Crippled giant : Nigeria since independence 9780253334107, 0253334101, 9781850653455, 1850653453, 9781850653509, 185065350X

Table of contents :
Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence
Contents
Tables
Preface
Abbreviations
Political Milestones In Nigeria, 1960-96
1 Historical And Analytical Overview
2 The First Republic, 1960-1966
3 The First Phase Of Military Rule, 1966-1979
4 The Second Republic, 1979-1983
5 The Return Of The Military: The Buhari Regime, 1983-1985
6 The Babangida Years And After, 1985-1993
7 The Abacha Regime, 1993-1996
8 Conclusion
References
Index

Citation preview

CRIPPLED GIANT

Eghosa E. Osaghae

CRIPPLED GIANT: NIGERIA SINCE INDEPENDENCE

To the two teachers who moulded me: my father CHRISTOPHER OSAGIEDE OSAGHAE who found fulfilment in being a teacher and MISTER OLOYEDE the teacher God sent to raise me

EGHOSA E. OSAGHAE

Crippled Giant Nigeria since Independence

IN D IA N A U N IV E R SIT Y PRESS BLOOMINGTON AND INDIANAPOLIS

First published in N orth America in 1998 by Indiana University Press 601 N orth M orton Street B loom in gton, Indiana 47404 Copyright © 1998 by Eghosa E. Osaghae All rights reserved N o part o f this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including p h otocop yin g and recording, or by any inform ation storage and retrieval system, w ithout permission in writing from the publisher. T he Association o f American University Presses’ R esolution on Permissions constitutes the only exception to this prohibition. M anufactured in India

L ibrary o f C ongress C a ta lo g in g -in -P u b licatio n D ata Osaghae, Eghosa E. C rippled Giant: N ig e ria since in d ep en d e n c e / E ghosa E. Osaghae. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. ISB N 0 -2 5 3 -3 3 4 1 0 -1 . — ISBN 0 -2 5 3 -2 1 1 9 7 -2 (pbk.) 1. Nigeria—Politics and governm ent—1 9 6 0 I. Tide. D T 5 1 5 .8.075 1998 966.905— dc21 9 7-32892

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CONTENTS

Preface Abbreviations Political Milestones in Nigeria, I960-1996 Maps Chapters 1. HISTORICAL AND ANALYTICAL OVERVIEW Historical overview The bases of Nigerian politics The consequences of Nigeria’s location in the global system 2.

3.

THE FIRST REPUBLIC, 1960-1966 Background The 1959 elections The structural framework Political developments and build-up to the collapse of the Republic The Action Group crisis and its aftermath The census crisis The 1964 elections The economy Foreign policy THE FIRST PHASE OF MILITARY RULE, 1966-1979 The character and context of military intervention and rule The Ironsi regime The Gowon regime The civil war Post-war developments v

page ix xii xvii xxi-xxvi

1 1 12 28 31 32 32 34 38 39 41 42 47 50 54 54 56 61 65 68

Contents The transition that never was A balance sheet on Gowon’s regime The Mohammed/Obasanjo regime The assassination o f General Mohammed Return to transition The economy in the first phase of military rule Foreign policy

69 77 79 88

90 96 104

THE SECOND REPUBLIC, 1979-1983 Conceptual notes and background The contextual framework Executive presidentialism Constitutional recognition of political parties The federal character principle Entrenchment o f corrective principles Structural changes The major actors: political parties GNPP/NPP NPN PRP UPN NAP The 1979 elections Developments in the inter-election years Religious and political conflicts; authoritarian tendencies Inter-governmental relations (IGR) Developments in the states Inter- and intra-party factionalism The 1983 elections Collapse of the Republic The economy Foreign policy

130 133 138 139 144 154 155 160

THE RETURN OF THE MILITARY: THE BUHARI REGIME, 1983-1985 The coup of 31 December 1983 ‘Pulling the country out of the economic mess’ Salvaging from the ruins of the Second Republic

