautifu l fabrics, th e dance , an d music , combine t o for m a n organi c whole . The y ar e essentia l t o th e ver y spirit o f the peopl e an d assis t the Croatian s i n expressin g themselves, especially a t festival time . This suggest s a mor e seriou s reaso n fo r th e spontaneou s rejoicin g 33 Ljubo Babic , Bo/ a i skald / Colo r an d Harmon y (Zagreb : Hrvatsk i izdavalack i bibliografski zavod , 1943) , 33-40. Se e als o Babic , Umjetnost kod Hrvata (Zagreb , 1943), 27-28. 34 VIadimir Tkalcic , Seljacko cilimarstvo u Jugoslaviji / Peasan t Carpet-Weavin g in Yugoslavia , Etnolosk a Bibliotek a / Ethnolog y Librar y (Zagreb , 1929) .

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that i s revealed in the fol k tune s which accompan y almost all the work done with cloth. There are in many cases particular songs to accompany certain type s of endeavor. In Bosni a especially, a young lady invariably sings whe n sh e doe s embroider y work . Thi s i s easil y understood , because th e man y article s whic h th e youn g gir l embroider s wit h he r own hands ar e bein g prepare d fo r he r futur e marrie d lif e an d home . Her thought s ar e expresse d i n th e song s whic h ar e directe d t o he r loved one . He r singin g become s a n advertisemen t fo r tha t home— a sign tha t ther e i s a worth y youn g lad y i n th e home , on e wh o ca n embroider wit h rea l skil l and diligence . Th e youn g woman wh o doe s not kno w ho w t o weave , sew , embroider , an d kni t run s th e ris k o f becoming a targe t fo r ridicule . Ther e ar e eve n Croatia n song s whic h mock just such a girl. GOURD AND EGG COLORING Among the Croatia n native artisti c skill s i s numbered the ar t o f gourd coloring, whic h i s carrie d o n onl y b y th e peopl e o f Slavonia . Th e colored gourd s ar e use d a s decorativ e piece s an d fo r drinkin g cups . Cutting i s done by mean s of a carvin g knife, an d th e individua l part s of th e gour d ar e colore d wit h a n aci d liqui d whic h i s ofte n use d t o melt gold . Th e decoratio n usually consist s o f linea r o r vegeta l motifs , or designs of birds. A significan t par t o f th e Easte r traditio n amon g th e Catholic s o f Croatia i s the colorin g of Easter eggs . Sometime s the egg s ar e use d t o add deligh t t o snacks , or a s gifts , o r prizes, or eve n a s stake s in games of chance . Thes e marvel s of colo r ar e s o traditional a t Easte r tha t i n earlier time s the Moslem s called thi s Christia n feastday Kyzyl jumurta, that is , "re d eggs." 35 I n th e north , th e tim e followin g Easte r wa s designated a s "after th e eg g breaking," or , in Latin, post concussionem ov&rum.36 Unti l recently, egg s wer e colore d wit h home-prepare d dye s made fro m th e bar k o f the alde r tre e o r fro m cooke d red onio n peels. The line s are drawn o n the eg g by applyin g melted wa x with a stylus , and the n th e eg g is dipped i n a war m dye. The wa x is then removed , and o n thos e area s wher e th e writin g wa s don e wit h wax , th e eg g remains white . Fo r thi s reaso n suc h egg s ar e calle d "designe d eggs " (pisanice). I n th e village s aroun d Zepc e i n Bosnia , th e egg s ar e wrapped wit h piece s o f variegate d cotto n thread , whic h mak e u p 35 Milovan Gavazzi, Godina daña hrvatskth narodnih obicaja / Fol k Custom s of the Croatia n People Around the Year , Part I (Zagreb , 1939) , 40. ^Ibid., 29.

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various geometrica l designs . Dyein g egg s re d ha s preserve d man y ancient and primitiv e decorativ e motifs, suc h as the swastika , and the cross whic h i s decorate d a t th e end s wit h a serie s o f fi r needles . I n northeastern Hercegovin a an d th e neighborin g Dalmatia n territories , the wedg e design , i n differen t geometrica l combinations, wa s onc e prevalent. Th e Norther n Zone, whic h als o use d a geometrica l desig n of a mor e complicate d form , favore d th e vegeta l motif , an d mor e especially th e floral pattern i n varied colors—white , yellow, an d ambe r on a chestnut brown base. The custo m o f colorin g an d dyein g egg s ha s it s root s i n ancien t times. Shell s o f colore d egg s were foun d i n th e grave s o f som e of th e old norther n Europea n peoples. 37 Dye d egg s of the Ukrainian s and Poles resemble thos e of the Croatian s both in technique an d decorativ e motifs. Thes e resemblance s ar e foun d t o a lesse r degre e amon g othe r southern Slav s (o r the y d o no t hav e the m a t all) . Her e w e shoul d emphasize tha t th e Moslem s too k muc h pleasur e i n receivin g thes e colored eggs , especiall y th e re d ones . I t i s know n tha t thei r youn g women like d t o wash i n water int o which a re d eg g had bee n dipped , so tha t the y woul d the n hav e ros y cheeks . Thi s wa s don e o n certai n days o f th e year , notabl y o n th e feas t o f St . Georg e (Apri l 23) . TATTOOING A Traditional Skill The olde r types of designs on colored egg s greatly resembl e th e motifs used by the Croatian s in the tattooing 38 of skin. Tattooing i s an ancien t tradition i n th e Balkans , an d i t wa s know n eve n i n th e tim e o f Herodotus, Plutarch, Cicero, and Strabo by the Thracians, the Illyrians , and that part of the latter group which intermingled with the Celt s an d were calle d Japudes . Toda y thi s practic e i s preserve d amon g th e Catholics i n Bosnia . In th e tim e of the Turks , the ar t wa s considered — especially amon g th e women—t o b e a defens e agains t conversio n t o Islam. This belief stemme d from th e many crosses which wer e tattooe d into the skin. The Manner of Tattooing The procedur e whic h th e Croatian s us e i n tattooin g ha s remaine d unchanged wit h th e passin g of time. A mixture is made fro m th e soo t silbid., 27. Mary Edit h Durham , Some Tribal Origins, Laws and Customs of the Balkans (London, 1928) , 101-106 . Th e autho r has als o mad e use o f informatio n obtained from Mr . Blaz Blazevic of Koricani, near Travnik in Bosnia . 38

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of a burned resinous wood o r from pin e resin. This ingredient i s mixed with hone y o r mil k in a smal l dish . The n th e ar m o r ches t i s pierce d with a needl e makin g a serie s o f small crosse s in varie d combination s of hal f moon s an d ful l circle s wit h projectin g ray s whic h loo k lik e radiant suns . The cros s with smal l hooked end s originate d i n ancien t times, when it served as a symbol of the Sola r cult. Othe r tattoo s hav e a variet y o f representations—spike s o f wheat, branches , firs , bracelets , and fences—bu t image s of the huma n figure ar e neve r used . When th e tattooing i s finished, the tatto o i s rubbed an d covere d with th e honey soot mixtur e and the n wrappe d i n linen . I n a da y o r two th e tatto o is cleansed an d thoroughl y washe d an d thereafte r remain s permanent . Normally, tattooin g i s don e i n a perio d fro m th e feas t o f St . Josep h (March 19) until just before Easter. In conclusion , it might b e emphasize d tha t in th e handicraf t arts , as well a s i n othe r field s o f creativ e art , th e Croatian s displa y fin e aesthetic taste . Their feelin g for ar t i s inherited fro m th e pas t an d ha s been passe d o n throug h th e centurie s fro m generatio n t o generation. This i s the reaso n why Croatia n handicraft s ar e permeate d wit h rem nants o f ancient beliefs , an d wh y the y hav e no t onl y artisti c bu t als o historical value . BIBLIOGRAPHY Babic, Ljubo. Boja i sklad / Colo r and Harmony. Zagreb, 1943 . •. Umjetnost kod Hrvata / Art amon g the Croatians . (Se e particularl y ch. 1: "Pucka umjetnost " / Fol k Art. ) Zagreb, 1943 . Gavazzi, Milovan . "Svastik a i njezin ornamentalni razvo j n a uskrsni m jajim a sa Balkana " / Swastik a and its Ornamental Developmen t o n Easter Egg s in th e Balkans , Zbornik za narodni zivot i obicaje Juznih Slavena / Symposium o n th e Fol k Lif e an d Custom s o f Souther n Slavs . Vol . 27 , 1-24. Zagreb , 1896-1957 . •. Godina daña hrvatskih narodnih obica-ja / Fol k Custom s o f th e Croatian Peopl e Aroun d the Year . 2 vols. Zagreb: Matic a Hrvatska , 1939 . •. Pregled etnografije Hrvata / A Surve y o f Ethnograph y Amon g th e Croatians. 2 vols. Zagreb: ABC Club, 1940 . . Hrvatska narodna umjetnost / Croatia n Fol k Art . Zagreb : Hrvatsk i Izdavalacki Bibliografski Zavod, 1944 . Glasnik Zemaljskog Muzeja za Bosnu i Hercegovinu / Bulleti n o f th e National Museu m for Bosnia and Hercegovina . Sarajevo , 1889-1919. Karaman, Ljubo . La Dalmatic à travers les âges. Split , 1933 . Praunsberger, Milan . Oruzje starih Hrvata u povijesti i u narodnaj pjesmi / Weapons o f th e Ol d Croatian s i n Histor y an d i n Fol k Songs . Zagreb : Matica Hrvatska, 1943).

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Tkalcic, Vladimir . Seljaóko cilimarstvo u Jugoslaviji / Peasan t Carpet Weaving i n Yugoslavi a (Ethnolog y Librar y series ) Zagreb : Croatia n National Ethnographic Museu m in Zagreb , 1939 . Topali, Ljerka . "Drven e crkvic e i seljack o drven o graditeljstv o u Turopolju " / Little Wooden Churche s an d Peasant Wooden Architectur e in Turopolje, Etnografska istrazivanja i gradja. Vol . 3. Zagreb, 1941 . Truhelka, Ciro. Studije o podrijetlu: EtnoloSka razmatranja iz Bosne i Hercegovine / Studie s o f Origins : Ethnologica l Researc h i n Bosni a an d Herce govina. Zagreb, 1941 . Zbornik za narodni zivot i obióaje Juznih Slavena / Symposiu m on the Fol k Life an d Custom s o f Souther n Slavs . Zagreb , 1896-1957 .

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Literature: fro m th e Illyria n Movemen t to Realis m (1835-1895 ) K. B. K.

AFTEE THE Congress of Vienna ( 1815 ), Dalmatia an d Istri a cam e under the direc t rul e o f Austria; Croati a an d Slavoni a wer e governe d fro m Budapest, whil e th e Ottoman s hel d Bosni a until 1878 . Maria Theres a and he r so n Joseph I I wante d t o organiz e th e Hapsbur g Empir e a s a centralized state , wit h Germa n a s th e officia l language . Th e Magya r and Croatia n nobility , a unite d front , rejecte d thi s unconstitutiona l attempt o n th e par t o f th e Austrians. 1 Then , strangel y enough , th e Magyars endeavore d t o impos e thei r ow n tongu e o n th e Croatians , instead o f Latin , a s th e officia l language . As coul d be expected , the Croatian s resolutel y oppose d the intro duction o f th e Magya r languag e int o thei r lands . I n spit e o f valian t Croatian resistance , Magyar was prescribed i n 183 0 for use i n Croatian schools an d public affairs ; i n this way the Budapes t governmen t hope d to Magyariz e Croatia. 2 Th e stronge r th e pressur e fro m th e Magya r side, however, th e more determine d th e Croatia n resistanc e became . THE ILLYRIAN MOVEMEN T ( 1835-1849 ) In th e ran k o f th e Croatia n yout h o f thi s er a ther e the n appeare d a new cultural , literary , political , an d socia l movemen t know n a s th e Illyrian Movement. 3 Th e younge r Croatia n patriot s rejecte d th e iPerdo Sisic , Pregled povijesti hrvatskoga naroda (Zagreb , 1916) , 215-229 . 2Ferdo Sisic, Hrvatska povijest, II I (Zagreb , 1913) , 145 . 3 The bes t studie s o f th e Illyria n Movemen t ar e thos e b y Ferd o Sisic , Antu n Barac, an d Franj o Fancev : Sisic , " O stogodsnjic i ilirskog a pokreta, " Ljetopis Akademije 4 9 (1935) , 99-118 ; Sisic , "Genès e e t caractère généra l d u mouvemen t

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legalistic struggl e o f th e older , feudal-minde d Croatia n leader s an d viewed the situation a s they fel t i t really was. They saw in the Austrian and Hungaria n government s two foreign powers wh o were attemptin g in ever y wa y t o expan d a t th e expens e o f the Slavs . Ther e remained , they believed, on e logical and inevitable conclusion : for the Croatians, as for the othe r Slavs , salvatio n would com e only when th e Slavs , who outnumbered th e German s and especially the Magyars , would becom e conscious o f thei r solidarity. 4 Ja n Kollár , a Slova k poet wh o wrot e i n the Czec h language, was most ardent proponent o f Pan-Slavism, which regarded al l Slav s as a singl e natio n speakin g fou r dialect s (Russian , Czech, Polish , an d Illyrian) . Th e Sout h Slav s wer e calle d Illyrians because the y wer e regarde d b y som e scholar s o f th e tim e a s th e descendants of this ancient race. 5 The Illyria n Movemen t soo n roused th e whol e o f Croatia . A s the y grew aware of its significance, the Hungaria n authorities trie d t o crus h the movement . There followed a period of persecution for its members, and i n 184 3 th e nam e Illyria n wa s forbidden , bu t i t wa s impossibl e to stamp out the movemen t itself. On the contrary , the majorit y o f th e Croatian peopl e stoo d united , read y t o seiz e th e firs t opportunit y t o deal a blo w to Loui s Kossut h (1802-1894) , who boldl y asserte d tha t he "could no t find Croatia o n the map." 6 The Illyrian Movement was most successful in the realm of literature. Aware tha t Croatia n literatur e coul d no t develo p withi n th e narro w orbit of the Kaykavian dialect, an d that it was hampered b y the several orthographies the n prevailing, Ljudevit Ga j an d his followers first tried to solv e th e proble m o f th e literar y languag e an d orthography . The y advocated tha t th e Croatians , Serbs, and Slovene s should al l recognize one literary language , th e Shtokavia n dialect, whic h wa s use d b y th e Illyrien," Le Uor.de Slave I (1937) , 267-88 ; Barac , "Le s étude s critique s su r la littérature d e l'illyrisme, " Le Monde Slave II , (1935) , 353-73 ; Fancev , "Ilirstv o u hrvatsko m preporodu, " Ljetopis 49 , 130-57 ; Fancev , "Hrvatsk i preporo d ka o opcenarodni pokret, " Hrvatska Revija 8 (1936) , 412-27 ; Fancev , "Le s origine s autochtones d u mouvemen t illyrien croate, " Le Monde Slave II, 384-93 ; R . Warnier, "Illyrism e e t nationalism e croate, " Le Monde Slave III , (1935), 27-74 . Very usefu l anthologie s hav e bee n compile d b y Slavk o Tezic , Ilirska antologija (Zagreb, 1934) , an d Hij a Mamuzió , Antologija ilirskog pokreta (Beograd , 1953) . For furthe r bibliographica l data , se e Jezic , Ilirska antologija, 273-80 , an d Barac , KnjiZevnost Ilirizma (Zagreb , 1954), 302-7 . 4 Josip Horvat, Stranke kod Hrvata i njihove ideologije (Beograd , 1939) , 17-25. 5 See Han s Kohn , "Romanticism and Realis m amon g Czechs and Slovaks, " PanSlavism, its History and Ideology (Notr e Dame , Indiana , 1953) , 11-28 . 8 "In realit y h e (Lajo s Kossuth ) wa s n o les s reactionar y tha n th e Hapsburg s where an y peopl e bu t hi s ow n wer e concerned, " write s Pavl e Ostovi ó i n hi s The Truth about Yugoslavia (Ne w York, 1952), 12.

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Dubrovnik Renaissance writers , an d whic h wa s als o th e languag e o f the mos t beautifu l Croatia n an d Serbia n fol k poems . Consequently , in 1836 , th e me n o f letters i n Croati a accepte d th e Shtokavia n dialec t (Vuk St . Karadzic was stil l fighting fo r it s recognitio n i n Serbia ) an d the orthograph y propose d b y Ljudevi t Gaj , namely , a separat e lette r for eac h sound, using diacritical marks for those sounds not represente d in the Latin script. Having thu s solve d th e importan t problem s o f language an d ortho graphy, th e Illyrian s went forward . They popularize d th e ol d Croatian literature o f Dalmati a an d Dubrovni k i n orde r t o demonstrat e ho w ancient an d brillian t thei r cultur e was ; the y dre w attentio n t o th e beauty an d originalit y of folk poetry ; finally , the y pointe d t o th e bes t specimens o f th e mos t develope d Slavi c literatures , notabl y thos e o f Russia an d Poland . I n doin g al l o f this , th e Illyrian s hope d t o giv e new directio n an d meanin g t o Croatia n literature . The literatur e o f th e Illyria n Movemen t wa s distinctl y militant . I t was th e artisti c expressio n o f the suffering s an d hope s o f th e majorit y of th e people , o f thos e wh o ha d neithe r powe r no r fortune , th e bul k of th e peasantr y bein g stil l boun d i n serfdom . Havin g grow n ou t o f the struggl e o f th e Croatia n peopl e fo r national , cultural , an d socia l independence, this literatur e wa s o f necessity tendentious . The writer s regarded thei r wor k mostly a s a nationa l an d politica l duty . Onl y th e most talente d amon g the m succeede d i n creatin g work s whic h ar e cornerstones o f moder n Croatia n literatur e an d whic h se t th e cours e for th e entir e subsequen t developmen t o f Croatia n belle s lettres. 7 The mos t prominen t membe r o f th e movemen t wa s Ljudevi t Ga j ( 1809-72 ), wh o wa s bor n i n Krapina , Croatia n Zagorje , th e so n o f a pharmacist. A s a child , Ga j ofte n hear d th e fol k tal e abou t Ceh , Leh , and Meh , who lived in Krapin a before they se t ou t t o foun d th e thre e great Slavi c state s (Moravia , Poland , an d Russia) . Th e myt h quit e captivated hi s imaginatio n an d le d hi m t o speculat e o n th e Slav s an d their glorious past. Gaj translated this folk tale fro m a Latin manuscript into Germa n an d publishe d i t i n 182 6 (Die Schlosser bei Krapina). The sam e year , hi s firs t Croatia n poem s appeare d i n th e magazin e Luna, all in th e Kaykavia n dialect. While studyin g a t Gra z an d Budapest , Ga j wa s influence d b y th e Pan-Slavic idea s o f Kollár , Safafík , an d Kucharski , an d eagerl y rea d Serbian an d Croatia n fol k poem s publishe d b y Vu k Karadzi c i n th e Shtokavian dialect . I n 183 0 h e publishe d hi s firs t an d mos t importan t 7

Mamuzic, Antologija, 24-26 .

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essay, Kratka osnova horvatsko-slavenskoga pravopisanja (Th e Elements o f Croato-Slavoni c Orthography) , advocatin g tha t Croatia n writers adop t a reforme d orthograph y base d o n th e principl e o f on e symbol for each phoneme. Seein g clearly tha t Kaykavian , the dialec t of a smal l distric t aroun d Zagreb , wa s no t suitabl e fo r a nationa l revo lution, which he and his followers hoped woul d eventuall y embrace al l the speaker s o f Slavi c language s i n th e Balka n Peninsula , Ga j als o urged adoptio n of the more wide-spread Shtokavian . The Illyria n Movement , o f whic h Ga j wa s th e chie f ideologis t an d spiritual leader, bega n i n a n organize d for m whe n h e starte d publica tion o f a newspaper, Novine Horvatske (Croatia n Paper ) o n January 6-10, 1835 , and o f its literar y supplement , Dánica (Mornin g Star) . I t is chiefl y throug h thes e publication s tha t Ga j earne d a distinguishe d place i n th e histor y o f this nationa l movement , whic h ultimatel y wo n intellectual, linguistic , an d educational, but no t political, independenc e for Croatia . To gain moral support and financial aid, Gaj visited Dalmatia , Russia, and Serbia . During th e histori c event s o f 1848, he agai n played a most important rol e an d wa s th e firs t t o sugges t Josi p Jelaci c a s Ba n o f Croatia, durin g th e publi c assembl y i n Zagreb . I n 184 8 Gaj becam e suspect an d unpopular ; fro m the n unti l hi s deat h h e struggle d wit h all kind s o f financia l difficulties . Eve n toda y i t i s difficul t t o explai n why Ga j fel l s o low i n th e estee m o f his countrymen. 8 Whe n h e died , he wa s eithe r forgotte n o r considere d a traito r i n th e servic e o f th e Viennese court . Nevertheless , ther e i s no t a singl e literar y historia n who woul d no t recogniz e tha t Ljudevi t Gaj , who produce d n o trul y outstanding wor k himself , mad e possibl e throug h hi s reform s an d publications th e flowerin g o f Croatia n literature . Th e mos t prominen t political an d literar y movemen t i n al l Croatia n history , th e Illyria n Movement, wa s th e structur e t o whic h Ga j sacrifice d no t onl y hi s 8 Two basi c reason s coul d b e suggested . Afte r th e calamitou s chec k o f th e Croatian revolutio n o f 1848-9 , hi s disappointe d follower s considere d tha t Gaj , as their leader , was its cause. Furthermore, h e wa s accused o f having accepted money from th e forme r Serbia n prince , Milo s Obrenovic . Antu n Bara c ha s attempte d a rehabilitation o f Gaj , explaining tha t th e affai r wit h Milo s wa s inspire d b y Ba n Jelacic, wh o intende d t o destro y Gaj' s positio n an d s o remai n a t th e hea d o f th e Croatians. I t i s tru e tha t eve n Baro n Neustadter , th e biographe r an d frien d o f Jelacic, in hi s memoirs , states clearl y that Ga j was oblige d t o spen d hi s mone y fo r various national enterprises . Se e Barac, "Slom Ljudevit a Gaja, " Ostvarenja ( 1947 ), 227-41; cf . als o Josep h Baro n Neustadter , Le ban Jellacic et les événements en Croatie depuis l'an 1848 (Zagreb: Institu t françai s d e Zagreb , I-II , 1939-42) , passim.

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brilliant talent , bu t als o hi s energy , time , money , an d finall y hi s reputation.9 The mos t importan t writer s o f th e Illyria n Movemen t wer e Iva n Mazuranic, Stank o Vraz , an d Peta r Preradovic. 10 Iva n Mazurani c (1814-90) wa s bor n i n Novi , in th e Croatia n Littoral . H e graduate d from th e Gymnasium a t Rijeka , earne d a degree i n law at Zagreb, an d practiced a s a lawye r a t Karlovac . Wit h th e collaps e o f th e feuda l system in 1848 , Mazurani c became a deputy i n th e Croatia n Sabor . I n 1873 h e becam e Ba n (civi l governor ) o f Croatia, th e firs t plebeia n t o be appointed t o this high office. 11 Mazuranic was actively engaged in literature onl y during his younger years, befor e he devote d himsel f t o politics . H e wrot e hi s first verses while still a student in the Gymnasium. Mazuranic published a number of poem s i n Gaj' s Dánica, which ar e extremel y varie d i n expression . He followe d th e classi c author s an d th e poet s o f Dubrovni k i n bot h language an d meter , an d fo r a tim e imitate d th e Italia n poets . Afte r ten year s o f vacillatio n amon g thes e styles , Mazurani c discovere d a style whic h appeale d t o hi m i n th e simplicit y o f fol k poems. 12 H e composed excellen t verse s t o complet e th e missin g Canto s XI V an d XV o f Gundulic' s epi c Osman (1844). 13 Hi s chie f work , however , i s the poe m Smrt Smail-age Cengica (Th e Deat h o f Smail-Ag a Cengic) , 1846. Mazuranic wrot e hi s mos t significan t wor k i n connectio n wit h a n event whic h too k plac e i n 1840 . Th e Montenegrin s ambushe d an d killed on e o f thei r enemies , th e Turkis h Ag a Smai l Cengic , wh o ha d done muc h har m alon g thei r frontier , an d thi s inciden t wa s widel y 9 Gaj coul d be compare d wit h anothe r Croatian , Pava o Vitezovi c (1652-1723) , who als o concerne d himsel f wit h th e problem s o f literar y languag e an d ortho graphy, bu t wh o die d expelle d fro m hi s homeland . Thei r lov e fo r thei r nativ e country wa s stronge r tha n huma n injustice . Thank s t o the m an d t o others , th e Croatian peopl e ca n stil l chan t th e famou s son g writte n b y Ga j i n 1833 : "Jo s Hrvatska n i propala . . ." (Croati a i s still aliv e . . .) . Cf . F. Fancev , "Postana k i historijska pozadin a Gajev e pjesme, " Hrvatska Revija (1935) , 617-33 ; Milo s Savkovió, Ogledi (Beograd , 1952) , 64-209 . 10 In m y discussion o f these thre e authors , I hav e relie d extensivel y upo n Barac , Hrvatska knjizevnost, I: Knjizevnost Ilirizma (Zagreb , 1954) . n The last words uttered by Mazurani c i n the Croatia n Die t were : " I a m a firm believer i n th e past , th e present , an d th e futur e o f m y Croatia n nation! " (Jezió , Ilirska antologija, 197) . Miluti n Nehaje v wrot e a n interestin g articl e abou t Mazuranic an d hi s publi c function s i n Hrvatska Revija 1 0 (1930) , 525-3 6 an d Hrvatska Revija 12 , 637-51. "Barac, Mazuranic (Zagreb , 1945) , 89-118. 13 Ivan Gundulié, Osman, edite d by Mila n Ratkovi ó (Zagreb , 1955) , 283; Barac , Mazuranic, 119-129.

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publicized in the newspapers. 14 Mazuranic was concerned no t s o much with presentin g th e inciden t faithfull y an d i n detail , bu t wit h takin g the cas e o f Smail-Ag a a s a pretex t fo r describin g th e suffering s o f hi s countrymen unde r th e centuries-lon g Turkis h yoke , thei r heroi c be havior ami d thei r hardships , an d thei r fait h i n fina l victor y ove r th e tyrant. The greatnes s o f Mazuranic' s poe m lie s i n it s plasticit y an d conciseness. Hi s expressio n is reduced t o th e essential ; no t a singl e wor d could b e omitte d fro m th e poe m withou t weakenin g it s clarity . Th e characters ar e clearl y portraye d i n a fe w line s tha t revea l al l thei r individual qualities , propensities , an d longings . Th e poe m i s a condensed histor y o f th e Croatian s (antemurale Christianitatis) an d o f the othe r Sout h Slavic nations i n their lon g struggl e wit h th e Ottoma n Empire. I t i s no t s o muc h a descriptio n o f on e skirmis h amon g in numerable clashe s o n th e Turkis h frontie r a s i t i s a n emphati c stress ing o f man' s dut y t o figh t agains t oppression . Mazurani c constantl y underlines hi s basic idea : t o those who believ e i n Go d an d ac t a s His children, th e da y o f liberatio n wil l come ; th e powe r o f al l tyrants , past and present, is temporary.15 Smrt Smail-age Cengica i s a distinctl y Croatia n work . It epitomize s all th e element s o f Croatia n culture : th e classical , th e wester n European, and those of the Dalmatia n an d Dubrovni k period. Base d as it is on fol k poetry , al l these foreign and nationa l element s ar e assimilate d to suc h a degre e tha t th e Croatia n languag e flows in it s mos t natura l rhythm; an d Mazuranic , as its poet, is at his most personal. Concernin g Mazuranic, Franj o Markovic , th e renowne d Croatia n critic , wrote : "Our fou r centurie s o f struggl e i n th e Balkan s fo r fait h an d freedo m has a t lengt h foun d it s Homer, " an d Vu k Karadzic, th e grea t Serbia n literary reformer , declare d enthusiastically : "Nobod y i n th e worl d could have sung it better!"16 Stanko Vra z (1810-51) , fro m Cerovec , Sloveni a [Styria] , afte r graduating fro m th e Gymnasium i n Maribor , wen t t o Gra z t o stud y 14

Ferdo Sisic , "Pogibij a Smail-ag e Cengijica, " Hrvatsko Kolo (1908) , 164-81 . J. W . Wiles , wh o translate d Smrt Smail-age Cengica int o English , rightl y remarked: " A certai n mora l an d spiritua l elevatio n distinguishe s thi s work . Th e reader i s mad e t o fee l instinctivel y fro m th e outse t tha t divin e vengeanc e mus t dog the step s of the sinner . . . . It is the convictio n tha t the ver y star s in thei r courses ar e fightin g agains t Smail-aga , th e convictio n als o tha t t o tak e u p arm s on behal f o f Righteousnes s i s no t onl y a n irresistible , bu t als o a heart-searchin g and exactin g call" (The Death of Smail-Aga [London, 1925] , 12) . 16 Slavko Jezi c collecte d a n exhaustiv e bibliograph y o f Mazurani c i n hi s Djela (Zagreb, 1958), 45-63. 15

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law, a subjec t which h e late r abandone d i n orde r t o stud y language s and literature . H e learne d al l th e Slavi c an d man y othe r Europea n languages, includin g Gree k an d Latin , an d rea d widel y i n worl d literature. Durin g his prolonged sta y in Gra z (1830-37) , Vraz formed a ver y clos e friendshi p wit h Fran z Miklosich , late r a well-know n philologist. Vra z firs t wrot e a grea t dea l o f pros e an d poetr y i n hi s native tongue , Slovenian , but fro m 183 5 o n h e als o sen t contribution s to th e Croatia n journa l Dánica. Afte r h e settle d dow n i n Zagreb , i n 1838, h e wrot e exclusivel y in Croatian . Vra z wa s th e onl y write r of non-Croatian origi n wh o espouse d th e Illyria n Movemen t i n it s ful l sense. While Ga j wa s th e politica l leade r o f the movement , Vra z wa s its most eminent poet. Of all Gaj's collaborators , Vraz was distinguishe d by his purely literary interests. When misunderstanding s arose betwee n himself an d Gaj , Vraz founded , wit h a grou p o f friends , th e literar y magazine Kolo (1842) , fo r which h e wrot e numerou s article s an d reviews unde r th e no m d e plum e Jako b Resetar . I n 184 6 h e wa s appointed secretar y o f Matic a Ilirska , a pos t whic h h e hel d til l hi s death fro m consumptio n i n 1851 . Vraz was a prolific and versatile writer. Amon g his better work s ar e three collection s o f origina l an d translate d poems : Djulabije (Swee t Apples), 1840 ; Glasi iz dubrave ierovinske (Echoe s fro m th e Grov e of 2erovo) , 1841 ; an d Gusle i tambura (Th e Fiddl e an d Tambura) , 1845. Vraz' s literar y reputatio n i s founde d chiefl y o n hi s lov e poems . At a time whe n othe r Croatia n poets wer e composin g patriotic poems , young Vraz was writing abou t th e subjec t uppermost i n hi s thoughts , love. Vra z describe s hi s firs t meeting s wit h hi s belove d (Ljubic a Cantilly), his moments of happiness, thei r quarrel an d separation , he r marriage t o another , hi s anguish , and he r earl y death . Thoug h som e similarities wit h Petrarch , an d especiall y wit h th e Dubrovni k poets , can b e detected , th e feeling s whic h Vra z portray s ar e hi s own , an d each o f his poem s is indeed a true reflectio n of his inne r life . Hi s lov e for Ljubic a graduall y becam e sublimate d int o a lov e fo r Croatia ; h e came to feel a deep an d tender attachmen t for Croatia and its destiny.17 Vraz introduce d int o Croatia n literatur e tw o foreig n poeti c forms , the sonne t and th e ghazel . The sonne t cycle Sanak i istina ( Dream an d Truth ), the frui t o f his new love , is the mos t perfect i n for m o f Vraz's words; the cycle is characterized b y a lyrical romanticism which reache s 17 Vraz wrot e fro m Maribor , i n 1841 , t o hi s frien d Vjekosla v Babukic a s follows : "Croatia i s lik e health , whic h on e ca n onl y begi n t o appreciat e whe n on e ha s lost it! " Cf . Gjordje Zivanovio , "Mickiewic z i n Serbo-Croatia n Literature, " Adam Mickiewicz in World Literature, ed . b y Wacla w Lednick i (Berkeley , 1956) , 513 . The sentenc e i s reminiscent o f the openin g verse s o f Pan Tadeusz.

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moving heights . Somethin g youthfully ga y an d direc t emanate s fro m them. A s he advance d i n years , Vraz began mor e an d mor e t o writ e satires an d epigram s i n which he bitterl y condemne d variou s negativ e aspects o f th e Croatia n feuda l society. 18 Vraz's talen t neve r foun d it s ful l expression , for, a s a Slovene , h e did not gain complete mastery over the Croatia n languag e an d accent . As a result , irregularitie s an d archaism s wil l b e foun d i n hi s poems ; even hi s bes t poem s ar e no t completel y fre e o f suc h shortcomings. 19 Vraz constantly pointed out , in his reviews published i n Kolo, that th e purpose o f Croatia n literatur e a s a whol e wa s t o creat e a n artisti c literature o n th e basi s o f fol k poetry. 20 Accordingly , he discourage d the exaggerate d admiratio n fo r th e Dubrovni k writer s tha t wa s the n the vogu e amon g th e Croatians . H e contende d tha t th e Dubrovni k writers imitate d the Italians too much.21 Vraz instead dre w attentio n t o the exceptiona l qualit y o f Smrt Smail-age Cengica, o f Gorski Vijenac (Njegos), an d o f Radicevic' s lyrics . I n th e work s o f Mazuranic , Njegos, an d Radicevi c he sa w his own ideal. Croatia n literature o f th e nineteenth centur y followe d th e cours e indicate d b y thi s gifted , in dustrious, an d altruisti c writer ; an d althoug h literar y critic s evaluat e the intrinsi c valu e o f hi s poetr y differently , n o on e ca n den y hi s exceptional contributio n t o Croatia n letters. 22 The thir d prominen t membe r o f thi s Illyria n grou p wa s Peta r Preradovic, bor n i n th e villag e o f Grabrovnic a nea r Bjelova r i n 1818 . He wa s admitte d t o th e Austria n Militar y Academ y a t Wiene r Neu stadt, wher e h e remaine d fo r eigh t year s (1830-39) . Hi s educatio n was so exclusively German that on a visit home he had difficult y speak ing Croatian with his mother. Preradovic served a s an office r i n numerous Austria n garrison s an d reache d th e ran k o f general . H e die d i n 1872, fa r awa y from hi s native land, at Fahrafeld , near Vôslau , Austria, but hi s remains were late r transferre d t o Zagreb . Compelled t o serv e mostl y outsid e Croatia , Preradovi c fel t lik e a 18

For example , "Hrva t pre d otvoreni m nebom " ( A Croatia n a t th e Doorwa y of Paradise). 19 Mihovil Kombol , Antologija novije hrvatske lirike (Beograd , 1956) , 6 . 20 A. Barac, Hrvatska knjizevna kritika (Zagreb , 1938), 5. 21 It i s difficul t t o disagre e wit h Vra z whe n h e stresse s th e poin t tha t Croatia n literature would have been completel y different—h e mean s better and more national —if th e Croatia n Renaissanc e poets, instea d o f copyin g th e Italians , ha d followe d the language , th e rhythm , an d th e spiri t o f fol k poetry . Cf . Josi p Torbarina , Italian Influence on the Poets of the Ragusan Republic (London , 1931) . 22 "Resta l a figur a de l prim o homme de lettres illirico , i l qual e h a intuit o e sanzionato l a razionalit à intrínsec a déli a letteratur a illiric a conciliand o 'sogni ' illirici e Verità ' estetiche. " Cronia , Storia délia letteratura Serbo-Croata (Milan, 1956), 208 .

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foreigner whereve r h e went . Constan t transfers , th e deat h o f his first wife an d o f hi s children , togethe r wit h hi s ow n illness , brok e hi m morally an d ruine d hi m financially . Durin g moment s o f despai r h e sought refug e i n spiritualism . Preradovi c bega n t o writ e i n Germa n while h e wa s stil l a militar y cadet. 23 O n dut y i n Milan , the n unde r Austrian rule , Preradovic , influence d b y Iva n Kukuljevi c (1816-89) , began t o sho w a n interes t i n th e Croatia n languag e an d i n Croatia n literature. Late r on , during a stay in Zadar, he began t o publish i n his mother tongu e (1844) . Hi s poem s immediatel y attracte d attentio n because the y wer e withou t th e usua l failing s o f th e beginner . Prera dovic soo n ranked amon g the mos t outstandin g poet s o f th e Croatia n National Awakening. In 184 6 he published hi s first collection o f poems, Prvenci (Th e First Born) , and in 185 1 his second, Nove pjesme (Ne w Poems). Afte r th e failur e o f th e Revolutio n o f 184 8 he abandone d literature. Wit h th e restoratio n of constitutional government i n Austria in 1860 , Preradovic agai n becam e a value d contributo r t o Croatia n literary journal s an d continue d t o writ e unti l hi s deat h i n 1872. In hi s earl y patrioti c poems , Preradovi c reveale d th e feeling s o f a man wh o ha d comprehende d th e meanin g o f hi s homelan d onl y through livin g abroad . H e extolle d th e beautie s o f hi s country , it s greatness, an d it s gloriou s past . H e emphasize d th e char m an d extra ordinary capacity for expression of the Croatia n language . H e glorified the function of poetry and the poet's national duty.24 Preradovic viewe d Slavdom a s a philosophe r an d prophet . Accordin g t o him , the Slav s would reconcil e al l nation s and , finally , creat e a n er a o f lov e an d happiness. Hi s od e "Slavjanstvu " (T o Slavdom ) i s th e visio n o f Slavdom i n al l its vastnes s o f scope an d idea. 25 Preradovi c als o wrot e a numbe r o f lov e poems , touchin g an d war m i n thei r emotio n an d directness, bu t h e wa s primaril y incline d t o reflection s upon lif e an d human destiny. Living awa y fro m hi s people , Preradovi c lacke d confidenc e i n hi s knowledge o f hi s nativ e tongue . Yet , notwithstanding thei r linguisti c failings,26 hi s poem s manifes t a rea l lyricis m an d dee p nobility . Hi s 23 Preradovic's Germa n poetr y wa s collecte d an d edite d b y Brank o Vodni k i n Djela Petra Preradovióa, I I (Zagreb , 1919) , 277-406 , 410-413 . 24 Cf. A. Barac, "Preradovic u pismim a i stihovima," Republika 8 (1952) , 65-86 . 25 Paul Selve r translate d this ode int o Englis h in Anthology of Modern Slavonic Literature. Her e ar e th e openin g lines : Wit h gestur e o f obeisanc e I bo w myself down unt o th y blac k earth./Havin g se t foo t o n th y domain , riddl e o f al l th e world,/Glorious, mighty , renowned , omnipoten t Slavdom ! (London , 1919) , 300. 28 Albert Hale r overemphasize d thes e failing s i n hi s articl e " O poezij i Petr a Preradovica," Srpski Knjizevni Glasnik (Jul y 16 , 1928 , 426-3 9 an d Augus t 1 , 1928,503-17).

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poetry wa s not surpasse d i n Croatia n lyri c poetr y unti l the comin g of Silvije St. Kranjcevic in the eighties. 27 ROMANTICISM (1849-80 ) In Croatia , durin g th e revolutionar y yea r 1848 , al l relation s wit h Hungary wer e cu t off ; an autonomou s government withi n th e Haps burg Monarch y wa s established . Th e feuda l syste m wa s abolished , and the first time commoners became members of the Croatia n Sabor. 28 In orde r t o consolidat e he r power , Austri a abolished th e constitutio n in 185 2 an d se t u p a n absolutis t government . Germa n becam e th e official languag e o f th e entir e Empire . A gendarmeri e wa s organized ; spies an d confidentia l official s wer e employed . Croati a wa s floode d with bureaucrat s wh o wer e ignoran t o f th e Croatia n languag e an d of Croatian traditions . Th e nin e year s o f absolutis t regim e wer e nin e years o f terror , persecution , an d fear. 29 A s a consequenc e o f th e Austrian militar y defea t in Ital y (1860) , the absolutis t regim e was overthrown, an d th e differen t nation s withi n Austri a regaine d partia l freedom. Croati a was grante d a governmen t independent o f Hungary. Meanwhile, negotiation s wer e conducte d concernin g the politica l re organization o f Austria . Th e mai n issu e wa s whethe r Austri a shoul d be a centralize d o r a federa l monarchy. Afte r Austria' s defea t i n th e war wit h Prussi a (1866) , th e Austria n an d Hungaria n statesme n reached a n agreemen t ( 1867 ) b y whic h th e Hapsbur g Monarch y was divided int o tw o halves , on e Austria n an d on e Hungarian . Withou t being consulted , Croati a an d Slavoni a wer e reincorporate d int o th e Hungarian half . Austria , o n th e othe r hand , retaine d contro l o f th e Croatians i n Dalmati a an d Istria . Al l th e Slovenia n province s (Car niola, Styria , an d Carinthia ) remaine d i n th e Austria n half . I n thi s way th e Germa n minorit y rule d Austria , an d th e Magya r minorit y 27

A detaile d bibliograph y concernin g Preradovi c i s foun d i n Mihovi l Kombol , Antologija novije hrvatske lirike (Zagreb , 1934), 216-18. 28 Horvat, Stranke kod Hrvata, 28-35 . Muc h attentio n ha s bee n pai d i n post war Yugoslavi a to th e event s o f 1848—4 9 i n Croatia . Cf . Jarosla v Sidak , "Revo lucija godin e 1848-49, " Historipki Zbornik 1- 4 (1948) , 25-42 ; Vas o Bogdanov , "Uloga podunavski h slavenski h naroda 1848-49, " Historijski Zbornik 1- 4 1948 , 43-66. (Th e unjus t verdic t o n th e attitud e o f the Sout h Slavi c nations during th e revolutionary year s expresse d her e ough t t o b e revised ; the y joine d th e counter revolution whe n i t becam e obvious tha t th e Magya r and Germa n revolutionaries did no t recogniz e Sout h Slavi c nationa l ambitions. ) Bogdano v publishe d man y articles an d tw o books o n the sam e subject, Hrvatska Ijevica u godinama revolucije 1848-49 (Zagreb , 1949) , an d Drustvene i politicke borbe u Hrvatskoj 1848-49 (Zagreb, 1949) . 29 Nikola Andric, Pod apsolutizmom (Zagreb , 1906).

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ruled Hungary ; i n Dalmati a an d Istri a almos t al l powe r wa s i n th e hands o f th e tin y Italia n minority. 30 Relations between Croati a and Hungar y wer e partly settle d i n 1868, with the so-calle d Hungaro-Croatian Agreement ( Nagodba ). Although Croatia enjoye d autonom y i n som e affair s (administration , schools , jurisdiction), dissatisfactio n wa s genera l i n th e country. 31 Euge n Kvaternik, i n 1871 , attempted a n unsuccessfu l uprising. 32 Condition s improved somewha t whe n Iva n Mazuranic , th e grea t Croatia n poet , became Ba n of Croatia in 1873. During his term of offic e ( 1873-80) h e organized th e schoo l syste m an d a n advance d administratio n appa ratus.33 In th e 1860's , the onl y notable Croatia n poet wa s Luk a Boti c ( born in Split, 1830; died i n Djakovo, 1863 ). Botic studied theolog y i n Zadar; after bein g expelle d fro m th e seminary , h e travele d throug h Bosni a and int o Serbia . H e unsuccessfull y sought employmen t i n Belgrade , worked fo r a certai n perio d i n Zagreb , an d settle d temporaril y i n Djakovo a s a n employe e o n th e larg e lande d estat e o f Bisho p Stross mayer. After refusin g t o tak e a loyalt y oath t o th e emperor , Boti c was dismissed. Late r h e succeede d i n bein g electe d a s a deput y t o th e Croatian Sabor . At the ag e o f thirty-three, Boti c died o f tuberculosis. 34 Botic was greeted a s a very promising young writer i n 1854, when h e published, i n the literary journal Neven, his epic poe m "Pobratimstvo" (Brotherly Friendship) , an d th e novell a "Dilbe r Hasan. " I n a perio d when folklor e dominate d the literar y scene , Boti c was among the first writers t o emphasiz e th e neglecte d fac t tha t Bosnia n Christian s an d Moslems wer e brother s b y blood , an d tha t thei r religio n shoul d no t be a dividing force amon g them. It was , unti l that time , customar y to depict th e Moslem s a s despots , bandits , o r morall y pervers e persons . Botic portrays the m a s human, heroic, an d a s the bes t friend s one ca n imagine. When , i n 1861, on the basi s o f historical document s fro m th e second hal f o f th e sixteent h century , Boti c published hi s secon d epi c work, "Bijedn a Mara " (Unhapp y Mary) , h e s o captivate d th e hear t of th e publi c tha t eve n toda y i t i s read an d ofte n quoted . I t ha s als o been adapte d a s a musica l an d a play . I n thi s story , se t i n Split , a 30

Cf. Josep h Redlich , Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria (Ne w York , 1929) , 348-80; Grg a Novak , Proslost Dalmacije, I I (Zagreb , 1944) , 399-405 . 31 Horvat, Stranke kod Hrvata, 48-50 ; Vas o Bogdanov , Historija politickih stranaka u Hrvatskoj (Zagreb , 1958), 518-604. 32 MiIutin Nehajev , Rakovica (Zagreb , 1932). 33 Milutin Nehajev , " O Ivan u Mazuranicu , kancelar u i banu, " Hrvatska Revija 10 (1930), 525-36, and Hrvatska Revija 12 , 637-51; Mila n Marjanovic , Savremena Hrvatska (Beograd , 1913), 134. 34 JakSa Ravlie , "Introduction " t o Botic' s Djela (Zagreb , 1949) , 5-15 .

LITERATURE (1835-1895 ) 25

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Christian beauty, Mar a Vornic, falls madly in love with Adel, a Moslem merchant fro m th e neighborin g Klis ; Mar a is forced b y he r parent s t o enter a convent, wher e sh e soon dies . Although he mostly wrote longer epic poems ( his third epi c i s called "Petar Bacic, " 1862 ), Boti c was at his best a s a lyricist. He wrot e only when h e foun d sufficien t tim e an d physica l strength : this , perhaps , is th e main reaso n wh y hi s work s lac k a coheren t development . Hi s lyrical digressions , too , may b e partl y responsibl e fo r th e fac t tha t Botic sometime s lose s trac k o f hi s mai n plot s an d th e centra l idea . There is , nevertheless , unit y i n hi s basi c outlook . H e believe s tha t good an d hones t peopl e ar e alway s o n th e losin g side , whil e un scrupulous individual s ar e successfu l everywhere. 35 The mos t distinguished Croatia n ma n o f letters durin g the seventie s was August Senoa ( 1838-81 ) ; he studie d la w first in hi s native cit y of Zagreb, an d the n i n Pragu e an d Vienna . Seno a bega n hi s varie d literary caree r a s a studen t i n Pragu e fro m 185 9 to 1865 . In 186 5 he moved t o Vienn a i n orde r t o assum e th e editorshi p o f th e literar y review GlasonoSa. Afte r hi s retur n t o Zagre b i n 186 6 he secure d a position withi n th e Municipa l Council. For a time he wa s ar t directo r of th e Zagre b Theater . H e contribute d regularl y t o th e newspape r Pozar (late r rename d Obzor), bu t fro m 187 4 until hi s deat h i n 188 1 he publishe d mainl y i n Vijenac (th e best literar y magazin e o f tha t time), o f whic h h e wa s editor-in-chief . A t th e pea k o f hi s fam e an d of a n extremel y productiv e career , Seno a suddenly die d a t th e ag e of forty-three, mourne d b y th e Croatia n publi c a s no othe r write r befor e or since. Thanks t o Senoa , who wa s i n favo r o f replacing th e Germa n reper toire38 i n th e Zagre b Theate r wit h th e work s no t onl y o f Slavi c bu t also, and especially, o f French playwrights, this period witnessed translations o f the lates t works of Hugo, Scribe , Dumas , an d others . I t wa s at thi s tim e tha t Shakespear e wa s firs t presente d o n th e Croatia n stage.37 A s a dram a critic , Seno a touche d o n ever y proble m o f th e 35 Cf. A . Barac , Velicina malenth (Zagreb , 1947) , 7-44 ; Ant e Kadic , "Sa n i stvarnost-slucaj Luke Botica," Croatian Voice Calendar (1955) , 174-80 . 36 The yea r 186 0 marked a decisiv e turnin g poin t i n th e histor y o f th e Zagre b Theater. Durin g a performance in German, a violent demonstratio n broke out, after which th e Germa n languag e a s wel l a s Germa n actor s wer e eliminate d fro m th e Zagreb stage . Unde r th e leadershi p o f th e autho r Dimitrij e Demete r (1811-72 ) and th e directio n of Josi p Freudenreich , Croatia n dram a bega n t o develo p mor e rapidly. Th e nationa l repertoir e grew , whil e th e foreig n repertoir e stil l remaine d mostly of German origin. 37 Ivo Hergesi c disagree s wit h thi s statemen t i n hi s Shakespeare, Molière, Goethe (Zagreb , 1957) , 28-9.

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Zagreb Theater . H e insiste d tha t i t shoul d ris e t o a highe r artisti c level an d tha t it s member s shoul d b e mor e realisti c i n thei r interpre tations. Although h e wrot e hi s literar y review s withou t an y clearl y define d critical method , Seno a nevertheless succeede d i n pointing ou t the chief merits o f the wor k under review ; he emphasize d especiall y it s artistic , national, an d socia l characteristics . I n theory , Seno a wa s a staunc h supporter o f realism . H e constantl y reminde d youn g story-writer s o f the abundan t materia l lyin g a t han d i n contemporar y life . H e discouraged the m fro m givin g conventional and lifeles s portraits , advisin g them t o stud y peopl e continually . I n hi s opinion , th e model s t o b e followed by Croatian literature wer e the Russians Gogol and Turgenev , and th e Frenc h realists . I n practice , however , i n orde r t o ad d t o th e interest o f hi s storie s an d historica l novels , Seno a himsel f ofte n ha d recourse t o th e man y requisites o f the romanticists : lov e a t firs t sight , insurmountable difficulties , spies , intriguer s an d murderers. 38 Senoa mad e hi s star t i n literatur e b y writin g poems . Althoug h h e continued unti l th e en d o f his lif e t o write both epi c and lyri c poems , he canno t b e called a true lyri c poet; onl y occasionally doe s he revea l his ow n feeling s o f pain o r joy. 39 Th e predominan t not e o f hi s poetr y is its descriptiv e character , wit h vivid evocatio n o f some better known historic scene s ( in the so-calle d povjestica, a kind o f romantic balla d ). Some of his most popular poems deal chiefl y wit h th e educationa l an d social problem s o f hi s time . Thei r importanc e toda y lie s i n th e fac t that the y ar e th e bes t expressio n o f wha t th e averag e Croatia n o f Senoa's perio d felt. In thes e poems Senoa extols individuality, freedom, courage, socia l justice , an d industriousness . In man y of his stories, Seno a successfull y portraye d th e lowe r Croa tian nobility , ofte n makin g the m appea r ridiculou s becaus e o f thei r altercations an d pett y disputes ; h e als o presented th e bourgeoisi e a s it gradually prospere d o r suddenly cam e to ruin ; the slo w disintegratio n of th e peasan t join t families (zadrugas}; an d th e continuou s struggl e of th e smal l ma n wh o attempt s t o clim b th e socia l ladder . A s i n hi s poems, i n hi s storie s h e treate d curren t socia l an d educationa l prob lems. I n "Ilijin a oporuka " (Th e Will o f Elias) , 1876 , for example , h e described a factual case of a perverted woman who enjoyed ruinin g her 38

Cf. Milo s Savkovic , L'Influence du réalisme français dans le roman serbocroate (Paris , 1935) , 251-67 ; Barac , Hrvatska knjizevna kritika, 25-39 . Thi s mixture o f realis m an d romanticis m i s to b e foun d eve n i n th e work s o f th e mos t renowned Croatia n realis t writers , suc h a s Gjalski , Kovacié , Kumicic , an d som e representatives of the Croatia n moderna. 39 Mihovil Kombol, Novija hrvatska lirika (Beograd , 1956) , 7.

LITERATURE (1835-1895 ) 25

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husband financially and her daughter morally ; in "Prosjak Luka" (Luk e the Beggar) , 1879, he gave us a masterly sketch of a money-lender wh o mercilessly destroye d tw o respectabl e peasan t families ; i n "Branka " ( 1881 ) he touched upo n the proble m o f the villag e schoolmistres s wh o kept her moral and national ideals high i n the midst o f humiliating an d degrading surroundings . "Karamfi l s a pjesnikova groba " ( A Carnatio n from th e Poet' s Tomb) , 1878 , i s a n accoun t o f hi s pilgrimag e t o th e tomb o f Franc e Preseren , th e greates t Slovenia n poet , an d o f Senoa' s first tender bu t unhapp y lov e for a Slovenian girl by the name of Neza. Senoa was an ardent Croatia n patriot, bu t on e of those who believed in Slavic brotherhood . Senoa, however , devote d himsel f chiefl y t o th e historica l novel . Living a t a tim e whe n Croatia n patriot s too k a n excessiv e interes t i n their past history in orde r t o demonstrat e that their right s wer e ofte n violated b y Magyars , Senoa endeavored i n particular t o give a n artisti c presentation o f those periods o f Croatian histor y in which fundamenta l problems o f nationa l lif e wer e involved, 40 B y drawin g a compariso n between event s fro m th e pas t an d event s o f hi s day , h e sought t o exercise a guidin g influenc e o n hi s contemporaries . I n hi s novels , h e drew upo n figure s an d event s fro m th e fourteent h centur y t o th e eighteenth. Hi s best historica l novel s are: Zlatarovo zlato (Th e Gold smith's Daughter) , 1871 , i n whic h h e vividl y depict s som e unforgettable character s fro m th e ol d Zagreb , durin g th e year s 1574-90 ; SeIjacka buna (Th e Peasan t Rebellion) , 1877 , which concern s event s which happene d durin g the preceding year s an d which resulte d i n one of th e bloodies t peasan t rebellion s i n Croatia , unde r th e leadershi p o f the beloved nationa l her o Matij a Gube c (1573) ; Diogenes (1878) , a brilliant sketc h of Zagreb in the middle of the eighteenth century, based on the memoirs of Adam Krcelic (Annuae);41 an d Kletva (Th e Curse), his most extensiv e work, i n whic h h e insiste d that , eve n a t th e en d of the fourteent h century , th e Croatia n nobleme n an d clergyme n fough t against the unjustified Hungaria n claim s on Croatian nationa l territory . This las t work unfortunately remained unfinished . Finally , Senoa' s very popular novella , "Cuvaj se senjske ruke " ( Beware of Uskoks from Senj , 1875 ), should be mentioned. Senoa knew very well how to present both th e glorious and the tragi c sides o f Croatian history . He appeale d t o th e readin g public primaril y 40 Ferdo Sisi c (1869-1940) , on e o f th e greates t Croatia n historians , use d t o recommend Senoa' s work t o hi s students . Savkovi c i s righ t whe n h e affirm s tha t "Senoa prenai t gran d soi n d e reconstitue r l a vérit é historique , grâc e à un e minu tieuse documentation" ( L'Influence, 25 6 ). «Cf. V . Cortan, in B. Krcelic's Annuae (Zagreb , 1952) , 625 .

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because o f his narrative genius : h e was able to alternate seriou s scene s with comi c situations, pathos wit h sentimentality , th e blood y event s of war wit h picture s o f domesti c happiness . Wit h hi s topic sentence s h e could attrac t th e reader' s attentio n an d hol d i t unti l th e end . Seno a raised th e historica l novel to s o high a level that non e o f his followers have been able to surpass him.42 The rapidit y wit h whic h Seno a wrote , alon g wit h hi s tendentious ness, cause d hi m t o neglec t estheti c value s i n his work s and , i n som e cases, h e give s th e impressio n o f being a patrioti c write r rathe r tha n an artist. However , i t was with Seno a that th e moder n period i n Croa tian literature reall y began. REALISM (1880-95) In 1878 , i n accordanc e wit h th e decisio n o f th e Congres s o f Berlin , Austria an d Hungar y occupie d Bosnia-Hercegovina , o n th e pretex t o f establishing orde r an d settin g up Europea n method s o f administration . All control was placed i n th e hand s o f foreigners, notably o f German s and Magyars. 43 Croatians an d Serb s were equall y unhappy : th e Croa tians sincerel y believe d tha t thi s provinc e shoul d becom e a part o f th e Croatian realm , an d th e Serb s mos t emphaticall y proclaime d tha t Bosnia-Hercegovina wa s Serbia n land . Becaus e o f thes e opposin g political attitudes , th e rivalr y between Croatian s and Serb s gre w eve n greater.44 The political situatio n of the Croatia n people insid e Austria-Hungary was becoming worse and worse . Supporte d b y Vienna , the Hungaria n authorities sough t t o implement th e dualisti c principl e withou t mercy . Mazuranic was forced to resig n i n 1880 , an d th e Hungarian s resume d their earlie r attempt s t o Magyariz e Croatia an d Slavonia . They nominated Coun t Khue n Hedervár y Ba n o f Croatia , a ma n wh o wa s Hungarian b y birt h an d sentiment . Th e twent y year s o f hi s rul e (1883-1903) amounte d t o twent y year s o f political , economic , an d cultural oppression , the purpose of which was to crush the resistanc e of the Croatians an d to turn Croatia into an ordinary Hungarian province . ^Hrvatska proza, Vol. I, ed. by P . Segedin (Beograd , 1956) , 491 . "Extensive an d controversia l literatur e ha s bee n writte n concernin g thi s expansion o f th e monarchy , but it s sens e an d meanin g i s quit e clear . Th e fata l decision ha d tw o chie f motives . One wa s th e ol d desir e for conques t o f th e Haps burg imperialis m which, afte r s o many humiliations, became again victorious. . . . The other caus e was the growin g desire to chec k th e natura l extensio n o f the Ser b state an d o f Jugo-Sla v unity. " Osca r Jaszi , The Dissolution of the Hapsburg Monarchy (Chicago , 1929), 411-14. «Vladimir Corovic , Istorija Jugoslavije (Beograd , 1933) , 529-33 . 43

LITERATURE (1835-1895 ) 25

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Khuen Hedervár y deliberatel y fomente d discor d betwee n Croatian s and Serb s in orde r to enlist the Serb s in his cause . The reactio n o f th e Croatian intelligentsi a wa s eithe r a withdrawa l int o silence , resigna tion, and a tacit acceptanc e o f the presen t regime, o r els e membershi p in th e ver y radica l an d militan t Croatia n Nationalisti c Party , le d b y Ante Starcevic, which refused t o recognize that Croati a wa s under an y legal obligation to Hungary or Austria.45 We hav e see n that August Senoa was the champio n of the theor y of realism. A s a definite movement, however, realism dominated Croatia n literature onl y fro m afte r Senoa' s deat h unti l abou t th e en d o f th e century. As never before, the Croatia n writers were numerous, prolific, and talented , excelling mostly in the fiel d o f the novel. 46 Only a few of the mos t outstandin g writers wil l be discusse d belo w i n detail . The first Croatian write r to defen d realism, an d eve n naturalism , in a programatic way, was Eugeni j Kumici c ( 1850-1904 ), wh o wa s bor n on th e eas t coas t o f Istria , i n th e smal l town o f Bersec , a t th e foo t o f Mount Siso l (whenc e h e derive d hi s frequently-use d pseudonym : Jenio Sisolski). 47 Thre e periods , associate d wit h thre e differen t in fluences, ar e o f grea t importanc e t o a n understandin g o f Kumicic' s entire literar y work . The first period comprise s his early years spent in his native Istria . Here, in a happy family circl e and under th e watchfu l eye of his mother, he spen t hi s childhood . It wa s then tha t h e becam e sincerely attache d t o th e Istria n peasants , fishermen, and sailors , and that hi s ey e caugh t th e beautie s o f the sea . All o f thes e ar e reflected in Kumicic' s works . He use d t o retur n repeatedl y t o hi s nativ e town , to his people and th e seacoves , first as a Gymnasium studen t a t Rijeka , and late r a s a famous literar y figure and well-know n politician . In th e depth s o f hi s soul , ofte n disillusione d b y politica l strif e i n Zagreb, Kumici c always carrie d a brigh t memor y o f hi s earl y child hood. Hence , whe n h e write s o f hi s nativ e regio n an d o f th e peopl e who inhabit it, he makes use of the brightest an d mos t beautiful colors. The autho r takes us from dail y life into the real m of the idyll . I t seems as if he adhere d to the mott o which Roussea u onc e valued: the farther one withdraw s fro m tow n an d civilizatio n an d th e neare r on e ap proaches nature , the close r one is to honesty and othe r natura l virtues. 45 Horvat, Stranke kod Hrvata, 52-9; Alexande r Flaker , " O pravasko m radika lizmu 80-ti h godin a XI X stoljeca, " Historijski Zbornik 1- 4 (1954) , 85-101 ; Corovié, Istorija, VI , 540-41. 46 Milos Savkovic , L'Influence du réalisme français dans le roman serbocroate (Paris, 1935) ; Mihovil Kombo l (éd.) , Hrvatski pripovjedaci osamdesetih i devedesetth godina (Zagreb: Minerva, 1935), 5-18. «Ante Kadic, "Eugen Kumicic," Croatia Press 151 (1955), 2-4.

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After finishin g hi s universit y studie s i n Vienn a (histor y an d geo graphy, 187 3 ) an d afte r teachin g for a year in Split, 48 Kumicic went t o Paris fo r furthe r stud y an d spen t a littl e mor e tha n a yea r ther e ( 1875-77 ). Paris became fo r th e youn g professor th e symbo l of all tha t was beautiful , noble , famous , an d progressive. 49 H e returne d hom e under tw o significan t influences : first, that o f th e Frenc h Parliament , manifested i n th e passionat e love for eloquence whic h i s present i n al l his works ; and second , tha t o f Zola an d naturalism . L'Assommoir wa s published durin g hi s sta y i n Paris , an d hi s greates t desir e wa s t o become the Croatian Zola. As soo n a s his firs t novel , Olga i Lina, was publishe d i n 1881 , th e very successfu l novel Gospodja Sabina ( 1884 ) ,50 and a hastil y writte n article, "Abou t th e Novel " (i n whic h h e attempte d t o defen d himsel f and hi s ow n novel s mor e tha n Zola) , followed . Kumici c becam e th e cause an d ofte n th e subjec t o f the mos t bitte r polemics ; thes e wer e a novelty an d signifie d progres s i n Croatia n literar y criticism . Th e majority o f the literar y critics o f that time expressed themselves agains t Zola an d naturalism , an d favore d moderatio n an d realism . The y examined Kumicic' s page s wit h a microscop e an d denie d hi m an y literary talent. 51 A ver y significan t event i n Kumicic' s lif e wa s hi s resignatio n fro m the teachin g professio n (1883) , i n th e hop e tha t h e woul d b e fre e t o devote his time to political an d literary activities . As one of the leadin g personalities i n th e Nationalis t Party , whos e progra m include d th e attainment o f freedo m an d independenc e fo r Croatia , h e wa s electe d a representativ e t o th e Die t o n severa l occasions . Kumici c placed al l his energy at the disposa l of his party, and even his novels were writte n mainly in th e servic e o f politics. Fro m thi s period originat e tw o o f his 48 At Split , Kumici c had th e opportunit y o f becoming better acquainte d wit h th e famous archaeologis t Do n Fran e Buli c (1846-1934) , an d throug h hi m wit h th e sarcophagi of the Croatia n kings in Soli n (nea r Split ) an d it s environs. *9Sometimes wit h onl y a crus t o f brea d i n hi s pocket , Kumici c attende d th e opera o r walked with cloude d eye s along the boulevards , reliving the grea t pas t of this cit y fro m whic h ther e echoe d throughou t th e worl d th e phras e "Liberté , égalité, fraternité." Cf . Savkovic, L'Influence, 287-90 . 50 This nove l was re-edite d i n 195 5 wit h a n excellen t introduction b y Kresimi r Georgijevic (Beograd) , pp. 5-15 . 51 Only later , an d the n mostl y becaus e o f hi s Istria n novel s (Jelkin Bosiljak, 1881; Zacud-jeni svatovi, 1883; Sirota, 1885, etc.) , di d som e praise hi m excessively, while others continued to attac k him. Today i t is generally held tha t Jaks a Cedomil (1868-1929) wa s correc t in regardin g this non-objectivit y of prais e an d abus e a s one o f th e mai n reason s fo r Kumicic' s literar y indecisio n an d hi s onl y partia l success; he had los t his way and was wastin g his talen t as a write r on a publi c which ha d littl e taste. Cf . Hrvatska knj&evna kritika, I I (Zagreb , 1951) , 260-82 .

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best an d mos t widel y rea d novels , Urota Zrinsko-Frankopanska (Th e Conspiracy o f Zrinsk i an d Frankopan) , 1892, 52 an d Kraljica Lepa (Queen Lep a o r Th e Las t o f th e Croatia n Kings) , 1902 . Th e forme r was directe d agains t Vienna , an d th e latte r agains t papa l Rome . Th e main ide a presente d i n thes e tw o historica l novel s i s tha t politica l unions wer e no t successfu l i n th e pas t and , becaus e o f this , Croati a must abstai n fro m futur e unions ; the bes t solutio n fo r her , accordin g to Kumicic, was complete independence. Attacke d by political enemies , especially thos e i n favo r o f unio n wit h Hungary , disillusione d b y dissension in his own party, to o harshly judged b y younger critics , and exhausted b y excessiv e work, Kumici c die d i n hi s fifty-fourt h year . Kumicic's presen t fam e an d reputatio n amon g reader s rest s o n hi s Istrian an d historica l novels . Th e forme r ar e impressiv e eve n toda y because o f the warmt h wit h whic h th e autho r portray s th e Istrians , particularly th e tende r character s o f the Istria n girls . Hi s description s of th e se a ar e als o trul y superlative . Ther e ha s bee n n o Croatia n literary figur e wh o has better o r mor e picturesquely depicte d th e se a in al l its dail y an d seasona l moods . It i s said o f Kumicic that withou t the se a he coul d no t live , an d tha t h e alway s longed fo r it . A writer wh o joined the rank s of the realist s fo r political rathe r tha n for literar y reason s wa s Ant e Kovaci c (1854-89) , bor n a t Marij a Gorica, Croatian Zagorje, th e so n of an extremely poor peasant. Because Kovacic was a n especiall y gifted child, hi s parish pries t helpe d hi m t o attend th e Gymnasium i n Zagreb. After quarrellin g with his benefactor, Kovacic live d chiefl y fro m grant s an d b y tutoring . Lef t withou t an y means o f support, h e entere d a Catholi c seminary , whic h h e deserte d two year s later, an d bega n t o stud y law . Befor e completin g hi s la w studies, h e marrie d a schoolteacher , Milk a Hajdinova , with who m h e had fiv e children. 53 Kovaci c worke d i n la w office s i n Zagre b an d Karlovac; h e wa s overworked , underpaid , an d worrie d abou t hi s sizeable family . H e ha d onl y his evening s i n which t o dispos e o f hi s many obligation s an d t o wor k on his projects . H e wa s finall y grante d a licens e t o becom e a n independen t lawyer , bu t i n th e remot e Glina , where h e foun d ver y fe w clients , an d eve n these , i f the y coul d re 52

Counts Zrinsk i an d Frankopan , th e chief s o f th e tw o leadin g Croatia n nobl e families o f the time , were beheaded i n 167 1 b y the Austrian s for thei r plans t o fre e Croatia fro m th e Hapsburgs . Cf . Vas o Bogdanov , "Historijsk o znacenj e urot e Zrinskih i Frankopana," in his Likovi i pokreti (Zagreb , 1957) , 7-47 . 53 Among the m shoul d b e mentione d Kresimi r Kovaci c (b . 1889) , wh o ha s written satirica l work s an d ha s publishe d man y interestin g detail s abou t hi s father's torture d life , a s wel l a s hi s entir e correspondence . Cf . Gradja za povijest knji&evnosti hrvatske, ed. by the Yugosla v Academy of Sciences and Arts , vol. XXV, 7-128.

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munerate hi m a t all , pai d hi m i n fres h frui t o r hens . Unhappy , tor mented, and hopelessly alone, he suffered a sudden nervous breakdown and, a few days later, at the age of thirty-five, died in a mental hospital . Kovacic wrote poems 54 and feuilletons, but hi s most important work s are the stories "Ljubljanska katastrofa " (Th e Ljubljana Disaster) , 1877 , "Ladanjska sekta " (Th e Sec t o n Vacation) , 1880 , an d th e novel s Barunióina ljubav (Th e Baroness' Love), 1877 ; Fiskal (Th e Solicitor) , 1882; Medju ¿abarima (Amon g Provincials), 1886 ; an d Í 7 registraturi (In th e Record s Office) , 1888 . Als o worthy o f mentio n i s hi s travest y Smrt Babe Cengickinje (Th e Deat h o f the Cowar d Cengic) , 1880 , i n which h e bitterly , an d t o a grea t exten t unjustly , ridicule s th e forme r Ban of Croatia, Ivan Mazuranic, because, i n pursuing Croatian nationa l interests, Mazuranic had followe d a differen t metho d fro m tha t whic h Kovacic would have liked. Kovacic wa s violen t b y characte r an d perhap s fo r tha t reaso n ha d very few friends, even among those who belonged t o the same national ist party (le d by Ante Starcevic) a s he did . I t wa s no surprise that his death passe d almos t unnoticed . I t seemed , indeed , a s i f Kovacic' s name wa s doome d t o complet e oblivion . However , a decad e afte r hi s death, tw o outstanding literar y critics , Iva n Krni c an d Mila n Marjano vic, wrot e extensiv e studie s abou t him , i n whic h the y easil y demon strated ho w th e autho r o f work s suc h a s Medju zabarima, an d espe cially U registraturi, was endowed wit h a unique narrative talent . The y also pointed t o Kovacic's penetrating observations , his most astonishin g imagination, and his very progressive ideas. They di d not fail, however , to notic e hi s almos t unbelievabl e romanticis m ami d a numbe r o f crudely naturalisti c episode s an d no t ver y convincin g characters , wh o bore the marks of hasty composition. 55 His mos t importan t work , U registraturi, which originall y appeare d in th e literar y journa l Vijenac, wa s no t publishe d i n boo k for m unti l 1911.56 Becaus e Kovaci c fough t strenuousl y fo r th e underprivilege d classes an d wa s intentionall y ruine d b y a hostil e government , an d 54 Matos, i n collaboratio n wit h Kovacic' s so n Kresimir , publishe d Kovacic' s selected poem s an d storie s (Izabrane pjesme; Sabrane pripovijesti) i n 190 8 an d 1910. ttRrvatska Moderna, I I (Zagreb , 1951) , 98-122 ; Hrvatska knjizevna krttika, III, 65-68 ; Savremenik (1907) , 74-84; Hrvatski esej, 131-45 . 56 The mai n reason s wh y thi s uniqu e wor k o f Croatia n pros e di d no t appea r before tha t dat e are probabl y tha t the officia l orga n of the Zagre b archdioces e attacked Kovaci c on the ground s of immorality and tha t one o f th e mos t renowne d Catholic critics , Jaks a Cedomil , expresse d a lo w opinio n o f bot h th e nove l and it s author. Thi s proble m i s dealt wit h i n detai l b y Mila n Ratkovi é in th e introductio n to Kovacic's Djela, I (1950) , 17, 36.