163 165 170 171

110 110

113 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 119 120

121 122 125 130

Contents

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An ‘enabling environment* fo r economicrecovery The external dimensions o f the recoveryefforts A balance sheet Foreign policy

178 183 185 186

THE BABANGIDA YEARS AND AFTER, 1985-1993 The ‘redeemer’ cometh? Structural adjustment The labyrinth of a political transition Who was qualified to be a politician? The ‘test-tube*parties An endless transition? Back to the transition: the remainder A new constitution Structural reforms Census Elections The stirring of civil society and political conflicts State-directed conflicts Inter-group conflicts 12 June and its aftermath Why was the election annulled? Aftermath o f the annulment The interim national government The international context Foreign policy

188 189 196 207 214 216 223 225 225 221 231 233 242 243 249 251 252 256 261 266 267

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THE ABACHA REGIME, 1993-1996 The nature of Abacha’s intervention and rule Continued economic decline A reluctant democratic transition? Civil society eruption: Nigeria on the march again! Foreign policy

273 273 281 286 294 306

8.

Conclusion

311

6.

References

319

Index

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TABLES

1.1. Contribution of oil to Federal Government revenue, 1958-90 2.1. Regional distribution of seats won by major parties in the 1959 elections 2.2. Census figures, 1962 and 1963 2.3. Seats won by parties in the 1964/65 elections 3.1. 1973 census provisional returns compared with 1963 returns 3.2. Timetable for transition to civilian rule, 1975-79 3.3. The 1976 states creation exercise 4.1. 1979 National Assembly elections 4.2. 1979 state elections 4.3. 1979 presidential election 4.4. 1983 National Assembly elections 4.5. 1983 state gubernatorial elections 4.6. 1983 presidential election 6.1. Timetable for transition to civilian rule, 1987-93 6.2. 1991 creation of states 6.3. 1991 census provisional figures 6.4. 1992 state elections 6.5. 1992 National Assembly elections 6.6. 1993 presidential election 7.1. Timetable for transition to civilian rule, 1995-98 7.2. Political associations which applied for registration in 1996 7.3. 1996: thirty-six states

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20 33 41 45 75 84 85 124 124 125 147 147 148 212 229 232 234 235 240 290 293 295

PREFACE

Following the killings of the Ogoni minority activists on 10 November 1995, world attention focused on Nigeria as it had not done since the country’s civil war. Underlying the condemnations that greeted the killings was a range of pertinent questions which observers and scholars of the Nigerian political scene had continuously asked over the years: what exactly is the trouble with Nigeria? Why did a country once regarded as the giant and hope of Africa because of its immense human and material resources founder so badly? How did a country which many called an exception to the tragedy that had befallen post-colonial states in Africa become like ‘any other African country?’ With the killings, these questions became more pertinent. Many com­ mentators and scholars then began to refer to the country’s descent into decline. A few less optimistic ones talked of the final eclipse of the troubled state. What is really the trouble with Nigeria? It is arguably one of the most complex countries in the world and belongs to the genre of the most troubled complex societies called deeply divided societies. Could this be the problem? Others talk of the pervasive corruption and gross mismanagement that made a country which was on a par with Malaysia and Indonesia in 1960 one of the world’s poorest fifteen countries in 1995, according to World Bank Statistics. Could this be the problem? Still others consider Nigeria’s inability to determine its fate in the global system and its susceptibility to the crisis of extraversion (i.e. crisis which follows from external forces outside the control of the state) which reduce even the most stable and seemingly wealthy rentier state (i.e. a state which derives its revenue from taxes or rents on production of minerals by multinational cor­ porations rather than from productive activity) to impotent anger, a major factor. Could this be the problem? Obviously each one of these viewpoints, which together approximate a rough summary of the efforts of scholars to explain the trouble with Nigeria, has validity. Yet they need to be proved, and it is dangerous to accept them at face value. The present book is an attempt to address the sort of questions presented above within these perspectives. It has the advantage of tracing Nigeria’s history from the present, meaning that its major objective is to analyse why the country has found itself in the present predicament or what Joseph IX

X

Preface

(1996) has called the dismal tunnel. The major argument in the book may be summarised as being that Nigeria is a crippled state. It was crippled from the beginning by the nature of its colonial creation and integration into the global economy, and has remained crippled by corrupt and authoritarian regimes, the inability to overcome its divisions, and the inability to determine its manifest destiny in the face of a hegemonic world order. The major effect of the crippling of the state has been its failure to realise its vast potential. Against this background, the decline of the 1980s and 1990s has in fact been long in coming, and the events of these years culminating in the Ogoni killings - the political turbulence, the stepping up of authori­ tarian rule, the economic recession and the conflict generating and exacerbating economic reforms, and the manipulations of a hostile international m ilieu-only served to accelerate it. The book is divided into eight chapters. The first provides the historical background and analytical framework for the more substantive chapters. The second examines the major events and issues which cumulatively led to the collapse of the First Republic (1960-66). The third examines the initial phase of military rule (1976-9), the fourth the rise and fall of the Second Republic (1979-83), the fifth the Buhari regime (1983-5), the sixth the eventful Babangida years (1985-93) which saw the accentuation of the crisis that accelerated the country’s descent into the abyss, and the seventh the Abacha regime (1993-6). The final chapter presents the conclusion and ends with a brief look at possible ways out of Nigeria’s crippled state. A few comments on the approach and organisation of the main body of these chapters. The approach is analytical, empirical and interpretive and, as spelt out in Chapter 1 which presents the analytical bases of Nigeria’s politics, is guided by a number of broad and general explanatory categories. The attempt is to provide a comprehensive analysis of Nigeria’s post-independence political history. This necessarily includes the economy and foreign relations, which are examined in every chapter for the period covered. The emphasis throughout is on identifying and accounting for political trends and tendencies. Although issues and events are located within the periods in which they occur, they are not treated in isolation. In a sense, therefore, the entire book is a single continuous history. I want to thank Michael Dwyer of the publishers C. Hurst & Co. for offering me the opportunity to write a book on Nigeria’s post-independence history, and for prompting me at every stage of the period it took to complete the work. From the period of my brief stay in Uppsala, where work for this book started, right through to my return to Ibadan and finally my move to Umtata, I have

Preface

xi

received tremendous support and encouragement all the way. As usual, my family has been in the thick of it all, making the sacrifice of being without me. Would Osahon, Noyo, Esosa and our one and only Amen see their imprint here? It is in the thanks which I offer, but it is also in this product of our collective will. I am grateful to the Nordiska Afrikainstitutet in Uppsala for offering me the window to this work, and for the warmth of the Director and staff that made my winter stay very fruitful. I thank Ade Isumonah, Osasu Osaghae, Uyilawa Usuanlele, Dr Chris Oche, Professor Tunde Lawuyi and Professor Bayo Adekanye who contributed in various ways to the completion of this work. I also thank A.H.M. Kirk-Greene, the doyen of Nigerian studies in Britain, who read through the entire manuscript and gave insightful critical comments and suggestions. The last word is for Dr Solomon Yirenkyi-Boateng who gave me Solomon’s words. Umtata, January 1998

EGHOSA E. OSAGHAE

ABBREVIATIONS

ABN

Association for Better Nigeria

ABU

Ahmadu Bello University

ACF

African-Caribbean-Pacific (countries)

ADB

African Development Bank

ADP AFRC

Agricultural Development Programme Armed Forces Ruling Council

AG

Action Group

ANC

All-Nigeria Congress

ANC ANPP

All Nigeria People’s Party

APPA

African Petroleum Producers Association

ASUU

Academic Staff Union of (Nigerian) Universities

BBC

British Broadcasting Corporation

African National Congress (South Africa)