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especially becaus e h e wa s attacke d b y churchmen , hi s work s ar e constantly published i n Yugoslavi a today, an d th e anniversarie s o f his birth an d deat h ar e usuall y celebrate d wit h eulogies . Moreover , Kovacic is presented i n his countr y as i f h e were , i n certai n ways , th e forerunner o f the present-da y politica l system. 57 I t i s no surpris e tha t the Communist s regularly "forget" to republish on e of his most interest ing works , Ladanjska sekta, i n whic h h e successfull y ridicule d th e social democrat s an d affirme d tha t eve n th e mos t advance d economi c ideas coul d be very dangerous i f applied t o agricultural countries , suc h as Croati a wa s i n hi s time . H e furthe r hel d tha t th e sam e economi c principles coul d no t b e vali d fo r countrie s suc h a s Englan d an d Germany an d als o for th e Balka n areas , wher e peopl e ha d fough t fo r bare nationa l survival over five centuries.58 Kovacic was a man o f firm character, a n idealis t wh o wante d t o se e his beloved countr y freed fro m it s political, cultural, an d social enslavement. Motivate d b y hi s childlik e faith i n highe r value s an d hi s belie f that ever y peasan t shoul d b e considere d a s a huma n bein g wit h a consequent righ t t o a n individual , decen t existence , Kovaci c has very little in common with an y totalitarian regime . The mos t prolifi c write r amon g th e Croatia n realist s wa s Ksave r Sandor Gjalsk i (1854-1935) , wh o wa s bor n nea r Zabok , Croatia n Zagorje. Hi s rea l nam e wa s Ljubomi r Babic . Gjalsk i studie d la w i n Zagreb an d Vienna. As a civil servant , he change d residenc e ofte n an d thus acquired a n intimate knowledg e of Croatia. H e was sent into early retirement i n 1919 and thereafte r lived a t hi s family estat e i n Gredice . Gjalski spoke several languages and was well read in the works of many foreign authors , especiall y Turgenev , Gogol , Sienkiewicz , Balzac , Daudet, an d Zola ; he als o traveled widely . Gjalsk i studie d philosoph y and economic s an d for a longer tim e devote d himsel f t o occult studies . These preoccupation s lef t a definit e imprint o n hi s literar y work. 59 Gjalski bega n t o writ e a t a n earl y age , but i t wa s no t unti l h e wa s thirty year s ol d tha t h e succeede d i n publishin g hi s Illustrissimus Batthorych. Afte r thi s work , he wrot e a book almos t yearly . Hi s major collections o f storie s ar e Pod starim krovovima (Unde r Ol d Roofs) , 1886, Tri pripovijesti bez naslova (Thre e Storie s Withou t Title) , 1887, 57

Marijan Jurkovic, i n the prefac e t o th e nove l U Registraturi ( Beograd, 195 0 ), 9-28. 58 Cf. A. Barac , "Kovacioev a Ladanjsk a sekt a prem a Lazarevicevo j Skolsko j ikoni," Prilozi za knjizevnost, ed . b y Pavl e Popovió , vol . XIV (1934) , 153-73 . 59 Dragutin Prohaska , Pregled sawemene hrvatsko-srpske knjizecnosti (Zagreb , 1921), 25-33 ; Enciklopedija Jugoslavije, vol . Ill (Zagreb , 1958) , 460 ; Prilozi 27 (1961), issues land 2, 122.

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Bijedne price (Tale s of Misery), 1899, an d Diljem doma (Cros s Country), 1899. Hi s best known novels are U nocí (Durin g the Night), 1886 , Djurdjica Agiceva, 1889, Osvit (Dawn) , 1892 , an d Za materinsku rijec ( Fight fo r a Mothe r Tongu e ), 1906 . H e publishe d hi s ow n complet e works in 1913. 60 Gjalski i s the mos t comprehensiv e Croatia n write r o f the nineteent h century. Hi s storie s and novel s constitut e a n extensiv e documentatio n of th e political , social , economic , an d cultura l lif e o f Croati a durin g the nineteenth century. Since he endeavored to introduce into Croatia n literature problem s whic h transcende d th e boundarie s of that country , he was the first Croatian writer regarded b y the critic s to be Europea n in spirit. 01 Gjalski opene d new horizon s for othe r writer s an d exercise d a militan t an d progressiv e effec t o n Croatia n readers . Th e younge r generation a t th e en d o f th e nineteent h centur y haile d hi m a s it s master. Durin g th e literar y controvers y whic h rage d a t th e time , Gjalski place d himsel f o n th e sid e o f th e yout h o f th e country , an d contributed t o it s periodicals. 62 I n spit e o f hi s aristocrati c origin , h e tried t o b e sociall y progressiv e an d wrot e storie s abou t th e poores t strata o f societ y wit h understandin g an d affection . The artisti c value o f Gjalski's works is not alway s sufficien t t o offse t their defect s resultin g fro m hi s overus e o f ideologica l an d politica l matter. H e wrote a t a great pace , an d ofte n th e propagandist element s in hi s work s overshado w th e creative . Hi s plot s frequentl y appea r artificial, an d hi s character s ten d t o lac k depth . Hi s earlies t storie s were his best; in them h e described th e patriarcha l lif e o f the Croatia n gentry with great artistic vigo r an d th e sensibilit y o f an artis t who wa s not s o muc h a preache r an d criti c a s a poe t o f a vanishe d perio d i n which he recognized beauty. 63 Vjenceslav Nova k (1859-1905 ) wa s initiall y a schoo l teache r i n his native town of Senj. Afte r studyin g for thre e year s a t th e conserva tory in Prague, he became a music instructor at the teachers' college in Zagreb. Nova k had a large famil y an d wa s very poorl y paid; ofte n h e wrote jus t to increas e hi s income. Hi s religiou s and socia l conviction s were quit e liberal , but h e felt oblige d t o mitigate the m i n writing, fo r 60 The complet e lis t o f Gjalski's publications , prepared b y Emi l Stampar , ca n b e found i n Djela (Zagreb : Zora, 1952) , I , 7-58 . 61 Gjalski's "Sa n doktor a Misica " (Th e Drea m o f Docto r Misic) , a n absorbin g mystery story, written with extraordinar y skill, i s to be foun d i n Great Short Novels of the World, ed . by B. Clark (Ne w York, 1927) , 963-87 . 62 Hrvatska Moderna, I-II (Zagreb , 1951), passim. 63 Emil Stampar , i n Ks . S . Gjalski , Djela, I, 7-58 ; Kresimi r Georgijevié , i n th e introduction t o Gjalski' s Izabrane pripovetke (Beograd , 1956) , 5-38.

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otherwise h e woul d certainl y hav e incurre d th e disfavo r o f th e the n ruling clas s an d o f those conservative s at Matic a Hrvatsk a o r Drustv o sv. Jeronima , t o who m h e submitte d al l hi s manuscript s fo r pub lication.64 Novak's most important longer stories and novels are: "Pava o Segota" (1888); Podgorske pripovijesti (Tale s fro m Podgorje) , 1889 ; "Po d Nehajem" (A t th e Foo t o f Nehaj) , 1892 ; "Nikol a Baretic " (1896) ; Dvije pripovijesti (Tw o Tales), 1897; "Posljednj i Stipancici " (The Last of th e Stipancics) , 1899 ; "Dv a svijeta" (Tw o Worlds) , 1901 ; "Zapreke " (Obstacles), 1905; an d "Tito Dorcic," 1906 (whic h was published afte r his death ). In his numerous writings, Novak depicted variou s segments of Croatia n lif e towar d th e beginnin g o f th e twentiet h century : h e presented hi s birthplace, Sen] , with th e gradua l decline o f its patricia n families, wit h it s clergymen , smal l merchants , an d poo r students . H e described Podgorje , a n extremel y poo r regio n sout h o f Senj , wher e begging wa s considere d a profession , wit h it s ow n particula r notion s of morality . Nova k als o portraye d th e Croatia n bourgeoisi e an d th e petty bourgeoisie , wit h thei r dail y pleasures and grea t tragedies . Wit h almost photographi c fidelity , h e sketche d thei r everyda y life , an d Novak coul d therefor e b e considere d on e o f th e mos t accurat e por trayers of Croatian society . He was, however, at the sam e time it s poe t and it s bitte r critic . Nova k gradually becam e a poet o f the poor , an d in hi s wor k h e presente d th e inhabitant s o f th e slum s of Zagre b an d the underpaid manua l and clerica l workers. He alway s found words of forgiveness fo r their misdeed s an d stigmatize d th e socia l orde r whic h had le d the m t o thei r poverty . Nova k was the firs t Croatia n write r t o introduce realisti c scene s fro m th e dreadfu l lif e o f th e workin g class , and he frequently depicted underprivilege d an d exploite d beings , who spent mos t of their fre e tim e either in attics an d cellar s or in suffocatin g taverns.66 Novak was an extremely keen observer. In th e cours e of his daily lif e he noted dow n incident s whic h h e believed coul d b e use d late r i n his stories. I n hi s writing s h e touche d upo n a multitud e o f problems . Owing to the rapidity wit h which he wrote, an d to his illness, his stories often see m to be hardly more than sketches . He was indisputably a true artist, however , especiall y durin g hi s las t year s an d whe n describin g human misery , a s i n " U prosjacko j kuci " (I n th e Beggar' s House), 66 64

Vlatko Pavletic , Kako su stvarali knji&evnici, I (Zagreb , 1956) , 118-37 . A. Barac, in Djela Vj . Novaka , I (Zagreb , 1951), 7-23 . Jean Dayre , wh o translate d thi s stor y int o Frenc h (Anthologie des conteurs croates modernes, Zagreb, 1933) , remarks about Nova k a s a writer : "I I a men é la vie d'un fonctionnair e besogneux pour qu i l a littératur e devait , tro p souvent , êtr e 65

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"U glib " (I n th e Mud) , and "I z velegradsko g podzemlja " (Fro m th e City's Undergroun d ). These short stories, as well as some of his longe r ones ("Posljednj i Stipancici, " "Tito Dorcic") ar e significant, not onl y as faithful description s o f socia l conditions , bu t als o a s work s o f ar t which continu e to occup y a hig h plac e i n Croatia n literature. 67 Not a s productive a s some of the better-know n Croatia n realists wa s Josip Kozara c (1858-1906) , wh o wa s bor n i n Vinkovci . H e studie d forestry i n Vienna , wher e h e becam e acquainte d wit h th e work s o f Adam Smith and Charles Darwin. At home again, he became employe d as a foreste r i n variou s parts o f Slavonia . Kozarac's firs t attempt s i n literature wer e verses an d romantic stories. He the n turne d t o writin g comedies, using superficial plots based on the topics of love and money. Having lived for years in the Slavonia n countryside, wit h fe w books a t hand, h e describe d th e worl d a s h e sa w it . Hi s firs t realisti c story , "Biser-Kata", wa s publishe d i n 1887 . Afte r i t receive d ver y laudator y reviews, Kozara c continue d t o writ e abou t th e sam e subject , i n th e same style and spirit . Besides short or longer stories , he als o wrote tw o novels: Mrtvi kapitali (Dea d Capitals) , 1889 , an d Medju svijetlom i tminom (Betwee n Light an d Darkness), 1891 . Kozarac presente d Slavoni a a s h e witnesse d i t durin g on e o f it s most decisiv e periods . Capitalis m wa s penetratin g rapidl y int o Sla vonia; thi s province, th e mos t prosperous of all Croatia , wa s suddenl y flooded b y foreigners , mostl y Magyar s an d Germans , wh o cam e t o exploit it s wealt h an d th e chea p labo r o f th e Croatians. 68 Kozara c depicted no t onl y thi s economi c process , bu t als o th e peopl e them selves; accordin g t o him , th e inhabitant s ar e lazy , an d thei r wome n beautiful an d sensual . H e present s man y o f the m a s havin g straye d from th e roa d o f hono r throug h weaknes s o r extravagance . I n hi s famous story , "Tr i dañ a ko d sina " (Thre e Day s a t M y Son's ) h e portrays th e ga p existin g between peasan t parent s and thei r educate d children.69 I n mos t o f hi s writing , Kazara c showed himsel f t o b e a n economist and sociologist . His artistic abilities, nevertheless , ar e indis putable. Withou t writin g fo r literar y effec t an d withou t inventin g exciting plots, h e presented his observations an d shape d hi s character s un travai l alimentaire . D e l à s a fécondit é e t auss i l a négligence , l e lâch é d e l a forme, l'impressio n d'ébauch e qu i frappen t dan s certaine s page s e t qu i fon t so n oeuvre si inégale" ( 337-8 ). 67 A. Barac, Djela Vj . Novaka , I, 23 . 68 Cf. Joz o Tomasevich , Peasants, Politics, and Economie Change in Yugoslavia (Stanford, 1955) , 211-13. 69 This stor y wa s als o translate d int o Frenc h b y Jea n Dayr e (Anthologie des conteurs croates modernes, 45-60 ).

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conscientiously an d succinctly . Seemingl y a rationalist , a t hear t Ko zarac wa s a tende r ma n wh o fel t th e poetr y o f th e woods—a s i n "Slavonska suma" (Th e Slavonian Woods)—the beauty o f youth an d of love, an d th e superiorit y o f feelin g over col d reason. 70 A representative o f the perio d o f transition, when the socio-economi c realistic tendenc y gav e wa y t o psychologica l analysis , wa s Jank o Leskovar (1861-1949) , born at Valentinovo. He taught i n many localities o f Slavoni a and Zagorje . H e wa s ofte n transferre d because o f hi s patriotic convictions , and i n 191 4 h e wen t int o retiremen t mostl y as a result o f hi s hypersensitivity . I n on e o f hi s letters , Leskova r wrote : "Among philosophers I have read especially Schopenhauer, an d among storytellers Turgenev. " Leskovar' s character s believ e tha t the y ar e expiating th e sin s o f thei r past ; hi s protagonist s ar e usuall y mal e transgressors an d innocen t girls . Hi s styl e i s clea r an d simple , an d because o f the relianc e o n introspection, th e actio n i s reduced t o th e minimum. In Leskovar's first story, "Misao na vjecnost " (Thinkin g of Eternity), 1891, Marti c is obsessed by the ide a tha t h e cannot love again becaus e his first sweetheart committe d suicid e an d no w perhap s watche s hi m from th e star s above . I n anothe r story , "Poslij e nesrece " (Afte r th e Disaster), 1894 , Ivanovi c i s unable t o forgiv e hi s wife , wh o betraye d him, an d h e seek s solac e i n Schopenhauer' s writing . I n Leskovar' s novel, Propali dvori (Th e Ruine d Castle), 1896 , th e undecide d Petro vic loves the nobl e bu t poo r Ljudmila ; h e remains , however, wit h his father, who appreciates onl y money and success. Leskovar stresses that class difference , completel y independen t fro m ou r willpower, governs our destinies . I n "Jesenj i cvijetci " (Autum n Flowers) , 1897 , w e ar e told tha t a neuroti c widowe r doe s not dar e to marr y a youn g gir l because h e i s immersed i n hi s memories . In Leskovar' s secon d novel , Sjene Ifabavi (Shadow s o f Love) , 1898 , th e debauche d Businsk i loses Ljerka, wh o i s ready t o forge t hi s past , bu t hi s sense s ar e enchaine d by visions of feminine bodies. Leskovar's character s ar e selfish . The y lov e an d understan d onl y themselves; the y ar e lazy , passive , an d los t i n vagu e meditations . Though Leskovar was under the influence of Turgenev an d Goncharov, his stories ar e more decadent tha n realistic . A t the tur n o f the centur y he was considered b y the younger generation as their leader . Probabl y feeling tha t h e wa s repeatin g himsel f i n hi s works , Leskovar stoppe d 70 Cf. excellen t studie s abou t Kozara c writte n b y Professor s Emi l Stampar , i n Djela Josip a Kozara c (Zagreb , 1950) , 7-35 , an d Kresimi r Georgijevic , Mrtvi kapitali (Beograd , 1947) , 7-20 .

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writing aroun d 1905 . Hi s storie s wer e collecte d b y Brank o Vodni k i n 1917, an d hi s entir e work s wer e publishe d i n 194 4 (Pripovijesti, 2 vols. ). The first among numerous Croatian writer s t o try his hand a t poetic prose11 was Fran Mazurani c ( 1859-1928 ), the son of Matija Mazuranic , the autho r o f a n importan t travelogue , Pogled u Bosnu ( A Vie w of Bosnia), 1842 . Fra n Mazurani c (his real nam e was Vladimir) becam e a captai n i n th e Austria n cavalry . Hi s hatre d fo r Empero r Franci s Joseph (1848-1916 ) an d fo r Austria n military an d governmenta l offi cials, wh o insolentl y ignore d th e jus t demand s o f th e Slavi c peoples , involved hi m i n variou s incidents , whic h culminated , i n 1900 , i n hi s dismissal from th e army . For som e thirty year s nothing wa s know n of his whereabouts, an d fantasti c legends circulate d abou t him . In actua l fact, Mazurani c went off to fight with the Boer s against the British , and later with the Russians against the Japanese. After travelin g throughou t all the continent s except Australia, he settled dow n i n Berlin. There he earned his livelihood by writing in German, but alway s under differen t pseudonyms. I n 1928 , whe n everythin g wa s prepare d fo r a long delayed retur n to his native countryside, he suddenly died ; the circum stances o f his deat h remai n a mystery. Mazuranic's literar y creativit y ca n b e divide d int o tw o periods , separated b y an interval o f forty years . The first period begin s i n 1885 , when, unde r th e influenc e o f Turgenev' s Poems in Prose (Senilia), Mazuranic wrote short prose fragments, which D . S . Mirsky describe d as "comparabl e i n constructio n t o th e objectifie d lyrics o f th e Frenc h Parnassians, wh o use d visua l symbol s t o expres s thei r subjectiv e experience; sometime s the y verg e o n th e fabl e an d th e apologue." 72 The result was a small book of not mor e than fort y fragments , entitle d Lisce (Leaves) , 1887 . Thi s book' s simplicit y o f style , pregnanc y o f expression, maturity of thought, an d unusual lyricism set it refreshingly apart fro m th e work s of othe r writer s o f Croatia n realism . His secon d book , Od zore do mraka (Fro m Daw n t o Dark) , 1927 , consists largel y o f autobiographical reminiscences . Exceptionall y mov ing an d interestin g ar e thos e pages i n which Mazurani c describe s th e earliest year s o f childhoo d i n Nov i Vinodol, nea r Senj. 73 I n general , 71

Cf. Antologija hrvatskih pjesama u prozi, edite d b y Tadijanovi c an d Tomici c (Zagreb, 1958) , 6, 11-25. 72 D. S . Mirsky , A History of Russian Literature, edite d b y Franci s Whitfiel d (New York , 1958), 206. H e speak s abou t Turgenev' s poem s i n prose . 73 Re-edited b y Tadijanovic , Mladost-Radost (Zagreb , 1950) , wit h a n excellen t sketch o f Mazuranic' s life . Thi s boo k als o contain s bibliographica l dat a reprinte d from Republika (1950) , 241-44.

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one can say that Mazuranic' s secon d boo k contains th e mos t intriguin g experiences, which , unfortunately , ar e lef t a s uncu t diamonds . Onl y here an d ther e doe s on e discover "poems " whic h coul d b e considere d among the best Croatia n prose poems. One cannot but agree , therefore , with the observation of Vladimir Nazor, who expressed disappointmen t that suc h a magnificen t mine should no t hav e bee n exploite d b y it s discoverer.74 Nazo r was, nevertheless, incorrect , whe n h e asserte d tha t Mazuranic was not concerne d abou t the deepe r meaning s and the fundamental problem s o f existence; o n th e contrary , al l o f his lif e wa s spent i n a constan t searc h fo r th e ke y t o th e profoun d anguis h o f his excessively tormented soul. 75 During thi s perio d (1880-1895) , man y poet s wer e active , bu t unfortunately mos t o f them wer e mediocr e versifiers, 76 althoug h som e are stil l prominently mentioned i n textbook s or i n survey s o f Croatia n literature.77 Th e mos t outstandin g bar d o f thi s non-poeti c an d highl y declamatory generation—th e rea l bridg e betwee n th e unforgettabl e August Seno a an d Silvij e S . Kranjcevic—wa s Augus t Harambasi c ( 1861-1911 ). In hi s collectio n o f patriotic poems , Slobodarke ( Songs of Freedom), 1883 , Harambasic san g abou t hi s enslaved countr y an d it s never-ending struggl e agains t Germa n an d Magya r oppression . Hi s fiery utterances reflecte d a bitternes s whic h ha d bee n arouse d b y th e deteriorated positio n o f th e Croatia n natio n i n th e Austro-Hungaria n Empire. Lik e hi s predecessor Senoa, he wa s convince d tha t a ma n of letters has a higher missio n than simpl y to amuse the public; accordin g to hi m th e write r i s a kin d o f cultura l missionary , whos e dut y i s t o enlighten th e masses . Harambasic helpe d mak e Croatia n vers e lighter , more suppl e an d appealing, bu t a s he became mor e and mor e involve d in politics, hi s lyric s gradually decline d t o th e leve l o f journalism . His numerous collection s o f poem s ar e deficien t i n depth , an d i n th e majority o f his poems on e ca n seldo m find really perfect verse s amon g the many commonplaces and platitudes.78 The othe r representativ e o f thi s declamator y generation , a ma n o f 7 *Cf. A . Barac , "Vladimi r Nazo r i Fra n Mazuranic, " Letopis Matice srpske (April-May, 1931) , 69-88 . 75 His anti-Austria n pamphlet , Strijele i streüce, wa s recentl y publishe d i n Gradja za povijest knjizevnosti hrvatske, ed . b y th e Yugosla v Academ y of Science s and Arts , vol . 16 (1948) , 247-69 . It s valu e i s onl y historical , sinc e hi s intens e hatred fo r Franci s Josep h serve d onl y t o mak e th e wor k verbos e an d repetitious . 76 M. Kombol , Antologija novije hrvatske lirike (Zagreb , 1934) , 10 , an d Novija hrvatska lirika, I (Beograd , 1956) , 7 . 77 Cf. Bogda n Svilokos, Hrvatska poezija od preparada do Kranjcevica (Zagreb , 1957). 78 A. Barac, Velicina malenih (Zagreb , 1947) , 165-240 .

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completely differen t education , orientation , an d stamin a tha n Haram basic, wa s Ant e Tresic-Pavici c (1867-1949) . Tresi c wa s extremel y ambitious, bu t h e wa s renowne d fo r hi s wid e literar y erudition , an d was very productiv e i n hi s variou s role s o f poet , playwright , story teller, novelist , an d edito r o f a literar y journal. 79 Al l hi s work s wer e keyed t o a high pitch. Lik e Franj o Cirak i ("Th e Florentin e Elegies") , Franjo Markovic , an d man y other Croatia n neo-classicist s befor e him , Tresic-Pavicic di d no t eve n tr y t o b e understoo d b y th e masse s (odi profanum vulgus et arceo ). In classica l meter, he san g of the downfal l of th e Roma n Republi c (Finis rei publicae, a tetralogy , 1902-1 1 ).80 Even whe n h e wrot e patrioti c verses , persona l feeling s wer e totall y absent, an d hi s varying political view s wer e thei r inspirin g force . H e wrote plays , base d o n th e Croatia n past , tha t containe d a n obviou s political tendentiousnes s (Ljutovid Posavski, 1894 ; Katarina Zrinska, 1899 ).81 The greates t Croatia n poe t o f th e secon d hal f o f th e nineteent h century, an d on e o f th e greates t name s i n Croatia n literatur e a s a whole, wa s Silvij e Strahimi r Kranjcevi c (1865-1908) , bor n a t Senj . His father wa s a municipal clerk; his mother, a fine and delicat e person who delighte d her so n with tale s o f the heroi c deed s o f his Uskok ancestors (deserter s an d refugee s fightin g agains t th e Turk s an d Venice ), died when Silvije was still attending th e Gymnasium. Because he ha d receive d a poor grad e "for hi s obstinac y an d rudeness, " Kranj cevic wa s no t admitte d t o th e fina l examinatio n (Matura). Thus , unable to attend university, and wishing to please his father, Kranjcevic took up th e stud y o f theology, fo r which h e had , however, n o inclina tion. His ecclesiastical superiors sent him to the "Collegium Germanico Hungaricum" in Rome; there h e remaine d onl y six months. A moment of decisio n i n Kranjcevic's lif e occurre d whe n he visite d th e catacomb s in Rome and noticed a young couple there , wh o were displayin g thei r love fo r on e anothe r ami d th e dus t an d gloo m o f th e ancien t bones . Kranjcevic suddenl y realized tha t a woman's lov e meant mor e t o hi m 7»Cf. Prohaska, Pregled, 88-93 . *°"Molti son ó gl i episod i ingombranti , molt i i quadr i storic i inanim i e i personaggi cartacei . C' è tropp o verism o storic o e filosófico perché l'azion e poss a fluiré calda e naturale . C' è tropp a erudizion e perch é l a passion e non illanguidisca nel su o nascere. Sonó dramm i fatti pi ù pe r un ' attent a lettura ch e pe r un e riuscita rappresentazione. D a u n poet a erudit o e cérébral e com e il Tresi c altr a oper a no n poteva sgorgare. " Cronia , Storia della letteratura serbo-croata, 462 . 81 Following event s an d changin g politica l ideologie s closely , fro m a n extrem e Pan-Croatian h e becam e a n "integral " Yugoslav ; onl y i n 194 1 did h e retur n t o ultra-Croatian ideas.

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than al l th e glorie s o f martyrdo m (" U katakombama, " 1886). 82 I t happened tha t th e grea t bishop , J . J . Strossmayer , wa s the n visitin g Rome, an d Kranjcevi c poure d ou t hi s trouble d hear t t o him . Th e renowned bisho p promise d t o giv e hi m hi s support . O n hi s retur n home, Kranjcevi c went straigh t t o Zagreb , wher e h e alread y enjoye d high estee m fo r hi s patrioti c contribution s t o th e foremos t Croatia n literary journals. Two years later, in 1886, Kranjcevi c obtaine d teachin g credentials. Kranjcevic wa s sen t t o Bosnia-Hercegovina , then a newl y occupie d province, where there wa s a grea t need fo r teachers. H e taught first in Mostar, bu t soon , becaus e h e ha d com e under th e suspicio n o f bot h civil an d churc h authorities, Kranjcevi c wa s transferred to Livno , then to Bijeljina , an d fou r year s later, bac k t o Livno . Finally , i n 1893 , h e came t o th e Bosnia n capital , Sarajevo . Th e followin g yea r h e wa s appointed edito r o f th e semi-officia l literar y pape r Nad a and , fo r th e first time , hel d a positio n whic h enable d hi m t o devot e muc h o f hi s time t o literar y creativity . I n 189 8 Kranjcevi c marrie d El a Kasaj , a teacher o f Frenc h an d part-tim e writer . Kranjcevic , wit h a min d preoccupied wit h th e insolubl e problems concerning man' s origi n an d destiny, an d wit h a hear t alway s read y t o revol t i n th e caus e o f oppressed nation s o r individuals , nevertheles s experience d i n hi s marriage a fe w year s o f persona l happiness , durin g whic h h e wrot e several sensuou s lov e poem s (e.g . " U zelj i ljubavi, " 1898) . I n thi s period h e also composed on e o f his most moving patriotic song s ( "Moj dom," 1897). The journa l Nada cease d publicatio n a t th e en d o f 1903 , and Kranjcevi c then becam e th e headmaste r o f a commercia l schoo l in Sarajevo . Alway s hypersensitive an d o f delicat e health , Kranjcevi c fell victi m to painfu l kidney stones . In vai n h e sough t t o improv e hi s health b y spendin g severa l month s i n a Viennes e hospita l an d a t various spas. When h e wa s onl y twenty year s old , Kranjcevi c published hi s first collection o f poems , Bugarkinje (Plaintiv e Songs ) a t Sen j i n 1885 . Though som e o f hi s poem s wer e eve n the n permeate d wit h socia l tendencies, Kranjcevi c still swam largely i n th e wak e o f his predeces sors, suc h a s Harambasi c an d Senoa , t o who m h e dedicate d thi s collection. Durin g his lifetime, two more collections o f his poems wer e published: Izabrane pjesme (Selecte d Poems , Zagreb , 1898 ) an d Trzaji (Spasms , Tuzla, 1902) . Hi s poetr y wa s o f suc h extraordinar y 82 "Nelle catacomb e non sentiv a che l a polver a suffocant e e i l bisogno délia luc e solare," writes Ljubomir Marakovi ó i n Croazia Sacra (Roma , 1943) , 133 .

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novelty and created such fascination that a t the tur n o f the centur y h e was considere d th e greates t livin g Croatia n poet . Thi s reputatio n endured afte r hi s las t collectio n o f poems , Pjesme (Poems , Zagreb , 1908), the publication o f which he di d no t liv e to see . Kranjcevi c also wrote prose, an d th e bes t o f it wa s collecte d afte r hi s deat h b y Mila n Marjanovic, i n a book entitle d Pjesnióka proza (Poeti c Prose , Zagreb , 1912 ).83 As soo n a s Izabrane pjesme, an d especiall y Trzaji, wer e printed , Kranjcevic wa s hailed b y liberal s an d socialist s alike , bu t attacke d b y "clericals," wh o accuse d hi m o f atheism . Nevertheless , som e o f th e most culture d members o f th e clerg y cam e t o hi s defens e (e.g . Jaks a Cedomil). Tw o o f th e mos t brillian t Croatia n literar y critics , Mato s and Marjanovic , devoted a number of penetrating studie s to Kranjcevic and his poetry. Marjanovi c admire d hi m for his libera l tendencie s an d outspoken anti-clericalism , an d Mato s extolle d th e musicalit y o f hi s lapidary style. 84 Kranjcevic, i t i s reported, 85 die d afte r receivin g th e las t sacraments , and wa s thu s reconcile d wit h th e Churc h fo r which , durin g hi s life time, h e had neve r ha d a kind word. H e wa s sincerely convince d tha t the establishe d churc h ha d straye d fa r fro m th e spiri t o f the Gospels . Kranjcevic wa s hear t an d sou l fo r th e workin g man , a s i s see n i n "Radniku" (T o th e Laborer) , i n it s tw o differen t versions , an d th e Catholic Churc h appeared t o him alway s on the sid e of the oppressor s and exploiters ; furthermore , he coul d no t understan d wh y thos e wh o claimed t o represen t Jesu s lived i n luxuriou s palaces, surrounde d b y affluence, an d enjoye d the powe r of tyrants. From Kranjcevic' s rathe r extensiv e religiou s poetry—h e als o wrot e an oratorio, entitle d Prvi Grijeh (Firs t Sin) , 1893—i t i s no t absolutel y 83

It is unanimously accepted that th e mos t comprehensiv e selection of his poetry was publishe d b y Matic a Hrvatsk a i n 1926 , wit h a n excellen t introduction b y a well-known critic , Branimi r Livadi c (pp . iii-lxxx) . Sinc e Worl d Wa r I I Kranjce vic's reputatio n has bee n steadil y growing, thoug h always no t fo r literar y reasons. Some critic s see i n hi m a protagonis t of th e proletaria n or eve n Marxis t ideology . Cf. Mirosla v Krleza , i n hi s articl e "Knjizevnos t dañas/ ' publishe d i n th e sixt h volume o f th e collectio n Hrvatska knjizevna kritika, 214 . Krlez a als o wrot e " O Kranjcevicevoj lirici, " Hrvatska Revija 3 (1931) , 137-58 . O n th e contrary , Kranjcevió wa s a bar d o f Croatia , no t a s a n embodimen t of histori c right s o r carefully preserve d parchments , bu t o f th e nativ e lan d fo r whic h on e feel s a n uncontrollable attachment . See , fo r example , hi s las t an d magnificen t poe m "Portret," 1908. B4 Hrvatska knjizevna kritika, III, 74-77 ; IV , 144-57 . Ilij a Kecmanovi c collected these an d man y othe r reviews in S. S. Kranjcevic, covjek i pjesnik, ogledi i ttspomene (Sarajevo , 1955) . ssfiishop Iva n Ev. Sarió, Osoba i duh, Ill-TV (Madrid , 1953), 87-91.

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clear whether h e preserved hi s faith in a Christian, persona l God ; ther e are stron g indication s tha t h e espouse d a pantheisti c poin t o f view. I t was difficult fo r Kranjcevic to reconcile the idea of an Almighty Father with th e chao s an d blatan t injustic e tha t ha s prevaile d i n th e worl d from it s ver y beginning . Nevertheless , Kranjcevi c believe d i n Jesus . Some of his best poems , eve n when the y glorif y th e Frenc h Revolutio n or urge a child t o leave the Churc h an d go out into nature , ar e power ful glorification s of Jesus, as he saw Him and carrie d Hi m in the depth s of hi s heart . On e migh t mention , amon g others , "Eli ! Eli ! lam a azav tani?," 1896; "Dv a barjaka " (Tw o Standards ) an d "Resurrectio, " 1897 ; "Hrist djetet u u crkvi " (Chris t t o th e Chil d i n th e Church) , 1900 ; "Hristova slika" (Christ's Image), 1908. 86 There were som e critics, amon g them Alber t Haler, 87 wh o tried , o n the basi s o f certain aestheti c principles , t o prove tha t Kranjcevi c ofte n wrote verse s o f poor qualit y an d sometime s reworke d forgotte n plati tudes. Hale r als o insiste d tha t i n tw o o f Kranjcevic' s mos t renowne d poems, "Mojsije" (Moses) , 1893; 88 and "Zadnj i Adam," (The Last Adam), 1896, Kranjcevi c di d no t compar e favorably with Alfre d d e Vign y an d 86 But, if one aske d the poe t th e question : I f Go d doe s no t exist , doe s tha t mea n that Jesu s wa s nothin g bu t on e o f the man y imposter s wh o hav e appeare d i n th e course o f huma n history? , Kranjcevi c woul d probabl y answer : Yes , you coul d b e right accordin g t o you r ow n logic , bu t m y hear t i s guide d b y principle s whic h completely def y an y human logic . I nee d Jesus , becaus e withou t Hi m thi s chaoti c world woul d b e complet e darknes s fo r me . Ho w coul d I accep t Hi m differentl y than I imagined an d love d Hi m fro m m y earl y childhood ? D o no t as k m e wh o created the universe, I d o not know, I could guess. I kno w for certain that m y own life, and , I suppose , yours , woul d b e unbearabl e withou t Jesus ' lov e an d Hi s encouraging example. 87 In " O poezij i Silvij a Str . Kranjcevica, " Srpskî knjizevni glasnik (June-July , 1929), 265-74 , 356-61, 434-443. 88 Mr. Irwi n Titunik , a forme r studen t o f mine , no w a n instructo r a t th e University o f Michigan, has translate d the beginnin g of thi s lon g poe m a s follows : . . . Lead m y people out , O Lord, / Lea d the m ou t of doleful bondage , / An d cast off fro m drows y lids / Scale s encrusted still , scales direful , / Tha t no w shackl e u p their eyes ! / Cal l to mind how cheerless bondage, / Lik e that ponderou s tombstone there, / Weighe d upo n m y brothers' shoulders ; / Ho w our torturers condemne d / In our women's wombs our children! / Might y Jehovah! Be kind! / Cas t a curse on torturer tyrant s / An d my people save , O Lord!" / —Mad wish ! Bu t ho w lik e a man ! / Cas t a curs e o n torture r tyrants ? / Thi s fol k slay for that folk's sake ? / O my creature! Why should I / Fo r one another creatur e crush? / Se e where Wes t lies , Eas t arises , / Ther e th e Nort h an d her e Sout h loom: / All , al l this hav e I replenishe d / Wit h th e spaw n o f life ; eac h thin g / Drawing equa l breath , hold s life dear . / No w you bid tha t I transgres s / Thi s my greatest la w in nature! / Coul d you but tak e here you r stand / Whenc e fo r me the vista opens ; / The n woul d yo u se e how minute / You r petty , blood y man' s wis h is. / Dow n fro m m y heights, huma n wretch, / Juttin g pyramids li e as low / A s the nameless mole's du g burrow. / Vai n and feckless i s your toil!—

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Giosuè Carducci , wh o wrot e simila r poems . Antu n Bara c successfull y demonstrated tha t no t onl y wa s th e conten t o f Kranjcevic' s poem s almost completel y unlik e tha t o f thes e writers , bu t als o tha t h e pro duced work s o f ar t tha t h e fel t wer e equa l t o th e famou s poem s ("Moïse," an d "S u Monte Mario" ) o f these tw o grea t poets. 89 No on e befor e Kranjcevi c was capabl e o f exploitin g th e power s o f the Croatia n languag e t o th e exten t h e did . I n hi s poetry , tende r feeling skillfull y alternate s wit h stron g crie s o f protest . Hi s poetry , mostly permeated wit h bitte r sarcas m and hopeles s anguish , als o conveys th e idylli c happines s whic h on e find s o n th e rock y shore s o f hi s birthplace, th e cheerfu l mood s o f th e sprin g season , an d th e myster y of lonel y winte r evenings . Kranjcevi c alway s expresse d hi s emotion s with raptur e an d warmth , wit h tear s an d supplications , almos t i n prayer.90 BIBLIOGRAPHY /. Books, Essays, and Articles Andric, Nikola . Pod apsolutizmom. Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska , 1906. Barac, Antun . Le s étude s critique s su r l a littératur e d e rillyrisme, " Le Monde slave II (1935) , 353-373. . Hrvatska knjizevna kritika. Zagreb , 1938. . "L a cultur e littérair e de s écrivain s croate s avan t Senoa, " Annales de l'Institut français de Zagreb (Zagreb , 1941) . . Mazuranié. Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska , 1945. . "Hrvatsk a novel a d o Senoin e smrti, " Rod, vol . 290. Zagreb: Jugo slavenska Akademija , 1952. . "Preradovi c u pismima i stihovima," Republika VII I (1952) , 65-86 . Bogdanov, Vaso . Drustvene i politicke borbe u Hrvatskoj 1848-49. Zagreb : Jugoslavenska Akademija , 1949 . •. Hrvatska Ijevica u godinama revolucije 1848-49. Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska, 1949. . Historija politickih stranaka u Hrvatskaj. Zagreb , 1958. Cronia, Arturo. Storia délia letteratura serbo-croata. Milan, 1956. Dezelic, Velimir. Iz njemackog Zagreba. Zagreb, 1902. Fancev, Franjo , "Dokument i z a nase podrijetl o hrvatskog a preporod a 1790 1832," Gradja XI I (Zagreb : Jugoslavensk a Akademija , 1933) . 89 A. Barac , "D e Vigny , Carducci , Kranjcevic," Hrvatsko Kolo X (1929) , 194223, reprinte d i n "Poglavlj e o Kranjcevicu, " Velicina malenih (Zagreb , 1947) , 273-309. 90 Ivo Lendic , "Suvremenos t Kranjcevica,' ' Hrvatska Revija 3- 4 (Bueno s Aires , 1958) 213-36 ; Hrvatska Revija 1 (1959) , 45-72 . Hij a Kecmanovió' s monograph about Kranjcevi c wa s publishe d in Sarajev o (1959) ; thoug h tendentious , it contains mos t complet e bio-bibliographica l information an d shoul d be consulte d a s a first-rate wor k o f reference .

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. "Ilirstv o u hrvatsko m preporodu, " Ljetopis Akademije, Vol . 4 9 (1935), 130-157. . "Le s origine s autochtone s d u mouvement illyrie n croate, " Le Monde slave III (1935) , 27-74. . "Hrvatsk i preporo d ka o opcenarodn i pokret, " Hrvatska Revija VII I (1936) ,412-427. Herceg, Jaksa. Ilirizam (Beograd , 1935) . Horvat, Josip . Stranke kod Hrvata i njihove ideologije. Beograd : Bibliotek a Politike, 193 9 (I n Cyrillic) . Kulakovskij, Platon . Illirizm. Warsaw, 189 4 (I n Russian) . Neustàdter, Josep h Baron , Le ban Jellacic et les événements en Croatie depuis l'an 1848. I-II. Zagreb, 1939-1942 . Ostovic, Pavle. The Truth about Yugoslavia. Ne w York , 1952 . Prelog, Milan . Slavenska renesansa. Zagreb, 1924 . Prohaska, Dragutin . Pregled savremene hrvatsko-srpske knfizevnosti. Zagreb : Matica Hrvatska, 1921 . Savkovic, MiloS. L'Influence du réalisme français dans le roman serbo-croate. Paris: H . Champion , 193 5 (Bibliothèqu e d e l a Revu e d e littératur e com parée, Tome 107) . Sisic, Ferdo . Hrvatska povijest. Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska , 1913 . Pregled povijesti hrvatskoga naroda. Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska , 1916 . . " O stogodisnjic i ilirskog a pokreta, " Ljetopis Akademije, Vol . 4 9 (1935), 99-130. -. "Genès e e t caractèr e généra l d u mouvemen t Illyrien, " Le Monde slave I (1937) , 267-288. Smiciklas, Tadija . "Obran a i razvita k hrvatsk e narodn e idej e o d 179 0 d o 1835 godine, " Rad, Vol . 80 (Zagreb : Jugoslavensk a Akademija , 1885) . Surmin, Djuro . Hrvatski preporod. Vols . I an d I L Zagreb , 1903-1904 . //. Anthologies Dayre, Jean . Anthologie des conteurs croates modernes (1880-1930) . Zagreb: Matic a Hrvatska , 1933 . Gorjan, Zlatko . Kroatische Dichtung. Zagreb: Matic a Hrvatska, 1933 . Hille, Franz. Kroatische Novellen. Vienna: Wiener Verlagsgesellschaft , 1942 . Jezic, Slavko . Ilirska antologija. Zagreb : Minerva , 1934 . . Prvi hrvatski pripovjedaci iza preparada 1850-1880. Zagreb , 1935 . Kombol, Mihovil . Antologija novije hrvatske lirike. Zagreb : Minerva , 1934 ; Belgrade: Nolit , 1956 . . Hrvatski pripovjedaci osamdesetih i devedesetih godina. Zagreb : Minerva, 1935 . Mamuzic, Ilija . Antologija ilirskog pokreta. Belgrade , 195 2 (Skolsk a biblio teka 37-38, Znanje) . Marakovic, Ljubomir. Moderni hrvatski pripovjedaci. Zagreb: Minerva , 1934 . Salvini, Luigi. Poeti croati moderni. Milano: Garzanti, 1942 . Segedin, Pavle. Hrvatska proza. Belgrade , 1956 . Tadijanovic (Dragutin) , an d Delork o (Olinko) . Hrvatska moderna lirika. Zagreb, 1933 . For a mor e complèt e bibliography , se e th e work s b y Bara c an d Jezi c which ar e give n a s source for the list of Croatia n authors .

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Barac, Antun . Hrvatska knjizevnost od Preparada do stvaranja Jugoslavije / Croatian Literatur e fro m th e Nationa l Awakenin g t o th e Foundin g o f Yugoslavia. Boo k I : Knjizevnost llirizma / Literatur e o f th e Illyria n Movement. Zagreb , 1954 ; Boo k II : Knjizevnost pedesetih i sesdesetih godina / Literatur e o f th e Fiftie s an d Sixties . Zagreb , 1960 . Both book s were published b y th e Yugosla v Academy of Science s an d Art s in Zagreb . Unfortunately th e deat h o f th e autho r ha s halte d wor k o n thi s ver y worthwhile project . Jezic, Slavko . Hrvatska knjizevnost od pocetka do danos 1100-1941 / Croa tian Literatur e Fro m It s Beginning s t o th e Presen t Day , 1100-1941 . Zagreb: A . Velzek, 1944. I. The Illyrian Movement, 1835-1849 Babukic, Vjekosla v (1812-1875) . Philologis t an d firs t professo r o f th e Croatian languag e a t th e Academ y o f Zagreb . Wrot e severa l philologica l works, for example, Ilirska slovnica (1854 ) an d Misli o pravopisu (1860) . Blazek, Tom o (1807-1846) . Politica l poet . Se e Politicke pjesme Tome Blazeka (1848) , edited b y Antun Nemcic. Demeter, Dimitrij a (1811-1872) . Poet , playwright , stag e manage r o f th e Croatian Nationa l Theater i n Zagreb. Epic poem : Grobnicko Polje (1842) ; tragedy: Teuta (1844) ; libretto s fo r th e tw o opera s compose d b y Vatro slav Lisinski: Ljubav i zloba (1845 ) an d Porin (1846). Draskovic, Jank o (1770-1856) . Politica l ideologis t o f th e Illyria n Move ment. Hi s politica l idea s ar e presente d i n hi s study , Disertacija iliti razgovor darovan gospodi poklisarom, Karlovac, 1832 . This wor k contain s the Croatia n political program , written t o serve a s a guide fo r the Croatia n delegates t o th e Hungarian-Croatia n Die t i n Pressburg , 1832-1836 . Gaj, Ljudevi t (1809-1872) . Ideologica l leade r o f th e Illyria n Movement . His mos t importan t essay , writte n i n Croatia n an d German , i s Kratka osnova horvatsko-slavenskoga pravopisanja / Kurzer Entwurf einer kroatisch-slavischen Orthographie (1830) . Ga j founde d th e Croatia n news paper Novine Horvatske an d it s weekl y literar y supplemen t Dánica Horvatska, Slavonska i Dalmatinska (1835) . Kukuljevic, Iva n (1816-1889) . Poet , dramatist , literar y critic , autho r o f travelogues. Drama : Juran i Sofija (1839) ; poems : Slavjanke (1848) ; collection: Razlicita djela (1842-7) . Kundek, Josip ( 1809-1857). Occasional poet. Elegy : Rec jezika narodnoga (1832). Died a s a Catholi c missionar y in th e Unite d States . Mazuranic, Antu n (1805-1888) . Edito r o f Dánica an d a linguist . Croatia n grammar: Slovnica hrvatska (1859) ; Shor t histor y of Ol d Croatia n litera ture: Kratak pregled stare literature hrvatske (1855) . 'Those author s whos e principa l or exclusiv e domai n i s literar y criticis m ar e no t included here and wil l be treate d in a separate article in a futur e volume .

LITERATURE (1835-1895 ) 27

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Mazuranic, Iva n (1814—1890) . Poet ; chie f wor k i s th e epi c poe m Smrt Smail-age Cengica (1846) . Mazuranic, Matij a (1817-1881) . Autho r o f a significan t travelogu e abou t Bosnia: Pogled u Bosnu (1842) . Mihanovic, Antu n (1796-1861) . Autho r o f th e Croatia n nationa l anthe m "Lijepa naS a domovino. " Wrot e a movin g appea l t o hi s countryme n t o start usin g th e Croatia n languag e instea d o f Lati n i n scienc e an d litera ture: Reí domovini od hasnovitosti pisanja vu domorodnom jeziku (1815) . Nemcic, Antu n (1813—1849) . Travelogu e writer , poet , an d humorist . Travelogue: Putositnice (1845) ; poems : Pjesme (1851) ; comedy : Kvas bez kruha ill Tko ce biti veliki sudac (1854) . Th e tw o latte r work s wer e published b y Mirk o Bogovic in the literar y journal Neven. Preradovic, Peta r (1818-1872) . Poet . Tw o collection s o f patrioti c poems : Prvenci (1846 ) an d Nove pjesme (1851) . Preradovic wrot e a numbe r of love poems , a s wel l a s the od e "Slavjanstvu. " Rakovac, Draguti n (1813-1854) . Poet, autho r o f essays, editor. Poem : Duh (1832); essay : Mali katekizam za velike ljude (1842) . Sporer, Djur o (1795-1884) . Edito r o f Almanah ilirski za godinu 1823. Stoos, Pava o ( 1806-1862). Occasiona l poet . Elegy : Kip domovine vu pocetku leta 1831; epi c poem : Soko hrvatski i Slavska mati (1849), in honor of Ban Josip Jelacic. Sulek, Bogosla v (1816-1895) . Politica l writer , editor , textboo k compiler . Commented o n th e politica l progra m o f th e Illyria n Movemen t i n hi s pamphlet Sta namjerava-ju Iliri? (1844) . Essay : Nase pravice (1868) ; political study : Hrvatski ustav (1883) . Utjesenovic, Ognjosla v (1817-1890) . Poet . Collectio n o f poems: Vila Ostrozinska (184 8 and 1871). Vraz, Stank o (1810—1851) . Poe t an d literar y critic . Founded , wit h a grou p of friends , th e literar y magazine Kolo (1842) . Four collection s o f his lyric poems ar e worth y o f mention : Djulabije (1840) , Glasi iz dubrave zerovinske (1841) , Gusle i tambura (1845) , Sanak i istina (1845) . Vukotinovic-FarkaS, Ljudevi t (1813—1893) . Poet , autho r o f shor t stories , editor. I n hi s collectio n o f poem s Ruze i trn-je (1842 ) i s containe d hi s Zimske misli, a serie s of feuilletons. II. Romanticism 1849-1880 Ban, Matij a (1818-1903) . Poe t an d editor . Drama : Mejrima (1849) . Becic, Ferdo (1844-1916) . Also known under the pseudony m Fedor Brestov. Novelist an d feuilletonist . Novels: Kletva nevjere (1875) , Zavjet (1882) , Errata corrige (1908) , Sic itur ad ostra (1909) . Bogovic, Mirk o (1816-1893) . Poet , shor t stor y writer , an d dramatist . Historical dramas : Frankopan (1856) , St-jepan, posljednji kralj bosanski (1857), Matija Gubec, kralj sel-jacki (1859) . Botic, Luk a (1830-1863) . Poet an d shor t stor y writer . Thre e epi c poems : Pobratimstvo (1854) , Bijedna Mara (1861) , Petar Baèié (1862) ; story : Dilber Hasan (1854) . Jarnevic, Dragojl a (1812-1875) . Poe t an d autho r o f shor t stories . Shor t stories: Prevareni zarucnici (1853) , Prijateljice (1854) , Ljepota djevojka (1858); novel: Dva pira (1864) .

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Jorgovanovic-Flieder, Rikard (1853-1880) . Poet an d autho r of short stories . Short stories : Zenske suze (1875) , Za jedan casak radosti (1879) , Gavan (1880). Jukic, Franj o Iva n (1818-1857) . Edito r o f th e literar y yearboo k Bosanski prijatelj (1850 , 1853, 1861) . Jurkovic, Jank o (1827-1889) . Shor t stor y writer , humorist , dramatist , editor, an d literar y critic . Humorou s stories : Izabrana djela, Volum e I , Saljivi spisi (1862) ; stories : Sabrane pripovijesti (1880-81) ; comedy : Izorani sarán Hi sto zena maze (1872) ; dramati c works : Dramatiena djela (1878-79). Kazali, Antu n (1815-1894) . Poet : Zlata (1856) , Trista Vica udovica (1857). Korajac, Vili m (1839-1899) . Humoris t an d philosopher . Satire : Auvergnanski senatori (1877) ; Philosophica l work : Filozofija hrvatsko-srpskih poslovica, Vol . I (1876) . Tw o furthe r volume s o f th e latte r wer e neve r published. Kurelac, Fra n (1811-1874) . Philologist , leade r o f th e "Schoo l o f Rijeka, " which pleade d fo r a n etymologica l Croatia n orthograph y an d favore d archaic words . Studies : Fluminensia (1862) ; sketches : Runje i pahidjice (1866-68). Markovic, Franj o (1845-1914) . Literar y critic , philosopher , dramatist , an d novelist. Idylli c epi c poem : Dom i svijet (1865) ; romanti c epi c poem : Kohan i Vlasta (1868) ; tragedy : Karlo Dracki (1872) ; lyri c poetry : Iz mladjih daña (1883) ; literar y criticism : "Esteticka oc-jena Gundulièeva Osmana," Rad 46, 47, 50, 52 (1879-1880) . Martic, Grga (1822-1905) . Epic poet: Osvetnici, Volumes I, 1861; II , 1862 ; III, 1862 ; IV , 1876 ; V , 1881 ; VI , 1882 ; VII , 1883 . Posvetnici: seve n cantos describin g Sain t Franci s o f Assis i an d th e foundin g o f th e Fran ciscan Order (1895) . Nikolic, Vladimi r (1829-1866) . Poe t an d shor t stor y writer . Poems : Brsljani (1863) ; stories : Pripovijetke (1864) . Okrugic, Ilij a (1827-1897 ) Playwright . Plays : Sucurica i silbara (1880) ; Sofoca (1884) . Palmovic, Andrija (1847-1882) . Poet; poem s publishe d b y Fra n Folnegovi c under th e title Pjesme Andrije Palmovica (1883) . Perkovac, Iva n (1826—1871) . Edito r an d shor t stor y writer . Socia l novel : Zupnikova sestra (1869) ; sketches : Crtice iz bojnoga odsjeka (1869) ; short story : Stankovacka uciteljica (1871) . Pucic, Med o (1821-1882) . Poe t an d editor . Poems : Talijanke (1849) ; epi c poem: Cvijeta (1864) ; edito r o f the literar y yearboo k Dubrovnik (1849 , 1853). Senoa, Augus t (1838-1881) . Poet , editor , literar y critic , playwright , shor t story writer, and novelist. His historical novels deserve particula r mentio n : Zlatarovo Zlato (1871) , Cuvaj se senjske ruke (1875) , Seljaóka buna (1877), Diogenes (1878) , Kletva (1881) . Starcevic, Ant e (1823-1896) . Politica l leade r an d ideologica l forerunne r of modern Croatian nationalism. Poet, dramatist , philosophical an d polemica l writer. Man y o f hi s writing s ar e lost . Starcevi c authore d al l th e contri butions to Hrvatski kalendar za godinu (1858) , including hi s four hundre d aphorisms, mos t o f whic h pertai n t o ethics .

LITERATURE (1835-1895 ) 27

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Tombor, Jank o (1825-1911) . Shor t stor y writer : Odmetnik (1854) , Hajdukova zarucnica (1854) , Kula na Dunavu (1855) . Tomic, Euge n Josi p (1843-1906) . Humorist , poet , dramatist , an d shor t story writer. Poems : Leljinke (1885) ; comedies: Komedije, Vol . I (1878) , Vol. II. (1882) ; historical play: Franjo barun Trenk (1880) ; novels: Zmaj od Bosne (1879) , Kapitanova kci (1884) , Melita (1899) . Trnski, Iva n (1819-1910) . Lyri c poet . Publishe d mos t o f hi s poem s i n Svakolika ájela, I-II (1881-1882). Veber, Adol f (1825—1889) . Author of travelogues an d shor t stories ; literar y critic an d philologist . Leade r o f th e "Schoo l o f Zagreb, " whic h pleade d for a phoneti c Croatia n orthography . Publishe d hi s collecte d work s i n nine volume s (twent y copie s only ) : Djela Adolf a Vebera, zagreba6koga kanonika I-IX (Zagreb , 1885-1890). Pp. 3900. Vodopic, Mat o (1816-1893) . Shor t stor y write r an d folklorist . Stories : Tuzna }ele (1870) , Marija Konavoka (1875) ; poeti c story : Robinjica (1875); historica l novel : Pod doborskijem razvalinama (1881) . Vukelic, Lavoslav (1840-1879) . Poet an d shor t stor y writer. Stories : Hajduk Rode (1871) , Krvava dioba (1871) ; poem : Rod Solferina (1879) . HI. Realism and Naturalism 1880-1895 Alaupovic, Tugomi r (1870-1958) . Poet . Epi c Poem : Nose Rane (1898) ; lyric poems: Probrane pjesme (1902) . Arnold, Djur o (1854—1941) . Poe t an d philosopher . Poems : Domovina (1888), Izabrane pjesme (1899) , Ceznuca i mastanja (1908) , S visina i dubina (1918) , Izabrane pjesme (1923) . Badalic, Hug o (1851-1900) . Poet . Ballads : Panem et circenses (1874) ; anthology: Hrvatska antologija. Umjetno pjesni&tvo starijega i novijega doba (1892) . Libretto fo r Zajc's oper a Zrinski (1876) . Basagic, Safve t (1870-1934) . Poet , dramatist , literar y critic . Know n unde r the no m d e plum e Mirz a Safvet . Lyri c poems : Trofanda (1896) , Misli icuvstva (1906) . Benesic, Ant e (1864-1916) . Poet , humorist , dramatist . Tragedy : Damjan Juda (1905) ; dramas : Kraljevic Marko (1907) , Petronij (1907) ; poems : Anakreontika (1913). Car-Emin, Vikto r (1870-1963) . Novelis t an d dramatist . Novels : Pusto ognjiste (1900) , Usahlo vrelo (1904) , Kontesa Nina (1906) , Neznatni ljudi (1906) ; dramas : Zimsko sunce (1903) , U mraku (1907) , Iza plime (1913), Starci (1917) , Pod sumnjom (1918) , Mrtva straza (1924) , Nove barbe (1926) . Derencin, Marija n (1836-1908) . Autho r o f comedies : Ladanjska opozicija (1896). Dezelic, Velimi r (1864-1941) . Poet , novelist , an d literar y critic . Poems : Pjesme (1889) , Kopnom i morem (1900) , Zvuci iz katakomba (1902) ; stories: U buri i oluji (1902) , Prvi kralj (1903) , U sluzbi kalifa (1908) ; studies: Maksimiljan Vrhovac (1904) , Ljudevit Gaj (1909) . Drazenovic, Josi p (1863-1942) . Shor t stor y writer . Sketches : Crtice iz hrvatskog zivota (1884) , Iskrice (1887) , Crtice iz primorskog zivota (1893); short story : Povijest jednog ojenoanja (1901) . Gjalski, Ksave r §andor . No m d e plum e o f Ljub o Babi e (1854-1935) .

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Novelist an d shor t stor y writer : Illustrissimus Battorych (1884) , Pod starim krovovima (1886) , Tri pripovijesti bez naslova (1887) , Bijedne price (1888) , Diljem doma (1899) , U nocí (1886) , Djurdjica Ágiéeva (l889),Osvit (1892) . HarambaiSic, Augus t (1861-1911) . Poet , autho r o f shor t stories , literar y critic, an d editor . Patrioti c poems : Ruzmarinke (1883) , Slobodarke (1883), Rob (1892) ; lov e poems : Sitne pjesme (1884) , Izabrane pjesme (1895). Hranilovic, Jovan (1855-1924) . Poet and literar y critic : Zumberacke elegije (1886), Pjesme svakidanke (1890) , Izabrabe pjesme (1893) . Ilijic, Stjepk o (1863-1933) . Poet , literar y critic , an d translator . Katalinic-Jeretov, Rikar d (1869-1954) . Poe t an d shor t stor y writer . Poems : Pozdrav istarskog Hrvata (1890) , Primorkinje (1896) , S moje lire (1904) ; short stories : Nasim morem i nasim krajem (1911) . Kovacic, Ant e (1854-1889) . Novelist , shor t stor y writer , an d poet . Stories : Ljubljanska katastrofa (1877) , Ladanjska sekta (1880) ; novels : Fiskal (1882), Medju zabarima (1886) , 1 7 registraturi (1888) . Kozarac, Josi p (1858—1906) . Shor t stor y write r an d novelist . Stories : BiserKata (1884) , Slavonska suma (1888) , Tri daña kod sina (1897) ; novels : Mrtvi kapitali (1889) , Medju svijetlom i tminom (1891) . Kranjcevic, Strahimi r Silvij e (1865-1908) . Poet and editor . Poet: Bugarkinje (1885), Izabrane pjesme (1898) , Trzaji (1902) , Pjesme (1908) , Prvi grijeh (1893) , Pjesnicka proza (1912) . Kumicic, Euge n (1850-1904) . Novelist . No m d e plum e Jeni o Sisolski . Novels abou t Istria n life : Zaèudjeni svatovi (1883) , Sirota (1885) ; socia l novels: Olga i Lina (1881) , Gospodja Sabina (1884) , Pobijeljeni grobovi (1896); historica l novels : Urota Zrinsko-Frankopanska (1892) , Kmljica Lepa (1902) . Leskovar, Jank o (1861—1949) . Shor t stor y writer . Stories : Misao na vjecnost (1891), Poslije nesrece (1894) , Propali dvori (1896) , Jesenji cvijetci (1897), Sjene ljubavi (1898) , Kraljica zemlje (1905) . Mazuranic, Fran ( 1859-1928). Short stor y writer : Lisce ( 1887), Od zore do mraka (1927-28) . Milakovic, Josi p (1861-1921) . Poet : Hrvacanke (1883) , Nasa pjesma (anthology) I (1903) , II (1905) . Milicevic, Iva n (1868—1950) . Novelis t an d shor t stor y writer. Together with Osman Nuri-Hadzic , Milicevi c wrot e unde r th e no m d e plum e Osma n Aziz. Novels : Bez nade (1895) , Bez svrhe (1896) ; stories : IV a pragu novoga doba (1896) , Pripovijesti iz bosanskoga zivota (1898) . Mulabdic, Edhe m (1864-1954) . Novelist , shor t stor y writer , an d editor . Novels: Zeleno busenje (1900) , Na obali Bosne (1900) ; stories : Nova vremena (1914) . Novak, Vjencesla v (1859-1905) . Shor t stor y write r an d novelist . Stories : Podgorske pripovijetke (1889) , Dvije pripovijesti (1897) , Iz velegradskog podzemlja (1905) ; novels : Pavao Segota (1888) , Pod Nehajem (1892) , Posljednji Stipancici (1899) , Dva svijeta (1901) , Zapreke (1905) , Tito Dorëic (1906) . Nuri-Hadzic, Osma n (1869-1937) . Novelis t an d shor t stor y writer . Se e Milicevic, Ivan . Ostojic, Mat o (1862-1929) . Poet: Iskre i plamovi (1894) .

LITERATURE (1835-1895 ) 27

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Pavletic, Krsto (1865-1919) . Poet, dramatist , and literar y critic. Epic poem : Vjerne sluge (1898) ; historica l dramas : Kobna oklada (1908) , Bratski inat (1911) ; study : Zivot i pjesnicka ájela Franje Markovica (1917) . Rorauer, Julij e (1859-1912) . Dramatist : Maja (1883) , Olynta (1884) , Sirena (1896) , Nasi ljudi (1889) . Sabic, Marin (1860-1923) . Poet: Trenutci (1901) . Senoa, Mila n (1869-1961) . Dramatis t an d novelist . Dramas : Kako vam drago (1893) , Kneginja Dora (1896), Ban Pavao (1903) ; novels: Exodus (1904), Kvarnerske pripovijesti (1912) , Iz kobnih daña (1914) . Tordinac, Nikol a (1858-1888) . Shor t stor y writer : Seoske bajke i bajalice (1885), Odabrane critice (1890). Tresic-Pavicic, Ant e (1867-1949) . Poet , playwright , an d novelist . Poems : Glasovi s mora jadranskoga (1891) , Valovi misli i cuvstava (1903) , Sutonski soneti (1904) ; drama s i n verse : Ljutovid Posavski (1894) , Katarina Zrinska (1899) ; drama s in prose: Finis rei publicae, a tetralogy (1902-1911); novels : Izgubljeni ljudi (1894) , Pobjeda kreposti (1897) , Mocljepote (1901) . Trescec-Branjski, Vladimi r (1870-1932) . No m d e plum e Borotha . Shor t story writer and novelist. Stories: Dva narastaja (1892) , Semsudin (1892) , Listak romana (1893) , Ksenija (1900) ; novels : Ljetne noci (1895) , U malome svijetu ( 1901 ). Truhelka, Jagod a (1864-1958) . Novelis t an d shor t stor y writer . Historica l novel: Vojaèa (1899) ; storie s for children : Zlatni danci (1918) . Turic, Djur o (1861-1944) . Shor t stor y writer : Igra zivotom (1909) . Velikanovic, Is o (1869-1940) . Poet , shor t stor y writer , an d translator . Humorous epi c poem : Otmica (1901) ; stories : Srijemske price (1915) ; translator o f Tolstoy , Cervantes , Goethe , an d others .

9

Music FEDOR KABALI N

THIS SURVE Y i s limited i n scop e an d siz e t o onl y brie f mentio n o f th e highlights o f th e historica l developmen t o f Croatia n artisti c musi c from it s earlies t recorde d manifestation s t o th e presen t day . Th e ric h and varie d folklori c musi c o f th e Croatian s lie s outsid e th e rang e of the article , an d ther e i s unfortunatel y n o opportunit y t o provid e a detailed stud y o f churc h music . Croatia n musica l activit y i s discusse d with reference to composition, performance, organizations, an d institu tions. Where appropriat e an d pertinent t o the study, reference i s made to th e scienc e o f musicolog y an d t o musicologists . None o f th e con tributions t o musi c criticis m hav e bee n o f sufficien t importanc e an d influence t o alte r th e cours e o f th e developmen t o f musi c i n Croatia , and fo r thi s reason , a s wel l a s fo r reason s o f space , n o surve y o f thi s aspect o f Croatian musical life is included. EAKLY HISTORY There i s ever y probabilit y tha t earl y manifestation s o f artisti c musi c in the variou s Croatian province s wer e a s scarce, sporadic , an d unsys tematic a s are th e document s tha t serv e a s direct o r indirect evidenc e of suc h activities . Whil e th e res t o f Europ e fro m th e tim e o f th e Renaissance was uncoverin g an d rediscoverin g man y idea s tha t wer e to become cornerstone s o f our modern world, th e Croatia n land s wer e for almos t fou r hundre d years , fro m th e fifteent h t o th e nineteent h centuries, leadin g a "frontier" life , partitioned b y the iron curtain o f the period whic h wa s dividin g th e Christia n an d Mosle m worlds . Mor e favorable condition s fo r cultura l lif e existe d i n town s alon g th e Dalmatian coas t an d on the islands , some dominated b y Venice , other s

Croatian authors . Upper left: Ant e Kovaci c (1854-89) . Upper right: Josi p Kozara c (1858-1906). Lower left: Silvij e Strahimi r Kranjcevi c (1865-1908) . Lower right: August Harambasic ( 1861-1911 ).

Croatian authors . Upper left: Ljudevi t Ga j (1809-72) . Upper right: Iva n Mazurani c (1814-90). Lower left: Augus t Seno a (1838-81) . Lower right: Luk a Boti c (1830-63).

Croatian authors . Upper left: Franj o Markovi c (1845-1914). Upper right: Vjencesla v Novak (1859-1905) . Lower left: Ksave r Sando r Gjalsk i (1854-1935) . Lower right: Janko Leskova r (1861-1949) .

Croatian Nationa l Theater, Zagreb .

Left: Vatrosla v Lisinski ( 1819—54), compose r o f th e firs t Croatia n opera . Right: Zink a Milano v (1906 — ) , renowne d Metropolita n Oper a soprano .

Upper: Gaz i Husref be y Mosqu e (sixteent h century), Sarajevo . Lower: Zagre b Cathedra l (thirteent h century) .

Cloister of the Francisca n Monastery , Dubrovni k (fourteent h century).

Cloister o f the Dominica n Monastery, Dubrovnik (fifteent h century) .