BDPP

Benin-Delta People’s Party

BECGD

British Export Credit Guarantee Department

BLP

Better Life Programme

BP

British Petroleum

bpd

barrels per day

BPE

Bureau for Public Enterprises

BYM

Bomu Youth Movement

CA

Constituent Assembly

CAN

Christian Association of Nigeria

CARIA

Cross River-Abia-Rivers-lmo-Anambra (states)

CBN

Central Bank of Nigeria

CD CDC

Campaign for Democracy Constitution Drafting Committee

CDS

Centre for Democratic Studies

CGS

Chief of General Staff

CLO CNC

Civil Liberties Organization Committee for National Consensus

CNUP

Committee for National Unity and Progress

COR

Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers Constitution Review Committee

CRC CRP

Civil Rights Project Xll

A bbrevia tio n s Abbreviations DFRRI

Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure

DP

Dynamic Party

DPA

Distributable Pool Account

DPN DSM

Democratic Party of Nigeria

ECOWAS

Economic Community of West African States

xm

Directorate of Social Mobilization

ECOMOG

ECOWAS Monitoring Group (peace-keeping force)

EEC

European Economic Community

EIU

Economist Intelligence Unit

EMIROAF

Ethnic Minorities Rights Organization of Africa

EU

European Community

FSP

Family Support Programme

FCDA

Federal Capital Development Authority

FCT

Federal Capital Territory

FEDECO

Federal Electoral Commission

FESTAC

(Second) World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture

FGN

Federal Government of Nigeria

FNLA

Frcnte Nacional de Libertacao de Angola

GDM

Grassroots Democratic Movement

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GNPP

Great Nigeria People’s Party

HOA

(state) House of Assembly

HÖR

House of Representatives

IGR

Inter-governmental Relations

IMF

International Monetary Fund

ING

Interim National Government

IPP

Ideal People’s Party

ITT

International Telegraph and Telephone (Corporation)

JMB

Johnson Matthey Bank

LC

Liberal Convention

LNG

Liquified Natural Gas

LOOBO MAD

Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Bendel and Oyo (UPN states)

MAMSER

Mass Mobilization for Economic Recovery, Self Reliance and Social Justice

MDF

Mid-West Democratic Front

MORETO

Movement for Reparation to Ogbia

Movement for the Advancement of Democracy

XIV

Abbreviations

MOSIEND

Movement for the Survival of Izon Ethnic Minority in the Niger Delta

MOSOP MPLA

Movement for the Survival of Ogoni People Movimento Popular de Libertacäo de Angola

MSM

Mid-West State Movement

NAA

Nigeria Airports Authority

NADECO NAM

National Democratic Coalition

NANS

National Association of Nigerian Students

NAP

Nigeria Advance Party

NARD

National Association of Resident Doctors

NBA

Nigeria Bar Association

NCCC

National Constitutional Conference Commission

Non Aligned Movement

NCNC

National Council of Nigerian Citizens

NCPN NDC

National Centre Party of Nigeria Niger Delta Congress

NDE

National Directorate of Employment

NDIC

National Deposit Insurance Corporation

NDLP NDP

National Democratic Labour Party National Democratic Party

NDSC

National Defence and Security Council

NEC

National Electoral Commission

NECON

National Electoral Commission of Nigeria

NEPA

National Electric Power Authority

NEPU

Northern Elements Progressive Union

NIPSS

National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies

NITEL

Nigeria Telecommunications Limited

NLC

Nigeria Labour Congress

NLP

Nigeria Labour Party

NMA

Nigerian Medical Association

NNA

Nigerian National Alliance

NNC

Nigerian National Congress

NNDP

Nigerian National Democratic Party

NNOC

Nigerian National Oil Corporation

NNPC NPA NPC

Nigerian National Petroleum Company Nigeria Ports Authority Northern People’s Congress