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united with the Croatian mainland , an d in Dubrovnik, which remaine d an independen t city-republi c unti l th e Napoleoni c invasio n an d occu pation (1808) . Dubrovni k thu s wa s not harasse d b y th e almos t con tinuous warfar e whic h wa s th e fat e o f th e hinterland . It s inhabitant s found th e cal m water s of sea trade a convenien t medium o f exchang e in artistic and scientifi c matters as well. In Croatia , a s elsewhere , th e Churc h wa s th e mai n repositor y o f endeavors i n th e fiel d o f artisti c music , particularl y i n earlie r times . A codex , presumabl y fro m th e tent h centur y an d wit h neumati c notation ver y simila r t o th e antiphonari a o f St . Gall , i s preserve d i n Sibenik, an d simila r codices are t o be foun d i n som e other Dalmatia n cities. A twelfth centur y chronicl e relates tha t Pop e Alexande r III wa s serenaded, o n th e occasio n o f hi s visi t t o Croatia , b y peopl e singin g hymns in his honor "in the vernacular. " Mystery play s and othe r type s of churc h play s enjoye d thei r shar e o f popularity . Th e oldes t dis covered manuscrip t of suc h a play, a t Tko n o n th e islan d o f Pasman , dates fro m th e fifteent h century . Th e lates t recorde d performanc e of this type o f play took place i n 1837 , i n Starigra d on the islan d o f Hvar. Petar Hektorovi c (1487-1572) , a noblema n an d poet , als o fro m Starigrad, lef t u s th e firs t recor d o f two Croatia n fol k tune s an d thei r texts i n hi s Ribanfe i ribarsko prigovaranje (Fisherme n an d Thei r Tales, 1556 . Printe d i n Venice , 1568. ) I n th e sixteent h century , F . Bossinensis ha d hi s tablature s fo r voic e an d lute , an d A . Patrici j an d J. Schiavett i thei r motet s an d madrigals , publishe d i n Venice . A . d e Antiquis, a sixteenth-centur y Istria n composer , active as a musi c publisher an d printe r i n Venice , introduce d Petrucci' s metho d o f printing music int o Rome . A Francisca n fria r fro m Dubrovnik , Gavr o Tem paricic, wa s a musi c teache r a t th e cour t i n Vienn a i n th e househol d of th e the n archduke , an d late r emperor , Matthia s ( 1608-1619 ). As part o f th e activitie s o f the Counter-Reformation , the firs t Croa tian songboo k containing bot h word s an d musica l notatio n wa s pub lished b y A . Grgicevi c i n Vienn a i n 1635 . A nativ e o f Rijeka , Vink o Jelic, wa s activ e i n Alsac e in th e firs t hal f o f the seventeent h centur y as th e compose r o f voca l motet s an d instrumenta l ricercari . I n hi s partly-preserved collectio n o f spiritua l concerti , h e reveal s himsel f a n adherent o f the monod y and the n incipient concertant e style . Dominik Ivan Sibencanin , also known as Rota-Kolunic, was the musica l director at th e Savo y cour t towar d th e en d o f th e sam e century , an d th e composer o f th e ver y popula r Italia n oper a o f th e perio d Oppressa sollevato ( 1692 ). Reversing the tren d o f native talent exporte d abroad , Toma Cecchini , a Verones e b y birth , cam e t o occup y th e position s o f

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organist an d choirmaste r i n th e cathedral s o f Hva r an d Spli t i n th e first hal f o f th e seventeent h century . Cecchin i wa s a prolifi c an d significant composer , a n exponen t o f the ne w monodi c style . Perhaps th e most significant amon g the musician s of that perio d wa s Ivan Lukacic , a Francisca n fria r bor n i n Sibeni k an d traine d i n Italy , who for som e thirty year s discharged th e dutie s o f organist an d choir master a t th e Spli t cathedra l an d wa s ver y activ e a s a compose r o f church music. He was an exponent of expressive monody, a style whic h gave birt h t o th e opera , an d whic h mad e itsel f fel t a t tha t tim e i n sacred musi c as well. A collection o f his motets , Sacrae cantiones, was published i n Venic e i n 1620 . A n antholog y o f hi s work s fo r practica l use was published in Zagreb in 1935. Th e onl y extant copy of Lukacic's Sacrae cantiones, in the Stat e Librar y of Berlin, as well a s vast researc h material, includin g a transcriptio n o f i t assemble d b y Dr . Draga n Plamenac bein g readie d a t th e tim e fo r publicatio n b y th e Yugosla v Academy of Zagreb, wer e destroye d durin g th e las t war . In continental , o r Upper , Croatia , wit h Zagre b a s it s foca l point , several manuscrip t collection s o f sacre d tune s hav e bee n discovered . The most important o f these, an d th e first to be printed, wa s publishe d in 170 1 unde r th e titl e Cithara octochorda, s o name d becaus e o f it s eight division s related t o the correspondin g periods o f the churc h year . The tune s containe d i n thi s collectio n hav e bee n furthe r disseminate d and popularize d by thei r subsequen t harmonization s at the hand s of contemporary composers of church music . Several Croatia n expatriate s mad e name s fo r themselve s i n variou s fields of musica l endeavor durin g the eighteent h century . Peta r Nakic Nanchini earne d a reputation a s one o f the bes t orga n builder s o f th e period in Italy. Paol o Serra , of Novi, was a singer a t th e Pope' s chape l in Rome in 175 3 an d th e autho r o f a pedagogic work . Stjepa n Spadin a signed himsel f " A Dalmatian nobleman, " th e onl y clu e t o hi s identity , and mus t hav e achieve d som e recognition a s a violi n composer , sinc e two o f hi s composition s ar e include d i n th e importan t collectio n compiled b y J. B . Cartier unde r th e titl e L'art du violon in 1798 . Iva n Mane Jarnovic , probabl y fro m Dubrovnik , wa s acclaime d a s a violi n virtuoso a t th e Pari s "concert s spirituels " i n 1770 , an d toure d exten sively fro m Londo n t o St . Petersburg, an d i n Scandinavia . Severa l o f his many compositions for sol o violin and string quartet wer e the objec t of a reviva l i n th e repertor y o f various Croatian performer s in recen t years. Becaus e o f his quic k temper , Jarnovi c mus t hav e bee n a mos t interesting personality , a s attested b y th e nove l Jarnowick b y G . Des noiresterres-Le Brisoy s (1844) , an d tw o shor t stories , "Un e leço n d e

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Jarnovich," i n th e collectio n Scènes de la vie d'artiste b y P . Smit h (1844), an d E . T . A . Hoffman' s "De r Schille r Tartinis. " Jarnovi c collaborated wit h Grétr y an d other s i n composin g th e oper a Abroad and at Home i n 1796 in London. The firs t Croatia n symphoni c work s o f a non-concertizin g natur e were th e frui t o f th e labo r o f a n amateu r composer , Luk a Sorkocevic , a nativ e o f Dubrovnik , whos e eigh t symphonie s wer e patterne d afte r the Italia n typ e o f opera overture . Luka's so n Antun was the las t envo y of th e Dubrovni k Republi c to Paris , wher e h e continue d t o liv e afte r his home government ceased to exist. He was a historian who publishe d a numbe r o f scholarl y work s i n French , bu t h e als o continue d i n hi s father's footstep s an d compose d severa l orchestra l overture s an d chamber musi c pieces. Two o f th e travelin g virtuoso-expatriate s of th e nineteent h centur y should als o b e mentione d here . Iva n Padovec , th e "Paganin i o f th e guitar," inventor o f a ten-string instrument , author o f a guita r method , and compose r o f many works for tha t instrumen t that wer e publishe d by Diabell i i n Vienna , is th e first . Franj o Krezma , als o a fertil e com poser o f work s fo r hi s instrument , was alread y a brillian t violinis t of international reputatio n befor e hi s tragicall y prematur e deat h i n Berlin, th e las t cente r o f his activities , a t th e ag e o f twenty-one . THE NATIONA L AWAKENING In th e day s o f the patrioti c fervo r generate d b y th e earl y nineteent h century Illyria n Movement , numerous Croatia n musician s considere d it thei r patrioti c dut y t o compos e article s o r poems ; som e versifier s created thei r ow n tune s an d the n foun d someon e t o "pu t i t dow n i n notes," i n th e fashio n o f som e moder n "Ti n Pa n Alley " composers . Ferdo Wiesner-Livadic performed just such a task for the leade r o f th e Illyrian Movement , Dr. Ljudevi t Gaj , writing ou t th e scor e o f on e of the mos t popula r Croatia n patrioti c songs , Joé Hrvatska nif propala (Croatia Ha s No t Ye t Perished) . Livadi c wa s a landowne r fro m Samobor, nea r Zagreb; he wa s activ e i n the circl e o f the Illyrian s an d the autho r o f man y small-scal e compositions , especially o f songs . A n accomplished musicia n an d a successfu l compose r o f the sam e period was the Francisca n pries t Fortuna t Pintaric . I n th e pian o compositio n Pastorellae, consisting of several short movements, he consciousl y contrived hi s melodie s i n th e fol k vei n o r trie d t o evok e th e soun d o f bagpipes, as , fo r example , i n thos e calle d The Bagpiper. It woul d b e idl e t o speculat e whether , al l fervo r an d enthusias m

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notwithstanding, th e lac k o f talen t eviden t i n thi s perio d wa s th e reason fo r the absenc e o f more or better achievements , o r whethe r th e available talen t coul d no t b e adequatel y develope d becaus e o f a lac k of appropriat e conditions . Whe n a ma n o f genius , suc h a s Ignat z Fuchs, di d com e along , however , th e artist' s musica l talen t asserte d itself agains t al l adversities . Fuchs , followin g th e Illyria n tren d an d custom, Slavicize d hi s name t o Vatrosla v Lisinski . Extremel y sh y an d retiring by nature , perhaps becaus e of a lame foot, th e consequenc e of an early childhood accident, Lisinski was beset b y al l kinds o f personal misfortune. Wh o knows whether h e would have accomplished a s much as he did, wer e it not fo r his discoverer, friend , advisor , promotor , an d self-appointed honorar y manager , Ognjan-Alber t Striga . Strig a wa s extremely activ e an d ver y personable. Possessin g a beautifu l bariton e voice, he serve d the Illyria n caus e by hi s own singing, by organizin g others t o participat e i n singing , an d b y promotin g Lisinski' s work . Later, h e toure d man y Europea n stage s a s a n operati c an d concer t singer. After th e initia l succes s o f som e patrioti c song s whic h Lisinsk i composed, Strig a persuade d hi m t o writ e a n opera , arrange d fo r th e libretto, an d organize d it s first performance, in whic h h e himsel f too k the bariton e lead , i n th e sprin g o f 1846 . Ljubav i zloba (Lov e an d Malice) wa s receive d enthusiastically , an d wa s performe d severa l times i n tha t an d subsequen t seasons . On e suspect s tha t patrioti c considerations wer e as much responsible for th e work' s succes s a s was genuine music appreciation . Thi s first large-scale wor k fro m Lisinski' s pen wa s no t entirel y hi s ow n creation , inasmuc h a s th e orchestratio n was don e b y Kar l Wisner-Morgenstern , a Germa n musicia n an d organist o f th e Zagre b Cathedral , wit h who m Lisinsk i ha d studie d music privately. Encouraged b y thi s success , i t wa s agai n Strig a wh o arrange d fo r Lisinski t o g o t o Pragu e fo r furthe r studie s o f composition . Lisinsk i remained i n Prague , wit h interruptions , fro m 184 7 t o 1850 . Eve n i f he wa s unabl e t o realiz e hi s ambitio n o f obtainin g a degre e fro m Prague Conservatory , sinc e h e wa s ove r th e ag e limi t o f twent y fo r enrollment i n th e Conservatory , h e returne d wit h a mor e substantia l accomplishment, th e almost-finishe d scor e o f anothe r opera , Porin. Conceived o n a larger scal e than hi s first work in this medium , i t wa s entirely hi s ow n creation—withou t outsid e technica l hel p fro m mor e skilled hands , a s i n th e cas e o f his firs t opera—an d h e cam e close r t o his ambitio n t o creat e musi c whic h woul d incorporat e melodic , rhythmic, an d harmoni c characteristics , presen t o r immanent i n Croa -

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tian fol k music , whic h wa s an d ha s bee n th e cred o o f th e Croatia n nationalistic schoo l o f compositio n almos t unti l th e presen t day . THE ADVEN T OF PROFESSIONALISM At th e ag e o f thirty-five , Lisinsk i die d i n extrem e penury , literall y forgotten. Hi s masterwork , Porin, wa s no t t o b e performe d i n it s entirety agai n fo r almos t half a century after hi s death , unti l 1897 . Th e patriotic fervo r an d enthusias m o f th e Illyria n perio d gav e wa y t o gloom under th e politica l oppressio n o f the "Bac h system, " the regim e of Alexande r von Bach, who sough t to repres s the awakene d national ism throughou t the Hapsbur g empir e wit h politica l centralizatio n an d national Germanizatio n i n th e decad e betwee n 184 9 an d 1859 . After te n year s o f stagnation , a reviva l o f musica l activit y wa s marked b y a wave o f choral societie s founde d i n Croati a i n th e earl y sixties. Th e firs t amon g them , "Zora, " was alread y establishe d i n 185 8 in Karlovac , the n a n importan t commercia l center. Thi s chora l move ment represented a local synthesis of the Germa n Liedertafel tradition , with it s patriotic-politica l connotations , an d a ric h traditio n o f grou p singing, develope d i n th e performanc e o f fol k musi c i n th e villages . A nationa l repertor y theate r wa s forme d i n 1860 , givin g dramati c performances i n th e vernacular . Operetta wa s adde d t o th e theate r i n 1866. The additio n o f an opera win g in 1870 coincide d wit h th e arriva l in Zagre b o f Iva n Zaj c t o hea d it , thereb y openin g a ne w chapte r i n Croatian musica l life . Zaj c wa s bor n i n Rijek a (Fiume ) i n 1832 , th e son of a military bandmaster. H e studie d musi c in Mila n and gaine d a considerable professiona l reputatio n i n Vienn a a s a successfu l com poser o f operettas . H e forsoo k th e glamou r an d reward s o f suc h a career t o take up residenc e i n Zagreb at th e insistenc e o f his Croatia n friends, wit h who m h e ha d kep t i n touc h personall y an d throug h correspondence. Zajc wa s extremel y prolifi c a s a compose r an d create d som e 1,20 0 opus-numbered composition s o f ever y kind . O f thi s output , onl y hi s historical oper a Nikola Subió Zrinski survive s in th e curren t repertor y of th e Croatia n oper a houses, and thi s mor e for patrioti c reason s tha n for intrinsi c musical value . I n hi s prodigiou s productivity , whic h lef t hardly a for m o r mediu m untouched , ther e i s eviden t a marke d preference fo r voca l compositions, to th e almos t total neglec t o f absolute music, particularly chambe r an d symphonic works. It ma y be sai d that Zajc compose d right up until his death in 1914. H e retired a s active head o f th e Croatia n Musi c Institute' s musi c schoo l onl y si x year s

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earlier, an d fo r th e firs t tw o decade s o f his sojour n i n Zagre b h e wa s also administrativ e hea d an d chie f conducto r o f the opera . Besid e hi s administrative dutie s i n school , Zaj c als o taugh t theor y an d voice . I n the Zagre b Oper a h e ha d no t onl y to coac h an d conduct , bu t als o t o orchestrate fro m voca l score s fo r whateve r combinatio n o f musician s he happene d t o hav e a t hi s disposa l i n th e orchestr a pi t i n a give n season. H e manage d nevertheles s t o produc e man y opera s onl y a fe w seasons afte r thei r worl d premiere s i n Franc e o r Italy . Whe n origina l scores o f works arrange d earlie r b y Zaj c wer e used , it wa s foun d tha t more ofte n tha n no t h e ha d anticipate d exactl y th e composer' s ow n orchestration. During Zajc' s lon g reig n i n th e Croatia n musica l life , h e place d emphasis o n raising the standards o f proficiency and performance. Thi s makes him, in a way, the founder of musical professionalism in Croatia . Stress o n the "how" o f quality an d performance meant tha t th e "what " of conten t an d styl e ha d almos t necessaril y t o b e neglected . Whil e performance standards—particularl y i n opera—wer e constantl y bein g raised, the creativ e effort s o f the period remain without specia l interes t or historica l significance . The wor k o f Zaj c an d hi s contemporarie s i s distinguished a s muc h b y abl e craftsmanshi p a s i t i s b y lac k o f originality i n styl e o r expression . A certai n epigonis m o f differently tinted hue s o f basi c romanti c flavor , an d provincialis m o f approac h and esthetics ar e apparent. This period , whic h marke d the adven t o f the professiona l performer on th e Croatia n musica l scene, i s also the on e i n whic h musicolog y i n Croatia performe d its mos t urgen t an d logica l functio n there: tha t of serving a s the recorde r an d preserve r o f the wealt h o f Croatia n musi c folklore. Thes e pioneerin g melographic effort s wer e carrie d ou t almos t single-handed b y Franj o Ksave r Kuhac . Becaus e h e change d hi s German famil y nam e o f Koch to a Croatia n versio n b y translatin g it s meaning, an d becaus e o f a certai n dilletantis m i n hi s approac h t o music, bot h characteristi c o f th e Illyria n period , Kuha c ma y b e con sidered a latter-day Illyrian . It appear s tha t neithe r th e scientifi c foundatio n of his wor k no r th e musical talen t o f Kuha c were o n a pa r wit h th e magnificenc e o f th e projects tha t h e undertook . Thus , h e appear s mor e a reporte r tha n a scientist, an d whil e his work has to be accepte d wit h caution , reserve , and criticism , n o reproach ca n be mad e fo r hi s boundles s enthusiasm. Forgoing ever y comfort , an d subjectin g himself t o th e greates t sacri fices o f al l kinds , h e travele d yea r afte r yea r throughou t th e land s inhabited b y the Souther n Slav s an d thei r neighbors , collectin g songs ,

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tunes, fol k instruments , an d al l els e pertainin g t o musica l folklore . Of a tota l o f 2,00 0 collecte d melodies , 1,60 0 wer e publishe d i n fou r volumes durin g hi s lifetime , wit h addition s o f hi s ow n hackneye d harmonizations. A final volume was published withou t harmonization s in 1941. I n his enthusiasm and patriotic zeal, Kuhac attempted t o prove that suc h well-know n internationa l musi c figure s a s Lisz t an d Tartin i were actually Croatians , basing his arguments mostly on the etymology of thei r names . H e wa s mos t successfu l i n makin g a Croatia n ou t o f Haydn, an d hi s theorie s foun d currenc y i n som e Englis h circles . MODERN TRENDS The turn of the century marks the adven t o f the moder n ag e in Croati a with regard t o it s social , economic , and politica l institutions . Som e of the younger musicians went t o study abroad a t this tim e an d returne d with ne w ideas ; other s staye d abroa d t o exploi t thei r consúmat e technical skill . Such was th e cas e of Blagoje Bersa , a compose r of note who ha d man y o f hi s orchestra l poem s an d opera s performe d i n Central Europe , where he worked for a long time as an orchestrator for various music publishers. H e is also reputed t o have orchestrate d som e of D'Albert' s operas . I n late r year s h e cam e t o Zagre b t o impar t hi s great skil l an d experienc e a s a n orchestrato r t o othe r musicians . A somewha t younge r membe r o f th e sam e generation , Antu n Do bronic, made a late star t in music after workin g for severa l year s as an elementary schoo l teacher. This may account for the fac t tha t h e never felt quit e at home with certai n technica l aspect s o f his craft , althoug h it di d not impede him from returnin g fro m hi s studies in Prague full of revolutionary zea l fo r nationa l expression an d modernisti c styl e tha t led hi m t o pionee r i n suc h innovation s as polytonalism. He wa s ofte n more persuasiv e a s a prosélytize r an d polemicis t tha n a s a composer . Perhaps becaus e h e wa s a ver y prolifi c composer , however , an d di d not neglec t an y form—whethe r operati c stage , symphoni c podiu m o r chamber music—onl y a minor portion o f his outpu t wa s performed . I n some of his works the freshnes s an d swee p of his ideas transcende d th e insufficiency o f his technical equipment . It wa s no t s o muc h th e proselytis m o f me n lik e Dobroni c tha t brought forwar d a generatio n o f youn g an d significan t talent s i n th e field o f musica l creatio n i n Croati a as it wa s a serie s o f circumstances which wer e no t necessaril y interdependent . Politicall y an d nationall y speaking, ther e wa s th e fac t o f freedo m fro m th e bondag e o f th e Hapsburg Empir e afte r Worl d Wa r I , thu s stimulatin g fo r th e firs t

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time in centuries a cultural lif e generate d fro m within , withou t foreign tutorship or emulation . Anothe r factor was the almos t chaoti c variet y of current s o n th e internationa l musica l scene , no t lessene d b y th e introduction o f extrem e theorie s o f destructio n o f tonality , an d eve n of th e traditiona l sonorities , b y mean s o f atonalis m o r microtonalism. Among the hues of this international music spectrum which evoke d th e most sympatheti c respons e i n Croati a wer e th e influence s exerte d b y some towerin g giant s o f th e newly-establishe d Slavi c music , particu larly the Russian and, to a lesser degree , th e Czech : th e richnes s o f the orchestral palett e a s epitomize d i n theor y an d practic e b y Rimsky Korsakov's work , an d b y th e impressionist s an d post-impressionists ; the freein g o f th e rhythmi c an d metri c pattern s o f Stravinsky' s firs t period; an d finally, those tonal methods an d techniques that lent them selves bes t t o enhancin g th e natura l richnes s o f material s take n fro m or patterne d afte r folklore , whic h mos t Croatia n composer s too k a s their natural raw material. Josip Slavensk i was on e o f the mos t radical an d mos t original of th e post-World Wa r I generatio n o f composers . He studie d wit h Kodal y and Viteszla v Novak, was greatl y influence d by Bartok' s researc h o n Danubian folklore , an d attempte d a similar synthesis of the folklor e of the Balkan s i n hi s ow n compositions . After attractin g earl y attentio n with hi s first string quartet, performed at the Internationa l Festiva l fo r Contemporary Musi c in Donaueschinge n in 1924 , severa l o f hi s com positions wer e publishe d b y Schott . On e o f hi s las t larg e works , Sinfonía Orienta, als o prove d t o b e hi s mos t remarkable . Originall y intended t o be called "Religiophonia," it attempted a n artistic synthesis of differen t religion s throughou t th e cultura l region s an d th e histori c periods tha t the y represent ; th e originalit y an d swee p o f th e conten t of Slavenski' s music is matche d b y tha t o f it s form . Bozidar Sirol a was a personage who embodie d the qualitie s o f both the artis t and the scientist . Thi s was partl y the resul t of his trainin g and long career a s a teacher of mathematics and physics and his serious interest a t th e sam e time in th e fiel d o f folk musi c an d musica l instru ments. H e wa s particularl y attracte d t o musicologica l wor k b y th e music "dialects" o f differen t regions . This als o influence d his wor k a s a composer , particularl y wit h regar d t o hi s operas , in whic h h e trie d to evok e th e atmospher e o f th e particula r regio n i n whic h th e wor k was se t b y emulatin g th e characteristic s an d styl e o f it s folklore . A deeply religiou s man, Sirol a compose d man y large-scal e sacre d com positions. Hi s a capella oratori o entitle d th e Lije and Memory of Sts. Cyril and Methodius wa s performe d with considerabl e succes s a t

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the Internationa l Societ y fo r Contemporar y Musi c festiva l i n Frank furt, Germany , in 1927 . Another compose r wh o combine d a n interes t i n folklor e wit h crea tive wor k was Iva n Matetic-Ronjgov . He was particularl y intereste d in his native region, the Istria n peninsula , the musi c of which i s base d on th e exoti c an d archaic-soundin g non-tempered scale , closes t t o th e Locrian mode . In hi s limited output , most of it fo r solo voice or chorus , he trie d t o recreat e th e flavo r o f Istrian fol k musi c without th e us e of direct quotations. In attemptin g t o make use o f elements o f folkloric musi c in compos ing, perhap s n o on e has gon e farthe r tha n Krst o Odak, wh o compose d an entire opera, Dórica píese (Doroth y A-Dancing), while striving not to use any musical motive or phrase whic h wa s not par t o f the origina l folk musi c thesaurus . Althoug h interestin g a s a tou r d e forc e an d a n experiment, thi s i s no t Odak' s norma l metho d o f composition . H e i s more note d fo r th e soli d contrapunta l structur e o f hi s works , ofte n quite "cosmopolitan, " an d no t a t al l based o n folklore . Fran Lhotk a i s a n interestin g exampl e o f a Croatia n compose r b y naturalization. Czec h b y birt h an d education , h e wa s a Frenc h hor n virtuoso and th e directo r o f a conservator y in Russi a befor e comin g t o Zagreb. H e occupie d th e positio n o f the presiden t o f the Stat e Musi c Academy i n Zagre b o n severa l occasions . A s a compose r h e wa s a consúmate technicia n an d a stead y worker . H e "foun d himself " rela tively late , when , i n collaboratio n wit h th e choreographer s an d balle t dancers Pi o an d Pin a Mlakar , he compose d severa l ballets . Thei r firs t composition, th e complet e balle t The Devil in the Village, ha s bee n widely performe d an d recorde d sinc e it s premier e i n Zuric h an d it s early succes s i n Munich , a s well a s being part o f the repertor y o f th e Royal Winnipe g Balle t Compan y i n Canada . The mos t successful amon g the Croatian composer s of the "pre-1900 " generation ha s been Jakov Gotovac. In the formal schemes of his works, he ha s seldo m venture d beyon d th e three-par t form , an d ha s confine d his writing almost exclusively to vocal and orchestra l music , resemblin g in hi s preference s fo r mediu m thos e o f Zajc. Althoug h unsophisticate d in hi s approach , Gotova c ha s brough t t o i t a positiv e inclinatio n an d facility fo r singabl e an d easily-assimilate d melodies, fo r well-soundin g if old-fashione d harmony, and fo r a particularly ric h orchestra l palette . The autho r o f many opera s an d severa l symphoni c poems, h e ha s no t yet surpasse d th e succes s o f hi s firs t purel y orchestra l work , "Sym phonic Kolo," a stylizatio n o f a popula r danc e o f the Souther n Slavs , performed i n Pari s an d Tokyo , a s wel l a s i n Chicago' s Gran t Par k

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(1957) an d Ne w York' s Lewisoh n Stadiu m (1962) , and , durin g th e 1963-64 season, in Hartford and Detroit . A similar success was enjoye d by hi s secon d opera , Ero the Joker, which , sinc e it s premier e i n th e mid-thirties, has been performed in eight languages on more than fort y European oper a stages , includin g thos e o f the Stat e Opera s i n Berlin , Munich, an d Vienna , an d b y th e Zagre b Oper a ensembl e i n London , Rome, and Naples. Born a t th e tur n o f the century , Zlatk o Grgosevi c ha s s o far show n more promise than fulfillmen t i n his limited production a s a composer. A thoroughl y culture d musician, h e ha s exerte d considerabl e influenc e through hi s wor k a s a teacher , an d als o partl y a s a n essayist , a pamphleteer an d a critic. Suc h activities have als o been t o some exten t responsible fo r hi s limite d activit y a s a composer . Th e tw o mos t sig nificant compositions amon g his works are a choral suite and a cantata, both o n the subjec t of harvest festivities. Two somewhat younger composers, Rudolf Mat z and Bozida r Kunc , have divide d thei r interest s betwee n composin g an d othe r activities . Matz is active as a teacher o f violoncello and pian o method s an d a s a n author o f theor y textbooks . H e wa s als o a prim e move r i n th e re juvenated Croatia n Choral Federatio n betwee n th e worl d wars . Inten t on raisin g artisti c an d programin g standards , Matz , o n th e invitatio n of th e America n affiliat e o f the Federation , cam e t o th e Unite d State s to ac t a s directo r o f th e Croatia n Chora l Festiva l i n Chicago' s Orchestra Hal l in 1956 . O n his return t o Zagreb, he organize d a yout h orchestra tha t h e ha s conducte d i n man y successfu l appearance s abroad. Bozidar Kunc, until his recent death , was a recital pianist o f renown. Especially notabl e wer e hi s appearance s a s soloist , playin g hi s ow n piano concerto in Germany, and als o with the Philadelphi a an d Detroi t Orchestras. A s Zink a Milanov' s accompanist , Kun c toure d th e world . He incorporate d impressionisti c element s int o hi s persona l styl e o f composing. One migh t wel l speak o f a "generatio n o f 1906, " sinc e tha t yea r proved a vintage one with regard to three important personages amon g contemporary Croatia n composers . Th e firs t t o emerg e wa s Bori s Papandopulo, the so n of the renowne d oper a an d concer t singe r Maj a Strozzi-Pecic. A n extremely methodica l an d discipline d worker , an d a consúmate craftsman , h e i s ver y prolifi c an d ha s lef t hardl y an y musical for m o r mediu m untouched . A s might b e expecte d fro m on e who writes with grea t rapidity , hi s output sometime s lacks inspiratio n or warmt h o f expression . Bu t hi s three-movemen t Symphonietta For

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Strings, publishe d b y Schott , i s on e o f th e mos t significan t contribu tions t o Croatia n orchestra l literature . O f th e othe r tw o coetaneou s composers mentioned , Mil o Cipr a prefer s a contrapunta l texture , a n instrumental medium , an d chambe r proportions . H e ha s mad e signifi cant contribution s in these fields, without completel y eschewin g large r forms. Iva n Brkanovi c i s mor e a t hom e i n work s o f large r scop e fo r orchestra, ofte n wit h a choru s an d stage , suc h a s hi s oper a Equinox and th e severa l symphonie s that h e has thu s fa r composed . POST-WAR DEVELOPMENT S The mainstream of Croatian musical creativity between the worl d wars subscribed t o th e nationalisti c o r folkloristic school . I t regarde d th e rich resource s o f the , i n som e instances , centuries-ol d Croatia n musi c folklore—which wa s ofte n preserve d almos t untouche d fro m outsid e influences—as th e ra w materia l o n whic h t o buil d a specificall y Croatian musica l idiom . Th e contrar y i s tru e o f th e tw o generation s o f composers tha t hav e emerge d sinc e th e las t war , an d whic h ar e gradually assumin g the center-stag e position, and th e thir d generatio n that is now following in their wake. A surprise event of the immediate post-war years was the emergenc e of Stjepa n Sule k a s a composer . Well-know n befor e th e wa r a s a concert violinist , chambe r musician , an d concertmaster , Sule k leape d instantly int o th e forefron t amon g Croatia n creativ e figure s wit h hi s several scores , among them a number o f symphonies and concerti . H e is a consummate craftsman an d a highly-regarded teache r o f composition a t the Zagreb Musi c Academy. It migh t develo p tha t h e i s a ma n of transitio n in more than merely his chronological position i n Croatia n musical history. Today he is the upholde r o f the conservativ e academic tradition tha t is inveighing against the radica l extremism of the experi mental trend s tha t ar e rearin g thei r head s everywhere , Croati a no t excepted. I n additio n t o absolut e music, he ha s als o written a n opera , Coriolan (1958) , an d ha s recentl y bee n turnin g mor e an d mor e t o conducting. Among th e standardbearer s o f th e movemen t t o alig n Croatia n composition wit h internationa l avant-gard e trends , ar e Sulek' s pupi l Milko Keleme n an d Iva n Malee . Keleme n receive d earl y recognitio n in th e mid-fiftie s a s the winne r o f several prizes, before he turne d hi s interest to the mor e radical tendencies o f post-Webern serialism . He is the founde r an d principa l organize r o f th e Zagre b Biennal e (spring , 1961, 1963 ) tha t serves as an international showcase an d clearing-plac e

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for internationa l an d Croatia n contemporar y musica l creations . Kele men visite d America in 196 1 o n an exchang e program . Ivan Male e is a resident o f Paris an d a n anti-romanti c in hi s approac h t o composition . He i s definitel y oriente d t o th e avant-garde , notabl y i n hi s us e o f musique concrète. In thi s contex t we should als o mention Branimi r Sakac , whos e most important wor k to dat e i s Symphony of a Dead Soldier, based o n hi s incidental musi c fo r N . Corwin' s radi o dram a "Withou t Title. " Thi s composition, datin g fro m 1951 , wa s adapte d successfull y a s a ballet in 1959, an d take n o n tou r t o Naple s b y th e Zagre b ensemble . Saka c is also interested i n experimentatio n wit h concret e an d electroni c music , and has founded experimenta l studios to explore these media i n Zagreb and Opatija . Anothe r experimentalis t wh o deserve s mentio n a t thi s point, rathe r tha n wit h othe r musician s o f hi s ag e group , i s Kresimi r Fribec. Mostl y self-taught, he ha s move d awa y fro m a n earl y fascina tion with th e more experimental aspects of Mussorgsky's and Janacek' s styles, t o a clos e affinit y fo r th e pointilis m o f th e post-wa r atonalists . This latter tendenc y has induced hi m to write two operas, amon g other works. PERFORMERS A substantia l numbe r o f Croatia n performer s earne d widesprea d international recognitio n whe n th e creative effort s o f Croatia n com posers were stil l much confine d withi n th e limit s o f their ow n country and it s audiences . Th e fame d Croatia n sopran o Milk a Ternin a mad e only passin g appearance s i n Zagre b a s a youn g singer; beyon d these , both he r studie s an d he r caree r wer e carrie d o n entirel y abroad . Sh e was equally well-known for her Wagnerian interpretations a t Bayreut h in Germany and fo r her performance s in Tosca i n America at Puccini' s request, afte r he r succes s i n tha t oper a a t London' s Coven t Garden . She wa s a membe r o f th e Metropolita n Oper a Compan y fro m 1893 1904. Another brillian t caree r o f a Croatia n singe r wa s tha t o f th e teno r Tino Partiera , wh o attaine d worl d fam e b y hi s appearance s a s a member o f th e Dresde n Stat e Oper a an d o f th e Germa n Oper a o f Prague, a s wel l a s i n Chicago . Eve n thoug h h e regularl y returne d t o his home to spend vacations there between seasons , he never performed in Croatia . H e no w live s i n partia l retiremen t i n Vienna , remainin g active as a voice teacher. A caree r somewha t simila r to Ternina' s i s tha t o f th e Metropolita n Opera's prima donna fo r mor e tha n a quarte r o f a century , an d Ter -

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nina's forme r pupil , Zink a Milanov . Afte r a decad e o r s o a s firs t dramatic sopran o o f th e Zagre b Opera , a routin e gues t engagemen t in Gra z in Aïda brough t he r invitation s in rapi d successio n to sin g a t the Germa n Oper a an d th e Nationa l Theate r i n Prague , fro m Brun o Walter t o appea r a t Vienn a Stat e Opera , an d fro m Toscanin i t o sin g the soprano solo in Verdi's Requiem a t the Salzbur g Festival. The way was thu s pave d fo r her engagemen t at th e Metropolita n i n 1937 . It i s almos t impossible a t presen t t o tur n t o an y importan t oper a stage o r oper a seaso n withou t findin g Croatia n singer s prominentl y represented. Th e entir e ensembl e o f th e Zagre b Oper a ha s traveled , since th e las t war , t o mak e man y successfu l appearance s abroa d i n London, Berlin , Rome , an d Naples. Sopran o Sen a Jurinac , note d fo r her interpretation s o f music by composer s such a s Mozart , Beethoven, Puccini, an d Strauss , is a member of the Vienn a State Opera, a regular visitor to the Glyndebourne Festival, and ha s had considerabl e success at Coven t Garden , wit h th e Sa n Francisc o Oper a (1959) , an d wit h the Chicag o Lyri c Oper a i n 1963 . Dragic a (Carla ) Martini s appeare d at the Ne w Yor k Cit y Center Oper a i n 1950 , an d a t th e Sa n Francisc o Opera i n 1954 . Sh e wa s especiall y note d fo r he r interpretatio n o f th e title role in Puccini's Turandot. Biserk a Cvejic, a mezzosopran o and a member of the Belgrade Opera, made her debut a t the Metropolita n in New Yor k i n 196 1 an d ha s subsequentl y appeare d regularl y wit h th e company. Anothe r mezzo, Nad a Puttar-Gold , lef t Zagre b i n 195 7 fo r an engagemen t wit h th e Berli n Municipa l Opera ; sinc e 196 1 sh e ha s been a member o f the Stat e Opera i n Frankfurt. Marijan a Radev , also a mezzo , has been a frequent gues t in Italy , Israel , an d Germany , has appeared o n operati c an d concer t stages , an d i s a note d recordin g artist. Georgine Milinkovic, a contralto, was for years a member of the opera companie s i n Zuric h an d Munich , an d als o san g a t Bayreuth . Baritone Vladimi r Ruzdjak, winne r o f th e firs t priz e i n th e Genev a International competitio n after World War II, an d presently a member of th e Hambur g Stat e Opera , mad e hi s debu t wit h th e Sa n Francisc o Opera i n 1961 , an d wit h th e Metropolita n Oper a i n 1962 . Tomisla v Neralic, a bass formerly wit h th e Vienn a Stat e Opera , i s now engage d in Berlin ; he sang at Chicago' s Lyri c Oper a i n 1959 , an d a t th e Teatr o Colon i n Bueno s Aires . Draguti n Sostarko , a singe r acclaime d i n guest appearances i n Central Europe , toured Spai n and Sout h America as the baritone lead opposit e Beniamino Gigli. Aron Mark o Rothmüller made his debut in Zagreb in 193 2 an d late r appeare d ther e fro m tim e to time as a guest. Almost immediately after hi s debut, h e obtaine d a n engagement wit h th e Zuric h Opera , wher e h e remaine d throughou t

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the war . Afte r th e war , h e appeare d a t th e Vienn a Stat e Oper a a s Prince Igor , a t Coven t Garde n a s Wozzeck , a s wel l a s with th e Ne w York City Center an d th e Metropolita n Operas. Rothmiiller is presently on the facult y o f Indiana University . In additio n t o bein g a singer , h e is also a composer and author . In his creative work , he stresse s theme s stemming mor e fro m hi s Jewis h backgroun d tha n fro m hi s Croatian , although h e ha s writte n thre e song s base d upo n th e poem s o f th e Croatian poet Vladimir Nazor. The reaso n why singer s shoul d dominat e th e pictur e o f performin g artists "exported " fro m a countr y s o wel l endowe d wit h goo d voice s and a fine musical and particularl y voca l tradition, whic h range s fro m folk singing to numerous and well-traine d chora l groups, is a clear an d simple one . Fo r th e instrumenta l performers to attai n a level o f excel lence comparable to that o f the vocal performers i n Croatia, a tradition of accomplishe d teacher s an d pupils , of adequate instruments , qualita tive performances , and generall y high standard s of musical life woul d be necessary . No t al l o f thes e factor s wer e presen t i n Croati a befor e the onse t o f this century . In 1903 , Vacla v Huml , a Czec h an d a pupi l of Sevcik , cam e t o Zagre b a s a violi n teacher . A fe w year s later , Svetislav Stancic, a student of Busoni, joined him on the facult y o f what is today th e Stat e Musi c Academy in Zagreb. Bot h Hum l an d Stanci c gave up their publi c performances , and i n Stancic's cas e als o a promising caree r i n composition, to devot e themselve s entirel y t o instruction . Each ha s raise d a whol e generatio n o f pupil s wh o hav e successfull y continued their teacher' s pedagogi c wor k in studios, have occupied first desk chairs in renowned orchestras , or have made names for themselves as concer t artists . Huml' s stres s o n th e virtuos o aspects o f violi n tech nique has produced several notable virtuosos, such as Zlatko Balokovic, who cam e t o liv e i n th e Unite d State s an d i s a n America n citizen ; Zlatko Topolski, now concertmaster of the Vienna Symphony Orchestra, after a sojour n i n th e sam e capacit y an d a s a conducto r i n Cordoba , Argentina; an d Ljerk o Spiller , wh o too k u p residenc e i n Bueno s Aires, and i s active a s teacher, performer and conductor . Stancic's schoo l produce d well-rounde d musica l personalities , i n addition t o accomplished masters of the keyboard. Some of his student s have embarked on full-time concer t careers, whil e other s combine suc h careers wit h teaching . Befor e an d sinc e th e war , Brank a Musuli n established German y a s th e cente r o f he r extensiv e activitie s a s a touring an d recordin g pianist . Melit a Lorkovic , considere d b y man y the outstandin g Yugoslavia n pianist a t present , ha s toure d wit h grea t success in Scandinavia , western Europe , an d Sout h America, an d live s

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in Cairo, Egypt , a s a pianist-in-residence. Dor a Gusi c spearheade d th e emphasis o n concertizin g b y Croatians , wit h he r successfu l tour s abroad betwee n th e wars. Of the younger generation o f pianists, Juric a Murai achieve d considerabl e acclai m abroa d afte r th e war , whil e Ladislav Saba n followed his teacher's footstep s in forsakin g th e benc h of th e performin g pianis t fo r th e professoria l chair . Th e renowne d Italian violoncell o virtuos o Antoni o Janigr o ha s mad e hi s hom e i n Zagreb sinc e 1939 , an d ha s raise d th e standard s o f teachin g an d per formance wit h respec t t o hi s instrument to th e level s alread y enjoye d by the piano an d the violin. He is the founde r o f the virtuos o chambe r orchestra, th e Zagre b Soloist s ( I Solist i di Zagreb) , tha t gaine d inter national reputatio n throug h recording s an d internationa l tours , in cluding severa l i n Nort h America. Ever sinc e th e tim e o f Zajc , Zagre b ha s enjoye d th e leadershi p of good musician s a t th e hel m o f it s opera , artist s wh o als o double d a s symphony conductor s fo r th e occasiona l concert s o f th e theate r orchestra, befor e the founding of the Zagre b Philharmonic afte r Worl d War I . Zajc' s immediat e successo r wa s Nikol a Faller , a studen t o f Bruckner an d Massenet , who was the oper a directo r a t th e tur n o f th e century. Som e o f hi s successor s wer e Feli x Albini , th e compose r o f the internationall y successfu l operett a Baron Trenk (1908) , Frederi k Rukavina, the opera directo r i n the twenties an d late r a frequent gues t conductor wit h the Pragu e Nationa l Theatre, and the presen t dea n of the Zagreb conductors, Milan Sachs, a Czech b y birth and a great per fectionist an d disciplinarian , wh o i s presentl y retire d bu t wh o stil l conducts occasionally. The longes t tenur e o f a directo r afte r Zaj c wa s tha t o f Kresimi r Baranovic, wh o preside d ove r th e Zagre b Opera , wit h interruptions , for mor e than a decade betwee n th e tw o worl d wars , with tim e of f for a tou r wit h Ann a Pavlova's Balle t Compan y i n 1927-28 . I n th e 1940' s he spen t severa l year s i n th e Slova k capita l o f Bratislava , an d no w conducts th e Belgrad e Oper a an d Philharmonic Orchestra. I n additio n to his outstanding work as a conductor, he i s also a very distinguishe d composer o f works for orchestr a an d fo r th e stage . Sinc e th e las t war , with th e developmen t o f domesti c fil m productio n i n Yugoslavia , h e has also achieved marked distinction a s a composer for the cinema . Recently th e internationa l reputation s o f som e Croatian conductor s have grown to the point wher e they rival those of the Croatia n singers . Lovro Mataci c wa s the firs t Croatia n t o conduc t a t Bayreut h (1959) , and is presently the genera l music director o f the Frankfur t Opera. H e also conducte d Chicago' s Lyri c Oper a i n 195 9 an d 1960 , an d wa s a

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guest conducto r o f th e Detroi t Symphon y Orchestr a i n 1960 . Hi s student an d erstwhil e protég é Berislav Klobucar, is the directo r o f th e Graz Oper a an d mad e hi s debu t wit h th e Teatr o Colo n i n Bueno s Aires in 1963 . Mlade n Basic, a post-war directo r o f th e Zagre b Opera , now heads th e oper a i n Salzburg , Austria. The presen t musica l director o f the Zagreb Philharmonic, whic h h e has le d i n man y successfu l tour s rangin g fro m wester n an d centra l Europe t o Asi a an d th e Fa r East , Mila n Horvat , ha s als o ha d a n international caree r o f hi s own . H e serve d fo r severa l season s a s th e permanent conducto r o f th e Radi o Eirean n Symphon y Orchestr a i n Dublin, an d enjoye d many successful guest appearance s abroad , rang ing fro m Russi a t o America, appearing wit h th e Cincinnat i Symphon y Orchestra i n 1961 . Igo r Gjadro v wa s th e recipien t o f th e firs t priz e at the International Conductors ' Competitio n i n Besanço n (1954) , an d has ha d muc h succes s as a gues t conducto r i n wester n Europe . Klar o Mizerit, a forme r conducto r o f th e Dubrovni k Municipa l Orchestra , now conduct s th e Rhenis h Philharmonic i n Koblenz ; h e wa s a gues t conductor wit h th e Bato n Roug e Symphon y Orchestr a durin g th e 1963-64 season. Vladimir Benic, th e directo r o f the Rijek a Opera , wa s an apprentic e conducto r wit h th e Clevelan d Symphon y Orchestr a during th e 1960-6 1 season, under a Kulas Foundatio n grant . Kresimi r Sipus, a residen t o f Paris , ha s compose d severa l instrumenta l works , an oper a an d a ballet, an d ha s appeare d successfull y as an oper a an d a symphoni c conductor i n Europ e an d i n Argentina . Ant e Kopitovi c now live s in Bueno s Aires an d i s widenin g th e scop e o f hi s activitie s as the conducto r o f orchestra an d instrumenta l ensemble s a t th e Stat e Radio Station. The musicologis t Dr . Draga n Plamenac , wh o ha s edite d work s b y Lukacic, ha s had a lifetim e interest i n th e work s of the Flemis h com poser Johannes Ockeghem, on whom he wrote his doctoral dissertatio n at th e Universit y o f Vienna (1924) , an d fo r th e publicatio n o f whos e complete work s h e serve d a s th e editor . H e i s a t th e presen t o n th e faculty o f th e Universit y o f Illinois , and befor e comin g t o th e Unite d States i n 193 9 h e hel d th e chai r o f musicolog y a t Zagre b Universit y for ove r te n years . For tw o year s ( 1950-52 ) h e wa s als o chairma n of the Ne w Yor k Chapter o f the America n Musicological Society. MUSICAL INSTITUTION S The oldest Croatia n musica l institution that has enjoyed uninterrupte d existence t o th e presen t da y i s th e Croatia n Musi c Institute , forme d

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in 182 7 a s a Musikverein wit h th e purpos e o f promotin g musi c an d maintaining a music school. From a n initial faculty of three, this schoo l has grow n int o a state-operated , degree-grantin g musi c college , unde r the name o f the Stat e Academ y of Music. It i s now th e mothe r institu tion o f a network o f municipal music schools o n th e preparator y leve l throughout th e country . Th e Croatia n Musi c Institut e continue s it s independent existenc e a s a civi c grou p activ e i n man y phase s o f musical life. Opera i n Zagreb ha s alway s been a branch o f the Nationa l Theater , which als o includes a dram a wing. Th e oper a win g i s i n charg e o f al l musical stage activities, comprisin g a ballet compan y tha t onc e boasted Mia Slavenska , also a Croatian, a s its prima ballerina, a s well a s grea t deal o f ligh t opera . Thi s patter n o f organizatio n i s followe d b y th e theaters i n th e province s tha t hav e bee n organize d i n mor e recen t times, fo r example , i n Osijek , Varazdin , Rijeka , Split , an d Dubrovnik . The theater s are , a s is customary in Centra l Europe , stat e subsidized , with th e personne l unde r permanen t contrac t fo r a ten - o r eleven month season . A postwa r developmen t ha s bee n th e additio n o f summer festival s o f oper a performance s i n th e Roma n aren a i n Pul a on th e Istria n Peninsula , i n Diocletian' s peristyl e i n Split , an d o f drama, opera , an d concert s i n Dubrovnik . Anothe r postwa r develop ment i s th e creatio n o f professiona l companie s devote d t o th e pre sentation o f fol k dances , songs , an d instrumenta l musi c a s nearl y genuine an d unaltere d a s possibl e i n a stag e performance . Th e Croatian folklori c grou p "Lado " ha s bee n very successfu l i n it s per formances a t home an d abroad . Shortly befor e an d durin g Worl d Wa r I , symphoni c concert s i n Zagreb wer e improvise d b y complementin g th e theatr e orchestr a wit h musicians fro m arm y band s or othe r source s for occasiona l per formances. O f thos e sporadi c enterprises , on e shoul d b e single d out : a progra m conducte d i n 191 6 b y Frederi k Rukavin a an d devote d entirely t o th e work s o f youn g Croatia n composers , al l i n firs t per formances. I t prove d t o b e a trail-blazin g even t tha t no t onl y bene fited the composer s represented o n the program—Baranovic , Dobronic , Dugan, Pejacevic , Stancic , Sirola—bu t als o marke d th e comin g o f ag e of th e Croatia n composer s an d thei r music . I n 1920 , oper a orchestr a musicians organize d th e Zagre b Philharmoni c o n a cooperativ e basis . They performe d o n nights tha t the y wer e no t engage d a t th e theater , and, generally , whe n i t suite d thei r fancy , withou t a pla n o r a n organized subscriptio n series . Thi s situatio n wa s change d whe n th e orchestra, whic h operate d temporaril y unde r differen t names , wa s

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organized a s a n entit y completel y separat e fro m th e oper a orchestra , in th e earl y forties . Suc h i s it s presen t organization , an d onc e mor e under it s origina l name . Between th e war s ther e wa s sporadi c symphoni c activit y i n th e provinces, base d mostl y o n th e combinatio n o f intereste d amateur s and arm y ban d musicians , unde r th e leadershi p o f som e enterprisin g conductor. A t that tim e onl y Osijek , o f all the Croatia n town s outsid e of Zagreb , ha d permanen t dram a an d sporadi c operati c activity , wit h more regula r symphon y concerts . Al l musica l performance s wer e under th e leadershi p o f Lav Mirski . During th e wa r h e conducte d i n Palestine, returnin g t o Osije k afte r th e wa r a s th e hea d o f th e oper a and genera l manage r o f th e theater . Until 1941 , whe n Osije k receive d it s radi o station , Zagre b ha d th e only broadcastin g facilitie s i n Croatia . No w eac h tow n tha t ha s it s own theater , a s well a s som e which d o not , ha s it s radi o station , wit h the whol e syste m operatin g a s a network , owne d an d operate d b y the state , followin g th e Europea n custom . Th e large r station s hav e quite complet e musi c staffs , an d man y oper a performance s an d sym phony concert s ar e broadcas t live . A recently-added televisio n branc h has it s studio s i n Zagre b an d follow s th e patter n o f organizatio n established b y th e broadcastin g system . The chora l activitie s i n Croatia , whic h hav e sprea d t o al l the socia l strata and to the smallest towns and even to many villages, ar e amateu r in nature . Man y of th e large r o f these organization s reach hig h level s of perfectio n an d artistry . Th e firs t professiona l organizatio n wa s th e Zagreb Madrigalists , founded i n 193 1 b y Mlade n Pozajic . Thi s grou p gave regular concert s with a repertory coverin g the rang e o f a cappella music suitabl e fo r a chambe r musi c group , withou t limitin g itsel f t o a narro w histori c period . I n tim e thi s grou p gre w int o th e Radi o Zagreb Chambe r Chorus , an d the n becam e simpl y th e Radi o Zagre b Chorus, firs t le d b y Mlade n Pozajic , considere d on e o f th e fines t Croatian choral conductors , and now by Slavk o Zlatic, a composer an d former conducto r o f th e Susa k Philharmoni c Society . Before World Wa r II, there was no regular music publishing activit y in Croatia , wit h th e exceptio n o f publication s b y th e Croatia n Musi c Institute. Wha t wa s sporadically publishe d unde r othe r auspice s wa s often se t or printed abroad . After th e war, the Musi c Publishing Hous e (Muzicka naklada) , wa s established . I t publishe s no t onl y origina l works b y Croatia n composers , including ful l orchestr a scores , bu t als o standard instructional and repertory works that were formerly availabl e only a s import s fro m foreig n publishers . Th e domesti c commercia l

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recordings o f th e Jugoto n Compan y ar e devote d almos t exclusivel y to th e popula r genre . Quit e complet e recording s o f Croatia n seriou s music literature , mad e b y th e radi o networ k an d fo r thei r us e i n broadcasts, are no t commerciall y available . An important wor k amon g publications abou t musi c i s th e outgrowt h o f th e activitie s o f th e Lexicographic Institut e i n Zagre b tha t publishes , i n additio n t o a general encyclopedia, a series o f specialized reference work s i n various fields. The Music Encyclopedia, unde r th e editorshi p o f Josip Andrei s is being published i n two volumes. The first volume appeared i n 1958, and comprise s th e letter s A to / . I t contain s 76 0 pages an d combine s serious an d reliabl e scholarship with a high leve l o f graphic execution. BIBLIOGRAPHY The source s listed i n this sectio n an d i n the section s "Scores an d Collections " and "Discography " shoul d b e considere d introductory , rathe r tha n fina l or complete . Th e intrinsi c interes t o f variou s entries , an d thei r availabilit y or accessibilit y o n th e Nort h America n continen t wer e ofte n importan t o r deciding factor s in the compilation . I. Before 1800 Alberti, Jura j (Giorgio) . Dialogo per imparare con brevità a cantar canto figúrate. Venice : Antoni o Turrino, 1619. Banjalucanin, Mate . Regulae cantus plani pro incipientibus. 1687. Bossinensis, Franciscus . Tenon e contrabassi intabulati col sopran in canto figurato per cantar e sonar col lauto. 2 vols., Venice , 1509-11 . Kovacevic, Toma . Brevis cantus gregoriani notitia. Vienna, 1701 Silobod-BolSic, Mihajlo . Fundamentum cantus gregoriani sen choralis. Zagreb, 1760. II. After 1800 Andreis, Josip . Povijest glazbe/History o f Music . Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska , 1942.

. Uvod u glazbenu estetiku/lntroduction t o th e Esthetic s o f Music . Zagreb, 1944 . . Histórica mwzz&e/Histor y o f Music . 3 vols . Zagreb , 1951-52-54 . •. Hrvatski glazbeni zavod kroz 125 godina svog postojanja/Tlie Croatian Musi c Institute throug h 12 5 Years of Its Existence . Zagreb , 1952. . Jakov Gotovac. Split, 1957. . (éd.) . Muzicka enciklopedija/Music Encyclopedia . Vol . I, A-/ . Zagreb: Lexicographi c Institute , 1958. Andreis, J . Cvetko , D. , an d Djuric-Klajn , S . Historijski razvoj muzióke kulture u Jugoslavia/Historic Developmen t o f the Musi c Culture i n Yugoslavia. Zagreb : Skolsk a knjiga, 1962. Andreis, J., and Zlatic , S. (eds.) . Yugoslav Music. Belgrade, 1959. Andric, Josip . Slovacka glasba. 1944.

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Goglia, Antun . Hrvatski glazbeni zavod 1827-1927/Croatian Musi c Insti tute, 1827-1927. Zagreb, 1927 . . Komorna muzika u Zagrebu/'Chamber Musi c i n Zagreb . Zagreb , 1934. Orkestralna muzika u Zagrebw/Orchestra l Musi c in Zagreb . Zagreb , 1935. Ivakic, Branimir. Razvoj hrvatske muzike/The Developmen t o f the Croatia n Music. Zagreb, 1930 . Kassowitz-Cvijic, Antonija . Vatroslav Lisinski u kolu /Ztra/Vatrosla v Lisinsk i in th e Circl e o f Illyrians . Zagreb: Matic a Hrvatska , 1919 . Klobucar, A . "Franj o Dugan , 2ivo t i rad"/Franj o Dugan , Lif e an d Work . Thesis, Zagreb Music Academy, 1955 . Kovacevic, Kresimir . Hrvatski kompozitori i njihova (2/e/a/Croatia n Com posers an d Thei r Works . Zagreb : Naprijed , 1960 . Kuhac, Franj o Ksaver . Vatroslav Lisinski i njegovo dofca/Vatrosla v Lisinsk i and Hi s Time. 2n d ed . Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska , 1904 . Kukuljevic-Sakcinski, Ivan . Slovnik umjetnikah jugoslavenskih/A. Dictionar y of Yugosla v Artists. Zagreb , 1858 . Ljubic, Sime , Dizionario biográfico degli uomini illustri délia Dalmazia. Vienna, 1856 . Milcetic, I. Dr. Julije Bajamonti. Zagreb , 1912 . Ogrizovic, Milan . Hrvatska opera (1870-1920)/Croatia n Oper a (1870 1920). Zagreb, 1920 . Plamenac, Dragan . "Vatrosla v Lisinski, " Knjizevni Jug (Zagreb , 1919) . . " O hrvatskoj muzici u vrijeme renesanse" / Abou t Croatia n Musi c in the Renaissanc e Period , Hrvatska revija (Zagreb , 1936) . "Toma Cecchini , kapelni k stolni h crkav a u Split u i Hvar u u prvo j polovini XVII stoljeca"/Toma Cecchini , Choirmaste r o f the Spli t and Hva r Cathedrals i n th e Firs t Hal f o f th e Seventeent h Century , Rad (Zagreb : Yugoslav Academ y of Arts and Sciences , 1938) , Vol . 262, 77 . "Music o f the 16t h an d 17t h Centurie s i n Dalmatia, " Proceedings of the American Musicological Society for 1939. Publishe d i n 1944 . Als o condensed i n G . Reese , Music in the Renaissance (Ne w York : W . W . Norton, 1954) , 757-762. Schneider, Artur . Ivan Mane Jarnovic, hrvatski guslaS i skladatelj 18. stoljeca/Ivan Man e Jarnovic, Croatia n Violinis t an d Compose r i n th e 18t h Century. Zagreb , 1944 . Sirola, Bozidar. Pregled povijesti hrvatske muzike/Survey o f Croatia n Musi c History. Zagreb , 1922 . . "Star a hrvatsk a muzick a nastojanja"/Ol d Croatia n Musica l Efforts , Narodna starina, 10 (Zagreb , 1925). . Hrvatska umjetnicka g/azfea/Croatia n Artisti c Music. Zagreb, 1942 . — • . "Crkvena glazb a u Hrvatskoj"/Churc h Musi c i n Croatia , Croatia Sacra 20-21 (Zagreb , 1943). Sram, Franjo . Crtice iz hrvatske glazbene fcwZfttre/Notes about Croatia n Music Culture. Zagreb, 1940 . Urukalo, A . "Dr. Julij e Bajamont i i njegov ra d n a podrucj u muzick e urnjet nosti"/Dr. Julij e Bajamont i an d Hi s Wor k i n th e Fiel d o f Music . Thesis , Zagreb Musi c Academy, 1954 . Vidakovic, Albe . Crkvena glazba u zagrebaikoj stolnoj crkvi u XIX vijeku/ ' O

/

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Church Musi c in the Zagre b Cathedra l Durin g th e 19t h Century . Zagreb , 1945. . Vinko Jelic (1596-1636?) i njegova zbirka duhovnih koncerata i ricercara "Parnassia militia" 1622/Vinko Jeli c an d Hi s Collectio n o f Spiritual Concert s an d Ricercar i "Parnassi a militia " 1622 . Zagreb : Yugoslav Academy, 1957 . Zjalic, M . Crkvena muzika/Chwch Music . Samobor , 1925 .

SCORES AND COLLECTIONS I. Before 1800 Cecchino, Verones e Tomaso . Amorosi concetti, bk . I , 1612 ; Canti spirituali, op. 3, 1613 ; Motetti concertait, op. 4, 1613 ; Amorosi concetti, bk . Ill , op . 7 ("i l terz o libr o de ' madrigal i a una , e du e voci") , G . Vincenti , Venice , 1616; Madrigali e canzonette, op . 12 , 1617 ; Madrigali a 5, op . 15 ; Otto messe brevi, facili et ariose, op. 11 , 1617 ; Psalmi, missa et alia cántica, op. 14 , 1619; Missarum 3 et 4 vocum cum motetta 4 et 5, bk. II , op . 17; Messe ariose, bk . Ill , op . 19 , 1624 ; Corona sacra connexa ex flosculis musicalibus praestantissimorum autorum, 1626 ; Missae, bk . IV , op . 22 , 1627; A collection o f 5 masses, 22 motets, an d 8 instrumental sonatas, op . 23, 1628 ; One-voice d accompanie d motets , op . 27 , 1635 . Grgicevic, Atanazije . Pisni za naypoglavitye, naysvetye i nayveselye dni svega godischia sloxene: i kako se u organe s' yednim glasom mogu spivati, napravgliene. P ô Atanasi u Georgice u u Becu . I z Pritiskopis a Mate a Formike, MDCXXXV/Song s fo r Al l Holiday s o f th e Year , Arrange d fo r One Voic e and Organ . B y A. Georgiceu, Vienna , M . Formica, 1635 . lelich, Vincentius . Parnassia militia, op . I , P . Ledertz , Strassburg, 1622 ; Arion primus, op. II, P . Ledertz , Strassburg , 1628 ; Arion secundus, op. Ill, P. Ledertz, Strassburg , 1628 . Lucacich d e Sebenico , loannis . Sacrae Cantiones Singulis Binis Ternis Quaternis Quinisque Concinendae, Gardani , Venetii s MDCXX . Patricij, (Pétris ) Andrija . Fou r 4-par t madrigal s i n A . Barges, II primo libro da Villotte, A . Gardano , Venice , 1550 . Schiavetto, Julije . Madrigals, G . Scotto , Venice , 1563 ; Motets, G. Scotto , Venice, 1564 . II. Folksongs Bersa, Vladoje . Zbirka narodnih popjevaka iz Dalmacife/A. Collectio n o f Folksongs fro m Dalmati a (éd . B . Sirola , V . Dukat) , Yugosla v Academy , Zagreb, 1944 . Kuhac, Franj o Saver . Juzno-slovjenske narodne popievke / Chanson s natio nales de s Slave s d u Sud , 4 vols. , G . Albrecht , Zagreb , 1878-81 , vol . V , Yugoslav Academy, Zagreb, 1941 . 1/7. Modem Scores Albini, Félix . Baron Trenck, operett a i n 3 acts , voca l score , J . H . Remick , New York , 1911 ; Madame Troubadour, operett a i n 3 acts , voca l score , J. W. Stern, New York, 1910 .

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Bersa, Blagoj e (Benito) . Der Eisenhammer, oper a i n 3 acts , voca l score , L. Doblinger, Leipzig, 1911 ; Suncana PoZ/a/The Sunny Fields, symphoni c poem, Nakladn i zavod Hrvatske, Zagreb, 1950 . Brkanovic, Ivan . Symphony No. 2, ful l score , Nakladn i zavo d Hrvatske , Zagreb. Gotovac, Jakov . Ero s onoga svijeta/Ero der Schelm, comic oper a i n 3 acts , op. 17 , vocal scor e (Croatia n an d Germa n texts) . Universal Editio n No . 12261, Vienna, 1955 . Grgosevic, Zlatko. Okolo znjackoga venca/ Around th e Harves t Wreath , suit e for mixe d choru s a cappella , Muzick a naklad a No . 692 , Zagreb . Hirschler, Ziga . Sonatina, piano solo , Jugoslawisches Album, Universa l Edi tion No . 10250, Vienna, 1935 . Jelich, Vincentius . Sechs Motetten au s Ario n primu s (1628) , ed . A . Vidakovic, Graz, 1957 . Kabalin, Fedor . Divertimento fo r win d septet , op . 7 , scor e an d parts , Tritone Press , 1962 ; Poem and Rhymes, viola o r 'cell o an d piano , op . 18 , Tritone Press, 1962 . Kelemen, Milko . Concertino, doubl e bas s an d orchestra , score , H . Litolf f No. 30109, Frankfurt, 1960 ; Kleine Streichermusik, string orchestra, score , Schott's, No . 5095, Mainz , 1960 ; Equilibres fo r 2 orchestras , score , Peter s No. 5814 , H . Litolff , Frankfurt , 1962 ; Skolion fo r orchestra , score , Ar s Viva, Mainz , 1962 ; Transfigurationen, pian o an d orchestra , score , H . Litolff, Frankfurt , 1962 . Kunc, Bozidar . Improvisation Uber ein Volkslied, pian o solo , Jugoslawisches Album, Universa l Editio n No . 10250 , Vienna , 1935 ; Sirepn/a/Quivering , op. 3 0 (1 ) Song s fo r voic e an d piano , Cezn/a/Longing , p . 30 , (2 ) an d The World is Empty, op . 52 : G . Ricord i an d Co. , Ne w York , 1955 . Lisinski, Vatroslav . Porin, heroic oper a i n 5 acts , voca l score , Zagreb , 1919 . Lukacic, Ivan . Odabrani moteiî'/Selecte d Motets , éd . D . Plamenac , Hrvatsk i glazbeni zavod , Zagreb, 1935 . Odak, Krsto. String Quartet No. 2, op. 7, B. Schott's Sôhn e No . 3495, Mainz . Papandopulo, Boris . Kolo (Reigen) , pian o solo , Jugoslawisches Album, Universal Editio n No . 10250 , Vienna , 1935 ; Sinfonietta, strin g orchestra , full score , B . Schott' s Sôhne , Mainz ; Concerto da camera, op. 11 , soprano vocalist an d 9 instruments , score , Universa l Edition , Vienna , 1941 . Pintarle, Fortunat . Kompozicije za klavir/[Selected] Pian o Compositions , edited b y S . Stancic , Hrvatsk i glazben i zavod , Zagreb , 1927 . Rothmuller, Aro n Marko . Divertimento, trombon e solo , timpani , an d strin g orchestra, Hawke s an d Son , London , 1955 . Shlik, Miroslav . Slavonic Songs fo r 2 violins , E . C . Schirmer , Boston , 1940 . Slavenski, Josip . Gebet zu den guien Augen, mixe d choru s a cappella, B . Schott's Sôhne , Mainz ; Zwei Liebeslieder, mixe d choru s a cappella, Schott's; Zwôlf Volkslieder, mixe d choru s a cappella, Schott's ; Vôglein spricht, 4—par t women' s choru s wit h piano , Schott's ; Scherzlied, 3-par t women's o r men' s choru s (o r 6-par t mixed) , Schott's ; Spottlied, 3-par t women's o r men' s choru s (o r 6-par t mixed) , Schott's ; Tànze und Lieder aus dem Balkan, pian o solo , 2 vols. , Schott' s No . 1413/1417 ; Aus dem Balkan, piano solo , Schott's No . 1817 ; Aus Südslawien, piano solo , Schott' s No. 1818 ; Südslawischer Gesang und Tanz, violi n an d piano , Schott' s No. 1951 ; Südslawische Suite, pian o solo , op . 2 , Schott' s No . 1819 ;

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Streichquartett, op. 3 , Schott' s No . 3461/3127; Sonate, pian o solo , op . 4 , Schott's No . 1820 ; Slaicische Sonate, violi n an d piano , op . 5 , Schott' s No. 1952 ; Aus Dem Dorfe (fl , cl , vn , via , cb) , op. 6 , Schott' s No . 3139/ 3140; Sonata religiosa, violi n an d organ , op . 7 , Schott' s No . 1966 ; Balkanophonia, orchestra , op . 10 , Schott' s No . 3377 ; Lyrisches Streichquartett, op . 11 , Schott's No . 3490/3149. Sulek, Stjepan , Symphony No. 1 (i n A) , ful l score , Nakladni zavod Hrvatske, Zagreb, 1950 ; Symphony No. 2 (i n D ) "Eroica, " ful l score , Nakladn i zavod Hrvatske , Zagreb , 1951 ; Symphony No. 3 (i n E ) ful l score , Nakladni zavo d Hrvatske , Zagreb , 1951 .

CROATIAN MUSICIAN S Alberti, Jura j (Giorgio) . Autho r o f Dialogo per imparare con brevità a cantar canto figurato, printed b y Antoni o Turrino, Venice , 1619 . Albini, Sreck o (Felix ) (1869-1933) . Compose r an d conductor ; directo r o f the Zagreb Opera. Alesani, Jeroli m (1778—1823) . Zada r organis t an d churc h musi c composer . Andreis, Josi p ( 1909- ) . Professor of music history a t th e Zagre b Musi c Academy. Andric, Josi p ( 1894- ) . Folklorist , compose r fo r th e tamburitza , autho r of th e firs t histor y o f Slovak music ( 1944). Antiquis (Antico) , Andre a d e (firs t hal f o f 16t h c.). Composer an d musi c printer. Bajamonti, Julij e (1744-1800) . Physician , composer , an d encyclopedist ; after 179 0 organist of the Spli t Cathedral . Balokovic, Zlatko (1895- ) . Violin virtuoso; sinc e 192 4 a resident o f the United States ; now in semi-retirement i n Maine. Banjalucanin, Mate . Francisca n fria r fro m Banjaluka ; autho r o f Regulae cantus plañí pro incipientibus (1687) . Baranovic, Kresimi r (1894 - ) . Compose r an d conducto r i n Belgrade ; director o f the Zagre b Opera 1929-40 . Basic, Mlade n (1917 - ) . Oper a directo r i n Salzburg , Austria ; forme r director o f the Zagre b Opera. Benic, Vladimi r (1922 - ) . Conducto r (sinc e 1950 ) and directo r (sinc e 1963) o f the Rijek a Opera ; i n Cleveland 1960-61 . Berdovic, Vladimi r ( 1906— ) . Composer , violoncellist , an d conducto r from Dubrovnik . Bernardic, Dragutin (1912 - ) . Leading bass , Zagreb Opera . Bersa, Blagoj e (Benito ) (1873-1934) . Compose r an d orchestrator ; 1911 19, arranger for Doblinger musi c publishers, Vienna ; afte r 1922 , professor of orchestratio n a t th e Zagre b Music Academy. Bersa, Vladimi r (Vladoje ) (1864-1927) . Blagoj e Bersa' s brother ; attorne y and composer . Collecto r o f fol k tune s i n Dalmatia , publishe d posthu mously (1944) . Bjelinski, Brun o (1909 - ) . Professo r o f counterpoin t an d polyphoni c composition a t th e Zagre b Musi c Academy . Primaril y a compose r o f instrumental and chambe r works . Bombardelli, Silvij e (1916 - ) . Compose r an d conductor , forme r genera l

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manager an d oper a directo r o f th e Spli t Theater ; founde r o f th e Spli t Summer Festival . Bossinensis, Franciscus . Autho r of Tenon e contrabassi intabulati col sopran in canto figurato per cantar e sonar col lauto, tw o volume s o f tablature s for voic e and lute, published i n Venice, 1509, 1511 . Bradic, Zvonimi r (1904 - ) . Studen t o f B . Bersa . Complete d som e o f Bersa's works and edited hi s orchestration lectures . Brajáa-Rasan, Matk o (1859-1934) . Attorney , self-taugh t musician , collecto r of Istria n fol k tune s an d origina l compositions mostl y for chorus . Brkanovic, Iva n (1906 — ) . Compose r o f man y lon g vocal-instrumenta l works; wrote five symphonies. Among most significant activ e exponent s of national-folkloristic orientatio n i n composition ; stron g individua l style . Buric, Marija n (1913 - ) . Compose r an d theorist ; sinc e 194 6 a teache r at the Stat e Musi c School, Zagreb. Cecchini (Cecchino) , Tom a (b . 1580 , Verona ; d. 1644 , Hvar) . Fro m 1606 , choirmaster a t Spli t Cathedral ; afte r 1614 , choirmaste r an d late r organis t at Hvar Cathedral. Cipra, Mil o ( 1906- ) . Professo r a t th e Zagre b Musi c Academ y sinc e 1941. Compose r chiefl y o f absolute , chamber , an d orchestr a music , wit h a develope d sens e for the polyphoni c voic e leading . Ciprin, Vladimir . (1903 - ) . Musi c criti c o f leading Zagre b newspaper s in 1930's and 1940's . Now in Buenos Aires. Cossetto, Emi l (1918 - ) . Note d chora l conductor ; compose r mainl y of choral music. Cvejic, Biserk a (1923 - ) . Mezzosoprano , Belgrad e Opera . Sinc e 196 1 at the Metropolita n Opera, Ne w York. Degrel, Iv o (1909 — ) . Compose r an d choru s conductor , no w i n Argen tina. Hi s Pastoral Overture premiere d b y th e Orquest a Sinfónica , Radi o Nacional, Buenos Aires. Despalj, Pavl e (1934 — ) . Compose r an d conductor ; studen t o f S . Sulek . Devcic, Natk o (1914 - ) . Professo r a t th e Zagre b Musi c Academy ; pianist; ha s composed in most media; one opera. Dobronic, Antu n (1878—1955) . Pionee r of contemporar y trend s and national-folkloristic orientation s in musi c composition . Dugan, Franj o (1874-1948) . Lon g tim e organis t o f th e Zagre b Cathedra l and professo r o f counterpoin t an d compositio n a t th e Zagre b Musi c Academy. Dugan, Franj o Jr . (1901-1934) . Shipbuildin g enginee r an d outstandin g compositional talent . Man y smalle r work s an d a chora l Mas s i n Ancien t Slav. Dumicic, Peta r (1901 - ) . Concer t pianis t an d composer ; compose s mostly for piano. Eisenhuth, Djur o (1841-1891) . Violinist , concer t master , an d theate r con ductor. Hi s choruses , patrioti c fo r th e mos t part , ar e stil l ver y popular . Erdôdy-Rubido, Sidonij a (1819-1884) . Membe r o f th e aristocracy , bu t a n ardent Illyrian . A traine d singer ; create d th e femal e lea d i n Lisinski' s "Love an d Malice. " Faller, Nikol a (1862-1938) . Directo r o f th e Zagre b Opera , 1896-1902 ; president, Croatia n Choral Federation (since 1924).