NPC

National Population Commission

Abbreviations NPN

National Party of Nigeria

NPP

Nigeria People’s Party

NPWP

Nigerian People’s Welfare Party

NRC

National Republican Convention

NSPA

National Solidarity People’s Alliance

NSO

National Security Organization

NUC

National Union Council

xv

NUP

National Unity Party

NUPENG

National Union of Petroleum and Natural Gas Workers

OAPEC

Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries

OAU

Organization of African Unity

OECD

Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development

OFN

Operation Feed the Nation

OIC

Organization of Islamic Countries

OMPADEC

Oil Mineral Producing Areas Development Commission

OPEC

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

PAC

Pan African Congress (South Africa)

PAC

Presidential Advisory Committee

pb

per barrel

PCP

Peoples Consensus Party

PENGASSAN Petroleum and Natural Gas Senior Staff Association of Nigeria PFP

People’s Front of Nigeria

PLOs

Presidential Liaision Officers

PNP

Patriotic Nigerian Party

PPN

Progressive Party of Nigeria

PPP

People’s Patriotic Party

PPP

People’s Progressive Party

PRC

Provisional Ruling Council

PRP

People’s Redemption Party

PSP

People’s Solidarity Party

PTF

Petroleum Trust Fund

RPN

Republican Party of Nigeria

SAP

Structural Adjustment Programme

SDP

Social Democratic Party

SGN

Solidarity Group of Nigeria

SMC

Supreme Military Council

SPP

Social Progressive Party

SSS

State Security Service

xvi

Abbreviations

SWAPO

South West African People’s Organization (Namibia)

TAC

Technical Aid Corps

TC

Transitional Council

TCPC UAC

Technical Committee on Privatisation and Commercialisation United African Company

UBA

United Bank for Africa

UK

United Kingdom

UMBC UMEOA

United Middle Belt Congress West African Economic and Monetary Union

UN

United Nations

UNCP

United Nigeria Congress Party

UNDP

United Nigeria Democratic Party

UNIP

United National Independents Party

UNITA

Uniäo Nacional para a Independencia Total de Angola

UPGA

United Progressive Grand Alliance

UPN UPP

Unity Party of Nigeria United People’s Party

USA (US)

United States of America

VAT

Value Added Tax

WAI WAIC

War Against Indiscipline War Against Indiscipline and Corruption

WIN

Women in Nigeria

POLITICAL MILESTONES IN NIGERIA, 1960-96 I960 1 October. Independence from Britain. 1962 May. State of Emergency declared in Western region; Abortive census exercise. 1963 August. Mid-West region created. 1 October. Nigeria becomes a Republic. November. Fresh census: 55.67 million. 1964 December. Election crisis. 1965 October-December. Political crisis deepens after Western regional elections. 1966 15 January. First military coup, overthrow of First Republic, Ironsi regime. 24 May. Decree abrogates federal system, establishes unitary system. 29 July. Second military coup, Gowon regime. 8 August. Decree restores federal system. September-October. Ad Hoc Constitutional Conference. 1967 January. Aburi meeting to forestall imminent civil war. 27 May. Creation of twelve states to replace four regions. 30 May. Ojukwu announces secession of Eastern region and declares Republic of Biafra. 6 July. Start of civil war. 1970 12 January. End of civil war. 1 October. Gowon announces 9-point programme for return to civil rule in 1976. 1972 February. First Indigenization decree. 1973 November. Provisional population census results announced: 79.76 million, later annulled. 1974 1 October. Gowon postpones return to civilian rule indefinitely. 1975 29 July. Third military coup, Mohammed regime. 1 October. Mohammed announces 5-stage programme for return to civilian rule in 1979. XVII