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Feller, Marija n (1903 - ) . Pianist ; sinc e 195 8 professo r a t Sarajev o Music Academy. Filjak, Rank o ( 1927- ) . Pianist . Flôgl, Iv o (1890 - ) . Compose r o f voca l work s an d shorte r orchestr a pieces, usin g i n hi s composition s folklori c materia l fro m Medjimurje . Lives in Buenos Aires. Fribec, Kresimir ( 1908- ) . Composer with atona l leanings . Gagic, Bogda n (1931 - ) . Studen t o f M . Kelemen . Compose d fo r th e most part instrumenta l works , including film music. Geiger-Eichhorn, Antonij a (1893 - ) . Concer t pianist , professo r a t Zagreb Music Academy. Gjadrov, Igo r (1929 - ). Firs t priz e at internationa l competitio n for conductors, Besançon , 1954. Gjungjenac, Zlat a (1898 - ) . Leadin g lyri c sopran o a t thre e mai n oper a houses i n Yugoslavi a until he r retiremen t i n 1947 . Now professo r a t th e Belgrade Musi c Academy. Goglia, Antu n (1867-1958) . Attorney , amateu r cellist , autho r o f numerou s historic an d biographica l article s i n th e fiel d o f Croatia n musica l history . Gotovac, Jakov ( 1895- ) . On e of the leadin g living Croatia n composers . Grancaric, Slavomir (1878-1941) . Composer, choral conductor, an d teacher; studied wit h Dvora k and Faure. Grgicevic, Atanazij e (c . 1590-1640) . Autho r o f bot h word s an d musi c fo r twelve sacre d song s in a songbook published i n Vienna , 1635. Grgosevic, Zlatk o (1900 - ) . Composer , critic , professo r a t th e Zagre b Music Academy and a t the Zagreb Teachers' College before his retirement . Gusic, Dor a (1908 — ) . Concer t pianis t wit h internationa l successes ; professor a t the Zagreb Music Academy. Hanich, Stephe n V. (1919 — ) . Forme r secondar y schoo l musi c teache r and militar y bandmaste r i n Croatia ; no w a n America n citizen , activ e a s a chora l conductor in San Francisco an d Cleveland . Hatze, Josi p (1879-1959) . Studie d wit h Mascagn i in Pesaro . Wrot e almos t exclusively for voices : solo songs, choruses, cantatas , operas . Traditionalist in his stylistic leanings. Hercigonja, Nikol a (1911 - ) . Sinc e 195 0 professor o f musi c histor y a t the Belgrad e Musi c Academy . Chie f wor k t o dat e i s th e opera-oratori o The Mountain Wreath (1957) , afte r th e epi c poe m o f th e Montenegr o poet P. P. NjegoS . Horvat, Mila n (1919 — ) . Mos t prominen t Croatia n conducto r o f th e younger generation ; musi c directo r o f th e Zagre b Philharmoni c sinc e 1957. Hrzic, Drag o (1896 - ) . Lyri c bariton e o f the Zagre b Opera , 1919-45 ; now teaching . Huml, Vacla v (1880-1953) . Violi n teacher ; Czec h b y birth ; studen t o f Sevcik. Fro m 190 3 unti l hi s deat h a professo r a t th e Zagre b Musi c Academy. Ivellio, Rade ( 1902-1947). Opera conducto r in Zagreb and Osijek . Ivsic, Matij a (1894 — ) . Pries t an d compose r o f sacre d musi c (masses , motets ). Jagust, Mlade n (1924 - ) . On e o f the younge r generatio n o f conductors.

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Janigro, Antoni o (1918 — ) . Italia n violoncell o virtuoso , domicile d i n Zagreb; professo r at Zagre b Musi c Academy 1939-55; 195 4 founded th e Zagreb Soloists. Jarnovic, Iva n Man e (1745—1804) . Violinist of international fame ; composer of orchestra l an d chambe r works ; foremos t exponen t o f Frenc h violi n concerto i n th e secon d hal f o f the 18t h century. Jelacic, Ank a (1909 - ) . Contralt o wit h th e Zagre b Oper a an d th e Vienna Volksoper; guest appearances in Central Europe. Jelic (lelich , Jelicic) , Vink o (1596-1636?) . Nativ e o f Rijeka ; bo y choriste r of th e cour t chape l i n Graz , the n membe r o f th e cour t orchestra s ther e and in Zabern, Alsatia. Jozefovic, Oska r (1890—1941) . Oper a conducto r i n Zagre b and , until hi s death, director o f the Spli t Opera . Jurinac, Sen a (Srebrenka ) (1921 — ) . Leadin g sopran o o f th e Vienn a State Oper a sinc e 1944; recording s an d gues t appearance s o n major stage s of Europe an d America. Kabalin, Fedo r (1920 - ) . Compose r an d conducto r i n Chile , 1947-50 , and the n i n the Unite d States ; sinc e 196 1 on the facult y of State College , Indiana, Pa . Kaplan, Josi p (1910 - ) . Compose r o f chambe r musi c an d vocal works, and o f severa l composition s fo r children , includin g a children' s opera . Karas, Vjekosla v (1821-1858) . Painte r wit h a n activ e interes t i n musi c (flute, voice) ; a limited opu s o f 30 od d voca l compositions . Kelemen, Milk o ( 1924- ) . One o f the mos t importan t composer s o f th e younger generation . I n 195 4 started writin g i n a neo-baroqu e manner ; following a longe r sta y i n Pari s becam e intereste d i n th e mor e radica l contemporary tendencies. Kirigin, Iv o (1914 — ) . Compose r an d critic , activ e i n th e fiel d o f film music; musi c directo r o f Croatia n folklori c grou p "Lado. " Klaic, Vjekosla v (1849—1928) . Professo r o f histor y a t Zagre b University with intense interest i n music. Author of many articles o n music; organize r and directo r o f musi c groups , an d a n occasiona l composer . Klepac, Rudol f (1913 - ) . Bassoo n solois t o f internationa l reputation ; professor a t Salzburg' s Mozarteum. Klobucar, Andjelko (1931 — ) . Composer of the recent generation . Klobucar, Berisla v (1924 — ) . Oper a director , Graz , Austria ; formerl y a conductor a t the Vienn a Stat e Oper a an d i n Zagreb; gues t appearance s i n Barcelona, Buenos Aires, and elsewhere . Kokot, Iv o ( 1905- ) . Pries t an d compose r o f sacred music ; presentl y a resident o f California . Koksa, An a (1919 — ) . Pianis t an d pian o teacher , no w activ e i n Bueno s Aires. Kolander, Vatrosla v (1848-1912) . From 187 5 until hi s deat h th e organis t of th e Zagre b Cathedral ; compose d mainl y fo r organ . Kolaric, Mirk o (1910 - ) . Mainl y a compose r o f chora l compositions . Kolb, Kamilo (1887 - ) . Priest an d compose r of masses and sacre d songs ; skilled harmonizer. Kopitovic, Ant e (1913 - ) . Studie d a t Zagre b Musi c Academ y an d a t Sta. Cecili a Academ y in Rome. Now active in Bueno s Aires as a compose r and a choral and orchestra l conductor .

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Kovacec, Mirk o (1909 - ) . Priest , concer t organist , an d compose r o f sacred works ; now residen t o f Buenos Aires. Kovacevic, Kresimi r (1913 — ) . Critic , musi c essayist , an d author . Kovacevic, Tom a (1663-1724) . Cano n o f th e Zagre b diocese , autho r o f Brevis cantus gregoriani notitia, Vienna , 1701 . Possibl y also th e compiler o f th e collectio n o f uniso n sacre d song s Cithara octochorda. Kozinovic, Siste r Lujz a (1897 — ) . Nu n an d compose r o f churc h music . Krezma, Franj o (1860-1881) . Brillian t violinis t o f internationa l reputatio n and a fertile composer of music for hi s instrument . Krizaj, Josi p (1887 - ) . Slovenia n bas s an d lon g a prominent membe r of the Zagreb Opera . Krnic, Boris ( 1900- ) . For the mos t part a composer o f vocal works. Kuhac, Franj o (1834-1911) . Pionee r investigato r o f Croatia n musi c folk lore; als o publishe d i n th e field s o f Croatia n musi c histor y an d o f musi c theory. Origina l composition s few an d o f limited interest . Kunc, Bozida r (1903-1964) . Pianist an d composer ; sinc e 195 0 a residen t of New Yor k City . Lang, Ivan a (1912 - ) . Compose r an d conductor . Intereste d i n Istria n music folklore , wit h it s characteristi c feature s noticeable i n he r composi tions. Lhotka, Fra n (1883-1962) . Czec h b y birth ; cam e t o Zagre b i n 190 9 to teach th e Frenc h horn , an d late r harmon y an d conducting , a t th e Musi c Academy. Lhotka-Kalinski, Iv o (1913 — ) . So n o f Fra n Lhotka ; composer , concer t singer, an d voic e teacher . Wrot e severa l opera s an d lon g instrumenta l works. Autho r o f tw o book s on th e techniqu e an d ar t o f singing . Lisinski, Vatrosla v (1819-1854) . Compose r o f th e firs t Croatia n opera . Lorkovic, Melit a ( 1907- ) . On e o f the foremos t contemporar y Croatia n pianists. Lució, Franj o (1889 - ) . Composer , organist , teache r o f theory , an d textbook author . Hi s Symphony in F (1917 ) i s the firs t complet e Croatia n symphony afte r som e attempt s i n th e eighteent h century . Lukacic (Lucacich) , Iva n (1587-1648) . Francisca n friar ; motet s printe d in Venice, 1620. Lukic, Darko ( 1922— ) . Contemporary concert pianist. Macek, Iv o (1914 — ) . Pianist ; abandone d concertizin g an d composin g in favo r o f teaching an d a growin g interes t i n philosophy . Magdalenic, Mirosla v (1906 - ) . Compose r an d teacher ; ha s writte n shorter instrumenta l and voca l works , but als o a symphon y (1939) . Majer, Mila n (1895 — ) . Music critic, pian o accompanist , chambe r musi cian, an d lawyer . Cam e lat e t o composing ; ha s writte n severa l large r works fo r orchestr a an d piano , a s wel l a s som e chamber music . Malee, Iva n (1925 - ) . Compose r o f anti-romanti c an d avant-gard e tendencies; live s i n Paris ; als o activ e i n musi c journalism. Mallinger, Matild a (1847-1920) . Zagre b Oper a membe r durin g Zajc' s era; created th e par t o f Eva a t th e worl d premier e o f Wagner's Meistersinger in Munich, 1868. Mandic, Josi p (1883-1959) . Musi c journalist ; residen t o f Pragu e fo r 4 0 years; compose r o f three opera s an d othe r works . Markantun. Organis t a t Hvar in 1558.

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Markovac, Pava o (1903-1941) . Musicologist ; his doctora l dissertatio n a t Vienna Universit y wa s o n Mussorgsky' s harmony. Musi c critic, edito r of music magazines, an d organize r an d conducto r o f workers' chora l groups . Markovic, Vili m (1902 - ) . Militar y bandmaster ; origina l composition s for orchestra ; arrange d work s o f othe r Croatia n composer s fo r band . Martinis, Dragic a (Carla) . Dramati c soprano ; membe r of Vienn a Stat e Opera; san g in New York and Sa n Francisco. Matacic, Lovr o von (1899 - ) . Sinc e 196 1 general directo r o f Frankfurt Opera; conducte d a t Bayreuth , an d i n Vienna , Paris, Italy , Chicago , an d Detroit. Matetic-Ronjgov, Iva n (1880-1960) . Integrate d tona l vocabular y o f Istrian folk musi c int o hi s compositions . Bes t know n compositio n i s th e chora l lament "Cace moj " (M y Father). Mattei, Djordj e (1675-1728) . A priest and poet from Dubrovnik ; one of the first collectors of folk poetr y an d fol k tunes . Matz, Rudol f (1901 - ) . Composer , conductor , teacher , an d ver y activ e organizer an d leade r o f many musical institutions an d performin g groups . Milanov, Zink a (1906 - ) . Renowne d dramati c soprano ; membe r o f th e Metropolitan Opera in New Yor k since 1937. Milinkovic, Georgin e (1913 - ) . Mezzo-soprano ; appeare d a t Bayreuth ; member o f oper a companie s i n Zagreb , Zurich , Munich , an d Vienna . Mirski, La v (1893 - ) . Conducto r an d musi c teache r i n Osijek . Mitrovic, Ancic a (1894 - ) . Mezzo-soprano ; betwee n th e war s a long time member of opera companies in Zagreb and Germany . Mitrovic, Andró ( 1879-1940). Criti c an d oper a conductor . Compose d vocal works and one opera t o his own libretto . Mizerit, Klar o M . Conducto r o f th e Rhenis h Philharmonic , Koblenz ; appeared a s gues t conducto r i n Bato n Rouge , Louisiana , 1963—64 . Muhvic, Iva n (1876—1942) . Militar y bandmaste r i n Zagre b sinc e 1901 ; composer o f works for voice , orchestra , an d band . Murai, Juric a (1927 - ) . Concer t pianist ; toure d extensivel y i n Europ e with notable success. Musulin, Brank a (1917 - ) . A long-tim e residen t o f Germany ; concer t and recordin g pianis t o f grea t renow n i n centra l an d wester n Europe . Nakic (Nachini , Nanchini), Peta r (1700-1770) . Bor n i n th e Kni n region i n Dalmatia; becam e a pries t an d well-know n orga n builde r i n Venice . Rebuilt th e orga n o f St . Justina' s churc h i n Padua , Italy , i n 1735 , the n the bes t i n th e Apenines . Invento r o f the "tiratutti"— a devic e t o ope n al l the stop s of an organ at once. Neralic, Tomisla v (1917 - ) . Renowne d operati c bass , especiall y i n Wagnerian portrayals . Presentl y i n Berlin ; appeare d a t Bueno s Aires ' Colon, an d san g Wagner' s Flyin g Dutchma n a t Chicago' s Lyri c Oper a in 1959. Nicolaus d e Zagabria . "Tubicen " i n Dubrovnik , 1411-14 ; possibl y th e earliest know n Croatian musician. Njiric, NikS a ( 1927— ) . Compose r o f instrumental , chamber , an d voca l works, an d composition s for children. Novak, Vilk o (1865-1918) . Compose r of very popular chora l compositions ; conductor o f Zagreb' s leadin g chorus , "Kolo, " 1903-10 .

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Novak, Vjencesla v (1859-1905) . Importan t write r o f fiction ; sinc e 188 7 professor o f musi c a t Zagre b Norma l School ; autho r o f textbooks ; har monizer o f sacre d tunes . A fe w orga n composition s an d sol o song s preserved. Nozinic, Vilm a (1897 - ) . Leadin g lyri c sopran o o f th e Zagre b Oper a between the wars. Obuljen, Milan . A nativ e o f Split ; founde d th e "Editio n Slave " i n Vienn a (1918), dedicated t o publications o f composers fro m Yugoslavia . Odak, Krst o (1888 - ) . Unti l hi s retiremen t i n 196 1 wa s fo r almos t 40 year s a professor at Zagre b Musi c Academy. Propensit y fo r th e us e of modality an d polyphonic texture s in his works. Padovec, Iva n (1800-1873) . Guita r virtuoso , teacher , composer , an d inventor. Papandopulo, Bori s (1906 - ) . Composer , conductor, pianist , and some time music critic. Parac, Iv o (1892-1954) . Compose r and poe t o f Italian verses ; studie d wit h Perosi an d Pizzetti ; unti l lat e 1920' s considere d himsel f a n Italian . Basically a lyricist; adopte d a late romantic style. Patricij (Pétris) , Andrij a (16t h century) . Nativ e o f the islan d o f Cres ; ha d four o f hi s 4-par t madrigals—on e o n Petrarca' s verses—publishe d i n 11 primo libro da Villotte, by Antonino Barges, Venice, 1550. Pattiera, Tin o (1890 — ) . Renowne d dramati c tenor ; san g i n Dresden , Prague, an d Chicago . Pejacevic, Dor a (1885-1923) . Amon g th e firs t o f Croatia n composer s t o devote he r attentio n mostl y t o instrumenta l music ; sh e wrot e fo r th e piano, chambe r groups , an d orchestra , includin g a symphony . Pervizovic, Toma . Compile r o f Muka i smrt KristuSeva (Th e Passion an d Death o f Christ ) i n 1764 , in whic h i s recorded th e traditiona l singin g of the passion a t the Zagreb cathedral . Pettan, Huber t (1912 - ) . Compose r an d author ; no w teachin g a t th e State Musi c Schoo l i n Zagreb . Hi s sol o son g cycle s ar e amon g hi s mos t successful compositions . Pibernik, Zlatk o ( 1926— ) . Composer of several symphoni c an d chambe r works. Pinkava, Iva n (1912 - ) . Concer t and orchestr a violinist ; concertmaste r of th e Zagre b Soloist s on their firs t tw o America n tour s (1956 , 1957). Pintaric, Fortuna t (1798-1867) . Francisca n fria r an d secondar y schoo l teacher; followe r o f the IHyria n movement, compose r o f sacred an d secula r vocal works, and o f piano an d orga n pieces . Plamenac, Draga n (1895 - ) . Sinc e 195 4 professor a t th e Universit y of Illinois. Ph.D . from Vienn a University unde r G . Adler i n 1924 . Expert o n Western Europea n musi c o f the 14t h and 15t h centuries, amon g th e firs t to stud y Croatia n musi c histor y o f the 16t h an d 17t h centuries. Pokorni, Franjo , Jr . (1825-1859) . Theate r conducto r an d musi c teache r i n Zagreb; bes t know n compositio n i s hi s incidenta l musi c fo r th e popula r play Granicari (Th e Frontiersmen), b y J . Freudenreich (1857) . Pospisil-Griff, Mart a (1892 - ) . Prominen t contralto ; membe r o f th e Zagreb Oper a i n th e 1920' s an d earl y 1930's . Pozajic, Mlade n ( 1905- ) . Sinc e 194 7 professor o f the Musi c Academy

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and oper a conducto r i n Sarajevo . Ha s compose d mostl y smalle r voca l an d chamber works . Prejac, Gjur o (1870—1936) . Actor , librettist, an d compose r o f operetta s an d popular sol o songs. Preprek, Stanisla v (1900 — ) . A n elementar y schoo l teacher , musicall y self-taught. A well-informed , eclectic , prolifi c composer ; ha s writte n three symphonies , fiv e strin g quartets , an d othe r works ; fe w o f thes e performed. Puttar-Gold, Nad a ( 1923- ) . Mezzo-sopran o with th e Frankfur t Opera ; formerly i n Berlin and Zagreb . Radev, Marijan a (1915 — ) . Mezzo-sopran o o f internationa l renown ; opera, concerts, and recordings . Radica, Rube n (1931 — ) . Studen t o f Keleme n an d Leibowitz ; com posed mainly instrumental music. Radie, Stjepa n Jr . (1928 - ) . A note d concer t pianis t o f th e younge r generation. Rafaelli, Josi p (1767-1843) . Priest ; studie d musi c i n Italy , 1804-9 ; choir master i n Split , the n a t th e cathedra l o f his nativ e Hvar . Mostl y composer of sacre d songs. Razmilovic, Bon o (1636-1686?) . A Split resident ; autho r o f a collectio n o f "chorales," i.e. church chants . Rihtman, Cvjetk o (1902 - ) . Th e firs t presiden t o f th e Sarajev o Musi c Academy (founde d afte r Worl d Wa r II) . Collecto r an d arrange r o f Croatian musi c folklor e an d autho r o f severa l studie s i n tha t field; composer of solo songs and choruses . Rosenberg-Ruzic, Vjekosla v (1870-1954) . Sinc e 191 0 director o f the musi c school o f th e Croatia n Musi c Institute ; afte r 1935 , membe r o f th e preparatory departmen t o f th e Musi c Academy. Autho r o f pian o an d violi n methods; composition s o f variou s merit , som e semi-popular , bu t als o fou r piano sonata s representin g th e firs t seriou s attempt s o f tha t for m i n Croatia (Sonat a I , 1891 ; Sonat a IV , 1920) . Rota-Kolunic. See Sibencanin. Rothmüller, Aro n Mark o (1908 - ) . Voic e professo r a t Indian a Uni versity; write r an d composer. Rukavina, Frederi k (1880-1941) . Directo r o f the Zagre b Oper a i n th e lat e 1920's; late r guest-conducto r wit h th e Pragu e Nationa l Theater . Runjanin, Josi p (1821—1878) . Army office r an d amateu r composer ; write r of music for the Croatia n nationa l anthe m "Lijep a naS a domovino " ( O Tho u Beautiful Countr y o f Ours!) . Ruzdjak, Vladimi r ( 1922- ) . Operati c an d concer t baritone ; composer . Saban, Ladisla v (1918 - ) . Professo r o f pian o a t th e Zagre b Musi c Academy. Sachs, Mila n (1884 - ) . Czec h b y birth , h e cam e t o Belgrad e earl y i n the centur y a s a concertmaster ; the n wen t t o Zagre b wher e h e stayed , except fo r abou t si x years i n th e 1930' s a s a directo r i n Brno . A s conductor an d sometim e director o f opera h e ha s contribute d considerabl y t o the raisin g o f performing standards . Safranek-Kavic, Luj o (1882-1940) . Genera l manage r o f th e Zagre b Fair ; active a s a musi c criti c an d compose r o f shorte r form s o f musi c o r musi c for th e stage , includin g tw o opera s an d tw o ballets .

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Sakac, Branimi r (1918 - ) . Composer , intereste d i n achievement s an d further experimentatio n wit h concret e an d electroni c music . Savin, Draguti n (1915 - ) . Oper a conducto r i n Osijek . Compose d orchestra work s an d radi o operas , th e latte r i n a pleasingl y attractiv e style for less sophisticated audiences . Schiavetti (Schiavetto , Skjavetic) , Julije . I n th e 1650' s i n the servic e o f th e Sibenik diocese . Collection s o f madrigal s an d motet s i n th e polyphoni c style o f th e Netherland s publishe d b y G . Scotto , Venice , 1563-64 . Schneider, Artu r (1879-1946) . Ar t historia n an d lon g tim e secretar y o f th e Croatian Musi c Institute . Autho r of th e mos t complete biograph y o f Iva n Mane Jarnovic (1944) . Serra, Paol o (bor n c. 1730 , Novi) . Singe r i n th e Pope' s chape l i n Rome , 1753; autho r o f "Introduzion e armónic a sopr a l a nuov a seri e de ' suon i modulati in oggidi , e mod o di rettamente e più fácilment e intuonarla." Sestak, Tom o (1852-1921) . Organist and conducto r fro m Koprivnica . Com poser o f instrumental and chora l works. Sibencanin, Domini k Iva n (Sebenico , Domenic o Giovanni , als o know n a s Rota-Kolunic). Savo y cour t musica l directo r a t th e en d o f th e 17t h century. Silobod-BolSic, Mihajl o (1724-1787) . Autho r o f th e firs t arithmeti c i n Croatian, an d o f Fundamentum cantus gregoriani sen choralis (1760) , written in dialogue form . Sipua, Kresimi r (1930 - ) . Residen t o f Paris ; compose r o f instrumental works, a n oper a an d a ballet . Successfu l a s oper a an d symphoni c conductor i n Europe an d Argentina. Sirola, Bozida r (1889-1956) . Th e firs t Croatia n Ph.D . in musicology ; dissertation o n Istrian fol k musi c at th e Vienn a Universit y (1921) ; autho r of numerous work s abou t histori c an d ethnographi c aspect s o f Croatia n music, and prolifi c composer . Slavenski, Josip (Famil y name Stolcer , 1896-1955) . Studen t o f Kodaly an d Novak, one of the mos t original and remarkabl e Croatia n composer s of th e first half o f the century . Slavkovic, Mila n (d . 1832) . Nativ e o f Zagreb ; violi n virtuos o an d peda gogue; die d i n Odessa , Russia , where h e spen t th e las t seve n year s o f his life. Calle d b y som e critic s "anothe r Paganini, " h e compose d mostl y fo r his instrument. Slik (Shlik) , Mirosla v (1898 — ) . Concer t violinis t an d violi n teacher ; before th e war , resident o f Englan d an d Britis h subject ; presentl y live s in Prague . Turne d t o compositio n rather late , subscribin g t o th e nationa l folkloristic manner. Sokol, Bernardin (1888-1945) . Priest, compose r o f sacred composition s an d secular choruses ; goo d contrapuntist ; write r o f musi c essays . Sorkocevic, Antu n (1775-1841) . Diplomat , historian , an d amateu r composer. Sorkocevic, Luk a (1734-1789) . Father of Antun. Composer of first Croatian symphonies. SoStarko, Draguti n (1907 - ) . Operati c baritone , forme r membe r o f th e Zagreb Opera. Spadina, Stjepa n N . 18t h century compose r fo r violin . Spiler, Mirosla v (1906 - ) . Pian o accompanis t an d chambe r musician ;

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for a long time on the Radi o Zagreb staff ; no w with Radio Sarajevo . Composed fo r orchestra an d chorus . Spiller, Ljerk o ( 1908- ) . Concer t violinist , violi n teacher , an d conductor . Resident o f Bueno s Aires fo r som e thirty years . Spoljar, Zlatk o (1892 - ) . Melographer , compose r o f choruses , an d arranger o f folk tune s from Podravina . Stahuljak, Dubravk o (1920 — ) . Facult y membe r o f th e Osije k musi c school, compose r o f a n opera , variou s vocal , an d severa l instrumenta l works. Stahuljak, Jura j (1901 — ) . Composer, mostl y of chamber music . Stahuljak, Mlade n (1914 — ) . Concer t organist , no w i n Sarajevo . Composed fo r his own instrument, for orchestra an d numerou s chambe r music . Stancic, Svetisla v (1895 — ) . Concer t pianis t an d composer , who , in th e early 1920's , turne d exclusivel y to teaching . Stefanovic, Franj o (1878—1924) . Pionee r o f children' s musi c theate r i n Croatia; wrote several children's opera s with piano accompaniment , basin g his music on folk tunes . Stôger-Stazic, Franj o (1824-1911) . Th e teno r lea d i n the first performances of Lisinski' s "Lov e an d Malice " (1846) ; enjoye d considerabl e succes s o n the firs t operati c stage s i n Centra l Europ e an d Russia , befor e hi s retire ment in 1874. Stôhr, Ant e (1847-1923) . Pianist , violinis t an d voic e teacher . Afte r 187 7 in Varazdin , wher e h e founde d a private musi c school . Compose d mostl y potpourri-phantasies fo r pian o i n "salon " style . Stoos, Pava o (1806-1862) . Priest , patriot , writer , an d amateu r composer . Set t o musi c som e o f hi s ow n poem s an d publishe d a sacre d songboo k for orga n in 1858. Striga, Albert o Ognja n (1821-1897) . A self-taugh t bariton e an d arden t patriot associate d wit h Lisinski . Studie d voic e i n Vienna ; appeare d i n opera in Prague and Russia; final appearance in a "Trovatore" performance in Croatia n tha t h e organize d i n Zagreb , 1869 . Strmic, Nikol a (183 9 o r 1840-1896) . A nativ e o f Zada r an d graduat e o f the Mila n Conservatory . Violinis t an d compose r o f opera s an d instru mental works . Culturally , an d b y politica l orientation , a n Italia n wh o did no t spea k Croatian ; showe d som e interes t i n th e buddin g Croatia n nationalism. His opera "La madre slava" was performed in Zagreb (1866) . Strozzi-Pecic, Maj a (1886 - ) . Oper a an d concer t sopran o o f internationa l renown. Stravinsk y dedicated composition s t o her . Mentioned i n Thoma s Mann's novel Doktor Faustus. Sulek, Stjepa n (1914 - ) . Professo r o f compositio n a t Zagre b Musi c Academy sinc e 1947 ; one o f th e mos t importan t contemporar y Croatia n composers. Supicic, Iv o (1928 - ) . Studie d i n Paris ; autho r i n th e fiel d o f esthetic s and sociolog y of music. Suppé, Fran z vo n (1820-1895) . Nativ e o f Split ; popula r compose r o f operettas in Vienna. Taclik, Rudol f (1894-1942) . Compose r o f vocal music , secula r an d sacred . Temparicic (Tamparica , Temparricius ) Gavro . A 16t h centur y Francisca n friar fro m Dubrovnik ; musi c teache r a t th e cour t i n Vienna .

Left: Th e Cathedra l i n Sibeni k (fifteent h century) . Right: Porta l o f th e Cathedra l o f Trogir , sculpte d b y Radovan.

Ivan Mestrovic , "Pietà.'

Ivan Mestrovic , "Croatian History. "

Upper: Jozo Kljakovic, "Th e Oat h of Kin g Zvonimir." Lower: Maksimilja n Vanka , "Croatian Deat h in Pennsylvania. "

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Ternina, Milk a (1863-1941) . Firs t Croatia n t o sin g a t Bayreuth , Coven t Garden, and the Metropolita n Opera . Tijardovic, Iv o (1895 - ) . All-round theatr e personality : composer , conductor, librettist , stag e director, scenographer . Best known fo r the popula r operetta abou t hi s nativ e Split , The Little Floramy (1926) , whic h re ceived a n amateu r performanc e i n Cleveland . Afte r th e war , he wa s general manage r o f th e Zagre b Theater . Wrot e tw o opera s an d th e firs t Croatian musical , "Catherin e th e Great " (1960) . Tkalcic, Jur o (1887 - ) . Concer t violoncellist , long-tim e residen t o f Belgrade. Toncic, Nad a (1909 - ) . Sinc e lat e 1930's , leadin g lyri c sopran o o f th e Zagreb Opera . Topolski, Zlatko . (1914 - ) . Concertmaste r o f Vienn a Symphon y Orchestra; serve d i n th e sam e capacity , an d a s concer t violinis t an d conductor, i n Yugoslavia, Argentina, an d Germany . Turanyi, Draguti n (1806-1872) . Born in Osijek ; studie d i n Vienna . Excel lent pianist ; sinc e 183 2 conductor of amateur theate r orchestr a i n Zagreb ; since 1842 , conductor i n Aachen , wher e h e als o compose d instrumenta l music. Turkali, Nena d (1923 - ) . Musi c criti c an d autho r o f severa l book s o n music. Vancaii, Antun (1867-1888) . Showed grea t promise ; studie d i n Vienna , an d in Pari s wit h Massenet . Wrot e severa l work s for orchestra , strin g quarte t and chorus. Vidakovic, Albe (1914 - ) . Studen t o f Casimiri an d Refic e i n Rome ; th e most importan t exponen t o f th e contemporar y sacre d musi c i n Croatia , and a compose r o f masses, motets an d orga n works . Musicologis t o f note ; editor o f the work s of Vinko Jelic, and autho r o f many monographs o n th e early Croatian music . Vidosic, Tihomi l (1902 - ) . Forme r militar y bandmaste r an d late r a secondary schoo l music teacher; use s folklori c motive s o f hi s nativ e Istri a in his works. Wrote operas , instrumenta l and voca l music . Vilhar-Kalski, Franj o S . (1852-1928) . Slovenia n b y birth . Afte r almos t a decade i n Rumania , came t o Croati a i n 1881 ; move d t o Zagre b i n 1891, where h e was choir directo r a t St . Mark's Church. Wrot e mostl y for voice , solo o r chorus ; ver y popula r compose r aroun d th e tur n o f th e century . Vraz, Stank o (1810-1851) . A Slovenia n wh o wrot e Croatia n poetry . Goo d amateur musician , proficien t on the flute and guitar ; collecte d man y folk tunes . Vrhovski, Josi p ( 1902— ) . Use s element s o f folklor e i n hi s numerou s instrumental and voca l compositions , mostly of chamber dimensions . Vus"kovic, Mark o (1877-1960) . A noted bariton e wh o enjoye d internationa l successes in the first quarter of the century . Wiesner-Livadic, Ferd o (1799-1878) . Illyria n compose r o f shorte r works , mostly for solo voice or piano. Wisner-Morgenstern, Jura j Karl o (1783-1855) . Bor n i n Arad , Hungary ; since 181 9 chorister o f Zagre b Cathedral , on e o f th e founder s o f th e Musíkverein (1827) . Extremely versatile; wa s in his time th e bes t traine d musician in Zagreb .

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Zajc, Iva n (1832-1914) . Betwee n hi s arriva l in Zagre b i n 187 0 and hi s re tirement i n 190 8 as th e hea d o f Croatia n Musi c Institute' s conservatory , and, fo r th e firs t ninetee n years , o f the oper a a s well, wa s th e mai n forc e of Zagre b an d o f Croatia n musi c life . Zganec, Vink o (1890 - ) . Directo r o f th e Ethnographi c Institut e i n Zagreb. Composer of chora l works; melographer o f fol k tunes , particularl y of Medjimurje . Zlatic, Slavk o (1910 - ) . Conducto r o f th e Radi o Zagre b chorus ; professor a t th e Zagre b Musi c Academy. I n hi s voca l an d instrumenta l compositions, mostly in shorte r forms , use s element s o f Istrian folklore . Zupanovic, Lovr o (1925 — ) . Numerou s work s o f chambe r musi c proportions, followin g th e nationa l folkloristi c trend ; als o tw o elementar y school songbooks. DlSCOGEAPHY

ABBREVIATIONS: bsn., bassoon ; btn., baritone ; cdr., conductor; comp., composer; cone., concerto; fl., flute; hpsd., harpsichord ; mzs., mezzo-soprano ; oh., oboe; pia., piano; sopr., soprano; sir. , strings ; ten., tenor; vn., violin. I. Ensemble Performances "Dalmatian Singers, " Monitor 349. "Lado," Croatian Song and Dance Ensemble, Monito r 344. Zagreb Joz a Vlahovi c Society : "Robeso n Favorites, " vol . 2 (Robeson ; cdr . Cossetto), Monitor 581. Zagreb Soloist s (Solist i di Zagreb), cdr. Janigro: Bach, Brandenbur g Cone . 5 (Rampai , Stanic, Veyron-Lacroix ) ; Suite 2 (Rampai), RCA Victor LM2460; LSC2460 . Bach, Chorales ; Corelli , Christma s Cone. ; Haydn , To y Symphony ; Torelli, Pastora l Cone. , Bach Guild 569 ; S:5006. Bach, Chorales ; Corelli , Cone . Grosso , op. 6 , no . 8 ; Haydn , To y Sym phony; Torelli , Cone. , Bach Guild 589; S : 5014. Bach, Cone . vn . ob . str . (Klima , Lardrot) ; Cone , i n A , fl. , vn. , hpsd. , str. (Tripp , "Pinkava, " A. Heiller), Bac h Guil d 562 . Barber, Adagi o fo r Str. ; Mozart , Serenad e K 525 ; Pergolesi? , Concertino i n G ; Respighi , Ancien t Air s an d Dances , suit e 3 ; Sibelius , Valse triste ; Vaugha n Williams , Greensleeves , Vanguar d 1095 ; S:2126. Boccherini, Cell o Cone. ; Vivaldi , Cell o Cone . (Janigro) , RC A Victo r LM2365; LSC2365 . Couperin, Pièce s e n concer t (Janigro) ; Britten , Simpl e Symphony ; Corelli, Cone , grosso , op . 6 , no . 4 ; Mozart , Divertiment o K 136 , RCA Victor LM2653; LSC2653 . Mozart, Fl.-har p Cone . K 299 (Baker , Jelinek); Telemann , Suit e i n A , fl., str. (Baker) , Bac h Guil d 636 ; S:5048. Rossini, 4 Sonatas, Vanguard 488. Telemann, Obo e Cone , i n D , E (Lardrot) ; Viol a Cone . (Passaggio) ; Violin Cone. (Krek) ; Sonat a a Quattro in A, Bach Guild 575; S:5028. Virtuoso Trumpe t (Wobisch , Holler , Hell , Conrath) , Bac h Guil d 617 ; S:5041.

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Vivaldi, Cone , fo r Orch . P 143 ; Obo e Cone . P 259 , 309 ; Bsn . Cone . P 137 ; Sinfonía s 1 , 2, Bach Guild 560 . Vivaldi, Fou r Season s (Tomasow) , Bach Guild 564; S:5001 . Zagreb National Opera Orchestr a : K. Baranovic , Gingerbrea d Heart , balle t suite ; F . Lhotka , Devi l i n th e Village, balle t suite , London LL-1235. II. Individual Performances Baranovic (Baranovich) , Kresimi r (comp.) . Gingerbread Heart , balle t suite , Zagreb National Opera Orchestra , Londo n LL-1235. •• . (cdr. ) Belgrad e Nationa l Opera : Mussorgsky , Bori s Godunov , 3 London A4317 . Cossetto Emil. See above, Zagre b Joza Vlahovic Society . Cvejic (Tzveych) , Biserk a (mzs.) . Tschaikovsky , Euge n Onegin ; Belgrad e Opera, 3 London A4324 . Gotovac, Jako v (comp.) . Symphoni c Kolo , Vienn a Philharmonia , cdr . Kempe, Angel 35975; S-35975. Horvat, Mila n (cdr.) , Radio Eireann Symphon y Orchestra Boydell, Megalithi c Ritua l Dances ; Bodley , Musi c fo r Strings ; May , Suite of Irish Airs, Decca 9843. Potter, Variation s o n a Popula r Tune ; Larchet , Dirg e o f Ossian ; MacAnanty's Reel ; Kelly , 3 Piece s fo r Strings ; Duff , Iris h Suit e fo r Strings, Decca 9844 . •. Vienn a State Opera Orchestra. Mendelssohn, Piano Cone . I, II (Gianoli) , Westminster 18043 . Mozart, Piano Cone . 20, 23 (Badura-Skoda) , Westminster 18225 . Jurinac, Sena (sopr. ) Beethoven, Fidelio ; Bavaria n Stat e Opera , 3 Westminste r 3318; S:318 . Beethoven, Fidelio ; Vienn a Philh. , 3 Electrol a 90071/3 ; excerpts : Electrola 80038 . Kodaly, Te Deum; Vienn a Syrnph. Orch., Westminster 18455 . Mozart, Don Giovanni ; Berli n Radi o Symph . Orch. , 3 Deutsch e Grammoph. 18580/2 ; 8:138050/2 ; excerpts , Deutsc h Grammoph . 19224; 8:136224. Mozart, Don Giovanni; Vienna Symph. Orch., 3 Epic SC-6010 . Mozart, Idomeneo ; Glyndebourn e Fest. , 3 Angel 3574C/L. Mozart, Marriag e o f Figaro ; Vienn a Philh. , 3 Elektr a 90292/4 ; ex cerpts: Ange l 35326 Mozart, Marriage of Figaro; Vienn a Symph. Orch., 3 Epic SC-6022 . Mozart, Requiem ; Vienn a Stat e Oper a Orch. , 2 Westminste r 2230 ; S-.205. R. Strauss , Ariadn e au f Naxos ; Vienn a Philh. , 3 RC A Victor LD-6152 ; LDS-6152. R. Strauss , Rosenkavalier ; Vienn a Philh. , 4 Londo n A-4404 ; excerpt s London 5615 . Kelemen, Milk o (comp.) . Etude s contrapuntiques ; Travis , Hamburge r Kammersolisten, Time 58006; S :8006. Klepac, Rudol f (bsn. ) Vivaldi , Cone , i n E ; Lucern e Festiva l Strings , Deutsche Grammoph. , Arch. 3116 .

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Klobucar, Berislav (cdr.) , Berlin Comic Opera Thomas, Migno n (excerpts—Elektr a 80639; S-80639). Puccini, Madam e Butterfly (excerpts) , Elektra 80632 ; S-80632. , Berli n Municipal Opera Lortzing, Zar und Zimmermann (excerpts), Elektra 80568 ; S-80568 . , Berli n State Opera Flotow, Marth a (excerpts) , Elektra 80593; S-80593 . Lhotka, Fra n (comp. , cdr.) . Devi l i n th e Village , balle t suite , Londo n LL-1235 Matacic, Lovro von (cdr.) , London Symphon y Orchestr a Bruch, Violin Cone. I; Prokofiev, Violin Cone. I (Oistrakh) , Angel 35243. . Philharmoni a Orchestr a Glazounov, Violi n Cone. ; Paganini , Violi n Cone . I (Rabin) , Ange l 35259. Rimsky-Korsakov, Shéhérazade, Ange l 35767; S-35767. , L a Scala. Leoncavallo, Pagliacci; Verdi, Choruses , 2 Angel 3618B/L; S-3618B/L. Puccini, Fanciull a de l West, 3 Angel 3593C/L; S-3593C/L. Milanov, Zinka (sopr. ) Great Lov e Duets, RCA Victor LM-2628 . Great Moment s in Opera, 2 RCA Victor LM-6061. Opera fo r People Who Hate Opera , RC A Victor LM-2391; LSC-2391. Operatic Arias , RCA Victor LM-2303; LSC-2303 . Ponchielli, Gioconda ; Accademi a Sta. Cecilia , 3 RC A Victor LM-6139; 4 LSC-6139; arias 3 RCA Victor LM-6138; 4 LSC-6138. Puccini, Tosca ; Rom e Opera , 2 RC A Victor LM-6052 ; 3 LSC-6052 . Verdi, Aida ; Rom e Opera , 3 RC A Victo r LM-6122 ; excerpt s RC A Victor LM-2046. Verdi, Forz a de l destino ; Accademi a Sta . Cecilia , 4 RC A Victo r LM-6406; LSC-6406 ; excerpts : RC A Italiana LM-20043 ; LSC-20043 . Verdi, Rigoletto , Ac t IV; NB C Symph . Orch. , 2 RCA Victor LM-6041 . Verdi, Trovatore , RC A Victor Symph . Orch. , 2 RC A Victor LM-6008 ; excerpts RCA Victor LM-1827. Musulin, Branka (pia.) . Chopin, Cone . I, II; Suddeutsche r Rundfun k Orch. , Period SHO-306 . Neralic, Tomisla v (btn.) . Beethoven , Fidelio ; Vienn a Stat e Opera , 3 Vox VBX-250. Partiera, Tino (ten.) . Giordano, Andrea Chenier (excerpts) , Eterna 755 . Mamma mía, Eterna 728 . Verdi, Otello (excerpts) , Eterna 747 . Verdi, Trovatore: Di quella pira , Tap 333 . Pinkava, Iva n (vn.) . Bach , Concert o i n A (fl. , vn. , hpsd. , str.) ; Zagre b Soloists, Bach Guild 562 . Rothmuller, Marko (btn.) . Bartok, Cantata Profana; New Symph. Orch., Bartok 312 Bloch, Sacred Service; Londo n Philh., London 5006 . Slavenski, Josi p (comp.) . Sinfoní a Orienta , solos , chorus , orch. , Londo n LL-1216 Soljanich, Ante (ten.) . Songs, Music Library 7036.

10

Architecture, Sculpture , an d Paintin g RUZA BAJURI N

WHEN TH E Croatian s arrive d a t th e shore s o f th e Adriati c fro m thei r original lan d betwee n th e Balti c Se a an d th e Ura l Mountains , the y already possesse d their ow n culture. The y brough t wit h the m no t onl y their ow n language, religion , legends , an d music , bu t als o the abilit y to express themselves and their individual spirit i n wood, clay, textiles, and leather . A t th e tim e o f the Croatia n arrival , th e Roma n Illyricum was alread y a graveyard of the civilization s which ha d disappeare d i n the conflagration s o f the centuries . Th e Croatian s brought fres h bloo d and primitive, raw force s to the anaemic remnants of the ancien t world. They began t o settle, and by the turn of the eighth centur y they proved successful no t onl y in th e real m of politics, but als o in tha t o f the arts . ABCHITECTURE As the oldes t mod e o f artisti c expression , architectur e i s th e basi s fo r the developmen t o f all othe r branche s o f art. When a grou p o f peopl e come t o rest and buil d permanen t homes , spiritua l an d materia l ener gies previously dormant are enabled t o come alive. The first permanent habitations o f ma n ha d a s thei r purpos e t o gran t hi m protectio n an d security. The y wer e initiall y fortification s difficul t t o reach , bu t gradually ma n cam e t o la y stres s o n makin g the m mor e comfortabl e and beautiful. The first Croatian home s were built o f wood, because th e Croatians ' new territor y wa s a s ric h i n forest s a s thei r forme r one . Herodotu s describes Slavi c settlements between th e Volga and the Don , recording that th e houses , palaces , temples , an d fortresse s wer e buil t o f wood . These settlement s wer e usuall y constructe d wit h onl y on e entrance ,

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in a form o f a circle, wit h a fountain in th e center . Th e ne w Croatia n fatherland wa s endowe d wit h a n ampl e suppl y o f lumber . Th e Dalmatian oa k for centurie s provided th e bes t materia l fo r th e Roma n galleys, an d s o it wa s tha t th e first homes were mad e o f wood. Thes e original structure s hav e lon g sinc e disappeared, 1 an d th e present-da y peasants throughou t Croati a buil d thei r houses , adorne d wit h man y archaic forms—ornaments , geometrica l an d flora l designs—ou t o f stone. Dalmatian ston e building s an d th e ston e remnant s o f Roma n ruin s were not destroye d b y the passin g centuries. Rural architecture i n th e coastal village s stil l include s th e typ e o f primitiv e one-roo m hous e (bunfe), consistin g of a roun d base , a n ope n fireplace , wit h a crud e slab of granite as a roof, tha t ha s been passe d down throug h th e ages . In spit e o f incessan t wars , plagues , earthquakes , an d invasions , the oldest Croatian architectural achievements wer e formidable. Unde r the rule o f the medieva l nobility, th e maste r architect s buil t churches , palaces, monasteries , walls , an d gates . I n Nin , sea t o f th e Croatia n kings an d bishops , a n unknow n maste r buil t th e Churc h o f th e Hol y Cross (Svet i Kriz ) aroun d th e yea r 800. 2 Thi s "smalles t cathedra l o f Christianity," wit h it s base in the shap e o f a simple cross, was, according t o a n inscription , erecte d fo r th e purpos e o f savin g th e sou l of Count Godezav. Such miniature churches, with bases in the shap e o f a cross, three- , four- , six- , an d eight-foile d clovers , an d wit h cupola s above, belon g t o th e Ol d Croatia n o r Preromanesque perio d (c. 700 1000), an d wer e usuall y richly endowe d b y kings , queens, an d noble men. St . Krsevan an d St . Donatus o n the islan d o f Krk, St . Michae l i n Ston, an d Hol y Trinit y i n Poljud , a subur b o f Split , ar e bu t a fe w of the numerous churches built i n this style. The dome-shape d structures were typicall y Slavi c and wer e brough t fro m th e ol d country , a s th e European churche s o f this time had onl y wooden roofs . Th e differen t foundations an d shallo w engraved decoration s were a continuatio n of old form s expresse d in the new mediu m o f stone. St . Donatus a t Zadar is the larges t church representative o f this period . I n solitar y splendor , this hug e plac e o f worshi p rest s o n th e pavin g stone s o f a Roma n forum. Thi s churc h wa s buil t i n 805 , an d durin g Worl d Wa r I I everything aroun d i t wa s destroye d b y bombs , whil e i t remained . The name s o f th e architect s o f th e earlies t Croatia n perio d ar e unknown today , bu t thei r wor k is an imposing document tha t record s iSome carving s o n Bosnia n tombstone s (steed) portra y woode n house s featur ing logs in a horizontal o r vertical position . 2 Ljubo Karaman , an historia n o f Ol d Croatia n Art , believes, however , tha t thi s church date s fro m th e elevent h century . Se e hi s wor k PregZe d umjetnosti u Dalmaciji / A Survey of Art i n Dalmati a (Zagreb , 1952) .

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the struggl e o f medieva l Croati a t o attai n recognitio n an d salvatio n through it s churches . Th e elevent h centur y brough t wit h i t close r contact wit h th e Wester n civilization , an d fro m tha t tim e on , th e Croatian architectur e develope d paralle l wit h tha t o f th e res t o f Western Europe. The Romanesqu e basilica—simple , massiv e an d archaic , wit h a square base, a three-decked nave , an d row s of pillars alon g the sides is typica l o f th e architectura l styl e s o ofte n duplicate d i n Croatia n churches. On e find s th e oldes t basilica s o f thi s kin d i n Koto r (St. Trifun: nint h century), on the islan d of Rab (St . Peter at Draga) , and i n Zada r (St . Krsevan) . Th e cathedral s locate d i n Rab , Zadar , Trogir, an d Spli t represen t th e mos t beautiful creation s o f thi s struc tural pattern . Th e monaster y o f th e Francisca n friar s i n Dubrovni k was buil t b y th e architec t Mih a o f Ba r i n 131 7 i n thi s sam e style . A school o f architect s wa s founde d in Miha' s nativ e town , an d man y of its member s wer e activ e i n neighborin g places . Althoug h th e Ro manesque styl e wa s widesprea d an d becam e recognize d throughou t Europe, Croatia n architect s succeede d i n introducin g thei r ow n characteristics int o thi s design . Braide d ornament s wer e commo n decorations use d b y them , an d massiv e belfrie s gav e thei r churche s the appearanc e o f fortresse s rathe r tha n o f temples . The y als o use d this styl e in Istria and Norther n Croatia, and it dominated in the latte r after th e foundin g of th e archdioces e o f Zagre b ( 1094 ). Th e towe r of the Churc h o f St . Georg e i n Belec , part s o f th e Churc h o f th e Hol y Cross in Budinscina , o f the monaster y of th e Templar s i n Glogovnica , and o f churches i n Irig , Sid , an d Ilo k ar e representativ e o f thi s style — of whic h on e no w find s onl y ruin s o r perhap s renovation s i n som e later form. Typical is the example of the cathedral a t Zagreb, the oldes t Romanesque monumen t in Norther n Croatia . Thi s churc h wa s conse crated i n 1227 ; i t wa s demolished shortly thereafter, durin g the Tata r attacks, an d restore d i n 1280 . Afte r th e earthquak e o f 188 1 i t wa s renovated, mostl y in Gothic style. The Croatia n architect s o f th e thirteent h an d fourteent h centurie s were primaril y concerne d wit h th e buildin g o f fortresses , wall s an d military units. Th e populatio n o f the fortifie d citie s grew , an d houses , because of limited space , becam e tw o an d eve n mor e floors high. Th e few street s wer e windin g an d narrow . Accordin g t o informatio n gleaned fro m variou s archives , th e builder s ofte n followe d blueprint s and stric t cit y regulation s i n erectin g buildings ; a boar d wa s usually elected to supervise the constructio n of projects. Under th e ordinance s of Dubrovnik , every master architect an d stonecutte r wa s suppose d t o

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keep a t least tw o apprentices an d t o teach the m hi s trade, s o that th e city woul d alway s hav e a sufficien t numbe r o f competen t masters . Many cities rose in this period, an d on e may admire their architectura l beauty eve n today . Th e cit y o f Dubrovnik—firs t mentione d i n 670 , i n connection wit h th e destructio n o f Epidaurus , a Greco-Roma n settle ment, b y the Avar s and Slavs—i s th e best-preserve d medieval architec tural ensembl e in Europe, a unique monument of stone, permeate d b y contrasts an d ye t conceive d with th e harmon y of the finest craftsmanship. I n th e interva l fro m th e fourteent h t o th e sixteent h centuries , Dubrovnik acquire d th e shap e tha t nowaday s makes it suc h a perfect setting fo r Shakespearea n an d othe r plays . Thi s wa s th e prosperou s period whe n ne w ston e building s replace d ol d woode n houses , an d when th e towers , fountains , harbor , an d man y publi c an d privat e structures wer e erected . Ston e buildings wer e constructe d throughou t the city o f Dubrovnik, preserving the past for the generation s t o come . Hvar, wit h it s oldes t theatr e an d it s man y churches , shoul d b e men tioned a s anothe r architectura l jewe l in whic h th e pas t i s charmingly blended wit h th e moder n age . Ston , Korcula , an d man y othe r cities , were begu n a t this time with similarly planned structures, on a smaller scale, illustratin g th e fac t tha t th e Dalmatia n citie s wer e i n a clos e touch with one another. The massiv e Romanesque style gav e way t o th e mor e graciou s an d less weight y Gothi c style . Mor e ligh t cam e i n throug h th e highe r windows tha t characterize d thi s style , an d balconie s len t a ne w elegance t o palace s an d summe r homes. The Croatia n maste r Nikol a Tvrdoje buil t th e prid e o f Split , th e St . Domnius belfry , i n thi s style . Gótico Fiorito, th e Venetia n versio n o f th e sam e style , wa s ver y popular i n Dalmatia , the n unde r th e rul e o f Venice . Thi s variatio n of the Gothi c styl e wa s stresse d i n th e educatio n o f Jura j Dalmatina c (Georgius Dalmaticu s o r Giorgi o d a Sebenico) , the greates t Croatia n architect and sculptor o f the fifteenth century. He became ver y famou s in Italy , wher e h e buil t man y masterpieces , bu t h e wa s eve n mor e prolific i n hi s ow n country . The monumenta l cathedra l i n Sibeni k i s his creation , a s ar e th e well-know n Minceta towe r i n Dubrovnik , th e chapel an d tom b of St. Anastasius ( Stas ) i n th e cathedra l of Split, an d the blueprin t o f th e cit y o f Pag. Man y Croatian artist s worke d unde r Dalmatinac's supervision , an d the y helpe d t o sprea d Gótico Fiorito throughout Croatia . Andre j Ales i buil t th e porta l an d baptistr y i n th e cathedral o f Trogir , a s wel l a s th e dividin g column s i n th e cathedra l of Rab . Man y churches wer e erecte d i n Istri a i n th e sam e style , suc h as St. Mary's in Reram, the parish church in Pazin and that in Rutoniga,

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and th e names o f their builder s ar e recorded; amon g them ar e Nikol a of Piran , Mate j o f Pula , an d Nikol a of Rovinj . The Gothi c styl e fro m Franc e an d Germany, a s wel l a s fro m th e Dalmatian coast , sprea d widel y i n Uppe r Croatia . St . Mary' s in Jajc e showed a definite influenc e from th e Dalmatia n masters . The blendin g of Romanesqu e and Gothi c style s i s eviden t i n man y medieva l citie s between the Sava and Drava Rivers. More than on e hundred citie s ha d a specia l roya l charte r tha t insure d thei r independenc e insid e thei r gates. Th e picturesqu e Uppe r Tow n i n Zagre b develope d fro m jus t such a chartere d roya l city . Gri c an d it s towers , walls , an d gate s ha s also preserved th e spiri t o f the Middl e Age s to th e presen t day . Many a Croatia n architec t o f the Gothi c period wen t o n to wor k in Italy an d in other countries, after receivin g his early schooling at home. Ivan Splicani n participate d i n th e buildin g o f th e Palazz o Ducal e i n Venice; th e maste r Sebastija n Schiavon e d a Rovign o wa s responsibl e for woodcarving s foun d i n man y churches i n Venice ; Lucija n Vranja nin (Lucian o da Laurana ) wa s the chie f architec t for Coun t Federig o da Urbin o an d wa s a builde r o f palaces , hospitals , an d bridge s i n Urbino and Pesaro. His younger brother, Franjo Laurana, built palace s and wate r system s in Ital y an d France . Juraj Dalmatina c and hi s students an d successor s prepared th e wa y for th e Renaissance which sprea d rapidly throughout Dalmatia . Gothi c and Renaissanc e architectura l style s blende d ver y successfull y t o produce th e harmon y of form , structure , an d functio n o f Dubrovnik' s Sponza custo m house , calle d Divona , buil t b y Paskoj e Milicevi c an d the brothers Andrijic , betwee n 151 6 an d 1521 . O n the groun d floor are Renaissance arcades, while the first floor provides an exampl e of interlaced Gothi c triforas . Th e secon d floo r ha s simpl e Renaissanc e win dows, and the roo f th e gracefu l Gothic acroterium . Also in Dubrovnik , one find s anothe r excellen t exampl e o f th e blendin g o f styles , wit h decorative element s o f Gothi c styl e prevailing , i n th e pati o o f th e Dominican monastery . Th e well-know n architect s Antu n Nogulovi c and Pava o Gospodneti c built man y simple and beautifu l structures i n the Renaissanc e style. Th e summerhous e of th e poe t Haniba l Lucie , and Tvrdalj , th e fortifie d palac e o f th e poe t Peta r Hektorovic , wer e the mos t important Renaissance buildings o n the islan d o f Hvar; bot h were constructe d in th e firs t hal f o f the sixteent h century . The late r Renaissanc e di d no t resul t i n man y outstandin g architec tural achievement s i n Croatia . I n tha t perio d th e Dalmatia n citie s were losing their independence, an d mos t of the countr y was a bloody battlefield a s a result o f the effort s agains t th e Turkis h invasions . Th e

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age of great buildings was over. The many and constant wars illustrated the truth o f the saying Inter arma silent musae. Many workshops of th e Croatian architect s and stonecutter s remaine d deserte d whil e thei r masters an d student s becam e soldier s o r lef t fo r anothe r countr y i n search of peace and prosperity. A specia l styl e o f architectur e develope d i n th e Croatia n region s which wer e unde r Turkis h domination . A stron g orienta l influenc e became eviden t i n Croatia n mosques, fountains , konaks , amams , mar kets, an d cemeteries . Minarets pointed thei r spear-lik e tips t o th e sky, lending a foreig n touc h an d a strang e beaut y t o th e Croatia n land . Some o f thes e building s reveale d themselve s partiall y influence d b y the Christia n belfries. Th e most complete exampl e of the Turkis h styl e of architectur e i s the cit y o f Sarajevo . I n Roma n time s Sarajev o wa s a military camp , an d durin g th e Middl e Age s i t becam e a Christia n settlement (Vrhbosna) . Gaz i Husre f Be y develope d thi s settlemen t into a ne w Turkis h city , on e i n whic h Eugen e o f Savo y wa s abl e t o count more than 12 0 mosques in 1697. Th e Turkis h urbanistic architec ture differe d i n many ways from th e Wester n style . Th e mai n charac teristics o f th e Turkis h architectur e wer e th e absenc e o f geometrica l planning, crooke d streets , an d picturesqu e houses , th e latte r usuall y turned t o th e well-kep t garden s an d almos t unnoticeabl e fro m streets . The outside s o f th e Turkis h building s wer e usuall y simple , severe , squat, an d built o f heavy stones. The interiors , by contrast , wer e rich , comfortable, an d colorful , wit h huge transparent ceilings, mosaics, and the graciou s rhythm of arabesques. The Turk s also built fine roads an d bridges, som e of which are stil l in use today, for example, the one-spa n bridge ove r Neretva, built i n 156 6 b y th e architec t Hajrudin . The war s against the Turk s and thei r dominatio n in parts o f Croati a continued durin g th e seventeent h an d eighteent h centuries , whil e th e Austrian influence prevaile d i n the res t o f the country . From th e Wes t there came the new architectural style , the Baroque , introduced b y the Jesuits, and it s influence wa s felt i n almost ever y corner of the country . This styl e o f architectur e wa s especiall y popula r i n Hrvatsk o Zagorj e and Medjimurje . I n som e parts, the Baroqu e style even became a for m of expressio n in peasant architecture . Th e churc h i n Belec, near Zlatar, is considered the mos t worthy exampl e of Baroque architecture amon g the peasant s a t tha t time . Th e ne w styl e als o appeale d greatl y t o th e city dwellers . Man y churches , palaces , an d summe r residence s wer e built i n Zagreb—fo r example , St . Catherine' s church ; th e palace s o f Counts Ivan Draskovic, Orsic, and Rauch ; and in Vara/din the palace s of Count s Patacic , Draskovic , an d Keglevic . Th e Baroqu e als o pene -

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trated into Dalmatia , an d man y churches an d privat e home s followe d this highl y decorativ e pattern. Th e mos t successfu l creation s her e ar e the churche s o f St . Blasiu s an d St . Ignatiu s i n Dubrovnik , an d th e attractive churc h i n Nerezisce , o n th e islan d o f Brae . Th e cathedra l church i n Dubrovni k wa s rebuil t i n th e Baroqu e styl e i n 1713 . T o a greater exten t tha n i n larg e architectura l structures , the Baroqu e was used i n interio r decoration , an d ther e i s hardl y a regio n i n Croati a into whic h thi s ornat e style di d no t penetrate . During th e sam e period , th e Austria n governmen t wa s responsibl e for buildin g numerou s army centers i n Vojn a Krajina , th e fightin g lin e against the Turks . Many of these centers, such a s Koprivnica, Bjelovar , Glina, Nova Gradiska, Brod, and Petrinja, wer e influenced by Karlovac, built a t th e en d o f th e sixteent h centur y b y th e architec t Matij a Gambor. Strateg y an d militar y nee d principall y dictate d th e pla n o f the city . A central squar e wa s th e focu s o f a geometrica l ne t o f street s in al l fou r directions . Th e Catholi c an d Orthodo x churche s wer e usually i n th e middle , an d clos e b y wer e th e arsenal , barracks , an d governmental buildings . Lik e line s o f soldiers , tree s wer e plante d around th e squar e an d alon g th e mai n street . Al l but devoi d o f orna ment, thes e citie s an d building s remai n a s illustration s o f th e powe r of rules and regulations. The strengthenin g o f th e middl e clas s ha d a decisiv e influenc e o n the architectur e o f th e nineteent h century . Th e feuda l nobilit y de clined, thei r castle s wer e no longe r th e livel y center s o f entertainmen t that the y formerl y were , an d everybod y wit h mone y an d desir e fo r social lif e move d t o th e cities . Th e prosperou s middl e clas s crave d luxuries,J oan d th e architect s foun d a clientel e eage r fo r thei r work . Many foreig n architect s discovere d a favorabl e marke t fo r thei r abilities i n Croatia, and quit e a few staye d t o becom e a n organi c par t of th e country . On e o f thes e wa s Barto l Felbinger , wh o particularl y influenced th e developmen t o f moder n architectur e i n Zagreb . Hi s creations wer e th e beautifu l residence s i n th e Uppe r Tow n an d Narodni Dom, in Opaticka Street. He originated park s and promenade s that brough t fres h beaut y to the city . Tuskanac , Zelengaj, Roko v Park, Zrinjevac—all attractiv e places o f recreation fo r th e citizen s o f Zagre b —were begun o r influenced by Felbinger . His greates t succes s was th e bishop's summe r residence in Maksimir. The buildings h e create d wer e symmetrical an d peacefu l i n thei r classica l beauty , wit h columns , balconies, an d entrance s characteristi c of this form. Th e cal m harmony of Felbinger' s realizatio n di d no t exis t i n th e building s tha t hi s con temporary, th e architec t Perisic , erecte d unde r th e influenc e o f Italian

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Neoclassicism; buildings suc h a s the Cit y Hal l in Spli t (Procuratura) , and Bonda's Theatre in Dubrovnik. After th e successfu l Felbinge r period , which gav e th e Croatia n capital it s architectura l outline , th e desir e t o embellis h th e home s of wealthy citizen s le d t o th e developmen t o f a mixtur e o f al l possibl e styles, a n er a whic h coul d b e calle d a n epoc h withou t an y styl e o f its own. Th e architec t responsibl e fo r thi s perio d wa s th e Austria n Her mann Bollé , alon g wit h hi s student s an d followers . The y floode d th e country wit h richl y decorate d structure s tha t incorporate d domes , pillars, belfries, angels , and floral and geometrica l designs. Th e interio r of thes e building s wa s mos t impractical, includin g dark , narro w hall ways, stee p stairways , an d unusuall y hig h ceiling s i n smal l rooms . Ugly an d expensive , thes e architectura l monster s coul d b e foun d i n almost every corner of central Europe. During this time of imitation and formalism , Vikto r Kovacic, a trul y great architect , becam e active in Zagreb. It wa s Kovacic who pointe d out th e roa d o f moder n Croatia n architecture . I n hi s theor y an d practice h e emphasize d the vie w that ever y styl e is the produc t o f its time, an d hi s theor y tha t architectur e mus t serv e an d satisf y th e practical an d artisti c needs of men. St . Blasius' Church in Zagreb , th e best o f Kovacic's works, was built o n a simpl e cros s base, a s wa s th e miniature churc h i n Ni n man y centurie s before. The Stoc k Exchang e (Burza) i s anothe r masterpiec e tha t revealed , especiall y inside , th e simple, noble , harmoniou s lines tha t appeale d t o Kovacic . Hi s idea s that Croatia n architectur e shoul d satisf y th e need s o f it s peopl e an d express the characteristic s o f the Croatia n soil were accepte d by many of hi s successor s in th e perio d betwee n th e tw o worl d wars , b y me n such a s Drag o Ibler , Stjepa n Planic , Lavosla v Horvat , Ed o Schoen , Alfred Albini , Frane Cota , Aleksanda r Freudenreich, Hug o Ehrlich , Stjepan Hribar , and Bruno Bauer. Kovacic's convictions remain modern and valid even in our times. The sculpto r Iva n Mestrovi c demonstrate d a dee p interes t i n archi tecture i n th e perio d befor e Worl d Wa r II . Hi s home , centere d i n a beautiful par k in Split, harmonizes perfectly with his various sculpture s and symbolize s th e unit y betwee n sculptur e an d architectur e i n a striking fashion . H e als o buil t th e impressiv e roun d Ar t Pavilio n i n Zagreb, a buildin g o f simplicit y an d grea t nobility . Thre e minaret s were adde d t o thi s buildin g durin g th e las t war , withou t th e consen t of th e artist , an d thereb y th e ar t galler y wa s transforme d into th e largest mosqu e in Croatia . After th e war , th e rotund a wa s restored t o its origina l form , an d i t no w house s th e Museu m of Nationa l Libera -

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tion. Th e stron g influenc e o f functionalis m an d constructivis m wa s also fel t a t thi s time . Man y Croatia n architect s trie d t o imitat e th e creations of the outstandin g representatives o f the ne w schools , such as those inspire d b y L e Corbusier , Gropius , an d Fran k Lloy d Wright . At the presen t time, architectur e is flourishing in Croatia , especiall y in th e attemp t o f th e architect s t o provid e comfortabl e an d pleasan t structures for the life , work, and leisur e of modern man. The architect s had, first of all, t o restore an d replac e th e building s destroye d durin g World Wa r II . Change s in th e country , an d i n moder n lif e i n general , created man y ne w needs . Whol e ne w citie s wer e planned , an d ne w schools, factories , hospitals , an d atomi c institute s wer e built , an d numerous cit y an d nationa l park s an d recreationa l center s wer e als o founded. Among the modern Croatian architects, on e can discern tw o differen t groups. Th e large r o f th e tw o group s continue s th e traditio n o f Felbinger an d Kovacic . Neve n Segvi c i s activ e i n housin g projects ; Marijan Haberl e design s mos t o f th e blueprint s fo r th e annua l fai r in Zagreb; Mladen Kauzlaric, Stjepan Gombos , and Vladimi r Juranovic built th e Rad e Konca r Factor y i n Zagre b an d participate d i n man y other industria l projects , such a s th e designin g o f a wago n factor y in Slavonski Brod, of the Ferolegur a concer n in Sibenik, of oil refinerie s in Rijek a an d Split , an d o f a n iro n works in Sisak . Ivo Vitic an d Josi p Seissel erected , i n beautifu l harmon y with th e hill s an d wood s in th e vicinity o f Zagreb, th e Cit y o f Pioneers, a Croatia n versio n of Disneyland. Djuro Neidhardt made use of autochthonous Bosnian architecture in th e buildin g o f man y projects, a s fo r instanc e i n th e developmen t of Zenica. The secon d grou p o f architect s mentione d tend s t o ignor e th e national traditio n an d t o emphasiz e internationa l pattern s an d trend s in contemporary architecture. The builders in this group belong mostly to the younger generatio n an d have , fo r the mos t part, bee n educate d abroad. Some of them work in different part s o f the world , either i n th e framework o f the Unite d Nations , o r a s expert s sen t t o a foreign lan d by their own government. Vladimir Turina, who built Dinamo Stadium in Maksimir (Zagreb), and Zvonimi r Pozgaj ar e well-known architect s of sport s arena s an d hav e bee n th e winner s o f man y prizes . Vlad o Antolic, Vid o Vrbanic , an d other s ar e engage d i n variou s project s i n Asia and Africa . The increased buildin g activit y afte r th e wa r provided muc h oppor tunity in the area s of planning cities, expanding industrial facilities, an d designing housin g units . Thes e development s hav e offere d t o bot h

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the old and the new generation o f Croatian architects wide possibilitie s to emplo y thei r creativenes s an d ingenuity . Croatia n architect s ar e now engage d i n a n over-al l architectura l reconstructio n o f thei r country, an d the y continu e t o expres s thei r individualit y i n thi s tas k with ambitio n an d determination , while satisfyin g th e need s o f thei r society. SCULPTURE For a lon g tim e Croatia n architectur e an d sculptur e wer e closel y related, i n tha t the y use d th e sam e kind s o f material s an d trie d t o achieve th e sam e lastin g values . Man y remain s o f ancien t Croatia n churches an d monasterie s hav e differen t designs , ornaments , an d inscriptions tha t wer e probabl y execute d b y th e sam e master s wh o built th e building s themselves . The Croatia n braide d ornamen t o n th e baptistr y i n Nin , c. 800 , i s the oldes t suc h relie f tha t ha s bee n found . I n late r years , artist s ex panded an d enriche d thi s simpl e typ e o f ornamen t b y addin g t o i t crosses, stars , flowers, animals , and finall y eve n huma n figures. The rigid figur e o f a n unknow n Croatian kin g with a crow n an d glob e i n one hand an d a cros s in th e other , look s dow n a t th e visito r fro m hi s throne i n th e Diocletia n Palac e a t Split . Prostrat e i n fron t o f hi m i s one of his subjects , and standin g close to him, a nobleman. Who i s this king? Wh o i s th e sculpto r o f thi s relief , whic h date s bac k t o th e eleventh century , an d whic h stil l form s a part o f the baptistr y o f th e cathedral i n th e Diocletia n Palace ? Thu s fa r i t ha s bee n impossibl e to answe r thes e significan t questions , bu t i n spit e o f thi s th e relie f is on e o f th e mos t valuabl e document s o f Croatia n history . Simila r anonymous sculpture s with preciou s ol d Croatia n inscription s ca n b e dated bac k a s fa r a s th e elevent h an d twelft h centuries , an d thes e provide importan t evidenc e o f histor y an d literacy , a s wel l a s o f ar t among th e earl y Croatians . The ivor y cove r o f a diptych , considere d to belon g t o th e elevent h century , i s kept i n th e treasur y o f th e cathedral i n Zagreb ; i t present s scene s o f the Annunciation , th e birt h of Christ , His Resurrection , an d Hi s Ascension . The thirteent h centur y brough t t o light tw o powerfu l artist s wh o broke th e traditio n o f anonymit y amon g artist s an d engrave d thei r own names on their sculptures. The work s of these masters, Buvina an d Radovan, hav e evoke d th e enthusias m o f th e bes t authoritie s o n th e works o f thei r period . I n 1214 , Andrii a Buvin a carve d scene s o f th e life an d deat h o f Chris t int o th e walnu t porta l o f th e cathedra l i n

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Split i n twenty-eigh t simpl e Romanesqu e rectangles . Wit h a skillfu l hand an d a rich imaginatio n h e expanded th e biblical stor y and adde d various animal s an d decorations , interwove n wit h leave s an d littl e boys eating grapes . The secon d grea t sculpto r o f thi s centur y i s Radovan , wh o create d the portal o f the cathedral in Trogir in 1240. The cathedral wa s built b y the peopl e of Trogir durin g th e reig n o f Count Stipk o Subic-Bribirski , who successfull y defeate d th e Turk s an d defende d th e city . Th e mas sive entrance doo r is a superb piece of carving, showing biblical scenes , saints, animals , grotesqu e shapes—flanke d b y tw o heraldi c lion s sup porting giant figures of Adam and Eve . The carving s resemble enlarge ments of precious miniature s from ol d missals, especially wit h regard t o the representatio n o f si n an d redemption . Si n i s symbolize d i n th e portrayal o f Ada m an d Ev e i n a framewor k o f th e allegorica l repre sentation o f differen t months . Redemptio n i s represente d b y Christ , whom th e artis t depict s fro m Hi s birth t o Hi s death . Radova n prove d that h e ha d completel y mastere d th e ornamenta l an d plasti c ar t o f portraying th e huma n form , an d h e unite d bot h i n th e harmon y of his composition . Hi s sculpture s o f Ada m an d Ev e ar e perhap s th e earliest portrayal s o f the nud e figur e i n medieva l ar t an d demonstrat e not onl y th e technica l skil l bu t als o th e courag e o f th e sculptor . Radovan's portal radiates a love for nature an d lif e an d i s so realistic i n parts tha t even toda y the landscap e o f Trogir an d it s surrounding s can be easil y recognized . Radovan' s depictio n o f th e month s o f th e yea r is permeate d wit h th e astrolog y an d th e superstitio n o f th e Middl e Ages, but whe n i t is a questio n o f portraits, thos e o f peasants perform ing thei r everyda y chore s ar e s o ful l o f lif e tha t on e i s immediatel y able t o recognize peopl e a t the sam e tasks today. Radova n establishe d his ow n ar t school , an d man y o f hi s student s carve d an d engrave d church towers , pulpits, choirs , and pew s i n th e cathedral s o f Split an d Trogir i n th e styl e o f thei r teacher . In the thirteenth, fourteenth , and fifteenth centuries, ther e flourished a uniqu e ar t i n th e mids t o f th e almos t inaccessibl e forest s o f Bosni a and Hercegovina , an d partiall y i n Dalmatia . Th e almos t unknow n masters o f thes e region s create d a typ e o f mysteriou s tombston e (stecdk) tha t i s full y a s enigmati c a s th e hug e sculpture s o f Easte r Island. Som e o f thes e granit e tombstone s weig h a s muc h a s twenty nine tons , an d mor e tha n 30,00 0 hav e bee n discovere d i n th e territor y included i n Radimlja , Donj a Zgosca , an d Visoko . Thes e heav y stone s take th e shap e o f the sarcophagus , slab, an d obelisk . On som e of the m are recorde d th e name s o f th e artists—fo r example , Grubac , Petko ,

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Zelija, Dragoje, and Radié—an d on some of the stone s are als o inscribed the name s of the dead . Th e dea d wer e th e Manichea n heretics ( Bogomils), who were in conflict wit h Rom e because they did no t recogniz e the authorit y of the Church . A few hundre d o f these tombstone s sho w signs o f origina l artisti c expression . Besid e widely-know n Croatia n ornamental motives and inscription s of great historical value, th e mos t wonderful o f these stone s ar e thos e whic h depic t scene s fro m life . I n spite o f th e passin g o f s o man y centuries , on e ma y stil l admir e th e peaceful pastures , slim towers in the moonlight , boys and girl s dancin g the kolo, the hunting scenes, and the tournaments represented i n stone . These steed wer e mad e fo r th e dead , bu t the y glorif y life , joy , an d pleasure, an d provid e a n outloo k o n lif e quit e differen t fro m tha t of other medieva l art . O n man y o f thes e tombstone s ther e i s portraye d the figure of a knight with a large raised hand. What wa s the meanin g of thi s gesture? One common interpretation i s that the knight' s gestur e symbolized th e effort s t o sto p th e crusader s sen d b y th e Pope , o r th e Turkish invader, who was coming closer every day, and who eventually conquered Bosni a i n 1463 . A grea t par t o f Croati a wa s fo r man y centurie s a battlefiel d o n which th e Croatian s fough t agains t th e Turks . Onl y th e Republi c o f Dubrovnik, a s a resul t o f adroi t diplomacy , enjoye d relativ e securit y and prosperity . I n Dubrovnik , a s in the res t o f Europe i n th e fifteent h century, th e humanisti c schools prospered , an d th e art s wer e greatl y appreciated; th e res t o f Dalmati a fel l unde r Venetia n domination . The influenc e o f Italia n ar t becam e mor e an d mor e eviden t throug h Venetian channels , bu t Croati a nevertheles s succeede d i n preservin g her origina l for m o f artisti c expression. Stone fro m Bra e an d Korcul a wa s considere d th e fines t typ e o f material b y Croatia n architect s an d sculptors , an d i t wa s transporte d to al l part s o f the country . Th e archive s o f Dubrovni k ofte n mentio n transactions involvin g this kin d of stone, an d i t wa s th e materia l use d for th e monumen t o f Orlando , b y Antu n Dubrovcani n i n 1417 . Th e monument o f thi s youn g hero , wit h a typicall y Gothi c smile—th e symbol of the judicia l power o f the market s in medieval cities—was th e only public on e in Dubrovnik at the time. The goldsmith s of Dubrovnik were widel y recognize d an d muc h i n deman d i n tha t period . Th e golden cross in the cathedra l of the cit y of Korcula by Iva n Progonovi c fashioned i n 1471 , i s considere d a masterpiece . Juraj Dalmatina c (Giorgi o d a Sebenico ) wa s a n architec t an d sculptor o f the fifteent h century , who, together with his students, lef t a

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powerful imprin t o n th e whol e Dalmatia n domain . Hi s sculptura l masterpiece i s the aps e o f the cathedra l i n Sibenik— a ro w o f seventy four huma n heads , molde d i n ston e i n life-siz e dimensions. Eac h on e is strikingly individual i n age, profession , an d facia l expression , so that we ma y stil l rea d i n thi s serie s o f face s th e hope s an d th e achieve ments, th e defeat s an d th e disappointment s o f th e huma n race . I t i s evident tha t th e artis t sculpte d th e peopl e o f his ow n time , who m h e knew well , an d thereb y expresse d i n hi s wor k th e spiri t o f th e Renaissance, th e ne w styl e tha t emphasize d individuality . Many Croatia n sculptor s won fam e abroa d durin g thi s period . Iva n Duknovic ( Giovanni Dalmata 1440-150 9 ) sculpte d a n exquisit e statu e of St . John in the cathedra l o f his native Trogir. H e late r becam e well known a t th e roya l an d papa l courts . I n Rome , i n cooperatio n wit h Mino da Fiesole , Duknovi c created a sculpture o f Pope Pau l II . Late r he portraye d th e Hungarian-Croatia n kin g Matthia s Korvi n an d hi s wife Beatric e o f Arago n i n stone . On e o f th e courtisan s o f Kin g Matthias i n Budi m wa s th e sculpto r Lucija n Vranjani n (Laurana , d. 1479 ), who was well-known i n Italy an d France . Hi s brother Franj o (1425-1502), als o a sculptor , fashione d a noteworth y monumen t t o Charles I V i n th e cathedra l o f L e Man s i n France . Nikol a Lazani c ( Nicolaus Lasaneu s Dalmata ) o f Bra e was a sculptor o f reputatio n i n Italy. I n Dubrovnik , i n 1590 , h e create d excellen t sculpture s o f St. Jerom e an d St . Blasius , captivatin g i n th e wa y tha t the y expres s life and motion. The centurie s that followe d di d no t resul t i n many significan t Croa tian artisti c achievements . Th e countr y wa s tor n b y man y conflicting powers, an d ne w war s were everyda y experiences . Very few members of th e nobilit y coul d tak e th e tim e o r spen d th e mone y t o hav e artists embellis h thei r castle s or to hav e sculpture s brough t fro m foreign countries . Th e Baroqu e style , however , brough t wit h i t ne w life an d interest . Thi s artisti c styl e wa s fo r th e mos t par t importe d from Austria . The firs t representativ e o f th e Baroqu e i n Croati a wa s the Jesuit Andrij a Fabijanic , wh o carve d wooden statue s o f saints. Th e Paulists Tom a Jurjevi c an d Pava o Belin a mad e us e o f ston e i n thei r sculptures. A t th e sam e time , layme n concentrate d o n sculpturin g tombstones an d decorativ e pieces , bu t mos t o f thi s wor k remaine d more i n th e real m o f th e craft s tha n o f art . "Watery, " mediocr e Baroque sculpture s wer e stil l prevalen t unti l th e beginnin g o f th e nineteenth century , bu t a n atmospher e o f chang e wa s everywher e evident. Zagre b becam e th e politica l an d cultura l cente r o f Croatia ,

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and man y school s an d institution s wer e founded , suc h a s th e Yugo slav Academ y o f Science s an d Arts ; th e Schoo l o f Applie d Arts , an d the Croatia n Ar t Society , which heralde d a ne w er a i n sculpture . Dalmatia wa s the sourc e of the bes t Croatia n sculptors in the earlie r period, an d agai n in th e moder n age it wa s to b e th e Dalmatian s wh o dominated Croatia n sculture , eve n thoug h artist s fro m othe r part s of the countr y also were active . Th e fathe r of modern Croatia n sculptur e was Iva n Rendic , who , i n hi s father' s quarr y o n th e islan d o f Brae , discovered th e beaut y and th e valu e of stone. After studyin g in Venice and Florence , h e create d mor e tha n two-hundre d monument s i n various cities—chiefl y decorativ e allegories , fountains , an d portrait busts. A skillful master , Rendic was at his best a s a realist (fo r example , in th e statu e o f Kacic-Miosi c i n Zagreb) , an d weake r whe n givin g free rei n t o hi s imaginatio n o r whe n composin g sculpture s o f group s of persons . Rendic' s talent , hi s technica l skill , love fo r hi s profession , and will-power , blaze d th e trai l fo r th e generatio n tha t continue d hi s work. Hi s successor s wer e t o Croatia n sculptur e wha t th e member s of th e Painter s Schoo l o f Zagre b wer e t o Croatia n painting . Decora tive figures , monuments , memorial plates , an d relief s i n man y citie s date fro m thi s period , an d Mirogoj , th e beautifull y situate d cemeter y of Zagreb , owe s many o f its outstandin g monument s to tha t era . Among Rendic's students , many outstanding names are to be found . Robert Franges-Mihanovic , wh o wa s a t hi s bes t i n th e creatio n o f small bronz e statue s ("Annunciation, " "Fligh t t o Egypt" ) becam e world-famous a s a resul t o f th e man y medal s an d plaque s whic h h e won. In hi s youth he worked in Paris under Rodin, and hi s later works express som e o f th e massiv e dynamic s characteristi c o f Rodin . Th e equestrian statu e o f th e firs t Croatia n king , Tomislav , i n fron t o f th e railway statio n i n Zagreb , i s a goo d exampl e o f this . Rudol f Valde c created work s note d fo r thei r precis e attentio n t o anatomy , a s i n th e busts o f Rack i an d Bisho p Strossmajer . Iv o Kerdic , a goldsmit h an d maker o f medals , carve d th e smal l statu e calle d "Th e Goldsmith' s Daughter" (Zlatarovo zlato) wit h warmt h an d feeling ; i t simpl y an d unobtrusively decorate s th e medieva l Ston e Gat e (Kamenit a Vrata ) in Zagreb. The talente d sculpto r Branisla v Deskovi c was able to gras p and expres s motion in stone an d bronze , an d h e adde d strengt h t o th e type o f anima l carving s alread y introduce d b y Franges . Deskovi c sought t o captur e th e rhyth m o f motion, an d h e succeede d t o a grea t extent, especiall y i n hi s sculptur e o f a dog , "O n th e Track. " All o f thes e sculptors possesse d excellen t techniqu e an d fashione d accomplished, well-rounde d sculptures ; the y wer e accepte d an d

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recognized b y the public—but none of them produce d a work that wa s monumental o r revolutionary . Thi s wa s lef t t o a grou p o f younge r artists fro m Dalmatia , organize d unde r th e nam e "Medulic. " Th e members o f thi s grou p sought t o brea k awa y fro m foreig n influences; they strov e t o produc e powerfu l sculpture s inspire d b y th e Croatia n national epic s an d b y history . The sloga n of this organizatio n wa s "I n spite o f the non-heroi c times " (Nejunackom vremenu u prkos). Th e leader o f the Meduli c group was Iva n Mestrovic , a sculpto r o f phenomenal talent , who succeede d in attainin g world recognitio n befor e he reached th e ag e o f twenty-five . Employin g al l th e artisti c material s and techniques, Mestrovic's dynamic personality ignored th e tradition s of hi s time and milieu , and create d a styl e and a form o f its own . His themes ar e manifold : religious, allegorical , classical , an d national . H e is renowne d fo r hi s sculpture s o f America n Indians, 3 hi s portrait s o f famous personage s o f th e pas t an d present , fo r hi s self-portraits , an d for work s depictin g member s o f a family . I n man y variation s h e ha s approached th e proble m o f portrayin g a mother , includin g hi s ow n mother, hi s wif e wit h child , th e Virgi n Mary , an d workin g finall y toward a n expressio n o f timeles s maternity , simpl e an d grea t i n lov e and sacrifice . Hi s portraits , fro m hi s Mose s on, have th e stam p o f th e philosophy o f a n artis t wh o i s strugglin g for th e rights , freedom , an d dignity o f man. Mestrovic's sculpture s radiate peac e an d harmony , a s well a s his own personal love for hi s fellow man. Mestrovic died in South Bend, Indiana, wher e he worked and taugh t at th e Universit y o f Notre Dame , addin g yearl y t o th e numbe r o f hi s outstanding sculptures . O f Mestrovic' s works , Norman Rice ha s writ ten: "Th e majo r work s o f Mestrovi c hav e a qualit y o f timelessnes s which doe s no t depen d o n either a pas t styl e o r a curren t fashio n fo r their artisti c strength," 4 an d thi s harmon y in hi s works is perhaps bes t expressed i n hi s hom e i n Split , th e gif t o f th e artis t t o hi s nativ e country. Thi s house , buil t b y th e sculpto r himself , remind s on e o f ancient times , wit h it s park , containin g man y sculpture s i n wood , stone, an d bronze , o f whic h eac h represent s a differen t glimps e o f human life . Especiall y interestin g ar e th e powerfu l figure s o f Adam and Eve , which ar e carve d i n livin g trees. I n thi s par k on e ma y als o note an d admir e man y smalle r sculptures , some o f them firs t sketche s of idea s tha t Mestrovi c later develope d int o large r works . 3 See especiall y hi s sculptur e a t th e Congres s Stree t entranc e t o Gran t Par k i n Chicago. 4 Norman Rice , The Sculpture of Ivan Me&trovic (Syracus e Universit y Press , 1948), Introduction.

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The powerfu l personalit y of Iva n Mestrovi c attracte d man y Croa tian sculptor s an d painters , bu t i t was extremel y difficul t fo r th e latte r to approac h i n thei r ow n creation s th e excellenc e o f his achievements . Mestrovic endeavore d t o develo p i n hi s student s perfectio n o f tech nique an d the aspiration t o solve in their work s their ow n philosophica l problems. Amon g his students i n the Unite d States , Josi p Turkal j an d Teodor Golubi c wer e represente d i n a significan t art exhibi t i n Ne w York i n 1958 . Als o prominen t i n th e Unite d State s i s th e sculptor portraitist Pau l Kufrin , wh o show s classica l inspiratio n i n hi s work. 5 A youn g sculptor , Augusti n Filipovic , i s activ e i n Canad a an d ha s exhibited hi s works in Toronto, wher e h e ha s hi s own ar t school . In Croati a man y sculptors—a larg e numbe r o f them educate d unde r Mestrovic—are activ e today . Tom a Rosandi c worke d i n th e sam e workshops an d studio s a s Mestrovic , an d hi s talen t wa s formall y recognized i n an exhibitio n i n Rome in 1911 . Th e urg e t o creat e neve r leaves Rosandic , and h e i s always completel y absorbe d i n his work. In his sculpture s th e classica l traditio n an d a moder n feelin g o f for m blend wit h grea t integrity . H e ha s attaine d a hig h degre e o f mastery of hi s ar t form , an d thi s i s unite d wit h dee p feelin g an d a human e spirituality. Wher e Mestrovi c is more th e maste r o f th e broa d stroke , Rosandic excell s a t detail . Hi s compositio n of Christ lai d i n th e tomb , located i n th e mausoleu m o f th e Petrinovi c famil y o n th e islan d o f Brae, i s on e o f his mos t successfu l expression s of th e eterna l theme of sacrifice an d th e sorro w o f a partin g fro m love d ones . Fran e Krsini c also passed throug h th e Mestrovi c school. His sculpture i s the creatio n of a dreame r wh o i s motivated by a n intense inne r life . The pur e an d perfect line s o f his sculptur e reveal Krsinic' s relationshi p t o th e classi c period. Hi s nude s ar e slender , warm , an d completel y feminine. 8 Hi s reliefs expres s th e moo d o f th e lif e o f peasant s an d fisherme n an d capture th e motio n an d rhyth m o f life . Hi s monument s ar e easil y assimilated int o thei r surroundings , a s illustrate d b y hi s statue s o f Bulic and Kumici c in Zagreb. Antun Augustinci c i s th e mos t significan t sculpto r i n Yugoslavi a today. Bor n i n 190 0 in Hrvatsk o Zagorje, h e wa s a studen t o f Frange s and Mestrovic . Hi s sculpture "Peace, " a woma n o n horseback holdin g a glob e an d a n oliv e branch , stand s i n fron t o f th e Unite d Nation s Building i n Ne w York . Augustinci c has receive d man y prize s fo r hi s 5 Antun Bonifacio , i n his article "Pava o Kufrin," Osoba i Duh (1955 ) 6 8 (372 ) n. 3 , say s abou t Kufrin : " . . . t o hi m th e trut h i n ar t i s a necessar y conditio n of artistic activity. " 6 Krsinic himsel f define d hi s ar t a s follows : " I d o no t loo k fo r naturalism , bu t for th e poetr y expresse d i n the plasti c material. " Jugoslavia X (1955) , 12 .

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work in Yugoslavia and abroad , an d even before Worl d Wa r II h e was internationally recognized . On e o f hi s mos t successfu l sculpture s before 194 5 is his "Miner," execute d for the Internationa l Organizatio n of Labo r in Geneva , Switzerland , a representation o f the typica l mine r of hi s native country. From his statue of Christ i n the churc h i n Tuhel j to the many monuments that gre w out of the Partisan War, in which h e participated, Augustinci c has successfull y depicted subject s fro m hi s own time. As a sculptor, he doe s not loo k favorably on today's abstrac t art, an d h e ha s posed thi s artisti c question, on e mos t characteristi c of him: "Ho w coul d a man who has learne d how to mode l and to giv e life t o ston e b e satisfie d wit h simpl y makin g egg - o r shell-shape d creations? T o devot e onesel f t o abstraction , t o for m a s a goal , i s equivalent t o limitin g onesel f t o onl y fiv e hundre d word s whe n on e knows man y thousands." 7 Augustincic' s sculptur e achieve s a n artisti c balance betwee n for m an d motion . He i s intereste d i n th e ful l scal e of th e emotion s of human lif e an d thi s i s wha t h e trie s t o express . At the presen t time , Augustinci c is considere d th e foremos t sculpto r i n Yugoslavia, an d h e i s not onl y prolifi c i n hi s creations , bu t h e i s als o an excellent educator, engaged in training new generation s of sculptors. Vanja Radau s also made hi s debu t betwee n th e worl d wars . Fro m the very outset he has striven to reveal the psychology of the character s whom h e ha s depicted . Hi s goa l i s no t merel y t o recor d a realisti c portrait, or to expres s motion, but als o to duplicat e i n clay , stone , an d bronze th e dynamic s o f huma n feelings . Hi s creations , suc h a s "Prisoner," "Beggar, " "Françoi s Villon, " an d "Shaggy-Haire d Peter, " illustrate thi s intens e striving , whic h wa s s o eviden t i n hi s individua l art sho w hel d i n 1958 . Powerfull y reflecte d i n thi s exhibitio n wa s Radaus' condemnation of war. Among othe r contemporar y sculptor s i n Croati a today , on e ma y point t o Mari n Studin , wh o a t firs t stresse d religiou s motif s i n hi s primitively naiv e an d powerfu l sculptures . No w h e tend s t o simplif y and styliz e th e figure s o f peopl e an d animals , and t o emphasiz e th e dynamics o f masses . His relie f "Dar k Days, " whic h on e ca n relat e t o the recen t perio d o f war , wa s purchase d b y th e Tat e Galler y i n London. Grg a Antuna c expresses himself i n simpl e an d precis e bust s that remin d on e o f ancient Roma n art. Iva n Lozica , kille d durin g th e last war, admirabl y succeeded i n representing i n his work his love an d understanding o f th e peopl e o f hi s nativ e Dalmatia . Th e figure s o f simple, warm , an d patien t peasants , fishermen, hard-working women , and childre n wer e impresse d i n hi s memor y fro m earlies t childhood , ?Jugoslavia X (1955) , 15.

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and the y serve d a s a rich sourc e for his art . Primitivis m ha s it s plac e in sculptur e a s it doe s i n painting , an d man y talente d peasants , wh o might b e totall y withou t a forma l education , mak e us e o f a fe w idl e days o n the far m t o carv e an d model . On e o f the mos t productiv e o f these person s i s th e Dalmatia n peasan t Peta r Smajic . Hi s excellen t works ar e close r t o th e ancien t epoch s an d th e Middl e Age s tha n t o any o f th e wor k o f hi s contemporaries . For a short period afte r Worl d Wa r II , sculptur e i n Yugoslavi a was almost exclusivel y of a propagandisti c nature . Man y monument s an d reliefs wer e erecte d i n hono r o f th e Re d Army , Stalin , hostages , wa r heroes, an d especiall y Tito. Some of these works, scattered throughou t the country , are not onl y propagandistic bu t als o o f very poor quality . But eve n durin g thi s perio d th e sculpture s o f a fe w talente d youn g artists arouse d attention . Voji n Bakic , Kost a Angeli-Radovani, Vjeko slav Rukljac, an d Andr ó Krstulovic are worth y o f mention here . Toda y quality i s emphasized above all in Yugoslavian sculpture, an d work s of art ar e widel y recognize d tha t woul d hav e bee n condemne d onl y te n years ago as "decadent creations. " PAINTING The name s of Croatian painter s befor e th e fourteent h century remai n unknown, mostl y becaus e i t wa s no t customar y fo r thes e artist s t o affix thei r signature s t o thei r works . Som e informatio n abou t earl y Croatian painting s is , however , availabl e fro m variou s religiou s an d secular documents , as from a n eleventh centur y codex, which mentions portraits o f th e Croatia n nationa l dynast y locate d i n th e Churc h o f St. George i n Ravna , near Obrova c on the Zrmanj a Rive r in Dalmatia . These portrait s are sai d to be o f Mislav, Trpimir an d Mutimir. 8 If th e codex statemen t i s indee d true , i t woul d b e evidenc e o f Croatia n paintings datin g fro m a s earl y a s th e nint h century ; but s o fa r thes e pictures hav e no t com e t o light . Th e oldes t extan t Croatia n pictur e dates fro m th e elevent h centur y an d hang s o n th e wal l o f th e littl e Church o f St . Michael , near Ston . This mural , whos e color s ar e stil l bright an d vivid , portray s St . Michae l wit h a n unidentifie d Croatia n king, wh o hold s a mode l o f th e church , whic h h e quit e probabl y donated wit h a vie w towar d th e salvatio n o f hi s soul . Th e Lati n inscriptions an d th e costum e o f th e kin g a s depicte d o n th e mura l reveal Wester n influence . The portrai t i s painted i n th e oldes t know n 8

595.

This documen t was published b y Dr . F . C . Arens , Hrvatska Revija (1940) ,

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technique, th e "a l fresco, " wit h primar y wate r color s applie d o n we t plaster. Not lon g ago , picture s o f Christ' s lif e an d scene s fro m Hi s passio n were discovere d i n th e belfr y o f St . Mary' s Churc h i n Zadar , whic h could b e date d fro m a s fa r bac k a s th e beginnin g o f th e twelft h century. Th e sacrist y of the cathedra l i n Zagre b i s another locatio n o f very valuabl e frescoe s fro m th e thirteent h century . Th e mos t recentl y discovered frescoe s ar e a t Grohote , o n th e islan d o f Solta . On e ca n trace bac k t o th e thirteent h an d fourteent h centurie s man y such wal l paintings i n differen t churches , monasteries, chapels, an d castle s alon g the Croatia n coast . Al l o f thes e painting s ar e a n integra l par t o f th e architectural structure s designed b y unknow n artists. I n som e of these murals on e ca n identif y variou s influences : thos e o f Byzantin e iko n painters, Italia n masters , or—a s i n Istria—th e peasan t styl e charac teristic o f the Tiro l an d o f the Alpin e regions i n general . I n thei r ow n period, thes e medieva l picture s ha d a very practica l purpose : the y helped th e faithfu l wh o coul d neithe r rea d no r writ e t o interpre t biblical stories . The fe w preciou s handwritten book s of the tim e wer e far fro m th e reac h o f th e commo n people . Th e anonymou s painter s were probabl y talente d member s o f th e Christia n communities , an d they therefor e depicte d religiou s scene s an d th e teaching s o f th e Church. From th e fourteent h century on e begins t o determin e th e name s of individual masters . Th e archive s o f th e Republi c o f Dubrovni k ar e especially helpfu l i n this regard, revealin g even the character s o f som e of th e painters , the locatio n o f their workshops , the numbe r an d age s of thei r apprentices , a s well as the price s an d term s of delivery o f their paintings. Man y murals of this period hav e bee n wel l preserved dow n to the presen t da y an d the y offe r interestin g insight s int o th e creative process behin d th e ofte n naiv e presentations . Frequently on e ca n discern a n attempt b y a painter t o breathe lif e int o his stif f figure s an d to pain t th e familia r landscape s realistically. Th e mos t popula r paint ings of this time were triptychs and polyptychs, altar picture s that could be folded . Th e mos t renowne d painter s o f thes e wer e Bla z Jurje v Trogiranin, 2iva n Ugrinovic , Mate j Juncic , Lovr o Marinov , Mihajl o Hamzic, Vicko Lovrin, and th e foremos t painte r o f this period, Nikol a Bozidarevic ( Nicolaus Ragusinus ). Three o f the latter' s painting s have been identified : th e "Mothe r o f Chris t wit h He r Child , Angel s an d Saints," i n th e Dominica n churc h i n Dubrovnik ; th e "Annunciation, " in th e monaster y adjoinin g th e Dominica n churc h i n Dubrovnik ; an d the triptyc h i n th e Churc h o f St . Mary , a t Dance , nea r Dubrovnik .

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Bozidarevic's work s stil l retai n freshnes s an d beaut y an d expres s th e dreams o f th e huma n sou l in th e fram e o f th e Gothi c style . Wit h hi s own scal e o f colors, he solve d the proble m o f the landscap e b y addin g perspective. Gothic painting also flourished in Istria, as is seen fro m th e discover y in th e las t centur y o f mor e tha n ninet y painting s datin g fro m thi s period. Th e majorit y o f the painting s are anonymous , but som e names are mentioned , suc h a s Klerigin of Kopar , the Maste r o f Trviz, Antu n of Kascerga , an d Benk o o f Socerga . Th e greates t o f thos e named , Vincent o f Kastav , date d hi s mural s i n 147 4 a t St . Mary' s Churc h i n Skriljine, nea r Beram . His themes wer e biblica l an d depicte d th e live s of Christ , Mary , an d St . Martin , togethe r wit h thos e favorit e Gothi c motifs, th e danc e o f the dea d an d th e whee l o f fortune. The influenc e of folklor e i s evident i n Vincent's work, and h e successfull y portrayed the lif e o f the commo n people an d loca l atmospher e a t th e sam e tim e as religiou s themes . On e feels tha t th e mor e frivolou s worl d o f th e Renaissance i s alread y peekin g throug h Vincent' s medieva l form . The master y o f th e medieva l painte r i s eviden t i n th e man y hand written missal s an d breviarie s tha t wer e profusel y decorate d wit h initial letter s an d ornamenta l an d figura i miniatures . Th e Glagoliti c missal o f Duk e Hrvoj e Vukcic-Hrvatinic , illustrate d i n 140 5 b y th e priest Butk o of Omis, is the mos t famou s Croatia n exampl e o f thi s ar t form. Amon g th e miniaturists , th e Croatian s produce d on e world famous artist , Juraj Klovic (Juliu s Clovius, or Giuli o Clovi o Cravata) , who, aside fro m hi s wor k in th e fiel d o f miniatures, was a well-know n medal cutte r i n Italy , an d a n illustrato r o f th e work s o f Dant e an d Petrarca. Hi s miniature s of Latin religiou s writing s ar e considere d th e best o f that epoch , an d toda y most of them ar e i n th e Sloan e Museum in Englan d an d i n th e Pierpon t Morga n Librar y i n Ne w York . Many Croatia n painter s o f th e fifteent h an d sixteent h centurie s worked i n foreig n countries , an d a t presen t thei r painting s ma y b e seen i n almos t al l o f th e majo r gallerie s i n th e world . Mos t o f th e Croatian artist s o f this perio d wer e calle d Cravates , Slavs , Slavonians, Dalmatas, an d othe r loca l variations , because thei r wor k represente d the characteristic s of their native country and o f their cultura l heritage . Juraj Culinovi c (Giorgi o Schiavone) o f Skradi n encircle d hi s Madon nas wit h Glagoliti c inscription s an d signe d hi s nam e i n Croatian . H e presented, in one of his Renaissance portraits, wha t wa s considere d th e ideal woman . Andrija Meduli c (Andre a Meldoll a Schiavone ) painte d religious, mythological , an d allegorica l scene s an d devote d mor e attention t o landscape s tha n hi s Croatia n contemporaries . Hi s com -

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position an d th e harmon y of the color s he use d ar e a t th e sam e tim e a masterl y imitatio n o f th e formula s initiate d b y Correggi o an d a continuation o f th e styl e o f Croatia n artist s fro m th e Middl e Age s down t o hi s time . Medulic' s engraving s sho w hi m t o hav e bee n a master o f precision , an d h e kne w ho w t o extrac t th e mos t fro m hi s material an d fro m th e techniqu e o f copper-engraving. In th e sixteenth century, a grea t lithographer , Marti n Koluni c Rot a o f Sibenik , wa s prominent, an d hi s etchings sprea d th e work s of Michelangelo, Titian , and Dure r throughou t Europe . H e als o engrave d man y portrait s an d pictures o f cities, which bear hi s characteristi c signature , "Martin Rot a Sebenzanin fecit." At the tur n o f the seventeent h century , the travelin g artist Federik o Benkovic cam e t o prominence . Bor n i n Dalmatia , educate d i n th e Venice an d Bologn a cultura l milieus , he worke d an d wandere d wit h his student s from Zagre b t o Brussels , and fro m Venic e to Krakow . His special techniqu e o f painting diffuse d ligh t reache d it s fulles t expres sion i n hi s paintin g "Th e Sacrific e o f Abraham. " Distinctiv e trait s of his styl e wer e simplicit y o f compositio n an d moderatio n i n color . Through thes e means he achieve d th e portraya l of an intensified facial expression whic h adde d convictio n t o th e compositio n a s a whole . Tripo Kokolja , a painte r wh o worke d i n churche s i n Perast , Bol , on the island s o f Bra e an d Korcula , wa s on e o f th e bes t loca l talent s a t this time. During th e Baroqu e period , Zagre b becam e th e Croatia n cultura l center. Bernard o Bobi c o f Zagreb wa s no t onl y a goldsmit h bu t als o the mos t famou s painte r o f thi s period . Th e exceptiona l detai l o f hi s pictures add s t o th e perfectio n o f hi s design . Hi s painting s fo r th e Church o f St . Catherine i n Zagreb , and hi s portrai t o f Kin g Ladislaus in the Cathedral o f Zagreb acquire a sheen as a result of the ornaments, gold, an d jewel s portraye d i n them . Th e othe r importan t Baroqu e painters wer e member s of various religious orders , a s for instanc e th e Paulist Franj o Bobic , a noteworth y interior decorato r an d painte r o f the monastery in Lepoglava. In general , however , th e Baroqu e styl e produce d onl y mediocr e painters wh o spen t thei r tim e an d effor t workin g o n ornament s an d precise details . Croati a wa s a favorit e stopping-plac e fo r man y wandering artist s wh o ofte n painte d alta r picture s an d people' s portraits in exchange for board and room. Amateur artist s were ver y prolifi c i n Croati a i n th e firs t hal f o f th e nineteenth century , becaus e th e arts—especiall y painting—wer e considered a necessar y par t o f a goo d education . On e ma y stil l se e

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depicted i n man y residentia l house s variou s stil l lifes , portraits , an d landscapes, th e resul t o f this perio d o f activity . Often , i n th e mas s of mediocre wor k produce d i n thi s period , on e ma y recogniz e a modes t sparkle of a true talent . The beginnings o f modern Croatia n painting ca n be linke d wit h th e tragic caree r o f Vjekosla v Karas , whos e lif e an d painting s possesse d many of the characteristic s of the developmen t o f Croatian painting i n general. Fat e was not kin d to most of the talente d Croatia n artists who were unabl e t o develop freel y an d full y becaus e o f poverty an d a lac k of understandin g o n th e par t o f thei r society . Man y youn g artist s became despondent , and Karas was one of these. He committed suicid e to put a n end t o a life o f misery, to his unfinished studies i n Italy , an d to a drear y teachin g positio n i n a vocationa l school . I n spit e o f hi s short life , Kara s lef t behin d a fe w portrait s tha t ar e notabl e fo r th e way i n whic h h e succeede d i n combinin g realisti c representatio n an d an acut e psychoanalysi s o f th e character s h e portrayed . Durin g hi s studies i n Italy , thi s gif t wa s alread y visible , i n hi s paintin g "Roma n Lady with Lute," for instance , and later he became even more adept in this field with hi s paintings "Littl e Boy " and "Th e Kresi c Family. " With the founding of the Croatia n Art Society, 9 artistic life i n Zagreb began t o flourish. The first group of professional painters, the Schoo l of Zagreb (Zagreback a Skola) , operate d withi n th e framewor k o f thi s organization. Thi s grou p di d no t hav e a specia l program , bu t i t wa s important becaus e o f its aspiratio n t o lin k moder n ar t wit h th e grea t creations o f th e pas t an d t o emphasiz e th e continuit y o f Croatia n painting. Th e leade r o f the Schoo l of Zagreb was th e Dalmatia n Vlah o Bukovac, who , afte r muc h travelin g an d man y differen t occupations , came to Paris to stud y under Cabanel , i n whom he recognize d a note worthy an d admirable style. 10 Bukovac stayed i n Paris for fifteen years, studying an d strivin g fo r recognition . H e painte d portrait s o f hi s creditors an d trie d t o arous e interes t b y depictin g Croatia n nationa l costumes and historical scenes. He attained succes s in the Frenc h Salo n in 188 2 wit h hi s "L a Grand e Iza, " base d o n th e main characte r o f a popular novel . Thi s portrai t wa s striking , wit h it s rathe r dar k colors , its realistic details , an d Bukovac' s characteristic embellishments . Afte r this triump h i n Paris , Bukova c came t o Zagre b a s a recognize d artis t and a n accepted judg e o f Croatian painting. H e ha d a grea t talen t for details an d the abilit y to perceive an d portray on canvas the importan t Wrvatsko Drustco Umjetnosti, founde d i n 187 8 b y Is o Krsnjav i (1845-1926) . Alexandre Cabane l (1823-1889) , th e Frenc h classicis t an d painte r o f mytho logical scenes. 10

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characteristics o f his objects—an d thes e skill s made him a very successful portrai t painter . I n spit e of the grea t spee d wit h whic h h e worked , and hi s hig h fees , h e wa s unabl e t o continuall y satisf y hi s vas t clientele, eve n thoug h h e create d som e 40 0 portraits an d mor e tha n 200 larger work s i n a relativel y shor t time . Th e peopl e wante d thei r portraits don e b y Bukova c not onl y o n accoun t o f his popularity , bu t also because h e presente d hi s subjects in a very favorable light. Buko vac is the firs t Croatia n moder n painte r wh o successfull y tackled th e problem o f larg e composition . "Th e Drea m o f th e Poe t Gundulic " ( Gundulicev Sa n ) an d "Th e Croatia n Nationa l Awakening" ( Hrvatski Narodni Preporod ) ar e tw o o f hi s mor e widel y reproduce d pictures . The latte r is painted o n the gal a curtai n in the Theate r o f Zagreb an d adds a festiv e touc h t o it s theatrica l surrounding . Graduall y Bukova c made more abundan t us e o f color and ofte n painte d hi s portraits wit h the rang e o f color s foun d i n landscapes . Thi s qualit y influence d a number o f Croatian painters , who earned , wit h Bukovac , the nam e of the "Colorfu l Schoo l o f Zagreb" (Saren a Zagreback a Skola ) a t foreign exhibitions. In clos e contac t wit h Bukova c were man y of his disciple s wh o ha d been educate d i n Zagreb, Vienna , and Munich . Their aspiratio n wa s to revive Croatia n folklor e an d history . Thei r theme s wer e varie d an d included portraits , countrysides, still lifes , an d folklor e studies, a s wel l as larg e composition s o f figure s associate d with motif s take n fro m th e history and lif e of the Croatians . All strongly emphasized their Croatia n national identity . Nikol a Masi c expresse d th e characte r o f hi s nativ e soil an d depicte d th e Croatia n people . Ferd o Kovacevi c painte d th e countryside clos e to the Sav a River. Klement Crncic-Menci portraye d the char m o f the Adriatic , an d Bel a Csikos-Sessi a legendary an d sym bolic themes . Ferd o Quiquere z an d Otó n Ivekovi c concentrate d o n important historical episode s and personalities, such as Kings Tomislav, Zvonimir, an d Peta r Svacic , Matij a Gubec, th e leade r o f the Croatia n peasants' revolt , an d th e member s o f th e Zrinsk i famil y wh o fough t against th e Turk s an d Hapsburgs . Th e pries t Celesti n Medovi c i s one of th e mos t talented an d th e mos t individua l i n thi s group . Wit h hi s darker color s and his religious motifs, he strov e to emphasiz e the inne r life o f his subjects. Some of his portrait s successfully express a spirit of ecstasy an d a psychological insight that wa s not t o b e foun d i n Buko vac's portraits. Tw o talented wome n painters o f this perio d wer e Slava Raskaj an d Nast a Rojc . Th e former , i n spit e o f a shor t an d tragi c life , portrayed excellen t sprin g landscape s an d peasants ' home s aroun d Ozalj; th e latte r successfull y exhibited he r portrait s i n Croati a an d i n

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foreign countries . The work of all of these painters ha s been the subject of discussio n a t ar t exhibit s i n Paris , Sain t Petersburg , Rome , an d Copenhagen. At th e beginnin g o f th e twentiet h centur y tw o group s o f artist s i n Croatia clashe d wit h th e Schoo l o f Zagreb , whic h ha d monopolize d Croatian paintin g fo r mor e tha n tw o decades . Th e firs t o f thes e wa s the Meduli c Club , whos e leade r wa s Iva n Mestrovic . Thi s group , mostly compose d o f young sculptors an d painter s fro m Dalmatia , wa s enthusiastically patriotic . It s member s wer e influence d by th e Seces sion, th e Germa n Neo-romanti c movement . A t th e en d o f th e nine teenth century , thi s latte r idealisti c movemen t wa s formulate d an d expressed itsel f i n th e magazin e Jugend i n Munich . It s follower s decided t o figh t academis m an d th e curren t taste o f th e bourgeosie . The Secessionist s were dynami c an d emotional , an d the y emphasize d content abov e all . Th e idea s o f th e Secessionist s wer e accepte d b y young artist s i n Berli n an d Vienna , an d throug h thes e channel s th e Secession penetrate d int o Croatia n painting , sculpture , an d literature . Among thos e influence d by thi s movemen t was Mirk o Racki , who depicted Kraljevi c Marko , the powerfu l hero o f folklore , i n on e o f hi s works. Joz o Kljakovi c wa s anothe r who m i t influenced , especially i n his frescoes tha t hav e religious and legendar y motive s as their subjec t matter. H e als o illustrated th e epi c poem Death of Smail-Aga Cengic, by Iva n Mazuranic . Th e lithographe r Tomisla v Krizma n show s th e Secessionist influenc e i n hi s etching s o f famou s Croatia n me n an d o f the countryside. The othe r group , th e "Pur e Painters, " consiste d o f Josip Raci c an d Miroslav Kraljevic , painter s wh o wer e fa r fro m th e academism , embellished realism , the Secession influence, an d the romantic nationalism o f the Meduli c group. Ljub o Babic , himself a painter an d th e bes t historian o f th e developmen t o f Croatia n painting , characterize s th e role of these tw o painters a s follows: Racic an d Kraljevi ó ar e in th e first place th e necessar y artisti c lin k wit h th e best traditio n o f ou r ol d masters . The y represen t th e connectio n wit h th e contemporary West , whic h wa s th e decisiv e leade r throughou t th e nine teenth an d th e beginnin g o f the twentiet h centuries . The y mad e th e brea k with mediocr e influence s an d attache d themselve s t o th e stronges t focus . Although thi s attachment coul d hav e bee n dangerous , i t wa s precisel y th e element that led to our artistic progress. Finally, and the mos t important fact , these artists represented the turnin g point in and th e antidot e to al l nebulous ideologies, because they took a firm stand on a realistic basis. In ou r country, and fo r all future generations , the y signifie d th e startin g point. 11 n Ljubo Babié , Umjetnost kod Hrvata u XIX stolfecu I Ar t Amon g Croatian s i n the Nineteent h Century (Zagreb: Matica Hrvatska , 1934) , 142-143 .

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The first-name d artis t o f thi s group , Josi p Racic , bega n a s a chil d t o draw i n charcoa l o n th e wall s o f his father' s in n i n Horvati , a subur b of Zagreb. After hi s schooling in professional workshops and ar t studio s in Zagreb , Vienna, an d Paris , h e brok e with th e tradition s o f his tim e and develope d hi s ow n style . Hi s styl e o f paintin g i s influenced b y a life fille d wit h povert y an d struggle . Raci c i s a maste r o f th e clear , peaceful, an d complet e brus h stroke , a qualit y whic h lend s lif e t o his portraits an d landscapes . Hi s self-portrait , dar k an d simple , i n th e style o f Manet , who m he respected , represent s wha t man y fee l i s th e most expressive picture in Croatian art . His "Pont de s Arts" is a perfect impressionistic paysag e an d a n excellen t exampl e o f hi s talent . Th e well-proportioned sof t tone s an d silver y color s o f hi s wor k mak e on e sensitive t o th e pur e pleasur e o f thi s paintin g fo r it s ow n sake , com pletely fre e fro m an y moral , national , o r intellectua l preoccupations . Miroslav Kraljevi c was t o Croatia n paintin g wha t hi s frien d Mato s was to Croatian literature. Bot h were educated i n Western Europ e an d were enthusiasti c abou t Paris . Temperamental , sometime s frivolousl y superficial an d ironic , they were alway s permeated wit h lov e fo r thei r native country . I n hi s bes t works , Kraljevi c wa s th e unmistakabl e impressionist, for whom the pla y o f light, shadow , an d colo r was more important tha n an y psychology . Hi s "Self-portrai t Wit h Pipe " i s on e of th e mos t powerful Croatia n pictures o f thi s epoch , an d "Th e Littl e Girl Wit h A Doll" is a portrait o f rare liveliness . The soun d impressionism of Manet was als o the basi s for the work s of Vladimi r Becic , an d hi s paintin g styl e i s characterize d b y a dee p feeling fo r proportion s an d monofigurism , a s wel l a s b y a peacefu l simplicity. H e i s a t hi s mos t successfu l i n hi s landscape s o f Bosnia . For a long time, Beci c represented th e contac t betwee n hi s colleagues Racic an d Kraljevic , wh o die d young , an d th e ne w generatio n o f artists whic h accepte d an d continue d thei r ideas . After Worl d Wa r I , artisti c activit y i n Croati a wa s ful l o f lif e an d variety. Th e Academ y of Plastic Arts 12 provide d a soli d educatio n fo r young artists . Mos t o f the m travele d abroa d ofte n an d studie d ne w ideas, methods , an d techniques , eithe r a s students o r a s tourists . The y absorbed th e experiences of Western Europ e that helped them to build up thei r ow n artisti c creeds . Thei r bol d individua l experience s pene trated int o th e Croatia n milieu , causin g ne w activit y an d fres h approaches. Man y o f thes e painter s exhibite d eithe r a s individual s o r in group s i n Croati a an d abroad . Th e Sprin g Salon , a professiona l 12 The firs t work s o f th e Academ y ar e no w i n a privat e schoo l o f paintin g founded i n 190 5 b y the painter s Csiko s and Crncio , and turne d int o Schoo l o f Arts and Craft s in 1907 .

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organization o f painter s i n Zagreb , organize d mos t o f th e exhibition s between 191 5 an d 1923 . Th e importan t member s o f th e Sprin g Salo n were Vilk o Gecan , a representativ e o f Croatia n Expressionism , an d Milivoj Uzelac , a painte r an d illustrato r wh o a t presen t i s workin g in Paris. One o f th e mos t importan t year s fo r Croatia n paintin g wa s 1929 , when tw o group s wer e founde d whic h exerte d stron g influenc e i n th e period betwee n th e worl d wars . Th e firs t o f thes e wa s th e Grou p of Three (Grup a Trojice) , consistin g o f Becic , Babic , an d Mise . Thi s group aspire d t o emphasiz e qualit y withou t regar d fo r th e typ e o f content. Its members played a n important role in educating th e publi c through well-organize d exhibits , articles , an d lectures , an d i t wa s extremely helpfu l towar d youn g talent , givin g i t th e opportunit y t o exhibit withi n th e fram e o f the Grou p o f Three. Amon g these younge r talents th e followin g ar e worth y o f mention : Antu n Motika , Brun o Bulic, Slavk o Sohaj , Iv o Seremet , Mlade n Veza , an d Slavk o Kopac . The organize r an d leader of the grou p was Ljubo Babic, from Hrvatsk o Zagorje, the respected painter , historian , ar t critic , lecturer , an d writer . His wor k i s a synthesi s o f soun d erudition , dee p knowledg e o f tech niques, an d a refine d artisti c feeling . A studen t o f Crncic' s schoo l o f painting an d th e academie s o f Munic h an d Paris , Babi c wa s attracte d to Gustave Courbet's passionate contrasts o f light an d shadow . Babic' s flowers especially sho w the characteristic s o f these contrasts . A master of color , he sough t t o portra y th e beaut y o f his nativ e Croatia n land scapes. I n hi s studies o f national costumes , Babic trie d t o expres s th e essence o f th e autochthonou s fol k art , an d i n hi s religiou s motif s t o present th e philosoph y o f moder n man . A s a se t designer , Babi c prepared th e scener y fo r man y piece s i n th e repertoir e o f th e Oper a house in Zagreb. Jerolim Mise was the third member of the Grou p of Three. A studen t of th e Croatian , German, an d Frenc h academies , h e ha s succeede d i n expressing the inne r lif e o f his subjects , especially tha t o f young girls . In his large number o f oils, watercolors, and drawings , Mis e attempte d to record lif e in all its aspects, and thi s was evident at his Retrospectiv e Exhibition ( 1914-1954 ) i n Zagreb . Th e idea s o f th e Grou p o f Three influenced man y other painters , suc h a s Milivo j Uzelac , Jura j Plancic , Marijan Treps e ( a painter , decorator , an d se t designer) , an d Mari n Tartaglia, wh o developed hi s style b y studyin g expressionism , cubism , and th e work s o f hi s favorit e painter , Cézanne . I n a wid e rang e of colors, Tartaglia strov e to depict the rhythm of the inne r law s o f nature in his portraits an d landscapes .

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Another grou p tha t presente d itsel f t o th e publi c a t th e sam e tim e as the Grou p of Three was called Eart h (Zemlja ) an d wa s founded by the painte r Krst o Hegedusic . I t wa s joine d b y man y painter s an d architects o f distinctl y progressiv e convictions . Th e exhibition s o f th e Earth grou p depicte d th e socia l condition s o f Croatia n peasants ; th e members suppor t thei r creation s wit h crushin g statistics . For the artists i n thi s group , ideolog y an d conten t ar e o f prim e importance , and thei r ar t i s a grotesque-naiv e illustratio n o f the condition s o f th e poor an d o f lif e i n th e villages . Th e member s diffe r i n thei r artisti c methods o f solvin g these problems . Some o f th e painter s wor k i n th e tradition o f folklore an d continue the techniqu e of the peasant painters, a tendenc y especiall y eviden t i n thei r votiv e picture s i n churches . Others i n thi s schoo l searc h fo r thei r inspiratio n i n th e work s o f th e old masters , notabl y i n th e painting s o f Piete r Brueghel , th e Flemis h painter o f peasan t scene s i n th e sixteent h century . Th e mos t modern of thi s grou p accep t primitivis m an d expressionis m i n a n effor t t o return t o th e typ e o f ar t expresse d i n th e cave s o f th e Ston e Age , o r in medieval frescoes . Krsto Hegedusi c ha s painte d th e epi c struggl e o f th e Croatia n peasant wit h natur e an d th e government , togethe r wit h hi s miserie s and hi s joys , i n hi s painting s "Flood, " "Funeral, " an d "Th e Fai r i n Podravina." Hegedusi c founde d th e Schoo l o f Hlebin e i n th e smal l village o f Hlebin e i n Podravina , whos e member s ar e peasant s wh o paint durin g th e rain y seaso n o r o n their holidays . Thei r chie f them e is the lif e o f the peasant , an d thei r techniqu e i s that o f oi l o n glas s or wood, o r tha t o f fresc o murals . The centra l figur e i n thi s regar d a t present i s Ivan Generalic, and amon g the man y members of the school , one should mention th e talented peasant s Franj o Mraz, Slavko Stolnik, Dragan Gazi , an d Franj o Filipovic. Sinc e 1949 , thes e peasan t painter s have exhibite d thei r painting s yearly , under th e nam e o f the Painters ' School o f Hlebin e (Hlebinsk a Slikarsk a Skola) , an d man y foreig n galleries no w purchas e thei r creations . Othe r member s o f th e Eart h school o f painting includ e th e painte r an d lithographe r Djur o Tiljak , Otón Postruznik , an d Vili m Svecnjak . Amon g th e architect s i n thi s school ar e Stjepa n Plani c an d Drag o Ibler . Man y member s o f thi s organization participate d i n World Wa r II a s Partisans, an d some , lik e Mirko Virius , lost thei r lives . After th e wa r the y depicte d wa r theme s almost exclusively . Th e painter s o f thi s schoo l tried , i n realisti c an d figurai composition , t o expres s wha t the y ha d seen . Some , i n thei r attempt t o presen t a synthesi s o f the wa r year s turne d t o abstraction , as, for instance, Edo Murtic .

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The war wa s also the them e chose n by many other painters , som e of whom are now members of the ULU H ( Udruzenje Likovnih Umjetnika Hrvatske / Associatio n o f Plasti c Artist s o f Croatia) , founde d afte r 1945 an d th e ULUB H (Associatio n of Plasti c Artist s o f Bosni a an d Hercegovina ). Marija n Detoni , Zlatk o Prica , an d Peta r Simag a ar e only a fe w o f th e artist s intereste d i n th e sam e subject . No t al l th e painters o f thes e group s chos e th e them e o f war , however , eve n i f most o f them provide d som e contribution t o thi s topic . Th e tendenc y to express their ow n individuality becam e especiall y noticeable amon g artists afte r 1948 . Fran o Simunovic , formerl y a painte r o f wa r horror s and o f Partisa n heroism , no w paint s th e mountainou s landscape s o f Dalmatia. Otó n Glih a has bee n workin g for year s on poetic picture s of th e rock y terrain o f the islan d o f Krk, with suc h a succes s tha t th e Guggenheim Museu m in Ne w Yor k bought hi s "Th e Whit e Rocks " in 1958. Vjekosla v Para c paint s wome n fro m Kaste l an d thei r husband s who til l th e land . Iva n Lovrenci c expresses , in hi s sensitiv e etchings , the lonelines s o f peasan t childre n whos e parent s wor k thei r smal l pieces o f lan d fro m daw n t o dusk . Mil a Kumbatovi c produce s war m coastal landscapes , and Vladimi r Kiri n and Zdenk a Serti e continu e t o popularize Croatian costumes and folklore . Some moder n Croatia n painter s lea n towar d surrealis m an d tr y t o interpret th e subconsciou s mind, as, for instance, Omer Mujadzic , Le o Junek, an d Miljenk o Stancic . Her e on e shoul d als o mentio n Antu n Motika, a very successfu l painte r o f interiors , whos e surrealisti c scenes—especially i n glass—ar e widel y recognize d a s positiv e innova tions. Befor e Worl d Wa r II , Motik a held thre e one-man exhibition s i n Zagreb. Whit e wa s th e dominan t colo r h e employed , an d h e wa s th e first Croatian artis t interested i n collage an d othe r simila r experiments . His seemingl y effortles s art , permeate d wit h a spiri t o f joy , stresse s poetry an d imagination . Anothe r painte r wh o hel d one-ma n exhibit s was Emanuel Vidovic, who never belonged t o a professional organiza tion, bu t wh o wa s recognize d a s a painte r o f interiors i n a lyri c style , and o f warm and glittering Dalmatian landscapes . Today mos t o f the exhibit s i n Croati a tak e plac e withi n th e frame work of the ULUH, and in Bosnia-Hercegovina the ULUBH , and the y represent th e achievement s o f bot h group s an d individuals . Anothe r association, EXAT 51, a group o f young painters,13 held its firs t exhibi t in Zagreb in 1952. It s best representatives ar e Ivan Picelj, Josip Vanista, and Aleksanda r Srnec, me n wh o ar e tryin g t o achiev e pur e abstrac t form i n thei r work . Exhibition s o f artisti c creation s ar e ver y popular , 13

EXAT is the abbreviatio n for "Experimental Atelier. "

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not onl y i n Zagreb , Split , Rijeka , an d Sarajevo , bu t i n almos t ever y large city i n Yugoslavia . The ULU H and ULUB H hel p youn g artists , build studios , popularize art , an d succee d i n sellin g man y picture s a t fair prices . Croatia n artist s participate i n many exhibits abroad , a t th e Biennale, th e Triennale , an d i n Unesco , fo r example , especiall y sinc e Tito's break wit h th e Stalinis t philosophy . Befor e tha t time , Yugoslav artists wer e limite d almos t exclusivel y t o exhibition s hel d i n Com munist countries. The contemporary Croatia n painte r doe s no t confin e th e subjec t matter o f his wor k t o hi s nativ e country . Man y painter s fle d Croati a after Worl d War II, and som e lef t it eve n befor e tha t time , but the majority stil l expres s i n thei r work s thei r adherenc e t o th e Croatia n tradition. Som e o f th e artist s wh o lef t Yugoslavi a ha d t o struggl e desparately fo r recognition , whil e som e o f the m wer e renowne d artists and were easily accepted i n their new lands. Maksimilijan Vanka came t o the Unite d State s a s a respected painter o f the countrysid e of his nativ e Hrvatsk o Zagorje. Th e warmt h o f hi s wor k ha d bee n com pared i n Croatia t o the poems of Ljubo Wiesner. He cam e to New York during th e depressio n an d attracte d th e attentio n o f th e America n public wit h hi s portrait s o f worker s an d tramps . I n th e Churc h o f St. Nicholas near Pittsburgh , Vank a depicted in frescoe s Croatian life , as well a s the Croatia n emigration . In hi s religious motifs, he ha s eve n portrayed Croatian s in their nationa l costumes . Jo/o Kljakovi c cam e to South America as a painter with a world-wide reputation; h e now live s and work s i n Rome . Kristia n Krekovi c attaine d recognitio n i n Peru . His monumenta l paintings , dynami c an d powerful , presen t i n vivi d colors th e pas t an d presen t o f Peru . Hi s Inca s an d hi s Andea n land scapes have been enthusiasticall y accepted i n both Americas , and eve n in Europe, where he accompanied one of his exhibitions. Gustav Likan, Josip Crnobori , Zdravk o Ducmelic, 2ark o Simat , Ank a Jaksic-Brown , and Iva n Galantic , ar e bu t a fe w o f th e promisin g Croatia n émigré painters fro m who m much migh t be expecte d in the future . BIBLIOGRAPHY The beautifu l illustrate d magazin e Jugoslavia, publishe d quarterl y i n Belgrade i n variou s languages , frequentl y contain s interestin g article s o n Croatian artists . Th e magazin e Covjek i prostor / Ma n an d Spac e (Zagreb , 1954-59) has , from tim e to time , als o reviewed recent achievements i n th e arts. Babic, Ljubo . Gbzor Spomen Knjiga 1860-193 5 / Obzo r Memoria l Boo k 1860-1935. Zagreb, 1935, 149-153 .

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. Umjetnost Hrvata u XIX stoljecu / Ar t Amon g Croatian s i n th e Nineteenth Century . Zagreb: Matic a Hrvatska, 1934. •. Boja i sklad / Colo r and Harmony . Zagreb, 1943. •. Umjetnost kod Hrvata / Ar t Among Croatians. Zagreb, 1943. Bach, Ivan . "Srednjevjekovn a umjetnick a bastin a narod a Jugoslavije " / Th e Medieval Ar t Heritag e o f th e People s o f Yugoslavia , Arhitektura 5- 6 (1960). Basicevic, Mica. "Ivan Generalic, " Jugoslavia XI , 59. Batusic, Slavko . "Slikarstvo Zagrebacko g Sredista " / Paintin g o f the Zagre b Center, Pola vijeka jugoslavenskog slikarstva 1900-1950 / A Half-Century of Yugosla v Painting, 1900-1950 . Zagreb, 1953. •. Umjetnost u did: Pregled povijesti umjetnosti / Ar t i n Pictures : A Survey of the Histor y of the Arts . Zagreb: Matica Hrvatska, 1957 . Pp. 726; 712 illus. Secon d revised ed. 1961 . This work contains a surve y of the art s throughout th e world . I t als o proves helpfu l fo r a stud y i n th e histor y of Croatian art , however, sinc e i t devote s a relatively larg e amoun t o f spac e to th e Croatia n scene . Thi s i s particularly tru e o f recent development s i n Croatian art, which the autho r considers on pages 513—78 . Bihalji-Merin, Oto . "Jugoslovenska skulptur a dvadeseto g vijeka " / Yugosla v Sculpture of the Twentiet h Century . Jugoslavia X , 1955. Boskovic, Djordje . Arhitektura srednjeg veka / Architectur e o f th e Middl e Ages. Beograd , 1957. Bulat-Simic, Anka . Vjekoslav Karas. Zagreb , 1958. Depolo, Josip . "Jo s jednom o nasim primitivcima " / Onc e Mor e Abou t Ou r Primitives, Republika (September , 1957) , 28. Digovic, Pero. "L'Ar t e n Croati e Dalmate," La Dalmatie (Lausanne , 1944) . Dobrovnic, Nikola . Urbanizam kroz vekove / Urbanis m Throughou t th e Centuries. Beograd, 1950. . Dubrovacki dvorci / Th e Castle s o f Dubrovnik . Beograd : Urbani sticki Zavod. Book no. 3. Enciklopedija likovnih umjetnosti / Encyclopedi a o f the Plasti c Arts. Zagreb: Lexicographical Institut e o f PFRY , 1960 . Editor-in-Chief : Dr . Franc e Stele. Fiskovic, Cvito . Nasi graditelji i kipari XV. i XVI. stoljeca u Dubrovniku / Our Architects an d Sculptor s in Dubrovnik i n th e Fifteent h an d Sixteent h Centuries. Zagreb : Matica Hrvatska, 1947. -. "Radovan, " Republika 3 (1951) , 245-259 . Frajtic, August . Kroatien. Wien, 1944. GomboS, Stjepan . "Modern a arhitektur a u Hrvatskoj" / Moder n Architectur e in Croatia, Jugoslavia XI , 102. Jackson, T. G. Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria. Oxford , 1887. Jirousek, A. "Martin-Rota Kolunic," Vijenac 2 5 (1923) , 497. Jirousek, Vesna . "Jeroli m Mise, " Naprijed (Zagreb , 1958) . Jirousek, 2eljko . Ümjetnost u Hrvatskoj/Art i n Croatia . (Zagreb , 1938) . Karaman, Ljubo . "Kroatisch e Kunst an der Ostkuest e de r Adria, " Croatia VI, 8-20. •• . Umjetnost u Dalmaciji u XV. i XVI. vieku/Art i n Dalmati a i n th e Fifteenth an d Sixteent h Centuries . Zagreb , 1943. . Pregled umjetnosti u Dalmaciji/A Surve y of Art in Dalmatia. Zagreb ,

1952.

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Kastelic, Toza . "Dv a lik a Berama"/Tw o Figure s o f Beram , Jugoslavia XI , 117. Krleza, Miroslav . Izlozba srednjevjekovne umjetnosti naroda Jugoslavije: C/üOíZ/Exhibition o f the Medieva l Ar t o f th e People s o f Yugoslavia : Intro duction. Zagreb , 1951 . . " O snirti slikara Racica," Jugoslavia XI, 25. Peic, Matko. Slava Raskaj. Beograd , 1957 . Perc, Aleksandar. "Srednjevjekovno zidn o slikarstvo Istre"/Medieval Frescoes in Istria, Osoba i Duh I (1954) , 60-69. Prijatelj, Kruno . "Umjetnicki spomenic i naái h otoka"/Art Monuments of Our Islands, Jugoslavia (1958) , 113 . Prpic, Jure . "Maksimilija n Vanka, " Hrvatska Revija VIII , vol . 3 , 275 . Radaic, Ante . "Slikarstv o Kristian a Krekovica"/Paintin g o f Kristia n Kreko vic, Hrvatska Revija VIII , vol . 1 , 58 . Rakovac, Milan . "Gustav Likan," Hrvatska Revija II , vol . 1 , 180 . •. "Dvij e izlozb e Zdravk a Ducmelica " / Tw o Ar t Exhibit s o f Zdravk o Ducmelic, Hrvatska Revija VI , vol. 3, 275 . Rice, Norma n (éd.) , The Sculpture of Ivan Mestrovic. Syracuse , Ne w York : Syracuse Universit y Press , 1948 . Salmi, Mario . Italian Miniatures. Ne w York, 1954 . Schmeckebier, Laurence . Ivan Mestrovic Sculptor and Patriot. Syracuse , New York: Syracus e University Press, 1959 . Segvic, Neven. "Dubrovacka arhitektura, " Jugoslavia (1951) , 38. Sepic, Dragovan. "Antun Motika, " Kultura (Zagreb , 1957) . Srepel, Ivo . Hrvatska urnjetnost: Predgouor/Croatia n Art: Foreword . Zagreb , 1943. Vucetic, Sime . "Crtez i i grafik a NOB"/Drawing s an d Graphic s o f th e National Liberatio n Movement , Republika 11-1 2 (1955) , 1003 .

CROATIAN ARTIST S Albini, Alfre d (1896 — ) . Architect : "Croatia n Hom e i n Osijek. " Alesi, Andrej . Sculpto r an d architec t o f th e fifteent h century . Worke d wit h Juraj Dalmatinac . Andrijic, Marko . Architect an d sculpto r o f th e fifteent h century . Angeli-Radovani, Kost a (1916 - ) . Sculpto r o f wa r heroes : "Nad a Dimic," "Ivo Lol a Ribar." Antolic, Vlado ( 1913- ) . Architect . Antun O f Kascerga . Medieva l painte r fro m Istria . Antunac, Grg a (1906 - ) . Sculptor : "Actress" ; "M y Family." Augustincic, Antun (1900 - ) . Sculptor: "Miner" ; "Peace"; "Tito." Babic, Ljub o (1890 - ) . Painter , se t designer , ar t critic : "M y Nativ e Land"; "Figs." Bakic, Voji n (1915 - ) . Sculptor : "Worker" ; "Iva n Gora n Kovacic. " Bartolic, Ivan (1911 - ) . Architect . Bauer, Bruno (1884- ) . Architect . Becic, Vladimir (1886-1954) . Painte r o f Bosnian landscapes: Oak , "Blazuj " (near Sarajevo) . Belina, Pavao . Baroqu e sculptor .

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Benko O f Socerga . Fifteenth-centur y sculpto r an d architec t fro m Istria . Benkovic, Federic o (Fridrik ) (1677-1753) . Painter : "Sacrific e of Abraham. " Bobic, Bernard o (d . 1693-1698?) . Baroqu e painte r an d goldsmith : 1683 , painting fo r St . Catherine' s Churc h i n Zagreb ; 1691 , paintin g o f St . Ladislaus fo r th e Cathedra l o f Zagreb . Bot h painting s ar e toda y i n th e Gallery o f th e Yugosla v Academ y in Zagreb . Bobic, Franj o (1677-1728) . Painte r an d interio r decorato r o f the monastery in Lepoglava . Bollé, Hermann (1845-1926) . Architect in Zagreb. Bozidarevic, Nikol a (Nicolau s Ragusinus) . Painte r i n Dubrovni k i n th e fifteenth century . Triptych s i n th e Dominica n churc h an d i n th e churc h at Dance. Bukovac, Vlaho (1855-1922) . Painter: "L a Grande Iza"; "Croatian Nationa l Awakening"; "Dream o f Gundulic"; "Poet." Bulic, Brun o (1903 - ) . Painter : "Self-Portrai t Wit h A Glass" ; "Fryin g Pan With Eggs. " Butko. Pries t who , in 1405 , illustrated th e Glagoliti c missal o f Duk e Hrvoj e Vukcic. Buvina, Andrija . Sculptor : carve d th e woode n porta l o f th e cathedra l i n Split in 1214. Cota, Frane (1899-1951) . Sculptor and architect: "Woman Reading. " Crncic-Menci, Klemen t (1865-1930) . Painte r an d lithographer : "Kaptol" ; "Dolac." Crnobori, Josi p (1907 — ) . Painter : "Maksimir" ; "Portrai t o f a Lady. " Crnota, Stjepa n (Stephanu s d e Cernot a pictor , Stefan o Cernotto , Stephan o discipolo di Titiano) . Painter i n th e sixteent h century. Worke d i n Venice. Paintings: St . Peter , St . Paul , Jesu s Drivin g Merchant s fro m th e Temple . Csikos-Sessia, Bel a (1864-1931) . Painter : "Penelope" ; "Th e Christenin g of the Croatians." Culinovic, Jura j (Giorgi o Schiavone ) (1435—1505) . Painte r o f Renaissanc e madonnas. Dalmatinac, Jura j (Jura j Matejevic , Georgiu s Dalmaticus , Giorgi o Orsini , Giorgio da Sevenico) . Sculptor and architec t o f the fifteent h century : aps e of th e cathedra l i n Sibenik ; Mincet a Towe r i n Dubrovnik , 1463 . Deskovic, Branisla v (1885-1939) . Sculptor : "Donkey" ; "O n th e Track. " Detoni, Marija n (1905 - ) . Painter: "Crossing Neretv a River. " Dragoje. Bogomil sculptor. Dubrovcanin, Antun. Sculptor: Th e Orland o monument in Dubrovnik, 1417 . Ducmelic, Zdravko . Painter: "Gir l Friends" ; self-portrait . Duknovic, Iva n (Giovann i Dalmata ) (1440-1509) . Sculptor : St . Joh n i n the Cathedra l o f Trogir . Ehrlich, Hug o (1879-1935) . Architect : th e Ne w Schoo l o f Technolog y i n Zagreb. Fabijanic, Andrija. Baroque sculptor: statue s of saints in wood. Felbinger, Barto l (1785-1871) . Architect : Narodn i Dom i n Zagreb . Filipovic, Augusti n (1931 - ) . Sculptor : "Stepinac" ; "Deat h o f Matij a Gubec." Filipovic, Franj o (1930 - ) . Peasant-painter : "Winter" ; self-portrait . Franges-Mihanovic, Rober t (1872-1940) . Sculptor : "Fligh t int o Egypt" ; "King Tomislav."