xviii

Political Milestones in Nigeria, 1960-96

18 October. CDC inaugurated. 1976 3 February. Twelve states replaced by nineteen states. 13 February. Fourth military coup (abortive), Mohammed assassinated. 14 September. CDC submits report. December. Local government reforms. 1977 January. Second Indigenization decree. 6 October. CA inaugurated. 1978 March. Land use decree. 29 August. Constitution presented to head of state. 21 September. 1979 Constitution promulgated, ban on politics lifted. 1979 July-August. Elections into state and federal legislative and executive bodies. 1 October. Inauguration of Shagari as civilian president, Second Republic. 1980 December. Fundamentalist Muslim uprising in Kano (Maitatsine riots). 1981 22 June. Governor Balarabe Musa of Kaduna state impeached. 1983 13 August-3 September. Federal and state elections. 31 December. Fifth military coup, Buhari regime. 1984 Arrests, detention and selective trials of former political office holders. 1985 27 August. Sixth military coup, Babangida regime. I October. State of national economic emergency declared. 20 December. Seventh coup (Vatsa coup) announced. 1986 January. Return to civil rule by 1 October announced, Political Bureau appointed. February. Nigeria joins OIC. July. SAP formally announced. 1987 March. Christian-Muslim clashes in Kafanchan, Kaduna, Zaria, Katsina. II July. White paper on Political Bureau Report, timetable for return to civilian rule on 1 October 1992 announced. September. Two more states (Akwa Ibom and Katsina) created. 12 December. Local government elections without parties. 1988 11 May. CA inaugurated. 1989 May. Constitution promulgated, two-party system adopted. 5 October. NEC recommends six out of thirteen political associations.

Political Milestones in Nigeria, 1960-96

xix

7 October. AFRC dissolves all thirteen political associations and ‘manufactures’ two parties: NRC and SDP. 1990 22 April. Eighth military coup led by Major G. Orkar (abortive). August. ECOMOG moved into Liberia. December. Local government elections on party basis. 1991 April. Muslim-Christian conflicts in Bauchi. 27 August. States increased to thirty. 12 December. Federal capital moved from Lagos to Abuja. 14 December. State assembly and gubernational elections. 1992 2 January. Presidential election shifted to 5 December 1992, and date of hand-over to civilians to 2 January 1993. 19 March. Census returns announced: 88.5 million. 4 July. National Assembly elections. August-Scptember. Party presidential primaries. October. AFRC annuls presidential primaries, dissolves NRC and SDP executive committees and appoints caretaker committees. November. Presidential election postponed to 12 June 1993, and date of hand-over to civilians to 27 August. 5 December. National Assembly inaugurated. 1993 2 January. Transitional Council headed by Ernest Shonekan appointed; NDSC replaces AFRC. January. ‘Option A 4’ adopted, over 250 presidential aspirants emerge. 29 March. Presidential candidates nominated: NRC - Bashir Tofa, SDP - M.K.O. Abiola. 10 June. Abuja High Court grants ABN an injunction to stop presidential election. 12 June. Presidential election still held. 16 June. ABN secures another injunction to stop further release of election results by NEC. 23 June. Presidential election annulled, NEC and transition programme suspended. 27 August. Babangida ‘steps aside’, 1NG named, with Ernest Shonekan as head of state. 10 September. 19 February 1994 announced as date for new presidential election. 24 September. Abiola returns from self-exile. 10 November. Lagos High Court declares 1NG illegal. 17 November. Ninth military coup, Abacha regime, all democratic and transition structures dissolved. 1994 14 January. Commission for Constitutional Conference appointed. May. National Constitutional Conference elections: NADECO issues ultimatum to the Abacha regime to relinquish power by 31 May.

XX

Political Milestones in Nigeria, 1960-96

June-July. Abiola proclaims himself president, paralyzing anti-government restoration of 12 June presidential election; strikes and demonstrations by oil workers and other civil society constituents. July. Constitutional Conference begins. December. ‘First Phase’ of Transition to civil rule programme which stipulated. 17 January 1995 as date of lifting of ban on politics, announced. 1995 March. Coup plot involving former head of state, General Olusegun Obasanjo and forty-four others ‘uncovered’. 27 July. Report of Constitutional Conference submitted. I October. ‘Comprehensive’ timetable for return to civil rule on 1 October 1998 announced. 10 November. Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other Ogoni minority rights activists executed; world-wide condemnation. II November. Nigeria expelled from Commonwealth. 1996 30 September. Five new political parties announced. 1 October. Six more states and 138 local government areas created.

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