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Freudenreich, Aleksandar (1892 - ) . Architect: Mothe r House of Croatia n Artisans, Zagreb. Galantic, Ivan (1921 - ) . Painter in the Unite d States : "Procession. " Gambor, Matija . Sixteenth-centur y architect ; activ e builde r i n th e cit y o f Karlovac. Gazi, Draga n (1930 - ) . Peasant-painter : "Th e Ol d Woman" ; "Wedding." Gecan, Vilk o ( 1894— ) . A representativ e o f Croatia n expressionism . Generalic, Iva n (1914 — ) . Peasant-painter : "Funera l o f Ste f Halacek" ; "Rebellion i n Djelekovec." Gliha, Otón (1914 - ) . Painter: "Buildin g the Road"; "Whit e Rocks." Golubic, Theodore. Sculptor in the United States: "Beatitudes. " Gombos, Stjepa n (1897 — ) . Industrial architect . Gospodnetic, Pavao. Renaissance architect. Grubac. Bogomil sculptor. Haberle, Marija n ( 1908- ) . Architect. Hajrudin. Architect (1566 ) o f the one-spa n bridg e in Mostar. Hamzic, Mihajlo . Painte r i n Dubrovnik : triptyc h i n th e Dominica n churc h in 1512. Hegedusic, Krsto (1901- ) . Painter : "Flood"; "Fair"; "Tempest." Herman, Oska r (1886 - ) . Painter : "Ol d Man"; "Landscape Wit h Re d Mountain." Horvat, Lavoslav (1901 - ) . Architect: Gymnasium i n Bol (Brae island). Hribar, Stjepa n (1890 - ) . Architect : Yugosla v Pavilion i n Paris , 1925 . Ibler, Drago ( 1893- ) . Architect: new Opera Hous e in Belgrade. Ivan Splicani n (Joh n o f Split ; Dalmata) . Architec t o f th e fifteent h century . Ivekovic, Otó n (1869-1939) . Painter: "Coronatio n o f King Tomislav." Jaksic-Brown, Anka . Primitiv e painte r o f th e Slavonia n countryside ; no w in England . Juhn, Hink o (1891-1940) . Ceramist. Juncic, Matej . Painter o f the polyptyc h o n the islan d o f Lopud, 1452. Junek, Leo (1899 - ) . Painter: "Gladiolas" ; "Maternité de Port Royal." Juranovic, Vladimir (1900 — ) . Architect. Jurjev-Trogiranin, Blaz . Painter of the fifteent h century . Jurjevic, Toma . Baroque sculptor o f the seventeent h century . Karas, Vjekosla v (1821-1858) . Painter: "Roma n Lad y wit h Lute" ; "Littl e Boy"; "Th e Kresic Family." Kastelancic, Ante (1911 — ) . Modern painter o f landscapes. Kauzlaric, Mladen (1896 - ) . Architect. Kerdic, Iv o (1881-1953) . Goldsmit h an d sculptor : "Th e Goldsmith' s Daughter"; "Gjalski. " Kinert, Albert (1919 - ) . Lithographe r an d painter : "Blood y Wedding" ; "Road." Kirin, Vladimi r (1894-1963) . Illustrato r an d lithographer : Ol d Zagreb ; Split. Klerigin O f Kopar . Istria n medieva l painter . Klajakovic, Joz o (1889 - ) . Painter : "Retur n o f the Fishermen" ; "Resur rection." Klovic, Jura j (Giuli o Clovio , Juliu s Clovius ) (1498-1578) . Miniaturist : "Book of Hours," 1546.

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Kokolja, Trip o (1661-1713) . Painte r fo r churche s i n Perast , Bo l (o n th e island of Brae), an d th e cit y of Korcula. Kolunic-Rota, Martin . Sixteenth-centur y lithographer : etching s o f Michelan gelo, Titian. Kopac, Slavko (1913- ) . Painter . Kovacevic, Branko (1911- ) . Painter o f landscapes. Kovacevic, Ferdo (1870-1927) . Painter of landscapes around the Sav a River. Kovacic, Vikto r (1874-1924) . Architect : St . Blasius ' Churc h i n Zagreb ; Stock Exchange (Burza ) i n Zagreb. Kraljevic, Mirosla v (1885-1913) . Painter : "Self-Portrai t Wit h Pipe" ; "Littl e Girl With A Doll." Krekovic, Kristia n (1901 - ). Painte r of Peruvia n landscape s and Indians. Krizman, Tomisla v (1882-1955) . Painter , lithographer , an d se t designer . Krstulovic, Andró (1912- ) . Sculptor. Krsinic, Fran e (1897 - ) . Sculptor : "Awakening" ; "Mother' s Play. " Krsnjavi, Is o (1845—1926) . Ar t criti c an d founde r o f man y ar t institutions . Kufrin, Pava o (1887 - ) . Portraitis t an d sculptor : "Clarenc e Darrow" ; "Cardinal Mundelein"; "David Lloy d George." Works in the Unite d States. Kulmer, Ferdo, (1925 - ) . Painter: "Rest. " Kumbatovic, Mil a (1915 - ) . Painte r o f coasta l landscapes : Vrbnik ; Mali Losinj . Lazanic, Nikol a (Nicolau s Lasaneu s Dalmata) . Sculptor : St . Jerom e an d St. Blasius, carved in Dubrovnik, 1589. Likan, Gusta v (1910 - ) . Painter : "Mothe r Wit h Child" ; "Youn g Man With A Dog"; "Ivan Mestrovic. " Lovrencic, Ivan. Painter: them e o f the lonelines s of children . Lovrin, Vicko. Fifteenth-century painter : polyptyc h in the Francisca n churc h in Cavtat, near Dubrovnik. Lozica, Ivan (1910-1943) . Sculptor: "My Brother"; "Gir l With A Winebag. " Marinov, Lovro . Painter o f the fifteent h century : madonn a in th e churc h a t Dance in Dubrovnik. Master O f Trviz. Istria n painte r o f the fifteent h century . Masic, Nikol a (1852-1902) . Painter: "Posavina" ; "Th e Man fro m Lika. " Mate] O f Pula . Medieva l Istria n architect . Medovic, Mat o Celestin (1857-1919) . Painter : "Arriva l o f Croatians o n th e Adriatic"; "Counci l o f Split. " Medulic, Andrij a (Andrea s Meldoll a Schiavone ) (1503-1563) . Painter : "Orpheus"; "Narcissus. " Mestrovic, Iva n (1883-1962) . Sculpto r an d architect : "Fountai n o f life" ; "Croatian History" ; "America n Indian." Miha O f Bar , Fourteenth-century architect : th e conven t o f th e Francisca n Friars in Dubrovnik (1317) . Milicevic, Paskoje. Sixteenth-century architect . Mise, Jerolim (1890 - ) . Painter: "Littl e Girl" ; "Unde r th e Oliv e Trees. " Motika, Antu n (1902 - ) . Painter : "Mosle m Woman" ; "Flower s o n th e Windowsill." Mraz, Franjo (1910 - ) . Peasant-painter: "Winter"; "Plowing. " Mujadzic, Ome r (1903 - ) . Painter: "Harvest. " Murtic, Edo (1921 - ) . Painter of Partisan themes .

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Neidhardt, Djur o (1901 - ) . Architect : urba n projects i n Zenic a an d Sarajevo. Nikola O f Piran . Medieva l Istrian architect . Nikola O f Rovinj . Medieva l Istria n architect . Nogulovic, Antun. Renaissance architect . Ostrogovic, Kazimir. Architect: Rudjer Boskovi c Institute in Zagreb. Parac, Vjekosla v (1904 - ) . Painter: "Caf é de la Coupole" ; "Milkwomen. " Peric, Pavao ( 1907- ) . Medalist and lithographer. Perisic. Architect : builde r o f th e Bond a theate r i n Dubrovnik , 1862. Petko. Bogomil sculptor. Picelj, Iva n (1924 — ) . Painter: "Compositions. " Plancic, Juraj (1899-1930) . Painter: "Retur n Fro m Fishing" ; "Sardines. " Planic, Stjepa n (1900 - ) . Architect : Buildin g a t 1 Bogovicev a Street , Zagreb. Postruznik, Otó n (1900 - ) . Painter: "Wine and Flowers"; "Fish." Potocnjak, Vladimi r (1904-1952) . Architect : remodele d th e interio r o f th e Croatian Diet Building i n Zagreb . Pozgaj, Zvonimi r (1907- ) . Architect: new beach in Zadar. Prica, Zlatk o (1918 - ) . Painter : "Dance" ; "Flowe r Girl. " Progonovic, Ivan . Goldsmith : carve d th e famou s golde n cros s i n Korcula , 1471. Quiquerez, Ferd o (1845—1893) . Painter : Matij a Gubec , Zrinski , an d Frankopan. Racic, Josi p (1885-1908) . Painter : self-portrait ; "Lad y i n Black" ; "Pon t des Arts." Racki, Mirk o (1879- ) . Painter : "Kraljevi c Marko" ; "The Mother o f th e Jugovics." Radauíí, Vanja (1906 - ) . Sculptor: "Radovan"; "Petrica Kerempuh." Radie. Bogomil sculptor. Radovan. Sculptor of the aps e of the cathedra l in Trogir, 1240. Raïica, Bosk o (1912 — ) . Architec t an d painter : remodele d th e Dram a Theater i n Zagreb. Raskaj, Slav a (1877-1906) . Painter: "Th e Tree in Snow"; "Early Spring." Rendic, Iva n (1849-1932) . Sculptor : Kacic-Miosic ; Gundulic . Rojc, Nast a (1883 - ) . Painter: "Traveler"; self-portrait. Rosandic, Tom a (1878-1958) . Sculptor : "Pietà"; "Tire d Warrior. " Rukljac, Vjekosla v (1916 - ) . Sculptor. Schoen, Edo (1877-1949) . Architect : Buildin g of the Yugosla v Academ y in Zagreb. Sebastian (Schiavon e da Rovigno). Renaissance sculptor. Sertie, Zdenka . Painte r o f nationa l costume s an d customs : "Moreska" ; "Harvest." Seissel, Josi p (1904 — ) . Architect : th e Pavilio n o f Yugoslavi a in Pari s 1937. Smajic, Peta r (1910 - ) . Peasant-sculptor: "Horsemen"; "Widows. " Stancic, Miljenk o (1926 - ) . Painter : "Lov e Song" ; "Dea d Child. " Steiner, Mila n (1894-1918) . Painter: "Spring" ; "Rain" ; "Stree t i n Petrinja. " Stolnik, Slavk o (1929 - ) . Peasant-painter : "Wedding" ; "Funeral. " Strizic, Zdenko ( 1902- ) . Architect: Hotel Excelsior in Dubrovnik. Studin, Mari n (1895-1960) . Sculptor: "Dark Days. "

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Svecnjak, Vili m (1906 - ) . Painter: "Wounded" ; "Harvest. " Segvic, Neven. Architect. Serement, Ivo ( 1900- ) . Painter. Simaga, Petar (1912 - ) . Painter: "In His Destroyed Home. " Simat, Zarko. Painter: "Memories" ; Papal Poor Man's Dining Room, Rome. Simunovic, Fran o (1907 - ) . Painter : "Oliv e Trees" ; Ston e Houses , Dalmatia. Sohaj, Slavk o (1908- ) . Painter: "In the Studio"; "Boy. " Tartaglia, Mari n (1894- ) . Painter: "M y Wife"; "Intérieur. " Tiljak, Djur o (1895 - ) . Painter: "Gracani." Trepse, Marija n ( 1897- ) . Painter and set designer. Turina, Vladimir ( 1913- ) . Architect. Turkalj, Josi p (1924 - ) . Sculptor: "Violin" ; "Youn g Woman. " Work s in the United States . Turkalj, Joz a (1890-1943) . Portraitist . Tvrdoje, Nikola . Architect of the fifteent h century . Ugrinovic, Zivan. Painter o f the fifteent h century . Urlich, Antun ( 1902— ) . Architect; urbanist . Uzelac, Milivo j (1897 - ) . Painter: "Lady i n Red"; "Street i n Versailles." Valdec, Rudolf (1872-1929) . Sculptor: Racki, Strossmayer. Vanista, Josip (1924 - ) . Painter: "Laterna Mágica. " Vanka, Maksimilija n (1890-1963) . Painter : Mural s i n th e Churc h o f St . Nicolas in Millvale, Pittsburgh. Veza, Mladen (1916 - ) . Painter . Vidovic, Emanue l (1872-1953) . Painter : "Interio r o f a Church" ; "Ol d Doll." Vincent of Kastav. Painted murals in a church clos e to Beram, 1474. Virius, Mirk o (1889—1943) . Peasant-painter : "Brid e an d Groom" ; "Pro cession." Vitic, Ivo. Architect: the Cit y of Pioneers, Zagreb. Vranjanin, Franj o (Francesc o Laurana ) (1425—1502) , Sculptor : saint s an d madonnas. Vranjanin, Lucija n (Lucian o d a Laurana ) (d . 1479) , Architect : Palazz o Ducale, Urbino . Vrbanic, Vidov (1910- ) . Architect. Zelija. Bogomi l sculptor.

APPENDIXES

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APPENDIX A BIOGRAPHIES OF TH E AUTHORS Ivan Me&trovic Ivan Mestrovi c was born o n August 15, 1883 , a t Vrpolje , i n the distric t of Slavonski Brod, Croatia . Whe n stil l a child , h e returne d wit h hi s parent s t o their nativ e village o f Otavice, nea r DmiS , i n Dalmatia n Zagora . His mothe r was a deepl y religiou s woman , an d hi s father , th e onl y literat e ma n i n hi s village, spen t lon g hour s readin g th e Bibl e an d epi c fol k poetr y t o youn g Ivan. In 190 0 MeStrovi c lef t hom e to spen d a yea r a s a n apprentic e t o a ston e cutter, Pavl e Bilinic , i n Split . H e the n wen t o n t o Vienna , where , afte r a series o f struggle s an d disappointments , h e wa s admitte d t o th e Vienn a Academy o f Art . Mestrovi c prove d t o b e a brillian t studen t wh o quickl y achieved independenc e fro m th e establishe d standard s o f art . H e soo n became a membe r o f an d a regula r exhibito r fo r th e "Secession, " a grou p of youn g non-conforming artists . Five year s later , Mestrovi c move d t o Paris , wher e h e attracte d th e attention o f Augus t Rodin , th e grea t Frenc h sculptor . Th e tw o artist s remained clos e friends until Rodin' s death . Rodi n is reported t o hav e calle d Mestrovic "th e greates t phenomeno n amon g sculptors. " Mestrovic' s mai n work in Paris was the Kosov o Plai n monument , a pantheon dedicate d t o th e fallen heroe s o f th e battl e tha t too k plac e i n 1389 ; thi s sculptur e wa s executed i n piece s an d wa s neve r assemble d a s a whole . Mestrovi c firs t received universa l acclai m i n 191 1 fo r hi s exhibit s o f th e figure s fro m th e projected Kosov o pantheo n i n th e Serbia n pavilio n a t th e Internationa l Exhibition hel d in Rome. Forced t o flee fro m Croati a a t th e outbrea k o f Worl d Wa r I i n 1914 , h e lived i n Rom e for a yea r an d worke d o n sculpture s wit h religiou s themes , while studyin g art i n th e Vatican . The followin g year numerou s exhibitions of hi s creativ e wor k were hel d i n Grea t Britain . Mestrovic neve r wishe d t o be a politician, but durin g World Wa r I he helped t o organiz e the Yugoslav Committee i n London . This grou p fough t fo r th e liberatio n o f th e Croatia n people fro m th e Austro-Hungaria n Empire an d fo r unio n wit h th e Serbs , Montenegrins, Slovenes , an d Macedonian s i n a confederativ e state . Afte r World Wa r I , th e ne w state , th e Kingdo m o f th e Serbs , Croatians , an d Slovenes (name d Yugoslavi a by the king-dictato r Alexande r Karadjordjevi c in 1929 ) wa s created . Mestrovic live d i n hi s nativ e country , bu t too k n o part i n politica l life ; h e dedicate d himsel f entirel y t o hi s art . Fo r som e twenty-five year s h e taugh t hi s techniqu e t o th e student s o f sculptur e wh o came fro m al l ove r th e worl d t o hi s studi o an d t o th e Academ y o f Ar t i n Zagreb. In the period betwee n th e world wars, Mestrovic was represented i n many international exhibition s i n th e capital s o f mos t o f th e Europea n nations . His sculptures , of whic h we can mentio n onl y a few here—ar e to be foun d today in museum s throughout the world . Among his most famou s work s ar e

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three chapel s fo r whic h h e designe d bot h th e architectura l pla n an d th e sculptural decorations . Thes e ar e th e memoria l chape l o f th e Raci c famil y at Cavtat , nea r Dubrovnik , Mestrovic' s persona l chape l i n Split , an d hi s family chape l i n Otavice . Amon g his bes t know n sculptures ar e th e bronz e statue o f Bisho p Gregor y o f Nin , a chancello r o f th e firs t Croatia n king , Tomislav (910-928) ; th e statu e o f th e artist' s mothe r "M y Mothe r a t Prayer"; th e symboli c statue , "Croatia n History" ; an d tw o sculpture s calle d "Pietà," on e i n th e Nationa l Galler y i n London , an d th e othe r i n Sacre d Heart Churc h o f Notr e Dam e Universit y i n Sout h Bend , Indiana . I n 192 8 Meïtrovic sculpte d tw o equestria n Indian s i n bronz e fo r Gran t Park , i n th e city o f Chicago . I n thi s strikin g work , the Indian s fac e eac h other , th e on e with a spea r an d th e othe r wit h a bow . Amon g the numerou s portraits b y MeiStrovic are those of Herbert Hoover , Pope Pius XII, an d Aloysiu s Cardinal Stepinac, th e Croatia n her o o f th e resistanc e t o bot h Nazis m an d Com munism, an d a clos e frien d o f th e artist . On e o f th e greates t achievement s of Mestrovic' s ar t i s a serie s o f thirty relief s carve d i n walnut , whic h depic t the lif e o f Christ . Thes e ar e kep t i n hi s chape l i n Split , whic h i s no w a museum. Th e artis t ha s give n thi s chape l an d th e relief s containe d i n i t t o the Croatia n people a s a gift. During Worl d Wa r II , Meatrovi c spen t a shor t tim e i n Rom e befor e moving t o Switzerlan d wit h hi s family . When th e Communist s took contro l of Yugoslavi a in 1945 , th e artis t chos e t o g o into exile . Fro m th e yea r 1946 , Meïtrovic lived i n the Unite d States, wher e h e taugh t sculptur e a t Syracus e University unti l 1955 , an d subsequentl y a t th e University o f Notr e Dam e until hi s deat h i n 1962 . I n 194 7 h e wa s accorde d th e rar e privileg e o f a one-man sho w i n th e Metropolita n Museu m of Art i n Ne w Yor k City . Mestrovic's prodigiou s creativit y wa s no t diminishe d durin g hi s sta y i n the Unite d States , an d man y America n citie s no w posses s example s o f hi s art. Representativ e o f thes e ar e i n "Ma n an d Freedom, " a twenty-four-foo t bronze figur e hig h above the entranc e o f the Ne w May o Clinic i n Rochester , Minnesota; tw o composition s fo r th e Nationa l Shrin e o f th e Immaculat e Conception in Washington, D.C.; an d tw o monuments in Florida . Mestrovic frequently sen t sculpture s t o hi s nativ e Croatia , i n th e fir m belie f tha t th e silent bu t persisten t languag e o f carve d ston e woul d hel p inspir e i n hi s countrymen th e ideal s o f the freedo m an d dignit y o f man, which h e hel d so dear. Awards of merit wer e presente d to Mestrovi c by the America n Academy of Art s an d Letters , th e America n Institut e o f Architects , an d Assumptio n University, i n Windsor , Ontario . H e receive d honorar y degree s fro m man y universities, amon g the m Columbi a University , th e Universit y o f Notr e Dame, an d Marquett e University . He wa s a membe r o f many Academies of Arts an d Sciences , including those of the citie s o f Zagreb , Belgrade , Prague , Vienna, Munich , Brussels , Paris, an d Edinburgh , an d thos e o f Canad a an d the Unite d States . MeStrovic wa s no t onl y a n exceptiona l sculpto r an d on e o f th e grea t Croatian thinkers , h e wa s als o a write r wh o possesse d a beautifu l style . Hi s study Michelangelo appeare d i n Croatia n i n Nova Evropa (Novembe r 1926), an d hi s Dialogues with Michelangelo were publishe d i n Germa n i n

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Kunst im Volk (Vols , viii , ix , Vienna , 1957-58) , an d i n Croatia n i n Hrvatska Revija (Bueno s Aires, Argentina: I, 3, 1951, pp . 205-9; III, 1 , 1953 , pp. 43-49 ; X , 4 , 1960 , pp . 503-7) . Hi s Christmas Dialogue, writte n i n Croatian, ha s bee n publishe d i n Germa n unde r th e title , Dennoch will ich hoffen (Zurich , 1945), an d i n Croatia n in th e Hrvatska Revija. Hi s memoirs were publishe d shortl y befor e hi s death , unde r th e titl e Uspomene na politicke ljude i dogodjaje / Remembrance s o f Politica l Me n an d Event s (Buenos Aires : Knjiznic a Hrvatske Revije, 1961). MeStrovi c die d o n January 16 , 1962 , a t th e ag e o f 78, at wor k to th e ver y las t i n hi s studi o a t the Universit y of Notre Dame. Hi s remains were flown to Croatia an d burie d in his family chape l i n the villag e of Otavice . For a mor e detailed biographica l sketc h o f th e lif e o f this grea t sculptor , the reade r i s referre d t o tw o excellen t monograph s publishe d b y Syracus e University Press , whic h provid e a n extensiv e biograph y o f MeStrovic , an d illustrations o f mos t o f hi s works : Harr y Hilberry , Ivan Mestrovic (1948) , and Laurenc e Schmeckebier , Ivan Mestrovic, Sculptor and Patriot (1959) . A thir d illustrate d volum e tha t i s o f interes t wa s writte n i n Englis h an d published i n Croatia : Zeljk o Grum , Ivan Mestrovic (Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska, 1962 . Photograph s by Toso Dabac). Francis H. Eterovich Francis H . Eterovic h wa s bor n i n Pucisca , o n th e Islan d o f Brae . H e i s a member of the Dominica n order an d studie d theolog y an d philosoph y a t th e Dominican Institute in Louvain, Belgium, from 193 7 unti l 1939 . I n 194 4 h e obtained hi s M.A . in Classica l Languages fro m th e Universit y of Zagreb. H e holds a licentiat e i n theolog y fro m th e Stat e University o f Olomouc , Czechoslovakia (1948) , an d earne d his Ph.D. i n theology at th e Dominican University i n Etiolles , Franc e (1949) . Professo r Eterovic h ha s taugh t a t several universitie s sinc e 1945 , an d cam e t o th e Unite d State s i n 1952 . Since that time he has taugh t theology , philosophy, an d sociolog y at variou s universities in th e America n Middle West. At present h e teache s philosoph y at De Paul University in Chicago. Dr. Eterovic h wa s th e originato r an d edito r o f th e quarterl y journa l for contemporary problem s Osoba i Duh / Perso n an d Spirit , founde d i n Madrid, Spain , i n 1949 . H e continue d t o publish th e journa l in Americ a a t Albuquerque, Ne w Mexico , unti l 1955 . A t tha t tim e h e bega n wor k o n Croatia: Land, People, Culture, an d soo n afterwar d h e wa s joine d i n thi s project b y Professo r Christophe r Spalati n o f Marquett e University . Besides numerou s editorials , studie s o n ethica l problems , an d boo k reviews whic h h e ha s writte n fo r Osoba i Duh, Fathe r Eterovic h ha s contributed t o man y magazine s an d journals , especiall y t o thos e publishe d by Croatia n émigré s in variou s countries afte r Worl d Wa r II . Severa l o f his studies hav e appeare d i n Hrvatska Revija / Th e Croatia n Review , which i s published i n Bueno s Aires , Argentina . O f particula r interes t i s hi s articl e "Subjective Demand s o f Huma n Action, " publishe d i n Spanis h i n Revista de Filosofía (Vol . XI, No. 41, 1952) , a journal of the Philosophica l Institut e of th e Universit y of Madrid.

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Christopher Spalatin Christopher Spalati n was bom i n Ston , Croatia , o n Octobe r 15 , 1909 . H e attended the Gymnasium i n Sibenik, graduatin g in 1927 . H e studie d Frenc h and Lati n Languag e an d Literature , a s wel l a s Croatia n an d Serbia n Literature, a t th e Universit y of Zagreb, obtainin g his M.A . degre e i n 1931 . He obtaine d hi s doctorat e a t th e Universit y of Zagreb in 1934 . Hi s doctora l thesis, o n Sain t Evremond , wa s writte n i n Frenc h an d publishe d i n Zagre b in 1934 . H e continue d hi s graduat e studie s a t variou s universitie s in Paris , Rome, an d Chicago . Dr . Spalati n ha s taught Frenc h Languag e an d Litera ture a t th e Universit y of Zagreb , Croatia n Languag e a t th e Universit y o f Rome, Croatia n an d Serbia n Literatur e a t th e Naple s Orienta l Institute , an d French, German , an d Lati n a t Wesleya n Colleg e i n Moun t Pleasant, Iowa . At presen t h e teache s Frenc h a t Marquett e University , Milwaukee , Wisconsin. Among hi s publishe d work s ar e th e Croatia n translation s o f tw o book s from th e French, Communism and Christians / Komuniza m i Krscani (1937 ) and Sexual Problems / Seksualn i Problemi (1939) , bot h printe d i n Zagreb . Dr. Spalatin' s article s hav e bee n publishe d i n French , Italian , English , an d Croatian, and he has contributed a number of studies to the Hrvatska Revija, Especially noteworth y i s hi s wor k i n th e fiel d o f informin g an d educatin g the Croatia n peopl e abou t trends , ideas , theories , an d system s i n othe r European countries . Professo r Spalati n i s currentl y writin g a boo k o n th e subject o f renderin g Croatia n foreig n term s int o English , French , Italia n and German , and frequentl y contribute s article s in Englis h abou t the Croatian languag e to variou s journals and periodicals . Vladimir Markotic Vladimir Markoti c i s a n anthropologis t wh o specialize s i n th e stud y o f Old Worl d archaeology . H e wa s bor n i n Banjaluka , Bosnia , and studie d a t various universities in Europe and the Unite d States . In 195 5 h e receive d his M.A. degre e fro m Indian a University ; th e titl e o f hi s thesi s wa s "Gloto chronology a s th e Metho d an d th e Slavi c Languages. " H e wa s Tha w Fellow a t Harvar d Universit y durin g th e academi c yea r 1961—62 , an d received hi s Ph.D. fro m Harvar d in 1963 . Hi s doctora l thesis , "Starcev o an d Vinca" wa s concerne d wit h tw o o f th e Neolithi c culture s o f Southeas t Europe. Professor Markoti c has conducte d fiel d wor k o n th e prehistori c site s o f New Englan d an d Kansas , as wel l a s a t Thoma s Jefferson' s Monticell o i n Virginia. H e i s currently studyin g a n Archai c cultur e i n a cav e i n Missouri. He i s the edito r of "European Par t of the Sovie t Union" fo r th e Counci l of Old Worl d Archaeolog y (COWA) . A t presen t Dr . Markoti c i s Assistant Professor o f Anthropolog y a t Illinoi s Stat e Norma l University , Normal , Illinois, where he founde d th e Centra l Illinoi s Archaeological Society, whose purpose is the exploratio n and reconstructio n of the prehistor y o f this region . Stanko Guldescu Stanko Guldescu was born in Trieste (the n Austro-Hungary) , i n 1908 . H e studied th e histor y o f Centra l an d Easter n Europ e a t th e universitie s o f

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Zagreb, Madrid , an d Chicago . A t th e Universit y o f Chicago , h e obtaine d both hi s M.A. an d hi s Ph.D. degrees i n history. Dr . Guldesc u ha s taugh t a t St. John' s University , Shangha i (1945-6) , Ne w Mexic o Stat e Teacher s College (1947-8) , Indiana University , Extension Division (1954) , Washing ton an d Le e Universit y (1956) , Sout h Dakot a Stat e Teacher s Colleg e (1957), an d i s a t presen t o n th e facult y o f Centra l Methodis t College , Fayette, Missouri. Among Professo r Guldescu' s numerou s studie s are : "The Kossuth Tradi tion and Hungary' s Delusion of Grandeur," "The Background of the Croatia n Nationalist Movement, " an d "Austria' s Economi c Future, " al l i n th e South Atlantic Quarterly; "Spain and Totalitarianism, " Thought (Fordha m Univ.) ; "The Habsbur g Hysteria, " Social Science Quarterly; "The Slovenes," Social Studies; "Austria n Attitude s Toward s th e Anschlus s From Octobe r 191 8 to September 1919, " Journal of Modern History; "Th e Rumanians o f Istria, " New Pioneer; "Submarin e Warfar e i n th e Adriatic : th e Otrant o Barrage, 1915-1918," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings; and "Tito s Kârntne r Aspirationen," Austria. Othe r important articles and reviews by Dr. Guldesc u have appeared in th e Hungarian Quarterly, the Danubian Review, and th e China Press (Shanghai) . In recen t years , Professo r Guldesc u ha s devoted hi s tim e almos t exclu sively t o th e stud y o f Croatia n history . Hi s book , History of Medieval Croatia (Th e Hague : Mouto n and Company) , was publishe d i n 1964 , and Dr. Guldesc u i s currentl y workin g o n a manuscrip t o n th e subjec t o f Croatia, Slavonia , and Dalmatia, 1526-1814 . Ivan Babic Ivan Babic , a forme r lieutenant-colone l o n th e Genera l Staf f o f th e Yugoslav an d Croatia n Armies , wa s bor n o n Decembe r 19 , 1904 . After graduating fro m th e Gymnasium, h e wen t o n t o th e Militar y Academy i n Belgrade, wher e h e attaine d th e ran k o f lieutenant i n th e artiller y i n 1924. In 1928 , he entered th e Officer s Trainin g Schoo l in Belgrade, an d i n 1929, following a specia l examination , h e wa s sen t t o th e Ecol e Supérieur e d e Guerre in Paris, fro m whic h he graduated i n 1931. Lieutenant-Colonel Babi c passed th e fina l examination s for Officer s o f th e General Staf f o f th e Yugosla v Arm y i n 1935 , and wa s assigne d t o th e Operative an d Organizin g Department o f the Genera l Staf f i n Belgrade . A t the sam e time , h e serve d a s Instructo r o f Tactic s i n th e Militar y Academy until 1938 . From 193 8 until 1941 , he serve d a s Divisiona l Chie f o f Staff — at firs t o n th e Albania n frontie r (durin g Mussolini' s invasio n o f Albania) , and afterward s o n the Italia n an d Germa n frontier . After th e collaps e o f Yugoslavia , Lieutenant Colone l Babi c entere d th e newly-formed Croatia n Regula r Arm y (Domobranstvo), an d serve d i n th e War Ministry . Becaus e o f divergencie s wit h th e leadin g circle s i n matter s of genera l an d militar y policy , h e wa s remove d fro m hi s pos t an d sen t t o the Croatia n Legio n o n th e Russia n fron t a s a militar y observer , wher e h e was appointe d Commandin g Office r o f th e Croatia n Legion . Babi c le d th e Legion i n its operations against th e Bolshevik s in the Donet z basi n unti l th e end o f May 1942 . Recalle d t o Croatia , h e wa s assigne d to organiz e a Croa tian Militar y School.

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In January , 1944 , followin g a n invitatio n b y th e British , Lieutenant Colonel Babic was elected a special emissar y of the Croatia n Army. He the n flew on a secre t missio n to th e Allie s i n Italy , th e purpos e o f whic h wa s t o arrange fo r th e co-operatio n o f th e Croatia n arme d force s wit h th e Allie d forces. Thi s mission failed when, a t the conferenc e in Tehran, th e Allie s pu t all thei r trus t an d hope s upo n th e Communis t Tito . Babi c i s presentl y occupied wit h writin g article s an d studie s o n Croatia n militar y histor y fo r various European military journals. Drago Matkovic Drago Matkovi c was born i n Vodice, Croatia, i n 1909. He studied politica l economy, business , law , internationa l law , history, an d geograph y a t universities in Zagreb, Cologne, Berlin, and Leipzig. Dr . Matkovic specialized in th e fiel d o f trad e an d marketing , an d fo r a tim e wa s a professo r o f economics a t th e Academ y o f Trad e i n Split , Croatia . H e serve d wit h th e Croatian diplomati c corp s i n Berlin , Budapest, an d Vienna , an d wa s a department hea d fo r the economi c and consula r department o f the Croatia n Foreign Offic e durin g World Wa r II . Dr. Matkovi c lectures frequentl y a t man y economi c institutes; h e i s also a produce r o f radi o program s broadcas t t o Yugoslavi a within th e Voic e of the Federa l Republi c o f Germany, the Wes t Germa n government-sponsore d radio station. He often write s articles for journals and yearbook s in Germany, Switzerland, an d th e Netherlands . Dr . Matkovi c ha s mad e significan t contributions t o th e stud y o f economi c problem s no t onl y i n Southeaster n Europe, bu t als o in the Asiati c and Africa n countries , i n which he ha s take n a grea t interes t i n recen t years . H e ha s als o publishe d man y article s i n various German , Swiss , Dutch , an d Croatia n scholarl y journal s an d yearbooks. Tomo Markovic Born i n Livno , Bosnia , o n Februar y 26 , 1894 , Tomo Markovi c ha s bee n a membe r o f th e Jesui t orde r sinc e 1910 . H e attende d th e Gymnasium i n Travnik (Bosnia) , studie d scholasti c philosoph y i n Innsbruck , Austri a (1915-1918), theology in Enghien, Belgium (1922-1926) , and ethnograph y and ethnolog y a t th e Universit y o f Zagreb , Croati a (1928-1932) . A t th e University of Zagreb, Father Markovi c earned hi s M.A . in anthropology . H e taught i n th e Gymnasium i n Travni k fro m 193 2 to 1942 . H e becam e a custos i n th e Stat e Ethnographi c Museu m i n Sarajevo , i n 1942 , an d occupied tha t positio n unti l th e en d o f th e wa r i n 1945 . Father Markovi c has bee n studyin g an d collectin g example s o f th e folklor e o f Bosni a an d Hercegovina eve r since he completed hi s studies a t th e Universit y o f Zagreb. In 1940 , the Croatia n Nationa l Ethnographi c Museu m i n Zagre b bega n to publis h Fathe r Markovic' s contribution s t o th e stud y o f fol k customs . His study , Bozicni obicaji Hrvata u Bosni i Hercegovini / Christma s Customs Amon g Croatians in Bosni a and Hercegovina , i s the secon d volum e of the Museum' s serie s Ethnografska istrazivanja i gradja / Ethnographi c Research an d Material s (pp . 5-86). Th e remainin g volume s i n thi s serie s remained i n manuscrip t becaus e o f th e politica l change s i n Yugoslavi a a t the en d o f World Wa r II . Sinc e 194 5 Father Markovi c ha s bee n activ e i n

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popularizing Croatia n folklor e amon g émigr é Croatians . H e no w live s i n Venezuela, wher e h e i s engage d i n researc h o n th e Guárao s an d Grajiro s Indian cultures. Fedor Kabalin Fedor Kabali n i s presentl y o n th e musi c facult y o f th e Stat e College , Indiana, Pennsylvania . H e wa s formerl y chairma n o f th e musi c theor y department o f th e Musi c an d Art s Institut e i n Sa n Francisco , an d wa s o n the staf f o f th e Sa n Francisc o an d Chicag o Lyri c Oper a Companies . His academi c trainin g include s M.M . degree s fro m th e Vienn a Musi c Academy an d fro m Northwester n University , wit h advance d wor k a t th e Eastman Schoo l o f Musi c i n Rochester , Ne w York , an d studie s a t th e International Summe r Academ y a t th e Mozarteum i n Salzburg , Austria . Mr. Kabali n wrot e an d conducte d th e origina l backgroun d musi c fo r th e Chile Film s feature-lengt h productio n El Paso Maldito. Hi s "Divertimento " for win d septet was commissioned and first performed on the occasio n of th e hundredth anniversar y celebratio n o f th e Chilea n Nationa l Conservator y of Music, Santiago , an d ha s ha d severa l performance s i n thi s country . Hi s "Reflections Fo r Orchestra " wo n a n awar d an d wer e performe d b y th e Louisville Orchestra , an d b y th e Chicag o Littl e Symphon y o n tour . Mr . Kabalin's work s hav e bee n performe d a t th e Universit y o f Kansa s an d a t the Sa n Jos e (California ) Stat e Colleg e symposia , an d a t th e Universit y Composers Exchange Festival. As a conductor , h e ha s bee n gues t conducto r o f th e Chilea n Symphon y Orchestra i n Santiago, and th e conducto r o f orchestral concert s a t th e Musi c and Art s Institut e i n Sa n Francisco . Recentl y h e presente d th e firs t Nort h American performance in English o f Lortzing's Tsar and Carpenter with th e College Oper a Worksho p a t Indiana , Pennsylvania . Mr. Kabali n ha s als o bee n a musi c criti c i n Zagreb , an d o n th e staf f o f the Chilea n weekl y magazin e Pro Arte. H e ha s contribute d article s t o th e Research Bulletin, Stat e College, Indiana, Pennsylvania, t o Musical America, and t o a numbe r o f othe r journals , magazines , an d newspaper s i n Nort h and Sout h America. Ruza Bajurin Ruza Bajuri n (ne e Starchl ) wa s bor n o n Octobe r 2 , 1918 , i n Zenica , Bosnia. Sh e attende d th e Gymnasium an d th e Stat e Universit y i n Zagreb . At th e Stat e University , from whic h sh e graduate d i n 1940 , sh e specialize d in Croatia n literatur e an d i n the Frenc h an d Russia n languages. Sh e served for fiv e year s a s a teache r i n th e Peoples ' Republi c o f Croatia . Sinc e 195 2 she has been teachin g i n Sa n Francisco, California . Professor Bajurin' s numerou s studies , essays , an d article s hav e appeare d in Annales de l'Institut Français (Zagreb) , Hrvatska Révisa, an d Hrvatski Glas / Croatia n Voic e (Winnipeg , Canada) , a s wel l a s in othe r periodical s and journals.

APPENDIX B GENERAL REFERENC E WORK S ON CROATIAN LIFE AND CULTURE THE FOLLOWIN G lis t o f referenc e work s ha s bee n compile d t o ai d thos e engaged i n researc h o n th e variou s aspect s o f Croatia n lif e an d cultur e and al l other s wh o ar e intereste d i n readin g furthe r o n thes e topics . I. BIBLIOGRAPHIE S

Bibliográfica knjiga i periodiènih izdanja Stampanih u Hercegovini 18731941 / Bibliograph y o f Book s an d Periodica l Publication s Printe d i n Hercegovina fro m 187 3 to 1941 . Compiled b y Lin a Stiti c an d Hami d Dizdar. Mostar , 1958. Bibliográfica rasprava, clanaka i knjizevnih radova / Bibliograph y o f Treatises, Articles , an d Literar y Works . Zagreb , 1956 . Editor-in-chief : Dr. Mat e Ujevic . Publishe d b y th e Lexicographica l Institut e o f FPRY, this work contains a list of scientific an d literar y article s datin g fro m th e beginnings o f scientifi c literatur e i n th e nineteent h century . I t i s a monumental achievement, on e which provides a systematic bibliography for variou s scientifi c branches , an d i t i s o f grea t assistanc e t o th e researcher. Th e si x volumes whic h hav e bee n publishe d t o dat e hav e fulfilled al l expectations . Hrvatska bibliográfica / Croatia n Bibliography . Zagreb , 1948 - . Group A : Bibliografía knjiga tiskanih u Narodnoj Eepublici Hrvatskoj (1945- ) / Bibliograph y o f Book s Printe d i n th e People' s Republic o f Croatia ( 1945- ) . Group B : Bibliográfica rasprava, clanaka i knjizevnih radova u casopisima Narodne Republike Hrvatske (1945 - ) / Bibliograph y of Treatises , Articles , an d Literar y Work s Publishe d i n th e Periodicals o f the P.R . of Croatia (1945 - ) . Group C : Special Bibliographies. T o dat e th e bibliographie s o f th e city o f Zadar , Dubrovnik , an d Rijeka , a s wel l a s thos e o f variou s cultural programs , suc h a s Croatia n dram a an d healt h sciences , have bee n published . Jugoslavenska bibliográfica / Yugosla v Bibliography: Popis svih knjiga i casopisa koji izlaze u Jugoslaviji / Lis t o f Al l Books and Journal s Publishe d i n Yugoslavia . Belgrade : Monthl y Review , 1934-35. Supersede d b y Prilog jugoslavenskoj bibliografiji / Supple ment t o Yugoslav Bibliography. Belgrade, 1935-39 . Pejanovic, Djordje . Bosansko-hercegovaoka bibliográfica. Knjige i brasure 1945-1951 / Bibliograph y o f Bosni a an d Hercegovina . Book s an d Pamphlets 1945-1951 . Sarajevo , 1953. Lists 174 7 items. Stampa Bosne i Hercegovine 1850-1941 / Book s and Periodical s i n Bosnia and Hercegovin a 1850-1941 . Sarajevo , 1949 . Pp. xvii i + 136 . An historical surve y wit h a bibliograph y listin g 40 5 items . Index . Printe d in Cyrillic letters.

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Yugoslav Bibliographical Institute. Th e followin g three review s o f Yugoslav bibliography ar e publishe d b y th e Institut e i n Belgrade : Clanci i prilozi u casopisima, novinama i zbirnim delima / Article s an d Contributions Publishe d i n Journals , Newspapers , an d Symposia . Belgrade: 1950 , Monthl y Review , 1950 . Thi s bibliograph y i s published i n three sections—Sectio n A : Socia l Sciences; Sectio n B : Natural an d Applie d Sciences ; Sectio n C : Philology , Arts , Sports , and Literature . Knjige, broSure i muzikalife / Books , Pamphlets, an d Musica l Works . Belgrade: Publishe d monthl y betwee n 195 0 an d 1954 , an d bi-monthly sinc e 1954 . Each annua l volum e contain s a n inde x of authors an d on e of subjects. Spisak listova i casopisa Stampanih na teritoriji FNRJ / Lis t o f Periodi cals an d Journal s Publishe d i n th e Territor y o f th e FPRY . Belgrade: Quarterl y Review . Thi s publicatio n end s eac h yea r with a special issue containing a n alphabetica l lis t o f all periodical s classified accordin g to subject . A summar y o f th e activitie s o f th e Yugosla v Bibliographica l Institut e has bee n writte n b y Mat e Baóe , Libraria n o f th e Institute , published i n th e UNESCO Bulletin for Libraries, Vol . XIII, No . 1 0 (Paris, October , 1959) , Ite m 425 , pp . 228-30 . Se e als o th e Institute's volume : Bibliográfica jugoslovenskih bibliográfica 1945 1955 / Bibliograph y o f Yugosla v Bibliographie s 1945-1955 . Belgrade, 1958 . Pp. i x -f - 270 . Lists 114 1 bibliographies. Indexes . II. DICTIONARIE S

Drvodelic, Mila n (éd.) . Hrvatskosrpsko-engleski rje&nik / Croatoserbian English Dictionary. Zagreb , 1961. Pp. 912. Filipovic, Rudolf et al. (eds.) . Englesko-Hrvatski Rjecnik / English-Croatia n Dictionary. Zagreb , 1955 . Pp. xvii i + 1430 . Imenik Mesta / Registe r o f Places. Pregled svih mesta, opstina, i srezova u Jugoslavifi sa poStama i teritorijalno nadleznim sudovima i favnim tuzioStvima / Surve y o f Al l Places, Communes , an d District s i n Yugo slavia wit h Pos t Office s an d Correspondin g Territoria l Court s an d Stat e Prosecutor's Offices . Beograd , 1960 . Secon d revise d an d enlarge d edition. Ivekovic, Franjo , an d Broz , Iva n (eds.) . RjeSnik hrvatskoga jezika / Dictionary o f the Croatia n Language . Zagreb , 1901 . 2 vols. Pp. viii -f - 952; 884. Ko je ko u Jugoslaviji / Who' s Wh o i n Yugoslavia . Biografski podad o jugoslovenskim savremenidma / Biographica l Dat a abou t th e Contemporary Yugoslavs . Beograd , 1957 . Pp. 810 . Laszowski, Emili j (éd.) . Znameniti i zasluzni Hrvati te pomena vrijedna lica u hrvatskaj povifesti od 925-1925 / Famou s an d Credit-Deservin g Croatians, a s wel l a s Person s Worth y o f Mentio n i n Croatia n Histor y from 92 5 t o 1925 . Zagreb, 1925 . Publishe d o n th e occasio n o f th e millennial anniversar y o f th e Croatia n Kingdom . Contain s a surve y o f the histor y o f Croatia, Bosnia, and Istria ; a history of Croatia n languag e

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and literature ; an d a lis t o f Croatia n rulers , dukes , bans , an d bishops . Mazuranic, Vladimir . Prinosi za hrvatski pravno-povjestni rjecnik / Contri butions t o a n Historica l Dictionar y o f Croatia n Law . Zagreb: Yugoslav Academy, 1908-22 . Pp. 1756. . Dodatci uz Prinose za hrvatski pravno-povjestni rjecnik / Supplemen t to th e "Contributions . . . . " Zagreb , 1923 . Pp. x v + 74 . Rjecnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika / Dictionar y o f th e Croatia n o r Serbian Language . Zagreb : Yugosla v Academy, 1880 - . Thi s i s a monumental comparativ e an d etymologica l dictionar y o f th e Croatia n language. Th e first volumes, however , ar e no w partiall y outdated . Th e last volum e (XVI) , published i n 1956—8 , reache d th e entr y "Sunce. " SamSalovic, Gusta v (éd.) . Leksikon Minerva, prakticni prirucnik za modernog covjeka / Minerv a Lexicon , a Practica l Handboo k fo r Moder n Man. Zagreb, 1936. Pp. 792. III. ENCYCLOPEDIA S

Krleza, Miroslav , et al. (eds.) . Enciklopedija Jugoslavije / Encyclopedi a o f Yugoslavia. Zagreb , 1955. 4 vols . Mirosla v Krleza, Editor-in-Chief, an d Dr. Zvonk o Tkalec an d Dr . Mat e Ujevic, Associate Editors. Ove r 1,000 contributors; magnificentl y planne d an d well-execute d work . Mai n defect i s frequen t omissio n o f name s an d work s proscribe d b y th e present politica l regim e in Yugoslavia. Lexicographical Institute of Zagreb. Th e followin g encyclopedia s ar e excellent source s o f specifi c informatio n i n thei r respectiv e fields . Th e contributors t o thes e referenc e work s ar e fo r th e mos t par t professor s at th e Universit y o f Zagre b an d member s o f the Yugosla v Academy of Sciences and Arts. Enciklopedija Leksikografskog Zavoda—Opea Enciklopedija / Encyclo pedia o f th e Lexicographica l Institute—Genera l Encyclopedia . Zagreb, 1956 Enciklopedija likovnih umjetnosti / Encyclopedi a o f th e Plasti c Arts . Zagreb, 1960 - . Editor-in-Chief : Dr . Franc e Stele . Medicinska enciklopedija / Encyclopedi a o f Medicine . Zagreb , 1957- . Editor-in-Chief: Dr . Ante Sercer . Muziôka enciklopedija / Th e Musi c Encyclopedia. Zagreb , 1958 Editor-in-Chief: Josi p Andreis . Pomorska enciklopedija / Th e Maritim e Encyclopedia . Zagreb , 1955- . Editor-in-Chief : Dr . Mat e Ujevic . Stanojevic, Stanoj e (éd.) . Narodna enciklopedija srpsko-hrvatsko-slovenacka / Serbian-Croatian-Slovenia n People' s Encyclopedia . 4 vols . Zagreb , 1925-1929. Ujevic, Mat e (éd.) . Hrvatska Enciklopedija / Croatia n Encyclopedia . Zagreb: Croatia n Bibliographica l Institute , 1941-5 . 5 vols . Thi s i s a n unfinished genera l encyclopedia . I t i s skillfull y illustrate d an d contain s the wor k o f ove r 50 0 contributor s i n variou s branche s o f huma n knowledge. I : A-Automobi l (1941 , pp . x v + 808) ; II : Autonomasi Boito (1941 , pp . vii i + 728) ; III ; Boja-Clevelan d (1942 , pp . vii i + 800); IV : Cliachit-Dikti s (1942 , pp . vii i + 776) ; V : Dilatacija-Elek trika (1945 , pp. viii + 738) .

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IV. SURVEYS , MEMORIA L BOOKS, AN D SYMPOSI A

Horvat, Josip : Kultura Hrvata kroz 1000 godina / A Thousan d Year s of Croatian Culture . Vol . 1. Zagreb , 1939 . Pp . x v + 462 . Numerous illustrations. . Kultura Hrvata kroz 1000 godina; Gospodarski i drustvovni razvitak u 18. i 19. stoljecu / Economi c an d Socia l Developmen t i n th e Eighteenth an d Nineteent h Centuries . Vol . 2 . Zagreb , 1942 . Numerous illustrations. Nasa Domovina / Ou r Country . Vol. I : Hrvatska Zemlja, Hrvatski Narod, Hrvatska Poviest, Hrvatska Znanost / Croatia n Land , People , History , Science . Zagreb , 1943. Pp. 624. Vol. II : Hrvatska knjizevnost, Hrvatska umjetnost, Nastava i skolstvo, Suvremeni kulturni zivot Hrvata; Politicka povijest Hrvata / Croatian Literature , Arts , Schoo l System , Contemporar y Cultura l Life, an d Croatia n Politica l History . Zagreb , 1944 . Pp . 1174 . Prof. Fili p Lukas , Editor-in-Chief , an d Dr . Vladimi r Bazal a an d Dr. Nikol a Persic , Associat e Editors . Thi s i s th e onl y attemp t i n the Croatia n languag e t o presen t a comprehensiv e surve y o f Croatian culture . Th e wa r prevente d th e editor s fro m carryin g this projec t t o a conclusion in th e wa y in which they ha d planned . Obzor Spomen-knjiga 1890-193 5 / Memoria l Boo k o f "Obzor " (Dail y newspaper) 1890-1935 . Zagreb , 1935 . Pp. 326 . Edited b y Dr . Milivo j Dezman and Dr . Rudolf Maixner . Povijest hrvatskih zemalja Eosne i Hercegovine od najstarijih vremena do godine 146 3 / A Histor y o f the Croatia n Land s Bosni a an d Hercego vina fro m th e Mos t Ancient Time s t o th e Yea r 1463. Book I: edite d b y Dr. Krunosla v Draganovic . Sarajevo : Hrvatsk o Kulturn o Druitv o "Napredak," 1942 . Pp. vi i + 853 . No further book s o f this serie s hav e been published . Spomenica Matice Hrvatske prigodom 1.000 godisnjice hrvatskoga kraljevstva / Memoria l Boo k o f Matic a Hrvatsk a o n th e Occasio n o f th e Millennial Anniversar y o f th e Croatia n Kingdom . Zagreb , 1925 . Sveslavenski Zbornik. Spomenica o tisucugodiSnjici hrvatskoga kraljevstva / All-Slavic Symposium . A Memoria l Boo k o n th e Occasio n o f th e Millennial Anniversar y o f th e Croatia n Kingdom . Zagreb : Zajednic a Slavenskih Drustava, 1930. Zbornik kralja Tomislava u spomen tisucugodisnjice hrvatskoga kraljevstva / The Kin g Tomisla v Symposiu m o n th e Occasio n o f th e Millennia l Anniversary o f th e Croatia n Kingdom . Zagreb : Yugosla v Academy , 1925. Pp . ci x + 681 . V. PUBLICATION S O F TH E YUGOSLA V ACADEM Y O F SCIENCE S AN D ARTS

The publication s o f the Yugosla v Academy o f Sciences an d Art s in Zagre b are indispensabl e fo r al l wh o wis h t o stud y th e culture , history , language , and literatur e o f the Croatia n people , an d t o som e extent o f the othe r Sout h Slavic peoples . Th e Yugosla v Academy and th e Universit y o f Zagreb ar e th e scientific research an d publishin g center s o f Croatia. Th e Academy' s researc h

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is develope d primaril y throug h eigh t departments , whic h ar e closel y associated wit h fiftee n institutes . Th e department s an d institute s publis h their researc h paper s an d finding s periodicall y i n collaborativ e works . Th e institutes an d department s o f the Universit y of Zagre b publis h thei r studie s in thei r ow n Zborniks (Yearbook s of Scientifi c Contributions) . A lis t o f al l th e publication s o f th e Yugosla v Academy is foun d i n Popis izdanja Jugoslavenske Akademije Znanosti i Umjetnosti 1867-1950 / Cata logue o f th e Publication s o f th e Yugosla v Academy, 1867-195 0 (Zagreb , 1951, 52 1 pages) . A new editio n o f thi s catalogue , whic h wil l includ e th e ten year s fro m 195 0 to 196 0 has no t a s yet bee n published . Th e Publishin g Institute o f th e Yugosla v Academy send s ou t periodi c catalogues , an d th e latest one , printe d i n Zagre b in 1960 , contains all o f the publication s o f th e post-war period , 1945-1960 . A summar y o f th e studie s publishe d i n th e periodical s o f th e Yugosla v Academy appear s i n French , German , an d Englis h i n th e Bulletin international de l'Académie Yugoslave des Sciences et des Beaux-Arts (Zagreb , 1882- ) . Thi s publicatio n als o provide s a summar y of al l contribution s published i n Rad Jugoslavenske Akademije Znanosti i Umjetnosti. The followin g section list s first the publication s o f the Academ y that ar e of genera l interest , an d the n th e periodical s i n whic h th e contribution s of each of the department s appear . 1. General Reference Works Ljetopis Jugoslavenske Akademije Znanosti i Umjetnosti / A Chronicl e o f the Yugosla v Academy of Science s an d Arts . Zagreb, 1877 - . Thi s publication contain s a repor t o n event s connecte d wit h th e lif e o f th e YA, a lis t o f it s ne w member s an d thei r biographies , a s wel l a s necrologues o f decease d members . I t als o publishe s scientifi c contribution s of it s members who hav e bee n assiste d b y th e YA. Rad Jugoslavenske Akademije Znanosti i Umjetnosti / Wor k of the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts . Zagreb, 1867 Zbornik jugoslavenskih narodnih popjevaka / Collecte d Yugosla v Peoples ' Melodies. Zagreb, 1924— . Franjo Kuha c an d Dr . Vink o Zganec ar e engaged i n collectin g an d publishin g fol k melodie s fro m variou s Croatian regions. Zbornik sadasnjih pravnih obicaja u Juznih Slavena / Collecte d Presen t Customary Law s Among the Sout h Slavs . Zagreb, 1874 - . Baltazar Bogisic ha s collecte d worthwhil e material s fo r th e studen t o f privat e and publi c la w a s i t i s found amon g th e people . Zbornik za narodni zivot i obicaje Juznih Slavena / A Symposiu m o n th e Life an d Custom s of the Sout h Sla v People . Zagreb , 1896 - . Thi s publication contain s papers o n the folklore , ethnography, an d ethnolog y of th e Croatia n people , and , in part , o f othe r Sout h Slavi c peoples . 2. Department of Literature, History of Literature, and Philology Dokumenti o piscima XX. stoljeca / Documentar y Source s o n Author s o f the Twentiet h Century . Zagreb , 1960 Filologija / Philology . Zagreb , 1957 - . Contain s excellen t studie s i n linguistics an d literar y criticism , no t onl y o f Croatia n languag e an d

APPENDIXES 36

7

literature, bu t o f th e othe r principa l Wester n language s an d literature s as well. Gradja za povijest knjizevnosti hrvatske / Sourc e Material s fo r th e Histor y of Croatia n Literature . Zagreb , 1897 — Hrvatski latinisti / Croatia n Lati n Writers . Zagreb , 1951 Noviji pisci hrvatski / Moder n Croatia n Authors . Zagreb , 1949 - . Thi s publication list s works of nineteenth-centur y Croatia n writers . Stari pisci hrvatski / Earl y Croatia n Writers . Zagreb , 1869 - . The works of al l Croatia n writer s precedin g th e Illyria n Movemen t ar e bein g published in this collection. 3. Department of Mathematical, Physical, and Technical Sciences Rasprave Odjela za matematiëke, fizicke i tehnicke nauke / Studie s o f th e Department o f Mathematical, Physica l an d Technica l Sciences . Zagreb , 19524. Department of Medical Sciences, Medical Research, and Hygiene Arhiv za higijenu rada i toksikologiju / Archiv e fo r th e Hygien e o f Wor k and Toxicology. Zagreb, 1950 5. Department of Music Djela suvremenih hrvatskih autora / Work s o f Contemporar y Croatia n Composers. Zagreb, 1959 Spomenici hrvatske muzicke proslosti / Monument s of Croatia n Musica l History. Zagreb , 1957 6. Department of Natural Sciences Palaeontologia jugoslavica. Zagreb, 1958Prirodoslovna istrazivanja / Natura l Scienc e Research . Zagreb , 1913 This publicatio n contain s studie s i n geology , mineralogy , physica l geography, biology , and related sciences . 7. Department of Philosophy and Social Sciences (History, Archaeology, Law, Economics, Maritime Affairs) Codex Diplomaticus regni Croatiae, Dalmatiae et Slavoniae. Vol. 2 . Zagreb , 1904- . Firs t volum e wa s neve r published . Historica l document s of importanc e fo r th e stud y o f Croatia n histor y ar e bein g publishe d i n this collection. Gradja za gospodarsku povijest Hrvatske / Sourc e Material s fo r th e Eco nomic Histor y o f Croatia . Zagreb , 1951 Gradja za noviju povijest Hrvatske / Sourc e Material s fo r th e Moder n History o f Croatia. Zagreb, 1950Gradja za pomorsku povijest Dubrovnika / Sourc e Material s fo r th e Mari time Histor y o f Dubrovnik. Dubrovnik , 1954 - . This i s the publica tion o f th e Maritim e Museum of th e Y A in Dubrovnik . Jadranske monograflje / Adriati c Monographs . Zagreb , 1955 - . Thi s publication contain s researc h paper s o n variou s maritim e affair s perti nent t o the Croatia n Adriatic coast. Monumenta Catarensia-Kotorski Spomenici / Historica l Monument s of th e City of Kotor. Zagreb, 1951 -

368 APPENDIXE

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Monumento, histórica ragusina—Dubrovacki Spomenici / Historica l Docu ments o f th e Cit y o f Dubrovnik . Zagreb , 1951 Monumenta historico-juridica Slavorum meridionalium. Zagreb , 1868 Important document s fo r Croatia n lega l histor y ar e bein g publishe d i n this collection . Monumenta spectantia historiam Slavorum Meridionalium. Zagreb , 1868 - . This i s a collectio n o f importan t Croatia n historica l documents . Pomorsko Pravo / Maritim e Law. Zagreb , 1951 — . Thi s i s the publica tion o f th e Adriati c Institut e o f the Y A in Zagreb . I t contain s no t onl y studies o n maritim e la w pertinen t t o th e Adriati c Croatia n coast , bu t many studie s in internationa l maritim e la w a s well. Prilozi novijoj jugoslavenskoj historifi / Contribution s t o Recen t Yugosla v History. Zagreb, 1956Prinosi proucavanju ekonomike ribarstva i ribarstvenog prava / Contribu tions t o th e Stud y o f Economi c an d Lega l Aspect s o f Fishing . Zagreb , 1955Starine / Antiquities . Zagreb , 1869 — . Studies i n earl y Croatia n history . Starohrvatska Prosvjeta / Earl y Croatia n Civilization . Zagreb , Serie s I : 1895-1904; Serie s II : 1926-1928 ; Serie s III : 1948 - . Th e lates t series i s publishe d b y th e Museu m o f Croatia n Antiquitie s i n Split . I t contains researc h paper s o n th e Croatia n past , especiall y o n it s earl y period. 8. Department of Plastic Arts Bulletin Instituía za Likovne Umjetnosti / Bulleti n of the Institut e fo r Plasti c Arts. Zagreb , 1953 - . Thi s publication change d it s nam e i n 195 9 to Bulletin Odjela VII. za likovne umjetnosti / Bulleti n o f Departmen t VII for the Plastic Arts. VI. MATIC A HRVATSK A

A cultura l institutio n tha t i s widel y know n an d cherishe d amon g th e Croatians is Matica Hrvatska, which ha s devote d itsel f fo r ove r one hundre d years t o publishing th e work s of Croatia n authors . Recentl y th e comprehen sive history and all-inclusiv e bibliograph y o f Matica Hrvatsk a wa s publishe d in on e extremel y usefu l volume : Matica Hrvatska 1842-1962, b y JakS a Ravlic an d Mari n Sombora c (Zagreb : Matic a Hrvatska , 1963) . VII. ZEMALJSK I MUZEJ , SARAJEV O

This Nationa l Museum began publishin g it s yearbook, Glasnik Zemaljskog Muzeja, i n 1889 . Fo r a bibliograph y o f th e article s publishe d i n thi s yearbook, se e Rudol f Zaplata , Inhaltsverzeichnis der wissenschaftlichen Mitteilungen, Vols . I-XIII (Sarajevo : Drzavn a ïtamparija , 1935) . Th e book covers th e year s 1893-97 , 1899 , 1900 , 1902 , 1904 , 1907 , 1909 , 1912 , an d 1914. Th e followin g tw o volume s continu e thi s bibliography : Rudol f Zaplata, Pregled Sadrzaja Glasnika Zemaljskog muzeja u Sarajevu od 18891937 godine (I-XLIX) / Surve y of the Contents of the Bulletin of the National Museum i n Sarajev o fro m 188 9 t o 193 7 (Sarajevo : Drzavn a Stamparija , 1938); Vukosav a Popovic, Pregled Sadrzaja Glasnika Zemaljskog muzeja od 1938-1952 / Surve y of the Content s o f the Bulleti n of the Nationa l Museum from 193 8 t o 195 2 (Sarajevo : Drzavn a stamparija , 1953) .

APPENDIX C GEOGRAPHICAL NAME S Since a numbe r o f cultures have lef t trace s o n th e land s toda y inhabite d b y the Croatians , i t i s helpful t o kno w th e most frequentl y use d varian t form s of Croatia n place names. The Croatia n name s ar e followe d i n th e lis t b y an y Croatian variant s (Cr.), an d b y th e appropriat e ancien t (arce.) , Englis h (Eng.), Frenc h (Fr.) , Germa n (Get.), Gree k (Gr.) , Hungaria n (Hung.), Italian (It.), Lati n (Lai.) , o r other equivalents . Th e Croatia n form s o f some non-Croatian plac e name s ar e als o given . Th e abbreviatio n obs. i s use d t o indicate a varian t for m tha t i s no w obsolete . ADIDZA; see Adig e ADIGE (river) , Cr. Adidza , Ger. Etsc h ADRIATIC SEA , Cr. Jadransk o Mor e o r Jadran AEGEAN SEA, Cr. Egejsk o More , Serbian Jegejsko More AKVILEJA; see Aquilei a ALSACE (regio n o f France) , anc. Alsa tia, Cr. Elzas , Ger. Elsas s ANCONA (Italy) , Cr. Jaki n (obs.) AQUILEIA (Italy) , anc. Aquileia , medieval Aglar , Cr. Ogla j (obs.) o r Akvileja ATENA; see Athena i ATHENAI (Greece) , Cr. Atena , Serbian Atina, Eng. Athen s BAKAR, Lot. Volcera, It. Buccar i BANOVIC; see Banovic i BANOVICI or Banovi c BAR (Montenegro) , Gr. Antibaris , Lat. Antibarum, Albanian Tivar i o r Tivari, It. Antivari BASKA (o n th e Islan d o f Krk ) o r Baskanova, It. Besc a (nuova ) BENKOVAC, It. Bencovazzo , Ger. Ben kovatz BEOGRAD (Serbia) , Lat. Singidunum , Fr. and Eng. Belgrade , It. Belgrad o BERAM (nea r Pazin) , It. Verm o BIHACI; see Bijac i BIJACI (nea r Trogir ) a popula r for m of Bihac i BIOGHAD o r Biogra d n a mor u (Whit e City o n th e Sea) , It. Zaravecchi a BIOKOVO (mountain) , It. Mont e Biloc o or Mont i Albi i BITOLA (Macedonia) , Cr. Bitol j

BITOLJ; see Bitol a BJELOVAR, Hung. Belová r BLATO (o n th e Islan d o f Korcula) , It. Blatta (d i Curzola ) BOHEMIA (par t o f Czechoslovakia) , Cr. Ceska , Czech Cechy , Ger. Bohrnen BOKA KOTOHSKA , It. Bocch e d i Cattaro , Eng. Gul f o f Koto r BOSANSKA GHADISKA , Lat. Servitiu m BHAC (island) , Lat. Brattia , It. Brazz a BRATISLAVA ( Czechoslovakia ), Cr. Pozun, Ger. Pressburg , Hung. Pozsony BRIJUNI o r Brion i (islands) , Lat. In sulae Pullariae , It. Isol e Brion i BRIONI; see Brijun i BROD, Bro d n a Savi , o r Slavonsk i Brod, Lat. Marsoni a BHOD N A SAVI; see Bro d BUCARESTI (Rumania) , Cr. Bukurest , Eng. Buchares t BUDAPEST (Hungary) , Cr. Budimpesta , Budim, o r Pest a BuDiM; see Budapes t BUDIMPESTA; see Budapes t BUDVA, It. Budu a BUKUREST; see Bucarest i BURGENLAND (Austria) , Cr. Gradisc e CAKOVEC, Ger. Csakathurn , Hung. Csáktornya CAHIGRAD; see Istanbu l CARINTHIA (regio n i n Centra l Europe) , Cr. Koruska , Ger. Karnte n CAHNIOLA (regio n i n Yugoslavia) , Cr. Kranjska, Ger. Krai n CAUCASUS, Cr. Kavka z

370

APPENDIXES

CAVTAT, anc. Epidaurus , Lot. Civita s Vetus, It. Ragusavecchi a CELJE (Slovenia) , anc. Claudi a Celeia , It. Cul i CELOVAC; see Klagenfur t CESKA; see Bohemia CETINA (river) , anc. Tiluriu s CHINA, Cr. Kin a o r Kita j (obs.) ÓICARIJA (region) , It. Cicceri a Ciovo (island) , Lot. and It. Bu a CIPAR; see Cypru s CITLUK (nea r Sinj) , Lat. Aequu m CUES (island) , Lat. Crepsa ; Cre s an d Losinj ha d a commo n nam e i n antiquity, Apsyrtides ; It. Chers o CRETE, anc. Gret a or Candia , Cr. Kret a or Kandij a (obs.), Serbian Kri t CRNA GORA , Eng. an d It . Montenegr o CYPRUS, Cr. Cipar , Serbian Kipa r DALJ (nea r Osijek) , Lat. Teutoburgiu m DANSKA; see Denmar k DANUBE (river) , Cr. Dunav ; Danub e River Basin , Cr. Podunavlj e DABUVAR, Lat. Aqua e Balissae DENMARK, Cr. Dansk a DIÑARA (mountains) , It. Alp i Dinarich e DJAKOVO, Hung. Diaková r DJURDJEVAC o r Gjurgjevac , Ger. Sank t Georgen DRAC; see Durrë s DRAGONJA (river) , It. Dragogn a DHAVA (river) , Ger. Drau, Hung. Dráva ; Drava Rive r Basin , Cr. Podravin a DRAZDJANI; see Dresde n DRENOPOLJE; see Edirn e DRESDEN (Germany) , Cr. Drazdjan i (obs.) DRVENIK (island) , It. Ziron a DUBHOVNIK, Gr. Rausion , Lat. Rha gusium o r Racusa , It. Ragus a DUGI OTO K (island) , it . Isol a Lung a or Isol a Gross a DUNAV; see Danub e DURRËS (Albania) , Lat. Dyrrachium , Cr. Drac , It. an d Eng. Durazzo , Turkish Dradj , Draj , o r Dra ç DUVNO o r Tomislav-Grad , Lat. Del minium EDIRNE (Turkey) , anc. Adrianopoli s o r

Hadrianopolis, formerl y Adrian ople, Cr. Jedrene o r Drenopolj e EGEJSKO MORE ; see Aegea n Se a EGYPT, Cr. Egipa t o r Misi r (biblical ) EISENSTADT (tow n i n Burgenland , Austria), Cr. 2elezn o (obs.), Hung. Kismarton ELBE (river) , Cr. Lab a ELZAS; see Alsace EHDELJ; see Transylvani a FALACKA; see Palatinat e FILIPJAKOV, It. Sant i Filipp o e Giacom o FIHENCA; see Firenz e FIRENZE, Cf . Firenca , Eng. an d Fr. Florence GALIPOLJE; see Gallipol i GALLIPOLI (Turkey) , Cr. Galipolj e GENÈVE, Cr. 2eneva , Eng . Geneva ; Lake o f Geneva , Cr. Zenevsk o Jezero GERMANY, Cr. Njemack a GJUHGJEVAC; see Djurdjeva c GOHNJI CHAD ; see Gri c GHADAC; see Gra z GRADEZ; see Grad o GRADISCE; see Burgenlan d GRADO (o n th e Adriatic , nea r Aquileia , Italy), Cr. Gradez (obs.) GHAZ (Austria) , Cr. (Stajerski ) Grada c (obs.) GRI£ o r Gornj i Grad , par t o f th e cit y of Zagreb GRUZ, It. Gravos a HAVAJI; see Hawai i HAWAII, Cr. Havaj i HEHCEG-NOVI, It. Castelnuov o (d i Cat taro) HUNGARY, Cr. Madjarska , Madzarska , or Ugarsk a HVAR (island) , Gr. Pharos , Lat. Phari a or Pharus , It. Lésin a IMOTSKI, It. Irnosch i IST (island) , It. Ist o ISTANBUL (Turkey) , anc. Byzantium , Cr. Carigrad , Stambo l (obs.) o r Stambul (obs.), Fr. and Eng. Con stantinople Iz (island) , Lat. Esum , It. Eso JABUKA (island) , It. Pom o

APPENDIXES

JADHAN; see Adriati c Se a JADHANSKO MORE ; see Adriati c Se a JAKIN; see Ancon a JEDHENE; see Edirn e KALAMOTA; see Koloce p KANDIJA; see Cret e KAHLOVAC, Ger. Karlstadt, Hung. Káro lyváros KASTAV, It. Castu a KASTEL-SUCUHAC, see Sucura c KASTELA KO D SPLITA, It. Castell i d i Spalato KAVKAZ; see Caucasu s KERKYRA (Greece) , anc. Corcyra , Cr. Krf, Eng. Corf u KINA; see Chin a KITAJ; see Chin a KLAGENFURT (Austria) , Cr. Celovac , Slovenian Celove c KLIS, It. Cliss a KNIN, It. Teni n KOLOCEP (island ) o r Kalamota , It. Calamotta KOPAR, It. Capodistri a KOPHIVNICA, Ger. Kopreinitz , Hung. Kapronca KORCULA, Lat. Corcyr a Nigra , It. Cur zola KORUSKA; see Carinthi a KOTOH, Gr. Dekatera , Lat. Catharum , It. Cattar o KRALJEVICA, It. Port o R e KRANJSKA; see Carniol a KREMLIN, Cr. Kreml j KHEMLJ; see Kremli n KRETA; see Cret e KRF; see Kerkyra KRIZEVCI, Ger. Kreuz, Hung. Kôrô s KHK (island) , Lat. Curicu m o r Curicta , It. Vegli a KRKA (river) , Lat. Titius , It. Cherc a KVAHNER, It. Quarnar o o r Cámar o LABA; see Elbe LANGOBARDIJA; see Lombard y LASTOVO (island) , Lat. Ladesta , It. Lágosta LAVOV; see Lwi w LEIPZIG, Cr. Lipsk o (dbs.) LiPSKO; see Leipzi g

371

LISABON; see Lisbo a LISBOA, anc. Olisipo , late r Felicita s Julia; Cr. Lisabon , Eng. Lisbo n LOMBARDY, Cr . Langobardija , It. Lom bardia LORRAINE, Cr. Lotaringija , Ger. Loth ringen LOSINJ MAL I (see Cres) , It. Lussin piccolo LOSINJ VELI , It. Lussingrand e LOTAHINGIJA; see Lorrain e LOURDES, Cr. Lur d LOVCEN (mountain) , It. Mont e Leon e LOVRAN, It. Lauran a LUHD; see Lourde s LUSATIA (regio n i n Germany) , Cr. Luzica, Ger. Lausit z LUZICA; see Lusati a Lwiw (Ukraine) , Cr. Lavov, Eng. Lvov , Polish Lwo w MADJARSKA; see Hungar y MADZAHSKA; see Hungar y MAIN (river) , Cr. Majn a MAJNA; see Mai n MAKARSKA, It. Macarsc a MAHIBOR (Slovenia) , Ger. Marbur g MAHMAHA, Se a of , Cr. Mramorn o More MARTINSCICA, It. Sa n Martin o i n Vall e MAUN (island) , It. Mao n o r Maon i MEDITERRANEAN SEA , Cr. Sredozemlj e or Sredozemn o Mor e MEDJIMURJE o r Medjumurj e (region ) MEDJUMUHJE; see Medjimurj e METKOVIC, It. Metcovic h MISIR; see Egyp t MITROVICA; see Srijemsk a Mitrovic a MLECI; see Venezi a MLETAKA; see Venezi a MLJET (island) , It. Meled a MOHAC; see Mohác s MOHÁCS (Hungary) , Cr. Moha c MOLAT (island) , It. Melad a MONAKOV; see Munche n MRAMORNO MORE ; see Marmar a Muc (nea r Split) , It. Mucci MUNCHEN (Germany) , Fr. an d Eng. Munich, It. Monac o d i Bavier a Cr. Monako v (obs.) MURA (river) , Ger. Mu r

372

APPENDIXES

MURTEH (island) , It. Morte r NAPOLI, anc. Neapolis, Cr. Napulj , Ger. Neapel, Fr. and Eng. Naples NAPULJ; see Napol i NERETVA (river) , Lot. Naro , It. Narenta NEBEZISCE (o n th e Islan d o f Brae) , It. Neresi NETHERLANDS, Cr. Nizozemska NIN, It. Non a NIZOZEMSKA; see Netherland s NJEMACKA; see German y Novi, Nov i Vindolsk i o r Vinodo l Novi VINDOLSKI ; see Nov i ODER (river) , Cr. Odr a ODRA; see Ode r OGLAJ; see Aquilei a OLIB (island) , It. Ulb o OLOVO ( a mine) , Lot. Plumbu m OMIS, Lof . Almissium, It. Almiss a OPATIJA, It. Abazzi a ORMOZ (Slovenia) , Ger. Frieda u OSIJEK, Lai . Mursa , Ger. Esseg , Hung. Eszek OSLJE (nea r Ston) , It. Osegli e PAD; see P o PAG (island) , It. Pag o PALATINATE (regio n i n Germany) , Cr. Falacka, Ger. Pfal z PARIS, Lof . Luteti a ( Parisiorum ), Cr. Pariz, Ger. and Eng. Pari s PARIZ; see Pari s PASMAN (island) , Lai . Postumiana , It. Pasman PAZIN, It. Pisin o PEC; see Pecs PECS (Hungary) , Cr. Pecu h (obs.) o r Pec, Serbian Pecu j (obs.) PECUH; see Pec s PELJESAC (peninsula ) o r Stonsk i Rat , It. Sabbioncell o PEHAST, It. Perast o PESTA; see Budapes t PETHOVARADIN, Ger. Peterwardein , Hung. Pétervára d PiRiNEji; see Pyrenee s PLANINSKI KANAL ; see Velebi t Channe l PLITVICE; see Plitvick a Jezer a PLITVICKA JEZEH A o r Plitvice , Englis h

Plitvice Lake s Po (river , Italy) , Cr. Pad PODGOHSKI KANAL ; see Velebi t Channe l PODRAVINA; see Drav a PODUNAVLJE; see Danub e PORAJNJE; see Rhin e POHEC, Lof . Parentium , It. Parenz o POSAVINA; see Sav a POZUN; see Bratislav a PHAG; see Prah a PRAHA (Czechoslovakia) , Ger. an d Cr. Prag, Fr. an d Eng. Pragu e PROVANSA; see Provenc e PROVENCE (regio n i n France) , Cr. Provansa PRVIC (island) , It. Pervicchi o PTUJ (Slovenia) , Lof . Petovi a PULA, Lot . Pieta s lulia , Slovenian Pulj , It. Pol a PYRENEES (mountains) , Cr. Pirineji , Spanish Pirineos , Serbian Pirenej i RAB (island) , Lai . Arva , It. Arb e RAJNA; see Rhin e RASA (river) , It. Ars a RHINE (river) , Cr. Rajna ; Rhin e Rive r Basin, Cr. Porajnj e RIJEKA, It. Fium e RIM; see Rom a ROMA, Cr. Rim , Fr. an d Eng. Rome , Ger. Ro m ROVINJ, It. Rovign o (d'lstria ) SAD; see US A SASKA; see Saxon y SAVA (river) , Loi . Savus , Ger. Sau , Hung. Száva ; Sav a Rive r Basin , Cr. Posavin a SAVINJA (river) , Ger. San n SAXONY, Cr. Saska , Ger. Sachse n SCEDRO (island) , It. Toreól a SEDMOGRADSKA; see Transylvani a SELCA (o n th e Islan d o f Brae) , It. Selza SENJ, Lai . Senia , It. Segna , Ger. Zengg SESTRUNJ (island) , It. Sestrugn o o r Sestro SHKODËR o r Shkodr a (Albania) , anc. Scodra, Cr. Skadar , Turkish Iskenderiye, It. and Eng. Scutar i SIBENIK, It. Sebenic o

APPENDIXES

SIGET; see Szigetvá r SILBA (island) , It. Selve SINJ, It. Sign o SIPAN (island) , It. Giuppan a SISAK, Lot. Siscia o r Segestic a SKADAR; see Shkodë r SKOPJE (Macedonia) , anc. Scupi , Cr. Skoplje, Turkish Üskü b SKOPLJE; see Skopj e SKHADIN, It. Scardon a SLOVONSKI BROD ; see Bro d SMRDELJE (nea r Skradin) , It. Lentis cheto SNJEZNIK (mountain) , Slovenian Snez nik, It. Mont e Nevoso , Ger. Schnee berg SOLIN, Lot. Salona , It. Salon a SOLTA; see Sule t SOLUN; see Thessalonik e SPI&, It. Sant a Mari a degl i Ospiz i SPLIT, Gr. Aspalathos , I/of . Spalatum , It. Spalat o SPREE (river) , Cr. Sprev a (obs.) SPHEVA; see Spre e SREBRENICA or Srebrnica , Let . Domavi a SRBRNICA; see Srebrenic a SREDOZEMLJE; see Mediterranea n SREDOZEMNO MORE ; see Mediterranea n SRIJEM (region) , Serbian Srem , Ger. Syrmien, Hung. Szere m SRIJEMSKA MITROVIC A o r Mitrovica , Serbian Sremsk a Mitrovica , Lot. Sirmium SHIJEMSKI KARLOVC I o r Karlovci , Serbian Sremski Karlovci, Ger. Karlowitz STAJEHSKA; see Styri a STAMBOL; see Istanbu l STAMBUL; see Istanbu l STARIGRAD (o n th e Islan d o f Hvar) , It. Cittavecchia STON, Lut. Stagnum, It. Stagn o STONSKI RAT ; see Peljesa c STYRIA (regio n i n Austria) , Cr. Sta jerska, Ger. Steiermar k SUÓURAC o r Kastel-Sucurac , It. Caste l San Giorgi o SUCURAJ (o n th e Islan d o f Hvar) , It. San Giorgi o (d i Lésina ) SULET o r Solta , Lot. Solentia , It. Solt a

373

SUPETAR (o n th e Islan d o f Brae) , It. San Pietr o (d i Brazza ) SUPETAHSKA DRAG A (o n th e Islan d o f Rab), It. Sa n Pietr o i n Vall e o r Valle d i Sa n Pietr o SUSAK, It. sometime s Port o Baros s SUTOMORE, Lot. Sancta Maria , It. Sant a Maria SVAJCAHSKA; see Switzerlan d SVETI VID; see Vidov a Gor a SVICAHSKA; see Switzerlan d SWITZERLAND, Cr. Svicarsk a o r Svaj carska SZIGETVÁH, formerl y Szige t (Hungary) , Cr. Sige t TARANTO (Italy) , anc. Tarentum , Cr. Tarent TARENT; see Tarant o TEMZA; see Thame s THAMES (river) , Cr. Temz a THESSALONIKE (Greece) , Cr. Solun , Eng. Salónica , Salonika, or Saloniki TKON (o n th e Islan d o f Pasman) , It. Tuconio TRANSYLVANIA o r Ardea l (Rumania) , Cr. Transilvanija, Erdel j (obs.), or Sedmogradska (obs.), Hung. Erdely, Ger. Siebenbiirge n THENTO (Italy) , anc. Tridentum , Cr. Trident, Eng. Tren t TRIDENT; see Trent o TRIESTE (Italy) , anc. Tergeste , Slovenian an d Cr. Trst, Ger. Triest TRILJ (nea r Sinj) , It. Tregli a TROCIR, Gr. Tragurion, Lot. Tragurium, It. Tra ù TRSAT, Lot. Tarsatica , It. Tersatt o TRST; see Triest e TRVIZ, It. Tervis o U£KA (mountain) , It. Mont e Maggiore UGARSKA; see Hungar y ULCINJ, Lot. Ulcinium, It. Dulcign o UNIJE (island) , It. Uni e USA, Cr. SA D (Sjedinjen e Americk e Drzave) o r US A VANDEJA; see Vendée VAHAZDIN, Lot. Aqua Viva, Ger. Warasdin, Hung. Varas d VARSAVA; see Warszaw a

374

APPENDIXES

VELEBIT (mountain) , It, Alp i Bebi e VELEBIT CHANNEL, Cr. Velebitski Kanal, Podgorski Kanal , o r Planinsk i Kanal, It. Cana l dell a Morlacc a VELEBITSKI KANAL ; see Velebi t Channe l VENDÉE (regio n i n France) , Cr. Van deja VENEZIA, Lot. Venetia , Cr. Mleci (Genitive: Mletaka) , Eng. Venic e VIDOVA GOH A (mountai n o n th e Islan d of Brae) , Vidovica , o r Svet i Vid , It. Sa n Vito VIDOVICA; see Vidov a Gor a VINODOL; see Nov i Vm (island) , It. Puntadur a Vis (island) , Lot. Issa , It. Liss a VisLA; see Vistul a VISTULA (liver) , Cr. Visl a VOGEZI; see Vosge s VOLOSKO (subur b o f Opatija) , It. Volosca VOSGES (mountain) , Cr. Vogez i VUKOVAR, Lat. Valdasus , Hung. Vukovar

WAHSZAWA, Cr. VarsSava , Eng. Warsa w WIEN, Lot. Vindobona, Cr. Bee, It. an d Eng. Vienn a WROCLAW (Poland) , Cr . Breslav a (obs.), Ger. Bresla u ZADAR, Gr. Diadora , Lot. Jadera , It. Zara ZAGORA (Dalmatia n hinterland) , It. II Montan o ZAGREB, Lat. Zagrabia , Ger. Agram , It. Zagabria 2ELEZNO; see Eisenstad t ZEMUN, Ger. Semlin , Hung. Zimon y ZENEVA; see Genèv e ZENEVSKO JEZEHO ; see Genèv e ZENICA, Lat. Bistu e Nov a ZIDANI MOS T (Slovenia) , Ger. Stein briick ZIBJE (island) , It. Zur i ZLAHIN (island) , It. Slarin o ZRMANJA (river) , Lat. Tedanium , If . Zermagna ZUT (Island) , It. Zu t

APPENDIX D PRONUNCIATION O F CROATIA N LETTERS IN TH E Croatian language , a Lati n alphabet , consistin g o f thirt y letters , i s used. Fiv e o f thes e letter s correspon d t o vowe l sounds , an d th e res t t o consonant sounds . Wit h fou r exceptions , whic h ar e indicate d below , eac h letter represent s on e definit e speec h sound , an d eac h soun d correspond s t o one definite letter. CONSONANTS

Croatian ct

English Pronunciation , even before a , o, and u. ëc h church és ha s in hif you. S t(-j-y ) shoe z z (-f-y ) vis/on , pleasure dj, g j j a s in di d you. dz d(-)-y ) judge gg go , even before e and i jy youth , j/ell 1] 1 1 (+y) million nj n (-j-y ) canyon, om'on rr roo m The remainin g consonan t sound s (b , d , f , h , k , 1 , m, n , p , s , t , v , z ) correspond closel y t o th e Englis h pronunciatio n o f th e same letters . aa ee ie oa uo r (syllabic ) —

English s cate—always

VOWELS fathe bes e u caugh o smoot n

t keen

r

t h o equivalent

APPENDIX E SPONSORS AND ASSISTANTS The editor s ow e a specia l deb t o f gratitude to th e followin g si x sponsors fo r their exceptionall y generou s suppor t towar d th e publicatio n o f thi s book : Dr. Iva n Tuska n an d hi s wife , Dr . Mari a Tuskan , Cincinnati , Ohio ; Mr . George Bubany , Mr . Ra y Kauzlarich , an d Mr . Josep h Píese , al l o f Gallup , New Mexico ; an d Rev . Innocen t M . Bojanic , O.P. , Chicago , Illinois . Th e editors als o wis h t o expres s thei r thank s t o th e followin g individual s an d institutions wh o helpe d i n th e preparatio n o f thi s volume , eithe r b y givin g generously o f their tim e an d talent s o r b y makin g financia l contribution s a s sponsors. ADVERTISERS

Croatian Radio-Hour Producers; Hrvatski Glas (Croatia n newspaper) , Birek, John, Cleveland, Ohio Winnipeg , Manitob a Glavanic, Charles, London, Ontario NaSa Nada, Newspape r o f the Croatia n Ivanus, Theodore B., Cleveland, Ohio Catholi c Union , Gary , Indian a Mehes, Mirko, Sudbury, Ontari o Nova Hrvatska (Ne w Croatia) , London , Prepolec, John , Detroit, Michigan Englan d Zajednicar (Newspape r o f th e Croatia n Croatian Papers and Journals: Fraterna l Union) , Pittsburgh , Croatia Press, New s Bulletin an d Com - Pennsylvani a ment, Ne w York , N.Y. Croatian Courier, Detroit, Michigan American Dailies: Dánica (Mornin g Star), Chicago, Illinois Cleveland Plain Dealer, August 2 , 195 8 Hrvatska Revija (Croatia n Review : cul - Cleveland Press, July 31, 195 8 tural and literary quarterly journal), The Detroit News, January 4, 195 8 Buenos Aires, Argentina Farrell Press, August 15, 195 8 COPYHEADEHS Bittner, Mis s Frances , St . Louis , L a Du , Rober t R. , Milwaukee , Wis Missouri consi n Giletti, Mrs . Brun o J. , Providence , Lane , Ronald , Gollegeville , Minnesot a Rhode Island Zrims , Rudolf, Columbus , Ohio Hren, Rev . Innocent , Oa k Park , Illinoi s DONORS OF ILLUSTRATION S

Gal, Miro , New York , N.Y . Reichercer , Lucijan , Ne w York , N.Y. Paulin, Philip, Milwaukee , Wisconsin Stromar-Mirenic , Vitomir , Vienna , Pintar, John , Ne w York , N.Y. Austri a SUPPORTERS

Croatian Boar d o f Trade , Detroit , Ostovic , Pavle, Montreal , P.Q. Michigan Prepolec , John , Detroit, Michiga n Kamber, Rev. Charles, Toronto, Ontario Simiic , Rev. Milan, Rome, Italy Marr, Very Reverend John E., Chicago, Sullivan , Msgr . John A. , Charlottetown , Illinois P.E.I . Mestrovié, Iva n

APPENDIXES

377

TRANSLATORS

Izzo, John, Albuquerque, Ne w Mexico Labash, Mis s Betty, Toronto, Ontari o Malenica, Mira, Chicago, Illinois Mueller, Mis s Mechthild , St . Paul , Minnesota

Verbanac, Siste r Anthon y Marie, Kettl e Falls, Washingto n Whiton, Mrs . J. N. , St . Paul, Minnesota Zecevic, Rev . Serafín , Regina , Sask .

TYPISTS

Bartels, Mrs . Gloria , Minneapolis Minnesota Bozivich, Mrs . Jeanette , St . Paul Minnesota Breimhurst, Mis s Rose , St . Paul Minnesota Dominican Missio n Sisters , Chicago Illinois

, , , ,

Dorfer, Mrs . Maria , Sant a Rosa , Cali fornia Pavlich, Mis s Ann , St . Paul , Minnesot a Plinski, Mrs. Eileen, Winona , Minnesota Verbanac, Siste r Anthon y Marie, Kettl e Falls, Washingto n Winze, Mis s Jeri, Milwaukee , Wisconsin

SPONSORS

Individuals

Budrovich, Rev . Stephe n V. , Chicago , Illinois Chukman, Louis, Chicago , Illinoi s Derpich, Nicholas , Watsonville , Cali fornia Drazenovich, Paul, Fairbanks, Alaska Dubicanac, Stjepan, Montreal , P.Q . Goggins, Rev . Ralph , Winona , Minne sota Golik, Rev . Stanley , Nort h Bend , Nebraska Gracanin, Vlado, Cincinnati, Ohi o Hatic, Osman, Cincinnati, Ohi o Hrascanec, Rev . Rudolf , Kenmore , Pennsylvania Ivandich, Rev . Louis, Windsor, Ontari o Juricek, Msgr . John, Omaha , Nebraska Kamber, Rev. Charles, Toronto, Ontari o Kisic, Ivo, Caracas, Venezuela Koenig, Georgia, Cincinnati , Ohi o Kolega, Bruno, Washington, D.C . Koludrovich, Viktor, Cleveland, Ohi o Kufrin, Paul , Chicago , Illinoi s LivajuiSic, Rev . Anthony, Canton , Ohio Majnarich, Georg e J . Mestrovic, Ivan Oreskovich, Mr . an d Mrs . Stephen ,

Butte, Montana Poduje, Jozo , Ne w York , N.Y. Rusko, Marko , Montreal, P.Q. Savinovich, Mrs . Maria , Guayaquil Ecuador Sikic, Ante, Cincinnati, Ohio Simio, Petar, Caracas , Venezuela Starcevich, Stephen , Sa n Francisco California Torbar, Esteban , Caracas , Venezuela Unger, Mr . an d Mrs . Paul , Cleveland Ohio Vodarich, Mrs . Domenika , Sa n Fran cisco, California

,

, , -

Organizations Canadian Croatia n Club , Ottawa , Ontario Croatian Associatio n o f Venezuela , Caracas, Venezuela Croatian Boar d o f Trade , Detroit , Michigan Croatian Catholi c Union , Gary , Indian a Croatian Dominica n Sisters , Windso r Mills, P.Q. Jami 'a t e l Islam , Sa n Francisco , Cali fornia

FUND BAISEBS

Individuals

Verbanac, Siste r Anthon y Marie , Kettl e Falls, Washingto n

Kolak, Nicholas, St. Paul, Minnesot a Spraitz, Anthony , St . Paul, Minnesot a

Organizations

Canadian Croatia n Club , Sudbury, Ont . Croatian Centra l Committee , Milwau kee, Wisconsi n

American Croatia n Academi c Club , Cleveland, Ohi o

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Index AACHEN, 60, 11 7 Abazzia; see Opatij a Abderrhamen III, 95 Adel, 253 Adidza; see Adige Adige River , 145. See also Appendix C. Adrianople o r Adrianopolis; see Appen dix C: Edirn e Adriatic, 3 , 5 , 8 , 10-11 , 12 , 13 , 26 , 28 , 30, 38 , 39 , 40 , 57 , 66 , 76 , 79 , 81 , 8 2 90, 92 , 98 , 102 , 105, 110, 116, 117, 120, 131 , 132 , 133, 135 , 139 , 167, 170, 176 , 177, 181, 182 , 183 , 185, 186, 187 , 208, 221, 229, 231, 232, 317. See also Appendi x C . Aegean Sea , 132. See also Appendi x C . Aequum, 41; see also Citlu k Africa, 84 , 231, 325 Agathon, Pope, 224 Aglar; see Aquileia Agram; see Zagreb Akvileja; see Aquilei a Alans, 49, 57, 77-79, 81(n.l4) , 116 Alaric, 79 Alaupovic, Tugomir , 27 7 Albania, 3 , 16 , 30 , 34 , 39-40 , 66 , 67 , 82, 86 , 95 , 112 , 114, 116, 133, 150, 152-53, 185 Alberti, Juraj , 30 3 Albigenses, 6 6 Albii Mountains ; see Biokov o Albini, Alfred, 324 , 347 Albini, Felix , 295, 30 3 Alcoholism, 21 7 Alesani, Jerolim, 303 Alesi, Andre], 34 7 Alexander III, Pope, 281 Alexius Comnenus, 10 1 Alfonso V of Aragon-Naples, 11 1 Alfred th e Great , 8 2 Allies (Worl d Wa r II) , 157, 159, 160, 162, 163 , 200, 204 Almissa o r Almissium; see Omi S Alpi Bebie; see Velebit Alpi Dinariche; see Diñar a Alps, 59 , 227 (n.2) Alsace, 281. See also Appendix C . America, 22 , 150-51 , 181-83 , 200 , 22 0 (n.46), 221, 290, 292, 294, 296, 345

Anatolia, 97, 101 Andjelic, Pavao , 5 2 Andreis, Josip, 299, 303 Andric, Josip, 303 Andrijic brothers , 321, Marko, 347 Angeli-Radovani, Kosta, 334, 347 Angevins, 105, 106, 109, 110 Anjou, 105 , 120 Anonymous Notar y o f Bel a IV , 90 , 91 , 118 antemurale Christianitatis, 216, 247 Antes, 78, 82 (n. 15), 116 Antibaris or Antibarum; see Bar Antiquis, A. de, 281, 303 Antivari; see Bar Antolio, Vlado, 325, 347 Antun Dubrovcanin ; see Dubrovôanin , Antun Antun of Kascerga, 336, 347 Antunac, Grga, 333, 347 Aorsi, 78 Apennine, 10 , 30, 38, 227, 229 Apollo, 44 Apsyrtides; see Cres Apulia, 39, 100, 119 Aqua Viva, 41; see also Varazdin Aquae Balissae; see Daruvar Aquileia, 117 . See also Appendix C . Arab and Arabic, 82, 117, 118, 231 Arbe; see Rab Archbishop Joh n (Split) , 53 Ardeal; see Transylvani a Ardiaei, 39 , 40; see also Illyria n tribes Arian, 47, 85, 201 Armenia, 57, 138 Arnautovici ( near Visoko ) , 26 Arnold, Djuro, 27 7 Arpads, 104, 105, 107, 108, 120 Arsa; see Rasa Arva; see Rab Asia an d Asiatic , 112 , 131, 132 , 133, 138, 141 , 143, 167, 183, 296, 325 Aspalathos; see Split Atena or Atina; see Athen s Athens; see Appendix C : Athena i Augustincic, Antun, 332, 333, 347 Austerlitz, Battle of , 14 5 Austria, 3 , 30 , 32 , 100 , 102, 111, 113 14, 121 , 137 , 139 , 140 , 145 , 146,

380

INDEX

145-151, 160-65 , 177-81 , 183-84 , 187, 20 0 204 , 216, 221 , 227 (n.2) , 242-43, 249 , 250, 251, 256-57 , 25 9 (n.52), 266, 296, 322, 323, 324, 329 Austro-Hungarian, 153 , 172 , 184 , 207, 216, 26 7 Avar, 48 , 50 , 53 , 82-84 , 86(n.24 ) 87 , 116,131-32, 320 Avaro-Kutrigur Culture , 49-50 BASIC, LJUBO , 340, 342, 347 Babic, Ljubomi r (Ksave r Sando r Gjal ski ) ; see Gjalski Babonic of Blagaj, 13 6 Babukic, Vjekoslav, 248(n.l7), 274 Bach, Alexander, 285 Backa, 6, 154, 163 Badalic, Hugo, 27 7 Baden, 29, 31-32 Bagnoli, 226 (n.l) Bajamonti, Julije, 30 3 Bakar, 19 , 186 , 220 . See also Appen dix C . Bakic, Vojin, 334, 347 Bakra (bowl) , 230 Balaton, Lake, 234 Balkan Peninsul a (Balkans) , 3 , 25 , 34 , 76, 84-85 , 88 , 108, 116, 132-33, 136, 138, 141 , 149 , 151 , 156 , 164 , 175 , 179, 181-82 , 199 , 205, 214, 226(n.l) , 239, 245 , 247, 261, 288 Balokovic, Zlatko, 294 , 303 Baltic Sea, 185, 317 Balzac, Honor é de , 261 Ban, 132, 168 Ban Matija , 275 Banat, 166 bandería, 136 Banija, 6 Banja Luka , 5, 14 , 18, 49, 154, , 179, 220 Banjaluôanin, Ante, 30 3 Banostor (Srijem),6 3 Banovic(i), 181 banovina, 132, 133 Ban's Croatia , 6(n.4 ) Banska Krajina , 14 0 Bapska, 33 Bar; see Appendix C Barac, Antun , 24 5 (n.8), 24 6 (n. 10), 272, 27 4 Barada, Miho, 61, 85, 104(n.67 ) Baranja, 6 , 154 Baranovic, Kresimir , 295, 297, 303, 315 Bardak (jug) , 23 0

Baric, Henrik, 4 9 Barice, 8 Baroque, 228 , 322-23, 329, 337 Baross; see Porto Baross Bartolic, Ivan, 34 7 Basagic, Safvet, 277 Basic, Mladen, 296, 303 Basil I I o f Byzantium, 11 0 Basilica Eufrisiana (Porec), 47 Basilica Occidentalis (Salona) , 48 Basilica Orientalis ( Salona ) , 48 Basilica Urbana (Salona) , 47, 48 Basilius, Emperor , 6 3 Baska, 56, 62. See also Appendix C Baskanova; see Baska Bastarnae, Germani c tribe, 43 Batina, 5 Batu Khan, 135 Bauer, Antun, 199 Bauer, Bruno, 324, 347 Bayreuth, 292-93, 295 Beo; see Vienna Becié, Ferdo , 275 Becic, Vladimir, 341-42, 347 Bela the Blind , 107 Bela IV, 119, 135 Belac, near Zlatar, 319, 322 Belgrade, 41 , 138 , 141 , 154 , 163 , 181 , 187, 204, 209, 222, 252; Opera, 293, 295; Philharmoni c Orchestra , 295 . See also Beogra d Belina, Pavao , 329 , 347 Belovar; see Bjelovar Benac, Aloj'z, 24-26, 28, 38 Bencovazzo; see Benkova c BeneSic, Ante, 277 Benie, Vladimir, 296, 303 Benko of Socerga, 336, 348 Benkovac, 61. See also Appendix C Benkovatz; see Benkovac Benkovic, Federiko, 337, 348 Beograd, 4 , 16 , 17 , 19 . See also Appen dix C and Belgrad e Beram, 320, 336. See also Appendix C Berdovic, Vladimir, 303 Berislavic, Petar, 113-14 , 121 , 197 , 212 Berlin, 148 , 256, 266, 282-83, 290 , 293, 340 Bernardió, Dragutin, 303 Bersca, Blagoje , 287, 303 Bersa, Vladimir (Vladoje) , 30 3 Besca; see Básic a Beslinac, 181 Betlen, Gabor, 144

INDEX

Bihac, 5, 18, 36, 161, 220, 230 Bihaci; see Bijaó i Bijaci (nea r Trogir), 55 , 58, 90 See also Appendix C Bijeljina, 18 , 269 Bijelo, Brdo , 33 , 34, 64, 65 Bilice (nea r Sibenik) , 55 Biljeg, 6 6 Biloco Mountain ; see Biokov o Bindus, 44 Biograd, 9 , 56 , 97(n.48) , 234. See also Appendix C . Biograd n a Moru ; see Biograd Biokovo, 7. See also Appendix C . Bishop Lawrenc e o f Split, 23 4 Biskupija (nea r Knin) , 50-51 , 56 , 62 63, 234 Bistue Nova, 47 ; see also Zenic a Bitola; see Appendix C Bitolj; see Bitola Bjelasnica, 8 Bjelinski, Bruno , 303 Bjelolasica, 7 Bjelovar, 4 , 18-19 , 142 , 148, 154, 165, 249, 323 . See also Appendix G . Black Sea, 8 , 77-78, 116, 151, 157 Blagaj, 107 , 136 Blato ( Korcula ) ; see Appendix C Blatta; see Blato Blazek, Tomo, 27 4 Blazevic, Blaz, 239(n.38) Blazuj, 6 2 Bleiburg, 165 , 166 Bobic, Bernardo, 337, 348 Bobic, Franjo , 337 , 348 Bocche d i Cattaro; see Boka Kotorska Bodin, son o f Michael Dukljanski, 107 Bogdanov, Vaso, 251(n.28) Bogomil ("Bosnia n Christians") , 66 , 101, 108 , lll-12(n.95) , 120 , 137 , 328

Bogovic, Mirko , 275 Bogovica, 5 2 Bohemia, 51 , 109-11 , 144 . See also Appendix C . Bohemians; see Czech s Boka Kotorska , 5-6, 56 , 146 , 150, 183, 234. See also Appendix C Bol (Brae) , 337 Bollé, Hermann , 324 , 348 Bologna, 33 7 Bombardelli, Silvije, 303 Bonifacio, Antun , 332 Borasi, 46, 48

381

Borba (struggle) , 211 Boria, 44 Borna, Duk e or Prince, 88 , 117, 215 Borojevic, General , 148 , 149 Borovo, 18 1 Bosancica, 71 , 112(n.9S) , 232-3 3 Bosanska Gradiska, 40-41, 227. See also Appendix C Bosanski, Petrovac, 67 Bosna River , 8, 25, 107, 227 Bosnia, 13, 15, 17, 21-29, 31-37, 40 , 43, 52, 62-67 , 79 , 82-87, 90 , 94 , 95 , 98, 105-21, 132-49 , 158 , 161 , 163 , 164, 171, 179 , 195 , 202, 214(n.32), 217, 219-20, 228-39 , 242 , 252, 269, 318 n.l),325, 328, 340, 34 4 "Bosnian Christians" ; see Bogomils Bossinensis, Franciscus, 30 4 Bosut River, 16 4 Botió, Luka , 252, 253, 274 Bozidarevic, Nikol a (Nicolau s Ragusi nus), 335-36, 348 Brae, 11 , 44, 56 , 92 , 121 , 323, 328-30, 332, 337 . See also Appendix C Bradic, Zvonimir, 304 Brajsa-Rasan, Matko , 304 Branimir, Duk e o r Prince , 61 , 89 , 90 , 98, 11 7 Braslav, Duk e or Prince, 90-91 , 117 Bratislava, 295. See also Appendi x C Bratstvo, 131-32 , 167 , 19 9 Brattia; see Brae Brazza; see Brae Brcko, 5, 1 8 Breslau; see Appendix C : Wrocla w Breslava; see Breslau Breuci, 40; see also Illyria n tribes Breughel, Pieter , 34 3 Breza (nea r Visoko) , 47, 49 Brgud, 49 Bribir, 11 3 Brijuni, 11 , 46. See also Appendi x C Brioni, Isole ; see Brijuni Brkanovic, Ivan, 291 , 304 Brod, 34 , 65 , 142 . See also Slavonsk i Brod. Brodski Stup, 23 0 Bronze Age, 29-35, 230, 233 Broz, Josi p (Tito) , 158 , 162, 163, 20405, 225, 334, 345 Bruck Edict (1578) , 140 Bruckner, 295 Brussels, 83 , 337 Ennare (woode n peasan t dwellings) , 227

382

INDEX

Bua; see Ciovo Bucarest; see Appendix C : Bucarest i Buccari; see Baka r Budapest, 147 , 180, 209, 222, 242, 244. See also Appendix C Budim; see Budapes t Budimir, 86, 117 Budimpesta; see Budapes t Budinscina, 181, 319 Budjejovice, Battl e of, 14 4 Budua; see Budva Budva; see Appendix C . Buenos Aires, 293, 294, 296 Bukovac, Vlaho, 338, 339, 348 Bukovina, 149 Bukurest; see Bucarest Bulgar, 76 , 88 , 89 , 92 , 95 , 96 , 107 , 114, 11 7 Bulgaria, 3 , 16 , 24, 66. 69, 76, 88, 91-2, 96, 101 , 110 , 118 , 134 , 136 , 138 , 151-52, 185 Bulic, Bruno , 342, 348 Bulic, Frane , 53, 56, 61, 102, 258(n.48), 332 Bunia (pi . Bunie), 28 , 55 , 231 , 318 ; see also Polarice Burgenland; see Appendix C Burn, 13 Buric, Marijan, 30 4 Burin, 1 3 Busoni, 294 Butko of Omis, 336, 348 Butmir, 26-27, 29 Butoniga, 320 Buvina, Andrija, 326, 348 Byzantine Theme; see Dalmatian Them e Byzantine, 47 , 49 , 51-2, 56 , 57, 58, 59, 60, 63 , 64 , 79-101 , 105 , 110 , 11 2 (n.95), 116-119, 131 , 133 , 160 , 209. 214, 223 , 224, 234, 335 /

\

£

-

1

' '

'

'

'

*

CABANEL, ALEXANDRE , 33 8 Cabar, 5, 178 Cadjavica, 4 9 Cakovec, 4 . See also Appendix C Calamotta; see Kolocep Calvinism, 205-206 Campoformio, 14 5 Canal dell a Morlacca ; see Velebi t Channel Cantilly, Ljubica , 24 8 Capodistria; see Kopar Car-Emin, Viktor, 277 Carducci, Giosue , 272 Carigrad; see Istanbul

Carinthia, 86, 251. See also Appendi x C Cámaro; see Kvarner Carniola, 40 , 251. See also Appendi x C Carolingian, 50-51, 60 , 63, 65, 88 Carpathian Mountains , 82-84, 116, 131, 149 Carré, General , 14 6 Cartier, J. B., 282 Casna riiec or besieda (wor d o f honor) , 215 Cast, (honor) , 21 4 Castel San Girogio; see Sucurac Castelli d i Spalato ; see Kastel a ko d Splita Castelnuovo (d i Cattaro) ; see Herceg Novi Castillieri (Settlements) , 36, 38 Castua; see Kastav Catacomb Grav e Culture, 3 2 Catharum; see Kotor Catholic, 70 , 84 , 88 , 108 , 112, 137-38, 141, 159 , 199 , 200-201 , 203-205 , 212, 216 , 223 , 225 , 233 , 238-39 , 259-60 (n.56), 323 Cattaro; see Kotor Caucasian, 77-8 Caucasus, 32. See also Appendix C Cavtat, 40. See also Appendix C Cecchini, Toma , 281-2, 303 Cedomil, Jaks va, 258(n.51) , 26 0 (n.56), 270 Celje; see Appendix C Celovac o r Celovec; see Klangenfur t Celtic an d Celts , 37 , 39 , 40 , 43 , 45 , 131, 23 9 Cemeri; see Poljarice Cepin, 17 9 Cerovac Cave , 2 3 Cerovec, Slovenia , 24 7 Ceska; see Bohemia Cetina, 8-9 , 86 , 94-95 , 99 , 109 , 220. See also Appendix C Charlemagne, 87 , 88, 89 Charles o f Hapsburg, Archduke, 14 0 Charles Robert , 105-106 , 120 Charles IV , 109, 329 Charles VI (Hapsburg) , 176-77 Cherca; see Krka Cherso; see Cres Chetnik, 152-54, 157-60, 204 Chicago, 289-93, 295, 331 (n.3) Childe, Gordo n V., 26 China; see Appendix C Choroathos (Greek) , 77 Christ, 48 , 59-60 , 70 , 197 , 200, 223-

INDEX

24, 270 , 271, 326-27, 332-33 , 335 36 Christianity, 16 , 50, 54 , 57 , 59 , 66 , 69 , 78, 85 , 135 , 137 , 169 , 172, 192, 193 (n.l), 194 , 197, 198, 201, 205, 208, 212-13, 222-25 , 227 , 238, 252-53 , 271, 280 , 318, 322, 335 Chronicle of the Priest of Dioclea; see Ljetopis Popa Dukljanina Churchill, Randolph , 16 3 Cicarija, 5 , 7. See also Appendix C Cic(c)eria; see Cicarija Cilli; see Celj e Cimmerians, 3 6 Cincar, 8 Ciovo, 11 . See also Appendix C Cipar; see Cypru s Cipra, Milo , 291, 304 Ciprin, Vladimir , 304 Ciraki, Franjo , 26 8 Citluk (nea r Sinj) , 41 . See also Ap pendix C Cittavecchia; see Starigrad Civil Croatia , 6(n.4) , 141 , 145 Civitas Vetus ; see Cavta t Claudia Celeia ; see Celje Cleveland, 296 Clissa; see Kli s Communists, 113 . 157-58 , 160-61 , 19 6 (n.7), 200(n.ll), 204-205, 225, 261 , 345 Comnenus; see Alexius Comnenus Conrad I I o f Germany, 9 6 Constantine Porphyrogenitus , 82-85, 94, 107, 116 , 118, 131, 134, 224 Constantine I I Pogonatus , 85 Constantine V , Byzantine Emperor, 5 1 Constantine VII ; see Constantin e Porphyrogenitus Constantinople, 118 , 139 , 194. See also Istanbul Copper age, 24(n.l7), 29 Corcyra; see Corf u Corcyra Nigra ; see Korcul a Corfu, 101 , 150 . See also Appendi x C : Kerkyra Corovic, Borivoj, 3 8 Correggio, 337 Corvin, N., 292 Corvinus, Ivan, 11 1 Corvinus, Matthias, 111 Cossetto, Emil, 304, 315 Cota, Frane , 324 , 348 Courbet, Gustave , 34 2

383

Covent Garden , 293, 294 Covjestvo (humanity) , 19 6 Cracow (Krakow) , 82, 221, 226, 337 Cravates (Slavs , Slavonians) , 336 Cremosnik, Irma, 62 Crepsa; see Cre s Cres, 11 , 186. See also Appendix C Crete, 28 . See also Appendix C Crijepnje; see Pekve Crkva, crkvina, 45, 62 Crkvina, 23, 45 Crkvine, 4 8 Crikvenica, 1 9 Cm obraz (blac k face , dishonor) , 21 5 Crna Gora ; see Appendix C Crna Mlak a (lake) , 9 Crncic, Ivan , 91(n.37) , 333 Crncic, Klement , 339 , 341 (n. 12), 342, 348 Crnobori, Josip, 345, 348 Crnomerec, 18 Crnota, Stjepan , 348 Croatia proper, 21 ,' '37, '40, *69, 98 F L > Croatian archaeology : Bade n an d Slavonian Cultures , 31—32 ; Bronz e age, 30-35; Earl y Christia n period, 45-49; Early Slavi c period , 47-53 ; Hallstat t period, 35-36 ; Illyria n archaeologica l remains, 38-39; introductio n o f metal, 29-30; Iro n age , 35-39 ; L a Teñe , 37-38; Mesolithic , 23-24 ; Neolithic , 24-29; Ol d Croatia n period , 53-66 ; Paleolithic, 21-23 ; Roma n period , 39-45; tombstone s i n Bosnia-Herce govina, 66-7 1 Croatian arts : architecture , 317-26 ; early musica l history, 280-83; Illyrian Movement i n literature , 242—5 1 an d in music , 283—87 ; moder n trend s i n music, 287—99 ; musica l institutions , 296-99; musica l performers, 292-96 ; painting, 334-45 ; romanticis m i n literature, 251-56 ; realis m i n litera ture, 256-72 ; sculpture, 326-3 4 Croatian Chora l Federation , 29 0 Croatian economy : Capitalisti c period , 172-73; guil d system , 174-75 ; in dustrial development , 179-81 ; mer cantile politica l economy , 176-78 ; merchant fleets , 181-84 ; sal t wate r fishing, 185-86 ; shipbuilding , 186 ; tourism, 186-87 ; urba n life , 173-7 4 Croatian fol k arts : i n clay , 229-31 ; i n cloth, 235-38 ; gour d an d eg g color -

384

INDEX

ing, 238-39 ; i n metal , 233-35 ; i n stone, 231-33 ; tattooing , 239-40 ; i n wood, 227-2 9 Croatian geography : airports , 19 ; area , 5—6; boundaries , 5 ; centra l railroa d stations, 19 ; citie s ove r 10,000 , 17 19; climate, 12-14; district s and com munes, 4 ; fields , 10 ; islands , 11 ; lakes, 9 ; latitud e an d longitude , 3 ; mountain peaks, 7-8; park s and reser vations, 7; population , 15-16 , 18 ; regions an d provinces , 6 ; religiou s affiliation, 16-17 ; rive r ports , 19 ; rivers, 8 ; seaports , 19 ; seas , 10-11 ; soil, 9-10 Croatian history: accessio n of the Haps burgs, 114 ; agraria n condition s i n Bosnia-Hercegovina, 170-71 ; con version to Christianity , 53, 60, 61, 63, 84—85; emancipatio n o f peasants , 170; Firs t Worl d War , 148-151 ; Hungarian period, 103-106, 134-136; medieval Bosnia , 106-111 ; Militar y Frontier, 139-143 ; Napoleoni c Wars , 144-146; nationa l monarchy, 88-103, 133-134; origins , 76-81 ; Secon d World War , 154-65; settlemen t o n the Adriatic , 81-84 , 131-132 , 167 168; sevent h an d eight h centuries , 84-87; Turkis h wars , 111-14 , 136 43; Yugosla v period , 151-5 4 Croatian Liberatio n Movement , 19 6 (n.7)

Croatian Littoral, 6 , 246 Croatian Nationalist Party, 257, 258 Croatian Peasan t Party , 153 , 157 , 19 6 (n.7), 207 Croatian Zagorje ; see Hrvatsk o Zagorj e Crtkanje (wood-carving) , 228 (n.7) Crvena Stijena ( Red Cav e ) , 24 Csakathurn; see Cakovec Csáktornya; see Cakovec Csikos-Sessia, Bela , 339 , 341(n.l2) , 348 Culinovié, Jura j (Giorgi o Schiavone) , 336, 34 8 Gup (container) , 230 Curicta; see Krk Curicum; see Krk Curkov Dal, 8 Curzola; see Korcula Custozza, 147 Cvejié, Biserka , 293, 304, 315 Cvrsnica, 8

Cyprus, 31. See also Appendix C. Cyril and Methodius , 92 Czechoslovakia, 30, 187 Czechs or Bohemians, 16 , 108, 199, 243, 288, 289, 294, 295 Czinczars, 138 DABARSKO FIELD, 1 0 Dabisa; see Stipan Dabisa Dabravine ( near Vares ) , 46, 4 8 Daesitides, 40; see also Illyria n tribe s Dalj (nea r Osijek) , 33-34 , 36 , 41 . See also Appendix C. Dalmati, 39; see also Illyrian tribes Dalmatia, 6 , 21, 29 , 30 , 31 , 40 , 44 , 46 , 50, 51 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 63 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68, 79-80 , 81(n.l4) , 82-88 , 90 , 92, 95-100, 103 , 105 , 109-10 , 114-20 , 132-36, 141 , 145-48, 154 , 163, 167, 169, 171 , 173, 176, 182-84, 194, 202, 215, 217-20 , 227, 231, 233, 235, 236, 239, 242 , 244 , 245 , 247 , 251-52 , 280-82, 318 , 320-23 , 327-31 , 333 34, 337 , 340, 344 Dalmatian o r Byrantin e Theme, 86 , 99 , 100 Dalmatian o r Whit e Croatia , 6(n.4) , 56, 86, 88-91, 100, 117, 133, Dalmatian Zagora , 6 , 195 , 217 , 219, 229, 235 . See also Appendi x C : Zagora Dalmatinac, Jura j (Giorgi o d a Sebe nico), 320-21, 328, 348 Dance (nea r Dubrovnik), 335 Dándolo, Henry, 103 , 105 Dánica, 245-46, 248 Danilo (nea r Sibenik), 26 Danska; see Denmark Danube, 5 , 8 , 13 , 19 , 25 , 29 , 31 , 34 , 40, 77 , 79 , 81-82 , 87 , 95 , 116 , 132, 167, 175 , 177, 220-21, 226(n.2), 288. See also Appendix C Daorsi, 40 ; see also Illyrian tribe s Daruvar, 4. See also Appendix C . Darwin, Charles , 264 Daudet, Alphonse , 261 Davidovic, General, 145 Dayre, Jean , 263(n.66 ) Declaration o f Independence, 22 1 Degrel, Ivo , 304 Dekatera; see Kotor Delminium, 41; see also Duvn o Delzons, General, 146 Demeter, Dimitrije, 253(n.36) , 274

INDEX

Denmark; see Appendix C Derencin, Marijan , 277 Derencin, Mirko , 112 , 113(n.98) , 138 , 197 Derventa, 14 1 Deskovic, Branislav, 330, 34 8 Desnoiresterres-LeBrisoys, 282 Despalj, Pavle , 304 Detoni, Marijan , 344 , 34 8 Devcic, Natko, 304 Dezelic, Velimir, 277 Diabelli, 283 Diadora; see Zadar Diakovár; see Djakov o Diet o r Parliamen t (Croatian) ; see Sabor Dilj Mountain, 65 Dimini, 28 Dimitar Zvonimir ; see Zvonimir Diñara, 7, 220. See also Appendix C Dinaric Mountain s (Dinari c Alps) , 5 , 11, 13 , 40 , 195 , 214(n.32) , 229-30 , 233, 236 . See also Diñara . Dindari, 40; see also Illyria n tribe s Dioclea; see Duklj a Diocletian, 42 , 47, 5 3 Diocletian's Palace , 42-43 , 48 , 56 , 59 , 297, 32 6 Ditiones, 40 ; see also Illyria n tribe s Djakovo, 18 , 114 , 121 , 252 . See also Appendix C Djeva, 5 2 Djevor, 5 2 Djurdjevac ( Gjurgjevac ) , 64 , 142 . See also Appendi x C Dmitar Zvonimir; see Zvonimir Dnjeper River , 149 Doboj, 5 , 18 , 23 Dobrljin, 17 9 Dobronic, Antun , 287, 297 , 304 Dobrudja, 15 1 Domagoj, Duk e or Prince, 89 , 117 , 13 3 Domavia, 44; see Srebrenica Domobrans, 157-158, 161, 163 , 165 , 204 Domobranstvo, 147, 15 5 Domovina (patriotism) , 219 Don, 77-78, 317 Donatus, Bisho p of Zadar, 60 Donetz, 7 8 Donja Dolina , 34, 36-37, 39, 227 Donja Zgosca , 327 Donji Dravograd , 16 5 Donji Gra d (Zagreb) , 1 8 Donji Miholjac , 5

385

DraS; see Appendix C : Durrë s Dragoje, 328 , 34 8 Dragogna; see Dragonj a Dragonja, 5 . See also Appendi x C Draskovic, 205, 274 , 32 2 Drau; see Drav a Drava, 5 , 8 , 13 , 19 , 40, 64 , 82 , 86 , 90 , 96, 98-99 , 100 , 104 , 131 , 133 , 135 , 139, 147 , 154 , 165 , 167 , 177 , 205 , 220, 235 , 321 . See also Appendi x C Drazdjani; see Appendix C DrazenovieJosip, 277 Drenopolje; see Appendix C : Edirn e Dresden; see Appendix C Drina, 5 , 8, 40-41, 46 , 82 , 90, 98 , 109 , 120, 131-34 , 149 , 167 , 220 , 229 Drinjaca, 9 0 Drustvo Sv. Jeronima, 263 Drvar, 161 Drvenik, 11 . See also Appendix C Drzislav, Duke or Prince, 6 1 Drzislav, King; see Stipan Drzisla v Dubenje (gouging) , 228 (n.5) Dubica, 145 Dubrava, 18 , 209 Dubravka, 208 , 20 9 "Dubrovacka Plovidba," 184-185 Dubrovcanin, Antun, 328, 34 8 Dubrovnik, 4, 12 , 18-19, 56, 60, 83, 92, 94, 106 , 120 , 146 , 175-76 , 182 , 184 , 186, 194 , 198 , 208-209 , 214 , 220 , 222, 234 , 244 , 246-49, 281, 283 , 297 , 319-20, 328-29 . Architecture , 58 ; Bonda's Theatre , 324 ; Cathedral , 323; Dominica n Church , 321 , 335 ; Franciscan monastery , 319; Municipa l Orchestra, 296 ; painting , 332 ; Sponz a Custom House , 321 ; an d steed, 68 . See also Appendix C Ducmelic Zdravko, 345, 34 8 Duerer, 33 7 Dugan, Franjo, 296 , 304 Dugan, Franjo, Jr., 30 4 Dugi Otok, 11 . See also Appendi x C Dugi Rat, 19 Dugo Selo, 18 Duklja o r Dioclea, 80(n.l3), 94-95, 99, 107, 11 6 Duknovic, Iva n (Giovann i Dalmata) , 329, 34 8 Dulcigno; see Ulcinj Dumas, Alexandre, 253 Dumicic, Petar, 304 Dunav; see Danub e

386

INDEX

Durazzo; see Appendix C : Durrë s Dusan ( Dushan ) ; see Stepha n Dusa n Duvanjsko Fiel d o r Duvno, 10 , 93, 206, 229, 23 7 Duvno (Delmno) , 41 , 117 , 134 . See also Appendi x C an d Duvanjsk o Field Dvornik, Francis , 7 7 Dyggve, Ejnar , 47 , 48 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 59 , 60 Dyrrachium; see Appendix C : Durrë s EASTER ISLAND , 32 7 Eastern Orthodo x Christians , 16-17 , 70, 112, 114-15 , 121 , 133 , 138 , 192 , 199-200, 203-204, 224, 323 Eastern Roma n Empire, 79 , 96, 132 Eggervary, Ban Ladislaus, 138 Egejsko More ; see Aegean Se a Egenburg, Count, 140 Egipat; see Egypt Egypt, 28 , 105 , 119 , 295 . See also Appendix C Ehrlich, Hugo , 324, 348 Einhard, 88, 117 Eisenhuth, Djuro, 304 Eisenstadt; see Appendix C Eitelberger, R. , 56 Elbe River ; see Appendix C Elzas; see Alsace England, 57 , 82 , 178 , 183 , 185 , 261 , 336 English, 164-65 , 180 , 221 , 247(n.l5) , 250, 28 7 Epidaurum, 40 , 320 ; see also Cavtat episcopus Chroatensis ( Croatian Bishop), 56 Erdelj; see Transylvania Erdôdi-Rubido, Sidonija , 304 Erdody, Ban Nicholas, 140 , 205 Eso or Esum; see Iz Esseg; see Osije k Eszék; see Osije k Eugene of Savoy, Prince, 141 , 144, 322 Europe, 3 , 24, 28-29, 31-32, 34-35 , 46, 48, 50 , 54 , 56-57 , 59 , 60 , 76-77 , 8 2 (n.15), 84 , 90 , 94 , 132-33 , 135-36 , 142-44, 157 , 162 , 167-68 , 170-72 , 177-79, 182-83 , 187 , 208-209 , 212, 214, 216 , 219, 223, 247-48, 256, 280 , 284, 287 , 290, 293-94, 296-98, 31820, 324, 328, 337, 341, 345 EXAT, 344 FABIJANIC, ANDHIJA , 329, 348

Falaèka; see Palatinat e Faller, Marko, 295 Faller, Nikola, 304 Fascist, 114 , 155-58 Federigo d a Urbino , 321 Felbinger, Bartol , 323-25, 348 Feller, Marijan , 30 5 Ferdinand Hapsburg , Archduke , 114 , 121, 13 8 Fermo, 226 (n.l) Ferolegura, 32 5 Filipjakov; see Appendix C Filipovic, General , 148 Filipovic, Augustin, 332, 348 Filipovic, Franjo , 343, 348 Filjak, Ranko , 305 Finno-Ugrian, 76 Firenca; see Florence First Worl d War , 21, 148-52 , 172-73 , 181, 199 , 221, 287-88, 295, 297, 341 Fiskovic, Cvito, 53 Fiume; see Rijek a Flogel, Ivo, 305 Florence, 330. See Appendix C: Firenz e FNRJ, 17 , 19 Foca, 237 France, 59 , 66 , 79 , 94 , 105 , 144-46 , 178, 180-85 , 227(n.2) , 253-54 , 258, 263, 266 , 269, 271, 283 , 286 , 289, 321, 329 , 342 Francis Joseph , Emperor , 266-67(n.75 ) Franciscan, 141 , 281-83, 319 Franges-Mihanovic, Robert, 330 , 348 Frankfurt, 289, 293, 295 Frankopan, 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 121 , 136, 197 , 212, 259(n.52) Franks, 60 , 64-65, 87, 88, 90, 117 , 133, 215 Franz Ferdinand , Archduke , 152 Frederick III Hapsburg , 11 1 Frederick o f Prussia, 144, 212 Freeman, E . A. , 56 Freudenreich, Aleksandar, 324, 349 Freudenreich, Josip, 253(n.36) Fribec, Kresimir, 292, 305 Friedau; see Ormoz Friulian Marc h (Friulia) , 88, 117 Fruska Gora, 44 Fuchs, Ignatz ; see Lisinski, Vatroslav GACANI, 4 9 Gacka, 8, 49 Gacko Field, 10 , 49 Gagic, Bogdan, 305

387

INDEX

Gahs, Aleksandar, 199 Gaj, Ljudevit , 243-46, 248, 274 , 28 3 Galantic, Ivan, 345, 34 9 Galicia, 85(n.l9), 149 Galician Croatians , 118 Galipolje; see Gallipoli Gallipoli; see Appendix C Gambor, Matija , 323 , 34 9 Gardizi, 118 Garesnica, 9 Gatacko Field, 10 Gavazzi, Milan, 226(n.l), 230-31 Gazi, Dragan, 343 , 34 9 Gazi Husref, 32 2 Gebizo, 213(n.30 ) Gecan, Vilko , 342, 34 9 Geiger-Eichhorn, Antonija , 30 5 Generalic, Ivan, 343, 349 Geneva, 231 , 293 , 333 ; see also Appen dix C: Genèv e Genghis Khan , 135 George, Prince-Electo r John , 144 George Podiebra d o f Bohemia, 111 Gerber, W., 56 Germany, 16 , 21 , 30 , 34-38 , 57 , 60 , 96, 138 , 142-45 , 148 , 151 , 153-59 , 161-64, 178 , 180 , 187 , 199-200 , 204 , 209, 242-44 , 249-51 , 253 , 256 , 261 , 264, 266-67 , 284-86 , 289-94 , 321 , 340, 342 . See also Appendix C Gigli, Beniamino, 293 Giorgio d a Sebenico ; see Dalmatinac , Juraj Giovanni Dalmata ; see Duknovic , Iva n Giuppana; see Sipan Gjadrov, Igor , 296 , 30 5 Gjalski, Ksave r Sandor , 254(n.38) , 261-62, 277 Gjungjenac, Zlata , 305 Gjurgjevac; see Djurdjeva c Glagolitie script , 62 , 92 , 93(n.40) , 112(n.95), 113(n.98), 118 , 33 6 Glamoc, 63, 237 Glamocko Field, 10 Glasinac Culture, 31-35, 37-39 Glasonosa, 253 Glavicine necropolis ( near Spli t ) , 63 Gliha, Otón, 344, 34 9 Glina, 137, 142 , 259 , 32 3 Glogovnica, 31 9 Glyndebourne Festival, 293 Godecav or Godezav , 61, 318 Goglia, Antun, 305 Gogol, 254, 26 1

Gojslav; see Kresimir an d Gojsla v Golubic, Theodore, 332 , 34 9 Golubovac, 18 1 Combos, Stjepan , 325 , 34 9 Goncharov, 265 Gorazde, 5, 7 Gorica (Hercegovina) , 36, 37 Gorica, near Knin , 52 Gorjanovic-Kramberger, Dragutin , 22 Gorlitze, 14 9 Gornja Tuzla , 24 Gornji Gra d (Zagreb) , 18 ; see also Gri S Gorski Kotar, 6, 7 Gospic, 4, 7, 142 , 148 , 23 3 Gospodnetic, Pavao, 321, 34 9 Gostoprimstvo (hospitality) , 198 Goths, 46, 48, 49, 78-81, 116 , 13 1 Gotovac, Jakob, 289, 305 , 31 5 Grabac Cave ( Grapceva spilj a ) , 27 Grabrovnica, 249 Gracac, 23 Gracacko Field, 10 Grecánica (Bosnia) , 34 "Gracie," 184 Grad, gradue, gradina, gradiste (ol d fortress, ruins), 20, 36 Gradac; see Graz Gradez; see Grado Gradina (nea r Solin) , 56, 58 Gradisce; see Burgenland Gradiska, 140 , 14 2 Grado, 117 . See also Appendix C Grahovo Field, 10 Graneado, Slavomir, 305 Gravosa; see Gruz Graz, 140 , 244 , 247-48 , 293 , 296 . See also Appendix C Grba, General , 14 8 Great Britain , 26 , 146 , 163 , 200 , 221 , 266

Great Croatia ; see White Croatia Gredice (Croatia n Zagorje), 26 1 Greece, 3 , 20 , 24 , 28-29 , 34 , 36-38 , 40^5, 66 , 77 , 80 , 86-87 , 90 , 92 , 95-96, 99 , 101 , 105 , 114 , 116 , 121 , 152, 185 , 208 , 248 , 32 0 Green Cave; see Zelena Pecina Gregory VII , Pope , 100 , 213(n.30) , 215, 22 3 Grgicevic, Atanazije, 281, 30 5 Grgosevic, Zlatko, 290, 30 5 Gric or Gornji grad , 119 , 321 , 32 3 Grobnicko Polje, 119 , 13 5 Grohote (Solta) , 335

388

INDEX

Hinkovië, Hinko, 20 0 Historia Salonitana, 84, 91, 95, 119 Hitler, Adolf, 155 , 157, 200 Hlebine Schoo l (Hlebinska slikarska skola), 343 Hochstadt, 14 4 Holy Cros s ( Budinscina ) , 31 9 Holy Cros s Churc h (Nin) , 54 , 55 , 57 , 58, 60, 198, 318 Holy Trinit y Churc h (Polju d nea r Split), 54-55, 62 , 318 Horvat, Lavoslav, 324, 349 Horvat, Milan, 296, 305, 315 Horvati, nea r Zagre b o r Zagreb Horvati, 34 , 341 House of Trpimir ; see Trpimirovic HABEHLAND, ARTHUR , 23 1 Hranic, 107 Haberle, Marijan , 325, 349 Hranilovic, Jovan, 27 8 Hadrianopolis; see Appendix C : Edirn e Hrdlicka, Ales, 22 Hajdinova Milka , 259 Hribar, Stjepan , 324 , 349 Hajrudin, 322 , 349 Hrvat, 61-62, 77 Haler, Albert, 250(n.26), 271 Hrvatsko (Croatian ) Zagorje , 63 , 217, Hallstat period, 35-3 6 244, 259 , 261, 265, 322 , 332 , 342, Hamm, Josip, 6 2 345 Hamzic, Mihajlo , 335 , 349 Hrzic, Drago , 305 Hanich, Stephen, 305 Hapsburg, 111-115, 138-140 , 143 , 145, Hugo, Victor , 253 147, 171 , 177 , 206 , 242, 243 (n.6), HuZa (blasphemy) , 21 7 251, 256(n.43) , 259(n.52) , 285 , 287, Huml, Vaclav, 294, 305 "Hundred Years ' War " (Bulgar 293, 33 9 Byzantine), 92 , 95-96, 107 Harambasic, August, 267-69, 278 "Hungarian-Croatian Steamshi p Com Hatze, Josip, 305 pany," 184 Hauptmann, Ljudmil , 79 , 88, 103, 199 Hungarian-Croatian o r Hungary Havaji; see Hawai i Croatia, 91 , 104 , 105, 109, 110, 111 , Hawaii; see Appendix C 118, 119 , 120 , 121 , 134 , 135 , 136 , Haydn, Fran z Josef, 287 137, 138 , 147, 175, 217(n.43), 329 Hedervary, Khuen , 204, 256-57 Hungary, 3 , 5 , 24 , 26 , 29 , 30 , 33 , 34 , Hefer, Stjepan , 19 6 (n.7) 35, 36 , 50 , 64-66 , 85 , 91 , 94 , 96 , Hegedusic, Krsto, 343, 349 Heidelberg, 144 100, 102-105 , 108 , 111-15 , 118-21 , 134-35, 138-41 , 147 , 149, 150, 153 Hektorovió, Petar, 281 , 321 Helen, Queen , 55 , 61 54, 157 , 168, 180-81, 184 , 200, 204205, 212 , 221-22 , 22 6 (n.2), 226 , Heraclius (Heraclios) , 82-85, 131 234, 243 , 251-257 , 259 . See also Herceg-Novi, 12 , 19 . See also Appen dix C Appendix C Hercegovina, 17 , 21, 25 , 27-31, 36 , 40, Huns, 50 , 78-79, 82, 90, 116 52, 62-64 , 67-69, 86, 107 , 111, 121 , Hunyady, Joh n (Sibinjani n Janko) , 111 132-33, 145 , 148 , 158 , 164 , 195 , Hvar, 11-12 , 27-30 , 38 , 92 , 121 , 182, 214(n.32), 217 , 219-20 , 229 , 232, 281-82, 320-21. See also Appendi x C 235, 23 9 Hercigonja, Nikola , 305 IASYGES, 81, 8 7 Herman, Oskar , 349 Ibler, Drago, 324 , 343, 349 Hicela, 96 , 118 Ibn Rusta, 85(n.l9), 118 Highlands (Croatian) , 6 Igalo, 12 Himmler, 162 Ilijic, Stjepko , 27 8 Grubac, 327, 349 Grubisa, 234 Grubisno polje, 9 Gruz, 186. See also Appendix C Gubec, Matija , 170 , 207, 255, 339 Gulf o f Kotor; see Bok a Kotorska Gundulic, Ivan, 194 , 208-209, 246, 33 9 Gunjaca, Stjepa n (Stipe) , 49 , 101(n.61 ) Gusio, Dora, 295, 305 Gusle (fiddles) , 22 8 Gustavus Adolphus, 14 4 Gvozd (Mountain) , 100 , 102-105, 112 , 119, 121, 134 Gypsies, 16 , 201

INDEX

Illyria, 21 , 34 , 40-42 , 82 , 145-46 , 239, 242-46, 248-49 , 283-85 ; Illyria n Movement, 242-51 , 283-87 ; religion , 44; tribes, 38-40, 76 Illyricum, 116 , 317 Ilok, 5, 121, 319 Ilova River, 6(n.4 ) Imbrisimovic, Luka, 14 1 Imoschi; see Imotski Imotski; see Appendi x C ; see also Imotsko Field Imotsko Field , 1 0 lorga, Nicolae , 7 7 Iran, 57 , 66 , 76 , 78-79 , 81 , 82(n.l5) , 83, 85(n.l9), 87 , 100 , 116, 226, 232 Iria, 44 Irig, 319 Iron Age , 33, 35-38, 227 Islam an d Islamic , 17 , 111 , 121 , 137 38, 172, 239 Isola Grossa ; see Dugi Otok Isola Lunga ; see Dugi Otok Isolany, General , 144 Israel, 29 3 Issa; see Vis 1st, 11. See also Appendix C Istanbul; see Appendix C Isto; see 1st Istria, 5 , 6 , 11 , 21 , 31 , 34 , 36 , 38-41 , 44, 46 , 48 , 52 , 55 , 58 , 79 , 86-87 , 91(n.37), 94, 106 , 116-17, 132 , 148, 171, 173 , 220, 242, 251, 257-59, 281, 289, 297 , 319, 335-36 Italy, 3 , 16 , 20, 29-30 , 33-41 , 56 , 59 , 66, 68 , 69, 79 , 80 , 88, 91(n.37), 99 100, 105 , 116 , 119 , 144 , 145 , 147 , 149-50, 154-57 , 159-62 , 183-85 , 200, 204 , 209, 226(n.l), 227(n.2) , 231, 234 , 246 , 249 , 251 , 281-82 , 286, 293 , 295, 320-23, 328-29, 335 36, 338 Ivan Splicanin, 321, 349 Ivanicek, Franjo, 6 5 Ivekovic, C. M., 57 Ivekovió, Otón, 339, 349 Ivellio, Rade , 305 Ivsic, Matija , 30 5 Iz, 11. See also Appendix C Izacié Fortress, 14 7 Izdaja (treason) , 215 JABLANICA LAKE , 9 Jablanica Pass, 149 Jabuka, 11 . See also Appendix C Jackson, T . G., 56

389

Jadera; see Zadar Jadran o r Jadransko More ; see Adriatic Jagellons, 111, 114 , 121 Jagust, Mladen, 305 Jahorina, 220 Jajce, 5 , 19, 113, 121 , 137 Jakin; see Appendix C : Ancon a Jaksic-Brown, Anka, 345, 349 Jakub Kadun Pasha , 13 8 Jal (envy) , 20 1 Janacek, 292 Janigro, Antonio, 295, 306 Japodi, 37 , 39; see also Japudes Japra Valley, 44 Japudes, Japodi , Japyges , 37 , 39-40 , 43-44, 239; see also Illyria n tribe s Japyges, 39 ; see also Japude s Jarnevic, Dragojla, 275 Jarnovio, Ivan Mane , 282-83, 306 Jasenovac, 177 , 227 Jasi, 40; see also Illyrian tribe s Jastrebarsko, 1 8 Jedlovski, Josip, 20 0 Jedrene; see Appendix C : Edirn e Jegejsko More ; see Appendi x C : Aegean Sea Jelacic, Anka, 306 Jelacic, Joseph , 147 , 245 Jelic, Luka, 57 Jelic, Vinko , 281, 306 Jenio Sisolsk i (Eugeni j Kumicic), 257 Jeronim; see Drustvo Sv . Jeronima Jesuits, 322, 329 Jews, 16 , 95, 194, 200-201 Jezerine, 36-37, 43 Jezic, Slavko , 274 John X, Pope, 216 John XXIII, Pope, 216 John o f Ravenna, 53 Jorgovanovió-Flieder, Rikard, 276 Joseph I I (Hapsburg) , 176, 242 Jovanovic, General, 14 8 Jozefovic, Oskar , 30 6 /«go, 13 "Jugoton," 299 Juhn, Hinko , 349 Jukic, Franj o Ivan , 27 6 Julius Clovius; see Klovié, Juraj Junak (hero) , 19 7 Juncic, Matej, 335, 349 Junek, Leo, 344, 349 junin, General, 14 6 Jupiter, 42, 45, 53 Juraj Dalmatinac ; see Dalmatínac , Juraj

390

INDEX

Juranovic, Vladimir, 325 , 349 Jurinac, Sena, 293 , 306, 315 Jurisic, Ban Nicholas, 138-3 9 Jurjev-Trogiranin, Blaz , 335, 349 Jurjevié, Toma , 329 , 349 Jurkovic, Janko, 27 6 KABALIN, FEDOR , 30 6 Kacic clan, 99 , 118 Kacic-Miosic, Andrija, 330 Kakanj, 2 5 Kalafatovió, General , 15 4 Kalamota; see Koloce p Kaliti (sprinkl e or spatter), 229 Kalnik, 135 Kamesnica, 7 Kammerhofer, 16 2 Kandija; see Cret e Kapute (paga n temple o r altar), 52 Kapitul, 102 Kaplan, Josip , 30 6 Kapronca; see Koprivnic a Karadjordjevic dynasty , 15 2 Karadzió, Vuk Stefanovic, 244, 247 Karaman, Ljubo , 51 , 55 , 57 , 59-60, 63 , 65, 232 Karas, Vjekoslav, 306, 338, 349 Karlobag, 1 9 Karlovac, 4 , 18-19 , 140 , 142 , 145-47 , 154, 175 , 177-78 , 246 , 259 , 285 , 323. See also Appendix C Karlovci; see Srijemsk i Karlovci Karlovici, 121 Karlowitz; see Srijemski Karlovci Karlstadt; see Karlovac Kárnten; see Carinthia Károlyváros; see Karlovac Kasaj, Ela , 269 Kastav; see Appendix C Kastel-Sucurac; see Sucurac Kastela ko d Splita , 344 . See also Appendix C Kastelancié, Ante, 34 9 Katalinic-Jeretov, Rikard, 278 Kauzlaric, Mladen, 325, 349 Kavkaz; see Caucasu s Kaykavian dialect , 243 , 244, 245 Kazali, Antun, 27 6 Keglevic, 114, 121, 322 Kelemen, Milko , 291-92, 306, 315 Kerdic, Ivo, 330, 349 Kesztehely Culture , 49(n.72) , 50-52 , 64 Khazar Jewish State , 95

Khoroathos o r Khorouatos, 116 ; see also Hrvat Kina; see China Kinert, Albert, 34 9 Kingdom of the Croatian^; see Kraljevstvo Hrvat a Kipar; see Appendix C : Cypru s Kirigin, Ivo, 306 Kirin, Vladimir, 344 , 349 Kiseljak, nea r Visoko , 23 1 Kismarton; see Appendix C : Eisenstad t Kiszeg Fortress, 139 Kitaj; see Chin a Kladusa, 22 0 Klagenfurt, 164 . See also Appendi x C Klaic, Vjekoslav, 30 6 Klek, 7 Klepac, Rudolf, 306, 315 Klerigin of Kopar, 336, 349 Kletva (cursing) , 217 Klis, 46 , 121 , 135 , 220 , 253. See also Appendix C Kljakovic, Jozo , 340, 345, 349 Klobucar, Andjelko, 30 6 Klobucar, Berislav , 296, 306, 316 Klostar ( near Djurdjeva c ) , 64 Klovic, Jura j (Juliu s Clovius , Giuli o Clovio), 336,349 Kmet (serf) , 168 Knezevic, General, 14 5 Knin, 49-50, 54, 98, 101-103, 119 , 121, 215, 234 . See also Appendix C Kninsko Field, 10 Kodaly, 288 Koeniggraetz, 147 Kokolja, Tripo , 337 , 350 Kokot, Ivo, 306 Koksa, Ana, 306 Kolander, Vatroslav, 306 Kolaric, Mirko , 306 Kolb, Kamilo , 306 Koljane, nea r Vrlika , 5 0 Kollár, Jan, 243-44 Kolo, 69, 232, 237, 328 Kolo ( literary magazine ) , 248-49 Kolocep (nea r Dubrovnik) , 60 . See also Appendix C Koloman, 103, 105, 119, 134 Koludare, 5 5 Koludrovica, 55 Kolunic Rot a o f Sibenik , Martin , 337 , 350 Kompolje, 37, 233 Konavli, 5 Konavosko Field, 10

INDEX

Koncar, Rade , 32 5 Konjic, 28 , 52, 22 9 Kopac, Slavko, 342, 350 Kopar, 173 . See also Appendix C Kopitovic, Ante, 296, 306 Kopreinitz; see Koprivnic a Koprivnica, 4 , 18 , 175 , 323 . See also Appendix C Korajac, Vilim , 276 Korana River, 14 0 Korcula, 11 , 38 , 47 , 89 , 121 , 182 , 186, 320, 328 , 337. See also Appendi x C Kordun, 6 Korenica, 113 Korenicko Field, 10 Korkyra Melaina, 38 ; see also Korcul a Kornat, 11 Kôrner, Karl Theodor, 139 Koros; see Krizevci Korosec, Josip, 2 1 Koruska; see Carinthi a Kosaca, Duke Stipe , 111 , 121 Kosovo-Metohija, 4 Kosovo Palje, 110 , 136 Kossuth, Louis, 104 , 243 Kotor, 19 , 58 , 92 , 94 , 106-107 , 109 , 120, 182-83 , 220 , 319 . See Appen dix C : Gul f o f Kotor ; see also Bok a Kotorska Kotromanic, Elizabeth, 106 , 109, 120 Kotromanic, Mary , 109, 120 Kotromans or Kotromanic, 107-10 9 Kovacec, Mirko, 307 Kovacevic, Branko , 350 Kovacevic, Ferdo, 339, 350 Kovacevic, Kresimir , 30 7 Kovacevic, Toma , 30 7 Kovacic, Ante , 254(n.38) , 259-61 , 27 8 Kovacic, Kresimir , 259(n.53) , 260(n.54 ) Kovacic, Viktor , 324-25, 350 Kovin, 16 6 Kozara, 9 0 Kozarac, Josip, 264-65, 278 Kozinovic, Sister Lujza , 307 Krain; see Carniola "Krajac an d Co.," 184 Krajina, 6 Krakow; see Craco w Kraljevic, Marko , 340 Kraljevic, Miroslav , 340-41 , 350 Kraljevica (nea r Novi Seher), 27 Kraljevica (nea r Rijeka ) 19 , 186 . See also Appendix C Kraljeostvo Hrvata (Ol d Croatia n

391

Chronicle), 84 , 86 , 87(n.28) , 93 , 99(n.57), 119 Kranjcevic, Silvij e Strahimir , 251 , 267, 268-72, 278 Kranjska; see Carinóla Krapina, 4, 22-23, 181, 244 Krapina Man , 22 Krbava, 6, 136 Krbavsko o r Krbav a Polj e Field , 10 , 113, 121, 138, 197 Krcelic, Adam, 255 Kreka, 18 1 Krekovic, Kristian, 345, 350 Kremen, 7 Kremlin; see Appendix C Kremlj; see Kremlin Kresic Family, 338 Kresimir, King, 61 Kresimir an d Gojslav , 9 6 Kresimir I (th e Old), 94 Kresimir II, 94 , 95, 107, 118 Kresimir III, 96, 118 Kresimir IV , 97-100 , 102 , 107 , 118 , 134, 23 4 Kreta; see Cret e Kreuz; see Krizevc i Krezma, Franjo, 283, 307 Krf; see Corf u Krit; see Cret e Krizaj, Josip, 30 7 Kri&evacki Statuti (Krizevc i Statutes) , 211 Krizevci, 4 , 104(n.67) , 139 , 142 , 175. See also Appendi x C Krizman, Tomislav, 340, 350 Krk, 11 , 49 , 54-55 , 62 , 92 , 121 , 318, 344. See also Appendix C Krka, 8, 39, 40, 66 . See also Appendix C Krleza, Miroslav , 270(n.83) Krnic, Boris, 307 Krnic, Ivan, 260 Krsinic, Frane, 332, 350 Krsnjavi, Iso , 103, 350 Krstulovic, Andró, 334, 350 Krug, near Zagreb , 50 "Krunajevic an d Jelacic," 184 Kucharski, 244 Kufrin, Paul , 332, 350 Kuhac, Franj o Ksave r (Koch) , 286-87 , 307 Kukuljevic-Sakcinski, Ivan , 250, 274 Kulen Vakuf, 14 7 Kulin, Ban, 11 9 Kulmer, Ferdo, 350

392

INDEX

Kum, kuma, kumstvo, 218(n.44 ) Kumbatovic, Mila , 344, 35 0 Kumició, Eugenij , 254(n.38) , 257-59 , 278, 33 2 Kunc, Bozidar, 290, 30 7 Kundek, Josip, 27 4 Kunnersdorf, Battl e of, 144 Kupa, 5 , 8 , 34 , 40 , 90 , 139-40 , 205, 220, 23 5 Kupres, 67-68, 229 Kupresko Field, 10 Kurelac, Fran, 276 Kurjakovic o f Krbava, 136 Kutina, 4 Kutrigurian Avars, 234 Kutrigurs, 50 Kutzo-Vlachs, 112 Kvarner, 6, 13, 121. See also Appendix C Kvaternik, Eugen, 25 2 LABA RIVEB ; see Elb e Ladesta; see Lastovo Ladislas (Ladislaus ) o f Hungary , 102, 119, 13 4 Ladislas o f Naples, 110-11 , 12 0 Ladislaus, King , 194, 337 "Lado," 297, 314 Lágosta; see Lastovo Lang, Ivana , 307 Langobard, 59, 65 Langobardija; see Lombard y Lasaneus; see Lazanic Lastovo, 11 . See also Appendix C La Teñe Period, 35 , 37, 44, 51, 59 Latin: Church , 89 , 98 , 101 ; coasta l cities, 97 , 99 , 117-18 , 234 ; culture , 106; language , 43 , 53 , 62 , 80(n.l3) , 85, 92 , 98 , 209 , 212(n.29) , 213(n.30), 242 , 244 , 248 , 334 ; liturgy, 9 4 Laurana ( name ) ; see Vranjanin Laurana (town) ; see Lovran Lausitz Culture , 34, 38 Lavov; see Lvov Lawrence; see Bishop Lawrenc e Lazanic, Nikola , 329, 35 0 Leipzig, 146. See also Appendix C Lelija, 8 Le Mans, 329 Lengyel, 26 , 27 Lenkovic, George, 14 0 Lentischeto; see Smrdelj e Leo X, Pope, 216

Lepoglava, 337 Lésina; see Hvar Leskovar, Janko, 265, 278 Leslie, Count, 14 0 Lexicographic Institut e (Zagreb) , 299 Leytj'en, Battl e of, 14 4 Lhotka, Fran, 199 , 289, 307, 31 6 Lhotka-Kalinski, Ivo, 307 Liburni, 39; see Illyrian tribe s Lichtenstein, Prince , 145 Licko Field, 10 Lijeva Bar a necropolis, 6 5 Lika, 6 , 40 , 52 , 58 , 67 , 141-42 , 195 , 217, 219-20 , 233, 236-37 Lika and Krbava , 13, 87, 114 Lika River, 8 Likan, Gustav, 345, 350 Lim River , 149 Lipovcak, General, 14 8 Lipsko; see Leipzig Lisabon; see Lisbon Lisbon; see Appendix C : Lisbo a Lisicici, near Konjic, 28-29, 62 Lisinski, Vatroslav (Ignat z Fuchs), 199, 284, 30 7 Lissa; see Vis Littoral (Croatian) , 35 . See also Croatian Littora l an d Primorj e Livadic, Branimir, 270(n.83) Livadié, Ferdo ; see Wiesner-Livadió , Ferdo Livanjsko Field, 10 Livno, 5, 63, 229, 233, 237, 269 Ljetopis Popa Dukljanina, 84 , 86 , 87(n.24),93 Ljubicic, General , 14 8 Ljubija, 18 1 Ljubljana, 30 , 32 Ljubuski, 36 , 67, 69, 70 Ljubusko Field, 10 Ljudevit (Posavski) , Princ e o r Duke , 88, 91 , 117, 133 Loehr, General von, 164 Lokve, 2 3 Lombardy; see Appendix C London, 150 , 159, 162, 200, 204, 28283, 290, 292-93 Lonjsko Polje, 6 Lorkovió, Melita , 294, 307 Lorraine; see Appendix C Losinj Mali , 186 . See also Appendi x C Losinj Veli; see Appendix C Lotaringija; see Lorrain e Louis von Baden, Markgraf , 14 1

INDEX

Louis (Angevin ) o f Hungary-Croatia , 106, 108-109 , 120 Louis II (Prankis h ruler), 89 Louis II Jagellon , 113, 121, 138 Louis XIII, 144 Lourdes; see Appendix C Lovcen; see Appendix C Lovran; see Appendix C Lovrencic, Ivan, 344, 350 Lovrijenac Fortres s ( Dubrovnik ) , 209 Lovrin, Vicko , 335 Lozica, Ivan, 333, 350 Lucie, Franjo, 309 Lució, Hanibal, 321 Ludbreg, 64 Ludmer ( near Srebrenic a ) , 67-68 Luise Road, 177 Lukacio, Ivan, 282, 296, 307 Lukavac, 5 Lukic, Darko, 307 Luna, 244 Lurd; see Lourde s Lupoglav, 8 Lusatia; see Appendix C Lussingrande; see Losinj Veli Lussinpiccolo; see Losinj Mali Lützen, 14 4 Luxemburg, 109, 120 Luzica; see Lusatia Lvov; see Appendix C: Lwi w

393

Makljenovac, 2 3 Makovnik, 7 Maksimir, 18 Mala Kapela, 7 Malee, Ivan , 291-92, 307 Malez, Mirko, 2 3 Mali Rajinac, 7 Mallinger, Matilda , 30 7 Malta, 28-29 Mandió, Dominik , 66 , 80(n.l3) , 85 86, 92-93, 99(n.57), 117 , 119 Mandic, Josip, 307 Mandic, Mihovil, 25 Manet, 340 Mángale (bi g round pans), 230 Manichaean an d Manichaeism , 66 , 6870, 328 Mantua, 144 Manuel Comnenos , 105 Manzikert, Battle of , 97, 99 Maon or Maoni; see Maun Marburg; see Maribor Maria Theresa , 144, 176, 242 Maribor, 165 , 247, 248(n.l7). See abo Appendix C M arija Goric a (Croatia n Zagorje), 25 9 Marija Gorsk a (nea r Lobor), 63 Marinov, Lovro, 335, 350 Marinovic, 184 Maritsa River, 108, 136 Marjan, 1 2 Marjanovic, Milan , 260, 270 MACABSCA; see Makarska Markantun, 307 Macedo-Rumanians, 112, 121 Macedonia, 4 , 16-17 , 28 , 34 , 36 , 152 - Markovac, Pavao, 308 Markovic, Franjo, 247, 268, 276 54, 159, 209 Markovic, Vilim, 308 Macek, Ivo, 307 Marmara, Sea of; see Appendix C Macek, Vladko, 196 (n.7) Marmont, Marshal, 145-46 Maceljska Gora , 5 Marmor milliarium, 41 Mackova Spilja , 2 3 Marsonia; see Slavonski Bro d MacLean, 16 3 Martic, Grga, 276 Macva, 87 Madjarska o r Madzarska; see Hungary Martinis, Dragica (Carla) , 293, 308 Martinscica, 186. See also Appendi x C Maezei, 40; see also Illyria n tribes Marulic, Marko, 193 Magdalenic, Miroslav, 307 Maglic, 8 Marxist, 114, 160, 224, 270(n.83) Magyars, 16 , 90-91, 96 , 104-105 , 108, Marzbans, 100 111, 114 , 117-18 , 120 , 209 , 236 , Maset, 6 6 242-43, 251, 255, 256, 264, 26 7 Masié, Nikola , 339 Mahnic, Antun, 199 Massenet, 295 Main River; see Appendix C Master of Trviz, 336, 351 Majer, Milan , 307 Matacic, Lovro, 295, 308, 316 Majna River ; see Main Matej of Pula, 321, 350 Makarska, 4 , 19 , 105 , 107 , 121 . See Matetic-Ronjgov, Ivan , 289, 30 8 also Appendix C Matica Hrvatska, 263, 270(n.83)

394

INDEX

Matica Ilirska , 248 Matos, Antu n Gustav , 260(n.54) , 270, 341 Mattei, Djordje , 30 8 Matthias II , King , 206, 281, 329 Matz, Rudolf , 290, 30 8 Maun, 11 . See also Appendi x C Maximilian I , 114 , 121 Mazuranic, Antun, 274 Mazuranió, Fra n (Vladimir) , 266-67 , 278 Mazuranic, Ivan , 194 , 246-47 , 249 , 252, 256 , 260, 275, 34 0 Mazuranic, Matija , 266, 275 Medarus, 4 4 Median, 8 1 (n.14) Mediterranean, 10-11 , 13 , 25 , 27 , 29 , 31, 102 , 175 , 183 , 231 . See also Appendix C Medjimurje (Medjumurje) , 6 , 220, 322 Medovic, Celestin, 339 , 350 Medulic, Andrij a (Andre a Meldoll a Schiavone), 336 , 350 "Medulic," 331, 340 Medvednica, 7 Medvescak, 18 Melada; see Molat Meldolla Schiavone , Andrea ; see Medulic, Andrij a Meleda; see Mlje t Mesic, Luka , 14 1 Messapic, 3 9 Mestrovic, Ivan , 200, 331-32, 340, 350 : "American Indians, " 33 1 (n.2); Ar t Pavilion i n Zagreb , 324 ; Museum o f National Liberation , 324 ; hi s resi dence i n Split , 324 ; "Virgin Mary, " 331

Metal Age , 3 1 Metcovich; see Metkovic "Methodos," 93, 206 Metkovic, 19 , 180. See also Appendi x C Michael, King , 61 Michael Dukljansk i (o f Dioclea) . 60 , 99

Michelangelo, 33 7 Mid-Dalmatian Islands , 6 Miha o f Bar, 319, 350 Mihajlovic, Draza , 158-60 , 162, 204 Mihaljevió, General , 14 8 Mihanovic, Antun, 220(n.46) , 275 Miklosich, Franz, 248 Milakovic, Josip, 278 Milan, 144, 250, 285

Milanov, Zinka , 290, 293, 308, 316 Milicevic, Ivan, 278 Milicevic, Paskoje, 321, 350 Milinkovic, Georgine, 30 8 Military Frontier , 6(n.4) ; see also Vojna Krajin a Milna, 18 6 Milojcic, Vladimir , 3 4 Milostinja (almsgiving) , 19 7 Milutinovic, General , 14 6 Minceta Tower ( Dubrovnik ) , 320 Mino da Fiesole , 329 Mir (peace) , 208 Miroslav, 94 , 10 7 Mirski, Lav, 298, 308 Mirsky, D. S. , 266 Mise, Jerolim, 342 , 350 Misir; see Egypt Mislav, Duk e o r Prince, 89 , 117, 334 mistral, 1 3 Mitrovic, Ancica, 308 Mitrovic, Andró , 308 Mitrovica; see Srijemska Mitrovic a Mitrowski, Count , 14 5 Mizerit, Klaro, 296, 30 8 Mlakar, Pio and Pina , 28 9 Mleci; see Venezia Mljet, 11 . See also Appendi x C Moderna, 25 4 (n.38) Mogorjelo, 41 , 50 , 63 Mohács (Fiel d o f Mohács) , 113-14 , 121, 138 . See oho Appendix C Mohammed II , 13 7 Mohammedan, 10 5 Molat, 11 . See also Appendi x C Molotov, 15 8 Monakov; see Munic h Mongol, 105, 112, 119 Mongolian, 13 5 Montano; see Dalmatian Zagor a Monte Biloco ; see Biokovo Monte Leone ; see Lovcen Monte Maggiore ; see Ucka Monte Nevoso; see Snjezni k Montenegro, 3-5 , 16-17 , 24 , 30 , 60 , 67, 132-33 , 154 , 158 , 159 , 194 , 214(n.30), 246 . See also Crn a Gor a Monti Albii ; see Biokovo Morava, 109 , 136 Moravia, 51, 244 Moravian Slavs , 90, 92 Morlacca; see Velebit Channe l Morovic, Petar, 111 , 120 Morter; see Murter

INDEX

Moscow, 14 6 Moslems, 16 , 66, 71, 85(n.l9), 111-12 , 121, 159 , 162 , 172 , 203-204 , 227, 230-31, 233, 238-39, 252-53, 280 Mosor, 7 Mostar, 5 , 13-14 , 18-19 , 25 , 49 , 148 , 154, 181 , 220, 233, 269 Motika, Antun, 342, 344, 350 Mount Ivan ( Ivan-planina ) , 29 Mousterian Culture , 22 , 23 Mozart, 29 3 Mramor (pi . mramorovi, tombstones) , 66, 232. See also marrnor milliarium. Mramorno More; see Marmara Mravinci (nea r Split), 63 Mraz, Franjo, 343 , 350 Mué (nea r Split) , 61 . See also Appen dix C Mucci; see Muc Muhvic, Ivan , 30 8 Mujadzic, Omer , 344, 350 Mulabdic, Edhem, 278 Miinchen; see Munich Muncimir; see Mutimir Munich, 289-90, 293, 339-40, 342 . See also Appendix C : Miinche n Mur; see Mura Mura, 5, 13, 131. See also Appendix C Murai, Jurica, 295 , 308 Mursa, 41; see also Osije k Mursunjski Lug , near Brod , 65, 230 Murter, 11. See also Appendix C Murtic, Edo, 343, 350 Muscovites, 9 5 Museum o f Croatia n Antiquitie s (Split), 101 Mussolini, 15 7 Mussorgsky, 292 Musulin, Branka, 294, 308, 316 Mutimir (Muncimir) , Duk e o r Prince , 61, 90-91, 117 , 334 Nada, 26 9 Nadkrstac, 8 Nagodba ( Hungarian-Croatian Agree ment (1867)) , 252 Nakic-Nanchini, 282, 308 Naples, 105 , 108-111 , 120 , 145 , 290, 292. See also Appendix C: Napol i Napoleon, 146 , 176, 183, 216 Napoleonic Wars , 76, 146, 183, 281 Narenta; see Neretv a Naresii, 40; see also Illyrian tribe s Naro; see Neretva

395

Narona, 40, 41. See also Vi d Nasice, 4, 9 National Awakening , 214 , 250 , 283 , 339; see also Illyrian Movemen t "National Committe e fo r Liberation, " 162 Nazism, 114, 155-57, 200 Nazor, Vladimir, 267, 294 NDH (Nezavisn a Drzav a Hrvatska) ; see Independent Stat e of Croatia Neckar River, 144 Nedic, General, 159 Negroes, 201 Neidhardt, Djuro, 325, 351 Nelipic, 106, 120, 136, 212 Nemanya, 109 Nemcic, Antun, 275 Nepostenje (dishonesty) , 21 5 Neralic, Tomislav, 293, 308, 316 Néresi; see Nerezisc e Neretva, 8-9, 28, 39-41, 43 , 89, 94-95, 97, 99 , 105 , 109, 220, 233, 322. See also Appendi x C Nerezisce (Brae) , 323 Nesloga (discord) , 202 Nesnosljivost ( intolerance ) , 203 Netherlands, 144 . See also Appendix C Neustadter, Baron Josip, 245 (n. 8) Neven, 252 Nevesinjsko Field, 10 Nevjera (unfaithfulness) , 21 5 New York , 290 , 296, 332, 345: N . Y . City Cente r Opera , 293-94 , 344 ; Metropolitan Opera , 292-94 Neza, 255 Nicolaus de Zagabria, 30 8 Nikola of Piran, 321, 351 Nikola of Rovinj, 321, 35 1 Nikolié, Vladimir, 276 Nin, 54 , 56-58 , 60-61 , 234 , 318, 32 6 See also Appendi x C Nisava, 136 Nizniow (Galicia) , 149 Nizozemska; see Netherlands NjegoS, 24 9 Njemacka; see Germany Njirié, NikSa , 30 8 Nogulovió, Antun, 321, 351 Nona; see Nin Nordlingen, 14 4 Normans o f Sicil y (Apulia) , 100 , 11819 North Africa, 44, 48, 18 5 North America, 29 5

396

INDEX

North Sea, 185 Northern Croatia , 6(n.4) , 217 , 219 , 226(n.2),319 Notary; see Anonymou s Notar y o f Bel a IV Nova Gradiska, 4, 142 , 323 Novak, Grga, 27-2 8 Novak, Vilko, 308 Novak, Viteszlav, 28 8 Novak, Vjenceslav , 262-63, 278, 309 Novi (Nov i Vinodolski , Vinodol) , 145 , 246, 266, 282 Novi Banovci (nea r Star a Pazova) , 50 Novi Seher , 27 Novi Vinodolski; see Novi Novigrad (nea r Brod), 34 Novine Horvatske, 24 5 Novo Brdo (nea r Pristina), 176 Nozinic, Vilma, 309 Nuri-Hadzié, Osman, 278 OBALNA PLOVIDBA , 18 4 Obraz (face , honor) , 214 Obrenovió, King Alexander, 152 Obrenovié, Milos, 245 (n.8) Obri, 50 Obrovac, 50 , 334 Obuljen, Milan , 309 Obzor; see Pozor Ockeghem, Johannes , 296 Odak, Krsto, 289, 309 Oder River ; see Appendix C Odessa, 15 1 Odra; see Ode r Oglaj; see Aquileia Ogulin, 4 , 142 Okrugic, Ilija, 27 6 Old Ston e Age; see Palaeolithic Ag e Olib, 11 . See also Appendix C Olovo (nea r Srebrenica) , 44 , 67-6 8 Ombla, 97 Omis, 19 , 54 , 80 , 107 . See also Appen dix C Opatija, 292. See also Appendix C Oresje, 23 5 Oiijava, 8 7 Ormoz, 5, See also Appendi x C Orseolo, 96-97, 118 Orthodox; see Easter n Orthodo x Chris tians Oseglie; see Oslj e Osijek, 4 , 13-14 , 18-19 , 24, 34 , 40 , 64, 114, 121 , 147-48 , 165 , 177-79 , 220 , 297-98. See also Appendi x C

Oslje ( near Ston ) ; see Appendix C Osman, 194¡ Ostojic, Mato , 278 Ostovic, Pavle, 200(n.ll) Ostrogoths (Eas t Goths) , 78-81, 85, 87, 116 Ostrogovic, Kazimir, 351 Ostrovica, 106 , 113 Osveta (vengeance) , 20 1 Otocac, 49, 14 2 Otok (nea r Solin) , 55 Otranto-Valona Gate , 1 0 Ottoman Turks , 97 , 108 , 110-15 , 171 , 212, 242 , 247 Oudinot, General, 14 6 Ozalj, 34 , 339 Ozeblin, 7 Pacta Conventa, 103 , 134 Pad; see Po River Padovec, Ivan , 283, 309 Pag, 11 , 320. See also Appendix C Paganini, 28 3 Pago; see Pag Paklenica, 7 Palaeolithic o r Old Stone Age, 21-23 Palatinate; see Appendix C Palestine, 29 8 Palmovic, Andrija, 27 6 Pannonia, 2 , 6 , 13 , 33, 38-41 , 44 , 4950, 91, 224, 229, 234: Croatia, 87-91 , 99, 117 , 133 , 173, 175, 215 Pan-Slavic an d Pan-Slavism, 243^ 4 Panus, 44 Papandopulo, Boris, 199, 290, 309 Parac, Ivo , 30 9 Parac, Vjekoslav , 344 , 351 Parentium, 40; see also Pore c Parenzo; see Porec Paris, 145 , 258, 282-83, 289 , 292, 296, 330, 338, 340-42. See also Appendix C Pariz; see Paris Parthians, 81(n.l4) Partisans, 158-65 , 204 , 333, 343-44 Fasic, Nicholas, 150 Pasman, 11 , 281. See also Appendix C Patacic, 322 Patarenes, 6 6 Patricij (Pétris) , Andrija , 281, 309 Pattiera, Tino , 292 , 309, 316 Patzinaks (Pechenegs) , 10 1 Paul II , Pope , 32 9 Paulus, Field Marsha l von, 157 Pavelic, Ante, 154, 162-64, 19 6 (n.7)

397

INDEX

Pavletic, Krsto, 279 Pavlova, Anna , 29 5 Pazin, 12 , 52, 320. See also Appendi x C Pec; see Pecs Pechenegs; see Patzinaks Pecs; see Appendix C Pecuh o r Pecuj; see Pec s Pejacevic, 29 7 Pejacevic, Dora , 309 Peking, 13 5 Pekve, crijepnje, o r pokljuke (covers) , 229, 23 0 Peljesac, 11 , 66 , 120 , 183-8 4 See also Appendix C Perast, 183 , 337 . See also Appendi x C Perasto; see Peras t Peric, Pavao , 35 1 Perisic, 323, 351 Perkovac, Ivan, 276 Persepolis (Persia) , 232 Persia, 183, 226, 232; see also Ira n Peru, 34 5 Perucica, 7 Perucko, Lake , 9 Perun, 52 Peruncovac, 5 2 Pervicchio; see Prvic Pervizovic, Toma, 30 9 Pesaro, 32 1 Pescenica, 18 Petar Kresimir , King, 60 Petar Kresimir IV; see Kresimir I V Peter Crni , 62 Peter the Great , 21 2 Petko, 327 , 351 Petovia, 40 ; see also Ptu j Petrarch, 248 , 336 Petrebisca, 52 Petrinja, 140 , 142, 212, 323 Pétris, Andrija ; see Patricij, Andrij a Petrova Gora , 119, 181 Petrovaradin, 138 , 142 , 166 , 177 . See also Appendi x C Petrovo Field , 10 Petrucci, 281 Pettan, Hubert, 30 9 PFRY (People' s Federativ e Repub' i .• o f Yugoslavia, 3-5 , 16 , 19 ; see also FNRJ Pharia, Pharos o r Pharus; see Hvar Philadelphia, 290 Pibernik, Zlatko , 309 Piccolomini, General , 14 4 Picelj, Ivan , 344 , 351

Picenes an d Picenum, 38-39 Pierpont Morga n Librar y (Ne w York) , 336

Pietas lulia ; see Pul a Pijure (cla y vessels), 230 Pinkava, Ivan, 309, 316 Pintaric, Fortunat, 283, 309 Pireneji o r Pirineji ; see Pyrenee s Pisanice (colore d eggs , Easte r eggs) , 238 Pisarevina, 23 5 Pisino; see Pazi n Plamenac, Draga n (Dragutin) , 282 , 296, 30 9 Plancic, Juraj, 342 , 351 Planic, Stjepan , 324 , 343, 351 Planinski Kanal; see Velebit Channe l Plavnik, 1 1 Pleistocene Age, 22-24 Pleso, 13-1 4 Pliny, 3 9 Plitvice Lakes ; see Plitvicka Jezer a Plitvicka Jezer a o r Plitvic e Lakes , 7 , 9 . See also Appendix C Pliva River, 227 Pljesevica, 7, 220 Ploce, 19 Plumbum, 44; see Olovo Plutarch, 23 9 Po River, 116 . See also Appendix C Podgorje (Senj) , 26 3 Podgorski Kanal ; see Velebit Channe l Podiebrad o f Bohemia, George, 11 1 Podravina, 6 , 90 , 343. See also Drav a Podrir» je (Drin a River Basin), 10 9 Podunavlje; see Danube Pokljuke; see Pekve Pokuplje (Kup a Rive r Basin), 6 Pola, 40 ; see also Pul a Poland, 80(n.l3) , 82 , 108 , 111, 120-21 , 131, 145 , 209-10, 221, 239, 243-44 Poljarice, cernen or bunje (ston e houses); see also Bunja Poljica (nea r Split) , 52 , 56 , 208 , 222: Poljica Statute , 206 , 208, 214 Poljud (nea r Split) , 54 , 62, 318 Porno; see Jabuka Popovo Field , 10 Pora jn je; see Rhin e Porec, 47-48. See also Appendix C Porphyrogenitus; see Constantin o Por phyrogenitus Porto Baross; see Susa k Porto Re ; see Kraljevic a

398

INDEX

Posavina, 6 , 87 , 90 , 220 , 227 , 235 . Se e also Sava . Pospisil-Griff, Marta , 30 9 Postenje (honesty) , 21 4 Postruznik, Otón, 343, 35 1 Postumiana; see Pasman Potiorek, General, 14 9 Potocnjak, Vladimir , 351 Pourrailly, General , 14 6 Povjestica ( romantic balla d ) , 254 Pozajic, Mladen , 298, 30 9 Pozarevac, Treaty of, 14 1 Pozega, 91, 111, 14 1 Fozgaj, Zvonimir , 325, 35 1 Fozor (Obzor),253 Pozsony; see Bratislava Pozun; see Bratislava Frag; see Pragu e Prague, 51, 253, 262 , 284 , 287 : Germa n Opera, 292-93 ; Nationa l Theater , 295. See also Appendi x C : Prah a Pravda (sens e of justice), 206 Precko (subur b of Zagreb) , 16 5 Prejac, Gjuro , 31 0 Prenj, 8 Preprek, Stanislav , 310 Preradovic, Petar , 246 , 249 , 250 , 25 1 (n.27),275 Preseren, France, 255 Pressburg, 121 , 205-206 , 217(n.43) . See also Bratislava . Prevalje, 16 5 Preveden, Francis, 80(n.l2) , 85(n.24 ) Prezid, 17 9 Frica, Zlatko , 344, 35 1 Pridraga, 5 4 Prijateiistvo (friendship) , 19 8 Prijedor, 5 , 18 , 19 Prijezda, 232 Priko ( near Omis S ) , 54-55 Prknorje (th e Littoral), 64, 110 Prior Peter (Split) , 53 Pristina, 17 6 Privlaka (Bok a Kotorska) , 56 Prizren, 176 Frocopius, 8 4 Progonovic, Ivan , 328 , 35 1 Prokljansko Lake , 9 Promina, 7 Protestants, 16 , 206 Protobalcanic Cultura l Period , 227 , 23 0 Provansa; see Provenc e Provence; see Appendix C Prozor, 37, 229, 23 7

Prussia, 147 , 25 1 Prut River , 149 Prvié Island, 11. See also Appendix C Ptuj, 40. See also Appendix C Puccini, 292-9 3 Pucic, Medo, 276 Pula, 4 , 12 , 18-19 , 41 , 47 , 55 , 173 , 186, 297 . See also Appendix C Pulj; see Pul a Pullariae (insulae) ; see Brijuni Punat (Krk),5 5 funciranje (punching) , 228 (n. 10) Funtadura; see Vir Puttar-Gold, Nada, 293 , 31 0 Pyrenees; see Appendix C QUABNABO; see Kvarne r Quiquerez, Ferdo, 339, 35 1 RAB, 11 , 56 , 70 , 92 , 234 , 319-20 . See also Appendix C Raía, 5 Racic, Josip, 340-41 , 351 Racki, Franjo, 9 5 Racki, Mirko , 340, 35 1 Racusa; see Dubrovnik Bad (work) , 210 Radagas, 7 9 Radaus, Vanja, 333, 35 1 Radetsky, Marshal, 147 Radev, Marijana , 293, 31 0 Radio, 328, 35 1 Radio, Ante, 207 Radió, Frane, 59 Radió, Stjepan, 207 , 31 0 Radica, Ruben , 310 Radicevió, Branko, 249 Radimlja (nea r Stolac), 67-69, 327 Radimsky, Vaclav, 26 Radivojevic, General , 146 Radovan, 326 , 327 , 35 1 Rafaelli, Josip , 310 Ragusa; see Dubrovnik Ragusavecchia; see Cavta t Ragusinus, Nicolaus ; see Bozidarevic , Nikola Rajna; see Rhin e Rakovac (Srijem) , 6 3 Rakovac, Dragutin, 27 5 Rasa Rive r (Istria) , 40 , 86 . See also Appendix C Rascia; see Raska Radica, Bosko, 35 1 Raska (Rascia) , 108 , 11 0

INDEX

Raskaj, Slava , 339, 351 Ratkovic, Milan, 260(n.56) Rausion; see Dubrovnik Ravenna, 4 7 Ravni Kotari, 6 Ravno, 54, 55, 334 Razgovor (conversation) , 211 Razmilovic, Bono, 31 0 Red Army, 334 Red (order) , 208 Red Croati a o r Duklja , 86-87 , 94 , 98 99, 107 , 117, 133 Reformation, 20 5 Reliquiae reliquiamm, 213 Remetinec, 18 Renaissance, 244 , 249(n.21) , 321 , 336 Rendic, Ivan, 330, 351 Resetar, Jakob (Stank o Vraz), 248 Rhagusium; see Dubrovni k Rhine; see Appendix C Ribici, 36, 37, 43 Ribnjak Lake , 9 Rice, Norman, 331 Rihtman, Cvjetko, 31 0 Rijeka, 4 , 7 , 12 , 18-19 , 40 , 49 , 147 , 176-80, 184 , 186, 220, 246, 257, 281 , 285, 296 , 325, 345. See also Appen dix C Rim; see Rome Rimsky-Korsakov, Nicholas , 28 8 Ripac, 34, 36, 230 Risnjak, 7 Rizinice (nea r Solin) , 54, 61 Robert Guiscard , 10 1 Rodin, August , 33 0 Rogaci (nea r Blazu j i n th e Sarajev o Field) 62 Rogaska Slatina, 16 4 Rojc, Nasta , 339, 351 Roman, 35 , 37 , 39 , 41-59 , 65 , 68 , 70 , 81-82, 105 , 131 , 167 , 171, 208, 226, 268, 317-18 , 320 , 322: Arena , 297; Catholic, o r Church , 16-17 , 94 , 192, 199, 205 , 20 6 (n. 17), 216 , 224-25 , 230, 270 , 281 , 328 , 333-35 ; Hol y Roman Emperor , 109 , 114; Rite , 9 8 Romanesque, 47 , 56 , 58 , 60 , 66 , 319 , 320-21, 327 Romania (Rumania) , 2 , 16 , 33 , 7 7 151, 157 , 185, 226 (n.2) Romanija, 22 0 Romans, 37, 39, 40, 42, 78 Romanus Lecapenus, Emperor , 9 2 Rome, 85, 88, 98, 101, 155, 162, 224, 259,

399

268-69, 281-82 , 290 , 293, 328-29 , 332, 340 , 345. See also Appendi x C : Roma Rorauer, Julije, 27 9 Rosandic, Toma, 332, 351 Rosbach, Battl e of , 144 Rosenberg-Ruzió, Vjekoslav, 31 0 Rostock, 14 4 Rota-Kolunic; see Sibencanin , Domini k Ivan Rothmuller, Aro n Marko , 293-94 , 310, 316 Rotna Gomila (Conspirator' s Mound) , 101 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques , 25 7 Rovasenje (chip-carving) , 228 (n.6) Rovigno ( d'lstria ) ; see Rovin j Rovinj, 186 . See also Appendix C Rudolf o f Hapsburg, Emperor , 20 6 Rugen Island , 144 Rukavina, Frederik, 295, 297, 310 Rukljac, Vjekoslav , 334, 351 Runic alphabet , 4 9 Runjanin, Josip , 220(n.46), 310 Rus, Joze, 80(n.l2) Rusinac, (nea r Split) , 4 8 Russia, 16 , 77-78 , 82(n.l5) , 95, 116 , 118, 145 , 149-51, 157 , 161, 163, 200 , 216, 243 , 254, 266, 288-89, 29 6 Ruzdjak, Vladimir , 293 , 310 SABAC, 138 , 14 5 Saban, Ladislav , 295 , 310 Sabbioncello; see Peljesa c Sabic, Marin, 279 Sabor (Croatia n Die t o r Parliament) , 87, 93 , 101 , 104 , 114 , 117 , 119-21 , 137, 139 , 140 , 147 , 150 , 154 , 205 207, 217 , 222-24, 246, 251-52, 25 8 Sachs, Milan, 295, 310 SAD; see United State s Safarik, 24 4 Safranek-Kavic, Lujo , 310 St. Anastasius' (Svet i S tas, Split) , 32 0 St. Andrew's (Rab) , 56 St. Benedict's (Split) , 5 6 St. Blasius, 32 9 St. Blasius' (Dubrovnik) , 323-24 St. Catherine's (Zagreb) , 337 St. Domnius' (Split) , 42, 53, 320 St. Domnius' (Trogir) , 56 St. Donatus' (Krk) , 55, 318 St. Donatus' (Zadar) , 47, 59, 60, 318 St. Gall , 28 1

400

INDEX

St. George's (Belec) , 319 St. George's (Nin) , 54 St. George' s (Ravno , nea r Obrovac) , 54-55, 334 St. George's (nea r Split), 60 St. Ignatius' (Dubrovnik) , 323 St. Jerome, 329 St. Krsevan's (Krk),54 , 318 St. Krsevan's (Zadar) , 319 St. Lucy's (Baska),5 6 St. Luke's (Uzdolje , nea r Knin), 54, 61 St. Martha's (Bijaci) , 58-5 9 St. Martha's (Biskupija) , 59 St. Martin, 336 St. Martin's chape l (Split) , 58 St. Mary's (Beram) , 320, 336 St. Mary's (Bijaci) , 5 5 St. Mary' s (Dance , nea r Dubrovnik) , 335 St. Mary's (Jajce) , 321 St. Mary's (Nin) , 56 St. Mary's (Pula) , 47 St. Mary's (Solin) , 55 St. Mary's (Trogir) , 54 St. Mary's (Zadar) , 335 St. Michael's (Pridraga) , 54 St. Michael's (Pula) , 47, 55 St. Michael' s (Ston) , 54-55 , 60 , 318 , 334 St. Moses' (Biograd) , 56 St. Nicholas' (Nin) , 54-55 St. Nicholas' (Split) , 58 St. Nicholas' (Pittsburgh) , 345 St. Nicholas' (Selca) , 54, 56 St. Peter a t Draga; see St. Peter's (Rab ) St. Peter's (Poljice) , 56, 62 St. Peter's ( Priko, near Omi s ) , 54 St. Peter's (Rab) , 56, 319 St. Peter's (Solin) , 56, 213 (n.30) St. Peter's (Zadar) , 47, 54, 55 St. Peter's (Zavala) , 62 St. Petersburg, 282, 340 St. Stephen's (Otok) , 56, 58 St. Stephen's (Split) , 55 St. Stephen's de pirns (Split) , 59 St. Thomas' (Biograd) , 56 St. Thomas' (Pula ) ,47 St. Trifun's o r Tripun's (Tryphon ) in Kotor , 319 St. Ursula's (Zadar) , 54-55 St. Vitus' (Zadar) , 55 Sajó River , 119, 135 Sakac, Branimir, 292, 31 1 Salona, 40^2 , 45-48 , 53 , 116 , 21 3

( n.30 ) ; see also Solin Salonika, 151 . See also Appendi x C : Thesalonike Salzburg, 293 , 296 Samobor, 18, 23, 283 Samuel, Tsar, 95 San Francisco Opera , 29 3 San Giorgio (d i Lésina); see Suéura j San Martirio in Valle; see Martinscica San Pietro (d i Brazza); see Supetar San Pietr o i n Valle ; see Supetarsk a Draga San Vito; see Vidova Gora Sana, 36 Sancta Maria ; see Sutomore Sandzak, 30 Sankt Georgen; see Djurdjeva c Sann; see Savinj a Sanski Most, 36-37, 44 Santa Maria ; see Sutomore Santa Mari a degli Ospizi; see Spic Santi Filippo e Giacoma; see Filipjako v Sañudo, Marino , 114 Sarajevo, 5 , 7 , 13-14 , 18-19 , 26 , 32 , 40-41, 43, 62 , 68-69, 137, 141, 148, 152, 157 , 180 , 220 , 232, 237, 269 , 322, 34 5 Sardeati, 40 ; see also Illyrian tribe s Sardinia, 29, 231 Sarkotic, General, 148 Sarmatians, 77-78, 82(n.l5), 87, 116 SarvaS, 24 Sarvistan (Persia) , 232 Saska; see Saxony Sassanids, 232 Satorina, 7 Sau; see Sav a Sava River , 5 , 8, 13 , 19 , 29, 33 , 40 , 79 , 82, 86, 88, 90, 96, 99, 100, 104, 13133, 141 , 145 , 148-49, 154 , 177, 205, 220-21, 227, 235, 321, 339. See also Appendix C Savin, Dragutin, 311 Savinja; see Appendix C Savkovic, Milos, 255(n.40) Savoy, 28 1 Savus; see Sava River Saxony, 144. See also Appendi x C Scardona; see Skradin Sóedro, 11 . See also Appendi x C Schiavetti, J., 281, 311 Schiavone, Giorgio; see Culinovic, Juraj Schmidt, Rober t R., 21 Schneeberg; see Snjezni k

INDEX

Schneider, Artur , 311 Schoen, Edo, 324, 351 Schopenhauer, 26 5 Schwechat, 14 7 Scordisci, 40; see also Illyria n tribes Scribe, Eugène, 25 3 Scupi; see Skopje Scutari, 86 . See also Appendi x C : Shkodër Scythians, 77, 116 Sebastijan (Sebastian ) Schiavon e d a Rovigno, 321, 351 Sebenico; see Sibenik Secession Movement, 340 Second Worl d War , 21, 63 , 154 , 171 , 181, 185 , 187 , 19 6 (n.7), 198 , 27 0 (n.83), 293 , 298, 318, 324-25 , 333 34, 343-45 Sedeha, 62 Sedmogradska; see Transylvania Segestica; see Sisa k Segna; see Sen j Segvic, Neven, 325 Seissel, Josip , 325, 351 Selca (Brae) , 54. See also Appendi x C Seliski Vrh, 7 Selve; see Silba Selver, Paul , 25 0 (n.25) Selza; see Selca Semlin; see Zemun Senia, 40; see also Sen j Senj, 13 , 19 , 40 , 121 , 175 , 177 , 186 , 220, 262-63 , 266 , 268 . See also Appendix C Senoa, August , 199 , 253-57, 267 , 269 276

Senoa, Milan , 279 Senta, Battl e of, 14 1 Serbs, 76 , 98(n.54) , 121 , 136 , 138 , 141, 149 , 150-53 , 155-56 , 158-59 , 199, 204 , 243, 256, 257 ; in Bosnia Hercegovina, 4 , 15 ; i n Croatia , 15 ; their religion , 17 ; i n Yugoslavia , 15 16

Serbia, 3-5 , 24 , 26 , 34 , 67 , 87 , 109 , 149, 152 , 154 , 158-59 , 161 , 163 , 176, 199 , 204, 244-45, 252 Seremet, Ivo , 342, 351 Sergejevski, Dimitrije, 49 Serra, Paolo , 282, 311 Sertie, Zdenka, 344, 351 Servitium; see Bosansk a Gradisk a Sestak, Tomo, 31 1 Sestro or Sestrugno; see Sestrunj

401

Sestrunj, 11 . See also Appendix C Sesvete, 1 8 Sevcik, 294 Shakespeare, 253 , 320 Shtokavian dialect, 243-45 Sibencanin, Dominik Ivan ( Rota-Kolunic), 281, 310-11 Sibenik, 4 , 9 , 18-19 , 26 , 55 , 97(n.48) , 106, 120-21 , 181-82 , 186 , 282, 320, 325, 329 , 337. See also Appendi x C Sibinjanin, Janko ; see Hunyady, Joh n Sicily, 28, 100-101 Sid, 319 Siebenbiirgen; see Transylvania Sienkiewicz, 261 Siget; see Szigetvár Sigismund, 109-11, 120 Signo; see Sin j Silba, 11 . See also Appendi x C Silobod-Bolsic, Mihajlo, 31 1 Simaga, Petar , 344 , 351 Simat, 2arko, 345 , 351 Simeon I, Tsar , 92 , 118, 134 Simunovic, Frano , 344, 351 Singidunum; see Beograd Sinj, 51 . See also Appendix C Sinjsko Field , 1 0 Sipan, 11 . See also Appendix C SipuS, Kresimir, 296, 311 Siraci, 78 Sirmium, 40-41, 44-45; see also Srijem ska Mitrovic a Siroki Brijeg, 67-7 0 Sirola, Bozidar, 288, 297, 311 Sisak, 4, 18-19, 40, 44, 63 , 88 , 91 , 117 , 133, 140 , 147 , 177 , 179 , 212, 220, 325

Siscia, 40-41, 44; see also Sisak Sisic, Ferdo, 61, 87(n.28), 104(n.65 ) Sisol Mountain , 257 . See also Kumicic , Eugen Siveric, 102, 181 Skadar; see Scutari Skelani, 41, 46 Sklad (harmony ) an d skladan, 208 Skok, Petar, 49 Skopje; see Appendix C Skoplje; see Skopj e Skradin, 49 , 52 , 336 . See also Appen dix C Skriljine (nea r Beram), 336 Slarino; see Zlari n Slavac, 99, 100, 118, 119 Slavenska, Mia, 297

402

INDEX

Soljanich, Ante , 316 Slavenski, Josip, 288, 311, 316 Solovjev, Alexander , 68 , 232 Slavin, 52 Slavs, 47-57, 63-65 , 68-69, 77-78, 81 - Solta (Sulet) , 11 , 335. See also Appen dix C 85, 86(n.24) , 87 , 99 , 116, 131, 15051, 169 , 194, 230, 232 , 239 , 243-45 , Solun; see Salonik a 248, 250 , 253, 255, 266, 284, 288 , Sopot (nea r Benkovac), 61 Sorkocevic, Antun , 283 317-18, 320 Sorkocevic, Luka, 283, 311 Slavkovic, Milan, 311 Slavonia, 6 , 21 , 24 , 26 , 29 , 30-37 . 40 , Sosnice; see Sojenice 64-65, 67 , 79 , 82 , 96 , 98-100, 102- Sostarko, Dragutin, 293, 311 104, 105(n.67) , 111 , 113-16 , 118 , South America, 185, 293-94, 345 120-21, 132 , 138, 140-42 , 147-48 , South Bend , Indiana , 33 1 163-64, 202 , 204 , 210, 217, 219-20, Southern Slavs , 199-200, 247, 251(n.28) 286, 28 9 237-38, 242 , 251, 256, 264-65, 336 Southern Croatia , 6(n.4) Slavonic liturgy, 93(n.40) , 11 8 Spadina, Stjepan , 282 , 311 Slavonska Pozega, 4, 1 8 Slavonski Bro d (Bro d n a Savi , Brod) , Spain, 57 , 79, 114, 185, 293 4, 14 , 18-19 , 148 , 157 , 180 , 227, Spalato and Spalatum; see Split Spic; see Appendix C 230, 323 , 325. See also Appendix C Spiler, Miroslav, 311 Slik (Shlik) , Miroslav, 311 Spiller, Ljerko, 294, 312 Sljeme, 7 Splicanin, Ivan ; see Ivan Splicani n Sljivaric, Fiel d Marshal , 146 Split, 4, 12, 18-19, 42, 48, 53-56, 58-64, Sloane Museum (London) , 336 83, 86 , 91-92, 94 , 97 , 118, 121, 176 , Sloboda (freedom) , 20 8 182-83, 186 , 194 , 234, 252, 258 , Slovak, 16 , 99, 157, 199, 209, 236, 243 , 282, 297 , 318-20 , 325-26 , 345 ; 295 cathedral, 327 ; City Hall , 324 ; MesSlovakia, 24, 51 , 91, 117 trovió's home , 324 , 331 ; Synods , Slovenia, 3-5, 16-17, 21 , 30, 40, 76, 86, 87, 24 , 92-93 , 98 , 118 . See also 99, 150-54 , 164-65 , 199 , 204, 227 Appendix C (n.2), 243 , 247-49, 251, 25 5 Spoljar, Zlatko , 312 Slovenske Gorice, 5 Sporer, Djuro, 275 Slunj, 14 2 Smail-aga, 194 , 246-47; see also Smr t Spree River; see Appendix C Spreva; see Spree River Smail-age Cengióa Sramofa (dishonor , disgrace) , 215-1 6 Smajic, Petar , 334, 351 Srebrenica (Srebrnica) , 41, 43-44, 67 Smith, Adam , 264 Smrdelje (nea r Skradin) , 50 , 52 . See Sredozemlje (Sredozemn o More) ; see also Appendi x C Mediterranean Smrt Smail-age Cengica, 194 , 246-47, Srem; see Srije m Sremska Mitrovica ; see Srijemsk a 249, 34 0 Mitrovica Snacic (Svacic) , Petar , 99 , 101-102 , Sremski Karlovci ; see Srijemsk i 103(n.64), 119, 134, 33 9 Karlovci Sneznik; see Snjezni k Srijem, 5-6 , 26 , 34 , 44 , 50 , 89 , 95 , Snjaric, General , 14 8 105, 113 , 115-16, 121 , 138, 141-42, Snjeznik, 5. See also Appendix C 163, 217 , 219-20. See also Appen Sohaj, Slavko , 342, 352 dix C Sojenice o r sosnice (palafitt e houses) , Srijemska Mitrovica , 40 , 140 . See also 227 Appendix C Sokol, Bernardin, 311 Srijemski Karlovc i (Karlovci) , 141 . See Sokolovic, Mehmed Pasha, 138 also Appendix C Solar cult, 240 Srnec, Aleksandar, 344 Solentia; see Solta Solin, 40 , 41 , 45 , 47 , 54-56 , 258 . See Srnopas, 7 Stadler, Josip, 19 9 also Appendix C

INDEX

Stagno o r Stagnum ; see Ston Stahuljak, Dubravko , 312 Stahuljak, Juraj , 32 1 Stahuljak, Mladen , 32 1 Stajerska; see Styri a Stalin, 334 , 34 5 Stalingrad, 157 , 16 2 Stambol ( Stambul ) ; see Istanbu l Stancic, Miljenko , 344 , 35 1 Stancic, Svetislav , 294, 297 , 31 2 Stara Gradiska , 227 Stara Pazova , 50 Starcevic, Ante, 207 , 257 , 260, 276 Starcevo, 24-26 Stare pravice ( good ol d justic e ) , 207 Starigrad (Hvar) , 281. See also Appen dix C Stas; see St. Anastasiu s Stecak (pi . steed), 66 , 232 , 318(n.l) , 327-28 Stefanovié, Franjo , 31 2 Stefanovic Karadzic , Vuk; see Karadzic Steiermark; see Styria Steinbruck; see Zidani Most Steiner, Milan , 351 Stele ( upright place d ston e ) , 67 Stephan Dusan, 108 Stephen, King, 61; see also Stipa n Stephen V of Hungary, 12 0 Stepinac, Aloysiu s Cardinal , 200 , 20 1 (n.!2),216 Stipan ( nephew of Kresimir IV ), 9 9 Stipan, (So n of Kresimir), 96, 9 7 Stipan I, 107 Stipan II , 102 , 11 9 Stipan Dabisa , 110 Stipan Drzislav , 95-96, 98, 118 Stipan II Kotromanic , 108 Stipan Tvrdk o Kotromanic , 108-10, 120 Stipangrad Castle , 107 Stjepan; see Stipan Stb'ger-Stazic, Franjo, 312 Slôhr, Ante, 312 Stojcevic, General , 14 5 Stolac, 42, 46, 67 Stolnik, Slavko , 343 , 35 2 Ston, 54 , 56 , 318, 320. See also Appen dix C Stone Age , 343 Stonski Rat; see Peljesa c Stoos, Pavao, 275, 31 2 Strabo, 239 Strahinic, Ban , 216 Stralsund, 144 Strauss, Richard, 293

403

Stravinsky, 28 8 Striga, Ognjen-Albert, 284 , 31 2 Strizic, Zdenko, 352 Strmic, Nikola, 312 Slrossmayer, Josi p Juraj, 199 , 252 , 269 , 330 Strozzi-Pecic, Maja , 290 , 31 2 Strzygowski, Joseph, 57, 59, 232 Stubica, 207 Studin, Marin, 333, 35 2 Stupovi (nearKnin) , 56 Styria, 247 , 251 . See also Appendix C Subió (Subic-Bribirski) , 105-106 , 120 , 135, 212 , 32 7 Sucurac (nea r Split) , 53 . See also Appendix C Sucuraj (Hvar ) see Appendix C Sufflay, Milan , 19 9 Suleiman (Soliman) , 138-39, 212 Sulek, Bogoslav, 27 5 Sulek, Stjepan , 291 , 31 2 Sulet; see Solta Supetar (Brae) ; see Appendix C Supetarska Drag a (Rab) , 56 . See also Appendix C Supicic, Ivo, 312 Supilo, Frano, 200 Suplja Crkv a (Hollo w Church) , 55-56, 60 Suppé, Franz, 31 2 Susak, 298. See also Appendix C Susedgrad, 1 8 Sutla, 5 Sutomore; see Appendix C S vacie, Petar ; see Snacic, Peta r Svajcarska; see Switzerlan d Svantovid, 52 Svatopluk, 90 Svecnjak, Vilim , 343, 35 2 Sveta Gora , 5 Sveta Nedjelja , 23 5 Sveti Vid ( Brae ) ; see Vidova Gora Sveti Juraj Mountain, 7 Svetigora, 52 Svetoslav (So n of Drzislav), 9 6 Svicarska; see Switzerlan d Svilaja, 7 Svinjarevci (nea r Vukovar), 64 Svrljuga, 18 4 Switzerland, 187 , 22 7 (n.2), 333 . See also Appendix C Synods of Split; see Spli t Synods Syria, 45-46, 57, 234 Syrmien; see Srije m Száva; see Sava River

404

INDEX

Szerém; see Srijem Szigetvár, 139 , 212 . See also Appen dix C TACLIK, RUDOLF , 31 2 Tadernus, 4 4 Tadin, Anton, 83 Tanaïs, 77, 78, 89, 116 Taranto; see Appendix C Tarent o f Tarentum; see Taranto Tarsatica, 40 ; see also Trsat an d Rijek a Tartaglia, Marin , 342, 352 Tatar, 149 , 319 Tate Gallery (London), 333 Tarsatica; see Trsa t Tartini, 287 Tedanium; see Zrmanj a Teheran Conference, 16 2 Temparicic, Gavro, 281, 312 Templars' Monaster y ( Glogovniea ) , 319 Temza; see Thames Tenin; see Knin Tergeste; see Triest e Ternina, Milka , 292, 313 Tersatto; see Trsat Terviso; see Trviz Testija (jug) , 23 0 Teutoburgium, 41; see also Dal j Tezno, 16 5 Thames; see Appendix C Thana, 44 Theodoric the Younger, 79 Theodosius, Emperor, 13 2 Theophanes (Byzantine) , 82(n.l5) Thomas o f Split, 55, 62, 119 Thorgau, 14 4 Thracian, 34, 44, 239 Tijardovic, Ivo , 313 Tiljak, Djuro , 343, 352 Tilly, Count , 144 Tilurius; see Cetina Tisza, 82 , 87 Titian, 337 Titius; see Krka Tito; see Broz, Josip Tivari; see Bar Tkalcevic, Adolf; see Veber, Adolf Tkalcic, Juro, 313 Tkon; see Appendix C Tomasevié, King Stephen, 13 7 Tomasic, General, 146 Tombor, Janko, 277 Tomic, Eugen Josip, 277 Tomislav, 90-95, 98, 118, 134, 330, 339 Tomislav-Grad; see Duvno

Toncic, Nada, 313 Topolski, Zlatko, 294, 313 Topusko, 181 Toreóla; see Seedro Tordinac, Nikola, 279 Toscanini, Arturo, 293 Tradenico, Peter, 117 Tragurion ( Tragurium ) ; see Trogi r Transilvanija; see Transylvania Transylvania, 113, 121 . See also Appen dix C Traù; see Trogi r Travnik, 48-49, 68, 220, 232, 239(n.38) Travunja; see Trebinje Trebe (sacrifice) , 5 2 Trebevic, 7, 220 Trebinje (Travunja) , 70 , 94 , 107 , 118 , 120, 23 2 Trebinjsko Field , 1 0 Trebisca, 52 Trebisnjica, 8 Trebiste, 52 Trebizat, 46 Treglia; see Tril j Trenk, Baro n Franjo, 142 Trent; see Appendix C Trepse, Marijan, 342, 352 Trescec-Branjski, Vladimir , 279 Tresic-Pavicic, Ante, 268, 279 Treskavica, 8 Tresnjevka, 1 8 Trgovska Gora , 18 1 Trident; see Tren t Trieste, 26 , 177 , 179 , 183-84 . See also Appendix C Triglav, 5 2 Trilj (nea r Sinj) , 51 , 234 . See also Appendix C Triple or Triune Kingdom , 98, 113, 119 Tripun; see St . Trifu n Triune Kingdom; see Triple Kingdom Trnje, 1 8 Trnski, Ivan, 277 Trogir, 38 , 44 , 56 , 86 , 90 , 97 , 103 , 118-19, 121 , 135 , 182 , 186 , 234 , 319-20, 327-28. See also Appendix C Troglav, 7 Trojanci, 52 Trpimir, Duk e o r Prince , 61 , 89-90 , 117, 334 Trpimir II , 93(n.42) Trpimirovic, 102-103, 104(n.67 ) Trsat; see Appendix C Trst; see Trieste Truhelka, Ciro, 46, 59

INDEX

Truhelka, Jagoda, 279 Trumbic, Ante, 200 Trviz; see Appendix C Tryphon; see St. Trifun Tuconio; see Tkon Tuhelj Church, 33 3 Tumulus Culture ; see Glasinac Cultur e Turanyi, Dragutin, 31 3 Turgenev, 254 , 261, 265, 266 Turic, Djuro, 279 Turma, Vladimir, 325, 352 Turkali, Nenad, 31 3 Turkalj, Josip , 332, 352 Turkalj Joza, 352 Turks, 16 , 20 , 66 , 110-15 , 120-21 , 133, 136-40 , 143-47 , 152 , 169, 171 72, 175 , 183 , 185 , 194 , 199 , 203 204, 209 , 212-13, 223 , 230, 234-35, 239, 246-47 , 321-23, 327-28, 339 Turopolje, 6, 228 Tuzla, 5, 14 , 18, 26, 30, 163 Tvrdalj (Hvar),32 1 Tvrdko; see Stipa n Tvrdk o Kotromani c Tvrdoje, Nikola , 32 0 Tzveych, Biserka ; see Cvejié , Biserk a UÔKA, 7. See also Appendix C Udbina, 112 , 138 Ugarska; see Hungar y Ugrinovic, Zivan, 335, 352 Ukraine, 16 , 24, 32, 209, 239 Ulbo; see Olib Ulcinium; see Ulcinj Ulcinj; see Appendix C Uljan, 1 1 ULUBH (Udruzenj e Likovni h Umjet nika Bosn e i Hercegovin e ) , Association o f Plasti c Artist s o f Bosni a an d Hercegovina, 344—4 5 ULUH ( Udruzenje Likovni h Umjetnik a Hrvatske), Associatio n o f Plasti c Artists of Croatia, 344-4 5 Una, 5 , 8 , 40, 106 , 131, 133 , 137 , 140 41 Unac, 4 0 Unie; see Unije Unije, 11 . See also Appendix C United Colonies , 221 United Nations , 325, 332 United States , 71 , 173 , 294, 296, 332, 345. See also Appendix C Upper Croatia , 3 , 6 , 79 , 81(n.l4) , 82 , 86, 116 , 134, 137, 145 , 148-49, 282, 321

405

Upper town ( Zagreb ) ; see Gric Urban II, Pope , 215 Urbino, 32 1 Urlich, Antun, 352 Urnfield Culture , 32-36, 38, 39 Uskiib; see Skopje Ustasha, 154-61 , 163-65 , 19 6 (n.7), 204 Utjesenovic, Ognjoslav , 27 5 Uzdolje ( near Kni n ) , 54, 6 1 Uzelac, General , 14 8 Uzelac, Milivoj, 342, 352 VAGANSKI VRH, 7 Valdasus; see Vukovar Valdec, Rudolf , 330, 352 Valentinovo, 26 5 Valle d i Sa n Pietro ; see Supetarsk a Draga Vaneas, Antun, 313 Vandals, 8 4 Vandeja; see Vendée Vanista, Josip, 344 , 352 Vanka, Maksimilijan, 345, 352 Varasd; see Varazdin Varazdin, 4 , 14 , 18-19, 22 , 104(n.67) , 140, 142 , 147-48, 175, 179, 297, 322. See also Appendix C Vardar, 136 Vares, 46, 48, 181, 232 Varos (nea r Brod) , 33 Varosluk, near Travnik , 48 Varsava; see Warsaw Veber (Tkalcevic) , Adolf, 277 Veglia; see Krk Vego, Marko, 62 Velebit, 7 , 105 , 220 ; Channe l o r Velebitski Kanal ; se e Appendi x C : Velebit Channe l Veli Varos (subur b of Split), 58 Velika Goric a (nea r Zagreb), 18 , 34, 50 Velika Kapela, 7 Velika Vlasulja, 8 Velikanovic, Iso, 279 Veliki Bulovac (nea r Ludbreg), 6 4 Vendée; see Appendix C Vendían Military Zone, 139 Veneti, 39, 43 Venetia, 116 . See also Venezi a an d Venice Venezia; see Appendix C Venice, 42, 89, 94, 96-97, 99-108, 110, 114, 117-121 , 133 , 141 , 145 , 175 , 182-83, 209 , 227, 268, 280-81, 282,

406

INDEX

320, 328 , 330, 337. See abo Venezi a Verdi, 293 Vermo; see Beram Vernadsky, George, 82(n.l5) Veternica Cave , 23 Veza, Mladen, 342, 352 Vid, 40 Vidakovic, Albe, 313 Vidasus, 44 Vidosic, Tihomil, 313 Vidostak ( near Stolac ) , 46 Vidova Gora , Vidovica , o r Svet i Vi d (Brae), 52. See also Appendi x C Vidovec, Ban George, 13 7 Vidovic, Emanuel, 344 , 352 Vienna, 138-40 , 147 , 179 , 197 , 209, 222, 242 , 245, 253, 256, 258-59. 261, 264, 269 , 281, 283, 285, 290 , 29294, 296 , 339-41. See also Appendi x C: Wien Vigny, Alfred de, 27 1 Vijenac, 25 3 Vilagosz, 14 7 Vilhar-Kalski, Franjo , 313 Villanova, 3 3 Villard d e Monneret , U., 56 Vinca, 25, 26 Vincent o f Kastav, 336, 352 Vindes, 9 9 Vindija Cave , 22 Vinica, 5 Vinkovci, 4, 18-19, 142, 264 Vinodol, 206-207 , 222. See also Novi Vinski, Zdenk o (an d Ksenija), 33 , 51 , 65 Vir, 11 . See also Appendix C Virius, Mirko , 343, 352 Virovitica, 4, 18 , 140 Vis, 11 , 38 , 92 , 95 , 118 , 183 , 185, 186. See also Appendi x C Visegrad, 232 Viaeslav, Duke o r Prince, 6 0 Visigoths (Wes t Goths), 57, 78-79, 85 Visla River; see Vistula Visocica, 7 Visoko, 47, 69, 231, 327 Vistula River, 78. See also Appendix C Vital (nearOtocac),3 7 Vitez, (knight) , 19 6 Vitezovic, Pavao, 246(n.9 ) Vitic, Ivo, 325, 352 Vitovec, Juraj, 112 , 121 Vjera, vjernost (faithfulness) , 21 5 Vlach; see Wallac h

Vlahinja, 8 Vlasió, 22 0 Vodopic, Mato, 27 7 Vogezi; see Vosges Vojna Krajin a (Militar y Frontier) , 139-143, 145 , 148 , 169 , 171 , 216 , 323

Vojnomir, Duk e or Prince, 87, 117 Vojvodina, 3-4, 141 Volarica (Lika) , 58 Volcera; see Bakar Volga, 31 7 Volosca; see Volosko Volosko (subur b o f Opatija) , 186 . See also Appendix C Volujak, 8 Vosges Mountains; see Appendix C Vo'slau ( Austria ) , 249 Vran, 8 Vran-Planina, 8 Vrana Lake, 9 Vrana Monastery, 136 Vranica, 8 Vranjanin, Franjo , 321 , 329, 352 Vranjanin, Lucijan , 321, 329, 352 Vransko Lake, 9 Vrapce, 44 Vraz, Stanko, 199 , 246-49, 275, 313 Vrbanic, Vido, 325, 352 Vrbas, 8, 40, 44, 10 7 Vrebac, 3 7 Vrgoracko Field, 10 Vrhbosna, 322 Vrhovski, Josip, 31 3 Vrsac, 16 6 Vucedol, 24, 29, 30-32, 38 Vuglovec, 2 3 Vuk, 11 8 Vukcic Hrvatinic , Hrvoje , 110-11 , 120, 137, 33 6 Vukelic, Lavoslav, 27 7 Vukotinovic-Farkas, Ljudevit, 27 5 Vukovar, 18-19 , 24 , 34 , 36 , 64-65, 91 , 121, 177 . See also Appendix C Vuckovic, Marko, 31 3 Vukovic, Stjepan , 2 3 WAGNER, RICHARD , 29 2 Wagram, Battl e of , 145 Wallachs, 16 , 111, 114 , 121, 138 Wallenstein, Count, 144 Warasdin; see Varazdin Warsaw; see Appendix C : Warszaw a Washington, 196 (n.7)

INDEX

407

free roya l city , 119 , 175 ; industry , 178; Kamenita vrata (Ston e Gate) , 330; Kaykavia n dialect , 245 ; Madrigalists, 298 ; Militar y Frontier , 142 ; Mirogoj (cemetery) , 330 ; Musi c Academy, 291 , 294 ; Opera , 286-87 , 290, 292-93 , 295-97 , 314 ; parks , avenues, an d palaces , 322-25 ; part of Slavonia, 104(n.67) ; population , 18 ; Radio Zagre b Chorus , 298 ; Stat e Academy o f Music , 297 ; St . Cath erine's, 322; School o f Painting, 338 40; Theater , 253-54 , 339 , 342 ; University, 226(n.l) , 296 ; Zagre b Joza Vlahovi c Society , 314 ; Zagre b Philharmonic, 295-97 . See also YUGOSLAV ACADEM Y O F SCIENCE S AN D Appendix C AKTS, 282, 330; Committee, 150 , 200 ; Zagrebacka Cora, 7 Division, 151 ; Legion , 150 ; National Zagreb-Horvati; see Horvati Movement o f Liberation, 160 Zahumlje, 94 , 107, 109, 118 Yugoslavia, 150-63, 165 , 184. 196 (n.7), Zajc, Ivan , 139, 285-86, 289, 295, 314 199-200, 204 , 224-25 , 251(n.28) , Zápolya, John, 113-14, 121 261, 268(n.81) , 295 , 332 , 333, 334, Zapresic, 1 8 345: administrativ e division , 4 ; area , Zara; see Zadar 5-6; district s an d communes , 4; lati - Zaravecchia; see Biograd tude an d longitude , 3 ; Moslems , 15; Zdeda, 11 8 national minorities , 16 ; nationalities , Zelena Pecina (Gree n Cave) , 25, 28, 30 15; neighborin g countries , 3; popula - Zelezno; see Eisenstadt tion, 15-16 ; religiou s affiliation , 16 - Zelija, 328 , 352 Zelina, 1 8 17; socialist republic, 4(n.l) Zemun, 87 . See also Appendix C Zeneva; see Geneva ZABOK, 26 1 Zadar, 4 , 7 , 12 , 18-19 , 47 , 54-55 , 59 - Zenevsko Jezero; see Geneva 60, 83 , 86 , 91 , 97 , 105-106 , 110 , Zengg; see Sen j 118-20, 145 , 176, 182, 186, 220, 234, Zenica, 5 , 18 , 47-48, 181 , 325. See also Appendix C 250, 252 , 318. See also Appendix C Zadruga, 131-32 , 135 , 143 , 168-69 , Zepce, 238 172, 201 , 217, 218(n.44), 25 4 Zermagna; see Zrmanj a Zagabria; see Zagreb Zezenje (wood-burning) , 228 (n.9) Zagorje, 6 Zganec, Vinko, 314 Zagrabia; see Zagreb Zgosca, 232 Zagreb, 19 , 23 , 34 , 44 , 50 , 91 , 147-48 , Zidani Most , 179. See also Appendix C 154, 157 , 164^65 , 173 , 179-80 , 204, Zimony; see Zemun 235, 246 , 248-49 , 252 , 255 , 257 , Zirje, 11 . See also Appendix C 259, 260(n.56) , 261-62 , 269 , 282, Zirona; see Drvenik 285, 289 , 294, 329, 332, 337 , 341 - Zlarin, 11 . See also Appendix C 42, 344-45 : administrativ e division , Zlatar, 322 18; architecture , 323-25 ; bisho p of , Zlatic, Slavko , 298, 314 136, 223-24 ; cathedra l of , 200 , 284 , Zola, Emile, 258, 261 326, 335 , 337; Chamber Chorus , 298; Zrin, 10 6 climate, 13-14 ; Croatia n Ar t Society , Zrinj; see Zrin 330, 338 ; Croatia n Musi c Institute , Zrinski, Zrinjsk i o r Subic-Zrinski , 106 , 296-98; describe d b y Novak , 263 ; 112, 121 , 136 , 139 , 144 , 197 , 212, district of , 4, 7; foundation, 119, 319; 259(n.52),339

Werth, General Johann von, 14 4 White, Great , o r Trans-Carpathia n Croatia, 82 , 84 , 88 , 116 , 131 , 167 , 169. See also Dalmatia n o r Whit e Croatia Wiener Neustadt, 197 , 249 Wiesner-Livadió, Ferdo, 283 , 313 Wiesner-Livadic, Ljubo, 34 5 Wilke, George, 68 William the Conqueror , 5 7 Wilson, President Woodrow , 14 9 Wisner-Morgenstern, Karl , 284, 313 World War I; see First Worl d Wa r World Wa r II; see Second Worl d Wa r Wright, Frank Lloyd , 32 5

408

INDEX

Zrmanja, 8 , 87 , 109, 334 . See also 2 Appendix C Zrnovnica, 52 2umberacka Gora , 5 Zumberak, 6 Zupa, 60 , 62 , 90, 94, 105 , 118, 131-32, 135-36, 168 Zupancic, Nikola, 77

i Zupanovic, Lovro, 314 Zuri; Zt see Zirj e Zi Zurich, 289 , 293 2i 11. See also Appendix C 2ut, Zvonimir, King , 60 , 62 , 100-103 , Zv 104(n.67), 107 , 119 , 134 , 213 , 214(n.30), 215, 234, 33 9